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SHEEP  HUSBANDRY 
IN  CANADA 


630.4 

C212 
P  561 
1937 
c.  3 


Published  by 
authority  of  the 
Hon.  James  G.  Gardiner 
Minister  of  Agriculture 
Ottawa,  Canada 


PUBLICATION  561  ISSUED  MAY,  1937 

FARMERS'    BULLETIN   30  REVISION 

DOMINION  OF  CANADA,   DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


SHEEP  HUSBANDRY  IN  CANADA 

EIGHTH  EDITION 


FIELD  SERVICES 
LIVE  STOCK  BRANCH 


Published  by  authority  of  the  Hon.  JAMES  G.  GARDINER,  Minister  ot"  Agriculture 

Ottawa,  Canada 


OTTAWA 

J.   0.   PATENAUDE,   I.S.O. 

PRINTER  TO  THE  KING'S   MOST  EXCELLENT  MAJESTY 

1937 


LIVE  STOCK  BRANCH 

Live   Stock   Commissioner Geo.  B.  Rothwell 

Assistant    Commissioner    and    Chief,    Field 

Services R.  S.  Hamer 

Associate  Chief,  Field  Services A.  A.  MacMillan 

Chief,  Market  Services J.  M.  McCallum 

Chief,  Poultry  Services W.  A.  Brown 

The  original  edition  of  this  bulletin  was  prepared  by  J.  B.  Spencer  who  was 
Assistant  to  the  Live  Stock  Commissioner.  The  present  edition  has  been  revised 
and  re-edited  by  A.  A.  MacMillan,  Associate  Chief,  Field  Services,  Live  Stock 
Branch. 


35001— n 


a 
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a 


P* 


3 

0? 


SHEEP  HUSBANDRY  IN  CANADA 


HISTORICAL  REVIEW 

THE  sheep  industry  in  Canada  dates  back  almost  to  the  beginning  of  her 
agriculture,  for  the  first  settlers,  as  soon  as  they  were  able  to  do  so, 
established  little  flocks  of  sheep  to  supply  both  food  and  clothing  for 
their  families.  The  first  sheep  to  come  to  Canada,  according  to  record,  were 
brought  from  France  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Others  followed 
from  time  to  time  during  the  French  regime,  but  for  nearly  one  hundred  years 
afterwards  no  other  sheep  were  brought  in.  These  French  sheep  were  small, 
and  are  said  to  have  much  resembled  the  Cheviot  in  size  and  conformation, 
particularly  in  the  shape  of  the  head,  while  the  quality  and  weight  of  the  fleece 
were  much  the  same. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  colonies  of  United  Empire 
Loyalists  that  settled  in  the  Maritime  Provinces,  Quebec  and  Ontario,  brought 
with  them  from  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  other  Eastern  States,  such  sheep 
as  were  common  in  the  districts  from  which  they  came.  These,  as  a  rule,  were 
grades  of  the  leading  English  breeds  in  those  days,  including  Cotswold,  Leicester, 
Hampshire  and  Southdown. 

As  early  as  1830,  British  immigrants  commenced  to  bring  small  stocks  of 
sheep,  and  by  these  the  quality  of  the  established  Canadian  flocks  was  improved. 
About  the  year  1842,  a  small  number  of  Leicesters  and  Cotswolds  were  imported 
from  England,  and  a  few  years  later,  Southdowns  began  to  appear.  From  that 
time  onward,  shipments  were  landed  almost  every  year.  A  report  of  the  first 
provincial  exhibition  held  in  Toronto  in  1846  states  that  the  exhibits  of 
Leicesters  and  Southdowns  were  of  excellent  quality  and  well  adapted  to  the 
country.  Two  years  later,  in  addition  to  the  two  breeds  already  named,  Merinos 
were  shown  at  the  provincial  exhibition.  The  numbers  increased  year  by  year, 
until  the  exhibit  at  London  in  1854  amounted  to  400  head,  divided  as  follows: 
Leicesters,  200;  Southdowns,  44;  Cotswolds,  30;  the  last  named  being  newly 
imported  by  George  Miller,  of  Markham.  In  addition  to  a  small  exhibit  of 
Cheviots,  made  that  year  by  George  Ruddick,  of  Northumberland  county,  the 
remainder  consisted  of  grades.  The  following  year  the  show  of  Leicesters  was 
not  quite  so  large  but  the  entries  of  Southdowns,  Cotswolds  and  Cheviots  were 
more  numerous  than  heretofore.    The  prize  winners  were  as  follows: — 

Leicesters. — Chris.  Walker,  London;  Wm.  Miller,  Pickering;  Geo.  Miller, 
Markham;  and  Jas.  Dickson,  Clark. 

Southdowns. — John  Spencer,  Whitby;  R.  W.  Gordon,  Paris;  R.  W.  Stanley, 
Haldimand;  Richard  Coats,  Oakville,  and  A.  Burroughs,  Brantford. 

Cotsiuolds. — John  Snell,  Edmonton,  Ont.;  Wm.  Smith,  Clark;  Wm.  Miller, 
Pickering;  F.  W.  Stone,  Guelph,  and  Geo.  Miller,  Markham. 

Cheviots. — Wm.  Ruddick,  Markham. 

A  number  of  these  men  occasionally  showed  at  the  New  York  State  Fair 
and  brought  away  much  of  the  prize  money  competed  for.  The  entries  of  pure- 
breds  kept  up  well.  In  1858,  the  show  of  Leicesters  numbered  188;  Cotswolds, 
39;  Cheviots,  15;  Southdowns,  49;  Longwools,  not  pure-bred,  68;  Merinos,  29 
and  fat  sheep,  19.  The  Longwools,  including  grade  Cotswolds,  Leicesters  and 
Lincolns,   were   magnificent   sheep,   equal   in   many   respects   to   the   pure-bred 

5 


6 

classes.  The  Merinos  and  Cheviots  did  not  gain  ground,  but  all  of  the  other 
breeds  improved,  multiplied  and  increased  in  popularity  until  the  sheep  industry 
of  the  country  in  the  early  'sixties  had  become  a  very  popular  and  profitable 
branch  of  farming. 

To  encourage  importation,  the  Board  of  Agriculture  of  Ontario  in  the  early 
'fifties  resolved  to  double,  and  a  few  years  later  to  triple,  the  amount  of  any 
first  prize  won  at  the  provincial  exhibition  by  an  animal  imported  during  the 
year.  An  increasing  number  of  enterprising  men,  year  after  year,  took  advant- 
age of  the  opportunity  to  introduce  improved  blood  into  their  flocks,  which  by 
this  time  had  grown  numerous  and  many  of  them  fairly  large.  County  agri- 
cultural societies  also  took  a  keen  interest  in  stock  improvement  by  purchasing 
and  distributing  improved  males  among  their  members.  For  example,  in  1854, 
Grey  County  Society  bought  ten  rams  and  sold  them  for  $285.  Three  years 
later  the  Kent  County  Society  paid  $320  for  twenty-one  rams  and  sold  them 
for  $175.    Much  good  resulted  from  this  public-spirited  effort. 

As  early  as  1883,  sheep  were  introduced  into  Manitoba,  when  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  was  commencing  to  develop  the  country.  Governor  Simpson  of 
that  Company,  with  the  object  of  benefiting  the  little  band  of  settlers  that  com- 
prised the  Selkirk  colony,  organized  a  joint  stock  company  and  sent  agents  south 
into  the  United  States  to  buy  sheep.  These  agents  went  first  to  Missouri  and 
then  to  Kentucky,  where  they  purchased  1,745  sheep  at  about  $1.50  each,  and 
started  to  drive  them  back  to  the  colony  on  the  banks  of  the  Red  river.  Through 
bad  management  most  of  the  sheep  died  on  the  journey,  only  251  arriving  at 
their  destination.  Subsequently  the  shareholders  of  the  companv  quarrelled 
and  the  Governor  took  over  what  was  left  of  the  flock.  These  were  sold  at 
auction,  and  brought  as  high  as  $2  each,  a  high  price  in  those  days.  Somewhere 
about  1840,  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  is  said  to  have  brought  from  England 
some  pure-bred  rams  for  the  improvement  of  the  sheep  of  the  colony. 

A  few  years  later,  sheep  arrived  in  the  Pacific  province  under  somewhat 
similar  circumstances.  The  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  and  later  the  Puget  Sound 
Agricultural  Company,  the  latter  composed  of  Hudson's  Bay  employees,  estab- 
lished farms  at  Fort  Nisqually,  on  the  plains  of  what  is  now  Washington  state, 
a  few  miles  distant  from  the  city  of  Tacoma.  At  that  time  this  territory  was 
under  the  control  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  the  international  boundary 
between  the  United  States  and  the  British  possessions  on  that  part  of  the  contin- 
ent not  having  been  decided.  Sheep  driven  from  California  were  purchased  by 
the  agents  of  the  companies,  until  in  the  early  'forties  the  flocks  numbered  some 
thousands.  The  quality  of  these  sheep  was  improved  by  the  importation  from 
time  to  time  of  well-bred  rams  from  Great  Britain,  via  Cape  Horn  on  sailing 
ships,  which  brought  for  the  companies  their  annual  mail  and  fresh  stocks  of 
goods.  When  the  boundary  line  was  finally  agreed  on,  these  flocks  were  disposed 
of,  a  large  number  of  sheep  going  to  Oregon,  where  they  played  an  important 
part  in  forming  the  great  sheep  industry  of  that  state,  and  from  there  were 
scattered  over  the  neighbouring  states.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  early 
British  settlers  were  among  the  first  promoters  of  improved  sheep  husbandry  in 
the  Pacific  northwest. 

On  the  establishment,  in  1843,  of  a  Hudson's  Bay  post  on  the  site  of  the 
present  city  of  Victoria,  British  Columbia,  at  the  southern  end  of  Vancouver 
Island,  farms  were  located  by  the  two  above-named  companies  and  sheep  brought 
from  Fort  Nisqually  to  stock  them.  These  sheep  were  principally  of  the  Merino. 
Southdown  and  Leicester  blood,  and  were  the  foundation  of  the  sheep-breeding 
industry  in  that  province.  They  did  well,  and,  in  1849,  numbered  several  hun- 
dred head,  in  spite  of  the  depredations  of  panthers,  wolves  and  bears,  and 
occasionally  of  vagrant  dogs.  The  sheep  were  herded  by  armed  Indian  shep- 
herds in  the  day  time  and  corralled  at  night.  Indians  from  early  times  showed 
their  appreciation  of  a  change  of  diet  from  fish  and  venison  by  occasionally  raid- 
ing flocks.    This  love  of  mutton  made  a  little  British  Columbia  historv  in  the 


early  'fifties,  when  a  warlike  band  of  Indians  swooped  down  from  their  village 
a  short  distance  up  the  coast  to  Victoria,  and  raided  a  flock,  murdered  the 
shepherd,  and  carried  off  a  number  of  sheep.  Their  village  was  visited  by  a 
British  gunboat  from  Victoria  some  time  afterwards,  and  the  murderers  were 
captured  and  hanged  on  a  tree  nearby.  The  first  experience  of  British  justice 
made  a  deep  impression  on  the  natives,  which  was  shown  by  their  carving 
and  painting  a  large  figure  of  a  British  marine  standing  at  attention.  This 
adorned  a  prominent  spot  in  the  village  for  years  afterwards. 

The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  continued  to  assist  the  farmers  in  this  province 
by  establishing  small  private  flocks  near  Victoria.  These  were  owned  and  kept 
by  employees  of  the  Company.  This  Company,  as  well  as  the  Puget  Sound  com- 
panies and  private  individuals  imported  improved  rams  from  Great  Britain  for 
the  use  of  the  Pacific  coast  settlers. 

As  early  as  1671,  Acadia  (Nova  Scotia),  is  credited  with  407  head  of  sheep. 
Eight  years  later,  New  France  (Quebec)  had  719  head.  One  hundred  years 
later,  Quebec  flocks  contained  84,696  head,  which  after  another  sixty  years  had 
increased  to  more  than  600,000  head.  The  adjoining  province  of  Upper  Canada 
(Ontario)  at  that  time  supported  about  500,000  sheep.  In  1851  Lower  Canada 
(Quebec),  is  credited  with  about  650,000  head  and  Nova  Scotia  with  282,000. 
Ten  years  later  Upper  Canada  had  1,170,000  head  and  Lower  Canada  683,000. 
The  sheep  in  those  days  corresponded  closely  with  the  number  of  cattle  kept, 
which  was  considerably  more  than  either  the  hogs  or  the  horses  maintained  on 
the  farms. 

While  sheep  raising  is  carried  on  chiefly  with  small  flocks  along  with  other 
stock  in  "  mixed  "  farming,  it  is  also  conducted  under  the  ranching  system  in 
Southern  Alberta,  where  it  has  reached  its  greatest  development,  as  well  as  in  the 
provinces  of  Saskatchewan  and  British  Columbia.  Ranch  flocks  vary  in  size 
from  one  thousand  up  to  twenty  thousand  head  in  a  few  cases.  The  foundation 
of  the  stock  making  up  the  ranching  bands  came  largely  from  the  adjoining 
states  of  the  American  Union,  and  was  chiefly  of  Merino  breeding.  The  original 
stock  produced  small  carcasses  and  heavy  fleeces  of  fine  wool.  In  order  to 
increase  the  weight  of  carcasses  and  lengthen  the  wool  staple  Down  and  Long- 
woolled  sires  have  been  introduced.  The  bands  are  grazed  under  the  care 
of  herders  the  year  round.  In  winter  the  sheep  are  expected  to  "  rustle  a  living," 
which  they  can  usually  secure  with  a  little  assistance  on  the  part  of  the  shep- 
herd, who,  when  necessary,  by  the  use  of  a  snow  plough,  breaks  the  crust 
uncovering  the  grass,  and  at  times  provides  an  allowance  of  fodder  put  up  the 
previous  season.  The  produce  of  these  bands,  finished  on  screenings  and  other 
suitable  foods,  develop  a  very  high  quality  of  fleece  and  carcass. 

The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  sheep  kept  on  farms,  by  decades, 
from  1871  onward: — 

1871 3,155,509 

1881 3,048,678 

1891 2,563,781 

1901 2.510,239 

1911 2,174.300 

1921 3.675,860 

1931 3,608,000 

1935 3,401,695 

The  distribution  by  provinces  in  1935  was  as  follows:  — 

Prince  Edward  Island 50,200 

Nova  Scotia 132,800 

New  Brunswick 110,900 

Quebec 666.800 

Ontario.. 945,700 

Manitoba ..    ..  218,000 

Saskatchewan 459.700 

Alberta 639.600 

British  Columbia 17.1.400 

Indian  Reserves 2.595 


8 

With  the  exception  of  the  Rambouillet,  the  sheep  that  have  been  imported 
into  Canada  are  of  the  British  breeds,  and  comprise  Shropshire,  Lincoln,  Cots- 
wold,  Oxford,  Leicester,  Dorset  Horn,  Suffolk,  Hampshire,  Southdown,  Cheviot, 
Romney  Marsh,  and  Corriedale.  For  all  these  breeds  pedigree  registration 
has  been  established  under  the  National  Live  Stock  Record  system. 


Government  Assistance  in  the   Industry 

Previous  to  1910,  government  aid  to  the  sheep  industry  took  the  form  of 
financial  assistance  to  sheep  sales  in  certain  of  the  provinces.  This  resulted  in 
the  distribution  of  large  numbers  of  breeding  sheep,  particularly  in  the  Maritime 
Provinces  and  in  Quebec.  At  that  time,  considerable  general  lecture  work  was 
being  carried  on,  a  sheep  bulletin  had  been  issued,  and  special  work  was  being 
undertaken  through  the  medium  of  the  winter  fairs,  in  the  form  of  lectures,  and 
the  supplying  of  judges.  The  registration  of  sheep  of  the  various  breeds  had 
also  been  well  organized. 

About  this  time,  Mr.  Wm.  A.  Dryden,  of  Brooklin,  Ont.,  and  Mr.  W.  T. 
Ritch,  were  appointed  a  commission  to  inquire  into  the  sheep  industry.  Their 
report  was  printed  and  widely  distributed.  Following  the  recommendations  of 
the  commission,  a  Sheep  Division,  with  a  chief  at  its  head,  was  created  in  the 
Dominion  Live  Stock  Branch.  This  move  was  made  with  the  idea  of  developing 
a  plan  for  the  marketing  of  wool  and  for  the  improvement  of  sheep  conditions 
generally. 

In  accordance  with  the  policy  of  development  laid  down  at  that  time;  local 
wool  growers'  associations  were  formed  and  wool  grading  demonstrations  given. 
Shortly  afterwards,  many  of  these  associations  were  contributing  wool  in  quan- 
tity for  grading  and  co-operative  sale.  Co-incident  with  this  development,  wool 
graders  were  added  to  the  staff  of  the  Sheep  Division,  and  the  Branch  undertook 
the  grading  of  all  wools  offered  by  co-operative  associations.  In  addition,-  for 
several  years,  Sheep  Division  officers  gave  advice  to  and  were  associated  with 
the  local  directorates  of  the  wool  growers'  associations  in  connection  with  the 
sale  of  the  wool  clip. 

By  1918,  knowledge  of  wool  grading  and  its  benefits  had  become  general 
among  sheep  men,  and  the  organization  of  wool  growers'  associations  had  devel- 
oped to  the  point  where  sheep  raisers  in  all  the  provinces  were  organized  for  the 
co-operative  marketing  of  wool.  A  vast  improvement  had  also  been  brought 
about  in  the  preparation  of  Canadian  wools  for  market,  and  as  a  result,  graded 
wools  were  selling  at  good  market  prices  both  in  Canada  and  abroad. 

It  was  felt  that  the  time  had  now  arrived  to  provide  a  permanent  marketing 
agency  for  Canadian  graded  wools.  Representatives  of  the  various  associations 
were  called  in  conference,  and  the  Canadian  Co-operative  Wool  Growers,  Lim- 
ited, was  organized  in  1918  under  the  Dominion  Companies  Act.  With  this 
organization  all  the  local  wool  growers'  associations  are  affiliated.  The  board  of 
directors  and  the  officers  are  appointed  by  the  wool  producers.  The  members 
of  the  administrative  staff  are  engaged  from  year  to  year,  and  have  charge  of  the 
sale  of  wool  for  each  of  the  associations.  The  head  office  is  in  Toronto,  Ont.,  and 
branch  offices  are  located  at  Regina,  Sask.,  and  Lennoxville,  Que.  In  addition 
to  selling  wool,  the  organization  handles  shepherds'  supplies  and  woollen  goods. 
The  Dominion  Live  Stock  Branch  still  supplies  graders  for  grading  all  co-opera- 
tive consignments  of  wool. 

After  the  formation  of  the  Canadian  Co-operative  Wool  Growers.  Limited, 
the  Sheep  Division  was  re-organized  to  take  care  of  the  sheep  industry  as  a  whole. 
Additional  sheep  promoters  were  appointed  with  headquarters  in  the  various 
provinces,  assistance  was  continued  in  the  preparation  of  wool  for  market,  and 
in  addition,  a  number  of  policies  were  instituted  to  assist  in  improving  the  quality 


9 

of  Canadian  sheep  and  in  marketing  lambs  of  superior  type.  The  Ram  Loan 
Policy  introduced  in  1913  was  responsible  for  introducing  the  purebred  in 
hundreds  of  districts.  Purebred  sheep  were  still  more  widely  distributed  under 
the  Premium  Policy  and  latterly  under  both  the  Ram  Club  and  Ram  Premium 
policies  so  that  farmers  all  over  Canada  are  being  encouraged  to  use  a  purebred 
ram.  The  organization  of  ram  clubs  and  the  much  more  general  use  of  pure- 
bred rams  has  made  it  possible  to  promote  community  breeding  and  to  inaugurate 
a  definite  sheep  improvement  scheme,  which  includes  the  dipping,  docking,  and 
castration  of  lambs. 

As  breed  improvement  work  was  extended,  it  was  found  that  the  local 
marketing  agencies  did  not,  in  most  cases,  provide  for  the  sale  of  lambs  on  a 
quality  basis.  This  condition  was  found  to  be  decidedly  pronounced  in  the  Mari- 
time Provinces,  where  the  lack  of  stock  yard  facilities  and  distance  from  market 
made  it  more  difficult  for  the  farmers  to  acquaint  themselves  with  market  prices. 
A  number  of  co-operative  shipments  were  made,  and  these  proved  so  successful 
that  in  a  short  time  many  co-operative  shipping  centres  were  established  in  each 
of  the  three  Maritime  Provinces.  In  other  provinces,  in  isolated  districts,  the 
same  conditions  prevailed,  although  generally  speaking  somewhat  better  average 
market  prices  were  realized,  and,  accordingly,  it  was  felt  that  some  project  was 
necessary  to  concentrate  attention  more  definitely  on  breeding  and  marketing. 
The  first  Sheep  Fair  and  Market  Lamb  sale  was  held  in  Quebec  in  1921.  This 
sale  proved  to  be  so  effective  as  a  means  for  demonstrating  the  increased  market 
value  of  lambs  from  pure-bred  sires  and  the  premium  obtainable  through  docking 
and  castrating,  that,  in  1922,  a  Sheep  Fair  Lamb  Sales  Policy  was  inaugurated 
and  applied  in  the  provinces  of  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  Quebec,  Ontario, 
and  Manitoba.  The  minimum  exhibit  of  lambs  required  under  this  policy  was 
three  hundred  head,  and  prizes  were  awarded  for  pens  of  five  head,  for  pens  of 
ten  head,  and  for  a  pure-bred  ram  and  progeny.  The  lambs  after  being  judged 
were  graded,  and  either  offered  for  sale  locally  or  shipped  to  the  best  available 
market.  Probably  no  one  policy  did  more  to  educate  the  farmers  to  the 
commercial  importance  of  the  finer  points  of  sheep  husbandry  and  to  establish 
confidence  in  the  industry  than  these  fairs  and  sales,  which  are  becoming  an 
annual  event  in  certain  districts. 

Throughout  the  development  of  sheep  promotion  work,  there  has  beeD  very 
close  co-operation  with  the  provincial  departments  of  agriculture,  and  especially 
with  the  agricultural  representatives  and  agronomists  of  these  departments. 
Field  men  have  made  it  possible  to  centralize  the  work  locally  in  a  very  definite 
manner,  thus  adding  stability  and  continuity  to  the  various  projects. 


THE  MUTTON  SHEEP 

The  production  of  mutton  has  become  very  largely  a  question  of  furnishing 
lambs  to  the  market.  As  in  beef  and  pork,  the  demands  of  the  market  call  for 
young  meat  and  comparatively  light  weights  of  carcass.  The  premium  paid 
for  baby  beef  and  bacon  hogs  applies  with  even  greater  force  to  sheep.  Thick 
fleshed,  but  rather  light  joints  are  what  the  cook  calls  for  whether  for  the  home 
table  or  the  restaurant.  The  tastes  of  the  consumer  have  been  cultivated  to 
discriminate  in  favour  of  the  tasty,  tender  lamb  until  we  find  that  from  70  to 
80  per  cent  of  the  sheep  that  reach  the  market  are  less  than  one  year  old.  The 
age  of  heavy  mutton  seems  to  have  passed — a  condition  most  favourable  to  the 
sheep  raiser,  who  is  thus  enabled  to  reap  quick  returns  from  his  flock.  In  the 
very  nature  of  things  there  will  always  be  mature  sheep  sold  as  mutton  as  the 
breeding  stock  must,  sooner  or  later,  reach  the  block.  The  increasing  demand 
for  lamb  meat  augurs  well  for  the  future  of  the  industry,  provided  care  is 
taken  to  keep  up  and  improve  the  grade  of  the  product.     What  is  needed  is 


10 

careful  attention  to  not  only  the  production  of  the  rapidly  growing  lamb,  but 
to  see  that  it  possesses  the  qualities  called  for  by  the  high-class  trade.  A  prime 
lamb  is  in  demand  and  will  always  command  a  high  price,  while  the  skinny,  lank, 
and  bare-backed  lamb  is  not  wanted  at  all.  The  market  wants  flesh  in  any 
case,  and  when  it  comes  from  the  back,  the  loin  or  the  leg  so  much  the  more  is 
it  prized. 

The  raising  of  lambs  for  the  market  requires  first  of  all  a  strong  uniform 
flock  of  ewes  that  are  active  foragers,  uniform  and  regular  breeders,  and  copious 
milkers.  It  is  also  important  to  pay  careful  attention  to  the  shearing  qualities 
of  any  flock  of  sheep. 

As  with  other  classes  of  stock,  the  matrons  of  the  flock  must  be  vigorous 
in  order  to  produce  lambs  that  will  take  hold  of  life  courageously.  In  addition 
a  ewe  requires  a  strong  maternal  nature  which  is  shown  in  prompt  and  ready 
care  for  the  newly-born  offspring  and  a  copious  supply  of  milk.  Such  ewes  are 
deep  and  wide  in  the  chest,  fairly  compact  but  with  sufficient  length  to 
give  considerable  size  to  their  middles.  Their  heads  should  be  pronounced  in 
breadth  between  the  ears,  they  should  have  large,  mild,  wide-open  eyes  and 
well-expanded  nostrils.  They  should  be  free  from  coarseness,  as  also  over- 
refinement  which  suggests  delicacy  of  constitution.  These  are  the  characteristics 
which  the  breeder  needs  to  look  for  in  order  to  get  thrifty,  well-doing  offspring, 
but  the  other  side  of  the  question — that  of  the  market — has  also  to  receive 
attention. 

Viewed   from   Market   Standpoint 

To  form  a  basis  for  estimating  the  good  and  bad  qualities  of  sheep,  it  is 
best  to  consider  the  carcass  and  that  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  butcher. 
The  different  parts  of  the  lamb  show  a  wide  variation  from  the  butcher's  stand- 
point. The  most  valuable  meat  is  found  over  the  back,  loin  and  hind-quarters. 
The  butcher,  therefore,  calls  for  a  broad  back,  a  broad  full  loin  and  a  heavily 
fleshed  leg  of  mutton.  The  shoulder  is  not  so  valuable  as  the  cuts  farther  back. 
The  neck  is  a  cheap  part  and  is  valuable  according  to  thickness,  but  since  it 
sells  for  little  it  is  not  important  to  breed  for  neck  development.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  thin  neck  is  to  be  avoided,  because  it  indicates  weakness  of  con- 
stitution, and  a  thin  neck  usually  goes  with  a  slenderness  of  body.  The  neck, 
therefore,  should  be  short  and  thick,  which  condition  is  likely  to  characterize 
the  entire  carcass.  The  carcass  is  usually  divided  by  the  butcher  between  the 
second  and  third  ribs.  The  front  part  is  worth  about  three  to  seven  cents  per  pound 
less  than  the  hind  part.  It  therefore  follows  that  from  the  market  standpoint  the 
development  of  the  back,  loin  and  hind-quarter  must  be  kept  in  mind  In  all 
the  parts  smoothness  of  conformation  is  important.  Roughness  or  angularity 
invariably  go  with  bareness  of  back  and  an  excess  of  bone  in  the  carcass.  A 
rough  lamb  is  usually  very  open  at  the  top  of  the  shoulder,  showing  a  pro- 
nounced depression  between  the  shoulder  blades.  This  part  for  six  or  seven 
inches  should  be  flat  and  well  covered  with  flesh  in  a  fatted  lamb.  The  ribs 
should  show  good  spring  and  be  well  covered  with  firm  flesh.  The  back  bone 
should  not  stand  prominent  at  any  point  in  a  sheep  even  in  only  moderate 
flesh.  A  groove  over  the  spinal  column  frequently  seen  in  well-fleshed  sheep  is 
not  objectionable  although  fatness  and  smoothness  are  rather  to  be  preferred. 
While  a  full,  fleshy  loin  is  most  desirable  a  high  arching  loin  is  not  the  formation 
to  be  looked  for  and  perpetuated.  The  level  smoothness  recommended  for  the 
shoulder  and  back  over  the  ribs,  should  characterize  the  loin.  A  high  loin  is 
inclined  to  be  bare  rather  than  fleshy,  or  the  loin  may  appear  high  in  com- 
parison with  a  low,  sagging  back  which  is  always  to  be  condemned  as  bad 
formation.    The  loin  should  have  width  and  thickness  in  order  to  yield  a  good 


11 

quantity  of  flesh.  Among  the  common  flocks  of  the  country  drooping  rumps 
are  frequently  seen.  This  is  most  undesirable  whether  the  falling  away  is 
towards  the  tail-head  or  down  the  thigh.  The  hind-quarter  should  continue 
straight  and  full  both  on  the  top  and  side  lines.  From  the  hip  to  the  hock  a 
sheep  in  good  flesh  should  be  especially  strong.  Not  only  should  the  "  leg  of 
mutton  "  be  plump  and  full  with  muscle  on  the  outside,  but  between  the  legs,  in 
the  twist,  the  flesh  should  fill  well  down  to  the  hock,  compelling  the  hind  legs 
to  stand  well  apart.  When  grasping  the  leg  on  the  inside  a  decided  plumpness 
should  be  found. 


The  Feeder's   Side 

From  the  market  standpoint  the  chest,  breast  and  underline  require  little 
consideration,  but  from  the  side  of  the  feeder  or  breeder  these  parts  are  of 
great  importance.  A  sheep  to  be  profitable  to  the  feeder  must  have  vigorous 
constitution  and  be  able  to  consume,  a  large  amount  of  food  and  transform  it  into 
valuable  meat  at  the  lowest  possible  cost.  These  characteristics  are  invariably 
associated  with  a  wide,  deep  chest,  good  depth  of  barrel,  and  well-sprung  ribs 
to  give  ample  room  for  the  lungs,  heart  and  digestive  organs.  The  wise  feeder 
or  breeder  will  also  look  for  a  good  size,  because  he  wants  an  animal  that  will 
attain  a  good  weight  at  an  early  age.  A  short,  broad  head,  full,  bright  eyes, 
and  open  nostril,  strong  lips  and  a  short,  thick  neck,  deep  body  and  short  legs 
all  go  to  indicate  a  vigorous,  thrifty  animal  which  will  give  a  good  return  for 
food  consumed  and  kill  out  a  valuable  carcass  of  mutton. 

The  breeder  who  wishes  to  establish  a  pure-bred  flock,  besides  requiring 
all  these  marks  of  excellence  which  the  butcher  and  feeder  require,  needs  to 
pay  much  attention  to  the  character  of  the  fleece,  the  colour  and  covering  of 
the  head  and  legs,  the  colour  of  the  skin,  and  correctness  of  breed  type. 


Scale   of  Points  for   Mutton   Sheep 

Points 

A.  General   appearance,  24  points. 

Estimated  weight,  pounds,  according  to  age  and  breed. 

Score,  according  to  age  and  breed    4 

Form — long,  deep,  broad,  low  set,  and  uniformly  smooth:  on  top  line  from  neck 
to  turn  of  rump,  and  underline  from  point  of  brisket  to  hind  flank,  straight 
and  parallel    3 

Quality — bone  fine  and  clean-cut;  hair  on  face,  ears  and  legs  soft;  skin,  fine  and 
mellow;   all  fleshy  parts  well  developed,  showing  even  covering  of  firm  flesh     3 

Style — active,  alert,  vigorous  but  not  restless,  exhibiting  aristocratic  bearing..     4 

B.  Head  and  neck,  9  points. 

Strong,   without   coarseness;    nostrils   large    1 

Eyes — large,  prominent,  clean  and  placid 1 

Face — rather  short  than  long;  features  clear-cut  and  attractive 1 

Forehead — broad    and    prominent     1 

Ears — fine  in  texture,  medium  size  for  the  breed,  carried  with  lively  back  and 

forth    movement \ 

Neck — short,  thick,  round  with  full  neck  vein,  free  from  folds  at  throat,  carrying 

the  head  well  erect;  stronger  and  more  arched  in  rams  than  in  ewes.  .....  4 

C.  Forequarters,  6  points. 

Shoulders — large,  plump  and  smooth;  wide  above,  rounded  out  from  above,  for- 
ward and  below  to  the  centre,  well  filled  before  and  behind,  uniting  with 
neck    and    back    imperceptibly    4 

Legs— arm  broad  and  well  muscled:  leg  straight,  short,  wide  apart  and  yet  well 
placed  under  the  body,  standing  firmly  on  hoofs  of  good  shape  and'  qualitv     2 


12 

Points 

D.  Body.  30  points. 

Chest — deep  and  full,  indicating  abundance  of  heart  and  lung  capacity;   breast 

full;    brisket    prominent    and   broad;    heart    girth    large 9 

Back — level,  wide,  well  covered  with  firm  flesh,  with  spinal  column  hidden  and 

even  depressed  from   the  loin  to  the  tail   head    9 

Ribs — well  sprung  from  backbone,  nicely  arched  and  well  covered  with  flesh....  4 

Loin — broad,  full   and   thick    6 

Flank — well  developed  in  thickness  and  even  with  side  and  underline 2 

E.  Hindquarters,   16  points. 

Hips — far  apart,  level,  smooth,  well  covered  with  flesh   2 

Rump — long,  broad,   carrying  width   and   topline   well   back   to   tail,   deeply   and 

evenly   fleshed    4 

Thighs — broad,  and  well  filled,  carrying  plumpness  well  down  to  underline  of  body  3 

Twist — full  and  deep,  nearly  as  low  as  flank   3 

Legs — short,  straight  and  strong,  wide  apart,  yet  well  under  the  body,  standing 
firmly  on  hoofs  of  good  shape  and  quality;  pasterns,  strong  and  only  slightly 

sloping    2 

Skin — a  rich  pink  in  colour  and  possessed  of  mellow  handling  qualities 2 

F    Wool,  15  points. 

Quantity — long  for  the  breed,  dense  and  even   6 

Quality- — fine  for  the  breed,  pure  crimp  regular  and  uniform   5 

Condition — bright,  sound,  clean,  soft  and  lustrous   4 

Points  of  the  Sheep 


1.  Muzzle. 

2.  Mouth. 

3.  Nostril. 

4.  Lips. 

5.  Nose. 

6.  Face. 

7.  Forehead. 

8.  Eve. 

9.  Ear. 

10.  Neck. 

11.  Neck  vein  or  shoulder  vein. 

12.  Top  of  shoulder. 

13.  Shoulder. 

14.  Arm. 

15.  Shank. 


Fig.  3. — Points  of  the  Sheep   (rear  view) 


Fig.  2.— Points  of  the  Sheep  (side  and  front  view) 


16.  Brisket  or  breast. 

17.  Top  line. 

18.  Crops. 

19.  Ribs. 

20.  Girth,  or  heart  girth. 

21.  Fore  flank. 

22.  Back. 

23.  Loin. 

24.  Llind  flank. 

25.  Underline. 

26.  Hip. 

27.  Rump. 

28.  Pin  bones. 

29.  Dock  or  tail. 

30.  Thigh,  or  leg  of  mutton. 

31.  Twist. 


13 
LEADING  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 

THEIR  ORIGIN,  DEVELOPMENT  AND  CHARACTERISTICS 

There  are  a  great  number  of  varieties  of  domestic  sheep,  all  of  which  are 
doubtless  descended  from  one  wild  form.  Domestication  of  this  class  of  animals 
commenced  almost  at  the  beginning  of  the  human  race,  when  the  second  son 
of  Adam  chose  sheep  herding  as  an  employment.  With  the  migration  of  the 
human  family  sheep  were  taken  to  different  parts  of  the  world  and  under  the 


Fig.  4. — Representatives  of  British  Breeds  of  Sheep. 


14 

varying  environments  in  which  they  were  perpetuated  they  assumed  character- 
istics and  properties  quite  different  from  one  another.  With  improvement  in 
agricultural  practice  sheep  as  well  as  other  farm  animals  were  kept  and  developed 
along  special  lines.  This  going  on  simultaneously  in  different  portions  of  Europe 
and  Asia  it  was  but  natural  that  varieties  of  quite  different  characteristics 
would  evolve.  The  probability  is  that  domesticated  sheep  originated  through 
the  domestication  of  several  races  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  the  peculiarities 
and  valuable  properties  of  each  having  been  developed  by  selection,  until  a  more 
or  less  perfect  type  was  obtained.  The  crossing  of  species  of  sheep  originally 
distinct  has  no  doubt  still  further  increased  the  number  of  our  recognized  breeds. 

The  leading  breeds  of  sheep  found  in  Canada,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Merino,  which  is  kept  to  some  extent  only  in  the  northwestern  provinces,  have 
been  developed  in  Great  Britain.  They  are  classified  as  long  and  medium 
woolled,  the  Merino  in  its  various  forms  being  classed  as  fine  woolled. 

Throughout  the  British  Isles  there  is  found  in  a  state  of  greater  or  less 
purity  more  than  a  score  of  breeds,  the  chief  of  which  are  as  follows:  Black- 
face, Herdwick,  Gray,  Lonk,  Devon,  Longwool,  Exmoor,  Welsh,  Cheviot,  Suffolk, 
Leicester,  Lincoln,  Cotswold,  Oxford,  Shropshire,  Hampshire,  Southdown,  and 
Dorset.  Of  these  only  the  last  ten  breeds  named  are  at  all  common  in  Canada. 
A  small  number  of  Black-face  and  Ryeland  are  also  to  be  found,  and  the  Rye- 
land  gives  promise  of  increasing  in  some  sections  of  the  west. 

The  Lincoln,  the  Leicester  and  the  Cotswold  are  known  as  the  Long-wooled 
breeds,  while  the  Oxford,  the  Shropshire,  the  Cheviot,  the  Dorset,  the  Hampshire, 
the  Suffolk  and  the  Southdown  are  classed  as  medium-woolled,  the  fleece  short- 
ening in  length  in  the  order  named.  The  fleece  of  the  Cheviot  and  also  of  the 
Suffolk  is  medium  in  length,  but  the  former  is  the  longer  of  the  two.  These  two 
sorts  are,  therefore,  placed  with  the  medium-woolled  varieties. 

The  Leicester 

The  Leicester  is  the  oldest  of  the  long-woolled  races  of  sheep.  It  appears 
to  have  inhabited  Leicestershire,  England,  and  the  adjoining  counties  even  prior 
to  1660,  when  the  districts  referred  to  were  noted  for  the  excellent  quality  of 
their  sheep,  which  are  said  to  have  possessed  large  bone,  rangy  frames  and 
heavy  fleeces  of  strong  texture.  They  were  slow  to  mature  and  to  fatten.  It  is 
generally  believed  by  authorities  that  the  sheep  found  in  these  counties,  known 
as  the  Midlands,  were  used  by  Robert  Bakewell,  of  Dishley,  as  the  foundation 
of  the  New  Leicester  or  Dishley  breed. 

Mr.  Bakewell  commenced  the  improvement  of  the  sheep  of  his  district  in  or 
about  1755.  The  merit  of  his  work  consisted  in  his  realization  of  the  fact  that  the 
properties  of  parents  may  be  transmitted  to  their  offspring  until  fixity  of  type  is 
the  result;  also  in  his  innate  power  of  discerning  by  an  animal's  external  form 
and  "quality"  that  it  possessed  the  properties  he  desired  to  perpetuate.  He  was 
able  to  discriminate  between  size  and  quality  and  had  always  an  eye  for  the 
latter  when  selecting  breeding  animals.  In  order  to  render  permanent  the 
desired  qualities  of  the  selected  stock  he  resorted  to  in-and-in  breeding  to  an 
almost  incestuous  degree.  The  qualities  sought  by  Bakewell  were  greater 
symmetry  of  form,  improved  qualities  of  fattening,  and  an  earlier  maturity,  a 
reduction  of  the  proportion  of  bone  and  fat,  and  a  greater  development  of  the 
parts  of  the  carcass  of  most  value  on  the  block.  These  characteristics  were 
undoubtedly  secured,  but  others  of  greater  importance  were  to  some  extent 
overlooked;  these  were  strength  of  constitution,  prolificacy,  as  well  as  quantity 
and  quality  of  fleece.  The  breeders  of  Leicesters  in  later  years  have  overcome 
these  defects. 

It  is  recognized  that  no  other  breed  possesses  a  greater  expansion  of  heart 
girth  than  the  Leicester.    Nor  is  prolificacy  lacking  in  the  present-day  Leicester, 


15 


as  triplets  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  from  150  to  175  per  cent  of  increase 
is  not  uncommon  in  well-kept  flocks.  Whatever  weakness  marked  the  fleeces  of 
Leicesters  in  Bakewell's  time  these  have  long  since  been  overcome.  As  a  rule 
good  specimens  are  thoroughly  covered  in  all  parts  except  head  and  legs;  length 
and  density  are  also  present  in  a  high  degree,  while  the  wool  of  no  other  breed 
excels  in  lustre. 


Fig.  5. — Leicester  Ram. 


Fig.  6.- — Leicester  Ewe. 

In  order  to  extend  the  blood  of  the  improved  stock  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
Mr.  Bakewell  instituted  a  system  of  hiring  rams  of  his  flock  for  the  breeding 
season  to  farmers  in  the  district.  During  the  first  year  or  two,  farmers  were 
slow  to  take  advantage  of  the  use  of  improved  sheep,  and  all  Mr.  Bakewell 
could  get  for  the  season's  use  of  rams  was  some  17  shillings  and  6  pence  each, 
but  the  improvement  effected  by  these  crosses  was  so  evident  that  in  a  few  years 


16 

the  demand  for  the  sheep  became  so  keen  that  the  price  rose  to  one  hundred 
guineas  per  head,  and  in  a  single  season,  1789,  it  is  said  that  a  total  of  six 
thousand  guineas  was  paid  for  the  services  of  Bakewell  rams. 

The  Leicester  sheep  as  it  came  from  the  hands  of  Mr.  Bakewell,  near  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  is  described  as  a  white-faced  hornless  race  of 
excellent  mutton  sheep  with  short  thick  neck,  wide  level  back,  thick  deep  chest, 
deep  quarters  and  fine  bone  and  bearing  a  fleece  measuring  about  seven  to  eight 
inches  in  length  of  somewhat  lashy  wool,  but  terminating  with  a  short  twisted 
curl. 

About  the  time  of  Bakewell's  death,  one  George  Culley  commenced  using 
Leicester  rams  from  Dishley  on  the  Teeswater  breed,  which  was  at  that  time 
in  high  favour  as  a  long-woolled  sheep.  The  stock  evolved  from  this  cross  is 
believed  to  have  been  the  foundation  of  the  Border  Leicester,  although  on 
account  of  the  proximity  of  the  home  of  the  Cheviot  it  is  not  unreasonable  to 
suppose  that  in  the  early  years  of  the  Leicester  the  blood  of  its  white-faced 
neighbour  entered  into  many  of  the  best  flocks.  Border  Leicester  rams  soon 
became  as  popular  as  Bakewell's  had  been,  as  much  as  one  hundred  guineas 
being  paid  for  the  use  of  a  single  animal  for  a  season.  From  that  time  until  the 
present  the  Border  Leicester  has  stood  in  high  favour  as  a  mutton  and  wool- 
producing  breed.  The  Bakewell  Leicester,  later  becoming  known  as  the  English 
Leicester,  was  perpetuated  in  its  pure  state  and  is  to-day  raised  in  large  numbers 
in  Great  Britain  and  in  other  countries. 

The  difference  between  the  English  Leicester  and  the  Border  Leicester  is 
seen  in  the  head,  which  in  the  Border  variety  is  white,  and  boldly  carried,  the 
nose  slightly  aquiline,  the  muzzle  full,  the  nostrils  wide  and  the  ears  erect.  The 
head  is  clean  and  free  from  wool.  The  English  Leicester  usually  carries  a  tuft 
of  wool  on  the  head  and  is  also  woolled  on  the  shanks.  The  English  Leicester 
has  a  bluish-white  face;  whereas  the  Border  Leicester's  face  is  clear  white.  In 
carcass  the  Border  Leicester  is  larger  and  longer  and  the  belly  is  not  quite  so 
full  in  outline,  being  carried  rather  higher. 

No  other  race  of  sheep  has  been  so  largely  employed  as  a  means  of  improv- 
ing other  breeds  as  the  Leicester;  the  Cotswold,  the  Lincoln,  the  Shropshire  and 
the  Hampshire  and  many  others,  directly  or  indirectly,  having  through  its 
blood  been  improved. 

Canadian  Leicesters  are  among  the  best  of  the  Leicester  family.  Nowhere 
in  the  world  are  finer  specimens  to  be  found.  This  is  largely  due  to  the  fact 
that  until  recent  years  the  American  demand  for  Canadian  Leicesters  has  not 
been  strong  and  the  Canadian  breeders  have  retained  in  their  flocks  the  best 
of  each  year's  crop  of  lambs.  By  selection  and  careful  weeding  many  good 
flocks  have  been  built  up.  The  excellence  of  the  Leicester  proves  conclusively 
that  if  Canadian  breeders  of  other  breeds  of  sheep  would  follow  the  same 
practice,  Canadian  flocks  of  all  sorts  would  equal  or  excel  those  to  be  found 
elsewhere. 

The  characteristics  of  the  Leicester  should,  like  all  mutton  breeds,  conform 
in  a  general  way  to  the  standard  for  all  mutton  sheep  appearing  in  the  first 
part  of  this  work.  The  Leicester  is  one  of  the  large  breeds,  the  average  weight 
for  mature  rams  in  good  flesh  being  250  to  300  pounds,  and  for  ewes  175  to  200 
pounds. 

The  head  is  small  for  the  size  of  the  body  and  is  carried  with  pronounced 
erectness  and  stateliness.  The  nose  is  slightly  Roman  in  rams  but  almost 
straight  in  ewes.  The  ear  is  thin,  moderately  long  and  carried  decidedly  erect 
and  alert.  The  head  and  legs  are  snowy  white  in  young  animals  but  become 
darker  with  age. 

The  Leicester  is  classed  among  the  long-woolled  breeds.  Its  fleece,  however, 
is  of  somewhat  less  length  than  that  of  the  Cotswold  or  the  Lincoln.     The  wool 


17 

is  glossy  and  of  good  fibre  and  should  cover  the  entire  carcass  save  the  head 
and  legs,  although  a  small  amount  of  quite  short  wool  on  the  forehead  and  the 
shanks  is  allowable.  The  wool  of  this  breed  hangs  in  dense  spirals  which  carry 
their  crimp  or  wave  to  the  skin;  the  fleece  should  consist  of  a  mass  of  distinct 
curls  all  over  the  body  and  without  the  "  parting  "  at  the  back  as  in  some  other 
long-woolled  breeds. 

The   Cotswold 

The  Cotswold  sheep  takes  its  name  from  the  range  of  bare  hills  in  Gloucester- 
shire and  Worcestershire,  England,  which  it  has  inhabited  for  a  very  long  period. 
It  is  said  that  the  hills  take  their  designation  from  the  sheep  rather  than  the 
sheep  from  the  hills.  They  derive  their  names  from  the  "  cote,"  a  sheep-fold  and 
11  wold,"  a  naked  hill.  Historians  of  the  breed  describe  the  original  stock  as 
being  long-necked,  rangy,  square  of  build  with  strong  bone  and  clothed  with 


: 

By*      * 

Ml 

IliML 

-:',<■■  1 

■*', 

1  %/\l  1  ».  BKtPv-^ 

Fig.  7.— Cotswold   Ram. 

fine,  soft  wool.  As  early  as  1464  sheep  of  the  Cotswold  breed  were  by  royal 
consent  exported  to  Spain  to  the  great  advantage  of  the  Spanish  flocks.  This 
and  other  evidence  seems  to  point  to  a  fine-woolled  breed  quite  similar  to 
the  long-woolled  specimens  of  modern  years.  For  a  period  subsequent  to  the 
date  mentioned  there  seems  to  be  nothing  definite  written  about  them.  Two  or 
three  centuries  later  Professor  Low  writing  of  the  Cotswold  sheep,  gives  the 
impression  that  they  are  an  offshoot  of  the  Midland  long-woolled  breed  inhabit- 
ing the  level  lands. 

From  the  accounts  of  various  writers,  it  appears  safe  to  infer  that  the  blood 
of  the  original  fine-woolled  Cotswold  and  the  longer-fleeced  Midland  sheep  were 
fused  in  the  Cotswold  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Then  the  blood  of  the  Leicester 
was  introduced  which  worked  a  great  improvement  in  the  breed  from  a  mutton 

35001—2 


18 

standpoint.  About  this  time  many  of  the  old  pastures  were  being  broken  up, 
turnips  and  cereals  began  to  be  cultivated,  bringing  about  conditions  favour- 
able to  an  increase  in  weight  of  carcass  and  length  and  strength  of  wool.  Cots- 
wold  breeders  have  for  a  long  time  preferred  and  bred  for  a  bold  and  open  curl 
in  the  fleece  rather  than  the  close  spiral  of  the  Leicester.  In  the  early  years 
of  the  breed  grey  or  light  brown  speckles  on  the  face  or  shanks  were  not  looked 
upon  with  disfavour,  and  even  at  the  present  day  these  markings  are  to  be  seen 
in  individuals  of  many  of  the  best  flocks,  although  the  Cotswold  is  looked  upon 
as  a  white-faced  breed. 

Whatever  the  origin  of  this  sheep  it  is  certain  that  for  the  past  seventy 
years  at  least  it  has  been  kept  pure,  so  that  the  type  has  long  since  been 
thoroughly  fixed.  The  Cotswold  may  be  described  as  a  big,  upstanding  sheep. 
Compared  with  the  Leicester  the  Cotswold  is  somewhat  larger  and  stronger  of 
bone.    It  is  not  so  broad  in  the  back  but  possesses  greater  depth  of  body.     In 


Fig.  8.— Pair  of  Cotswold  Ewes. 

addition  the  hind  quarters  are  more  squarely  developed.  A  distinguishing 
characteristic  of  the  Cotswold  is  the  topknot  or  forelock  which  is  seldom  shorn 
close  to  the  head  but  allowed  to  hang  over  the  face,  extending  in  some  cases 
to  the  point  of  the  nose.  The  fleece  is  heavy,  wavy  and  rather  coarser  than 
that  of  the  Leicester,  and  should  weigh  from  10  to  15  pounds  of  fairly  clean 
but  unwashed  wool.  It  should  cover  the  body  in  all  parts.  As  a  rule  the  best 
specimens  are  clothed  to  the  fetlocks  of  the  hind  legs.  As  in  the  Leicester  the 
head  is  carried  quite  erect.  The  neck  is  rather  long  and  in  many  cases  shows 
lack  of  plumpness,  giving  a  "  ewe-necked  "  appearance  which  should  be  reduced 
as  rapidly  as  possible  whenever  it  is  found  to  exist. 

The  Cotswold  breed  stands  in  high  favour  both  in  Great  Britain  and 
abroad.  Numerous  flocks  of  pure-breds  and  grades  are  to  be  found  in  France, 
Germany,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  the  United  States,  and  Canada.  They  are 
quite  hardy  and  sufficiently  prepotent  to  stamp  their  characteristics  upon  their 
offspring  when  crossed  with  other  breeds.  The  demand  for  lighter  carcasses  of 
lamb  and  mutton  is  reducing  the  use  of  rams  of  this  breed  in  the  grade  flocks 


19 

of  Canada,  The  chief  market  for  this  stock  continues  to  be  the  Western  United 
States.  The  average  weight  of  a  mature  Cotswold  ram  in  good  flesh  is  about 
250  to  300  pounds,  and  of  a  ewe  190  to  225  pounds.  Highly  fitted  show-yard 
specimens  reach  higher  weights  than  these.  They  require  good  pasture  but  do 
well  on  moderate  elevations  that  are  not  too  rugged.  The  mothers  are,  as  a  rule, 
good  nurses  and  are,  therefore,  adapted  to  the  production  of  lambs  for  the  early 
market.  The  fattening  qualities  of  the  breed  are  good  although  the  flesh  is 
only  moderately  fine  in  grain  if  allowed  to  reach  more  than  maturity.  As  a 
rule  stock  that  is  not  to  be  kept  for  breeding  should  be  fattened  and  marketed 
before  they  are  six  months  old. 

The   Lincoln 

The  origin  of  the  Lincoln  breed  was  a  race  of  heavy-bodied  sheep  which 
inhabited  the  low  alluvial  lands  of  Lincolnshire,  and  the  adjoining  localities, 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  England.  These  sheep  were  large  and  coarse,  carrying 
ragged,  heavy  fleeces  of  oily  wool  that  nearly  swept  the  ground.    They  had  flat 


«     HP 

w                           .                   &.      «...  .-'•.■     .    *^ . 

Fig.  9. — Lincoln  Ram. 


sides,  hollow  flanks  and  big  shanks  and  feet  and  were  deficient  in  the  leg  of 
mutton.  They  grew  and  fattened  slowly  but  made  much  inward  fat,  although 
their  flesh  is  credited  with  being  well  flavoured  and  fine  in  the  grain.  When  the 
improved  Leicester  came  came  into  prominence,  toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  leading  Lincoln  sheep  breeders  obtained  rams  which  they  crossed  upon 
their  flocks.  By  this  means  the  coarseness  of  their  stock  was  much  reduced  and 
in  time  a  new  and  finer  type  of  the  breed  was  produced. 

With  improvement  in  the  sheep  stock  there  came  a  more  advanced  system 
of  farming,  in  which  heavy  crops  of  roots  and  fodders  were  the  chief  production. 
With  the  consequent  better  feeding  of  the  stock  and  the  increased  care  given  to 
breeding,  the  improved  Lincoln  became  fixed  in  character  as  the  heaviest  pro- 
ducer of  mutton  and  wool  in  the  world.  It  is  chronicled  that  in  the  early  days  of 
the  breed  two-shear  sheep  frequently  dressed  over  90  pounds  to  the  quarter, 
and  a  ram  14  months  old  gave  a  fleece  weighing  26 \  pounds. 

35001—2* 


20 

The  Lincoln  was  first  recognized  as  a  pure  breed  by  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  of  England  in  1862.  Previous  to  that  date  all  of  the  long-woolled  breeds 
were  shown  together,  and  according  to  reliable  history  the  Lincolns  were  usually 
victorious.  They  were  then,  as  now,  an  excellent  breed  of  wool  and  mutton 
sheep.  They  mature  early,  fatten  easily  and  make  rapid  gains  for  the  food 
consumed,  but  on  account  of  their  size  require  plentiful  supplies  of  food.  Their 
flesh  inclines  to  coarseness  after  the  animals  have  reached  maturity,  but  lambs 
and  yearlings  dress  well  and  produce  meat  of  good  quality. 

The  wool  of  the  Lincoln  is  unexcelled  for  weight  of  fleece  and  length  of 
fibre,  and  its  fineness  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  Cotswold.    It  is  highly  valued 


Fig.  10. — Lincoln  Ewe. 


for  the  manufacture  of  coarse  worsteds  and  is  in  special  demand  for  braids  and 
other  manufactures  which  call  for  long  fibre  and  great  strength.  The  usual  clip 
of  well  kept  flocks  runs  from  10  to  14  pounds  for  ewes,  and  12  to  18  pounds  for 
rams,  of  unwashed  wool.    A  year's  growth  of  wool  is  about  eight  inches. 

As  a  grading  sheep  the  Lincoln  stands  high  where  greater  weight  of  carcass 
and  fleece  are  desired,  but  owing  to  the  changes  that  have  come  about  in  market 
demand,  rams  of  this  breed  are  being  less  used  than  heretofore  on  Canadian 
grade  flocks.  Lincoln  rams  have  for  many  years  been  in  keen  demand  for 
increasing  the  size  and  fleece  of  grade  Merinos  in  the  Western  States  of  the 
American  Union,  Argentina,  and  Australia.  At  the  annual  sales  of  some  of  the 
leading  breeders  in  England  rams  bring  very  high  prices,  many  of  the  best 
specimens  going  to  Argentina.  The  chief  outlet  for  the  Canadian  breeders  is  the 
western  range  States,  which  each  year  take  a  good  number  at  paying  values. 

The  breed  is  white-faced  and  has  a  conspicuous  tuft  on  the  forehead.  The 
head  is  massive,  but  not  coarse;  the  nose  is  somewhat  arched  and  bare  of  wool. 
The  brisket  is  full  and  deep,  the  body  round  and  well  proportioned,  and  while 
it  is  a  heavy  sheep  it  is  not  coarse.  Mature  rams  in  good  flesh  reach  average 
weights  of  250  to  325  pounds,  while  good  specimens  of  ewes  tip  the  scales  at 
from  220  to  250  pounds.  Highly  fitted  show-yard  specimens  frequently  reach 
greater  weights. 


21 

Compared  with  the  Leicester  and  the  Cotswold,  the  Lincoln  is  more 
massive  than  either  but  more  nearly  resembles  the  latter  in  outline.  It  is  rather 
less  active,  carrying  the  head  lower  on  account  of  possessing  a  shorter,  thicker 
neck. 

The  Oxford  Down 

The  Oxford  Down  sheep  is  the  product  of  a  cross  between  the  Hampshire 
Down  and  the  Cotswold.  The  union  was  deliberately  made  by  two  or  three 
distinguished  sheep  breeders  about  the  year  1833.    It  was  the  desire  of  these  men 


Fig.  11.— Oxford  Ram. 


to  combine  in  one  breed  the  divers  qualities  of  the  long  wool  and  the  short  wool 
classes  of  sheep.  In  great  measure  they  were  successful  inasmuch  as  a  large 
sheep  of  dark  countenance  and  legs,  with  Down  conformation,  and  wool  of 
moderate  fineness  has  been  evolved.  The  founders  of  the  breed  were  Messrs. 
Samuel  Druce,  of  Eynsham;  John  Gillet,  of  Braize  Norton;  William  Gillet,  of 
Southleigh,  and  Nathaniel  Black,  of  Stanton  Harcourt.  These  leaders  in  the 
sheep  breeding  industry  lived  within  half  a  dozen  miles  of  each  other  and  were 
joined  in  their  enterprise  by  Messrs.  John  Hitchman,  of  Little  Hilton,  and  J.  L. 
Twyman,  of  Whitechurch  Farm,  Hampshire.  It  is  claimed  by  historians  that 
Southdown  blood  entered  into  the  foundation  stock,  but  since  this  breed  and  the 
Hampshire  Down  inhabited  districts  only  a  short  distance  apart,  and  the  type  of 
neither  was  well  fixed  at  that  early  date,  it  may  be  safely  inferred  that  neither 
was  strictly  adhered  to  in  the  search  for  suitable  animals  for  the  Down  cross. 


22 

In  the  first  crosses  the  male  was  Cotswold  and  the  female  Hampshire  Down,  or 
in  a  few  cases  Southdown.  There  appears  to  have  been  a  good  deal  of  inter- 
mingling of  blood  before  Oxford  Down  breeders  settled  into  a  line  of  their  own. 
Mr.  Druce  decided  the  best  results  were  secured  when  cross-bred  animals  on 
both  sides  were  employed.  It  was  not  uncommon  for  cross-bred  rams  to  be 
used  on  cross-bred  ewes  that  possessed  the  desired  qualities;  ewes  that  were 
undersized  were  bred  to  Cotswold  sires,  and  Down  rams  were  mated  with  the 
graded  females  of  coarser  type. 


Fig.  12.— Oxford  Ewe. 


For  many  years  the  breed  was  known  by  various  names.  As  late  as  1853 
they  were  known  by  some  as  "Half  Breeds,"  and  by  others  as  "Down-Cotswolds." 
Some  four  years  later  at  a  meeting  of  breeders  held  in  Oxford  the  name  "Oxford- 
shire Down"  was  agreed  upon.  Soon  after  this  the  more  easily  pronounced 
"Oxford  Down"  designation  was  adopted.  Since  that  time  no  outside  blood 
has  been  introduced,  development  and  improvement  being  accomplished  by 
perpetuation  of  carefully  selected  stock  within  the  breed  itself. 

For  many  years  the  flocks  of  various  breeders  bore  dissimilar  characteristics 
indicated  in  fleece  and  face  due  to  a  preponderance  either  of  the  long-  or  the 
short-woolled  parentage.  This,  however,  had  practically  disappeared  before  the 
close  of  the  past  century.  The  speckled  face  has  given  way  to  an  even  brown 
which  may  vary  slightly  in  shade  without  risk  of  disfavour.  The  finely-cut 
profile  and  thinner  nose,  together  with  the  long  and  moderately  fine  ear  are 
undoubtedly  vestiges  of  the  Cotswold  parent,  while  the  dark  face  and  compara- 
tively close  fleece  are  derived  from  the  Down.  Until  recent  years  the  upstand- 
ing characteristics  of  both  parent  breeds  were  conspicuous  in  the  Oxford,  but  the 
winners  at  leading  shows  at  the  present  day  are  of  more  compact  form  not  unlike 


23 

the  larger  type  of  Shropshire  in  general  conformation.  This  more  solid  form  has 
been  striven  for  in  the  effort  towards  earlier  maturity  in  accordance  with  the 
general  tendency  in  the  breeding  of  all  meat  producing  animals  of  the  farm. 

The  Oxford  Down  is  one  of  the  largest  and  heaviest  of  the  Down  breeds, 
approaching  very  close  to  the  Hampshire  in  this  regard.  A  well  fleshed  typical 
ram  should  weigh  from  250  to  275  pounds  and  a  ewe  about  175  to  220  pounds  at 
maturity.  On  account  of  its  large  size  and  the  environment  of  its  home  the 
Oxford  Down  is  better  adapted  to  arable  than  rugged  land.  It  matures  early 
and  fattens  well  on  moderate  feed.  Its  flesh  resembles  that  of  the  Down  in  fine- 
ness of  quality  and  even  admixture  of  fat  and  lean.  As  a  grading  sheep  the 
Oxford  Down  finds  favour  when  increased  size  and  good  mutton  quality  are 
desired  and  the  lambs  are  to  be  reared  amid  luxuriant  pastures  or  rich  forage. 
Ewes  of  the  breed  are  prolific  and  good  nurses.  The  wool  is  longer  and  coarser 
than  that  of  any  of  the  other  Down  breeds  and  is  less  dense  over  the  body.  In 
well-kept  flocks  the  average  fleece  unwashed  should  weigh  from  9  to  12  pounds. 
Well-developed  rams  frequently  exceed  these  weights  at  their  first  shearing. 

Compared  with  the  Shropshire,  which  breed  they  most  nearly  resemble, 
the  Oxford  is  larger  in  every  way,  its  fleece  is  more  open  and  longer  at  shearing 
time;  its  head  and  face  are  not  so  dark  nor  so  completely  covered  with  wool,  and 
the  head  and  the  ear  are  longer. 

Oxford  Downs  are  to  be  found  in  almost  every  country  where  improved  sheep 
are  reared.  They  are  numerously  kept  in  almost  all  the  provinces  of  Canada, 
the  United  States,  Australia,  and  South  America. 


The  Hampshire  Down 

The  Hampshire  Down  and  the  Southdown  are  closely  related.  The  ancestors 
of  the  two  breeds  inhabited  the  chalk  lands  of  the  Southdown  counties  of  Eng- 
land since  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror.  The  soil  on  the  more  easterly  of 
these  counties  was  thin  and  rugged,  furnishing  scanty  herbage.  The  sheep  raised 
on  these  were  small  in  size,  compact  in  form,  and  noted  for  the  excellence  of  their 
flesh.  These  were  the  progenitors  of  the  modern  Southdown.  As  the  chalk  lands 
extended  westward  into  Hampshire,  Berkshire,  and  Wiltshire,  the  soil  became 
deeper  and  more  fertile,  affording  better  pasturage  and  heavier  cultivated  crops. 
The  sheep  reared  on  these  lands  were  larger  and  coarser  than  the  Southdowns. 
These  were  the  progenitors  of  the  Hampshire  Downs.  Farther  west  were  to  be 
found  in  those  early  days  the  horned  sheep  of  Dorset  and  Somersetshire.  Through 
generations  the  sheep  along  the  border  lines  of  these  territories  intermingled  to 
some  extent  so  that  a  well-defined  division  of  breeds  was  impossible.  Early 
writers  state  that  the  flock's  of  the  more  northern  and  eastern  of  the  Hampshire 
district  were  more  compact  and  symmetrical  in  form,  with  finer  wool,  than  were 
those  in  the  western  portion,  where  white  and  speckled  ears  and  faces  and 
curling  horns  were  not  uncommon.  Farther  east  horns  were  unknown  and  the 
faces  and  ears  of  the  sheep  were  of  very  dark  colour.  These  differences  existed 
through  the  period  from  1815  to  1835.  About  this  time  farming  lands  began  to 
be  enclosed  and  more  careful  attention  was  given  to  stock  raising.  A  class  of 
sheep  was  desired  that  would  thrive  well  on  exposed  pastures  and  when  put  on 
roots  or  cultivated  crops  would  take  on  flesh  of  a  high  quality  economically. 
It  was  observed  that  where  the  blood  of  the  Southdowns  had  long  been  merged 
with  their  horned  neighbours  in  Berkshire  and  Wiltshire,  the  flocks  were  best 
adapted  to  the  ends  desired.  Improvement  by  selection  and  breeding  was 
carried  on  by  many  farmers.  For  a  time  different  sections  had  somewhat  differ- 
ent ideals,  and  thus  the  breed  lacked  entire  uniformity,  but  ultimately  the  best 
type  was  demonstrated  and  generally    acknowledged.     It    was    these    animals. 


24 

claimed  to  be  a  cross  between  the  Southdown  and  the  old  Wiltshire  horned  sheep 
as  well  as  the  Berkshire  Knot,  which  formed  the  foundation  of  the  Hampshire 
breed. 

Foremost  among  the  farmers  who  undertook  the  establishment  of  the  Hamp- 
shire breed  was  Humphrey,  of  Oak  Ash,  a  man  who  unquestionably  possessed 
the  peculiar  genius  required  in  a  first  improver  of  stock.     Contemporaries  of 


FlG.    13. — Hampshire   Ram. 


Fig.    14. — Hampshire    Ewes. 


Humphrey  were  Messrs.  Lawrence,  of  Bullbridge,  and  Morrison,  of  Fonthill. 
Humphrey's  first  pronounced  improvement  of  the  breed  was  effected  by  the 
introduction  into  his  flock  of  a  Southdown  ram,  bred  by  Jonas  Webb,  which  won 
first  prize  at  Liverpool  about  1834.  The  difficulty  arising  from  this  cross  was 
loss  of  size,  and  to  obviate  this  only  the  largest  of  the  Hampshire  Down  ewes 
that  suited  his  fancy  were  selected  for  his  breeding  flock.  These  were  bred  to 
the  most  masculine  and  robust  of  the  rams  of  his  own  breeding.  This  policy 
succeeded  even  beyond  the  hopes  of  Humphrey  himself.  He  seldom  bought 
ewes,  and  never  unless  possessed  of  extraordinary  qualities.     A  ewe  thus  bought 


25 


o 


o 

M 


26 

bred  Jack  Tar,  by  a  ram  of  famous  strain.  Such  blood  was  used  with  great 
caution  and  never  directly.  Thus  Jack  Tar  was  given  a  few  ewes  and  their  ewe 
lambs  were  saved  as  dams  for  rams.  It  was.  therefore,  only  after  being  well 
mixed  with  the  blood  of  the  flock  that  new  blood  was  allowed  to  permeate  it. 

The  greatest  possible  care  was  exercised  in  selecting  the  animals  that  were 
to  be  perpetuated.  Lambs  were  judged  at  birth  and  those  showing  weakness  or 
defects  were  marked  for  the  feeding  pen.  Only  the  best  of  those  remaining  were 
placed  in  the  breeding  flock,  all  others  being  sent  to  the  butcher,  and  none  of 
this  class  were  ever  sold  to  other  breeders. 

In  using  sires  Humphrey  exercised  the  utmost  caution.  Lambs  were  tried 
on  a  small  number  of  ewes  and  if  their  offspring  promised  well  the  ram  was 
again  used  as  a  shearling,  and  in  subsequent  years,  but  if  not  he  was  sent  to  the 
butcher.  He  never  bought  rams  from  others  and  he  never  introduced  strange 
blood  straight  into  his  flock.  Humphrey  died  in  1868,  when  his  flock  was  dis- 
persed. Many  of  his  rams  sold  from  40  to  60  guineas  each,  one  of  the  keenest 
purchasers  being  Rawlings,  whose  methods  of  breeding  had  been  much  the  same 
as  those  of  Humphrey.  His  success  as  a  breeder  lay  in  rigorous  selection  and 
careful  introduction  of  the  best  obtainable  rams,  which  were  usually  secured 
from  Humphrey. 

The  Hampshire  is  the  heaviest  of  the  Down  breeds,  and  is  excelled  in  weight 
only  by  the  Lincoln  and  the  Cotswold  among  the  long-woolled  races.  Mature 
rams  in  good  flesh  should  weigh  from  250  pounds  to  300  pounds,  and  mature 
ewes  175  pounds  to  225  pounds.  The  breed  matures  very  early  and  for  that 
reason  is  a  favourite  for  getting  heavy  lambs  for  the  spring  trade.  The  ewes 
breed  well  and  yield  an  abundance  of  milk.  While  the  Hampshire  stands  well 
off  the  ground,  it  feeds  up  readily  and  carries  a  thick  fleshy  body  of  prime 
mutton.  The  fleece  of  the  Hampshire  is  dense  and  about  equal  in  fineness  to 
that  of  the  Shropshire.  Well  kept  flocks  shear  fleeces  of  about  8  to  10  pounds  of 
unwashed  wool.  The  colour  of  the  head  is  a  dark  brown  with  a  small  top-knot 
which  should  consist  of  white  wool.  The  ears  are  large,  free  from  mottles  and 
fine  in  texture;  they  are  carried  lower  than  in  other  breeds.  The  shanks  also 
should  be  of  dark  brown  colour  and  free  from  mottles. 

The  breed  is  well  adapted  to  either  pasture  or  pen  feeding.  In  its  native 
home  on  many  farms  more  than  a  breeding  ewe  per  acre,  besides  large  herds  of 
cattle,  are  maintained  in  excellent  condition  in  seasons  when  fodder  is  plentiful. 

A  society  for  the  promotion  of  the  breed  and  the  regulation  of  a  Flock  Book 
was  established  in  Great  Britain  in  the  year  1889,  in  which  a  similar  organi- 
zation was  formed  in  the  United  States. 


The  Shropshire 

The  Shropshire  as  a  pure  breed  is  a  production  of  the  nineteenth  century.  It 
appears  to  have  had  a  mixed  origin,  the  foundation  being  a  rather  diminutive 
breed,  described  in  1792  as  the  Morfe  Common  sheep,  then  raised  in  large  num- 
bers in  the  district  of  Shropshire,  England.  These  active  hardy  sheep  had 
at  that  time  black,  brown  or  spotted  faces  and  carried  horns.  The  carcasses  of 
well-fed  wethers  would  weigh  from  10  to  14  pounds  per  quarter,  and  the  fleece 
about  2^  pounds.  This  appears  to  have  been  the  parent  form,  and  the  work  of 
improvement  commenced  with  crossing  with  the  Leicester  and  Southdown. 
While  these  crosses  were  being  introduced  and  for  a  number  of  years  afterwards, 
the  stock  produced  was  of  somewhat  uncertain  tvpe,  but  by  the  middle  of  the 
past  century  a  well  fixed  and  very  desirable  class  of  the  Shropshire  had  been 
evolved.  Soon  after  this  time,  through  the  efforts  of  their  breeders  they  were 
recognized  as  a  distinct  breed.  They  were  at  that  time  described  as  being 
without  horns,  with  faces  and  legs  of  grey  or  spotted  colour,  the  neck  thick  with 
excellent  scrag,  the  head  well-shaped  rather  small  than  large  with  ears  well  set 


27 


Fig.  16. — Shropshire  Ram. 


Fig.   17. — Shropshire   Ewe. 


Fig.  18. — Group  of  Shropshire  Rams. — A  Power  for  good  in  Mutton-raising  District. 


28 

on;  breast  broad  and  deep;  back  straight,  with  good  carcass;  hind-quarters 
hardly  as  wide  as  the  Southdown,  and  the  legs  clean  with  strong  bone.  They 
were  hardy,  thrifty,  and  matured  early,  producing  from  80  to  100  pounds  per 
carcass  and  about  7  pounds  per  fleece. 

By  careful  selection  and  judicious  mating  of  its  own  species,  the  Shropshire 
sheep  seems  to  have  been  brought  to  a  very  high  state  of  perfection.  In  1853 
they  received  their  first  recognition  as  a  pure  breed  by  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  of  England.  Until  about  1870  grey  and  speckled  legs  and  faces  and  open 
fleeces  were  not  uncommon,  but  these  markings  and  other  evidences  of  mixed 
breeding  gradually  disappeared.  For  the  past  forty  years  the  colour  of  the  face 
has  been  a  rich  brown,  unless  covered  with  wool,  as  are  many  of  the  finest  speci- 
mens of  the  breed  at  the  present  day,  almost  to  the  point  of  the  nose.  A  little 
grey  or  "  mealy  "  colour  about  the  muzzle  is  not  considered  objectionable. 

The  Shropshire  breed  was  given  a  classification  separate  from  the  South- 
downs,  Hampshires  and  Oxfords,  as  early  as  1859,  and  soon  after  that  year  far 
surpassed  any  other  breeds  exhibited  in  point  of  numbers.  In  1884  the  display 
of  Shropshires  at  the  Royal  Show,  held  at  Shrewsbury,  numbered  875  against  less 
than  half  that  number  of  all  other  distinct  breeds  combined.  The  breed  rapidly 
spread  to  every  part  of  the  United  Kingdom  and  is  now  to  be  found  in  large 
numbers  in  all  parts  of  the  world  where  improved  mutton  sheep  are  kept. 

No  single  outstanding  breeder,  like  Bakewell,  Ellman  or  Humphrey,  who  are 
credited  with  bringing  out  the  Leicester,  the  Southdown  and  the  Hampshire, 
respectively,  actually  accomplished  the  chief  improvement  of  the  Shropshire. 
This  was  shared  by  many  and  progress  seems  to  have  been  gradual. 

Going  back  to  the  'fifties  of  the  past  century,  we  find  the  names  of  prominent 
breeders  as  follows:  Messrs.  Henry  Smith,  of  Sutton;  Green,  of  Marlow;  Harton, 
of  Shrewsbury;  Farmer,  of  Bridgnorth;  Adney,  of  Harley,  and  others  whose  ewes 
were  at  that  time  sold  at  auction  at  prices  from  $40  to  $75  per  head.  The 
flocks  of  these  breeders  and  others  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  foundation  of  the 
present  breed  and  their  blood  flows  in  the  flocks  of  the  present  day. 

As  a  combined  wool  and  mutton  sheep  the  Shropshire  holds  a  prominent 
place.  The  body,  though  larger,  is  like  that  of  the  Southdown,  being  low-set, 
thick  and  fleshy.  It  carries  a  large  proportion  of  lean  meat  which  is  held  in  high 
favour  by  butchers.  The  fleece  is  dense  and  uniform  and  approaches  that  of  the 
Southdown  in  fineness;  ewes  shear  from  7  to  101  pounds  and  rams  from  about 
9  to  12  pounds  of  unwashed  wool. 

For  crossing  and  grading  the  Shropshire  occupies  a  wide  field.  Rams  of  the 
breed  are  very  generally  used  upon  common  and  grade  Merino  stock  in  the  range 
districts.  Even  from  quite  inferior  ewe  foundation  the  offspring  from  Shrop- 
shire males  is  blocky,  thrifty  and  early  maturing,  almost  invariably  showing 
dark  faces  and  legs.  At  many  of  the  fat  stock  shows  grades  bearing  Shropshire 
characteristics  win  many  of  the  best  prizes.  The  early  maturing  qualities  of 
the  Shropshire  are  peculiarly  valuable  owing  to  the  extent  to  which  they  are 
used  in  crossing. 

Shropshire  breed  associations  are  strong,  both  in  Great  Britain  and  America, 
and  pedigree  registration  is  carefully  maintained  in  both  countries.  The  Ameri- 
can Shropshire  Registry  Association  was  organized  in  1884,  and  up  to  the  end 
of  1909,  about  30,000  animals,  bred  chiefly  in  Canada  and  the  United  States, 
had  been  registered.  A  large  number  of  pedigrees  have  also  been  registered  in 
the  Canadian  National  Records. 


29 


The   Southdown 


The  Southdown  is  the  oldest  of  the  improved  medium-woolled  dark-faced 
breeds  of  sheep.  It  bears  much  the  same  relation  to  the  Down  breeds  as  does 
the  Leicester  to  the  other  long-woolled  races.    It  is  one  of  the  indigenous  races 


Fig.   19. — Southdown  Wethers. 


Fig.  20.— Southdown  Ram. 


peculiar  to  the  chalk  hills  of  the  southern  counties  of  England.  It  appears  to 
have  been  confined  to  the  Down  lands  and  to  have  given  way  to  a  larger  and 
looser  framed  animal,  as  the  chain  of  chalk  hills  on  which  it  browsed  passed 
into  the  neighbouring  county  of  Hampshire. 


30 

Originally,  the  Southdown  was  horned,  but  these  appendages  have  long  since 
disappeared  unless  as  slugs  which  occasionally  appear  on  rams  of  the  coarser 
type.  The  breed,  before  improvement,  was  small,  long  in  neck,  light  in  shoulder, 
bare  of  back,  drooping  in  rump,  but  having  a  big  leg  of  mutton.  The  fleece  was 
not  so  close  and  firm  as  now,  and  inclined  to  curliness. 

One  of  the  earliest  improvers  of  the  breed  was  John  Ellman,  of  Glynde,  in 
Sussex,  who  commenced  his  work  about  1789,  and  died  in  1832.  This  breeder 
laid  great  stress  upon  the  form  of  the  neck  and  fore-quarters,  which  he  felt  should 
be  bold,  high  in  the  crest,  muscular  and  thick.  These  qualities  he  aimed  to 
develop  as  well  as  spring  of  rib,  girth,  breadth  and  fullness  of  quarter.  The  leg  of 
mutton,  according  to  Ellman,  must  be  well  filled  inside  and  out,  and  as  round  as 
a  "  cricket-ball."  The  fleece  under  his  care  became  boardlike  in  its  firmness,  and 
showed  cracks  down  to  the  skin  as  the  animal  turned,  presenting  a  firm  and 
springy  surface.  Following  Ellman  came  the  late  Jonas  Webb,  of  Babraham, 
Cambridgeshire,  as  an  improver  of  the  breed.  It  was  through  him  in  a  great 
measure  that  the  true  type  was  handed  down  to  the  present  generation. 


Fig.  21. — Southdown  Ewe  Lambs. 

The  Southdown  is  one  of  ihe  most  beautiful  sheep  existing;  its  smooth,  even 
body;  its  round,  clean  barrel;  its  short  legs,  fine  head  and  broad  saddle,  with  its 
sweet,  tender  seldom  overfat  meat,  give  the  qualities  which  make  it  desirable  for 
the  lawn  of  the  gentleman,  while  its  early  maturing  and  easy  feeding  qualities 
give  it  a  place  on  the  farms  of  the  men  who  must  make  profit  from  the  products 
of  the  land.  It  is  the  smallest  of  the  medium-woolled  breeds,  but  owing  to  its 
compact  form  it  weighs  remarkably  well  for  its  size.  A  well  developed  ram  in 
breeding  condition  should  weigh  about  200  pounds,  and  in  show  form  from  225 
to  240  pounds.  Mature  ewes  should  weigh  from  150  pounds  to  200  pounds, 
according  to  condition.  It  is  best  adapted  to  undulating,  rolling  or  broken  and 
hilly  land  bearing  a  short,  fine  herbage,  but  it  adapts  itself  well  to  more  level 
areas  that  are  not  wet.  It  matures  early,  its  feeding  qualities  are  unsurpassed 
and  it  stands  crowding  both  in  pen  and  field  better  than  most  breeds. 

The  fleece  of  the  Southdown  is  the  finest  and  shortest  of  the  Down  breeds. 
Unless  at  times  of  shortage  of  coarser  wools  the  wool  of  this  breed  brings  a  higher 
price  than  any  of  the  others.  It  is  dense  and  as  a  rule  very  uniform  over  the 
body.    An  average  Southdown  will  clip  from  5  to  7  pounds  of  unwashed  wool. 

For  crossing  purposes  the  Southdown  has  been  particularly  useful  and  its 
blood  exists  in  every  improved  Down  breed.  On  account  of  its  long  established 
characteristics  it  stamps  its  good  qualities  upon  its  offspring  in  a  remarkable 
degree. 


31 

The  face,  ears  and  legs  of  the  Southdown  are  of  a  uniform  shade  of  greyish 
brown  or  mouse  colour.  The  forehead  and  cheeks  are  well  covered  with  wool 
of  the  same  density  and  whiteness  as  found  on  other  parts  of  the  body.  The  ears 
are  rather  small,  tolerably  wide  apart,  covered  with  fine  hair  and  carried  with  a 
lively  back  and  forth  movement. 

The  Southdown  represents  the  ideal  form  of  mutton  sheep,  inasmuch  as  it  is 
admirably  proportioned,  of  perfect  symmetry,  very  compact  and  short  in  leg. 
It  is  spirited  and  attractive,  with  a  determined  look  and  proud  firm  step. 


The  Suffolk 

The  Suffolk  sheep,  of  which  there  are  an  increasing  number  of  flocks  in 
Canada,  belongs  to  the  Down  breeds  inhabiting  in  their  early  days  the  southern 
counties  of  England.  Although  larger,  more  rangy  and  darker  in  points  than  the 
Southdown,  the  blood  of  this  latter  breed  entered  largely  into  the  foundation  of 
the  Suffolk.  The  only  other  breed  that  entered  into  the  combination  was  the 
Norfolk,  which  appears  to  have  passed  out  of  the  list  of  modern  breeds  of  sheep. 
The  old  Norfolks  are  described  as  upstanding,  robust,  active  and  prolific,  bearing 
horns  in  both  sexes,  jet  black  faces  and  legs,  clothed  with  fleece  of  fine,  soft 
wool  which  would  weigh  at  shearing  time  about  three  pounds.  Their  home  was 
the  chalky  downs  in  the  counties  of  Suffolk,  Norfolk,  Cambridge,  and  Essex. 
The  Southdown  inhabiting  adjacent  counties,  as  already  described,  is  a  thicker 
lower-set  sheep,  having  strong  powers  of  prepotency.  Rams  of  this  latter  sort 
were  crossed  upon  ewes  of  the  old  Norfolk  to  form  the  newer  breed  of  Suffolk. 

For  the  establishment  of  the  Suffolk  much  credit  is  given  to  George  Dabito, 
of  Lydgate,  who  is  said  to  have  been  an  enthusiastic  advocate  of  the  Southdown 
and  Norfolk  combination.  While  the  name  Suffolk  was  not  generally  adopted 
until  1859,  when  classes  were  created  for  this  breed  by  the  Suffolk  Agricultural 
Society,  flocks  are  said  to  date  back  in  purity  of  blood  to  1790. 

In  recent  years  the  Suffolks  have  held  their  own  in  British  show  rings  in 
competition  with  other  short-woolled  breeds.  In  1883,  1884,  and  1885,  they 
defeated  all  others  at  the  shows  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  and  have  since 
won  valuable  awards  in  the  wether  sections  in  open  competition  at  the  Smithfield 
Fat  Stock  Show.  Appearing  somewhat  spare  of  body  on  account  of  bareness  of 
head  and  legs  and  comparative  shortness  of  wool,  this  breed  does  not  appeal  as 
favourably  to  one  unaccustomed  to  them  as  most  of  the  other  Down  sorts,  but  it 
is  on  the  block,  the  true  test  of  all  meat  animals,  that  they  give  a  good  account 
of  themselves.  Their  flesh  is  seldom  or  never  over-fat,  but  fine  in  the  grain  and 
of  strikingly  fine  flavour. 

Being  active  and  very  hardy  the  Suffolk  subsists  well  on  either  sparsely 
clothed  hill  sides  or  more  luxuriant  pasture.  The  strong  infusion  of  South- 
down blood,  together  with  the  care  exercised  in  breeding  during  recent  years, 
have  given  the  Suffolk  early  maturing  qualities.  Flocks  produce  a  high  per- 
centage of  vigorous  twins,  which  usually  develop  rapidly  on  account  of  the 
generous  supplies  of  milk  produced  by  their  mothers. 

The  Suffolk  Sheep  Society  of  England  was  established  in  1886.  The  first 
importation  was  made  to  Canada  in  1888,  and  a  few  flocks  have  since  been 
established  in  Ontario,  Prince  Edward  Island  and  British  Columbia.  The  first 
Suffolks  taken  to  the  United  States  were  imported  in  1888,  but  many  have 
been  imported  since,  and  in  1892  the  American  Flock  Registry  Association  was 
established. 

Compared  with  other  Down  breeds  the  Suffolk  more  nearly  resembles  the 
Hampshire,  and  at  some  of  the  large  shows  even  yet  these  two  sorts  are  classed 
together.  They  are,  however,  somewhat  less  in  size  and  weight,  but  are 
heavier  than   the   Southdown   or  the  Shropshire.     Mature   rams   in   good   flesh 


32 


OS 

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33 

should  weigh  from  240  pounds  to  260  pounds,  and  ewes  190  pounds  to  210 
pounds.  They  are  longer  than  the  Shropshire  in  body  and  limb.  The  head  is 
longer,  narrower  and  bare  of  wool,  although  a  small  patch  of  short  white  wool 
on  the  forehead  is  not  objectionable.  The  head  and  legs  are  glossy  black.  In 
wool  production  they  shear  a  little  more  than  the  Southdown,  of  a  quality 
about  equal  to  the  Hampshire  or  the  Shropshire. 

The  Dorset 

The  Dorset  Horn  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  British  breeds  of  sheep.  It 
inhabited  from  a  very  early  date  the  fertile  counties  of  Dorsetshire  and  Somer- 
setshire, situated  in  the  southwest  of  England.  The  home  of  the  breed  is  diver- 
sified by  hill  and  dale  affording  thin  chalk  highlands  and  rich  clay  slopes  and 


Fig.  23.— Dorset  Ram. 


valleys.  The  original  Dorset  sheep  was  large,  rather  coarse,  long-legged  breed 
with  wonderful  powers  of  maternity.  Both  sexes  have  retained  horns  from  the 
earliest  years  until  the  present  day.  They  belong  to  the  medium  wool  breeds, 
but  unlike  most  of  the  others,  possess  white  faces  and  legs.  Efforts  to  improve 
the  breed  by  means  of  out-crosses  proved  unsuccessful,  although  according  to 
authorities,  both  Leicester  and  Southdown  blood  were  used.  While  great 
improvement  in  form  and  early  maturing  has  been  accomplished  in  the  Dorset 
sheep  during  the  past  quarter  of  a  century  it  has  been  effected  entirely  within 
the  breed  itself. 

The  Dorset  surpasses  all  other  breeds  of  sheep  in  breeding  qualities.  Unlike 
other  sorts  the  ewes  may  be  bred  at  almost  any  time  of  the  year,  and  it  is  not 
uncommon  for  ewes  to  produce  two  crops  of  lambs  within  twelve  months.  In 
England  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  Dorset  lambs  on  the  Smithfield  market  at 
Christmas  when  they  command  fancy  prices.  A  number  of  breeeders  both  on 
this  continent  and  in  Great  Britain  aim  to  have  autumn  lambs,  some  as  early 
as  September,  although  many  prefer  not  to  have  them  earlier  than  January. 
The  Dorset  ewe  is  a  most  excellent  mother,  producing  seldom  less  than  two 
lambs  and  not  uncommonly  three.  She  is  a  very  copious  milker  and  when 
well  fed  her  lambs  go  forward  at  a  very  rapid  rate.  For  this  reason  the  Dorset 
fills  a  special  field  as  a  producer  of  what  are  known  as  "  hot-house  "  lambs, 
which  frequently  dress  from  40  to  45  pounds  each  at  four  months  old. 

35001—3 


34 

In  general  conformation  the  Dorset  is  of  the  mutton  type,  approaching  that 
of  the  Southdown  more  nearly  than  any  of  the  other  breeds.  It  is  larger  than 
the  Southdown,  being  almost  equal  to  the  Shropshire,  and  it  has  less  sym- 
metry than  either  of  these  sorts.  The  average  weight  of  mature  rams  is  about 
200  pounds  and  of  ewes  about  170  pounds. 

The  wool  of  the  Dorset  is  much  like  that  of  the  Shropshire  in  quality. 
The  fleece  is  quite  dense,  very  white  and  elastic.  The  crown  and  jaws  are 
covered  about  the  same  as  in  the  Southdown.  Well-bred  lambs  clip  about  10 
pounds,  and  ewes  from  7  to  8  pounds  of  unwashed  wool. 


Fig.  24. — Dorset  Ewe. 

The  horns  of  the  Dorset  curve  gracefully  forward  rather  close  to  the  jaws. 
They  are  small  and  flat  in  the  female,  but  considerably  longer,  stronger  and 
more  angular  in  the  male  and  curve  spirally  outward  from  the  top  of  the  head. 

As  a  crossing  or  grading  sheep  the  Dorset  stands  in  high  favour  in  the 
United  States,  more  particularly  where  Merino  grades  exist.  They  impart  their 
fecundity,  vigour,  excellent  milking  qualities  and  thick  mutton  form  to  their 
offspring  in  a  marked  degree.  On  account  of  their  horns  they  are  not  well 
suited  for  crossing  with  hornless  breeds.  If  used  at  all  for  crossing  with  the 
latter  sort  the  Dorset  should  occupy  the  female  part  of  the  union.  Dark- 
faced  lambs  produced  in  this  way  meet  with  a  readier  sale  than  the  lambs  of 
pure  Dorset  breeding,  and  when  fed  for  the  show-ring  they  frequently  win  prizes 
in  the  classes  for  grades  and  crosses. 

Until  about  1885  the  Dorset  was  little  bred  outside  of  its  native  counties. 
During  recent  years  small  flocks  have  been  established  throughout  other  por- 
tions of  the  British  Isles.  They  were  imported  to  Canada  as  early  as  1885, 
and  to  the  United  States  in  1887.  There  are  now  a  number  of  well-kept  flocks 
in  various  parts  of  Canada  and  many  in  the  United  States. 

The  Cheviot 

The  Cheviot,  although  not  familiar  to  the  sheep  farmers  of  Canada,  is 
becoming  a  favourite  breed  wherever  given  a  fair  trial.  Coming  as  they  do 
from  a  rugged  country  they  possess  a  peculiar  adaptability  for  hilly  sections 
where  daily  attention  cannot  be  given. 

The  Cheviot  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  modern  breeds  of  sheep.  It  is 
classed  with  the  mountain  breeds  and  comes  next  in  hardihood  to  the  Black- 


35 


Fig.   25.— Cheviot   Ram. 


Fig.  26. — Cheviot  Ewe  and  Lamb. 


35001— 3i 


36 

face  that  inhabits  the  Highlands  of  Scotland.  Its  home  is  the  hill  lands  bor- 
dering Scotland  and  England,  where  they  have  been  reared  from  a  very  remote 
period.  In  their  native  homes  they  are  given  no  shelter  and  graze  the  year 
round  on  the  mountain  sides  and  in  the  valleys.  This  open  air  life  has  developed 
in  the  Cheviot  one  of  the  hardiest  of  the  medium-woolled  breeds  of  sheep. 

It  was  about  1756  that  an  effective  attempt  was  made  to  improve  the 
Cheviot.  During  that  year  four  leading  breeders  visited  Lincolnshire  and 
returned  with  fourteen  rams  which  they  used  upon  their  flocks  with  great  suc- 
cess. It  is  stated  that  the  flock  of  James  Robson,  of  Philhope,  was  so  much 
improved  by  the  Lincoln  cross  that  for  many  years  he  sold  more  rams  than  one- 
half  of  the  hill  farmers  put  together. 

The  breed  was  named  about  1792,  when  it  was  described  as  a  fine-woolled 
breed.  From  1800  to  1860  the  Cheviot  sheep  was  more  and  more  on  the 
ascendant  and  the  Black-faces  disappeared  from  nearly  all  of  the  best  farms  in 
the  south  of  Scotland,  except  in  the  mountain  district  of  Ayrshire  and  Lanark- 
shire. Owing  to  a  series  of  severe  seasons  the  tide  turned  in  favour  of  the 
Black-faces  on  all  but  the  lower  and  grassy  slopes  of  the  mountains,  where  the 
Cheviot  until  this  day  maintains  its  position. 

They  are  of  medium  size,  approaching  the  Shropshire  in  weight.  Ewes 
weigh  from  J  ^0  to  160  pounds  and  rams  from  180  to  215.  They  are  white- 
faced  and  hornless  and  are  possessed  of  unusual  length  of  body  in  contrast  with 
the  heath  sheep  of  North  Britain.  Like  most  mountain  breeds,  they  are  rela- 
tively light  in  the  fore-quarters,  but  their  hind-quarters  are  very  well  developed, 
producing  legs  of  mutton  of  very  high  quality.  The  mutton  of  the  Cheviot, 
like  that  of  other  mountain  breeds,  is  of  excellent  quality.  It  seldom  becomes 
too  fat,  developing  rather  a  plump  carcass  of  mixed  fat  and  lean  which  is  pos- 
sessed of  fine  flavour  and  tenderness. 

The  wool  of  the  Cheviot  belongs  to  the  middle  class.  The  fleece  has  a 
tendency  to  openness  and  is  somewhat  longer  and  coarser  than  the  best  type  of 
Shropshire  staple,  and  is  rather  superior  in  quality  to  that  of  the  Oxford.  Ewes 
shear  from  6  to  9  pounds  and  rams  from  8  to  12  pounds  of  unwashed  wool. 

The  Cheviot  is  possessed  of  extraordinary  constitutional  vigour.  It  is 
highly  prolific,  the  ewes  yielding  twins  more  than  single  lambs.  The  ewes  are 
unusually  attentive  to  their  offspring,  which  are  rapid  growers,  making  a  dress 
weight  of  50  to  60  pounds  at  six  months  old. 

In  a  general  way  the  form  of  the  Cheviot  is  much  the  same  as  other  good 
mutton  breeds.  The  head,  while  not  too  heavy,  should  be  bold  and  broad, 
well  set  off  by  bright  dark  eyes  and  erect  ears  of  moderate  length.  The  nose 
is  Roman  in  type,  the  skin  around  the  mouth  being  black.  The  legs,  face  and 
ears  are  covered  with  clean,  hard,  white  hair. 

The  Cheviot  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  hilly  and  rolling  sections.  It  thrives 
well  on  even  scant  pasture,  provided  it  has  access  to  an  extended  area,  and 
fattens  readily  on  roots  or  good  pasture  or  fodder  even  without  a  grain  ration. 
The  breed  is  thoroughly  at  home  in  the  Maritime  Provinces  and  the  more  rugged 
portions  of  Quebec,  where  a  few  flocks  are  now  being  kept. 

The  Merino 

While  the  Merino  has  made  great  progress  in  the  American  Republic  it  has 
not  become  a  popular  breed  in  this  country.  In  Canada,  as  in  Great  Britain,  a 
sheep  has  to  possess  at  least  a  fair  degree  of  mutton  quality  in  order  that  it  be 
taken  up  either  by  the  breeders  or  the  general  farmers  who  keep  a  few  head  of 
sheep.  On  the  ranges,  however,  the  major  part  of  the  foundation  stock  is  Merino, 
and  though  the  mutton  ideal  is  predominant  over  Canada  as  a  whole,  there  are 
evidences  that  there  will  continue  to  be  periodical,  if  not  steady,  reversions  to 
Merino  blood  as  long  as  open  range  is  available.    This  is  not  due  entirely  to  the 


37 

superior  herding  qualities  of  the  Merino,  but  to  the  demand  of  our  growing 
manufacturers  for  a  grade  of  wool  above  coarse  or  medium.  Range  wool?  have 
greatly  increased  in  value  within  recent  years.  This  should  encourage  the 
progress  of  sheep  husbandry,  and  in  this  work  the  Merino  will  perform   an 


Fig.  27. — Merino  Ewe. 


Fig.  28. — Merino  Ram. 


important  part.  While  our  interest  in  the  sheep  business  has  been  up  to  the 
present  almost  exclusively  concerned  with  the  meat  side,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  mutton  is  only  one,  and  not  the  most  important  one,  of  our  meat  products, 
while  wool  is  a  characteristic  and  peculiar  product  and  it  is  on  the  wool  side  that 
we  should  expect  to  see  the  general  improvement  in  sheep  husbandry  secured. 


38 

The  Merino  is  a  fine-woolled  sheep.  It  is  known  to  have  been  bred  almost 
entirely  for  its  fleece  since  early  in  the  Christian  era.  For  a  number  of  years 
attention  has  been  paid  to  the  mutton  qualities  of  some  families,  but  as  a  meab- 
producer  the  Merino  ranks  in  sheep  no  higher  than  the  strictly  dairy  breeds  in 
cattle.  It  is  quite  conceivable,  however,  that  the  introduction  of  the  Merino 
families  of  sheep  to  the  rich  grasses  and  more  rigorous  air  of  the  upper  temperate 
latitudes  will  be  attended  with  an  improvement  in  fleshing  qualities  and  general 
rotundity  of  form. 

The  Merino  is  of  Spanish  origin,  but  large  numbers  have  been  so  long 
bred  in  Germany  and  France  that  certain  varieties  are  now  looked  upon  as 
belonging  to  these  latter  countries.  For  many  years  importations  from  various 
European  countries  have  been  made  to  the  United  States,  where  they  are  bred 
in  more  or  less  distinct  classes.  These  are  known  as  the  American,  the  Delaine 
and  the  Rambouiilet.  The  American  or  Spanish  is  the  smallest  and  lightest 
in  weight  and  are  still  bred  almost  entirely  for  fine  wool.  The  Delaine  is  a 
heavier  bodied  sheep  with  fewer  or  no  wrinkles  and  of  varying  uniformity 
according  to  the  view  point  of  breeders  as  regards  the  relative  importance  of 
fleece  or  flesh.  The  Rambouiilet  or  French  Merino  is  the  largest  of  the  breed, 
having  been  bred  and  fed  for  mutton  production  for  many  generations  both  in 
France  and  the  United  States.  Weights  of  individual  rams  are  recorded  as  high 
as  400  pounds,  and  fleeces  as  heavy  as  60  pounds.  These,  however,  are  quite 
exceptional  and  abnormal.  It  is  probable  that  such  a  ram  was  loaded  to  the 
utmost  extent  with  fat  and  such  a  fleece  with  oil  or  yolk  and  dirt. 

Merinos  are  reared  in  large  numbers  in  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  Argen- 
tina, but  as  already  stated,  their  popularity  in  North  America  is  chiefly  confined 
to  the  United  States,  where  some  thirty  or  forty  years  ago  about  95  per  cent  of 
the  sheep  were  from  Merino  foundation  stock.  In  recent  years  the  English  breeds 
have  been  so  rapidly  introduced  and  so  numerously  bred  in  the  United  States 
that  the  ratio  is  greatly  changed  in  favour  of  the  mutton  sorts.  Over  the  western 
plains  mutton  rams  are  being  used  more  extensively  until  thousands  upon 
thousands  of  the  sheep  and  lambs  that  reach  the  large  United  States  markets 
bear  one  or  more  English  crosses  upon  Merino  foundation.  Lambs  bred  in  this 
way  readily  partake  of  the  mutton  form,  and  when  well  fed  frequently  top  the 
market. 

From  time  to  time  small  flocks  of  pure  Rambouiilet  have  been  started  in 
Canada  and  a  small  number  are  being  perpetuated  in  their  pure  state  at  the 
present  day,  but  only  as  a  foundation  stock  for  grading  purposes  has  this  breed 
reached  the  Dominion  in  any  considerable  numbers.  To  stock  up  ranges  in  the 
•western  provinces  low-priced  Delaine  ewes  with  some  admixture  of  Rambouiilet 
blood  have  been  imported  in  large  numbers  from  Montana  and  other  western 
States,  and  these  are  being  graded  up  with  rams  of  the  Rambouiilet  breed.  Under 
range  conditions  young  stock  matures  slowly  and  the  great  bulk  of  the  lambs  are 
disposed  of  as  feeder  lambs.  Few  of  the  lambs  are  sold  off  in  the  fall  for  immedi- 
ate killing,  but  during  the  past  few  seasons  many  thousand  head  have  been  fed 
through  the  winter  on  hay,  grain  or  screenings  at  elevator  centres  and  have  come 
out  in  excellent  condition  for  the  late  winter  and  spring  trade. 

The  Merino  as  a  breed  is  among  the  lightest  of  registered  sheep,  the 
average  ram  weighing  from  150  to  200  pounds,  and  ewes  from  90  to  130  pounds, 
but  among  the  Rambouillets  as  high  as  200'  pounds  in  ewes  and  over  300  pounds 
m  rams  are  occasionally  met  with.  The  breed  has  proved  itself  adaptable  to  a 
wide  range  of  conditions,  doing  about  equally  well  on  sparsely  clothed  hills  and 
fertile  plains.  It  withstands  crowding  and  neglect  and  travelling  long  distances 
for  food  better  than  other  classes  of  sheep.  For  these  reasons  the  Merino  multi- 
plies well  in  large  bands  under  range  conditions  where  individual  attention 
cannot  be  given  to  the  members  of  the  flock,  though  it  is  not  as  prolific  by  habit 
as  are  the  English  breeds. 


39 

Favoured  Pure  Breeds 

In  the  development  of  the  sheep  industry  in  Canada,  the  introduction  and 
distribution  of  the  various  purebred  breeds  has  been  unrestricted  and  their 
numbers  increased  as  they  attained  popular  favour  among  the  breeders  them- 
selves. Breeders  of  purebred  flocks  and  breed  associations  naturally  sought  to 
popularize  the  breeding  of  their  own  breeds  with  the  result  that,  in  most  of  the 
older  districts,  frequently  several  pure-bred  flocks  of  different  breeding  have  been 
established.  In  such  districts,  rams  of  the  different  breeds  have  been  used  on  the 
grade  flocks  with  the  result  that  market  lambs  lack  uniformity  and  a  definite 
system  of  flock  improvement  has  not  been  made  operative.  Of  late  years,  sheep 
promotion  work  has  been  directed  with  a  view  to  establishing  a*  distinct  breed 
for  each  community  and  an  effort  has  been  made  to  curtail  the  multiplicity  of 
breeds  in  districts  or  provinces  by  encouraging  those  breeds  which  have  become 
most  generally  popular  and,  in  addition,  which  produce  wool  and  lambs  that 
are  highly  desirable  from  a  market  standpoint.  The  different  provinces  have 
varied  somewhat  in  their  selections,  but  generally  speaking  those  breeds  most 
favoured  have  been:  Shropshire,  Oxford,  Hampshire,  Suffolk,  Southdown,  and 
Leicester.  In  British  Columbia,  the  Dorset  Horn  has  also  been  named  and  in 
Quebec  the  Cheviot.    On  the  range  the  Rambouillet  is  the  accepted  breed. 


ESTABLISHING  A  FLOCK  OF  COMMERCIAL  SHEEP 

The  advantages  at  the  hand  of  any  intelligent  farmer  who  wishes  to  establish 
a  flock  of  sheep  for  use  in  a  commercial  way  at  the  present  time  are  very  much 
greater  than  prevailed  many  years  ago  in  the  older  provinces  of  the  Dominion. 
Then  the  only  material  at  hand  for  the  foundation  of  a  flock  of  grade  sheep  was 
the  "Common  Sheep,"  as  they  were  frequently  called;  and  common  they  were 
indeed  in  at  least  two  important  ways  in  which  the  word  is  used.  They  pre- 
vailed everywhere  on  the  farms  of  the  Dominion  and  they  lacked  every  indica- 
tion of  good  breeding  as  evidenced  by  the  qualities  making  for  a  present-day 
first-class  carcass.  But  they  were  hardy  and  looked  out  for  their  own  susten- 
ance. Yet  they  were  nimble  at  scaling  the  fences  of  those  days,  and  often  made 
trouble  between  neighbours  by  feeding  on  the  growing  crops. 

They  were  rather  long-legged,  shallow-bodied  and  thin-fleshed.  Their  wool 
was  not  very  fine,  though  dense  and  short  and  usually  quite  coarse  on  the  hips 
and  thighs,  and  worse  still,  became  very  scarce  before  two  years  old.  and  quite 
bare  on  the  under  parts  of  the  body. 

Those  who  used  these  sheep  as  a  foundation  for  flocks  found  that  it  took 
several  generations  from  the  use  of  good  mutton  type  rams  of  the  pure  breeds 
before  their  crop  of  lambs  would  have  the  uniformity  necessary  to  success. 

At  the  present  time  it  is  quite  different,  and  the  beginner  has  grade  flocks 
practically  pure  of  the  several  breeds  to  choose  from,  and  can  commence  with  a 
selected  flock  of  grades  of  whichever  breed  he  may  fancy,  practically  true  to  the 
type  of  the  pure-bred.  For  many  years  the  best  breeders  of  all  the  breeds  have 
been  striving  to  establish  in  their  respective  flocks  the  same  ideal  form  of  carcass, 
varied  only  in  size.  It  will  be  necessary  to  have  this  ideal  in  view  when  making 
selections.  A  well-covered  back  is  required,  broad  because  of  well  sprung  ribs, 
and  wide  loin,  the  flesh  smooth  and  elastic  to  the  touch — if  in  good  condition, 
and  not  soft  and  blubbery,  nor  yet  hard.  In  no  case  should  the  back  bone  be  in 
evidence  to  the  touch,  if  the  animal  is  in  good  flesh.  We  should  look  for  long, 
deep  full  quarters,  well  filled  in  the  twist,  and  inside  and  outside  muscles  of  the 
thighs.  In  the  points  given  we  have  the  most  valuable  parts  of  the  carcass. 
But  in  addition  we  require  a  good  depth  of  rib,  good  depth  and  width  in  front 
and  at  the  heart,  to  give  room  for  the  vital  organs,  so  we  may  have  sturdy  con- 
stitution.   With  these  will  go  a  medium  length  of  neck,  stronger  at  the  shoulders 


40 


o 


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fe 


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41 

and  well  set  on.  A  clean  intelligent  head  and  eyes,  with  nothing  sluggish  in 
appearance,  bright  eyes  with  reasonable  prominence  are  all  desirable. 

We  must  be  careful  to  select  ewes  with  good  firm  bone,  and  strong,  short 
pasterns,  not  set  back  too  far,  feet  of  fair  size  and  good  shape,  the  legs  straight 
and  set  squarely  under  them. 

We  must  pay  a  great  deal  of  attention  to  the  wool  also,  in  making  selections. 
The  heavy  shearers — when  the  quality  is  right — of  whichever  breed  we  have,  are 
the  most  profitable,  and  in  order  to  get  weight  of  fleece  we  must  have  density  of 
fibres,  as  well  as  length  of  staple.  It  is  of  great  importance  to  have  it  uniform 
in  quality  all  over  the  body,  not  running  to  coarseness  on  the  thighs. 

After  we  have  clearly  in  mind  the  type  we  want,  then  the  thing  of  greatest 
importance  to  us,  is  to  have  our  selections  uniform.  There  is  profit  in  this 
because  we  can  sell  a  uniform  bunch  of  lambs  to  better  advantage,  and  for  a 
higher  price.  By  uniformity  more  is  meant  than  that  the  flock  be  of  the  same 
type,  and  similar  in  size.  It  means  not  only  they  look  alike,  but  that  the 
individual  sheep  be  uniform  in  itself,  that  it  has  general  uniformity,  good  con- 
formation, not  weak  in  places  and  extra  good  in  others. 


Selecting  a   Ram 

In  selecting  a  ram,  too,  this  individual  uniformity  is  particularly  important, 
since  in  this  at  least  he  is  really  half  the  flock,  and  with  his  better  breeding  is 
likely  to  reproduce  his  conformation  and  type  in  the  lambs. 

A  medium  size  will  be  found  the  most  desirable,  with  an  inclination  to  good 
size  rather  than  undersize  if  varying  any  from  medium.  Roominess  should  be 
looked  for  in  the  eyes,  as  those  of  that  form  will  be  more  likely  to  be  good 
mothers.  Avoid  a  ewe  that  is  short  in  the  ribs  and  has  a  "  tucked-up  "  appear- 
ance. In  the  ram  we  must  have  the  same  good  qualities  of  carcass  and  of  wool, 
and  should  look  for  more  compactness  and  strength,  in  appearance  a  good  lot  of 
masculinity,  a  strong,  bold  carriage,  stronger  bone,  and  with  all  not  any  above 
the  average  size  for  rams  of  his  breed.  He  must  be  pure-bred  and  typical  of  the 
breed  we  have  selected.  It  is  almost  invariably  a  mistake  to  cross,  except  for  a 
special  purpose.    Continuous  indiscriminate  crossing  is  always  suicidal. 


The   Size  of  the   Flock 

A  flock  of  fifteen  ewes  should  be  the  minimum  on  a  farm  of  one  hundred 
acres  which  is  devoted  to  mixed  farming.  Such  a  flock  can  be  increased  with 
experience,  but  not  beyond  twenty  to  twenty-five,  unless  it  is  desired  to  make  a 
special  business  of  sheep  raising.  With  good  management  and  good  care,  an 
increase  through  lambs  can  be  expected  of  from  150  per  cent  to  175  per  cent, 
and  it  should  be  the  latter. 

A  flock  of  this  size  will,  if  given  opportunity,  clean  up  a  very  great  number 
of  the  weeds  on  a  farm,  yet  we  must  not  make  the  mistake  of  expecting  them  to 
get  all  their  living  off  the  weeds  and  waste  places  of  the  farm,  even  though  it  is 
a  good  help.  Provision  for  feed  supplementary  to  the  pasture,  such  as  rape, 
which  can  be  very  cheaply  produced,  is  generally  very  profitable,  and  should 
always  be  counted  on.  Lambs  after  being  weaned  gain  in  weight  very  rapidly 
on  rape,  and  when  oats  are  fed  along  with  it  towards  the  finishing  for  the  market, 
the  flesh  is  firm  and  good,  likely  to  bring  the  highest  price.  If  fed  on  for 
marketing  in  winter  and  spring,  which  is  usually  the  most  profitable,  the  rape 
makes  a  good  foundation  for  the  winter  feeding.  These  supplementary  foods  are 
desirable  to  develop  the  flock  profitably. 


42 
Time   to   Purchase  Ewes 

The  best  time  to  purchase  the  ewes  is  August,  just  after  the  lambs  have 
been  weaned.  We  can  purchase  then  as  cheaply  as  at  any  time  and  can  make 
the  best  selection  if  choosing  ewes  that  have  raised  lambs  as  their  milking 
qualities  and  strength  can  be  ascertained.  Besides  we  will  have  them  in  good 
time  to  prepare  for  the  next  crop  of  lambs. 

While  there  is  one  additional  year's  usefulness  in  a  shearling  ewe — one  that  is 
sixteen  or  seventeen  months  old,  if  she  has  not  had  a  lamb — as  a  rule  two-shear 
ewes  are  to  be  preferred  in  selecting.  We  have  then  a  guarantee  that  they  are 
breeders,  and  have  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  judge  of  those  likely  to  be  the 
best  breeders  and  best  milkers.  However,  very  few  shearling  ewes  prove  non- 
breeders.  These  ewes  should  have  the  run  of  the  stubble  fields,  not  sown  to  clover, 
or  old  pastures,  until  near  the  middle  of  September  and  then  given  access  to  a 
rape  or  clover  field.  If  this  green  food  is  not  plentiful,  it  will  pay  to  feed  a  small 
quantity  of  grain  to  make  sure  the  ewes  are  strong  and  thriving  well  when  bred. 
This  is  the  secret  of  having  a  large  percentage  of  twins  dropped.  It  may  be  well, 
as  claimed  by  some,  to  breed  from  ewes  themselves  twins,  but  even  so,  they  must 
be  strong  and  thriving  well  to  have  the  best  results  because  not  only  will  we  have 
larger  returns,  but  the  lambs  will  be  stronger  and  more  likely  to  live  and  do  well, 
providing  the  treatment  of  the  ewes  continues  good  up  to  lambing  time. 

Mating 

The  ram  should  be  hearty,  rugged  and  healthy  at  the  time  of  coupling. 
Usually  stronger  lambs  are  sired  by  rams  one  year  old  or  over,  yet  for  a  flock 
of  about  fifteen  ewes,  a  well  developed  lamb  will  give  good  results,  and  may  be 
more  cheaply  purchased,  as  well  as  being  a  year  younger  and  perhaps  more 
valuable  when  a  change  of  ram  is  to  be  made.  But  when  the  number  of  ewes 
runs  up  to  twenty  or  more,  then  an  older  ram  should  be  secured. 

In  case  a  lamb  is  used  on  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  ewes,  which  should  be 
avoided  if  possible,  he  should  not  run  with  them,  but  should  be  kept  separate  or 
with,  say  one  ewe  for  company,  and  allowed  with  a  flock  only  long  enough  each 
morning  to  serve  once  such  ewes  as  are  ready.  More  than  that  is  needless  and 
helps  to  destroy  the  vitality  and  usefulness  of  the  ram.  If  short  of  help,  or  if 
one  does  not  wish  to  take  the  time,  which  need  not  be  much,  a  ram  may  be 
allowed  to  run  with  a  small  flock  of  ewes  during  the  mating  season  without  much 
apparent  injury,  if  the  ram  be  matured.  However,  it  is  profitable  to  control  a 
lamb,  as  he  is  often  more  ambitious,  and  more  likely  to  injure  himself,  and 
naturally  produces  weaker  lambs.  The  profit  from  the  flock  is  largely  dependent 
upon  the  number  of  uniformly  well-grown  lambs  we  raise,  and  which  we  can 
have  by  these  reasonable  precautions,  and  after  care  and  attention,  if  the  ewes 
are  good  milkers. 

Wintering 

The  flock  should  be  strong  and  in  good  flesh  when  winter  sets  in,  and  they 
will  be,  if  reasonable  provision  has  been  made  for  fall  feed.  If  in  good  con- 
dition they  will  be  the  more  cheaply  wintered.  They  can  be  kept  doing  well  on 
clover  hay  and  a  few  roots — say  three  pounds  per  head  each  day  and  a  liberal 
feed  of  pea  straw.  If  a  little  grain  be  fed  for  about  four  weeks  before  they 
lamb — one  pound  per  head  each  day  of  mixed  oats  and  bran  is  good — they  will 
be  in  good  condition  when  lambing  time  comes.  The  grain  feed  should  be 
doubled  after  lambing  and  the  quantity  of  roots  (mangels  or  turnips)  increased 
to  nearly  all  they  will  eat.  This  will  ensure  a  good  flow  of  milk,  and  it  is  during 
the  first  two  months  a  lamb  is  sent  on  the  road  to  profit  or  becomes  stunted  and 
small.    After  that  age  they  can  more  easily  be  helped  by  other  foods. 


43 

The  reason  for  not  feeding  the  ewes  largely  with  roots  before  lambing  is  that 
they  are  bulky  and  cold,  being  largely  composed  of  water  and  when  eaten  in 
large  quantities  seem  to  affect  the  foetus  so  the  lambs  are  born  soft  and  weak  and 
very  difficult  to  save.  Either  turnips  or  mangels  may  be  fed  to  ewes  with  safety, 
although  very  many  prefer  turnips  before  lambing  and  mangels  after,  because 
the  latter  are  considered  better  milk  producers.  But  mangels  should  never  be 
fed  to  rams.  They  have  the  effect  of  producing  stone  in  the  bladder,  and  some- 
times cause  serious  loss.  Turnips  do  not  have  this  effect  and  sheep  should  have 
some  succulent  feed  when  not  on  pasture.  Ensilage  is  not  a  safe  food;  it  often  or 
generally  is  too  acid,  and  will  cause  severe  indigestion,  which  will  in  turn  cause  a 
loosening  of  the  wool  by  feverish  heat  in  the  skin,  and  much  of  the  fleece  is 
often  lost  besides  lowering  the  vitality  of  the  sheep. 

Lambing   Time 

The  lambing  time  is  the  only  one  when  for  a  few  weeks  the  flock  is  exacting 
of  the  time  of  the  shepherd  and  his  attention.  It  is  very  profitable  to  be  often 
with  the  ewes  at  that  time  to  see  that  the  lambs  when  they  are  dropped  are  not 
allowed  to  get  chilled  or  become  weak  for  want  of  a  little  nourishment  soon  after 
they  are  born.  It  is  well  to  have  a  few  little  pens,  which  can  be  readily  made 
with  movable  hurdles  in  one  end  or  corner  of  the  large  pen.  The  ewes  seldom 
refuse  to  mother  their  lambs  when  they  are  separated  from  the  flock,  and  alone 
with  them.  Ewes  seldom  require  any  assistance  in  lambing  but  often  a  little 
prompt  help  to  a  weakly  lamb  will  save  its  life,  and  after  they  are  once  on  their 
feet,  and  have  found  the  teat,  are  very  little  more  trouble,  unless  the  ewe  is  a 
poor  milker,  when  it  will  be  profitable  to  assist  the  lambs  with  a  little  cow's  milk 
until  they  eat  well. 

Their  tails  should  be  docked  when  the  lambs  are  not  more  than  ten  days  old. 
If  left  longer,  or  until  they  get  very  plump  and  fat  death  sometimes  ensues  from 
the  shock,  and  occasionally  from  loss  of  blood.  The  latter  can  often  be  prevented 
by  tying  a  cord  tightly  around  the  tail  just  above  the  place  of  cutting,  and  danger 
from  the  former  is  lessened  by  cutting  one  joint  or  so  longer.  The  ram  lambs 
should  be  castrated  at  the  same  time. 

Shearing  and  Dipping 

Shearing  should  be  done  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible.  The  beginning  of 
April  is  usually  a  good  time.  Very  soon  after  the  ewes  have  lambed,  or,  if  they 
come  in  later  than  that,  then  before  they  have  lambed.  If  not  shorn  until  after 
lambing,  then  all  tags  should  be  trimmed  from  around  the  udder  before  or  imme- 
diately after  lambing.  If  this  is  neglected,  the  lamb  sometimes  will  suck  these 
tags  and  swallow  them,  frequently  causing  balls  of  wool  to  form  in  the  stomach, 
which  causes  inflammation  and  death.  This  occurs  also  sometimes  when  sheep 
are  allowed  to  get  very  much  infested  with  lice  or  ticks,  causing  them  to  bite  and 
pull  out  their  wool,  swallowing  a  portion  of  it,  and  the  balls  form  in  the  same 
way. 

Just  as  soon  as  the  weather  is  warm  enough  in  the  spring,  all  the  sheep  and 
lambs  should  be  well  dipped  in  some  of  the  good  dips  that  are  sold.  A  vat  can 
be  very  cheaply  made  for  this  purpose  and  the  work  quickly  done.  They  should 
be  dipped  again  in  the  fall,  before  the  weather  gets  very  cold.  A  half-day  for 
the  purpose  is  a  very  profitable  investment;  vermin  left  on  the  sheep  to  go  into 
the  winter  will  be  very  expensive  for  the  owner. 

The  Flock   at  Pasture 

After  the  flock  has  gone  to  the  pasture,  they  will  not  be  much  trouble 
except  to  se'e  that  they  have  plenty  of  clean  water  and  salt.  To  have  plenty 
of  clean  water  all  the  year  round  is  very  important  to  insure  the  thrift  of  the 


44 

flock.  Do  not  let  them  depend  on  snow  in  the  winter — they  will  not  do  so  well — 
nor  let  them  drink  from  a  stagnant  pool  at  any  time.  They  are  very  liable  to 
take  parasites  into  their  system,  which  will  cause  trouble.  If  it  can  be  arranged 
to  give  the  flock  a  change  of  pasture  every  two  or  three  weeks,  and  not  necessarily 
to  better  pasture,  they  will  thrive  and  do  much  better.  To  alternate  them 
between  two  fields  every  few  weeks  will  answer  the  purpose. 

Weaning 

August,  from  1st  to  15th,  is  a  good  time  to  wean  the  lambs.  They  will  do 
better  after  that  if  separated  from  the  ewes,  and  are  given  a  nice  fresh  bit  of 
clover  or  rape  to  run  on,  and  besides  it  gives  the  ewes  a  chance  to  recuperate 
and  gain  in  flesh.  The  ewes'  udders  should  be  watched  closely  for  a  short  time 
after  weaning,  and  stripped  out,  when  necessary,  until  the  milk  has  left  them. 
If  any  have  bad  or  spoiled  udders  they  should  be  marked  for  drafting  out,  and 
careful  note  should  be  made  of  which  are  the  best  milkers;  one  of  the  most 
important  things  that  make  for  success  is  in  having  the  ewes  milkers;  other 
things  being  equal  the  good  milkers  raise  the  best  lambs.  The  lambs'  as  well 
as  the  ewes'  tails  should  be  trimmed  neatly  square  across  up  to  the  stump  of 
the  tail  before  being  turned  on  fresh  green  feed  such  as  rape  or  clover,  so  they 
will  not  soil  their  wool  so  much  behind  if  they  become  soft  in  their  droppings, 
which  they  often  do. 

Precautions  in  Rape  Feeding 

When  lambs  or  ewes  are  turned  into  rape  they  should  have  access  to  other 
pasture,  else  sometimes  their  ears,  and  occasionally  the  whole  head  will  swell, 
and  blister  as  when  frozen,  and  often  the  ears  will  drop  off.  If  allowed  other 
pasture  with  the  rape  there  is  very  little  danger.  Sometimes  losses  come  from 
bloating  when  the  sheep  or  lambs  first  have  access  to  the  rape,  or  even  to  fresh 
clover.  But  this  can  be  avoided  by  a  little  reasonable  care.  They  should  never 
be  allowed  to  feed  on  the  rape  the  first  time  when  any  moisture  from  dew  or 
rain  is  on  the  leaves.  A  nice  sunny  afternoon  is  a  desirable  time,  and  then  they 
should  have  had  a  hearty  meal  of  some  other  food  before  being  turned  on.  They 
will  eat  greedily  of  the  rape  at  first,  but  afterwards  will  take  several  days  before 
they  will  fill  up  on  it  again,  and  then  the  danger  is  past  if  they  have  other 
pasture  on  which  they  can  feed  at  will.  Further  reference  to  precautionary 
measures  necessary  in  rape  feeding  appears  in  the  section  on  "Feeds  and 
Feeding." 

Before  the  sheep  are  allowed  into  any  field  after  July  first,  where  they  have 
not  been  before  that  summer,  all  burrs  of  any  kind  or  "pitchforks"  should  be 
carefully  removed.  If  permitted  to  get  into  the  fleece  they  are  unsightly  looking, 
and  depreciate  the  value  of  the  wool. 

Culling  Out 

The  ewe  lambs  from  the  best  ewes  and  the  best  milkers  should,  if  well 
developed,  and  promising,  be  marked  at  weaning  time,  and  from  these  the  selec- 
tions should  be  made  to  keep  in  the  flock,  always  being  careful  to  retain  those  as 
near  the  ideal  type  as  possible.  They  should  be  liberally  fed  to  insure  growth 
and  development,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  feed  extravagantly  at  all.  They 
should  not  be  bred  until  they  pass  one  year  old.  If  bred  when  lambs  they  are 
retarded  in  their  growth  and  seldom  make  as  vigorous  ewes.  Their  lambs  are 
often  smaller,  and  not  of  so  much  account.  The  best  of  these  shearling  ewes 
should  be  selected  in  the  fall  to  replace  those  drafted  from  the  ewe  flock  for  any 
reason.  But  do  not  cast  out  an  old  good  ewe  that  is  also  a  good  breeder  and 
milker  for  a  young  ewe  unless  her  teeth  have  failed  or  for  spoiled  udder. 


45 

The  ewes  will  now  be  used  the  same  way  as  described  for  the  first  year. 
Those  with  defective  udders  or  which  have  proved  unthrifty  and  those  that  are 
not  good  milkers  should  be  drafted  and  fed  with  the  wether  and  ewe  lambs  for 
market,  their  places  for  this  year  being  filled  by  purchase. 

If  the  lambs  are  to  be  sold  in  the  fall,  say  October,  they  will  generally  give 
a  profit  for  a  small  feed  of  grain  each  day,  yet  if  the  green  feed  be  plentiful 
they  will  usually  be  fat  and  heavy  enough  without  any  grain. 

Before  being  offered  for  sale  they  should  be  made  as  presentable  as  possible, 
by  trimming  their  tails  nicely,  as  well  as  all  tags,  etc.,  that  may  detract  from 
their  appearance.  Some  successful  shepherds  say  it  pays  well  to  wash  them 
carefully  if  they  be  long  wools,  and  probably  they  are  right;  it  certainly  improves 
their  appearance  very  much.  Small,  thin  lambs  usually  make  most  profit  when 
kept  over  until  March,  feeding  them  well  with  clover  hay,  roots  and 
some  grain.  In  addition  to  the  large  gain  they  will  make  in  weight  they 
usually  bring  a  much  better  price  per  pound.  If  it  is  desired  to  establish 
a  special  sheep  farm,  or  devote  the  whole  farm  to  sheep  raising  it  will 
be  still  better  for  the  beginner,  if  without  sheep-keeping  experience,  to 
have  only  a  small  flock  at  first,  as  already  described,  and  the  flock  will 
usually  increase  as  fast  as  the  average  man  can  prepare  and  accommodate 
his  farm  to  the  special  purpose,  and  furnish  suitable  housing,  yards,  etc.  Possibly, 
if  the  farm  be  not  suitable  for  any  other  kind  of  farming,  that  is,  very  rough 
and  hilly,  he  may  begin  with  a  larger  flock,  but  even  under  such  conditions,  he 
had  better  go  slowly  until  he  has  had  a  year  or  two  of  experience.  In  any  case, 
to  have  success  with  sheep  raising,  as  with  any  other  business,  a  man's  close 
observation  and  individuality  will  play  a  very  large  part  as  well  as  a  free  use 
of  good  judgment. 

TYPES  OF  MUTTON  SHEEP 

Type  in  mutton  lamb  and  profit  in  the  industry  are  closely  associated  and 
these  are  greatly  influenced  by  the  character  of  the  breeding  of  the  flock.  The 
standard  of  type  or  quality  is  the  fitness  of  the  animal  for  the  purpose  for  which 
it  was  raised.  Unless  the  sheep  yields  a  plump  carcass  of  palatable  and  nourish- 
ing mutton  and  a  fleece  of  wool  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  high-class  fabrics 
it  is  a  failure  and  not  worthy  of  the  shepherd's  care.  Unless  it  can  do  this 
economically,  or  sufficiently  so  as  to  leave  a  profit  to  its  feeder,  it  lacks  something 
that  its  owner  should  endeavour  to  supply  in  the  succeeding  crop  of  lambs. 

Fortunately  the  better  the  breeding,  or  the  more  improved  blood  a  sheep 
contains,  the  better  carcass  it  yields  and  the  more  economically  it  is  reared  and 
finished  for  the  market.  Improvement  of  breeds  has  been  in  the  direction  of 
development  of  the  parts  of  most  value  on  the  block  together  with  increase  of 
carcass  to  live  weight  and  the  hastening  of  maturity.  The  pure-bred  sheep,  or 
the  animal  that  possesses  the  characteristics  of  the  pure-bred,  and  these  are 
never  found  in  the  common  unimproved  specimen,  is  the  cheapest  to  raise,  earliest 
to  mature,  and  sells  for  the  highest  price  per  pound.  The  advanced  mutton 
raisers  recognize  this  and  invariably  use  the  pure-bred  sire,  knowing  it  is  the 
profitable  course  even  though  the  ram  cost  two  or  more  times  as  much  as  even 
a  good  grade  could  be  bought  for.  He  knows  the  improvement  he  will  make  is 
assured  and  in  large  measure  permanent  even  to  all  the  generations  that  follow. 
With  every  succeeding  improved  cross  uniform  excellence  is  more  firmly  estab- 
lished until  the  flock  ceases  to  give  inferior,  unprofitable  stock.  Each  ewe  is 
a  good  mutton  sheep  and  when  mated  with  strong,  pure-bred  male,  barring 
accident,  ill-health  and  bad  treatment,  she  yields  a  lamb  of  assured  excellence. 
The  type  has  become  fixed  and  she  cannot  do  otherwise. 


4G 

How  many  sheep  raisers  fail  utterly  to  appreciate  this  simple,  self-evident 
truth,  and  how  dearly  they  pay  for  their  backwardness.  In  every  province  the 
grade,  and  in  many  cases  the  scrub  sire  is  still  in  use.  In  like  proportion  are 
inferior  lambs  being  raised.  To  learn  the  causes  of  the  differences  in  the  quality 
of  lambs  from  different  sections  the  writer  visited  districts  noted  for  poor,  fair 


Fig.  30—  Group  of  Scrub  Ewes. 


Fig.  31.— Scrub  Ram. 


and  good  lambs.  Directed  by  extensive  sheep  dealers  familiar  with  the  several 
sources  of  supply,  camera  in  hand,  journeys  were  taken  and  farms  visited. 
Unfortunately  the  wildness  of  some  of  the  most  inferior  specimens  made  photo- 
graphing difficult  and  representatives  of  a  number  of  run-out  flocks  seen  cannot 
be  published.  Enough  are  shown,  however,  together  with  the  figures  repre- 
senting the  weights  of  shipments  to  teach  the  important  lessons. 


District  No.  1,  representing  wide  areas  in  each  of  several  provinces,  turns 
out  a  class  of  lambs  of  unspeakably  poor  quality.  The  weight  run  in  October 
and  November  from  50  to  75  pounds,  with'  an  average  of  little  more  than  60 
pounds.  They  are  not  only  light,  but  poor,  unprofitable  specimens,  alike  to  the 
raiser  and  the  butcher  that  sells  them  to  the  householders.  Their  legs  are  long, 
thighs  thin  and  backs  bare,  presenting  little  for  the  cook  to  do  much  with.  In 
the  shambles  they  dress  out  very  light  carcasses — not  over  45  per  cent  of  their 
live  weight.  For  this  reason  the  dockage  by  the  drover  is  heavy,  which  leaves 
the  grower  a  very  small  return  for  his  lamb  crop,  so  small  indeed  that  he  doubts 
whether  or  not  sheep  raising  is  a  profitable  industry. 

The  camera  reveals  some  of  the  secrets  of  the  inferior  stock.  Such  a  thing 
as  a  pure-bred  sire  is  unknown  in  this  district,  and  it  is  difficult  to  find  even  a 
passable  grade  at  the  head  of  the  flock.  As  a  rule  the  most  upstanding,  lusty 
lamb  of  his  or  his  neighbour's  unimproved  flock  is  brought  into  requisition  year 
after  year,  with  the  sure  result  of  a  run-out,  degenerated  race.  It  is  in  these 
sections  that  the  black  lamb  is  most  common,  and  he  is  almost  invariably  a  light 


Fig.  32. — Group  of  Scrub  Lambs. 


weigher  wherever  found.  Figs.  30  and  31  show  a  ram  and  group  of  ewes  typical 
of  the  stock  in  district  No.  1,  while  Fig.  32  truly  represents  the  lambs  from  these. 

Bad  breeding  is  not  entirely  to  blame  for  the  inferior  lambs  produced.  The 
flocks  are  little  valued  and  are  fed  and  housed  accordingly.  In  the  winter  they 
receive  little  more  than  straw,  and  no  matter  how  bare  the  pasture  becomes  in 
summer  no  extra  food  is  given.  Ticks  hold  full  sway,  and  the  divisions  of  the 
sexes  is  not  thought  of  until  the  lambs  are  shipped  out  to  market.  It  may  be 
noted  that  the  average  clip  in  many  unimproved  flocks  is  not  higher  than  from 
4  to  5  pounds  per  head. 

From  district  No.  2  lambs  running  from  60  to  80  pounds  are  produced. 
Here  the  value  of  improved  blood  and  better  methods  of  feeding  are  beginning 
to  be  recognized.  The  common  ram  is  giving  place  to  the  grade,  and  occasion- 
ally a  low-priced  pure-bred  is  brought  in.  With  this  forward  step  better  feed- 
ing and  care  are  naturally  exercised,  with  improving  stock  as  a  consequence. 
Grade  sires  are  being  used  in  this  district,  which  is  slowly  but  surely  emerging 
from  primitive  methods.  Here  we  find  an  occasional  man  growing  roots  and 
clover  hay  for  winter  feeding,  while  some  attention  is  being  given  to  castration 
and  the  general  welfare  of  the  stock,  with  the  result  that  the  majority  of  the 
lambs  surpass  the  weight  limit  that  entitles  them  to  the  top  market  price.  The 
flocks  shear  from  6  to  8  pounds  per  head,  and  on  the  whole  the  sheep  industry 
is  in  a  prosperous  condition. 


48 


Fig.  33.— Group  of  Grade  Ewes. 
34. — Group  of  Grade  Lambs. 
35. — Leicester  Ram  at  Head  of  Grade  Flock. 
"     36.— Oxford  Ram  at  Head  of  Grade  Flock. 


49 

District  No.  3  produces  a  very  good  class  of  lambs,  many  of  which  find  their 
way  to  the  most  discriminating  markets.  They  are  well  fleshed;  many  of  them 
wethers,  which  command  the  best  price  in  any  market.  They  weigh  from  80  to 
100  pounds  each  in  October  and  November,  and  dress  out  from  47  to  53  per 
cent  of  carcass  The  owners  here  have  long  since  given  up  the  use  of  grade  sires, 
and  many  are  not  afraid  of  a  fairly  stiff  price  for  a  good  ram.  While  sires 
of  most  of  the  mutton  breeds,  including  the  Shropshire,  Southdown,  Oxford  and 
Leicester,  may  be  found  in  perhaps  only  slightly  varying  proportion,  the  photo- 
graphs of  only  two  breeds,  Leicester  and  Oxford,  were  secured.  Figs.  35  and  36 
represent  rams  in  service  in  grade  flocks.  Fig.  33  shows  a  group  of  grade  ewes, 
while  Fig.  34  represents  lambs  produced  by  such  parentage.  In  these  flocks 
lambs  grading  as  culls  are  never  found;  in  fact  practically  one  hundred  per  cent 
of  the  lambs  are  of  good  quality,  commanding  not  infrequently  a  price  slightly 
in  advance  of  the  highest  published  quotations.  Even  on  a  glutted  market  these 
well  bred  lambs  will  sell,  as  buyers  are  constantly  on  the  outlook  for  choice  stock. 

Many  of  the  grade  flocks  show  the  result  of  changing  from  long  wool  to 
Down  sires.  Broad-backed,  massive  dams,  some  with  brown,  others  with 
speckled  or  grey  faces,  are  the  pride  of  their  owners  on  many  good  farms.  They 
shear  from  8  to  10  and  occasionally  12  pounds  of  good  wool,  and  when  their 
usefulness  in  the  flock  is  past  they  quickly  fatten  up  and  sell  for  a  good  price. 
The  highest  quality  of  carcass  is  produced  by  these  ideal  mutton  sheep.  It  gives 
a  thick  cut  of  muscle  or  lean  meat,  and  has  sufficient  fat  to  suit  the  fastidious 
palate. 

Districts  Nos.  1,  2  and  3  are  not  circumscribed  by  definite  geographical 
boundaries.  The  first,  as  may  be  inferred,  represents  the  thoroughly  backward 
localities,  where  the  soil  is  inferior,  farmers  poor  and  lacking  in  enterprise.  The 
second  occupies  a  wide  and  scattered  territory,  even  reaching  into  good  agri- 
cultural sections  where,  unfortunately,  second-rate  farmers  are  too  often  found. 
As  a  rule  district  No.  2  occupies  what  may  be  termed  the  "  back  townships  " 
of  moderately  progressive  counties.  In  this  district  owing  to  peculiarly  favour- 
able conditions  for  sheep  husbandry  many  good  lambs  are  raised,  but  the  high 
percentage  of  culls  renders  the  average  of  quality  comparatively  low. 

MUTTON  PRODUCTION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 

In  Canada  the  raising  of  mutton  has  not  received  the  attention  that  has 
been  accorded  to  the  production  of  beef,  pork  or  dairy  products.  In  Great 
Britain,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  United  States,  commercial  mutton 
raising  constitutes  an  important  branch  of  agriculture.  In  Canada  it  is  con- 
fined chiefly  to  a  limited  branch  of  mixed  farming,  "and  as  such  receives  com- 
paratively little  attention. 

Nowhere  is  better  mutton  produced  than  in  Great  Britain,  and  no  branch 
of  the  live  stock  industry  in  the  "  Old  Land  "  is  more  profitable  than  sheep  rais- 
ing. There  it  is  conducted  as  a  highly  specialized  industry  for  the  purpose  of 
gaining  a  livelihood  after  paying  high  rents  and  other  heavy  expenses. 

Both  in  England  and  Scotland  the  flocks  of  breeding  ewes  run  high  up  into 
the  hundreds,  and  each  is  in  charge  of  an  intelligent  shepherd  trained  in  many 
instances  from  his  boyhood  in  the  management  of  sheep  for  profit.  In  many 
cases  one  or  more  under-shepherds  are  engaged  and  these  men  devote  their 
whole  time  to  the  tending  of  the  sheep.  It  is  realized  that  what  is  worth  doing 
should  be  well  done,  and  with  this  idea  only  the  profitable  members  of  the  flocks 
are  maintained  and  these  are  made  to  yield  their  best  returns.  The  crop  rota- 
tion followed  is  dictated  by  the  needs  of  the  sheep  and  when  food  is  purchased 
due  consideration  is  given  to  securing  only  the  sorts  that  best  suit  the  purpose 
for  which  they  are  fed.     So  long  has  the  sheep  industry  been  established  in 

35001—4 


50 

Britain  upon  an  extensive  commercial  basis  that  the  general  system  of  feeding 
and  breeding  varies  comparatively  little  and  then  only  as  the  conditions  of 
the  land  and  environment  demand.  Everywhere  the  succulent  root  is  exten- 
sively grown,  and  wherever  sheep  are  reared  specially  sown  pasture  grasses 
are  to  be  found.  It  is  also  a  rule  of  the  mutton  maker  to  feed  "  cake  "  to  the 
fattening  stock,  though  its  purchase  demands  a  heavy  expenditure  of  money. 
It  has  been  learned  that  a  thrifty  condition  of  the  system  is  of  first  importance 
and  after  that  nourishing  food.  The  outdoor  life  of  the  stock,  together  with 
succulent  root  and  pasture  rations  guarantee  the  health  of  the  sheep,  while  the 
generous  use  of  the  highly  nutritious  compressed  linseed  or  cottonseed  meal 
given  with  other  concentrated  food  is  turned  to  good  account  in  the  systems  of 
the  animals. 

While  more  or  less  uniformity  characterizes  the  methods  of  old  country 
shepherds  most  flocks  have  a  character  of  their  own.  The  breeder  carries  his 
type  of  sheep  about  with  him  in  his  mind's  eye  and  it  is  the  impress  on  the 
mind  of  the  breeder  reduced  to  palpable  form  that  guides  his  selection  of  breed- 
ing stock.  Defects  from  a  breeding  or  marketing  standpoint  are  quickly  noticed, 
and  such  rams  as  are  strong  where  the  ewes  are  weak  are  invariably  selected 
for  the  coming  generation.  A  successful  shepherd  will  not  forgive  pronounced 
weak  points,  as  he  sees  them,  and  hence  his  flock  will  strongly  reflect  his  fancy. 

The  old  established  flocks  do  not  vary  much  in  their  make-up  from  year 
to  year.  The  same  farm  visited  at  the  same  season  in  different  years  will 
present  about  the  same  appearance  so  far  as  the  flock  is  concerned.  Ewes  that 
reach  a  certain  age  are  put  into  market  condition  and  disposed  of  and  carefully 
selected  ewe  lambs  are  called  in  to  fill  the  breach.  Haphazard  methods  find  no 
place  on  the  British  sheep  farm  and  definite  uniform  results  are  consequently 
looked  for  and  in  large  measure  realized. 

Sheep  raising  undoubtedly  finds  its  highest  development  on  the  farms  where 
pure-bred  flocks  are  reared.  Most,  if  not  all  of  these,  are  commercial  flocks, 
that  is  to  say,  large  numbers  of  sheep  are  annually  fatted  and  sold  to  the  butcher 
trade.  Only  the  choice  representatives  carrying  a  maximum  of  breed  type  and 
excellence  are  maintained  and  perpetuated  as  pedigreed  stock. 

The  pure-bred  flocks  of  England  run  from  two  or  three  hundred  up  to  one 
thousand  head  or  more  of  ewes.  This  number  in  addition  to  quite  an  extensive 
stock  of  cattle  and  horses  is  maintained  on  farms  of  450  to  500  acres.  The 
system  of  herding  very  commonly  adopted,  makes  it  possible  to  carry  this 
heavy  stock.  Such  crops  as  rye  grass,  orchard  grass,  red  clover  and  sainfoin 
produce  luxuriantly  on  the  rich  soil  made  so  by  years  of  intense  sheep  culture. 
Rape,  roots,  cabbage  and  the  like  are  also  grown  for  the  sheep,  and  unless  at 
such  seasons  of  the  year  as  rapid  gains  or  development  are  desired  the  various 
branches  of  the  flock  are  inclosed  within  the  hurdles,  receiving  in  addition  to 
the  generous  forage  a  bite  of  oilcake  or  other  strong  ration-  During  the  early 
summer  and  again  after  the  lambs  are  weaned  the  matrons  and  perhaps  the 
young  ewes  usually  have  their  liberty  on  pasture  but  even  here  much  travel 
is  not  necessary  to  secure  a  belly-full.  Feed  seems  abundant  everywhere  and 
it  is  kept  so  by  frequent  changes  of  run  and  judicious  management  in  other 
ways. 

After  the  lambs  are  weaned  they  are  constantly  confined  to  the  hurdles, 
winter  vetches,  tall  oat  grass  and  clovers  almost  hiding  the  youngsters  in  their 
lot  from  that  time  onward.  In  addition  they  receive  once  or  twice  daily  an 
allowance  of  crushed  oats  and  oilcake.  The  hurdles  are  moved  each  day, 
leaving  behind  closed  cropped  ground  and  taking  in  an  abundance  to  eat.  On 
many  farms  the  ewes  that  are  pasturing  on  grass  are  given  access  to  the  plots 
gone  over  b>  the  lambs  eagerly  picking  off  the  stems  which  they  relish  by  way 
of  change.     Their  constant  changing  has  much  to  do  with  the  thrift  so  much 


51 

in  evidence  in  the  average  British  flock.  By  taking  advantage  of  this  nothing  is 
lost  and  the  ground  is  again  given  opportunity  to  reclothe  itself,  to  be  again  gone 
over  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks.  To  this  end  successions  of  crops  are  sown 
wherever  opportunity  offers.  Mangels  and  turnips  frequently  follow  a  pasture 
crop  and  these  come  on  to  be  fed  off  either  where  they  stand  in  the  field  or  are 
doled  out  day  by  day  in  troughs  during  the  winter  and  spring  and  even  well 
into  the  summer  following.  Mangels  seem  to  be  almost  perpetually  on  hand 
on  the  English  sheep  farm.  They  are  fed  on  pasture  as  well  as  on  dry  feed 
and  are  highly  valued  for  the  variation  in  the  diet  and  their  beneficial  influence 
upon  the  digestive  organization. 


A 

^^ 

— 

i' <u!mB 

'■'■'                   1  km     ■ 

f^Bl 

i 

m  m 

*\ .,«- 

% 

y 

■2 

m 

;            •'  , 

-  ' 

. 

^ 

.         i 

Fig.  37.— Thrifty  English  Lambs. 

In   the   South   of  England 

In  the  south  of  England  much  land  is  devoted  to  sheep  raising.  In  the 
Dorset  section  Dorset  ewes  are  bred  twice  or  three  times  to  Dorset  rams  and 
once  to  a  Down  ram,  after  they  are  to  be  sold,  ewe,  lamb  and  all  for  the 
block.  In  this  way  the  breeding  flock  is  kept  pure,  the  ewes  are  turned  off  at 
an  age  to  suit  the  market,  and  the  half-Down  lambs  dropped  in  the  early  winter 
command  the  highest  price  of  the  year. 

Here  the  sheep  receive  full  consideration  in  the  farming  operations.  The 
rotation  is  a  short  one,  consisting  of  wheat,  followed  by  grass  and  clover  to  be 
fed  off  by  sheep.  This  may  lie  but  one  year,  part  of  it  being  made  into  hay. 
Some  vetches  are  grown  to  be  fed  green  or  as  hay,  and  a  considerable  breadth 
of  turnips  being  followed  by  wheat  again.  Here  the  sheep  are  hurdled  on  the 
land  from  which  they  carry  away  very  little  if  any  fertility.  The  key-note 
of  the  sheep  husbandry  here,  as  in  other  parts  of  England,  is  first  the  hurdle, 
then  the  newly-sown  field,  and  then  the  faithful  shepherd.  In  Canada  we  lack 
the  favourable  winter  so  valuable  to  the  British  sheep  keeper,  but  all  other 
conditions  are  favourable  for  the  highest  development  of  the  sheep  industry. 
Perhaps  what  would  be  hardest  to  get  is  the  faithful  trained  shepherd,  who 
lives  for  his  care  and  is  always  looking  for  the  most  promising  ewe  lambs  to 
replenish  the  flock. 

35001—4* 


52 
Mutton   Making  in   Scotland 

Commercial  mutton  raising  is  a  highly  developed  industry  in  parts  of  Scot- 
land. Some  sheep  farms  carry  only  what  is  known  as  a  "flying  stock" — that  is 
to  say  the  sheep  whether  bred  on  the  place  or  bought  in  are  kept  upon  the  farm 
for  only  one  year  or  less.  On  other  farms  stocks  of  ewes  of  regular  ages  are 
maintained.  Where  the  former  practice  is  in  vogue,  ewes  that  have  raised  three 
crops  of  lambs  are  bought  in  September,  and  with  their  lambs  are  sold  fat 
the  next  spring  or  early  summer.  By  many,  half-bred  (Leicester-Cheviot  or 
Leicester-Blackfaced)  ewes  are  preferred,  but  Oxford  Downs  and  Suffolks  are 
also  purchased  to  turn  off.  Pure-bred  Leicester  and  Oxford  rams  are  generally 
employed  on  these  ewes.  And  the  autumn  lambs  also  are  bought  in  to  consume 
what  turnips  and  grass  there  may  be  available  and  to  be  marketed  when  fat  in 
the  winter  or  spring.  The  practice  described  is  especially  adaptable  to  rich 
land  on  which  a  short  crop  rotation  is  the  rule.  Here  the  grass  land  lies  only 
one  year,  or  two  at  most. 

On  higher  lying  or  poorer  farms  which  maintain  a  considerable  area  of  old 
grass  pasture,  flocks  are  maintained  throughout  the  year  and  from  year  to  year. 
As  a  rule  the  ewes  are  half-breeds  of  the  same  crosses  as  already  mentioned. 
These  are  mated  with  pure-bred  Leicester  or  pure-bred  Oxford  rams,  or  in  some 
cases  Hampshires,  Suffolks  or  Shropshires.  It  is  the  practice  of  many  to  divide 
the  flock  into  two  divisions  about  equal  in  number.  On  the  old  pasture  the 
half  consists  of  one-third  brought-in  shearlings  to  have  their  first  crop  of  lambs, 
one-third  two-year  olds  and  one-third  a  year  older  to  have  their  third  crop  of 
lambs.  The  progeny  of  this  half  of  the  sheep  stock  is  mostly  kept  on  for  feeding 
for  the  market  on  turnips. 

The  second  half  of  the  ewe  stock  is  made  up  of  first,  three-crop  ewes  that 
have  been  transferred  from  the  first  to  the  second  half  of  the  stock,  in  which 
they  form  about  one-third  of  the  necessary  number;  and  second,  double  this 
proportion  of  ewes  of  the  same  age  bought  in  from  farmers  who  dispose  of  their 
ewes  after  their  third  crop  of  lambs.  The  old  ewes  are  bred  early  in  the  fall 
so  as  to  have  their  fourth  crop  of  lambs  ready  for  the  fat  market,  to  which  both 
ewes  and  lambs  are  sent. 

The  feed  grown  upon  the  farm  consists  of  grass  and  turnips.  Great  care  is 
exercised  in  seeding  to  grass.  For  a  single  season's  pasture  a  mixture  composed 
of  12  pounds  Italian  rye  grass,  14  pounds  timothy,  and  10  pounds  of  red  clover 
is  sown  per  acre.  When  seeding  for  a  longer  period  a  favourite  mixture  is  12 
pounds  of  Italian  rye  grass,  6  pounds  perennial  rye  grass,  14  pounds  timothy,  4 
pounds  red  clover,  4  pounds  alsike,  3  pounds  white  and  2  pounds  trefoil  or 
yellow  clover.  This  seems  a  heavy  seeding,  but  the  Scottish  farmer  finds  such 
a  seeding  pays  in  mutton.  It  enables  a  heavy  stock  to  be  carried  on  the  land 
and  the  variety  provided  ensures  rapid  gains  of  the  sheep  and  lambs. 

The  turnip  crop  is  of  great  importance.  For  the  fall  months  the  white 
variety  known  as  Greystone  is  used.  When  this  is  eaten  off  a  later  sort  of  green 
top  white  comes  into  use,  and  by  the  new  year  the  swedes  may  be  turned  upon 
or  fed  by  hand.  To  use  swedes  early  is  found  to  be  injurious  to  the  lambs, 
proving  even  fatal  at  times. 

Flocks   Renewed   Each   Season 

In  seasons  of  good  grass  about  two  ewes  per  acre  are  purchased  in  September. 
These  are  kept  upon  grass  until  bred.  A  supply  of  turnips  is  hauled  to  the  field 
for  a  short  time  before  the  mating  season,  which  commences  about  the  middle 
of  September,  to  build  them  up.  It  is  believed  that  ewes  produce  more  twins 
when  thriving  well  at  mating  time.  From  40  to  50  ewes  are  allowed  to  each 
ram. 


53 

After  the  mating  time  as  the  winter  advances  hand-feeding  is  necessary. 
Turnips  are  supplied  in  moderate  quantity,  about  700  pounds  being  given  to 
100  ewes.  They  also  receive  cotton-cake  up  to  a  pound  each.  Near  lambing 
time  about  a  quarter  of  a  pound  per  head  of  a  mixture  of  bran  and  oats  is 
given.  In  frosty  weather  the  supply  of  turnips  is  reduced  and  hay  is  liberally 
fed. 

As  lambing  time  approaches  the  most  forward  ewes  are  drawn  out  to  be 
enclosed  in  small  groups  to  avoid  crowding,  and  as  these  are  able  to  leave  for 
the  open  field  others  are  brought  in  to  take  their  place. 

When  the  lambs  are  able  to  look  after  themselves  they  are  turned  with 
their  mothers  into  pastures,  where  hurdles  laced  with  straw  are  erected  for 
shelter.  The  most  forward  lambs  are  selected  for  the  earliest  and  best  young 
grass  pasture  in  order  to  be  rushed  along  to  catch  the  high  prices  early  in  the 
season.  All  are  brought  along  as  rapidly  as  possible  and  disposed  of  as  they 
are  ready. 

The  treatment  of  store  lambs  bought  in  is  interesting.  The  sales  of  these 
commence  about  the  end  of  July  and  continue  into  the  autumn.  Care  is  t.^ken 
not  to  over-stock,  as  rapid  gains  are  desired.  These  are  placed  in  good  pasture, 
and  grain  feeding  is  commenced.  Oats,  bran  and  cotton-cake  or  oilcake  are 
fed  in  very  moderate  quantities  at  first  and  gradually  increased  at  the  discretion 
of  the  shepherd.  Large  flocks  together  are  avoided,  the  numbers  not  exceeding 
one  hundred  head.  The  lots  are  made  up  according  to  size  and  condition,  and 
disposed  of  one  lot  after  another  as  they  become  fit  for  market  without  disturb- 
ing the  others. 

The  space  given  each  lot  depends  upon  the  length  of  the  field  to  be  fed 
off  and  the  number  of  lots;  the  breadth  of  each  division  is  usually  about  fifty 
yards — the  length  of  hurdle  nets  employed.  In  the  district  referred  to  wire  nets 
are  used  for  the  side  divisions  and  string  nets  in  front,  whereas  in  many  parts 
of  England  wooden  hurdles  woven  from  wands  are  used. 

The  amount  of  attention  devoted  to  the  fattening  lambs  would  astonish 
many  Canadian  sheep  raisers.  Every  inducement  is  given  the  sheep  to  consume 
as  many  turnips  as  possible,  as  rapid  gains  are  desired  in  order  to  get  the  stock 
off  to  market  with  the  least  possible  delay.  Baskets  are  filled  in  the  evening 
to  be  ready  for  early  feeding  in  the  morning.  As  early  in  the  morning  as  light 
will  allow,  the  shepherd  feeds  in  separate  boxes  as  much  cotton-cake  as  will  be 
eaten  up  clean  in  an  hour.  At  the  same  time  the  turnips  prepared  the  previous 
evening  are  fed  in  the  proper  troughs.  Only  a  few  are  given  the  first  round  in 
order  to  get  all  the  lots  busy  at  the  troughs.  The  feeder  then  comes  back  to 
the  first  lot  and  leaves  as  many  cut  turnips  as  will  cover  the  bottom  of  the 
troughs  two  or  three  inches  deep,  and  continues  to  serve  all  the  lots  in  the  same 
manner  again  and  again  during  the  whole  day.  By  this  system  of  frequently 
supplying  freshly  cut  roots,  the  sheep  are  induced  to  partake  of  more  food.  At 
three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  a  supply  of  cotton-cake  is  given  as  in  the  early 
morning  and  in  the  evening  the  turnip  troughs  are  filled  for  the  night.  A  rack 
of  hay  is  placed  in  each  inclosure  and  is  replenished  every  afternoon.  This  daily 
routine  is  continued  until  the  sheep  are  sent  fat  to  the  market. 


54 

FATTENING  SHEEP  AND  LAMBS  IN  CANADA 

A  large  percentage  of  sheep  and  lambs  produced  in  Canada  are  still  sold 
from  the  farms  right  off  pasture  with  no  special  preparation  in  the  way  of 
fattening.  Fortunately  Canadian  pastures  are  such  that  fully  eighty  per  cent 
of  our  domestic  lambs  are  considered  suitable  for  the  market.  The  remaining 
fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent  would  be  improved  greatly  by  six  weeks  to  two  months 
feeding.  In  Western  Canada  it  is  common  practice  to  run  iambs  on  the  grain 
fields  and  in  this  way  a  large  proportion  of  western  lambs  are  placed  in  better 
finish.  In  Eastern  Canada  there  is  a  growing  tendency  to  wean  the  lambs  earlier 
and  put  them  on  the  aftermath  of  hay  fields  with  access  to  grain  fields.  Each 
year  an  increasing  number  of  those  that  are  not  ready  at  the  freeze-up  are  put 
into  feedlots  for  a  short  finishing  period. 

From  year  to  year  the  market  becomes  more  discriminating  in  regard  to 
quality.  The  finished  market  lamb  of  to-day  like  the  finished  select  bacon  hog 
is  not  the  heavy  over-fat  animal  that  was  looked  for  years  ago.  Owing  to 
the  steady  improvement  in  the  quality  of  lamb,  consumers  have  become  more 
discriminating  in  their  taste.  More  is  known  about  the  proper  weight  of  carcass 
and  the  quality  of  roasts,  steaks  and  stews.  Most  markets  now  discriminate 
against  heavy  lambs,  buck  lambs  and  light  lambs  so  that  more  care  must  be 
taken  to  market  lambs  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  pound  weights  that  kill  out 
meaty  plump  carcasses  yielding  nicely  fleshed  tender  and  juicy  cuts.  The  truck- 
ing of  live  stock  to  market  makes  it  possible  for  farmers  to  market  a  few  lambs 
at  a  time  and  this  has  accomplished  a  great  deal  in  improving  the  average  weight 
and  finish  of  market  lambs. 

After  the  lambs  are  weaned  the  wethers,  and  others  to  be  fattened,  should 
have  access  to  a  variety  of  pasture.  An  old  grass  field  is  very  useful  by  way 
of  a  change,  but  an  additional  plot  of  aftermath  clover,  lucerne  or  rape  or  a 
combination  of  these  will  supply  an  excellent  bill-of-fare.  A  feed  in  the 
morning  of  oats  and  bran  is  not  lost  on  fattening  lambs — it  will  increase  the 
gains  and  reduce  the  risks  of  illness  from  an  over-succulent  diet.  Salt  should 
be  supplied  regularly  at  this  season  of  the  year  preferably  in  a  box  where  they 
have  access  to  it  at  all  times  or  salt  may  be  supplied  by  placing  a  block  of  rock 
salt  in  the  field.  Autumn  is  the  natural  season  for  all  animals  to  flesh  up,  and  every 
advantage  should  be  taken  to  aid  the  process.  With  the  advent  of  frosty  nights 
care  must  be  taken  not  only  to  hold  the  weight  made,  but  to  continue  the 
increase  as  rapidly  as  possible.  The  appetites  are  keen  and  unless  flesh  is  being 
deposited  each  and  every  day  the  food  that  is  eaten  is  lost  to  the  owner.  To 
guard  against  any  check  it  is  well  to  furnish  a  morning  feed  of  well  saved  clover 
or  alfalfa.  The  animals  will  relish  it  and  begin  to  thrive  anew.  It  is  the  practice 
of  many  cautious  feeders,  anxious  to  keep  down  the  mortality  to  a  minimum,  to 
bring  up  the  flock  to  a  grass  plot  in  the  evening  and  have  a  feed  of  hay  ready 
When  they  arrive,  or  in  a  separate  yard  to  be  turned  into  the  first  thing  in  the 
morning.  It  is  not  a  bad  practice  to  provide  a  feed  of  grain  in  the  evening  and 
the  hay  or  both  in  the  morning  before  turning  out  for  the  day.  Lambs  cared 
for  in  this  way  will  put  on  weight  very  rapidly.  It  is  remarkable  how  many 
sheep  can  be  fattened  on  a  comparatively  small  area  of  land  sown  to  the  proper 
crops. 

Winter  Fattening 

The  principle  of  avoiding  extreme  changes  of  diet  observed  by  all  careful 
feeders  should  be  strictly  adhered  to  when  the  housing  season  arrives.  The 
daily  feeds  of  hay  and  grain,  for  a  few  weeks  before  winter  seals  up  the  ground 
and   renders  pasturing  unprofitable,   is   a   fine   preparation    for   complete   hand 


55 

feeding.  As  the  rape,  lucerne  or  whatever  outside  crop  has  been  the  chief  diet 
fails,  roots  may  be  gradually  substituted.  The  hay  will  have  to  be  increased 
to  all  that  the  lambs  will  clean  up  twice  or  three  times  daily  and  the  grain 
ration  may  be  gradually  augmented  as  well.  The  chief  thing  to  aim  at  is  to 
keep  the  feeders  gaining  and  thus  paying  for  their  diet  as  they  go  along. 

The  selection  of  a  grain  ration  is  a  matter  depending  upon  the  market  and 
the  crops  grown  at  home.  It  is  generally  wise  to  avoid  purchasing  feed  if  it 
can  be  satisfactorily  raised  on  the  farm.  In  planning  the  sowing  of  the  different 
fields  of  the  farm  in  spring  the  fattening  lambs  should  be  provided  for  as 
far  as  is  consistent  with  the  suitability  of  the  soil  and  other  conditions. 

Oats  are  peculiarly  suited  to  sheep  feeding.  This  grain  is  nourishing  and 
safe  to  feed.  Two  parts  oats,  one  part  peas  and  one  part  bran  is  a  good  ration 
for  sheep  of  any  class.  Corn  substituted  for  the  peas  anwers  well.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  finishing  period  the  heavy  part  of  the  ration  may  be  increased 
to  fully  three-quarters  by  weight.  Oilcake  is  highly  valued  by  many  sheep 
feeders.  It  may  be  substituted  for  the  bran,  when  the  proportion  of  heavy 
grain  should  accordingly  be  diminished.  From  half  a  pound  to  one  and  one- 
half  pounds  of  grain  per  head  per  day  according  to  the  ends  to  be  attained  con- 
stitutes a  fattening  ration,  when  the  coarse  fodder  used  is  fed  liberally  and 
is  of  good  quality. 

It  is  of  the  first  importance  that  for  the  well-doing  of  any  class  of  live 
stock  the  animals  be  comfortable.  Unless  proper  precautions  are  taken  sheep 
are  almost  sure  to  be  more  or  less  infested  with  ticks,  and  perhaps  the  more 
minute  form  of  vermin — lice — a  more  irritating  insect  than  the  former.  To 
rid  sheep  of  these  pests  they  should  be  thoroughly  dipped  with  one  or  other 
of  the  reliable  commercial  preparations,  which  not  only  destroy  the  vermin 
but  clean  the  skin,  reducing  irritation  and  unrest  to  a  minimum. 


Feed  to   a  Finish 

Market  lambs  should  not  be  sold  until  finished  nor  should  they  be  fed  for  a 
longer  period.  If  a  portion  of  the  flock  is  behind  the  others  in  this  respect 
and  it  is  desired  to  ship  out  the  entire  flock  at  once  the  leaner  ones  should  be 
separated  out  and  pushed  along  more  rapidly.  One  requires  some  training  to 
be  able  to  judge  when  a  sheep  is  finished.  In  well-bred  sheep  the  back  is  a  safe 
guide,  but  inferior  ones  may  be  bare  on  the  back  and  still  be  fairly  fat.  To 
examine  a  sheep  for  fatness  the  hand  should  be  laid  firmly  on  the  back,  palm 
downwards,  and  moved  from  side  to  side.  In  a  finished  sheep  the  spine  is 
well  covered,  presenting  a  cushiony,  rubbery  feel.  In  addition  the  tail  and 
breast  should  be  examined.  In  a  finished  sheep  the  tail  carries  considerable 
plumpness,  while  an  examination  of  the  brisket  shows  fullness  on  either  side, 
filling  the  space  between  that  and  the  leg.  An  over-fat  sheep  carries  a  consider- 
able depth  of  fat  low  down  on  the  fore  ribs  and  a  sagging  condition  on  each  side 
of  the  brisket.  The  market  does  not  want  extremely  fat  sheep.  Fig.  41  shows 
a  cross-section  of  a  highly  finished  sheep,  Fig.  39  shows  a  carcass  much  too 
fat  for  the  trade,  while  Fig.  40  shows  a  condition  of  fatness  suitable  for  the 
average  consumer.     Very  many  lambs  are  sold  in  a  much  thinner  condition. 

Fattening  Ewes 

Ewes  intended  for  slaughter  should  be  handled  in  much  the  same  manner 
as  lambs.  Good  pasture  with  forage  crops,  hay  and  grain  will  bring  about  the 
desired  results.  With  the  development  of  the  fattening  of  range  lambs  in  feed- 
lots  there  has  been  a  growing  tendency  to  include  in  each  carload  of  feeder 


56 

lambs  a  percentage  of  old  ewes,  say  up  to  25  per  cent  in  some  cases.  The  ewes 
as  finished  are  marketed  with  the  lambs  and  in  this  way  some  very  choice  mutton 
is  prepared  for  the  market  returning  a  nice  profit  to  the  feeder  as  well  as  more 
money  to  the  owner. 

Early  Lamb  Production 

At  present  the  bulk  of  the  spring  lamb  crop  is  sold  in  the  fall  of  the  year. 
Commencing  in  October  any  surplus  not  needed  for  immediate  consumption  is 
put  into  storage.  Storage  lambs  supplemented  with  feedlot  lambs  provide  an 
ample  supply  of  good  quality  lamb  until  the  end  of  April  or  some  time  in  May. 
The  need  at  the  moment  is  the  production  of  a  larger  market.  Early  lambs 
when  nursed  by  good  milking  ewes  and  fed  grain  will  gain,  with  good  manage- 
ment, three-quarters  of  a  pound  a  day.  A  good  objective  to  aim  for  is  a  90- 
pound  lamb  in  130  days. 

Lambs  to  be  finished  for  sale  in  May,  June  or  July  must  be  dropped  during 
the  months  of  January,  February  and  March.  This  means  that  the  ewes  must 
be  bred  in  August,  September  or  October.  In  the  United  States  ewes  from 
western  ranges  are  bought  by  sheep  raisers  in  the  eastern  states,  particularly 
the  states  of  Kentucky,  Tennessee  and  Virginia.  In  Canada  early  lambs  are 
raised  mainly  from  ewes  of  our  common  breeds,  Leicester,  Hampshires  and 
Oxfords  being  the  breeds  most  commonly  used. 

Two  months  after  the  lamb  crop  of  the  current  year  has  been  weaned  the 
ewes  may  be  bred  again.  It  takes  about  10  days  to  dry  off  the  ewes  during 
which  time  they  have  to  be  left  on  dry  scanty  pasture.  A  month  to  six  weeks 
before  the  ram  is  turned  with  the  ewes  they  should  be  fed  grain  twice  daily 
starting  with  a  half  pound  per  ewe  daily  and  increasing  to  a  pound  to  a  pound 
and  a  half  depending  on  the  size  of  the  ewes.  Oats  are  the  most  common  grain 
available  for  this  purpose  although  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  oats,  barley  and 
wheat  will  bring  the  ewes  into  heat  faster. 


■ 


'fft'f'i    t'i 

fnAfh 


■  ^iigjMHi  m  ,  M 

B 

.' 

'      M 

Fig.  38. — A  Group  of  Finished  Ewes. 

Farmers  intending  to  raise  early  lambs  should  have  all  ewes  identified  with 
tags  and  the  breeding  dates  should  be  carefully  recorded  for  each  ewe  so  that 
prospective  lambing  dates   are  known. 

As  soon  as  the  ewes  are  bred  they  can  then  be  run  in  and  handled  much  the 
same  as  any  ewe  flock  until  a  month  to  six  weeks  before  lambing  when  they 
should  be  fed  some  grain.  Ewes  lambing  early  have  to  be  lambed  out  in  a 
warm  part  of  the  barn.  Most  early  lamb  raisers  prefer  to  shear  about  a  week 
before  lambing.  The  ewes,  of  course,  are  handled  very  carefully  at  shearing  time 
and  precautions  are  taken  to  make  sure  they  do  not  get  a  chill. 

The  production  of  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  and  oats  with  other  grains  are 
essential  for  the  production  of  early  lambs.  Corn  silage  and  mangels  add 
variety  to  the  ration  and  make  it  possible  to  provide  a  better  balanced  ration. 


57 


Fig.  39. — Cross  Section  of  a  Carcass  much  too  fat. 


Fig.  40. — Cross  Section  of  a  Carcass  fat  enough  for  the  average  trade. 


Fig.  41. — Cross  Section  of  a  highly  Finished  Carcass. 


58 

Ewes  with  lambs  at  foot  should  be  fed  for  heavy  milk  production  after  the  first 
week.  They  will  eat  1^  to  2  pounds  of  grain  to  wihich  oilcake  from  5  per  cent  to  10 
per  cent  may  be  added.  They  should  also  be  fed  liberally  with  silage  and  roots 
in  addition  to  all  the  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  they  will  clean  up.  At  10  days#to  two 
weeks  the  lambs  will  begin  to  nibble  at  the  grain  and  they  should  be  provided 
with  a  creep  so  that  they  can  be  fed  grain  separately.  Rolled  oats  and  finely 
cracked  corn  equal  parts  to  which  is  added  25  per  cent  bran  and  10  per  cent 
oilcake  makes  a  good  growing  grain  feed  for  early  lambs. 

Fattening  Range   Lambs 

Until  recently  range  lambs  were  carried  over  as  yearlings  and  sold  as 
yearling  mutton.  The  production  of  alfalfa  hay  and  mixed  grains  on  the 
irrigated  lands  in  Southern  Alberta  made  it  possible  to  develop  an  extensive 
lamb  feeding  enterprise  which  has  latterly  been  extended  to  Eastern  Canada  and 
embraces  practically  the  total  lamb  production  of  the  west.  Feedlots  in  which 
range  lambs  are  fattened  carry  from  a  minimum  of  25  to  50  head  up  to  a  carload 
to  several  carloads.  In  the  west,  straw  sheds  provide  ample  shelter  while  in  the 
east  accommodation  is  provided  from  a  part  of  the  regular  stabling  or  in  old 
barns  or  sheds. 

Range  lambs  weighing  50  to  70  pounds  at  the  range  require  100  to  150  days 
in  the  feedlot.  Gains  of  20  pounds  to  50  pounds  are  put  on;  the  ideal  weights 
for  feedlot  lambs  being  90  to  100  pounds.  In  addition  to  alfalfa  or  clover  hay 
and  home  grown  grains  some  use  is  made  of  elevator  screenings  and  screenings 
from  seed  cleaning  plants.  Corn  silage  and  roots  are  used  quite  extensively  in 
Eastern  Canada,  also  beet  pulp  in  the  west. 

Feedlot  lambs  usually  have  the  run  of  a  yard  which  should,  if  possible, 
face  the  south  and  be  protected  from  prevailing  winds  by  a  tight  fence  or  farm 
buildings.  The  hay  and  silage  is  usually  fed  under  cover  and  the  grain  outside. 
The  larger  operators  use  self  feeders  and  in  a  number  of  cases  grind  both  hay  and 
grain,  feeding  a  mixture  which  includes  more  grain  as  the  fattening  period 
advances.  Lambs  not  ready  for  market  before  March  are  usually  shorn;  it  being 
claimed  that  shorn  lambs  make  better  gains. 

FROM  THE  BLOCK  TO  THE  TABLE 

While  mutton  is  one  of  the  most  healthful  of  meat  foods  produced  upon  the 
farm,  it  is  not  as  popular  as  beef  or  pork  with  the  average  Canadian  family. 
In  Britain  and  other  countries  where  sheep  of  the  mutton  breeds  are  intelligently 
reared  and  fattened,  and  the  meat  properly  prepared,  this  class  of  flesh  holds  its 
place  with  the  other  staple  sorts  that  enter  into  the  daily  consumption  of  the 
people.  In  countries  where  wool  production  is  the  chief  consideration  of  the 
sheep  raiser,  mutton  is  not  so  desirable  a  food,  because  the  quality  of  the  flesh  is 
of  low  order,  lacking  in  desirable  flavour  and  texture.  It  is  only  in  recent  years 
that  mutton  joints  have  won  a  place  on  the  bills  of  fare  of  the  best  restaurants 
in  the  United  States  cities.  Until  the  American  sheep  grower  introduced  the 
mutton  breeds  and  finished  the  product  of  his  flocks  as  he  did  his  cattle  and  his 
hogs  before  marketing,  mutton  was  an  unpopular  food  in  the  United  States. 
Mutton  may  be  palatable  and  nourishing  or,  on  the  other  hand,  a  tough,  woolly- 
tasting-product,  according  to  the  method  of  its  production  and  preparation.  No 
other  class  of  meat  is  so  subject  to  improvement  as  mutton.  In  recent  years  the 
general  marketing  of  sheep  before  one-year  old  has  increased  mutton  consump- 
tion in  Canada  many  fold.  This  is  more  particularly  true  in  towns  and  cities 
that  have  the  advantage  of  discriminating  markets  and  well  conducted  abattoirs. 
Butchers  that  secure  their  stock  of  mutton  from  these  sources  are  able  to  offer 
their  customers  mutton  of  a  quality  that  appeals  to  a  refined  and  discriminating 
taste. 


59 

The  development  of  the  industry  from  the  standpoint  of  the  consuming  trade, 
in  so  far  as  it  comes  into  contact  with  the  influence  of  the  modern  abattoir  and 
trained  butcher,  is  making  satisfactory  progress.  This  is  indicated  by  the 
improving  prices  paid  for  finished  mutton.  It  is  on  the  farm — the  source  of  the 
mutton  supply — that  the  consumption  of  this  nutritious,  healthful  product  stands 
in  need  of  development.  No  other  class  of  animal  so  readily  lends  itself  to  the 
demands  of  a  rural  household  for  a  supply  of  fresh  meat  as  a  young  sheep.  It 
is  of  the  highest  importance  that  it  be  in  good  killing  condition  and  that  the 
butchering  and  curing  be  promptly  and  properly  executed. 


The   Butcher's   Animal 

First-class  meat  cannot  be  obtained  from  animals  that  are  poor  in  flesh. 
A  reasonable  amount  of  fat  must  be  present  to  give  juiciness  and  flavour  to  the 
flesh,  and  the  fatter  an  animal  is,  within  reasonable  limits,  the  better  will  be  the 
meat.  "Never  kill  an  animal  that  is  losing  flesh,"  is  a  maxim  followed  by 
butchers,  and  observation  points  a  logical  reason  for  the  saying.  With  an  animal 
failing  in  flesh  the  muscle  fibres  are  shrinking  in  volume,  and  contain  correspond- 
ingly less  water.  As  a  consequence  the  meat  is  tougher  and  dryer.  When  an 
animal  is  gaining  in  flesh  the  opposite  condition  obtains,  and  a  better  quality  of 
meat  is  the  result.  Also  a  better  product  will  be  obtained  from  an  animal  in  only 
medium  flesh,  but  gaining  rapidly,  than  from  a  very  fat  animal  that  is  at  a 
standstill  or  losing  in  flesh. 

Quality  in  meat  is  largely  dependent  on  the  health  and  condition  of  the 
animals  slaughtered,  and  yet  the  best  quality  of  meat  is  rarely,  if  ever,  obtained 
from  poorly-bred  stock.  The  desired  "  marbling,"  or  admixture  of  fat  and  lean, 
is  never  of  the  best  in  scrub  stock,  nor  does  the  highly  fitted  show  animal  furnish 
the  ideal  in  a  carcass  of  meat.  There  seems  to  be  a  connection  between  a  smooth, 
even,  and  deeply  fleshed  animal  and  nicely  marbled  meat  that  is  not  easily 
explained. 

Age  affects  the  flavour  and  texture  of  the  meat  to  quite  an  extent.  While 
it  is  not  possible  to  state  the  age  at  which  an  animal  will  be  best  for  meat,  it  is  a 
well-known  fact  that  meat  from  old  animals  is  more  likely  to  be  tough  than  that 
from  young  ones.  The  flesh  of  very  young  animals  frequently  lacks  flavour,  and 
is  watery.  An  old  animal  properly  fattened  and  in  good  health  be  prefer- 
able to  a  young  one  in  poor  condition. 

Preparation  for   Killing 

It  is  important  that  sheep  intended  for  slaughter  should  be  kept  off  feed 
from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours.  If  kept  on  full  feed  the  system  is  gorged 
and  the  blood  loaded  with  assimilated  nutriments  which  are  driven  to  the 
extremities  of  the  capillaries.  In  such  a  condition  it  is  impossible  to  thoroughly 
drain  out  the  veins  when  the  animal  is  bled,  and  a  reddish  coloured,  unattractive 
carcass  will  be  the  result.  Food  in  the  stomach  decomposes  very  rapidly  after 
slaughter,  and  when  the  dressing  is  slow  the  gases  generated  often  flavour  the 
meat.  This  is  frequently  the  source  of  the  "  woolly"  flavour  in  mutton  to  which 
most  people  express  a  pronounced  dislike.  Water  should  be  given  freely  up  to 
the  time  of  slaughter,  as  it  keeps  the  temperature  normal  and  helps  to  wash  the 
effete  matter  out  of  the  system,  resulting  in  a  nicely  coloured  and  good-flavoured 
carcass. 

The  care  of  animals  previous  to  slaughter  has  considerable  effect  on  the 
keeping  qualities  of  the  meat.  It  is  highly  important  that  they  be  not  excited 
in  any  way  sufficiently  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  body.  Excitement 
prevents  proper  drainage  of  blood  vessels,  and  may  cause  souring  of  the  meat 


60 

very  soon  after  dressing.  In  no  instance  should  an  animal  be  killed  immediately 
after  a  long  drive  or  after  a  rapid  run  about  the  pasture.  If  heated  by  such  cause 
it  is  far  better  to  allow  it  to  rest  overnight  before  killing  than  to  risk  the  meat 
spoiling.  It  is  also  essential  that  the  animal  be  carefully  handled  so  as  not  to 
bruise  the  body.  Bruises  cause  blood  to  settle  in  that  portion  of  the  body 
affected,  presenting  an  uninviting  appearance,  and  often  causing  the  loss  of  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  carcass.  A  thirty-six  hour  fast,  plenty  of  water, 
careful  handling,  and  rest  before  slaughtering  are  all  important  in  securing  meat 
in  the  best  condition  for  use,  either  fresh  or  for  curing  purposes. 

Only  simply  butchering  appliances  are  necessary.  A  proper  sticking  knife, 
a  skinning  knife,  a  small  hoisting  pulley,  a  supply  of  skewers  and  a  small  number 
of  home-made  brackets  and  gambrel  sticks  complete  the  outfit  for  farm  sheep 
killing. 

Avoiding  the  Woolly  Flavour 

As  already  indicated,  much  of  the  sheepy  flavour  of  mutton  comes  from  the 
generation  of  gases  in  the  stomach  after  the  sheep  is  killed.  For  this  reason,  in 
addition  to  proper  fasting,  it  should  be  dressed  as  rapidly  as  possible.  A  plat- 
form 6  or  8  inches  high  is  convenient  to  work  on,  and  aids  in  keeping  the  carcass 
clean.  A  clean,  dry  place  is  necessary  for  neat  work.  Water  or  blood  on  the 
wool  makes  it  very  difficult  to  dress  the  animal  nicely. 

If  the  sheep  is  an  old  one,  it  may  be  stunned  before  bleeding.  If  a  young 
one,  the  same  purpose  is  served  by  dislocating  the  neck  after  cutting  the  throat. 
This  is  accomplished  by  putting  one  hand  on  the  top  of  the  head  and  the  other 
hand  under  the  chin,  give  a  short  twist  upward.  Lay  the  sheep  on  its  side  on 
the  platform,  with  its  head  hanging  over  the  end.  Grasp  the  chin  in  the  left 
hand  and  stick  a  knife  through  the  neck  just  back  of  the  jaw.  The  cutting  edge 
of  the  knife  should  be  turned  toward  the  spinal  column  and  the  flesh  cut  to  the 
bone.     In  this  way  it  is  possible  to  avoid  cutting  the  windpipe. 

Skinning  and  Dressing 

In  skinning,  split  the  skin  up  the  back  of  the  front  legs  from  the  dew-claws 
to  a  little  above  the  knees.  Open  the  skin  over  the  windpipe  from  brisket  to  chin, 
starting  it  slightly  on  the  sides  of  the  neck.  Split  the  skin  over  the  back  of  the 
hind  legs  to  the  middle  line  and  skin  the  buttock.  The  skin  should  also  be  raised 
over  the  cod  and  flanks.  Skin  around  the  hocks  and  down  to  the  hoofs,  cutting 
off  the  hind  feet  at  the  fetlock  joints.  Run  the  knife  between  the  cords  and 
bone  on  the  back  of  the  shins,  and  tie  the  legs  together  just  above  the  hock 
until  after  the  carcass  is  hung  up.  Hang  the  sheep  up  by  the  hind  legs  and  split 
the  skin  along  the  under  middle  line.  Start  at  the  brisket  to  "  fist  off  "  the  skin. 
This  is  done  by  grasping  the  edge  of  the  pelt  firmly  in  one  hand,  pulling  it  up 
tightly  and  working  the  other  with  fist  closed  between  the  pelt  and  the  body. 
The  "  fisting  off  "  should  be  downward  over  the  fore-quarters  and  upward  and 
backward  over  the  hind-quarters  and  legs.  It  is  unwise  to  pull  down  on  the 
skin  over  the  hind  legs,  as  the  membrane  covering  the  flesh  is  sure  to  be  ruptured 
and  an  unsightly  appearance  given  to  the  carcass.  The  wool  should  always  be 
held  away  from  the  flesh  for  the  sake  of  cleanliness.  The  skin  on  the  legs  should 
be  pulled  away  from  the  body  rather  than  towards  it,  in  order  to  preserve  the 
covering  of  the  meat.  When  the  pelt  has  been  loosened  over  the  sides  and 
back  it  should  be  stripped  down  over  the  neck  and  cut  off  close  to  the  ears.  The 
head  may  then  be  removed  without  being  skinned  by  cutting  through  the  neck 
joint. 

Begin  removing  the  entrails  by  cutting  around  the  rectum  and  allowing  it 
to  drop  down  inside.     Do  not  split  the  pelvis.     Open  down  the  belly  line  from 


61 

the  cod  to  the  breast  bone  and  take  out  the  paunch  and  intestines,  leaving  the 
liver  attached  to  the  carcass.  If  the  mutton  is  for  home  use  split  the  breast 
bone  and  remove  the  heart,  lungs  and  diaphragm  together.  Reach  up  into  the 
pelvis  and  pull  out  the  bladder.  Wipe  all  blood  and  dirt  from  the  carcass  with 
a  coarse  cloth  wrung  nearly  dry  from  hot  water.  Double  up  the  front  legs  and 
slip  the  little  cord,  found  by  cutting  into  the  fleshy  part  of  the  forearm,  over  the 
ankle  joints. 

Cooling  and   Cutting 

Lamb  benefits  to  such  an  extent  by  being  cooled  in  a  refrigerator  that  when 
at  all  possible  it  should  be  placed  in  an  ice  cooled  chamber  for  at  least  24  hours 
before  cutting.  Where  a  considerable  number  of  carcasses  are  slaughtered 
locally  from  time  to  time,  cold  storage  facilities  should  be  taken  advantage  of  if 
at  all  possible.  Lamb  may  be  kept  in  a  temperature  of  40°  for  two  weeks,  but 
is  good  to  eat  as*  soon  as  the  carcass  is  thoroughly  cool.  When  lamb  has  to  be 
held  longer  than  two  weeks  it  should  be  frozen. 

To  do  neat  work  in  cutting  up  meat  one  should  have  a  short  curved  knife 
(a  skinning  knife  is  as  good  as  any),  a  meat  saw,  and  an  8-inch  cleaver.  An  axe 
may  take  the  place  of  the  cleaver,  but  is  not  nearly  so  useful.  If  a  cross  section 
of  a  large  log  can  be  had  it  will  answer  for  a  block.  A  table,  however,  can  be 
used  in  most  cases. 

In  cutting  one  should  always  cut  across  the  grain  of  the  meat.  Following 
this  principle  will  result  in  uniform  pieces  and  the  joints  will  be  more  easily 
carved  after  cooking.  Cut  to  the  bone  with  the  knife,  and  use  a  saw  rather 
than  an  axe  for  cutting  the  bone. 

Keeping  the  Meat 

Mutton  used  while  fresh  is  more  nutritious  and  palatable  than  when 
salted  or  cured.  It  is  therefore  desirable  to  use  as  much  of  it  uncured  as 
possible.  It  is  very  difficult  to  keep  mutton  fresh  during  the  summer  months 
without  the  use  of  ice,  and  even  then  not  more  than  a  carcass  can  be  handled 
at  one  time  on  the  ordinary  farm.  Where  an  ice  room  or  family  refrigerator  can 
be  kept  at  a  temperature  of  40  deg.  with  good  ventilation  and  circulation  of  air, 
fresh  mutton  can  be  kept  for  two  weeks.  It  is  very  important  that  the  circula- 
tion be  free  and  the  air  dry.  Moisture  in  a  refrigerator  tends  to  develop  wet 
mould  or  slime,  and  a  little  decay  soon  contaminates  the  whole  piece. 

Where  an  ice  house  is  filled  each  year  a  small  portion  of  it  may  be  par- 
titioned as  a  cold-storage  room.  With  the  ice  properly  packed  on  three  sides  of 
it,  and  with  good  drainage,  this  makes  a  very  satisfactory  place  for  keeping  meat, 
and  it  may  be  used  for  storing  butter  and  other  perishable  products. 


Corning  Mutton 

Mutton  may  be  successfully  corned  by  a  number  of  methods.  Mutton  may 
be  kept  sweet  several  weeks  by  simply  rubbing  well  with  dry  salt  and  closely 
covering.  The  pieces  should  be  turned  whenever  the  vessel  is  uncovered.  Fol- 
lowing are  three  reliable  recipes  for  corning  mutton  by  the  use  of  pickle: — 

1.  Make  a  brine  strong  enough  with  salt  to  carry  a  potato  about  half  out. 
To  half  a  barrel  of  brine  add  one-half  pound  of  saltpetre.  Mutton  left  in  this 
brine  ten  to  twelve  days  will  be  completely  cured.  When  cured  it  may  be  kept 
in  a  clean  new  weak  brine. 


62 

2.  To  every  4  gallons  of  water  allow  2  pounds  of  brown  sugar  and  6  pounds 
salt;  boil  about  twenty  minutes,  taking  off  the  scum;  the  next  day  pour  it  on  the 
meat  packed  in  the  pickling  tub;  pour  off  the  brine,  boil  and  skim  every  two 
months,  adding  3  ounces  brown  cane  sugar  and  J  pound  common  salt.  Sprinkle 
the  meat  with  salt  before  turning  the  pickle  over  it.  Let  it  entirely  cover  the 
meat;  add  4  ounces  saltpetre. 

3.  Prepare  a  brine  by  adding  to  each  gallon  of  cold  water  one  quart  of  rock 
salt,  one  ounce  saltpetre  and  four  ounces  brown  sugar.  As  long  as  the  salt 
remains  undissolved  the  meat  will  be  sweet.  If  scum  rises,  scald  the  liquid  and 
skim  well,  adding  more  salt,  saltpetre  and  sugar.  Each  piece  of  mutton  should 
be  well  rubbed  with  salt  before  being  placed  in  the  brine.  If  the  weather  is  hot 
the  meat  should  be  gashed  to  the  bone  and  salt  rubbed  in.  The  meat  should  be 
kept  immersed  in  the  pickle  by  means  of  a  weight.  A  canvas  lid  kept  on  the 
vessel  is  commendable,  as  it  admits  air  and  excludes  flies. 

Spiced  Mutton  Hams 

Mutton  hams  are  easily  cured.  As  mutton  takes  salt  very  readily  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  get  the  hams  over-salt.  Select  the  leg  of  mutton,  and  cut 
off  the  leg  at  the  hock.  Some  prefer  to  remove  the  entire  bone.  The  curing 
treatment  is  as  follows: — 

Sprinkle  and  rub  in  a  teaspoonful  of  saltpetre;  rub  on  two  teaspoonfuls  equal 
parts  ground  allspice  and  cloves;  then  rub  on  brown  sugar,  about  a  teacup,  then 
apply  salt.  Turn  and  rub  with  application  every  second  day  for  three  or  four 
weeks.     Meat  thus  cured  is  delicious  boiled  or  sliced  and  fried. 


HANDLING  SHEEP 

It  is  remarkable  how  few  sheep  raisers  understand  how  to  properly  catch 
and  handle  their  stock.  The  old  shepherd's  crook,  so  humane  and  useful  in  the 
years  that  are  past,  is  no  longer  to  be  seen  on  more  than  a  very  few  Canadian 
sheep  farms.  In  many  British  flocks  the  crook  still  has  its  place,  and  with  this 
and  the  intelligent  dog  the  sheep  are  driven,  caught  and  handled  with  comfort 
and  facility  for  both  man  and  beast. 

To  the  sheep  man  it  is  painful  to  witness  the  rough,  even  brutal  usage 
accorded  the  gentle,  timid  sheep  on  many  mutton-raising  farms.  Apart  from 
the  pure-bred  flocks,  which  are  waited  upon  and  cared  for  with  the  same  gentle 
consideration  as  the  family  horse  and  the  favourite  cow,  many  of  the  sheep 
flocks  are  rushed  and  driven,  grabbed  and  dragged  in  the  most  inhuman  way. 
When  the  flock  is  to  be  divided  or  an  individual  separated  from  the  others  the 
bunch  is  usually  rushed  into  a  corner  and  the  victims,  one  by  one,  grabbed  by 
the  wool  and  hauled  struggling  and  kicking  to  the  point  of  exit.  To  many  sheep 
raisers  and  farm  hands  the  wool  appears  to  be  a  natural  handle.  If  the  torture 
inflicted  by  catching  a  sheep  by  the  wool  could  be  appreciated  doubtless  many 
would  seek  a  better  method.  The  examination  of  a  carcass  of  a  newly  killed 
sheep  that  has  been  lifted  by  its  wool  reveals  an  inflamed  and  congested  area 
resembling  the  effects  of  a  severe  jam  or  bruise  at  every  point  over  which  the 
wool  was  pulled,  due  to  the  rupturing  of  the  tiny  blood  vessels  and  creating  a 
soreness  that  must  of  necessity  cause  a  stagnation  in  gain  if  not  an  actual  loss 
of  weight.  Apart  from  this,  if  the  animal  is  immediately  slaughtered  the  carcass 
is  injured  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  according  to  the  roughness  accorded  the 
animal. 

The  proper  method  of  catching  a  sheep  is  by  the  hind  leg  or  the  head.  If 
in  a  close  pen  in  which  the  sheep  are  closely  crowded  it  is  an  easy  matter  to 
secure  the  selected  animal  by  the  head,  holding  it  fast  until  the  others  have  moved 


63 


Fig.  43. — Catching  a  Sheep. 
"  44. — Throwing  a  Sheep. 
"     45. — Leading  a  Sheep. 


Fig.  46. — Catching  a  Sheep  with  a  Shepherd's  Crook. 


Fig.  47. — Shepherd's  Crook. 


64 

away,  clearing  an  avenue  by  which  it  may  be  taken.  In  a  larger  pen  or  yard 
a  sheep  should  be  caught  by  the  hind  leg  just  above  the  hock  or  gambrel  joint, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  43.  A  properly  made  shepherd's  crook  is  of  great  assistance  in 
this.  The  hook  (Fig.  47),  which  usually  has  a  handle  six  or  more  feet  long,  can 
be  extended  forward  without  approaching  the  sheep  sufficiently  closely  to  cause 
it  to  plunge  to  make  its  escape.  When  caught  by  the  hock  joint  it  is  drawn  back 
until  it  is  easily  grasped  by  the  neck.  When  a  sheep  is  caught  in  this  way  the 
flock  is  not  frightened,  as  is  the  case  when  one  rushes  in  to  grasp  a  member. 

To  convey  a  sheep  after  it  is  caught  the  shepherd  should  place  his  left  hand 
beneath  the  lower  jaw.  If  the  animal  plunges  it  may  be  gently  grasped  by  the 
wool  on  the  farther  cheek.  The  right  hand  should  grasp  the  side  of  the  tail  or 
the  end  of  the  stub.  In  this  position  a  sheep  will  almost  invariably  walk 
forward  at  the  will  of  the  person  in  charge.  A  sheep  handled  in  this  way  (Fig. 
45)  is  neither  injured  nor  frightened,  and  is  conveyed  in  comparative  comfort  for 
itself  and  the  shepherd. 

Much  cruelty  is  exercised  in  hauling  sheep  from  place  to  place.  More 
especially  is  this  the  case  when  being  taken  to  market.  Few  except  owners  of 
pure-bred  flocks  have  on  their  farms  a  properly  equipped  sheep  wagon.  The 
result  is  that  when  sheep  have  to  be  hauled  their  legs  are  probably  tied  and  they 
are  tumbled  into  wagon  or  sleigh  and  jolted  along  to  their  destination.  The 
discomfort  and  bruising  thus  effected  is  nothing  short  of  severe,  and  quite 
unnecessary  cruelty. 

Sheep  should  travel  on  their  feet  even  when  being  hauled.  A  wagon  to  haul 
sheep  should  have  slatted  sides  sufficiently  high  to  prevent  their  jumping  out,  or 
boards,  if  necessary,  may  be  laid  on  the  top,  forming  a  cover  to  the  wagon.  The 
writer  for  many  years  used  a  wagon  rack  about  14  feet  long  and  as  wide  as  a 
wagon  box,  the  sides  and  ends  of  which  were  slatted  and  about  three  feet  high. 
The  end  gates  were  fastened  to  the  sides  and  the  floor  by  rods — one  at  each 
corner  of  the  wagon — passing  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  and  having  threaded 
thumb  nuts.  The  end  pieces  swung  open  forming  convenient  gates  for  loading 
and  unloading.  This  rack  was  used  upon  the  home  and  many  neighbouring 
farms  for  hauling  sheep  and  hogs  and  occasionally  young  cattle. 

To  load  a  sheep  it  is  not  necessary  to  lift  it  by  the  wool.  Loading  should  be 
done  by  two  persons,  one  on  each  side  of  the  animal.  The  left  hand  of  one  is 
grasped  by  the  right  of  the  other  beneath  the  chest  of  the  sheep,  preferably 
between  the  forelegs.  The  other  part  of  hands  are  similarly  grasped  beneath  the 
flanks.  In  this  position  the  sheep  is  easily  raised  and  loaded  without  plunging 
or  injury. 

Dipping 

A  sheep-raising  farm  that  has  not  a  properly  arranged  dipping  tank  or 
other  means  of  treating  the  flock  to  fight  skin  parasites  is  not  equipped  as  it 
should  be  for  getting  the  most  out  of  the  industry.  All  sheep  are  liable  to  have 
ticks  and  lice  and  there  is  also  the  risk  of  getting  scab  with  every  railway 
journey  taken  by  the  sheep  or  the  introduction  of  fresh  stock.  One  or  two 
scab  insects  may  easily  spread  the  disease  over  a  whole  flock,  causing  no  end 
of  worry,  trouble  and  financial  loss.  For  this  reason  the  dipping  vat  should  be 
brought  into  requisition  with  every  new  arrival  in  addition  to  a  thorough 
dipping  of  the  whole  flock,  which  should  be  done  at  least  twice  a  year.  This 
is  a  method  of  prevention  that  is  worth  much  more  than  a  remedy  after  the 
trouble  has  been  introduced. 


65 

While  comparatively  few  Canadian  sheep  breeders  are  familiar  with  scab 
there  are  practically  none  who  could  not  identify  the  tick.  The  louse  is  a 
less  well  known  insect,  and  being  very  inconspicuous  it  may  cause  much  worry 
and  loss  of  weight  in  the  flock  without  being  detected.  Thorough  dipping  with 
a  recognized  insecticidal  preparation  is  an  easy  and  inexpensive  method  of 
destroying  both  of  these  pests  and  may  also  cure  an  incipient  attack  of  scab. 


Fig.  48. — Cross  section  of  Dipping  Tank  and  Pens. 


The  usual  dipping  vat  is  a  simple  form  of  trough  of  concrete,  metal  or 
wood,  about  16  inches  wide  and  4  feet  deep  (see  Fig.  50).  With  a  tank  of  this 
description  the  sheep  can  be  plunged  so  that  no  part  will  escape  a  wetting.  They 
may  be  dropped  or  forced  to  leap  into  the  liquid  at  one  end  and  allowed  to  walk 
out  at  the  other.  The  entrance  end  should  therefore  be  perpendicular  and  the 
other  sloping  with  slatted  floor.  For  a  small  flock  the  bottom  level  need  not  be 
more  than  four  feet  long,  with  the  slatted  incline  beginning  there  and  running 


'**. 


YARD 


Fig.  49.— Plan  of  Dipping  Plant. 


gradually  out  to  a  draining  platform  from  which  the  drip  should  be  collected 
to  be  again  used  in  the  vat.  To  economize  liquid  the  vat  may  narrow  to  eight 
inches  at  the  bottom.  The  fleece  will  hold  enough  of  the  liquid,  if  of  proper 
strength,  to  kill  the  lice  and  ticks,  but  if  scab  is  present  or  feared  the  sheep 
should  be  immersed  for  fully  two  minutes,  and  the  head  should  be  plunged  two 
or  three  times-  If  time  is  less  valuable  than  dip,  comparatively  speaking,  it 
may  pay  to  squeeze  the  liquid  out  of  the  fleece  by  hand  upon  the  draining 
platform.  Another  plan  of  saving  time  and  dip  is  to  divide  the  draining  plat- 
form into  two  pens,  each  to  be  alternately  filled  with  the  dipped  animals.  This 
arrangement  allows  the  dripping  sheep  to  remain  in  one  pen  while  the  other 
is  being  filled  from  the  dipping  tank  and  vice  versa.  Fig.  49  illustrates  the 
divided  draining  pen. 

35001—5  r 


66 

A  warm  dip  penetrates  better  than  a  cold  one  and  is  therefore  to  be 
preferred.  A  temperature  of  from  100  to  105  degrees  Fahr.  is  about  right. 
When  coal  tar  dips  are  used  soft  water  should  be  employed,  or  otherwise  a  little 
'concentrated  lye  added  to  give  the  dip  a  soapy  feel.  The  dip  should  be  prepared 
to  the  full  strength  recommended  by  the  manufacturer.  For  heating  water 
for  dip  an  open  kettle  such  as  is  usually  found  upon  every  farm  is  useful.  For 
reheating  red-hot  irons  may  be  thrown  into  the  tank  of  dip.  The  plunging 
of  the  sheep  is  facilitated  by  having  a  sloping  board  just  at  the  entrance  of  the 
tank.    This  should  be  kept  greased  so  that  the  sheep  will  slide  in  readily. 

While  dipping  may  be  done  at  any  season  it  should,  if  possible,  be  avoided  in 
very  cold  weather  for  obvious  reasons.  If  it  has  to  be  done  in  winter  the  sheep 
should  be  comfortably  housed  until  quite  dry.  The  most  favourable  time  for  the 
chief  bath  of  the  year  is  a  week  or  so  after  shearing  time.  The  ticks  will  have 
largely  taken  refuge  in  the  lambs,  and  all  should  go  through  the  tub.    At  this 


Fig.  50. — Outline  of  MJetal  Dipping  Tank. 

time  comparatively  little  material  is  needed.  It  is  well  to  retain  the  clipped 
members  in  the  liquid  a  minute  or  more,  as  the  wool  is  too  short  to  hold  the 
dip  long  enough  to  make  a  sure  job  of  all  the  insects.  It  is  important  to  repeat 
the  dipping  in  ten  days  in  order  to  destroy  the  new  arrivals  that  have  hatched 
during  the  interval.  The  flock  should  again  be  treated  in  the  fall  so  as  to  go 
into  the  winter  free  and  unmolested  by  parasites. 

For  a  small  flock  a  simple  trough  may  be  made  to  answer.  The  writer  has 
dipped  and  treated  hundreds  of  sheep,  big  and  little,  in  an  ordinary  wooden 
trough  5  feet  6  inches  long,  about  20  inches  deep,  20  inches  wide  at  the  bottom 
and  24  at  the  top.  Lambs  were  held  by  the  legs  and  head  and  plunged  beneath 
the  liquid,  back  downwards  lifted  out  and  allowed  to  drain.  Larger  sheep 
were  treated  on  a  platform  by  parting  the  fleece  at  intervals  of  about  two 
inches  and  pouring  the  dip  from  a  spouted  vessel.  The  lower  parts,  including 
the  breast,  neck  and  belly  should  be  treated  first  with  the  animal  resting  on 
its  side  or  rump.  The  sides  and  back  are  then  done  with  the  sheep  in  a  stand- 
ing position.  This  method  of  dipping  is  slow  and  laborious,  but  it  may  be 
employed  in  the  absence  of  a  proper  dipping  tank.  The  dipping  tank  used  at 
the  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Ottawa,  for  dipping  sheep  and  swine  is  34 
inches  deep,  30  inches  wide,  10  feet  2  inches  long  at  the  top  and  6  feet  5  inches 
at  the  bottom,  plenty  large  enough  for  the  largest  hog  or  sheep  or  even  calves. 
It  is  constructed  of  two-inch  plank,  tongued  and  grooved,  and  held  together 
by  bolts  running  through  the  centre  of  the  plank  up  and  down  the  sides  and 


67 

across  the  bottom.  In  building  a  plank  tank  the  grooves  or  seams  should  be 
moistened  with  hot  tar  or  red  lead,  and  special  care  should  be  taken  to  make 
the  construction  tight. 

Figs.  46,  47  and  48  show  cross-section  and  plan  of  a  dipping  tank  with 
necessary  collecting  yard  and  dipping  pens,  as  well  as  a  view  of  a  suitable 
tank  or  vat. 

THE  GREAT  NEGLECT 

When  asked  "  What  is  the  most  prominent  defect  in  the  sheep-raising 
industry  of  Canada?  "  nine  out  of  ten  of  the  most  extensive  buyers  for  the 
trade  will  promptly  answer,  a  the  neglect  of  farmers  to  castrate  the  ram  lambs." 

Apart  from  the  lambs  raised  on  the  ranches,  fully  seventy-five  per  cent  of 
the  males  have  until  the  past  few  years  been  marketed  as  rams.  Improvement 
in  these  figures  is  shown  each  year. 

It  is  difficult  to  understand  that  an  operation  so  easily  performed,  and 
which  means  so  much  to  the  sheep  trade,  and  therefore  to  the  sheep  grower, 
should  be  so  generally  neglected.  To  neglect  cattle  and  hogs  is  an  oversight 
condemned  wherever  observed,  but  for  some  reason  the  emasculation  of  sheep 
is  looked  upon  as  a  matter  of  no  importance.  And  yet  the  dealers  who  meet 
the  raisers  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  consuming  trade  on  the  other,  pronounce 
the  custom  as  the  chief  defect  of  the  mutton-raising  industry. 

Is  it  because  the  entire  crop  of  lambs  comes  about  the  same  season,  making 
the  surgical  task  appear  too  ponderous  to  be  undertaken,  or  is  it  because  of  the 
fear  of  fatality  that  the  lambs  are  not  treated  as  are  the  calves  and  pigs?  Or  has 
the  habit  of  slighting  this  important  duty  been  so  long  responsible  for  its  con- 
tinued neglect?  Fortunately  the  more  general  marketing  through  the  lamb  fair 
which  accepts  no  rams,  and  the  price  discrimination  this  class  of  offering  has  to 
face,  are  leading  toward  a  more  general  use  of  the  surgeon's  instruments. 

In  the  autumn  one  has  only  to  visit  a  flock  of  mixed  sexes  to  see  one  of  the 
chief  evils.  A  general  restlessness  of  the  flock  is  observed,  continuously  day 
after  day  from  morning  till  night.  Not  only  do  the  males  neglect  proper  feeding 
but  the  others  are  molested  and  bothered,  until  the  rapid  gain  expected  with 
good  fodder  and  cool  weather  is  made  impossible.  The  rams  not  only  fail  to 
gain  but  actually  lose  flesh  put  on  at  an  earlier  period.  Even  though  the  males 
are  kept  separate  from  the  others  of  the  flock,  the  restlessness  continues  more 
or  less  with  a  corresponding  unprofitable  result.  The  condition  depicted  is 
familiar  to  many  a  sheep  raiser,  who  year  by  year  has  witnessed  the  same 
state  of  affairs.  He  has  become  accustomed  to  the  unrest  that  possesses  the 
flock  within  his  fields  each  autumn,  commencing  with  the  advent  of  white  frosts. 
Even  in  the  summer  he  realizes  what  will  happen  later  on,  but  he  knows  nothing 
of  the  peace  and  prosperity  of  the  wether  flock  of  his  neighbour  a  few  farms 
away.  As  the  date  upon  which  the  buyer  usually  appears  comes  around,  he 
watches  eagerly  for  his  visit,  and  as  soon  as  the  bargain  is  consummated  he 
urges  that  his  lambs  be  lifted  with  the  first  shipment.  He  knows  that  the  rams 
will  run  -down  from  that  time  on,  and  the  sooner  they  are  weighed  out  the 
earlier  will  peace  reign  in  his  flock.  He  has,  however,  opportunity  of  learn- 
ing even  more  strikingly  his  disadvantage  when  shipping  day  arrives.  His 
lambs  go  out  on  an  average  of  perhaps  75  to  80  pounds,  while  his  neighbours' 
wethers  about  the  same  age  turn  the  scale  at  from  90  to  95  pounds  each,  for 
which  he  receives  a  better  price  per  pound.  To  the  evils  attending  the  keeping 
about  of  a  batch  of  fertile  males  already  referred  to,  there  is  also  the  serious 
risk  of  a  number  of  the  best  ewes,  as  well  as  lambs  that  should  not  be  bred  until 
a  year  later,  getting  in  lamb  to  perhaps  the  meanest  scrub  in  the  flock. 

Again,  the  keeping  entire  of  the  males  renders  it  practically  impossible  to 
hold  them  over  until  winter  or  spring,  when  the  prices  are  always  better.  They 
are  largely  responsible  for  the  glutted  condition  of  the  market  in  the  autumn 

35001—51  R 


68 

months,  and  they  have  to  be  disposed  of  in  the  midst  of  the  over-supply.  To 
keep  them  even  to  December  is  expensive,  because  of  the  unsatisfactory  gains 
they  make,  but  apart  from  this  by  that  date  their  flesh  has  become  rank 
and  therefore  of  inferior  quality.  According  to  the  evidence  of  extensive 
dealers,  fully  fifty  per  cent  of  ewe  lambs  of  the  previous  year  marketed  in 
February  and  March  are  with  lamb.     These  men  go  so  far  as  to  assume  that 


Fig.  51. — Earn  Lambs,  marketed   as  culls. 


Fig..    52. — Wether  Lambs.  "'Market  Toppers." 

much  of  the  mating  is  intentional  with  a  view  to  securing  slightly  increased 
weight.  However  the  condition  comes  about,  the  trade  suffers  from  such 
bad  management  and  the  breeder  is  the  loser.  Buyers  soon  become  familiar 
with  the  condition  of  stock  from  various  districts  and  bid  accordingly.  Ram 
lambs  no  longer  sell  upon  about  equal  terms  with  ewes  and  wethers  in  most  of 
the  provinces  of  Canada,  and  in  some  markets  substantial  price  discrimination 
against  ram  lambs  is  commenced  in  July  and  increased  in  October. 


69 

Comparison   on   the   Block 

It  is  on  the  block  that  the  true  comparison  between  the  ram  and  the  wether 
is  made  plain.  The  former  is  liable  to  be  lean,  lank  and  emaciated,  differing 
widely  from  the  plump,  firm,  meaty-backed  wether  that  has  devoted  his  energies 
to  bodybuilding  regardless  of  his  ignoble  destiny,  the  shambles.  (See  Figs.  51 
and  52.) 

As  the  season  proceeds  the  wether  makes  rapid  growth,  more  particularly 
in  the  region  of  the  loin  and  back,  while  the  ram  puts  on  weight  in  the  neck 
and  shoulders,  falling  away  at  the  loin  and  hind  quarters  rendering  him  fit  only 
for  the  poorest  trade.  To  ascertain  the  comparative  weights  of  ram  and  wether 
lambs  of  practically  the  same  breeding  and  age,  one  dozen  of  each  were  weighed 
on  November  1.  The  wethers  weighed  1,020  pounds  and  the  rams  900  pounds, 
an  average  reduction  of  10  pounds  per  head.  This,  with  a  price  sacrifice  amounts 
to  a  pretty  impressive  penalty  for  the  neglect  of  castration. 

Methods  of  Castration 

The  castration  of  a  lamb  is  a  simple  operation,  involving  little  risk  if  per- 
formed with  ordinary  care  and  due  regard  to  cleanliness.  It  is  important  that 
it  be  performed  when  the  lambs  are  quite  young.  About  ten  days  old  is  a  very 
favourable  age,  as  then  they  are  less  likely  to  bleed,  and  the  healing  is  rapidly 
effected.  Perhaps  the  oldest,  and  by  many  considered  a  thoroughly  satisfactory 
method,  is  to  cut  off  the  lower  third  of  the  scrotum  with  a  sharp  knife,  sever 
the  outer  immediate  covering  of  each  testicle  separately,  and  draw  it  out,  cord 
and  all,  with  the  teeth.  This  method,  however,  is  repulsive  to  many  unaccus- 
tomed to  it,  and  is  not  as  commendable  as  some  of  the  other  ways. 

The  practice  followed  by  the  writer  was  to  have  the  subject  held  by  an 
attendant  in  a  sitting  position  upon  a  bench  with  its  feet  outward.  The  oper- 
ator sat  astride  of  the  bench  upon  the  hind  feet  of  the  lamb.  With  a  sharp 
knife,  the  bottom  third  of  the  scrotum  was  removed  and  each  testicle  skinned 
out  and  withdrawn  one  at  a  time  by  the  fingers.  If  the  lamb  has  reached  one 
month,  it  is  better  to  tie  the  cord  about  one  inch  above  the  testicle  with  a  car- 
bolized  ligature,  before  severing  the  organ  with  a  knife. 

The  wound  should  be  smeared  with  an  antiseptic  ointment,  than  which  there 
is  perhaps  nothing  better  than  carbolized  oil,  composed  of  one  part  carbolic  acid 
to  twenty  parts  sweet  oil.  The  writer  always  used  pinetar  and  lard  in  equal 
parts,  and  can  confidently  recommend  its  employment.  It  is  very  important  that 
newly  castrated  lambs  be  given  clean  quarters.  If  the  weather  is  cold,  the  pen 
should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  bedded  daily  with  fresh  litter,  but  if  the  ground 
is  warm,  there  is  no  safer  place  for  the  youngsters  than  a  grass  plot.  It  is  clean  and 
favourable — to  exercise — the  latter  an  important  consideration.  In  the  course  of 
a  few  days  the  lambs  should  be  caught  and  examined,  and  any  that  show  swelling 
or  undue  soreness  should  be  bathed  in  warm  water  into  which  a  few  drops  of 
carbolic  acid  or  creolin  have  been  added  and  the  wound  anointed  with  carbo- 
lized oil  or  other  antiseptic  preparation. 

Castration  with  Burdizzo  pinchers  has  come  to  be  one  of  the  most  popular 
methods.  It  is  bloodless  and  leaves  no  wound;  when  properly  done  it  is  equally 
as  effective  as  the  knife-  For  lambs  the  small  style  Burdizzo  pinchers  are  mostly 
used.  The  lamb  should  be  held  in  the  usual  way  for  castration  by  an  attendant. 
The  operator  should  make  sure  that  the  testicle  is  well  down  and  that  the  cord 
is  moved  to  the  right  side  of  the  scrotum  pouch  if  the  right  cord  is  being  severed 
or  to  the  left  side  if  the  left  cord  is  being  severed.  Always  place  the  pinchers 
well  over  the  cord  and  above  the  testicle  and  do  one  side  at  a  time  moving  the 
pinchers  from  the  right  hand  to  the  left.  This  method  leaves  a  small  space  in 
the  centre  of  the  scrotum  for  the  blood  to  circulate. 


70 
The  Tails 

In  his  earlier  years,  when  in  charge  of  a  flock  of  high-class  pure-bred  sheep, 
the  writer  regarded  the  leaving  of  long  tails  as  an  evidence  of  poor  shepherding 
and  inferior  stock.  Perhaps  the  view  taken  was  extreme,  but  observation  bears 
out  the  truth  that  the  best  sheep  men  everywhere  dock  their  lambs  as  surely 
as  they  clip  their  ewes,  while  the  poorest  of  them  invariably  neglect  this 
operation.  Perhaps  a  tail  is  no  detriment,  more  particularly  upon  a  male  that 
is  to  be  wethered,  but  it  looks  bad  to  the  sheep  man  and  surely  detracts 
from  the  blocky  appearance  of  a  sheep  or  lamb.  Man}^  who  undertake  to  dock 
make  a  very  poor  job  of  the  operation.  A  five-  or  six-inch  tail  looks  about  as 
bad  as  one  not  touched,  but  still  one  sees  many  half-tailed  lambs.  For  best 
effect,  a  male  lamb  should  be  docked  within  one  inch  of  the  buttock,  while  a 
female  should  retain  one  or  two  more  joints. 

An  ordinary  sharp  jack  knife  is  a  common  docking  instrument.  Have  the 
lamb  held  as  for  castration  by  an  attendant.  Locate  the  proper  joint  with  the 
thumb  of  the  left  hand  and  place  the  knife  on  the  proper  spot  just  between  the 
joints.  Hold  the  tail  straight  out  with  the  left  hand  and  draw  the  knife  quickly 
downward  until  the  tail  is  severed.  Lambs  that  are  three  weeks  to  a  month  old 
will  sometimes  bleed  profusely.  Bleeding  may  be  stopped  by  tying  with  a  cord 
for  15  to  20  minutes  till  the  blood  clots  when  the  string  should  be  removed.  The 
knife  should  always  be  sterilized  in  an  antiseptic  solution  before  being  used. 

From  one  week  to  two  weeks  is  a  good  age  to  tail  the  lambs,  and  while 
it  seems  like  doubly  severe  treatment,  the  wethering  and  tailing  are  usually 
performed  at  the  same  time. 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

The  standard  foods  for  sheep  are  grass  and  clover  pasture  in  summer  and  hay, 
preferably  clover  or  alfalfa  with  roots,  during  the  winter.  When  pastures  fail  in 
summer  or  autumn  such  soiling  crops  as  green  corn,  vetches,  rape  or  cabbages 
may  be  fed  with  advantage;  or  vetches  or  rape  may  be  used  as  pasture.  During 
the  winter  season  well  saved  pea  straw  or  even  oat  straw  may  be  used  as  a 
part  of  the  dry  fodder,  but  if  no  grain  is  being  fed  the  flock  should  have  at 
least  one  feed  daily  of  well  saved  hay. 

Of  the  several  classes  of  roots  nothing  surpasses  swede  turnips,  but  grey- 
stones  in  the  early  part  of  the  housing  season  and  mangels  at  the  end  of  the 
winter  and  spring  constitute  very  satisfactory  succulent  rations.  Corn  ensilage 
of  good  quality  may  also  be  sparingly  used  if  roots  are  short  or  it  may  be  fed 
along  with  roots  or  alternately  with  that  food  throughout  the  winter. 

The  growing  of  ordinary  hay,  pasture  and  roots  for  sheep  feed  does  not 
differ  from  the  cultivation  of  these  crops  for  other  classes  of  stock.  Such  special 
crops  as  rape,  vetches,  cabbage,  lucerne,  etc.,  are  easy  of  cultivation,  and  may 
be  successfully  grown  on  almost  any  farm  suited  to  sheep  raising. 

Clover 

Of  all  the  fodder  crops  grown  on  Canadian  farms  clover  is  of  greatest 
importance  to  the  sheep  grower.  All  the  commonly  grown  varieties,  including 
alfalfa,  (separately  treated  in  these  pages),  alsike,  white  and  common  red,  are 
useful  on  the  sheep  farm.  On  account  of  their  leafy  character  and  sweetness 
they  are  greatly  relished,  and  because  of  their  high  protein  content  they  are 
very  nourishing. 


71 

Practically  all  of  the  clovers  are  useful  as  pasture,  although  precautions 
are  necessary  when  feeding  the  larger  sorts  while  in  very  green  or  immature 
condition.  Sheep  graze  closely,  and  do  well  upon  small  white  clover  commonly 
found  in  most  Canadian  pastures. 

Alsike  is  more  useful  as  a  hay  than  a  pasture  crop,  although  sheep  will 
graze  it  freely  while  young  and  tender.  Common  red  clover  is  the  chief  food 
crop  on  the  special  sheep-man's  farm.  It  affords  excellent  pasture,  but  when 
very  rank  or  succulent,  sheep  must  be  grazed  on  it  with  caution,  to  avoid  loss 
from  bloating.  Precautionary  methods  outlined  in  discussing  the  feeding  of  rape 
apply  with  equal  force  to  the  pasturing  of  clover. 

All  of  the  strong  growing  clovers  make  excellent  sheep  hay.  Its  value  is 
lessened  in  proportion  as  it  is  coarse,  over-ripe  when  cut  or  badly  cured.  For 
breeding  ewes  good  clover  hay  alone  may  furnish  a  full  ration  sufficiently  rich 
to  keep  up  their  condition.  No  other  hay  is  so  valuable  for  young  lambs, 
growing  or  fattening  stock  or  sheep  being  fitted  for  exhibition.  It  should  be  fed 
in  small  quantities  rather  than  in  greater  bulk  at  less  frequent  intervals. 

Alfalfa 

Alfalfa  as  it  becomes  known  is  growing  in  favour  among  sheep  raisers  as 
a  fodder  crop.  It  is  not  only  a  heavy  cropper  but  it  is  one  of  the  most  nutritious 
fodders  grown  on  Canadian  farms,  and  practically  all  classes  of  farm  animals 
consume  it  with  great  relish.  On  account  of  its  deep  and  strong  rooting  habit 
it  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  dry  or  gravelly  bottom  land,  but  it  may  be  grown 
successfully  wherever  wheat  growing  is  or  may  be  carried  on,  except,  perhaps, 
in  very  cold  latitudes.  It  has  a  food  value  quite  equal  to  red  clover  both  as 
hay  or  pasture,  and  because  of  its  strong  growth,  producing  from  three  to  four 
cuttings  in  a  season,  it  is  more  valuable  as  a  crop.  Alfalfa  has  obtained  a  strong 
foothold  in  Ontario  and  east,  as  well  as  in  British  Columbia,  and  is  gaining 
ground  rapidly  in  Alberta,  where  it  is  expected  to  become  perhaps  the  chief 
fodder  crop  more  particularly  in  the  dry  and  irrigated  sections,  In  Saskatchewan 
and  Manitoba  it  is  grown  to  some  extent,  and  strong  hopes  are  entertained  that 
in  these  provinces  it  will  yet  become  one  of  the  staple  forage  crops. 

Alfalfa  hay  for  sheep  fodder  should  be  harvested  before  it  becomes  tough, 
and  should  therefore  be  cut  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  time  at  which  it  is 
coming  into  bloom.  If  allowed  to  mature  beyond  that  stage  tough  fibres  develop, 
which  are  slow  to  digest  and  are  liable  to  cause  trouble  in  the  digestive  tract 
of  the  sheep.  Sheep  feeding  on  over-mature  alfalfa  are  occasionally  lost  by 
reason  of  balls  of  fibre  forming  and  clogging  the  outlet  of  the  stomach.  There  is 
no  danger  from  this  cause  if  the  alfalfa  has  been  cut  on  the  green  side.  Alfalfa 
for  sheep  hay  should  therefore  be  grown  alone  or  with  an  early  grass  such  as 
orchard  grass.  If  grown  with  a  later  crop  the  latter  has  to  be  cut  too  green  or 
the  alfalfa  becomes  too  far  advanced. 

Alfalfa  is  claimed  by  some,  who  have  had  little  experience  with  it.  to  be 
unsafe  for  pasturing  sheep  on  account  of  its  extreme  succulence  and  liability  to 
cause  bloat  and  its  attendant  evils.  An  extensive  sheep  raiser,  who  has  adopted 
alfalfa  as  his  chief  pasture,  has  the  following  to  say  in  its  favour: — 

"  Thirteen  years'  experience  with  alfalfa  convinces  me  that  it  is  beyond 
doubt  the  best  and  most  economical  pasture  for  sheep.  I  consider  it  a  very 
safe  pasture,  as  I  never  yet  saw  the  first  evil  result  to  any  class  of  animals,  in 
fact  I  have  never  lost  a  single  animal  pasturing  on  this  crop.  No  crop  is  more 
valuable,  especially  as  a  pasture,  and  of  course  for  hay  as  well.  It  makes  better 
hay  than  red  clover,  although  by  analysis  it  ranks  about  equal.  It  is  cleaner 
than  clover  and  stock  eat  it  more  readily. 

"  For  hay,  alfalfa  should  be  cut  when  about  one-fourth  in  bloom,  put  in  very 
small  cocks  very  green,  and  allowed  to  cure  that  way.  It  is  my  most  valued  crop 
and  is  good  for  all  stock,  pasture  and  hay  alike." 


72 

Vetches 

Vetches,  or  tares  as  they  are  also  called,  make  excellent  fodder  for  sheep, 
<either  as  a  soiling  crop  or  as  cured  hay.  This  crop  much  resembles  peas  in 
'habit  of  growth  and  requires  about  the  same  kind  of  cultivation.  Its  vines  are 
more  slender  than  pea  vines  and  stand  up  better  when  grown  with  a  stiff  variety 
of  oats.  Vetches  are  grown  extensively  for  sheep  in  Great  Britain  and  to  some 
extent  in  Canada  for  the  same  purpose.  The  writer  while  raising  sheep,  always 
grew  a  small  area  of  tares  with  oats  for  soiling  the  show  flock,  and  in  case  of  a 
shortage  of  clover  vetches  were  cured  for  hay.  The  crop  being  fine  in  vine  and 
very  leafy  is  much  relished  by  sheep  and  constitutes  a  rich  diet. 

Two  varieties  of  vetches  are  grown  for  fodder.  The  common  vetch  is  the 
chief  sort  cultivated,  but  the  hairy  variety  is  receiving  some  attention  in  recent 
years.  The  latter  produces  the  heavier  yield,  but  so  far  the  seed  having  to  be 
imported  is  very  expensive  and  few  care  to  bother  with  it. 

The  soil  for  vetches  should  be  clean,  mellow  and  rich.  The  seed  may  be 
sown  in  drills  or  broadcast.  A  good  seeding  for  either  soiling  or  hay  is  about 
three  pecks  of  vetches  and  four  pecks  of  oats  per  acre. 

The  vetches  are  ready  to  feed  any  time  after  the  crop  comes  into  blossom 
and  before  the  seed  commences  to  ripen.  For  soiling,  the  crop  may  be  hauled 
to  racks  or  be  distributed  on  the  sod  of  a  pasture  as  soon  as  cut  or  it  may  be 
allowed  to  wilt  in  the  swath  for  a  few  hours. 

Vetch  hay  is  made  in  much  the  same  manner  as  clover  or  timothy  is 
handled. 

Vetches  may  be  pastured  by  sheep,  but  this  is  a  wasteful  practice,  as  much 
of  the  crop  is  destroyed  by  tramping. 

Rape 

Rape  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  foods  for  sheep.  It  is  keenly  relished 
and  produces  rapid  gains  both  in  growing  and  fattening  stock.  Rape  is  an  easy 
crop  to  grow  and  yields  abundantly  when  properly  handled. 

The  variety  of  rape  most  suitable,  in  fact  about  the  only  one  grown,  for 
sheep  fodder  is  the  Dwarf  Essex.  This  sort  yields  heavily  of  leaves  and  does 
not  produce  seed  the  year  it  is  sown. 

The  culture  for  rape  is  practically  the  same  as  for  turnips  or  other  root 
crops,  with  the  exception  that  it  is  not  thinned  in  the  row.  It  may  be  sown 
broadcast,  but  unless  the  soil  is  clean  and  rich  rape  does  better  sown  in  drills  in 
order  that  it  may  be  cultivated. 

Rape,  like  turnips,  does  best  in  soil  that  is  rich  in  humus;  the  richer  the  soil 
the  ranker  the  growth  and  the  better  the  quality  of  the  fodder.  Old  pasture  sod 
well  worked  up  makes  a  fine  situation  for  rape,  and  if  it  can  be  given  a  dressing 
of  barn-yard  manure  so  much  the  better.  Rape  is  a  very  disappointing  crop  when 
sown  on  poor  soil,  hence  the  importance  of  carefully  fertilizing  and  preparing 
land  to  be  sown  to  rape. 

Early  sowing  is  not  suitable  for  rape.  It  is  well  to  get  the  land  ready  to 
put  in  the  seed  as  soon  as  desired  after  the  ground  becomes  warmed  up  in  the 
spring.  It  may  be  sown  as  early  as  corn  and  as  late  as  the  end  of  July.  If 
sown  in  drills  the  rows  should  be  about  28  to  30  inches  apart,  and  about  two 
pounds  of  fresh  seed  used  per  acre.  On  clean,  rich  land  about  three  pounds  of 
seed  per  acre  may  be  sown  broadcast.  The  writer  has  found  best  success  from 
sowing  in  raised  drills,  but  others  claim  just  as  good  results  when  sown  on  the 
level.     Frequent  cultivation  is  as  beneficial  to  rape  as  to  turnips  or  potatoes. 

Some  advocate  and  practise  sowing  rape  amongst  corn  at  the  time  of  the 
last  cultivation,  and  others  sow  in  oats  harrowing  in  the  seed  when  the  oat  plants 


73 

are  two  or  three  inches  high.  It  is  well  to  learn  from  careful  test  upon  a  small 
scale  whether  one's  conditions  are  suited  to  methods  of  this  kind  before  under- 
taking them  upon  a  large  scale.  A  season  of  rank  growth  followed  by  a  wet 
harvest  may  cause  much  trouble  and  annoyance  if  rape  has  been  sown  with  oats. 
Undoubtedly  the  best  crops  are  produced  when  rape  is  given  the  land  to  itself  and 
proper  cultivation  is  afforded. 

Under  average  conditions  the  rape  plant  requires  about  two  months  to 
reach  the  best  conditions  for  feeding.  When  fed  too  young  serious  digestive 
derangement  may  result  in  the  form  of  scouring  or  bloating.  After  reaching  its 
growth  it  remains  fresh  and  crisp  for  several  weeks  under  normal  weather  con- 
ditions, but  after  a  time  it  becomes  more  or  less  woody  or  stringy,  in  which  con- 
dition stock  do  not  relish  it  so  much. 

Rape  is  usually  pastured  off,  but  it  is  exceedingly  valuable  for  soiling.  A 
feed  each  day  of  rape  hauled  to  a  flock  of  ewes  on  a  failing  pasture  proves  an 
excellent  safeguard  against  the  animals  running  down  in  condition. 

All  classes  of  sheep  may  be  pastured  on  rape.  It  is  an  excellent  crop  on 
which  to  turn  lambs  after  weaning.  It  is  quite  as  suitable  for  toning  up  the 
breeding  flock  prior  to  the  mating  season. 

Precautions  have  to  be  observed  in  pasturing  rape.  Until  they  have  become 
accustomed  to  it  sheep  should  not  be  turned  into  rape  pasture  while  hungry. 
Neither  should  it  be  fed  with  rain  or  dew  or  if  at  all  frosty.  If  precautions 
are  neglected  serious  loss  may  be  experienced  from  scouring,  bloating,  and  even 
death  from  inflammation  of  the  bowels.  It  is  well  to  allow  sheep  pasturing  on 
rape  free  access  to  a  grass  pasture.  It  was  the  practice  of  the  writer  after  the 
season  of  white  frosts  had  arrived  to  fasten  out  the  flock  from  the  rape  in  the 
evening  until  the  crop  was  almost  or  quite  dry  the  following  morning.  Many 
rape  feeders  disregard  this  precaution,  claiming  that  after  sheep  become  accus- 
tomed to  it  rape  feeding  is  not  attended  with  danger.  A  feed  each  morning 
of  oats  and  bran  goes  a  long  way  toward  preventing  untoward  results.  Experi- 
enced feeders  have  found  that  irregular  salting  greatly  increases  the  danger  from 
illness  when  sheep  are  on  rape.  A  feeder  who  lost  sheep  after  each  salting  found 
a  complete  remedy  in  withholding  salt  altogether  while  rape  was  being  pastured. 

It  is  estimated  that  an  acre  of  rape  pastured  by  forty  head  of  thrifty  lambs, 
receiving  a  moderate  grain  ration  daily  will  yield  400  pounds  of  mutton. 

As  a  soiling  crop  rape  is  an  excellent  mutton  maker.  As  soon  as  the  plants 
are  well  grown  they  may  be  mown  with  a  scythe  or  reap  hook,  to  be  hauled  to 
the  flock  either  in  a  shed  or  pasture.  If  sown  in  May  it  should  be  ready  to  cut 
and  feed  in  July,  and  at  the  least  one  more  cutting  may  be  expected  during  the 
fall.  It  should  be  cut  not  lower  than  four  inches  from  the  ground,  which  will 
leave  stumps  that  will  produce  a  strong  second  growth.  Provided  over-feeding 
is  avoided,  there  is  comparatively  little  risk  attending  soiling  sheep  on  rape. 

Bloat  is  the  most  common  trouble  in  rape  feeding.  When  noticed  in  the 
first  stages  the  subject  should  at  once  be  removed  from  the  rape.  Salt  and 
water  given  as  a  drench  is  a  simple  and  much  used  treatment.  A  pint  of  strong 
solution  in  which  all  the  salt  is  dissolved  constitutes  a  dose  for  a  full-grown  sheep. 
Aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  is  also  a  good  medicine  for  this  trouble.  A  table- 
spoonful  in  a  pint  of  warm  water  will  usually  afford  relief.  If  the  case  is  so  far 
advanced  that  the  subject  is  down  and  the  abdomen  much  distended,  then  the 
latter  should  be  punctured  at  the  point  of  greatest  swelling  with  a  trocar  and 
canula.  If,  however,  one  has  insufficient  confidence  in  his  surgical  ability  to 
perform  this  comparatively  simple  operation,  it  may  be  advisable,  if  recovery 
otherwise  appears  improbable,  to  adopt  the  time-honoured  policy  of  killing  the 
animal  to  save  its  life. 


74 

Cabbage 

Cabbage  has  long  been  used  as  a  food  for  sheep.  This  crop  is  easily  grown, 
produces  heavy  yields  and  provides  an  excellent  fodder  from  early  fall  until 
well  on  in  December. 

Cabbages  are  grown  by  the  same  system  as  roots  or  rape.  The  ground 
should  be  worked  up  and  manured  the  previous  autumn.  The  seed  is  sown  as 
early  in  spring  as  the  ground  is  fit  and  the  weather  has  become  favourable  for 
growth.  The  date  of  seeding  is  about  the  same  as  for  carrots  or  mangels.  The 
ground  should  be  finely  prepared,  and  the  seed  sown  in  drills  about  thirty  inches 
apart.  After  the  plants  appear  above  ground  cultivation  should  commence,  and 
when  the  second  leaves  have  appeared,  the  plants  should  be  thinned  out  to  about 
eighteen  inches  in  the  drill.  Frequent  cultivation  during  the  season  will  insure 
rapid  growth  and  an  abundant  yield  of  excellent  fodder.  From  18  to  20  tons 
per  acre  is  not  too  much  to  expect  on  rich  soil  with  a  heavy  yielding  variety. 

The  crop  is  ready  for  feeding  when  the  heads  are  well  formed  and  have 
become  firm.  It  may  be  fed  from  the  field  until  the  time  turnips  are  harvested, 
when  it  should  be  stored  in  a  pit  or  shed  sufficiently  protected  to  keep  out  hard 
frost  but  well  enough  ventilated  to  guard  against  heating. 

Cabbages  may  be  fed  on  the  pasture  or  in  troughs  in  a  shed.  While  the 
sheep  will  consume  them  from  the  whole  head,  it  is  preferable  to  divide  them 
into  comparatively  small  pieces  in  order  to  be  more  easily  eaten.  For  giving 
variety  to  the  ration  or  adding  a  valuable  succulent  food,  cabbage  fills  an 
important  place  on  the  sheep  farm. 

Turnips 

In  many  of  the  most  successful  sheep  raising  countries  turnips  are  con- 
sidered almost  as  indispensable  as  grass.  In  Great  Britain  turnips  constitute 
an  important  part  of  the  ration  of  the  sheep  flocks  from  the  time  the  crop  is 
ready  to  use  in  the  autumn  until  grass  arrives  in  the  following  spring.  To 
fattening  sheep  and  growing  stock  they  are  fed  in  practically  unlimited  quanti- 
ties, but  for  breeding  ewes  turnips  are  considered  a  necessary  part  of  the  ration. 
In  Canada  many  successful  sheep  raisers  feed  turnips.  The  excellence  of  many 
pure-bred  flocks  in  which  international  prize  winners  are  reared  is  in  great 
measure  due  to  the  liberal  use  of  succulent  foods,  and  no  other  green  crop  is  so 
generally  used  as  turnips  in  the  winter  season.  Apart  from  their  food  con- 
stituents turnips  have  a  wonderful  effect  in  maintaining  a  vigorous  condition  of 
the  digestive  organs  and  general  system. 

Young  lambs  born  in  the  winter  or  early  spring  are  greatly  benefited  by 
liberal  feedings  of  finely  sliced  turnips  until  grass  arrives.  Not  only  are  the 
lambs  started  into  vigorous  growth,  but  their  dams  are  relieved  from  much 
worry  and  tugging. 

Previous  to  lambing,  ewes  should  not  be  heavily  fed  upon  turnips  or  other 
roots;  from  2  to  3  pounds  per  day  are  very  beneficial,  but  much  more  than  this 
quantity  is  liable  to  cause  abnormally  large,  soft  lambs,  deficient  in  vitality. 
After  lambing,  the  turnip  ration  may  be  gradually  increased  even  to  as  much  as 
will  be  eaten  twice  or  three  times  a  day,  provided,  of  course,  sufficient  nourishing 
dry  food  is  given  as  well.  The  turnips  keep  the  ewes  in  fine  vigour  and  greatly 
help  the  milk  flow. 

Growing  and  fattening  sheep  may  be  liberally  fed  on  turnips,  with  a  suitable 
grain  ration  with  such  roughage  as  clover  hay  and  pea  straw.  A  ration  of  turnips 
is  of  great  assistance  in  building  up  young  growing  stock  and  fattening  animals. 

A  good  method  of  preparing  turnips  for  sheep  is  to  cut  them  in  strips  with  an 
ordinary  machine  cutter,  or  they  may  be  pulped.  In  the  latter  condition  the 
roots  may  be  mixed  with  chaffed  straw,  rendering  the  latter  more  palatable 
than  when  fed  dry. 


75 
Mangels 

In  localities  better  suited  for  the  growing  of  mangels  than  turnips  the  former 
crop  may  be  to  some  extent  utilized  for  sheep  feeding  if  certain  precautions  are 
observed. 

For  some  reason,  probably  the  large  quantity  of  sugar  contained  in  mangels 
and  beets,  these  roots  when  fed  heavily  to  sheep  bring  about  an  unhealthy  con- 
dition of  the  kidneys  and  other  organs.  Ths  is  particularly  true  in  the  early 
part  of  the  winter,  and  even  up  to  the  spring  months,  breeding  sheep,  particularly 
rams,  should  not  be  heavily  fed  upon  this  food.  In  the  absence  of  turnips  a  few 
pounds  per  day  of  mangels  may  be  given  with  advantage.  As  spring  approaches 
they  become  less  dangerous,  and  by  April  they  may  be  fed  quite  generously 
except  to  rams. 

For  late  spring  feeding,  mangels  are  given  preference  over  turnips  by  many 
expert  sheepmen  for  the  chief  reason  of  their  excellent  keeping  quality  Even 
well  into  the  warm  weather  they  retain  their  crispness  and  flavour  when  properly 
housed  or  pitted.  Many  turnip-growing  sheep  farmers  in  Great  Britain  and  in 
Canada  reserve  a  pit  or  cellar  of  "  Globe  Mangels  "  for  May  feeding,  and  it  is 
not  uncommon  to  find  this  root  composing  a  part  of  the  daily  ration  of  show 
sheep  even  up  to  the  middle  of  June.  The  preparation  of  mangels  for  feeding  is 
the  same  as  already  described  for  turnips. 

Corn 

Corn  is  very  widely  used  for  feeding  sheep.  In  corn-growing  sections  no 
grain  is  more  used  than  corn  for  fattening  sheep  and  lambs.  For  soiling  in  the 
fall  green  corn  is  an  excellent  fodder  plant,  and  corn  ensilage  fills  a  place  on  the 
sheep  farm. 

Corn  is  not  a  suitable  grain  to  feed  alone  unless  in  very  small  quantities  to 
improve  a  ration  of  hay  and  roots.  Sheep  fed  on  corn  alone  are  liable  to  go  off 
their  appetities  and  become  ill  from  digestive  derangements. 

Corn  should  invariably  be  fed  to  sheep  mixed  with  other  grain.  In  an 
experiment  in  feeding  whole  corn,  corn  and  peas,  corn  and  oats,  and  corn,  peas 
and  oats  to  lambs  in  addition  to  hay,  the  corn  gave  the  poorest  results  of  all  in 
gains.  The  average  weekly  gains  per  lamb  were  as  follows:  Corn,  2-6  pounds; 
corn  and  oats,  2-7  pounds;  corn  and  peas,  3-15  pounds.  A  mixture  of  peas, 
oats  and  corn  in  equal  quantities  fed  with  hay  gave  a  weekly  gain  of  3  pounds 
per  head.  Bran,  oats  and  corn  fed  under  similar  circumstances  gave  a  weekly 
average  gain  of  2-3  pounds.  If  to  this  ration  some  such  succulent  food  as  turnips 
or  mangels  had  been  added,  with  a  small  proportion  of  oil  cake,  an  ideal  fatten- 
ing ration  would  have  been  compiled. 

During  the  season  of  failing  pastures  in  the  autumn  a  daily  feed  of  green 
corn  is  useful  for  keeping  up  the  flock.  The  corn  should  be  put  through  a  cutting 
box  and  fed  in  troughs.  A  small  quantity  of  bran  mixed  with  the  cut  corn 
adds  delicacy  and  feeding  value  to  the  ration. 

Corn  Silage 

Silage  is  fed  to  sheep  on  many  farms.  When  well  preserved  it  is  -elished 
by  the  animals,  and  affords  a  valuable  succulent  food.  From  3  to  4  pounds  per 
head  daily  is  about  as  much  as  experienced  sheepmen  care  to  feed.  Fed  in 
larger  quantities,  or  if  too  acid,  it  is  liable  to  cause  serious  indigestion.  At  this 
rate  silage  fed  with  clover  hay  comprises  an  excellent  ration  for  wintering  ewes, 
and  when  to  this  a  grain  ration  is  added  a  profitable  fattening  ration  is  secured. 


76 

In  experimental  feeding  corn  silage  was  found  to  be  about  equal  to  mangels 
for  ewes  rearing  lambs.  The  lambs  made  slightly  better  gain  when  roots  were 
fed  to  their  dams,  but  the  silage  was  produced  at  a  slightly  lower  cost.  The 
feeding  value  of  good  silage  and  roots  for  sheep,  according  to  experiment  station 
tests,  is  about  equal.  When  fed  with  caution  they  give  similar  results  on  the 
ordinary  farm  but  for  general  practice  on  the  Canadian  farm  no  succulent 
food  can  equal  swede  turnips,  on  account  of  their  safety  and  beneficial  influence 
upon  the  stock.  The  variation  experienced  in  the  maturity  and  other  qualities 
of  corn  silage  renders  it  less  uniform  in  its  results  for  sheep  feeding.  When 
rich  in  grain  it  is  too  heating,  and  when  immature  it  is  too  acid  to  be  easily 
digested  or  keenly  relished.  Where  roots  are  not  available  silage  fed  sparingly 
is  a  fine  substitute,  or  the  two  foods  may  be  fed  alternately  during  the  housing 
season. 

Peas 

Peas  constitute  a  very  important  crop  on  the  sheep  farm.  They  are  useful 
as  a  soiling  crop,  they  are  fed  unthreshed  to  fattening  stock,  as  a  grain  they  are 
highly  valuable  when  mixed  with  oats,  and  as  a  cheap  fodder  no  class  of  straw 
can  surpass  well  saved  pea  straw  for  wintering  ewes. 

As  a  soiling  crop,  peas  are  frequently  sown  with  oats,  or  oats  and  tares. 
Sheep  delight  in  a  leafy  food,  and  leave  only  the  coarsest  of  the  bare  pea  vines 
in  the  rack.  A  bushel  of  oats,  a  bushel  of  peas  and  half  a  bushel  of  tares  per 
acre  constitute  a  seeding  for  a  fine  mixture  to  be  fed  as  a  soiling  crop. 

Good  judgment  and  much  caution  are  required  in  feeding  unthreshed, 
mature  peas  to  sheep.  If  given  too  liberally  there  is  likely  to  be  a  loss  of 
animals  from  over-feeding.  By  commencing  with  a  small  quantity,  well  dis- 
tributed, the  sheep  will  gradually  become  accustomed  to  this  food,  when  it 
may  be  cautiously  increased.  For  fattening  sheep  or  milking  ewes  peas  fed 
in  the  straw  give  excellent  results. 

There  is  probably  no  grain  ration  that  can  surpass  a  mixture  of  one  part 
peas  (preferably  cracked) ,  two  parts  oats  and  one  part  wheat  bran.  This  mix- 
ture is  well  balanced  in  essential  food  constituents,  is  sufficiently  light  to  be 
readily  digested  and  it  is  much  relished  by  the  stock.  From  half  a  pint  to  a 
pint  per  day  is  a  moderate  ration  according  to  the  size  of  the  animals  and  the 
object  in  view. 

Many  of  the  best  flocks  of  breeding  ewes  are  wintered  upon  pea  straw 
as  the  rough  diet.  If  the  peas  have  been  harvested  on  the  green  side  by  a 
harvester  that  cuts  the  crop,  and  taken  off  without  bad  weather,  the  resulting 
pea  straw  is  much  liked  and  very  nourishing.  If  the  ewes  come  into  winter 
quarters  in  good  condition  they  will  require  little  else  than  roots  and  good 
pea  straw  until  approaching  the  lambing  period  when  clover  hay  should  be 
gradually  substituted  for  the  straw.  Ewes  that  are  thin  should  have  at  least 
one  feed  of  clover  hay  each  day  or  a  small  ration  in  addition  to  the  pea  straw. 

Pea  straw  is  bulky  stuff  to  feed  in  racks,  and  unless  the  racks  are  roomy, 
and  the  bars  so  far  apart  that  the  sheep  can  insert  their  heads,  it  is  preferable 
to  feed  the  straw  on  the  ground  in  the  yards  close  up  to  the  fences.  If  crowded 
tight  against  the  fence  the  straw  will  be  thoroughly  picked  over  before  being 
soiled.  When  feeding  pea  straw,  or  other  chaffy  fodder,  great  care  should  be 
exercised  to  keep  the  litter  out  of  the  fleeces  of  the  sheep. 


77 

Oilcake 

Oilcake  is  a  favourite  on  the  majority  of  the  leading  sheep  farms  of  Great 
Britain  and  many  of  those  in  Canada.  This  nutritious  by-product  of  linseed  oil 
works,  known  as  "  cake  "  by  the  British  shepherd,  is  peculiarly  adapted  for 
sheep  and  lambs  being  hastened  forward  for  the  show  ring  or  for  market.  It 
is  not  only  highly  palatable  and  rich  in  protein — flesh-forming  material — but 
is  pre-eminently  a  safe  food.  It  is  mildly  laxative  and  exercises  a  salutary 
influence  upon  the  digestive  organs.  It  may  be  mixed  with  any  kind  or  mixture 
of  grain  or  chop,  but  on  account  of  its  highly  nitrogenous  nature  it  is  peculiarly 
adapted  for  feeding  with  corn.  The  feeding  of.  oilcake  gives  thrift  to  sheep, 
enabling  them  to  make  the  maximum  gain  from  their  ration  of  whatever  sort. 

Oilcake  in  the  finely  nutted  form  is  excellent  food  for  lambs,  particularly 
before  grass  arrives  in  the  spring.  A  limited  amount,  from  a  quarter  to  half 
a  pound  each,  is  excellent  for  breeding  ewes  or  other  sheep  being  wintered  on 
dry  feed.  For  fattening  lambs  or  show  sheep  it  may  with  advantage  be  used 
in  generous  quantities.  As  a  rule  it  should  be  mixed  with  grain  and  may  form 
from  one-tenth  to  one-quarter  of  the  grain  ration,  according  to  the  relative 
market  values  of  various  feeds. 

Oats 

Oats  should,  and  usually  do,  form  the  basis  of  grain  mixtures  for  sheep 
feeding.  They  are  palatable,  highly  nourishing  and  safe,  and  being  easily 
grown  they  are  usually  at  hand  on  every  arable  sheep  farm.  As  a  single  grain 
food  oats  answer  practically  every  requirement.  Whether  for  toning  up  breed- 
ing stock,  fitting  show  sheep  or  fattening  for  market,  oats  is  the  most  com- 
monly fed  grain  used  for  sheep. 

For  young  lambs  just  commencing  to  eat  no  better  grain  can  be  found  than 
ground  oats,  with  the  coarsest  of  the  hulls  sifted  out.  In  a  few  weeks  the 
lambs  will  take  them,  hulls  and  all,  and  as  a  rule  thrive  well.  To  hasten  fatten- 
ing for  market  a  mixture  composed  of  oats,  cracked  corn  or  peas  and  oilcake 
in  the  nut  form,  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  2,  2  and  1  parts  by  weight  can 
hardly  be  surpassed.  Lambs  on  their  mothers  may  safely  be  given  access  to 
a  mixture  of  this  sort.  Breeding  ewes  may  safely  receive  one  pound  of  oats 
daily  before  lambing,  and  a  larger  amount  of  oats  or  the  mixture  recommended 
for  lambs  afterwards  until  they  go  to  pasture. 

For  sheep  that  are  being  fattened  oats  may  constitute  the  sole  grain  ration, 
as  after  a  short  time  they  may  be  given  about  all  they  will  clean  up  without 
risk  of  sickness.  More  rapid  gains  may  be  secured  from  the  addition  of  peas, 
corn  or  oilcake.  If  the  oats  predominate  and  the  whole  is  well  mixed  heavy 
feeding  may  be  carried  on  without  much  risk. 

As  a  soiling  crop  a  mixture  of  green  oats,  peas  and  tares  is  much  relished  and 
very  nourishing.  A  seeding  mixture  of  two  parts  oats,  two  parts  peas  and  one 
part  tares,  bjr  measure,  sown  at  the  rate  of  three  bushels  per  acre,  yields  a  heavy 
and  valuable  fodder  crop.  In  order  to  secure  several  weeks'  feeding  in  good 
condition  seeding  should  be  done  at  intervals  of  one  week  from  as  early  in 
spring  as  seeding  can  be  done  for  about  six  weeks.  The  crop  may  be  fed  in 
racks  in  sheds  or  pastures,  or  even  distributed  in  rows  on  knolls  or  along  fence 
sides.  At  a  time  of  failing  pasture  a  few  weeks  of  soiling  is  highly  valuable 
for  keeping  up  the  condition  of  the  flock.  Oats  for  soiling  are  at  their  best  when 
headed  out  and  have  reached  the  milk  stage. 


78 

SHEEP  BARNS 

Sheep  originally  belonged  to  the  uplands,  where  they  were  able  to  obtain 
pure  air  and  the  maximum  of  sunlight.  Under  domestication  sheep  prefer  dry 
airy  fields  and  quarters,  and  do  badly  if  deprived  of  these  conditions.  In  the 
pasture  the  sleeping  place  of  the  flock  is  invariably  the  dryest  knoll  accessible, 
even  when  other  classes  of  stock  would  seek  more  sheltered  quarters.  In  the 
old  world  sheep  are  comparatively  little  housed,  especially  in  Great  Britain.  In 
Canada,  what  with  cold  winters,  inclement  autumns  and  spring,  a  certain  amount 
of  housing  is  necessary  in  order  to  produce  wool  and  mutton  of  the  highest 
quality  at  the  least  cost. 

On  the  Canadian  farm  the  sheep  house  is  generally  the  cheapest  and  poorest 
of  the  stock  buildings.  A  house  that  keeps  the  sheep  dry  and  out  of  the  wind 
answers  the  requirements.  Over  zealous  sheep  men  of  limited  experience  occa- 
sionally provide  expensive  barns  badly  suited  for  sheep  housing  because  of  a 
lack  of  provision  for  proper  ventilation.  The  main  features  of  a  sheep  barn 
are  the  following:  good  ventilation  without  draughts,  sunlight,  convenience  for 
feeding,  adjustable  divisions,  capacity  for  storing  hay,  grain  and  roots,  and 
above  all  a  tight  roof  and  a  well-drained  location. 

The  dimensions  of  a  barn  will  depend  on  the  size  of  the  flock.  For  breed- 
ing stock  a  space  per  head  of  at  least  twelve  square  feet  is  required,  and  eighteen 
is  not  too  much  for  large  ewes.  However,  a  barn  40  x  40  feet  laid  out  as  shown 
in  Fig.  53  should  accommodate  from  sixty  to  seventy-five  head. 

Plan  Described 

Movable  feed  racks  sixteen  inches  wide  are  desirable.  These  may  form  the 
divisions,  leaving  an  alley  three  feet  wide  on  two  sides  of  each  pen.  They 
should  have  perpendicular  sides  with  slats  on  the  feeding  side  far  enough  apart 
to  allow  the  sheep  to  put  their  heads  through.  When  arranged  this  way  the 
sheep  do  not  pick  the  food  out  to  become  trodden  under  foot  and  wasted.  Where 
the  attendant  has  to  go  in  among  the  sheep  to  distribute  the  feed,  there  is  always 
more  or  less  annoyance  and  loss  from  litter  or  chaff  getting  into  the  fleece.  The 
feed  room  is  so  situated  that  the  root-house  door  opens  into  it  and  the  feed  from 
above  comes  down  in  chutes. 

The  doors  are  large  enough  to  permit  of  a  wagon  passing  through  to  take 
out  the  manure.  In  fine  weather  the  upper  half  of  the  doors  may  be  kept  open. 
The  windows  permit  plenty  of  light.  The  lamb  pens  are  simply  hurdles  4  to  5 
feet  long  and  3  feet  high,  hinged  together.  A  pair  of  these  placed  in  a  corner 
form  a  pen.  In  cold  weather  for  protecting  young  lambs  a  pen  can  be  closed 
in  by  hanging  burlap  or  heavy  cotton  from  the  ceiling  to  the  racks  or  even 
to  the  floor. 

Construction 

Any  style  of  construction  suitable  for  other  buildings  is  satisfactory  for  a 
sheep  house.  A  somewhat  new  form  of  barn  which  is  proving  satisfactory  where 
used  is  represented  in  Figs.  55  and  56.  It  has  a  semi-circular  or  oval  roof,  so 
constructed  as  to  require  no  dimension  timber,  and  at  the  same  time  is  self- 
supporting,  requiring  no  posts  on  the  barn  floor.  This  form  of  construction 
requires  a  minimum  of  lumber,  thus  saving  much  in  cost  of  material.  In  addi- 
tion no  framing  is  necessary,  so  that  any  handy  man  cam  put  the  building  up  at 
a  much  less  cost  than  an  ordinary  framed  building  of  similar  dimensions  could 
be  built  for. 

For  foundation  walls,  stone  and  cement  concrete  are  the  common  materials 
now  used.  A  stone  wall  is  stronger  if  cement  mortar  is  used.  Cement  concrete 
is  the  cheapest  and  most  durable  in  the  end  if  properly  made.    The  foundation, 


79 


whether  pillars  at  intervals  or  a  continuous  wall,  should  be  put  below  the  frost 
line  on  solid  ground.  The  bottom  of  the  wall  should  be  widest,  and  the  slope 
upwards  should  be  gradual.  This  will  lessen  the  effect  of  frost  on  the  wall,  as 
the  ground  will  heave  away  from  it.  In  building  the  wall  make  preparation  for 
putting  in  a  modern  system  of  ventilation. 

The  accompanying  plan,  Figs.  53  and  54,  provides  for  a  cement  root  cellar, 
12  feet  square,  10  feet  high  at  the  barn,  and  7  feet  high  at  the  opposite  side. 
The  walls  are  1  foot  thick.  The  roof  of  the  root  house  is  also  of  cement,  and 
the  driveway  into  the  barn  is  over  it.  The  chute  for  filling  the  roots  into  the 
house  is  shown  in  the  plan  of  the  upper  floor,  Fig.  54.  This  may  be  placed 
where  desired,  even  in  the  barn  floor.  The  studding  of  the  walls  for  the  main 
barns  may  be  9  x  2-inch  studs,  which  will  leave  a  large,  dead  air  space,  but  6  x 


Fig.  53.— -Sheep  Barn,  Ground  Floor  Plan. 

3-inch  studs  leave  more  space  inside.  These  are  placed  two  feet  apart.  The 
girders  are  supported  by  posts  or  pillars  (either  of  wood  or  cement)  one  foot 
wide.  These  should  be  round  or  octagonal  in  form;  square  corners  do  much 
damage  if  animals  crowd  or  rush  against  them.  Planks  12  x  3  inches  and  long 
enough  to  allow  good  splicing  over  the  pillars  will  be  strong  enough.  Two  9  x 
2-inch  pieces  placed  2  inches  apart  and  strengthened  by  a  J-inch  iron  rod  as 
shown  in  the  dotted  line  crossing  the  building  in  Fig.  56  answer  well.  The  joists 
may  consist  of  9  x  2-inch  plank  about  14  feet  long.  The  walls  of  the  barn, 
which  are  13  feet  high,  may  have  the  same  sort  of  studding  as  used  below.  The 
studs  should  be  placed  three  feet  apart  and  project  one  inch  beyond  the  outer 
edge  of  the  lower  studding. 

For  the  outside,  rough  board  and  tar  paper  should  cover  the  first  story 
up  to  where  the  studs  of  the  second  story  project  one  inch,  then  clapboards 
cover  both  stories.  Inside,  the  wall  should  be  sheathed  and  the  ceiling  covered 
with  two  thicknesses  of  inch  tongued  and  grooved  lumber  with  tar  paper  between. 
This  covering  will  prevent  the  manure  odours  reaching  the  food  stored  above. 


80 

Doors  and  Windows 

The  doors  are  wide,  the  end  ones  being  six  feet  and  the  side  ones  seven  feet. 
These  permit  of  driving  in  to  clean  out  the  place,  and  give  liberal  room  in  case 
the  sheep  stampede,  as  they  often  do  if  frightened.  The  top  half  of  each  door 
is  hinged  above,  and  opens  inwards  and  upwards.    In  fine  weather  these  may  be 


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Fig.  54. — Plan  of  Upper  Floor. 


kept  fastened  up.  The  windows  are  large,  5x4  feet,  and  placed  high  up  to 
admit  the  maximum  amount  of  sunlight.  These  may  be  either  m  two  sections 
and  push  back  towards  each  other,  or  be  hinged  at  the  top  and  swing  inward 
like  the  top  half  of  the  doors. 

For  the  barn  floor,  a  single  floor,  except  over  the  driveway,  is  strong  enough. 
Dry  tongued  and  grooved  material  \\  inches  thick  and  well  nailed  makes  an 
excellent  floor.  The  driveway  part  should  be  covered  with  2-inch  plank  laid 
crosswise  of  the  driveway.  As  the  barn  can  be  filled  from  the  ends  it  is  not 
necessary  to  build  a  driveway  floor  more  than  half  way  through.  The  feed  chute 
is  3  x  3  feet,  and  the  grain  pipes  from  the  hoppers,  12  x  6  inches. 


81 
Construction   of  Roof 

The  roof  is  semi-circular  (see  Fig.  56).  The  planks  or  rafters  for  the 
frame  are  cut  with  a  diameter  two-thirds  the  width  of  the  building.  If  AC 
be  two-thirds  the  width,  then  the  arc  ALH  forms  one-half  the  roof  taking  C 
as  a  centre.  The  circle  DGH  forms  the  other  half  drawn  with  BD  as  diameter 
and  B  as  the  centre.  As  each  half  of  each  arch  is  framed  exactly  alike,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  explain  but  one.  Take  the  arc  DGH.  This  is  divided  into  three 
equal  parts,  HG,  GM,  and  MD.  By  measuring  the  length  of  one  of  these  divi- 
sions the  length  of  the  plank  necessary  will  be  found.    In  this  case  the  planks 


sr 


Fig.  55. — Longitudinal  Section. 


are  12  feet  long.  They  should  be  10  inches  wide  and  2  inches  thick.  Five  planks 
will  make  the  arch  or  one  rafter.  In  forming  the  arch  the  plank  should  be  wide 
enough  to  leave  at  least  2  inches  at  each  end  after  the  side  has  been  rounded 
off.  A  straight  line  passing  through  the  points  B  and  G  or  G  and  M  will  give 
the  cuts  at  the  points  G  and  M.  Three  pieces  form  the  side  and  two  pieces 
rounded  in  the  same  way  are  required  for  doubling  over  the  joints  at  G  and  M, 
meeting  at  N,  the  line  BN  giving  the  cut.  These  should  be  well  nailed  each 
to  the  other.  The  cut  at  H  is  obtainable  by  a  line  drawn  at  right  angles  to  the 
floor  and  from  the  centre  of  it.  The  cross  piece  PR  acts  as  a  brace  and  also 
carries  the  horse  fork.  The  eaves  project  2  feet  beyond  each  side  by  upright 
planks.  These  uprights  are  attached  by  braces  to  the  main  wall.  The  slope  in 
the  piece  marked  T  is  obtained  by  using  a  circle  with  the  same  two-thirds 
diameter  but  the  cut  is  taken  on  the  underside  of  the  plank  and  then  turned, 
concave  side  up.  Each  arch  can  be  framed  and  put  together  (always  well  nailed  I 
on  the  floor,  then  raised  into  place  and  spiked  at  the  bottom.  To  support  the 
arches  for  the  door  space,  a  plank  is  placed  across  under  them  and  supported  at 
each  side  by  upright  planks.  These  uprights  are  attached  by  braces  to  the  main 
wall.  Some  barn  doors  swing  out,  others  swing  in,  but  rolling  doors  carefully 
put  up  and  on  good  rollers  are  most  convenient  and  serviceable. 

35001—6 


82 

For  a  flock  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  sheep  a  building  20  feet  wide  by  30 
feet  long,  with  an  addition  of  a  suitable  yard,  will  be  large  enough.  The  plan 
of  construction  may  be  practically  the  same  as  in  the  larger  building,  but  pro- 
portionately lighter  planks  may  be  used  in  the  roof  construction. 


.■;  .„  :vfy, :<j  •  j . r*r. . .1  >, , >... .*. . rs -« -,  ■  iV.-: 


S^w 


Fig.  56. — Cross  Section. 


Ventilation 

Many  sheep  barns  are  ventilated  simply  by  the  doors  and  windows.  If  on 
two  sides  of  the  building  windows  are  left  partly  open  the  air  should  be  fairly 
pure  at  all  times.  Some  prefer  to  keep  the  windows  closed,  depending  on  a 
separate  system  of  ventilation. 

To-day  many  systems  of  ventilation  are  in  use.  Some  that  work  well  in  one 
place  are  said  to  fail  in  others.  Much  depends  on  a  careful  installation  of  the 
system,  and  afterwards  careful  handling.  At  the  Experimental  Farm  at  Ottawa, 
many  of  the  best  systems  have  been  tried.  The  "Rutherford"  system,  illustrated 
in  Fig.  57  and  described  below,  has  proved  most  satisfactory.  In  a  slightly 
modified  form  it  has  replaced  all  the  others.  In  this  system  6  "U"  tubes,  or  boxes, 
18  by  9  inches,  take  the  air  from  the  outside,  and  deliver  it  at  the  floor  inside. 
These  tiles  or  boxes  are  brought  up  the  wall  on  the  outside  a  couple  of  feet, 
and  to  keep  the  snow  and  rain  out  a  board  is  put  on  to  form  a  roof,  leaving  a 
portion  of  the  sides  open  to  an  extent  equal  to  the  capacity  of  the  pipe  or  box. 
The  boxes  should  go  down  into  the  earth  at  least  three  feet,  so  as  to  avoid  any 
possibility  of  draft.  The  opening  inside  is  at  the  floor  level  as  shown  in  Fig.  57. 
This  should  be  protected  by  an  iron  grating.  Or  the  pipe  may  project  a  few 
inches  above  the  floor,  the  opening  at  the  sides  being  covered  with  wire  screens, 
as  shown  in  the  longitudinal  section,  Fig.  55.  This  allows  a  free  passage  of  the 
air  and  keeps  straw  and  other  material  out  of  the  tubes. 


83 

The  outlet  is  a  double-walled  tube  having  a  dead-air  space  between. 
It  is  2\  feet  square,  and  both  the  outer  and  inner  jackets  are  tongued  and 
grooved  lumber.  The  double  wall  with  the  dead  air  space  reduces  condensation 
to  a  minimum  and  promotes  a  better  draught.  The  draught  is  regulated  by  a 
damper  in  the  out-take  chute  to  which  control  ropes  are  attached.  By  closing 
this  damper  the  outward  current  is  stopped  and  the  inflow  very  materially 
checked.    The  closer  the  barn  is  built  the  better  the  system  will  work. 

The  drawing  on  the  left  hand  represents  the  damper  in  the  out-take  pipe 
open,  and  the  system  therefore  in  full  operation.  The  drawing  on  the  right 
shows  the  damper  closed,  under  which  condition  both  the  intake  and  the  out-take 
are  inoperative. 


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FlG.  57. — The  Rutherford  System  of  Ventilation. 

A.— Wall  of  stable. 

B. — Foundation  of  stable. 

C. — Floor  level. 

D. — Intake  box  through  which  fresh  air  passes. 

E. — Opening  in  side  of  intake  pipe. 


An  Inexpensive  Shed 

The  barn  described  is  fashioned  after  the  ideas  of  extensive  sheep  owners 
having  pure-bred  flocks.  It  is  built  rather  more  substantially  than  would  be 
necessary  for  a  commercial  flock  from  which  early  lambs  are  not  yielded  Many 
excellent  flocks  of  sheep  are  wintered  in  simple  sheds,  facing  the  south,  open 
in  front  and  closed  tightly  at  the  ends  and  back.  It  is  well  also  to  have  the 
front  closed  a  short  distance  from  either  end.  Such  a  shed  should  not  be 
less  than  20  feet  wide.  A  building  50  feet  long,  if  provided  with  a  comfortable 
vard,  would  accommodate  85  to  90  head  of  medium  sized  sheep.  The  feed  racks 
may  be  movable  and  stand  across  the  building  in  pairs  four  feet  or  more 
apart,  forming  passages  for  feeding,  or  they  may  be  constructed  against  the 
back  wall.  Unless  the  sheep  can  be  penned  out  of  the  building  when  the  feed 
is  being  distributed  the  cross  racks  are  preferable,  as  then  the  feeder  is 
crowded  off  his  legs  by  the  hungry  animals,  nor  are  the  sheep  in  danger  of  having 
their  fleeces  littered  with  fodder.  These  racks  may  be  used  for  hay,  gram 
and  chopped  roots.     They  should,  therefore,  be  built  with  close  bottoms  and 

35001— Qi 


84 

sides,  the  latter  about  3  to  4  inches  high.  The  sides  should  be  slatted  about 
9  inches  apart,  so  that  the  sheep  may  poke  their  heads  through  while  feeding. 
Racks  made  in  this  way  save  feed  from  being  trodden  under  foot  and  each 
sheep  is  able  to  hold  its  position  at  meal  time.  Such  coarse  fodder  as  pea  straw, 
or  like  material,  may  be  fed  on  the  ground  in  the  outer  yard.  If  placed  along 
the  fences,  in  not  too  large  quantities  at  a  time,  it  will  be  carefully  picked  over 
without  waste.    What  is  left  may  be  gathered  up  to  be  used  for  bedding. 


Fig.  58. — An  Inexpensive  Sheep  Shed. 

Even  though  the  front  of  the  shed  is  open  a  good  sized  window  at  each 
end  and  two  or  more  at  the  back  are  desirable.  A  stock  barn  of  any  kind  cannot 
have  too  much  light  and  there  are  times  when  a  cool  breeze  from  the  north 
affords  great  comfort  to  the  stock. 


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FiG.  59.— Floor  Plan  of  Shed. 


Any  sort  of  cheap  construction  that  provides  the  qualifications  of  durability 
and  freedom  from  draughts  answers  well.  The  walls  may  consist  of  a  single 
ply  of  inch  lumber  well  nailed  on  to  a  scantling  frame,  battened  on  the  outside 
and  lined  with  tarred  paper,  which  may  be  held  on  by  cull  lumber  as  high  as  the 
sheep  can  reach,  and  by  strips  above  that  line.  The  roof  must  be  close  and 
the  floor  dry.  With  these  qualifications  the  cheap  house  described  and  illus- 
trated in  Figs.  58  and  59  fulfils  all  the  actual  requirements  of  a  sheep  barn, 
unless  one  raises  early  lambs.  In  such  a  case  warmer  quarters  provided  with 
small  divisions  and  conveniences  are  necessary. 


85 
Sheep   as  Weed  Destroyers 

The  variety-loving  habits  of  sheep  in  the  matter  of  diet  render  them  very 
useful  in  destroying  weeds  that  give  trouble  in  crop  growing.  It  is  a  well  under- 
stood fact  that  the  sheep-raising  farmers  have  the  cleanest  as  well  as  the  richest 
farms.  It  is  calculated  that  fully  ninety  per  cent  of  the  troublesome  weeds 
are  readily  eaten  by  sheep,  and  these  include  practically  all  of  the  kinds  that 
demand  special  methods  of  cultivation  on  many  Canadian  farms.  With  intelli- 
gent management  cropped  land  may  be  entirely  cleaned  of  nearly  all  weeds, 
while  the  few  that  remain  will  be  so  thoroughly  kept  in  check  as  to  give  little 
trouble.  If  allowed  to  act  as  scavengers,  sheep  will  render  excellent  service  in 
the  wrork  of  cleaning  up  permanent  pastures,  private  roads,  fence  borders  and 
other  out  of  the  way  places,  and  if  turned  on  stubble  following  a  grain  crop 
many  late  seeding  weed  plants  will  be  nipped  off  and  turned  into  mutton. 

The  broad  statement,  that  sheep  consume  a  large  percentage  of  farm  weeds, 
is  too  general  to  be  very  instructive.  In  the  preparation  of  this  bulletin  a 
number  of  successful  sheep  men  were  consulted  with  a  view  of  securing  specific 
information  upon  the  weed  question,  based  upon  experience  and  observation.  In 
the  following  paragraphs  these  authorities  tell  their  own  stories. 

Sheep   Improve  the  Grade   of  Wheat 

A.  D.  Gamley,  Man. — "  I  feel  ashamed  that  after  keeping  sheep  so  many 
years  I  am  unable  to  give  you  the  names  of  all  the  noxious  weeds  sheep  will 
destroy,  but  I  have  no  doubt  the  reason  is  on  account  of  the  sheep.  These 
weeds  never  bothered  me  much,  and  in  this  respect  I  was  not  observant;  how- 
ever, it  seems  to  me  that  they  eat  them  all  with  the  exception  of  the  blue  burr 
and  thistles.  Before  coming  here  from  Brandon  I  kept  from  100  to  120  breeding 
ewes,  and  had  unlimited  pasture  where  they  were  herded  from  seven  in  the 
morning  until  five  or  six  in  the  evening,  when  they  were  turned  into  a  seventy- 
acre  pasture  field,  and  where  they  also  remained  on  wet  days.  There  never  was 
a  weed  to  be  seen  in  this  pasture.  In  the  fall  after  the  grain  was  stacked  they 
were  turned  on  to  the  summer  fallow  which  had  grown  heavy  with  weeds. 
Because  I  had  no  fencing  then  I  could  not  turn  in  the  sheep  until  the  grain  was 
nearly  all  stacked;  in  a  very  short  time  the  fields  would  be  as  bare  as  a  billiard 
table.  I  might  say  that  in  one  or  two  years  when  wheat  was  being  docked  from 
two  bushels  to  five  and  seven  bushels  to  the  load,  I  was  shipping  my  own  wheat 
from  Martinville  and  had  the  grade  certificates  come  back  marked  no  dockage, 
and  one  per  cent  is  all  I  was  ever  docked.  My  summer  fallow  would  be  from 
40  to  70  acres,  and  at  times  would  have  from  175  to  240  head,  including  lambs, 
feeding  upon  it. 

"  I  might  mention  an  incident  that  occurred  this  summer,  and  which  taught 
me  a  lesson.  I  had  two  or  three  acres  of  rape  sown  with  the  ordinary  grain  drill 
but  with  only  a  few  holes  left  open.  I  mixed  the  rape  with  oats  that  got  badly 
heated  in  the  granary,  and  which  I  thought  would  not  grow,  but  they  grew.  I 
ran  the  cultivator  through  once  but  had  no  time  to  do  it  again.  The  sheep, 
happening  to  get  on  it  one  day,  I  noticed  that  they  ate  the  oats  and  left  the 
rape,  so  I  put  them  on  an  hour  every  day  until  the  patch  was  rid  of  oats  and 
other  weeds  and  only  the  rape  left.  I  did  the  same  with  the  potato  patch,  and 
they  cleaned  that  up.  They  will  not  eat  potato  tops,  at  least  not  until  late  in 
the  summer.  There  is  not  the  slighest  doubt  that  if  a  farm  is  fenced  so  that 
sheep  can  be  put  just  where  wanted  they  cannot  be  beaten  for  ridding  a  farm 
of  weeds,  and  I  think  they  and  the  growing  of  barley  are  the  only  solution  to 
the  wild  oat  problem. 


86 

"  With  regard  to  hay,  sheep  will  eat  most  of  the  weeds  in  the  hay,  before  the 
hay;  they  pick  the  weeds  out  first.  They  are  not  over-fond  of  stink  weed,  a 
very  troublesome  plant  in  Manitoba,  but  will  feed  on  it  when  young,  and  will 
eat  off  the  seeds  after  the  plant  has  matured." 

Blue  Weed   and  Wild  Mustard 

Richard  Gibson,  Ont. — "  My  first  experience  with  sheep  as  land  cleaners  was 
on  an  abandoned  farm  on  Long  Island,  on  which  grew  a  quantity  of  second 
growth  scrub  difficult  to  subdue.  We  cut  down  the  scrub  growth  and  put  on 
sheep  to  keep  down  the  following  year's  sprouts.  For  the  purpose  we  had 
Atwood  Merinos  and  imported  English  sheep  of  the  mutton  persuasion.  The 
Merinos  were  infinitely  better  for  the  purpose  than  my  English  favourites.  They 
continued  to  work  day  after  day,  nibbling  here  and  there  wherever  a  sprout 
presented  itself.  The  English  breeds  on  the  other  hand  wanted  their  meals 
served  up  by  English  butlers;  give  them  good  grub  and  all  the  leisure  between 
meals  and  they  are  barons  of  their  order,  but  work  they  will  not. 

"  On  my  present  farm,  purchased  a  number  of  years  ago,  the  pastures  were 
overrun  with  the  weed  known  as  the  blue  weed,  locally  called  'blue  devil.'  One 
eighty  acres  was  a  complete  mass  of  blue  flowers,  admired  by  all  artists  or  poets 
who  passed  thereby.  I  doubt  if  to-day  100  plants  are  in  flower  on  those  eighty 
acres.  Sheep  alone  did  it,  and  registered  Shropshires  at  that.  The  sheep  disdain 
eating  this  plant  until  the  flowers  are  in  evidence,  then  they  nibble  the  heart  out, 
flowers  and  honey — not  a  bad  combination,  especially  for  sheep. 

"  I  believe  sheep  would  eradicate  wild  mustard  if  used  intelligently  for  that 
purpose.  They  are  very  fond  of  it  in  two  stages  of  its  growth  I  am  convinced. 
They  eat  it  readily  when  very  young  and  again  when  in  blossom.  I  cannot 
bear  this  out  from  experience  with  wild  mustard,  but  I  do  know  that  in  my  part 
of  Lincolnshire  white  mustard  was  extensively  used  as  a  forage  plant,  more 
particularly  for  breeding  ewes  during  the  autumn." 

Weeds  Increase  as   Sheep  Decrease 

John  Jackson,  Ont. — "I  might  name  a  few  of  the  noxious  weeds  that  sheep 
will  readily  eat  as  follows:  annual  sow  thistle,  oxeye  daisy,  rag  weed,  wild 
mustard,  wild  vetches,  and,  even  Canada  thistles  when  young  and  tender.  They 
will  also  eat  the  buds  and  flowers  of  thistles  when  in  the  latter  stage.  I  believe 
sheep  will  eat  about  ninety  per  cent  of  all  the  noxious  weeds  that  grow  on  the 
farm. 

"  The  best  way  to  handle  sheep  to  give  best  results  in  destroying  weeds  is 
to  put  them  on  when  the  weeds  are  young  and  tender,  allowing  them  to  pick 
everything  close  and  bare;  then  change  to  other  pasture,  allowing  the  weeds  to 
get  a  fresh  start.  Keep  up  this  alternate  system  so  the  sheep  will  get  the  weeds 
in  their  tender  stage  of  growth." 

Telfer  Bros.,  Ont. — "Too  much  cannot  be  said  in  favour  of  the  sheep  as  a 
weed  exterminator.  Rag  weed  is  very  common  throughout  the  country,  and  I 
am  of  the  opinion  that  were  more  sheep  kept  this  weed  could  be  practically  put 
out  of  business,  as  they  are  fond  of  it  in  its  earlier  stages  of  growth. 

"  I  have  had  good  results  in  pasturing  a  few  lambs  in  the  corn  fields.  They 
eat  many  of  the  weeds  and  do  little  or  no  damage  to  the  corn.  Our  observation 
leads  us  to  conclude  that  farmers  who  keep  sheep  have  very  much  cleaner  farms 
than  those  who  do  not,  and  this  we  attribute  to  the  fact  that  scarcely  any  weed 
escapes  them  even  if  pasture  is  plentiful." 

J.  W.  Clark,  Ont. — "As  weed  exterminators  sheep  have  no  equal,  being  very 
fond  of  nearly  all  weeds.  There  are  only  three  or  four  weeds  they  will  not  eat 
readily,  namely:  toad  flax,  orange  hawk  weed,  and  these  they  will  eat  if  pasture 


87 

is  not  very  plentiful.  They  are  very  fond  of  the  perennial  sow  thistle.  While 
I  have  not  had  experience  with  this  weed  on  my  farm,  while  going  through  the 
province  on  institute  work  many  farmers  have  claimed  that  the  sheep  would 
completely  eradicate  this  most  troublesome  weed  in  pasture  land,  keeping  it 
nipped  off  so  close  to  the  surface  that  it  could  not  exist  for  any  great  length  of 
time.  The  oxeye  daisy  is  another  weed  that  sheep  will  keep  in  control  on 
pasture  land.  Rib  grass,  sheep  are  very  fond  of  and  will  keep  in  check.  The 
rag  weed  can  be  kept  from  seeding  after  the  crop  is  harvested  by  a  good  flock  of 
sheep;  they  will  eat  the  tops  if  the  pasture  is  not  too  plentiful.  Too  much  can- 
not be  said  in  their  favour." 

A  number  of  other  correspondents  substantiate  in  a  general  way  the  infor- 
mation contained  in  the  above  letters.  Others  state  that  their  land  is  kept  so 
clean  of  weeds  by  sheep  as  to  render  it  impossible  to  make  observation  upon  the 
kinds  of  weeds  eaten  by  this  class  of  stock.  The  latter  is  probably  the  strongest 
evidence  one  could  have  of  the  value  of  sheep  as  an  aid  to  clean  farming. 

Ragwort — The   Source  of  Pictou  Cattle  Disease 

Certain  plants  that  are  prejudicial  to  the  health  of  other  classes  of  stock  may 
be  eaten  by  sheep  with  no  apparent  risk  or  inconvenience.  The  most  conspicuous 
example  of  this  class  of  weed  is  ragwort  {Senecio  Jacoboea),  a  plant  very  pre- 
valent in  Prince  Edward  Island  and  counties  of  Nova  Scotia  bordering  on  the 
Northumberland  Straits.  Through  experiments  conducted  on  a  large  farm  at 
Antigonish,  Nova  Scotia,  by  the  Health  of  Animals'  Branch  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture,  it  was  discovered  a  few  years  ago  that  the  fatal  Pictou  cattle 
disease  is  a  direct  result  of  the  continued  eating  of  this  weed  in  its  dried  state. 
Further  experiments  have  proved  not  only  that  sheep  are  not  harmed  by  eating 
ragwort,  but  they  enjoy  it  as  a  diet  to  such  an  extent  that  the  plant  soon  dis- 
appears from  an  infested  field  when  pastured  by  a  flock  of  sheep  of  sufficient 
numbers  to  adequately  cope  with  the  vegetation.  From  information  already 
secured  it  is  evident  that  while  this  weed  exists  as  at  present  over  the  infested 
areas,  cattle  raising  cannot  be  carried  on  without  careful  precaution  and  great 
risk.  Being  widespread  over  rugged  hillsides,  wood  lots  and  other  untillable 
areas,  the  only  practicable  method  of  eradication  is  through  the  agency  of  sheep. 
Fortunately  the  country  infested  is  well  suited  for  sheep  raising,  being  capable 
of  producing  an  abundance  of  winter  feed,  while  the  hilly  pastures  and  other 
rough  lands  are  admirably  adapted  to  this  class  of  stock.  As  weed  eradicators, 
sheep  can  perform  a  service  of  great  value  to  the  ragwort-infested  areas  of  the 
Maritime  Provinces. 


ANIMAL  ENEMIES  OF  THE  SHEEP 

The  Dog 

Fortunate  is  the  sheep  breeder  who  is  not  from  his  own  experience  com- 
pelled to  regard  the  roving  dog  as  the  natural  enemy  of  the  sheep.  Many  excel- 
lent flocks  have  been  ravished  and  ruined  by  sheep-killing  dogs,  and  their  owners 
discouraged  in  the  keeping  of  sheep.  For  the  decrease  of  sheep  in  all  parts  of 
Canada  the  annoyance  and  loss  from  dogs  is  given  as  the  chief  cause.  There 
is  perhaps  no  experience  on  the  farm  so  heart-breaking  to  the  shepherd 
as  to  find  in  the  morning  that  the  dogs  have  been  amongst  his  flock.  Upon 
going  to  the  field  he  finds  a  number  of  the  choicest  ewes  torn  and  bleeding  or 
killed  outright;  others  with  their  forearms  so  chewed  and  thighs  lacerated  as  to 
render  them  hopeless  cripples.  Those  not  bitten  are  so  exhausted,  frightened  and 
upset  as  to  be  practically  ruined  for  further  usefulness.  For  weeks  they  will 
start  and  rush  about  from  the  least  unusual  sound,  until  restful  feeding  and 


88 

thriving  is  out  of  the  question.  Nor  does  time  correct  the  evil.  Regular  breeding 
is  interfered  with  and  losses  at  lambing  time  are  greatly  increased.  Even  though 
a  hundred  per  cent  of  the  actual  damages  is  made  good  by  municipal  appro- 
priation for  the  killed  and  injured  animals,  the  loss  is  not  nearly  met.  The  writer 
can  speak  from  experience  on  this  point.  On  a  single  night  more  than  a  score 
of  breeding  ewes,  nearly  all  imported  from  Britain,  were  bitten  or  torn.  While 
the  immediate  fatalities  did  not  exceed  half  a  dozen  head,  the  damage  was 
estimated  to  be  sufficiently  large  to  warrant  the  council  in  granting  five  hundred 
and  twenty-five  dollars — to  the  council  a  large  appropriation,  but  to  the  flock 
owner  a  very  inadequate  compensation,  not  greater  in  proportion  than  one  thou- 
sand dollars'  insurance  on  the  loss  of  a  five  thousand  dollar  property.  The 
destruction  occurred  early  in  the  summer  while  the  lambs  were  young.  The  ewes 
went  off  their  milk,  and  being  restless  and  timid  failed  sadly  in  condition.  Many 
did  not  get  in  lamb  in  the  fall,  and  a  number  that  did  gave  endless  trouble  with 
each  succeeding  lambing  time  from  unnatural  presentations  and  losses  there- 
from. The  once  valuable  flock  selected  in  Britain  and  at  home  at  great  expense 
was  practically  ruined. 

The  experience  described  is  not  overdrawn,  as  very  many  sheep  owners  can 
affirm.  Unfortunately  only  sheep  men  can  appreciate  the  extent  of  injury  to  the 
industry  effected  by  dogs,  with  the  result  that  adequate  protection  by  legislative 
bodies  is  practically  impossible  to  secure.  Even  the  small  tax  of  one  dollar  for 
dogs  and  two  for  bitches  is  looked  upon  by  many  as  an  unjustified  hardship  on 
the  poor  man  who  so  frequently  likes  to  harbour  two  or  more  useless  canines. 
The  people  who  keep  the  dogs  have  no  interest  in  the  sheep,  and  as  they  are 
vastly  in  the  majority,  measures  calculated  to  restrict  the  freedom  of  the  dog  are 
almost  invariably  shelved  on  first  presentation,  and  afterwards  killed  or  modified 
until  practically  useless. 

Is  it  not  time  for  sheep  owners  and  others  interested  in  the  industry  to 
unite  upon  this  question,  which  is  so  closely  allied  to  successful  agriculture? 
The  fluctuations  in  the  number  of  sheep  in  Canada  have  for  the  most  part 
been  due  to  the  worrying  dog.  That  such  an  industry  should  be  handicapped 
and  in  many  cases  ruined  by,  not  the  valuable  dog  that  his  owner  cares  for, 
but  the  pestiferous  cur  that  is  not  only  useless  but  a  detriment  to  a  district,  is 
a  situation  difficult  to  understand.  And  yet  adequate  legislative  protection 
is  denied  the  sheep.  Sheep  are  seldom  or  never  killed  during  the  day  time, 
which  fact  greatly  simplifies  the  working  out  of  a  satisfactory  measure.  A  dog 
away  from  home  and  unattended  during  the  night  hours  is  a  dangerous  animal, 
and  for  the  purpose  of  sheep  protection  should  be  regarded  as  a  wild  beast  and 
treated  accordingly. 

It  is  true  that  most  of  the  provinces  have  on  their  statute  books  Acts  for 
the  protection  of  sheep,  but  in  no  case  does  the  sheep  receive  such  consideration 
as  the  wild  deer  of  the  forest.    According  to  the  game  laws  of  certain  provinces: 

"  No  hounds  or  dogs  accustomed  to  pursue  deer  are  allowed  at  large  where 
deer  are  found,  during  the  close  season  for  deer." 

The  law  in  Ontario  further  provides  that: 

"  Hounds  or  dogs  running  deer  during  the  close  season  may  be  killed  on 
sight  by  any  person,  who  shall  not  be  liable  to  damage  for  so  doing." 

So  far  as  the  legislation  for  the  protection  of  sheep  is  concerned  we  have 
made  little  or  no  advance  for  several  centuries.  We  find  that  in  1648  the  general 
court  of  Massachusetts  made  an  order  in  which  the  following  appears: — 

"  If  any  dogge  shall  kill  any  sheepe  the  owner  either  hang  his  dogge  forth- 
with or  pay  double  damages  for  the  sheepe,  if  ye  dogge  hath  been  seen  to  course 
or  bite  any  sheepe  before,  not  being  sett  on,  and  his  owner  hath  notice  thereof 
then  he  shall  both  hange  his  dogge  and  pay  for  the  sheepe." 


89 

This  old  regulation  was  calculated  to  protect  the  sheep  in  the  same  way 
that  our  present  game  laws  protect  the  deer,  while  the  sheep  in  many  municipali- 
ties are  receiving  a  much  less  serious  consideration.  In  the  twentieth  century 
it  would  appear  as  though  the  dog  industry  receives  greater  consideration  by 
legislative  bodies  than  that  of  the  sheep. 

Methods  of  Protection 

While  many  sheep  raisers  have  dispersed  their  flocks  because  of  the  dog 
nuisance,  and  others  for  the  same  reason  have  hesitated  taking  up  the  industry, 
there  are  many  who  have  discovered  successful  methods  of  guarding  their  flocks 
from  attack. 

The  employment  of  half  a  dozen  sharp  sounding  bells  attached  to  the  necks 
of  individuals  is  common  practice.  This,  however,  is  not  always  successful. 
Flocks  wearing  this  supposed  safeguard  are  occasionally  attacked  and  its 
members  worried,  but  the  sheep  can  approach  within  earshot  of  the  dwelling, 
the  shepherd  is  likely  to  be  aroused  as  he  is  ever  on  the  alert  in  regard  to  his 
sheep. 

A  troublesome  custom,  but  considered  the  best  safeguard  by  many,  is  to 
bring  the  flock  at  night  to  a  field  or  plot  adjacent  to  the  barn.  Unless  provision 
is  made  for  feeding  in  these  quarters,  the  sheep  cannot  thrive  satisfactorily. 
They  are  early  to  rise,  and  should  not  have  to  wait  long  after  daylight  for  the 
morning  meal,  especially  if  this  has  to  be  gathered  from  a  sparse  pasture  at  some 
distance  from  the  sleeping  place.  The  plan  has  points  to  commend  it  if  the 
feeding  difficulty  is  overcome.  All  sheep  should  be  seen  once  daily,  and  twice  is 
even  better.  To  provide  night  pasture  two  plots  should  be  sown  with  suitable 
fodder  and  the  flock  given  access  to  these  alternately,  giving  each  a  chance  to 
grow  up  in  its  turn.  If  these  are  fenced  with  dog-proof  fence  the  surer  will  be 
the  protection.  A  modern  woven  wire  fence  5  feet  6  inches  high,  with  cross 
wires  not  more  than  5  inches  apart,  and  having  a  barbed  wire  at  the  top  and  at 
the  bottom  close  to  the  ground,  will  keep  out  dogs,  provided  no  objects  are  left 
that  would  be  of  assistance  in  jumping  over.  A  further  safeguard  is  to  nail  a 
slat  15  inches  long  pointing  outwards  and  upwards  to  each  post  and  attach  two 
strands  of  barbed  wire  to  these. 

An  extensive  sheep  raiser  recommends  the  use  of  a  dog-proof  woven  wire 
inclosure,  locating  it  in  the  pasture  and  moving  it  from  place  to  place  on  knolls 
needing  fertilizing.  It  is  suggested  that  five  dollars  worth  of  material  would 
provide  a  movable  pen  large  enough  for  fifty  sheep.  The  labour  of  inclosing 
and  liberating  the  sheep  would  be  much  less  irksome  than  milking  cows  or 
feeding  hogs. 

Still  another  plan  is  to  give  the  flock  access  to  the  home  building  during  the 
night,  or  at  all  times,  if  convenient,  by  leaving  openings  from  the  field  to  a  lane 
leading  to  the  barnyard.  If  the  salt  box  is  kept  at  the  building  the  sheep  will 
regard  the  point  as  the  one  centre  of  meeting,  and  to  this  they  will  run  when 
molested  in  the  field.  It  is  very  important  to  have  the  gap  immediately  at  the 
corner  of  the  pasture  nearest  the  barn.  If  at  the  side  oi  the  field,  the  sheep, 
when  being  driven,  are  likely  to  miss  the  gap  in  their  terrified  flight  from  their 
pursuers. 

Predatory   Animals 

In  many  sections  of  Canada,  more  particularly  west  of  the  Great  Lakes,  the 
sheep-raising  industry  is  seriously  injured  by  the  depredations  of  predatory 
animals.  The  most  common  of  these  are  the  coyote,  the  timber  wolf  and  the 
panther.  The  coyote  is  troublesome  in  each  of  the  western  provinces,  the  timber 
wolf  is  the  cause  of  loss  in  Alberta  and  British  Columbia,  while  the  ravages  of 
the  panther  are  confined  to  the  Pacific  province.    In  addition  to  these  the  brown 


90 

bear  occasionally  takes  a  lamb  in  back  sections  of  Quebec,  New  Brunswick  and 
Nova  Scotia.  The  coyote  or  prairie  wolf  is  especially  destructive  to  young 
lambs,  but  when  once  the  habit  of  sheep  killing  has  become  fixed  unprotected 
flocks  in  coyote-infested  districts  suffer  from  their  depredations. 

A  number  of  remedies  for  the  coyote  nuisance  have  been  adopted,  with  more 
or  less  success.  Close,  high  wire  fencing  is  effective,  but  quite  expensive.  The 
ordinary  bounty  of  $2  for  mature  coyotes  and  $1  for  pups  helps  to  reduce  the 
number,  but  the  systematic  and  careful  use  of  poison  at  the  proper  seasons  is  the 
most  effective  remedy.  The  Board  of  Sheep  Commissioners  of  Oregon,  a  body 
reporting  estimated  annual  losses  of  150,000  sheep  in  the  state  by  coyotes,  has 
worked  out  a  number  of  practical  methods  for  destroying  these  pests.  The 
following  quotations  are  from  Bulletin  No.  2  issued  by  this  board: — 

"  Granting  that  it  will  be  possible  for  the  one  thousand  sheep  men  to  average 
the  destruction  of  ten  coyotes  each  for  the  winter  months  of  the  year,  and 
approximating  that  half  of  this  number  of  destroyed  coyotes  will  be  pregnant 
females  that  would  have  given  birth  to  an  average  of  six  pups  each  during  the 
following  spring,  this  alone  would  account  for  forty  thousand  less  coyotes  in  the 
fall  of  the  same  season. 

"  For  coyotes,  use  No.  3  spring  steel  traps  fitted  with  swivels  and  attached 
to  a  log  or  stone  weighting  thirty  pounds  upwards.  It  is  well  to  see  that  the  trap 
is  placed  on  a  level  with  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  the  jaws  of  the  trap  are 
covered  with  a  piece  of  thin  paper,  and  this  can  further  be  covered  with  particles 
of  fine  earth;  this  can  be  further  masked  by  the  sprinkling  of  water  upon  the 
earth-covered  trap.     The  use  of  artificial  scent  will  here  be  found  useful. 

"  When  hunting  with  hounds  the  dogs  should  be  inclosed  in  a  wagon  fitted 
with  spring  doors  that  can  be  tripped  by  the  driver,  thus  allowing  the  dogs  to 
make  their  exit  and  quickly  enter  the  chase. 

"  During  the  month  of  May  the  young  coyote  pups  may  be  heard  in  their 
dens  and  burrows,  and  can  be  easily  destroyed  by  digging  them  out,  or  by  the 
destruction  of  their  mother.     This  method  is  more  generally  used  than  all  others. 

"  Of  all  available  methods  of  coyote  destruction,  poisoning  is  admitted  to 
be  the  most  practical  and  efficient  measure,  and  no  poison  has  been  so  success- 
fully used  as  two  grains  of  dry  sulphate  of  strychnine  inclosed  in  two  grain 
gelatine  capsules.  The  gelatine  capsules  filled  with  strychnine  after  being  wiped 
free  from  any  external  appearance  of  strychnine  should  be  further  protected 
from  the  dissolving  effects  of  moisture,  contained  in  the  air  and  the  juices  and 
water  contained  in  the  several  materials  used  as  a  bait,  by  covering  same  with 
several  coats  of  tallow.  This  may  be  best  done  by  dipping  the  capsules  in 
melted  tallow. 

"  Several  materials  are  highly  recommended  as  being  useful  for  coyote  bait, 
and  are  used  and  prepared  as  follows: — 

"  (a)  Lard,  beef  suet  and  tallow.  Cut  these  into  pieces  the  size  of  a 
walnut  and  insert  therein  one  of  the  capsules  of  poison  and  securely  close  the 
cavity. 

"  (b)  Particles  of  liver.  Cut  into  pieces  the  size  of  an  egg  and  insert  therein 
by  means  of  a  slit  one  of  the  capsules  of  poison  in  each  piece. 

"  (c)  Eggs,  into  which  one  of  the  capsules  of  poison  has  been  placed  by 
means  of  a  small  opening  in  the  end. 

"  (d)  Prunes,  into  which  one  of  the  capsules  has  been  inserted. 

"  It  is  necessary  that  all  materials  used  as  bait  to  contain  poison  should  be 
handled  at  all  times  with  either  forceps  or  gloved  hands,  as  coyotes  can  easily 
detect  human  scent  when  a  bait  is  touched  by  persons  not  wearing  gloves. 

"  Eggs  and  beef  suet  will  be  rendered  more  easily  found,  both  by  the  coyote 
and  parties  wishing  to  remove  the  same  from  the  range  if  the  bait  is  covered  with 
blood.    This  is  especially  recommended  when  snow  covers  the  ground. 


91 
Precautionary  Measures 

"  Eggs  and  prunes  are  said  not  to  be  readily  eaten  by  domestic  dogs.  Beef 
suet,  lard  and  tallow  can  be  rendered  less  likely  to  be  picked  up  by  dogs  if  holes 
are  bored  in  irregular  pieces  of  wood  and  the  suet,  lard  or  tallow  containing  the 
poison  placed  therein.  These  offer  the  advantage  that  they  may  be  distributed 
from  horseback  along  the  decoy  trails  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  decoy  bait,  and 
in  the  morning  can  be  removed  from  dangerous  exposure.  Lard  and  tallow 
should  be  easily  used  in  this  manner. 

"All  sheep  men  shall  exercise  great  care  in  putting  out  poison,  and  take 
every  reasonable  precaution  to  prevent  it  from  being  taken  by  dogs  or  other 
domestic  animals.  All  poisoned  carcasses  that  have  lain  so  long  that  they  cease 
to  be  useful,  or  where  they  are  so  situated  as  to  be  easily  accessible  to  dogs, 
should  be  destroyed  by  burning.  (Unless  buried  at  a  sufficient  depth  the  bones 
of  such  carcasses  may  be  uncovered  by  badgers,  and  many  months  afterwards 
be  the  cause  of  poisoning  of  a  valuable  dog).  Poison  should  never  be  placed 
nearer  than  one-half  mile  of  any  highway  or  road  or  any  residence  or  house.  If 
placed  nearer  than  one  mile  from  any  house  or  dwelling  the  occupants  thereof 
should  first  be  notified.  Do  not  put  out  poison  on  lands  or  ranges  other  than 
those  owned,  leased  or  occupied  by  you  to  the  exclusion  of  other  persons,  or 
unless  you  have  the  express  consent  of  the  lawful  owner  or  possessor  thereof. 
Do  not  place  poison  near  enough  to  any  road  or  highway  to  attract  dogs  passing 
along.  Poison  should  rarely  ever  be  inserted  in  meat  containing  bone.  If  a 
carcass  should  be  poisoned  be  sure  to  completely  destroy  all  remaining  bones  by 
burning.  Written  notices  should  be  placed  in  conspicuous  places  near  carcasses 
and  about  one-fourth  mile  therefrom  when  practicable.  Dogs  should  be  muzzled 
or  tied  up  during  the  poisoning  season.  All  small  poisoned  baits  should  be 
picked  up,  after  using  a  reasonable  length  of  time,  and  destroyed.  After  the 
season  is  over  all  poisoned  bait  should  be  destroyed,  whether  old  or  not.  Be 
extremely  cautious  and  careful  at  all  times  in  the  putting  out  of  poison,  and 
success  will  crown  your  efforts." 

It  should  be  observed  that  the  exposing  of  poison  for  wild  animals  is  pro- 
hibited by  law  in  some  of  the  provinces,  while  in  other  provinces  it  can  be  done 
only  according  to  regulations.  Before  exposing  poison  for  wolves,  coyotes,  or 
other  predatory  animals  one  should  learn  and  follow  the  regulations  in  force  in 
the  province  in  which  it  is  proposed  to  expose  the  poison. 

Timber  Wolves,   Bears  and  Panthers 

Timber  wolves  and  panthers  are  sly  and  difficult  to  trap.  The  most  popular 
method  of  destroying  these  is  to  hunt  them  with  dogs  and  guns.  The  substantial 
bounty  offered  for  their  heads  by  each  of  the  provinces  proves  an  incentive  to 
hunters  to  seek  this  class  of  game. 

Loss  from  bears  is  likely  to  diminish  with  the  removal  of  timber  and  the 
attendant  extension  of  agriculture.  An  enthusiastic  sheep  raiser  residing  in 
northern  Quebec  finds  it  profitable  to  bring  up  his  flock  to  the  barnyard  during 
the  summer  and  fall  months.  The  residents  of  this  vicinity  are  ever  on  the 
alert  for  bears,  with  the  result  that  the  number  is  being  reduced  each  year.  Steel 
bear  traps  are  used  in  isolated  spots,  but  these  are  objected  to  because  of  the 
danger  to  farm  stock.  The  "  dead  fall",  intelligently  used,  each  year  accounts 
for  a  number  of  bruins,  but  the  dog  and  gun  directed  with  the  judgment  of 
an  experienced  hunter  are  probably  the  most  effective  weapons  of  extermina- 
tion. 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP 

By  the  late  J.  G.  Rutherford 
Veterinary  Director  General  and  Live  Stock  Commissioner 

Sheep  in  Canada  are  particularly  free  from  disease.  The  climate  of  this 
northland  has  proven  to  be  particularly  healthful  for  sheep.  Alike  in  the  clear, 
cold  climate  of  the  west  and  the  snowy  winters  of  the  east,  sheep  do  well,  their 
warm  coats  protecting  them  sufficiently,  while  the  pure  air  and  sunshine  keep 
the  lungs  and  consequently  their  whole  system  in  good  order,  so  that  good  health 
is  practically  assured,  if  the  management  is  even  half  what  it  ought  to  be.  This 
bulletin  would,  however,  hardly  be  complete  without  a  chapter  on  at  least  the 
most  common  ailments  which  may  be  now  and  then  met  with. 

The  diseases  of  sheep  may  be  divided  into  several  classes.  First  those 
caused  by  external  parasites  such  as  scab  and  foot  rot;  along  with  these  may  be 
mentioned  ticks  and  lice,  which  when  neglected  frequently  bring  about  an 
unthrifty  condition  bordering  closely  on  disease.  Then  there  are  internal 
parasites  such  as  worms  of  various  forms,  which  may  infest  the  stomach,  the 
intestines  and  the  respiratory  organs  or  the  head. 

Digestive  derangements,  too,  manifest  themselves  at  times.  To  these  may 
be  added  diseases  and  accidents  peculiar  to  reproduction. 

Scab 

Sheep  scab,  when  once  introduced  into  a  flock,  must  be  dealt  with  by 
thorough  measures.  It  is  a  strictly  contagious  disease  caused  by  a  minute 
specific  mite  technically  known  as  Psoroptes  Communis  Ovis.  It  is  so  small  as 
to  be  difficult  to  discern  with  the  naked  eye.  This  disease  generally  affects  the 
parts  that  are  covered  with  wool.  It  usually  begins  at  the  upper  part  of  the 
body,  thence  spreading  over  the  neck,  shoulders  and  hips,  extends  slowly  but 
surely  in  ever-increasing  areas.  In  two  or  three  months  the  entire  body  may 
be  affected.  The  disease  spreads,  as  a  rule,  much  more  rapidly  during  the  winter 
than  in  the  warm  weather.  In  sheep  on  grass,  after  shearing  and  washing  it  may 
remain  for  a  long  time  in  an  almost  latent  condition.  Sheep  well  fed  and  other- 
wise strong  and  healthy  resist  its  ravages  in  a  remarkable  way,  while  those  which 
are  thin  or  badly  nourished  rapidly  become  debilitated,  and  if  left  untreated, 
live  but  a  short  time.  Affected  sheep  experience  great  itchiness  with  irritation, 
formation  of  pimples,  inflammation,  and  the  development  of  crusts  or  scabs 
under  and  near  the  edge  of  which  the  parasite  lives.  The  sheep  are  restless,  they 
scratch  and  bite  themselves,  rub  against  fences,  posts,  etc.,  as  if  in  great  torture. 
The  fleece  assumes  a  tufted,  ragged  and  matted  condition.  Tufts  of  wool  are 
pulled  out  by  the  sheep  with  the  teeth,  or  are  left  on  fences,  posts,  etc.,  where 
they  have  rubbed;  to  each  tuft  scabs  are  attached,  which  are  usually  replaced 
at  the  seat  of  origin  by  thicker  or  more  adherent  crusts.  The  skin  becomes 
more  or  less  bare  and  furrowed,  and  from  the  furrows  blood  oozes.  Without 
treatment  the  disease  goes  from  bad  to  worse,  spreading  the  infection,  which  is 
readily  taken  up  by  other  sheep  which  may  come  into  contact  with  a  diseased 
one  or  with  infected  objects. 

Under  the  provisions  of  the  Animal  Contagious  Diseases  Act  it  is  the  duty 
of  every  owner,  on  perceiving  the  appearance  of  sheep  scab  in  his  flock,  to  give 
immediate  notice  to  the  Minister  of  Agriculture  at  Ottawa,  and  to  the  nearest 
veterinary  inspector  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  of  the  suspicion  or 
presence  of  the  disease.  Instructions  will  then  be  issued  and  carried  out  accord- 
ing to  government  regulations. 

92 


93 

Two  principal  preparations  are  recommended  for  the  treatment  of  scabby 
sheep,  the  lime-and-sulphur  dip  and  the  tobacco-and-sulphur  dip.  The  former 
is  recommended  and  used  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  Its  preparation  is 
as  follows:  Take  10  pounds  fresh  lime  and  add  enough  water  to  make  a  paste. 
Sift  into  the  lime  paste  24  pounds  of  flowers  of  sulphur  and  stir  thoroughly.  Boil 
this  mixture  in  30  gallons  of  water  for  three  hours,  frequently  stirring  the 
mixture.  The  solution  should  then  be  a  brown  or  chocolate  colour.  Allow  the 
mixture  to  stand  for  a  few  hours,  preferably  overnight,  and  then  draw  off  the 
liquid.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  disturb  the  sediment,  which  is  slightly 
injurious  to  the  fleece  of  the  sheep.  To  this  liquid  add  sufficient  water  to  make 
100  gallons.  It  should  be  used  for  dipping  at  a  temperature  not  lower  than  106 
degrees,  and  not  higher  than  112  degrees  Fahrenheit.  The  hot  dip  softens  the 
scabs  and  destroys  the  mites.  The  sheep  should  remain  a  full  two  minutes  in 
the  tank.  The  head  should  be  plunged,  and  if  their  are  thick  crusts  on  the  skin 
the  dip  should  be  rubbed  into  the  wool  with  a  stiff  brush  or  otherwise.  Two 
dippings  are  necessary  at  intervals  of  from  10  to  12  days.  In  very  bad  cases 
a  third  dipping  may  be  necessary.  The  sheep  should  be  clipped  whenever 
possible  before  dipping.  When  the  flock  has  been  dipped  once,  their  quarters 
should  be  changed;  the  barns,  fences,  etc.,  where  they  have  been  kept  should  be 
well  covered  with  a  lime  wash  containing  at  least  5  per  cent  of  pure  carbolic 
acid  or  creolin.  Further  instructions  for  dipping  are  given  elsewhere  in  this 
bulletin. 

Foot-Rot 

Foot-rot  is  of  two  kinds,  viz.,  contagious  and  non-contagious.  The  latter 
is  a  simple  disease  usually  due  to  excessive  wear  of  the  hoof  and  the  irritation 
caused  by  the  introduction  of  dirt  to  the  sensitive  tissues  of  the  foot.  It  is, 
therefore,  most  prevalent  on  low,  wet  land  and  in  filthy  yards  and  barns. 

Prevention  is  better  than  cure.  Sheep  should  not  be  fed  in  wet,  muddy  or 
filthy  places.  Their  hoofs  should  be  examined  and  pared  when  necessary  to 
remove  superfluous  horn.  When  the  disease  appears  in  a  small  flock  the  hoofs 
should  be  trimmed  down  closely  and  the  feet  washed  or  soaked  in  a  solution 
of  copper  sulphate,  1  ounce  to  2^  pints  of  water,  then  dressed  with  watery 
solution  of  chloride  of  iron  or  with  chloride  of  antimony,  or  preferably  with  a 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of  chloride  of  antimony  and  tincture  of  myrrh.  After 
such  dressing  the  raw  surfaces  should  be  protected  by  a  coating  of  pine  tar  or 
gutta-percha  varnish.  Then  remove  the  animals  to  a  dry,  clean  pasture.  If  the 
disease  is  not  of  long  standing  this  treatment  will  generally  effect  a  cure,  although 
in  confirmed  cases  where  much  destruction  of  tissue  has  taken  place  it  may  be 
necessary  to  repeat  the  dressing  several  times. 

For  large  flocks  on  the  range  or  elsewhere  a  more  general  treatment  is 
necessary.  A  suitable  solution  is  made  in  the  proportion  of  ten  pounds  of  copper 
sulphate,  dissolved  in  five  gallons  of  water.  The  solution  is  put  in  troughs  two 
or  three  inches  deep.  The  sheep  after  being  driven  through  the  water,  preferably 
running  water,  to  cleanse  their  feet,  are  by  using  a  small  chute,  made  to  pass  one 
by  one  through  the  preparation.  As  an  alternative  to  the  above,  affected  sheep 
may  be  held  for  a  short  time  on  a  floor  sprinkled  to  a  depth  of  three  inches  with 
freshly  slaked  lime. 

Canadian  sheep  men  may  be  thankful  that  the  contagious  form  of  foot-rot 
is  almost  unknown  in  this  country.  The  few  cases  seen  are  as  a  rule  in  recent 
importations.  For  this  reason  imported  sheep  and  others  that  have  travelled 
in  dirty  cars  should  be  carefully  examined  on  arrival  and  treated  at  the  same 
time  as  they  are  dipped.  Prevention  of  the  trouble  is  much  cheaper  than  effecting 
a  cure.     Treatment  is  similar  to  that  described  above,  although  owing  to  the 


94 

persistent  nature  of  the  disease  recovery  is  generally  much  more  protracted.  As 
in  this  form  the  trouble  begins  in  the  skin  of  the  interdigital  space  and  works 
downwards  through  the  sensitive  laminae,  it  is  advisable  to  dress  the  skin  between 
the  dew-claws  with  a  mixture  of  one  part  carbolic  acid  to  ten  parts  of  glycerine, 
or  with  vaseline  twenty  parts  to  one  part  of  iodine. 

Ticks  and  Lice 

In  examining  sheep  for  skin  disease  it  is  well  to  remember  that  they  are 
subject  to  infestation  with  lice  and  ticks.  Of  these  the  louse  is  most  to  be 
dreaded,  both  on  account  of  the  rapidity  with  which  it  multiplies  and  the  serious 
effects  which  it  is  liable  to  produce  on  the  health,  as  well  as  the  wool,  of  its 
unwilling  host.  The  tick,  which  by  the  way  is  not  a  true  tick  but  really  belongs 
to  the  louse  family,  while  much  less  prolific,  develops  rapidly  and  is  most 
frequently  troublesome  in  lambs,  although  like  the  white  louse  it  is  found  on 
sheep  of  all  ages.  As  in  other  species  of  domestic  animals,  these  parasites  are 
most  frequently  found  and  appear  to  flourish  on  thin  and  badly  nourished 
sheep  rather  than  on  those  in  good  condition.  When  present  in  any  number 
both  ticks  and  lice  induce  great  irritation,  causing  the  sheep  to  scratch  with  the 
hind  feet,  gnaw  the  sides  and  rump  and  rub  on  any  convenient  object  in  a 
manner  similar  to  those  affected  with  scab.  In  this  way  the  fleece  is  often 
seriously  depreciated,  while  from  its  mode  of  feeding,  the  louse  also  cuts  the 
fibre  near  the  root,  thus  greatly  lessening  the  growth  and  value  of  the  wool.  The 
effects  on  +he  skin  of  the  attacks  of  these  animals,  and  especially  that  of  the 
white  louse,  may  very  easily  be  mistaken  for  scab  unless  a  careful  examination 
is  made.  It  cannot,  however,  be  too  often  repeated  that  there  is  no  excuse  for 
error  in  a  diagnosis  of  this  kind,  for  although  scab,  lice  and  ticks  may  undoubt- 
edly exist  on  the  same  animal,  a  sufficiently  close  and  painstaking  investigation, 
with  the  aid  of  a  moderately  powerful  pocket  magnifying  glass,  will  enable  any 
intelligent  observer  to  reach  a  definite  conclusion  as  to  the  nature  of  the  trouble, 
whether  it  be  simple  or  compound.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  presence 
of  lice  is  no  proof  that  a  sheep  is  free  from  scab.  While  the  converse  is  also 
true,  it  is  not  so  important,  as  while  lice  and  ticks  are  disagreeable  and  unwel- 
come guests,  their  presence  is  a  matter  of  slight  consequence,  especially  to  the 
sheep-owning  public,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  smaller  but  more  deadly  and 
persistent  scab  mite. 

Stomach  Worms 

The  stomach  worms,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties,  are  generally 
somewhat  under  an  inch  long  and  live  in  the  fourth  stomach.  Lambs  suffer 
particularly  from  their  attacks,  which  begin  any  time  after  the  little  fellows 
start  to  eat  grass,  and  may  continue  even  till  cold  weather  comes.  Some  of 
the  symptoms  in  lambs  and  sheep  are  loss  of  flesh,  dullness,  langour,  failing 
appetite,  thirst,  occasional  colics,  black  diarrhoea,  dry  wool,  chalky  skin,  and  a 
general  anaemic  condition.  Lambs  and  weak  sheep  are  specially  affected  by 
these  pests,  which  frequently  cause  death,  while  strong  healthy  sheep,  though 
infected,  may  show  but  little  evidence  of  the  fact. 

The  worms  in  the  stomach  produce  eggs,  too  small  to  be  seen  by  the  naked 
eye.  These  pass  out  of  the  animal  in  the  droppings  and  hatch  in  a  temperature 
of  40  degrees  Fahrenheit  or  over.  Their  most  favourite  hatching  place  is  in 
muddy,  stagnant  water.  They  will  not  develop  in  pure  water,  and  when 
deposited  there,  generally  die  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks.  These  little  worms 
grow  until  they  are  about  one-thirtieth  of  an  inch  in  length.  After  being  swal- 
lowed by  a  sheep  or  lamb  they  arrive  at  maturity  in  three  weeks  or  a  month. 

Good  management  seems  to  be  the  best  remedy  for  these  pests.  Keeping 
the  digestive  organs  in  a  healthy  condition  by  the  use  of  roots  in  winter  and 
vetches,  rape  or  other  succulent  plants  in  summer,  along  with  other  foods,  seems 


95     . 

to  be  a  preventive.  A  liberal  allowance  of  salt  should  be  furnished  regularly. 
In  infested  districts  the  pasture  should  be  hurdled  off  and  the  sheep  kept  on  one 
plot  for  about  ten  days  and  then  moved  to  the  next.  This  should  be  done  from 
June  to  October  This  method  keeps  the  sheep  from  feeding  over  infested 
pastures,  preventing  reinfection,  as  at  least  two  weeks  are  required  for  the  eggs 
to  hatch.  Pastures  known  to  be  infected  should  either  be  ploughed  up  or 
thoroughly  dressed  with  lime  and  salt. 

Many  remedies  have  been  tried  with  more  or  less  success.  Gasoline,  coal- 
tar,  lysol,  creosote,  kamala  and  bluestone  (copper  sulphate)  are  used.  Possibly 
the  last  named  is  surest  to  reach  the  fourth  stomach  of  the  animal,  which  the 
parasites  most  inhabit.  This  treatment  has  been  used  successfully  in  Cape 
Colony  and  is  recommended  by  the  authorities  there.  The  bluestone  should  be 
pure  and  clear  blue  in  colour.  Dissolve  2  ounces  of  finely  powdered  bluestone 
in  one  gallon  of  warm  water,  or  better,  dissolve  it  in  a  quart  of  boiling  water, 
then  add  the  remainder  and  mix.    The  doses  are  as  follows: — 

Lambs  three  months  old,  1  ounce  of  the  solution. 
Lambs  six  months  old,  1J  ounces  of  the  solution. 
Sheep  twelve  months  old,  2J-  ounces  of  the  solution. 
Sheep  eighteen  months  old,  3  ounces  of  the  solution. 
Sheep  twenty-four  months  old,  3^  ounces  of  the  solution. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  give  the  right  amount  according  to  the  age  of  the 
sheep.  When  kamala  is  used  it  should  be  given  once  a  day  in  doses  from  half  a 
drachm  to  a  drachm  in  thick  gruel,  treacle  or  raw  linseed  oil.  Picrate  of  potash, 
which  is  highly  recommended  by  continental  authorities,  is  administered  daily 
in  doses  of  from  5  to  20  grains,  according  to  the  age  or  weight.  It  is  said  to  be 
less  irritating  than  any  of  the  other  remedies  mentioned. 

Except  in  one  or  two  localities,  Canadian  sheep  men  have  not  suffered  to 
any  extent  from  the  ravages  of  this  pest. 

The  Grub   Worm 

The  grub  worm  is  found  in  the  sinuses  of  the  sheep's  head.  It  is  the  off- 
spring of  the  sheep  gadfly  (Oestrus  ovis).  The  eggs  are  deposited  in  the  sheep's 
nostrils  and  when  hatched  the  worms  crawl  up  into  the  sinuses  and  become  full- 
grown  grubs. 

Prevention  is  undoubtedly  better  than  treatment,  although  skilful  shepherds 
are  often  able  to  relieve  the  sheep  of  their  unwelcome  guests  by  trephining  the 
sinuses.  Feed  well  and  keep  the  sheep  strong  and  healthy.  Tar  or  fish  oil 
smeared  on  the  noses  of  the  sheep  or  placed  on  the  edge  of  narrow  salt  troughs  or 
around  2-inch  auger  hole  in  a  log  in  which  salt  is  fed,  will  help  to  keep  the  flies 
away.  A  dark  place  during  the  midday  heat  lessens  the  attacks  of  these  insects. 
Access  to  a  piece  of  summer  fallow  where  the  sheep  can  stamp  and  raise  a  dust 
also  helps  to  discourage  the  tormentors.  During  the  months  of  July,  August, 
and  September  sheep  should,  if  at  all  possible,  be  kept  on  pastures  free  from 
trees  or  shrubbery  of  any  kind. 

Tapeworm 

The  sheep  is  known  to  harbour  more  varieties  of  the  tapeworm  than  any 
other  of  our  domestic  animals  save  the  dog.  Eight  species  are  found,  of  which 
however,  by  far  the  most  common  in  America  is  that  known  as  the  Taenia  expansa. 
This  tapeworm  varies  in  length  from  three  to  six  yards,  and  from  one-twenty- 
fifth  of  an  inch  in  width  at  the  head  to  one-half  an  inch  at  the  tail.  It  is  com- 
posed of  segments,  dull  yellowish  white  in  colour,  and  about  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  in  length  and  a  little  more  in  breadth,  any  of  which  if  picked  up  by  another 


% 

animal  may  grow  into  a  mature  tapeworm.  Sheep  suffering  from  tapeworm  first 
show  paleness  of  the  skin  and  mucous  membranes,  accompanied  by  brittleness  of 
the  wool  and  rapid  loss  of  condition,  although  the  appetite  may  continue  good 
and  even  excessive.  This  is  followed  by  digestive  disturbances,  irregular  cud 
and  offensive  breath,  bloating,  constipation  or  diarrhoea,  the  faeces  being  yellow- 
ish in  colour  and  often  containing  segments  of  the  worm.  The  sufferer  becomes 
more  and  more  feeble,  and  unless  prompt  relief  is  afforded  death  soon  follows, 
usually  preceded  by  convulsions  and  violent  diarrhoea.  Fortunately  tapeworm 
is  not  very  difficult  to  eradicate.  The  sheep  should  be  fasted  for  from  twelve 
to  twenty-four  hours.  An  injection  of  warm  water  given  a  few  minutes  before 
will  help  to  promote  the  rapid  action  of  the  medicine.  The  dose,  1  drachm  of 
the  oil  of  male  shield  fern  in  from  2  to  3  ounces  of  castor  oil  for  a  mature 
sheep,  is  best  given  when  the  sheep  is  standing  and  after  a  fast  of  twenty-four 
hours,  and  then  most  of  the  dose  passes  to  the  fourth  stomach.  Kamala  in 
doses  of  from  1  to  \\  drachms  in  thick  gruel  or  treacle,  followed  after  three  hours 
by  from  3  to  4  ounces  of  castor  oil,  is  also  often  effective.  For  small  lambs 
one-fourth  of  these  doses  is  sufficient,  and  as  the  size  and  age  increases  the  dose 
may  be  given  to  suit.  In  drenching  sheep  the  mouth  should  not  be  raised  above 
the  level  of  the  eyes,  lest  part  of  the  dose  pass  into  the  lungs.  After  being  treated 
sheep  should  be  shut  up  for  at  least  thirty  hours  to  prevent  the  segments  of  the 
worm  expelled  being  scattered  about  and  much  ground  being  infected.  Subse- 
quently they  should  be  put  on  fresh  ground  in  order  to  avoid  the  risk  of  reinfec- 
tion. Tapeworm  is  most  common  in  wet  years  and  in  wet,  muddy  districts,  and 
although  the  life  history  of  the  parasite  is  not  fully  known,  it  is  probable  that  it 
finds  its  direct  access  to  the  sheep  in  its  larval  or  cystic  form  by  being  taken 
up  with  the  grass.  Infected  pastures  should,  therefore,  be  burned  over,  ploughed 
up  if  possible  or  top  dressed  with  salt,  nitrate  of  soda  or  gas  lime.  Droppings 
should,  when  practicable,  be  collected  and  carefully  burned. 

Gid 

Gid,  Sturdy,  or  "Turnsick"  is  caused  by  an  encysted  parasite,  censurus  cere- 
bralis,  in  the  brain.  This  is  the  ovum  of  a  species  of  tapeworm  which  infests 
dogs,  foxes  and  wolves.  The  eggs  pass  out  of  these  animals  and  infest  the  grass 
or  water,  in  either  case  under  favourable  conditions,  retaining  their  vitality  for 
several  weeks.  The  sheep  swallowing  these  become  infected.  The  young  worms 
are  hatched  in  the  stomach  and  penetrate  its  walls,  getting  into  the  blood.  Many 
of  them  becoming  scattered  through  the  muscular  and  other  tissues  suffer  degen- 
eration and  perish.  Those  which  reach  the  brain  or  spinal  cord,  which  they  do 
in  about  a  week  from  the  time  they  are  swallowed,  burrow  in  through  the  tissues 
until  a  suitable  place  for  development  is  reached.  In  this  stage  many  die,  but 
such  as  survive  form  a  small  transparent  bladder,  gradually  increasing  in  size 
from  that  of  a  pinhead  to  that  of  a  hazel  nut.  On  reaching  the  dimensions  of 
the  latter,  which  is  generally  about  two  months  after  infection,  numerous  new 
tapeworm  heads,  often  many  hundreds,  are  formed  in  each  cyst,  the  latter 
continuing  to  grow  until  the  death  of  the  patient,  frequently  attaining  the  size 
of  a  walnut.  This,  which  is  known  as  the  cystic  form,  is  seen  only  in  sheep 
whose  brains  contain  but  a  few  cysts,  and  is  that  which  produces  the  symptoms 
of  genuine  gid  or  sturdy.  Where  the  embryos  in  the  brain  are  numerous,  acute 
inflammation  of  that  organ  generally  destroys  the  animal  before  the  close  of 
the  first  month  after  infection.  The  mortality  is  sometimes  very  large.  The 
disease  is  most  in  evidence  in  wet  seasons,  moisture  being  necessary  to  preserve 
the  fertility  of  the  eggs  after  leaving  the  original  canine  host.  For  the  same 
reason  infection  is  more  common  in  the  spring  and  fall  than  in  the  summer  or 
winter. 


97 

It  is  not  until  after  the  embryo  has  reached  the  brain  that  the  symptoms 
of  gid  make  their  appearance.  The  first  of  these  generally  noticed  is  dullness, 
followed  by  wasting  and  disinclination  to  move.  The  head  is  carried  low  or 
drawn  to  one  side,  while  impaired  vision  is  a  common  feature;  the  animals 
sometimes  become  totally  blind,  while  in  other  cases  one  eye  only  is  affected. 
Squinting  is  frequently  noticeable,  or  the  eyes  may  be  drawn  backward  and 
present  a  sunken  appearance.  The  locomotive  powers  soon  become  affected,  the 
animal  losing  control  of  one  or  more  limbs  and  exhibiting,  as  the  disease  pro- 
gresses, marked  peculiarities  of  gait  and  action,  these  of  course  varying  widely 
in  different  cases.  As  already  stated,  death  is  not  uncommon  at  this  stage  being 
due  to  general  brain  inflammation  and  consequent  functional  derangements. 

When,  however,  the  patient  survives  this  stage,  which  is  only  the  case  when 
the  encysted  parasites  are  few  in  number,  the  symptoms  of  turnsick  usually 
begin  to  show  themselves.  The  affected  animal  may  travel  for  hours  in  a  circle, 
sometimes  following  a  regular  track,  while  in  other  cases  the  circle  becomes 
larger  or  smaller  with  each  completed  round.  In  the  latter  case  the  animal 
frequently  concludes  the  performance  for  the  time  by  turning  as  if  on  a  pivot, 
until  losing  its  balance  it  falls  exhausted,  only  to  recommence  its  eccentric 
movements  when  sufficient  strength  returns.  It  is  sometimes  possible  to  locate 
the  exact  seat  of  the  cyst  in  the  brain  by  a  careful  observation  of  the  vagaries  of 
the  patient.  When  only  one  cyst  exists  the  animal  will,  as  a  rule,  turn  towards 
the  side  on  which  it  is  situated,  but  this  is  not  an  infallible  guide,  as  it  is  not 
uncommon  to  have  two  or  more  cysts  located  in  different  parts  of  the  brain. 
When,  however,  one  cyst  only  exists,  the  rule  above  mentioned  generally  holds 
good,  in  which  case  the  eye  on  the  opposite  side  is  usually  blind  from  amaurosis 
(glass  eye).  If  the  cyst  is  situated  near  the  front  of  the  brain  the  patient  steps 
high  and  keeps  the  head  drawn  backward.  If  the  cyst  is  in  the  posterior  part 
of  the  brain  the  animal  will  either  lose  all  power  of  movement  or  will  turn 
towards  the  wind,  holding  the  head  high  and  well  forward. 

Skilled  shepherds  with  long  experience  of  the  disease  become  very  expert  in 
locating  the  exact  seat  of  the  cysts,  and  some  claim  that  when  superficially 
situated  the  bone  immediately  over  them  becomes  thin  and  softened.  When  the 
affected  animal  is  valuable  and  the  cyst  can  be  located,  the  skull  may  be  care- 
fully trephined  and  the  bladder  and  its  contents  removed.  In  ordinary  cases 
the  best  plan  is  undoubtedly  to  slaughter  the  affected  sheep  and  burn  the  head. 
If  the  latter  is  eaten  by  a  dog,  wolf  or  fox,  the  worm  grows  in  this  new  host  to 
maturity  and  produces  eggs.  This  round  is  kept  up.  It  is  well  also  to  rid  the 
farm  of  dogs,  or  if  this  is  impossible,  to  rid  the  dogs  of  tapeworms  by  giving  them 
at  least  twice  a  year,  after  starving  them  for  twenty-four  hours,  a  full  dose  of 
some  reliable  vermifuge,  such  as  kamala,  areca  nut  or  male  fern,  followed  by  a 
purgative.  The  dogs  undergoing  this  treatment  should  be  kept  shut  up  and  all 
material  passed  by  them  carefully  burned  or  treated  with  quicklime.  Inquiry 
recently  made  indicates  that  gid  is  almost  unknown  among  Canadian  sheep,  but 
imported  sheep,  and  especially  imported  dogs,  should  be  closely  watched  for 
some  time  after  arrival. 

Acute  Indigestion 

Acute  indigestion  in  sheep  frequently  takes  the  form  known  as  hoven  or 
bloat,  which  consists  of  the  fermentation  of  food  and  the  consequent  formation 
of  gas  in  the  first  stomach  or  rumen.  It  is  generally  duo  to  sudden  change  of 
food,  and  is  most  often  seen  when  hungry  sheep  are  turned  into  clover,  rape  or 
alfalfa,  or  allowed  to  have  access  to  frozen  turnip  tops,  ruder  such  circum- 
stances it  not  infrequently  affects  a  considerable  number  of  animals  at  once,  in 
which  event  it  is  necessary  to  take  prompt  measures  to  avert  heavy  loss.  If 
observed  in  the  early  stages  a  good  remedy  is  half  an  ounee  of  hypo-sulphite  of 

35001—7 


98 

soda  mixed  with  a  drachm  of  ginger  in  J  a  pint  of  water,  to  be  followed  later, 
unless  permanent  and  effective  relief  is  obtained,  by  from  4  to  6  ounces  of  raw 
linseed  oil,  to  which  may  be  added  ^  an  ounce  of  turpentine. 

If  the  distension  is  extreme  the  paunch  may  be  tapped  with  a  trocar  and 
canula.  This  is  done  on  the  left  side  at  a  point  midway  between  the  point  of 
the  hip  and  the  last  rib,  and  a  similar  distance  from  the  transverse  process  of 
the  backbone,  which  may  be  felt  towards  the  upper  part  of  the  paunch.  It  is 
necessary,  especially  in  fat  animals,  to  be  careful  in  locating  the  seat  of  opera- 
tion, as  otherwise  serious  injury  may  result  to  one  or  other  of  the  internal 
organs.  The  wool  should  be  carefully  parted  so  as  to  avoid  the  carrying  of 
strands  into  the  wound  to  cause  subsequent  irritation  and  suppuration.  Every 
sheep  owner  should  keep  a  trocar  and  canula  where  it  can  be  found  at  a 
moment's  notice.  Where  the  proper  instrument  is  not  available  it  may,  in  an 
emergency,  be  better  to  risk  puncturing  the  paunch  with  a  pocket  knife 
rather  than  let  the  animal  die  unrelieved,  but  the  practice  cannot  be  recom- 
mended, inasmuch  as  when  the  paunch  begins  to  collapse,  some  of  its  contents 
are  almost  certain  to  escape  into  the  abdominal  cavity  unless  the  opening  is 
protected  by  the  canula. 

Spasmodic  Colic 

Spasmodic  colic  is  an  affection  of  a  different  nature,  and  although  sometimes 
due  to  the  causes  mentioned  as  producing  acute  indigestion,  is  more  apt  to  be 
produced  by  other  dietetic  errors  such  as  the  feeding  of  the  lambs  with  cow's 
milk  or  changing  them  too  suddenly  and  completely  from  a  milk  diet  to  solid 
food.  It  may  also  be  induced  both  in  lambs  and  in  adult  sheep,  by  acrid  herbs 
or  by  an  unusual  diet.  The  pain  should  be  relieved  by  the  administration  of 
an  anodyne  mixture  such  as  a  teaspoonful  each  of  laudanum  and  sweet  spirits 
of  nitre,  dissolved  with  a  teaspoonful  of  ginger  and  two  teaspoonfuls  of  baking 
soda  in  one-half  a  pint  of  water.  It  may  be  necessary  to  follow  up  with  a  dose 
of  raw  linseed  oil  in  order  to  relieve  the  bowels  and  remove  the  irritant,  for 
which  purpose  also  injections  of  warm  water  will  be  found  useful. 

Constipation   or   Stretches 

Constipation  is  not  uncommon  in  sheep  that  are  kept  on  coarse,  dry  feed. 
The  name  indicates  the  nature  of  the  symptoms  shown,  and  this  condition  can 
best  be  relieved  by  the  administration  of  a  cathartic.  For  this  purpose  6  to  8 
ounces  of  raw  linseed  oil,  with  from  2  to  4  drachms  of  turpentine,  may  be  given. 
Injections  are  also  recommended.  The  tendency  to  constipation  is  best  com- 
bated by  the  judicious  feeding  of  roots  and  other  succulent  feed  through  the 
winter,  when  it  is  most  frequently  seen. 

Inflammation   of  the  Bowels 

Inflammation  of  the  bowels,  properly  so-called,  is  almost  unknown  in  sheep, 
although  as  in  horses  there  are  many  conditions  which  produce  acute  inflam- 
matory action  in  some  one  or  more  of  the  internal  organs,  giving  rise  to  the 
symptoms  generally  associated  with  the  name  given  above.  The  symptoms 
presented  are  similar  to  those  of  colic,  but  much  aggravated,  violent  and  almost 
constant  abdominal  pain  being  present.  The  medicinal  treatment  is  similar  to 
that  for  colic,  but  larger  doses  of  the  anodyne  mixture  may  be  given  and 
repeated  at  intervals  of  several  hours  should  the  pain  continue.  Relief  may 
sometimes  be  afforded  by  the  application  of  mustard  to  the  abdomen.  Treat- 
ment is  frequently  unsuccessful,  but  should  be  persisted  in,  as  such  attacks 
occasionally  terminate  in  diarrhoea,  which,  after  being  allowed  to  continue  for 
a  reasonable  length  of  time  may  be  controlled  by  the  administration  of  starch 
or  flour  gruel,  to  which  may  be  added  the  whites  of  eggs  and  a  little  whisky  or 
brandy. 


99 
Diarrhoea 

Diarrhoea  is  as  a  rule  the  result  of  bad  management,  overfeeding  with 
succulent  food,  or  an  indigestible  diet,  such  as  unripe  food  or  frozen  grass — that 
caused  by  the  latter  being  a  very  serious  form.  It  may  also  be  caused  by  a 
sudden  change  to  a  diet  of  roots,  especially  mangels,  and  is  also  observed  among 
sheep  turned  for  the  first  time  on  alkali  lands,  and  in  those  having  access  to 
water  strongly  impregnated  with  alkali.  Treatment  consists  in  removing,  if 
possible,  all  the  inciting  causes  and  by  changing  the  diet  to  dry  feed  of  a  simple 
character.  It  is  sometimes  best  where  the  trouble  is  evidently  due  to  an  effort 
of  nature  to  get  rid  of  irritation,  to  assist  the  process  by  the  administration  of 
a  mild  laxative,  and  for  this  purpose  a  few  ounces  of  castor  oil  may  be  given, 
combined  with  a  drachm  each  of  laudanum  and  ground  ginger.  Should  the 
diarrhoea  persist  after  this  treatment,  it  may  be  combated  by  the  administration 
of  starch  or  flour  gruel,  combined  with  whites  of  eggs  and  a  little  stimulant, 
should  the  need  of  the  latter  be  indicated. 

Wool  Balls 

Wool  balls  in  lambs'  stomachs  may  cause  considerable  loss,  particularly 
among  long-wool  breeds,  if  the  habit  of  wool  eating  is  persisted  in  for  a  sufficient 
length  of  time  to  allow  of  the  formation  of  many  of  these  peculiar  concretions. 
Digestive  troubles,  a  craving  for  salt  or  some  constituent  lacking  in  the  food 
may  cause  the  lambs  to  chew  wool;  biting  the  sides  to  get  rid  of  ticks  is  a 
common  cause,  and  for  this  reason  lambs  should  be  dipped  together  with  the 
ewes  after  the  latter  are  clipped.  The  loose  wool  should  be  cut  from  the  ewe's 
udder  to  prevent  it  getting  into  the  lambs'  mouths  when  sucking.  Confinement 
should  be  avoided.  The  flock  should  be  turned  out  on  a  wide  range  if  possible 
as  soon  as  the  habit  is  noticed,  and  the  separation  of  the  first  offenders  should 
be  effected  at  once,  as  imitation  is  a  frequent  cause  of  spreading  the  trouble. 
Free  access  should  be  given  to  salt,  phosphate  of  lime  or  bone  meal.  Linseed 
oil  in  appropriate  doses  may  afford  relief,  but  if  much  wool  is  swallowed  the 
balls  may  block  the  small  intestine  and  cause  serious  derangement  of  the 
digestive  functions,  followed  by  emaciation  and  even  death. 

Derangement  of  the   Urinary  Organs 

Many  of  the  diseases  affecting  the  kidneys  and  bladder  of  other  species  of 
animals  are  almost  unknown  to  sheep,  and  when  they  do  occur,  being  difficult 
of  diagnosis,  are  seldom  recognized  and  still  less  frequently  successfully  treated. 
Trouble  is  occasionally  caused,  especially  in  male  animals,  by  the  formation  of 
calculi,  which,  however,  seldom  give  rise  to  definite  symptoms  except  when 
lodged  in  the  urethra.  In  this  situation  they  give  rise  to  serious  difficulty  in 
passing  urine,  and  are,  in  fact,  the  most  frequent  cause  of  what  is  known  as 
"stoppage  of  the  water."  The  formation  of  calculi  is  induced  by  the  too  free 
use  of  highly  nitrogenous  foods  and  those  rich  in  sugar  and  phosphates.  Among 
the  articles  of  diet  held  by  different  authorities  to  be  responsible  are  peas,  beans, 
corn,  mangels,  and  new-mown  clover.  The  condition  is  also  more  frequent  in 
limestone  districts,  especially  where  the  water  supply  is  strongly  impregnated 
with  lime  salts.  The  affected  sheep  generally  lies  down,  and  on  being  made  to 
rise  gives  a  peculiar  spinal  jerk,  followed  in  some  cases  by  the  passage  of  a  few 
drops  of  water.  He  is  very  uneasy  and  restless,  changing  his  position  frequently, 
respiration  is  hurried,  and  often  each  breath  is  accompanied  by  a  painful  grunt. 
The  urine  passed  is  thick  and  cloudy ;  the  appetite  fails ;  fits  of  shivering  follow, 
and  unless  relief  is  afforded  the  bladder  ruptures  or  acute  urine  poisoning  sets 

35001— 7i 


100 

in,  either  of  these  conditions  being  rapidly  fatal.  When,  as  is  not  infrequently 
the  case,  the  obstruction  is  at  or  near  the  external  opening  of  the  urethra,  relief 
can  often  be  given  by  clipping  away  the  wool,  and  removing  the  accumulation, 
which  is  often  more  of  a  sabulous  mass  than  an  actual  stone.  Often  the  urethra 
is  simply  blocked  by  a  mass  of  sediment  behind  the  worm-like  appendage  at  the 
end  of  the  tube,  and  in  such  cases  when  manipulation  fails,  the  worm  itself 
may  be  removed,  thus  affording  relief.  In  all  cases  in  which  the  obstruction  is 
situated  in  front  of  the  peculiar  flexure  of  the  urethra  which  characterizes  that 
passage  in  sheep  as  well  as  in  cattle,  an  effort  should  be  made  to  secure  its 
dislodgement  by  gentle  massage,  fomentations  and  the  injection  of  olive  oil  into 
the  urethra.  Actual  incision  into  the  urethra  is  difficult  and  dangerous,  and 
should  not  be  attempted  by  any  one  except  a  skilled  operator,  and  even  then 
only  as  a  last  resort.  Medicinal  treatment  is  of  little  value,  although  the 
administration  of  belladonna  in  doses  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  grains  may  occa- 
sionally assist  in  relieving  the  tension  of  the  parts.  Benefit  sometimes  follows 
the  administration  of  a  dose  of  physic,  and  in  these  cases  Epsom  salt  is,  for 
obvious  reasons,  the  most  suitable  agent.  The  dose  is,  for  a  full-grown  sheep, 
about  six  ounces  dissolved  with  a  tablespoonful  of  salt  and  two  drachms  of 
ginger  in  at  least  a  quart  of  warm  water. 

Abortion 

Abortion  may  be  caused  in  different  ways.  Injuries  sustained  by  crowding 
through  doors,  hooks  from  cattle,  or  chasing  by  dogs  have  caused  many  a  ewe  to 
give  birth  to  an  immature  lamb,  usually  dead.  Ergotized  grain  or  hay,  smutty 
grain  or  its  straw,  frozen  turnips  or  beet  tops  and  impure  water  are  other  sources 
of  this  trouble.  Careful  management,  clean,  sound  food  and  pure  water  are  the 
best  preventives  of  sporadic  abortion.  Some  of  the  symptoms  are  loss  of  appe- 
tite, dullness  and  desire  on  the  part  of  the  ewe  to  isolate  herself  from  the  flock. 
Generally  abortion  takes  place  before  any  symptoms  are  noticed,  but  it  is 
occasionally  necessary  to  remove  the  foetus  and  placenta  lest  blood  poisoning 
sets  in.  Both  foetus  and  afterbirth  should  in  all  cases  be  burned,  and  the  uterus 
flushed  out  twice  a  day  for  several  days  with  a  three  per  cent  solution  of  creolin 
in  warm  water. 

Epizootic  abortion  is  caused  by  a  germ  allied  to  the  common  moulds.  It  is 
contagious  and  spreads  rapidly  through  a  flock  unless  proper  precautions  are 
taken.  An  animal  which  has  aborted  should  be  at  once  removed  from  the  flock, 
and  the  uterus  injected  with  the  creolin  solution  mentioned  above.  Foetus,  after- 
birth, etc.,  should  be  burned,  and  the  place  where  the  main  flock  are  kept  should 
be  thoroughly  cleaned.  All  bedding  should  be  burned  and  the  floors  covered  with 
sawdust  containing  ten  per  cent  by  weight  of  crude  carbolic  acid.  The  walls  and 
ceilings  should  be  whitewashed  with  lime  and  carbolic  acid  in  the  proportion 
of  one  pound  of  commercial  carbolic  acid  to  each  five  gallons  of  lime  wash. 
Rams  that  have  served  affected  ewes  should  be  disinfected  by  syringing  into  the 
sheath  a  five  per  cent  solution  of  creolin,  or  a  1  to  1,000  solution  of  bi-chloride 
of  mercury.  For  this  purpose  a  fountain  syringe  is  the  most  convenient  instru- 
ment. Such  rams  should  not  be  used  again  for  breeding  until  a  considerable 
time  lias  elapsed. 

Eversion   of   the   Womb 

Some  time  after  the  birth  of  a  lamb  (usually  a  case  of  difficult  parturition), 
a  red  bladder-like  body  may  be  seen  protruding  from  the  vulva.  This  is  due 
generally  to  a  weakened  condition  of  the  ewe,  and  consequently  of  the  ligaments 
by  which  the  womb  is  attached,  and  also  the  failure,  owing  to  exhaustion  of  the 
os  uteri  to  close  normally.    It  frequently  follows  the  retention  of  the  afterbirth, 


101 

when  the  whole  organ  is  ejected,  together  with  the  membranes.  In  such  cases  the 
placenta  should  be  separated  at  each  cotyledon  to  prevent  bleeding.  After 
removing  the  placenta  or  afterbirth,  the  organ  itself  and  the  surrounding  parts 
should  be  washed  clean  with  a  two  per  cent  solution  of  creolin  or  carbolic  acid. 
Next  have  an  assistant  place  the  ewe  on  her  back  and  grasping  her  hind  legs 
raise  her  hindquarters  nearly  a  foot  above  the  floor  or  ground.  In  this  position 
the  womb  may  be  most  easily  returned.  The  operator  should  next  flush  out  the 
womb  with  a  pint  of  lukewarm  water  in  which  a  little  powdered  alum  has  been 
dissolved.  The  ewe  should  be  tied  up  for  a  few  days  in  a  narrow  stall  by  herself, 
with  the  bedding  built  up  in  such  a  way  that  her  hind  parts  are  about  six  inches 
higher  than  her  front  parts.  If  straining  continues  and  does  not  yield  to 
medicinal  treatment,  a  simple  truss  may  be  applied  in  the  manner  familiar  to 
most  shepherds.  Stitching  the  vulva  is  not  recommended,  although  it  may  be 
necessary  when  the  attendant  does  not  know  how  to  make  and  apply  the  truss. 
In  no  case  should  more  than  two  or  three  stitches  be  inserted. 

Sore  Teats 

Wet,  cold  weather  and  damp  or  wet  quarters  cause  sore  teats  in  ewes.  Some- 
times the  lambs  bite  the  teats  because  of  a  lack  of  milk  to  satisfy  their  appetites. 
Any  good  healing  salve  will  prove  beneficial.  Equal  parts  of  sweet  oil  and 
glycerine  applied  two  or  three  times  a  day  has  given  good  results. 

Caked   Udder 

Swollen  udder  is  a  common  ailment  at  lambing  time  and  again  when  the 
lambs  are  weaned.  The  heaviest  milkers  are  most  subject  to  it.  The  majority 
of  cases  are  traceable  to  neglect  on  the  part  of  the  shepherd.  Heavy  feeding 
before  lambing  time  is  a  frequent  cause;  exposure  to  draughts  or  a  wet  bed  are 
responsible  for  many  bad  cases.  These  are  easily  avoided.  At  weaning  time, 
to  prevent  swelling,  the  ewes  should  be  milked  out  for  two  or  three  successive 
mornings,  and  this  should  be  continued  in  such  as  show  any  tendency  to  cake. 

Inflammation   of  the  Udder  or   Garget 

Inflammation  of  the  udder  or  garget  is  a  very  serious  condition,  and  not  at 
all  uncommon.  It  may  follow  caked  udder  or  may  be  induced  by  exposure  to 
cold  and  wet,  particularly  the  latter,  to  bruises  from  the  head  of  the  lamb  or 
from  lying  on  stones  or  dry  lumpy  soil.  It  occurs  most  frequently  in  wet  seasons 
and  occasionally  causes  the  death  of  the  ewe  from  mortification.  Intances  are 
on  record  where  the  specific  contagious  inflammation  of  the  udder  which  affects 
cows  has  been  transmitted  to  ewes  occupying  the  same  quarters.  In  the  treat- 
ment of  severe  cases  of  caked  udder  or  of  inflammation  of  that  organ,  it  is 
advisable  to  administer  about  4  ounces  of  Epsom  salt  dissolved  in  \  a  pint  of 
warm  water.  Bathe  the  udder  with  water  as  warm  as  can  be  borne  for  at  least 
half  an  hour,  then  dry  thoroughly  and  rub  well  with  an  ointment  composed  of 
lard  8  parts,  belladonna  1  part.  Keep  the  ewe  in  comfortable  quarters  and  repeat 
the  local  treatment  as  required.  If  any  tendency  to  suppuration  is  observed,  it 
is  advisable  to  apply  heat  and  moisture,  and  for  this  purpose  a  poultice  of  spent 
hops  is  very  suitable,  or  the  udder  may  be  packed  with  clean  woollen  waste 
saturated  with  hot  water  and  kept  in  position  with  a  cloth,  preferably  waterproof. 
Feed  lightly  on  clover  hay  and  warm  bran  mash  and  give  chilled  water  to  drink. 
As  abscesses  show  signs  of  pointing  they  should  be  opened  with  sharp  knife  and 
treated  as  indicated  in  next  paragraph. 


102 

Abscesses 

Abscesses  in  sheep  are  not  uncommon,  being,  in  these  animals,  easily  induced 
by  bruises  and  other  comparatively  slight  causes.  As  soon  as  the  presence  of  pus 
is  definitely  ascertained  the  abscesses  should  be  opened  and  the  cavity  injected 
with  a  2  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  in  warm  water.  This  should  be  repeated 
from  time  to  time  until  the  wound  heals. 

Goitre 

Goitre  shows  itself  as  an  enlargement  of  the  thyroid  gland  which  is  situated 
beneath  the  throat  close  to  the  head.  Sheep  of  all  ages  are  subject  to  it,  but  it  is 
most  frequently  seen  in  lambs,  causing  heavy  loss.  Authorities  do  not  all  agree 
as  to  the  cause.  It  is  considered  hereditary,  while  it  is  also  undoubtedly,  in  some 
cases,  due  to  malnutrition,  apparently  arising  from  certain  condition  of  soil  and 
water  as  yet  imperfectly  understood.  Insufficient  exercise,  the  mating  of  overfat 
rams  and  ewes,  inbreeding  and  weakly  constitutions  are  other  causes  given,  but 
it  is  improbable  that  any  of  these  produce  it  unless  the  local  conditions  are 
favourable  to  its  development.  Lambs  afflicted  with  goitre  are  frequently  born 
dead  or  die  shortly  afterwards. 

Curative  treatment  for  goitre  is  but  little  resorted  to  for  the  reason  that 
young  animals  seldom  respond  satisfactorily.  Mature  goitred  sheep  (which  in 
no  case  should  be  bred  from)  are  only  slightly  inconvenienced  by  the  disease  and 
may  be  readily  fitted  for  the  block.  The  most  experienced  sheep  breeders  avoid 
the  use  of  a  goitred  ram,  knowing  well  that  he  is  likely  to  leave  a  stunted  pro- 
geny. The  safest  plan  is  to  breed  from  only  sound  stock,  the  ewes  of  which, 
during  the  season  of  pregnancy,  should  be  given  ample  opportunity  for  exercise, 
with  a  plentiful  supply  of  plain  and  suitable  food. 

Preventative  treatment  consists  in  the  administration  of  small  quantities 
of  iodide  of  potassium  to  pregnant  ewes.  Dissolve  one  ounce  of  iodide  of 
potassium  in  two  quarts  of  water.  Give  one  tablespoonful  of  solution  daily  in 
water  or  grain  feed  for  each  six  ewes.  Treatment  may  begin  soon  after  ewes, 
are  bred  and  continue  until  lambing  time. 

Catarrh 

Catarrh  begins  with  frequent  sneezing,  a  discharge  of  mucus  from  the 
nostrils,  inflammed  eyes  and  loss  of  appetite.  If  allowed  to  go  on  it  may  become 
malignant,  in  which  case  the  lining  membranes  of  the  nasal  passage,  throat,  and 
even  the  stomach  and  intestines  may  become  affected.  Death  frequently  results, 
while  such  animals  as  recover  from  attacks  of  this  extreme  nature  are  generally 
almost  worthless.  Simple  catarrh  may  be  due  to  infection,  and  its  development 
is  favoured  by  changes  of  temperature,  exposure  to  cold  rains  or  chilling  winds 
or  by  confinement  in  a  draughty  or  poorly  ventilated  building.  Malignant 
catarrh  is  seldom  seen  except  when  the  conditions  are  unsatisfactory.  Strong, 
vigorous  sheep  in  good  condition  are  less  liable  to  seizure,  and  if  attacked,  are 
easier  to  treat  and  make  a  better  recovery. 

The  first  treatment  (which  it  is  advisable  to  try  before  the  symptoms 
appear)  is  to  place  the  animals  in  a  clean,  airy  place,  dry  underfoot  and  with 
good  shelter  easily  accessible.  When  a  nasal  discharge  is  observed,  flax-seed  tea 
may  be  given  three  times  a  day,  with  plenty  of  good  food.  Warm  mashes  are 
beneficial,  while  in  bad  cases  marked  relief  is  afforded  by  steaming  the  head  with 
hot  water  in  which  a  little  carbolic  acid  has  been  dissolved.  Some  rather  ancient 
authorities  recommend  blowing  different  mixtures  into  the  sheep's  nostrils,  but 
little  benefit  is  likely  to  result  from  treatment  of  this  kind. 


103 

Soreness  of  the  Eyes 

Sore  eyes  may  be  due  to  enzootic  ophthalmia  or  to  constitutional  causes. 
Serious  irritation  is  often  induced  by  the  entry  of  dust  or  chaff  into  the  eye. 
Exposure  to  severe  weather  or  draughts,  or'  a  continued  heating  diet  occasionally 
causes  more  or  less  severe  inflammation  of  the  eyes.  Lambs  are  not  infre- 
quently affected,  and  in  them,  as  in  fact  in  all  severe  cases,  the  tendency  is  to  lose 
flesh  rapidly.  Treatment  consists  in  examining  the  eye  for  foreign  bodies,  which, 
if  present,  should  be  removed  if  possible.  A  little  cocaine  solution,  which  can 
be  procured  from  any  druggist,  is  especially  convenient  in  dealing  with  this 
sensitive  organ.  In  this,  as  in  all  other  cases,  the  eyes  should  be  well  bathed 
in  warm  water,  after  which  a  solution  of  2  grains  of  sulphate  of  zinc  to  1  ounce 
of  water  should  be  introduced  with  an  ordinary  dropper  or  a  small  glass  syringe. 
A  mild  laxative  or  at  least  a  laxative  diet  is  to  be  recommended  and  it  is  well  to 
protect  the  eyes  from  exposure  to  strong  light. 

Enzootic  ophthalmia  is,  of  course,  contagious,  and  for  this  reason  it  is 
advisable  to  isolate  at  once  any  sheep  having  sore  eyes,  except  of  course  those 
in  which,  on  examination,  the  trouble  is  found  to  be  due  to  the  entrance  of  some 
foreign  body  or  other  well  defined  local  cause. 

THE  CANADIAN  WOOL  INDUSTRY 

Simple  wool  growing  cannot  be  maintained  in  any  country  where  land  has 
any  considerable  value.  As  civilization  has  advanced  and  the  processes  of 
agriculture  have  improved,  one  country  after  another  has  ceased  to  grow  wool 
for  itself  alone;  mutton  has  become  the  principal  and  wool  the  secondary  object 
of  the  business.  This  change  was  effected  in  England  first  by  improvement  of 
the  Leicester,  the  Southdown  and  the  Hampshire.  France  by  slow  degrees  trans- 
formed the  Rambouillet  Merino  into  a  mutton  breed  of  no  mean  quality. 
Australia  and  also  New  Zealand  are  mutton  shipping  countries,  and  the  United 
States  is  rapidly  getting  away  from  the  fine-woolled  breeds  to  crosses  of  British 
varieties  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  production  of  mutton.  It  is  toward 
this  end  that  Argentine  breeders  find  it  profitable  to  pay  English  breeders  long 
prices  for  Lincoln  rams,  while  the  same  motive  prompts  the  demand  from  the 
ranges  of  the  Western  States  for  Canadian-bred  long-woolled  males. 

In  Canada  the  sheep  is  a  dual  purpose  animal  for  the  production  of  mutton 
and  wool.  During  the  past  ten  years  a  great  deal  of  attention  has  been  given 
by  the  sheep  men  to  the  production  and  care  of  their  wool,  with  the  result  that  a 
very  much  better  and  superior  product  is  being  raised  to-day  than  ever  before. 
Further,  while  returns  from  lambs  are  greater  than  those  from  wool,  yet  it 
is  recognized  that  the  revenue  received  from  the  wool  clip  pretty  much 
swings  the  sheep  industry  because  the  average  farmer  considers  that  without 
revenue  from  his  wool  the  sheep  business  is  unprofitable  and  acts  accordingly. 
In  periods  of  good  wool  prices  an  increase  in  the  sheep  population  may  be 
expected  and  the  reverse  when  low  wool  prices  are  prevalent. 

Canada,  of  late  years,  has  been  giving  more  attention  to  wool  production 
and  wool  marketing.  True,  the  foundation  stocks  of  the  western  provinces 
show  an  improvement  in  the  direction  of  the  mutton  side,  with  a  corresponding 
tendency  towards  coarser  wool.  Practically  all  Canadian  wool  is  of  excellent 
quality,  as  compared  with  its  own  class  from  other  countries  and  the  grading 
of  Canadian  wools,  which  was  started  in  1913  and  has  since  developed  into  a 
national  policy,  has  given  Canadian  wools  an  excellent  standing,  not  only  with 
our  own  mills,  but  also  in  the  wool  markets  of  the  world. 


104 

The  Annual   Crop 

The  estimated  sheep  population  and  wool  production  for  Canada  since  1920 
is  as  follows: — 

Sheep  Production 

Year  and  Lambs        Wool  (lb.) 

1920 3,720,783  24,000,000 

1921 3,675,860  21,251,000 

1922 3,262,626  18,523,392 

1923 2,755,273  15,539,416 

1924 2,686,367  15,111,719 

1925.. 2,757,199  15,553,045 

1926 3,144,343  17,959,896 

1927 3,265,727  18,672.766 

1928 3,418,992  19.611,430 

1929 3,731,358  21,234,000 

1930 3,696,000  21,016,000 

1931 3,608,000  20,365.000 

1932 3,644,500  20,518,000 

1933 3,385,800  19,206,000 

1934 3,421,100  19,544,000 

1935 3,401,695  19,371,000 

The  wools  produced  in  Canada  range  from  coarse,  to  fine,  or  in  English 
terms,  from  40's  to  70's.  The  greater  part  of  the  wools  produced  in  Ontario, 
Quebeo  and  the  Maritime  Provinces  are  combing  wools,  approximately  10  per 
cent  medium  combing,  40  per  cent  low  medium  combing,  30  per  cent  low  comb- 
ing 10  per  cent  coarse,  and  10  per  cent  rejects  or  off  wool.  In  these  provinces 
the  highest  grade  in  fineness  of  wool  fibre  comes  from  the  Southdown,  then  the 
Shropshire,  the  Hampshire,  and  the  Suffolk.  Typical  fleeces  of  these  breeds 
will  generally  grade  medium  and  low  medium.  From  the  Oxford,  low  medium 
and  low  combing,  from  the  Leicester  low  combing  and  coarse,  and  from  the 
Cotswold  and  Lincoln  coarse  wools  are  produced.  The  expression  "  low  "  does 
not  mean  low  in  quality  and  has  reference  only  to  the  diameter  of  the  fibre. 
Low  medium  in  the  English  term  is  expressed  as  48's  to  50's  and  low  combing 
as  44's  to  46's.  The  wools  produced  east  of  the  Great  Lakes  may  therefore  be 
expressed  in  the  terms  of  medium,  low  medium,  and  coarse. 

The  wools  of  Western  Canada  are  of  two  main  classes,  range  and  domestic. 
The  range  wools  come  principally  from  Southern  Alberta  and  Southern  Sas- 
katchewan. They  have  Merino  foundation  and  are  in  grade  the  finest  wools 
grown  in  Canada.  The  principal  grades  are  fine,  fine  medium,  medium  and 
low  medium,  expressed  in  English  terms  as  70's,  64's,  60's,  56's,  50's,  46's,  44's, 
and  40's.  The  domestic  wools  of  the  West  are  generally  similar  to  eastern 
wools  where  the  Down  breeds  predominate. 

The   Export   Trade 

Approximately  half  of  the  Canadian  fleece  wool  clip  is  exported  annually, 
chiefly  to  Great  Britain  and  to  the  United  States. 

In  1885,  3,550,000  pounds  crossed  the  United  States  boundary,  while  during 
the  three  years  commencing  1895  the  export  ran  up  to  5,449,955,  3,851,442  and 
7,499,949  pounds  respectively.  The  great  increase  during  these  years  was  due  to 
the  withdrawal  of  the  customs  duty  on  wool  entering  the  United  States  as  a 
condition  of  the  Wilson-Gorman  tariff.  A  year  later,  1898,  when  the  tariff  had 
been  restored,  the  amount  fell  to  about  one  million  pounds  and  in  1899  to  some 
22,000  pounds.  The  present  United  States  tariff  is  34  cents  per  pound  of  clean 
content;  except  on  wool  not  finer  than  44's  quality  in  the  grease  or  washed  the 
rate  of  duty  is  29  cents  per  pound  of  clean  content;  while  on  wool  not  finer 


105 

than  40's  quality  in  the  grease  or  washed  the  rate  of  duty  is  24  cents  per  pound 
of  clean  content.  Grease  wool  duties  are  arrived  at  by  using  the  percentage 
shrinkage.  For  example,  under  the  34  cent  rate  on  a  wool  shrinking  45  per  cent, 
the  duty  is  18-70  cents  a  pound.  Under  this  duty  the  export  of  Canadian  wool 
to  the  United  States  varies  from  year  to  year.  In  those  seasons  when  prices  in 
the  United  States  are  the  equivalent  of  world  prices  plus  duty,  fairly  large 
weights  of  Canadian  wool  are  sold  in  that  market,  otherwise  sales  in  the 
United  States  markets  are  naturally  in  relatively  smaller  proportion. 

In  the  period  of  the  last  fifteen  years,  export  markets  for  Canadian  wool 
have  been  developed  in  England  and  the  Continent.  In  more  recent  years, 
exports  to  the  United  Kingdom  and  to  the  Continent  have  been  increasing  in 
volume  as  Canadian  graded  wool  has  become  better  known,  and  these  export 
markets  are  at  present  the  chief  outlet  for  Canadian  fleece  wools.  Success  in 
export  to  these  markets  depends  upon  a  quality  product,  accurately  graded  as 
to  type,  and  well  presented  to  the  trade. 

Domestic   Consumption 

About  nine  million  pounds  of  Canada's  annual  shorn  crop  is  worked  up  in 
this  country  chiefly  in  the  woollen  and  knitting  factories.  Besides  this  con- 
siderable is  still  manufactured  at  the  homes  of  farmers.  In  New  Brunswick, 
Quebec,  and  to  some  slight  extent  in  the  other  provinces,  home  carding  and 
spinning  are  still  in  vogue  and  considerable  quantities  of  wool  are  still  used 
in  the  homes  for  making  mattresses,  quilts,  etc.  The  quantities  used  in  these 
ways  are  year  by  year  decreasing  thus  augmenting  the  supply  to  be  taken  care 
of  in  the  mills  and  for  export.  In  addition  to  the  quantities  of  home-grown 
wool  consumed  in  the  Canadian  mills,  large  supplies  of  imported  wools  are 
brought  in  each  year.  For  the  years  ending  March  31,  1927,  1928,  and  1929 
the  quantities  imported  were  respectively  as  follows:  16,423,162,  13,895,679, 
and  14,021,917  pounds.  These  wools,  with  slight  exception,  consisted  of  fine 
Merino  qualities  that  are  not  to  any  extent  grown  in  Canada  and  are  required 
in  the  manufacture  of  fine  goods  such  as  flannels,  fine  tweeds,  meltons,  beavers, 
whipcords,  covert  cloth,  and  fine  rugs.  These  wools  also  enter  very  largely  into 
the  manufacture  of  underwear  and  other  fine  knitted  goods. 

The  mills  using  Canadian  wools  manufacture  such  staple  lines  as  blankets, 
mackinaws,  friezes,  etoffes,  tweeds,  homespuns,  sweaters,  yarns,  etc.,  each  of 
which  fills  a  large  place  in  the  requirements  of  the  population.  Many  of  the 
smaller  mills  depending  upon  the  local  wool  supply  use  Canadian  wools  almost 
exclusively.  These  manufacture  several  lines  of  goods,  and  in  this  way  consume 
the  different  grades  of  wool  produced.  With  few  exceptions,  what  may  be  termed 
the  large  mills  import  most  of  their  wool  and  mix  with  it  a  little  Canadian  and 
a  certain  proportion  of  shoddy  and  of  cotton. 

Wool  Grading  and  Marketing 

The  grading  of  Canadian  wools  was  started  by  the  Dominion  Live  Stock 
Branch  in  1913.  At  this  time  the  care  taken  in  the  growing,  shearing,  prepara- 
tion for  market  and  marketing  was  such  that  Canadian  wools  were  discredited 
not  only  in  the  home  market  but  in  foreign  markets  as  well.  Graded  wool 
easily  sold  at  higher  values  than  ungraded  wool  and  on  this  account  grading 
became  very  popular  in  a  short  time.  At  first,  wool  grading  was  performed 
locally,  often  at  a  number  of  points  within  a  province.  These  grading  centres 
not  only  acted  as  marketing  points  for  graded  wools,  but  also  served  as  an 
excellent  medium  for  farmers  in  ascertaining  the  relative  market  value  of  the 
various  wool  grades  and  the  necessity  of  putting  the  wool  up  in  proper  shape 
for  market. 

When  once  the  local  organization  work  had  been  completed,  and  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  wool  grading  principle  became  general  among  sheep  raisers,  it  was 


106 

thought  best  to  establish  the  co-operative  marketing  and  sale  of  wool  on  a 
purely  commercial  basis,  and  in  1918  representatives  of  the  various  associations 
met  in  conference  and  organized  the  Canadian  Co-operative  Wool  Growers, 
Limited,  an  organization  with  which  are  now  affiliated  some  thirty  local  wool 
growers'  associations.  The  Canadian  Co-operative  Wool  Growers,  Limited, 
217  Bay  street,  Toronto,  now  acts  in  co-operation  with  the  various  associations 
in  arranging  for  the  collecting  and  forwarding  of  wools  consigned  for  grading 
and  co-operative  sale.  They  also  act  as  selling  agents  for  such  wools  for  all 
the  associations  affiliated  with  them.  The  Dominion  Live  Stock  Branch  still 
assumes  responsibility  for  the  wool  grade  standards  and  provides  official  wool 
graders  for  the  grading  of  co-operative  shipments. 

Characteristics   of   Canadian  Wool 

Owing  to  the  numerous  breeds  and  grades  of  sheep  raised  on  Canadian 
farms,  the  Canadian  wool  clip  is  somewhat  variable  in  quality.  Until  wool 
grading  and  co-operative  marketing  was  established  as  a  fairly  general  practice 
this  wide  range  of  varieties  presented  difficulties  in  the  marketing  problem  which 
are  now  being  largely  overcome.  The  wool  is  now  largely  offered  graded  for  the 
trade  and  in  this  way  more  nearly  represents  the  conditions  in  Great  Britain, 
where  the  wool  industry  is  one  of  great  importance. 

The  outdoor  feeding  of  the  flocks  during  the  winter  months  and  the  too 
general  lack  of  appreciation  of  the  wool  side  of  the  sheep  breeding  industry  are 
responsible  for  some  defects  that  are  found  in  Canadian  wool.  These  defects 
include  the  presence  of  foreign  matter  as  well  as  cotted  fleeces  and  second 
growth  wool. 

CHAFF,  BURRS,  ETC. 

The  presence  of  foreign  matter  such  as  chaff,  hay  seeds,  burrs,  etc.,  in  much 
Canadian  wool  detracts  very  largely  from  its  value.  Unfortunately  our  long 
winters,  necessitating  housing  and  the  feeding  of  dry  fodder,  are  responsible  for 
much  of  the  vegetable  matter  found  in  our  wool.  In  addition,  too  many  sheep 
raisers  are  not  careful  to  clean  their  farms  of  burrs,  with  the  result  that  the 
fleeces  become  badly  infested  with  each  recurring  autumn. 

The  losses  from  the  presence  of  vegetable  matter  are  very  large  and  assur- 
edly come  out  of  the  wool  grower.  Such  matter  is  removable  only  by  expensive 
machinery,  or  a  process  known  as  carbonizing.  In  the  process  of  combing  most 
of  the  chaff,  etc.,  is  removed,  but  for  carding  carbonizing  is  frequently  necessary. 
This  process  consists  of  treating  in  an  acid  bath  and  raising  the  temperature 
to  about  220  degrees,  holding  it  there  for  sufficient  time  to  reduce  all  vegetable 
matter  to  dust,  which  is  shaken  out  by  a  special  process.  According  to  some 
authorities  carbonizing  greatly  weakens  the  wool  and  renders  it  harsh,  while 
others  claim  that  the  fibre  is  only  slightly  damaged.  At  any  rate  the  process  is 
expensive  and  the  wool  grower  pays  the  bill.  The  use  of  properly  constructed 
racks,  careful  feeding,  shearing  on  a  clean  surface  and  the  protection  of  the  sheep 
from  burrs  would  go  a  long  way  towards  increasing  the  value  of  Canadian  wool. 

COTTED  WOOL 

Wool  buyers  and  mill  owners  that  purchase  direct  from  growers  and 
country  storekeepers  complain  of  the  presence  of  much  cotted  wool  in  each 
year's  crop.  One  dealer  estimates  the  amount  at  4  per  cent  of  the  clip,  while 
others  place  the  proportion  lower.  This  defect  is  most  general  in  back  country 
wool  and  is  seldom  found  in  lots  from  districts  where  the  system  of  agriculture 
is  well  advanced.  It  is  confined  chiefly  to  the  long-woolled  breeds  and  grades 
of  these,  and  is  seldom  seen  in  Down  wool. 


107 

Cotting  is  believed  to  be  due  to  several  causes.  Some  sheep  have  a  tend- 
ency to  produce  cotted  wool;  again,  neglect  of  proper  shelter  in  bad  weather, 
improper  or  insufficient  feeding,  extreme  change  of  temperature,  ill  health, 
second  growth,  etc.,  are  all  blamed  for  the  cotting  of  wool.  These  conditions 
can  practically  all  be  guarded  against  in  the  breeding  and  care  of  the  flock. 
Cotted  wool  is  of  very  little  value  as  it  can  be  used  in  only  the  cheapest  of 
goods. 

SECOND   GROWTH 

A  second  growth  of  wool  lessens  the  value  of  the  fleece.  It  is  due  to  late 
shearing.  It  is  natural  for  the  sheep  to  lose  its  wool  each  spring,  and  nature 
makes  an  effort  in  that  direction.  If  shearing  is  delayed  after  the  beginning  of 
warm  weather  the  fibres  tend  to  separate  at  the  body  and  a  new  growth  com- 
mences which  pushes  its  way  into  the  fleece.  The  presence  of  any  short 
wool  in  a  mature  fleece  is  troublesome  to  the  manufacturer,  and,  therefore, 
reduces  its  value.  Shearing  should  therefore  not  be  delayed  after  warm  weather 
sets  in. 

TYING  THE  FLEECE 

Much  annoyance  and  loss  has  been  caused  by  the  tying  up  of  fleeces  with 
binder  twine.  In  the  manufacture  of  cloth  from  wool  that  has  been  tied  with 
this  type  of  cord,  it  is  found  that  some  of  the  fibres  adhere  to  the  wool  and  as 
these  do  not  take  dye,  they  leave  white  or  yellow  streaks  in  the  goods,  making 
it  unfit  for  first  grade.  Fortunately  sheep  raisers  are  learning  to  appreciate 
the  damage  done  by  using  this  twine  and  are  discarding  it  for  paper  fleece  twine 
which  is  cut  in  lengths  of  eight  and  a  half  feet,  which  is  the  proper  length  for 
tying  one  fleece.    This  is  a  hard  smooth  twine  that  does  not  ravel  or  rub  off. 

Range  Wools 

A  wide  difference  of  opinion  prevails  among  manufacturers  and  dealers  in 
regard  to  Canadian  range  wools.  As  a  rule  they  are  quite  satisfactory  for  the 
manufacture  of  the  medium  fine  tweeds,  flannels,  fine  blankets  and  under- 
wear. After  summing  up  the  various  opinions  the  writer  concludes  that  these 
wools  differ  widely  according  to  the  character  of  the  sheep  from  which  they  are 
shorn  and  the  care  given  to  them,  especially  during  the  winter  and  spring,  as 
well  as  the  grading  and  general  care  given  the  wool  after  it  has  been  shorn. 
Much  of  our  range  wool  lacks  uniformity  in  quality  according  to  the  breeding 
of  the  bands.  The  original  stocks  were  very  largely  Merino,  but  most  of  the 
grading  has  been  in  the  direction  of  mutton.  The  character  of  the  wool,  there- 
fore, differs  according  to  the  number  and  breed  of  mutton  crosses  in  the  shorn 
sheep.  A  long  wool  cross  produces  a  coarser  wool  than  a  Down  cross,  and  so 
on  from  year  to  year  and  from  cross  to  cross. 

Some  complaint  is  expressed  with  regard  to  the  strength  of  fleece  as  well 
as  the  presence  of  coarse  fibres  known  as  "  kemp "  throughout  the  fleece. 
An  investigation  of  this  charge  brought  out  the  fact  that  the  conditions  com- 
plained of  exist  in  the  product  of  careless  ranchers,  while  the  wool  raised  in 
well-managed  range  flocks  is  not  only  uniform  and  strong  in  fibre,  but  almost 
or  quite  free  from  kemp.  It  is  a  well  understood  fact  that  if  a  sheep 
suffers  from  illness,  shortage  of  food,  or  hardship  of  any  kind  producing  an 
unthrifty  condition,  the  wool  ceases  to  grow  during  that  period.  It  not  only 
ceases  to  grow,  but  a  weak  place  known  as  "  break  "  is  produced  at  that  point. 
The  "  break  "  in  range  wool  is  believed  to  be  caused  by  the  periods  of  severe 
weather  and  shortage  of  feed  experienced  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  each  winter 
or  spring.  The  wool  produced  on  ranges  that  supply  food  and  shelter  from 
storms  and  severe  cold  does  not  show  that  weakness  complained  of  by  certain 
manufacturers. 


108 

That  other  defect  "  kemp  "  is  by  many  considered  evidence  of  a  more  or 
less  remote  cross  of  a  breed  naturally  prone  to  produce  these  stout  hairs  in  their 
fleece.  The  old  Mexican  sheep  had  this  tendency.  Again,  exposure  to 
severe  weather  causes  an  extra  growth  of  stout  hair,  and  in  the  case  of 
sheep,  tends  to  kill  the  fibre.  While  true  kemp  and  dead  hairs  may  not  be 
strictly  identical  they  are  about  equally  objectionable  and  are  present  in  a  pro- 
portion of  our  range  wool.  The  extra  growth  is  a  provision  of  nature  to  fortify 
an  animal  against  cold.  This  is  strikingly  exemplified  in  the  cases  of  horses 
and  cattle,  which  when  allowed  to  run  out  all  winter  produce  long,  coarse 
coats,  whereas  the  same  animals  warmly  housed  remain  sleek  and  smooth.    . 

The  presence  of  kemp  greatly  reduces  the  value  of  a  fleece.  The  long  stout 
hairs  break  readily  and  have  another  serious  defect  in  not  taking  the  dye  well 
and,  therefore,  show  up  strongly  in  the  manufactured  fabrics.  The  precautions 
against  kemp  are  practically  the  same  as  against  "  break,"  although  it  is  advis- 
able also  to  cull  out  such  ewes  as  are  noticed  to  produce  kemp  in  their  fleeces. 

Certain  ranches  have  established  reputations  for  good  wool,  well  put  up,  and 
the  secret  lies  in  the  practices  followed  in  their  management.  Sheds  are  pro- 
vided to  protect  the  sheep  during  storms  and  a  good  supply  of  fodder  is  put  up 
for  winter  feeding.  These  precautions  insure  continuous  thrift  of  the  bands  and 
consequently  healthy  wool.  Their  methods  of  grading  the  wool  are  good.  Each 
fleece  is  rolled  up  separately  and  each  class  kept  by  itself.  These  are:  1st, 
shearling;  2nd,  ewes  and  wethers  over  one  year  old;  and  3rd,  rams.  A  fourth 
grade  consists  of  tag  locks,  pickings  and  dead  wool.  Each  grade  is  properly 
labelled  and  baled  or  put  up  in  sacks.  Firms  which  are  known  to  produce 
good  wool  and  handle  it  as  described  receive  a  higher  price  than  the  haphazard 
wool  grower. 

On  account  of  the  long  haul  it  is  important  that  the  wool  be  put  up  in  bales 
or  in  very  substantial  sacks.  Either  process  is  satisfactory,  provided  it  is  very 
carefully  done.  The  baling  is  usually  done  by  a  hay  press  or  similar  machine. 
The  bales  ranging  in  weight  from  250  to  300  pounds,  are  bound  with  wire,  and 
then  covered  with  cheap  sacking.  Even  though  the  sacks  are  torn  during  trans- 
portation the  wool  suffers  no  injury.  Sacking  is  as  satisfactory  provided  suffi- 
ciently strong  material  is  used;  a  sack  not  less  than  3^  pounds  will  usually 
deliver  the  wool  in  good  condition. 

Pulled  Wool 

In  addition  to  the  shorn  wool,  amounting  to  upwards  of  15,000,000  pounds 
annually,  there  is  also  produced  in  Canada  a  large  quantity  of  wool  taken  from 
pelts  of  slaughtered  sheep  and  known  as  "  pulled  "  wool.  The  quantity  from 
year  to  year  usually  exceeds  1,000,000  pounds  washed,  reaching  1,500,000  pounds 
in  some  years,  the  variation  depending  upon  the  export  of  pelts,  which  some 
seasons  reaches  250,000.  These  are  pulled  in  the  United  States  and  thus  swell 
our  exports  of  wool  to  that  country. 

Throughout  the  Dominion  there  are  about  a  dozen  wool-pulling  firms. 
These  people  buy  the  skins,  wash  or  brush  them,  strip  off  the  wool,  which  is 
sorted  in  the  pulling  into  several  classes  called  for  by  the  trade.  The  average 
weight  of  wool  per  hide  is  about  three  pounds  washed,  the  quantity  varying 
according  to  the  breed  of  the  sheep  and  the  season  at  which  it  is  slaughtered. 

Pulled  wool  is  the  most  easily  sorted,  as  the  pullers  quickly  detect  the 
different  qualities  which  are  thrown  each  by  itself  as  follows:  Lamb's  extra, 
super  combing,  low  grade,  called  No.  1 ;  and  burr  clipped.  Each  class  is  adapt- 
able to  a  certain  purpose,  and  varies  in  value  accordingly.  Most  of  the  short 
wool,  1  and  \\  to  3  inches,  taken  from  sheep  and  lambs  slaughtered  from  June 


109 

to  October,  goes  into  the  knitting  trade  for  underwear  and  similar  lines.  The 
longer  grades  go  into  the  clothing  and  combing  classes,  respectively,  similar 
to  shorn  wool. 

A  very  common  defect  complained  of  by  wool  pullers  is  the  presence  of 
burrs.  These  have  to  be  clipped  out  by  hand  at  a  cost  of  from  1  cent  to  5  cents 
per  hide  before  the  pulling  is  commenced.  Apart  from  the  expense  of  the  labour 
the  wool  is  much  injured,  especially  if  it  be  lamb's  wool,  which  is  of  the  greatest 
value.  In  the  opinion  of  the  pullers  the  sheep  raisers  are  not  altogether  to  blame 
for  this  defect.  It  frequently  happens  that  the  damage  is  done  after  the  sheep 
leave  the  farm.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  dealers  and  butchers  to  collect  and 
hold  sheep  for  days  or  weeks  in  pastures,  not  infrequently  vacant  lots,  that  are 
more  than  likely  to  be  infested  with  burrs.  It  is  here  that  many  of  the  burrs 
are  gathered  in  the  fleeces. 

Shearing 

The  date  of  shearing  has  much  to  do  with  the  quality  and  condition  of  the 
fleece.  Sheep  not  clipped  until  the  weather  is  warm  will  rub  off  considerable 
wool,  because  they  are  too  warm.  They  also  collect  much  dirt  of  one  sort  or 
other.  Sheep  should  be  shorn  while  the  weather  is  quite  cool,  cold  some  would 
call  it.  A  better  fleece  is  secured,  the  sheep  do  better  afterwards  as  they  do  not 
suffer  from  the  heat  and  ticks,  and  there  is  no  wool  to  bother  the  lambs  while 
sucking  or  to  form  deadly  balls  in  their  stomachs. 

Sheep  should  be  shorn  on  a  clean,  dry  floor.  The  fleece  should  be  carefully 
trimmed  either  before  or  after  shearing.  Stained  locks  or  tags  should  be  put 
in  a  separate  pile  to  be  properly  cleaned  before  offering  for  sale.  The  fleece 
should  be  folded  neatly,  skin  side  out,  and  tied  with  sufficient  "  wool  twine  "  to 
hold  it  together.    Afterwards  it  can  be  put  into  sacks  or  bales. 

In  shearing,  the  shears  or  clippers  should  be  held  close  to  the  body  and  not 
allowed  to  run  off  at  a  tangent,  cutting  the  staple  into  two  or  more  pieces,  thus 
seriously  injuring  much  good  wool. 

The   Outlook 

In  the  future,  as  in  the  past,  wool  will  have  its  ups  and  downs,  and  like  all 
other  necessities,  it  will  rise  and  fall  in  value  according  to  the  purchasing  power 
of  the  people  and  the  caprice  of  fashion. 

The  Canadian  sheep  man  need  have  no  fears  for  the  future  of  the  wool  side 
of  the  business,  provided  he  takes  precautions  to  produce  healthy,  clean  wool  and 
gives  attention  to  the  culling  out  of  the  bad-fleeced  breeding  stock.  The  con- 
ditions necessary  to  produce  high-class  mutton  are  favourable  to  the  growth  of 
sound  fleeces.  Canadian  mills  favour  the  Down  wools,  while  the  United  States 
market  takes  care  of  the  long  wools,  but  each  requires  a  sound  staple  as  clean  as 
possible  from  burrs,  chaff,  and  other  vegetable  matter.  Mutton  will  continue 
to  be  the  chief  aim  of  the  Canadian  sheep  raiser,  but  the  wool  side  is  not  to  be 
despised  and  will  increase  the  revenue  from  his  flocks  according  to  the  condition 
of  each  season's  clip. 


INDEX 


Page 

Sheep  Husbandry  in  Canada 5 

Historical  Review 5 

Government  Assistance  to  the  Industry  8 

The  Mutton  Sheep 9 

Viewed  from  Market  Standpoint..    ..  10 

The  Feeder's  Side 11 

Scale  of  Points  for  Mutton  Sheep. ...  11 

Points  of  the  Sheep 12 

Leading  Breeds  of  Sheep 13 

The  Leicester 14 

The  Cotswold 17 

The  Lincoln 19 

The  Oxford  Down 21 

The  Hampshire  Down 23 

The  Shropshire 26 

The  Southdown 29 

The  Suffolk 31 

The  Dorset 33 

The  Cheviot 34 

The  Merino 36 

Favoured  Pure  Breeds 39 

Establishing   a   Flock  of   Commercial 

Sheep 39 

Selecting  a  Ram 41 

The  Size  of  the  Flock 41 

Time  to  Purchase  Ewes 42 

Mating 42 

Wintering 42 

Lambing  Time 43 

Shearing  and  Dipping 43 

The  Flock  at  Pasture 43 

Weaning 44 

Precautions  in  Rape  Feeding 44 

Culling  Out 44 

Types  of  Mutton  Sheep 45 

Mutton  Production  in  Great  Britain.  49 

In  the  South  of  England 51 

Mutton  Making  in  Scotland 52 

Flocks  Renewed  Each  Season 52 

Fattening  Sheep  in  Canada 54 

Winter  Fattening 54 

Feed  to  a  Finish 55 

Fattening   Ewes 55 

Early   Lamb   Production 56 

Fattening  Range  Lambs 58 

From  the  Block  to  the  Table 58 

The   Butcher's   Animal 59 

Preparation  for  Killing 59 

Avoiding   the   Woolly   Flavour 60 

Skinning  and   Dressing 60 

Cooling  and  Cutting 61 

Keeping  the  Meat 61 

Corning   Mutton 61 

Spiced  Mutton  Hams 62 

1 


Page 

Handling  Sheep 62 

Dipping 64 

The  Great  Neglect 67 

Comparison  on  the  Block 69 

Methods  of  Castration 69 

The  Tails 70 

Feeds  and  Feeding 70 

Clover 70 

Alfalfa 71 

Vetches 72 

Rape 72 

Cabbage 74 

Turnips 74 

Mangels 75 

Corn 75 

Corn  Silage 75 

Peas 76 

Oilcake .  . 77 

Oats 77 

Sheep  Barns 78 

Plan  Described 78 

Construction 78 

Doors  and  Windows 80 

Construction  of  Roof 81 

Ventilation 82 

An  Inexpensive  Shed 83 

Sheep  as  Weed  Destroyers 85 

Sheep  Improve  the  grade  of  Wheat..  85 

Blue  Weed  and  Wild  Mustard 86 

Weeds  increase  as  sheep  decrease..    ..  86 
Ragwort — The  Source  of  Pictou  Cattle 

Disease 87 

Animal  Enemies  of  the  Sheep 87 

The  Dog 87 

Methods  of  Protection 89 

Predatory  Animals 89 

Poisoning 90 

Precautionary  Measures 91 

Timber  Wolves,  Bears   and   Panthers.  91 

Diseases  of  Sheep 92 

Scab 92 

Foot-Rot 93 

Ticks  and  Lice 94 

Stomach  Worms 94 

The  Grub  Worm 95 

Tapeworm 95 

Gid 96 

Acute  Indigestion 97 

Spasmodic  Colic 98 

Constipation  or  Stretches 98 

Inflammation  of  the  Bowels 98 

Diarrhoea 99 

Wool  Balls 99 

Derangement  of  the  Urinary  Organs..  99 


11 


112 


Page 

Abortion 100 

Eversion  of  the  Womb 100 

Sore  Teats 101 

Caked  Udder 101 

Inflammation  of  the  Udder  or  Garget.  101 

Abscesses 102 

Goitre 102 

Catarrh 102 

Soreness  of  the  Eyes 102 

The  Canadian  Wool  Industry 103 

The  Annual  Crop . . 104 

The  Export  Trade 104 


Page 

Domestic  Consumption 105 

Wool  Grading  and  Marketing 105 

Characteristics  of  Canadian  Wool . .    . .   106 

Chaff,  Burrs,  etc 106 

Cotted  Wool..- 106 

Second  Growth 107 

Tying  the  Fleece 107 

Range  Wools 107 

Pulled  Wool 108 

Shearing 109 

The  Outlook 109 


CAL/BC A  OTTAWA  KlA  0C5 


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