The Scottish Naturalist

The Scottish Naturalist

With which is incorporated

The Annals of Scottish Natural History

EDITED BY

V. G. WYNNE-EDWARDS

Regius Professor of Natural History
Aberdeen University

AND

JAMES W. CAMPBELL

Volume 6 1

OLIVER AND BOYD

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1949

Printed in Great Britain at The Darien Press Ltd., Edinburgh

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1949

Price - - 5s.

The Scottish Naturalist

With which is incorporated

“The Annals of Scottish Natural History”

EDITED BY

V. C. WYNNE-EDWARDS

Regius Professor of Natural History, University of Aberdeen

AND

JAMES W. CAMPBELL,

All Articles and Communications intended for publication, and all
Books, etc., for notice, should be sent to The Editor, Natural History
Department, Marischal College, Aberdeen.

Subscriptions and Advertisements should be addressed to the Publishers,
Messrs Oliver & Boyd Ltd., Tweeddale Court, Edinburgh, i.

Annual Subscription: 15s.; single parts, 5s.

CONTENTS

PAGE

Field Notes on the Birds of the Hrutafjordhur District, North
Iceland— G. K. Yeates and T. W. B. Jeans 1

Courtship Display of some Ducks on Salt Water — Henry Boase . 10

Fair Isle Bird Observatory: First Report, 1948, Part 1 — Kenneth
Williamson .......... 19

The Distribution of the Orange-tip Butterfly, Euchloe cardamines ,
in Scotland — F. W. Smith . . . . . . .3 2

Field Notes on some Badenoch Dragonflies — Richard Perry . 36

Some Factors Influencing the Fluctuations and Distribution of
Filamentous Algae in Boghall Glen, Midlothian — E. Wyllie
Fenton .......... 50

Current Literature . ........ 56

Correspondence ......... 60

Obituary : Sir Hugh Gladstone ...... 63

The Scottish Naturalist

Volume 61, No. i

Spring 1949

FIELD NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE
HRtJTAFJORDHUR DISTRICT, NORTH ICELAND

G. K. Yeates, B.A., F.R.P.S., and Captain T. B. W. Jeans
Harrogate Salisbury

The following notes were made during a three-week stay in
the Hrutafjordhur district, North Iceland, in June-July 1948.
We camped near the farm and post office of Stadhur, close to
the main Reykjavik-Akureyri road, and between 12th June
and 2nd July worked the high ground to the east of Stadhur
with some intensity.

Stadhur overlooks the estuary of the Hrutafljot — a typical
“ Arctic ” delta in miniature, with many channels and streams
winding into the fjord, creating in their meanderings many
small islets. Farther south the river flows through a long flat,
until, two miles to the south, where it is joined by two tribu-
taries flowing through rocky gorges, the Ormsa and the Sika,
it too becomes a typical mountain river closely confined by
rocks .

Northward stretches away the Hrutafjordhur itself, which
many miles on becomes the Hunafloi, the largest inlet into
the northern coast of Iceland. The shores of the fjord are
stony and very scantily grown with vegetation.

A very beautiful hill, Trollakirkja, snow-capped at all
seasons, dominates the scenery to the south-west, while to the
west across the river the moorland runs gradually up to the
long flat plateaux of Geldingafell, 820 metres.

1

OCT 6 - 19 49

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THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

Behind Stadhur and to the east the ground rises in a gradual
slope up to about 250 metres. The slopes and ridges nearest
the fjord have, especially on their tops, many extensive patches
of small, loose stones with a very scanty vegetation, Dryas ,
Silene , Salix , etc. Where these areas of loose stones are not
dominant, the ground is tummocky with a heavy growth of
rough moorgrass. Once over the seaward ridges a vast area of
undulating ground is disclosed, not unlike the “ flow grounds ”
of Sutherland. This is a land of many lakes, both big and
small, and, between each, bogs dominate the ground. From
here the eye travels south-east over 60 miles of flow ground to
the ice-cap of Eriksjokull, and north-west, 40 miles away, to
the hills of Vidhalsfjall.

The fjord and the adjacent low ground proved very dis-
appointing for breeding birds. Most common were eiders on
the small islets, and there was one small colony of great
black-backed gulls. The shingle banks were occupied by
ringed plovers and a few pairs of oystercatchers. The flat
levels of rough grass were the habitat of innumerable Iceland
redshank, a few pairs of dunlin and whimbrel, and many
meadow-pipits, while the bog pools therein swarmed with
red-necked phalaropes. The estuary was the regular feeding
ground of great northern and red-throated divers, red-breasted
mergansers, arctic terns, purple sandpipers, whooper swans,
and grey-lag geese. A few mallard were always on view, and
once a flock of wigeon. A glance at the map of Iceland and its
position in relation to Greenland and Spitzbergen will reveal
that the Hunafloi, and eventually the Hrutafjordhur, are ideally
situated to attract wild geese on their southward migration,
and the flats of the estuary are equally designed by nature to
accommodate them temporarily to their liking. We learnt
from the farmer at Stadhur that in the last weeks of September
and early October this was indeed the case, the whole estuary
then becoming carpeted with geese. We were unable to learn
from him to which species this vast congregation belonged.

The hill and lake country behind our camp — the
Hrutafjardharhals — occupied most of our attention, and except
on days when the mist kept us in the valley, we daily explored
this flow ground to the east. The first slopes were the nesting
haunt of many Faeroe snipe and whimbrel, a few Iceland

1949 FIELD NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF NORTH ICELAND

3

redshank, innumerable meadow pipits, and a great company
of northern golden plovers. Where the areas of loose stones
held sway were a few pairs of ptarmigan and of purple sand-
piper, the last named being found only on the highest ground.
Snow buntings were common wherever sufficient rock was
available, and here and there a very occasional pair of
wheatears .

Most of the waders were repeated in the bogs of the flow
ground on top, but while whimbrel tended to be up here less
common and the redshank scarce, both snipe and dunlin
abounded. Here and there were scattered pairs of arctic skuas.

The lakes, the number of which was legion, were the haunt
of scattered pairs of great northern divers, chiefly on the larger
waters. Whooper swans were also present, not only on the
large lakes, but also on the smaller tarns. Red-throated
divers abounded ; great black-backed gulls had scattered
colonies of small size ; arctic terns were common, though only
one colony was found ; long-tailed ducks and scaups were the
commonest ducks, while red-necked phalaropes abounded on
every little pool. In addition we also saw on these upland
lakes occasional specimens of mallard, teal, and merganser.

In all, after three weeks’ intensive work in this district,
we saw only thirty different species, and of these we proved
eighteen to be breeding, though several of the others, e.g.}
ptarmigan, scaup, merganser, etc., were undoubtedly nesting,
but not actually found by us. In short, the district appeared
to be very representative of the low-hill and water birds of
North Iceland. It is entirely without the typical sea-birds
and, possessing no crags or rocks of any size, is devoid of
localities for such species as gyrfalcon or sea eagle. The
absence of birch scrub precludes the redwing.

Systematic List

Iceland Raven, Corvus corax islandicus Hantzsch

The absence of suitable breeding localities made this
species merely a casual passer-by in the district. We saw odd
birds from time to time in the fjord valley. The passage of a
raven always gives an excellent idea of the number of nesting
pairs of whimbrel, which mob it remorselessly on sight.

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Vol. 61

SNOW Bunting, Plectrophenax nivalis nivalis (L.)

Common on the tops, i.e.} at about 200 metres, but we
found it nesting by a mountain stream as low as 80 metres.
Males of this species, vol-planing onto their singing perches,
were characteristic of all the rocky ground. At times pairs
were so close together as to give the impression of a small
colony. They do not demand a scree or an area of extensive
rocks for nesting. We found nests by mountain streams and
on open bog on the top with a few scattered rocks. On
15th to 17th June all nests found had chicks of about 3 or 4
days old. At this stage the males were assisting the females
equally in feeding the young, but so quickly do they get down
to second broods that when the chicks are about a week old,
the males feed only desultorily, spending their time more and
more in singing and “ territorial fighting.” On 24th June
we saw a female taking nesting material into a rock-crevice.
She was repeatedly accompanied by the cock, but we never
saw him with material. When we examined this nest-crevice,
we flushed a chick of the first brood, scarcely able to fly. Its
parents took not the least notice of it and displayed no anxiety
on its account. The male, however, does appear to look after
these fledglings of the first brood, for on 28th June, at another
nest, we saw the male bird feeding chicks which were well
out of the nest. In this case there was no sign of the female,
which was probably incubating the second clutch.

Meadow Pipit, Anthus pratensis (L.)

Abundant at all levels, a bird of the valley as well as of
the tops. We found eggs (c/5) on 15th June: the first flying
fledglings were about on 27th June ; and on that date we found
the first of the second clutches (c/5).

White Wagtail, Motacilla alba alba L.

There seemed to be a pair to each streamlet, usually in the
low ground. Nest with 5 small young found under a
road-bridge, 21st June.

Wheatear, Oenanthe oenanthe (L.)

Not common. We saw only 3 separate male birds in our
area. All had food and clearly had nests with young. The

G. K. Yeafes

Plate i.— . Above — Base Camp, North Iceland; Trollakirkja (1001 m.) in
background. Below — Long-tailed Duck at nest.

ig49 FIELD NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF NORTH ICELAND 5

only specimen we looked at carefully was very bright and
appeared large, and might well have been of the Greenland
form, leucorhoa.

ICELAND Falcon, Falco rusticolus islandus Briinnich

On 26th June by the river valley we observed an arctic
skua mobbing an object on the ground. This it eventually
put up, when it proved to be a gyrfalcon in the reddish plumage.
The arctic skua then pounced to the ground while the falcon
watched the proceedings from a pinnacle of rock ! It later
flew off, leaving the skua in undisputed possession of its kill,
which we afterwards found to be a mallard. The lack of crags
made the district quite unsuitable for gyrs.

Whooper Swan, Cygnus cygnus (L.)

Whoopers, single birds or pairs, and up to as many as
1 1 at a time, were frequently seen feeding in the marshes of
the estuary. They were nesting in the lake country behind,
where we found 3 nests, 2 on islands in large lakes and 1
on the mainland shore of a small bog-tarn. The two of these
nests which we examined contained c/4. At one nest we heard
the young inside the uncracked eggs on 19th June ; on 20th
June, 1 cygnet was out and dry, and 2 other eggs were
cracked ; on 21st June, 3 cygnets were out and the fourth just
emerging ; on 22nd June, the family was afloat and away
from the island. Both parents of this nest, which we
photographed, had their necks very stained with russet red.

Grey-lag Goose, Anser anser anser (L.)

Odd birds were seen feeding in the estuary, and occasional
pairs flying over the tops. One nest, on a small island in a
lake by the roadside near our camp, was found on 14th June.

Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos platyrhynchos L.

Hardly abundant. A few birds were usually to be seen by
the estuary, and we saw odd birds on the hill lakes.

Teal, Anas crecca crecca L.

Seen only twice — on a hill lake and by the fjord.

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WlGEON, Anas penelope L.

Apparently not breeding in this locality. A flock of 12,
chiefly drakes, seen by the fjord on 26th June.

Scaup, Arthya marila marila (L.)

With the next species the characteristic duck of the hill
lakes. They were to be seen on nearly every sheet of water.
They would appear to be very late nesters, for it was only in
the last week of our stay that we began to see the drakes
unattended by ducks.

Long-tailed Duck, Clangula hy emails (L.)

Abundant. Any sheet of water, large or small, seemed to
suit. The one nest found, on 18th June, contained c/6. The
down was very dark indeed. It was situated on top of a
tummock of rough grass in a bog about 80 yards from water.

Common Eider, Somateria mollissima mollissima (L.)

By the estuary abundant. It was nesting here on the stony
islets. We also saw a nest, from which the young had hatched,
amongst the rocks on the hill at about 200 metres and perhaps
a mile from the fjord.

Red-breasted Merganser, Mergus serrator L.

Scattered pairs on the hill lakes and frequently seen fishing
at the estuary.

Great Northern Diver, Colymbus immer Briinnich

Our main object was to see something of this fine species.
We found scattered pairs on the larger lakes of the hill ground
behind our camp, and their ridiculously high-pitched calls
were daily music to us, especially early and late, as we sat in
our tent. Amid that vast area of innumerable lakes in the
hinterland there were clearly many nesting pairs. In the group
of lakes within reach of our base we found three breeding pairs
(Grjotovatn, Tangavatn, Holmavatn). All were island sites.
One pair had hatched by 18th June. At the nest we found both
sexes incubating. They are extremely restless sitters, being
constantly off and on their eggs, and “ displaying ” to one

ig49 FIELD NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF NORTH ICELAND 7

another on the water in those extraordinary races over the
water which are so characteristic of all divers. The sitting
bird also repeatedly called, with that same high-pitched,
rapidly repeated note with which pairs flew down to the fjord
to fish.

RED-THROATED Diver, Coly mbits stellatus Pontoppidan

Abundant. All times of day the guttural, cacophonous
calls of this diver were to be heard. We found many nests on
the lakes of the hinterland. One pair had hatching eggs on
1 8th June — a date which would be decidedly early even for
Scotland. There is no doubt at all that the red-throated divers
of Iceland are very much tamer than Scottish birds. The
great majority allowed close approach before taking to the
water, often croaking from the nest at the intruder in
indignation.

WHIMBREL, Numenius phaeopus phaeopus (L.)

Extremely abundant, especially on the hill slopes. We
found a number of nests, all c/4, 14th to 27th June. They were
frequently very tight sitters, flushing at the feet, even on open
country in which they must have been able to see the approach
of danger.

FAEROE Snipe, Capella gallinago faeroeensis (Brehm)

Abundant at all levels. We found a number of nests,
all c/4.

Red-necked Phalarope, Phalaropus lobatus (L.)

Every loch, every little bog pool appeared to have a pair
or pairs.

DUNLIN, Calidris alpina (L.)

A characteristic bird of every suitable piece of ground at
all levels, but especially on the bogs of the top. One nest,
c/4, 1 8th June.

Purple Sandpiper, Calidris maritima maritima (Briinnich)
A few widely scattered pairs on the stony tops of the ridges
facing the fjord. We first saw these birds feeding in the
mountain streams in mid- June. On the breeding ground this
sandpiper is extremely tame, but we found the nest very difficult

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Vol. 61

indeed to discover. One bird which we watched for long
stretches over a period of io days always flew to meet us when-
ever we appeared and ran about at our feet. It would sit for
hours on a tussock, occasionally display-flighting over the hill
and was presumably a cock bird. On 28th June we located 2
chicks at least 8 to 10 days old, though previously, despite our
long watches, we had never had a clue to their presence. We had,
in fact, regarded the bird as a male on guard and had expected
a sitting partner. On 24th June we had found newly hatched
chicks of another pair. The first bird kept its chicks within
a radius of 200 yards for a fortnight, but the second pair moved
their young away within 24 hours, for we never again saw
adults or young in that vicinity. With chicks discovered,
the parents of both broods went into paroxysms of anguish,
fluffing their feathers out, depressing tails and heads, and
running at great speed around our feet. They had a trick of
approaching very close behind us. We lay down flat on the
ground and held a chick in our hands. The parent approached
within 6 inches of the outstretched hand and, when the chick
was released, brooded it within a yard of us. We saw this
species also feeding along the stony banks of the river at the
estuary.

Iceland Redshank, Tringa totanus robusta (Schi filer)

This dark sub-species was very common in the lowland
bogs and round the estuary. It was breeding also in the bogs
on the tops, but here much more sparingly. From their
behaviour most had hatched by mid- June. They are great
perchers, using all and any form of post, and even attempting
a little tight-rope walking on the telephone wires. We found
one nest, c/4, on 16th June. The eggs were noticeably lighter
in ground colour and less heavily marked than most British
clutches.

Ringed Plover, Charadrius hiaticula hiaticula (L.)

Common on the shingle-banks of the estuary.

Northern Golden Plover, Pluvialis apricaria altifrons
(Brehm)

Even more than the whimbrel this is the characteristic bird
of the Iceland moorland. It could be said that one was never

G. K. Y eat es

Bernard Jeans

Plate 2. — Above — Male Snow Bunting. Below — Purple Sandpiper.

>

■

I

i949 FIELD NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF NORTH ICELAND 9

out of the territory of a pair. They frequented the stony ground
and the wet bog alike. This very handsome sub-species varies
considerably in the amount of black on its underparts. A very
large proportion were, however, very dark indeed, but we saw
a few individuals no better marked than the southern race.
We found two nests, c/4, just chipping on 22nd June, although
on 19th June we had found a nest of c/2 which was just laying
up. The Iceland birds differ very much from ours in their
habit of tight sitting. Both the above pairs habitually flushed
at our feet, running off with wild wing-waving and a great
show of “ injury-feigning.”

OYSTERCATCHER, Haematopus ostralegus (L.)

A few pairs breeding by the river estuary and along the
shores of the fjord.

ARCTIC Tern, Sterna macrura Naumann

Common. Strangely this species was not breeding on the
islets at the river- mouth, and the only colony we found was on
an island in one of the hill lakes (Geitholsvatn). We constantly
saw them at all levels, hunting the mountain streams and
hawking insects round our camp-site.

Great Black-backed Gull, Larus marinus L.

Scattered pairs found nesting (already hatched by 16th June)
on the islands in the lochs. A small colony was also seen on
the estuary.

Arctic Skua, Stercorarius parasiticus (L.)

Frequently seen in the river valley and near the estuary.
As a breeding bird it was uncommon, and we had only 2
known nests on our beat. We saw 12 of the dark phase and
2 of the light.

Iceland Ptarmigan, Lagopus mutus islandorum Faber
The ptarmigan was unexpectedly scarce, and we saw a few
pairs only. This race is conspicuously whiter in summer
plumage than Scottish birds.

2

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THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

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COURTSHIP DISPLAY OF SOME DUCKS ON
SALT WATER

Henry Boase
Invergowrie. by Dundee

Common Scoter, Melanitta nigra (L.)

The display of the sea ducks is seen comparatively seldom
within a working range of observation from the shore. The
following notes refer to three sets of observations made at long
intervals from the Angus coast.

The earliest set of notes refer to a group of two drakes and
one duck, drifting on the spring tide in rain and poor visibility
off the Craig Pier, Dundee — that is, about eight miles up from
the river bar — on 31st March 1918. One of the drakes rose on
the water, with head and neck in line, bill pointing upwards
at a steep angle, wings slightly drooping, for a moment and
resumed a normal swimming attitude. At some stage of the
action it called a soft “ woo.” Once a male made a short
rush at the other, and one rose in flight for a few yards, alighted,
and called. The whole action occupied only a minute or two,
after which the three birds departed down river.

A group of three common scoter — in line drake, duck,
drake — was seen flying about at Lunan Bay on 28th August
1948.

The second report refers to the behaviour of a party of
about twenty common scoter, :^Aig station on the ebb tide,
off St Cyrus, on 28th September 1931. At intervals the whole
group dived, but between dives there was some display. There
appeared to be at least two females, but the motion of the
birds and the breaks in watching as the flock disappeared
into the trough of the swell made detailed observation of these
difficult. Only some of the males appeared to be directly
interested in display, the others seemed spectators.

The ardent males seemed to mob the female or females,
pressing towards them in rapid swimming or in short “ skates ”
along the surface, either directed towards the females, or at
rivals in the way. The main attitudes were :

1949

DUCKS ON SALT WATER

Intent attitude — neck held stiffly erect, stretched, with
bill level.

Skating — head and neck in line almost on the water, rapid
movement along the surface with vigorous action of the
feet.

Salute— the male rose almost upright on the water, neck
retracted, bill level, with a follow-through of moderately
extended neck, bill raised in line, held for a moment, and
then a resumption of the “ intent ” or the normal swim-
ming attitude. Once a male flew a short distance beyond
the female, turned, and gave the salute towards her.

A more detailed watching of the display of common scoter
was done at Lunan Bay on 28th August 1948, during the
forenoon. The light was good, and the high point of observa-
tion available rendered possible continuous observation without
interference from the swell. There was a large gathering of
duck in mid-bay, most of which were this species. There were
some six or seven active groups scattered in the gathering.
In the main all were behaving similarly — a rapid swimming
group, twisting and turning this way and that, with short
scurries and splashing, now and then ending in the active
centre of the group taking flight, but in no instance was flock-
diving of the active group seen. One group of about twelve
birds in vigorous display rose, circled around, settled, and
resumed active milling about, rose again and circled, to settle
again and continue the sparring. Finally, a group of six males
and one female rose and came in towards the shore, settling
near enough to allow of more detailed watching.

The males were all ->g the intent attitude already
described, but at times swimming so vigorously as to rise
partially so that the breast was clear of the water.

The “ skating ” appeared to take two forms. The one,
apparently an attack on a rival, was done with head and neck
stretched out in line along the surface, back flat, and progress
swift, with little wake. The other form seemed a display—
the head with retracted neck held low, the back arched giving
a coot-like appearance, and progress slower, with a marked
splashing of the feet and a heavy wake. In this style, a male
might pass right through the group and out beyond for a few
yards — might even take to flight for a few yards and retire

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THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

from the contest for a few minutes. Whether the female
“ skates ” was not established with certainty— the movements
in the group were so rapid it was not possible to be sure which
was the female.

The female also used the intent attitude and also rose on
the water when the speed of action became violent.

The males used the salute already described but without
any noticeable check, the up-tilting of the bill being part of a
continuous movement to the erect attitude.

Several times a bow display was seen. At first sight it
appeared to be a mere stretching with open wings common
to all duck. Later it was seen that the wings were held
partly open and back for a moment as the bird stood erect on
the water, with neck curved and the bill pointing downwards,
followed by the throw up of the head, the wings closing to a
drooped position, and the bird subsiding on the water, all in
one continuous action. This action was given by males on
the fringe of the active group ; the displaying bird would
turn towards the female as it gave the bow. On 9th January
1949 a less complete version of the bow was seen. The male
rose only slightly, without opening the wings, with arched
neck, and bill pointing downwards, remaining so for scarcely
a second.

Owing to the distance — at least half a mile — and the off-
shore wind, no calls were heard during the watch.

Once only, a male tossed the bill (that is, a sharp upward
jerk of the bill) while in the intent attitude.

Velvet Scoter, Melanitta fusca (L.)

On 16th October 1948, at Lunan Bay, on the Angus coast,
velvet scoter were active, quarrelling and apparently displaying.
There were some two hundred birds scattered in groups on the
mid-portion of the bay, ranging from half to one mile from
the shore, and among them, four or five groups were active.
The splashing of the display “ skating ” was visible a long
way.

In a group of about twelve birds, at least nine were males
and one at least a female. The more active birds were in a
tight bunch, darting here and there, turning and twisting,
breaking momentarily, and forming again as the pursuit of

DUCKS ON SALT WATER

13

1 1949

the female continued in a new direction. The less active
birds kept an eager watch on the central melee, turning about
as the group broke this way and that. Now and then, a male
would skate violently right through the bunch, scattering the
onlookers and churning up the water in its passage, on
occasions taking wing or diving at the finish of its rush.
Once a male skated through the mob, took wing for a few
yards, and on alighting swam straight away from the contest,
i Now and then, when the excitement was high, the central
active group would dive, followed within a second or so by the
onlookers. The dive seemed long, say 30-35 seconds (it was
not timed) ; all returned together to the surface to resume the
chase, giving the impression that the pursuit continued under
water with the same zest as on the surface.

The attitudes used were to all appearances identical with
those of common scoter — the intent attitude, with stiff upright
neck, the two forms of skating — attack and display — with the
very marked splashing wake of the latter form.

On the other hand, in no instance was any form of salute
or bow or bill-toss seen from any of the males watched. The
males did at times rise on the water and flap the wings as all
duck do, and this gave an opportunity of identifying positively
the members of the active groups. This was necessary, as
some common scoter were present also, but none of these were

seen in any display action.

*******

The writer has already described the courtship display of
certain ducks dealt with in the following notes. Some addi-
tional features of their behaviour have been noticed, and the
following notes deal with these observations.

As it is difficult for the reader to visualise the attitudes
described, the writer has attempted to illustrate these in a
semi-diagrammatic form. These representations are crude, but
they do contain the essential features of the displays.

Common Eider, Somateria mollissima (L.)

At Monifieth Bay on the outer Tay Estuary, a group of eider
were displaying on 15th January 1949. The active birds
consisted of three drakes and two ducks. The latter were active,
swimming to and fro between the drakes, often with head held

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1949

DUCKS ON SALT WATER

5

low, almost touching the water, the neck little extended, and
also bobbing the head up and down by repeated extension and
contraction of the neck while in a more normal attitude, the
bill sometimes slightly inclined upwards at its highest point.
The drakes were interested, at times giving the full display —
a part rise on the water as the head is thrown up and back,
the bill raised to about 40 degrees, drop on to the water, with
an up-jerk of the tail.

Twice during the ten minutes’ watch a drake chased a duck
with a rush, both “ skating ” on the surface for two or three
yards, followed almost at once by the birds facing each other
and rising on the water a foot or so apart with spread wings,
head and neck in line at a steep angle, and remained so for a
second or two.

A further opportunity of watching eider display occurred
on 5th February 1949, a quiet, rather misty day.1 The ebb was
almost spent, and over two thousand eider were scattered on
the outer Tay Estuary. The courting calls were almost con-
tinuous, a soft cooing, as of distant pigeons. Only now and
then did a drake rise on the water as it tossed back the head ;
most merely tossed back the head, the neck swinging back
about its base, but repeatedly the recovery included a definite
pause with neck arched and the bill pointing down at about
45 degrees, before resuming a normal or intent swimming
attitude. No instance of the skate and mutual display of drake
and duck was seen, not even one instance of a chase of duck by
drake, although this was watched for in all the nearer groups.

GOOSANDER, Mergus merganser L.

Goosander have been watched in display on a number of
occasions but always at considerable range. In contrast to
red-breasted merganser, which will display inshore in shallow
water, goosander have kept well out on the Tay Estuary or in
mid-loch on fresh water, making it difficult to see the finer
details. The displaying birds are very active, swimming fast
in close groups, turning abruptly, scudding and splashing,
all of which makes the following of the action of an individual
bird of doubtful certainty.

1 See “ Notes on the Courting Display and Nesting of the Eider in the Tay
Estuary,” British Birds , 19: 45-48, 1925

16 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 61

Two main forms of display have been noted : (i) a sudden
stretching of head and neck in line upwards at about 80 degrees
without noticeable depression of plumage, held so for a moment,
with an equally sudden retraction, without the marked up-
throw of the stern usual with merganser ; in one instance, the
head rested on the back with bill almost vertical for an instant
before the normal or intent attitude is resumed ; (2) a

“ mallard bow ” display, in its simpler form just a rising off
the water with level bill, exposing the breast; in its more
elaborate form, a dipping of the bill as the bird rises, the final
position with the bill touching or almost touching the upper
breast. There is no marked up-throw of the stern on resuming
the normal swimming position. Sometimes, when the drake
is swimming with the neck rather extended when intent, the
plumage of the head is noticeably raised, giving a high-crowned
appearance.

Sometimes the female uses an intent attitude similar to
that of the male ; more usually the duck is antagonistic, making
vigorous lunges at the drakes as they jostle and thrust
around her.

The neck-stretch display is perhaps the more formal — it is
generally given during a pause in the melee : on one occasion
the drake gave this salute, turned about, and swam away some
distance from the active group and did not return. On another t
occasion a solitary drake, feeding on the Tay near Kinclaven,
gave this salute between two dives, although no duck was in
sight.

Other less definite actions may be associated with display.
Once, a male in an active group continued a vigorous scud on
the surface by rising almost clear of the water, walking as it
were on the surface, with neck and head in line at about 45
degrees, as it pattered along for a few feet — Clunie Loch, 22nd
February 1943. On another occasion a male, which had swum
in company with a second male behind a bank, came scudding
on the surface into view and rose right up, walking as it were
on the surface (with no sign of vigorous action of the feet) j
with neck and body inclined at a steep angle (70-80 degrees)
and tossing the bill through about 90 degrees from about a
60-degree drop. The bird continued for some five or six yards
in this position, moving rather slowly, for the second drake

DUCKS ON SALT WATER

i7

? 1949

i then overtook it while swimming- normally, and swam alongside
the performer for most of its “ walk ” — Forfar Loch, 1st
January 1949.

Another line of behaviour was seen on 19th January 1935,
the performer apparently a young male moulting to adult
plumage. It was swimming normally and at intervals opened
the bill wide, with head and extended neck held low and
^swinging from side to side like the challenging action of great
j crested grebe. The feathering of the head seemed expanded.
Several times it shook its head violently. No certain call was
: heard, although the distance was only fifty yards or so.

The display actions described seem little different from the
ordinary stretching behaviour of a flock of moulting goosander
seen on the Tay Estuary on 21st August 1943. At this time
they are commonly incapable of flight, but feed on the tide
races quite unconcerned, and flap their unfeathered stumpy
wings out on the open water, in contrast to their non-diving
^relatives such as mallard, which keep either in cover or close
to it when flightless.

Red-breasted Merganser, Mergus serrator L.

In British Birds , vol. 18, pp. 313-316, 1925, was published
an article on the display of this bird, by H. R. Colman and
the writer. Since then, various additional notes have been
made of certain differences in the ritual.

1 On 9th January 1926 a party of two males and two females
was watched for a time. Presently, the males swam aside and
assumed the “ rest intent ” attitude, and, turning abruptly,
displayed in unison. This was repeated several times, and
once at least the one male displayed to the other.

In this display an attitude with arched neck and down-
pointing bill occurred between the preliminary “ intent ”
attitude and the “ neck and head in line upwards ” which
had not been seen in the earlier displays. The stages of the
display were : (1) rest intent, with neck retracted, head plumage
bristling, bill inclined upwards at about 30 degrees ; (2) neck
moderately extended, arched, bill pointing downwards ;
(3) neck extended with head in line upwards at about 80 degrees,

! plumage depressed; (4) retraction of neck, bill still pointing
upwards, with a simultaneous upthrust of the tail— the bill

1

3

i8

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 6 1

may be opened wide, either at the lowest position, or after a
moderate recovery with the head more or less level ; there is
much variation at this final stage.

The joint display of two males was again watched on 4th
May 1945 • In this instance the females were some twenty yards
apart, and the males displayed together to each female at least
three times, and at least once, stopped between them and
displayed to each other. As the range was considerable, no
detailed note of the ritual was made.

During the action watched in January 1926, the females at
times bobbed the head up and down with the bill somewhat
raised, sometimes opened at the lower position, probably when
the bird called “ urk.”

A somewhat similar display was given by one of two females
on 14th March 1937. These birds were fishing at high water
in the mouth of a small stream which runs into the upper Tay
Estuary. One secured a small fish and the other scudded
towards her perhaps to steal it. In the ensuing rushes and
dives it was not clear what happened, but immediately after
the scuffle ceased, one of the birds displayed, bobbing the head
by extension and retraction of the neck, sometimes pointing
the bill straight up as the neck retracted, and once at least
opening the level bill wide, with the neck extended.

1949

FAIR ISLE BIRD OBSERVATORY

9

FAIR ISLE BIRD OBSERVATORY
First Report, 1948
Part I— Detailed Notes on Species

Compiled by

Kenneth Williamson, Director

The ornithological work of the Fair Isle Bird Observatory-
will be published annually in two parts, Part I dealing with
general field observations abstracted from the station’s “ Notes
on Species ” record-book, and Part II a report on the migration
abstracted from the “ Migration Schedule.” Additional
reports on special field studies will be issued as and when
occasion arises.

Unless otherwise indicated by initials, a key to which is
given on page 20, the observations are those of the Director.

None of the many notes on bonxie, Stercorarius s. skua ,
and arctic skua, Stercorarius parasiticus , is included, as
these species are to be the subjects of special field work in
1949 and subsequent seasons.

The following analysis of the notes is given for convenient
reference *

C allnotes : See Raven, Little and Snow Buntings, Yellow-
browed Warbler, Wren, Sanderling, Ruff, Oyster-catcher.

Behaviour : Wheatear, Swallow, Merlin, Eider Duck,

Fulmar, Sanderling, Ringed Plover, Western Oyster-
catcher.

Duration of Stay of Passage Migrants : Greenland Redpoll,
White Wagtail.

Field Characters : Greenland Redpoll, Scarlet Grosbeak,
Great Grey Shrike, Yellow-browed Warbler.

Food and Feeding Habits : Rosy Pastor, Snow Bunting,

Great Grey Shrike, Red-backed Shrike, Wheatear,
Water-rail.

20

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

Parasites : Rosy Pastor, House Sparrow, Great Grey Shrike,
Continental Song Thrush, Merlin, Western Razorbill.

Roosting: Shetland Starling, Common Redstart, House

Martin, Long-eared Owl.

Taxonomic : Shetland Starling, Northern Guillemot.

Weights : Greenland Redpoll, Continental Goldcrest, Great
Grey Shrike.

References to The Handbook of British Birds (H. F.
Witherby, et al ., 1938-41) are given as The Handbook , with
the appropriate volume and page number in parentheses.

Observers

The following are the names of the observers: RC., Dr

Robert Carrick, Aberdeen; RSRF., Mr R. S. R. Fitter,
Oxford ; GTK., Mr G. Theo Kay, Lerwick ; IRP., Mr Ian R.
Pitman, Edinburgh; RAR., Mr R. A. Richardson, Norwich;
PR., Mr Pat Robertson, F.I.B.O. ; GS., Mr George Stout,
jun., Fair Isle; JS . , Mr James Stout, F.I.B.O.; LSVV.,
Mr L. S. V. Venables, Scousborough ; GW., Mr George
Waterston, Edinburgh; JW., Mr James Wilson, Fair Isle.

Identification of parasites was undertaken or arranged by
Mr Eugene O’Mahony, National Museum of Ireland. Our
thanks are due to him and to other specialists named in the
text for their services.

Common Raven, Corvus c. corax L.

Call Notes. — A party of 5 birds indulging in air-play over
the Observatory buildings on 15th August used a variety of
notes in addition to the normal, far-carrying guttural croak.
Two much-used calls which are not noted in The Handbook
(vol. 1 , p. 8) were a regularly repeated “ek, ek, ek” very like the
greeting call of the bonxie, and a deep, sonorous “ mee-00 **
with a rising inflection.

Shetland Starling, Sturnus vulgaris zetlandicus Hartert

Taxonomic. — All birds trapped and examined (over 80)
showed affinity in shape and structure of the bill with Sturnus
v. zetlandicus. Wing-measurement, 27 males 126-134 (mostly

FAIR ISLE BIRD OBSERVATORY

21

: 1949

1 30- 1 3 3 ) > 18 females 123-13 1 (one 1 1 7) . There may be a small
error in the sexing, as the characters used were presence or
absence of a light eye-ring and the shape of the throat feathers.

Roosting . — Large numbers roosted from mid- July onwards
in a sea-cave in Swartz Gio on the south-east coast, the great
majority gathering beforehand on the ruined croft of Kennaby
or the nearby fields. A much smaller roost existed in the
bomb-shattered ruin of the Skaddan Lighthouse dwellings.

Rosy Pastor, Pastor roseus (L.)

Food. — The stomach contents of an example brought in by
GS. on 6th August were examined by Mr R. Willis, North of
Scotland College of Agriculture, and contained remains of
weevils (Otiorhynchids), earwigs (Forficula), ground-beetles
(Carabids) — the last two in some quantity — and a chelate
claw (Crustacea).

Ectoparasite. — A single specimen of the tick Hyalomma
\ marginatum var. balcanicum Schulze and Schloltke, a nymph,
was taken from the bird. According to Dr F. A. Turk, who
made the determination, this tick is new to the British list of
Ixodoidea ; its distribution appears to be mid and west
Asiatic, and the adult is unknown.

Greenland Redpoll, Carduelis flammea rostrata (Coues)

Field Characters. — One arrived at North Haven on 18th
September, and was watched at close quarters by KW. and
RAR., who made a detailed plumage description. The bird
was sketched by RAR. The diagnostic characters were the
warm huffish-brown mantle and greyish-brown rump striated
with dark brown, and the heavy blackish-brown streaks on the
flanks. The bill appeared large and thick, brownish horn,
and the tarsi and toes black. It was a most confiding bird,
permitting very close approach. It fed alone (on one occasion
only it was seen with a small party of twites) or in company
with a second Greenland redpoll which arrived some days later.
Feeding was mainly on the ground, with a hopping gait, but
on occasion it perched on top of thistle clumps to take the seeds.
It was seen to bathe in the overflow from a water-pipe, and on
one occasion, when disturbed, alighted for a few moments on

22

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 6t

the back of a sheep. A characteristic upright stance with
outstretched neck was adopted when the bird was suspicious.

Duration of Stay . — This bird, “ A,” stayed at North Haven
for the 9 days 18th to 26th September. A second bird, “ B,”
which appeared on 23rd, had the crimson of the crown darker
and less extensive, and the edgings of the mantle feathers
much greyer. “ B ’ ’ was caught whilst roosting on a projection
below the eaves of a hut on 25th, and was ringed ; “A,” which
had gone to roost on an identical projection a yard away, had
later changed position and was not found. “ B ” remained in
the neighbourhood for 8 days, 23rd to 30th September. Two
redpolls were reported seen about the Shirva croft, 2 miles
south of the Observatory, between 4th to 7th October, and one
of these, “ B,” was killed by a cat early on 7th and was brought
to KW. The second was examined by KW. at close quarters
on 8th and the plumage details were identical with those of
“ A ” : assuming it was the same, then “ A ” had been on
the island 22 days, and “ B ” 16 days. A brief but good
view of a Greenland redpoll, possibly “ A,” was had at a
croft 250 yards from Shirva on 14th October.

Fat Storage. — “ B ” weighed 18 g. (dead) and was very fat,
a good deal of fat having been laid down between the folds of
the large intestine. RC. determined the fat weight as 1*5 g.
(For comparison, the average fat weight of a Shetland starling-
weighing 80 g. — is generally below 1*5 g.) Wing 80 mm.,
bill (along culmen from feathers) 7*5 mm., tarsus 17 mm. It
was an immature male (skull incompletely ossified).

Scarlet Grosbeak, Carpodacus e. erythrinus (Pallas)

Field Characters .—The following notes were made on a
female or immature bird seen on 30th September. Upper
parts yellowish brown, with not very obvious dark mesial
streaks ; rump paler, unstreaked, but providing no marked
contrast with the back. Sides of head inclined to rufous,
contrasting well with the crown, which was a little darker than
the mantle ; this rufous extended to the throat, providing a
contrast with the greyish-white breast and belly. There were
dark striations on the throat, breast, belly, and flanks, most
marked on the breast, but not nearly so pronounced as in

FAIR ISLE BIRD OBSERVATORY

23

1949

The Handbook plate. The under tail coverts were yellowish
brown. The primaries and secondaries were dark brown, the
latter with broad white edgings. There was a double buffish
wing-bar ; and the median coverts were a darker brown than
the rest of the wing. Tail dark brown. Bill large and conical,
brown. Tarsi and toes pale brown. The observation of LSVV.
(vide The Handbook, vol. 1, p. 88) of a bird perching “with
characteristic dumpy stance,” head retracted, was seen,
especially when the bird perched for a few minutes on an oat
stook and fed there. It was at first in company with sparrows,

later alone.

u

Little Bunting, Emberiza pusilla Pallas

1 Call Notes . — A quiet “tip, tip” heard from a bird at Shirva

on 20th October appeared to be a mild anxiety note : it is

probably the same as the “ high, quiet ‘ pwick ’ ” noted by
LSVV. and the low “ tick, tick ” of E. R. Alston and J. A.
Harvie-Brown (vide The Handbook, vol. 1, p. 138). The same
bird, and an earlier one watched at Kennaby by RAR., LSVV.,
and KW., also had a strong, musical “ see-00.”

j

Snow Bunting, Plectrophenax nivalis (L.)

Call Notes .■ — -B i r ds in flock had a much-used call “ chirrrc,”
used in flight, on the ground, and when perching together on
buildings. The more familiar call, described in The Handbook
(vol. 1, p. 149) as “a musical, rather rippling twitter,” was
also used frequently. This “ chirrrc ” is probably the same
as the “ rippling, yet rather harsh, ‘ stirrrp ’ ” which The
Handbook says is used on the breeding-ground. Odd birds
which flew over often used a high pitched and rather musical
note, “ chay-ip.”

Castings — Four birds were taken in the Ward Hill trap on
2nd October and were colour-ringed red on the right legs.
They were the first of this species to be trapped and ringed in
Britain. They were brought down from the trap in linen bags
for examination and ringing, and when these bags were
examined afterwards a number of small, hard castings, about
the size of a pea, were found in them.

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THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

House Sparrow, Passer d. domesticus (L.)

Parasite . — Specimens of the flat-fly, Ornithomyia fringillina
Curt., were found on trapped house sparrows, the species
proving to be a new host for the fly.

White Wagtail, Motacilla a. alba L.

Duration of Stay. — An adult female remained for some days
from 23rd September at the Observatory, was trapped and
colour-ringed there on the 27th, and was reported at Shirva
2 miles to the south on 1st October. The minimum period
of its stay on Fair Isle was 9 days, and for 7 of these it was
the only white wagtail recorded.

Great Grey Shrike, Lanius e. excubitor L.

Field Characters . — An immature male was trapped and
ringed on 11th October. In the field the head and tail looked
disproportionately large for the size of the body ; a restless
upwards flicking of the tail was noted whenever the bird
alighted, and the wings when at rest were carried with their
points drooping below the tail. The whitish eye-stripe was
continued as a narrow line across the forehead, and the white
speculum was clearly visible in the middle of the trapezoid
area of black formed by the loosely held primaries and
secondaries. Iris dark brown, tarsi and toes black, soles of
the latter yellowish-brown. Wing ill mm., weight 48 g.

Parasite. — A flea, Ceratophyllus borealis Rothschild, female,
was taken from this bird, which is a new host for the species.

Food. — One seen by PR. at the Observatory on 6th November
was carrying a wren in its bill.

Red-backed Shrike, Lanius c. collurio L.

Feeding Habits . — A young bird was trapped and ringed at
the Haa by RAR., RSRF., and KW. on 1st September, and
it was seen there the following day. On the 1st, RAR. found
four specimens of the bee, Bombus smithianus , impaled on
the points of a barbed-wire fence 50 yards from the trap mouth.
The bird presumably returned to its larder and ate the bees,
as these had gone by the following day. J. H. Owen {Brit.
Birds , vol. 1 , pp. 200-203, 1 94 8) records the setting-up of larders

FAIR ISLE BIRD OBSERVATORY

25

1949

by birds of passage, adding that the captured insects, etc.,

; “ are wasted and dry up or rot.” W. Eagle Clark ( Studies in
Bird Migration , vol. 2, pp. 124- 125) records adult migrants in
! spring capturing this species of bee and forming larders, but
has no mention of juveniles making and using such larders on
autumn passage. The use of barbed wire by a juvenile in the
absence of thorns is an interesting commentary on the deeply
inherited nature of this behaviour pattern.

Continental Goldcrest, Regulus r. regulus (L.)

Weight — Four females weighed from 5 to 5^ g. each.
{Cf . weight of 2 wrens, probably resident, 12 and 12 \ g.)
A tired migrant goldcrest entered the house at Busta and slept
for several hours on the window-sill.

Yellow-browed Warbler, Phylloscopus inornatus (Blyth)
Field Characters . — Good views were had by KW., RAR.,
and LSVV. of a single bird in roots at Lower Leogh on 26th
and 27th September. It was a neat, compact little bird, slimmer
i and slightly larger than a goldcrest, and giving a general
impression of a tiny and very active chififchaff. Olive-green
upper parts, conspicuous white superciliary stripe and double
i wing-bars (the one formed by the tips of the greater coverts
being the wider and more obvious) were the main features.

I The under parts were whitish, washed yellowish green. The
bird varied its mouse-like running among the drills by leaping
up from the ground to two or three feet, fly-catching : once,
as it took a fly, there was an audible snap of the bill. It was
a great skulker, never perching in the open for more than a
second or two.

Call Note. — C. B. Ticehurst (A Systematic Review of the
Genus “Phylloscopus,” pp. 103, 105) says the call note of the
nominate race was well rendered by Brooks as “ weest.” Our
bird had a distinctly disyllabic note, a sweet, high pitched, and
rather loud “tu-ee.”

Continental Song Thrush, Turdus ericetorum philomelus
Brehm

Parasite. — A bird which struck the lighthouse on 9th
October and was skinned had a specimen of the tapeworm,

4

26

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 6 1

Porrocaecum ensicaudatum (Zeder), female, in the large
intestine. It was determined by Dr S. Prudhoe at the British
Museum (Natural History).

Wheatear, Oenanthe oenanthe (L.)

Feeding Habits. — In deep twilight on 9th August a large
number of migrants were active among the tidal wrack o
South Haven, catching the flies ( Fucomyia sp. ?) which were
flying thickly even at that late hour.

Behaviour. — A juvenile was observed chasing an ex-
postulating redshank over South Haven on 28th July. On
occasion small parties of migrants, apparently for the most
part Oeiianthe oe. leucorhoa (Gm.), gathered together in the
vicinity of piles of stones on the moorland, chasing each other
in and out of the holes — an example, perhaps, of that resurgence
of breeding-season activities which sometimes accompanies
autumn migration.

Hovering Flight. — KW. watched male wheatears per-
sistently indulging in a beautiful hovering flight on Bu Ness
on 7th and 15th June. The hovering was sustained for 5 to 10
seconds at a height of 10 feet or less, and was followed by a
downwards swoop, a short flight low over the grass, and a
steep climb to a hovering position once more. The body was
held at an angle of about 45 degrees from the horizontal, and
the tail was depressed. In neither case was any reason for the
hovering (other than sheer exuberance) apparent. Subse-
quently similar behaviour was seen in other birds, of both
sexes (but most frequently in males), and in many cases it was
obvious that the hovering was practised as an aid to hunting,
the birds swooping quickly to the ground to pick up food. An
alternative “ look-out ” system adopted by many wheatears
whose feeding-grounds were suitably placed was to perch for
several seconds on the 20-foot high telephone wires.

There appear to be two previous records of male wheatears
using this picturesque hovering flight as a means of procuring
food, one from the Isle of Skye (Seton Gordon, Brit. Birds ,
vol. 36, pp. 73-74, 1942) and the other from Central Wales
(Hubert E. Pounds, Brit. Birds., vol. 36, p. 94, 1942). W.
Griffiths, however, has recorded a male performing this flight

i949 FAIR ISLE BIRD OBSERVATORY 2 7

in mid-May near Coniston under circumstances which suggest
that it was a form of courtship display: the bird repeatedly
rose from and returned to a certain rock, and a female was
present nearby ( North-west . Nat., vol. 18, pp. 317-318, 1943).
It seems likely that although this habit may have originated —
and chiefly survives — as a means of locating food, it has become
a behaviour pattern used in the general expression of exuberance
and perhaps also in courtship display.

Common Redstart, Phoenicurus ph. phoenicurus (L.)

Roosting. — There were two cases of adult female migrants
roosting in buildings, a hut at the Observatory (4th September,
RAR. and RSRF.) and a byre at one of the crofts (third week
of October, GS.).

Wren, Troglodytes troglodytes (L.)

Breeding. — An adult was watched feeding a fledged
youngster on 3rd September. The food-call of the young, a
single husky “ cheep ” with considerable carrying power, was
heard each day till 7th September (RAR.).

SWALLOW, Hirundo r. rustica L.

Behaviour . — A pair spent the greater part of 8th June
flying in and out of a shed at the Observatory, and singing on
overhead wires nearby. The weather was fine and warm and
probably stimulated this nest-prospecting behaviour, but the
birds were migrants only and had passed on by the 10th.

House Martin, Delichon u. urbica (L.)

Roosting. — At dusk one evening during the autumn migra-
tion some years before the war JW. saw some house martins
entering a crevice in the rocks. On investigating he found the
crevice packed with birds — about three dozen in all — roosting
one layer on top of another.

Long-eared Owl, Asio o. otus (L.)

Roosting. — A migrant was captured at roost in an outhouse
on 31st October (JS. and PR.) and was ringed.

28

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

Merlin, Falco columbarius L.

Behaviour . — IRP. and KW. watched a male and female
indulging in air-play with 2 and sometimes 3 hooded crows
on 29th August, the performance continuing for about
20 minutes. Between aerial “ bouts ” the birds rested on
telephone poles and wires spanning the moorland, and after a
brief rest either hoodies or merlins would stoop at their
opponents and drive them from their perch, and the game would
continue. The merlins kept up an intermittent “ keening ”
and the hoodies croaked protestingly at intervals, but it was
quite obvious from their movements and the way in which
sometimes one species, sometimes the other, initiated the
“ attacks ” that the enjoyment was mutual. GW. and RSRF.
had watched a similar display on the previous day.

Parasites . — Specimens of the flat- fly, Ornithomyia fringillina
Curt., were taken from an adult female which was found in
the catching-box of the Haa trap on 30th September, having
entered presumably in pursuit of a small bird. The merlin is
a new host for this fly.

Common Eider Duck, Somateria m. mollissima (L.)

Breeding. — Four ducklings were seen walking across the
moor with an adult on 27th June. The first was seen on the
water on 30th June.

Behaviour ( Distraction Display ). — A bird flushed from a
nest among heather on the moor on 2nd July, and in the skuas’
nesting area, stumbled away with the wings partly open and
flapping feebly in an incipient lure display, similar in its
essentials to the more emphatic display I recorded (Ibis, vol. 90,
pp. 142-143, 1948) for the Faeroe eider, Somateria m. faeroeensis
Brehm. A duck flushed from a c/4 on Bu Ness on 7th June
covered her eggs with a stream of green, slimy, and evil-
smelling excreta on leaving and flying away low ; and another
bird behaved similarly when disturbed from a c/4 on the shore
of Mavers Gio on 20th June. This behaviour, which is not
uncommon among eiders in Britain, and (according to Prof.
V. C. Wynne-Edwards) is very frequent in colonies of Somateria
m. dresseri (Sharpe) in the Gulf of St Lawrence, must be

1949

FAIR ISLE BIRD OBSERVATORY

29

regarded as a form of distraction display, and provides a rare
example of a behaviour pattern which has evolved from a purely
reflex action, defaecation.

Fulmar, Fulmarus g. glacialis (L.)

Behaviour .—Birds were going through courtship behaviour,
in some places 5 or 6 together on one ledge, right up to
the time of desertion of the cliffs, which took place during a
severe south-west gale on 17th September (KW., RAR.).
On 10th September RAR. observed a party of fulmars on the
sea clustered round the floating carcase of a sheep that had
fallen from the cliffs.

SANDERLING, Crocethia alba (Pallas).

Behaviour . — Seven adults, much advanced into winter
dress, were feeding along the tide’s edge at North Haven on
the morning of 20th August. There was a good deal of chasing
among the birds, and they kept up a continual sweet twittering,
very passerine in character. This twittering comprised a
rapid series of notes, “ swee-swee-swee-swee,” etc., with
sometimes a more modulated “ twee-00, twee-00 ” ending.
They were also engaged in this lively behaviour, on the same
part of the shore, in mid-afternoon 6 hours later. Their
behaviour must probably be regarded as an example of the
exuberance, recalling sexual activities, which is not infrequent
among migrant flocks in autumn. A. L. V. Manniche (“ The
Terrestrial Animals and Birds of N.E. Greenland,” Meddelelser
om Gronland, Bd. 45, p. 147, 1910) records a “ sanderling
song ” which he compares with that of Sylvia curruca (L.),
from females gathering together their chicks following
disturbance.

Ruff, Philomachus pugnax (L.)

Call Note. — A juvenile disturbed on the shore on nth August
flew off with a loud, clear call, “ pee-up.”

Ringed Plover, Charadrius hiaticula L.

Behaviour .■ — Among a few birds present on North Haven
shore on nth August some sexual chasing, particularly chasing

30

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

of birds of the year by adults, was going on. In chasing a
youngster, one of the adults used the peculiar run which occurs
in courtship, and is also a component of the lure display ; the
head is carried low, the back arched, and the feathers of mantle
and scapulars raised, and the beautiful cinnamon-coloured
tail is spread and depressed. One of the young birds also
adopted this posture later, with fanned and depressed tail and
lowered head, but there was no raising of the feathers and the
display (which did not appear to have an object) was brief.

Western Oystercatcher, Haematopus ostralegus occi -
dentalis Neumann

Behaviour . — G. F. Makkink (“ Contribution to the Know-
ledge of the Behaviour of the Oystercatcher,” Ardea , vol. 31,
1942) says: “ The attitude in which the parent birds with

food walk to their young ones was strongly reminiscent of
that of the male prior to copulation (‘ stealthy walk ’). It is
quite possible that this is one of the many cases in which an
attitude belonging elsewhere in the ethological repertory is
being used as an introduction to copulation ” (p. 50).

In amplification of this may be given the following observa-
tion, made whilst watching an adult and juvenile on the
North Haven shore on 18th June. The young one persistently
moved about its parent at very close quarters, sometimes
almost touching as it passed in front or behind, with the same
“ stealthy walk ” as described and figured by Makkink. The
adult remained still most of the time, or moved only a few
steps. The young one’s movements were interrupted by
probing with the bill in the wet sand, or by picking up food,
but the attitude did not change. Once the parent picked at
the sand with the bill, and the young one immediately came
up and did the same at exactly the same spot, appearing to
procure some food (see Makkink, p. 50, for a similar
observation). Identical behaviour in the same two birds was
watched on the shore on 20th June, when the adult again
invited the attention of the juvenile to some item of food
(which the latter took) by a deliberate picking action at the
water’s edge.

From these observations it would appear likely that the
“ stealthy attitude ” of the male prior to copulation is one of

1949

FAIR ISLE BIRD OBSERVATORY

3*

the many examples in birds of adult posturing which has its
origin in the actions of the young bird. The young one had
a short, quiet trill which might in the same way be the origin
of the characteristic “ twee-twee-twee ” mentioned by Makkink
(p. 25) as accompanying copulation.

Western Razorbill, Alca tor da islandica Brehm

Ectoparasite. — Several specimens of the tick Ixodes uriae
White (/. putus P.-Cam. et al .) were taken from an adult
razorbill on 17th June.

Water-rail, Rallus a. aquaticus L.

Feeding Habits. — In the catching-box of the Gulley trap
on the morning of 2nd October KW. found a water-rail and
3 twites. One of the twites had been partially eaten ;
another had been quite recently killed, having a hole in the
breast obviously made by a spear-thrust of the water-rail’s
bill ; and the third was alive and quite uninjured. There does
not appear to be a record of the water-rail killing and eating
small birds, but such predation is known in other members of
the Rallidae, and it is possible that, being mainly a nocturnal
feeder, the species may be in the habit of taking small ground-
roosting birds. GTK. confirms the existence of the habit:
a bird which he introduced to his large outdoor aviary killed
and ate a waxbill, a greenfinch, and a Chinese quail. He
discovered the rail making a meal of the quail, but did not
witness the actual killing. He caught and released the
water-rail, after which there were no more deaths.

32

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 6 1

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE ORANGE-TIP
BUTTERFLY, EUCHLOE C A RD A MINE S , IN

SCOTLAND

F. W. Smith

H I

Boreland of Southwick, by Dumfries

THIS butterfly appears to have had a wide distribution up to
some fifty years ago, and to have appeared in some numbers
in certain localities. The earliest record I can find is that of
the Edinburgh district (. Memoirs of the Wernerian Society ,

1 8 1 1 , vol. i, p. 573). Logan, in his “ Lepidoptera of Mid-
lothian ” ( Naturalist , 1852, vol. 2, p. 123), gives Duddingston,
Musselburgh, and Balgreen, now all built-up areas. Gray,
in his “ Lepidoptera of the West of Scotland and Fifeshire ”

( Naturalist , 1851, vol. i,p. 83) says “in considerable abun-
dance in Fifeshire and the West of Scotland.”

Buchanan- White, in his “ Fauna Scotica Lepidoptera ”
(Scot. Nat., 1871-72, vol. 1, p. 240), gives as its distribution
“East: Tweed-Forth-Tay-Dee-Moray — West : Solway-Clyde.”
To come to the present time, Dr E. B. Ford in his book
(Butterflies, Collins: London, 1945, p. 129) says “ common
all over Britain except north Scotland and the Isles,” a state-
ment as far as it refers to Scotland not borne out by the records.

I can only find three records for this butterfly in the present
century, twice in Dumfriesshire,
common in the Gretna district in
1902, where its appearance seems
may have been seen in recent times and not recorded remains
a possibility.

Aberdeenshire . — Pitcaple, Inverurie, Kintore, Monymusk,
Cluny, and Aberdeen. The latest of these records was in
the 1890’s, and Mr Reid of Pitcaple was remarking “ once
common, now becoming very scarce ” (Ent. Rec ., 1894,
vol. 4, p. 154). [Still there. — Eds.]

Ayrshire. — “ Generally distributed ” (Scot. Nat., 1871-72,
vol. i, p. 75).

where it appeared not un-
1933, and near Hawick in
erratic. That the butterfly

Key to the Counties and Vice-counties

W. Lowlands

72 Dumfries

73 Kirkcudbright

74 Wigtown

75 Ayr

76 Renfrew

77 Lanark

E. Lowlands

78 Peebles

79 Selkirk

80 Roxburgh

81 Berwick

82 Haddington

83 Edinburgh

84 Linlithgow

E. Highlands

85 Fife & Kinross

86 Stirling

87 Perth. S. & Clkn.

88 Mid. Perth

89 Perth N. (or E.)

90 Forfar

91- Kincardine

92 Aberdeen S.

93 Aberdeen N.

94 Banff

95 Elgin

96 Easterness

W. Highlands

97 Westerness

98 Main Argyll

99 Dumbarton
100 Clyde Isles
ior Cantire
X02 Ebudes S.

103 Ebudes Mid.

104 Ebudes N.

N. Highlands

105 Ross W-

106 Ross E.

107 Sutherland E.

108 Sutherland W.

109 Caithness

N. Isles

110 Hebrides
in Orkneys

1 12 Shetlands

Fig I .—Approximate distribution of known records of the Orange-tip Butterfly in Scotland.
Some vice-counties are completely, others only partly, shaded.

5 33

34

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

Banffshire. — Aberlour and Carron : a number on the wing in
May 1894 and 1896. Dufftown (Royal Scot. Mus.
(Bowhill Coll.)).

Berwickshire. — Paxton, 1832, Swinton Mill, Coldstream, and
Coldingham Moor, all in 1850’s; Earlston, 1879, Eye-
mouth, 1887. George Bolam, “ Lepidoptera of Nor-
thumberland and the Eastern Borders ” ( Berwick . Nat.,
1923-25, vol. 25, p. 522), can add no recent records, and
never himself saw the insect on the wing in Scotland.

Dumfriesshire. — “ Common in bogs and edges of woods,”
W. Lennon ( Dumfries and Galloway Nat. Hist, and Antiq.
Soc., 1862-63, vol. 1, p. 54). Specimen from this collection
in the Royal Scot. Mus. Gretna district, June 1933,
common. Tynron, a few males, June 1943, none since.

East Lothian. — Tynefield, May 1860-61.

Morayshire. — Fochabers and Dallas, 1858-60.

Fifeshire. — “ In considerable abundance,” 1850.

Inverness-shire. — Strathspey, 1 860 ’s.

Kincardineshire. — Specimen in the Royal Scot. Mus. (Horne
Coll.).

Kircudbrightshire . — Kirkennen in profusion, 1868, Robinson-
Douglas specimen in my collection.

Lanarkshire . — No details, teste T. Chapman.

Midlothian. — Edinburgh district, Duddingston, Musselburgh,
and Balgreen, last recorded in the 1850’s.

Nairnshire.— Ardclach, banks of Findhorn, 1890’s.

Perthshire. — Moncreiffe Hills, “ never very common, not more
than six specimens in a season,” Sir Thomas Moncreiffe
(Scot. Nat., 1877-78, vol. 4, p. 39).

Renfrewshire.— Paisley, Renfrew, Gourock, T. Chapman
( Glasgow Handbook, 1901, p. 242).

Roxburghshire . — Denholm and Gordon Moss, Hawick, Burns-
oot, Homeshole, not uncommon in the 1890’s. Hawick

1949

INTERNATIONAL ORNITHOLOGICAL CONGRESS

35

area, common June 1901, only a few 1902, not seen before
(W. Renton, Entom ., 1903, vol. 33, p. 130).

Selkirkshire . — Galashiels, rare, i89o’s.

Wigtownshire. — Near Stranraer, several taken 1882.

I have not given all the references for the different records
in order to save space, but they are available to anybody
interested.

INTERNATIONAL ORNITHOLOGICAL CONGRESS

The Permanent Committee for International Ornithological
Congresses has instructed the Ornithological Society of Sweden to
organise the Tenth International Congress. It is to be held at
Uppsala on 10th to 17th June 1950.

According to the preliminary programme the opening of the
Congress will take place on Saturday, 10th June, at 2 p.m. Sunday,
nth, will be devoted to a whole-day excursion; 12th to 17th to
Congress discussions as well as another whole-day excursion and
an afternoon tour. Before and after the Congress, excursions will be
arranged to various parts of Sweden.

Ornithologists from all countries are cordially invited to attend.
The Congress fee is 25 Swedish crowns, and applications should be
sent in before the end of February 1950. Applicants will be furnished
with a detailed programme.

At the Congress a few survey lectures will be held by lecturers
specially invited. Other members may also lecture or give short
announcements.

A preliminary invitation to the Congress will be distributed
very soon through representatives in every country, and can also be
obtained from the following address : Tenth International Ornitho-
logical Congress, Uppsala, Sweden.

36

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

FIELD NOTES ON SOME BADENOCH DRAGONFLIES

Richard Perry
Holy Island, Northumberland

In the period 1945-48, and more especially in the years 1947
and 1948, I paid some attention to the dragonflies on the east
side of Spey in the parish of Kingussie and Insh, in which I
include glens Tromie and Feshie, together with the western
Cairngorms. Most detailed observations were made within
two miles of Drumguish, a township at 950 feet, three miles
east of Kingussie ; in peat-bogs on the fringe of the pinewoods,
at pools on moors at a height of from 1,000 and 1,150 feet, on
the flood-meadows at 750 feet alongside Spey, and in the birch
and alder glen of the River Tromie. I approached their study
as a novice and mainly as a relaxation from my more usual
role of ornithologist, and, for various reasons, took no
specimens. As, however, field notes on Highland dragonflies
are scarce, and as one of my teneral colour-phases of Aeshna
does not appear to have been recorded previously in Britain,
the notes that follow may prove of interest. References in the
text to Lucas and Longfield are to British Dragonflies by
W. J. Lucas and to The Dragonflies of the British Isles by
Cynthia Longfield. To the latter I am indebted not only for
reading the original draft of these notes, but for previous
correspondence on the subject.

CORDULEGASTER BOLTONII

On Wing.— Last ten days June to latter half August.

Colouring. — As in Longfield : but wings of most indi-
viduals tinged bronze or copper. As this tinting was observed
as early as 22nd June, it can hardly be restricted to aged
individuals. Yet a specimen with the green thorax bands of
full maturity on 12th August had clear wings.

Eyes glassy-brown early, passing through olive-brown and
brown-green to enamel-green. In 1948, which was an excep-
tionally cold, cloudy, and wet summer, with two phenomenally
hot spells from 8th to 21st May and 27th July to 3rd August,
no fully mature specimens with green eyes were observed.

j94g FIELD NOTES ON SOME BADENOCH DRAGONFLIES 37

HABITAT.— Well distributed, though solitary and not
numerous, in alder and birch glens and heather-clad peat-bogs
at edge of pinewoods. Never seen at pools on open moors.

HABITS. — Characteristically, beats up and down drain or
small burn, a few inches or feet above water, comparatively
slowly; though will mount in pursuit of prey to height of
30 feet, alighting in heather to devour large prey such as beetles.

Mating and Egg-laying. — Never observed : but eggs

cannot be laid in pools favoured by most dragonflies.
According to Longfield, eggs are laid in bottom mud or
weed-mat of streams : so probably in feeding drains and burns
in Highlands.

AESHNA JUNCEA
AESHNA sp. ? CAE RULE A

On Wing : A . juncea. — First week August1 to mid-October.
N .B.— Two dead males on 23rd June 1949.

A. ? caerulea. — Last week June (22nd June) to second week
August; though few on wing end July 1948, despite
temperature estimated above 8o° F.

COLOURING. — It was not until 1947-48 that I realised that
there were two species of Aeshna on my beat, with the discovery
in the middle of July 1947 of some black individuals in which
all the blue, green, and yellow colouring was replaced by
white. No dragonfly of this colouring had been recorded in
the British Isles, but at the time I thought that they might prove
to be specimens of Brachytron pratense .2 During the winter,
however, I studied Lucas and Longfield once again, and
also corresponded with the latter, and decided that these black
and white insects were definitely Aeshnae and probably a
teneral phase of A. caerulea. During 1948 I was fortunate
enough to discover an abundant colony of what will be termed
hereafter A. ? caerulea (though their colouring at all ages
differs, in greater or lesser degree, from that described in
Lucas and Longfield), and to observe many scores of
black and whites, and even to have them at rest on my chest. It

1 In the earlier seasons, when I did not distinguish between these two Aeshnae ,
it is possible that A. juncea may have emerged at an earlier date, but in 1947 and
1948 I saw no recognisable live specimens of the latter before August.

2 Longfield believes that this may possibly be the case.

38

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 67

was gratifying to find that the typical insect was indeed pure
black and pure white, with no trace of any other colouring.

A. juncea. — Colouring differs somewhat from that described
in Lucas and Longfield, and this may be a Scottish variation.
Abdominal ground colouring of mature male is pure black
(thorax: chocolate-brown or rich velvet-brown), only females
and immature males being nigger-brown ; while some females
are so pale in colour as to appear yellow and brown insects in
flight. As in the case of C. boltonii no fully mature males
with blue eyes were seen in 1948, when juncea was scarce in
comparison with previous years.

A. ? caerulea. — In the field the only immediately obvious
distinction between the mature males of the two species was in
the colour of the wings (see below). The blue patterning on
the black abdomen was identical. In all but the oldest juncea ,
however, tiny yellow spots are included in the blue pattern :
but are never present in ? caerulea. More noticeable are the
broad yellow and often green bands on the sides of juncea' s
thorax, replaced in ? caerulea by three thin wavy bright-yellow
or pale-yellow lines 1 : no male ? caerulea having any green on
thorax or abdomen. (As in the case of juncea no fully mature
? caerulea with blue thorax lines and blue eyes were seen.) No
doubt the average juncea was a longer, stouter, and longer-
winged insect than any ? caerulea , but I did not find size an
adequate diagnostic in the field : moreover, the latter varied :
greatly in size.

Ninety per cent, of all ages and sexes of ? caerulea were,
however, immediately recognisable at a glance and at a distance
by the unique dark-brown shade of their wings. Actually, the
veining was deep copper, but in flight the wings appeared
dark brown. This tinting was not confined to teneral insects,
but was retained by the majority of the blue and black males,
and as late as 30th July, when the species’ season was nearly
ended, most were still brown-winged. The colour bore no
resemblance to the yellowish suffusion to be noted on the
gilded wings of some of the older juncea .2

1 I have only one note on the number of these thorax stripes. In the true
caerulea there should only be two stripes.

2 According to Longfield the above notes correctly describe differences- between
A. juncea and A. caerulea .

FIELD NOTES ON SOME BADENOCH DRAGONFLIES

39

1949

So much for the mature male ? caerulea. However, 90 per
cent, of the ? caerulea observed in 1948, when they were
numerous, were pure black and white and black and near white
insects, and these teneral insects were on the wing from 22nd
June to 30th July. With one or two exceptions, towards the
end of the season, all were dark-winged.

I distinguished five phases of ? caerulea : —

(a) The majority — black abdomens with white patterning

and thin white or palest yellow stripes on sides of
black thorax, and the pale yellow black-lined face
common to all phases of both species of Aeshna. In
some instances face may have been white, but I
cannot find any definite record of this in my notes.
(Longfield believes that this phase may not be
? caerulea .)

(b) Another teneral phase with chocolate-brown abdominal

ground, patterned with pale blue and white spots;
almost white thorax stripes ; near-white zigzagging
along side of abdomen ; and a very noticeable pale
colouring on the last two or three segments of the
abdomen. (This approximates to a phase of the true
caerulea in Longfield.)

I (c) Uncommon, and presumably females ; black abdomen,
heavily patterned with blue-green or pale green spots
and three thin wavy pale yellow stripes on the side
of the thorax. First seen 3rd July.

( d ) Presumably males approaching maturity : black

abdomen with tiny blue spots, instead of the heavy
blue patterning on the adult males ; and the yellow
thorax stripes. (Longfield suggests that this may
be the mature form of (a) : but note that (a) has the
large spots of ( e ).)

( e ) Adult males — First seen 3rd July. (( a ), ( b ), (c), and ( d )

cannot be confused with any juncea. )

Habitat: A. ? caerulea. — Confined exclusively to vicinity
of woods, usually pine, though birch and alder glens also
frequented. Never seen at pools on open moor. Favourite re-
treat boggy morass on fringe of pinewoods, where, however, they
frequent the drier parts containing young pines and heather,
rather than the pools, and constantly work pinewood rides.

40

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

A. juncea. — While also frequenting above habitats, are
very catholic in their distribution, being constantly seen at
pools on open moors ; flying far afield through crofting
settlements and over heather moors, and over rivers in glens,
commonly to a height of 2,000 feet and exceptionally above
3,000 feet on the Cairngorms.

HABITS: A. ? caerulea. — During cloudy intervals in fair
weather shelters in the heather among the pines. Half a dozen
may be flushed from a few square yards. If, however, inclement
weather persists for several days, none are to be found in such
cover, and none are seen on the wing. During sunny intervals
its habits are erratic. It may circle for five or ten minutes at
a time, at head height or lower, round a beat of a few square
yards. At other times, especially on a breezy day, it will dart
up with incredible swiftness to the pine tops, at a height of
60 feet, in pursuit of its prey, which it may consume in flight
or at leisure at rest on a pine trunk. Others hawk up and
down “ rides ” for perhaps hours, and are to be seen on their
solitary beats day after day. A feature of the flight are the
long glides, with all four wings well spaced and spread, and
the Libellula- like rapidity with which it changes direction and
accelerates. I imagine that there cannot be a more difficult
dragonfly to net. It is very noticeably shyer than juncea ,
and though one or two settled on my chest, when I had been
in one position for a long time, it was impossible to close one’s
hand over them even then. Normally, they appeared to have
an intelligent perception of danger, and would not return to
their beat if one or two passes had been made at them with a net.

A. juncea . — Much as ? caerulea in pine woods, but does
not shelter in heather, being the one dragonfly to be seen on
the wing in all weathers, even on the moors in half a gale ;
and is characteristically to be seen hawking up and down a
river gorge. At moor pools it adopts a different technique.
Here it flies low, and frequently hovers, continually hawking
round and round the sides of the pool only an inch or two, or
foot or two, above the water, visiting every little inlet, with
much rustling of wings as it turns and accelerates with extreme
rapidity. Every now and again one will make a brief pass at
another of its kind or at the clouds of smaller dragonflies, but

i949 FIELD NOTES ON SOME BADENOCH DRAGONFLIES 41

only once have I seen one of the latter taken. This was an adult
male S. danae , which a male Aeshna seized by the thorax and
carried to the heather surround, where it chewed it in half.

Juncea is a great lover of the sun, and an individual,
especially an aged one of course, will return again and again
to cling to the sunny side of a pine-trunk, or to the back of
my hand, where it basks in the warmth.

Mating and Laying : A . ? caerulea. — A number of coupled
pairs were seen in 1947, but only one (in coitu ) in 1948,
although I was present at their pine-morass headquarters on
almost every suitable day throughout that season. Pairing is
accomplished on the wing, and I have not seen the female
knocked down to the ground, as in the case of juncea. I have
not observed a female laying, and it is difficult to imagine
where or when this can take place, in view of my constant
attendance, but it cannot be at the pools favoured by most of
the other dragonflies.

A. juncea. — Mating may be observed both in pinewoods, at
some distance from water, and more commonly over moor
pools. At latter haunts pairs in tandem are constantly present,
sailing across the pool and occasionally looping the loop.
In the capture the male knocks the female down to the ground
or water. The two rise in coitu and, if in the woods, may sail
up to alight on a pine-spray at a height of 25 feet. Mated pairs
may be seen on the first day of the species’ emergence. On the
other hand in the unfavourable season of 1948, it was 4th
September before the first pair were seen. I am at a loss to
understand why I have never observed the females laying, as
this must almost certainly take place at the moor pools, where
juncea was very numerous in 1947, when I spent many hours
watching them. (Longfield suggests that I never happened to
be at pools where females were laying, but so few pools were
available that this seems unlikely.) In both species of Aeshna
males appear vastly to outnumber females. Is this a fact, or
is the life-span of the male much longer than the female’s ?

Nymph: A. juncea. — On the extraordinary date of 23rd
June 1948, in cool breezy weather with occasional intervals of
sun, I found the remains of two male juncea at their main
moor pool (1,150 feet) being cleaned out by ants, and at the
6

42

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

same place secured a nymph in the herbage surround, which
appeared to me to be a juncea , and was subsequently confirmed
as such by Longfield. I took it home with suitable herbage
for it to cling to, and by 6.45 A.M. the next morning face, 1
eyes, and the upper parts of the thorax were free : face and
thorax being green and eyes opaque-brown. No further
progress was made, however, and by the 27th the insect was
dead, the face now being yellow and the eyes a clear
lavender- white.

LIBELLULA QUAD RIMACULATA

On Wing.— Second (more commonly last) week May to
last days July.

COLOURING. — As Longfield. Recognised at a glance by
over-all olive-brown colouring (gleaming golden-bronze in
sun) and heavy saffron and black markings on hind wings and
saffron border, about in. wide, along fore-edge of both
wings; also by peculiar formation of front wings, which
incline forwards from base to tip ; and by characteristic flight
( see Habits). Face yellow; eyes brown; female’s abdomen
broader and flatter than male’s.

Habitat. — The most aquatic of the larger dragonflies and
never observed more than few yards from pool, which may be
permanent or merely rain-water. Special haunts, peat-bog
with pools at edge of pinewoods ; also regular, though a third
or quarter less numerous, at shallow ponds in sheltered hollows
on moors, but never at exposed moor pools and, therefore, not
above 1 ,000 feet. Not observed in deciduous glens, but heather
“ rides ” in young pine plantations characteristic haunt in
Rothiemurchus. Though so conservative in its haunts, some
individuals must travel miles, as odd specimens occur at
isolated temporary pools. (Immigration from the Continent
reported as regular.)

Habits. — Sunshine essential, and seldom abroad in cloudy
weather. Effect of sun instantaneous; and, on sun emerging
from cloud, six or twelve insects will come dashing in to
previously deserted pool, even if strong breeze blowing, dis-
appearing as suddenly on sun being obscured. Shelters in
herbage and heather, but seldom flushed from this.

i949 FIELD NOTES ON SOME BADENOCH DRAGONFLIES

43

Very shy and erratic in flight (recognised in term “ darter ”),
continually checking its very swift flight, to hover stationary
for a second or two, before darting off at a tangent again.
Two or three individuals will also whirr round and round a
pool in pursuit of one another at extraordinary speed, altering
direction and accelerating so swiftly and at such acute angles
that it is with the greatest difficulty that the eye keeps track of
a selected individual. It has a habit of returning again and
again to a chosen resting-place on a weed stem, to which it
clings with middle and hind legs. This swift and erratic flight
makes it impossible to determine whether the insect flies only
for the purpose of feeding or upon what insects it feeds. I
have never, for example, been able to observe a definite insect
actually taken. Though feeding almost exclusively at a height
of a few feet or inches over pools and their immediate surround,
will mount to a height of 20 feet over young pines, and in-
frequently alight to sun itself on the bole of an old pine.

Mating and Egg-laying.— From the very frequent
“passages-at-arms” that take place over a Libellula pool I
conclude that the males establish feeding territories, which also
serve as mating territories. The hovering technique may
possibly play a part in delimiting the areas of these territories.
(Longfield notes that a male will both dart at trespassing males
when his female is laying, and will also hover over that part
of pool in which she is laying : but this does not appear to be
always the case.) At any rate, the pairing of male with female
would appear to be fortuitous ; for, on a female coming in
to a pool to lay her eggs, she is immediately seized by and
couples with the male whose territory she enters. On the
other hand, she may have laid half her series of eggs — which
would appear to number between 20 and 50 — before she is
perceived by a male and is seized and couples. (According
to Longfield, however, she has previously coupled with the
same male.) Unlike most dragonflies, the mating, coupling,
and release of a pair of Libellulae is normally almost
instantaneous, and is achieved without the female being
knocked down to the water — a remarkable feat when one
considers the complex operation entailed in the complete
mating. On occasions, however, a mated pair (in corin') will

44

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

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be chased round and round a pool by other males for a period
of two or three minutes. On the male of one such pair un-
coupling, he came to rest immediately on a weed stem.
Consequently, on an egg-laying female being released by one
male, she may be seized by another male when she leaves the
pool after completing her laying operation.

Her laying procedure is remarkable. Hovering just above
the water, with wings vibrating extremely rapidly and pro-
ducing a humming sound similar to that of humming-bird
hawk-moth’s, she thrashes — one might say violently lashes—
the water with her dipping abdomen at intervals of, say, six
or twelve inches, mainly round the weedy edge of the pool,
depositing a single egg at each strike. She may be alone while
laying, or a male may come over from time to time to hover
near her.

As to the age at which a dragonfly mates and lays, it may
be noted that during that phenomenally hot spell in mid-May
1948, the first Libellulae were on the wing on the exceptionally
early date of 10th May; and, at 10.15 A.M. on the 17th, the
first females were seen already laying. Yet, after 20th May,
I saw no more laying that season — -there being several days of
frost and snow after that date — though I was constantly visiting
their pool until the autumn.

SYMPETRUM STRIOLATUM NIGRIFEMUR

On Wing. — Last days July to mid- and possibly end-
September.

Colouring. — Mature red males of this sub-species never
observed : but, on the wing, deep chrome specimens gleam

an over-all molten red-gold in the sun, for the wing veins
are copper and there are small saffron spots at the wing
attachments. Majority of specimens, however, have dull
yellow-brown abdomens with a saw-edged black line along
the side ; orange and brown thorax with two mustard-yellow
stripes on side; yellow face and brown eyes; black legs;
and glassy wings with either cloudy white or black pterostigma.
In specimens emerging, and in some on the wing, the sides
of the face are pale green and the abdomen pale brown (black
underneath) ; but the yellow stripes on the thorax are as

1949 FIELD NOTES ON SOME BADENOCH DRAGONFLIES

45

brilliant as in the adult. Three, newly emerged, were observed
climbing up reed stems as late as 3rd September — a very
humid day, with little sun and frequent heavy showers.

HABITAT. — A solitary and not at all numerous species,
commoner in some years than others perhaps, occurring sparsely
in the heather surround of open moor pools and in peat-bogs
at edge of pinewoods.

HABITS. — A feeble cranefly-like insect, very different to
the stout S', danae , seldom flying more than a foot or two above
the heather, in which it appears to pass most of its time.

Mating and Laying.— Pairs in tandem observed, but
none mating or laying.

SYMPETRUM DANAE (S. scoticum )

On WING. — First week August to third week October.

Colouring. — Faint yellowish bands are visible on black
thorax of mature males. Not fully mature males are nigger-
brown. Females and young males olive-brown with brilliant
yellow stripes on side of thorax ; and there is a reference in
my notes to some with green faces — a true green, that is, and
not Longfield’s lemon-yellow. At breeding pools mature
males are outnumbered by about 25 to 1, but by October
majority surviving are mature males.

HABITAT. — Almost as widely distributed as A. juncea
and much more numerous, occurring in numbers at open
pools on the moors, peat-bogs, pinewood morasses, heavily
wooded glens of birch and alder, and in birch “ parks ” ;
with odd specimens in the most varied situations to a height
of 2,000 feet. Special association is, however, with heather;
and clouds are always to be brushed up from heather surround
of moor pools.

HABITS. — Extremely restless insects, they have hardly
alighted before they are on the wing again : to dart erratically
hither and thither, now hovering stationary, now shooting
forward (and also backwards).

More attracted by sun than any other dragonfly, and will
return again and again to sunny side of a stone dyke, to a

46

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

warm boulder, or to the back of one’s hand. Resting on these
places, with sparkling gauzy wings bent forward and down-
wards, they continually jerk their heads about in a curiously
uninsect-like manner, and continually chase one another away
from these favoured sunning-places. Naturally, this craving
for heat is especially marked in late autumn among mature
males, when these may be observed darting at the younger
males frequenting such places, and knocking them down.
So long as there is hot sun during the day, they can survive
frosts severe enough to blacken potato haulms (as can
A . juncea).

MATING and Laying. — When the female is laying, the pair
in tandem take up a vertical position and continually dance, or
rather bump up and down in one place, while the female dips
her abdomen in and out of the water, depositing her eggs.
During the operation other males may nose around the pair.
On one occasion after one pair had separated, the male (or
possibly another male) immediately knocked the female down
again and coupled with her.

LESTES SPONSA

On WING. — First days August to second week September.

COLOURING. — The mature male has a pale blue face, green
head, and dull brown eyes.1 The thorax varies, presumably
according to age. It may be a scintillating bronze or copper-
gold on top and sides (I cannot see any green in this colouring)1
and pale powder-blue beneath : or it may be powder-blue all
over, except for a jewel-like orange-red or chrome “ slot ”
on the upper half of the side. The extremely thin and long
abdomen is a gleaming metallic green and brown, except for
the first and the last two or three segments, which are a pale
powdery bluish-white. The wings are so clear and delicate as
to be invisible from some angles, and the pterostigma is brown.

Females and young males are mainly brownish or straw-
coloured, and all the paired females I have seen have been of
this immature colouring, with no noticeable green about them.
Eyes brown.1

1 These colourings suggest that L. sponsa may not attain mature colouring in'
Scotland.

j949 FIELD NOTES ON SOME BADENOCH DRAGONFLIES 47

HABITAT. — Confined exclusively to pools and their banks,
where plenty of reeds and weeds grow, though an occasional
specimen may be found frequenting temporary rain-water
pools several hundred yards from nearest permanent water.
Pools may be on riverside water-meadows and marshes or on
open moor at 1,150 feet. Though not associating in “ shoals,”
like E. cyathigerum, a dozen or perhaps a score of solitaries
or pairs may be present at one pool.

HABITS. — L. sponsa is such a fragile and feebly-flying
insect (more resembling cranefly than dragonfly), seldom
mounting more than a foot or two above the water, that one
may have to watch at a pool for some minutes before one realises
that here and there at its weedy edge, or on the fringes of islets
in mid-pool, these delicate, attenuated, and lethargic insects are
clinging to weed stems or embarking on short, slow flights
from mooring stem to stem ; and one must be only a few feet
distant to observe the details of their delicate colouring. They
are, however, less affected by weather conditions than other
damsel-flies, and may be seen moored in mid-pool on dull,
breezy days. When moored, the male may have wings either
half-spread or folded. When the latter, it has a curious habit
of jerking the extremity of its abdomen up and down between
folded wings.

Mating and Laying. — -In securing a female, the male
knocks her down to the water, and they couple at the same
instant.

When she is laying, the male’s wings are folded and the
female’s four spread like a windmill’s sails. Clinging to a
reed stem, the latter loops up her abdomen, in the manner of
a “ stick ” caterpillar, and begins looping down the stem into
the water* until almost submerged : subsequently walking up
the stem again, with the male still attached, and repeating
the performance on another stem.

PYRRHOSOMA NYMPHULA

On Wing.— Mid-May to last days July.

Colouring. — Maturely coloured insects observed within
five days of initial emergence of species. Mature male mainly

48

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

scarlet and black. Female (paired) similar, but paler and
duller with a thin yellow ring on each segment of abdomen,
and with dull lake-brown instead of crimson eyes — the abdomen
being definitely red and not yellow. Immature have bronze-
green heads and brownish-yellow eyes, bronze-green thorax
with orange-brown lateral stripes, and dull red abdomen with
last few segments drab and pale yellow underparts. Their
wings are perfectly clear , whereas those of most English
specimens are tinged. On 20th May 1948 — that is, on the fourth
day after the species’ emergence — numbers were already mated
and laying, but 80 or 90 per cent, of those laying were partly
immature, both males and females being reddish, with brown
eyes, and the only marked difference between the two — -and I
had them coupled on my hand — was that the female bore a
bronze-green mark on the upper side of each abdominal
segment.

Habitat. — Varied : from pinewood rides and peat-

morasses to open pools on moors. Least numerous in latter
situation, and not more than a score scattered over any one
site. Will shelter in heather surround on breezy days.

HABITS. — Flies higher (at head height) than other damsels,
particularly in “ rides.”

Mating and Laying.— Though many pairs were in tandem
over a pinewood morass on that very hot day, 20th May, despite
a strong north-east breeze, none were in coitu ; and this species
must remain coupled for several hours at a time, for I have no
record of ever observing a pair in the act of coupling or un-
coupling— though pairs may be observed in tandem as late
as the third week of July.

During laying, the pair in tandem alight on the water, and
nearly every female selects a leaf lying on the water. The
latter then loops down her abdomen, probing its tip slowly
here and there, before finally selecting a suitable spot on the
underside of the leaf. The extrusion and fixing of the egg takes
several minutes, without any apparent movement of the
abdomen. Presumably she lays a number of eggs in one spot
or around one leaf, and some females ultimately submerge
almost totally. An occasional solitary female may also be

i949 FIELD NOTES ON SOME BADENOCH DRAGONFLIES 49

observed laying, or at any rate taking up the typical laying
position. In getting her ovipositor into the right position,
the female is able to articulate each abdominal segment
separately.

The male remains attached to the female throughout the
laying operation, and in the initial stages he is likely to be
balancing solely on her neck, standing upright (like a praying-
mantis), sometimes with wings in rapid motion. If there is a
breeze, however, he is eventually forced to descend into a
horizontal position, until she has finished laying: when his
upright posture is assumed at the next laying spot.

ENALLAGMA CYATHIGERUM

On WlNG. — Fourth week June to second week August.

Colouring. — Mature shimmering blue males appear to
outnumber pale grey-green females by as much as 40 or
60 to 1. Young males (and some females ?) brown.

HABITAT. — Not found in pinewood peat-bogs. Numerous
at open pools and lochs on moors and water-meadows, provided
plenty of vegetation ; sheltering, frequently in pairs, in heather
and grass at edge of pool in dull, windy weather.

Habits. — “ Shoals ” of scores fly an inch or two above the
water. Individuals are continually leaving the “ shoals ” and
mooring themselves to grass or reed stems at edge of water.
In this position abdomen projects at right angles from stem
and wings are folded down abdomen.

Mating and Laying. — Coupled pairs, with adult colouring,
are to be observed on first day of species emergence. (Longfield
suggests that they would actually have emerged a day or two
earlier and probably have left the waterside for a period.)
Mating may take place on the wing or when at rest on
reed stem. The two may then uncouple ; and the female
climbs down into the water, completely submerging, and does
not reappear for some minutes. During her absence, mate
rests on a nearby blade of weed, and I never observed one to
remain attached, as in Longfield’s experience. Throughout
July pairs in tandem are continually in evidence.

7

50

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 6 1

SOME FACTORS INFLUENCING THE FLUCTUA-
TIONS AND DISTRIBUTION OF FILAMENTOUS
ALGM IN BOGHALL GLEN, MIDLOTHIAN

E. Wyllie Fenton

Edinburgh and East of Scotland College of Agriculture

BOGHALL Glen was selected for algal investigation since it
was easy of access, was reasonably isolated from other similar
parts, and, judging by brief surveys of other areas, typical of
the Pentland Hills and hence of the Moorfoot Hills. Algae
sent for identification from Loch Skene in 1938 showed much
similarity to the flora of Boghall Glen (Fenton, 1940#).
As Loch Skene lies towards the west side of Scotland, one may
regard the conditions in Boghall Glen as typical of many
valleys in the region lying south of the Clyde-Forth Valley,
excluding bog areas.

From year to year there was great variation both in the
quantity as well as the nature of the algal flora in the streams
and ditches of Boghall Glen. A general survey of some of the
factors at work is given in what follows.

Climatic Influences. — Obviously water is one of the
most important factors in the life of most algae. If water is
insufficient, as in drought, algae both in numbers and in kind
are seriously affected (Stokes, 1940; Fenton, 1943). Fall in
the water-level of streams and ditches, leaving isolated pools
of water, stimulate Cladophora (temperature factor) and
depresses Spirogyra and Tribonema. The after-effects of this
may last for some considerable time.

Rainfall may stimulate algal growth and distribution,
provided the rainfall is evenly distributed during the season.
But, if very heavy rain falls, causing flooding, then the scouring
out of streams and ditches will greatly reduce the number and
kind of the algae. Snow affects algae if there is a sudden and
rapid thaw causing flooding. Even freezing does not seem to
damage algae, provided the thaw is not sudden or there is not
a continuous period of quick freezing and thawing.

1949

FILAMENTOUS ALGiE IN BOGHILL GLEN

5i

There are two influences at work under light : (1) brightness
or intensity of light; (2) duration of the hours of daylight.
One of the most important factors in spring is good clear light.
Most algae are greatly stimulated by clear sunshine in spring.
There is a very noticeable difference between a spring of dull
weather and one of bright sunshine, provided there is no serious
drought. The fact that, in spring, algae kept in the laboratory
lagged behind those under natural conditions was entirely due
to the poorer light (north) under laboratory conditions
(Fenton, 1937). Draparnoldia , Zygnema , Oedogonium ,

Tribonema , and Spirogyra readily react to good light.
Draparnaldia reacts more to good light than to temperature.
Vaucheria is not quite so sensitive to bright sunlight, provided
the light is good.

The two red algae, Batrachospermum moniliforme and
Lemanea mamillosa , were not greatly affected by light. The
latter alga occurred in a very shady position overshadowed by
trees where the light was poor. The Myxophyceae are influenced
by good light provided there is sufficient moisture. After
midsummer there is a steady but definite decline in algae,
although an improvement is noticeable in autumn, often due
to a more copious rainfall.

Temperature affects certain algae more than others (Hodgetts,
1922). One of the chief results of high temperature is that it
may lead to drought. Provided the temperature is not too
high, Myxophyceae (Fenton, 1943), Vaucheria , Cladophora ,
Stigeoclonium , Rhizoclonium , and, to a lesser extent, Tribo-
nema and Oedogonium are all stimulated, as shown by their
growth. Cladophora only appears and increases in quantity
towards early summer with the rise in temperature of the water
in streams and ditches. Vaucheria , Spirogyra , and Tribonema
seem to be stimulated by a combination of light plus
temperature.

Grazing Animals. — Sheep are light on the hoof and there-
fore do not do any serious damage at springs, or to ditches
and the banks of streams. Sheep and lambs wandering over
and along streams and ditches may further the distribution
of certain algae (Fenton, 1937). Cattle are heavy on the hoof,
so they puddle the soil round springs, break down, choke,

52

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

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and upset drainage ditches and even the banks of streams.
This has a very serious effect on algal growth and distribution.
In Boghall Glen the introduction of cattle has reduced the
algal flora both in quantity and distribution. In fact, the
glen has never at any time, so far, regained its former varied
algal flora since the introduction of cattle. As a factor of
importance this would rank in order with drought, since it is
practically continuous and not intermittent.

Introduction of New Species.— The appearance of
certain algae not previously found in Boghall Glen presents
an interesting problem in distribution. Fortunately in some
cases a reasonable explanation can be offered. Batracho-
spermum moniliforme occurs elsewhere in the Pentland Hills,
but about two miles distant from Boghall Glen. In 1939
Tetraspora gelatinosa appeared first in Allermuir Dam, then
spread down Boghall Burn and even appeared, for a time, in
Boghall Dam. Just previous to this it had appeared in a
stream flowing through Kitchen Moss in the Pentland Hills,
over two miles distant. The appearance only once of the rare
Brachiomonas submarina in a drainage ditch leading into
Leips Burn could only have been introduced by some bird
visitor from the Forth estuary, several miles to the east of
Boghall. It is highly probable that birds also introduced
Batrachospermum moniliforme and Tetraspora gelatinosa.
Duck and snipe are not rare, and gulls also occur in the glen.
That birds are the means of introducing algae to the streams
and ditches of Boghall Glen is further supported by the
appearance in Allermuir Dam, shortly after it had been con-
structed, of Char a delicatula , which certainly does not occur
within many miles of Boghall Glen. Perhaps the introduction
and distribution of some of our rarer plants may be due to the
same source of transport.

Competition between Alg^:.— This question of

competition between algae has in some respects been dealt
with in previous publications (Fenton, 1937). The p H of
the water is a very important factor, since certain algae have
not a very wide range of tolerance (Fenton, 1936). All
the factors previously mentioned play a part, sometimes an

FILAMENTOUS ALGiE IN BOGHILL GLEN

53

*949

important part, in depressing or stimulating certain algae. The
chief difficulty is not how to assess each of these factors, but
how to estimate the various combinations and permutations
of these factors. There is another fundamental matter of
importance. Algae are not the only living organisms present.
As found in cultures (Fenton, 1940^), bacteria, fungi, protozoa,
etc., as well as aquatic larvae and fresh-water snails all play
a most important role in the life of even a small pool of water.
Hence algae are only a small part of a much larger biotic
community. Picken (1937) showed clearly the rhythm of such
a community, and in many parts of Boghall Glen a similar
condition of affairs may be found. Generally, however, there
is what might be termed a grand period of growth or develop-
ment for many algae during any season and, although the date
may vary, the general order remains fairly constant. Vaucheria
often heads the list because it seems to overwinter better than
most of the other algae. Spirogyra and Mougeotia often take
second place. Zygnema and Ulothrix follow, and a little
later come Tribonema , Microspora , Oedogonium , Stigeoclonium
and later in the season Cladophora and Rhizoclonium . Owing
to multiple factors, the order may be changed and the quantity
of any of these algae may show great fluctuations from season
to season. If conditions favour any of the algae mentioned
it may continue longer in a vigorous vegetative condition and
delay and depress one or more of those which normally follow
it during the seasonal rhythm, provided these algae are all
present in the same location.

Influence of the Weather of Previous Years— Since
weather plays a very important role in the distribution and
quality of any alga, it naturally follows that conditions in
previous years can influence algal populations of succeeding
years. This is often very noticeable after dry summers or any
long dry spell. After two moist summers there is usually an
abundance of algae and a more varied flora, provided always
there has not been excessive rainfall causing scouring of the
beds of ditches and streams. Nineteen forty-seven was a
peculiar year, since heavy falls of snow early in the year caused
flooding and much scouring of the ditches and streams. This
was followed by cold dull weather and then came a long dry

54

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

sunny spell. The mild winter of 1947-48 and bright spring
sunshine has had little effect in 1948, since there was a poor
algal population and a very restricted flora in 1947. Even
the rains of May and June were not sufficient to counteract the
inhibiting weather effects of previous years. There are usually
two peaks of algae activity, one in spring and the other in
autumn. If the spring peak, normally the most active, is below
normal, it is often succeeded by a poor autumn period. A
good autumn period, provided no unusual conditions follow,
is often succeeded by a good spring period. Exceptional
conditions in spring or autumn may reverse these rhythmic
fluctuations.

When we consider all the factors outlined, it is obvious that
any accurate assessment is well-nigh impossible. It is not
safe to rely too closely on laboratory experiments, since it is
practically impossible with small isolated experiments to
reproduce natural conditions. It is not the algae alone which
must be considered but the whole biotic fauna and flora, not
as individuals but as an intricate and intimate pattern of a
balanced community. Another point emphasised by Fritsch
(1931) is the need for accurate identification of the species of
algae. This is very difficult and often impossible to do, so
long as they are in the vegetative state. Unfortunately, it is
extremely difficult to induce some of these algae to develop
their reproductive stage to enable accurate identification.
That is why work by many investigators is needed to gather
much more information, for under differing conditions there
is a greater chance of finding algae in an identifiable condition.
It would also provide a more accurate assessment of the various
factors affecting algae and their distribution in Scotland.

REFERENCES

Hodgetts, W. J., 1922. “ A Study of some of the Factors controlling the
Periodicity of Fresh Water Algae in Nature,” New Phyt., 20 and 21,
150-164 and 15-33.

Fritsch, F. E., 1931. “Some Aspects of the Ecology of Freshwater
Algae,”/. Ecol., 19, 233-272.

Fenton, E. W., 1936. “ The Periodicity and Distribution of Algae in

Boghall Glen (Midlothian),” Scot , Nat., 143-148.

1949

FILAMENTOUS ALGAL IN BOGHILL GLEN

55

PiCKEN, R. E. L., 1937. “ The Structure of some Protozoan Communities,”
/. Ecol . , 35, 368-384.

Fenton, E. W., 1937. “ Algae Studies from Boghall Glen (Midlothian),
II.,” Scot. Nat., 115-122.

Fenton, E. W., 19400. “ List of Algae found in Boghall Glen,” Trans.
& Proc. Bot. Soc. Edin ., 33, 61-64.

STOKES, J. L., 1940. “ The Influence of Environmental Factors upon the

Development of Algae and other Micro-organisms in the Soil,” Soil
Science , 49, 171-184.

Fenton, E. W., 1940A “ Algal Studies from Boghall Glen (Midlothian),
VI.,” Edin. Sr3 East of Scot. Coll, of Agric. Rep.

FENTON, E. W., 1943. “ The Algal Vegetation of certain Boghall Farm

Soils,” Trans. Sr3 Proc. Bot. Soc. Edin., 33, 407-415.

5<>

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

CURRENT LITERATURE

The titles and purport of papers, notes, and letters relating to Scottish
natural history which have appeared during the period September
1948-February 1949 inclusive in the Field and Country Life.

ZOOLOGY
1. Field

Oystercatcher and Dummy, by Field-Marshal Viscount
Alanbrooke, 4th September 1948, pp. 267-268. — Illustrated article
on reactions of breeding birds to stuffed dummy in Scotland.

Farming, Forestry, and Sport, by Lieut. -Colonel J. C.
Wynne-Edwards, nth September 1948, pp. 290-291. — Illustrated
article on problems of marginal and hill lands in Britain.

Helping the Increase of Blackgame, by Dugald Macintyre,
nth September 1948, p. 100. — Letter stating that as there is small
increase this season, few young birds should be shot.

Reports from the Moors, Editorial, 18th September 1948,
pp. 315-316.— Brief summary of results of grouse-shooting in August
1948.

Salmon Migration, Editorial, 18th September and 2nd October
1948, p. 316 and p. 372. — Short note on marking of salmon and sea-
trout carried out by Scottish Fisheries Department in Montrose area.

Scotland’s Moors and Deer Forests, Editorial, 2nd October

1948, p. 372. — Short note referring to letter in Scotsman on utilisation
of hill land.

Glittering in Golden Coats, by Brian Vesey-Fitzgerald,
9th October 1948, pp. 406-407. — Illustrated article with some remarks
on present status of golden eagle in Scotland.

Tick in Grouse, Editorial, 23rd October 1948, p. 456. — Short
note stating reports of infection this year.

Gannets and their Young, by Dugald Macintyre, 23rd
October 1948, p. 469. — Letter stating that writer has on several
occasions seen old gannets feeding young at sea.

Sociable Little Birds, by C. A. Gibson-Hill, 30th October
1948, p. 490. — Illustrated article on breeding of puffins; some
Scottish references.

Migrations of Salmon, by W. J. M. Menzies, 6th November
1948, p. 524. — Letter referring to previous editorials.

*949

CURRENT LITERATURE

57

Preserving Wildfowl, by Eric Parker, 27th November 1948,
p. 608. — Illustrated article on the work of the International Wildfowl
Research Institute.

Woodcock carrying Young, by R. H. L. Webb, 27th November
1948, p. 614. — Letter giving details of observations made in
Dunbartonshire .

Capercaillie in Scotland, by Ian D. Pennie, 27th November
1948, p. 614. — Letter requesting information on status in Scotland.

Spawning of Salmon, by Dugald Macintyre, 25th December

1948, p. 735. — Letter concerning time taken in expelling ova.

Not in the Books, by Dugald Macintyre, 1st January 1949,
p. 14. — Illustrated article; personal observations of Scottish natural
history; mainly birds in Kintyre.

Salmon Spawning in 1948, by Richard Waddington, 8th
January 1949, p. 42. — Illustrated article on conditions in North-east
Scotland .

Sutherland Grouse Prospects, by G. S. R., 8th January 1949,
p. 45. — Illustrated article reviewing state of grouse population in the
county during 1948.

Summer Encounter, by R. B. Talbot-Kelly, 8th January

1949, p. 46. — Illustrated article on bird life of Aberlady Bay.

Hawks at Airfields, by Dugald Macintyre, 15th January
1949, p. 76.— Letter mainly concerning behaviour of falcons in
Kintyre.

Gannets Feeding at Sea, by R. M. Lockley, 22nd January
1949, p. 104.— Letter referring to statement in article of 1st January
1949; writer considers that there are probably no authentic records
of young gannets being fed by regurgitation at sea.

Waxwings in Kincardineshire, by J. M. St John Yates,
5th February 1949, p. 162. — Letter; parties of about 12, and 20,
on 27th November 1948, and 3rd January 1949 respectively.

The Deer-stalking Season, 1948, by G. Kenneth Whitehead,
1 2th February 1949, pp. 178-179. — Illustrated article.

Scarcity of Corncrakes, by Hugh Rankin, 12th February
1949, p. 189. — Letter; no scarcity at Blairgowrie, Perthshire, in
summer 1948.

Herons Feeding at Night, by J. Vivian Ward, 12th February
1949, p. 190. — Letter stating that herons frequently fish at night in
Loch Etive, Argyll.

8

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THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

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Education of Young Gannet, by Dugald Macintyre,
26th February 1949, p. 245. — Letter replying to previous criticism
(see above, Gannets Feeding at Sea).

Salmon Migration, by C. E. Lucas, 26th February 1949,
p. 246— Letter referring to recovery of marked salmon.

2. Country Life

Where are the Lapwings ? by Seton Gordon, 10th September
1948, p. 527. — Article discussing decrease and present status in
Scotland.

The Shetland Sheep, by Richard Perry, 24th September

1948, p. 639. — Article on native sheep.

Frontier Outposts of Garden Birds, by Richard Perry,
1 st October 1948, p. 675. — Article dealing mainly with Scottish
Highlands and Islands.

A Bird Observatory on Fair Isle, 8th October 1948, p. 727 . —
A notice concerning establishment of Fair Isle Trust.

A Large Flock of Herons, by Collingwood Ingram, 8th
October 1948, p. 735. — Letter; flock of eighteen seen on Hoy,
Orkney.

Young Guillemots face a Hostile World, by John Peterson,
3rd December 1948, pp. 1158-1159. — Illustrated article on breeding
and fledging at Noss, Shetland.

Roe Deer and their Fairy Rings, by Anthony Buxton, 17th
December 1948, pp. 1266-1268. — Illustrated article on behaviour of
roe, and the significance of their “ rings.”

Can Birds see through Mist ? by Seton Gordon, 7th January

1949, pp. 36-37. — Article on homing of shearwaters to burrows on
Rhum.

Grey Phalarope in Ayrshire, by E. R. Chadwyck-Healey,
2 1st January 1949, p. 150. — Letter; one in full winter plumage
found dead beside upper River Girvan.

Afforestation in National Parks, by J. C. Cadbury, 28th
January 1949, p. 205. — Letter concerning forestry development near
Loch Morlich, and stressing need for conservation of natural features
in the district.

Photographing the Golden Eagle, by C. Eric Palmer,
4th February 1949, pp. 246-248. — Illustrated article describing a
successful photographing in the Highlands.

CURRENT LITERATURE

59

Afforestation in National Parks, by E. W. Hodge, nth
February 1949, p. 321. — Letter referring to previous correspondence
(28th January 1949).

Entomologist' s Monthly Magazine

Notes on Herse convolvuli L., Pararge aegeria L., and other
Uncommon Scottish Lepidoptera, by J. A. Downes, Vol. 83,
pp. 217-218, 27th September 1947. — Notes on occurrences of these
species and also Drymonia trimacula , Enargia ( — Cosmia ) palaecea ,
and Macroglossum stellatarum.

Cordulia aenea (L.) (Odonata) in Scotland, and a Note on
Somatochlora arctica Zett., by J. A. Downes, Vol. 83, p. 219,
27th September 1947. — Only Scottish record of the first-named
dragonfly, in Loch Lomond area of Stirlingshire, on 20th May 1946.
Identity of Scottish specimens of the second species, which have been
re-examined, is confirmed.

Some Lepidoptera of Western Scotland, by J. A. Downes,
Vol. 84, pp. 203-204, 30th August 1948. — Records of marsh fritillary,
red admiral, peacock, silver- Y, chimney-sweeper, thrift clearwing,
and purple hairstreak.

CORRECTION

In Mr Dacker’s article on “ Mortality of Birds in the Cold Weather
of January-March 1947,” which appeared in the last number, the
statement (Vol. 60, p. 175) that “ tawny owls were practically wiped
out near West Calder ” should refer to barn owls. Mr Halliday,
who supplied this observation, has no reason to believe that tawny
owls were affected by the cold weather.

6o

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

CORRESPONDENCE
To the Editor of The Scottish Naturalist
Sir,

We, the author and editors of the book, Natural History
in the Highlands and Islands , have read with interest your review
of it in the first number of the revived Scottish Naturalist. We
regret the mistakes which you have pointed out (for which we are
jointly and severally responsible) and we will correct them in the new
edition of the book. We are glad that you have drawn attention to
them, though we are surprised by the manner in which you have
done so.

We are sorry that you did not have much to say about the ideas
in the book, some of which are new, and some of which might have
been worth discussion.

Some of the things which you believe to be mistakes are, in our
opinion, not so. May we take these in the order in which they arise
in your review ?

1. Your remarks about Car ex rigida imply that the author makes

no mention of this species as one important constituent of
alpine grassland. In describing this grassland (p. 150) he
records it, in fact, as one of the “ common alpine sedges.”
Further, the author’s description of alpine grassland, in
which grasses, especially forms of Festuca ovina , are normally
the dominant plants, as “ nutritious,” is an accurate one.

In addition, this description is part of the page of recapitula-
tion of the whole chapter and does not mention either
Grampian plateaux or Cairngorms. Your remarks read as
if these particular areas were under discussion.

2. High precipitation is a prime requirement for peat formation,

and your remarks about the tundra appear to be irrelevant,
if not actually untrue.

3. The author’s views on the preadaptation of alpine plants to

seaside high-salinity habitats are not belied by the presence
of alpines also by the shores of great fresh-water lakes.

4. The author’s phrase, “ smolts marked in one river are never

taken as grilse or salmon in any other river but their own,”
is so far true, though he might more tidily have said, “ have
never been taken.” Your dissertation on smolts and grilse,
prompted by this, seems mostly irrelevant.

. j

t949

CORRESPONDENCE

61

You say that the author refers to the occasional spawning
of parr “ almost as if it were a new thing discovered by
the author.” How could this be, when the author expressly
mentions in the text at this point certain facts relating to
this kind of fish described in the Howietoun Experiments
of 1887 ? As a matter of interest, the author did discover the
fact for himself, but did not presume that he had done so first.

5. The author’s remarks about ospreys, in their context on p. 247,

seem to be quite valid and innocent, and undeserving of
your contradiction.

6. Your remarks about herring-gulls apply to a different sub-

species, and for that reason are of little value. There is no
evidence that the social breeding of the British herring-gull
is regulated by food-supply.

7. A grouse could “ control its emanations ” by pulling its

feathers close. The author’s remark, “as far as we know
birds have no sense of smell,” may be a little too sweeping,
but you would be hard put to find any critical research
demonstrating that birds have a sense of smell.

8. The chart (not graph) on p. 127 is not surrealist, and the reality

which it demonstrates is perfectly clear. Your other remarks
about deer show that you confuse sensitivity with wildness.

You end your review, “ I feel merciless only towards those (the
editors) who dared to say that ‘ every care has been taken. . . ”

To this we reply that you have strained the quality of mercy and
betrayed your extolment of care.

Yours faithfully,

(Signed) Frank Darling
James Fisher
Julian Huxley
John Gilmour
L. Dudley Stamp

London, 25 th June 1948. Eric Hosking

[I have withheld publication of this letter, which was received on
30th August 1948, during a long correspondence between the
signatories and myself. I deeply regret that they should regard my
review as unfair, either because it makes little mention of the ideas
in the book or because of the manner in which it was written.

62

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

I do, however, reaffirm the statements of fact contained in it
(Scot. JVat., lx, 59-61), and in particular those which, without
further evidence, are questioned in the numbered paragraphs of this
letter. It is not possible to deal briefly with each, but regarding
No. 2 it is sufficient to point out that peat does not normally form on
steep slopes, or anywhere else where the drainage is good, even in
the West Highlands ; it does form on level moors, old lake beds,
etc., in all parts of the country, including the driest. Poor drainage
appears to be a much more essential requirement than high pre-
cipitation. My observations on arctic peat have been made in
Labrador, the Yukon Territory, and Finnish Lapland.

Referring to No. 7, I founded my statements that birds have a
sense of smell, which may be reduced and retained only for tasting
what they eat, on the fact that they have olfactory nerves leading
to the brain from the sensory surface of the nasal chambers. Critical
treatment and a review of the subject may be found in a valuable
paper by W. G. Walter, which appeared in 1943 in Archives
Neerlandaises de Physiologie, xxvii, 1-73. Though Walter’s experi-
ments on birds’ ability to distinguish odours turned out negative, some
other investigators have obtained positive results, and the subject is
still an open one. As an undoubtedly extreme case, the kiwi is
believed to depend largely on scent for finding its food.

The claim is made in the same paragraph of the letter that a
grouse could control its emanations by pulling its feathers close.
A bird pulls its feathers close when it is active or hot, and fluffs them
out when it is resting or cold ; thereby it regulates the thickness of
the insulating blanket of air held in the interstices of the plumage.
When the feathers are pulled closer the bird emits heat faster, and it
seems impossible to doubt that this would increase the emanation of
scent.— Editor.]

Plate 3. — Sir Hugh Gladstone

OBITUARY

63

0b\tmtp

Sir HUGH GLADSTONE
1878 - 1949

THE death of Hugh Steuart Gladstone at his home at Capenoch in the
county of Dumfries on 5th April 1949 robs British, and more particularly
Scottish, ornithology of one of its outstanding figures. His long association
with The Scottish Naturalist , where his name featured so regularly as a
contributor and so long as an assistant to the editor, may serve as an excuse
for writing a personal rather than a formal notice of his life.

Gladstone was the only son, and, as his sisters were a dozen years his
senior, in some ways almost an only child, of Samuel Steuart Gladstone,
sometime Governor of the Bank of England, and Sophia Musgrave,
daughter of the tenth Baronet of Edenhall. He was thus the heir to the
two most vital influences of the nineteenth century, his father being a
member of a junior branch of the great trading and merchanting family
that gave Britain one of her best-remembered Premiers, and his mother
inheriting the traditions of a more ancient lineage. Educated at Eton
and Trinity Hall, Cambridge, he reached manhood in an atmosphere of
wealth, privilege, and security that died with the end of the Edwardian
era. After serving with the local militia in the South African War and
enjoying a couple of sporting trips to India and East Africa in the early
years of the century, he married Cecil, daughter of Gustavus Talbot, M.P.
for Hemel Hempstead, by whom along with three sons and one daughter
he is survived, and settled down to a happy life on his Dumfriesshire
property. Here through the bewildering changes he “ carried on ” (a
favourite expression), an unrepentant Edwardian, who regarded the first
fourteen years of the century as the years of normalcy.

A great deal of his time and energy was devoted to local affairs, and
he strove tirelessly to advance the interests of his beloved Dumfriesshire
through the years in the ceaseless, tiresome, and utterly unrewarding work
that is local government. His outstanding services in this sphere — he was
for sixteen years Convener of the County, a chairman of the County Councils
Association of Scotland, and a member of many departmental committees
and the like — was rewarded by a knighthood and his appointment as Lord
Lieutenant of the County, honours he greatly merited and greatly enjoyed.

It is Gladstone as a Scottish Naturalist, however, that must be the
main theme of this notice. Here his interests were confined to birds and
to certain well-defined areas even within this limited field. He was not,
nor did he claim to be, a field naturalist of any great competence, but
rather his interests lay along the four lines of shooter, protectionist, biblio-
phile, and local chronicler.

As a game shot he was not only a first-class performer — and here I must
record that as recently as Octobef 1948, at the age of 70 and with the signs

64

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 6 1

of his fatal illness already plainly noticeable, I saw him kill twenty-one head
of driven game with twenty-four cartridges — but he had an intimate know-
ledge of all matters appertaining to the management of game.

As a protectionist his approach was legalistic rather than that of a
conservationist, but to the cause of bird protection he was able to render
very great services by the wisdom, experience, and tact that he brought to
the many committees he adorned, whether Scottish, British, or International.

In that strange half-world where ornithology and antiquarianism mingle,
his knowledge was probably unsurpassed by anyone alive to-day. The
Capenoch library of books on British birds is, within the limits he set,
as complete and perfect as any ever likely to be formed, and certainly the
finest in private hands to-day. Nearly every one of the 2,000 books (titles
not volumes) is in perfect condition and contains an autograph of the
author and notes by H. S. G. always informative and often both amusing
and pungent.

As a local chronicler he was thorough and tireless. Although the
Birds of Dumfriesshire was published as long ago as 1910 it still remains
one of the most outstanding of our local avifaunas, which is all the more
remarkable when it is remembered that field work was really no part of
Sir Hugh’s equipment. The Birds of Dumfriesshire was kept up to date
by a supplement in 1923 and later papers in the Transactions of the
Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society—
a society of which he was President for many years.

Such then is a brief outline of the life and interests of Sir Hugh Gladstone.
Let us give one last look at the man himself : a tall, spare, slightly stooping
but very distinguished figure in an old green shooting suit (doubtless his
suits were sometimes new, but they always had a well-worn look), wearing
a tie that pronounced him to be either a former pupil of Eton College or a
present member of the Marylebone Cricket Club, two institutions he
regarded with an affection almost amounting to reverence : a man carrying
on with his diverse and often exacting public duties in times that were
very strange and not a little distasteful to him : lonely, in the latter years
of domestic sorrow and in the final months of distressing illness, he kept
on to the end courteous, kindly, cultured and lovable — a country gentleman
in the true tradition of Elwes, of the Gurneys, of Herbert Maxwell.

Sir Hugh Gladstone may not have been a great man ; he was a greater
than most of us will be privileged to know again.

A. B. D.

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CONTENTS

PAGE

Stalked Barnacles on the Shores of the British Isles— James F.

Anton . . . . . . -65

Notes on the Caaing Whale — Kenneth Williamson . . 68

The Breeding of the Heron in the Outefc Hebrides— James W.

Campbell . . . . . -73

The Appearance and Disappearance of the House-sparrow as a

Breeding Species on the Isle of May — H . F. D. Elder . 101

“ The Boreo-British Coleoptera. A study of the faunistical
connections between the British Isles and Scandinavia ”

(Carl H. Lindroth) — K. G. Blair . . . .104

“ Neuroptera ” and some Lepidoptera from Argyll and West

Inverness — C. Ethel Evans . . . . . .112

• i*5

Zoological Notes .

The Scottish Naturalist

Volume 61, No. 2 Summer 1949

STALKED BARNACLES ON THE SHORES OF
THE BRITISH ISLES

James F. Anton
Bridge of Cally, Perthshire

On 28th June 1938 I was “ birding ” in one of the wildest
parts of Tiree, near Craignish Point, when my attention was
drawn to a very large batten of wood cast up by the sea. With
other flotsam and jetsam, the log lay above high-water mark
in a gully below the rocky headland.

Examination showed some areas of the log to be closely
covered with stalked barnacles, Lepas anatifera. Other parts
appeared to have been rubbed clean of them by contact with
the sea bottom or rocks, prior to the log being cast ashore.
Unfortunately all the barnacles were lifeless and partially
dried up through exposure to sun and wind, and were con-
sequently of no value for biological purposes.

There appears to be ^ good deal about the life-history of
this barnacle which remains rather obscure, but it seems
they only arrive on boats or logs which have been at sea for
a long time and are thus not often observed.

I have seen an allied species, Lepas anserifera , attached to
ships put into dry dock for hull cleaning in Malaya and
Sumatra.

A further opportunity of seeing some particularly fine
specimens of Lepas anatifera occurred on 3rd September 1943
while I was on active service with the Royal Navy in Dartmouth,
Devon.

9

0Ec 1 2 1949

66

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

A minesweeping trawler, on duty in the western English
Channel, took in tow a raft, which she brought into harbour.
The raft was handed over to my department for examination
and investigation as to its origin.

It was of a type similar to that carried by Allied merchant
vessels, lashed to the rigging for use in emergency.

Practically the entire under-water surface of the raft was
covered with stalked barnacles of varying size. The Marine
Biological Association Laboratory, Plymouth, were informed,
and a biologist later removed considerable numbers of the
stalked barnacles — identified as Lepas anatifera.

It is possible that the raft may have broken loose from a
ship in rough weather or it may have gone down with a ship
through enemy action, where the lashings would in course of
time rot through, releasing the raft to come to the surface.

The late Dr Stanley Kemp, F.R.S., then Director of the
Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth, forwarded the
following interesting information after he had examined the
specimens of Lepas from the raft at Dartmouth : —

The barnacle is Lepas anatifera , and the specimens are the finest
we have seen. The greatest length hitherto recorded is, so far as
we can discover, 16 inches, but a few of yours reach 19 inches.

It is unfortunately impossible to form any reliable estimate of
the time the raft has been in the water from the size of the barnacles.
There are very few data on the growth-rate of Lepas ; what there are
frequently refer to another species, Lepas anserifera , which, however,
is a very similar form reaching similar dimensions.

I have consulted the British Museum authorities on the matter,
and the only information on rate of growth is as follows : —

(a) A French authority, who measured specimens when just

settled on a hull and again on the return of the ship, gives
the rate of growth (presumably of the head or “ capitulum ”)
as about 1 mm. per day.

(b) A buoy put out in Indian waters on 23rd February and taken

in on 3rd March had Lepas anserifera with capitulum 8 mm.
long.

{c) The s.s. Siboga in the Malay Archipelago was found to have
L. anserifera with capitulum 21 mm. long 40 days after
cleaning. On another occasion specimens 25 mm. long
were found 107 days after cleaning.

1949

STALKED BARNACLES

67

From this very meagre evidence one may guess that 1 mm. per
day is the maximum growth rate, probably attained only in tropical
waters. In temperate seas it would almost certainly be slower, perhaps
1 mm. in 2-4 days.

The Lepas on the raft at Dartmouth have capitula with length
varying from 35-50 mm. and, for the largest, on the above figures
this will represent from 3J-7 months growth — and might easily be
more. I should myself be inclined to put the time at 6-8 months,
but as you will see it is only a matter of guesswork and quite impossible
to arrive at any accurate figure.

We made careful search for other organisms which might afford
better clues, but were unsuccessful.

Turning up data on drift in the North Atlantic we find that a derelict
ship did the full distance, arriving off the north of Scotland, in 10
months. This ship probably moved faster than your raft, as it would
have presented a better surface to the westerly winds ; but the course,
which is plotted, shows some setbacks during spells of easterly winds. —
Excerpt from Dr Stanley Kemp’s letter , 7 th September 1943.

68

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

NOTES ON THE CAAING WHALE

■

Kenneth Williamson
Fair Isle Bird Observatory

These miscellaneous notes on the caaing whale, Globicephala
melaena Traill, and the communal whale-hunting of the
Faeroe islanders are supplementary to the full accounts of this
aspect of Faeroe life which have already appeared (Williamson,
1945 and 1948).

During the last week of July 1947 no less than three big
whale-hunts, in which more than a thousand caaing whales
were killed, took place in the Faeroes. I witnessed two of
these, the first at the capital, Torshavn, on 23rd July, when
some 250 whales were converted into rather more than five
kilos of meat for each of some 6,000 people ; and another at
Nordhratgoa, Eysturoy, embracing about 500 whales, on
26th July. On the day after the Torshavn grind the island of
Sudhuroy had its turn, 450 whales being driven ashore at the
head of Trongisvagsfjordhur, near the fishing port of Tvoroyri.
The only whale-hunts during 1948 were very minor affairs at
Torshavn (there being insufficient meat for general dis-
tribution) and Klakksvfk on the island of Bordhoy, the latter
taking place in the autumn.

A novel feature of the 1947 grind at Torshavn was that,
for the first time in the history of Faeroe whaling, a mobile
crane was used to haul the mammals out of the water and
deposit them on the quay. At the head of the harbour, where
there was plenty of room for manoeuvring in an open space
at the end of the main street, a tractor and wire hawser did
the work of the crane. This mechanisation is not without a
sociological significance, besides being a sign of the Faeroe-
man’s desire to keep abreast of the times, for in warm weather
the whales decompose quickly, and the new saving in time
and manpower assures that distribution will be completed
whilst the meat is fresh.

As little seems to have been recorded on the colour of the

Picture Post (reproduced by permission)

Plate 4. — 'Newly-born Caaing Whale on the quay at Torshavn, Faeroe Islands.

23rd July 1947.

1949

NOTES ON THE CAAING WHALE

69

eye and mouth in the various species, it is perhaps worth while
putting on record a few observations made at Torshavn on
the day of this hunt. In the eye of the caaing whale the
sclerotic area is pinkish-white, the pupil is bright green, and
the hazel-brown iris is lightly flecked with black. There is
no eyelid, but there are small pleats in the skin above and
below the eye, as shown in Fig. 1, which facilitate opening
and closing. The interior of the mouth appears to be entirely
black except for the tongue, which is dark flesh-colour, but
these features were difficult to examine properly as rigor mortis
had rendered the jaws practically immovable.

The flipper is quite noticeably angled on the anterior
margin (Fig. 3 and Plate 5), and not an even curve as is
shown in the plate of the young caaing whale prepared for
Professor Murie’s classic paper. The characteristic form, long
and narrow, of this flipper in the adult is in marked and
interesting contrast with the rounded, spatulate shape seen in
the newly-born young (Plate 4), and which may well be the
primitive form in Globicephala , as it more nearly approximates
to the form of the flipper in the allied killer, Orcinus orca (L.),
and false killer, Pseudorca crassidens (Owen).

The distribution of the white or greyish-white area on the
ventral surface is well seen in Plate 5 (indicated also in Fig. 3) ;
this is individually variable in extent, but substantially the
pattern was the same in all cases, and fairly consistently so
on the underside of the head. The greyish-white is sharply
delimited in this region, but this is not so between the flippers
and on the belly, along which the whitish band extends
irregularly as far as the ventral groove.

Practically all the beasts had groups of several whitish
lines, either straight or curved, running closely parallel to
each other, conforming to no set pattern and quite unequally
distributed on various parts of the body. Professor Flower’s
plate of Grampus griseus Cuv., and the reproduction of it
in Millais’ work, show these picturesque groups of markings
well ; they are at least as numerous and as diverse on most
caaing whales, and I incline to the view that they are deep
scratches caused by the teeth of other whales during fighting.
The region around the mouth, in all the specimens examined,
was pitted with the sucker-marks of the cuttlefish on which

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these animals feed. Ectoparasites were looked for, but none
was found.

Morphology now becomes the handmaid of folklore !
Whilst I was making notes on the whales I was told by a

Figs. 1-3.— Details of Caaing Whale.

Faeroese that there are two kinds of caaing whale — one with
a high, pointed dorsal fin (an example of which is to be seen
on the left-hand side of Plate 5), and the other with a markedly
falcate dorsal fin, wider at the base. There is certainly a
good deal of variation in the shape of this fin, and although

Picture Post (reproduced by permission)

Plate 5. — The Metingarmenn measuring and valuing a Caaing Whale,
Torshavn, Faeroe Islands.

1949

NOTES ON THE CAAING WHALE

7i

two types (Fig. 2, A and B) are broadly recognisable it is
not always easy to say to which type a particular individual
belongs. On pursuing inquiries, I found that discrimination
between the two among the grindamenn is quite general,
and that type B with the breidhahorn (“ wide horn ”) is said
to occur sometimes in homogeneous schools. It is reputed
to be more nervous and lively than type A, and when the
school consists wholly or largely of breidhahorn whales it is
very difficult to drive, and not infrequently eludes the hunters.
This belief, implying a physiological difference correlated
with the morphological one, is most interesting, and the
Faeroeman’s very extensive experience of these mammals
demands that serious attention should be paid to this item of
local lore.

There do not appear to be any other morphological dis-
tinctions, nor is the difference one of sex. Some consider
that it is due to age as the majority of the breidhahorn type are
large mammals, and therefore presumably older than the
others ; but it is interesting to note that in two cases I found
big females with the wide falcate fin, to whose bodies foetuses
having the same type of fin in miniature were still attached
by the umbilical cord. These young were prematurely born,
as they often are, when their dams were dying.

Dr Francis C. Fraser, to whom these miscellaneous notes
were submitted, has sent me his own notes on the shape of
the dorsal fin in members of a school of tropical caaing whales
which he watched near the Cape Verde Islands in 1946.
He recorded that “ there was great variation in the shape of
the dorsal fin. All those seen were falcate, but the hinder
concavity was relatively shallow in some, whilst in others it
approximated to the semicircular. The larger animals had
the more pronouncedly falcate shape.”

Plate 5 shows the metingarmenn , who are appointed by
the district officer to measure and value the whales, at work
on the Torshavn quay, attended by the sheriff’s officer, who
records their observations. Noteworthy features of the foetus
shown in Plate 4 are the short, rounded flipper and falcate
dorsal fin (already mentioned), the semicircular blow-hole, and
the prominent “ beak.”

My thanks are due to my father-in-law, Hr. Niels C. Rein,

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of Torshavn, for help in pursuing these inquiries ; Dr Francis C.
Fraser of the Department of Zoology, British Museum (Natural
History), for reading these notes in typescript and allowing
me to quote his own observations ; and to the magazine
Picture Post for their kindness in permitting the use of photo-
graphs taken by their staff photographer, Mr R. S. Kleboe, as
Plates 4 and 5 .

FLOWER, Prof. W. H., 1874. “ On Risso’s Dolphin, Grampus griseus

Cuv.,” Trans. Zool. Soc. London , pp. 1-21, pi. 1.

Millais, J. G., 1906. The Mammals of Great Britain , Vol. 3. London.

Murie, Prof. J., 1874. “ On the Organisation of the Caaing Whale,”

Trans. Zool. Soc. London , 235-301, pi. 30.

WILLIAMSON, K., 1945. “ The Economic and Ethnological Importance

of the Caaing Whale, Globicephala melaena Traill, in the Faeroe
Islands,” North-west. Nat., 20, 118-136, pis. 7-9.

Williamson, K., 1948. The Atlantic Islands. London.

The following item should be added to the literature of this fascinating
aspect of whaling : —

Greg, Edward Hyde., 1855. A Narrative of the Cruise of the Yacht
Maria among the Feroe Islands in 1854. London.

This work, for a copy of which I am indebted to Colonel Alexander
Greg of Westmill, Buntingford, Herts, and which was privately printed,
contains a vivid eye-witness account of a whale-hunt at Vestmanna, in the
north of Streymoy, and a fine coloured plate.

1949

THE BREEDING OF THE HERON

73

THE BREEDING OF THE HERON IN THE
OUTER HEBRIDES

James W. Campbell
Strathtay, Perthshire

Introduction. — During the sixty years which have elapsed
since the publication of Harvie-Brown and Buckley’s
A Vertebrate Fauna of the Outer Hebrides there have naturally
been changes in the status and distribution of birds in the
Outer Isles. Some of these, as for example the spread of
the fulmar, Fulmarus glacialis , have been fully investigated
and recorded, but a few have passed almost unnoticed. It
was evident on my first visit to the Islands in 1932 that there
had been a remarkable change in the status of the heron,
Ardea cinerea. The earlier writers were unanimous that
the heron, although abundant at all seasons, did not breed
in the Outer Isles, and Harvie-Brown knew of no record
when his book was published in 1888. It was 1902 before the
first authentic breeding record was obtained, yet by 1932 the
heron was well-established as a breeding species and colonisation
was still proceeding. This change seemed worth investigating
and, therefore, from 1932 to 1939 an attempt was made to
trace and visit as many of the nesting sites as possible. It
had been hoped to carry out a complete census, but unfortunately
this proved impossible owing to the outbreak of war.

Some data obtained since 1939 are included in these notes.

PAST History.— The following is a summary of references
in ornithological literature to the breeding of the heron in the
Outer Hebrides

In 1902 a pair of herons bred for the first time on the west
side of Lewis near the Harris march. This is the first record
of breeding in the Outer Hebrides. In 1903 there was again
a single nest in the same spot, but it was disturbed, and in

1904 two pairs nested in a fresh place farther inland. In

1905 and 1906 there were three nests at the same site (A .S.N.H.,
1907, p. 81). During the next few years this heronry, which

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was at the Tarsnig rock above Loch Resort, at the west end
of the Lewis-Harris march, increased “ to a fair size,” but
in 1910' ravens took possession of the rock and devoured the
herons’ eggs. Since then no herons bred on the Tarsnig,
although some still nested on other rocks near the Lewis-Harris
march (A .S .N.H ., 1912, p. 21).

In 1903 Richard Kearton is reported to have seen a heron
sitting on its nest in North Uist (A .S .N.H ., 1904, p. 57).
This, at the time of publication (1904), was the first good
record of nesting in the Outer Hebrides. In 1910 two pairs
nested in the tops of some fir trees to the south-west of
Stornoway Castle gardens. There were young in the nest
when found, but they were killed before they could fly, and
it was stated that the nests appeared not to have been used
since (A .S.N.H., 1912, p. 185).

In 1912 a nest was found in a tall larch in Stornoway Castle
grounds; three young were successfully reared. It was
reported that a nest was found in the same place ” five years
ago,” i.e.j in 1907 (A .S.N.H., 1912, p. 21 1). No information
additional to that already summarised above is given in a
paper on Scottish heronries by H. Boyd Watt published in
1914 (A .S.N.H., 1914, pp. 112-115). One reference to the
early breeding of the heron in North Uist seems to have been
overlooked by ornithologists. On page 16 1 of Erskine
Beveridge’s North Uist, its Archceology and Topography ,
published in 1911, it is stated that Dun Ban (in Loch Hunder,
which lies some two miles south of Lochmaddy village at the
foot of North and South Lee) ”... serves as a nesting place
for herons, being evidently regarded as a secure retreat free
from any intrusion.” The large photograph of this dun
(between pp. 1 60-161) shows several herons’ nests and changes
in the vegetation characteristic of those caused by nesting
herons. It is probable that this was the site where Kearton
saw his nesting bird.

In 1918 F. S. Beveridge in an account of the birds of North
Uist includes the heron as a breeding species, stating that
” a few pairs nest in the vicinity of Loch Eport, but there are
no heronries in the Island ” (A .S.N.H., 1918, pp. 253-254).

The ” Report on the British Birds Census of Heronries,
1928 ” {Brit. Birds , 22) contains the following references to

1949

THE BREEDING OF THE HERON

75

breeding in the Outer Hebrides: page 343, “ . . . while in
South Uist where the herons only settled in 1922 . . ;

page 352), “ . . .on North Uist where they have only bred
in recent years there has always been a large non-breeding
stock and still is ; on South Uist there are about fifty non-
breeders against eighteen breeding pairs ” ; page 353, “At
Ronay Island, North Uist, a new-laid egg was found by about
February 17th.’’

In the “ Supplementary Report ” {Brit. Birds , 23,
page 335), “A small heronry on South Uist visited by Mr
W. A. S. Lewis on June 30th, 1929, had nests with eggs
c/5 one, c/4 four, and c/3 one. In addition, two nests contained
respectively two and three newly-hatched young and there were
eight ‘ fully-grown young birds.’ ’’

In 1932 Miss Baxter and Miss Rintoul were informed that
herons bred that year for the first time on Wiay, a small island
off Benbecula, and that they first began to breed in South Uist
“ about seven years ago and now nest there in two places ”
{Scot. Nat., 1932, p. 1 8 1 ) .

Apart from a note of two counts made by me at Wiay in
1936 and 1937 {Scot. Nat., 1937, p. 175), which are referred
to later in detail, no further information on breeding in the
Outer Islands has been traced.

Results of the Present Inquiry. — 1. Breeding Sites in
North Uist.- — {a) Loch an Tomain, one mile east of Eaval.
N. Macphail, Loch Eport, told me in 1938 that herons had
nested beside this loch for at least twenty years and had never
been interfered with. I first visited this extensive colony on
7th July 1937. The nests, which were in three main groups,
were placed on ledges on the rocky cliffs rising from the loch,
in scrub bushes on the cliffs and on an islet in the loch, and
on the ground in long heather. Fifty-one nests were counted
in two of the groups, and it was estimated that the third in a
steep cliff held between twenty and thirty. Another visit was
paid on 27th June 1938, but although a long time was spent
on a count, it again proved impossible to complete it owing
to the rough terrain and the many scattered nests. One
hundred and two nests were counted, and there were at least
twenty or thirty more on an inaccessible cliff. This estimate

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was based on views through field-glasses from the opposite
side of the loch. Fifty-five of the nests counted were on the
cliff site, where it had been estimated that there were between
twenty and thirty in 1937. J. B. Munro and A. G. Bryson
reported (in litt ., December 1937) that they visited a heronry
of “ perhaps fifty nests ” in this district in 1934. Subsequent
checking showed that this observation referred at least to part
of this scattered colony.

( b ) Loch Crogavat, one mile north of Loch an Tomain.
N. Macphail, Loch Eport, informed me on 27th June 1938
that at least fifty to sixty pairs had nested on an island at
the extreme north-east part of this loch for “ the last five or
six years.”

(c) Cliasay More and Cliasay Beg, one and a half miles
north-north-east of Lochmaddy pier. The nesting of herons
on these islets in Loch Maddy was first reported by Dr A. J.
MacLeod. It is thought that there was a single nest on Cliasay
More for some years before 1939. By 1947 there were not
less than twenty pairs, and another islet in the same group
was first occupied that year.

(d) Loch Iosal an Duin, one and a half miles east of Newton
Lodge. First colonised in 1945 when there were fifteen to
twenty nests on the dun. There were twenty-six nests in
1946 and about the same number in 1947. (John MacAskill,
Newton.)

(e) Cliffs midway between Weaver’s Point, Loch Maddy
and the entrance to Bagh Chaise. Herons first bred here in
1945, and again in 1946; no estimate of numbers. (Norman
MacLeod, Lochmaddy.)

(/) Loch an Duin, Breinish, one and three-quarter miles
south-east of Langass. A pair nested successfully in 1935, but
the site was not used again. (N. MacQuarrie.)

(g) The Island of Ronay (part of North Uist Parish). The
presence of a heronry on Ronay is mentioned in the “Report on
the British Birds Census of Heronries” (Brit. Birds , p. 353).
W. B. Alexander tells me that on a map of Scottish nesting
sites, filed at the Edward Grey Institute with the 1928 schedules,
Ronay is marked as a site with over twenty nests ; no other site
is marked in North Uist.

1949

THE BREEDING OF THE HERON

77

A Stornoway

I

Cliasay More & Cliasay

R

Wiay Beg

B Loch Resort

Beg

S

Loch Dubh Fhalasgaidh

C Loch Claidh

J ? Loch Fada

T

Wiay

D River Meavaig

K

Loch an Duin, Breinish

U

Loch Druid ibeg

E ? Soay

L

Loch Hunder

V

Loch Bein

F ? Luskentyre

M

Loch Crogovat

W

Allt Volagir

G Loch Iosal an Duin

N

Loch an Tomain

X

Loch Coragrimsaig

H Cliffs between Weaver’s

O

Ronay

Y

Loch Marulaig

Point & Bagh Chaise

P

Dubh Loch

Z

Bishop’s Lagoon, Gighay-

Q

Loch nam Fennag

Hellisay

A Breeding sites of the heron

Fig i.— Map showing breeding sites of the heron, Ardea cinerea , in the Outer

Hebrides

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Vo/. 61

Angus MacAskill kindly visited this heronry for me in
July 1938, and counted forty nests in several scattered groups.
They were built in long heather and bracken on cliffs rising
from fresh-water lochs and from the sea. The shepherd on
Ronay stated that herons first bred here in 191 5 ; he remembered
the year well because he was of opinion that the bombardment
on the Continent had frightened the herons over to the island.
Since the original colonisation the birds have moved about
quite a lot, breeding at several different places on the island.
He said that they were on the increase, although there were
not so many nests in 1938 as there had been in past years.
The late Andrew Mackinnon told me that he had seen eggs
which had been taken on Ronay in 1918. In 1945 the colony
was reported to be thriving.

( h ) Loch Fada, three miles north-west of Lochmaddy pier.
Herons were reported to be nesting on an islet in 1947, but
this has not been confirmed.

2. Breeding Sites in Benbecula. — (a) Island of Wiay, five
and a half miles south-east of Rueval. Neil Monk, a native
of Wiay, says that herons first bred here in 1929 or 1930.
The late Andrew Mackinnon confirmed these dates, which
are two or three years earlier than that reported to Miss Baxter
and Miss Rintoul {Scot. Nat., 1932, p. 181). There were
about six pairs. I have visited this colony on many occasions
since 1933, and have made three complete counts — forty-seven
nests on 3rd June 1936, forty-five nests on 27th May 1937, and
thirty- four nests on 2nd June 1938. Forty nests were reported
in 1934. My last visit was on 30th July 1947, when it was
estimated that there were quite as many nests as previously.
It was impossible to count the nests as there was no boat for
the loch. The nests are placed in scrub and on the ground in
long heather, on the islets in Loch na Beiste.

( b ) Dubh Loch, half a mile north-east of Rueval. Three
pairs first bred in scrub on an islet in this loch in 1933, and
a few pairs were reported breeding each year up to 1938 (late
Andrew Mackinnon). One pair was still breeding at this site
in 1947 (D. J. Mackinnon).

(c) Loch nam Fennag, one mile south of Rueval. There
was one nest in 1935, and the site seems to have been occupied

1949

THE BREEDING OF THE HERON

79

by one pair up to and including 1938, but there is no recent
information (D. J. Mackinnon).

(d) Island of Wiay Beg, two and a half miles east of Rueval.
One pair bred in 1938 ; there is no subsequent information.

(e) Loch Dubh Fhalasgaidh, three miles south-east of
Rueval. In 1946 D. J. Mackinnon found a new heronry at
this loch. Twelve dozen eggs were counted here that year.
In 1947 the site was still being used, but the nests were not quite
so numerous.

3. Breeding Sites in South Uist .- — (a) Loch Bein, one mile
south-east of Loch Skipport pier. John Macdonald informed
me in 1938 that this was the first site occupied by herons in
South Uist. This was “ soon after the 1914-1918 War,” and
there have always been a few nests here since, although the
herons have been kept in check. Formerly there were up to
twenty nests, but in 1938 there were only six. G. W. Sandeman
and A. G. Bryson, who visited the colony on 8th July 1932,
estimated that there were about twelve nests. E. Mackintosh
told me in 1947 that the heronry was still in existence, although
not as strong as formerly. In July 1947, when Miss Mary
Henderson visited it, five birds were disturbed from the islet,
where there were signs of at least one nest.

(b) Loch Druidibeg, Grogarry. It appears that herons first
bred here in 1922. In 1927 Hon. G. L. Charteris counted
twenty nests in bushes and stunted trees on the islets, but a
number of breeding birds had already been destroyed. W. B.
Alexander informs me that the eighteen nests for South Uist
included in the 1928 census, referred to the Druidibeg colony,
and that it was reported as having been founded in 1922.

L. S. V. Venables found twelve occupied and seven empty
nests on 29th June 1929 at Druidibeg, ”... I think the only
heronry on the island.” In 1935 R was reported to W. B.
Alexander that there were only two nests left at the old site,
and that the herons had scattered. In 1938 John Macdonald
told me that there were then still five nests at the original site,
but that they had been “ attended to.” He estimated the
largest number of nests ever at Druidibeg as about eighteen.

In spite of persistent persecution, herons still attempt to
breed here (J. McColl, 1945 ; E. Mackintosh, 1947).

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( c ) Allt Volagir, one mile south of Beinn Mhor. Herons
first bred here in 1932 or 1933. There were then six nests
in the long heather and scrub on the steep escarpment above
the burn. I have read an account in a periodical of the
discovery of this site, but have failed since to trace the reference.
The site is said to have been occupied every year up to 1938,
when there were fourteen nests which were destroyed (E.
Mackintosh). I visited the ravine in July 1947, but found only
remnants of four or five old nests in the long heather, and the
site had certainly not been used for some years.

( d ) Loch Marulaig, one mile south-east of Lochboisdale
pier. In 1936 Mrs R. A. Chrystal found herons breeding in
the scrub on the islets in this loch. When I visited it on 14th
June 1938 there were seventeen or eighteen nests ; there was
no boat, so the count had to be made through field glasses
from the shore. At least thirteen nests were occupied. It
was evident from the condition of the scrub that the site had
been used for several seasons, although prior to 1936 its
existence was quite unknown. E. Mackintosh reported that
the site was still occupied in 1947.

( e ) Loch Coragrimsaig, one mile north of Lochboisdale
pier. Herons first bred on a scrub-covered islet at this loch
in 1938. I visited it on 8th June 1938, but the islet was
inaccessible and difficult to view satisfactorily. There was
one nest at least. Ten days previously six herons had been
flushed from the scrub. In June 1946 Mrs Upton twice flushed
forty from the island when the heronry was reported to be much
enlarged ; twenty-three were disturbed from nests in 1947.

4. Breeding Sites in Barra. — Bishop’s Lagoon, between
the islands of Gighay and Hellisay. In August 1945 James
Ferguson-Lees discovered a nesting colony on the rocks
surrounding the “ lagoon ” between these two islands. The
nests were placed in hollows between rocks close to the water.
It is thought that there were at least thirty pairs. Ferguson-
Lees could obtain no information locally about the date of
colonisation, other than the vague statement that the heronry
had been in existence for “ quite a long time.”

5. Breeding Sites in Harris . — Information on breeding in

1949

THE BREEDING OF THE HERON

81

Harris during recent years is somewhat meagre and unsatis-
factory; the position needs further investigation. Prior to
1940 I explored much of North and South Harris, especially
for heronries, with no success, but the following reports of
nesting were obtained : —

(a) South Harris. Macdonald, head stalker at Amhuinn-
suidhe, told me in 1939 that herons had bred for some years past
on rock ledges near the sea below the Bay of Luskentyre.

(&) North Harris. Macdonald stated in 1939 that five or
six pairs had nested, for at least seventy or eighty years, as
far as he could ascertain, on rock ledges at Taran More and
Taran Beg on the Harris side of the entrance to Loch Resort.
This information is of special interest as it was in the neigh-
bourhood of Loch Resort that the first authentic record of
breeding in the Outer Islands was obtained by N. B. Kinnear.

Breeding is also reported to have taken place occasionally
on the Island of Soay (? Beg or More), which lies north of
Taransay at the entrance to West Loch, Tarbert. The keeper
at Tolmachan had only once seen a nest — a single one built
in a bush, by a pool near the River Meavaig in 1936.

The above information was obtained verbally in August
1939, but unfortunately commitments elsewhere immediately
afterwards prevented any follow-up. James Fisher (1948) tells
me that he has no knowledge of any Harris colonies.

6. Breeding Sites in Lewis. — Loch Claidh, a sea loch
east of Loch Seaforth. T. B. Macaulay, Stornoway, saw
three nests “ about 1933 ” built in rowan bushes on the side
of the loch. In 1942 W. Taunton heard that there was a small
heronry on one of the sea lochs on the east coast of Lewis near
the Lewis-Harris march. It seems probable that this refers
to the above site. In July 1938 when I was at Morsgail,
Ferguson, the keeper, told me that none had ever bred on
his ground ; he was born in the district. An assistant of his,
however, remembered that they had bred at Loch Resort in
Harris. All other information for Lewis is negative, and
exploration of large tracts of country throughout the island
has also failed to discover further breeding colonies. T. B.
Macaulay and John Morrison in 1939 knew of no breeding at
Stornoway other than that recorded in The Annals of Scottish

11

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THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

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Natural History for 1912. In 1949 James Matheson told me
that a pair attempted to breed in 1938 near the rookery in the
castle grounds. Eggs were laid, but the nest was robbed
“ by boys.”

Situation of Breeding Colonies— These heronries are
situated in rough, rocky moorland which is nowadays remote
from human habitation and rarely visited. It is very different
country from the fertile west coast machair with its many
townships and easy communications. To one unaccustomed
to Outer Hebridean conditions, the description “ one and a
half miles north-north-east of Lochmaddy pier ” or “ one
mile north of Lochboisdale pier ” does not, perhaps, imply
a high degree of remoteness or inaccessibility, but in the
Islands there is often a vast difference between the distance
as flown direct by the hoodie and that involved in a journey
to the same spot on foot. Several heronries are on lesser
islands- — Ronay, Wiay, and between Gighay and Hellisay.
Those on Cliasay More and Beg are protected by the tidal
channels of Loch Maddy, while the colonies at Loch an Tomain
and Loch Crogavat are tucked away beside the Minch coast,
with ramifications of sea and loch protecting them from
the west.

The Outer Hebridean herons show a definite preference for
nesting in such woodland as still exists. The native scrub
woodland that has survived the widespread heather burnings
is confined to those places that could not be reached by
the fires — to islets on lochs, to cliffs and escarpments, or beside
burns and wet places. The islets in the lochs hold the largest
quantity of scrub at the present day, and it is here that the
colonies have been founded in nearly every case. The protection
afforded by a water barrier, in country where boats are just
about non-existent, has been important. Only Loch Druidibeg,
which incidentally laps the keeper’s house, has a boat and the
herons have suffered accordingly. The scrub woodland beside
the Allt Volagir near the head of Loch Eynort is protected
only by its remoteness ; there is no water barrier and one
could walk straight into the nests, so it is not surprising that
the heronry, probably founded by birds driven off Druidibeg,
was soon extirpated. There is no mention of scrub at the

THE BREEDING OF THE HERON

83

j !949

Barra colony, or at the cliff site between Weaver’s Point and
Chaise Bay which has not been investigated, nor apparently
is it now used at Ronay, although in the past some was occupied.

None of the man-made plantations or woodlands has been
successfully colonised. The nesting in the Stornoway woods
soon petered out ; apparently there have been no recent
attempts. Proximity to roads and habitations with their
interference are probably partly responsible, although on the
mainland herons successfully occupy sites subject to far greater
disturbance.

SITUATION OF Nests. — Initially there is a preference for
scrub. Rowan and willow are now the most abundant of the
native trees, and rowan is by far the most popular with the
herons ; it grows several feet taller than the average willow,
but even so I have found no scrub nests higher than six feet
from the ground, for this is about the greatest height reached
by rowans on these wind-torn islets. At Wiay in 1936, out of
a total of forty-seven nests, all were built in rowans ; in 1937
forty-two were in rowans, one in willow, and two on the
ground ; in 1938 thirty-two were in rowans, one in willow, and
one on the ground. Aspen, which is confined more to rocky
outcrops and cliffs, is used at Loch an Tomain, and one nest
there in 1937 and 1938 was built in a wild rose bush growing
in a rocky face above the water. At Loch an Tomain most
of the nests are placed on the ground in long heather, or on
ledges, or in crevices on the low rocky cliffs rising from the
loch ; only two out of the one hundred and twenty to one hundred
and thirty nests were placed in islet rowans. At the Bishop’s
Lagoon, between Gighay and Hellisay, Ferguson-Lees found
the nests placed simply in hollows between the rocks close to
the water’s edge.

The fouling caused by the herons’ occupation quickly leads
to the death of the scrub in which the nests are built, but
even when the bushes are quite dead, nests are built in them
as long as lodgment can be found. At Wiay in 1936, twenty
nests (total 47) were in dead rowans ; in 1937, twelve (total 45),
and 1938, nine (total 34), the gradual decline in numbers
being due to the disintegration and collapse of the decayed
bushes.

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At successful colonies the destruction of scrub soon causes
a scarcity of tree sites ; then nests are built on the ground
among long heather, although there is also a well-marked
tendency to spread to fresh scrub areas, if such are available
near at hand. This has been well demonstrated on the islets
at Loch na Beiste, which house the Wiay colony. When the
herons first settled and bred, either in 1929 or 1930, there
were about six pairs which nested together on the most easterly
islet. This, like the others, was covered by thick scrub rowan,
with a fringe of long heather, and a belt of royal fern by the
water side. In November 1933 when I had my first views of
the heronry, the birds had spread to other islets nearby ;
in June 1936, when the first landings were made on the nesting
islets, it was found that besides the original islet (a) three
others (B, C, d), which are the islets nearest to (a), were
occupied. They are some thirty to forty yards apart. The
scrub on islet (a) was quite dead in 1936, and the heather
fringe had gone. The scrub on the other three islets was
healthy.

In May 1937 the scrub on islet (b) was beginning to be
affected, and in June 1938 was decaying. Counts of the nests
for each islet were as follows : —

1936.

1937-

1938.

(A) ...

20

14

9

(B) ...

17

20

14

(C) ...

4

3

4

(D)

6

8

7

On my last visit to Wiay in July 1947 it was impossible
to land on the nesting islets, so observations had to be made
from the shore and no complete count could be carried out.
There appeared, however, to be more nests than in 1938.
Islet (A) held none ; the only sign of scrub was a few rotten
stumps. Islets (b, c, d) were still fully occupied with much
of their scrub still alive. At least two other islets west of (d)
now had nests, the majority built in scrub, with a few on the
ground in long heather.

i 1949

THE BREEDING OF THE HERON

85

The heather also suffers from the proximity of nesting
birds ; eventually it dies out completely. At Loch an Tomain
some ground nests were fully exposed, being separated from
the existing long heather by a zone of some yards of bare
ground, from which the heather had disappeared.

This gradual destruction of their favourite nesting sites,
through the effects of the birds’ occupation, is interesting.
Since the colonisation of the Uists and Benbecula is on quite
a large scale, the ultimate fate of the island scrub, which is
by no means extensive, and the effect which its destruction
might have on the status of the heron in the future, will be
worth watching.

Nests and Nesting Material.— Most of the nests
examined at Wiay and Loch an Tomain were bulky structures.
Many of those on the ground, which from their appearance
had been in use for some years, were quite as big as any I
have seen in normal heronries on the mainland. A few,
however, placed in long heather were decidedly sketchy. The
nesting materials were recorded in detail for the whole Wiay
colony in 1936, 1937, and 1938 (a total of 126 nests). They
were all built of dead “ branches ” of heather, Calluna
vulgaris.

“ Branches,” by the way, gives some indication of the
calibre of the pre-1940 heather produced on the island, so
it is not surprising that Colonel Fielden after his visit to
Wiay in 1870 described that walk as the hardest bit of work
he did in the Isles ( A.S.N.H. , 1902, p. 83).

It was noticed that the dead heather was placed with its
thickest parts at the periphery of the nest. Four nests contained
some dry stems of the previous season’s wild angelica, Angelica
sylvestris ; three had similar withered stalks of foxglove,
Digitalis purpurea. The cups of the nests were composed
of fine wiry heather stems and twigs, and in a few there was
also dead bracken, Pteris aquilina. Some nest cups con-
tained fresh green vegetation reminiscent of the “ decorations ”
found commonly in buzzards’ nests. Three had sprays of the
fern, Dryopteris dilatata ; two, sprays of rowan leaves, Pyrus
aucuparia ; two, strips of the greyish-green lichen, Lobaria
puhnonaria , which grows on the rowan scrub ; one, a large

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bunch of bell heather, Erica cinerea ; and another a long
trailing spray of honeysuckle, Lonicera periclymenum.
Fresh green tufts of moss occurred in several.

There was no opportunity for such detailed examination
of the Loch an Tomain nests, but they were built of dead
heather as at Wiay, and no unusual materials were noted
there or at the other colonies visited. It is worth noting that
although the herons gradually destroy their favourite nesting
sites, their occupation produces a plentiful supply of nesting
materials.

Ferguson-Lees found that the Barra nests were composed
chiefly of heather stems and bits of beach refuse, on a base of
seaweed.

Fertility— Results of Census at Wiay.— On the visits
made to Wiay on 5th June 1936, 27th May 1937, and 2nd June
1938 it was interesting to find how many of the stages in the
breeding cycle were represented. There were empty nests
ready for eggs (except in 1937), nests containing a single
quite fresh egg, and others with clutches at various stages of
incubation. There were young also in all stages, from those
just chipping the shell to some that were full grown and able
to fly as efficiently as their parents.

A complete survey of the nests and their contents at Wiay
was made on each occasion, and the results are given here in
some detail, as there is comparatively little published informa-
tion on heron fertility in Great Britain, and practically none
relating to Scottish heronries. Completely accurate counts
of the young at these Outer Hebridean heronries are just about
impossible, for so many of the birds clamber from their nests
at the first sign of danger and either go into hiding in the
thick scrub and ground vegetation, or escape to the shore or
adjacent islets. On this account the details of clutch size
recorded at Wiay are certainly on the low side, and therefore
it will be unwise to press comparisons too closely with results
made from counts of tree nests, where such leakage does not
arise. The most important data mentioned in the “ British
Birds Census, 1928,” are the examination of sixty-four nests,
in trees, of the colony at Fawley Court, Bucks, containing
228 eggs and young, an average of 3/56 ( Brit . Birds , 22,

1949

THE BREEDING OF THE HERON

87

p. 350). Particulars of other English counts are given
(pp. 350-351), with averages ranging from less than one young
reared per nest to a case, reported in 1887, of above five young
per nest. The only Outer Hebridean example that I have
traced is that given in the “ Supplementary Report on the
British Birds Census of Heronries ” (Brit. Birds , 23,
p. 335) referring to a small heronry in South Uist, visited by
W. A. S. Lewis on 30th June 1929, which had nests with eggs
c/5 one, c/4 four, and c/3 one; two others contained two and
three recently hatched young and there were eight “ fully-
grown young birds.”

Results of Census at Wiay, Benbecula

5 th June
1936.

27th May
1937.

2nd June
1938.

Total new nests .....

47

45

34

Nests with eggs .....

17

12

5

Nests with young .....

16

21

24

Nests with young and eggs

1

7

1

Nests empty but ready for eggs .

3

0

3

Nests recently used .....

10

5

1

Nests, old, unused .....

0

4

1 1

Number of eggs .....

43

45

16

Number of live young ....

61

64

54

Addled eggs ......

1 1

8

2

Young dead in nest .....

0

6

3

Young dead out of nest ....

0

2

2

Estimate of young out of nest —

(a) Able to fly

12

not made

5

(b) Hiding

30

several

Clutch sizes : number of eggs and/or young —

1 .......

3

4

3

2 .......

8

8

14

3

9

9

9

4

12

19

3

5

2

0

1

Average .......

3-05

3-07

2-5

1 In recently used nest.

At Loch an Tomain, North Uist, on 27th June 1938, details
of clutch size were not recorded, but it was noticed that few
nests contained more than two young, while many had only
a single bird. John MacAskill reported a clutch of six eggs

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in a nest at Loch Iosal an Duin, but he was of opinion that
an egg had probably rolled into this nest from an adjacent one.

Behaviour at the Heronry— The herons at Wiay appear
to use the nesting scrub for resting and social purposes outside !
the breeding season, which is interesting, for a similar state
of affairs occurs with other species that breed in colonies.
Thus, on 22nd November 1933, and nth November 1935, I
disturbed thirty or more birds from the islet scrub. On 27th
January 1936 forty to fifty were at their nests ; they were very
loth to leave, flying only a short distance before settling on
the ridge, which is their usual habit when disturbed in the
breeding season. In the breeding season, when disturbed by
man, the adults leave their nests and congregate on the heather
slopes and rocks on this ridge above the loch, some four hundred
yards from the nests, where they are joined by those young
which are capable of full flight. Against the purple-brown of
the hillside the grey beauty of the birds makes a magnificent
picture. The reaction of those young which are not quite
capable of sustained flight is, unless one has experienced it
previously, somewhat unexpected. Flapping and clambering
from their nests or the branches where they have been resting,
they immediately take to the water and swim at considerable
speed, either to neighbouring islets or to the shores of the loch.
When swimming they appear remarkably buoyant and are
perfectly at ease. Their carriage on the water reminds me of
that of an outsize great crested grebe. They swim by powerful
back thrusts of the legs, with no excessive body movements.
The wings are used only for balancing when they touch bottom
or reach shore. Swimming is resorted to by these largest
birds at the first sign of danger, as soon as one tops the skyline
some quarter of a mile from the shore of the loch and comes
within sight of the nests. Some young birds not quite capable
of making a full flight to the shore have been seen to settle
on the water, swim for a while and then rise comfortably from
the loch, and continue their flight. Cases of swimming by
adult herons have been previously recorded, but there appears
to have been no report of this regular swimming by young
birds in Great Britain.

The disturbance-response of the young remaining in the

1949

THE BREEDING OF THE HERON

89

nests varies. The most active and well-developed birds, when
a landing is made on their islet, immediately endeavour to
get out of the nests. Those that succeed clamber over the
scrub, using their wings a lot as extra supports, and sometimes
they become badly entangled in the branches. Some hide
in the ground vegetation below the bushes, and in fissures
among the rocks ; others simply seek cover below the nests,
or in the fabric of ground nests. When all is quiet they start
the journey back. This is often a lengthy business owing
to persistent attempts to get into wrong nests, which are hotly
resented by the rightful occupants. It is curious how even
very small herons in their rightful abode successfully repel
the invasions of much older and far more vigorous and
aggressive birds. Response to danger varies very noticeably,
for some, seemingly as fully developed as those that take
to the water and swim, remain placidly in their nests. The
behaviour of birds remaining in the nests also varies, often
irrespective of age. The most recently hatched huddle together
in the nest, their heads to the centre and covered by their bodies
so that only their backs and rumps are exposed. The youngest
birds keep up a queroulous cheeping “ titer-chitter ” even
when one is standing at their nests. Half-grown and larger
birds tend to crouch flat, quite motionless and silent in the
nest, but others when they are approached strike a threatening
attitude with crest feathers erect and snapping bills, and have
a habit of lunging dangerously. Some often stand bolt
upright in the nest, resting on their tarsi, with necks fully
extended in the manner of a bittern, so that they face the
intruder whom they menace with their bills. There is con-
siderable noise. A very few vomit their stomach contents
when their nests are threatened. I have a note that only three
out of sixty-four young did so in 1937, and four out of fifty-four
in 1938.

RINGING. — Nineteen young birds were ringed at Wiay and
Loch an Tomain. There have been two recoveries of those
ringed in 1937 : one was shot on 2nd October 1937 within

three miles of Kingussie, Inverness-shire, and the other was
found floating in the sea at Stornoway on 12th November
1937. I am indebted to Miss E. P. Leach for this information.

\

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90 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 61

Colour of Soft Parts— The body skin of recently
hatched young is a pale olive-green. The tarsus is the same
colour; in older nestlings it has a distinct yellowish tinge.
Soles of the toes are a pale lemon-yellow. In birds just
hatching, or recently hatched, the lower mandible is pale :
yellow, the upper dullish horn grey. In older birds, up to those
nearly fully fledged, the lower is orange-yellow, varying from
a dull to a gold-orange, and the upper is dull reddish to a very
dark brown horn, almost black. The iris of the youngest
birds is pale lemon ; in full-grown birds it is a bright
yellow-gold.

Food.- — In view of the apprehension which this breeding
of the heron has caused in certain angling circles in the
Islands, efforts were made to obtain evidence of the birds
feeding habits. No pellets were found below the nests, but
seven “ meals ” vomited by nestlings were preserved for
examination. The following were identified : —

Fish. — io eels, Anguilla vulgaris ; 9 wrasse, probably

Labrus bergylta and L. mixtus ; 8 long-spined sea
scorpions, Coitus bubalis ; 6 fifteen-spined sticklebacks,
Spinachia spinachia ; much fish debris, mainly wrasse,
but no salmon or trout.

Crustacea. — Remains of 7 crabs, including a shore crab,
Carcinides maenas , and a swimming crab, ? Portunus
arcuatus ; remains of several prawns, Leander serratus
and Hippolyte sp. ; 19 Amphipoda, Gammarus locusta ,

Hyale nilssoni , Orchestia littorea ; 8 Isopoda, 7 of them
probably Idotea granulosa , and 1 Ligia oceanica.

Diptera. — 2 small Mycetophilid larvae and 1 adult “blue-
bottle ” fly.

Four small pellets of grey fur, a dozen heron feathers,
fragments of moss, fern, heather, dock, Fucus and other
seaweeds, were also present.

I am indebted to the late J. R. Norman and Dr I. Gordon
for the identifications of fish and Crustacea.

Field observations largely support these findings of a
coastal diet. In the Hebrides the majority of herons fish

*949

THE BREEDING OF THE HERON

9i

around the shores, particularly those of the east coast and
the sounds. Only a few use the fresh-water lochs, including,
it is only fair to state, some of the shallows and burns at
spawning times. The heronries are all situated close to large
areas of suitable coastal fishing ground.

Changes in Habitat. — In summer the scrub forms a dense
leafy canopy over the greater part of each islet. This green
dome is fringed by thick rank heather, with a broad belt of
royal fern, Osmunda regalis, between it and the water. The
whole forms a delightful combination of colour, a pleasant
contrast and relief from the prevailing drab browns of the
surrounding moorland.

Underneath the canopy of closely interlaced branches there
is a luxuriant ground vegetation of the “ shade flora ” type,
among which, at Wiay, the wild hyacinth, Scilla nonscripta ,
predominates. By crawling below the scrub one enters a
habitat having in miniature much of the character of mainland
woodland.

There was, unfortunately, no opportunity during the visits
to the heronries for recording details of the effects which the
herons’ occupation was having on the surrounding vegetation,
but briefly the following were noted. The scrub, as previously
mentioned, soon begins to die from the fouling of the birds’
droppings. How soon has not been precisely determined,
and the rate of decay must, of course, depend on a number of
factors. For instance the intensity of occupation is of
importance, a single heron’s nest causing far less fouling,
with consequently slower reaction in the scrub, than that
produced by several nests crowded together in the same area.
There is also the mechanical factor, for the weight of these
packed nests is considerable, so that the accumulation of
several seasons often leads to the collapse of supporting
branches. The age and “ constitution ” of the scrub, as well
as other modifying influences, have also to be considered.

The ground vegetation below the scrub suffers too ; at
Wiay for a time, as the canopy thinned, the hyacinths thrived
exceedingly. In areas where there was no longer any scrub
shade, large patches of sorrel, Rumex acetosa and R. acetosella>
were rampant on the richly manured ground, and there were

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no hyacinths. There was also a mass of sorrel at Loch
Marulaig and Loch an Tomain. In places chickweed, Stellaria
media , was well established, probably introduced by the herring
gulls, Larus argentatus , which use the islets when the scrub
has gone. The foxglove, Digitalis purpurea, normally some-
what local in the Uists, is an early colonist of the open areas
from which scrub, shade flora, and long heather have dis-
appeared. It occurs abundantly now on the Wiay and Loch
Marulaig islets and on the bare patches beside the ground
nests at Loch an Tomain, one group of nests in 1938 being
surrounded by a belt of tall plants in full bloom, a particularly
beautiful setting for herons’ nests. On the mainland of
Scotland foxgloves also appear regularly in moorland areas
that have been cleared of heather by burning. At Loch an
Tomain, one of the nesting cliffs where the heather had died
out was gay with golden rod, Solidago virgaurea. In 1947
views from the shores of Loch na Beiste indicated that the
vegetation on islet (a), first occupied by herons in 1929 or 1930,
now consisted predominantly of “ rough ” grasses.

The whole question — no new discovery, by the way, and
tree-nesting cormorants, rookeries, roosting starlings, and
others provide similar conditions' — is one well worth careful
ecological examination over a period of years.

Relations with Other Species.— The accumulation of
food debris around the nests attracts a few hoodies, Corvus
cornix , especially, I think, recently fledged young which
find that this scavenging provides easier meals than elsewhere
in the heather country. Adults also hang about the colonies,
where I have seen them at times pillaging unguarded nests
as fast as they can without any protest from birds on adjacent
nests. They fly off with a single egg at a time, and do not
eat them at the heronry.

The rotting material below the nests supports a large insect
population, so that a well-established colony, in spite of its
rowan blossom and hyacinths and honeysuckle, is remembered
as a somewhat fly-blown oasis in the heather. Even the
young herons, when the wind drops, have bluebottles crawling
over them. Rats also scavenge below the nests, but, apart,
from the hoodies, vermin does not cause much interference,

1949

THE BREEDING OF THE HERON

93

for there are no foxes, weasels or stoats in the Islands, and
since the shieling custom has died out south of the Sound of
Harris, the nearest sheep dogs which might menace ground
nests are now several miles away.

The young herons at Wiay, when they stray to islets where
the herring gulls breed, are violently mobbed ; swimming
birds provoke particularly vicious attacks, but even so little
damage seems to be done. A pair of great black-backed gulls,
Larus marinus , were nesting on an islet close to the Loch
Marulaig site in June 1938. In the literature, ravens, Corvus
corax , have twice been cited as responsible for disturbing Outer
Hebridean heronries.

In the “ Census Report on Heronries, 1928,” reference is
made to information received from South Uist accusing herons
of driving away geese and duck from the loch (presumably
Druidibeg), and it is stated that several pairs of greylag and
duck used to nest on a certain island, but have not done so
since the herons established themselves there ( Brit . Birds ,
22, p. 343)- While it is unlikely that either species would
nest for choice beneath a well-established group of nests, I
am certain that the presence of the heron colonies constitutes
no serious threat whatever to the breeding stock of geese and
duck in the Outer Isles. Far more greylag and duck have
been saved in the shooting season, through the herons’ readiness
in giving the alarm and thus spoiling wildfowlers’ stalks, than
have ever been “ disturbed ” by them at the nesting season.

Mallard, Anas platyrhyncha , teal, Anas crecca , and
goldeneye, Bucephala clangula , are regularly at Loch na Beiste
during the winter months ; in summer broods of mallard and
red-breasted merganser, Mergus serrator , are reared there, and
a bachelor party of mallard finds it quiet enough as a moulting
retreat. Twite, Carduelis flavirostris , reed bunting, Emberiza
schoeniclus , song thrush, Turdus ericetorum hebridensis ,
stonechat, Saxicola torquata theresae), hedge-sparrow, Prunella
modular is hebridium , and wren, Troglodytes troglodytes
hebridensis , breed beside the loch ; eventually, no doubt,
decay of the scrub and old heather in which they breed may
influence their status, but there is no justification at present
for the destruction of herons on account of disturbance caused
by them to other species.

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Man is the only serious enemy that the heron has in the
Outer Isles, but fortunately it is only in South Uist that much
interference has taken place, although there has been some
egg smashing in Benbecula, including Wiay. Eggs, young
and old birds, have been destroyed in the alleged interest of
angling, but it would have been more reasonable to have
endeavoured to obtain some evidence of excessive destruction
of fish before interfering and dispersing the birds into smaller
groups. There is still no evidence that the heron is having
an adverse effect on angling in the Outer Hebrides. For the
herons’ sake it is worth recording here that Neil Monk, who
was born on Wiay and knows it intimately, assures me that
the fresh-water lochs on the island have never held trout in
his lifetime.

Herons should certainly be prevented from destroying the
scrub at the Allt Volagir in South Uist, for this is the finest
area of native woodland remaining in the Islands, but elsewhere
they should be left alone so that an extremely interesting change
in status can develop naturally.

POPULATION. — Unfortunately recent figures are not available
for all these heronries for any one season, but in 1938 there
were 210-230 occupied nests in North Uist, 37-40 in Benbecula,
and 39 in South Uist. This is a total of 286-309 occupied nests,
in the area of 174,606 acres which constitute the parishes of
North and South Uist, a density of one nest for each 610-565
acres. In the “ Report on the British Birds Census of
Heronries, 1928,” 3,744-3,843 breeding pairs were reported in
the 58,340 square miles of England and Wales. The three
leading counties were Norfolk, 331-35 1 pairs, Somerset, about
273-280, and Sussex, 268-276 pairs, with about 3,856, 3,759,
and 3,428 acres per nest respectively. The Uist figures show a
remarkable concentration, but it should be borne in mind that
the acreage of each of the English counties is far greater
than that for the area under consideration in the Outer
Hebrides, which forms only a small part of the County of
Inverness.

The average size of the Uist heronries in 1938 was 23-25
nests. In the 1928 census it was 54-55 in Sussex, 38 in Dorset,
with the average for England about 14, but only one heronry

THE BREEDING OF THE HERON

95

1949

of over 50 nests was recorded north of a line from Gloucester
to the Humber. The largest heronry contained 135 nests
(Northants), with one of about 112 (Dorset) the next largest.
These figures give an idea of the extent and success of the
herons’ colonisation of the Outer Islands. The concentration
1 of 1 70- 1 90 pairs of herons in the Loch an Tomain-Loch
, Crogavat district in 1938, in an area of two square miles, is
certainly unique for Great Britain.

Evidence obtained since 1945 shows that the expansion
continues. Since 1939, new heronries have been founded in
North Uist (three, possibly four) and Benbecula (one), and a
well-established colony, apparently in existence prior to 1939,
discovered in Barra. There has, to date, been no suggestion
that any colony has been abandoned, except the one at the
Allt Volagir in South Uist, which was unoccupied in 1947
and had obviously not been used for several years.

The intensity of the colonisation of new sites is interesting.
It is not a gradual process, with colonies being built up from
a successful occupation by one or two pairs, but a sudden
invasion by quite large groups, well illustrated most recently
at Loch Iosal an Duin, where fifteen to twenty pairs suddenly
bred for the first time in 1946. The rapid extension of the
colonies that have been established in the Uists, provided
they were not interfered with by man, is also noteworthy.

Factors which may have Influenced the Change in
Status. — Gray, writing in 1871 ( The Birds of the West of
Scotland), describes the heron as abundant throughout the
Outer Hebrides, but not breeding there. He quotes Elwes
as being at a loss to explain this, for the country was in every
way suitable, including many small islets similar to those
used for breeding purposes on the mainland. Incidentally, on
the west coast mainland and some of the Inner Islands,
including Skye, only comparatively short distances away
across the Minch, the heron has for years been a common
breeding species.

Harvie-Brown in 1888 (A Vertebrate Fauna of the Outer
Hebrides) also knew of no breeding record ; curiously he states
that Gray “ is silent as regards its occurrence at any season,"
although in my copy of The Birds of the West of Scotland

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Gray has quite a lot to say on the subject. As has been shown
already, there was no breeding record before 1902, yet by
1939 at least 286-309 pairs were successfully established in
the Outer Hebrides. Kearton’s record, and Erskine Beveridge’s
“ chance ” photograph, show that breeding on a small scale
was taking place in North Uist before 1910. Recently, in
1948, I was privileged to meet the late Hector Mackenzie,
factor of the North Uist Estate for over fifty years, who knew
Kearton well in the Outer Isles. He confirmed the presence
of breeding herons in the Loch Eport area in the period between
the Boer and 1914 Wars, and told me that there was an estate
employee in that district who was in the habit of serving herons,
apparently young birds, for dinner on special occasions.

W. B. Alexander has suggested to me that this breeding
of the heron has been overlooked in the past, but I do not
think this has been the case except for isolated nests or small
groups. Well-established colonies on the present scale would
certainly have left their mark on the surrounding vegation,
and there is no such evidence. The heronries are certainly
situated in remote areas, well off the beat of visiting ornitholo-
gists, but against their being overlooked on this account must
be placed the fact that they lie in areas forming the best wood-
cock ground in the Uists, which was regularly visited on this
account up to 1930 at least, by shooters and keepers, the latter,
by the way, being exceptionally able field observers. The
keepers are agreed that there were no heronries in the Uists
before the 1914 War. It must be admitted, however, that
heronries are very easily overlooked even in districts where
there are plenty of observers, and W. B. Alexander tells me
that there is hardly a county where at least one heronry was
not missed in the 1928 census.

There are, however, two factors which I feel sure have had
an important influence on this change of status. About 1840
evictions took place in the Uists ; the local inhabitants were
removed from the fertile west coast, and their holdings were
incorporated in large farms. Many of the displaced persons
emigrated, but those who chose to remain were compelled
to settle on the poor lands of the east coast and lesser islands.
There was thus a shift of population from west to east. Sub-
sequently the policy was reversed, the large farms being broken

1949

97

THE BREEDING OF THE HERON

up once more into crofts. This started first of all in North
Uist about 1898 and the abandonment of isolated and unprofit-
able holdings on the east coast continued until recent years,

I so that most of the heather country is now deserted and
undisturbed. Briefly the important point is that from 1840
until 1900 there was much disturbance on the east coast;
after 1900, and particularly after 1914, this decreased as the
east coast was abandoned. This depopulation made large
: tracts of otherwise suitable country available for breeding
herons. There was a large non-breeding population of herons
in the Uists able to take advantage of this change provided
they were physiologically fit to do so. The gradual disappear-
ance of the shieling custom also meant less disturbance on the
I east coast. Before the coming of the large farms, the west coast
crofters, after sowing their crops, were accustomed to take
their cattle into the interior of the island, for a few months
each summer, in search of fresh grazing. Here the people
lived in stone and turf bothies close to the hill pasture. There
are still signs of these shielings throughout the east coast and
interior. They persist in the moorland wilderness as pleasant
green places, often with turf of bowling green texture, patches
of yellow iris, and clumps of nettles beside the bothy ruins.
There are also many traces of the cabhuil, the stone dam which
they built in the burns and lochs for taking trout with the
tabh , the splash net, a far more destructive implement, by the
way, than a heron’s bill. The old accounts show that there
was much of the picnic atmosphere about the summer shielings.
There would also be sheepdogs and other disturbing influences
distasteful to ground-nesting herons. The custom had died
out in North Uist by 1902. North of the Sound of Harris
it still lingers. The Uist crofters were also attracted to the
east coast after the spring sowings, for the working of the
kelp shores, until foreign competition and alternative sources
of supply strangled the industry.

In 1922 disaster overtook the heronry situated at Dunvegan
in Skye, which is only some twenty-two miles across the Minch
from North Uist, a gale blowing down the nesting trees. In
1888 Rev. H. A. Macpherson found thirty to forty nests at
this site, but subsequently a remarkable increase occurred,
the total being given as “ now two hundred nests ” in an

U

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THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

article on Scottish heronries by H. Boyd Watt in the Scottish
Naturalist for 1914 (p. 114). W. B. Alexander informs me j
that there were fifteen nests at Dunvegan in 1928, only four to
six in 1936, and two in 1937. In 1937 twenty were also found
at a new site. In 1944 and again in 1945 five nests were i
reported at Dunvegan. It seems very likely that the birds
dispersed from the Dunvegan heronry at a time when much
of the Uist east coast had become suitable for breeding
purposes may have made a substantial contribution to the
colonisation of the Outer Hebrides.

Acknowledgment

I wish to acknowledge my thanks to the numerous
correspondents and others, whose assistance made a com-
pletion of this investigation possible.

Summary

1. Before 1902 there was no record of the heron breeding
in the Outer Hebrides, although it was abundant at all seasons.
Up till 1914 sporadic small-scale breeding had been reported
for Lewis, Harris, and North Uist.

2. In 1915 a successful colony was established on Ronay,
North Uist, and by 1925 there were two colonies in South
Uist. Wiay, Benbecula, was colonised either in 1929 or 1930.
Between 1930 and 1939 more colonies were discovered in
South Uist, Benbecula, and North Uist, and further heronries
have been established there, and a colony discovered in Barra,
since 1940.

3. In Harris and Lewis the position is still obscure, but
no evidence was obtained before 1939 to suggest that colonisa-
tion on anything like the scale of that in the Uists had taken
place.

4. It is suggested that depopulation of the east coast of
the Uists, resulting in a substantial decrease in human dis-
turbance by 1920 and subsequent years, made large areas of
suitable nesting habitat available in close proximity to an
abundant food supply which had always supported a very
large non-breeding population.

1949

THE BREEDING OF THE HERON

99

5. The dispersal in 1922 of the large heronry at Dunvegan,
some twenty-two miles from North Uist, has also probably
been of importance.

6. Details are given of each colony so far as they are
known, of breeding biology, and of changes in habitat produced
by the herons’ occupation.

Addenda

The following information was obtained during a visit to
the Uists and Benbecula in June 1949 : — •

1. New Nesting Sites, (a) South Uist— On 20th June
I found two herons’ nests in scrub willow on an islet in Loch
Drollavat, which lies to the west of Loch Snigisclett. Four
adults were flushed from the scrub, and young were heard
calling from one of the nests. Ewan Macintosh tells me that
none has nested here before.

( b ) North Uist — D. Sadler found a solitary nest, placed
on the ground, on an islet in Loch Obisary, “ a few years ago.”

2. Additional Information on Nesting Sites.
(a) North Uist — '(i) Loch Iosal an Duin — I waded to the dun
on 23rd June, and counted forty-four nests crowded into a
space only a little larger than that occupied by two full-sized
billiard tables. There were eggs and young in various stages
of development, but the majority of the birds were full winged ;
we counted forty-eight “ fliers,” which included a few adults.
Only one young was seen to swim. A few nests were built
in brambles, two or three in clumps of nettles, but the majority
were placed in red-currant bushes which cover the main part
of the islet! The presence of red-currant bushes on this dun,
probably spread by birds from Newton Lodge gardens, is
mentioned by Erskine Beveridge in his book on North Uist,
previously referred to, which was published in 1911. The nest
materials were dead heather and dead red-currant branches.
The rapid increase in nests since this site was first occupied
in 1945 is interesting. A mute swan had successfully hatched
three eggs on the dun and I flushed a red-breasted merganser
from a nest containing nine eggs underneath one of the herons’
nests.

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(ii) Cliasay More and Cliasay Beg — Dr A. J. MacLeod told
me that there were at least eighteen nests on the group in 1948.

(iii) Loch Crogavat — I visited the loch on 22nd June.
Herons were breeding over a wide area of rough country,
and nests were found in scrub — mainly rowan — long heather,
and among rocks at many places round the shores and on
islands. Much of the scrub has died out so that the herons
are now scattered over a wide area, breeding wherever they
can find suitable sites near the loch. It was quite impossible
to make anything approaching a complete count, but seventeen
nests were found from the shore.

(iv) Loch an Tomain — Herons are still breeding numerously,
but there was only time on 22nd June to visit the group of
nests on the “ inaccessible ” cliff previously mentioned.
Twenty- five nests were counted here, and there were probably
others out of sight.

(J?) Benbecula — (i) Dubh Loch — D. Sadler told me that
there were five pairs breeding this year (1949).

(ii) Loch Dubh Fhalasgaidh — I visited the heronry on 16th
June. The nests were built on islets at the south end of the
loch, and at least six islets were occupied. Thirty-two nests
were counted, but it was impossible to reach most of the islets
in order to make a full count. Most of the nests were in rowan
scrub, but six were in willow. The scrub was showing the
usual signs of distress, and some was already quite dead. The
ground vegetation showed characteristic changes. M. Richard-
son, who has visited Benbecula regularly for angling during
the last twenty-one years, told me that he explored some of
the islets at this loch in 1947 ; he has kindly sent me photo-
graphs of the nests which show perfectly healthy scrub. It
was refreshing to hear his views as an angler, that the heron
far from interfering seriously with the trout fishing is probably
improving it in many lochs. His detailed fishing records show
that there is still no justification whatsoever for any ‘ ‘ reprisals ’ ’
against the herons.

THE HOUSE-SPARROW

IOI

|

1949

THE APPEARANCE AND DISAPPEARANCE OF THE
HOUSE-SPARROW AS A BREEDING SPECIES ON
THE ISLE OF MAY

H. F. D. Elder

Recorder for Birds, Isle of May Bird Observatory and Field Station

The house-sparrow, Passer domesticus domesticus , has dis-
1 appeared as a breeding species from the Isle of May, and it is
thought that these notes on its status and history as a breeding
species may be of interest.

The appearance and records of the house-sparrow up to
1933 are fully detailed by Rintoul and Baxter.1 From
1 934-38 and from 1946 onwards observations have been carried
on by the Isle of May Bird Observatory. We are also fortunate
in having some records for the years 1939-44, made by
Lieut. -Commander R. J. H. Williams.

The records briefly are : — -

1881-85 : Scattered records of from I to a few. No record of
breeding.

1907 : 1 pair bred, but after this year they disappeared.

1911 : Single male found dead in May.

1925, Spring: 5 were recorded when the observers arrived on
7th May. A flock of 19 arrived on 16th May but they
did not remain. Two pairs bred but 1 pair and brood
disappeared. Autumn: 1 pair with 4 young noted.

1926, Spring: 6 birds. Autumn: 22 birds.

1927, Autumn : 40 birds.

1928-33, Autumn: 40 to 50 birds.

i934-38, Spring: 6 pairs bred each year. Autumn: about

30 birds.

I939~44, Autumn: About 30 birds.

1946, Spring: 12 birds. In June, however, it was noted that
there appeared to be only 2 females, although it is possible
that other females were sitting on eggs. Autumn: 8 only,
6 males and 2 females.

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1947, Spring: 6 to 8 birds. Only 1 female was recorded. At
least 1 pair bred, 3 nestlings being ringed. Autumn:
13 in September, but by the end of October the number
had dropped to n birds.

1948, Spring: March to 21st April 1 pair seen daily; 23rd
April a single bird, sex not recorded ; 24th April none noted.

From 24th April 1948 to present time (end of October 1948) no
house-sparrows have been seen.

.

The house-sparrow population seems to have been constant
at 6 pairs from 1927 to 1946. It is impossible to say whether
the breeding stock was reinforced by birds from the mainland
or not. There are no records which would indicate such a
reinforcement, but it is hard to believe that they were the
progeny of 1 pair in 1925, although the breeding strength of
2 birds (1925), 6 birds (1926), and probably 12 birds (1927)
rather indicates this possibility.

On the island the house-sparrow seemed to be very dependent
upon man, always being seen round the Lighthouse buildings ;
and, except during the breeding season, when they nested in
holes in the field boundary walls, in the ruins of the Chapel,
etc., or when they were occasionally seen going to roost on the
cliffs, a house sparrow was very rarely seen on any of the out-
lying parts of the island. The whole flock sitting on the
garden wall waiting for the hens to be fed was a common
sight. Because they appeared to be so dependent upon man,
when we returned to the island in 1946 we expected to see
an increase in their numbers as there had been a very great
increase in the number of people and livestock on the island
during the war, and we were surprised to see the usual
12 birds.

We can suggest no real reason for the disappearance of
the house-sparrow. The following facts may or may not have
influenced the population, but we think that they should be
put on record : —

(a) The horse which was kept on the island was taken off
in the autumn of 1947.

(J?) The flock of goats, which numbered about 8 up to

1949

THE HOUSE-SPARROW

103

1938, was gradually reduced in number and there
is now only one.

(c) Within the last year there is a cat on the island which

has gone wild and lives on what it can catch.

(d) As the house-sparrow was a nuisance in the trapping

garden, we sometimes transported trapped birds to
the Fife coast. Between 1934 and 1938, 10, mainly
birds of the year, were released at Anstruther. In
the spring of 1946, 2 adult males and 1 adult female,
and in the autumn of 1947 one bird of the year were
released on the Fife coast.

(e) Southern in 1936 2 found that the young birds were

heavily infested by a bird fly, Ornithomyia fringillina
(Curtis).

The trapping records of this species are of some interest.
We found them very difficult to trap in the “ Heligoland ”
traps. The birds of the year could be driven in fairly easily,
but it was rare to catch an adult bird. They sat in the bushes
under the wire roof, but always flew out over the heads of the
observers beating the trap. It is not at all certain that all
the house-sparrows on the island were ringed, but between
autumn 1934 and autumn 1938 we ringed 92. None of the
birds transported to the Fife coast was retrapped on the island.

Owing to the fact that the birds grew more cunning with
age and difficult to retrap, we have very few records to show
length of life, the longest being a female trapped in August
1 93 5 > age not recorded, found dead four and a half years later
in March 1940.

We wait to see whether the house-sparrow will recolonise
the Isle of May or whether it has disappeared for a long time
like the tree-sparrow, which bred on the island up to 1922. 1

REFERENCES

1. Rintoul, L. J., and Baxter, E. V., 1935. A Vertebrate Fauna of

Forth , pp. 75-78. Edinburgh.

2. Southern, H. N., 1938. Journal of Animal Ecology , 7, p. 150.

104

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

VoL 61

“ THE BOREO-BRITISH COLEOPTERA. A STUDY
OF THE FAUNISTICAL CONNECTIONS BETWEEN
THE BRITISH ISLES AND SCANDINAVIA.” By
Dr Carl H. Lindroth (Motala, Sweden), 1935, in
Zoogeographica , Band 2, pp. 579-634. Jena.

K. G. Blair
Freshwater, Isle of Wight

THOUGH published so long ago, this important paper has not
received the notice it deserves from British coleopterists — a
fact the more to be deplored that the author has paid us the
compliment of writing in English. The fact that he adds
another species of the Carabidae to the British List also seems
to have escaped notice.

This boreo-British group comprises 15 species, of which
the area of distribution outside Britain is confined to
Scandinavia and the extreme north of Europe, most of them
occurring also in northern Siberia and a few being circum-
polar, i.e.j they do not occur in the Central European plain,
nor in the mountain masses of Central Europe. They thus
conform in definition to Group B of Sainte-Claire Deville’s
classification, “ Peuplement des lies Britanniques,” Coleop-
tera, 1930, with 19 species. Only 10 species, however, are
common to both lists ; many of Deville’s species are excluded
by Lindroth on the ground that they have also been recorded
from the northern part of Central Europe and should therefore
belong to the next group, the boreo-alpine group, although,
as they have not reached the high alpine regions of Central
Europe, one might as well refuse to accept them in this group.
By way of compensation, Lindroth includes 5 species not
included by Deville. Three of these, when Deville wrote,
were not known to inhabit Britain. These are Nebria nivalis
Payk., which had not then been recorded from Britain;
Lathrobium punctatum Zett., of which it was thought that
the British records were in error for L. fovulum Steph. ; and
Philonthus scoticus Joy, which had not then been recognised
as identical with the arctic P. finmarkicus Munst. Two

1949

THE BOREO-BRITISH COLEOPTERA

105

others come in later groups which were not fully considered
by Deville.

The known distribution of these 15 species is given in
detail, in all cases except 2 accompanied by a distribution
map. They are: —

1. Nebria nivalis Payk.

This, so far as is known, has not previously been recorded
from Britain, but this record stands on a single specimen in
the Zool. Museum of Amsterdam, labelled “ Ben Nevis,
ex coll. D. v. d. Hoop.”

Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Siberia.

Almost exclusively alpine, only accidentally met with
below tree level. Usually on very wet ground near the edge
of melting snow.

This is a most interesting addition to the British List. It
will be interesting to see whether Ben Nevis is our only “ top ”
on which it is at home, and if so, why ?

2. Pelophila borealis Payk.

Scotland : Shetlands, Orkneys, Clyde area (?).

Ireland : North and West, as far south as Kerry.

Norway, Sweden, Finland, Germany (?), Russia, Siberia
(to Kamtschatka), North America (Labrador, Hudson Bay
Territory, Alaska).

Mainly sub-alpine, frequenting the sandy or stony margins
of lakes and rivers.

3. Elaphrus lapponicus Gyll.

England : Skiddaw, Cumberland.

Scotland : Highlands, Tay and Dee districts, Hebrides,

Orkneys.

Norway, Sweden, Finland, Lettland, Siberia, and North
America (?).

Mainly about springs on mountain slopes.

4. Bembidion virens Gyll.

Scotland : Loch Maree, the only known locality.

Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Siberia.

On gravelly beaches close to water ; usually in some
numbers.

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As the species occurs throughout Norway, it is curious
that it should be limited to the one locality in the British Isles.
Or does it still await discovery elsewhere ?

5. Pterostichus adstrictus Eschsch.

England and Wales from Church Stretton northwards.
Scotland : On high ground generally ; Orkneys and

Shetland.

Ireland : coastal except in S.W.

Faroes and Iceland.

Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Siberia, and North
America (Newfoundland and Alaska).

Under stones in dry grassy places and open places in woods ;
not above forest limits.

6. Amara alpina Fab.

Scotland : Highlands, few localities.

Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Siberia.

Alpine heather moors.

7. Agabus arcticus Payk.

England : North.

Scotland : Highlands and west coast.

Ireland : Antrim, Dublin, and Wicklow.

Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Siberia, and North
America.

Prefers shallow standing waters, usually with rich vegetation.

8. Gyrinus opacus Sahib.

Scotland : Highlands, Aberdeen, Outer Hebrides.
Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Siberia; Greenland
and Labrador.

In small standing waters with vegetation.

9. Anthobium lapponicum Mann.

Scotland : Rannoch, a single specimen.

Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia.

Marshy areas, in flowers, especially Rubus chamaemorus .

1949

THE BOREO-BRITISH COLEOPTERA

107

10. Bledius arcticus Thoms. ( annae Sharp).

England : R. Severn.

Scotland : Dumfries, Moray, Perth.

Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Siberia.

Sandy banks of rivers, mainly sub-alpine.

11. Lathrobium punctatum Zett.

England : North. Most of our records probably refer to

L . fovulum Steph.

Scotland : Highlands and Clyde areas, Edinburgh,

Wigtown ; as atripalpe Scriba.

Ireland : Antrim, Waterford, Kerry.

Norway, Sweden, Finland, E. Prussia, Poland (?), Russia,
Siberia.

Under moss and leaves in damp places.

12. Philonthus scoticus Joy (> ftnmarkicus Munst.).

Scotland : Kingussie. (Surely must occur elsewhere in the

Highlands.)

Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Siberia (always
northern).

Under moss in damp places.

13. Gnypeta coerulea Sahib.

England: North and West, as far south as Devon.

Scotland : Kinross, Ross-shire, Dumfries.

Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Siberia.

Sandy margins of lakes and rivers ; in Britain in wet moss.

14. Liodes punctulata Gyll.

This species should not have been included in the boreo-
British group. Lindroth is obviously following Fowler, who
gives litura Steph. as a synonym, but it has since been found
that these are two distinct species. In our later lists, Hudson
Beare (1930) and Kloet and Hincks (1945), it appears correctly
as litura Steph. In Junk, Col . Cat. Liodidae, the distribution
of this appears as England and Germany to Corsica and
Morocco, and the boreal L. punctulata Gyll. does not occur
with us.

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Vol. 61

15. Aphodius lapponum Gyll.

England ; North, and Wales ; southernmost in Black '
Mountains, Hereford.

Scotland: widely distributed, especially in Highlands;

Hebrides, St Kilda, Shetland.

Ireland: Widely distributed, mainly coastal.

Iceland, Faroes.

Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Siberia.

Usually dependent on sheep and other domestic animals
of man and hence considered of post-glacial introduction,
but has occasionally been found in carrion and in rotten grass,
so may have been able to exist before the arrival of man and
perhaps subsequently changed its habits.

In addition to these 15 species there are 3 species of Atheta ,
A. ( Dimetrota ) Sparre-Schneideri Munst., A . ( Microdota )
Nesslingi Bernh., and A. (Af.) Ellimani Bernh., each only
once recorded from Britain, with no suggestion of boreal
distribution, but of which what few continental records we
have are all markedly northern. It may be, however, that
future records will show that they extend much further south-
wards, and should be excluded from this boreo-British
association.

Further, Ocyusa hibernica Rye may have to be added to
the list. This species has been incorrectly placed in synonymy
with O. laticollis Thoms. The author has examined a specimen
sent him by Mr P. Harwood and finds that it is really identical
with “ Chilopora ” rugipennis Sahib., 1890, and that Rye’s
name therefore has priority. Also that the species is correctly
placed in Ocyusa Kr.

It will thus be seen that this boreo-British group is by no
means a homogeneous aggregate, some species being circum-
polar in distribution, though the majority are confined to the
Old World arctic ; some seem to require a certain degree of
dryness in conjunction with cold, while for others moisture
seems to be an essential requirement. This is reflected in
their distribution within the British Isles ; some are essentially
high mountain species of our northern area only, others come
much farther south, mostly in our western areas, while yet
others are spread more generally over the country, even avoiding
elevated regions, so that were not the full range of the species

1949

THE BOREO-BRITISH COLEOPTERA

109

taken into consideration there would be nothing to suggest
a boreal habitat in connection with them.

The author points out that it is not only in the beetles that
we find this boreo-British element in our fauna, but that it is
traceable also in other insect orders as well as in the birds
and, perhaps more markedly, in our flora. On the other hand,
amongst our beetles of alpine type are some which are not
boreal, but on the Continent occur in the mountain masses
of Central Europe and are absent from Scandinavia ( Nebria
Gyllenhali , Amara Quenseli, and Otiorrhynchus dubius ).

He then proceeds to consider their possible sources of origin
and to inquire how far we can determine the time of their
arrival. He considers it almost axiomatic that they must
have come from the north, from Scandinavia — further, that
some of them must have come direct, though others may have
been able to come by way of the old “ Dogger ” land, before
the sinking of the land and the formation of the North Sea.

Could they be of recent, i.e., with present distribution of
land and water, introduction ? From a consideration of the
present occurrence of the several species and of their ecological
requirements, he concludes that this is impossible. They
bear all the marks of a relict fauna, not of recent arrivals.
They form a southern outlier of an otherwise almost even
northern distribution, of obviously older origin.

Next, could they have come in during post-glacial times,
before the inundation of the North Sea area ? For some of
them, Nebria nivalis , Amara alpina , and Lathrobium scoticum,
he considers that existence on the old “ Dogger ” land would
have been impossible, but that for others, Gnypeta coerulea ,
Aphodius lapponum , and perhaps Agabus arcticus , such
existence might have been possible ; but in that case how is it
that they did not spread to Central Europe ? Thus we are
driven to the conclusion that the beetles of this group, or at
least most of them, must have arrived in Britain before the
last period of glaciation. That they could have survived this
period, either in southerly regions never covered by the ice,
or in ice-free, elevated regions, seems fairly well established,
and he considers it not improbable that such of these species
as are found now only on our highest mountain tops did, in
fact, survive the last (Wurm) glacial period in those same

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THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

regions and have never since spread beyond them ; and that
the more moisture-loving species could have survived in
ice-free areas in the south and west.

He concludes then that this boreo-British group in our
fauna arrived before, and survived, the last phase of glaciation
(Wurm), and that the next group, the boreo-alpine, is of yet
older origin and was formed by the previous (Riss) glacial
epoch.

Finally, the author suggests the possibility of some of our
northern forms being still older residents in Britain, of pre-
glacial or at least pre-Riss arrival, but dismisses the sug-
gestion summarily as little likely. The point that he notes,
but does not discuss in detail, that some of our northern species
are circumpolar (holarctic) in distribution, while many are
not found on the American continent, probably requires further
examination. There appear to be two possible explanations,
either that at one time all were circum-polar but many have
since died out in America, or that the palaearctic group may
have retreated to our arctic regions subsequent to the separation
of America and never have been able to penetrate there. As
regards this latter possibility the beetle fauna of Greenland
merits consideration.1 Of the 48 species recorded thence
15 have been more or less certainly introduced by man ; 1 has
not yet been found elsewhere, 20 are holarctic ; 10 are European
but have not been found in America, but only two American
species not found in Europe have been recorded and both
of these depend on old specimens with no definite locality that
have not been confirmed in recorded collections ; both are
found in Labrador, so that the Greenland captures of both
must be regarded as doubtful. Thus it will be seen that while
the European element is strong the American element is slight
and doubtful at that. This, considering the very much greater
breadth of sea separating Greenland from Europe (about 50°
along the Arctic Circle) than that between it and America
(io°, much less farther north) is rather remarkable, but the
theory of Continental Drift (Wegener’s Theory 2) affords a
possible explanation. According to this the Atlantic rift,
starting in the south about Cretaceous times did not become
complete until at least the end of the Tertiary period ; indeed,
Wegener’s map of the older quaternary shows an extensive rift

1949

THE BOREO-BRITISH COLEOPTERA

hi

between Greenland and America as already in existence,
while its contiguity with Europe was as yet unbroken. Though
this drift of Greenland away from Europe may have now ceased,
owing to the Greenland block having bumped up, sub-
aqueously, against the block of North America, it may well
account for the considerable European affinities of the Greenland
beetle fauna as against the slender American affinities, and
may infer the greater antiquity of our holarctic European
element compared with the palaearctic element. This does
not necessarily imply that this holarctic element has survived
in our islands since Tertiary times ; it may have entered them
later with others of the boreo-British invasion. In any case
the point would require further examination.

A third possibility would appear to be that some members
of the originally holarctic population were of a more con-
servative disposition and have remained unaltered in all
regions, whereas the more adaptable have altered slightly,
probably in both continents, so that now the European and
the American races are no longer identical. The apparent
rise of a new species in Greenland ( Microlymmo brevilingue
Schiodte) since its separation from Europe would support
this suggestion. A critical comparison of these American
races, their distribution and ecology, with their European
counterparts would be necessary before any decided opinion
could be formed.

REFERENCES

1. Blair, K. G., 1930. Annals and Mag . Nat. Hist. (10), 5, pp. 394-400.

2. WEGENER, A., 1924. The Origin of Continents and Oceans. Methuen

(English edition).

1 1 2

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Vol. 61

“ NEUROPTERA ” AND SOME LEPIDOPTERA FROM
ARGYLL AND WEST INVERNESS

C. Ethel Evans
Edinburgh

ARGYLL

During the second half of July 1938 I was staying near Bridge
of Orchy, mainly on the lookout for dragonflies, though other
insects were not ignored. I was again in the same neighbour-
hood for a few days at the end of June 1939. The following
is a list of the species noted on these two occasions : — ■

ODONATA (Dragonflies).

Cordulegaster boltonii. Common, two males taken in
1938 ; also seen in 1939.

Aeshna juncea. Common in 1938 ; one taken in 1939.
Aeshna caerulea. One taken and at least one other seen in
1938, but not so many as in 1937 (see my note in Scot.
Nat., 1938, p. 9); probably it was rather late for it.
Seen in 1939.

Somatochlora arctica. In fair numbers in 1938 ; female
seen ovipositing in a shallow peaty pool in which
sphagnum moss was growing. Numerous in 1939.
Libellula quadrimaculata . Several seen in 1939.
Leucorrhinia dubia. One pursued but not captured in 1939.
Pyrrhosoma nymphula. Common in 1938.

Enallagma cyathigerum. Very common both in 1938 and
1939-

TRICHOPTERA (Caddis-flies).

Phryganea obsoleta (Hagen).

Neuronia ruficrus (Scop.). Between Inveroran and Loch
Dochard, 23rd July 1938.

Sericostoma personatum (Spence).

Mystacides azurea (L.).

1949

“ NEUROPTERA ” AND SOME LEPIDOPTERA

113

Tinodes waeneri (L.).

Odontocerum albicorne (Scop.).

Poly centr opus multiguttatus (Curtis).

The late K. J. Morton considered that Neuronia ruficrus
was probably a new record for the county.

Plecoptera (Stone-flies).

Isoperla grammatica (Poda). Glen Etive, 1938.

Nemurella inconspicua (Pictet).

Leuctra moselyi (Morton). Glen Etive.

Nemoura variegata (Olivier). 1939.

MECOPTERA (Scorpion-flies).

Panorpa germanica (L.).

Lepidoptera (Butterflies).

Erebia aethiops . Near Shian Ferry, Appin, 1938.
Argynnis selene.

Coenonympha tullia.

Polyommatus icarus.

WEST INVERNESS

Unless otherwise stated, all records in the following list
are from the neighbourhood of Loch Ness — the south-west end
— the dates falling between 14th and 24th June 1939: —

ODONATA.

Cordulegaster boltonii. Loch Lochy and also Loch Hourn.
Aeshna caerulea. Several seen with certainty alighting on
tree trunk but not taken.

Somatochlora arctica. Seen with certainty at same spot
as above but no captures made ; also at another locality
in the district.

Libellula quadrimaculata . Numbers seen.

Leucorrhinia dubia. At least half a dozen seen at one place,
both males and females, the crimson of the males and the
yellow of the females being very striking.

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THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

1 14

Pyrrhosovta nymphula. Very numerous. Also taken at
lochan between Loch Quoich and Loch Hourn.
Enallagma cyathigerum. Very common. Also between
Loch Quoich and Loch Hourn.

Trichoptera.

Sericostoma personatum (Spence) .

Hydropsyche pellucidula (Curtis).

Philopotamus montanus (Donovan).

Megaloptera.

Sialis lutaria (L.).

Lepidoptera.

Coenonympha pamphilus .

Coenonympha tullia .

Argynnis selene.

Polyommatus icarus .

Pier is napi.

Carter ocephalus palaemon .

All my specimens were identified for me by Mr K. J. Morton
shortly before his death in 1940.

1949

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

“5

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

Leuctra fusciventris Steph., one of our most common and widespread
stone-flies, Plecoptera, can be found regularly in the adult stage in
Aberdeenshire from June to November. There appears to be only a
single record of its occurrence in December in Great Britain (H. B. N.
Hynes, 1940, “ A Key to the British Species of Plecoptera with Notes
on their Ecology,” Freshwater Biol. Ass., Sci. Publ. 2, p. 31).

On 10th December 1948 a single female specimen was caught on
scrub willow by the edge of the Crynoch Burn, which runs into the
River Dee about 7J miles from Aberdeen. It survived in the labora-
tory under appropriate conditions until 24th December. This late
appearance may be accounted for by the fair weather towards the end
of last year. — J. H. Mundie, Aberdeen.

The Peacock Butterfly in Stirling.— During the eight years

1 have resided in the western limits of the town of Stirling I have
never seen the peacock butterfly, Vanessa io , but in September of
this year (1948) two were in my garden, and a young naturalist friend,
a girl of fifteen years, captured a specimen in the garden of her home
situated in another part of the town.

One of the specimens I failed to capture at first, but next day, a
colder day, it was easily taken as it hung from the brickwork of a
house which is in course of erection adjacent to my garden.

The specimen captured on the wing is small and shows signs of
frayed and weathered wings, while the other specimen is larger —

2 f inches across the two outstretched forewings — and is in splendid
condition. — J. D. McAinsh, Stirling.

Oleander Hawk-moth at Grangemouth. — An oleander hawk-
moth, Daphnis nerii , was captured near the docks at Grangemouth,
Stirlingshire, on 7th October 1948. This hawk-moth is an immigrant
species that is exceedingly rare in Scotland, its usual habitat being
the fringes of the Mediterranean, the Near East countries, and India,
and it is probable that the Grangemouth specimen came over by ship
to the docks.

The oleander hawk-moth is an insect of striking appearance,
having a large wing expanse, and a thick, heavy body. The fore-
wings are greyish, with a pinky tinge, and are mottled with greens
and browns, some of the markings being edged with white. The hind
wings are grey-brown, with a wavy white line across them. The body
is coloured like the wings with a variety of greys, greens and browns.

ii 6 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 61 !

According to South’s Moths of the British Isles , the first specimen
of Daphnis nerii to be captured in Britain was taken at Dover in
1835. A Scottish specimen was recorded at Crieff in 1873, but in
1891 it was shown to be not a Daphnis nerii but a Daphnis hypothous ,
an allied species, which is found in India, Ceylon, and some of the
East Indian islands. — A. Baptie, Grangemouth.

j

Large Oyster from the Firth of Forth. — Oysters, Ostrea
edulis , were at one time exceedingly common in the Firth of Forth,
and productive fisheries existed. Towards the end of last century,
however, through over-fishing, pollution or other causes, the species
seems to have more or less died out. While old shells are frequently
secured in the dredge, live specimens are only very rarely found by
fishermen. It may, therefore, be of interest to record that a large
individual was received by the Royal Scottish Museum last year.

It was taken on the 17th February 1948 by a ring net just west of
Granton. It was over-wintering as a male and was full of sperm.
The shell was very solid. Its greatest length was 4J inches and it
weighed 9J ounces. — A. C. Stephen, Edinburgh.

Scottish Reptiles and Amphibians. — Amphibians and reptiles
form a small but interesting part of our fauna. Although to
some they are objects of dislike, if not actual abhorrence, to others
they are a fascinating study. That a renewal of interest in these
creatures is taking place is shown by the formation of the British
Herpetological Society. Its objects, apart from bringing together
those interested in the subject, are to increase our knowledge not
only of the scientific side, including such subjects as anatomy,
physiology, genetics, embryology, and taxonomy, but also more of
the natural history side which would include distribution, behaviour,
hibernation, feeding, and breeding habits. England has been much
better served by its naturalists than has Scotland. A glance at the
maps in the Journal 1 for each species shows how much is still to be
done. Wigtownshire, for example, would seem to have no toads,
frogs, newts, or slow-worm. While in Shetland the absence of land
amphibians and reptiles is actual, in the case of Wigtownshire the
indication is that no one has made records.

Even where the distribution is given, it is not certain in all cases
that the map represents the present status of the species. The newts,
for example, can well be revised, as more recent study has shown that
older records cannot be entirely relied on. Again, the status of a
species such as the natterjack toad is still uncertain. One authority

Journal , British Herpetological Society , No. 1, June 1948. 4s.

1949

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

1 17

I has reported it from Moray, while a later writer does not refer to it
at all. One hears of its occurrence in Arran, where it has not yet been
officially recorded, and doubts exist of its continued presence in areas
where it is supposed to occur.

The Natural History Department of the Royal Scottish Museum
would be glad to receive records of distribution and notes on the
biology and other matters of interest concerning our Scottish species.
In the case of the newts, since their identification presents some
difficulty, specimens would be appreciated. — A. C. Stephen,
Edinburgh.

Chimaera or Rabbit-fish at North Berwick. — A specimen of
the rabbit-fish, Chimaera monstrosa , was washed up alive on the
beach at North Berwick on 13th February 1948, and secured for the
Royal Scottish Museum by Mr Auld, North Berwick. Chimaera
is a fish of the deep water of the eastern North Atlantic, and is
taken along the edge of the continental shelf to the west and
north of Scotland ; also in the northern North Sea. On occasions
individuals may be taken in shallower water nearer the coast. There
is only one previous record of its occurrence in the North Sea so far
south (from Montrose in 1902). The usual limit is about the line of
the southern shore of the Moray Firth. — A. C. Stephen, Edinburgh.

Tadpole-fish at North Berwick.— A well-grown specimen of
the tadpole-fish, Rani ceps raninus , was taken off North Berwick on
1 st June 1947 and forwarded to the Royal Scottish Museum by Mr
W. J. Fairbairn, St Abbs.

This species has been recorded from the Firth of Forth on only
some half-dozen occasions. The last record was in 1917, given by
Mr W. Evans in the Scottish Naturalist (1917, p. 94). — A. C.
Stephen, Edinburgh.

Shrews in Upper Strathspey. — The Common shrew, Sorex
araneus , is fairly well distributed in Strathspey. It occurs in the
woods, on the arable, and on the foothills of the Cairngorms. Once,
when after foxes on a day in late May, we lunched at about 2,350
feet. I noticed one of the terriers scraping, and was curious to see
what it was after. Soon it unearthed a litter of half-grown common
shrews, the highest record I have for this mammal. I have no record
of the pygmy shrew, Sorex minutus , in this district, although Millais
says it has been found in Morayshire. There is the record, too, of
the specimen taken into the Ben Nevis Observatory by the domestic
cat, so evidently this little shrew occurs well up on the mountains.
Actually I do not think that the common and pygmy shrews would

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vo/. 61

1 1 8

do well together, and that one finds either, but not both, species in
a district. We have a few water shrews, Neomys fodiens, in Upper
Strathspey. I have seen this big shrew in Nethybridge, and I picked
one up at a farm near Kingussie. Actually this is not typical water
shrew country. Most of our streams are too fast-running for them, !
and there are not enough of the sluggish, muddy ditches they prefer.
Water shrews come into houses, and are readily caught in ordinary
nipper mouse-traps. On 18th July 1945 we moved a tarpaulin in a
stackyard and found seven young water shrews dead underneath.
Millais gives the number in a litter as five to six. I have seen both
the light and the dark-bellied types of water shrew here, but the dark
seems to predominate. One adult specimen trapped last year had
a reddish tinge on its skin and underparts of the neck. This tinge
may have been due to the shrew frequenting a ditch with “ iron ”
water, like the whooper swan we saw on its nest in Iceland. Its
head and neck, and those of its mate, were stained a dull red, and
the result was really striking. — W. Marshall, Nethybridge.

Magpies in Stirlingshire. — The magpie, Pica pica , seems to
have increased in numbers west of Stirling in the Drip Bridge
locality. This year (1948) I have noted a group of five and another
group of eight, while in the neighbouring trees I heard several more.

Last year (1947) I noted only a family group of four and an odd
one or two in the nearby tall hedges. — J. D. McAinsh, Stirling.

Chaffinch Nesting on Wagon Brake Block. — On nth June
1948 a locomotive had coupled up to a line of wagons which had
stood for some time unused. When the brakesman was attending to
the brakes preparatory to moving, a chaffinch, Fringilla coelebs ,
flew from a nest, containing three young birds probably less than one
day old, which was built on top of the wagon brake block.

The nest was taken and placed in the same position on another
wagon which occupied a similar position on the railway line behind.
In a few minutes the female chaffinch had returned and was again
sitting on the nest in its new position.

The nest was built with the usual materials and decorated with
lichen, which did not serve as camouflage in this position. About
fifty yards from the nest there was a cutting of about half an acre
with a growth of well-grown sallow bushes and an occasional elder. —
Hugh Halliday, West Calder, Midlothian.

Snow Buntings in West Midlothian. — On 15th November
1948 I saw a flock of over two hundred snow buntings, Plectrophem. x

1949

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

1 19

nivalis , on the main shale bing at Addiewell, 800-900 feet above
sea level. From that date snow buntings have been seen regularly
in this area, and were still present on 5th March 1949. They fed
frequently on oat stubble fields adjoining the bings at a level of
600 feet. — Hugh Halliday, West Calder, Midlothian.

Snow buntings have been abundant in many parts of the Highlands
and Lowlands during the past winter (1948-49). — Editors.

Tree-pipit Singing on Passage. — Passing a walled garden close
by the shore of Loch Ewe on 8th May 1948 my attention was drawn
to the distinctive song of the tree-pipit, Anthus trivialis. The
songster was perched on the sunny side of an apple tree and but a
few yards from the foreshore alive with migrant pipits. The locality
did not appear suitable for nesting, and the bird was not heard again. —
P. A. Rayfield, Aultbea, Wester Ross.

Pied Flycatcher in North Perth. — As there are very few
records of the pied flycatcher, Muscicapa hypoleuca , in North Perth,
the following occurrences are worthy of record. On nth May 1948
I found a male singing from old trees beside a small river. This was
within five miles of the place where a male and female had been seen
by another observer at the end of April 1948. On 12th June 1948 a
male appeared in a different locality. This bird disappeared on 17th
June 1948. During its stay it sang persistently, and paid frequent
visits to hollows in an old ash tree, but no female was ever seen.

I am indebted to a correspondent, who desires to remain anony-
mous, for the information that he saw a male within ten miles of
this last locality in the summer of 1944.

The status of the pied flycatcher in North Perth is given as
£C occasional, has bred,” in the Geographical Distribution and Status
of Birds in Scotland James W. Campbell, Strathtay, Perthshire.

Grasshopper Warbler in Stirlingshire. — With reference to
the previous notes on the grasshopper warbler, Locustella naevia ,
in Scotland (Scot. Nat., 60, p. 218), it may be of interest to record
that I heard a bird singing on 10th August 1947, on the slopes of
Ben Lomond, Stirlingshire. The place was in trees above
Rowardennan on Loch Lomond, about 500 feet above sea level,
fairly near to the path which runs from Rowardennan to the summit
of Ben Lomond. The song was distinctive, the peculiar series of
notes like a fishing reel running out, which gives the bird the country
name of “ reeler.” — Alan F. Airey, St Annes-on-Sea, Lancashire.

The grasshopper warbler has not previously been recorded for
West Stirling, although its status is given as that of a summer visitor

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Vol. 61

to Dunbarton and East Stirling ( Geographical Distribution and
Status of Birds in Scotland , 1928, p. 105). — Editors.

Sedge Warblers Increase in Wester Ross. — Following a
mild winter and early spring, an abundance of coarse herbage about j
Aultbea crofts in the summer of 1948 caused a 100 per cent, increase
in the breeding pairs of sedge warblers, Acrocephalus schoenobaenus .
They were certainly not colonial, being very widespread, and one
pair nested in bracken nearly 100 yards from the nearest marshy
patch.— P. A. Rayfield, Aultbea, Wester Ross.

For previous note on status at Aultbea, see Scot. Nat., 60, p. 30.
— Editors.

Sedge Warbler in West Sutherland. — During a visit to
Scourie, Sutherland, in the first half of June 1948, I heard two sedge
warblers, Acrocephalus schoenobaenus , in full song. One bird,
which I frequently listened to, inhabited a territory lying just south
and west of Scourie Lodge, and not far from the hotel ; the other was
established about half a mile away to the south, in a marshy field
just west of the road between the post office and the school. I did
not devote much attention to them, nor did I find or attempt to find
nests, and for all I know the birds may have been solitary cocks ;
but it seems probable that breeding took place. These observations
are offered for record in view of the present status of this bird as very
rare in the north-west of Scotland ( Handbook of British Birds'). —
R. I. Morrison, Aberdeen.

The Iceland Redwing in Argyllshire. — An example of the
Iceland race of redwing, Turdus musicus coburni , was taken at
Cairnbaan on the Crinan Canal, Argyllshire, on 26th October 1948.
The specimen, a very typical example of the race, is an adult female
(wing 123 mm.), and was in very fat condition. It was one of a
pair at roost in hazel scrub. There is no other record of the race for
Argyllshire. — P. A. Clancey, Glasgow.

Nesting of the Barn Owl in Banffshire. — It is worth placing
on record the nesting of the barn owl, Tyto alba , in Banff in the
years 1943 and 1944. This took place in the disused chimney-head
of the Episcopal Church in the High Street of Banff. I had many
opportunities of observing the male bird, which showed little concern
at my presence, often alighting on a wall within 10 feet of me. The
female was much more reserved, although I have had her alighting
on the sill of the window from which I was observing the nest. On
14th August 1943 I first saw the young, three in number, although I
had heard them hissing or snoring in the nest. They were then well

1949

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

1 21

grown, one slightly smaller than the others, but still with considerable
down ; they created much noise, and mystification and alarm to the
public, as they sat on the flat top of the chimney waiting for their
parents to feed them. From a window of my house about 15 feet
from the nest I had quite a good view of them. Unfortunately,
the cock bird met an untimely death in the third week of August,
when he flew into a motor car, breaking his neck. I had the dead
bird in my possession but did not have him set up. The hen carried
on with her duties and fed the young faithfully and well. The food
brought seemed to be almost wholly small rodents, sometimes carried
! in the claws and sometimes in the beak. The birds were soon taking
little flights round the house tops and over the gardens, until latterly,
as darkness fell, they would come out of the chimney and fly straight
away. Some of them were with us all winter, as I often heard their
“ churring ” whistle during the night.

In 1944 a pair bred again, but nested about a fortnight earlier,
and the three young seemed altogether stronger birds when they first
appeared. I am not sure whether the hen was the same bird as that
which nested in 1943. She was also shy. The cock bird in this case
was entirely different in temperament. If he happened to be about
when I came into my garden be would greet me with that well-known
screech, flying round about, but not with any signs of attack. The
behaviour of the young birds was much the same as in 1943.

I heard barn owls in the area until well into the spring of 1945,
but no nesting took place and I have no authentic record of any
being seen since that year. — W. H. Maxwell, Banff.

Golden Eagle versus Wild Cat. — A mounted specimen of a
golden eagle, Aquila chrysaetos, was recently offered to the Royal
Scottish Museum, together with the following particulars, by General
Sir Philip Christison : —

“ This female golden eagle was recovered by me in January 1909
on Mam Ratagan in Kintail.

“ Just after dawn I was out with a shepherd, John McRae, and
an old professional fox-hunter whose name I have forgotten.

“ Through the glass we saw a wild cat making a meal of a white
hare. There was frozen snow on the hill at the time. Suddenly the
eagle swooped down several times, and then alighted a few yards
from the cat. It then sidled up to it and the cat went for it. A struggle
ensued, when the eagle raised flight by hopping to the edge of a
small cliff with the cat hanging on. The eagle flattened out and
began to gain height. When very high — I should guess 1,500 to
2,000 feet above the hill — we saw the cat coming down and found
it dashed to pieces on the rocks. Next day I got information that a
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THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

sick eagle had been seen about three miles away, and we found this
bird unable to stand or move. There was a terrible wound on the
inside of one thigh and some entrails were protruding. McRae
despatched it and I had it stuffed by Macpherson, Inverness, as it
seemed a unique occurrence.”

Montagu’s Harrier in East Lothian. — A male Montagu’s
harrier, Circus py gar gus, was unfortunately killed near Binning Wood
in April 1947. I think the bird would have nested, as a female was
with it, and they had been in the vicinity for some weeks. After
the male was killed the female left. Binning Wood has now been cat
down, but when the harrier and a bittern (see below) were obtained
the ground was in a condition that I consider ideal for both species.
The memorial to the Earl of Haddington, who planted the woods at
Tyninghame more than two hundred years ago, states that the
ground was an. undrained barren waste. Having seen the ground
since the woods were cut I can imagine what it was like, and that
probably it was then the home of the bittern, and most likely the
harriers as well.

Since the birds were obtained, this ground has been re-drained, and
the debris and undergrowth cleared for replanting, so that as far as
these two species are concerned it will have lost all its attraction. The
harrier has been preserved.— W. Thomson, Tyninghame, East Lothian.

This is an important note as there are very few Scottish records.
The Handbook of British Birds states: “Rare vagrant, about

seven in southern half of mainland, one of which (June 15, 1881)
may possibly have nested in Solway.” The Geographical Distribution
and Status of Birds in Scotland , in addition, shows the bird as
occasional in Orkney. This is the first record for the Forth area.
The bird which is in Mr Thomson’s possession has been examined
and is probably in its second summer, for the upper parts are brownish,
including a faint tinge of brown on the head. — Editors.

Bittern in East Lothian.— In August 1947 a bird was brought
to me by one of my assistants, which I at once saw was a bittern,
Botaurus stellar is. It had been picked up by a prisoner of war
engaged in clearing debris from Binning Wood, which had recently
been cut down. The bird had its bill fixed in an oyster shell, and
was in an emaciated condition. I placed it in a large open-air pen,
but it refused to eat the suitable food which was provided, and
eventually died. It was seen on 20th August, while still alive, by a
keen ornithologist. The bird has been preserved. — W. Thomson,
Tyninghame, East Lothian.

The bittern is an occasional visitor to East Lothian.— Editors.

1949

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

123

Grey Geese in Ayrshire. — During the last decade there has
been a complete replacement of the formerly common bean goose,
Anser f. fabalis , by the larger grey lag, Anser anser , in south
Ayrshire and probably throughout the whole county.

Paton and Pike in The Birds of Ayrshire (1929) state: “ The

bean goose is undoubtedly the grey goose of the uplands and moors
of Ayrshire.” My own earlier observations agree with this statement.
The same authors are able to give very few definite records of the
grey lag, which in recent years has become a common autumn visitor
and to a considerable extent a winter resident.

The last bean geese of which I have any record were four birds
seen by me on 26th February 1944 on the shores of the Girvan
Reservoir at Penwhapple. Since that date all identifiable geese
which I have seen, either on that sheet of water or elsewhere in the
county, have been grey lags.

Some idea of the rising tide of grey lag visitation can be had
from the following maximum counts made at Penwhapple during the
past six autumns : 1943, none; 1944,30; 1945,22; 1946,100-110;
1947, 1 1 5 ; 1948, 270-280. — G. Hughes-Onslow, Barr, Girvan.

Garganey in East Lothian. — On 26th March 1948, while
painting on the East Lothian shore opposite Fidra, I was surprised
to see a fine pair of garganey, Anas querquedula , in a rock pool.
I had a close view of the birds in excellent light through binoculars,
and finally watched them fly off in the direction of Gullane. — Donald
Watson, Edinburgh.

This appears to be the first record for East Lothian. There is
a breeding record for the Forth area, and there is some evidence
suggesting that it is now of more frequent occurrence in certain
parts of Scotland than was formerly suspected. The species is easily
overlooked. Further investigation of its present status is needed. —
Editors.

Wigeon Breeding at Linlithgow Loch. — During the first
week of August 1948, when at Linlithgow Loch in company with
Mr D. R. Anderson, we were both surprised to see a female wigeon,
Anas penelope , with a brood of young. The ducklings were quite
small and only about two weeks old, so they must have been hatched
on the island, where most of the ducks at the loch nest. The old bird
led the young over almost to where we were hiding, but on observing
us took them back to the island. A brood of tufted duck, Ay thy a
fuligula , similar in size and continuously diving, formed quite a
contrast to the surface feeders floating past.

So far as we know this is a new record for Linlithgow Loch, and

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Vo l. 6 1

we are not aware of any record for the county. The brood was also
seen independently by Miss A. N. White and Mr Duncan, both
resident at Linlithgow. — David Hamilton, Edinburgh.

American Wigeon in Angus. — On 6th November 1948 a drake 1
American wigeon, Anas americana , was seen on the Long Loch of
Lundie. It appeared to be associated with a pair of common wigeon,
Anas penelope , and all three rose within a few seconds of sighting,
followed by a further twenty or so of wigeon nearby. The trio was
followed with the binoculars and appeared to drop on the far end of
the loch. Later, the American wigeon was watched at a range of
about seventy yards for ten minutes or so. In sunshine the dark
green-glossed areas on the head were conspicuous. — Henry Boase,
Invergowrie, by Dundee.

The American wigeon has been observed and a few obtained on
several occasions in Scotland. It is, however, a species often kept
in captivity, so that records of occurrences must be treated with
caution, as they are open to the suspicion that they refer to “ escapes ”
rather than genuine visitors from abroad. — Editors.

Ferruginous Duck near Dumbarton. — Three ferruginous
ducks, Ay thy a nyroca , have spent several weeks this winter on
Loch Bowie, a fresh-water loch of seven acres area, with abundant
vegetation, near Dumbarton. The brown head, dark back, and
prominent white wing patch were seen, the latter very conspicuous
when the birds rose on the water to flap. While under observation,
the ducks dived almost continuously, and on 9th January 1949 they
showed very plainly their white under tail coverts, but a few days
later they slipped under the water, giving only a very fleeting glimpse
of white under the tail. This duck is not mentioned in Birds of the
Firth of Clyde by J. M. McWilliam. — Elizabeth R. Brock,
Dumbarton.

This duck is a very rare visitor to Scotland. There is no previous
record for Clyde. Unfortunately records are open to the same sus-
picions as those expressed by us under American wigeon. — Editors.

Turtle Dove in Wester Ross. — A turtle dove, Streptopelia
turtur , visited Aultbea from 20th to 29th August 1948. At night it
went to roost in a clump of trees beside the Free Church manse, but
was to be seen on the ground and stone dykes during the day. It
was not tame but was reluctant to fly far when flushed. — P. A.
Rayfield, Aultbea, Wester Ross.

The turtle dove is an occasional visitor to Wester Ross. — Editors.

1949

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

125

Phalaropes in Midlothian. — At Leith Docks, Edinburgh, on
the 10th November 1948, I saw a probable grey phalarope, Phalaropus
fulicarius. It was swimming about on the sea close in to the outer
sea-wall of the eastern portion of the docks. I obtained very close
views, and at one time was looking down on top of it from a height
of approximately 12 feet. The following description was taken:
The forehead and centre of the crown were white. There were two
dark streaks on either side of crown, either above or through the
eyes. From the base of the crown and down the back of the nape
there ran a dark patch which joined a brownish patch running across
the back of the shoulders. The rest of the back, looking down
from above, was as follows : Centre clear light grey, having a narrow
V-shaped patch well forward and pointing towards the neck. There
may have been another narrow patch of something the same colour
on either side of the centre grey of the back and then the dark, almost
black, wings at the sides of the body. There was a faint flush of
reddish colour on the neck. Cheeks and rest of underparts white.
Tip of tail with a black bar. The bird was about common sandpiper
size and had a blackish slender bill. In flight it resembled a large
sanderling with the white bar along the wings. It swam, turning
from side to side and pecking at the surface in characteristic style,
and frequently took flight and returned to the same spot.

On 29th January 1948 I had seen another phalarope (? species)
on the sea close to the east breakwater at the Docks. — Gerard L.
Sandeman, Edinburgh.

While walking along the beach between Levenhall and Mussel-
burgh in the late afternoon of 7th November 1948, I had the good
fortune to observe a phalarope — whether grey or red-necked I am
unable to say. The bird, which was swimming close inshore and
feeding actively, was very tame and allowed me to approach to within
15 yards, but owing to the poor light and the continual movements
of the bird, observation was difficult even with the help of glasses.
At the time I made the following rough notes : Small ; white under-
parts ; back dove-grey ; beak black ; white on sides of face with
dark mark through or slightly above eyes ; appeared to have dark
stripe down back of neck and slight orange or red tinge above breast.
The buoyancy and the spinning movements described in Fisher’s
Bird Recognition were very noticeable. — R. MacDonald, Edinburgh.

Curlew Sandpiper in Sutherland. — During the period 31st
October to 2nd November 1948 a curlew sandpiper, Calidris testacea ,
haunted the muddy banks at the mouth of the Dornoch burn. This

126

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

appears to be a rather late record. In The Handbook the autumn
migration of the species is stated as “ mid-July to mid-October, with
stragglers (rare) to mid-November.” — D. MacDonald, Dornoch,
Sutherland.

Temminck’s Stint in East Lothian. — On 5th September 1948,
while watching a flock of dunlin, Calidris alpina , at Aberlady
Bay, East Lothian, we observed a Temminck’s stint, Calidris tem-
minckii. Our attention was drawn to it by its call. This was a
pipit-like trill, fairly high-pitched and metallic-like. We managed
to approach to within 30 feet of it and obtained good views through
6 x 30 binoculars and a telescope. The following points were noted :
Noticeably smaller than the dunlin, bill short and straight, and, like
the legs, appeared black. The back was a uniform grey-brown with
inconspicuous dark markings, the top of the head being darker.
The underparts were white, except for a bufflsh zone which spread
across each side of the breast from the shoulders and did not meet.

In flight it tended to fan its tail, which was white with a thin
black central line. It flew low with quick wing beats, generally
gliding before alighting. The wings then appeared greyish with a
slight bar.

On the 6th both observers returned, and on this occasion it
“ towered ” to a height of about 30 feet when flushed. Quite often
it remained feeding after the dunlin had left, but always trilled when
put up.

On both occasions it was feeding on short grass, where the tide
had left many pools. We noticed that it picked, rather than probed,
for its food, often running quickly in the manner of a sanderling,
Crocethia alba.

This appears to be the first recorded occurrence of this bird in
East Lothian. — Allan M. Watt and K. S. Macgregor, Edinburgh.

Occurrence of American Pectoral Sandpiper, Calidris
melanotos , in East Lothian. — On 10th August 1948 A. D. W.
noticed an unusual-looking wader in Aberlady Bay, East Lothian,
and watched it for several hours. As the bird appeared to be of
exceptional interest, he telephoned for reinforcements. A. G. S. B.,
J. H. B. M., G. L. S., and G. W. duly arrived, and all had excellent
views before the light failed. Even at low tide it kept to the short
grass at the edge of the mudflats, and although it flew out over the
estuary when disturbed it quickly returned, and was only once seen
to alight on the exposed mud. It stood still or crouched on the grass,
even occasionally sitting on the ground and freezing, but on closer
approach would run swiftly with neck stretched up and forward like

1949

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

127

a reeve, showing some reluctance to fly without being as approachable
as are many reeves. While feeding among the grass it probed in
dunlin fashion, sometimes with legs very much flexed. It was not
seen to feed on the mudflats. It kept very much to itself, so not
enabling us to make an exact comparison of size with other waders,
but we had the impression that it was perceptibly smaller than a reeve
although a little larger than a dunlin. It was more like a small
reeve than anything else, particularly in flight when its slow low
wing-beat and the white of the coverts on either side of the base of
the tail were noted. It was silent when on the ground, but when
flushed it rose with a rather sharp “ srreet,” and on the wing uttered
a weak “ treu treu.” The very slightly decurved bill was dark,
with paler brownish bases to both mandibles, and seemed relatively
shorter and more slender than a dunlin’s. The centre of the crown was
dark, an irregular lighter line on either side separating it from dark
sides to the crown. Below this was a fairly prominent superciliary
stripe. The nape was dark and streaked, the streaks continuing on
to the mantle, so that there was no paler area between crown and
mantle as in the reeve. The back, mantle, scapulars, and wing
coverts were more boldly and less tidily marked than in the reeve ;
the strongest pattern was made by the dark centres and light creamy-
white edges to the longer scapulars, the greater and median coverts
showing a like pattern a little less clearly defined ; but on the back
and mantle the colour was more uniformly dark and the pattern more
streaky. Light feather edges tended to form two light lines in the
shape of an incomplete V over the upper parts, recalling a little stint.
The breast was streaked fairly finely with black or dark grey, these
streaks finishing abruptly so as to give the impression of a band
contrasting with the whitish underparts. This feature was noticeable
and served to remove all possibility of the bird being a small reeve.
The legs were also diagnostic. They looked distinctly shorter than
those of a reeve, only a little if any longer than those of a dunlin,
and were pale yellow (yellow ochre) in colour.

The American pectoral sandpiper has been recorded in Scotland
on four previous occasions ( Handbook of British Birds ), but this is
the first recorded occurrence in the Forth area. — A. G. S. Bryson,
G. L. Sandeman, J. H. B. Munro, George Waterston, Donald
Watson, Edinburgh.

Uncommon Waders in Wester Ross. — On 19th August 1948 a
party of four sanderling, Crocethia alba , of which two at least were
juveniles, alighted together with two ringed plover, Charadrius
hiaticula , on the shore of Loch Ewe at Aultbea. Immediately on
settling all proceeded to take a quick bathe and then to snooze with

128

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vo/. 61

bills tucked into the scapulars. Half an hour later the ringed plover
were busy feeding and alone.

No more sanderling were seen until the evening of 6th September,
when six in snowy winter plumage were observed asleep on a pebble
beach in company with a dozing knot, Calidris canutus , and a dozen
other small waders. The knot apparently left that night, but a few
sanderling were present on the following day and also on the 9th.
This last day was notable, too, for a very close view of a bar-tailed
godwit, Limosa lapponica , probing deep at the tide edge on a small
sandy beach. — P. A. Rayfield, Aultbea, Wester Ross.

Black Tern in Edinburgh. — On 17th September 1948 I observed
a black tern, Childonias niger , at Lochend pond, Edinburgh. The
bird appeared about 12.30 p.m. and I watched it until it left at 5.30 p.m.
A strong wind was blowing and it spent much of its time hawking
for insects in a sheltered corner, but several times it alighted on a
grassy slope with some gulls. The upper wing was distinctly grey
tinged with brown, the forehead white, crown black, and nape white,
with a conspicuous dark line down the side of the neck just in front
of the wing. The bill appeared black and the legs were dark in colour.
The underparts were white and the tail only slightly forked. — Keith S.
Macgregor, Edinburgh.

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CONTENTS

PAGE

Fair Isle Bird Observatory: First Report, 1948, Part II —Kenneth

Williamson . . . . . . .129

Dominance in the Great Tit Parus major — Anne D. Brian . -144

A List of the Tipulinae (Diptera Nematocera) of the Solway Area,
with some Notes on the Habitats of the Adults— A. S. Brown

and Arthur B. Duncan . . . . .156

Woodland into Pasture — Ursula K. Duncan . . .169

Zoological Notes . . . . . . 174

Book Reviews and Notice . . . .190

. 191

Correspondence

The Scottish Naturalist

Volume 61, No. 3

Winter 1949

FAIR ISLE BIRD OBSERVATORY
First Report, 1948
Part II— Migration

Compiled by

Kenneth Williamson, Director

The Fair Isle Bird Observatory was open to visiting ornitholo-
gists from 25th August to the end of October in 1948, and
during that period daily observations on the autumn passage
were maintained. The following report summarises the
“ Migration Schedule ” entries during that period. The
notes for November and December are abstracted from the
log kept by the Warden, Mr Pat Robertson.

Observers

The following observers — visitors and members of the Fair
Isle community — contributed notes : Dr and Mrs R. Carrick ;
Messrs James Fisher, R. S. R. Fitter, Tom Hopkinson, W.
Humphreys; Lt.-Col. E. G. H. Goodwin; Messrs G. Theo
Kay, Ian Pitman; Mrs J. B. Priestley; Messrs James Rae,

R. A. Richardson, Pat Robertson, Alex. Stout, Jun., George
Stout, George Stout, Jun., James A. Stout, Jerome Stout,

L. S. V. Venables, George Waterston, Kenneth Williamson,
and James Wilson.

17 APR 2 5 '95°

i3o

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

Weather Summary

On the whole, the weather during the autumn of 1948 was
not favourable to the observation of migrants at Fair Isle,
and there was no volume of bird movement until the second
week in October. The season began promisingly enough with
fair weather and moderate south-east wind on several days in
late August and early September, bringing small numbers
of summer visitors returning from Scandinavia. This move-
ment was at its best between the 9th and nth, but conditions
deteriorated and there followed a spell of westerly weather
(with a full gale on the 17th which took the island’s fulmars
out to sea) until the 24th to 26th. These three days of bright
weather, with light south-east breezes, were succeeded by a
four-days’ gale with the wind between south and west, which
brought migration temporarily to a standstill.

The wind continued in this quarter until 8th October,
when a south-east gale brought a rush of redwings and a number
of goldcrests, blackbirds, and other late autumn immigrants
to the British Isles. From then on, apart from the 24th and
the 28th to 30th (when fresh south-east winds brought in
woodcocks and blackbirds), the wind varied between south-west
and north-west, frequently reaching gale force. An especially
severe north-west gale, gusting at nearly 100 m.p.h., destroyed
the Ward Hill “ Heligoland ” trap on 25th October. There
was another change to south-east at the beginning of November,
bringing in a further “ rush ” of blackbirds.

Migration

Carrion Crow Corvus cor one.

One kept company with a hoodie for several days in late
July. Single birds on dates between 10th September and
1 6th October. One on 22nd September had the belly dark
slate and may have been a hybrid Corvus corone X cornix.

Rook Corvus frugilegus .

Two on 16th October; 3 from 25th November for a
fortnight.

J AC KD AW Corvus monedula .

Singly in stubble, 10th, 1 ith and 13th October. One of two

1949

FAIR ISLE BIRD OBSERVATORY

131

examined at close quarters on 14th October had the dark under-
parts and obscure collar of Corvus m. spermologus.

Starling Sturnus vulgaris.

Two caught at Skaddan Lighthouse on the nights of
9th- loth and nth- 12th October were considered, on the form
of the bill, to be migrants of the typical race. A local Sturnus
v. zetlandicus ringed on Fair Isle on 24th October was
found dead at Cairnbulg, near Fraserburgh, Aberdeenshire, on
24th March 1949.

Rosy Pastor Pastor roseus.

Adult male in worn breeding plumage, 6th August (see
Part I).

Greenfinch Chloris chloris.

Five in stubble, 28th October.

Redpoll Carduelis flammea.

One which arrived 18th September, and another 23rd
September, were Carduelis f. rostrata — see Part I. Redpolls
were seen among twites on several dates between 21st September
and 13th October, and flocks of 15 and 1 1 were associating with
twites on 7th and 14th October. Those examined at close
quarters were Carduelis f. flammea.

Twite Carduelis flavirostris .

Fluctuating numbers during October suggested frequent
passage movement.

BULLFINCH Pyrrhula p . pyrrhula .

The remains of an adult male, killed by a hawk or falcon,
were found at the Gully trap on 29th October.

Scarlet Grosbeak Carpodacus erythrinus .

Two immature birds or females in roots, 26th August, and
a single bird, 30th September (see Part I).

Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs.

A male, 25th September, 7 on 27th, increasing to 15-20
on following day. A few daily to 10th October and an influx
of over 50 on nth. Most of these passed through quickly,

132 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 61

leaving few only until 26th, when about 70 were recorded.
A few only after 29th. Several small flocks in the village area
on 14th November for a few days.

Brambling Fringilla montifringilla .

Singly, 26th and 30th September ; flock of 22 on 9th
October and influx of about 200 on nth. These passed on
and only single or very few birds were noted until 12 were seen
on 19th, with further parties of 10 or so on 24th and 26th.

Corn and Yellow Buntings Emberiza calandra and E.
citrinella.

Single birds on 10th October.

Little Bunting Emberiza pusilla.

Two in roots, 27th to 30th September; 2, nth and nth
October ; and 1 from 20th to 24th October (see Part I).

Ortolan Bunting Emberiza hortulana.

Singly, nth and 14th September.

Reed Bunting Emberiza schoeniclus.

Single bird, 4th September, and 2 from 10th to 14th
October.

Lapland Bunting Calcarius lapponicus .

Singly, 1 8th and 20th September and 15th October.

Snow Bunting Plectrophenax nivalis.

Six were seen to arrive, flying north-north-east to south-
south- west over Ward Hill, 6th September. Small numbers
(up to 16 on 22nd) were on the hill up to 28th, when about
30 were seen for a few days. About 50 arrived 23rd October,
and there was a flock of 400 to 500 (which had decreased by
half on the following day) in stubble at the South End on 26th.
A flock of about 200 arrived 4th November, and there were
additional large increases on 5th and 6th ; they were reduced
to about 60 by 8th and a few only on 10th and nth. About 150
were in the fields, 16th November, but all had gone by 23rd.
Two small lots were seen 29th November and about 100 on
1st December, with occasional birds afterwards.

1949

FAIR ISLE BIRD OBSERVATORY

133

Skylark Alauda arvensis.

Abundant passage-migrant in latter half of September and
October.

Woodlark Lullula arbor ea.

A flock of 15 in the village area, 1 ith October, and 2 on 26th.
Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis.

Single bird, 25th August; a few daily from 3rd to 15th
September, the most being 6 on 14th.

Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis.

Abundant passage-migrant, August to September, dwindling
to a few in early October.

Rock Pipit Anthus spinoletta.

An apparent influx was noticed on 16th September, the
bird being numerous in the cropped area ; a decrease was
noted on 26th. Again unusually common, 15th November.

Blue-headed Wagtail Motacilla f. flava.

Spring migrant reported 1st June. In autumn, single birds
were seen 15th and 19th September.

White Wagtail Motacilla a. alba.

Autumn passage began with 3 juveniles, 14th August, and
became marked following 26th, with increases 2nd and 3rd
September and a notable decrease on 9th. Few only each day
subsequently until 23rd, then a single bird until 1st October
(see Part I).

Great Grey Shrike Lanius excubitor.

One, 3rd September ; 2 on 1 ith October, 1 of which remained
and was found slain by a falcon on 14th. One, carrying a
wren, 6th November (see Part I).

Red-backed Shrike Lanius collurio.

Two young birds trapped and ringed, 30th August and 1st
September (see Part I).

Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata.

Singly, 28th to 30th August; 3, 14th September.

134

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

Pied Flycatcher Muscicapa hypoleuca.

A few, 26th August, and 2 on 28th. About 12 on 3rd
September, 7 on 4th, and one or two on 5th and 6th. None
seen subsequently until 10th (3) and nth (8) September;
singly, 14th and 15th, and 2 on 25th.

GOLDCREST Regulus regulus .

A number arrived 9th October and a few remained next
day. Two on 18th October and 2 in roots, 20th and 21st. One
on nth November.

CHIFFCHAFF Phylloscopus collybita.

Definitely identified: 13th August (2), 20th (3), 26th (3),
31st and 3rd September (3), 28th (2). The 3rd September birds
were dark brownish above without olive tinge and whitish
below with buff-washed breast and flanks, suggesting Phyllos-
copus c. tristis or Phylloscopus c. abietinus-tristis intergrades.

Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus.

Definitely identified ; 26th August, 27th (6), and 4 each day
to 30th. Singly on most days to 15th September.

Leaf Warblers, not certainly identified as to species, were
recorded nth August — the first of the season — and from
26th August (12) to 6th September (4), singly 8th and 23rd,
and 3 on 28th.

Yellow-browed Warbler Phylloscopus inornatus .

Single bird in roots 27th and 28th September (see Part I).

Garden Warbler Sylvia borin.

One trapped 26th August; noted 3rd September (3),
4th (2), and singly 9th to nth and 13th.

Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla.

Female, 16th September; adult male trapped 6th October;
male seen at a cabbage plot 12th to 15th October.

Whitethroat Sylvia communis.

Late spring migrant, 8th June. One or two, 28th to 30th
August; singly 2nd, 3rd, and 13th September.

1949

FAIR ISLE BIRD OBSERVATORY

35

Lesser Whitethroat Sylvia curruca.

One, 28th August; one or two, 2nd to 6th September, a
bird trapped on the last date being typical race. Singly,
9th and 10th September, and again, 25th to 28th.

Fieldfare Turdns pilaris.

Twenty on Ward Hill, 25th October; influx of about 60
on 29th; about 20 on hill, 12th November, and 60 on 13th,
and a few on 12th December.

Pat Robertson’s notes contain an account of an exceptional
immigration of fieldfares in late December. The wind was
south-south-west (force 4) on the night of 24th-2 5th, and on
the morning of Christmas Day flocks were scattered over the
whole island, varying in strength from a few birds to over 200.
Most left during that night on a south wind (5-6), and only
a few small parties of half a dozen or so were seen on 26th.
A further influx came during the following night (wind south
by south-south-west, 8), and on 27th there was one lot of
over 300 and numerous smaller flocks. Most of these departed
on the night of 27th-28th (south-south- west, 8-10) and a few
only were seen on 28th. The wind had veered to west by
the morning of 29th, when again large numbers were about
in the crofting area, and more than 500 in the vicinity of
North Haven. About 100 remained in this part on the 30th
(west-south- west, 8), but there were fewer than previously over
the rest of the isle. There were still some numbers on 31st
and on to 2nd January 1949, but these had declined by 4th
January.

Song Thrush Turdus ericetorum.

One, 28th August ; one or two, 22nd September to 3rd
October; 7 on 13th October; 2 on 14th to 16th. Two killed
at Skaddan Lighthouse were preserved and were referred by Mr
A. B. Duncan to Turdus e. philomelus . Two trapped and
ringed 29th October and compared with these skins, were
greyer-olive above, especially on the rump. One or two most
days from late November.

Redwing Turdus musicus.

A single bird, the forerunner of many hundreds which
arrived on the night of 8th-9th October, was seen on 7th.

36

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

They remained abundant until the nth, but had decreased
by the following day. Additional flocks came on 2 1st and
25th, and a further decrease was apparent on 30th. Small
numbers, 8th November, again 15th November. Of 4 caught
in the Ward Hill trap at the same drive on the morning of
the 9th, 2 had wings measuring 115 mm. and 120 mm. and
appeared to be typical race, whilst a third had wing of 125 mm.
and the clouded breast markings of Turdus m. coburni.

Blackbird Turdus merula.

From one to three seen on many dates in August and Septem-
ber (one, perhaps two, pairs are believed to have bred in 1948).
Probable early immigrants at North Haven, 23rd July and
24th August. Some arrived with redwings on 9th October ;
there was a steady increase on subsequent days to 20 on 13th
and 30 on 16th. Birds were then few until a new influx on
25th October, with a further considerable increase on 29th and
in early November. Small increase on 15th November.

Ring Ouzel Turdus torquatus .

Singly, 18th and 29th October; 4 on 25th October.

Wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe.

Considerable movement in late July and throughout August
(very marked, 23rd and 24th) and September, with no noticeable
hiatus between exodus of local population and commencement
of passage of northern birds. Owing to the impossibility of
clearly differentiating the three intergrading forms — Oenanthe
oe. oenanthe , schidleri , and leucorhoa — in the field, no definite
dates for passage of “ Greenland Wheatear ” can be given.
Large birds were especially noticeable, however, on 26th
August, decreasing next day, 3rd, and 15th September.
Wheatears declined rapidly after the last date, and after 21st
not more than 6 were counted on any day. Between 1st and
16th October only one or two were seen daily.

WHINCHAT Saxicola rubetra.

Eight birds, 26th August, and 7 on 27th, with a few each
day until 8th September. Three on 12th September and singly
on several days to 28th to 30th (2), also on 1st and 2nd October.

1949

FAIR ISLE BIRD OBSERVATORY

137

Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus .

One, 27th August, 2 on 29th, and a few each day from 3rd to
9th September. Single female in roots, 13th to 15th October,
later found dead in a byre. An immature male flew into wheel
of a motor cycle, 31st October.

Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochrurus.

Female trapped and ringed, 29th October. One in village
area, 13th November.

BLUETHROAT Luscinia svecica.

Singly, 17th, 1 8th, 22nd, and 25th September.

Robin Erithaciis rubecula.

One, 9th and 10th September, and another on 16th. One or
two daily from 9th to 19th October, and from 26th on into
November.

Swallow Hirundo rustica.

Spring passage continued during first week of June.

House Martin Delichon urbica.

Several at South Harbour, 7th June, and considerable
north-bound passage, including two lots of 30 to 40 each, 9th
June.

Swift A pus apus.

More than 50 hawking over the fields on 25th July, and a
number, 26th to 28th July. Singly, 30th August, 2nd Septem-
ber, and 14th to 1 6th September.

Wryneck Jynx torquilla.

Two, 26th August ; singly, 4th and 25th September.

Long-eared Owl Asio otus.

One caught in an outhouse and ringed, 31st October.

Short-eared Owl Asio flammeus.

One seen alternate days, 23rd to 30th September ; 1 on

Ward Hill, 9th to 15th October.

Merlin Falco columbarius .

First seen 19th August, and present — sometimes 3 or 4 —
until 31st October (see Part I).

18

138 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 61

Kestrel Falco tinnunculus.

One seen alternate days, 24th to 30th August, and others on
4th, 7th and 8th, 10th (2), and nth September. A female was
seen 5th October and a single bird on 9th.

Buzzard Buteo buteo.

One circling over Ward Hill, 24th June.

Heron Ardea cinerea.

Singly on 29th June and 1st July, and on occasions in
July and August (5 on 7th August). One or more on most
days in September (8 on 23rd), and singly on occasional dates
in October and November.

Whooper Swan Cygnus cygnus.

Parties of from 3 to 10 birds seen on several dates from
nth to 28th October, and 2 on 14th November.

White-fronted Goose Anser albifrons .

A skein of about 50 was observed, 14th October, and 14
were seen on following day.

Skeins of unidentified grey geese were seen between 19th
and 24th October, and a grey-lag Anser anser was shot on
25th.

Mallard Anas platyrhynchos .

Seen regularly in small numbers (up to 12 on 30th October)
throughout the autumn. Four, 30th December.

Teal Anas crecca.

From one to three on occasions from late August to early
October, and a drake, 25th October. One, 8th November.

WlGEON Anas penelope.

Five, 3rd September ; singly on occasions during the month
and 7 on 27th. Up to 6 present for several days in mid-
October. Four flying south, 15th November.

Goldeneye Bucephala clangula.

Two (females or immatures), 27th October, and one on 31st.

Long-tailed Duck Clangula hy emails.

A single female, nth October, joined by a second on 15th.

1949

FAIR ISLE BIRD OBSERVATORY

139

Two, 1 8th to 23rd October. Three small flocks were seen
flying south-east between Fair Isle and Sumburgh Head
(Shetland) on 29th September. Three on 3rd December.

Red-breasted Merganser Mergus serrator.

Odd birds, June and July, 1 on 18th September and 6 on
20th. Singly, 27th and 28th September, 13th and 19th October.

Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo.

First arrivals from 10th October, with 3 on 14th and 7 on
15th.

Slavonian Grebe Podiceps auritus.

Two in North Haven, 28th October, and 1 on 29th and 31st.

Great Northern Diver Colymbus immer.

Two immature birds in South Haven, 9th July.

Red-throated Diver Colymbus stellatus.

Adult and immature bird in South Haven, 21st September;
one off North End, 29th September.

Wood Pigeon Columba palumbus.

Singly, loth and 26th October ; 2 adults and 1 immature,
27th; single bird, 29th and 30th. A dozen, 15th December, 7
on 17th, and fewer on following days to 24th.

Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur.

One in roots, 24th August, 1 at North Haven, 13th to 16th
September, and 1 in village area on 17th. Singly, 23rd, 26th
and 27th September.

Bar-tailed God wit Limosa lapponica.

Despite a heavy autumn passage of this species in the
south of Mainland, observed by L.S.V.V., only a single bird
was recorded on Fair Isle, on 17th September.

Curlew Numenius arquata.

Some movement on 1st and 27th July; sporadic passage
from 19th August, most noticeable 26th August to 12th Septem-
ber. Little migration in October, until 15th, then a few on
most days to 24th. Singly, 21st November and 9th December.

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Vol. 61

WHIMBREL Numenius phaeopus.

Late spring passage continued until mid-June, being strong
on some days in first week. Return movement slight — a few, •
5th August, and from 26th to 30th; singly, 23rd and 25th 1
September.

Woodcock Scolopax rusticola.

The earliest were 3 on nth October. A big movement
of about 300 occurred on night of 24th-2 5th October, and
there was a further considerable passage on 29th and 30th.

A dozen on Ward Hill, nth November, about 20 on 13th,

10 on 1 5th, and 3 on 27th.

SNIPE Capella gallinago.

Three flew in from south-east at dusk, 24th August.
Occasional throughout September, with 6 on 30th. Three
or four most days, 10th to 16th October, and occasional birds
afterwards.

JACK Snipe Limnocryptes minimus.

Singly, 6th September and 29th October.

TURNSTONE Arenaria interpres.

Two, nth August (adult in tortoiseshell plumage and a
young bird); 10 young birds, 19th; a few adults, 23rd, and
small parties of up to 25 throughout the autumn and winter.

KNOT Calidris canutus.

Two juveniles, 14th August ; 3 juveniles, 15th ; a red bird,.
23rd. Singly on three dates in early September and again
on 27th.

Dunlin Calidris alpina.

Three, 7th June ; 2 in summer dress, 10th ; 2 adults,

2 1st July ; 8 or 10 on 9th August and a few on most days from
nth, with 15 on 27th. Rather common, early September,
with a few only after nth. Singly, 8th and 10th October and
28th December.

Curlew Sandpiper Calidris testacea.

Three with dunlins, 26th September.

1949

FAIR ISLE BIRD OBSERVATORY

141

SANDERLING Crocethia alba.

Party of 5 (including 2 juveniles), 20th July; 1 1 , 21st, and
a few juveniles on most days up to end of August. Occasional
throughout September until last seen on' 15th (4).

Ruff Philomachus pugnax.

Juvenile, nth August; adults, 26th August and 4th
September.

Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos.

A few daily, 26th August to 6th September, with 5 on 3rd,
then occasional up to 15th.

Purple Sandpiper Calidris maritima.

Two, 17th September, and again 2nd October. One,
16th October, and 2 on 23rd to 25th. A dozen on South Haven
beach, 21st November, and odd birds or small parties through-
out the winter.

Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola.

Two, 26th August and 3rd September; 1, 6th September.

Redshank Tringa totanus.

One, 5th July; a few almost daily in late July and August
(8 on 13th and 27th) ; up to 6 on several occasions in September.
Noticeable increase, 25th October ; 9 on 6th November, 7 on
23rd, and 9 on 1st December.

GREENSHANK Tringa nebularia.

First heard, 12th August, and 2 on 26th.

Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula.

A few on most days from 21st July to end September, adults
and young (see Part I), with 20 on 13th August and 15 on
27th. Singly, 3rd and 15th October.

Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria.

Four on Ward Hill, 10th July. One or two, 26th and 27th
August, and again, 6th to 9th September. A dozen, 12th to
14th September, and 17 on 15th. A few in late September;
12 on 1st October and occasional birds up to 12th.

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Vol. 61

Lapwing Vanellus vanellus.

Eight on 20th August ; 24 from 27th to 30th, and a few,
1st September. Four, 10th September and single or few birds
occasionally during September and October. Thirteen on 5th
November, 6 on 12th.

Oyster-catcher Haematopus ostralegus .

After departure of breeding population in early September
a single slightly injured bird remained. Occasionally there
were one or more additional birds during the winter.

Common or Arctic Tern Sterna hirundo or S', macrura.

Two of one or the other species in North Haven, 29th and 30th
July and 26th August ; a single bird at the South Lighthouse,
4th and 5th September. Common tern in North Haven, 8th
September.

Black-headed Gull Larus ridibundus .

Pair in North Haven, end of June and 6th July. Juvenile
on Ward Hill, 20th July; adult with moulting wings, 21st.
Singly 14th August and 15th September; 2, 18th to 22nd
September; and 8 flying past south-west coast, 16th October.

Common Gull Larus canus.

Two, 27th August, increasing to 14 by 29th; fewer until
3rd September, when 21 were counted. Common for several
days, then few only during middle of month until a large
influx of over a hundred occurred on 27th. These had gone by
end of the month and another hundred or so arrived 1 ith October
but had passed on by 13th. Single bird, 27th October.

Herring Gull Larus argentatus .

Unusually large number (550 on Bu Ness and similar flocks
at South End and in village area) on 12th December, with
decrease 13th and normal numbers only by 15th. Another
influx, with many glaucous gulls, 29th December.

Lesser Black back Larus fuscus.

Seven (perhaps immigrants), 1 ith September, after departure
of breeding birds. Occasional birds only afterwards, the last
on 22nd September and 8th October.

1949

FAIR ISLE BIRD OBSERVATORY

M3

Greater Blackback Larus viarinus.

Five adults in South Haven, 2nd August. Fifty adults
and immature birds on Meo Ness, 12th August, were probably
on passage. Flocks of 60 to 80 noted 26th and 27th September.
A large party of migrants with glaucous gulls (over 50 in all)
on Bu Ness, 19th October, had gone by following day.

Glaucous Gull Larus hyperboreus .

A single immature, 22nd September. At least 10 (9 adults,
1 immature counted) on Bu Ness with greater blackbacks,
evening of 19th October, but only 1 immature seen on island
next day. A number, 12th and 29th December.

Little Auk Plautus alle.

Large numbers reported by crew of the Good Shepherd off
Sumburgh Head in mid-December. Remains of many birds
(killed and eaten by greater blackbacks ?) were scattered over
Bu Ness and found even on top of Ward Hill.

Moorhen Gallinula chloropus.

Singly, 28th and 31st August, also on 8th, nth, and 13th
October and 8th November.

Water Rail Rallus aquaticus.

One, 2nd October (see Part I). Others, 6th, 10th to 12 th,
and 25th. Three were caught and ringed on dates in early and
mid-November.

Quail Coturnix coturnix.

One reported nth September.

CORRECTION

Our attention has been called to an error in the note on the continental
song thrush in the First Report of the Fair Isle Bird Observatory
(Vol. 61, p. 25). The parasitic worm Porrocaecum ensicaudatum is
a nematode and not a tapeworm as stated. — Editors.

144

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

DOMINANCE IN THE GREAT TIT PARUS MAJOR

Anne D. Brian
Cardross, Dunbartonshire

WHILE watching the behaviour of birds feeding on scraps in
the winter of 1948-49 on a farm in Dunbartonshire it was
noticed that, in addition to the interspecific dominance
described by Colquhoun (1942) and Morley (1942) whereby
great tits Parus major dominated blue tits P. caeruleus ,
and blue tits dominated coal tits P. ater , the great tits appeared
to have a certain dominance relationship among themselves.
This was confirmed by colour ringing all the great tits that
came for food and noting the reactions between individuals,
when it was found that a straight line dominance order
existed among the seven males, broken at one point by a
triangular relationship between three of the birds. The
females were very closely associated with their mates and
possessed a similar dominance order. Investigating the
distribution of the birds away from the feeding place, it was
found that each bird could usually be found within a certain
area and that the position of a bird in the dominance order
corresponded with the distance of its territory from the
feeding place; thus, the farther away a bird’s territory, the
lower its status. A similar relation between territory and
dominance has been described in blue tits P. caeruleus by
Colquhoun (1942).

Circumstances did not permit a thorough study of the
question of dominance in the great tit, but the results obtained,
though incomplete, are perhaps of sufficient interest for
publication.

Dominance

Regular observations at the feeding place began in January
1949 and were continued into the breeding season. The food
usually consisted of a bone, hanging from some twigs, on
which two or at most three birds could feed at the same time.
Observations were made from a window six feet away at very
frequent intervals. Table 1 gives the relevant information

1949

DOMINANCE IN THE GREAT TIT

145

about all the great tits that were regular visitors ; unmarked
great tits only very occasionally came to the food. The birds
are arranged in order of dominance, the males being lettered
alphabetically in italic capitals and the females having the
small letter corresponding to that of their mate. When a male
had more than one mate during the period of observation
they have been lettered ai, a2 , etc.

The relationship between any two great tits was assessed
in two ways

1. If the dominant bird of the two happened to be feeding
when the other arrived, the subdominant would wait on the
twigs nearby and the dominant would either continue feeding
or chase it away, the reaction probably varying according to
the bird’s hunger.

2. If the subdominant was on the bone first, the dominant
would fly straight at it and it would leave before the dominant
landed.

In cases to be mentioned later, where the order of dominance
was not properly established, a particular type of posturing
occurred but no neutral contacts (two birds feeding quietly
side by side) unless the two were mated.

Table i

Males, in
order of
dominance

Date ringed

Mates

Distance of
territory
from food
(yards) 1

Breeding

on

territory

A

17th Nov. 1947

ai, Jan. to 8th Feb.
1949

a2, Feb. 1949 on-
wards

80

Yes, 50 yards
from food

B

5th Feb. 1949

bi up to Mar. 1949
bi (previously mated
to D), Mar. 1949
onwards

150

Yes

C

8th Feb. 1949

Not seen

Not known

Not known

D

14th Feb. 1949

b2 up to Mar. 1949
(later mated, tp B)

220

No

E

1 6th Nov. 1947

e

190

Not known

F

24th Jan. 1948

Unmarked

310

Yes

G

14th Jan. 1949

Unmarked

600

Probably

H2

3rd Apr. 1949

Unmarked

310

Yes

1 This is the average of all occasions on which the birds were seen away from
the feeding place.

2 Status unknown.

19

Subdominant

146 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 61

Table 2

Dominant

Table 2 gives the results of all contacts observed between
any two of the great tits. The vertical columns give the
number of occasions on which each bird dominated others,
and the horizontal columns give the number of occasions on
which a bird was dominated by others. Since the birds are
arranged in order of dominance, males first and then females,
any contacts shown above the diagonal line represent
deviations from normal relationship.

The table can be divided into three parts, as follows : — •

1. Contacts of males with males (top left-hand corner).

There are two deviations here

(a) The relationship between A and B was
uncertain ;

! 1949 DOMINANCE IN THE GREAT TIT 147

( b ) There was a triangular relationship between
C, D , and E, C being dominant to E , E to
D and D to C.

Both these cases can be attributed to territorial
considerations and will be discussed later. H became
a regular visitor to the food too late for his position
in the group to be established.

2. Contacts of females with females, bottom right-hand
corner.

The figures are small here for two reasons : —

(a) The females very rarely visited the food unaccom-

panied by their mates.

( b ) Fewer females than males used the feeding place.

F and G , the two most distant males, though seen
with unmarked females in their territories, always
came to the food alone. Possibly females do not
travel as far as males.

The contacts which were observed indicated that a female
dominance system existed. The exception to the normal
female order, when bi dominated a2, occurred while a2 was
new to the feeding place and to her mate and therefore possibly
uncertain of her position, b 1 dominated b2 while the latter
was mated to D , but all reactions between b2 and e were seen
after b2 had become mated to B.

The female dominance order was distinct from that of the
males, but complementary in that the members of a pair
occupied corresponding positions, the one in the male the other
in the female order. Whether the social position of a female
among females is due to locality or male status cannot be
determined in the case of mated females as the two factors
are inextricably confounded. The behaviour of unmated
females, if such could be found, might throw light on this.
In the jackdaw Corvus monedula the female takes the social
position of her mate and will threaten not only subordinate
females but also subordinate males (Lorenz, 1935).

3. Contacts of males with females, bottom left and top
right-hand corners.

148

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

Males nearly always dominated females. When a female
did dominate a male it was her mate on all but three occasions,
and of these three, two, b 1 and e dominating A, happened
while A was trying to acquire a new mate. Dominance of a
female over a male was only shown by the male waiting while
the female fed and never by the female chasing the male off.

Territory

The map shows the situation of the feeding place, the woods
and hedges nearby, and the places in which the various males
were seen when not at the feeding-place ; A and B were seen
so often that not all the records are given in their cases. It
was not possible to define the boundaries of a territory, in
fact these probably did not exist as fixed lines, but each bird
had a certain area in which it was usually to be found and
in which it sang and later (in four cases) nested. The con-
nection between position in the dominance order and distance
from territory is clear, in fact each male could be said to
possess a field of influence diminishing outwards from a locus
in which he was most frequently present. The discrepancies in
Table 2 already mentioned can be clarified on this basis.

At the beginning of the observations A consistently
dominated his nearest neighbour B ; but when A lost his mate,
B began to challenge his supremacy, and boundary displays,
as described later, occurred whenever the two birds met. At
first B seemed to get the better of these disputes, but later
neither bird could be said to be dominant, and further contacts
have not been noted in Table 1. At this time, while the food
apparently occupied a position intermediate between the
territories of A and B , an attempt was made to confirm the
connection between dominance and territory by moving the
food, a few yards at a time, first along the hedge towards B's
territory and then towards A* s. Up to 40 yards in each
direction from the feeding place the same boundary displays
were observed ; but at greater distances the male, towards
whose territory the food was being moved, chased off the
other male and his mate without any posturing, and was
completely dominant in each case. The transition zone
between these two territories at that time was therefore about
80 yards wide.

'949

DOMINANCE IN THE GREAT TIT

149

Fig. 1. — Map of woods and hedges around the feeding place and positions
in which the male great tits were seen.

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

150

The triangular system existing between C, D, and E
was probably due to the fact that their territories, though not
contiguous, were equidistant from the feeding place. This
was certainly the case with D and E. Unfortunately C was
never seen away from the feeding place, but quite possibly
had his territory near the farm (about 240 yards distant)
where it was not possible to watch closely.

The dominance order was not firmly established between
any of these three males, and posturing, as described in the
next section, always preceded a definite reaction.

Conclusive proof of the connection between territory and
dominance would perhaps have been afforded if permanent
feeding places had been established at other places, for
example, in the territory of G.

Display

Two types of display were used frequently by the great
tits : — -

1. The body was held horizontally with wings and tail
spread and feathers slightly fluffed out.

2. The body was held almost vertical with the bill pointing
straight upwards, thus showing off the black line down the
chest. The wings were held close to the body, the tail at most
only slightly spread and the feathers sleek and smooth.

The horizontal posture was seen frequently at the feeding
place in the following circumstances : — •

{a) when a great tit threatened birds of other species
feeding with it, chiefly blue tits P. caeruleus, but
also robins Erithacus rubecula and hedge-sparrows
Prunella modularis ;

( b ) when a dominant male threatened a subordinate male
that happened to be recalcitrant, though status was
normally well established ;

[d) when a female threatened another female, usually in
the absence of males ;

(d) when a male threatened a female other than his mate.
(The vertical posture would be used here too.)

1949

DOMINANCE IN THE GREAT TIT

151

The horizontal posture was not seen away from the feeding
place. The vertical posture (described subsequently as
“ pointing ”) was used at the feeding place in the following
circumstances : —

(a) by males (and their mates if these were there) between

which the peck order was not established, as on the
boundary between territories [A and B ) and at
equal distances from territories ( D and E) ;

( b ) between mates, particularly in the early stages of

mating ;

( c ) by females, at males other than their mates ;

( d ) by a male at a female (other than its mate) — also

horizontal posture used (see ( d ) above) ;

( e ) bird A was particularly addicted to this posture,

whether because it is the usual behaviour of a male in
his own territory or because of an individual
idiosyncrasy is not known. He was the only male
that was seen to “ point ” at blue tits and always
“ pointed 5 ’ at female great tits other than his own
mate.

Away from the feeding place the vertical posture was seen
on a number of occasions

1 . A female was once seen “ pointing ” at G in his territory
when she tried to share some food with him.

2. A number of boundary displays were seen, as follows : —

(a) one between G , his unmarked mate and an unmarked

pair 700 yards from the feeding place and probably
on G’s western boundary ;

(b) three times between B and F and their mates at different

places from 200 to 400 yards from the feeding place
in the part of the wood occupied for a time by D ;

( c ) twice between A and H at two places on the northern

edge of A' s territory.

During these boundary displays the birds hopped about
from branch to branch, the males uttering characteristic calls—
most often a rather long-drawn-out repetition of the low note
of the “ see-saw ” song and sometimes a half-speed version

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of that song. The normal song was also used, but less
frequently. The females chiefly used the scolding note, but
b2 on one occasion gave the normal cock’s song.

The usual procedure was for one male to fly up to the
other, “ pointing ” as it landed, when the other male
“ pointed ” in reply and both birds retreated a bit. Often
one male would fly at the opposing female, to be threatened
himself by her mate. Sometimes they would flutter in the air,
still holding the vertical posture as far as possible. Usually
it was impossible to say which pair “ won,” but sometimes
there would be a definite retreat on one side.

Displays of this type took place several times a day between
pairs A and B at the feeding place, but the males were only
twice seen actually fighting, both times during the incubation
period. The females usually took part in these disputes, even
if they were incubating at the time. One that was watched
between pairs B and F from start to finish lasted for fifteen
minutes. It seems probable that if the birds nested at closer
quarters and had smaller territories, these disputes might be
so frequent as to interfere seriously with nesting. As it was,
in this wood at any rate, the great tits were well spaced out
in the breeding season, leaving suitable holes available for
blue tits in between.

If the attempt is made to generalise about the conditions
eliciting the two types of display, it would seem that the
horizontal posture is solely a threat attitude which can be
used by one great tit towards another when there is no danger
of retaliation, since the threatened bird always departs at once.
As a threat, too, this display has interspecific significance
since it has been seen used to threaten other small passerines
with which great tits came into contact when feeding on
scraps off the ground. In this case, however, the threat was
often observed to be mutual, and a great tit would posture
either in attack against robins, hedge-sparrows and other tits,
or else in retaliation against the threats of a robin or male
hedge-sparrow .

The vertical posture, on the other hand, appears to be
almost entirely of intraspecific significance, though blue tits
have been seen to “ point ” occasionally in a mild way, and
on one occasion a great tit, A, “ pointed ” at a blue tit which

1949

DOMINANCE IN THE GREAT TIT

153

responded in a similar manner. Between great tits this
display appears to be used in several different circumstances,
a common occurrence among birds ; for, to quote from
Armstrong (1947), “ Sex recognition, individual recognition,
sex stimulation, intimidation and dominance, territorial
advertisement and defence — several of these functions may be
served by a particular display.”

This vertical display is well designed, as is usual among
birds, to show off the most striking character of the great tit’s
plumage, the black line down the centre of the chest ; and
the greater width and length of this line in the male than in
the female, together with the brighter plumage, may reasonably
be presumed to be associated with the male’s more frequent
use of this posture.

It was thought at first that the dominant males at the
feeding place had wider and more conspicuous black lines
down their chests than the subdominants, but when the birds
were held in the hand no difference was apparent and it was
very hard to define the edge of the line to measure it. Probably
the cause of the difference lay in the way the feathers were
held, dominant birds looking very sleek and smooth, while
the subdominants were rather fluffed out. As an example
of this difference, F always looked a rather poor specimen
with a narrow patchy black stripe when seen beside B at the
feeding place, but when they were seen together in a boundary
dispute near F’s territory there was no apparent difference
between the two. Their confidence was reflected in their
courage and appearance— spruce, strikingly well-groomed birds
on their accustomed ground, but much duller and less tidy
when away.

Pair Formation

Although pair formation was not the object of study it
was of importance in determining the dominance relations
between the great tits, and some notes on the subject are
therefore included. It was easy to decide when a pair of birds
were mated, since they were nearly always seen about together
and would feed side by side on the bone with hardly any
posturing, or the male would wait quietly nearby while the
female was feeding.

20

54

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The history of the resident male, A, is known from the
winter of 1947-48, when he was ringed. He and his marked
mate nested in an oak tree, 100 yards from the feeding place,
in 1948, and were seen about together all the rest of the
summer and autumn. Some time during December 1948 the
female disappeared, but A was soon mated again. This mate,
a 1 , was killed on 8th February 1949 by flying against a window,
so, knowing that A was without a mate, a close watch was
kept on his activities. He sang very frequently, and at least
three unmarked females visited the food, an unusual occurrence.
Contacts between A and one or other of these females were
seen several times. A would fly up to a female, “ pointing ”
as he landed near her, when the female would “ point ” in
reply and fly off followed by A. This behaviour was repeated
over and over again, chiefly with one of the females which
gradually began to stand her ground when A approached,
until after a day or two both birds were feeding side by side
though still “ pointing ” as they fed. Gradually posturing
died down and the pair could be called “ established ” after
about a week. The type of behaviour described here was
shown by A to all females at the feeding place, but when
he was mated matters never proceeded beyond the initial
stages, since his mate would always fly up and chase the
other female off — a method of maintaining fidelity not unknown
in other animals !

When on or near their own territory the members of a
pair were nearly always seen together, and a number of
advantages would appear to arise from this behaviour : —

1. It may aid in maintaining the pair, in view of the
large size and rather ill-defined boundaries of the territory.
The song of the male may also assist in this, since several
times, when a male singing alone was watched, he was joined
very soon by his mate ; and once when a female, sitting preening
herself, was being watched a male began to sing about 50 yards
away and she immediately flew towards the sound.

2. It may assist in defending the territory against other
great tits, since it seemed on several occasions that an unmated
male was at a disadvantage in competition with a mated pair.

1949

DOMINANCE IN THE GREAT TIT

155

Three examples may be given : —

(a) When A lost his mate in February, B , who had

previously always behaved as a subdominant, began
to “ point ” at A and even to chase him.

(b) When D lost his mate to B in March he never acquired

a new one, though for a few weeks he was seen in
his territory singing loudly ; then he disappeared
and B and F extended their territories into his for
the nesting season.

(c) On one occasion when A and a2 were still in the

courting stage the pair chased B off the bone where
he was feeding alone after a short bout of ‘ ‘ pointing. ’ ’
B returned, however, almost at once accompanied
by bi, and after more posturing 02 , still probably
uncertain of her position, flew off and A very soon
retreated also. In later disputes, when a2 was well
established, she stood her ground, and it was
impossible to say which pair was dominant.

3. It may be an advantage to the female in encounters
with other males. For example, a was always chased off
the bone if she was feeding alone, but when, as was usually
the case, A was in the neighbourhood she was not interfered
with.

REFERENCES

Armstrong, E. A., 1947. Bird Display and Behaviour . London.

Colquhoun, M. K., 1942. “ Notes on the Social Behaviour of Blue Tits,”
Brit. Birds , 35, 234-240.

Lorenz, K., 1935. “ Der Kumpan in der Umwelt des Vogels: Der

Artgenosse als auslosendes Moment sozialer Verhaltungsweisen,”
/. Orn., 83, 137-213, 289-413.

Morley, A., 1942. “ Effects of Baiting on the Marsh Tit,” Brit. Birds ,

35, 261-266.

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Vo/. 61

156

A LIST OF THE TIPULINAE (DIPTERA NEMA-
TOCERA) OF THE SOLWAY AREA, WITH
SOME NOTES ON THE HABITATS OF THE
ADULTS.

E. S. Brown and Arthur B. Duncan
Hertford Tynron

In this paper we deal in a preliminary way with the Tipulinae
found in the Solway area and more particularly in the county
of Dumfries and the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright, though
records from other counties in Southern Scotland have been
included.

During the seasons of 1943 and 1944 we both worked fairly
intensively on the Tipulidae of this area and hope to deal
with the so-called short-palped craneflies and other related
families in future papers. Since 1944 one of us (A. B. D.)
has continued to work in this area and the list is therefore the
outcome of over five years’ work, some of it of a fairly desultory
character.

Coe, in Kloet and Hincks’ A Check List of British Insects ,
1 945 , whose nomenclature we have followed, lists seven genera
of Tipulinae , and the species contained in these genera and
found in Britain and in our area are : —

Genus.

British

Species.

Solway

Species.

Tipula .

56

34

N ephrotoma .

15

5

Prionocera

3

1

Dolichopeza .

1

1

Dictinidia

1

0

T any p ter a

2

0

Ctenophora

3

0

Although further search will doubtless reveal other species
in the area — it is a large one and there is no need to stress
the difficulties of travel over the last few years — we are con-
fident that the list gives a substantially whole view of the

1949

TIPULINAE OF THE SOLWAY AREA

57

status of the larger daddy-long-legs in our area ; and the
fact that three of the species here listed are new to Scotland
emphasises once more the vast amount of preliminary work
yet to be done before we have an adequate knowledge of even
such conspicuous and attractive insects as those composing
this group.

Tipula fulvipennis Degeer. 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 100 (Bute).1

A widespread and very common species with a very long
season (records extend unbroken from 3rd June to 5th Septem-
ber) ; found in most types of habitat and particularly common
in woods, where the combination of its peculiar wing-pattern
and rapid jerky flight make it very difficult to follow on the
wing, particularly the male. Its predilection for shady places
may be correlated with these characters to give it a selective
advantage, but it is also found in more open habitats such as
bracken-covered hillsides. The above status and length of
season are in agreement with what is recorded for the Glasgow
district by Henderson (1901).

Tipula maxima Poda. 72, 73.

This fine insect is locally common from late May to early
July; it seems most at home in marshy ground in woods or
open pasture, though it was common in a very dry glen at
Newlands (72) on 20th May 1944. A female was observed
ovipositing on 29th May 1943 ; she hovered over wet ground
in a shady wood thrusting her abdomen into the soil at intervals.
While working its haunts one sometimes puts up three or four
males at once, and search at the spot whence they rise is likely
to reveal a female.

Tipula vittata M eigen. 72, 73.

This handsome species has a short and very early season ;
Audcent states that it is found in damp woods in April, but
in the Dumfries district it appeared first on 26th April and
was found as late as 20th May, none being seen after this
date, although favourable localities were worked during the

1 The numbers 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 79, 80, 100 refer to the vice-counties Dumfries,
Kirkcudbright, Wigtown, Ayr, Renfrew, Selkirk, Roxburgh, Clyde Isles,
respectively.

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Vo/. 61

following ten days. While it affects damp places it is by no
means confined to woods, and was found in plenty beside
an exposed ditch where the current was sluggish and the
banks grassy, and beside lochs, one of which was again
unshaded. A female was seen ovipositing in damp moss on
rocks beside a rapid river, in a damp shady wood on 20th
May 1944.

Tipula variicornis Schummel. 72.

This distinctive insect was found in late May and June
in Dumfriesshire, where it was local, though quite common
at Tynron in damp woods and shady places beside burns.
The mated pairs have a predilection for sitting on bracken
fronds. Henderson (1901) records this insect from the Glasgow
area under the name of Pachyrrhina lunulicornis Meigen.

Tipula rubripes Schummel. 72.

This apparently rare species turned up only at Tynron ;
here it is not uncommon in woods, usually but not always
damp ones, in June. Several, including two pairs in cop.,
were taken on walls of outbuildings at Lannhall. A female
ovipositing on 3rd June 1944 repeatedly thrust her abdomen
down vertically through dry leaves on dry ground in an oak
wood.

Tipula scripta Meigen. 72, 73.

This is perhaps the commonest woodland species in summer
and has a long season; our records extend from 12th May
(a female gravid with eggs) to 12th August. Henderson (1901)
records it for September, which is interesting, as Audcent also
states that it is an autumn species.

Tipula variipennis Meigen. 72, 73.

Very common in late May and early June, chiefly in damp
woods and shady places by water, but also on open hillsides
and rough, damp fields. One was taken on the very summit
of Lamachan in the Glen Trool area at a height of 2,349 feet.
Cuthbertson (1926) states that the larvae live on mosses growing
on rocks and stone dykes, usually near water. The locality
in which we found the adult most abundant in this area was

1949

TIPULINAE OF THE SOLWAY AREA

159

a stream-side with a certain amount of shade and coarse grass
near Dumfries ; here several mated pairs were observed on
23rd May 1944, but there were no rocks nor stone dykes nearby.
A similar area at the Cluden Water on 29th May 1944 also
held a strong population. A pair were found mating here under
extraordinary circumstances, the male being alive, and the
female dead and in process of being eaten by a Cordylurid
fly ; it may have been victimised while in cop.

A point of interest in this species is the variation in the
colour of the basal antennal segments. Typically the first
is grey and the second yellowish (according to Audcent), the
flagellum being dark grey ; the form with the antennae all
black has been called Tipula nigricornis MacQ., distinguished
by some authors as a separate species ; the difference between
the type and nigricornis , therefore, depends mainly upon the
colour of the second antennal segment. Sufficient material
has been examined for us to be able to state that in the area
under review both forms occur, with a probably continuous
range of variation in between. Details of some specimens
are

17th May 1944. — Tynron, 2 males with second antennal
segment almost black.

22nd May 1944. — Cluden Water (73), 1 female with second
antennal segment black.

23rd May 1944. — Barony (72), 8 males and 2 females all,
save 1, with all-black antennae.

3rd June 1944. — Tynron, 1 male with second antennal
segment yellow.

13th June 1944. — Langholm (72), common, specimens
tended towards the type, but the second antennal segment
was by no means clear yellow; in one pair in cop. both
had this segment more or less black, but in the male it
was definitely darker than in the female.

1 7th- 1 8th June 1944. — Glen Trool district, common, all
with second antennal segment black.

It is clear, therefore, that there is a more or less continuous
variation in this character, and that in this district the type

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Vol. 61

is rare and the bias of variation is towards the nigricornis
end of the range. There does not appear any good reason for
using the name nigricornis for a mere colour variety, par-
ticularly as the variation affects a part of the anatomy where
the colour is very variable in the Tipulidae.

Regarding other variation in this species, one male was
found where the discal cell was open on one wing, which must
be rare in this genus ; also one female in which the vein R2
reached the costa on one wing only, and another in which it
reached the costa in both wings.

Tipula hortulana Meigen. 72, 73.

Fairly common in shady places in May and early June.
Variation was found in the extent of R2 in the wing. Audcent
states that it does not reach the costa in this species, but in
females there is a tendency for it to do so, and in one example
it attained it completely. Reliance should not, therefore, be
put on this character except possibly in the male.

Tipula rufina Meigen. 72, 73, 75.

This common species occurs freely on walls of buildings
and woods in spring and autumn ; it was particularly partial
to the black-painted corrugated iron roofs of ammunition
shelters. The spring and autumn broods were more completely
and definitely separated than those of any other species of the
genus; in 1944 it was found from mid-April till 15th May,
and there was then a complete hiatus until 28th July.

Tipula unc a Wiedmann. 72,73.

A very common species in shady places by rivers and burns,
and also on open marshy ground from late May to late July.

Tipula macrocera Zetterstedt. 72.

Found sparingly in meadows of upland valleys in April.

Tipula cheethami Edwards. 73.

A single example only has been taken, by the Cluden
Water near Dumfries. It is surprising that this typically

t949 TIPULINAE OF THE SOLWAY AREA 161

mountain species has not yet been taken here at high altitudes,
and that the only one so far taken was from a lowland locality.

Tipula marmorata Meigen. 72, 73, 74, 79.

Common in late August and September, chiefly on open
hillsides and dry heaths. This is one of the species that has a
predilection for sitting on houses and buildings.

Tipula alpium Bergroth. 72, 73.

In the Glen Trool area it was locally common at altitudes
from 1,000 to 2,000 feet in June, in which month a single
male was taken on a window at Lannhall, Tynron.

Tipula staegeri Nielsen. 72.

Found at Tynron in late September and October, to a
large extent in the immediate vicinity of conifers, but also in
deciduous woods.

Tipula signata Staeger. 72.

Found quite commonly in late September and October, but
so far always in association with either Norway or Sitka
spruce from the branches of which trees they are easily dis-
turbed by beating.

Tipula pabulina Meigen. 72, 73.

Found, not very commonly, in woods in June; although
it has been got in both dry and damp deciduous woods, it
seems to be most common in dry oak woods on hillsides.

Tipula oleracea Linnaeus. 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 80.

Widespread and fairly common but never abundant.
Audcent (1932) states that it is double-brooded (May to June
and September to October). This may be partly true, but in
the Solway area it was found more or less continuously from
early May to early September (records in 1944 were : May

11,12,13,17,24,27; June 7, 13, 17, 24, 27 ; July 6, 8, 13, 1 7,
20, 24, 26, 31 ; August 10, 12, 21, 27; September 3). It was
probably most numerous in the latter half of May and in
June, being largely replaced by T . paludosa in early July ;
it was generally found in open pasture, especially in damp

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162

places, and in smaller numbers in woodland. It is one of the
few species taken on salt marshes, and here the individuals
tend to be smaller.

Tipula czizeki de Jong. 72.

On 9th October 1949 this species was found in a boggy
field at Tynron. This insect is very distinctive in the field
having the cobby and rather coarse appearance of paludosa
rather than the finely made build of oleracea : so distinct

indeed is its appearance that the first one seen was recognised
at a distance of several yards although never seen previously
save in the cabinet. The small colony provided examples
until 1 6th October but by 23rd October no more were to be
seen. This appears to be the first published record of the
species in Scotland although E.S.B. has taken the species in
the Pentlands previously.

Tipula paludosa Meigen. 72, 73.

Probably the most abundant cranefly of pastures, especially
damp permanent ones, throughout the area. It is a late summer
and early autumn species, being most abundant in July and
August. In 1944, when practically continuous records of
craneflies were maintained throughout the season, it was first
found on 29th May, a single female. No further examples
were seen till 21st June, and it began to be really common
in the first few days of July. It appears that both T. paludosa
and T . oleracea have rather long seasons, the emphasis in
the former species being in the later and of the latter in the
early part. A female was seen ovipositing in a gravel path
over which it hovered and plunged its ovipositor rhythmically
into the hard surface. In the Glen Trool district the species
was found up to at least 1 ,000 feet and possibly higher.

A number of females were found on 2nd August 1944 by
the Cluden Water near Dumfries, their legs clasped round
grass stems or other vegetation and their abdomina swollen
and whitish, as though infested with an internal fungus.
Similar observations have been made repeatedly since, usually
in wettish weather, and this disease can no doubt account
for a large number of casualties in a dense population such as
frequently obtains in paludosa.

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TIPULINAE OF THE SOLWAY AREA

163

Tipula vernalis Meigen. 72, 73.

Found commonly in May and early June on dry pastures
and by roadsides. It is one of the few species which is
apparently quite independent of dampness in its habitat, and
was the only one of the genus found on temporary leys.

Tipula siibnodicornis Zetterstedt. 72, 73, 74.

Very plentiful locally in boggy heath and marshy areas
in pasture, especially the former. Audcent states that it is
plentiful only in bogs where Eriophorum grows, and this is
found to be generally true, though whether the correlation is
a direct one is doubtful. It has an early season and was found
most commonly from mid-April until the end of May, odd
specimens being found up to 18th June 1944. There is some
evidence that it reaches its peak earlier at low altitudes than on
mountain heaths, where it was abundant at the end of May.

Tipula solstitialis Westhoff. 72, 73.

This insect does not appear to have been found in Scotland
before. It was abundant at the marshy and rather muddy
margin of a small loch near Dumfries — Callochan Loch —
on 14th May 1944, the males far outnumbering the females
at that date. Single males were subsequently found at the
Murder Loch near Parkgate (72) on 18th June 1944, and at a
large peaty loch on the Lochar Moss on 24th July 1944. It
is not unlikely that it has been overlooked in the past as
T. lateralis or T. montium, but the ochreous colour of the
pale abdominal markings is distinctive.

Tipula couckei Tonnoir. 72, 73, 80.

Very local ; fairly common at the margin of the Cluden
Water near Dumfries, in late May and early June in company
with T. montium. Other localities for couckei were among
the hills at Langholm and Faldonside Loch (80). Cuthbertson
(1926) mentions the larva of a Tipula sp. ( lateralis group)
which is “ strictly aquatic, living in sand and gravel in rivers
and swift-flowing streams.” Since he places the larva of
montium also in this category, and since couckei and montium
were found together by the Cluden Water, which is exactly

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Vol. 61

such a habitat, it is suggested that Cuthertson’s larva is
probably couckei.

Tipula lateralis Meigen. 72, 73, 75, 76, 100 (Bute).

A common and widespread species in damp and marshy
places with coarse grass and other rough vegetation in exposed
situations. A favourite habitat is the boggy ground caused
by the spreading of a burn in pasture. Found in unbroken
season from early May till late September. Ovipositing was
observed — a female hovering over a burn’s edge and periodically
stabbing the mud with the tip of her abdomen.

Tipula montium Egger. 72, 73.

A very common insect in marshy tracts by burns and
rivers (it was particularly common by the Cluden Water near
Dumfries). It has a fairly long season, records extending
from 17th May to 1st September. It occurs with T. lateralis ,
but by the Cluden at least its season was earlier ; females
are not always easy to distinguish from that species, though
they can usually be separated by the milky white stripe behind
the Cu in lateralis, which is absent in montium, but this
character is variable. Females of montium sometimes attain
a very large size, and large females can fairly safely be assigned
to this species. Ovipositing was observed on 10th August
1943, the insect thrusting her ovipositor rhythmically into
muddy ground in open pasture.

Tipula pruinos a Wiedemann. 72.

Apparently local, being taken only at Tynron, where,
however, it is not at all scarce in marshy ground in open
pasture, and beside the Shinnel in late June and early July.

Tipula luteipennis Meigen. 72.

A late autumn species and apparently local, having only
been noted at the margin of a thickly vegetated pond near
Penpont in late August, and in a Juncus bog at Tynron, where
it swarms in September and October in numbers reminiscent
of T. subnodicornis or T. paludosa . The brachypterous
females are somewhat inconspicuous except during sunny
periods, when they climb to the tops of rush stems.

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TIPULINAE OF THE SOLWAY AREA

165

Tipula pagana Meigen. 72, 73.

Very common locally in autumn ; our earliest record is
for 31st August and its main season is September. It was
particularly abundant in wettish patches on a dry hillside
at Tynron in early September 1944. The males appear to be
much more abundant than the females, but this may be due
to the brachypterous and flightless condition of the female.
At Tynron on 10th September 1944 a male was seen flying
rapidly in a direct line towards a bracken frond, and on
arrival immediately commenced copulation with a female
that was at rest there. If he was guided by scent, and it is
hard to conceive of any other explanation, the accuracy of
his aim and the speed with which consummation of his object
was achieved were remarkable. In both 1943 and 1944 many
pairs were found in cop. on the front walls of Lannhall. As
the females are unable to fly they must have walked at least

20 yards across gravel, unless they flew in cop., and repeated
attempts to make copulating pairs fly in the daytime were
unsuccessful.

Tipula flaveolineata Meigen. 72.

Apparently rare and local, having been found only twice
in late June at Tynron in 1944 and 1949. On both occasions
a single female only was taken in a damp wood beside the
Shinnel.

Tipula luna Westhoff. 72, 73.

Locally common, usually in marshy ground in open pasture,
with coarse grasses, Juncus , etc., and by lowland lochs and
streams. It appears to have a rather short season from late
May to late June; though Barnes (1926) records it for early
July in Carnarvonshire, Henderson (1901) gives May to July,
and Audcent (1932) “ whole summer.” Regarding the size
of this species, Audcent ( loc . cit .) gives the length as 19 to

21 mm., which is longer than any found in the Solway area,
where they range from males 12 to 16 mm. and females 13 to
21 mm.

Tipula fascipennis Meigen. 72, 73.

Common in woods and shady places from late June to early
August. At Irongray Church it had replaced the related

1 66 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 61

T. lunata, which has an earlier season, on 30th June 1944,
but by 2nd August only a single example could be found, and
it was not noted after 6th August.

Tipula cava Riedel. 72.

Found in two localities only : a rocky hillside with heather,
etc., at Tynron and a small area of birch heath on the Lochar
Moss from 8th to 24th July, one male being recently emerged
on that date. These- localities are not in accordance with
Audcent’s statement that it occurs in woodland, nor pre-
sumably with Barnes’ record from the summit of Mynydd
Doulyn in Carnarvon.

Tipula lunata Linnaeus. 72, 73.

An early fly with a short season in late May and early
June, found in shady places by the Cluden Water near Dumfries,
Tynron, and Keir Mill near Thornhill.

N ephrotoma dorsalis (Fabricius). 72, 73.

This well-defined species was taken sparingly among nettles
and coarse vegetation in shady places beside the Cluden
Water near Dumfries ; it was found in two small areas only,
about half a mile apart on both sides of the river. This
appears to be the first Scottish record for this species. Audcent
says, “ rare; Yorks, Carnarvon, Devon.” The only examples
taken were: 28th May 1944, two males; 30th May 1944,

three males and one female (including one pair in cop.).
These were on the Dumfriesshire side of the river in a place
where no more were found although search was made ; the
species turned up, however, about half a mile away on the
Kirkcudbrightshire side of the river, where two females were
found on 30th June 1944 and one male on 7th July 1944.

N ephrotoma flavipalpis (Meigen). 72, 73.

An apparently rare species ; a female was taken in an
oak wood at Drumpark near Dumfries (73) and another
female at Tynron on 29th July 1944. These records are
insufficient to state an opinion about habitat preferences.

N ephrotoma scurra (Meigen). 72.

Audcent describes it as occurring “ on sandy commons,”
and true to this statement it was found in Corncockle Quarry,

i949 TIPp LINAR OF THE SOLWAY AREA 167

a large bare sandstone quarry in Dumfriesshire, on 1 8th July
1944, when four males were taken. On 2nd August 1944,
however, a male and female were captured in a very different
locality — a shady place on the Dumfriesshire bank of the
Cluden Water at Irongray Church near Dumfries. These
were the only two places where it was found. This species
on the wing has very much the appearance of a Tipula rather
than a Nephrotoma.

Nephrotoma flavescens (Linnaeus). 72, 73, 80.

A very common fly in the area ; often found on dry, bracken-
covered slopes in, or at the margins of woods, and on cultivated
ground and rotational grass. Records extend from 9th June to
31st July; mating was observed on 26th June 1944, and a
female taken on 24th July 1943 laid a number of black eggs
in captivity.

Nephrotoma quadrifaria (Meigen). 72, 73.

Probably the commonest and most widely distributed
species of the genus in the area. It was found from early
June until late July in shady places, particularly among nettles
and tall growing vegetation in woods. In 1944 it showed
a marked tendency to enter houses after mid- July, but this
may have been due to the extremely wet weather. A female
taken on 7th July 1943 laid a number of black eggs in captivity.

One or two examples were taken in which the down-turned
anterior end of the lateral stripes of the praescutum were
evanescent to a greater or lesser degree ; in extreme cases
this leaves only the straight part of these stripes, and the
insect runs to N. lunulicornis Schummel in Audcent’s key.
This caused some confusion at first, but in the male the error
can be rectified by examination of the genitalia ; teneral
examples are most likely to show variation in this manner.

Prionocera turcica (Fabricius). 72, 73.

Rather local, but often numerous where it occurs, this
insect was found in every instance at the boggy margin of
lochs or large bog pools, bearing out Cuthbertson’s observations
of larval habitats (1926). It is recorded by Henderson as
rare in the Glasgow area under the name Tipula diana Meig.
Our records extend from 14th May to 16th August, when a

1 68 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 61

teneral example was noted ; a female taken on 16th August
1943 laid a number of black eggs in captivity. The second
antennal segment was sometimes dark as in the male of
P. pubescens Loew, but the rostrum was always reddish at the
sides, so our careful watch for pubescens is still unrewarded.

Dolichopeza albipes (Stroem, H.). 72, 73.

Encountered often in May and early June, never in numbers
but in a variety of habitats always close to water. The
favourite was a shady place close to swift-running streams,
but we also noted it beside exposed hill burns, in a marsh
in open pasture and beside a pond. Cuthbertson (1926) says
that the larva lives in wet moss, moist soil, and patches of
liverwort, while Audcent (1932) states that it is found under
moss on tree trunks ; all the localities where we found it had
one or other of these habitats at hand. Both sexes have often
been seen flying erratically over the swift waters of the Shinnel,
and the female repeatedly dipping her abdomen into the water
while in flight as if ovipositing into the water.

REFERENCES

Audcent, H., 1932. “ British Tipulinae (Diptera, Tipulidae),” Trans.

Ent. Soc. South of Eng., 8 (2), 1-34.

BARNES, H. F., 1925. “ The Ecological Distribution of Adult Crane-

flies in Carnarvonshire,” Journ. Ecol., 13, 138-148.

, 1926. “ The Craneflies of Carnarvonshire,” N.W. Nat., 1 (1), 17-34.

CUTHBERTSON, A., 1926. (1) “ Studies on Clyde Craneflies: I. Additions
to the Local List, etc.,” Ent., 59, 1-4.

, 1926. (2) “Studies on Clyde Craneflies: II. The Swarming of

Craneflies,” Ent. Mon. Mag., 62, 36-38.

, 1926. (3) “ Studies on Clyde Craneflies: Larval Habitats of some

Local Species,” Ent. Mon. Mag., 62, 84-88.

, 1926. (4) “ Studies on Clyde Craneflies: VI. Some Photophilous

Craneflies,” Ent., 59, 127-128.

, 1927. “ Craneflies of the Clyde Islands,” Scot. Nat., 1927, 85-87.

, 1929. (1) “ The Habitats of some Craneflies (Dipt. Tipuloidea)

in the West of Scotland,” Scot. Nat., 1929, 15-23.

— — -, 1929. (2) “Studies on Clyde Craneflies: VIII. The Seasonal

Prevalence of Craneflies (Tipuloidea, Dipt.) in the West of Scotland,”
Ent., 62, 270-274.

HENDERSON, R., 1901. “ ‘ Tipulidae ’ in Nat. Hist. Glasgow and West

of Scotland,” Brit. Ass. Handbook, 267-271.

WOODLAND INTO PASTURE

j 1949

169

WOODLAND INTO PASTURE

Ursula K. Duncan, F.L.S.

Arbroath

DURING the spring and summer of 1949 some observations
were made on the effect of heavy grazing by cattle in a wood
near Arbroath in Angus. This wood, measuring 6-84 acres,
rises in a gradual slope facing north-north- west from 140 to
205 feet above sea level. Its original growth of pine and larch
was felled during the war (winter, 1944-1945) but the hard
wood was spared. Since the date of felling, the former ground
vegetation of heather, Goodyera repens , Pyrola minor , woodland
grasses and moss, gradually gave way to a much more varied
flora in which the original species were much reduced and even
(as in the case of Goodyera) threatened with extinction, the
main increase consisting in perennial grasses, self-sown birch
seedlings, and rose-bay willowherb (the latter non-existent
previous to the felling).

On 28th February 1949 a portion of the wood covering
approximately 6 acres was fenced in, and 16 heavy Irish
bullocks were introduced. On 9th March an additional 4
were put in, and on the following day the number was increased
to 43. These remained in the wood until 24th March, when
they were replaced by 4 heifers. On 1st April all the cattle
were withdrawn for the rest of the season.

After the introduction of the bullocks, periodical visits
were made to the wood for the purpose of observing the effect
of the short period of heavy grazing on the natural vegetation,
and the following notes were made.

15th March 1949. Temperature 390 at 11 A.M. All
young shoots of birch, beech, rowan, willow, and broom
nibbled off below a height of 5 feet, the tougher branches
remaining untouched. Only bushes neglected by the cattle
are blackberry and gorse (the latter now covered with flower-
buds). Last year’s tufts of dead grass have been eaten down,
also the tops of the dead heather stems and the young fronds,
not yet expanded, of the broad shield-fern Dryopteris dilatata.

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170 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 61

Throughout the whole of the wood the ground has been
trampled up, disclosing the thick black peat formed by-
hundreds of years’ accumulation of heather, pine-needles,
and moss. The damp portion of the central cart-track which
traverses the wood from end to end has been trodden into a
slough, also the ground in front of the drinking troughs and
in the vicinity of the boundary ditch. The mosses, Dicranum
scoparium , Brachythecium pitrurn , Plagiothecium nndulatum ,
and Hypnum schreberi , seem to have suffered most, having
become detached from the surface. Above the reach of the
cattle, male and female catkins are forming on Salix caprea.

23rd March. Temperature 50° at 11 A.M. The mild spell
has brought on the growth. Gorse now beginning to flower.
Salix caprea in full bloom, much fancied by the cattle which
have stripped off every branch within reach. No further
damage to the broom. The heather is considerably reduced
by trampling, and is covered by a thin layer of straw which
has been dumped in cart-loads for the cattle to eat. There
are also the remains of some half-eaten turnips. Goody era
and Pyrola are much trampled but still survive. The tops of
Juncus communis by the damp part of the track have been
bitten off but not eaten right down — apparently not very
appetising. On the other hand the ferns have provided a
tasty bite, and every vestige of green has been devoured. The
cattle have in some cases edged their roots out from the soil
so that they are blowing about loose like balls of brown chaffy
scales. Much of the loose brushwood lying about the wood
has been broken up into small sticks and is in process of being
trodden into the ground.

31st March. Temperature 420 at 11 A.M. Growth checked
by cold dry spell. A few plants of Goodyera are still surviving,
protected by branches or on the bank under the barbed-wire
fence. No fresh leaf or blade of grass so far visible.

9th April. A day of rain and sleet has brought on the
growth a little, but temperature still too low for much
improvement. Gorse not fully out yet. Broom now coming
into flower. Salix caprea in full bloom and much frequented
by bees. Green shoots on blackberry and raspberry. Young
plants of Epilobium angustifolium now making their
appearance amongst the grass. Woodland grasses Festuca

i949 WOODLAND INTO PASTURE 171

and Agrostis showing signs of new growth, but there is a
marked difference between the scanty green inside the wire
fence where grass has been closely cropped, and outside where
it is coming on rapidly.

17th April. A few beech seedlings have just appeared in
the lower part of the wood. The warm dry spell has brought
out the young leaves on some of the birches ; even the self-
sown trees much eaten by the cattle are budding freely, but have
a “ clipped ” appearance. The two hawthorns are covered
with young expanding green leaves; also the female sallows.
The male willows are beginning to drop their catkins. Gorse
now in full bloom. Grass still very backward, needing rain,
and the thin covering of straw shows no sign of decomposing
yet. Epilobium angustifolium has put on 4 to 6 inches since
my last visit.

6th May. Weather cold and dry. Gorse just beginning
to go over. Sallow in fruit and full leaf. Birch also in full
leaf. Beech and sycamore with foliage half out. Numerous
beech seedlings in lower part of the wood under trees where
the ground is bare ; also a few sycamore and birch seedlings.
Fronds of Dryopteris dilatata rapidly uncurling but fewer in
number than last year. Viola riviniana in flower, but also
seems scarcer than in previous summers. Heather still brown
and showing no signs of life ; I look in vain for Lister a cor data
in its old habitat among the roots. Birch trees already
recovering from their damage, with new shoots growing out
beyond the cropped twigs.

13th May. A few days of warmth have brought on the
foliage. All trees in full leaf except beech and oak. Broom,
in flower, seems to have suffered little except for a few dead
branches, and isolated bushes which were killed by being
trampled on. Grass still short, but shows plenty of fresh
growth .

22nd May. Potentilla erecta , Lnzula campestris , Car ex
pilulijera , and Anthoxanthum odoratum in bloom, all reduced
in quantity since last year. Broom in full flower, filling the
wood with waves of scent. Beech and sycamore seedlings
have acquired their first pair of (true) leaves. All trees in
full foliage with the exception of oak. It is noticeable that
the leaves on the cropped twigs on the birches are half as

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Vol. 61

large again as those on the boughs beyond the reach of the
cattle. Dryopteris dilatata is now seen to have suffered as
much as anything ; fronds very scarce, sometimes only two
from each root, and in some cases there are “ stools ” of brown
roots without a single vestige of green. The grass, on the
other hand, has benefited considerably, being much less rank
than in previous years. The heather has produced a few green
shoots coming up from the roots.

3rd June. All foliage in full luxuriance. Rowan trees in
flower ; also Galium saxatile, Rumex acetosella , and Poa
pratensis. All rough grasses and most of the annual weeds
which sprang up in great luxuriance when the wood was felled
seem eliminated. Young trees of sycamore, birch, and rowan
now show no signs of their cropping unless closely examined ;
there are scores of them about 3 feet high, very bushy. The
lateral shoots of the sycamores, in particular, have already
overtopped the truncated main stems.

19th June. The pasture (of which Festuca tenuijolia ,
now in flower, forms a fairly large part) now extends over
about half the wood. Other plants in flower are Rubus idaeus ,
Rumex acetosa , and Erica cinerea (very scarce). Also Stellaria
media , Spergula arvensis , Cerastium vulgatum, and Poa
annua , the only survivors of the original mass of annual weeds.
Pyrola minor seems to be little the worse for its trampling
and is covered with flowering spikes in bud. Juncus squarrosus
and Juncus bufonius are also in flower by the damp portion
of the track.

9th July. Pyrola minor in good show, just beginning to
go over flower. Only two flowering spikes of Goody era

detected under the barbed-wire fence and so protected from
the cattle. Epilobium angustijolium coming into flower,
showing a considerable increase since last year. The scanty
flowers of Erica cinerea form a marked contrast to the vivid
splashes of magenta in previous summers. Other plants in
flower are Rubus fruticosus , Hieracium murorum , Poa
trivialis , and Holcus lanatus . A few plants of Avena
sativa, scattered about the wood, are no doubt relics of
the oat straw imported for the cattle; they are unlikely to
persist. Gorse now heavy with ripe seed “ cracking ” in
the hot sunshine.

1949

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173

16th July. Growth now at its height. Goodyera full out
(two flowering spikes only) ; it is fortunate that it is increasing
in a neighbouring wood. Agrostis tenuis , Deschampsia
flexuosa , and Arrhenatherum elatius are the last of the grasses
to come into flower. A few clumps of Juncus communis are
also flowering in the damper parts of the wood. Rubus idaeus
in fruit.

1st August. No further signs of growth. Broom seed
partly ripe. Rowan berries growing red.

15th August. A few plants of Calluna vulgaris are in
flower among last year’s dead stems. Green fruit beginning to
form on the blackberry bushes. Broom seed and rowan berries
now ripe.

A final survey of the wood shows that the grass has improved
in quality and quantity since last year, but there is a con-
siderable decrease in Goodyera , heather, fern, and moss, and
Lis ter a cor data has disappeared altogether. The straw is
rapidly decomposing and the dung becoming scattered to
enrich the soil. The young trees are blemished from a
forester’s point of view, but otherwise not unsightly. . . .
The wood is ready to shelter the cattle again this winter.

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Vol. 61

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

Occurrence of the Amphipod Talorchestia brito on the
Kincardineshire Coast.— During a visit on the 29th August 1949
to the sands at St Cyrus, about five miles north of Montrose, small
piles of cast-up sand were noticed scattered about on the banks of
dryish sand lying along the region of high water mark from St Cyrus
cliffs to the mouth of the North Esk. On investigation these proved
to be associated with an amphipod which Dr I . Gordon of the British
Museum (Natural History) has named Talorchestia brito.

This amphipod was first described by Stebbing in 1891 from the
North Devon coast (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) 8, 324). Since then
it has been recorded from scattered points on the Continent from the
eastern English Channel to the western Mediterranean. Dr Gordon
informs me she collected specimens on the 15th August 1947 near
Palling, Norfolk. It was recorded in 1948 near Blyth in
Northumberland (D. I. Williamson, Nature 162, 295) in a similar
situation to those taken at St Cyrus.

The St Cyrus record would appear to be the first from Scotland.—
A. C. Stephen, Royal Scottish Museum.

Coenagrion hastulatum in Central Perthshire. — On 18th June
1949 I visited a small marsh a few miles from Pitlochry to look for
Aeshna caerulea and Somatochlora arcticcc , but I saw neither. On
approaching the marsh, however, I saw a small dragonfly over the
heather, but I failed to capture it. It looked too small to be Enallagma
cyathigerum , and the greenish colour of the head and thorax excited
my curiosity. On reaching the marsh I was not long in seeing another,
and this time I caught it. It was a male Coenagrion hastulatum. My
nephew was with me, and together we saw nearly forty specimens.
Quite one-third were females, but all were no doubt somewhat teneral
because we saw none connected per col. and it was only the second
day of the heat-wave. I captured several of both sexes, but released
all except two males and a female.

On 27th June I again visited the marsh and saw, but did not
capture, two specimens of A. caerulea. Hastulatum , however, was
there in plenty and connected per col. I took four couples, which I
handed alive the following day to Miss Cynthia Longfield at Aviemore.
I had, some time ago, arranged to show her the marshes in that
district where I had previously taken the insect. In past years at
Aviemore I had found the female to be exceedingly scarce — about

1949

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

175

1 per cent, of the males — but this year the numbers were about even.
I witnessed the female ovipositing at the Perthshire station. The
male and female remained connected per col. and the eggs were
deposited in very shallow water on liquid peaty mud. Sometimes
the insects were in flight but more frequently resting on a short grass
stem so that the tip of the female’s abdomen reached the surface of
the water. It seemed to me that she was placing the egg on the grass
stem just under the water level. — G. G. Blackwood, Pitlochry.

Coenagrion pule helium in Scotland. — The appearance of Miss
Longfield’s article (Scot. Nat., 60, 65-73) on Scottish dragonflies
prompts me to put on record the capture of a male Coenagrion
pulchellum in Dumfriesshire on 30th June 1934. It was on the banks
of the Cluden Water at Irongray Church, shortly before it runs into
the River Nith, and on the Dumfriesshire side of the river. Miss
Longfield states that it is rare or possibly extinct (p. 72), but
evidently it still survives. It was a lone individual, and there was
no evidence of breeding, and I never saw another during two years
in the Solway district, although travelling much and keeping a keen
look-out for dragonflies. — E. S. Brown, Hertford.

Aeshna caerulea in Kirkcudbrightshire. — On 20th June 1949
I captured an immature male of Aeshna caerulea at rest on heather
near a small loch situated in an area of desolate peat bogs in the
north of Kirkcudbrightshire. A few minutes later I disturbed
another male which had been resting on a stone wall. The following
day I caught a newly emerged female of the same species on some
very extensive “ flow ground ” a few miles away and in the same
county. This indicates that the species breeds in the area, and very
probably it has done so for a considerable time.

I understand that in Britain this insect has never previously been
recorded south of the Highlands.— D. A. Ratcliffe, Carlisle.

Orange-tip Butterfly in Aberdeenshire. — In response to
Mr F. W. Smith’s request, in his article on the Macrolepidoptera in
the 1948 winter number of The Scottish Naturalist , for information
regarding the status in Scotland of the orange-tip butterfly
E. cardamines , I can offer the following isolated record. On 8th
May 1946, a fine warm sunny day, I came across a small colony of
orange-tips on the road flanking the River Gairn about two and a half
miles west of Ballater. Five or six of the butterflies were counted
along a thirty-yard stretch of the roadside bank. Regrettably I have
no note of the plants from which they were feeding or any other details

176

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Vol. 6 1

of their behaviour. I watched them for some time, and they were
still at the same spot when I returned along the road in the late
afternoon of the same day.

I may say that although my status as an amateur entomologist
can only be given as a rare abnormal vagrant, I am certain of my
identification, having become “ acquaint ” with the orange-tip in
England and abroad. — G. F. Raeburn, Ellon.

On 9th May 1948 we took a male specimen of the orange-tip at
Leith Hall, Kennethmont, Aberdeenshire (v.-c. 93). — Editors.

The Chequered Skipper C. palaemon in West Inverness. — In
his paper “ On our Knowledge of the Distribution of the Macro-
lepidoptera in Scotland ” (Scot. Nat., 1948, 60, 192), Mr F. W.
Smith refers to this little butterfly having “ so long remained un-
discovered in the Fort William area.” It may therefore be worth while
to draw attention to the fact that I took it near Loch Lochy in June
1939, and it is recorded in my paper on “ 1 Neuroptera ’ and some
Lepidoptera from Argyll and West Inverness,” in the summer number
of this magazine for 1949. — C. Ethel Evans, Edinburgh.

Long-eared Bat Plecotus auritus in Central Perthshire. — I
have up till now been under the impression that the bats inhabiting
my attics and outhouses (near Pitlochry) were Daubenton’s bat,
but a specimen I picked up dead and sent to the Royal Scottish
Museum early in June this year turned out to be the long-eared bat.—
G. G. Blackwood, Pitlochry.

This species is also present at Strathtay, Central Perthshire,
where we have found live specimens. — Editors.

Carrion Crows Attacking in Flight. — On 20th January 1949,
at the mouth of the River North Esk, I witnessed an unusual form of
attack by a pair of carrion crows Corvus corone upon a redshank
Tringa totanus.

A pair of carrion crows flew in from the sand dunes over the mud
flats where some redshanks were feeding. Swooping down towards
the redshanks the crows put the waders to flight. One, a little slower
than the rest, was headed off by the crows. The redshank alighted on
grass and the crows alighted on opposite sides of it at about 5 feet
distance. One crow advanced until it was within about 2 feet.
The redshank took wing and the other crow gave chase. With
extended claws the crow swooped down on the redshank, knocking
out a cloud of feathers, but failed to gain purchase. The redshank

*949

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

177

alighted, the crows closed in, and the performance was repeated to
a further loss of feathers from the redshank’s back.

The crows flew away, and the redshank after a few minutes joined
its fellows on the mud flats. — Dr A. F. MacBean, Edzell, Angus.

Cases of Albinism in Jackdaw and other Species. — An
albino jackdaw Corvus monedula was present in the Aberfeldy
area from October 1948 to January 1949 and probably later. This
bird was completely white except for a tinge of pale grey noticeable
on the back when seen at close quarters. Its bill and legs were pale
yellow. It was hoped that the presence of this bird in the jackdaw
flock might be helpful in attempts to trace the movements of the birds.
For what it is worth, I may say that I have not seen the bird, nor
heard of it being seen, since spring. This might indicate that it was
one of a flock of winter immigrants, though it is equally likely that
it has been killed, or has moved to another district for the breeding
season. Though there was nothing abnormal in the habits of this
jackdaw as an individual, its relationship with the rest of the flock,
and more especially with the closely intermingled rooks, was
obviously affected. When seen feeding, on the ground, the albino
was usually either by itself or on the edge of the main party. In flight
it was constantly pursued by rooks, up to six at a time. On one
occasion it was flying near the head of the long procession of both
species heading out to the fields in the early morning, when three or
four rooks flew at it and drove it right back towards the wood from
which the flock had come.

Two other partial albinos I have come across recently were
in wooded gardens in Edinburgh. One was also a jackdaw, with
wing and tail feathers largely white (January 1949). The other
was a cock blackbird, seen in June 1949, with the whole plumage
white with black blotches.

Besides these records of my own, other cases of albinism in lapwing
and starling have been recorded in the press in 1949. From this it
seems possible that, whatever the reason, albinism has been more
prevalent than usual. — Colin C. I. Murdoch, Aberfeldy.

We saw a white jackdaw, probably the same bird, near Aberfeldy
on 3rd March 1949. — Editors.

Mimicry by Jays. — Mimicry of the calls or songs of other species
is well known among a number of British species of birds. The
starling Sturnus vulgaris is, of course, the most obvious example,
but the marsh warbler Acrocephalus palustris , sedge warbler A .
schoenobaenus , and robin Erithacus rubecula in particular, are other
capable mimics. Whether such mimicry has any particular value

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Vol. 61

may well be doubted. It has been suggested, but not, I think, backed
by any worth-while evidence, that the mimetic song of the red-backed
shrike Lanius collurio may have the effect of attracting individual
small passerines whose song is mimicked within the predatory range
of the singer.

An experience with a jay Gar r ulus glandarius in June 1948
suggested to me that mimetic calls in that species, even if not
purposive, may well have survival value. In the oak woods near
Pitlochry I found a brood of fledgling jays which had recently left
the nest and were still very much dependent on their parents for the
supply of food. As I watched, one of the parents arrived with food.
Noticing me, it promptly uttered a series of the harsh raucous alarm
cries characteristic of the species. I remained quite still, whereupon
the parent jay delivered a perfect rendering of the calls of the carrion
crow Corvus corone , swiftly followed by an equally flawless rendering
of the hoot of the tawny owl Strix aluco. For the next five minutes
jay calls, carrion crow calls, and tawny owl calls alternated with
bewildering rapidity, and had the author of these calls not been
within view I should have had no doubt that both of the mimicked
species were also present and scolding.

The inference was almost irresistible that the jay, finding itself
unable to deter the trespasser by its own alarm calls, adopted the
calls of two larger and more powerful species with a view to intimida-
tion. To accept such an inference we must credit the jay with
purposive thinking, and that, I think, few of us would be prepared
to do. This much may surely be admitted, that a weaker predator
than man, even though impervious to 1 jay ” threats, might have
been deterred by the apparent presence of two more powerful predators.
— G. F. Raeburn, Ellon.

Increase of Goldfinch, Chiffchaff, and Great Spotted
Woodpecker in East Renfrewshire. — It seems desirable to place
on record the increase of the goldfinch Carduelis carduelis in east
Renfrewshire. McWilliam ( The Birds of the Firth of Clyde , 1936,
p. 32), gives details of its breeding (after Robertson) at Giffnock in
1905 and 1918. There is now (1949) a thriving colony in the
Clarkston-Busby district. I have observed family parties in the
breeding season in other localities of east Renfrewshire, and the
species certainly seems to be increasing quite rapidly. McWilliam,
loc. cit ., p. 49, implies that the chiffchalf Phylloscopus collybita is
rare in east Renfrewshire. This was the correct status of the species
in 1935, but it would seem that the chiffchaff has substantially increased
as a breeding bird in the past thirteen years or so. In the spring of
1948 I paid particular attention to the species and recorded it from

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179

a great many favourable localities in the valley of the White Cart.
These remarks also apply to west Lanarkshire. The great spotted
woodpecker Dendrocopos major , first recorded as a breeding species
in Renfrewshire in 1931 (vide McWilliam, loc. cit.y p. 69), is now
well established as a resident in east Renfrewshire. It nests regularly
at Busby and other suitable spots, including Cathcart. It now breeds
quite generally in parts of west Lanarkshire. — P. A. Clancey,
Glasgow.

North-west Spread of Sedge Warbler Acrocephalus
schoenobaenus .- — In The Handbook (1920, Vol. 1, 348) the sedge
warbler is described as “ very rare (in the) north-west (of Scotland).”
In The Scottish Naturalist (1949, 61, 120) Mr P. A. Rayfield reported
it present, and apparently breeding, at Aultbea in Wester Ross,
16 miles to the south-west of my home. I have lived in Coigach
since 1941 and did not hear or see the bird until nth June 1947.
This was an apparently solitary male, singing intermittently amongst
dense rushes a quarter-mile from here. I did not see this bird again.
On 27th June 1948 I heard and saw one singing in a reed-bed close
to my house, and on 1st July I watched it with James Fisher. It was
there till 22nd July, but I saw no sign of the feeding of young, and
repeated search revealed no nest. It was back again on 1st June
1949, and on 5th June I found the uncompleted nest in a dense tuft
of dead rushes at the margin of the reed-bed. On 10th June there
were two eggs in the nest. I left for Switzerland, returning nth July
to find the young flown. Since then I have often watched the young
birds. I have just learned through Mr Peter Norwell (vide Mr
George Waterston) that a pair bred this year at Altnacealagh just
within the southern border of Sutherland and 16 miles east of this
place. This seems to be a case of definite immigration into new
territory, and extension of the range northwards. — T. G. Longstaff,
Achiltibuie, Wester Ross.

Garden Warblers in Upper Deeside. — As published informa-
tion on the present status of the garden warbler Sylvia borin in
north-east Scotland appears to be scanty, the following seems worth
recording. On 12th May 1949 I heard a garden warbler singing in
a belt of dense, scrubby, woodland beside the Dee at Aboyne. I
heard the song many times till I left the district two days later. On
my return in mid- June I found that a pair were present in this same
copse, the male singing constantly from then (15th June) till the
last few days of the month, by which time the volume of its song
had diminished to mere snatches, heard only a few times in the day.
I heard no song at all on the last day of June nor on the 1st and 2nd

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

i So

July, when I again left Aberdeenshire. Though no nest was found,
I had a good view of the pair on several occasions and had little
doubt that they were nesting in this wood. The nature of the wood
was similar to several regular haunts of this species on the banks of
the Tay in the Aberfeldy area, it being a close-growing natural
mixture of sycamore, ash, oak, alder, and other broad-leaved trees,
more than half of which were small and growing as rough coppice,
with dense undergrowth of whin, wild rose, and luxuriant grass.
Here, at the Tay, I also look for this bird’s arrival and song about
1 2th May. — Colin C. I. Murdoch, Aberfeldy.

Blackcaps in West Inverness. — In view of the Editors’ appeal
for further records of the blackcap Sylvia atricapilla in the
Highlands, it may be of interest to state that in June 1939 I had the
pleasure of listening to this delightful singer on several occasions.
Its usual perch was on the under branches of a giant laurel in the
woods near Achnacarry, where it sat in the green half-light undisturbed
and let me watch it for a quarter of an hour at a time. — C. Ethel
Evans, Edinburgh.

Lesser Whitethroat Sylvia curruca in Coigach. — The

Handbook (1920, vol. 1, 374) has “ not common on the west side
(of Scotland).” I am very familiar with this bird as a breeding
species in Surrey. The common whitethroat Sylvia communis we
see here annually, and on 29th July 1949 I handled a juvenile which
had entered the house. On 7th and 8th August 1949 I watched
through glasses two lesser whitethroats, one a bird of the year, on
and creeping through the netting over raspberry bushes here. My
identification was based mainly on small size, posture, and
movements, which were quite different from those of a common
whitethroat : instead of perching in the open they remained most of
the time creeping about rather low down amongst the leaves.—
T. G. Longstaff, Achiltibuie, Wester Ross.

Nesting of Mistle-thrushes. — In April 1949 I saw in Drmn-
sheugh Gardens, Edinburgh, two mistle-thrushes Turdus viscivorus
collecting nesting material. Both were employed in carrying small
pieces of paper which a strong west wind was blowing across the grass ;
they looked like thin leaves from a note book. Thinking it unusual
for a cock mistle-thrush to assist in nest-building, I looked up
Witherby’s Handbook and found that only one such case is recorded.
Incidentally the birds stopped the construction of the nest when half-
completed and transferred much of the material, including a blue

1949

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

181

ribbon, to a fresh site (20 yards distant) which afforded better
protection. In May I saw them feeding well-grown young ones. —
J. Murray Thomson, Edinburgh.

A Blackbird’s Song. — There is a blackbird now on Canna which
sings continually (two octaves higher) —

Jig time I iwo octaves higher

fl rL , 6. : = —

o~~

9—

w~

9 4 p

-JTV-

>■* _

—

— f—

_

L-^i- Q

' - V

1 1

varied by the phrase —

1

far: — r— t— 1

—

• i — n r

fL ^

j

V

W

F U : ► .

/I 7 j 1

"vT7 O

The time of the first phrase is not always quite regular, and the
E flat at the end is sometimes a little sharp.

When his song was played back to him on a bamboo pipe, the
bird showed decided signs of irritation !

A whole jig tune could easily be composed on the basis of the
first phrase : which permits the possibility of speculation upon the
connection between bird-song and folk-music. — J. L. Campbell,
Isle of Canna.

Blackbird Feeding Young Wagtails. — At Monikie, Angus,
on 1 6th May 1949, I was shown a nest of a pied wagtail Motacilla
alba containing six young fully a week old. The nest was situated
about 6 feet from the ground in stacked cut logs. I was informed
that that morning a hen blackbird Turdus merula had been observed
brooding the young wagtails and that she had been feeding them
regularly all day. After ringing the young, we retired to a shed which
had a window 15 feet from the nest. After a few minutes the hen
blackbird appeared with her beak full of food. As she made her
way along the adjacent wall and across the stack of logs, she was
mobbed by the two parent wagtails until she reached within 2 or
3 feet of the nest. The wagtails then sat on the wall watching while
the hen blackbird fed the young. When she had finished all three
flew off together. Before long the parent wagtails returned one after
the other and fed the young, after which they again flew off. After
a further interval of a few minutes the hen blackbird returned with

lS2

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

some food, accompanied by the wagtails who mobbed her until
she had almost reached the nest. This complete chain of events
was repeated several times while we watched.

Jays and magpies are common in the vicinity, and a possible f
explanation is that the blackbird had had young which had been
taken by a jay or magpie and that, being at that stage of her brooding
cycle where the urge to feed young was dominant, she had “ adopted ”
the young wagtails. On a later visit I was informed that the hen
blackbird had continued to assist in the feeding of the young wagtails
until they were fledged and left the nest. — Alexander Cross, Dundee.

Stonechats in West Sutherland.— Whilst on holiday at
Lochinver, West Sutherland, in August 1948, I was told by the
head gamekeeper that, although he had not seen any stonechats
Saxicola torquata recently, he had seen them nesting in the spring,
and if I cared he thought he could show me a nest. Next day, about
a mile from Lochinver on the Inchnadamph road, he kept his word
and found a stonechat’s nest in a small spruce tree about a foot from
the ground, containing one intact but naturally cold egg.

A few days later, about 4 miles from Lochinver on the Stoer road,
my wife and I watched a pair of very lively and healthy looking
stonechats. — R. S. Weir, Dunfermline.

Great Spotted Woodpecker in North Sutherland.— On
29th May 1949 I saw two great spotted woodpeckers Dendrocopos
major and found a nest-hole in the birch wood on the south side of
Loch Naver. This is north of Berriedale, from where Dr Kennedy
of Thurso received a specimen a few years ago, and is almost certainly
the most northerly breeding place so far reached. — I. D. Pennie,
Tongue.

On the Extinct Scottish Great Spotted Woodpecker
and Capercailzie, with a Suggestion for Systematic Treat-
ment.— Miss E. V. Baxter, in “ A Century’s Changes in Scottish
Ornithology ” {Scot. Nat., 1948, 60, 13), states that “ the great
spotted woodpecker Dryobates major anglicus recolonised the
country. They inhabited the old Caledonian forest, as is evident
from the old records and from the nesting holes found in some of the
veteran trees which had survived the felling ; but by the middle of
the nineteenth century the birds had died out or almost so. In 1887
the first breeding was recorded at Duns in Berwickshire, and the
species spread from the south till it reached right up to Caithness.”
Under the same race precisely similar information is given by
Witherby {The Handbook of British Birds , Vol. 2, 1938, 286).

*949

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

183

The continued use of the name Dendrocopos major anglicus
(Hartert), 1900: Horsham, Sussex, England, for the extinct

autochthonous great spotted woodpecker of Scotland is clearly not
supported by any factual evidence. I have been quite unable to locate
any preserved example of a breeding Scottish great spotted woodpecker
taken in the first half of the nineteenth century or earlier, and none
was known to the late Sir Hugh S. Gladstone. Judging by prevalence
of well-defined races in Scottish bird species it is considered most
likely that these extinct D . major populations belonged to an
undescribed race — probably smaller and darker than D. m. anglicus
—which was unable to withstand the destruction of the pristine
Caledonian forests. It may have preferred a coniferous biotope and
been less catholic in its taste than D. m. anglicus.

As no specimens apparently exist, there must always be con-
siderable doubt as to the correct racial status of the extinct great
spotted woodpecker of Scotland, and in future faunistic treatments
of Scottish birds the species should be dealt with as follows : —

1. t DENDROCOPOS MAJOR ? RACE.

Formerly resident in the Caledonian forests. Extinct.

2. DENDROCOPOS MAJOR ANGLICUS (Hartert).

Resident. First bred 1887. Extending and consolidating
its distribution.

3. DENDROCOPOS MAJOR MAJOR (Linnaeus).

Irregular winter visitor, more general in Northern Isles.

Miss Baxter, loc. cit ., p. 17, follows Witherby and others when
she states “ The capercailzie Tetrao urogallus urogallus became
extinct in Scotland about 1760, was reintroduced in Perthshire in
1837, and in other places subsequently, and has spread widely.” I
can trace no specimens of the extinct autochthonous Scots capercailzie,
and it is extremely unlikely that any now exist in museums or private
collections. I consider it most likely that the capercailzie, which
once ranged over much of Great Britain and Ireland and finally died
out in Scotland circa 1760, was subspeciflcally separable from the
nomenotypical race. Certainly there is no factual basis for the very
general assumption that it was Tetrao urogallus urogallus Linnaeus,
1758 : Sweden. The classification of Scottish T. urogallus should
be as follows : —

1. t TETRAO UROGALLUS ? RACE.

Formerly resident in the Caledonian forests. Extinct.

2. TETRAO UROGALLUS UROGALLUS (Linnaeus).

Resident. Introduced 1837 from Scandinavia.

— P. A. Clancey, Glasgow.

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 6 1

1S4

Whether or not any preserved specimens of the extinct indigenous
Scottish bird are still in existence was discussed in an article by
Sir Hugh Gladstone in The Scottish Naturalist , 1921, 169-177.
Gladstone accepted the Tunstall specimen in the Hancock Museum
at Newcastle as being authentic, though the evidence is not
entirely conclusive— Editors.

Garganey in Ayrshire. — The appearance of the garganey
Anas querquedula in Ayrshire is sufficiently rare to merit comment.
On 28th May 1949, at a small loch on the outskirts of Kilmarnock,
Mr J. Taylor and I, using binoculars x6, saw a drake garganey
at a range of about 30 yards. It was with a teal drake, and they
eventually flew off and pitched together. The garganey had left the
area by the 31st. — F. D. E. Walls, Kilmarnock.

There appears to be no previous record for Ayrshire. — Editors.

Shoveler Nesting in Ayrshire.— According to The Handbook
the shoveler Spatula clypeata has not been recorded as having nested
in Ayrshire. On 21st May 1949 I saw a shoveler drake on a small
loch on the outskirts of Kilmarnock. The duck was seen on the
24th by Mr J. Taylor of London, and on the 27th he found the nest,
containing six eggs, in a clump of growing grass on dry ground
about 20 yards from water. I saw the nest on the 28th, when it
contained seven eggs, and had an excellent view of the duck as she
left the nest and joined the drake. The down in the nest was brown
with light centres. Unfortunately, the nest had been destroyed and
the birds were gone by the 31st. — F. D. E. Walls, Kilmarnock.

A previous, though unsuccessful, nesting in Ayrshire was recorded
by Mr J. A. Anderson in British Birds , 38, 77 (1944). — Editors.

Early Breeding of Wood Pigeon in Aberdeenshire. — The
mid-winter months of 1948-49 were so unusually mild and open in
Aberdeenshire that early breeding records of certain species of birds
were to be anticipated. O11 6th February 1949 I flushed a wood
pigeon Columba palumbus from a nest in a spruce at Ellon. The
nest proved to contain a single egg, and on 26th February, when I
next visited the nest, the bird was incubating her clutch of two,
although in the interim there had been some rather wintry cold weather.
A week of snow, sleet, and blizzards followed, and by 5th March the
nest was palpably deserted. The pigeons continued, however, to
haunt the little copse containing the nest tree, and on 12th March,
after further arctic weather, the two eggs were still in situ , although,
of course, quite cold. On 19th March I decided to explore the copse
thoroughly to see whether the pair had started another breeding

>949

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

185

attempt, and was surprised to flush one of them from the original
nest. I was considerably more surprised on climbing the tree to find
that the nest now contained a clutch of four eggs. I therefore have
pleasure in endorsing the Handbook' s statement that wood pigeon
clutches of this number are due to two layings. — G. F. Raeburn,
Ellon.

Turtle Dove in Ayrshire. — On 22nd May 1949 I saw a bird
near Ballantrae, south Ayrshire, which I identified as a turtle dove
Streptopelia turtur. A good view was obtained through a pair of
6x30 binoculars at a distance of about 15 yards. — Scott Nelson,
Ballantrae, Ayrshire.

The turtle dove is an occasional visitor to Ayrshire. — Editors.

Black-tailed Godwits at Gladhouse, Midlothian.— On 24th
April 1949, during the taking of the International Wildfowl Census
at Gladhouse reservoir, a pair of black-tailed godwits Limosa limosa
were seen on the stony shore at the eastern end of the loch. At our
approach they rose, giving us a good view of the black band on the
white tail. Later the birds were watched from 60 yards with a strong
glass preening in the sun on a small island ; both were in summer
plumage, the underparts of the male showing a much richer
“ chestnut ” colour than the altogether paler female. They allowed
approach within 30 yards before flying off, revealing the pure white
on the wing and tail and the jet-black bar. Subsequent visits were
made to the loch on 1st and 15th May, but no further sign of the birds
was seen.

There do not appear to be many inland records of this wader in
the south-east of Scotland, although it is not uncommon in the estuary
of the Forth in spring and autumn.— Michael C. Maw and Stewart
Kirkaldy, Edinburgh.

White Oyster-catcher: A Twelve-year Record— In 1937,
when I was in Africa, a home-letter gave the news that a white
oyster-catcher Haematopus ostralegus had been seen by my family
in a little glen “somewhere in Scotland.” I was “sweating on
leave,” but by the time I got home the season was over and the birds
gone from their breeding haunts.

Early in May in the following year we began to visit the glen,
and on the second visit we were rewarded. I shall never forget my
first sight of the bird. I was driving very slowly on a moorland road
beside a beautiful little burn when the white bird got up and flew
off slowly. With Africa fresh in memory I said involuntarily, “ An
egret, what is it doing here ? ”

24

1 86 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST Vol. 61

The nesting site was a patch of shingle beside the burn, and
after some careful watching the three eggs were located. Everything
went normally ; the young hatched and quickly took to the heather
and rough grass, where they were extraordinarily difficult to find.

Next year (1939) we arranged with a keen photographer to build
a hide, photograph the nest, and, if possible, the white bird. We
were not sure of the sex, as we had seen both birds (the other a
perfectly normal oyster-catcher) at various times sitting on the eggs.

Diary of Observations . — 1939 : 3rd May, first observation of

nest ; three eggs ; white bird sitting (11 a.m.). 4th May, black bird
sitting ; white bird feeding near (evening). 8th May, hide prepared ;
black bird on nest; no sign of white (evening). 10th May, black
bird on nest ; no sign of white ; black bird returned to nest six
minutes after arrival of our car (evening). 15th and 17th May,
black bird sitting; no sign of white (9 p.m.). 20th May, white
bird sitting, and remained near nest when disturbed, but black bird
returned to nest; photographs taken from hide (afternoon). 24th
May, young hatch out.

1940-46 : Our plans for further observations and photography

were shattered, like so many others, by the war. We did see the
white bird in 1940 at the same nesting site, but the years 1941-46
were blank except for reports from the keeper that the bird had been
back each year until 1944. In each year a pair had nested and
brought out the young, but there had been no sign of any strange
colouring in any of the chicks. There was no report for 1945 or
1946, and I feared that that was the end of the story.

1947 : At the end of April my family and I, now reunited and
returned to near our old haunts, were motoring back from an abortive
fishing expedition. It was a terrible day! Rain was tearing down,
so that it was impossible to see any distance over the moor. As we
approached the entrance to the little glen, I decided to make no
mention of the white oyster-catcher, lest my enthusiastic family
should clamour to go and have a look — it was raining in torrents.
To my utter amazement a white bird rose from the roadside only a
few yards in front of the car, flew slowly off, and alighted— quite one
of the most amazing happenings in all my experience of birds.

Of course an expedition was planned, and on a lovely day we
visited the old site to find it changed beyond recognition. A cloud-
burst had caused a terrific flood in 1945, so we learned from a visit
to the keeper, who told us that the birds had merely shifted a little
more than half a mile down-stream to a strip of shingle where we had
found oyster-catchers nesting before the war. There, after a thrilling

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

1949

187

stalk, we located the white bird sitting (though the keeper is certain
“ he ” is a male) and two eggs in the nest.

1948, 30th May: Seen on same nesting site, but alas! owing to
petrol restrictions it was impossible to pay any more visits. — W. P.
Young, Gordonstoun, Elgin.

Mr Young informs us that the keeper has seen a white bird at the
same site in May 1949. — Editors.

Aggressive Display by Guillemot. — At a. part of the foreshore
a little to the north of Barrassie, Ayrshire, on 13th November 1948
we witnessed what was, to us, an unusual display of aggressiveness
on the part of a guillemot Uria aa/ge.

When we first observed the bird it was sitting on the beach about
20 yards from the sea and, as it was preening vigorously, we assumed
that it must be badly oiled. On closer examination, the bird remaining
immobile, we discovered what appeared to be a small clot of oil on
its breast feathers, but that otherwise it seemed in good condition.
It was in winter plumage, the face being white with the exception of
a dark streak through the eye to the xheek, while there was a thin
line of dark feathers round the throat.

Thinking that it would be safer in the water we attempted to
shepherd it in that direction, but after fluttering a few yards it turned,
faced us, and, catching hold of one of our coats with its beak, behaved
in a thoroughly belligerent manner.

On being picked up and placed in the water it made no attempt
to fly, but it could swim and dive in a normal way, and after sub-
merging for a short interval it made out to sea.

We continued northwards along the sand, and about fifteen
minutes later were surprised to see the same bird, recognisable by the
dark patch on its breast, come close inshore, leave the water, and
commence preening.

On our approach it once more adopted a menacing attitude and
came towards us with opened beak. It showed no inclination to
return to the sea, and as we moved away it settled down to preen. —
Geo. A. Johnson and L. G. Hodgkinson, Glasgow.

Little Auk in Perthshire. — Early February 1940 brought a
particularly severe north-east blizzard to the eastern counties of
Scotland. At that time I was living in Glenalmond, Perthshire.

On 2nd February 1940 the head keeper on the neighbouring
estate brought me a bird which had been retrieved from a snow-drift
on the doorstep of the shooting lodge and which the keepers had been

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 6 1

1 88

unable to identify. I identified the bird as a little auk Plautus
alle — an adult.

The bird was in a rather exhausted and lethargic state, but after
taking it indoors and putting it in a bath full of water, the auk became
quite active, and my wife was able to make some sketches of it.

Unable, however, to provide the little auk with the special
plankton on which it feeds, it survived only a day. I sent the bird
to a friend at the War Office who specialised in parasites of birds
and who confirmed my identification. He reported there were still
many Mallophaga on it.

How it came to be so far inland is, of course, difficult to say, but
I imagine it was blown inland some distance and made its way up
the rivers Tay and Almond, a distance of some 45 miles from the
lightship at the river Tay entrance.

At least one other little auk was picked up near Perth during the
same storm. — James F. Anton, Bridge of Cally, Perthshire.

Water Rails at Duddingston Loch.— For a number of years
the water rail Rallus aquaticus has been a frequent visitor to
Duddingston Loch in the winter months. On 23rd January 1945,
during a spell of hard frost, one was flushed from the reeds at the
curling pond. Throughout February 1947 two were seen feeding
regularly on the marshy ground at the west end of the sanctuary,
and on the 13th of the month three were observed at the same place.
On 27th December 1948 one was seen in rather an unusual place.
It was sitting on a floating piece of wood in the boathouse, while
another was feeding at a small spring at the east end of the loch close
to the public road. During the hard weather in January 1949 there
were at least five in the reed bed. On the 4th four were watched at
close quarters from behind the boundary wall, and on the same date
the bird at the east end of the loch was again seen.

The only previous records I can find are 28th January and 3rd
February 1917, when one was reported by the late Mr John Currie,
whose notes on the birds of Edinburgh are in my possession. —
D. R. Anderson, Edinburgh.

Water Rail in Edinburgh. — On 27th November 1948 I
surprised a water rail Rallus aquaticus in a marshy corner at
Lochend pond, Edinburgh. It was crouching quite in the open behind
railings only about 8 feet from the path. It appeared not to notice me
at first, but suddenly rose to its feet and began to walk jerkily along
the water’s edge. I had an excellent view of it and noticed especially
its long red bill, barred flanks, grey breast, and white on its upturned

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES

*949

1S9

tail. I left it and returned a few minutes later with another observer,
when we had a short glimpse of it before it took flight and alighted
in a patch of thick reeds. It was not seen again.

Other interesting occurrences at Lochend recently include a heron
Ardea cinerea on 8th October, and fifty-two scaup Nyroca marila ,
nineteen wigeon Anas penelope , and two little grebes Podiceps
ruficollis , on 7th November 1948. — Keith S. Macgregor,
Edinburgh.

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol . 61

190

BOOK REVIEWS

A Guide to the Smaller British Lepidoptera. By L. T. Ford. Pp. 230.
London : South London Entomological and Natural History Society,
1949. 15J.

Mr L. T. Ford and his eight collaborators are to be congratulated on a
volume which deals with the life histories and foods of upwards of 1370
species of our smaller moths with indices of the foods and of the insects
with cross references. The book is a useful contribution to entomological
literature and it points out the numerous gaps in our knowledge of most
species of small moths, but it is complementary to a systematic account
of the smaller Lepidoptera and depends on Meyrick’s Handbook of British
Lepidoptera , published in 1928. A copy of Meyrick is difficult to procure,
and it does not include all the species mentioned by Ford. We hope that
the authors will soon publish for all the smaller British moths keys,
illustrations, bionomial notes, geographical distribution in the British
Isles, with references to the more important literature on each species,
as they have so ably done for some groups in recent volumes of the
Proceedings and Transactions of the South London Entomological and
Natural History Society .

G. D. Morison.

A Key to the British Fresh and Brackish-water Gastropods with Notes
on their Ecology. By T. T. Macan. Pp. 45. Freshwater Biological
Association, Scientific Publication No. 13, 1949. 2 s.

This booklet should prove to be of considerable value in the identification
of pond-snails. The key is simple, practical, and concise, and the
ecological notes provide a good introduction to an important aspect of the
subject. A notable feature is the many large and excellent illustrations
by R. Douglas Cooper, and these, along with the clear and straightforward
nature of the text, are likely not only to render the book useful to biologists
but to encourage anyone interested in aquatic Natural History to learn
more about these remarkable and even beautiful animals.

A. F.

NOTICE

The Irish Ordnance Survey Office has recently produced official
maps showing the recognised divisions of Ireland into sub-provinces,
counties, and vice-counties, for use in biological work.

The larger map (10 miles to 1 inch) costs 4s. or 4s. 6d. (folded
and covered). The smaller outline map (50 miles to 1 inch) costs 3d.

These maps are obtainable either from the Ordnance Survey of
Ireland, Phoenix Park, Dublin, or from any bookseller.

*949

CORRESPONDENCE

191

CORRESPONDENCE

To the Editor of The Scottish Naturalist
Sir,

Distribution of Scottish Macrolepidoptera

I read Dr F. W. Smith’s article on this matter with much
interest. I have been interested in Lepidoptera since my early school-
days. At that time the attitude in Scotland appeared to be that, as
the farther south one went the more species there were to collect, there
was no point in going north to look for Lepidoptera, except perhaps
to Rannoch for the few species that are peculiar to that district.

That attitude to Scottish entomology is changing, but the change
might very well be expedited if Scottish museums and authors were
to arrange and describe their collections from a Scottish instead of a
British point of view. There ought to be, at one of our museums at
least, a representative collection of Scottish Lepidoptera ; but where
can such a thing be seen ? I was once informed by a capable ento-
mologist who formerly worked in a certain Scottish museum that
when he began his work there the collection of Lepidoptera consisted of
types of “ British ” moths and butterflies mostly collected in localities
like the New Forest. It is to be hoped that things are different now ;
but is it too much to expect that Lepidoptera in Scottish museums
should be represented by Scottish specimens to the fullest extent
possible, and that southern specimens should be shown, not as
“ types ” but simply for purposes of comparison ?

I am,

Yours truly,

J. L. Campbell.

To the Editor of The Scottish Naturalist

Sir,

Bewick’s Swans

Woodside,

Beith,

Ayrshire.

During the last few years Bewick’s swans, which were
formerly fairly common in a few suitable localities, appear to have
become very scarce.

192

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

The Scottish Ornithologists’ Club have asked me to conduct an
inquiry into the present status of the species as compared with former
years and, if possible, discover the cause of the change.

If any of your readers could give me any information which would
be of value to this inquiry, I should be grateful if they would write
to me at the above address. Special cards have been printed and
I shall be glad to send them to anyone who makes application.

I am, etc.,

J. A. Anderson.

To the Editor of The Scottish Naturalist

Department of Zoology,
The University,
Reading.

Sir,

Wildfowl and Leeches

I am engaged in research upon the habits and distribution
of the duck leech Protoclepsis tessellata , and I would be most grateful
if Scottish Naturalists could assist me in obtaining specimens and
information.

This leech lives most of the year in lakes, ponds, and streams,
attached to sticks, stones, or vegetation. At certain periods, however,
it attaches itself to the beak of a water bird, enters a nostril, takes
a meal of blood, and then drops back into the water.

It has been found in the nostrils of domestic ducks, wild ducks,
geese, grebes, and other birds. On a Berkshire farm this summer
about forty ducklings died as a result of leech infections. One
observer in the west of England recently found Protoclepsis in the
nostrils of every wild duck examined. It seems possible that the
leech is a serious pest of water birds, but much more information is
required concerning its distribution.

I would therefore appeal to anyone who has the opportunity of
examining the head of a water bird, either dead or alive, to send
me a report on the presence or absence of leeches, or to send me the
bird’s head for examination. Persons engaged in duck shooting
could render invaluable assistance by sending me the heads as they
are taken, and I would gladly defray expenses.

Yours truly,

K. H. Mann.

INDEX

Admiral, Red, 59 (Curr. Lit.)

Airey, Alan F., 119
Albinism, 177, 185-187 (white oyster-
catcher)

Algse, Filamentous, in Boghall Glen, 50
Amphibia, 1 16-117
Anderson, D. R., 188
Anderson, J. A., 191-192
Anoplura, 188

Anton, James F., Stalked barnacles on
the shores of the British Isles, 65 ;
187-188

Aphaniptera, 24
Argus, Scotch, 113
Auk, Little, 143, 187-188

Bacteria, 53

Badenoch, Field notes on some dragon-
flies, 36

Baptie, A., 1 16

Barnacles, Stalked, on the shores of the
British Isles, 65
Bat, Daubenton’s, 176
Long-eared, 176
Bittern, 122

Blackbird, 130, 136, 177 (albino), 181
(feeding young wagtails)

Blackcap, 134, 180
Blackgame, 56 (Curr. Lit.)

Blackwood, G. G., 174-175, 176
Blair, K. G., “ The Boreo-British

Coleoptera ” (Carl H. Lindroth), 104
Blue, Common, 1 1 3 , 114
Bluethroat, 137

Boase, Henry, Courtship display of
some ducks on salt water, 10; 124
Bonxie, 19
Book Reviews, 190

Botany, 50-55 (Algae), 162 (fungus on
cranefly), 169-173 (Woodland into
Pasture) . See also The Breeding of the
Heron in the Outer Hebrides, 73-100.
Brambling, 132

Brian, Anne D., Dominance in the
great tit Parus major , 144
Brock, Elizabeth, R., 124
Brown, E. S., 175

Brown, E. S., and A. B. Duncan, A
list of the Tipulinae in the Solway
Area, 156

Bryson, A. G. S., 127
Bullfinch, 131
Bunting, Corn, 132
Lapland, 132
Little, 23, 132
Ortolan, 132
Reed, 93, 132

Snow, 3, 4, plate 2 (p. 8), 23, 118, 132
Yellow, 132

Butterflies. See under English name of
each species. See also Lepidoptera.
Buzzard, 138

Campbell , J ames W . , The breeding of the
heron in the Outer Hebrides, 73 ; 1 19
Campbell, John L., 128, 181, 191
Capercaillie, 57 (Curr. Lit.), 182-183
Cat, Wild, 121
Chaffinch, 1 1 8 , 1 3 1
Chiffchaff, 134, 178
Chimney-sweeper, 59 (Curr. Lit.)
Clancey, P. A., 120, 178-179, 182-183
Clearwing, Thrift, 59 (Curr. Lit.)
Coleoptera, 21 ; “ The Boreo-British

Coleoptera,” 104
Coloration. See Albinism.

Cormorant, 92, 139
Corncrake, 57

Correspondence, 128, 191-192
Cross, Alexander, 181-182
Crow, Carrion, 130, 176, 178
Hooded, 28, 92, 130

Crustacea, 21 (eaten by rosy pastor) ;
90 (eaten by heron) ; 174 ( Talorchestia
brito')

Curlew, 139

Current Literature, 56-59

Darling, Frank, 60-61 (Correspondence)
Deer, Roe, 58 (Curr. Lit.)

Dermaptera, 21 (eaten by bird)

Diptera, parasitic, 24, 28, 103; eaten by
heron, 90; 92; 156-168 (Tipulinae);
159 (Cordyluridae)

Display, Courtship of ducks, 10-18
Diver, Great Northern, 6
Guillemot, 187
Sandpiper, Purple, 8
Tit, Great, 150 et seq.

Wheatear, 27

See also Injury-feigning.

Diver, Great Northern, 2, 3, 6, 139
Red-throated, 2, 3, 7, 139
Dominance in the great tit Parus major,
144

Dragonflies, Field notes on some
Badenoch, 36. See also Odonata.
Duck, Eider, 2, 6, 13, 28
Ferruginous, 124

Long-tailed, 3, 6, plate 1 (p. 4), 138
Scaup, 3, 6, 189
Tufted, 123

Ducks, Courtship display of some on salt
water, 10-17

Duncan, A. B. See Brown and Duncan.
Duncan, Ursula K., Woodland into
Pasture, 169

Dunlin, 2, 3, 7, 126, 127, 140
193

2 5

194

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

Eagle, Golden, 58, 121
Sea, 3

Eider, 2, 6, 13, 28

Elder, H. F. D., The appearance and
disappearance of the house sparrow
as a breeding species on the Isle of
May, 101

Evans, C. Ethel, “ Neuroptera ” and
some Lepidoptera from Argyll and
West Inverness, 112; 176, 180

Faeroes, 68

Fair Isle Bird Observatory Reports, 19,
129

Falcon, 131

Iceland. See Gyrfalcon.

Fenton, E. Wyllie, Some factors in-
fluencing the fluctuations and dis-
tribution of filamentous algae in
Boghall Glen (Midlothian), 50
Fieldfare, 135

Fisher, James, 60-61 (Correspondence)
Fishes, 56, 57, 58 (Curr. Lit.); 90
(eaten by heron) ; 94, 100 (trout in
Hebridean lochs) ; Chimaera mon~
strosa , 1 17; Raniceps raninus, 1 1 7
Flycatcher, Pied, 119, 134
Spotted, 133

Food of birds : arctic skua and gyrfalcon,
5 ; rosy pastor, 21 ; scarlet grosbeak,
23; great grey shrike, 24; red-
backed shrike, 24 ; wheatear, 26 ;
water rail, 31 ; heron, 90; barn owl,
1 21 ; bittern, T 22

Ford, L. T., A Guide to the Smaller
British Lepidoptera reviewed, 190
Fox, 93

Fritillary, Marsh, 59 (Curr. Lit.)

Small Pearl-bordered, 113, 114
Frog, 1 16

Fulmar, 29, 73, 130

Gannet, 56, 57, 58 (Curr. Lit.)

Garganey, 123, 184

Gilmour, John, 60-61 (Correspondence)
Gladstone, Sir Hugh, 63 (obituary),
plate 3 (p. 63)

Godwit, Bar-tailed, 128, 139
Black-tailed, 185
Goldcrest, 130, 134
Continental, 25
Goldeneye, 93, 138
Goldfinch, 178
Goosander, 1 5
Goose, Bean, 123
Grey-lag, 2, 5, 93, 123, 138
White-fronted, 138

Grazing, by bullocks, effect on woodland,

i69~i73

Grebe, Little, 189
Slavonian, 139
Greenfinch, 31, 13 1
Greenshank, 141
Grosbeak, Scarlet, 22, 131
Grouse, 56, 57 (Curr. Lit.)

Guillemot, 58, 187
Gull, Black-headed, 142
Common, 142
Glaucous, 142

Great Black-backed, 2, 3, 9, 93, 143
FI erring, 92, 93, 142
Lesser Black-backed, 142
Gyrfalcon, 3, 5

Hairstreak, Purple, 59 (Curr. Lit.)
Halliday, Hugh, 118, 119
Hamilton, David, 124
Harrier, Montagu’s, 122
Hawk, 57 (Curr. Lit.), 131
Hawk-moth, Oleander, 115
Heath, Large, 113, 114
Small, 1 14

Hedge-sparrow, 93, 150, 152
Heron, 57, 58, 138, 139; breeding in
Outer Flebrides, 73-100
ITodgkinson, L. G. See Johnson and
Hodgkinson.

Hosking, Eric, 60-61 (Correspondence)
FIrutafjordur district, North Iceland,
field notes on the birds of, 1 , plates
1-2 (pp. 4, 8)

PIughes-Onslow, G., 123
Huxley, Julian, 60-61 (Corre-
spondence)

Iceland, Field notes on birds, 1
Injury-feigning, 8 (purple sandpiper), 9
(golden plover), 28 (eider). See also
Display.

International Ornithological Congress,

35

Irish Ordnance Survey Notice, 190

Jackdaw, 130, 147, 177
Jay, 177, 178

Jeans, T. B. W. See Yeates and
J eans .

Johnson, G. A., and L. G. Hodg-
kinson, 187

Kemp, Stanley, 67
Kestrel, 138

Kirkcaldy, S. See Maw and Kirk-
caldy.

Knot, 128, 140

Lapwing, 58, 142, 177
Lark. See Skylark, Woodlark.

Leeches, Wildfowl and, 192

INDEX

195

1949

Lepas anatifera , 65-67
I Lepidoptera, 59, 190, 191 ; records of,
32-35, 113, 114, 175
Lindroth, Carl H., 104
Longstaff, T. G., 179, 180

Macan, T. T. A Key to the British
Fresh and Brackish-Water Gastropods
reviewed, 190
; McBean, A. F., 177
MacDonald, D., 126
j MacDonald, R., 125
MacGregor, Keith S., 126, 128, 188-
189

1 Magpie, 118
Mallard, 2, 3, 5, 93, 138
Mann, K. H., 192
Marshall, W., 118
Martin, House, 27, 137
i Maw, Michael C., and Stewart
Kirkcaldy, 185
I Maxwell, W. H., 121
| McAnish, J. D., 1 1 5 , 118
j Mecoptera, 113
;i Megaloptera, 114

! Merganser, Red-breasted, 2, 3, 6, 15, 16,
17, 93, 99, 139
Merlin, 28, 137
I Mimicry by jays, 177
Mistle Thrush, 180

!' Mollusca, fresh-water snails, 53, 190;
oysters, 116, 122
Moorhen, 143
] Morrison, R. I., 120
L Moth. See Lepidoptera.

Jj Mundie, J. H., 1 1 5

l Munro, J. H. B., 127

|j Murdoch, Colin C. I., 177, 179-180

] Natural History in the Highlands and
Islands (correspondence), 60
[j Nelson, Scott, 185
Newt, 1 16

Obituary, Sir Hugh Gladstone , 63
[j Odonata, Field notes on some Badenoch
dragonflies, 36; 59, 112, 113, 114,
J *74, x75

; Orange-tip, Distribution in Scotland,
32-35; 175-176

Ornithological Congress, International,
I 35

[1 Ouzel, Ring. See Ring Ouzel.

3 Owl, Barn, 120
I Long-eared, 27, 137
Short-eared, 137
Tawny, 178
! Oyster, 116, 122

; Oyster- catcher, 2, 9, 56, 142, 185-187
Western, 30

Painted Lady, 128

Parasites: tick from rosy pastor, 21 ;

flat-fly from house sparrow, 24, 103 ;
flea from great grey shrike, 24;
nematode from continental song-
thrush, 25 (see correction, 143) ;
flat-fly from merlin, 28; tick from
western razorbill, 31 ; fungus on
cranefly, 162 ; Mallophaga on little
auk, 188

Pastor, Rosy, 21, 131
Pasture, Woodland into, 169-173
Peacock butterfly, 59, 1 1 5
Pennie, I. D., 182

Perry, Richard, Field notes on some
Badenoch dragonflies, 36
Phalarope, Grey, 58, 125
Red-necked, 2, 3, 7, 125
Pigeon, 15
Wood, 139, 184-185
Pipit, Meadow, 2, 3, 4, 133
Rock, 133
Tree, 119, 133
Plecoptera, 113, 115
Plover, Golden, 3, 8 (Northern), 141
Ringed, 2, 8, 29, 127, 128, 141
Protozoa, 53

Ptarmigan, Iceland, 3, 9
Puffin, 56

Quail, 143
Chinese, 31

Rabbit-fish, 1 1 7

Raeburn, G. F., 175-176, 177-178,
184-185

Rail, Water, 31, 143, 188, 188-189
Rat, 92

Ratcliffe, D. A., 175
Raven, 3 (Iceland), 20, 93
Rayfield, P. A., 1 19, 120, 124, 128
Razorbill, Western, 31
Redpoll, Greenland, 21, 131
Mealy, 13 1

Redshank, 26, 141, 176
Iceland, 2,3,8
Redstart, 27, 137
Black, 137

Redwing, 3, 130, 135
Iceland, 120, 136
Reeve, 127
Reptiles, 116-117
Ring Ouzel, 136
Robertson, Pat, 135
Robin, 137, 150, 152, 177
Rodents : Rattus, 92
Rook, 92, 130

Ruff, 29, 141. See also Reeve.

Salmon, 56, 57, 58 (Curr. Lit.)

196

THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST

Vol. 61

Sandeman, Gerald L., 125, 127
Sanderling, 29, 127, 128, 141
Sandpiper, American pectoral, 126-127
Common, 141
Curlew, 125, 140
Purple, 2, 3, 7, plate 2 (p. 8), 141
Wood, 141
Scaup, 3, 6, 189
Scoter, Common, 10
Velvet, 12
Shoveler, 184
Shrew, Common, 1 1 7
Pygmy, 117
Water, 118

Shrike, Great Grey, 24, 133
Red-backed, 24, 133, 178
Silver-Y, 59

Skipper, Chequered, 114, 176
Skua, Arctic, 3, 5, 9, 19
Great, 19
Skylark, 133
Slow- worm, 116

Smith, F. W., The distribution of the
orange-tip butterfly in Scotland, 32
Snipe, 140
Faeroe, 2,3,7
Jack, 140

Sparrow, Hedge. See Fledge -Spar row.
Ilouse, 24 ; appearance and dis-
appearance as a breeding species on
the Isle of May, 101

Stamp, L. Dudley, 60-61 (Corre-
spondence)

Starling, 92, 131, 177
Shetland, 20, 21 , 13 1
Stephen, A. C., 116, 1 1 7 , 174
Stint, Temminck’s, 126
Stoat, 93

Stonechat, 93, 182
Swallow, 27, 137
Swan, Bewick’s, 191-192
Mute, 99

Whooper, 2, 3, 5, 138
Swift, 137

Tadpole-fish, 1 1 7

Talorchestia brito , Occurrence on Kin-
cardineshire coast, 174
Teal, 3, 5, 93, 138, 184
Tern, Arctic, 2, 3, 9, 142
Black, 128
Common, 142

Territory (of great tits), 144 et seq.
Thomson, J. Murray, 180-181
Thomson, W., 122
Thrush, Mistle. See Mistle Thrush.

Song, 25 (see correction, 143), 93, 135
Tit, Great, Dominance in the, 144-155
Blue, 144
Coal, 144

Tipulinae, A List from the Solway Area,
with some notes on the habitats of
the adults, 156-168
Toad, 1 16

Trichoptera, 112, 114
Trout, 94, 100
Turnstone, 140
Turtle Dove, 124, 139, 185
Twite, 21, 31, 93, 131

Wagtail, Blue-headed, 133
Pied, 181-182
White, 4, 24, 133
Walls, F. D. E., 184
Warbler, Garden, 134, 179-180
Grasshopper, 119
Leaf, 134
Marsh, 177
Sedge, 120, 177, 179
Willow, 134
Yellow-browed, 25, 134
Waterston, George, 127
Watson, Donald, 123, 127
Watt, Allan M., 126
Waxbill, 31

Waxwing, 57 (Curr. Lit.)

Weasel, 93
Weir, R. S., 182

Whale, Caaing, Notes, 68, plates 4-5
(pp. 68, 70)

False Killer, 69
Killer, 69

Wheatear, 3, 4, 26, 136
Whimbrel, 2, 3, 7, 140
Whinchat, 136
White, Green-veined, 114
Large, 128

Whitethroat, 134, 180
Lesser, 135, 180
Wigeon, 2, 5, 123, 138, 189
American, 124
Wildfowl and Leeches, 192
Williamson, Kenneth, Fair Isle Bird
Observatory Reports, 19, 129; Notes
on the Caaing whale, 68
Woodcock, 57 (Curr. Lit.), 130, 140
Woodland into Pasture, 169
Woodlark, 133

Woodpecker, Great Spotted, 178-179, 182.

182-183
Wren, 27, 93
Wryneck, 137

Yeates, G. K., and T. B. W. Jeans,
Field notes on the birds of the
FIrutafjordur District, North Ice-
land, 1, plates 1-2 (pp. 4, 8)

Young, W. P., 185-187

Zoological Notes, 1 1 5 , 174

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