Historic, archived document Do not assume content reflects current scientific knowledge, policies, or practices. | 56> ks. BULLETIN No. 25. U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, “DIVISION OF BOTANY. Oe Sas SHADE IN COFFEE CULTURE. PRR of. BY Ors COO KK: Special Agent for Tropical Agriculture. Apk.: Pee fe eel eg ele us mT at Fo ‘a Bae “tlre ia ty WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1901, Bul. 25, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE I. COFFEE SHADED WITH BANANAS PLANTED WIDE APART, CORDOBA, MEXICO. io be BULLETIN No. 25. Peo OE PARTMENT OF WeaniCUuL) URE, DIVISION OF BOTANY. SHADE IN COPPER CULTURE. BY Or EH. COOK, Special Agent for Tropical Agriculture. nes vn Fr ee, wy y 1 fei Des | dul ills hy Ye NW, ~ Y EEE UN 6 aie XY V7 WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 19:0 2, LETTER OF GRA NS Mere U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Division oF Borany, Washington, D. C., December 19, 1900. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a_manuscript entitled ‘* Shade in Coffee Culture,” by Mr. O. F. Cook, Special Agent for Tropical Agriculture, and to recommend its publication as a bulletin of the Division of Botany. The recent acquirement of tropical territory by the United States has brought conspicuously to the attention of the American people the question whether tropical agriculture does not furnish a promising field for the application of that ingenuity, energy, and intelligence which in the past century have revolutionized temper- ate agriculture. The accompanying report gives a partial answer to this question in the matter of coffee culture. It combines the results of personal observation and of a careful study of the literature relat- ing to the much controverted question of the shading of the coffee tree. The hypothesis is here advanced that leguminous shade trees, in addition to the effects produced by shade trees in general in protect- ing the soil from erosion, drying, and heating, and in preventing the mechanical injury of the coffee plants by the wind, have the same beneficial effect on coffee as do clovers and other leguminous plants on the crops with which they are so commonly rotated, namely, that of adding nitrogen to the soil and thus, without expense, increasing the fertility and productivcncss of a plantation. In some of the most prosperous coffee-growing districts of Central America this practice has been followed by the planters without an understanding of the real reasons of its success. It appears too, singularly enough, that this Central American system of shading coffee was adopted from the custom of the aborigines in the shading of cacao in prehistoric times, which is still practiced in many localities. It is confidently believed that a rational system of coffee culture in Porto Rico, based on the use of leguminous trees and plants for shade and fertilizer purposes, wil revolutionize the coffee industry in that island and at least double the yield per acre. Respectfully, FREDERICK V. CovVILLE, Botanist. Hon. James Wrxson, Secretary of Agriculture. ») 2 “ CONTENTS. Miceheusmacde, om wield ...--. 222242282 c a2 = icehomsnaderon quality... - 4528-44 52250. 55- BHeementation Ot cotlees-= 5-222... ihevindirectetiects of shades 222 _. 22.202... 22 Erovectiomacainst droughit=- 25 22622655... 22. Shade for seed beds and transplanted seedling wihade- asia local mecessity -2-22).2524212. 242 < Sitade 1OE Maiberianncollee: -- = 4-255-525-2526. = EROCeCHION avalnsh CLOSION= 2225 Ses. a 5-2 2 Sel Recomm WAIL Sryee = Ach he he, ctt hia ee ioe 2 Nitrincarron throuch shade: 27 2. 22 32 S722 Slade ang. pingousvdiseases 2.5. Seite ae iberciiectsor unwonted exposure 222222. 2.22 -55-4--8 The use of volunteer seedlings --_---..-......--- (DEL SIG 6 Maa i a ee a a ee a ee ay Ne CEO Wa lO SMNAMes se socket arate hilo oe Micthodsonapplhyine shade: 25°95. ee eee ok «NOE GUDSIND OTS 5 SN aa aN Ea te RR eR aS Dee eee ee ee eee ew ee ee ee ee Page. ILLUSTRATIONS. : Page. Pirate 1.—Coffee shaded with bananas planted wide apart, Cordoba, Mexico. Frontispiece. I1.—Coffee district of the Adjuntas Valley, Porto Rico; closely planted shaded cofiee in-toresround = 5-3 se = eae eee ee III.—Coffee tree growing near San Juan, P. R., in sand, at sea level, and entirely without shades2 36 395s een ee eee br ete 10 {V.—Hillside coffee plantation, shaded with bananas and a yariety of fruit and forest trees, barrio Juana Mata, between Ponce and (ep) AdjyuntagsP Riis. 2. ee ee 12 V.—Fig. 1—Superficial root system of coffee. Fig. 2—Coffee-drying floor, between Mayaguez:and Manas 22.22 =: 5-52 oe ee 18 VI.—Typical Porto Rican coffee plantation, Caguitas, shaded with Inga and. asvariety, Ol inGigenOus ECGS = sane = 5 sas Ae ee 20 VII.—Coffee overshaded and dwarfed by bananas, as commonly planted in Porto’ Rico. 2223222222 2.2 hee eee 26 VIII.—Coffee from heavily shaded plantation, Porto Rico. (Natural size) 26 IX.—Porto Rican coffee plantation, overshaded before the hurricane, now choked by grass and denuded by the leaf-miner.--.-.--..-.---- 30 X.—Neglected coffee in Porto Rico, grown without shade, but vigorous and leaty.. (2222) Sil es. geese ee ee 30 XI.—Coffee leaves injured by leaf-miner; from plantation shown in PlatesEX, ewe Ee Page CULTURE WITH LEGUMINOUS TREES. 25 the movement caused by the wind, it is probable that considerable utility might be found in this idea of shelter planting. Thus at many points in Porto Rico the cultivation of coffee is confined to the lower slopes of hills and the sides of narrow ravines, the land above not being utilized, doubtless because too dry to permit a successful begin- ning with coffee under the prevalent methods of culture. Perhaps it would not be possible to cover all such ridges and higher slopes with coffee, but if they were planted with leguminous trees or even occupied by ordinary forest growth there can be no doubt that the coffee area could be carried far upward and that the fertility of the plantations would be greatly increased by the materials accumulated above and washed down in readily available solutions. Such tracts of forest, even though of limited extent, also exert an appreciable benefit in retaining water in the soil, so that the advantage commonly ascribed to shade may be secured even from trees planted a considerable distance above. It is not known that the actual value of such an arrangement has been experimentally determined, but when one has opportunity to note the differences between coffee planted below forest and that on entirely denuded ridges or slopes, no doubt of the wisdom of such an arrange- ment will be entertained. FALLEN LEAVES AS FERTILIZER. Saving in the cost of cultivation through the fact that shade trees discourage the growth of weeds is often advanced as one of the argu- ments for shade culture, notwithstanding the equally obvious fact that shade sufficiently dense to affect the weeds would as certainly impede the development of the coffee. But notwithstanding this disadvantage, an arrangement under which something may be taken out where nothing is put in would continue to recommend shade culture to those who have no lack of land or of time, and who are satisfied with small returns. Shade culture of a more rational character does, however, offer an indirect protection against weeds, in that the fallen leaves often cover the ground and largely prevent the lodgment and successful germina- tion of weed seeds. When the slopes are not too steep and the dead leaves lie undisturbed such a leafy covering, or mulch, of the soil may be complete, and unless it becomes so dense as to smother the roots of the coffee the effect may be wholly beneficial, since, as shown by Dr. Delgado’ the fallen leaves of Erythrina (bucare) and Inga (guama) 'Contribucién al Estudio del Café in Venezuela, por Dr. G. Delgado Palacios, Caracas, 1895, pp. 93. This author, while defending the use of shade as such, seems to have been the first to realize that the good effects come largely from the fertility imparted to the soil, though he ascribes this result largely to the fallen leaves. The special utility of leguminous trees is emphasized and explained on the ground that, though having superficial roots for the fixation of free nitrogen, they draw nourishment only from the deeper strata of the soil, and thus do not come into harmful competition with the coftee. 26 SHADE IN COFFEE CULTURE. contain a large amount of fertilizing material. Similar facts have been established by M. Grandeau with the leaves of Albizzia lebbek. The decaying leaves are incorporated with the soil in the processes of eculti- vation, and undoubtedly make a considerable addition to its fertility, and also improve its mechanical condition. The addition of lime is supposed to add greatly to the value of this leaf manure by neutraliz- ing the acids formed in the decay of the vegetable tissues, and by Hb- erating free nitrogen or soluble nitrogenous compounds. There is, however, a belief in Venezuela that the use of lime in coffee planta- tions is dangerous, for, although the immediate benefit is admitted, the ultimate result is said to be the rapid impoverishment of the soil. According to Dr. Delgado, this erroneous view is based only on the excessive use of lime beyond the amount required for the utilization of the vegetable food materials already available; but if employed with reasonable moderation lime is held by him to be of great and per- — manent value. How far the alleged benefit attaches in reality to the effect of lime upon the humus, and how far we are dealing with the now well-established fact that many of the tubercle-forming bacteria require lime for functional activity with leguminous plants, are matters which can be determined only by careful experiment. It is of further interest to note Dr. Delgado’s insistence upon the fertilizing value of a stirring of the soil, quite outside of what may be necessary in the removal of weeds. The regular use of the creole plow between the rows of coffee is advised as extremely beneficial, and the injury to the superficial roots of the coffee is said to be more than compensated by the efficiency of the new ones put forth in the newly stirred and aerated soil. But here again the possible effects of stimulating the activity of the roots of the leguminous shade trees, as well as the fertilizing value of the detached tubercles, are to be taken into account in scientific experiments for determining the lines of rational culture. A further suggestion from Venezula, of possible utility in Porto Rico, is that for the utilization of the fallen leaves of shade trees on slopes so steep that they are washed away in the rainy season. ‘The leaves are raked into windrows placed a little above the middle of every second space. Just below the windrow a trench is dug 2 or 3 feet wide and more than half as deep. The leaves are sprinkled with lime, and the surface soil from the trench is also thrown over them, after which they are pulled into the trench with a hoe, and the earth taken from the trench is thrown back upon them. This plan is evidently a modification of the system of open pits in use in Central America, and already discussed under the subject of erosion. NITRIFICATION THROUGH SHADE. In the Boletin de Agricultura Tropical for September, 1899, an ingenious explanation of the value of shade in the coffee culture of Bul. 25, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE VII. COFFEE OVERSHADED AND DWARFED BY BANANAS, AS COMMONLY PLANTED IN PoRTO RICO. Bul. 25, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. COFFEE FROM HEAVILY SHADED PLANTATION, PORTO RICO. [Natural size.] PLaTe VIII. THEORIES OF NITRIFICATION. 27 Costa Rica is offered by Mr. Julio E. Van der Laat. In urging the use of commercial fertilizers, particularly nitrate of potash, this writer propounds the theory that a process of nitrification in the soil is neces- sary in rendering the fertilizer available for the coffee trees. This is thought to be brought about, or at least favored, in two ways: (1) By spreading in the plantations fine earth taken from ditches and pools and (2) by shading. It is declared that the alluvial matter is not a manure, and that its good effects are due to its ‘‘ richness in nitrifying organisms.” Thecompletion of the process of nitrification also requires humidity, and shade is said to have ‘‘no other effect or utility than that of maintaining this humidity in the soil and in the atmosphere during the dry season.” While thus admitting that the benefits of shade are entirely indirect, this writer betrays no doubt of its importance: The want of shade brings two evils: The soil cracks and injures the smaller roots of the coffee, and, what is still worse, nitrification ceases or is diminished, and the tree is thus deprived more or less completely of its nitrogenous nourishment, and the remainder of the fertilizer fails of its proper effects. Shade is, then, an essential condition for the production of large crops; but it should be lofty, to allow free circulation of air, and not excessive, so as not to cause injury during the winter. The shade trees should have deep roots, of a kind to draw their nourishment from a stratum of soil different from that in which are spread the roots of the coffee tree. This theory of the function of shade probably owes its existence to the more or less conscious realization of the fact that the results of the shade culture practiced in Costa Rica required other explanation than that of direct benefits which could be ascribed to a diminution of sun- light. It is by no means impossible that the soil bacteria may be found to play an important role with coffee, as well as in other depart- ments of agriculture, but our knowledge of these organisms is still too slight to furnish more than ground for speculation, while the demon- strated utility of leguminous soiling crops gives great strength to the analogous explanation of the value of the arboreal types of the same family. The idea that the lezeuminous shade trees do not impoverish the soil because they are ‘* deeper rooted” is of course another assump- tion made in support of a method for which the real justification remained hidden. Similar ideas appear in Cameron’s account of the coffee industry of Coorg district of British India: Where the initial mistake has been made of removing the indigenous deep-rooted shade—and it is pretty universal—replanting has been compulsory, as no one now thinks of growing coffee successfully without shade. But in addition to losing much valuable time in secondary planting it will be felt that the land is called upon to do double service. This, however, is not the only disadvantage arising from the sudden exposure of forest soil long nurtured under shade. Such treatment causes a revulsion in the chemical action of the soil, and under strong sunlight the valuable process of nitrification is arrested. Possibly this may account for the infertility of long-abandoned coffee lands. It is therefore clearly 28 SHADE IN COFFEE CULTURE. to the planter’s interest not to bare the land entirely, but rather by careful selection to retain and make use of the forest trees already in possession. The finest shade, with the least exhaustion to the soil, is provided by deep-rooted umbrageous trees growing at 60, 80, and even 100 feet apart. Specimens of this description are suffi- ciently abundant in the virgin forest, and planters should always utilize them when making new clearings. It is under shade of this sort, with perhaps a little secondary planting here and there to fill up gaps, where one sees the finest coffee. It is true that most saplings will soon establish their leading roots in the subsoil at depths far beyond the reach of the coffee bush, and as they increase in size this tendency to draw nourishment from the substratum increases until in many fully developed forest trees surface rooting is reduced to a minimum. All other condi- tions being favorable, it is deep-rooting trees of this class that should be preferred to shade coffee. The only exceptions would be in the case of fig trees, which (proba- bly from their quasi-parasitic nature) do not appear to exhaust the soil to the same extent as other shaders, and leguminous trees, which assist nitrification in the sur- face soil. Of course it is hardly to be supposed that the shade of leguminous trees is more ‘*‘ nitrifying” than the shadows cast by any other objects; but that the positive contribution of the leguminous trees to the fer- tility of the soil was not appreciated, is evidenced by the fact that the author’s investigations resulted in the approval of the current method of mixed shade, over twenty trees being listed as inuse. But as eight of these, including those most commonly used, are leguminous it is evident that the facts will bear a different interpretation, and that in the East Indies theory and practice are still a stage behind Venezuela and Colombia, where only leguminous trees are recommended for shade. But whatever be the cultural possibilities of ‘‘ nitrification” either by genuine soil organisms or by those symbiotic with leguminous plants, it seems probable that such agencies are to be considered merely as the most effective means of maintaining the fertility of the soil, coffee not being necessarily dependent on organic products or remains. Like many other plants, coffee makes extremely vigorous growth on soil from which the humus has been burned away by the method of clearing by fire usual in heavily forested tropical countries. The fertility of such soil for the first two or three years is commonly ascribed to the ashes, but it seems not unlikely that larger quantities of plant foods may have been liberated and rendered soluble in the soil calcined by the fierce heat developed in the combustion of the large masses of dry vegetation. The belief is general among the natives of West Africa that the success of the subsequent agricultural operations depends upon the size and thoroughness of the conflagration. Thus they open new farms each year in the dense forest, and submit to the hard labor of cutting the large timber rather than avail themselves of areas which could be much more easily cleared, and state, as an explanation of this preference, that the former will ‘‘ burn better.” Crops planted immediately after the burning shoot up at once into vigorous growth, presumably long before soil organisms would have cnt ee DISEASES INDUCED BY SHADE. 29 time to become reestablished and exert an appreciable effect. The fertility, however, is not sustained, and generally decreases measurably after the first season, probably more because the soluble materials are washed rapidly away than because of exhaustion by the year’s crops. How much virtue may lie in the baking of the earth, and how far such a fact could be utilized with coffee or other cultures remains to be determined, but in opening new plantations in mountainous regions the desirability of clearing the lower slopes first is worthy of consid- eration, since to the fertility derivable from the drainage of forest areas would be added that from the tracts subsequently cleared and burned. SHADE AND FUNGOUS DISEASES. While by no means confined to shaded plantations, it is now admit- ted that the leaf-rust of coffee, due to a parasitic fungus (//emileca vas- tatrix),is especially virulent on shaded trees, and it has even been claimed that the comparative immunity of Liberian coffee is due to the fact that it has been grown without shade. Investigation of the dis- ease has also shown that the spores germinate only in water, and that they are killed by exposure tosunshine. The desirability of more open planting in situations affording a good circulation of air has been real- ized in Java, and this is also in accordance with the general proposi- tion that vigorous, healthy vegetation is less Hable to parasitic and other diseases than that improperly nourished or otherwise debilitated. It happens, however, that, with reference to the present disease, what might appear to be exactly the contrary method has also been found of use. In the Coorg coffee district, on the west side of the peninsula of southern India, it has been sought to avoid the ravages of the Hemi- leia by planting the coffee in forests which have been thinned by the removal of the trees supposed to exert a harmful competition with the coffee. A leguminous species, Dalbergia latifolia, is the favorite of those retained, though two species of Artocarpus and several others, leguminous and nonleguminous, are also considered desirable. The coffee is thus grown under permanent shade from the first, but the the- ory of protection from the disease is quite different from that followed in Java. The forest is intended to serve as a wind-break, which pre- vents the spores of the fungus being carried to the coffee by currents of air, and thus hinders the distribution of the fungus. A recent let- ter from Mr. Oliver Moll, of Ubero, Oaxaca, Mexico, states that coffee is also planted in that vicinity in natural forest, which has been ‘‘ thinned out sufficiently to permit enough sun on the young plants.” The experiment of planting rubber alternately with the coffee is also being tried, and the forest conditions may be chosen on that account, though the results of the arrangement are not yet apparent. In Venezuela and Colombia heavily shaded plantations, or those 30 | SHADE IN COFFEE CULTURE. shaded in elevated localities where the moisture is already ample and the temperature sufficiently low, have been found to be especially sus- ceptible to mancha de hierro and other diseases due to parasitic fungi, and even a shade tree (/nga laurina) has been similarly attacked. Thus, from the present as from other standpoints, it may be said that the use of shade is warranted only under conditions and to the extent of contributing to normal vigor and healthful own. of the coffee; no general principle can be laid down. THE EFFECTS OF UNWONTED EXPOSURE. 2 In addition to reasons drawn from the preceding facts regarding the local, incidental, and indirect advantages of the use of shade, other arguments require notice. These may be grouped under the present heading because they have reference to the general fact that coffee plants nurtured in the shade are at a disadvantage when the protection is removed, though it appears, even in such instances, that the coffee suffers because of an exaggeration of its normal susceptibility to drought rather than from injuries due directly to increased sunlight. In countries where, as in Porto Rico, the shade method is carried to an unreasonable and suicidal extreme, it is obvious that the general impression in favor of shade is not based on any experimental realiza- tion of the possibilities of open or at least of more open culture. Custom and tradition influence the majority of the planters, but those who are sufhciently thoughtful and intelligent to seek a reason for a cultural method not in use in some of the principal coffee-growing countries, are often misled through failure to realize that the effects of sudden and unwonted exposure in plantations which have grown up under heavy shade furnish no criterion applicable to plantations sub- jected from the first to rational methods of culture. THE USE OF VOLUNTEER SEEDLINGS. There can be little doubt that the overshading practiced in Porto Rico, and probably also in some districts of Central and South America is partly the result of the habit of transplanting chance-sown seedlings instead of raising new plants in special seed beds or nurseries. In countries where rain is prevalent during the ripening season, or where heavy shading is in vogue, the berries which are accidentally dropped by the pickers or which fall from overripeness, germinate readily and produce quantities of young plants. The use of these precludes, of course, anything like the selection of good seed, and often tends in the contrary direction, since the berries which are unripe at the time of the harvest or those sparingly produced by unhealthy or unfruitful trees are much more likely to have the opportunity of germinating than good and seasonably-ripened seeds. The indefinite repetition of this process of reversed selection can bring about only a deterioration Bul. 25, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. ' PLATE IX. PORTO RICAN COFFEE PLANTATION, OVERSHADED BEFORE THE HURRICANE, NOW CHOKED BY GRASS AND DENUDED BY THE LEAF-MINER. é , ' : + ; i s , ' : I ' 2 s ie :; : 9 ) i oe } 4% ; f . ; on ie . 1 ; ’ ; ig PLATE X. Dept. ot Agr. Bul. 25, Div. of Botany, Gs Ree RESULTS OF EXCESSIVE SHADE. 31 in vigor, fruitfulness, and uniformity of ripening, a fact which makes plain the necessity of the introduction of new stock in all countries where, as in Porto Rico, this objectionable method of propagation has been followed. Returning to the question of the bearing of this evil practice upon the apparent desirability of shade, it may readily be understood that the more heavily the old plantations are shaded the more spindling will be the growth of the seedlings, and the greater the necessity of continuing the shade after transplanting. One meets in Porto Rico, for instance, densely crowded fields of bananas, the planting of which for any other purpose than their own fruits would never be suspected if special attention were not directed to the spindling, whip- like cotlee seedlings 2 or 8 feet high, but with few branches and scarcely any leaves. Properly grown, stocky seedlings would, of course be ruined by this treatment, but on the other hand it would be quite impracticable to use for open culture the plants already deformed and debilitated by unfavorable initial conditions of growth. Although transplanting is usually undertaken only in the rainy season, it often happens that vigcrous and stocky seedlings are injured if unexpected fair weather occurs shortly after. In some countries the use of artifi- cial covering or of quick-growing plants like castor oil or indian corn is considered necessary to avoid this temporary danger. But the taller and more spindling the seedling the greater harm from exposure, and the greater necessity for adequate protection after transplanting, until, as in Porto Rico, the custom of setting out bananas in advance of the coffee has come into regular use. OVERSHADING. Whatever be the possibilities of the rational use of leguminous trees for maintaining the fertility of the soil of coffee plantations, there can be no doubt that the use of shade trees can be carried to hurtful excess. ‘Too much shade, even with leguminous trees, may easily be worse than none. The coffee culture of Porto Rico furnishes a good example of overshading, though others can in all probability be found in Venezuela, Colombia, and Central America. A newspaper writer who visited Porto Rico during the recent war records the following interesting impression of the coffee industry of that island: A Porto Rican coffee plantation does not present any very marked difference in appearance from the rest of the country. The bush or shrub, growing to some 8 or 10 feet in height, is set out on no apparent system, and grows mixed with bananas and forest timber. Until one knows what it is, one might easily pass a whole planta- tion and believe that he had seen nothing but a somewhat scattered forest with its usual undergrowth of serub and thicket. The description is certainly of very general applicability (see Pls. II, IV, and V1), and though occasional plantations showing somewhat eg a2 SHADE IN COFFEE CULTURE. better methods were seen, particularly in the neighborhood of Maya- guez, coffee is almost universally grown as a half-wild culture, either under heavy shade or so badly crowded with other vegetation that properly developed trees are seldom to be found. It can scarcely be charged that the Porto Rican method of coffee culture is entirely the result of carelessness and lack of knowledge, since it had an apparent advantage in the fact that it formerly produced returns with a mini- mum expenditure for labor, and made no other demand on the planter’s purse. The deeper the shade the less the growth of grass, weeds, or underbrush, and the less necessity even of cleaning with a cutlass; but this discouragement of growth affects the coffee as well as other vegetation, so that few plantations yield more than a third of what would be an ordinary crop under open culture, although an attempt has been made to counteract by close planting the evil effects of too much shade. Trees are set without regularity, often within a few inches of each other. Sometimes two seedlings are put in the same hole, but the weaker is not cut out, and both are left to crowd each other and their neighbors four or five feet away. The tendencies of other countries practicing open culture have generally been in the direction of wider and wider planting, from 4 to 6 meters being the prevailing distance in Brazil. When it is remembered that the chemical activity and resulting pro- ductiveness of a plant is conditioned directly on the amount of its leaf surface, it will be understood that the shade habit of growth is incom- patible with good agriculture or a maximum yield. Under heavy shade the tendency is always in the direction of the formation of a single layer, so to speak, of leaves, below which little or nothing ~ grows. The limbs and smaller branches of the tree, instead of being lined with rows of large and healthy leaves, are bare nearly to the tips, and the berries are borne singly or in small clusters instead of crowded in bunches of a dozen or more (PI. VIII). REMOVAL OF SHAD® It is a well-known fact that, even with plants which grow normally exposed to full sunlight, seedlings, sprouts, or cuttings which have been stored or shipped in the dark are often seriously injured or killed outright by being placed in an open situation without having an opportunity to become gradually accustomed to the hght. Thus it is entirely possible that coffee trees accustomed to dense shade like that customary in Porto Rico would be disastrously affected by sud- den exposure like that afforded by the hurricane of August 8, 1899, which in many plantations left few of the larger shade trees standing. As generally happens when a forest is cut away, the exposed under- growth ceases to thrive, and even large trees left standing as indi- viduals often die, although belonging to species which grow well when TREATMENT OF OVERSHADED PLANTATIONS. 33 planted in the open. Although the leaves might be directly affected, _ another possible source of injury lies in the delicate texture of the bark, which has been protected from the sun which now scalds, and from the wind which now strains it. Many instances were observed in Porto Rico where the removal of the shade had no evil effects upon the coffee in cases where the leaves were thick enough to shade the branches and trunks. But while this shows that exposure was not directly injurious, which was already apparent from the vigorous con- _ dition of many trees which had grown up in open places (Pl. X), it leaves the intervening causes still in doubt, since, when there were | enough leaves to shade the trees, the ground was also shaded. A suf- ficient cause of the debility of trees which have had their accustomed shade removed is perhaps to be found in the fact that in every case where the symptoms were severe the ground had already been cov- ered with a dense growth of grass, the evil effects of which are well known in countries where open culture is customary. Thus does overshading produce and continually strengthen the argu- ments for its own continuance, the effects of unwonted exposure being interpreted as indications of the normal requirements of the coffee tree. While it is undoubtedly true that the destruction of the shade trees by the hurricane had a disastrous effect on many plantations, it is equally true that there are many others which would receive great benefit by the gradual withdrawal of a large part of the shade which _ now discourages growth and productiveness. It is improbable that the shade-grown coffee could be made to succeed under open culture, but if immediately after the hurricane the old spindling trees had been sawed off near the ground, the sprouts which _ would have arisen from the stumps could have been brought into bear- ing under open or a reasonable shade culture much earlier than newly transplanted seedlings, and thus made to yield an advantage of several years of productiveness without the initial expense and delay incident to new plantations. 7 In connection with this advice there should, however, be mentioned the fact, brought forward by Dr. Delgado, that in Venezuela the roots of coffee trees grown under shade are almost entirely superficial, the taproot and its branches being relatively atrophied, perhaps because it has been unnecessary for the tree to seek either moisture or plant food deep in the soil, This renders plantations started under shade culture specially liable to injury from drought, and makes it easier to under- stand why the disastrous effects of sudden exposure in heavily shaded plantations is no criterion for judging the possibilities of more open — culture. Whether such a change is feasible depends very largely upon the local conditions of climate and soil, and upon the methods used in making the transformation. It has been reported that in the State of Colima, Mexico, the shade trees are cut down after the coffee has 14652—No. 25—01——3 34 SHADE IN COFFEE CULTURE. attained to full growth, but according to Dr. Edward Palmer this is accomplished by a process of gradual thinning. SHADE AND THE COFFEE LEAF-MINER. The coffee leaf-miner, Cemzostoma coffeellum, the larva of a small lepi- dopterous insect related to the clothes-moth, has appeared to furnish an argument for the direct benefit of shade, but observations recently made in Porto Rico seem to indicate that this question may be prop- erly discussed among the effects of unwonted exposure. The leaf-miner burrows in the middle layer or soft tissue of the leaf, leaving the upper and lower surfaces uninjured, except that the cells die and form large, irregular brown spots, having exactly the appearance of vegetation scorched and shriveled by heat (Pl. XI). In Porto Rico, and doubtless in other countries, these brown spots are commonly interpreted as the results of exposure to the sun, and there — | can be but little doubt that the ravages of this insect pest have had an important influence in strengthening the opinions of those who advo- — cate heavy shading. Probably they are at least partially responsible for many unwarranted statements by writers making pretensions to — scientific accuracy, to the general effect that coffee **can not endure the intense direct radiation of the tropical sun.” The insect is very small and would never be seen unless carefully searched for, while the scorched spot is, to the general public, indisputable evidence that the coffee has been injured by the sunlight. The ravages of the coffee leaf-miner have been investigated in Brazil* and elsewhere, and the opinion is held that the damage is great- est at low elevations and in trees exposed to the sun.” In Porto Rico the latter idea seemed to apply well to the recently exposed trees, but those which had never been shaded were often quite free from injury, and were nowhere noticed to be seriously affected. It is true that trees in very heavy shade do not suffer from the leaf-miner, but in regions where the insect is abundant the shaded trees are not entirely immune, although the burrows seem to remain smaller than in debili- 'Mann’s report of his investigations of the coffee moth (American Naturalist, 1872, 6: 332-841; 596-607) in Brazil is almost exclusively entomological, and, beyond the statement that the larvee are said to attack the new leaves in early spring, nothing is recorded regarding predisposing causes. It was estimated that the injury amounted to about one-fifth of the coffee crop of Brazil, but no remedy was found other than that of picking off and burning the affected leaves before the escape of the larvee, and although this process would be expensive, it was estimated that the gain in yield would more than compensate. The insect probably came originally from the East Indies, but was introduced into Brazil from the Antilles. Every precaution should be taken to keep it from any coffee regions where it has not yet appeared. * The depredations of this insect are now known to be avoidable by planting Libe- rian coffee, which is much more hardy than the Arabian at low elevations, and also much more resistant to fungous and insect diseases. PLATE X\l of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 25, Div Bu COFFEE, LEAVES INJURED BY LEAF-MINER; FROM PLANTATION SHOWN IN PLATE IX. [Natural size.] no are a NR RTT lt lah es Gi: Mie ot Bed eo. Seid omey Sane * “RAVAGES OF THE LEAF-MINER. 835 tated trees. On otherwise healthy trees the leaves attacked by the miner do not appear to be injured except at the spot where the tissue has been eaten away, but on those already weakened by adverse cir- cumstances the leaves fall rapidly, leaving the branches quite bare except for a few young leaves at the tips, and these seemed to fall before they reached full size. At Quebrada Arenas, between Caguas and Cayey, the writer found a coffee farm occupying the sides of a ravine running east and west. Large trees which must have furnished heavy sbade had fallen, doubt- less at the time of the hurricane, leaving the coffee exposed. On the north side of the ravine the trees had nearly all lost a large proportion of their leaves and most of those which remained were of a noticeably lighter yellowish color. With few exceptions they showed the work of the leaf-miner, and most of them were undersized or deformed, indicating that the insect had begun its attack before the leaves had been fully expanded. That the leaves fell solely on account of the ravages of the miner seems, however, improbable in view of the obvious debility of the trees from other causes; but it seems entirely probable that the insect was hastening the deterioration of this part of the plantation. A sufficient cause of the unhealthy condition of the trees existed, however, in the fact that the ground under the exposed trees was covered with a dense growth of grass, to say noth- ing of the possibility of the direct injury by the sun on the thin bark of the slender and fully exposed trunks and branches of the spindling trees. On the south side of the ravine where most of the shade trees were still standing the coffee leaves had preserved a more healthy, dark- green color, and, while the leaf-miner was also frequent, it seemed to make less progress and many of the leaves were uninjured. While the contrast in this case was very marked and might on superficial inspection appear to have warranted the opinion that the difference in exposure determines the severity of the leaf-miner and the resulting unhealthfulness of the coffee, this view seems to be negatived by the fact that similarly ill-conditioned trees showed the lighter color and lost their leaves, though perhaps with less rapidity, in places where there were few, if any, leaf-miners, but where the ground was covered with grass or where drainage was obviously defective. These facts appear to warrant the conclusion that an unhealthful condition which gives the coffee leaves a yellowish color also invites the attacks of the coffee miner. This opinion seemed to be further justified by many instances where the removal of the shade trees had worked no appre- clable damage when the foliage of the coffee was thick enough to pro- tect the trunks and keep the grass from growing underneath. Special notice was also taken of trees which through some accident or neglect had been allowed to grow up in exposed places. Where the conditions 36 SHADE IN COFFEE CULTURE. were at all favorable these were often unusually vigorous and healthy. It was also observed that the trees along the roadside like those shown in Plate X were much larger and more leafy than those farther back in the plantations. The Philippines also furnish an example of bad effects from a removal of shade. A serious disease due to a longicorn beetle has ravaged the coffee plantations, and the insects are found to be especially numerous in plantations shaded by Gliricidia maculata, but during the season when the leaves are wanting and the coffee is exposed to the full sunlight. Although the report of Sefior Sanchez indicates that the damage is due to the fact that the beetles prefer the sunlight, it seems by no means impossible that the change from dense shade to open sun may affect the trees in such a way as to invite the attacks of the insect. Coffee shaded by Erythrina indica and FE. ovalifolia is said to suffer toa much smaller extent, though these trees normally permit more light to enter. METHODS OF APPLYING SHADE. The use of shade in coffee culture offers all the stages intermediate between leaving of belts of forest or scattering trees as- protection against the wind and the provision of a succession of dense coverings of bananas and other vegetation described as overshading. In some localities of dry countries like Mexico shade or irrigation may be necessary to enable the coffee to withstand the long dry season. Where shade is thus indispensable the source of it may not appear to bea matter of serious importance, and in Mexico coffee is often planted under almost any trees already existing in gardens or cultivated grounds. Dr. Edward Palmer reports having seen at Tampico in 1880 a considerable area of coffee shaded, not by trees at all, but by arbors latticed with small sticks and brush. According to the same traveler, shade and irrigation are used together in the State of Colima, and even at Tepic, at the highest elevation where coffee is grown in Mexico, shade is still employed. There seems to be no special discrimination in favor of any single species, though the guaymochil (Pithecolobium dulce) is used as often as any. This is a large leguminous tree com- monly cultivated in Mexico for its edible fruit. In southern Mexico (Oaxaca and Chiapas), as well as in Central America, there are many coffee-growing districts where shade is not used, being considered quite unnecessary from the standpoint of normal requirements of heat or moisture. This region also includes some of the finest coffee soils in the world, loose volcanic débris, the disintegration of which is believed to set free phosphoric acid and other plant foods in quantities sufficient to maintain for decades the vigorous growth and productiveness of the coffee. There are numer- ous accounts of plantations averaging 3 pounds and upward per tree 7 is & | SHADE IN SOUTH AMERICA. 37 entirely without shade. Patriarchal coffee trees are reported which remain fruitful after nearly a century of production; also giant trees which are asserted to have borne 12, 15, 20, and even 40 pounds of coffee in one season. It has also been noted that these exceptional individuals generally stand quite exposed, out of reach of the shadow or the roots of other trees of any kind. The possibilities of these unusual natural conditions do not, however, affect the question of the desirability of shade in less favorable surroundings. Maximum results _ are possible without shade trees, but this by no means detracts from the utility of the latter when needed. To what extent the coffee culture of Central America has been influenced by that of Brazil and the East Indies is not known. It is a curious fact, at least, that in Central America, where much coffee is grown without shade, cacao is planted with shade, while in Colombia the open culture of cacao is in vogue, though coffee is regularly shaded. In Venezuela shade seems to be habitually used for both coffee and eacao. This variety of method issupported by equally diverse opinions on the part of the planters of the different localities, a fact which well demonstrates the lack of definite experimental knowledge or establishd principles of general application. The coffee culture of Venezuela and Colombia may be said to have taken a step in advance of that of other countries in that there is definite allegiance to the proposition that only leguminous trees should be planted for shade. Furthermore, the idea has also dawned that the leguminous shade trees influence the relative fertility of the soil, though this notion, for the lack of a satisfactory explanation, has received thus far no wide credence or sympathy. 1Shortly before the completion of this paper two references have been found which might appear to vitiate the claim that the question of coffee shade is universally mis- apprehended through failure to recognize the fact that the good results are largely ascribable to the fertility rather than to the shade supplied by the trees. In reality, however, these statements strengthen the above position, since they demonstrate that even though the possibility of such effect came before the mind the strength of tra- ditional opinion was such that it received but the most casual notice. Thus in the Journal fiir Landwirtschaft, 1897, 45: 18, Dr. M. Fesca, of Berlin, offers the follow- ing opinions: | The coffee trees grow wild only in the semidarkness of forests; they can not endure the intense direct radiation of the tropical sun. * * * For purposes of shade individual trees are accordingly left when the original forest is cleared away, and for wind-breaks narrow strips of forest are also left on the borders of the plantation. Commonly special shade trees are also planted, and for this purpose leguminous trees are particularly adapted, since their feathery leaves furnish a light shade and permit an adequate circulation of the air, and, moreover, they bring about the fixation of the free nitrogen of the atmosphere through the production of bacterial tubercles on their roots, and thus directly enrich the soil with nitrogen. With reference to cacao a similar possibility had been noted in a similarly casual manner three years before by Mr. J. H. Hart, superintendent of the Royal Botanical Gardens of Trinidad. In reporting the introduction into Trinidad of a species of Lonchocarpus used in Nicaragua for shading cacao, he says: The tree belongs to the order Leguminosae, to which the ‘‘ Bois Immortel’’ ( Ery- thrina umbrosa) also belongs. The common name for the ‘‘Immortel’’ in Trinidad 38 SHADE IN COFFEE CULTURE. Apparently the most intelligent and authoritative statement regard- ing coffee culture in the United States of Colombia is that of Mr. Robert Thompson, published in the reports of the British Foreign Office for 1895. In that country coffee culture has been greatly extended within the last decade, even in districts from 600 to 800 miles from the coast, necessitating heavy transportation expenses before the crop can reach export markets. But notwithstanding an outlay of this kind, often amounting to 2 or 3 cents a pound, production was considered extremely profitable until the general fall in prices occurred. Land at $5 to $8 per acre is cheaper than in Porto Rico, but labor is nearly as expensive, and would perhaps be more costly were it not for the depreciation of the currency. Mr. Thompson was also familiar with the coffee industry of Jamaica, and his statement contains comparative figures likely to be of interest in Porto Rico, in addition to an account of a very interesting series of leguminous trees planted with coffee at different elevations: The number of coffee trees planted per hectare (25 acres) in Colombia averages about 1,500. The general average yield per tree per annum on well-kept plantations is 1} pounds, or 2,250 pounds per hectare (900 pounds per acre). On many other plantations the average yearly crop does not exceed 1 pound per tree (600 pounds per acre). Thus the number of trees planted per acre in this country strikingly con- trasts with the number planted in British colonies, where twice as many are planted per acre; notwithstanding heavier crops are secured in Colombia. In the palmy days of coffee cultivation in Ceylon the average production was 5 ewt. per acre. One of the chief elements of success appertaining to this cultlvation in Colombia must be assigned to the systematic interplanting of shade trees with the coffee. At altitudes ranging from 3,000 to 5,000 feet more densely foliaged shade trees are em- ployed than is the case on plantations between 5,000 and 6,000 feet, where a slender shade is afforded by a species of Cassia. The shade trees utilized on plantations situ- ated between 3,000 and 5,000 feet are a species of Erythrina and another leguminous tree, a species of Inga, which latter is becoming very generally adopted by planters. I would strongly recommend this Inga for adoption by British colonial coffee planters, as it is most admirably adapted for the purpose. It grows rapidly, and the large compound leaves fall abundantly at the season in which the plantation requires the least degree of shade, whilst the abundance of fallen leaves from this tree check in a very marked manner the irrepressible growth of weeds. Moreover, the general result of the beneficial influence of this congenial shade reduces to a minimum all cultural expenses; indeed, it may be safely computed that the good offices of this tree curtail the cost of actual cultivation to the extent of some 50 per cent as compared with coffee devoid of shade. It isa remarkable fact that British colonial coffee planters have in the main ignored the application of shade to the coffee tree. Without shade the tree certainly flourishes, but its full exposure to the sun, at any rate as the sun is and on the mainland is ‘‘ Madre de Cacao,’’ and the belief exists that it furnishes moisture to the roots of the cacao. It has been determined by scientists that all trees belonging to this order have the power of supplying nitrogen to the soil or making it available for other crops, and it is quite possible that in this capacity the tree acts as a real Madre de Cacao. I do not wish, however, to enter into a discussion as to the value of either the ‘“Madera’’ or the ‘‘ Bois Immortel’’ any further than to state that I believe the former is well worthy of trial by our cacao planters, and as it will be distributed free of cost I hope to procure a good record of the trials. COFFEE INDUSTRY OF COLOMBIA. 39 wont to shine here, is detrimental in the long run to its most congenial state of pro- ductiveness. However, near the upper limit of this cultivation, namely, from 5,000 to 6,000 feet, shade is not to be recommended. As I am well acquainted with the productive resources of Jamaica, England’s trop- ical American colony par excellence for coffee, it may not be amiss to give the follow- ing particulars touching coffee cultivation in that colony in comparison with the cul- tivation in Colombia: The total coffee production in Jamaica, about 10,000,000 pounds, represents what is cultivated on an area of 11,000 acres in Colombia, but in Jamaica 22,476 acres are under cultivation. Thus, were the Jamaica plantations yielding to the same extent as those of Colombia, the value of the output would be increased from £336,840 to double that amount yearly. Moreover, the general aver- age quality of the Colombian article is superior to that of Jamaica, though that island contains several plantations at high altitudes the produce of which is the finest in — the world. There can be no doubt that the coffee industry of Jamaica would be greatly benefited by the adoption of the more advanced practical methods pursued in Colombia. Ina recent number of the Kew Bulletin reference is made to the slow development of the coffee enterprise in Jamaica and other British colonies. What that paper suggests in order to encourage the enterprise in Jamaica is the opening up of the roads to facilitate transport, but Jamaica is already well provided with splendid roads; besides, the most eligible sites for plantations are nowhere situated more than some 20 miles from the sea, and seaports surround the island. I have already described how remarkably different are the conditions of transport in Colombia, and how this, the most important commercial plant of tropical America, can be turned to better account in the colonies. Understanding that the benefits ascribed to shade may prove to be largely due to the fertility imparted by the leguminous trees, it is pos- sible to reconcile these interesting statements with others of a contra- dictory import. That there are, however, rational limits to the use of even leguminous shade trees is indicated by the fact that although spe- cies of Erythrina and Inga have been introduced into Porto Rico the average yield is as low or lower than that of Jamaica. Supposing that the natural conditions are equally favorable with those of Colombia, overshading and neglect are apparently responsible in Porto Rico for the loss of more than half of the possible crop. Although Mr. Thomp- son does not state the amount of shade used, it is evident that great moderation exists in comparison with the general custom in Porto Rico, notwithstanding the probability that the continental conditions and greater seasonal extremes of heat and dryness justify the use of shade for its own sake to a far greater degree than in Porto Rico. It is quite possible that shade would be desirable at some places in Jamaica, although the fact that the island produces a very high grade of cofee without shade is also significant. In the most extensive coffee region of the world, Brazil, shade is not in use, a fact which has doubtless had great influence upon general opinion and has stood in the way of an appreciation of the problems of this and related branches of tropical agriculture. The Brazilian practice of excluding shade trees has been justified by many experts acquainted only with the coffee industry of that country and has also 40 SHADE IN COFFEE CULTURE. been favored even by some who approved the use of shade in Java or elsewhere, because the Brazilian coffee region les near the limit of tropical conditions and suffers from low temperatures in the winter season. This might render shade at that season undesirable, but such a difficulty could be avoided by the use of deciduous trees, so that other reasons will be needed if the failure to plant leguminous trees is to be rationally explained in the districts where coffee is known to suffer from heat and drought, to say nothing of the possibilities of soil improvement. ‘The climatic or other conditions may forbid the use of the shade trees popular in other countries, but there is every proba- bility that species able to meet the local requirements could be secured. As noted elsewhere, the earlier writers on the coffee culture of the East Indies are silent upon the subject of shade, and in the extensive industry formerly existing in Ceylon open culture was the rule. Gradually, however, and more especially in Java, the good effects of proximity to forest areas or to individual leguminous trees became appreciated by planters. The benefit was ascribed, however, to shelter from winds, and the leaving of belts of the natural forest and the planting of hedges or wind-breaks came into favor. Latterly the opinion has gained ground that a slight open shade, such as that cast _ by an occasional tree of the open habit and finely divided foliage of some of the leguminous species, was extremely beneficial to the coffee. Thus a reason was found for the planting of leguminous shade trees, the advantage of which has gained increasingly wide appreciation and is now general in the British as well as in the Dutch colonies. The failure to realize what is here taken to be the true function and chief value of leguminous trees is, however, shown in the fact that even in Java frequent attempts are still made with nonleguminous species. On a recent visit to Java, Mr. David G. Fairchild, agricultural explorer of this Department, saw plantations in the vicinity of Buiten- zorg shaded with the kapok or silk-cotton tree ( Cecha pentandra), which is mentioned as eligible for this purpose in a paper published during the present year.’ Planters who use this species will probably con- clude that their land is not suitable for coffee and console themselves with the cotton crop. The silk-cotton tree would be of little use where shade is really needed, and in any situation may be expected to discourage the growth of anything else within reach of its enormous superficial roots. But by approaching the problem from a different standpoint the .— planters of Java have avoided the errors of overcrowding and over- shading which have often brought the shade method into disrepute in America. But notwithstanding more intelligent observations and more scientific study of other phases of coffee culture, there has been no a ' Beihefte zum Tropenpflanzer 1: 68. CHOICE OF SHADE TREES. 41 realization of the importance of an experimental determination of the cultural functions and relative utility of the numerous species of shade trees. The introduction to the East Indies of the more valuable of the American leguminous shade trees has not been attempted, to say noth- ing of a general canvass of the tropical arboreal flora of this family, a botanical undertaking now most desirable if the culture of coffee and other agricultural crops of the Tropics is to receive the assistance which this branch of science might be able to furnish. No mere cata- logues of species or systematic studies in the ordinary sense of the words will, however, suffice for this purpose. Trees which give promise of eligibility should be thoroughly investigated in their native countries with reference to soils, altitudes, and climatic conditions, size, habits, and rates of growth, immunity from disease, quality and value of wood, fruits or other products, facility of propagation, and all other facts bearing upon their availability in agriculture. Such preliminary knowledge will be of great value in avoiding expense and delay in the experiments necessary in selecting the best species for different regions and climates. Many tropical leguminous trees are deciduous; in some countries species deciduous in the dry season will probably be best, in others those which lose their leaves in the rains. One species, Adenanthera pavonina, drops its leaves both at the begin- ning and at the end of the rainy season. Many close their leaflets at night, and thus permit more thorough ventilation. The quick-growing species are short lived; there is, however, no reason why, as with cacao, two or three species of shade trees might not be planted with coffee, some to be cut away when they had reached the limit of useful- ness, the more desirable and longer-lived species to remain as per- manent shade. It is not desirable at this point to attempt a discussion of the uses and products of leguminous trees which might be used for shade, although this is a subject likely to prove of much importance, since trees yielding edible or otherwise useful fruits may occupy no more space and require no more attention than those yielding no direct returns. The appended list of species which have been planted with coffee either as shade trees or as catch crops includes the available information on the above point. This information is of necessity frag- mentary, but it may prove of use for the practical planter as well as for those who may be interested in the increase of knowledge likely to have so important a bearing upon the development of tropical agriculture. CONCLUSIONS. A canvass of the subject of shade in coffee culture shows that there is no basis in reason or in observed fact for the belief that shade is : general necessity for the coffee plant, even when grown at low eleva- 492 SHADE IN COFFEE CULTURE. tions. On the contrary, it is extremely probable that the beneficial effects resulting from shade are quite apart from the shadow cast upon the coffee tree. The beneficial effects connected with shade arise from the protection afforded against drought, erosion, and winds. ‘The planting of shade trees for these purposes is accordingly determined by local conditions of climate and soil, and furnishes no reason for the general planting of shade trees. In regions not affected by injurious climatic extremes the planting of shade trees is justified from the cultural standpoint only by the increased fertility imparted to the soil by means of the nitrogen-fixing root tubercles of leguminous species. This view has not been made the subject of experimental demonstration, but it seems to accord with all the facts thus far ascertained. The benefits of leguminous fertilizing are quite apart from the shading of the coffee, and under suitable cultural conditions are also to be secured from shrubs and herbs belonging to the same natural family. The relative utility and availability of the various shade trees and soiling crops is a subject of vast importance in coffee culture and in other agricultural industries of the Tropics. The combinations of such cultures as coffee and cacao with legumi- nous trees and plants of maximum cultural and commercial value afford many complex, scientific, and practical problems bearing upon the rise of mixed farming in the Tropics, and are thus worthy of serious experimental attention. LIST OF COFFEE SHADE TREES. Some of the cacao and coffee shade trees of South America have been introduced into Trinidad, Porto Rico, and other West Indian islands, and one of the favorite species in Java came from the Moluccas, but there has been no serious attempt at bringing together even the more prominent American and Asiatic species, much less any systematic effort at investigating the possibilities of the multitudes of arboreous legumes to be found throughout the Tropics. If experiments shall demonstrate that the roots and not the leaves are the parts of the tree which are of primary importance, the selection of leguminous trees for agricultural uses must be approached from a new standpoint, and the results it is impossible to foresee. But in addition to such consid- erations the further possibility of using for shade leguminous trees which furnish valuable wood, fruits, gums, or other products must not be overlooked, since additional returns from such a source would be in the nature of clear profits to the coffee planter. As a preliminary to the study of shade trees available for use with coffee and other similar cultures, a collation of the species thus far recorded as having been used for this purpose seems desirable, and a THE MOST PROMISING SHADE TREES. 43 beginning is accordingly made with the present list. Although the chief interest will undoubtedly center upon the Leguminosae, species of other orders are also included for the sake of historical interest and completeness, and also because it is by no means impossible that other types of vegetation may have a practical bearing upon the subject, since members of several families outside the Leguminosae are now known to profit by symbiotic relations with lower organisms, either fungi or bacteria. In the absence of comparative experiments with even the better- known shade trees, it is impossible at this time to determine which species are really to be preferred, if indeed species still untried are not to be found more desirable than those now in use. Moreover, if the leguminous trees follow the analogy of the herbaceous fodder and soil- ing crops, they will be found to have definite adaptations to soil and climate, so that in a perfected agriculture not one but many trees will need to be considered. The best that appears to be possible at pres- ent is to bring together all that has been ascertained regarding shade trees and catch crops for coffee. The present compilation makes no claim to completeness, but may be of use as furnishing suggestions for planters and experimenters, and as a basis for further accumulations of knowledge. In canvassing the available literature attention has been directed especially to the practical details and methods of propa- gation, rapidity of growth, size, habit, value of wood and other prod- ucts bearing upon the desirability of the different species. For the guidance of those new to the subject it may be said that the favorite leguminous shade trees of the Kast Indies belong to the genera Albizzia and Erythrina, while in the American Tropics other species of Erythrina are used, though members of the genus Inga seem to be more popular. Of better promise, perhaps, than any of the above are the two species of Pithecolobium, the rain tree (Pl. XVI), guango, or saman of the West Indies, and the guaymochil or Manila tamarind of Mexico and the Philippines. In addition to the shade, fruit, timber, rubber, and other trees which have been considered for planting with coffee, herbaceous plants used for temporary shade and catch crops raised with coffee for soiling and fodder purposes have been included. Of course it would be possible to grow almost anything between the rows of young coffee trees, but some plants and cultures will be more useful or less injurious than others; and some, such as the banana, castor bean, indian corn, and pigeon pea have a regular place in the shade cultures of some coffee-growing countries. For regions where intensive culture is practicable and the use of shade unnecessary or undesirable, the most eligible of herbaceous soiling crops for coffee is, perhaps, the peanut, though the velvet bean, phasemy, beggar weed, and numerous other tropical leguminous plants should be made the subjects of early experiments. 44 SHADE IN COFFEE CULTURE. For the sake of ready reference all the common names used for shade trees and crops grown with coffee in the various coffee regions have been introduced in the form of an alphabetical index. Acacia albicans. CoMMON NAME.—Huizache (Mexico). This species is said to be desirable because it produces a moderate shade, ‘‘ with its small leaves and elevated top.’? Gomez objects to it, however, on the ground that it stains the leaves of the coffee tree, though the extent and nature of the injury are not explained. . Acacia angico. (See Piptadenia colubrina.) Acacia julibrissin. (See Albizzia julibrissin.) Acacia montana. A tree native in the mountains of Java; recommended for coffee shade according to van Gorkam. Acacia virginalis. (See Piptadenia colubrina.) Acajou. (See Anacardium occidentale.) | Acajou amer (Guadeloupe). (See Cedrela odorata.) Acajou de Saint Domingue (Guadeloupe). (See Swietenta mahagon?). Acajou du pays (Guadeloupe). (See Cedrela odorata.) Achiote (Spanish America). (See Bixa orellana.) Acrocarpus fraxinifolius. ComMMON NAME.—Howlige (Coorg, India). A leguminous forest tree left standing for shade in coffee plantations. (Cameron. ) Acupa (Colombia). (See //ura crepitans.) Adenanthera pavonina. According to Morren this species, though little known for coffee shade, has several very desirable qualities. The leaves are dropped twice in the year, at the beginning and at the end of the rainy season, but the new foliage appears in a few days. The leaves close at night like those of Pithecolobium saman, permitting access of air and dew; the roots are deep; the wood is hard, of beautiful color, and suitable for cabinet- work. Itisnot stated, however, that the present species excels in rapid growth. To insure prompt germination the seeds need to have the outer shell cut or filed through and to be soaked in water from six to twelve hours. Agati grandiflora. Synonym.—Sesbania grandiflora. CoMMON NAMEs.—Baculo (Porto Rico); Gallito (Porto Rico). This beautiful leguminous ornamental, though growing to a height of from 10 to 20 feet and becoming a small tree in size and form, is scarcely more than herbaceous in structure and lives but a year ortwo. In India the bark is used as an astringent med- icine, while the leaves, flowers, and fruit are used as a vegetable or as an ingredient of curries. The leaves and shoots are also eaten by cattle. The bark also yields a fiber and the trunks serve for firewood and as a substitute for bamboo. From the ol pe ioth aoe orig aa il » sds eee uate 6) SHADE TREES AND CATCH CROPS. 45 coffee-shade standpoint this species is of possible interest on account of its extremely rapid growth, which may render it useful for temporary shade. Belonging to the Leguminosae, it is probably preferable for this purpose to the banana, castor-bean, or indian corn. Aguacate (Mexico). (See Persea gratissima.) Alada (Coorg, India). (See “cus bengalensis.) Albizzia elata. (See Albizzia procera.) Albizzia julibrissin. SynonyM.—Acacia julibrissin. Acacia julibrissin is mentioned by Lock as though synonymous with Albizzia molauc- cana. In reality the two species are held by botanists to be quite distinct, though both are now referred to the genus Albizzia. Albizzia lebbek. Common NAMEs.—Bois a friture; Bois noir (French West Indies); Siris (British India). This species is in favor for coffee shade in the French islands of the East and West Indies. The wood is harder and more valuable than that of A. moluccana and A. stipulata, and the growth slower, though still quite rapid. A further disadvantage is in the large spreading superficial roots and in the fact that the tree ultimately attains great size. There is said, however, to be a smaller variety in Reunion and the West Indies, the leaves of which furnish an excellent fodder for cattle. That they are also a valuable nitrogenous manure is indicated by the following analysis credited by Professor Lecomte to M. Grandeau. The table is based on 1,000 kilograms of dry leaves: Kilograms. INTRO REIS Eh A SF a MO em oe A Sara om ciaN Cn ee HER Pk OR Se 18. 79 Eaters MOL cn Ae On ee eae See Me SS eae tie MS ee era e a ee mbes ee a ete s ieare 1. 40 TP QUSESIT ate ic, SUTRA ES 2 IE INES Bs Re Rp ea ae Re RE a 3.18 TO TEDNG: dn eh eR EE) Ss a a ate I EE gL A aI DO 37. 00 invents ames eh ee rr ee i an a hs Cee a Wn ee Ce awe ce ee tee 2.50 From the trunk may be obtained a gum similar to gum arabic, and the wood is hard, close-grained, veined with pink and red, and darkening with age. This small variety seems to be very different, in habit, at least, from the large form which is extensively planted for shade in Egypt and India. To judge from the specimen photographed in Porto Rico, it is much smaller, of a much more horizontal and spreading habit, and has a rough, almost shaggy, bark. Such differences seem to indicate specific rather than merely varietal distinctness. ' Albizzia moluccana. Common NAME.—Djeundjing laut (Java); Poon sikat (Banda); Sengoon laoot (Malay ). As the specific name indicates, this tree is a native of the Moluccas, but is now extensively planted in Java for coffee shade, and has also been introduced into British India for the same purpose. It is noted for its extremely rapid growth. In a single year it sometimes exceeds 15 feet, and in six years, according to Dr. Fesca, it may attain over 80 feet (25 meters). The open, thin shade of this species is currently believed to be peculiarly grateful to the coffee, and the fact that the leaf- lets are closed at night is looked upon as a further advantage in permitting a freer circulation of air, though the importance of these considerations in a country where the shade trees are planted as far apart as in Jaya is scarcely to be taken seriously. 46 SHADE IN COFFEE CULTURE. In view of the fact that the roots of Albizzia moluccana are known to abound in large tubercles, it is much easier to believe that the benefits ascribed to the slight shade are in reality the result of the exceptional activity of the tubercle-forming bacteri: as indicated by the very rapid growth of the tree. The disadvantages of the present species are the worthlessness of the soft, brittle wood, together with the fact that the trees are badly damaged by wind and that the falling limbs often break down the coffee trees. The lability of such injuries is further increased by the fact that the soft wood of the tree is frequently riddled by the larvee of a beetle. According to Raoul, the seeds should be sown from six to nine months before the coffee is planted, in the places where the trees are to stand, at distances of from 13 to 15 meters in both directions. Fesca states, on the other hand, that it is customary to plant the shade trees in seed beds like those used for coffee, from which they are subsequently transferred to the plantation. Albizzia odoratissima. ComMon NAME.—Bilvara (Coorg, India). A leguminous forest tree left standing for shade in coffee plantations. (Cameron.) Albizzia procera. Albizzia elata. SYNONYM. CoMMON NAME.—Medeloa (Burma). Recommended for shading Liberian coffee in the Tavoy district of Burma. The timber is of excellent quality. Albizzia stipulata. CoMMON NAMES.—Sengon (Java); Sau (Ceylon); Sengon yora (Malay). A Java species similar to A. moluccana, but having tougher wood, which would be an important advantage. Another desirable feature is the deciduous character of the leaves, which have been thought on this account to make a large contribution to the fertility of the soil, though the real advantage, if any, probably lies in the further reduction of the shade. The chief objection to this species is that growth is, as far known, much slower than in A. moluccana. If, however, quick-growing varieties could be found or obtained by selection, it is thought that the present species would largely supplant the other, though Lecompte objects that the foliage is too dense and that the masses of fallen leaves interfere with the necessary aération of the roots. Alfalfa. (See Medicago sativus.) Algarrobo. (See Pithecolobium saman.) Alligator pear. (See Persea gratissima.) Ama-sisa (Peru). (See Lrythrina poeppigiana.) Anacardium occidentale. CASHEW. CoMMON NAMES.—Acajou; Cajou (French Antilles). This well-known tropical fruit tree is sometimes planted in hedges as a wind-break in the West Indies, according to Raoul. Anal (Philippine Islands). (See Erythrina ovalifolia.) Ananas sativus. PINEAPPLE. CoMMON NAME.—Pina (Spanish). Pineapples are said to be grown as a side crop with coffee in some parts of Mexico. The experience of the Florida pineapple growers has demonstrated that the par- LRA ee SHADE TREES AND CATCH CROPS. 47 tial shade afforded by the latticework sheds erected for protection against frost is highly beneficial to the size and quality of the fruit and as a protection against sun scald. The improvement is in fact so important that, even far below the frost line, thou- sands of dollars are being spent on sheds for shade alone. It is by no means impos- sible that this requirement could be as successfully and much more cheaply met by means of leguminous shade trees. Moreover, it is not impossible that the culture of pineapples and coffee could be advantageously combined in Porto Rico, since the two crops would require their principal amount of attention at different seasons, the pine- apple ripening before the coffee. Ananassa sativa. (See Ananas sativus.) Anatto. (See Lixa orellana.) Anauca (Trinidad). (See Lrythrina uwmbrosa.) Andira inermis. ComMon NAMES.—Cabbage bark tree, or cabbage tree (Jamaica); Moca (EF orto Rico). A leguminous tree called ‘‘ cabbage tree”’ or ‘‘cabbage bark tree,’’ on account of its disagreeable odor, resembling that of the well-known vegetable. It is generally distributed in Porto Rico and is sometimes used for coffee shade, but is considered inferior to the two species of Inga on account of its slow growth. The bark, in the form of a powder or a decoction, is said in Jamaica to have value as a cathartic and vermifuge, but large doses are dangerous, causing vomiting, delirium, and even death. The wood is said to be hard and durable, having a specific gravity of 0.88, and is susceptible of a high polish. The pods are fleshy, about the size of a horse-chest- nut, and contain but a single seed. The floors of the caves at Aguas Buenas, Porto Rico, are in places covered with the seeds of this species, which are carried in by the bats for the sake of the inclosing pulp. The seeds germinate in the caves, sending up slender white sprouts 2 or 3 feet high. ) Andropogon sorghum. SorRGHUM. Common Names:—Kaftir corn; Milho (Portuguese) ; Millo (Spanish). In Brazil a form of sorghum or millo maize is one of the crops planted on a small scale with young coffee. Angico (Brazil). (See Piptadenia colubrina.) Antiaris toxicaria. UPpas TREE. This belongs to the family Moraceae. It is enumerated by Cameron among the forest trees left standing for shade in coffee plantations of the Coorg district of British India. Apio (Venezuela). (See Avracacia esculenta.) Arachis hypogaea. PEANUT. CoMMON NAMES:—Goober; Kratok (Java); Mani (Porto Rico); Pinaar; Roway (Java). Mentioned by van Gorkam as a luxuriant species of Arachis which was recom- mended as a soiling crop for coffee plantations. It covers the ground with a dense mat of vegetation and enriches the soil by means of the nitrogen fixed in the root tubercles. It would seem that the peanut would make one of the best secondary crops for use with coffee. In addition to the green manure and the peanuts the vine would also have a value as forage. The vigorous dense growth of the plants would keep down weeds, retain moisture in the soil, and prevent its becoming overheated. 48 SHADE IN COFFEE CULTURE. Successful experiments with the peanut as a green manure for coffee are mentioned by Lecomte, but not described in detail, though he recommends that the plants be cut and used as a mulch in their green state before fruiting. On large plantations _ favorably situated for the growth of peanuts it might, however, be found advisable to harvest the crop and extract the oil, instead of shipping the seeds in the pods. It would then be possible to utilize the shells and oil cake as fertilizer, to say nothing of the possibilities of finding advantageous local markets for the oil. Arbol de pan (Porto Rico). (See Artocarpus incisa). Arracacha. (See Arracacia esculenta). Arracacia esculenta. ARRACACHA. ComMMON NAME.—Apio (Venezuela). A plant related to the carrot and parsnip, extensively cultivated in the mountains of Venezuela and Colombia for its fleshy roots, which somewhat resemble those of the vegetables mentioned, but are said to be superior to either. The arracacha requires a very equable climate and a rather low temperature. It is sometimes planted between the rows of young coffee in Colombia (Saenz), and might be found of use as a cultivated catch-crop elsewhere at sufficient elevations. Artocarpus hirsuta. ComMON NAMES.—Wild jak; Kad halasu (Coorg, India). Mentioned by Raoul and Cameron with Dalbergia latifolia as one of the deciduous native trees allowed to remain in the forest planting of coffee as practiced in the Coorg district of western Hindustan. Artocarpus incisa. BREADFRUIT. CoMMON NAMES.—Arbol de pan, and Castafio (Porto Rico) ; Chataignier (French West Indies). The breadiruit is said to be sparingly used for coffee shade in the French Antilles. Where the fruit is an object it might not be unwise to set parts of coffee plantations with breadiruit. Purely as a shade tree, however, it could scarcely rank high, being easily broken by the wind. Artocarpus integrifolia. JACK-FRUIT. ComMoN NAMES.—Halasu (Coorg, India); Jak (British India). An East Indian tree with entire leaves and a fruit much larger than the bread- fruit. This is generally considered inferior to the breadfruit, but some writers repre- sent it as preferred in some parts of India. Hull strongly recommends the jack-fruit as coffee shade: I am strongly in favor of the jack as the tree best suited for providing shade for fields of coffee. In the first place its presence, so far from being prejudicial, seems to be actually beneficial to the coffee plant; next, it is a subsoil feeder; then it pro- duces a fruit much valued as food by the natives; its timber is also valuable, whether for cabinetmaking or building purposes; and, finally, it flourishes best precisely in those conditions where its shade is most required. Known to botanists as the Artocarpus integrifolia, the jack grows to a large size; it resembles and belongs to the same family as the breadfruit tree. The timber, when newly cut, is of a light- yellow color, possesses a beautiful grain, and is capable of a high polish, not greatly inferior to that of the mahogany or satinwood, both of which it also resembles to a certain extent in grain and color, after having been polished. The fruit is as large as a pumpkin, and weighs from 20 to 30 pounds, containing from 200 to 300 seeds, which, though somewhat unpleasant in smell when raw, are converted by bein; roasted or boiled into a wholesome and agreeable farinaceous food, always much appreciated by the coolies. The jack is said to bear transplanting badly, and it will therefore be necessary to deposit two or three of the seeds a couple of inches below the surface, wherever 4 tree is desired to grow. The most healthy of the plants can afterwards be selecteu. SHADE TREES AND CATCH CROPS. 49 The jack-fruit is also mentioned by Raoul as one of the forest trees preserved in th. forest planting of coffee in the Coorg province of southern India. Here also it is favored because not supposed to exert harmful competition with the coffee. This suggests the possibility that there may be some undiscovered peculiarity in the ecology of this tree, which should be carefully investigated. It is not known that the present species has been used for shade in America, but Saenz, writing on the coffee industry of Colombia, recommends it for planting at distances of 15 meters in localities having a temperature maximum of 21° C., or at 10 meters where the heat is greater. The present may, however, prove to be one of the cases where bad advice has been industriously repeated. At least the following communication printed in the Tropical Agriculturist for 1882 indicates that the favorable opinion is not uniformly held: Meanwhile I submit, with all deference, my opinion of this tree, viz, that it does far more harm than good on a coffee estate. Has any one known coffee to bear heavily, or even fairly well, when under the influence of the artocarpaceous foliage? Ihave not. This I will say, that where jaks are encouraged coffee will fail. Years ago I remember “being struck with the luxuriant foliage of some coffee (Ara bian) - which was growing beneath these trees, but crop there was none. The constantly falling leaves, too, choke up drains and litter the ground for a consider- able space around. Atti (Coorg, India). (See/%cus glomerata.) Avilla (Porto Rico). (See Mura crepitans.) Avocado pear. (See Persea gratissima.) Baculo (Porto Rico). (See Agati grandiflora.) Balicbalic (Philippine Islands.) (See Pongamia glabra.) @ Banana. (See J/usa.) Bastard cedar (Jamaica). (See Guazwma tomentosa.) Bean. (See Phaseolus.) _ Beggar-weed. (See Wesbomia tortuosa.) Bili basuri (Coorg, India). (See /%cus tscela.) Bilvara. (See Albizzia odoratissima.) Biti (Coorg, India). (See Dalbergia latifolia.) Bixa orellana. ANATTO. ComMon NAMES.—Achiote (Spanish America); Roucou (Carib). This tree is planted in wind-breaks with Morus indica and a malvaceous tree called waroé, as described by Lecomte for Java. The achiote or anatto is a small tree of handsome appearance, with large, clean, cordate leaves and numerous pink flowers, followed by burr-like pods, at first green, but changing to deep red and becoming an inch in diameter. These contain the seeds, the arillus or fleshy covering of which is bright orange in color and constitutes the anatto of commerce. On drying, the arillus becomes dull orange. Quantities of dried seeds are to be found in the Porto Rican markets for domestic use in soups, and in coloring rice and other dishes yellow. In the English colonies the coloring matter is removed from the seeds ' while fresh, and then dried and compacted into cakes, in which form it is exported to the United States for manufacture into butter color. Supposedly for this purpose, 726,269 pounds were imported into the United States in 1899, valued at $34,827, but ” recent analyses of butter colors show that they consist very largely of aniline dyes. 14652—No. 25—01——4 50 SHADE IN COFFEE CULTURE Black plum (British India). (See Hugenia jambolana.) Blackwood (British India). (See Dalbergia latifolia.) Bocare (Trinidad). (See Lrythrina velutina.) Bois a friture. (See A/bizzia lebbeh.) Bois Immortel. (See Lrythrina umbrosa, also Erythrina poep- pigiand.) Bois noir (French West Indies). (See Addizzia lebbek.) Breadfruit. (See Artocarpus incsa.) Bread-nut. (See Brosimum alicastrum.) Broad-leaf. (See Zarminalia latifolia.) Brosimum alicastrum. BREAD-NUT. A West Indian tree recommended by Morris for sheltering plantations from the wind. Bucare (Porto Rico, Venezuela). (See Lrythrina poeppigiana, also Erythrina umbrosa.) Butter-pear. (See Persea gratissima.) Byrsonima spicata. Common NAME.—Moricypre (French West Indies). * Reported by Raoul as used for coffee shade in the British West Indies, though English writers make little or no reference to it in this connection. It is said to have the advantage of open foliage, hardiness, and rapid growth; it also serves as a protection against the wind and does not attain an undesirably large size. . Cabbage bark tree (Jamaica). (See Andira inermis.) Cabbage tree (Jamaica). (See Andira inermis.) Cacao. (See Zheobroma cacao.) ° Caesalpinia arborea. Has been recommended as a shade tree in Java, but is smaller and grows less rapidly than Caesalpinia dasyrachis. 5 Caesalpinia dasyrachis. ‘ Common NAmEs.—Pepetar (Sumatra); Petah-petah (Java); Petah (Sumatra); Petar (Sumatra). Resists windstorms better than Albizzia and grows with considerable rapidity even at an elevation of 1,000 meters. Experiments in the Lampongs province of Sumatra are said to have been successful. the circulation of the air when the leaves come out. Its growth is said to be very rapid, but the above objections should be considered before advising an extension of | its distribution. | Goni (Coorg, India). (See Ficus MYSOPENSIS. ) Goober. (See Arachis hypogaea.) Gossypium. Corron. Cotton is one of the several crops sometimes grown in Mexico and other parts of | tropical America between the coffee rows while the trees are still young; there is no record of the success of this method on a large scale. | Grevillea robusta. Family Proteaceae. A native of Australia, introduced into Ceylon and Coorg as | shade for coffee. Doubtless recommended because of its valuable wood. According | to van Gorkam, this tree is thought to serve as protection against the coffee-leaf disease. Grewia columnaris. Family Tiliaceae. A tree supposed to be native in the Malay region and in tropical /§ Africa. It has been recommended for coffee shade on account of its rapid growth, but is said by Raoul to have serious disadvantages, which he does not specify. Guaba (Porto Rico). (See /nga vera.) Guacima (Porto Rico). (See Guazuma tomentosa.) Guama (Venezuela, Porto Rico). (See /nga laurina.) Guamo. (See /nga laurina.) Guando (Brazil). (See Cajanus indicus.) Guango (Jamaica). (See Pithecolobium saman.) Guava (Porto Rico). (See /nga vera.) Guaymochil (Mexico). (See Prthecolobtum dulce.) Guazuma tomentosa. ComMMoN NAMES.—Bastard cedar (Jamaica); Guacima (Porto Rico). Recommended in Jamaica for windbreaks about cacao plantations by Dr. Morris. The foliage is said to be of use as food for cattle. This species is common on the southern coast of Porto Rico. SHADE TREES AND CATCH CROPS. . 61 Habilla. (See //uru crepitans.) Halasu (Coorg, India). (See Artocarpus integrifolia.) Hevea brasiliensis. PARA RUBBER. The planting of the Para and other rubber as shade for cacao and coffee naturally suggested itself to many while the belief held that mere shade was a desideratum in these cultures. It is barely possible that cacao or coffee might be grown as a sort of catch cropebetween rubber trees, but if the permanent use of the land for the latter | purpose has been decided upon, it will probably be found to be much better policy to plant the rubber thick enough to soon shade all the ground, insure permanent moisture, and prevent the growth of other vegetation requiring expense for its removal. In other words, it is possible that neither the rubber nor the other crops would be as productive as soon or as extensively as if planted alone, and any such combinations as the present would need to be justitied by special and local reasons. The planting of Para rubber trees with coffee and other crops was attempted some years ago in British India, but without conspicuous success from the financial stand- | point. The coffee districts are too dry and too elevated for the Hevea to become productive, although it may appear to thrive and maintain its vegetative vigor. The former plantings of Hevea in India have yielded returns only from the sale of seed, though better results are now expected from forest plantings in low, overflowed regions. Other species of Hevea may be found better adapted to high-land culture, but the present indications are that closer planting to secure true forest conditions | will be desirable in this genus, as in Castilloa. Heynea sumatrana. Family Meliaceae. A tree mentioned by Raoul as used for coffee shade and refor- _ estation in the Malay region. Hibiscus tiliaceus. (See Paritium tiliacewm.) Higuerilla (Mexico). (See Ricinus communis.) Hog-plum. (See Spondias lutea.) Honne (Coorg, India). (See Pterocarpus marsupium.) Howlige (Coorg, India). (See Acrocarpus fraxinifolius.) Huamuchil (Mexico). (See, Pithecolobium dulce.) Huizache (Mexico). (See Acacia albicans.) Hule (Mexico). (See Castilloa elastica.) Hura crepitans. SAND-BOX TREE. ComMoN NAMES.—Acupa (Colombia); Avilla (Porto Rico); Habilla; Javilla ( Panama); Monkey’s dinner bell; Sand-box tree. A peculiar American tree considered by botanists to belong to the Euphorbiaceae or spurge family, but very different from the other members of that group. The com- mon name alludes to the biscuit-shaped fruit which explodes when dry with a loud report. It grows with great rapidity, and has an open, spreading habit, features which have probably suggested its use as cacao shade in Trinidad, where, according to Morris, it has on some of the best estates supplanted the madre de cacao (Ery- thrina). The shade of the latter is too dense and the wood is so brittle that the limbs are frequently blown down, to the injury of the cacao. It is easy to under- stand that Hura may be superior in these respects, but that it will compare in desir- ability with the better class of leguminous shade trees is scarcely to be believed 62 . SHADE IN COFFEE CULTURE. without further demonstration, particularly in view of the fact that the Euphorbiace- ous trees are generally known to make serious demands upon the soil and to permit little or nothing to grow under them. The indications are rather that the planta tions had been too heavily shaded under Erythrina and appeared at first to profit by the change. «& The sand-box tree is commonly planted for shade along the highways in Porto. Rico. The hurricane of August, 1899, injured it badly, though not to the same extent as the Erythrinas. The trunk suggests that of the Ceiba, having prominent roots, large sfout spines, and a similar light-gray color. The habit of the branches is different, however, and the leaves are simple and cordate instead of palmately compound. They are also peculiar in having unusually numerous white veins. 7 The slightly milky juice is acrid and irritant, while the seeds are sometimes used | as a purgative. An oil expressed from them is said to be less nauseous than castor oil, and to be effective in smaller doses. The fruits of the Porto Rico trees were much less prominently ribbed than those figured in botanical works; possibly it} represents a distinct species. : Hypaphorus subumbrans. (See Lrythrina lithosperma, also Hry= thrina subumbrans.) Immortel. (See Lrythrina umbrosa.) Immortel jaune (Guadeloupe). (See Lrythrina poeppigianda.) Indian corn. (See Zea mays.) Indian mulberry. (See Morus indica.) Indian nettle tree (British India). (See Zrema orientalis.) Indigo. (See /ndigofera.) Indigofera. INDIGO. The planting of indigo as a soiling crop with coffee is suggested by Lecomte. Inga dulcis. ComMMON NAME.—Pois doux (French Antilles). Raoul reports the use of this species as a windbreak in the West Indies; accord-_ ing to Guerin, who gives the same common name, J. Jawrina is used for the same pur- pose in Guadeloupe. The Index Kewensis gives Inga dulcis asa synonym of Pithecolo- bium dulce, but this can hardly apply to the present instance. Inga inicuil. Synonym.—ZIJnga jiniquil. CoMMON NAMES.—Inicuil; Jinicuile. According to Mr. O. W. Barrett, the iniquil is preferred for coffee shade in the region of Vera Cruz, Mexico. In the Biologia Centrali Americanae this species is said to be both indigenous and cultivated about Jalapa. It is also mentioned by Herrera as considered desirable for coffee shade in the region of Cordoba, Mexico. | Inga jiniquil. (See /nga micuil.) Inga laurina. (See Pl. XIV.) ComMoNn NAMES.—Guamo, or Guama (Venezuela, Porto Rico); Pois doux (Guade- — loupe). According to Guerin, this tree is one of those employed in the cacao culture of — Guadeloupe in making hedges or windbreaks which are planted across the direction. Bul 25, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE XIV. ‘OOIN OLYOd GNV VWISNZANSA NI 3add09 YOS ABUL AGVHS SLIYOAVS V ‘(VNINNVT VON|) VAVND 4O SdOdq GNV S3AV3aq a , Bul. 25, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE XV. YOUNG SHOOT OF GUAVA (INGA VERA), PLANTED FOR COFFEE SHADE, CAYEY, P. R. [Slightly reduced. ] SHADE TREES AND CATCH CROPS. 63 of the prevailing windsat distances of 100 meters. Such hedges are used at elevations where permanent shade is thought not to be required but where protection from the wind isnecessary. In Venezuela and Colombia this is one of the favorite species for coffee shade. It has also been imported and extensively used for the same purpose in Porto Rico. Asa possible objection to it may be noted the report that it is suscep- tible to the disease called ‘‘mancha de hierro,’’ or ‘‘iron rust,’’ which has been very destructive to coffee, especially in overshaded plantations. In Colombia Saenz recommends the planting of this species at 15 meters where the temperature does not exceed 21° C.; in hotter regions a distance of 10 meters is advised. Ingasaman. (See thecolobiuwm saman.) Inga vera. (See Pl. XV.) CoMMON NAME.—Guava (Porto Rico). This species seems to be the favorite species in Porto Rico, with the related Inga laurina, or guama, second. Both grow much less rapidly than the bucare (Ery- thrina) , but are less liable to injury by hurricanes. In well-kept plantations the lower branches_are trimmed out and the upper form an even layer of rather open foliage. But even where this amount of care is taken the shade is usually still too thick for the coffee to make normally vigorous growth, and the crop would probably be improved by the removal of alternate trees, so as to increase the distances to 30 or 40 feet. The name of this tree is likely to be confused by the visitor with that of Psidiwm guajava, the well-known tropical fruit called guava in English, but which the Porto Ricans more correctly term guayava. Inicuil. (See /nga inicuil.) Irvingia bararteri. IRVINGIA BARTERI. Planted for shade in the recently established coffee plantations of the German colony of Kamerun. (Froehner.) Jack-fruit. (See Artocarpus integrifolia.) Jak. (See Artocarpus integrifolia.) Jambolan. (See Hugenia jambolana.) Jambosa jambos. RosE-Appue. Synonyms.—Jambosa vulgaris; Eugenia jambos. ComMon NAMES.—Pomme-rose (French Islands); Pomarosa (Spanish America). Planted in the French Antilles in hedges for protecting coffee plantations against the wind, and recommended in Jamaica for the same purpose with cacao. A myr- taceous shrub or small tree, native in the Malay region, but now introduced in all parts of the Tropics and escaped from cultivation in many countries. In Porto Rico it is abundant in thickets in waste places, and furnishes the material from which most of the larger baskets are made. Considerable amounts are also used for hoops of the large sugar casks. It yields also an edible fruit which has a pleasant odor like roses, whence the name. The leaves are long and narrow and resemble those of the peach and oleander. Jambosa vulgaris. (See /wmbosa jambos.) Jatropha multifida (7). CoMMON NAME.—Quelita (Nicaragua). A tree used as secondary shade for cacao in Nicaragua is reported by Hart as ‘‘a Jatropha, near to Jatropha multifida.”’ 64 SHADE IN COFFEE CULTURE i | | ; Java plum. (See Lugenia jambolana.) Javilla (Panama). (See //ura crepitans.) Jinicuile. (See /nga inicuil.) Jobo. (See Spondias lutea.) Juga. A tree mentioned by Herrera as desirable for coffee shade in the region of Cor- doba, Mexico. : Juglans regia. ENGLISH WALNUT. Mentioned by Yorba among trees planted for coffee shade in Mexico. Kad halasu (Coorg, India). (See Artocarpus hirsuta.) Kaffir corn. (See Andropogon sorghum.) Kap basuri (Coorg, India). (See /icus tyakela.) Kapok (Java). (See Cetha pentandra.) Kratok (Java). (See Arachis hypogaea.) Lagerstroemia lanceolata. ComMoN NAME.—Mandi (Coorg, India). Family Lythraceae. A forest tree left standing for shade in coffee plantations. (Cameron. ) Liberian coffee. (See Coffea liberica.) Lonchocarpus sp. CoMMON NAMES.—Madera (Nicaragua); Savonette (Trinidad). A species of Lonchocarpus used in Nicaragua for shading cacao plantations was introduced into Trinidad by Superintendent Hart, of the Botanical Gardens, and a distribution of seedlings was announced in January, 1895. A species of Lonchocar- pus native in Porto Rico has recently been described by Urban as Lonchocarpus glaucifolius, for which the common name is said to be geno. Loquat. (See Aricbotrya japonica.) Macluratinctoria. [Fusrtic. A tree belonging to the Moraceae or mulberry family and to the same genus as the Osage orange. The yellow wood furnishes a yellow dye, also used for brown and green shades. Fustic to the value of $121,665 was imported in 1899, according to the _ Treasury reports. Fustic is recommended in Jamaica for windbreaks about cacao plantations. Madera (Nicaragua). (See Lonchocarpus.) Madre blanca. A tree used for cacao shade in the State of Tabasco, Mexico. (See discussion under Madre chontal.) Madre cacao. (See Hrythrina poeppigiana and £. umbrosa,; also Gliricidia maculata, Galedupa pungam, and Pongamia glabra.) Madre chontal. A system of mixed shade for cacao is described by Martinez as practiced from time immemorial in the State of Tabasco, Mexico. The trees used are called madre SHADE TREES AND CATCH CROPS. 65 chontal, madre prieta, madre blanca or serrana, cocohite, and challa, the latter being employed as temporary shade, ‘‘chichihuas”’ or ‘‘ wet-nurses,’’ and cut away after the ‘‘madres’’ or ‘‘mothers’”’ are sufficiently grown to shade the entire area. The detailed plan advocated by Martinez shows the caeao planted at equal distances in rows which alternate, or ‘‘ break joints.’’ In each alternate row the madre chon- tal and cocohite are set in alternate spaces between the cacao, while the chichihuas are placed close to the young cacao trees, one on each side. In some localities the latter are omitted entirely and the cocohite is cut away between the eighth and twelfth years of the plantation. The Madre chontal is propagated by stakes a meter or a meter and a half long, taken from the trees in the winter when the leaves are off. The other ‘‘madres”’ also lose their leaves in the winter when the extra heat of the sunis not unwelcome in the plantations. This ancient culture seems not unworthy of investigation, with refer- ence both to cacao and to coffee. Unfortunately the scientific names of the shade trees are not given. Madredecacao. (See Lrythrinaumbrosa, also Lrythrina poeppigiand.) Madre prieta and Madre serrana. Trees used for cacao shade in the State of Tabasco, Mexico. (See discussion under Madre chontal.) Mahoe (Jamaica). (See Paritium tiliaceum.) Mahogany. (See Siwietenia mahagoni.) Mais (Spanish). (See Zea mays.) Maize. (See Zea mays.) Majagua (Porto Rico). (See Paritiwm tiliacewm.) Malanga. (See Xunthosoma sagittifolium.) Mamey. (See Mammea americand.) Mammea americana. CoMMON NAME—Mamey (Mexico). Mentioned by Yorba among trees mostly used in Mexico for shade. Mammet. Dampier is quoted as saying with reference to the island of Tobago, in the Bay of Panama: Among the cocoa trees grows the mammet, a straight tree without knot or branch, 70 feet in height, and with a tufted and interlaced head. This seems to serve as a parasol to the cocoa tree, which is injured by the burning rays of the sun. This may have reference to the mammee-apple, Mammea americana. Mandi (Coorg, India). (See Lagerstroemia lanceolata.) Mandioca (Brazil). (See Jlanihot utilissimum.) Mangifera indica. Manco. The mango tree has a very compact habit and dense foliage. It affords excellent protection from both sun and rain, and little or nothing will grow directly under it. Thus while coffee is often planted near it in yards or gardens and the black pepper is sometimes trained on its trunk, the mango has neyer been considered as a shade 14652—No. 25—01 5 66 | SHADE IN COFFEE OULTURE. _ | tree in the proper sense of the word. Hedges of mango are, however, reported by : Hart in the cacao plantations of Nicaragua. The mangoes are planted in rowsat short “| * intervals, and are trimmed to form a compact mass of vegetation sometimes 60 feet. high, which doubtless serves admirably the intended purpose of forming a wind- break. There are doubtless many localities where such protection would be desirable in coffee culture, so that the suggestion may not be without value, though in general leguminous trees should be preferred, even in planting for shelter, particularly where the washings of the soil are to percolate through the coffee plantation. Mango. (See Jlangifera indica.) Mani (Porto Rico). (See Arachis hypogaea.) Manihot glaziovii. CEARA RUBBER. In British India experiments have been made with this rubber tree as shade for coffee plantations. The results were unfavorable, and the Manihot has in many places been rooted out as worthless. Coffee requires soil and climate too wet for the success of Manihot, which, in addition, rapidly exhausts the land and permits little or nothing to grow under it. Moreover, little expectation is now cherished that this species has any agricultural value except for hopelessly waste and barren regions, subject to a long dry reason like its native home in northeastern Brazil. The cost of collecting the rubber of this species is also too great for profitable handling in culture. Manihot utilissimum. Cassava. CoMMON NAMES.—Cassava (West Indies); Mandioca, or Manioc (Brazil); Yuca (Spanish America. ) In Brazil cassava is planted between the rows of young coffee and has the advan- tage of living three or four years. Roots are available for use within a year or less, but if left in the ground they continue to grow and others are formed. Cassava is propagated from cuttings which make very rapid growth, and might thus be useful for shading newly planted coffee in regions of low elevation. Manila tamarind (India). (See Pithecolobium dulce.) Manioc (Brazil). (See Manihot utilissimum.) Mataraton. Mentioned by Yorba among the trees mostly used in Mexico for coffee-shade. Medeloa (Burma). (See Albizzia procera.) Medicago sativus. ALFALFA. Alfalfa is not known to have been tried with coffee, but is one of the fodder and soiling plants to which the farmer from temperate regions would naturally turn. It is accordingly proper to state that in the moist tropics alfalfa has not been found a success. Experiments in British Guayana have resulted-in recommending phasemy (Phaseolus semierectus) as the best available substitute. Meibomia polycarpa. German colonists in Samoa haye recently found that this species gives great promise of value as a fodder and soiling crop. It is expected to replace Monerma repens and Mimosa pudica with which experiments were already in progress. (See Reineke, Die Flora der Samoa-Inseln, Engler’s Bot. Jahrb., 1898, 25: 640.) Meibomia tortuosa. BEGGAR-WEED. SynonyM.—Desmodium tortuosum. A leguminous shrubby herb which has latterly been found to be a valuable adjunct to the orange culture of Florida and also as a forage and soiling crop in the general SHADE TREES AND CATCH CROPS. 67 agriculture of that State. The growth of the beggar-weed in the orange groves is found to increase the yield and especially the quality of the fruit. The same fact has also been remarked in Porto Rico, though it has not been utilized in any regular cultural industry. In coffee the same species would in all probability be found useful, though for different altitudes and soils other plants might be found preferable. Melia arguta. CoMMON NAME.—Mindie. Recommended by Ettling for coffee shade in German East Africa. The seed germi- nates well and the young plants make very rapid growth, becoming in a year’s time a ‘‘beautiful tall tree.’’ Lecomte states that it loses its leaves during the last two months of the east monsoon, but the Javan plantations where it is used are said not to suffer from the exposure to the sun. Melia azedarach. CHINA TREE. CoMMON NAME.—Mindi (Java). This well-known species has been used in parts of Java as shade for Liberian coffee, and is considered by Dr. Fesca preferable to Cedrela serrulata. The wood is also said to be valuable for cabinetwork and in the manufacture of wind instruments. Melia composita. (See Melia dubia.) Melia dubia. SynonryM.—WMelia composita. An Indian tree mentioned by Raoul as of extremely rapid growth, but said to be objectionable to most planters on other accounts. Micropteryx poeppigiana. (See Hrythrina poeppigiana.) Milho (Portuguese). (See Andropogon sorghum.) Millo (Spanish). (See Andropogon sorghum.) Mindi (Java). (See dlelia azedarach.) Mindie. (See Melia arguta.) Moca (Porto Rico). (See Andira inermis.) Monkey’s dinner bell. (See //wra crepitans.) Moricypre (French West Indies). (See Byrsonima spicata.) Morus indica. INDIAN MULBERRY. Used in Java with Bivra orellana, according to Lecomte, for filling in wind breaks of waroe when the trees have grown so large as to leave openings below. Muche. A tree used for coffee shade in Colombia. It casts a very open shadow and is used for the higher elevations, where it is planted wide (25 meters) apart. Accord- ing to Saenz, no shade is necessary where the temperature varies only between 17° and 19° C., and only the above is permissible. Lower down, where the tempera- ture reaches 21°, the muche may be set at 10 meters or the jack or guamo at 15 meters. Lower still, the guamo, saman, jack, or cambulo are used at 10 meters. Mucuna utilis. VELVET-BEAN. Common Namu.—Pois mascate (French colonies). The planting of this species as a green manure for coffee is suggested by Lecomte. The recently acquired popularity of this species in the Southern States makes it easy 68 SHADE IN COFFEE CULTURE. to secure seed through the regular trade, and careful experiments in Porto Rico and - ~ Hawaii are to be expected. Mucuna pruriens, supposed to be the original wild form — of this plant, is native and grows luxuriantly in the American tropics. Mulberry (India). (See Morus imdica.) Musa. Banana. (See Pl. I.) Bananas and plantains are planted very generally with coffee. In some regions they are employed for the temporary protection of the young plants while the per- manent shade trees are still small, but it is also customary in parts of Mexico. and Central America to maintain bananas throughout the life of the coffee, with or with- out other shade. In the extremely rich and deep volcanic soils of Central America — this system may be permissible, but under ordinary conditions it is probable that the banana is not a desirable shade plant, and many intelligent writers emphatically condemn it as exerting a distinctly harmful competition with the coffee. Analyses in Venezuela, reported by Dr. Delgado, indicate that from a given area planted to bananas or plantains the fertilizing materials annually drawn from the soil are nearly twenty times those required for coffee in full bearing, and it is accordingly claimed that secondary shade by means of bananas should not be employed, even for a few years, since it hinders the growth of the young trees and induces a debility from which they never fully recover. In Porto Rico many plantations are smothered with bananas to an extent obviously harmful, the young seedlings haying oppor- tunities for only the most spindling and weakly existence and requiring many years to attain even to the meager fertility with which their owners seem to be satisfied. The popularity of bananas for coffee is probably largely due to the value of the fruits, which, even though produced incidentally and not exported, furnish an important part of the food of the laboring population in Porto Rico and other coffee- producing regions. In such regions many peasants and small farmers derive a large part of their sub- sistence from the bananas, while the small amount of coffee obtainable is still sufficient to supply their slender needs in the way of imported articles. The culture may be a success from their standpoint, but this is no indication that the method is adapted to commercial production which will yield a profit after the expenses of hired labor and management have been covered. - It may be added that as a shade tree the banana is also objectionable because, unless planted so thickly as to smother the coffee, a part of the latter is exposed while the remainder is too densely shaded. The tall varieties are also liable to be blown down in heavy winds and often fall upon and injure the coffee trees. The large leaves may also keep the rain off some trees while pouring torrents upon others. In Porto Rico bananas are often planted indiscriminately among the coffee, though © some planters arrange them in alternate rows. This is altogether too close to permit a normal growth of the coffee, which never attains proper stature or productiveness. In Mexico and Central America it is customary to run from two to six rows of coffee between the rows of bananas. The middle rows of coffee under this arrangement are but little shaded, and the trees are larger and more fertile than those which stand nearer to the bananas, showing that the effects of the latter, if not negative entirely, are confined to the general protection against wind and drought. If for any reason the planting of bananas with or near coffee is found to be desir- able, the utility of the dead stems and leaves as manure should not be overlooked. These may be used asa mulch. The so-called ‘‘trunk”’ is in reality a bundle of the sheating bases of the succulent, herbaceous leaves, and retains its moisture for a long time, usually until thorougly decomposed. According to Gomez, it is customary to © bury the stems and leaves of the banana about coffee trees in the vicinity of Urua- 1 i SHADE TREES AND CATCH OROPS. 69 pan, in the State of Michoacan, Mexico. These may also be collected and allowed to decompose in trenches or piles, and with proper handling are said to yield a manure rich in nitrogen, potash, lime, and phosphoric acid, and thus particularly valuable for coffee. Wicotiana tabacum. TJoBAcco. Tobacco is sometimes grown in young coffee plantations in Mexico. Wo-eye pea. (See Cajanus indicus.) Woge (Coorg, India). (See Cedrela toona.) Orange. (See Citrus aurantium.) Oryza sativa. Rice. A Queensland experimenter claims good results from the planting of rice for shad- ing the young coffee and protecting it from the wind. The rice paid nearly all the expenses of preparing the land and planting the coffee. After removing the grain the straw was used as a mulch and the coffee is said not to have suffered, but to have been advantaged by the rice, the growing of which also helps to keep down the weeds. Otaheite apple. (See Spondias dulcis.) Oto (Panama). (See Colocasia esculenta.) Pachyrhizus trilobus. Yam Bran. A bean-like plant formerly widely cultivated for its large fleshy root; native in America but introduced in prehistoric times in Polynesia and in the East Indies. According to Graeffe the inhabitants of the island of Tongatabu, though not culti- vating this species, welcomed it in their fallow clearings because they believed that it rendered the land more quickly suitable for the resumption of yam-growing. Palma Christi. (See Ricinus communis.) Palo de Boyo (Porto Rico). (See Arythrina poeppigianda.) Palwan (Coorg, India). (See Lrythrina indica.) Papaw. (See Carica papaya.) Papaya (Spanish America). (See Carica papaya.) Para rubber. (See Heveu brasiliensis.) Paritium tiliaceum. Synonym. —Hibiscus tiliaceus. ComMoN NAME.—Mahoe (Jamaica); Majagua, or Emmajagua (Porto Rico). Recommended in Jamaica by Dr. Morris for windbreaks about cacao plantations. A handsome shrub or small tree of 10 to 20 feet, bearing considerable general resem- blance to the cotton plant, for which travelers have sometimes mistaken it. In Porto Rico it is often planted for hedges along roadsides and is very abundant in waste places near the sea. It was already widely distributed in America in prehistoric times and has now been introduced throughout the Tropics. It is valued for its very strong bast fiber, which has much similarity to jute but differs in the peculiar property of maintaining or even increasing its strength after long maceration in water. The extraction of the fiber for the manufacture of cordage and other purposes offers no special difficulties. It has also been recommended for 70 SHADE IN COFFEE CULTURE. Pe paper making. At present it is utilized in Porto Rico for domestic purposes only, all the homemade ropes being twisted from it. The conditions are, however, very favor- | able for the cultivation of emmajagua on a large scale should more extensive indus- | trial uses be found for it. Parota. Mentioned by Yorba as one of the principal coffee-shade trees of Mexico. . Peanut. (See Arachis hypogaea.) | Peltophorum dasyrachis. (See Caesalpinia dasyrachis.) Pefion (Cuba). (See Lrythrina poeppigiana.) Pepetar (Sumatra). (See Caesalpinia dasyrachis.) Persea gratissima. CoMMON NAMES.—Aguacate (Mexico); Alligator pear; Avocado pear; Butter pear. :| This well-known fruit of the Tropics has the external appearance of a large pear, but on being cut open is found to have a large central seed, which separates readily from the rather firm, somewhat buttery outer pulp, which is the part eaten. The ‘“‘butter pear,’’ as it is sometimes called, is a salad fruit, if such a term may be used, being eaten with salt, vinegar, pepper, and other condiments. The pulp is scraped away from the outer hard skin with aspoon. Opinions differ greatly as to the value of this fruit. Some are extremely fond of it, while others consider it quite insipid, as it undoubtedly is, without seasoning. Properly seasoned, it blends finely with dress- ings, and has recently been used as an ingredient of rich and elaborate salads. Treated with oil, salt, and tarragon vinegar, it has also been recommended, cut in slices and served as a relish, or the ‘‘ butter’? mashed up with such a dressing may be applied to sandwiches. At present but a small quantity of this fruit is marketed in New York, but the prices are good, 20 cents apiece being an average figure, at which the business would certainly be very profitable. According to Semler, an oil extracted from the alligator pear is used in large quantities in America in soap manufacture, but | the seat of the oil industry is not stated. . There are numerous varieties, the ordinary green sort being the prevailing, if not | the only type in Porto Rico, but in other countries purple and nearly black kinds | are known. Some varieties are also said to be more hardy than others. It is very desirable that a collection of these be made in order to determine which should be— propagated in large quantities for export. It is not impossible that the culture of the avocado pear on a large scale might be | advantageously combined with that of coffee, especially in localities where shelter is | desirable. It is enumerated by Yorba among ‘‘trees mostly used in Mexico for shade.”’ ee eee Petah (Sumatra). (See Caesalpinia dasyrachis.) Petah-petah (Java). (See Caesalpinia dasyrachis.) Petar (Sumatra). (See Caesalpinia dasyrachis.) Wy Phasemy. (See Phaseolus semierectus.) Phaseolus. BHrAN. Various species of Phaseolus and other beans are planted as catch crops with coffee in Brazil and elsewhere. Phaseolus semierectus. PHASEMY. Experiments at the Botanic Gardens of British Guayana have demonstrated that. | this species is there much more vigorous and prolific than alfalfa, and this will prob- — ably be true for other moist tropical countries. i Pigeon-pea. SHADE TREES AND CATCH CROPS. (See Cajanus indicus.) Pifia (Spanish). (See Ananas sativus.) Pina de Santo Domingo (Porto Rico). 71 (See Casuarina equisetifolia). Pindar. (See Arachis hypogaea.) Pineapple. (See Anuanas sativus.) Piptadenia colubrina. _ Synonyms.—? is used for coffee Poro blanco. Mentioned in a special bulletin on ‘‘ Coffee in America,’’ published by the Bureau o} the American Republics, as a quick-growing tree planted for coffee shade in — Costa Rica. 2 Pterocarpus marsupium. ComMMON NAME.—Honne (Coorg, India). A leguminous forest tree left standing for shade in coffee plantations. (Cameron. ) Quelita (Nicaragua). (See Jatropha multifida.) Rain tree. (See /thecolobium saman.) Rammon. (See Zrophis americana.) Red Cedar (British India). (See Cedrela toona.) Regen boom (Dutch Colonies). (See Pithecolobiwm saman.) Rice. (See Oryza sativa.) SHADE TREES AND CATCH CROPS. 15 Ricinus communis. CASTOR BEAN. CoMMON NAMES.—Higuerilla (Mexico); Palma Christi. Used in Mexico as temporary shade, and generally replaced by woody trees as soon as these have had time to grow. It is generally considered less desirable than the banana, and is also thought to exhaust the soil rapidly. If its use is desirable at all, it is likely to prove valuable only in dry regions where shade is a necessity and where slow-growing leguminous trees are to be employed. The marketing of the beans and the local extraction of the oil are also to be considered in connection with any extensive enterprise. In Brazil some of the larger plantations are equipped with facilities for making from castor beans illuminating gas for lighting the build- ings in which the coffee is dried and prepared for market. The apparatus for dis- tilling the beans, together with the pipes and other equipment for 50 burners, was given in 1885 as about $1,600. Rose-apple. (See Jumbosa jambos.) Rosewood (British India). (See Dalbergia latifolia.) Roucou (Carib). (See Lixa orellanda.) Roway (Java). (See Arachis hypogaea.) Rubber (Ceara). (See Manihot glaziovii.) Rubber (Central America). (See Castilloa elastica.) Rubber (Para). (See Hevea brasiliensis.) Saccharum officinarum. SUGAR CANE. Sugar cane is sometimes planted in Mexico between the newly set coffee seedlings. It doubtless furnishes shade in the same way as maize, but further advantages of the arrangement are not evident and it is not known that it is used on a large scale. Saman (Spanish America). (See Pithecolobium saman.) Sand-box tree. (See Mura crepitans.) Sau (Ceylon). (See Albizzia stipulata.) Savonette (Trinidad). (See Lonchocarpus.) Schizolobium excelsum. A Brazilian leguminous tree mentioned by Raoul as used for forest planting in the East Indies; also recommended for coffee shade. It is capable of extremely rapid growth, becoming a tree of considerable size in eighteen months. This extraordinary development is said to take place, however, only in soils to which it is particularly adapted, which may mean that it must be planted where the tubercle-forming bac- teria are present under conditions favorable to them. Sengon (Java). (See Albizzia stipulata.) Sengoon laoot (Malay). (See Albizeia moluccana.) Sengon yora (Malay). (See Albizzia stipulata.) Serap. According to Lock, a name applied in Java to a variety of the dadap (Erythrina). Serrana. (See Madre serrand.) Sesbania grandiflora. (See Aguti grandiflora.) cod 76 SHADE IN COFFEE CULTURE. ’ Silk cotton tree. (See Cetha pentandra.) Siris (British India). (See Albizzia lebbek.) Soja (or Soy) bean. (See Soja hispida.) Soja hispida. Soya BEAN OR SOY BEAN. The planting of the soja bean as a green manure for coffee is suggested by Lecomte. Sorghum. (See Andropogon sorghum.) Spanish Cedar. (See Cedrela odorata.) Spondias dulcis. OTAHEITE APPLE. A tree native in Polynesia, bearing an edible fruit having the flavor of pineapple. It is now cultivated in many tropical countries and is among those recommended by Morris for planting as windbreaks for cacao plantations in Jamaica. Spondias graveolens. (See Spondius lutea.) Spondias lutea. SynonyM.—Spondias graveolens. CoMMON NAMEs.—Hog-plum; Jobo. Family Anacardiaceae. One of the most common trees in Porto Rico, planted extensively for shade and for the sake of its edible fruits. It grows readily from large cuttings, and, with Bursera simaruba, the ‘‘almacigo,”’ is preferred for stakes and fence posts, which are permanent because they take root and remain alive. This would render very easy the planting of shade trees by cuttings. The fruits are oval and attain a length of 13 inches. The skin is very thin and incloses a pleasantly acid pulp surrounding a nut-like seed. The tree attains a height of 40 feet or more and a diameter of from 1 to 2 feet, but the wood is light and soft (specific gravity 0.457), and is very little used except in the way explained above. The fruits of this species are yellow and are said to be inferior to those of Spondias purpurea. ‘‘Hog- plum’’ isa Jamaica name and does not, as might appear, involve any reflection on the quality of the fruit, but refers to the fact that hogs are extremely fond of the *‘plums,’’ on which they fatten rapidly. The use of this tree for shade in cacao plantations in Jamaica was suggested by Dr. Morris, but it is not known whether the experiment has proved successful. It is used for coffee shade in the recently established plantations of the German oe of Kamerun. (Froehner.) Sponia wightii. (See Zrema orientalis.) Sugar cane. (See Saccharum officinarum.) Surian (Java). (See Cedrela odorata.) Swietenia mahagoni. MAnoGcany. Common NAMES.—Acajou de Saint Domingue (Guadeloupe); Mahogani (Guade- loupe). Family Meliaceae. This is the tree yielding the original West Indian or Spanish mahogany, as well as that of the mainland of Central and South America. It has been used for shade in cacao plantations in the island of Guadeloupe, and according to Guerin is preferable to Erythrina indica, since it resists parasites, and the wood is valuable after thirty or forty years. In Trinidad the planting of mahogany under forest conditions has been advocated by Superintendent Hart, of the Botanical Gar- dens, who finds that under favorable conditions the annual average increase of thick- $0 OMAP ah ne SHADE TREES AND CATCH OROPS. fare ness in the trunk is about 1 inch, and even in trees 60 years old or over is about nine-tenths of an inch. The planting of mahogany with cacao or coffee is, however, of doubtful advisabil- ity, since for best results in timber the mahogany trees should be planted close enough together to cover the ground from an early period, 10 feet apart, to be thinned later to 40 feet, being the suggested figures. Otherwise growth will be slow, particularly in height, so that if set far enough apart to enable coifee to be cul- tivated to advantage the value of the timber would not be great. Morris recom- mends mahogany for windbreaks for cacao plantations in Jamaica. Tamarind. (See Zamarindus indica.) Tamarindus indica. ‘TAMARIND. The tamarind is given by Lecomte as one of the trees used for shading coffee in Arabia. Being a member of the Leguminosae, it may be worthy of consideration, particularly if proper methods of utilizing the fruit can be worked out. Asa shade tree for general purposes the tamarind will probably not be found desirable. The foliage, though fine and delicate, is too dense, and the shadow too dark. Moreover, little or nothing in the way of minor vegetation is usually to be found under tama- rind trees, and in some countries they are thought to give off unwholesome acid exhalations injurious to those who may sleep under them, or even to the cloth of tents pitched in their vicinity. The tamarind is planted very commonly in Porto Rico and other tropical countries for the sake of the fleshy edible pods, which have a pleasant, decidedly sour taste, due to the presence of several vegetable acids, including citric and tartaric. According to the Treasury of Botany, the tamarinds of the East differ from those of Porto Rico and the other West Indies in that the pods have a brittle brown shell and contain from 6 to 12 seeds instead of from 1 to 4. Considerable quantities of tamarinds are imported into Europe and America, either dried or preserved in sirup. They are largely used in the preparation of acid cool- ing drinks, and are believed to have a beneficial laxative effect. In British India and elsewhere a large variety of other medicinal qualities are claimed for the tama- rind as an ingredient of preserves, confections, and popular remedies, proprietary and otherwise, but these claims do not seem to have been either verified or refuted by investigation. Tannia (French West Indies). (See Colocasia esculenta.) Tannier (Trinidad). (Colocasia esculenta.) Tare (Coorg, India). (See Zerminalia belerica.) Taro (Polynesia). (See Colocasia esculenta.) Tayaux. (See Colocasia esculenta.) Teak. (See Zéectona grandis.) Tectona grandis. Trak. ; Family Verbenaceae. According to Raoul, this tree has the same disadvantage as Cedrela toona. Terminalia belerica. ComMMOoN NAME.—Tare (Coorg, India). Family Combretaceae. A forest tree left standing for shade in coffee plantations. (Cameron. ) Terminalia latifolia. CoMMON NAME.—Broad-leaf. Recommended in Jamaica for windbreaks about cacao plantations. 78 SHADE IN COFFEE CULTURE. Theobroma cacao. CACAO. Cacao is recorded by Lock as having been planted for coffee shade in Ceylon, though evidently in plantations already started, since the coffee is said to have - shaded the cacao at first and to have been shaded in turn after the cacao had grown large. Outside the assistance rendered by the cacao in keeping down the weeds, the mutual benefit, if any, is probably to be explained by the more complete shading of the ground desirable at the low elevation at which cacao would flourish. With this fact in mind it is apparently not impossible that a mixed culture like the present would succeed better than thick planting of one crop, particularly if the two plants differed in what they required from the soil. Tobacco. (See Vicotiana tabacum.) Trema orientalis. SynonyM.—Sponia wightii. Common NAMES.—Charcoal tree (British India); Indian nettle tree (British India). Much used in India for coffee shade, but said by Raoul to be objectionable in many | ways not specified. A quick-growing, small tree yielding a bast fiber used for cordage and even for coarse cloth. The wood is soit and is preferred for charcoal which is to be used in gunpowder. The species occurs abundantly from the Hima- layas to Ceylon and Singapore, and frequently appears spontaneously in forest clearings. It was formerly thought to belong to the Urtdicaceae or nettle family, but is now reckoned as a member of the Ulmaceae or elm family. Trophis americana. CoMMON NAME.—Ramoon. Recommended in Jamaica by Dr. Morris for windbreaks about cacao plantations. The foliage is said to be of use as food for cattle. Ule (Mexico). (See Castilloa elastica.) Upas tree. (See Antiaris toxicaria). Vanilla. The combination of the culture of vanilla with that of coffee is one .f the more or less impracticable propositions often advanced by those who are anxious to enlarge the apparent possibilities of tropical agriculture. Even if the cultural requirements of the plants did not conflict, the climatic necessities would render it unwise to attempt to bring the Arabian coffee and vanilla together, since the latter requires an extremely warm and much more humid atmosphere than coffee will bear with advantage. The coffee trees are also not at all suitable for support for the vanilla. The latter might possibly be grown to advantage on the shade trees of low-lying plantations. The prac- ticability of combining vanilla culture with that of Liberian coffee might also be worth while to investigate. Velvet bean. (See Mucuna utilis.) Vigna catjang. CowpEA. The cowpea might be found useful in some coffee regions, though in truly tropical conditions it will probably be found that, asin our Gulf States, the velvet bean is preferable. Voandzeia subterranea. A leguminous plant closely similar to the peanut and often confused with it; recommended by Lecomte as a soiling crop with coffee. ltt = eles i ELE EO AE pret pews SHADE TREES AND CATCH CROPS. 79 ‘Walnut (English). (See Juglans regia.) | Waroe. A malyaceous tree mentioned by Lecomte as preferred in Java for windbreaks. Wart. According to Lock, a name applied in Tava to a variety of the Dadap (Erythrina). West Indian Cedar. (See Cedrelu odorata.) Wild jak. (See Artocarpus hirsuta.) Xanthosoma sagittifolium. CoMMON NAME.—Malanga. A large aroid cultivated in the French West Indies and occasionally used for shad- _ ing young coffee trees. “Yam. (See Dioscored.) Yam bean. (See Pachyrhizus.) | Yautia (Porto Rico). (See Colocasia esculenta.) Yuca (Spanish America). (See Manihot utilissiemum.) Zaman. (See Pithecolobium saman.) Zea mays. Maize. CoMMON NAMES.—Indian corn; Mais (Spanish). Indian corn is often planted with coffee or shortly before the seedlings are trans- planted. Its rapid growth enables it to furnish shade even before the newly set banana plants can put forth leaves. The bananas are also planted between the rows of corn, which they replace when the latter is harvested. If, as generally believed, the corn does not compete to the disadvantage of the coffee, this suggestion may be of value in some localities where transplanting is not done in a rainy season of suffi- ciently constant humidity to make temporary protection unnecessary. In Natal corn has proved to be a very satisfactory catch crop when “planted thinly in rows, three rows, 18 inches apart, between the rows of coffee, and two plants in the coffee rows between each pair of coffee plants.’’ The cultivation nec- essary for the corn is beneficial to the young coffee, which reduces but little the size of the corn crop. The fertility taken from the soil by the corn should, however, be returned in the form of manure. - ey) =