Ceti ee VO Si ae, ra ia eg a sa a Sieastiiaase TERRA ~ > —? e fea us BD not im, a a eed a aes a aa eS”. -_™- L Baia e Ske ae. ae ee ever we a © TA LP 5 Grit ie a vd vis 8 aS Mae AD A f ear: hae Suny ELS Ay Tet Re Td Gotte: Peel eee en) ee 4 NEENT ON tn Coby muNr Mey A (Ve t ei hn vei RETR MANTA, eR aah WNP RL awe 18 Bild, Lavan a OU tal Ora 4 i ee COM TRE We Oe J ae ‘ a‘ M4 RAV ORG one Peri 6 2 ik ‘? yi ; : Jt. y bh aA f PBs Bee) bP, | eG ¥) ae sil ee te wy { * se y % be Aa wae Tt Waly teh. Pais vue, 1g! > RPA np: Aue ume pa nf i Sharia wi ’ r i l G fri, ‘ tA i i yy Py " (fe\a iu ie J i aii 7 li i ? Ps ; its, | hd re cy \" SHEEP HUSBANDRY In the South: COMPRISING A TREATISE ON THE ACCLIMATION OF SHEEP IN THE SOUTHERN STATES, AND AN ACCOUNT OF THE DIFFERENT BREEDS. ALSO, A COMPLETE MANUAL oF BREEDING, SUMMER AND WINTER MANAGEMENT, AND OF THE TREATMENT OF DISEASES. With Portraits and other Illustrations. IN A nme e o LETTERS FROM HEN. BY SR AND.A DL Ly: 1 AAS. OF CORTLAND VILLAGE,’ N. ¥.” HO, 7s Wl 220 R. F. W. ALLSTON, Eso. OF SOUTH CAROLINA. cd PHILADELPHIA: PUBLISHED BY J. S. SKINNER & SON. 1849, Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1848, by 1. J. S. SKINNER § SON, in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. Printed by T. K. & P. G. Collins. PREFACE. So full and complete is the exposition of the subject as discussed in the following pages, and so clearly are the scope of the work and the circumstances which prevailed with its accomplished author, to pass it through our hands to the public, explained in his own « InTRO- DUCTION,” that only in compliance with a common custom in book- making, might any thing have been deemed necessary in the way of preface ; were it not to acquit ourselves of the obligation to tender thus publicly to Col. RanDALL, not our own thanks merely, but those of’ the agricultural community, for the great benefit which must ensue to it, in the proportion that this instructive contribution to the stock of our agricultural knowledge and literature may command the atten- tion to which it is, on every account, so well entitled. An agricultural correspondence, reaching far back, and spreading widely over the Southern States, to which has been more recently added considerable extent of personal observation, had with us, already established the conviction, that in no other part of our coun- try, perhaps, does there exist a resource at once so fruitful, and so little availed of, as that which is possessed in that region, for the pro- secution of this—one of the most interesting and important branches of Husbandry that any country can enjoy. But while it has been easy to perceive this defect so apparent in their agricultural economy, amounting in the aggregate to a national loss of no inconsiderable magnitude; it was not so easy to expose, as Col. Randall has done, the fallacy of the difficulties that were sup- posed to stand in the way, or to indicate how the real impediments which do exist may be overcome, or materially mitigated. Something of these imaginary difficulties, for successful Sheep Husbandry, may, as we believe, be assumed to have their origin in the prejudices engendered in the minds of Southern agriculturists, by the Sweeping condemnation of it to be found in the celebrated and deserv- edly popular essays of Arator, by Col. John Taylor—clarum vene- rabile nomen! and it may be that these prejudices are referable in a degree, also, to the concurrent opinions of the no less celebrated John Randolph, «of Roanoke,”’ who, even on the floor of Congress, gave them utterance in vehement and bitter denunciation against the harm- 3 4 PREFACE. less animal itself—going so far in his animosity to it, and to all en- couragement of the great industry which it was formed to subserve, . as to declare, that he would at any time go out of his way “to kick a sheep!” Nor would it be unreasonable to apprehend that these im- pressions against the policy and profit of sheep-breeding, as an import- ant object of attention for the Southern land-holder, have taken root the more kindly in the minds of a people unaccustomed, if not na- turally averse to that careful and minute attention which the successful prosecution of this business demands—a people whose sons, it may be feared, still find it easier, if not more commendable, to follow in the venerated footsteps of their sires, than to encounter for themselves the labor of investigation, and the trouble (together with some expense) of new arrangements incident to every new employment of labor and capital. The general impression, in fact, is, (the reader will judge how far it is just,) that cultivators of the soil everywhere are, of all classes, the least apt to embark in any new enterprise, however pro- mising. They talk and talk about it, but rarely go about; and per- haps it may be better that it should be so; yet it is well to remember that precipitancy is one thing, and torpor quite another! We once knew a farmer (so called) in Calvert county, who, being told, as he sat toasting himself in the chimney corner on a cold winter’s night, that the house was on fire! without moving from his seat, answered, «call the people !”” In opposition to all that has been urged or imagined against Sheep Husbandry in the South, on the score either of ill-adapted climate, deficiency of suitable forage, want of adequate demand for wool, or other obstacles, the whole subject has been so admirably and thoroughly canvassed in the work here offered, that further argument would be superfluous ; otherwise we might oppose to the hitherto prevailing be- lief, if not prejudice, the experience of some, on a limited scale, and the well-settled opinion of yet many more among the most enlightened of our acquaintances in that region—gentlemen uniting ample oppor- tunities with close habits of observation on all questions of rural economy, and who have not hesitated to express the confident belief, that profitable and interesting as has been the growing of cattle in western Virginia, an equal amount of capital and attention, devoted to sheep and wool growing in the same section of country, would be yet more remunerating. Looking for reliable information yet further south, and back to'a period more remote, even anterior to our deela- ration of independence, it may not be out of place to quote an evi- dently careful and intelligent author of a work on the climate and products of each of the then English colonies. Speaking of Georgia, and her well-ascertained adaptation to the growth of silk, the vine, the olive, madder and wool, he remarks: « Wool, we [England] take PREFACE. 5 in large quantities from abroad, because it is of a kind we cannot pro- duce in England: our colonies on the continent of North America, South of New York, produce a wool entirely similar to the Spanish. No staple they could produce would, therefore, be more advantageous to Great Britain. It is well known that a piece of fine broadcloth cannot be made without Spanish wool; it is also known that the Spaniards have of late years made great efforts to work up their own wool; if they should succeed, or if they should by any other means prevent the export of it, our woollen fabrics, though they might not be stopped, would at least be burdened with a fresh expense and a new trouble; all which would be prevented by encouraging the import of wool from America: and at the same time that this good effect was wrought, another would be brought about, in cramping the manufac- tures of the colonies.” Unfortunately for the agricultural interest of our country particu- larly, the desire to «“ cramp the manufactures of the colonies,’’ here so candidly avowed as the settled policy of England, not only survived the Revolution, but has been so well fostered by our own subserviency to it, as to render our independence, in respect of this and other no less important industrial pursuits, rather nominal and fictitious than substantial and true; nevertheless, with the odds of pauper labor and immense capital against us, thanks to the ingenuity and enterprise of our people, we need not despair of final success with any thing like fair consideration on the part of our own government. For this opinion we need have no better authority than that of SAMuEL LAWRENCE, the enlightened and liberal proprietor of the Middlesex Mills, at Lowell, who says, «the business of manufacturing wool in this coun- try is on a better basis than ever before, inasmuch as the character, skill, and capital engaged in it are such as to defy foreign competi- tion.” Occasional revulsions, such as the present, will occur from causes abroad over which we have no control, but let not the wool grower relax in the care of his flock, for the same-far-seeing manu- facturer has declared that he could point to articles of wool now im- ported, that will require thirty millions of pounds of medium and fine quality to supply the demand. After all, then, on viewing the importance of the inquiry to nume- rous friends for whose welfare we profess to entertain unaffected con- cern, and the great extent of the district which seemed to us to be so well adapted to the growth of sheep and wool—the magnitude of the interests involved swelled upon the contemplation, begetting a conviction that as a question of practical agriculture, it was not to be worthily and well treated by a few hasty and superficial essays, or by more elaborate compilations in relation to the oft-repeated natural history of the ani- mal, its prominence in scriptural annals, &c., unsustained by that \ 6 PREFACE. laborious and discriminating comparison of facts and authorities to illustrate its uses and its value, and by that fulness of personal ex- perience in the breeding and management of the various races, “in sickness and in health,’”’ which constitute the excellence of these let- ters to Col. Allston. Under all these circumstances, the reader of the work here pre- sented may well judge how fortunate that it should have been under- taken, con amore, by a gentleman so well prepared by general scholar- ship, by exact practical knowledge, and by extensive inquiry into the mercantile and manufacturing, as well as the agricultural pees: of the question. It is due, however, no less in justice to ourselves than to truth, to add, that in urging him to undertake it, we had no idea of committing the author to such an amount of labor, even had we foreseen that being, ashe says, a “labor of love,” it would have thus ended in pro- ducing, asin our judgment it has, decidedly, the best work on the sub- ject of Sheep, that has at any time appeared in our country. May we not refer, for the soundness of this opinion, as well to its originality and strictly American character, as to the comprehen- siveness with which it presents the subject in its various relations, in- structive alike to the merchant, the manufacturer, the political inquirer, and the legislator; as to the practical farmer? Nor is it to be characterized alone by its utility in these respects; for the reader will agree with us that its entire fairness and freedom from narrow views and local prejudices, much enlarge, in a moral and instructive view, its title to general confidence and favor. Finally, as far as the public judgment may be anticipated in refer- ence to a production originally appearing disadvantageously, in de- tached parts, and not until now finished and embodied; if we may conclude from the favorable manner in which such portions have been reviewed and recommended, by some of the leading journals of the country, the writer may well felicitate himself on having rendered a most acceptable service not only to his brother farmers, but to his countrymen generally; while we may unaffectedly, and, as we think, confidently add, it establishes for Col. Randall himself a claim to stand in front of those whose pens, some of them under high motives of patriotism, have been engaged in illustrating one of the most impor- tant of all our industrial pursuits; nay, one which may be considered essential, in an eminent degree, to our national independence. J. 8. SKINNER, Late Editor of the Farmers’ Library, (now of The Plough, the Loom, and the Anvil.) July 4, 1848, ee INTRODUCTION. Tue subject of Sheep Husbandry has recently attracted more attention in our Southern and South-western States, than at any previous period. The want of a staple or product, the cultivation of which should render productive the capital in- vested in millions of acres of mountain and other lands, which do not now yield a farthing of income, and which, from their soils, situation, or other circumstances, are unadapted to the growth of any of the present Southern staples, has struck every Southern man, as well as every traveller of ordinary intelligence, who has passed through the regions indicated. The want, too, of some class of domestic animals to constitute the basis, or pivot as it were, of a system of convertible husbandry on the tillage lands of the South, to take the place of the present imperfect rotations of crops, and new and old field-system, has become apparent to many of her more investigating agriculturists. The fact that the mountain and other unproductive lands alluded to cannot be made to profitably yield any vegetable products but pasturage ; that for the present, and for a long time to come, at least, the bulk of them will not afford a pasturage adapted to the support of large animals; could not but suggest the growing of wool, as their best, if not their only available staple. The similarity of their general cli- mate, too, with that where wool is most cheaply grown on the Eastern Continent, was a consideration promising favorably to this husbandry. And, finally, it had not failed to strike men of ordinary commercial intelligence, that of those animal staples, to the production of which a Southern climate is adapted, the Sheep fur- nishes a vastly more marketable one than any of the larger grazing animals. The superiority of the Sheep over other animals for supporting the fertility of tillage lands, by converting a portion of their products into manure, was not so apparent. Butthe well-known fact that they receive the preference for this pur- pose, in some of the best agricultural countries of the world, made it sufficiently probable to demand a full investigation, before adopting an adverse conclusion, espe- cially as what has been said in relation to climate and the marketableness of animal staples, was as applicable to these lands, in the South, as to those adapted only to grass. But Sheep Husbandry as a system, and especially a system tested by experience, was scarcely known in any of the Southern States excepting in western Virginia. Whether the theoretical considerations and natural circumstances which apparently favored its introduction would be met, in practice, with unforeseen obstacles, was a matter calling for grave cireumspection. The Southern agriculturist is ever wary of innovation, and very properly averse to rash experiment. He knew, it is true, that his roving and untended ‘native’? sheep obtained subsistence, and found no 7 8 INTRODUCTION. enemies to their health but the wolf and cur, onall the Southern zones. But whether the local climate and herbage of those different zones—the low, level, Tertiary sands of the Atlantic plain—the granite hills of the middle, and the ele- vated Paleozoic or Transition regions of the mountain zone—would be found to agree with the more valuable breeds of sheep ; whether their wool would retain its qualities or degenerate in these several localities ; whether a greatly increased sup- ply of wool would find a remunerating price in market; whether the mountains could be converted into sheep-pastures, and wool produced on them without an expense which would absorb all the profits; whether Sheep Husbandry could be made a substitute for “ resting,’”’ or expensive artificial manures, in restoring to the cotton, tobacco, and grain lands of the middle and tide-water zones the fertility withdrawn by tillage; and various other important correlative questions were all problems to him. And to add to the difficulties of forming a correct opinion, and especially of instituting safe and satisfactory experiments, he was ignorant of all the practical details and manipulations of Sheep Husbandry: he knew little of the various breeds, and their respective adaptation to his wants. For information on the subject of practical Sheep Husbandry and breeds of sheep, there are a multitude of European, and several American works, of great value. But for the answers to the questions in the preceding paragraph, which involve the particular bearings and adaptation of this husbandry, of the different breeds, etc., to the agricultural circumstances and wants of the various regions of the South— where was the inquirer to find the desired information? Some well-written letters, embracing portions of these topics, have appeared from time to time in our agricul- tural journals. They have been of great value in drawing attention to the subject. But they have not usually occupied limits sufficient for the examination of more than a single phase of the general subject, or they have been mere coup d’cils of that subject, omitting all but a few important facts and considerations of a general character. They have, too, usually been replied to, or published contemporaneously in the same or other agricultural journals, with contradictory statements—some- times with crude and erroneous speculations—calculated to confuse or mislead the inexperienced inquirer. Beyond these occasional Letters in the agricultural jour- nals, nothing, so far as I am aware, has appeared on this subject. A practical farmer, I have bred nearly all the approved varieties of almost every kind of domestic stock—of every kind commonly kept on Northern farms—and have been familiar with the details of their management and husbandry. I have owned flocks of sheep, and been more or less familiar with them, from my child- hood; and for the last fifteen years have made their economy, their habits, their comparative profitableness with other kinds of stock, and the comparative value of their breeds, matters of careful and constant observation and experiment. When Corresponding Secretary of the New York State Agricultural Society, a few years since, the facts drawn out by me inan extensive correspondence with eminent Southern agriculturists, united to what knowledge I had previously ob- tained by reading and personal observation of the Southern States, led me to the impression that there were numerous considerations and natural circumstances strongly indicating the expediency of introducing wool-growing extensively into those States. But at that time, my attention, in common with that of many if not most, of the Northern flock-masters, was turned towards the prairies of the North- west, as a region capable of sweeping away all American competition in this branch of husbandry. Glowing estimates and calculations had been predicated on very partial experiments. The value of the natural grasses, the character of the winters and general climate, and the general facilities of the prairies for wool-growing, were then little understood here, and had been made the subjects of much favorable exag- INTRODUCTION. 9 geration. Facts subsequently ascertained, have, it cannot be denied, materially changed the impressions of our flock-masters on this subject. Whether correctly or incorrectly, they no longer fear Western competition in growing fine wool. My own coincides with the popular impression on this topic, if we consider that com- petition in its relations to a period not far distant in the future. The adoption of these views led me to again turn my attention, never entirely withdrawn, more particularly to the capabilities of the South for this branch of hus- bandry. My conclusions and the reasons for them will be found in the following Letters. Ina letter to Hon. Robert J. Walker, Secretary of the Treasury, pub- lished in his Treasury Report of 1845, and ina series of letters published in the Virginia ‘ Valley Farmer,” the same year, I stated some of the general conclu- sions I had then arrived at on this topic. These publications were followed by letters from gentlemen residing in Virginia, North and South Carolina, Tennessee, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkansas, making farther inquiries, and usually impart- ing more or less local information on the subject. Some of these were practical men, only seeking information on practical points; others, eminent for intelligence and legislative experience, embraced a more comprehensive field of investigation, and sought from me, as probably from other sources, to ascertain by a wide range of general facts and statistics, the probable bearing, now and in future, of an exten- sive system of wool-growing on the Agriculture, Commerce, Manufactures, domes- tic consumption—in short, the whole domestic economy of our Southern States. Answers to these questions demanded careful investigation, and involved a great variety and complexity of details in the practical department of the subject, ren- dered far more numerous by the wide differences existing between the soils, esta- blished husbandry, and even the climates, of the three distinct and well-defined zones already alluded to. The location of some of my correspondents was on the mountains of Virginia, the Carolinas, and Tennessee—others on the hilly zone of the same States—others on the Tertiary sands of the tide-water zone, and the Cre- taceous plains of the Mississippi and Arkansas. ‘To give opinions on all the topics referred to, and in reference to natural circumstances so various, supported by even a respectable show of corroborating facts, was an undertaking requiring considera- ble time and labor: to repeat them separately to each correspondent, was wholly out of the question. Requested by Mr. Skinner, a little more than a year since, to prepare a series of Letters on Sheep Husbandry, and especially on Sheep Husbandry in the South, for ‘The Farmers’ Library, it occurred to me that a compliance with his request would enable me to answer each of my correspondents by once writing; and moreover, I could feel, under such circumstances, that I could properly afford to bestow an amount of time and elaboration on my communications which I should otherwise find impracticable. And I confess, I also thought if the information I could impart would prove of value to my personal correspondents, it might also prove so to many others among the numerous readers of a popular agricultural magazine. The liberal offer of the Publishers to provide all such cuts as I should choose to direct, was an additional inducement to adopt this medium of communication. I have often felt the want of these in agricultural letters of my own, and in reading the works of others. In describing a breed of sheep, for example, to a person who has never seen them, the best chosen words convey but a vague impression. In many other cases also, cuts exhibit at a glance what it would require much circumlocution to describe ; and they in many instances convey ideas to the mind with a definiteness, correctness, and exemption from possibility of misunderstanding, which words alone never could. The cuts include portraits of all the breeds which I supposed could of possibility possess, or claim to possess, superior value, for any region or B 10 INTRODUCTION. locality within the United States; all the necessary anatomical figures, with those of the less known insect and parasitic enemies of the sheep; and finally, represen- tations of every implement, fixture, or process employed in Sheep Husbandry, where I thought they would convey important information—and particularly new information—more clearly than it could be done by words. Many of the latter class of illustrations have never before been, so far as I am aware, attempted; and, representing as they do the results of years of inquiry and experiment, I trust they may prove of service to beginners—particularly in regions where Sheep Husbandry has been hitherto little known. The Letters were begun and concluded exclusively as a “ labor of love.” To possess the consciousness that even a limited portion of my fellow-men have been benefited by my labors, would be all, and the noblest recompense to which I could aspire. Nor do I feel, that in attempting to benefit the agriculturists of one section of our country, by urging them to appropriate a branch of industry now giving sub- sistence to those of another section, lam seeking the good of the former at the expense of the latter. Every region has natural advantages, or those resulting from the natural course of events, for different branches of industry. A right to these advantages enures from a right to the soil; and the former is just as natural and sacred a right as the latter. To attempt to wrest them from the holder by legisla- tion, is oppressive ; to withhold from him any knowledge necessary to the enjoy- ment of them, is unfraternal and unmanly. If Virginiacan grow wool, or any other staple, more cheaply than New York, let her doit. She will only foree New York to fall back on the production of some other staple, or to adopt some other branch of industry. And why not? Why should there not be a division of production, where it is called for by natural circumstances, at least within the limits of a com- mon nation? It is doubtless well for every region, whether extensive or limited, to produce its own necessaries of life to the greatest economical extent. But an attempt to force Nature against her manifest capabilities, for the sake of attaininga fancied local independence, is to inflict a real evil, in the hope of attaining an ima- ginary good. History is full of instances where the prosperity of Jarge masses of individuals, and even whole nations, has been crippled, in futile efforts to upbuild this or that branch of industry, in spite of natural obstacles, or against the compe- tition of regions possessing greater natural advantages. Among the foolish, selfish, and even iniquitous legislation of past ages, there has been none perhaps productive of more real mischief to human industry than the intermeddling enactments of go- vernments, ostensibly designed for its benefit. Masses of men, because divided by a rivulet, speaking a different language, or owning the sway of different potentates, have aspired to that physical independence of each other, and of the whole world, which the God of nature rendered economically, if not absolutely impossible. The vexatious restrictions on trade and commerce imposed in pursuit of this object by one government, were met by retaliatory ones by others, until international com- mercial legislation became a confused labyrinth of enactments—their absurdity only equaled by their mischievousness. And like the elephants formerly used by bar- barian nations in battle, they nearly as often trampled down their friends as their enemies. The era of these things is rapidly passing away. That patriotism which includes only a province or State, among one common people, is beginning to be recognised as narrow and sordid: nay, among intelligent men, that philanthropy is beginning to be thought meagre and unexpansive which stops even at the boundaries of Nations. In preparing the following Letters, I have labored under disadvantages insepara- ble from the circumstances under which they have been prepared. I have written them from month to month, amid the hurry of other pursuits, with little idea of what INTRODUCTION. Lt: would be their ultimate limits—usually with one or more of the immediately pre- ceding numbers in the hands of the printer, and consequently not under my inspec- tion. I have not therefore had that opportunity to proportion the space devoted to the several topics, avoid repetition, and correct errors, possessed by him who com- pletes and revises, before any portion. of his manuscript is rendered unalterable by stereotyping. Reliance on insufficient authority has in a very few instances led me into errors, but fortunately, so far as discovered, they have been of trifling importance, and in relation to matters of no especial moment. Those thought worthy of notice have been corrected in subsequent parts of the body of the work. The causes I have named, therefore, affect rather the literary character of the Letters, than their general accuracy. In stating important facts and conclusions, I have consulted such writers of repu- tation as were within my reach. Among the foreign ones who have prepared works on Sheep Husbandry, or expressed important opinions on some of its separate topics or facts, or who have alluded to the Sheep Husbandry of particular countries or nations, reference has been had to the following, either by consulting their works, as I have in most instances been able to do—or by quotations from them found in the works of other writers of reputation;—Anderson, Bakewell, Barnes, Barrow, Bischoff, Blacklock, Bourgoing, Bright, Carr, Coventry, Culley, Cunningham, D’Arboval, Darwin, Daubenton, Dick, Ellman, Gasparin, Gilbert, Goese, Harrison, Hogg, Hood, Howitt, Hubbard, Jacob, Lang, Lasteyrie, Leeuwenhoek, Lichsten- stein, Linneus, Low, Luccock, Maitland, Malte-Brun, McCulloch, Moffat, McKenzie, Paget, Parkinson, Parry, Petri, Pictet, Powell, Reaumur, Rodolphi, Sinclair, Slade, Southey, Spallanzani, Spooner, Stephens, Swaine, Trail, Trimmer, Valasnieri, Vanderdonk, Von Thaér, Walz, Western, Willmer & Smith, Youatt, Young, and some others. Of our domestic writers, I have aimed to consult ail of the most prominent ones. It is not necessary to enumerate them, extending, as the list would, to hundreds. The examination of these writers, foreign and domestic, has been no recent under- taking with me. For years, I have found it a source both of instruction and plea- sure, to peruse:their works. Where they have proposed any thing new to me, which I thought promised favorable results, I have usually sought the first opportunity to put their propositions to the experimentum crucis of actual trial. Ihave often thus learned valuable facts. But I have nearly or quite as often ascertained that what may be true of one breed, in one climate, or under one set of circumstances, is not true when all or a part of these conditions are changed. The English and German systems of management, for example, I regard as almost wholly inapplicable here, on account of the entire different relation which the prices of land and labor bear toward each other in those countries and ourown. And I sometimes have had the conviction forced upon me, that writers even of reputation have assumed positions in relation to practical matters, which they must have derived from other sources than direct personal experience. While I have carefully reviewed and collated the opinions of other writers on doubtful practical points, I have in all instances, as will be seen in the following pages, preferred the results of personal experience and observation, to adverse authority, however eminent. Compilations, it seems to me, are sufficiently abun- dant, and I have thought it better to give my own opinions, leaving them to stand or fall, as they shall be found accurate or inaccurate. Where I have found it necessary to rely on others for any fact, or have quoted their opinions, I have uniformly given them credit. To my kind correspondents, particularly my Southern correspondents —many of whose communications are not published on account of their reluctance 12 INTRODUCTION. to be cited as authority for facts, where their modesty leads them to underrate their own comparative knowledge and experience—I tender my thanks for their assistance. I have addressed the Letters to Col. R. F. W. Attston, of Waccamaco Beach, near Georgetown, South Carolina—a gentleman to whom I am indebted for much valuable information on the subject of Southern Agriculture, and who has ever evinced a most earnest desire to contribute to the improvement of that Agriculture. HENRY S. RANDALL. Corttanp VittacE, N. Y., April 3, 1848. CONTENTS. Page LETTER I. Errect or Crimate on THE Heattu ann Woo.-Propucine Quatitirs oF Sarep.15 LETTER II. EFrect OF CrimaTE (continued) sintefalataraleisiolalelsisiaieinieleye(s’s'els/u/siele 61s\0/aisiele/ eee) elalsiersiein's/oiceaek LETTER III. ADAPTATION oF THE Sorts, HersaceE, &c., or THE SOUTHERN States To SHEEP Hussanpry.—l. Or roe Low on TipE-waTiEr REGION. .....cccceecceecesee 30 LETTER IV. Tae ApapraTion oF THE Sorts, Herpace, &¢., oF THE SOUTHERN STATES TO Suere Hussanpry, (continued.)—2. Or raz Mippie or Hitry Zonz.— SHO CHE, MOUNTALN: FCEGIONiyad obts steer in oh etre orejeisiolaisivie s eie\eiors ovale tlove eisiele,reelarcleLes LETTER V. Prorits oF SHrer Hussanpry IN THE SouTHERN Strates.—l. Direct Prorit PNR CPAENTVAT ENGVES ITE D cfayeyaiaie) otarainietevejeleleetahere: ciniateveieisio a ole ane conc ia anos fessntsiee oe ata Oe LETTER VI. Prorits or Saeep HuspanpRy IN THE SouUTHERN States.—2. As THE BAsIs oF AMELIORATION. IN NatTuRALLY STERILE AND WoRN-oOUT SOILS ......00.000-266 LETTER VII. Prorits oF SoHezrp Hussanpry In THE SouTHERN States.—3. By Gryrine To Sournern Acricutture a Mrxep ann Conyertisite Cuaracter.—4. By ' Fournisuine THe Raw Marrrian ror tHe Manvuracture or Domestic WVGOLLE NG's cre mrertteet atorciectaro/cio sie's versie slereiaoie sisie oc oiote cis cabie iceR OR REECE LTS LETTER VIII. Prospects or THE Woot MarketT—FutTure DEMAND AND SUPPLY. ee+.ece000+02594 : 13 14 CONTENTS. Sein eng Sis ag 2 et Se Page LETTER IX. Prospects or THE Woot ManxetT—Future DEMAND AND SUPPLY. ceccesceseees108 LETTER X. BnreEEpS OF SHEEP IN THE UNITED STATES. .....ccccccecccccescvcccgeccecccceccsl29 LETTER XI. Taz Most Prortrante Breen or Sarzer ror THE SovutTH—PRrINcIPLEs OF BREEDING ...:.00. BSR SHne SOROS ABAT ne elaeie.s © 0, slatajelaernie cio ustersiotiatte ctoeeeers LETTER XII. Summer ManaGEemMeEnT OF ROHEE Bagi in'e'o win a'4'e/o:0i0 eib:aniayn vee 6\a7a elavsiere'sie ei Starter aane eee LETTER XIII. Winter Management or SHEEP 070(0\e0,0\0)e a(e'e|e\ais/aleiaieia\eieiern elein efeieisioiersiaieielaieisiareenietereniaiat LETTER XIV. AwNaTomy AND Diseases oF SHEEP ...ce.cceens ARS 9\0 010 0 alee cles 00je 0 ap aeeee secisininere ln LETTER XV. Anatomy or Tur Suzzp, (continued.)—Disraszs anp THEIR TREATMENT........234 LETTER XVI. Disrases AND THEIR TREATMENT, (CONTBTEM) ..\. sessions putin cliente nauean ee teen LETTER XVII. Surer Does, Woot Derots, &c.......0.0. 0:01010,0 0.0.0 e\a'be 6 .06,6\0 0/0 0.00.0 010 6.0'w-e p oieiveie eGentit APPENDIX. o 2\80 0 01e,0/e)0:0 2 010, Cele |e 00,6.0.0\0 b ofa.6 0.66010 0 chido Kaleb seine eieien's Oct ween es ceniemet, SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. LETTER I. EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON THE HEALTH AND WOOL-PRODUCING QUALITIES OF SHEEP. introductory Remarks...Wool-Growing and Manufacturing Statistics of the Southern States compared with those of New-York. ..Effect of Warm Climates on the Health of Sheep...Sheep in the Southern States below latitude 32°...Effect of Climate on Wool-Producing Qualities of Sheep—on the Quantity of the Wool... Weight of Fleeces in the Southern States indicated by U. 8. Census of 1840—Important Omis- sions in that Census—Other important Errors in it. ..T'able of Weights of Fleeces in Four Counties where they average highest in each of the Southern States and in New-York—Latitude, Topography and Climate of those Counties... Warmth of Climate conducive to the Production of Wool—Reasons. R. F. W. Ariston, Esq— Dear Sir: That spirit which prompts communities and States to at- tempt to render themselves independent, so far as the supply of physical wants is concerned, of other communities and States, is an eminently proper one, up to certain limits. Beyond these,it degenerates into mere sectional selfishness, as deserving of reprobation in the community as in the individual—nay, more so, for it militates more widely against the in- terests and happiness of mankind. Agriculture supplies the most of our physical wants which are not administered to spontaneously by Nature. In this great department of human labor,it is not difficult to decide how far the inhabitants of each particular region are called upon to rear from the earth what their wants require. Nature herself has, in the distribution of soils and climates, both indicated and limited the production of many of the agricultural staples, by geographical boundaries, sometimes topically 16 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. and sometimes by whole regions. This compels those practicing Agricul- ture, both as individuals and masses, to make that “division of labor” which, as in the mechanic arts, gives a better knowledge of its principles and a greater expertness in its practical manipulations. It also creates the necessity of exchange. Exchange is commerce, and commerce begets and diffuses civilization. Agricultural production, then, should be controlled by the demand or want, and by the adaptation of the country to such production. It would be absurd, for example, for New-York to attempt to raise its own rice and cotton, instead of exchanging the surplus of what it can most readily produce for that rice and cotton, or selling its surplus where it is wanted, and buying the rice and cotton with the proceeds. But, on the other hand, it would be equally absurd for New-York to be dependent on South America or Australia for her wools, when she can raise that staple just as well as those countries, and thus save paying for transportation and the hire or commission of the agents of exchange. Though Nature both indicates and limits the production of staples by soils and climates, she too rigidly enforces the primal curse, or perhaps we should say blessing, of labor, to bring forth each, indigenously, in the regions adapted to it, or ever to place them there, unless transported by the enterprise and industry of man. The potato and maize were a recent gift from this continent to the eastern. ‘The debt has been repaid by rice, the sugar cane, the horse, the cow, the sheep, and a multitude of other plants and animals. How singular is the history of some of their deporta- tions! The sugar cane, now furnishing an important staple in some of our own Southern States, originated in the eastern confines of Asia; was not vouchsafed to the Greek and Roman; traveled into Arabia about the last of the thirteenth century; passed thence into Africa; was carried by the Moors into Spain; by the Spaniards and Portuguese into the West India Islands; and thence we received it. Rice, the great staple of your own State, sir, a plant of which it has been said that it “has altered the face of the globe and the destiny of nations,” originated also in Asia, and has traveled by the same slow stages, until it has reached that low zone which skirts our south-eastern shores, to render its vast marshes, oth- erwise useless, as profitably productive as the best grain or cotton lands of the Southern States. Here, sir, we find an instructive lesson. Other regions there are in our Southern States, now, nearly as useless as would be her “ hammocks” without rice, inviting the introduction of some other great staple to sup- ly, if feasible, a home demand, and a surplus for profitable exportation. f this great object can be achieved, and by the same means, the husbandry of the regions now under cultivation be made to assume that mixed and convertible character which will both add to their present proceeds, and better sustain their fertility, for future demands on them, a benefit will be conferred on the South the present and final results of which it would be difficult to overestimate. Repudiating theoretic speculation and vague conjecture—advancing just so far and no farther than we find our way illumined by the broad and certain light of facts, let us inquire what im- portant staple there is, not now extensively produced at the South, which would come within and at the same time fill the requirements I have men- tioned. Woolen fabrics constitute an important item in the imports of the South- ern States, and for these they exchange the proceeds of no inconsiderable proportion of their industry with the Northern States and with Europe. The following table will exhibit the population, and the amount of home SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. h? production in these staples, according to the U.S. census of 1840, in the States south of the Ohio and Potomac, and west of the Mississippi, (in- cluding Louisiana,) in 1839. T’o these are added, by way of comparison, the statistics of the State of New-York, under hekeamne heads, for the same year: ¢ TABLE No. 1. Value of Woolen STATEs. Population. No. of Sheep. Lbs. of Woot. Me pd meee Mana factred Virginia A 6 Sep PS 1,239,797 1,293,772 2,538,374 41 147,792 North Carolina... 753,419 538,279 625,044 3 3,900 South Carolina - -- 594.398 232,981 299,170 3 1,000 Georgia Seperate wie 691,392 267,107 371,303 1 3,000 OMT. Hej ee wsak 54,477 7,198 7,285 ‘Alabama <2.6 25/3. 590,756 163,243 220,353 Mississippi. .-.... 375,651 128,367 175,196 Louisiana. 22.26). 352,411 98,072 49.283 Tennessee ....... 829,210 741,593 1,060.332 26 14,000 Kentucky want miata 779,825 1,008,240 1,786,847 40 151,246 Lic a Ae 6,261,336 | 4,478,852 7,133,187 114 320,938 New-York....... 2,428,921 5,118.777 9 845,295 323 Sowell The above is only given to indicate approximate general results ; for, as I shall subsequently show, the returns of the product of wool are inac- curate to the last degree. The question now arises, whence the immense disparity in the growth and manufacturing of wool in the State of New-York, comprising 46,000 square miles of territory, and less than two and a half millions of popula- lation, and the ten States above enumerated, covering an area of 495,000 square miles, and exceeding six millions of population 1 1 Is the growing of wool, (for we will first consider this, as the main question, leaving the sub- ject of manufacturing for subsequent examination,) to its preser at extent, profitable or unprofitable in the State of New-York ? 1 contend, and shall attempt to prove, that taking a term of say ten or fifteen years, it has been the most profitable branch of industry carried on in the State. If this is true, why is it not equally profitable in the Southern States ?* Is there anything in their climate which renders them less favorable to the health or wool-producing qualities of the sheep—or is there anything in their topographical features, soils, herbage, or other circumstances, which unfits them for a natural and easy adaptation to sheep husbandry? Or have they other staples so much more profitable that it is not an object to grow wool? Having bestowed some attention on these points, and having been prac- tically familiar with the most minute details of sheep husbandry from my childhood, I have thought that the conclusions I have arrived at, and the facts on which I have based them, might not be uninteresting to you. To bring these facts connectedly before you, I shall necessarily be driven to repeat some matter from my own and the writings of others, which you have doubtless before seen in the publications of the day. ' Let us now take up the first of the two preceding questions; and first I will call your attention to the effect of Climate. Sheep have been bred, time out of mind, on the Eastern Continent, from the Equator to the 65th degree of north latitude, from the burning plains of Africa and Asia; to the ‘almost perpetual frosts of Iceland. The Merino, (the different families of which, as will be shown, constitute the only varieties suitable for wool growing on a scale of any considerable extent,) has been bred in Europe, for ages, as far south as between the * When I use the words “Southern States,” without farther specification, you will understand me to mean the ten enumerated in Table 1st. (651) Cc 18 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 36th and 37th parallels of latitude, and has, within the last few years, been acclimated with perfect success as far north as various points in Sweden. lf any difficulty exists in the climate of the United States, rendering it unsuitable for the rearing of sheep and wool, it must be its heat; and this must affect the wool-producing qualities of the animal alone, and not its health, as the following facts will show. ‘There were upward of 660,000 sheep in the five most southern States, in 1839. In Florida, they have - been acclimated as far south as the 29th degree. In Louisiana, Mississippi, < Alabama, and Georgia, they not only flourish in the northern and more elevated sections, but on the low, fenny, tide-water region which skirts the ~ Gulf of Mexico. In the above five States there were, in 1839, upward of 190,000 sheep below the 32d degree of latitude, viz.: in Georgia 32,986, Florida 7,198, Alabama 22,053, Mississippi 56,780, Louisiana 81,627.* They graze with equal impunity the vegetation on the margin of the Great Okefinokee Swamp (in Georgia and Florida) and on that which rankly flourishes among the ooze at the mouths of the Mississippi. It may interest some less acquainted than you are, sir, with this subject, to know that in 1839 the county in which New-Orleans stands (Orleans) contained 1,807 sheep; Jefferson, on the opposite side of the river, 6,871; St. Ber- nard, extending from Orleans to the Gulf, 1,154; Plaquemine, almost sur- rounded by the waters of the Gulf, and comprising the delta of the Missis- sippi, 1,832; Lafourche Interior, on the Gulf, 1,253 ; Terrebonne, another Gulf county, 1,013; St. Mary’s, another, 8,211; and La Fayette, another, 2,622.t No portion of the United States is lower, hotter, or more unhealthy, than much of the preceding, and none, according to commonly received notions, would be more unsuited to the healthy production of sheep. Yet, that they are healthy in these situations is a matter of perfect notoriety to all conversant with the facts. So far as health is concerned, then, we are assuredly authorized to assume the position that no portion of the United States is too warm for sheep. We come now to the effect of climate on the wool-producing qualities of the animal. Assuming the census returns of the United States in 1840 as reliable data, they would furnish strong proof that the warmth of the climate has a marked effect in diminishing the weight of wool per sheep ; and they have been adduced as furnishing conclusive evidence to that ef- fect, by persons more accustomed to broad assertion than patient investi- gation. The following will give the weight of wool per head in the States enu- merated in Table No. 1, estimated from the census returns of 1840: TABLE No. 2. Lbs. Oz Lbs. Oz, Vit OE eieite es otis a\alo biel sios ima s Sie 1 7 845 A Gam ae ee = wratte siete wisie isin eu eie ae 1 4 146 NOrthi CarOlMAl ac mesic scien == 1 2 221 IMISSIREI plat o-c seke ee seek cisenie 1 4 227 South Carolina. 2c saco. cena ale 1 3 539 Frodistanacs -adectcet ot. ooeanele 0 8 040 Seoreial. o-n. pense tesmeceesee 1 4 487 Tennessee ess hawdee scien. qcacd 1 4 809 PRIOTIOD. « o\6. oe se Remieeeapaeins = mie a -1s 1 0 410 Kentuck ys? caste = deceh +6 ove ioe L 6 9a But an examination of the census will show that so far as several of these States are concerned, it is entitled to very little credit, in this par- ticular, and that it is correct in relation to none of them. In Louisiana, in fourteen counties from which 30,261 sheep, or nearly one-third in the whole State, are returned, not a pound of wool is returned. In Florida, four counties, returning 228 sheep, return no wool. Let us U.S. Census, 1840. 7 1b. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 19 examine the comparative products, per head, as set forth in some of the counties from which returns of sheep and wool are both made, with a view of testing their accuracy. Escambia returns 485 sheep, and 837 lbs. of wool; Walton 386 sheep, and 575 lbs. of wool; Leon 1,798 sheep, and 3,360 lbs. of wool—or an approximation to 2 lbs. of wool per head. Nas- sau returns 436 sheep, and 1,200 lbs. of wool, or about 3 lbs. per head. On the other hand, Gadsden returns 1,875 sheep, and 512 lbs. of wool; Jefferson 752 sheep, and 300 lbs. of wool; Madison 223 sheep, and 50 Ibs, of wool; Jackson 960 sheep, and 376 lbs. of wool, or not quite a third of a pound per fleece! Now Leon is bounded on the west by Gadsden, and on the east by Jefferson, and all lie in the same latitude, and do not differ essentially in their soil, herbage, or temperature! Madison lies imme- diately east of Jefferson, (though its southern angle extends somewhat farther south,) and Jackson joins Walton. Nassau is in the same latitude. Hamilton, returning no sheep, returns the product as 20 lbs. of wool! In Mississippi, eight counties returning 15,227 sheep, return no wool; and there are repeated instances of the same glaringly obvious errors that have been exhibited in the statistics of Florida. For example, Smith county returns 741 sheep, and 1,067 lbs. of wool; Wayne 921 sheep, and 1,466 lbs. of wool. Jasper, bounding Smith on the east, returns 1,848 sheep, and 418 lbs. of Wool; and Clarke, bounding Wayne on the north, 1,199 sheep, and 188 lbs. of wool! By this,the sheep of Clarke shear less than 3 oz. per head, while those of the next county shear over a pound and a half per head. ‘There are various other instances of under returns in the State. In Alabama, two counties returning 2,138 sheep, return no wool; and in eight counties there are the same glaring instances of under returns with those given above. In Georgia there is but one omission to return the wool, where the sheep are returned. In that county there were 3,360 sheep. There are eight or nine instances of obvious under returns, but these in the aggre- gate of the State are partly balanced by two gross cases of over returns. Cobb county returns 3,524 sheep, and 36,057 lbs. of wool; and Richmond 758 sheep, and 3,032 lbs. of wool! In South Carolina there are at least six instances of under returns. In North Carolina there are no returns of wool in one county, contain- ing 2,163 sheep, and in another 7,260 lbs. of wool are returned, and no sheep. There are ten cases of obvious under returns. In one of them 46,340 sheep are made to yield but 12,686 lbs. of wool. In Virginia there are no omissions, and no obvious under returns. There are several over returns. Pit In Tennessee there are no omissions, but there are seven obvious under returns and two or three over returns. In Kentucky and New-York there are not sufficient erroneous returns to materially vary the aggregate. The foregoing facts show that the Marshals in many counties in the most southern States entirely neglected their duty in returning the pro duct of wool; and where over or under returns have been made, it is probable that, by a misapprehension of duty, the amount of wool on hand was ascertained and noted down, instead of the annual clip. And there is another and general error in these statistics, throughout all the States, by the census including in the number of sheep the lambs of the current season, which had not, of course, been sheared at the time of taking the census. A, at the time of taking the census, owned a flock of 200 sheep over one year old, and 100 lambs. He would give in his flock 20 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. to the Marshal as 300, of course, for the census makes no distinction be- tween lambs and grown sheep. He gave in 600 lbs. of wool, which would be 3 lbs. per head for those which had been sheared. But by the lambs being included in the census returns, it is made to appear that his sheep sheared but 2 Ibs. of wool per head. In the next census the lambs and sheep should be separately returned, not only to obtain accuracy, (without which such statistics are valueless,) but the annual increase thus indicated would be,of itself,an interesting and valuable statistic. In the preceding enumeration of erroneous returns, I have set down none as under returns where the product of wool has not been given as less than a pound per head; and where it has fallen under that amount, the returns from contiguous counties, possessing the same natural features, exhibiting a far superior product,as well as the general complexion of the returns throughout the State, have authorized me beyond a reasonable doubt so to consider it. I may add, that it is a fact of universal notoriety that there is no variety of sheep in any section of the United States, which shears but a pound of wool per head.* A careful inspection of the census, moreover, will not fail to satisfy any one that there are a multitude of under returns, (not specified by me, as the product is given over 1 lb. of wool per head,) in most of the States. This is shown by the same kind of compari- sons which have already been alluded to. These are far more common in the extreme Southern States, where wool growing had not yet (in 1839) heen reduced to any system, and where sheep had been little looked after or regarded. These errors grow less, as we approach the wool-growing regions of the north and north-west. Taking those returns which we are authorized to consider correct,t it will appear that there is no great difference in the average product of wool, per head, in States separated by from ten to fifteen degrees of latitude, and no more than is clearly referable to incidental or extraneous causes, unless we come to the conclusion that the difference is in favor of the Southern States. In proof of this, the following table is offered, giving the products of some of those counties in each of the States enumerated in Tables No. 1 and No. 2, which exhibit the highest averages per head, (excluding those obviously over returned.)t TABLE No. 3. a a a ra ea er TET a ae a Ee - Average Weight of Wool| Total average of Lbs. Oz. Lbs. Oz. ier 2250 ‘ Seva NCTA Z ato ss anrisOn. wet 9.05 6_ Vareinia .....- ae ; 35119 Ohio ..------- 2 2xeERo cd Q 14649 | Rockingham...| 2 14934 25. a Cunrituckiesne 2 7443 . Person x 2 5913. North Carolina..... bet ta ; 3027 Perquimans ...} 1 123232 Lape! neu Shee Peto. 2 0 * I consider such to be under returns, independent of the mistake made by including lambs in the enumeration, + With the exception of the error arising from the return of lambs—which perhaps would not greatly vary the proportionable result. {It is proper to say that though I designed to take the highest averages, I did nut go through a formal reckoning of the average in every county in the eleven States. I took those which appeared the highest, after a somewhat careful general inspection. |] Excluding the fractions of the ounces in preceding column. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. / 21 TABLE No. 3—(Continued.) SN NT EERE CUE oT in a ae rh ain bey owt LEI Os toh? nF DE EAE Saat Average Weight of Wool) Lotal average of care | pe per Seo the Counties given. Lbs. Oz. Re “Lbs. Oz. 094 feck ht A: g 1 ae . arlington ---- 504 South Carolina..... § 3041 Georgetown . -- F710 | Richland ei Pri 1 122189 i 306 Bibb ..------- 2 37773 : TE ce) rt ta 1 15344 OGRA S25 ala. ons 8, TWIGS =o <2 2 l0soTs UNE aie Syste 2- 133 Escambia ..-..- - 1 1134 Blonida .a:,.0seoe ia Deon toyatigess 1 13803 2°20 Nassar: a0 2 1395 Blount. 225.222 1 1542 (eae Jackson....... 2 68329 . RA ARR ar Uta de: Se 1 155 Greene 22.22) 2 o7ecs pa al w2711 Claiborne .....- 2 T2tht NGasiasieok 1 biats = er ee 3 SSissIppl -------- i gaa 5 : Wiarrene = oe 2 7183 Concordia.-.-..-. 2 eT Teeaiai Stavllelena)o. 1 74392 i aRaE tah AR St. Tammany .- 2 123 Washington . -. 1 1449 De Kalbi2t {22 2 2152 Brankdine’ 13. 2 731t8 TDERNESSER «,<:4)=.=/6,-,-% Smit] Saab Tledah svladln: PERLE ay Wialsen™..sfoe6s.. 2 QLsgAes : 13897 BROUrpON acs 5 a DENG | pero Kentucky sons). 2 Clarke -—---- a My0983 Lawrence ....- 2 132339 COL, a ere te 2 whose Westchester -- 2 1030t4 IW stems nega Op wie INew-Work foc.c2 2. 355 Saratoga .....- 2), 32786 : 42154 Orleansys 3250 2 See Taking these averages as a test, it would appear that the difference between the average products of the Southern States and New York: is, in some instances, in favor of the former. Kentucky in the middle, and Mis- sissippl in the extreme South, exceed the average of New York. It is proper to say, however, that various local circumstances may have effected these results, and that taking the average of a considerable num- ber of counties, in the several States, would essentially vary them. Not- withstanding this, the testimony which they offer is important, and be- comes more so regarded in connection with another circumstance. The comparative statistics of the extreme Southern States themselves show that in a majority of cases their best products of wool come from their Southern and warmer ‘counties. Of the four counties in Louisiana, the product of which is given above, + tena 22 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. the most northern lies between the 3lst and 32d degrees of latitude, and all of the other three south of latitude 31°. St. Tammany, which exhibits the second best product, borders on Lake Pontchartram. The State ex- tends north to latitude 33°. In Florida,all the counties given lie in the same latitudes. Mississippi extends north to latitude 35°. All the counties given are south of 32° 30’, and one in latitude 31°. In Alabama, extending north to the same latitude with the above, two of the counties given are in the northern or mountain region, and two of them south of 33°. In Georgia, (same northern line,) one of the counties given is in the ex- treme north, two south of 33° and one in latitude 31°, being the county in which lies the major portion of the Great Okefinokee Swamp ! In South Carolina, two of the counties. (both bordering on the ocean) are in the low, marshy, tide-water region; and the other two are,in the central region. In North Carolina,two of the counties given join the ocean; one is on Albe- marle Sound, while one lies inthecentral and northern portion of the State. In comparing the product of wool in the Southern States with that of the Northern—and more particularly with that of New-York—we must not lose sight of the fact that in the latter wool growing has become an important business, and is reduced to a system. The sheep are kept in pastures, and are sheared at regular intervals. In the Carolinas, Georgia, and the Gulf States, precisely the reverse of all this was generally true, at least up to the year 1839. The sheep were little cared for; were suf- fered to breed promiscuously ; and they roamed at large through forests, where, as the warm season advanced in the spring, their wool, beginning to detach itself, was left on shrubs and brambles, and in not rare instances considerable portions of it were thus lost prior to shearing.” Giving their due weight to the preceding facts, the defects in the census, etc., it is, 1 think, undeniable that they account for all the deficiency in the average product of wool per sheep in our most southern States, com- pared with that of New-York, as set forth in Table No. 2. Indeed, sir, my own convictions are decided, and the facts reported appear to fully sustain them, that warmth of temperature, at least to a point equaling the highest mean temperature in the United States, is not injurious, but abso- lutely conducive to the production of wool. The causes of this are in- volved in no mystery. Warm climates afford green and succulent herb- age during a greater portion of the year than cold ones. Sheep plentifully supplied with green herbage keep in higher condition than when confined to that which is dry. High condition promotes those secretions which form wool. Every one at all conversant with sheep well knows that if kept fleshy the year round, they produce far more wool than if kept poor. A half a pound’s difference per head is readily made in this way. Within the maximum and minimum of the product of a sheep or a flock, the ra- tio of production always coincides with that of condition. I have dwelt on this point at great and perhaps tedious length, sir, as the results set forth in the United States Census, unexplained, would clearly point to a different conclusion from that to which I have arrived. To invalidate testimony, ostensibly so certain and reliable, as well as to combat deep-rooted prejudices, I have deemed it necessary to scan thor- oughly the accessible facts in the case. * I make no account of difference in breeds, as affecting-the product of wool between the South and North. The grade Merinos, not uncommon in New-York, would produce far more wool than the “na. tives,” the principal sheep in the South in 1839. But the latter would equal or exceed the product of the humerous Saxon tlocks of New-York. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 23 LETTER II. EFFECT OF CLIMATE, CONTINUED. Effect of Climate on quality of Wool..-Warmth of Climate renders Wool coarser—Reasons. ..Effect of Herbage...Opinions of Youatt—Doctor Parry—English Staplers—Wrniter.-..Can the tendency to grow coarser be resisted ?. .. Opinions of Youatt—Lasteyrie—Mr. Lawrence..-Experiment in Australia—Cape of Good Hope—South of Mlinois—Kentucky—Tennessee—Miseissippi—New-York... Warm Climates render Wools softer and longer, thus adding materially to their value... Proved to be the case in Australia. ..Tes- timony of English Wool-factors and Staplers...Same effect produced in the United States. ..Testimony of Mr. Cockrill. Dear Sir: We come now to discuss the effect of Climate on the quality of Wool. There can be but little doubt, other things being equal, that the pelage of the Sheep and some other animals, becomes finer in cold climates and coarser in warm ones. ‘This is usually attributed, by theoretical writers, to the effect of cold and heat in contracting or expanding the pores. This may haye some effect, but to suppose that the delicate tissues of the skin can act, to any great extent, mechanically, in compressing the harder and highly elastic ones of the hair or wool, or compel their attenuation so as to permit their escape through diminished apertures, like the process of wire drawing, is, it seems to me, to assume that matter acts contrary to its ordinary laws. I am rather disposed to look for the causes of this phenomenon, in the amount and quality of the nutriment received by the animal. It was stated, in my preceding letter, that warm climates, by affording succulent herbage during a greater portion of the year, maintain in greater activity those secretions which form wool, and thus increase the quantity or weight of the fleece. The weight is increased by increasing the length and thickness of the separate fibres, just as plants put forth longer and thicker stems on rich soils than on poor ones. Mr. Youatt, in his excellent and much quoted work on Sheep, after dis- cussing and admitting, to a certain extent, the influence of warm temper- atures in rendering wool coarser, says : “ Pasture has a far greater influence on the fineness of the fleece. The staple of the wool, like every other part of the sheep, must increase in length or in bulk when the animal has a superabundance of nutriment; and, on the other hand, the secretion which forms the wool must decrease like every other, when sufficient nourishment is not afforded. When little cold has been experienced in the winter, and vegetation has been scarcely checked, the sheep yield an abundant crop of wool, but the fleece is perceptibly coarser as well as heavier. When frost has been severe and the ground long covered with snow—if the flock has been fairly supplied with nutriment, although the fleece may have lost a little in weight, it will have acquired a superior degree of fineness and a proportionate increase of value. Should, however, the sheep have been neglected and starved during this prolongation of cold weather, the fleece as well as the carcass is thinner; and although it may have pre- served its smallness of filament, it has lost in weight and strength and usefulness. These are self-evident facts, and need not be enforced by any labored argument.”* : Doct. Parry, a correct and able English writer, remarks : “ Sheep breeders haye observed a sort of gross connection between the food and quality of the fleece. . . . The fineness of a sheep’s fleece of a given breed is, within certain limits, inversely as its fatness, and perhaps also (although I am not certain on this point) as the quickness with which it grows fat. A sheep which is fat has usually comparatively coarse wool, and one which is lean, either from want of food or disease, has the finest wool ; and the very same sheep may at different times, according to these circumstances, have fleeces of all the intermediate qualities from extreme fineness to comparative coarseness.” * Youatt on Sheep, p. 70. 24. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. In an examination before the English House of Lords, in 1828, various eminent staplers* testify, most decidedly, to the deterioration (in fineness) of the British wools and their increase in length of staple, “since the introduction of artificial food and the adoption of the forcing system.” My own observations fully corroborate these positions. I have exam- ined, in repeated instances, with a good microscope, the wool of individ- ual sheep. in my flock, taken in seasons when they have maintained a high condition, and in others, when, from some incidental cause they have been in ordinary or poor condition, and the difference in length and fineness is, uniformly, distinctly perceptible If the sheep breeder in warm climates can take advantage of the ten dency to produce greater quantities of wool, following that supply of suc- culent herbage throughout the year which Nature has placed at his disposal, and at the’same time, by any unexpensive means which he can employ, combat the correlative tendency to increased coarseness of fibre, he has most assuredly, other things being equal, an entire advantage over the breeder in colder regions. We come now to the important inquiry, Can this latter tendency be successfully combated ; or, in other words, can wool of any desirable fineness be produced in countries as warm, for example, as Louisiana, Mississippi, &c. ? Let us examine Mr. Youatt’s testimony on this point also. He says: “Temperature and pasture have influence on the fineness of the fibre, and one which the farmer should never disregard ; but he may, in a great measure, counteract this influence by careful management and selection in breeding. . . . A better illustration of this cannot be found than in the fact that the Merino has been transplanted to every latitude on the temperate zone, and some beyond it—to Sweden in the North and Australia in the South— and has retained its tendency to produce wool exclusively, and wool of nearly equal fineness and value.”’t Mr. Lasteyrie, equally good authority, uses the following language. When he speaks of the preservation of the breed in its “ utmost purity,” we are undoubtedly to understand him to refer as much to the fineness of the wool as any other point, this being the distinguishing mark or excel- lence of the breed. “The preservation of the Merino race in its utmost purity at the Cape of Good Hope, in the marshes of Holland, and under the rigorous climate of Sweden, furnish an additional support of this, my unalterable principle: fine wool sheep may be kept wherever intelli geut breeders exist.’ Samuel Lawrence, Esq. the head of the great Lowell Manufacturing Company, in Massachusetts, who, by his vast purchases of fine wool in all parts of the United States for a long term of years, and his intimate prac- tical acquaintance with the quality of the article, is entitled to have his opinion on this point regarded as of as great weight as that of any other individual, says : “ That the properties of wool are affected by herbage and soil, I have not a doubt, and were it not invidious, I would name some sections where wool growers are greatly favored by Nature. One thing is certain, whatever may be the character of the soil, where there are good shepherds there is sure to be found good wool. By judicious selections and cross- ing, I believe a breed may be reared which will give four pounds of exquisitely fine wool to the fleece.”’|| This last sentence of this important extract, though not bearing so par- ticularly on the point under examination, is recorded in its original con- nection for subsequent reference. Australia and the Cape of Good Hope being cited by the distinguished *Youatt on Sheep, p. 71, where the names and testimony of these individuals are given; and more at length in Bischoff on Wools, &c., vol. ii. pp. 118—200. 4 , + Pp. 69—70. } Lasteyrie on Merino Sheep, p. 101. || Letter of Mr. L., published in “ American Shepherd,” p. 436, c SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 25 English and French writers above quoted, as offering instances of the per- fectly successful acclimation of Merinos, without deterioration of their wool, in warm climates, it may be well to inquire a little more particularly what the climate of those countries is; and what, if any, the other cir- cumstances connected with them, having an influence on the quality of the wools grown in them. Port Jackson, in Australia, in the vicinity of which the Merinos were first introduced, and are now extensively bred, lies in 33° 55’ South lati- tude, corresponding as nearly with the latitude of Georgetown, South Carolina, as that of any other important point in our country.* In de scribing this region (New South Wales) Malte Brun says : “The coast itself is high but not mountainous ; and it is partly shaded by trees of gigantic size.’ Toward the south-east a great part is covered with coppice; much also is occupied with marshes. About Botany Bayt the soil is black, rich and exceedingly productive in plants. The north-east part seems lower. The coast is covered with mangroves. . . . The heat of December rises to 112° Fahrenheit. The forests and the grass have been known spontaneously to take fire.t| The North-west wind, like the Khamseen of Egypt, scorches the soil and reduces it to a light dust. . . . Notwithstanding these disadvantages, the climate is very healthy, and very favorable to population. . . . Those parts in which different trials have been made have rather too warm a climate for common barley and oats, though these grains have been found to succeed tolerably well on the poorer soils. . . All the vegetables grown in England are produced in the English colony. . . Peaches, apricots, nectarines, oranges, lemons, guavas, loquets, cherries, walnuts, almonds, grapes. pears, pomegranates and melons attain the highest maturity in the open air.”’|| The country, most of it, is remarkably deficient in water,§ though many portions are subject to destructive inundations.{] Its drouths are unequaled for their duration and intensity in, perhaps, any inhabited portion of the globe.** Its vast plains, occasionally highly fertile, but more usually, only in detached spots, afford pasture throughout the year. The physical features of this country, its system of sheep husbandry, etc. will be more particularly alluded to hereafter. The English first introduced into this remote possession the coarse hairy sheep of Bengal. In the short space of three years these were so far changed by the eftect of the climate and other circumstances, that their hair was entirely gone, and was succeeded by a fleece of wool.tt The South-Down and Leicesters were subsequently introduced, and their crosses with the Bengal sheep soon became as fine as the pure bloods of the former. At length some Merines were imported by the colonists, and, says Mr. Youatt, ‘“‘ The experiment was satisfactory beyond their ex- pectation. The third or fourth cross with the then prevalent sheep of the colony produced an animal with a fleece equal to that of the pure Merino in Europe; and the wool of the pure blood seemed to improve as rapidly as the native breed had done.”’{t In 1810, the export of wool from Aus- tralia and Van Dieman’s Land was 167 lbs.; in 1833, it had reached 3,516,869 lbs.|||| In 1843, it amounted to 16,226,400 Ibs.§§ The following, from a table in McCulloch’s Dictionary of Commerce, will show the current prices (reduced to American currency) of some of the imported and domestic wools, in London, March, 1834: $ cts. $ cts. | ENGuIsH: $ cts. §$ cts. DIDAN ISH. doses misetaentaet per lb. — 60 to — 77 North & South-Down. perlb. — 44 to — i] BORTUGUESE |= sab ceaaee ewes — 44 “ — 62 Weieestenes = oc8 sae decmaee — 33 “ — 44 GERMAN, SAxON, &cC .......-. —— 48 115 Lincoln, Cotswold, Romney PU STNAL DAN: © 5 nee maemo, -- — 50 “ 1 00 Miatshi. «2 s\ieis sera sino — 40 “ — 44 A NI ITS he A Ie Sa oe dette St ee Fe fe UG a eS | * Georgetown is perhaps half a degree nearer the Equator. t This place is twelve miles south of Port Jackson. ¢ Malte Brun cites Collins (an author frequently quoted in relation to New South Wales) for this strong and, perhaps, exaggerated assertion. || Malte Brun, vol. i. pp. 600—605. ¢ Spooner, Youatt, etc. {| Malte Brun. ** See McCulloch’s Commercial Dictionary, tt Youatt on Sheep, p 184. Spooner, Diseases of Sheep, p. 62. ft Ib. p. 184. ||| Ib. et Spooner. §§ Spooner. (653) D = 26 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. It will be seen from this, that the best Australian wools already excelled the best Spanish, and were more than midway between them and the best Saxon. When we consider the almost infinite difference in the care, both in breeding and management, bestowed on the Saxon and Australian sheep, it shows most conclusively the adaptation of the climate of Australia to the production of the finest wool—or, at least, that the adverse effects of its warm temperature, and the incidents to that temperature, are easily overcome. InmSaxony, sheep are numbered, oftentimes their separate ped- igrees registered, and each breeding ewe is stinted to a ram carefully se- lected with reference to her individual qualities. In Australia, where less capital and labor are employed, flocks of about three hundred breeding ewes*—where the country is destitute of timber, sometimes a thousand; — 10am from one fertile and watered spot to another over the vast plains, in charge of the convict shepherd; and this system is followed throughout the year, including the tupping season. Three flocks are always penned together at night,t so that as many as nine hundred breeding ewes, of va- rying quality, must be promiscuously bred to, say, from thirty to thirty-five vams, running promiscuously ameng them. The Cape of Good Hope is in south latitude 34° 23/ 40”. Mr. Youatt, in describing the sheep husbandry of this region, overesti- mated, I think, the heat of the climate. Separated by lofty mountain ranges from the interior of Africa, the fertile regions adjoining the coast are not swept by its scorching winds, and the temperature is comparatively mild. “In a meteorological register kept at Cape Town, from Sept. 1818 to Sept. 1821, embracing a period of three years, the highest heat marked is 96°, the lowest 45°, Fahrenheit. The mean and annual temperature scarcely 68°—of winter 61°, of summer 89°.”|| But sheep and their wool suffer from the fine sands which are lifted and driven by the prevailing winds. Says Malte Brun, “the wind blows often from the south-east with great violence. Nothing can be secured from the sands which it drives before it; they penetrate the closest apartments and the best-closed trunks, At this time it is not prudent to go out without glasses, lest the eyes should be injured.’”’§ Though the climate can scarcely be designated a “torrid” one, as Mr, Youatt speaks of it, the mean temperature of its winter (61°) conclusively shows that cold can have nothing to do here with rendering the wool finer by a contraction of the pores. If, therefore, it can be shown that the wool of the fine breeds does not deteriorate in quality, it sufficiently proves that Australia is not an incidental exception in the testimony which it presents on the point under examination, but that it illustrates the uniform opera- tion of the physical laws which pertain to the growth of wool. After one or two unsuccessful attempts, the Merinos were acclimated at the Cape by the English colonists. In 1804, the colony numbered 536.- 634 sheep. In 1811, there were 1,293,740. In 1810, the import of wool into Great Britain was 29,717 lbs.; in 1833, it was 93,325 lbs.§[ In Willmer & Smith’s “ Liverpool Annual Wool Report,” for 1846, it is stated, “ The shipments from this quarter (Cape of Good Hope) show great improvement, amply testified by the high rates the best flocks have commanded during the season. . . The best parcels now take rank with those from Australia.”** The system of breeding and general man- agement at the Cave closely correspond with those of Australia. Let us now, sir, turn to the experience of our own country. I do not * Cunningham's “Two Years in South Wales.” t Ib. t Ib. || Malte Brun, vol. ii. p. 112. § Ib. vol. ii. p. 112. {] Youatt on Sheep, p. 184. ** Willmer & Smith's European Times of Jan, 4, 1846, SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Q7 know that a sufficient number of experiments have been made as near the Equator as Cape Town and Port Jackson, to have their testimony regard- ed as entirely decisive on the point under consideration, but those have been made which throw much light on this question, if, indeed, any more is considered necessary. In the south of Ilinois (Edwards county), in about latitude 38° 30’, the finest varieties of sheep were introduced by Mr. George Flower, about twenty years since, from which he has bred up an extensive flock. That gentleman says :* ‘ No deterioration in the wool has taken place; on the contrary, the wool fibre is somewhat finer.” I have myself seen various specimens of Mr. Flower’s wool, of the clip of 1844, and it bore an excellent character for fineness. and evenness. In a letter which I received from Hon. Henry Clay, in 1839, he says: “T have for some years had only the pure Saxony at my residence; but I am now satisfied that I should have derived more profit from sheep pro- ducing a wool less fine.t The climate of Kentucky is, however, well adapted to the Saxon sheep.” Mr. Clay’s residence is in about latitude 38°. Mr. Mark R. Cockrill, of Nashville, Tennessee, in a letter published in the American Shepherd,{ says: “‘T have about a thousand head of fine sheep, and from 400 to 500 long-wooled or mutton sheep. My Saxon sheep were imported in 1824 or ’26—I cannot say which—and I find as yet no fallmg off in quantity or quality of their fleeces; on the contrary, I believe a little improvement on both points, and a little more yolk, when well provided tor, which, you know, does not abound much in the Saxon breed. In addition, the fleeces are a little more compact than formerly—-hence more weight ; and, from our mild climate, the staple has be- come longer. . . I assert it to be a fact that the cotton region I am now in[ Mr. Cockrill dates from Madison county, Mississippi, where a part of his sheep are kept], m about lati- tude 32° north, is better than any country north of it to grow wool, as the sheep can be kept all the time grazing, by sowing small grain; for, if grazed off, it quickly grows again ina few days; and the wool of the fine Saxon sheep in this climate is softer and more cotton-like than any I have ever seen, although I haye samples from all parts of the world. I have traveled from this very place to Boston, sampling all the sheep of note on the way, and I found nothing on my journey or at Boston as good as the wool I had grown, and so said all the wool staplers whom I met with, and they were not a few. I presumed, in reality, that the blood of my sheep was no better than many I saw, but the superiority of my wool I as- cribed to our climate, and the provision for the sheep of succulent food the year round.— The weight of my fleeces is fair—say from 3 to 54 lbs. each. . . Temnessee is not the true ae climate ; about 28° north is the most congenial for grass: notwithstanding, our State is air for pasture; blue and orchard grass, white and red clover, prosper pretty well. . . There is much country in Tennessee and other Southern States not fit for the plow, and would do admirably well for fine-wooled sheep, and can be profitably so employed. A small capital thus appropriated here in Mississippi would do better than cotton growing at present prices.” Nashville is in about latitude 37° 15’; and Madison county, Mississippi, is about half a degree farther north than mentioned by Mr. Cockrill, viz. extending from 324° to 33°; its county seat (Canton) being more than a degree nearer the Equator than Port Jackson in Australia, and about two degrees nearer than the Cape of Good Hope ! Mr. Morrel, the compiler of the ‘American Shepherd,” has obtained specimens of Mr. Cockrill’s wool, and he says of them, “ Judging from the samples, the conclusion is inevitable that little or no deterioration has been produced by the climate.”’|| This testimony of Mr. Cockrill is very important, both from the length and extent of the experiment. I have n6 doubt of the perfect correctness of his assertion that his wool has improved in those low latitudes; but the cause assigned by him cannot be received as the correct one, so far as the increased fineness of the fibre is concerned. The impre xcment in this par- ticular, under a system of feeding which has “increased” both the “ quan- * In a letter published in the Prairie Farmer. + Mr. Clay here alludes to the Merinos. } P. 409. || American Shepherd, p. 41, 28 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. tity” and the “ yolk” of the fleece, cannot be ascribed to the climate, nor to the feeding itself. It is undoubtedly owing to Mr. C.’s system of breed- ing and selection, a point which will be fully discussed hereafter. If feed or condition exercise the principal influence on the fineness of wool (that is, within the range of variation to which it is subject on the same individuals), it follows that the effect may be produced in any climate, for high condition throughout the year is attainable in the most rigorous ones, by the supply of plentiful and rich food. The wool secretions are incident on condition—fatness, however superinduced.* It again follows that if wool of the highest degree of fineness (for the breed) can be pro- duced in New-York, although the sheep is kept in a decidedly fat state throughout the year—quite as fat as it would become, grazing on green feed all the year round—that wool of equal fineness can be produced by the observance of the same influencing conditions (apart from feed) by the southern breeder. Here again, undeterred by any considerations of what I deem a false modesty, I shall offer facts founded on my own personal experience as a sheep breeder; and I would remark, once for all, that throughout the whole of these letters I shall never so far prefer beliefs founded on the as- sertions of others, to actual knowledge, based on facts repeatedly and con- stantly brought under my personal inspection, for a number of years, as to suppress the latter, to rely solely on the former. I have succeeded, in repeated instances, in producing an exquisite qual- ity of wool, decidedly above the average of the breed (Merino) in the heavy fleeces of sheep kept fat the year round. I have made it a sort of a test latterly, in the selection of rams, to choose only those which not only carry heavy fleeces, in any condition, but which, in the highest, yield a wool equaling the choicest samples to be found on this variety. These facts will, by and by, be placed in a definite and tangible form, by the re- corded testimony of the scales and the microscope. But though the natural effects of warm climates and their incidents, to increase the bulk or coarseness of the fibre, is one which can easily be re- sisted, they work a change of another kind in the character of wool. They cause a longer fibre and a greater softness of staple. The effect of succu- lent nutriment during the year in increasing the amount of the wool will exhibit itself; but the skill of the breeder can so far regulate its action, that the increase is in the length, rather than in the diameter or bulk of the fibres. It is not difficult to conjecture why a staple of more rapid growth, supplied to excess with the secretions which enter into its composition, un- exposed to great and rapid variations of temperature, should retain a greater degree of softness than one produced under opposite conditions. But, whatever the causes of these phenomena, their existence is placed beyond a doubt. The increased length of staple, resulting from the nutriment of warm climates, has been sufficiently adverted to. The following statements made by some of the most eminent wool-factors, staplers, etc. in England, before a Committee of the House of Lords, in 1828, place the other point beyond controversy.t Mr. Henry Hughes, wool-broker, London, says : * No one has asserted, so far as I am informed, that dry feed will produce less wool than green feed, if the same degree of fatness is kept up. On the other hand, the rich cereal grains, oil-cake, &c. (without some of which a high degree of fatness cannot be maintained, on dry feed alone, during the four or five months’ winter in latitudes north of 42°), might be supposed to be quite as conducive to the production of wool as grasses. + For extended minutes of this very interesting investigation into the state of the wool-trade, &c. &c. in Great Britain, see Bischoff on Wool, &c., vol. ii. p. 118 to 200. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 29 —_— a Se ee eee “ Latterly they (Australian and Van Dieman’s Land wools) have been of varied qualities, but all possessing an extraordinary softness, which the manufacturers here so much admire that they are sought for more than any other description of wools, from that peculiar quality, which is supposed to arise from the climate alone. They are known to require less of the milling or fulling power than any other descriptions of wools. . . They are better adapted than the German wools to mix with British wools, because the superior softness which J haye stated gives a character, when mixed with English wool, that the other does not, from the hardness of the fibre.”’* Mr. Stewart Donaldson, merchant, London, says: “T have no hesitation in pronouncing that the wools of New South Wales and Van Die= man’s Land are decidedly preferred to the apparently similar descriptions of German wool, . They have a softness and silkiness about them which, when worked up into cloth, shows itself more distinctly than in the raw material. I conceive that it is dependent on the climate alone. I am of opinion that wool of that quality could not be produced in any part of Europe.’’t 'Mr. Thomas Legg, wool-stapler, Bermondsey, says : i dnt oi are some of these wools of very beautiful quality, as good as any of the German wools.” Mr. Thomas Ebsworth, wool-broker, London, says: “ The peculiarity of the climate of New South Wales appears to have a very great effect on wool, so as to reduce it from a harshness to a very fine texture.” || This was the substance of a// the testimony on this particular point ; and when it is understood that the investigation was an issue between rival interests, where all the facts were thoroughly sifted, the fact that the above assertions were undisputed shows that they were considered of an undis- putable character. Allusion has already been made to the loose and careless system of sheep-breeding, etc. in Australia, compared with that in Germany. Tak- ing this into consideration; taking also into consideration that the flock furnishing the best wool in Australia (Capt. McArthur’s) is composed of grade sheep (Bengal and English, graded up with Merino and Saxon rams), the trifling effect of climate is made more strikingly to appear. The statements of Mr. Cockrill in relation to the softness of the wools grown in Tennessee and Mississippi, sustain and are sustained by those above given; and they go to show that it is the result of a general law and not of any peculiar local influences peculiar to Australia * Bischoff on Wool, &c. vol. ii. pp. 182-3. ¢ Ibid. 183-4. t Ibid. 184, |} Ibid. 184. 30 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. LETTER III. ADAPTATION OF THE SOILS, HERBAGE, &c. OF THE SOUTHERN STATES TO SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 1s OF THE LOW OR TIDE-WATER REGION. Natural Features of the Southern States—Divided into three Zones. ..The Natural Features, Soils, &c. of each...The Tide-water Zone—Its destitution of Artificial Pastures and Meadows. ..Causes—Small amount of Domestic Stock kept—Unsuccessful Experiments in raising Clover and Grasses...Reasons why those Experiments were unsuccessful—Land too much Exhausted by Severe Tillage—System of Tillage com- pared with that of the Grazing Regions of New-York--Experiments unsuccessful, also, because improper varieties of Clover and Grass were tried. ..Much of the Land adapted to Grass—Shown by its Natural Pas- tures—Statements of Col. Allston—Opinions of Mr. Ruffin—of a Committee of the S. C. Agricultural Soci- ety...Land compared with that of Flanders—also with some parts of New-York. ..Climate perhaps unfa- vorable to certain Northern Grasses and to Red Clover—Opinion of Mr. Ruffin—Statements of Milton (S. C.) Agricultural Society. - Clover not indispensable. ..Experiments suggested. -- Valuable indigenous and acclimated Grasses—Crab Grass—Millet-—Bermuda Grass—its great value—Statements of Mr. Affleck... Peas—Their great value in the Southern States as a Green Crop Manure—Sprengel’s Analysis of them— The Value of their Straw as a Manure compared with various substances—Table of the Value of Manures by Payen and Boussingault...Oats, Rye and Barley—Corn Blades—Sweet Potatoes...Conclusions froma foregoing. Dear Sir ; Having discussed, in my previous letters, the effects of warm climates and some of their incidents, on the health of sheep, and on the quantity and quality of their wool, we come now to the second branch of my original inquiry—lIs there anything in the natural features, soils, herb- age, &c. of the Southern States, which unfits them for a natural and easy adaptation to sheep husbandry ! ; The vast region south of the Ohio and Potomac, and west of the Missis- sippi—comprising an area considerably exceeding that of France, Spain and Portugal*—is distinguished, by its natural features, into three distinct zones, parallel to each other and to the Atlantic coast. The lower or tide-water zone, which skirts the Atlantic, is a low, flat, sandy, and oftentimes marshy plain, from 50 to 100 miles wide, compara- tively recent (tertiary) in its formation, and covered with pine forests over the greatest portion of its extent. The soils on the dry lands are generally light, and sometimes too sterile to admit of profitable cultivation ; that in the swamps and river bottoms, where the sand is replaced by a rich allu- vion, is exceedingly fertile. ‘The middle or hilly zone rises from the level of the preceding, first into gentle hills, and finally into high and oftentimes broken ground, as it approaches the mountains. The width of this does not greatly vary from that of the preceding. The formation is almost ex- clusively primary ;t and the soil varies, sometimes being poor, but more generally ranging, in its natural state, from medium to highly fertile. The forests consist of oak and other deciduous trees. The third or mountain region is formed by the different chains and groups of the great Apalach- ian range of mountains, and occupies not far from 70,009 square miles of the central portion of the territory under consideration.{ It comprises the middle of Virginia, the west of North Carolina and South Carolina, the uorth of Georgia and Alabama, and the east of Tennessee and Kentucky. Its formation on the eastern declivities of the Blue Ridge (the most east- ern chain) is primary, and thence to the Alleganies the rocks belong to * Spain contains 170,000 square miles, Portugal 40,000, France 200,000—in all 410,000. Allowing 10,000 a miles of Louisiana to be east of the Mississippi, the area of the region referred to is 456,000 square + There are one or two interrupted belts of new red sandstone—vide McClure. } Estimated not far, I think, from correctly, by myself. I can find no authority on this point. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 31 the Transition order.* Its soil varies from thin and light to that of exu- berant fertility. West of the mountains, the hilly zone rests on Transition rocks and coal measures, and is succeeded west and south of Virginia by the vast rolling or level plains which extend to the Ohio and Mississippi ; and which, instead of the silicious sands of the eastern coast, exhibit rich and varying soils resting on limestone and other Transition and Cretaceous rocks. In Virginia, the hilly region, which is one vast coal measure, extends to the bottom lands of the Ohio ; and its soils, taken as a whole, range from ordinary to meager.t We will now proceed to examine the capabilities and adaptation of each zone, separately, for the purposes of sheep husbandry. It has already been _ shown that sheep are heathy. and produce as heavy, and may be made to produce as fine fleeces as elsewhere, in the tide-water zone. They ure easily kept—finding, in a climate so mild, considerable succulent food even in the winter; and, south of North Carolina, large numbers would subsist during the entire winter on the hardier wild herbage which continies green in the forests and swamps. If this region was stocked with sheep, to the extent alone to which they could find subsistence, summer and winter, on wild herbage—or, in other words, get a living without costing their own- ers anything—the present number would be largely increased, and their wool and mutton would add materially to the annual income of the own- ers of the soil. But a better system would undoubtedly be not to depend upon wild herbage alone, but to have pastures or sheep-walks seeded with the best grasses which will flourish on them, and provision made for a quan- tity of dry fodder, or some substitute for it, for winter use. Can this summer and winter feed be produced, in the region under ex- amination, to any considerable extent, at an expense which would render its conversion into wool and mutton profitable? There are patches of good natural pasture in many parts of the tide-water zone, apart from the salt or fresh water marshes. But artificial pastures and meadows have rarely been attempted. The planters in this portion of South Carolina, for example, actually import hay! ‘“ Many of the cotton and rice planters . - . insome cases buy hay from New-England. . . . Northern and (in some cases) European hay is even carried up to supply Augusta and Columbia, along rivers which flow through swamps covered with natural grass, so rank and luxuriant as to be almost impenetrable.”’t This neglect of grass culture springs from several causes. Little farm- stock, comparatively speaking, is reared or kept by the rice and cotton- planters, from the fact that most of the labor on such plantations is per- formed by men; and the few animals kept are fed on wild herbage, or the offal of crops which are raised for other purposes. The carriage and draught horses and mules are fed in the winter on the leaves or “ blades” of corn; and the neat stock get their living in the swamps, and in the corn fields, where the greatest portion of the stalks are usually left stand- ing. tor is it to be denied that various unsuccessful experiments have been made in the cultivation of the grasses and clover, which have discouraged farther efforts, and led many to infer that the soil or climate, or both, are decidedly uncongenial to them. That the soil or climate is as favorable to So the production of rich, thick swarded pastures or meadows, as in many * Sotermed by Werner. Though little used now by geologists, I resort to it as the shortest descriptive epithet which will include all these rocks, unless it be the Hemilisyan of Brongniart, the Submedial of Co- nybeare, or the Graywacke of De la Beche—neither of which is so familiar, nor, it appears to me, any bet- ter. The Transition rocks are equivalent to both the Cambrian of Prof. Sedgwick, and the Silurian of Mr Murchison—whose nomenclature is adopted by Lyell, Phillips, Mantell, &c. + Dr. Morse, Mitchell, &c. } Ruffin’s Agricultural Survey of South Carolina, 1843, p. 73 32 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. parts of the Northern States, I do not contend. Some of these soils are doubtless, naturally too barren to be made to produce good yields of grass, without an expenditure which would more than counterbalance the profits accruing from them. Others have been sunk nearly to the same level by wasting and improvident tillage; and it is on lands of the latter class, mainly, that the experiments in introducing the grasses and clover have been made. As long as they would produce cotton or corn, these crops were annually taken from them, with perhaps an occasional year of rest (i.e. lying without any crop being sown on or taken from them) ; and, when reduced to such a degree of barrenness that the crop fell short of re- paying the cost of producing it, clover or grass was resorted to in the vain hope of suddenly repairing, through their instrumentality, the ravage and desolation of years. The following is from the report of a Committee of the Fishing Creek Agricultural Society, Chester District, South Carolina, made to the President ofthe State Society in 1843; and, though this dis- trict is not in the tide-water zone, the system of cropping described is more or less the prevailing one* throughout much of the cotton growing region: “We generally plant cotton on fresh land four or five years in succession—then corn— then wheat or oats—again corn and cotton ; and, after it will produce little else, we sow it in rye, and let it rest two or three years. There are no fixed principles observed in the ro- tation of crops. . . . We have no data whereby to tix the expense of cultivation accu- rately. We know this, however, that at the price of produce for the last two or three years, we are sinking money.”’t I ask what would be expected, in the way of grass or clover, from some of the best grazing lands of New-York, after being cropped with grain crops from ten to twelve years consecutively, with little or no manure — However carefully seeded with the best grasses, or with clover, they would not form meadows worth mowing, nor pastures where an acre would sum- mer a sheep—though, as now managed, an acre is poorly grassed that will not summer five or six sheep. Take the map of New-York, Sir, and draw a right line from Buffalo to a point a little south of Albany—say Coxsackie —and all the region, speaking in general terms, south of this line and west of the Catskill Mountains, is mainly devoted to grazing. It is the best graaing region of the State, and much of it is equal to any in the Northern States. The best farmers in no part of it take off to exceed three grain or root crops before seeding down to grass; and, unless the soil is unusually rich, it is customary to give barn-yard manure to one of these crops. This is almost invariably the case where the land was in meadow when broken up. Where no manure is given on meadow lands, or even on lightish pas- ture lands, two grain crops are considered sufficient by the most provident farmers—it being an axiom among such, that all ordinary or thinnish soils should be nearly or quite as rich when seeded down as when broken up. In other words, they draw from the soil only what is equivalent to the strength or fertilizing properties of the sod, and of the manure given— When seeded down to grass, these lands are usually depastured by cattle or sheep several years before they are again broken up. If converted into meadow, they are top-dressed from time to time with gypsum, and some- times with stable manures.t The poorest soils, rocky hill-sides, declivities much subject to washing and gullying, are rarely broken up after being once properly seeded down. I repeat it, Sir—take all the grazing lands of New-York, and crop them as severely as it is reported above to be done in Chester District, South Carolina, and they would become so sterile that, * Td est, so far as constant cropping without returning anything to the soil is concerned. + See Ruffin’s Agricultural Survey of South Carolina, 1843—Appendis, p. 6. t¢ [tis not considered good economy, however, to top-dress any meadows with stable manures which ere dry and arable, and can thus be subjected to the regular rotations of the farm. a SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. so unless resuscitated by copious applications of manure, they would not ield grass enough to pay the expense of keeping them under fence, until they had lain waste for a quarter cf a century. Another cause of the failures which have attended some of the efforts to introduce the culture of clover and the grasses on the tide-water zone, in the Southern States, may, and probably nas, existed in the improper selec- tion of the varieties sown. As the first crop on a very meager soil—red clover, for example—is not appropriate in any region. In Flanders, the natural soils of much of which so closely resemble those of the zone under examination, it is not sown until the land is enriched and got in condition by several preparatory crops. The different grasses seem to be affected by various conditions in the soil or atmosphere, or both, which it is fre- quently difficult or impossible to detect. Timothy grass ( Phlewm pratense) is decidedly the favorite meadow grass of the grazing regions of New- York. White clover (Trifolium repens) invariably comes up spontane- ously on those lands. Red clover (7. pratense) is sometimes sown with Timothy in meadows, and generally in pastures. Red Top* (Agrostis (stricta) vulgaris) is preferred on wet lands, where it comes up spontane- ously. It is considered a prime pasture and meadow grass in such situa- tions. June or Spear grass (Poa pratensis), the Blue grass of the South ern and Western States, so prized there and also in England,t is consid- ered an unprofitable intruder in our meadows, where it comes up sponta- neously, and ultimately drives out the Timothy. The meadows are then said to be “run out,” and are broken up. I have never known the seed of this grass sown in a single instance! The favorite Rye grasses of Eng- land (Lolium perenne var. bienne), Lucern (Medicago sativa), Sainfoin ( Hedysarum onibrichis), Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata), and various others equally celebrated in England and on the Continent, have been tried in New-York, and the experiments are generally regarded as decided failures. None of them, at all events, have obtained a footing among the grasses sown by our best farmers. On the other hand, the Red Top of New-York is but little recarded in England,f and Timothy was not in much better repute until the Woburn experiments demonstrated its great value for hay. Even now it is considered inferior, in general value, to many other grasses.|| All this goes to show that even the hardiest grasses have their favorite situations; and that we are not authorized to pronounce against the practicability of forming pastures and meadows in a given re- gion, because we have failed in a trial with two or three grasses, out of a list of as many hundreds. It has already been remarked that there are patches of good natural pasture on the dry as well as the wet portions of the tide-water zone. These are frequent and extensive, and could be rendered infinitely more so by simply clearing the land. In your Memoir on the Cultivation of Rice, furnished to Mr. Ruffin, while making the Agricultural Survey of South Carolina, in 1843, you say : P “ At first, rice was cultivated on the high land, and on little spots of low ground, as they were met with here and there. These low grounds being found to agree better with the plant, the inland swamps were cleared for the purpose of extending the culture, In the process of time, as the fields became too grassy and stubborn, they were abandoned for new clearings ; and so on, until at length was discovered the superior adaptation of the tide-lands, and the great facilities for irrigation afforded by their location. For these, the inland planta- tions were gradually and slowly abandoned, until now, that the great body of land, which * Sometimes known as “ Upright Bent grass,” and in the Southern States as Herds-grass. t+ Pronounced by Sole the best of all the grasses. { Agrostis vulgaris is pronounced “a worthless or rather a mischievous plant,” by Sir George Sinclair ! || “Our opinion,” says Loudon, “is that neither Timothy nor (some other grasses named) is ever likely to be cultivated in Britain.” E 34 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. litile more than a century ago furnished for exportation over 50,000 barrels of rice, now lies utterly waste, constituting, where trees have not overgrown it, the finest natural pasture which could be desired.’’* Mr. Ruffin in his Report of the Suryey, of the same year, asserts: “Few countries possess greater natural facilities, or which are more ¢mprovable by in- dustry, for producing in abundance, grass, hay and. live-stock, and their products of meat, milk and butter, all of which are now so deplorably deficient.”t The Committee appointed by the State Agricultural Society of South Carolina to take into consideration the scheme of reducing the quantity of cotton grown,t in their Report observe : * Millions of acres in South Carolina, including the lower country, are admirably adapted to the raising of rich grasses. This might be added as another branch of industry, from which reasonable profits could be realized, and might very well be added to the cotton planter’s income.” Cerrespondinge statements, on equally indisputable authority, might be indefinitely multiplied, not only in relation to that portion of the tide- water zone lying within the limits of South Carolina, but in all the South- ern States. South Carolina occupying a central geographical and lati- tudinal position, in reference to this zone, and its soils on it, about averaging, so far as I can learn, with that of the other States, it is not necessary to pursue the inquiry. Where fine natural pastures spring up spontaneously on deserted lands, more or less impoverished—probably in most instances considerably so— how little difficulty would there be in forming, almost immediately, the best artificial pastures and meadows on millions of acres of just such land, (only that it is in its virgin state, and consequently far better,) now in un- productive forest! And how small would be the amount of skill requisite to convert millions of acres more of cotton lands—which do not now yield remunerating crops—into pastures and meadows, which, as I shall show, would yield their owners a handsome remuneration! And the culture of the grasses need not stop with these comparatively good and medium lands. They can be made to stretch their carpet of green over the poorest of your sands—over those now covered with stunt- ed pines, or which, scorched and naked, reverberate back fiercely the burning heat of a southern sky. There are few regions in the tide-water zone possessing poorer soils than some cultivated portions of New-York. In the vicinity of Albany, (between that city and Schenectady, for example,) the same loose, silicious sands, the same, though perhaps rather more stunted, growth of pines, would almost compel you to fancy yourself somewhere between Richmond and Wilmington, on the route of the great Southern Railroad! Denuded of their meager covering of dwarf pines, and the cohesion produced by their interlacing roots, these sands would be lifted and driven about by the winds. Yet on such a soil as this, you find the farm of the late cele- brated Jesse Buel! And fertile grass fields, datted here and there with splendid mansions, are every year stretching out farther and farther among the arid sands. How are these rapid transformations in the fertility of the soil accomplished ? The stables, and mews, and cesspools of Albany can give the answer ! The following description of the natural soils of Flanders, now prover- bial for its fine crops and rich pastures and meadows, is from the pen of that able English agricultural writer, Rev. W. L. Rham: * Asriculturtt Survey of South Carolina, 1843. Appendix, p. 14. t Ib. p. 73. {The Committee consisted of Whitemarsh B. Seabrook, Esq., John B. O’Neall, Esq., and W. J. Allston Esg.—and the Report was made, believe, in January, in 1846. ‘ SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 35 “ The greater part of the land in Flanders is naturally poor; and in extensive districts, which now have the appearance of the greatest richness at harvest time, the original soil was once little better than the blowing sands which are met with in the neighborhood of the sea. Neither is it a genial climate which brings forward the fruits of the earth in abundance ; for the climate is inferior to that of France or the southern parts of Germany. The soil may be divided into two classes. The first consists of the alluvial clay loams near the coast; the second, of various sands and light loams which are found in the interior. The most fertile is that of the low lands which have been reclaimed from the sea by embankments ; it is chiefly composed of a muddy deposit mixed with fragments of marine shells and fine sea sand... . In the interior of East and West Flanders the soil varies considerably ; but the principal part is of a sandy nature. The sand, and a heavier loam wliich scarcely deserves the name of clay, are found much intermixed, which is owing to an alternation of layers of sand and loam, which are found by digging to a considerable depth. These layers are not of great thickness, and the accidental circumstance of the washing away of the sand in some places and the depositions from rivers in others easily account for this variety. Some cf the eleya- tions, which are nowhere considerable, consist of a very poor sand, and suggest the idea of their having once been the sands of the sea blown into hills, as is observable on the coast. These hills, if they may be so called, are naturally so barren that they were, not very long since, covered with heath, or at best planted with fir trees; but they have gradually been culti- vated and improved, and only a few remain in their original state of heath and wood. The poorer sands have been brought into cultivation chiefly by the persevering industry of small proprietors and eccupiers.” Have we not here a good general description of much of our southern Atlantic coast—the tide swamp and sandy plain—and eyen a graphically minute account of the “Sand Hill” region of South Carolina ? Instances of the reclamation of such lands might be indefinitely mul- tiplied. I do not offer the above facts to prove that it is either profitable or ex- pedient to reclaim all the sterile lands of the southern sea-board by the same means that have been resorted to about Albany, or in Flanders. Except in the vicinity of cities, where manures are plentiful and cheap, and un- common market facilities are offered, it would not be profitable, unless it can be accomplished by less expensive means. But it proves one and an important position: that it is the sterility of such soils—or perhaps their loose and ‘‘ blowing ” character in some places, their sun-baked hardness in others—which prevents them from spontane- ously producing esculent herbage; and nothing in them, as has been frequently fancied, positively deleterious to vegetation. And it follows, hence, that whenever it is profitable to convert them into grass lands, it is practicable so to do by the proper application of manures. Butdo I hear some of your South Carolina neighbors, of the anti-improvement school, (if you have any such,) say, “If our soz/s are, or can be made, generally, suitable for the production of the grasses, our climate cannot!” This position is obviously incorrect, as warmer climates, as, for example, Aus- tralia, the Cape of Good Hope, and various others, produce, where the soils are favorable, a luxuriant growth of grasses; and South Carolina herself, as has been already shown, produces them bountifully in situations where neither the latitude nor the elevation abates one jot of the heat of your fervid climate. It is not impossible that the climate of the States farthest south—south, say, of North Carolina—may be unfavorable to certain grasses and clovers ; and perhaps so to the favorite ones of the Northern States. In relation to red clover, however, the acclimation of which is regarded by many as 80 important to those States, it seems Mr. Ruffin thought otherwise. He gays: “ Perennial, or other permanent grasses, of which, doubtless, there may be found some peculiarly suited to the warm climate, (South Carolina,) would still more serve to give the great benefits of changed condition to the fields, independent of the much needed benefits of grass husbandry for feeding of live-stock and giving rest and manure to the land. The grasses whose value has been fully established by long experience in more northern coun 386 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. tries, should be tried—not because they are from the North, (which in itself is a strong ob- jection,) but merely because their good qualities are known, and possibly some such grasses may as well suit a more southern clime. And such, I trust, is red clover, the best of all green and manuring crops. For although this was long held to belong to the North only, I have fully experienced that its locality and the perfection of its growth are fixed much more by peculiarity of soil than by latitude. Not more than twenty years ago it was as general a belief in Lower Virginia, as now in South Carolina, that there the soil was too scanty and the sun too hot to raise red clover. But since marling and liming have made many of these soils calcareous, it is found that neither the sandy soil nor hot and dry climate forbid the raising excellent and profitable crops of clover. And so hereafter it will be found in South Carolina.””* In a Repert by a Committee of the Milton Agricultural Society, (em- bracing adjacent parts of Laurens and Newberry Districts, 8. C.) made to the State Society im 1843, they state : “Our native grasses, except the crab grass, are of the poorest kind, principally sedge. Of the artificial grasses, some trials have been made with red clover and herds-grass.t On rich lots the first appears to succeed very well. For alternating with tillage crops we do not know of its having been tried; but our impression is, that without manuring more highly shan is customary here, it will not answer. We are not aware that it has ever been sowed with gypsum. The herds-grass, as far as it has been tried, appears to succeed very well on the bottoms that border our branches and creeks.’’} Lawrence and Newberry are not in the tide-water region, but so far as the effect of climate alone is concerned, their testimony has an equal bearing. I have little doubt that red clover may be cultivated on good, rich soils even in the States south of North Carolina, and may possibly become, un- der some circumstances, a profitable crop in their rotations; but, as has been already remarked, it will not do as a first crop on very meager soils, in any climate—and still less so, I apprehend, on such soils south of lati- tude 34°, It is not, therefore, the crop which you need, to cheaply ame- liorate your poor and exhausted soils, to fit them either for grazing or for tillage. Grant that such soils can be fitted to produce it, as Mr. Ruffin suggests, by the application of lime or marl,|| these manures will be found expensive, can be but slowly obtained in quantities sufficient to apply to large tracts, and, besides, when the soil is sufficiently ameliorated to carry clover, it will carry most if not all of your ordinary tillage crops. Though clover would aid materially in the rotation, in sustaining or even improv- ing the fertility superinduced by lime or any other fertilizer, it is not, and cannot be made the original fertilizer on the sterile sands of warm climates. When we talk, therefore, of the initiatory steps by which such soils shall be brought from a state of barrenness to a state of production, clover does not come within the category of appropriate agents. Though red clover ranks in the first class, if not the first in that class, on appropriate soils, as a grazing and manuring crop, I have never regard- ed it as indispensable—as what the lawyers would style a sine gua non— even in sustaining fertility anywhere except on rich calcareous wheat lands, where a severe and exhausting rotation is resorted to. Where wheat is taken from the soil at /east every alternate year, for ten, fifteen, or twenty years, without any manure, excepting the intervening crop, and the droppings of animals depastured on it, clover will detter sustain the land in the ultimately fatal struggle, than perhaps any other green ma- * Ruffin’s Agricultural Survey of S. C., 1843, p. 81. t This should be the Agrostis stricta or vulgaris—the Red Top of the North. Some writers designate it as the one species, some as the other. > ¢ Ruffin’s Agricultural Survey of S. C., 1843; Appendix, p. 9. || Unless, however, the soil contains more organic matter than I suppose to be the case with many of your sandy soils, theory and practice both show that lime will not prove the proper manure, Though ex- ceedingly valuable in its place, experience shows that it is no agricultural panacea, I shall allude to this sub- ject more fully ina subsequent letter. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 37 nuring crop. But on the silicious grazing soils of Southern New-York, it is rarely used exclusively as a manuring crop, and is but little used, ex- cepting slightly admixed with timothy, for pasture or meadows.* I think it should be used more; but the fact stated shows that clover is not re- garded by practical men, who are perfectly familiar with it, as that indis- pensable crop, in all situations, which some of its more extravagant pane- gyrists would lead us to suppose. The conclusions which I would have ou deduce from the above facts and statements are, simply, that if clover is found to flourish with you without extra trouble and expense, you will do well to make use of it in your rotation; if not, it is chimerical, in my judgment, to engage in an expensive struggle with natural disadvantages to force its cultivation. The herds-grass (red top) spoken of by the Milton Society, is a good grass on moist (but not boggy) soils, and having been found to succeed with you, is worthy of trial in such situations, but on dry soils, especially on arid sands, it would entirely fail. Nor have I much confidence in either timothy or spear (blue) grass, in such situations, in your latitude— none at all in the former. It would be well, probably, to try limited experiments with all grasses, domestic and foreign, which have succeeded well on sot/s similar to your own ; as among these, some may be found which disregard climate, or are even better fitted to your climate than their indigenous one, as was the case with timothy at the North. The same remark is also true in rela- tion to certain other esculents which are used as substitutes for the grasses, and for green manuring crops. Notwithstanding the evident propriety of such experiments, I am strongly inclined to the opinion that it is to your own native grasses and esculents, or those of some kindred climate, you must look mainly for the basis of your grazing husbandry—and through this, the amelioration of your poor and exhausted soils. I regret that I can find no list of those native grasses which sward over the deserted lands of the tide-water zone, and flourish with a tropical lux- uriance in its swamps. You allude to them as ‘native”’ grasses, so does Mr. Ruffin. Mr. Seabrook, in his Report on Cotton Culture,t speaks of “crop grass,” by which I suppose he means Crab grass, (Panicum san- guinale,) coming up spontaneously after spring-sown peas; but farther than this, neither of you specify varieties.|| Among these indigenous ones, particularly those which spontaneously make their appearance on dry lands, it would be exceedingly singular if there are not several very valua- ble grasses for your soils and climate—grasses the seeds of which should form a part, if not suitable for the whole sowing, on the same kinds of soils on which they are found flourishing. Crab grass grows in all parts of the southern States, and is a fair, though not a very superior pasture and meadow grass. Golden millet (Panicum milliaceum) is a great producer and withstands I know of but very few farmers excepting myself, in this, (Cortland,) one of the best of the grazing counties, who sow unmixed clover seed. I confess myself decidedly partial to the crop. You may ride ten miles or more in many directions from my house, where half and frequently more than three-fourths of the fields are in pasture or meadow, without observing five acres of unmixed clover, t For this elaborate and exceedingly able Report or Memoir, see Farmers’ Library, 1845, October, No- vember and December Nos. H || Since writing the above, I have received from a South Carolina correspondent the following list of grasses and other esculents which flourish in the lower part of that State. Crab grass (Digitaria sangui- nalis), earlier-—the “ Crowfoot” (Eleusine Indica), a little later, are, he says, the best grasses for hay, and thrive in cultivated grounds from the month of June till frost. The “ Wild Okra” (Viola palmata), the “Partridge Berry” (Mitchella repens), the Wild Pea Vine, and several other esculents, obscure and un- known by name, flourish in most natural pastures from early spring till November. 38 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. a warm climate, but it requires a good soil. It has been cultivated with great success by Mr. Affleck in (Adams county) Mississippi. Bermuda grass* (Cynodon dactylon) I have been led to consider, from the representations of Mr. Affleck, as the best grass, both for pasture and meadow, on the sterile sands of the tide-water zone. If half this enthu- siastic admirer believes of it is true, it is of inestimable value to the South, and for permanent pastures and meadows, is by far the best grass in the United States. Mr. A. says: “ We are fully aware of all the objections made to the spreading of this grass, and have a practical knowledge of all the trouble it occasions ; and having also had several years’ ex- perience of its great, its incalculable value, we have no hesitation in stating that the latter is manifold greater than the former. The time is not far distant when all the rough feed ¢on- sumed on plantations will be made from this grass; and when the planter will consider his hay crop as of much more importance than his sugar or cotton...... The excellence of this plant for pasturage is evinced by two circumstances. It is preferred by stock of every de- scription to all other grass, and it grows luxuriantly in every kind of soil. It possesses an additional advantage, that of binding the loosest and most barren sandy tracts. But when it has once taken possession of close, rich soil, its extirpation is so difficult as almost to defy all the skill, industry and perseverance of farmers. It is used to bind the levees. on the banks of the Mississippi, and of railroads. We saw it at Macon, Geo., Charleston, 8. C., and so on, as far north as City Point, Virginia, where it partially covers the wharf. One hundred pounds of grass aflbrd upward of fifty of dry hay; and we do cut, as a regular crop, five tons of hay per acre each season. Were we to state how much more has been cut, we might strain the belief of our readers. No other grass will yield such an amount of valuable hay ; surpass it in nutritive qualities; support on an acre of pasture such a quantity of stock; will improve the soil more quickly ; or so effectually stop and fill up a wash or gully. But, on the other hand, its extirpation, when once well established, is almost impossible ; though to check and weaken it, so far as to grow a grain or cotton crop, is easy enough. To do this, pursue the course of the best farmers of Kentucky in their management of a blue-grass sod— with a good breaking plow, haying a wheel and coulter, and a stout team, turn over evenl and nicely a sod four inches thick and as wide as the plow and team are capable of, follow in the same furrow with another plow which casts the dirt well, and throw out as much of the fresh earth on top of the sod as possible or the depth of the soil will admit of. The crop that follows can easily be tended without disturbing the sod, and its gradual decay will greatly increase whatever crop may be planted on it—and that should be a shading one, corn and peas or pumpkins,.or winter oats followed by peas. Good farmers will understand that heavy crops of hay cannot be remoyed, tor many successive years, trom any land, with- out some return in the shape of manure. ‘To the careful, judicious farmer, who wishes to improve his land and his stock, and who does not expect to grow any crop without trouble, and who uses good plows, and keeps a stout team and that in prime order, we earnestly recommend to try an acre or two of this grass, in a situation where it cannot readily spread. To the careless farmer we say, touch it not.’’t The same gentleman writes me under date of Dec. 10th, 1846 : “ Bermuda grass well set, which affords the finest and most nutritious pasturage I have ever seen, will keep almost any number of sheep to the acre—three or four times as many as the best blue-grass ! ” Unless this is gross and willful exaggeration,t here you have a grass which is not only highly palatable and nutritive, but which will yield more than double both of pasturage and hay, than the best grass or clover of the Northern States! || It has been tried as far south as New-Orleans, and the climate found no detriment to it. It will flourish on dry and al- most barren sands.§ What can the farmer on the dry lands of the tide- water zone ask more? Its inextirpable character I regard as decidedly in — * Cumberland Grass—Wire grass of Virginia—Creeping Panic grass. + See Norman’s Southern Agricultural Almanac, for 1847. P . peuaer of which are we permitted to suspect, from the well-known character and intelligence of Mr. eck, || People here in the North sometimes talk of getting three tons of timothy and four tons of clover (at two cuttings) per acre, but it is not done on one acre in ten thousand, on the best meadows! T'wo tons is 4 good, and by far above a medium yield, of timothy, and three, of clover. ‘The large amounts of Ber- muda sometimes cut, which Mr. A. does not mention for fear of “ straining the belief of his readers,” hs has stated to me personally. to be eight tons! !—equivalent to the yield of three first-rate acres of timothy on the best grazing lands of Southern New-York. § Mr. Affleck informs me he has repeatedly seen it growing well in suck situations. s ” SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 39 its favor on millions and millions on the thinner and poorer soils of that zone—as once admitted, it will put an end to the unprofitable tillage practiced on them, and remove all temptation to resort to it on others, as they are gradually rescued from barrenness. It will thus compel the adoption of that pastoral system which can alone make these lands prof- itable, or save them, if the forebodings of those who have been reared on them and are deeply attached to them, can be credited, from ultimate de- sertion.* You have another fodder crop—and which may be made a green ma- nuring one, in no respect inferior to clover. The pea is to the South what clover is to the Northt There is something in your soil or climate, or both, which seems to be specifically adapted to the development of this plant—for it flourishes with you under a much greater variety of soils and circumstances than at the North. A 1eguminous plant, like clover, it draws much of its aliment from the atmosphere; and it is perhaps as sensibly affected by the same cheap manure, plaster. Its haulm or straw, if cut and cured greenish, and well taken care of, makes a good, rich fodder relished by all kinds of stock. Peas are greedily eaten by neat stock, swine, and sheep, for which they form a healthy and highly nutritious food. The white field pea of the North is considered equivalent to our corn,t by measure, in fattening swine. For sheep, and particularly for breeding ewes, there is probably no feed in the world equal to nicely cured pea haulm,|| with a portion of the seed left unthreshed.§ It gives them condi- tion and vigor—and prepares them to yield a bountiful supply of rich milk to their young. ; Though the pea is an annual, it becomes im effect a perennial, South, when it is desired, by suffering it to stand until some of the grain shells out.§] It will mature in a southern climate, sown late in the summer, so that one, and even two preceding crops of it might first be plowed in as a manure. It will ripen among Indian corn, sown after that plant has ceased, to grow, and there have been successful experiments of sowing it late with wheat, oats, &c., to have it obtain its growth (to be plowed under as ma- nure) after those crops have been harvested. Sprengel gives the following analysis of the pea. 1,000 parts in the common dry state yield— Seed. Straw. Seed Straw Potashvand! soda. oo sac. soe. 15-50 2230 y| SUM PMURC aCIG «-nc.2 en a arale 0-52 3°35 Lime and magnesia .....---- 1:95 30-70 | CBloriney ase sacs Angie ase -38 0-00 PHOSPHONIG MGIC. 425). © sm ieie'a6 1-90 2-40 Silica, sro), Gos ar epee eral ciate 4-40 10-85 * Statements of this kind have been repeatedly made in the pages of the Monthly Farmer by southern entlemen. ‘ ; + I had labored under the impression that the so-called pea—cultivated as a manuring crop in the South- ern States, was in reality a variety of the bean ; but Mr. Ruffin in his Agricultural Survey of South Caro- lina, (see Report of 1843, p 81,) and Hon. W. B. Seabrook in his Memoir on Cotton Culture, (see Monthly Journal of Agriculture, Dec., 1845, p. 287.) speaks of this crop—the former again and again—as peas, with- out the qualification which would be expected from gentlemen of so much learning, in case they were speaking of a plant by a vulgar misnomer, instead of its real name. The peculiar value of the crop at the South in the particulars described, I find asserted by Mr. Ruffin, Mr. Affleck, and various other writers and. Agricultural Societies, in the strongest terms, and therefore it makes little difference, practically, whether the name is correct or not, but if not, the following analyses, &c., are misplaced. The bean resembles the pea in its qualities and value, but is rather inferior to it. : + The small, hard corn of the North contains more nutriment per bushel than the large southern corn. || That is, cut and cured so that it will come out of the stock or mow bright, and with the leaves looking green—instead of having the ferruginous hue of over-ripe clover. i ‘ § If cut greenish and well cured, the greener pods will not thresh out readily, and then they are in ex- actly the proper condition for breeding-ewes. If the crop is very light, cut it when all the puds are quite green, and feed it out without threshing. i { This is, however, poor economy in any case. If the objec is peas. it is wasteful to the crop, and the quantity sown is uncertain ; besides, the haulm is ruined for fodder. If the object is manure, the loss is still greater. Plants in drying lose the nitrogen contained in their sap, give up their saline matters, and are “resolved more or less completely into carbonic acid, which escapes into the air, and is so far lost.”—See Liebig on this subject, and also the clear and able remarks of Johnston, (Johnston’s Agricultural Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 176, et supra.) 40 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. The following table of the comparative value of manures, deduced from analyses made by Payen and Boussingault, will show the remarkable com- arative value of the pea as a manuring crop, and it will be found other. wise useful for reference : TABLE No. 4. | Nitrogen in | Quality Equivalent Kinds of Manure. a7 1 Ra ia pine sd = ae Remarks. ; S Dry. | Wet.| Dry.| Wet. | Dry. | Wet Farm-yard dung-...... 79-3) 1-95] 0-41) 100} 100 | 100 |100 |Average of Bechelbronn. Dung water .......---- 99-6] 1-54] 0-06} 72 2 127 | 68 |Washed by the rain. W heat straw.--...-..- 19-3] 0-30] 0-24) 15! 60 | 650 |167 [Fresh of Alsace, 1838. uve Straw: ane ne or ature 1842. tude. | tion. | June. | July. | Aug. Flatbush ..|40°73'| 40/64 28/72 16/69 97|Near the extreme southern po: point of Long Island... Po’keepsie !41 41! ..-.161 29/76 83/71 Seren the Hudson. Elevation not given............ Albany..-.]42 39] 130/65 85/72 66{70 23 Potsdam ../44 40} 394/59 62/67 36|67 12/In St. Lawrence County ; north part of State......- Remarks. Lowville..|43 47| 800/60 51/67 521/64 46)On the Black River..............2.000-e-ee eee tical is.) 43 06} 173/63 58/70 15!69 15 Syracuse..|42 59] ....|59 75/65 77/64 86] § Both in same county, but given on account of dif- Pompey --|42 56 | 1300/57 70/64 20/63 50; } ference qDNelOVAHON- = see. cem\-ee | =e Bic Homer...-. 42 38 | 1096/58 88/64 14,65 67|In the southern or grazing region............-- fs! Tthaca..-.. 42 27] 417/63 2380/69 65/67 74 Do. COag 3 alent ie ea Prattsburg. -- | 1494/56 83/65 24/68 71 Do. COS So acta he eo ee Rochester. 43 08; 506/60 66|66 94/67 35|In the heart of the Wheat growing region........ Wyoming. |42 49 | 800/59 97171 50/56 99 Do. GOsG, As pan ade s3 eee {Fredonia .|42 26 | 345|63 42/69 60/68 71/In the grazing region; on the shore of Lake Erie-- Lewiston..|43 09| 280162 05/68 91/68 50'On Niagara River..........------.-2e-eee-e eee The five last named places are in “ Western New-York.” But there is one fact stated by Mr. Buckley, 1 in relation to the lofty mauntains of North Carolina, which, irrespective of all thermometrical observations, demonstrates aude ely, to my mind, their adaptation to sheep husbandry. ‘This fact is, that white clover grows (of course, spon- taneously,) on them. Or perhaps I should rather say, that the mountains themselves become thermometers, their vegetation registering, by a well settled natural law, their temperate climate. Says Malte Brun: “Under the burning climate of the torrid zone, we have only to ascend the mountains, to enjoy the fruits and flowers of the temperate regions. Tournefort found at the base of Mount * Prof. L.’s rule, however, was only made applicable by him to tropical regions. t Half, “ayaa £ of the thermometers in common use are inaccurate ! ¢ For the records of temperatures given. see Report of the Regents, 1843, p. 240, For latitudes and ele- vations of the Academies, see Report of 1838, pp. 212 to 215, and map, SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. — Bi Ararat the common vegetables of Armenia; half way up, those of Italy and France; and upon the summit, those of Scandinavia. Forster saw several Alpine plants upon the moun- tains of Terra del Fuego.” Mr. Mudie also remarks: “Tf we take each mountain as the index of its own meridian, we shall find that each one expresses, by its vegetation, all the varieties of climate between it and the pole.”* Humboldt, and our own Doct. Forry, notice an equally striking develop- ment of this law, on the Western Continent.t This would go to show what I have little doubt is the fact, (my impres- sions, too, being strengthened by a comparison of latitude, elevation, and recorded thermometrical observations,) that on the sides of the Roan and other lofty mountains of North Carolina, and pretty well ~p on their sides, too, the climate is not greatly dissimilar from that on the high grazing lands of New-York and New-England. On the sweetest and best of the latter, white clover always comes up spontaneously, and will immediately re-sward any field thrown out of tillage. It sometimes flourishes on soils of ordinary fertility, but never on very sour or boggy ones, or on those the poachy character of which would render them liable to communicate hoof-rot or other diseases. It indicates, most decidedly, both a soil and climate fitted for sheep You will not understand, Sir, of course, that in the remarks made and facts stated, at so great length, in relation to three or four mountains, my object has been simply to refute the views of Mr. Buckley in relation to them. In a region of 70,000 square miles, the unadaptation of half a dozen mountains, or a much greater number, to this or any other branch of husbandry, would be of but little comparative importance. Anticipat- ing, however, the croakings of the timid—the exaggerated counter state- ments of those rash and sanguine men who are ever ready to rush into whatever is mew, without judgment to guide or perseverance to sustain them : who abandon their undertakings at the first obstacle, and apologize for their ficklety by magnifying the difficulties encountered by them: I deemed it expedient to lay before you some useful data for comparisons,,. (and conclusions,) which will be equally applicable in the case of all our southern mountains, The hilly and level regions west of the mountains, and lying between ° them and the Mississippi "and Ohio rivers, scarcely require ¢ a separate no- tice—particularly after the statements of Mr. Cockrill, given in my second letter. As a whole, they are undoubtedly more fertile, and better adapted to the production a: the grasses, than those of corresponding latitude, in, even the hilly zone, east of the mountains. * Mudie’s World. 7 Since making the extract above from Malte Brun, I observe the following better; ov, at least, more defi-~ nite expression of the same fact by Doct. Forry : “In ascending a lofty mountain of the torrid zone. the. greatest variety in vegetation is displayed. At its foot and under the burning sun, ananas and plantains flourish ; the regions of limes and oranges succeeds ; then follow fields of maize and luxuriant wheat ; and still higher, the series of plants known in the temperate zone. The mountains of temperate regions exhi, bit, perhaps, less variety, but the change is equally striking.” See Forry’s Climate of the United: States. 52 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. LETTER V. PROFITS OF SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHERN STATES.—I. DIRECT PROFIT ON CAPITAL INVESTED. Different points of view in which the question of the profitableness of Sheep Husbandry in the Southern States is to be regarded... Direct profit on Capital invested first considered. ..Average prices of Wool in New-York...Average weight of tleece—Price of Sheep—Increase in Lambs—Amount of Manure. .-.Price of Land...Number of Sheep supported per acre...Estimate of the Expenses and Profits of 100 Sheep, taking average prices of Wool for the last fourteen years.-.-Present low prices of Sheep—Causes—Esti- mate of Protits of 100 Sheep, at present prices of Sheep and Wool. ..Profits far below what they might be by breeding better Sheep... Writer’s Flock—Annual yield of Wool—Prices sold at for six years—Statistics of Premium Flock...Show that Wool can be produced at a large profit in New-York at present prices... Healthfulness and economy of substituting Mutton for a portion of the Bacon consumed in the Southern States...Economical advantages which Sheep possess over other animals—No risk by Death—Manure more valuable—Best clearers of Briery Lands—Improvers of Vegetation...The cost of producing Wool in the South, compared with the cost in New-York.-.Number of Sheep which can be supported per acre South—Greater number than on land of the same quality North, by reason of the winter growth of grains and grasses in the former-.-.Col. Allston’s statement—R. L. Allen’s—Col. Hampton’s—Hon. R. F. Simp- son’s in relation to the Atlantic States south of Virginia. ..Price of Lands in those States. ..Winter Vege- tation in Tennessee, Kentucky and Virginia. -.Mr. Coles’s statement—John S, Skinner’s-. .-Recapitulation. -. Estimate of Profits on 100 Sheep South—Compared with New-York. .-Protits on the Southern Mountains .--Doct. Brockenboro’s statements—Mr. Murdock’s...Economy of Migratory Sheep Husbandry. ..Advan- tages for it in the South compared with those of Spain...Drawbacks on Profits of Sheep Husbandry— Dogs and Wolves..-Their depredations compared with those in Australia and the Cape of Good Hope... Remedy. ———— Dear Sir: In ascertaining the Profits of Sheep Husbandry in the Southern States, several considerations present themselves, apart from the mere question of direct annual profit or loss on a given investment in Sheep and in land for their subsistence. The more immediate and obvious profit is doubtless the first question; but in regarding the general advan- tages or disadvantages of this branch of husbandry—particularly in a re- gion circumstanced in all particulars as the Southern States are—we are farther to consider the practicability and comparative economy of making it the basis of an effectual amelioration in soils naturally sterile, or those which have been rendered so by excessive and injudicious cultivation; and its comparative efficacy in giving to Southern Agriculture a mixed and convertible character, and thereby sustaining (or improving) all the present good tillage lands, in the place of continumg the ‘“ new and old field” system—(tilling land until it is worn out, then abandoning it and dpening new lands,)—once so general, and even now by far too prevalent. And there is another point of no mean importance : whether, independent of preceding considerations, and even if the staples furnished by sheep husbandry proved no more profitable, in direct returns on capital invested, than some of the present staples, it would not be better econorny, on the whole, for the South to produce the raw material and manufacture domes- tic woolens, particularly for the apparel and bedding of slaves, than to be dependent for them on England or Massachusetts. To ascertain the direct and immediate profit on investment in sheep hus- bandry, let us appeal to well settled facts and statistics, instead of content- ing ourselves with vague and general propositions. For the following Table of the average prices of good wool* in the State of New-York, which was published in my replies to Mr. Walker’s “ Treasury Circular” in * Such wools as are used for the manufactnre of broad and other cloths of good quality—ranging, say, from 3th blood Merino to pure Saxon—excluding native, grade (below }th Merino), and all English wools. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 53 —————— a ey 1845,* I was indebted to a most respectable and extensive purchaser of wool, and its accuracy is beyond question. TABLE No. 7. ) Year. Averagepriceperpound.; | Year. + Average price per pound. USE See es 40 cents. DOr areiene states ieet nine ichaace DO GENES: LESH Gara a SaaUltel o (o USAR acts casas cs ecsalcjaia sac 33 do. TCE Oe Se Rae ecseecoec 45 do. OU eS Se” COC IOC nce 35 do URE DSSS oes ame eoeae 48 do. PNG A Oe ahs ida ia MWS a atece.m ini 30 do TSE ye A ee Ra i 54 do. NG Ase eee Opa mia (le rcramatepn aus aya Sl do MOR row cle wk new tialete ae 30 do. VBA eis Reece teem toweos 49 do TRS Rae eet alt ok ad ee. ee 36 do. WBA 2s a eee, cavenatens state sicve 32 do It will thus be seen that for a period.of fourteen years preceding 1845, the average price of good wools was 397 cents per beh The average weight of fleece in sheep yielding this wool has been about 3 lbs.; the pure-blood Saxons less; but those bearing the coarsest wool included, in the average, more. The average price of sheep of the quality under consideration, has been not less than $2 per head in the fall, and lambs half that price.t The an- nual increase in lambs would be about 80 per cent., or if less by reason of the number of wethers in the flock, the growth of the latter would give a corresponding increase in profit. One hundred sheep, properly littered, will make at least forty loads of manure during the one hundred and fifty days during which they are confined to dry feed, in our Northern winters. The grazing lands of New-York, cut up as they are into small farms,|| and each being provided with dwelling and farm buildings, are worth from $15 to $30 per acre. Prime sheep lands will average about $20.§ In relation to the amount of land necessary to support a given number of sheep, the experience of a good many years has satisfied me that the rule commonly laid down on the grazing lands of New-York and New- England, that, on the average, one acre of land will give subsistence to three fine-wooled sheep throughout the year, is an accurate one.{[ On grain farms, it is considered good economy to keep one sheep for every acre of cleared land which the farm contains; on those where mixed husbandry is practiced, two ; and, on those exclusively devoted to sheep, three. In the following, and all similar estimates, I shall reckon the profits on the land and expenditures, instead of the land and the commonly quoted prices of grass, hay, &c., consumed. These prices, in the interior, are * See Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1845, p. 461. I thought, and so stated to Mr. Walker, that the Table placed wools about 14 cents per pound too high. But subsequent information has convinced me that I was in error. In my statement of the average profits of sheep husbandry, in those replies, I estima- ted the average price of wool by the prices paid by a local and much smaller purchaser, and for a com- paratively limited term of years. I was not then aware of the utter defectiveness of the U.S. Census re- turns (pointed out in Letter II.) in relation to the annual product of wool. and therefore was misied in the average weight of fleeces ; and, speaking from impression rather than experiment, | placed the value of the manure altogether too low. Those questions and replies have led me into experiments and inquiries, which have resulted in more accurate information. I allude to this subject, because I think it every man’s duty to correct any errors or explain any discrepancies subsequently discovered by him, in his statements — which have been thrown before the public, and thus are placed in a position to mislead. + During 1846 it was from 30 to 32 cents per pound, but as this estimate is not based on extensive pur- chases, like the preceding, I have not placed it in the table. ¢ Including grade sheep, which form the greatest proportion of the whole number. There have been very few pure-blood Merinos in the State, and many of the Saxon flocks have been so miserably deterio- rated in carcass and weight of fleece. that they have sold for low prices. But good Saxons sold much above this until within three or four years: since then, the Merinos have been rapidly driving out the Saxons, and those of good quality and undoubted pedigree have sold for from five to twenty-five times as much. The higher the price, the greater the profits, by reason of the value of the increase. || It would be my impression that the farms in the grazing regions do not, on the average, exceed)130 acres each. Id est, in the grazing region. I say “ fine-wooled sheep,” because the larger and coarser Downs, Leicesters, Cotswolds, &c. consume much more, as will hereafter be shown. 54 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. merely nominal, as they cannot be obtained for beyond a small portion of the annual crop. They do not, therefore, form a proper basis for correct general estimates. The expenses and losses in keeping sheep, not already alluded to, are all set down below, as high as they will average on well managed farms. Dr. $ cts. cr. Se Cras 100 Sheep to interest on purchase money-....14 00 | By 300 Ibs. of Wool, at 39 4-7 cts per lb.11« 71 3-7 To int. on 33} acres of land at $20 per acre. ...46 66 | ** 80 lambs at $1 per head......-...-.. 80 00 “ curing and storing hay on llacres of above.13 75 | “ 40 2-horse loads of winter manure at SNOSNEHHE OMSREBNIRP cee re secede bP TERE: 4 00 o0rcents perloads vee so sece eee 20 00 “ salt, tar and summer care...--..-----...- 4 00} “ summer manure, calling it only equal “ labor of foddering, &c., during winter, say. 5 00 to shearing and summer care*..-. 8 “ Joss by death 2 per cent. above the value of Total neki 5 ay ene $226 71 3-7! DPHplEGawrOOl le sc—- ae ane ameee es 4 00 me dott Total... -cesecevescennnnscnass $l 41 { Balances sae oe soe eee eee $135 30 3-7 Making the net profit of $405, cr 201 per cent. per acre on lands worth $20. Since the passage of the Tariff of 1846, there has evidently been a panic among the wool-growers of New-York, and the rise in bread-stuffs, beef, pork, and dairy products, occasioned by the change in the British Tariff, and the famine which has prevailed in Europe by reason of the short crops of 1846, has tended farther to depreciate sheep, by offering inducements supposed to be very strong, to embark in branches of husbandry furnish- ing the former staples.t Sheep are consequently cheaper than they ever were before. Prime grade sheep, bearing wool of as good quality as the average of that embraced in Table 7, have in some instances sold for ten shillings per head, and coarse common sheep for one dollar—lambs half a dollar—making, in the ordinary proportion between lambs and grown sheep, about 75 cents per head, taking a flock through ! Wool of the quality embraced in Table 7 has fallen to an average of say 31 cents. Under the impression that sheep and wool have reached their minimum prices,{ it becomes an interesting subject of inquiry whether they can yet be produced, at a profit,in New-York. The following figures, I think, will fairly show : Dr. $ cts: | Gr $ cts. 100 Sheep, to interest on purchase money, at By 300 Ibs of Wool, at 31 cents per pound...93 00 Wl woMer Meads sssc ccs tak eon 8 75 | * 80 lambs, at 62} cents per head........-. 50 00 To int. on 33} acres of land at $20 per acre..46 66] “ 40 2-horse loads of winter manure, at 50 “ cutting, curing and storing hay on 11 acres centsiper lead 22. bee, ee 20 00 NAD ORe Ren anieres ean. Seen Ne eee 13:75 | “ summer manure, calling it only equal to ECR PCHEe OL-SMeaTing. 2... see we aee cee 4 00 shearing and summer care.-........._. 8 00 “ tar, salt and summer care...---...-.-..- 4 00 Total = “labor of foddering, &c. during winter, say. 5 00 Bers secre $171 00 “ loss by death 2 per ct. above the value of UREA accecnacteca te one amen cco 2 50 Mi Otal yee an.tsten ee meaTGO Balan Cees orsio 356 a. ©8634 Making $2 59, or nearly 13 per cent. net profit peracre on lands worth $20. In the preceding estimates I have only regarded the profit of sheep hus- bandry, as it has averaged for a series of years, among those possessing good ordinary flocks. * I place the summer manure, undoubtedly, considerably below its actual value. No experienced farmer will say that good solid sheep manure is worth less than 50 cents per load, and as the summer manure ’s at qgeet equal in quantity, and is deposited immediately on the land, I see no reason why it is not equally valuable, t That the diminution of English duties on these staples will give them a better and steadier market, there can be little doubt ; but not the very high one of the past season, occasioned by the severe famine which has prevailed in many parts of Great Britain. Many, therefore, who have sacrificed their sheep, reckoning on such prices, will probably find that they have “reckoned without their host.” f I say this under the decided impression that our wools, at this price, if properly washed and put up, would trizmphantly compete in the foreign markets with those of the wool-growing nations of Europe; and even with those of Australia, the Cape of Good Hope, and other Austro-oriental regions. For amore full examination of this point, see Appendix D. 4 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 5B It falls far short of that realized by breeders and flock-masters, who started their flocks with the best pure-blood sheep then to be found in the country ; and who have subsequently continued to improve them by great care in breeding, and by a rigorous course of selection. I have bred Merino sheep for a number of years, and latterly in consid- erable numbers ; and in no case have my grown sheep averaged less than 5 lbs. of well washed wool per annum. The quality of the wool may be inferred from a comparison of the prices at which it has sold, with those in Table 7. In 1846, I sold for 35 cents per pound ; in 1845, for 335 cents ; in 1844, for 48 cents; in 1843, for 333 cents; in 1842, for 35 cents, and so on. To give more precise data, I select the following statement of the pro- ducts of a flock, on which I drew the first premium offered by the New- York State Agricultural Society for “the best managed flock of sheep,” in 1844: [From the Transactions of the N. Y. State Agricultural Society, 1844, p. 254.] “Tn the winter of 1843-4, I wintered in a separate flock fifty-one ewes over one year old, two ewe lambs, two rams, one of them one and one of them two years old. Of the ewes over one year old, twenty-eight were full-blood Merinos ; twenty-three were half-blood Me- rinos and half-blood South-Downs; the two ewe lambs were three-fourth-blood Merino and one-fourth-blood South-Down: and the two rams were full-blood Merinos. The flock were kept as follows through the winter: They were fed hay morning and night, and were, as a general rule, required to eat it up clean. At noon the flock were daily fed three bundles of oats and barley (which had grown mixed, say three parts oats and one part barley,) until the 25th of December—after which they received four bundles of oats. The grain was light and shrunken. They received no hay at noon during the winter, and usually consumed all the straw of the grain fed them. They had a good shelter, and access to pure water at all times. From this flock I raised fifty-three lambs. The full-blood Merinos, including two rams, and the two three-fourth-blood lambs, (in all thirty-two,) sheared one hundred and eighty-six pounds and four ounces of washed wool, which I sold at forty-eight cents per pound. Four of the full-bloods had two years’ fleeces on. The half-blood Merinos and halfblood South-Downs (twenty-three) sheared eighty and one-half pounds of washed wool, seventy-one pounds of which I sold at thirty-eight cents per pound. During the summer of 1844, the flock were kept in good ordinary pasture, and salted once a week.” Thus, the Merino fleeces averaged 5 lbs. 134 0z. and sold for $2 793 each; and the grades between Merino and South-Down averaged 3 lbs. 8 oz. to the fleece, and sold for $1 33 each. It will be observed that four of the full-bloods (they were ewes) had two years’ fleeces on. A two years’ fleece will not weigh as much as two single years’ fleeces from the same sheep. On the average, it will weigh about three-quarters as much.* On the other hand, the lot included two three-quarter-blood lamb fleeces, which would fall below the average weight of the others, and a portion of the flock were yearlings and two- year olds. The Merino never attains its maximum weight of fleece before three years old, and ordinarily not until four, and therefore the aggregate weight of wool of the 32 sheep, given above, does not, to say the least of it, give too favorable a view of the product of sheep of this quality. This is proved by the fact that my entire flock of full-bloods sheared about three-twentieths of an ounce over six pounds each, the succeeding year. It would give me great pleasure to subjoin similar statistics of other carefully bred flocks, were authorized statements of them in my posses- sion, or published within my knowledge. It is sufficiently apparent from the above facts and estimates, that wool has not yet reached the lowest point at which it can be produced at an ample profit, on lands of the value indicated, 7 the sheep are of the proper * That is to say, if the single years’ fleeces would equal 6 lbs. each, a two years’ fleece, instead of weigh- ing twice as much, or 12 lbs., will not exceed three-quarters of such aggregate weight, or 9 lbs. The wool wastes when it becomes so long, and perhaps does not grow so rapidly. 56 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. eM a rs I eS quality ; and these facts farther suggest the expediency of relying on our own efforts to “ protect” this interest, rather than the fickle support of National legislation. For the production of a cheap, wholesome, and highly nutritious food, no animal excels the sheep. Theoretical considerations, as well as exper- iment, show the superiority of mutton to pork in the formation of vigor- ous muscle ;* and its tendency is less, particularly in hot climates, to en- gender inflammatory and putrid diseases. The consumption of consider- able quantities of fat is indispensable, in cold climates, to supply the necessary amount of carbon to support “ combustion,” as Liebig terms it, in the lungs, or, in other words, to maintain the animal heat. Hence the Laplander and the Esquimaux find a grateful dict in train-oil, or the adi- pose parts of Arctic fish and mammalia. That fat pork should be the favorite meat, in the Northern States, is not perhaps so singular, but that it (under the name of bacon) should constitute the principal one consumed in our warm Southern latitudes, and especially that it should constitute so large a proportion of all the food consumed,t is indeed a most anomalous fact, and is utterly unparalleled among the practices of other nations occu- pying the same latitudes. The tendency of this practice to produce dis- ease, physical inertia, indisposition and incapacity to sustain continued activity, will not, I think, be questioned by the pathologist or the close observer. Mutton and lamb are a favorite, if not the favorite food of the English of all classes. Notwithstanding all that has been said and written of the “roast beef” of “ Old England,” mutton is more eaten there by people of every rank.t On the other hand, it is evidently xo¢ a favorite meat im the United States, though its proportionable consumption is evidently: increas- ing. Whence the difference Circumstances have led to habit, and habit, in a great measure, regulates appetite. It needs no other proof than is to be found in the experience of every individual, to show that the appe tite is readily trained to relish what was even positively disgusting, and to become indifferent to what was once the most grateful. That the preceding facts are well wortny of attention among those who are favorable to the introduction of sheep husbandry, among planters who supply not less than 3 lbs. per week of good bacon, or a full equivalent, to each slave, on plantations where the number ranges from ten to one hun- dred, and sometimes many more, there can be little doubt. Twenty-five slaves would thus consume 3,900 lbs. of bacon per annum ; and the more common allowance of the opulent planter is about 200 lbs. per head, or 5,000 Ibs. for twenty-five. If an equivalent for at least half of this was * The theoretical considerations will be found sufficiently discussed in Liebig’s “ Animal Chemistry.” For experimental evidence, I know of none that can be more depended on—which approaches any nearer actual demonstration—than that which is furnished by the Euglish prize-tighters. To attain the proper con- dition to sustain the protracted and tremendous exertions of their brutal trade, their flesh must attain the hardness and toughness of whipcord, and they must, at the same time, maintain that physical elasticity (technically, “ corkiness,”) which adds agility to iron strength. These men, while training. ‘are suttered to eat little or no adipose matter, and not even the lean of pork. Their animal food is exclusively beef or mutton, or both. Some trainers prefer the former, some the latter. I have seen this matter very fully al- luded to, but do not now remember any more explicit authority than that contained in the following note to Carpenter's Principles of Human Physiology, (p. 357.) “The method of training employed by Jackson, (a celebrated trainer of prize-fighters in modern times,) as deduced from his answers to questions put to him by John Bell, was tu begin on a clear foundation by an emetic and two or three purges. Beef and mutton, the lean of fat meat being preferred, constituted the principal food; veal, lamb and pork were said to be less digestible (‘the last purges some men’). Fish was said to be a ‘watery kind of diet ;’ and is employed by jockeys who wish to reduce weight by sweat- ing.” f I mean this portion of the remark to apply more particularly to the non-laboring classes. The propor- tion consumed by the slave, though ample, is not excessive, when his laboring habits are taken into con- sideration ¢ I state this on the authority of various individuals who have been much in England, and who have been placed in positions to form a pretty accurate opinion. Mr. Colman speaks of the “extraordinary” consumption of mutton in England, without, however, giving any comparative data. f » SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 57 * made in mutton, it would be far cheaper, and, if I have not erred in previ- ous statements, better for the slave. There are two or three other highly favorable considerations to be taken into account among the direct profits of rearing sheep. The risk by death, by ordinary causes, is nothing. Two per cent. is al- lowed in the preceding estimates, as the full product of wool and increase is carried out. But, in reality, the sheep never dies “insolvent.” If the colt or the bullock dies on our hands, after two or three years of trouble and expense with it, the loss is nearly a total one. If the fine-wooled sheep dies at any age, the wool then on it, or what it has already produced, more than covers all the cost which it has ever made us.* Not only is the winter manure of the sheep superior to that of any other domestic animal, the hog and fowl excepted, but it practically becomes still more so in proportion, in summer, when scattered over the pastures, by reason of the conditions in which it is deposited. The soft porous ex- crements of the cowt or horse, exposed to the exsiccating action of sun and wind, evolve most of their fertilizing properties into the atmosphere, and this effect would increase in proportion to the warmth of the climate. The excrements of the sheep, on the other hand, are deposited in small, hard, rounded pellets, which fall down between the leaves of the grass, and are thus in a great measure protected from the sun and wind, until they are trodden into and incorporated with the soilt Then, again, they need no spreading,|| like the dung of the horse and cow. And finally, instinct, in leading the sheep almost invariably to seek the summits of the elevations, in warm weather, for its night quarters, leads it to deposit much more ma- nure in proportion, where it is most needed, on the drier and more barren hill-tops; and where, being more remote from water-courses, less of its juices are liable to be washed away by rains, into the streams, or on to the lands of others. Sheep are also far more efficient than any other animal (if we except the worthless goat) in clearing up new lands, or neglected old ones, of those briers and shrubs which it is often difficult to eradicate without plow- ing; and they often abound on lands which cannot be plowed with profit. And, when plowed, the shrubs in the fence corners must be left (to the utter shame of all good husbandry), or the fence must be removed—some- times at a great inconvenience. ‘The sheep delights to browse on the buds, and to strip the bark of must shrubs,§ and they thus soon destroy them. It would be good economy for the farmer to keep his neighbors’ sheep, with- out charge, on all very briery or coppiced unarable lands, if he could not so stock them himself. Finally, it is generally believed by experienced flock-masters—and ob- servation has led me to fully coincide in the opinion—that sheep not only improve the lands they depasture more than any other animal, but that they exert an almost specific influence in improving the character of the vegetation. All wild, poor grasses gradually disappear from their pastures * T speak, of course, of the cost of rearing and feeding. + Gazzeri found that 100 parts of recent cow-dung contain 25 per cent. of dry, solid matter, and that 5 per cent. of this is lost in 40 days by exposure to the air. I do not think ¢his indicates the full loss which would be sustained in a southern latitude. ¢ These rounded pellets are covered, too, in the animal in good condition, with a coating of mucus, which farther protects them from evaporation. || Their urine, also, is voided in quantities which render it highly beneficial; while that of the horse and cow is voided in such large quantities in one place that it is not only in a great measure wasted, but ina dry time (so that it is not diluted by the moisture in the soil), its rich salts, so far from benefiting, actually kill the verdure. § This is particularly true of the blackberry or bramble (Rubrus villosus), and the raspberry (Rubus tdoeus), often great pests on new or neglected lands at the North. Sheep can even be made to attack the elder (Sambucus canadensis var. pubescens), and various other troublesome intruders, by turning them upon them in thawing “ spells,” in the winter, after they have been for some time confined to dry feed. 58 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ha a eer Tt 7 Te i> j(|. b> aRAL MS =a. OTe and are succeeded by the best ones; and the sward becomes remarkably dense and even. This is probably due to the richness and better distribu- tion of their dung and urine. If upward of twenty per cent. profits, over and above all expenditures, have been and still can be made, on lands worth $20 per acre, by wool- growing—on lands, too, where the reign of an iron winter confines sheep to dry feed at least five months of the year—how are we to estimate those profits on lands costing but a small part of this sum, which, though inferior to the former, will, by reason of the shortness and mildness of the winter , * support about an equal number of sheep per acre, and also save the ex- pense of preparing dry feed, of foddering, and a large proportion of that laid out in barns, shelters, &c. ? It will be seen that, by assuming the data of the last of the two preced ing estimates (with the exception of the loss by death), the gross cost of producing 300 lbs. of wool, on the grazing lands of New-York, is $82 16, or 2722 cts. per pound. This is undoubtedly as /ow as it can be produced where the fleeces do not exceed the average weight of 3 Ibs. Let us now proceed to inquire what would be the gross expense per pound in the Southern States. You inform me that “ one or two—not more—”’ sheep find subsistence during the summer on the natural pastures of the tide-water zone in South Carolina.* The broad-tailed, and other large breeds, now mainly fed there, consume nearly double the amount of feed required by the fine- wooled sheep. But, to make our estimate perfectly a safe one, we will assume that two fine-wooled sheep only will consume the summer herbage of an acre. Fields of rye sown in September or October, you farther in- form me, will support “two sheep and their lambs” per acre, “ from the 20th of December to the 10th of March.” Numerically, then, here you have the same stocking that is borne by the lands of New-York, viz. three sheep per acre. And, making the allowance already alluded to for the different consumption of breeds, an acre would sustain three full-grown Merino sheep. As the rye subsequently yields its crop, the wool is not chargeable with the expense of its tillage. Rye will continue to grow in the winter on all lands not too sterile, o1 too elevated, south of latitude 36°, and, in favorable situations, at least two degrees farther north. Grass, and some other hardy esculents, also maintain a winter vegetation in many portions of the whole of this re- gion.t R. L. Allen, Esq., after a recent visit to the plantation of Col. Wade Hampton, near Columbia, 8. C., thus speaks of the winter verdure in that region : “Though everything like grass or weeds is rigidly excluded in the early stages of the erops, yet, as these approach maturity, the thick netting of crab and various other grasse3 end plants, which are ever struggling tor existence in this warm clime, are allowed to come forward and mature; and their growth furnishes forage for cattle and sheep during the win- ter, and an important addition to the vegetable manures for turning under and adding to the fertility of the soil. . . . The sheep, together with the cattle, mnles and horses, which are not at work, are turned into the natural pastures in summer, and, in addition to these, they have the run of the corn-fields in winter, and without seeing any other shelter agiinst the severest storms than a thicket or hill-side, they thrive and fatten throughout the year.— This condition is secured by the mildness of the climate, and the consequent growth of vege tation during the entire winter.” os * | These statements, and all others credited to Col. Allston, are, when not otherwise specified, contained 2. letters from that gentleman to the writer. + Among these, “a plant called ‘Wild Rye,’ affording excellent herbage during the winter months, springs up spontaneously on the rice-field banks, aud between the cotton beds, on some plantations on the River Congaree, S 3” ome, SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 59 John 8. Skinner, Esq. thus writes me :* “Col. Hampton’s flock numbers 800, I believe. He kills the finest sort of mutton through out the winter and spring—very fat and excellent in all respects. He told me last summer, at Saratoga, that they never get a mouthful except what they can find in the woods and fields.” Hon. R. F. Simpson, Member of Congress, of Pendleton, South Caro lina, thus describes the region in which he resides, and some of the contig uous ones :t Henry S. Ranpatt, Esq. WASHINGTON, Jan. 22, 1847. Dear Sir: I take much pleasure in answering your inquiries, and only regret that I have not more time to do full justice to the subject. If my answers fail to inform you with suffi cient clearness on any point, I shall be most happy to add to them, at your suggestion. The Allegany Mountains, as you are aware, run from N. E. to 8. W. That part of them north of the 8. C. line lies spread out in different chains or ridges to a distance of nearly 50 miles ; and the whole region is commonly called “on the mountains.” The climate is healthy and the grass fine. Many of the valleys in this region are very rich, particularly on the wa- ter-courses. The ground is covered with snow as much as four weeks annually. The range is good, but there may be too much humidity for sheep.{ The land is cheap, say $1 per acre—but much can be bought at 50 cents. I have learned from good authority that sheep can be farmed out durmg the winter at ten cents a head, in any ordinary quantity. The farmers who take them, too, will be liable for loss by death, in many instances. There is a strip of country lying east of the Blue Ridge, and parallel to it, from 20 to 30 miles wide, extending through North and South Carolina and Georgia, which I think espe- cially adapted to sheep husbandry. The land is poor for the production of our southern sta- ples, and is sparsely settled, but the pasturage is good. There is a perennial grass, known as “woods grass,” which springs up in the woods after they are burned each winter, which makes excellent pasture for all kinds of stock. It starts vigorously in the spring, and sheep fatten on it by the middle of July. It lasts all the summer, and _ provides sufficient food for sheep during the entire winter, except when snow is on the ground, which is not more than two or three days at a time, and usually not more than ten days during a winter. The few days during which the grass is covered up with snow are the only ones, during the entire year, when it is necessary to feed sheep. This is usually done with oats in the sheaf. . . . Supposing ten sheep equal to one cow, I think one acre would afford sub sistence to three sheep. But few people mow here. In a few instances, herds-grass has been sown and mowed, but the product not weighed, to my knowledge. Both herds-grass and the natural ones, on our bottom lands, look much richer, and to all appearance would turn off a heavier crop of hay than any meadows to be seen on the line of travel through Virginia. As Ihave before remarked, the land is poor, except the small bottoms on creeks and branches. The latter are rich, and will produce 30 bushels of corn and from 10 to 15 bush« els of wheat per acre. They also produce oats and rye, but I do not know how much by measurement. I suppose from 10 to 20 bushels each. The Jand is valued low—from 50 cts. to $1 50 per acre—and it is only necessary to buy $500 or $1,000 worth of it, to embrace sufficient bottom to raise provisions, and oats to feed sheep when snow is on the ground.— The rangel| is very large, and everybody’s stock has liberty to roam over it, without hin- drance or compensation. Our common method of managing sheep is as follows: The flock are kept in the planta- tion during the winter by some; others turn out in the woods. In May they are sheared, the lambs marked, &c., and they are turned into the out pastures. When they come up, they are salted, and no other attention is paid to them until fall, when most persons shear again. They are rarely brought wp unless to get a lamb for the table. This treatment ren- ders them wild, and prone to jump into the owners’ or neighbors’ wheat fields, from which they are driven out with rocks and sticks, and sometimes with dogs. They are, in all re- * Jan. 15, 1847. + This letter would have been more appropriately included in my IVth Letter, but was not received in time, and it is by far too valuable and interesting to be omitted. { The ettect of humidity on sheep is, I think, often misunderstood and greatly exaggerated. _Wer, cold soils are uncongenial to sheep, but they suffer no more from those ordinary fogs and vapors which prevail in insular positions, or which are attracted by mountain ranges, than other domestic animals. As has been before remarked, sheep thrive in the peculiarly foggy atmosphere of England—also in Holland. Their healthiness on mountains is proverbial, yet these elevations are usually subject to fogs, and clouds rest on the sides or summits of the loftier ones. As the southern mountains are cleared of their trees, their atmo- sphere will be less humid, and that soft vegetable mould (which excited the fears of Mr. Buckley) will ac- quire the consistency which it always does on a dry foundation, when exposed to the sun and air; and it will be the means of supplying the sheep with rich vegetable nutriment. instead of poisoning them with “ hoof-ail.” ‘ || he provincial signification of this word, South, is the uninclosed pasturage in the forest and “out fields,”—7. ¢., worn-out lands thrown out to commons. : 60 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. spects, treated more like outlaws than domestic animals. When out, all the flocks in the neighborhood mingle together. From their disposition to ramble, and the incursions of dogs, they get scattered, and scarcely any farmer can get up to the fall shearing more than one- halt of his count. . The region above described includes Pickens, Grenville and Spartansburg, so far as this State is concerned. Going east of this strip, you at once get into good land, where the set- tlements are frequent. Here snow is rare, and wheat, rye and barley are used for winter pastures for sheep, and they continue growing during the winter. Wood grass does not abound in this region, as the woods are not kept buarnt.* Very respectfully, yours, &c. R. F. SIMPSON. The preceding statements give a sufficient idea of the expense of feed- ing sheep in the Carolinas, Georgia, and the Gulf States. In all of these, there is a striking similarity in soils and natural products, and also im cli mate—with, perhaps, the exception of North Carolina, which is a trifle colder. In all of them, as well as in all the other Southern States, land can be bought at the same low prices.t The cost of the winter forage of sheep in Tennessee may be inferred from the statements of Mr. Kramer, (in Letter 1V.) On even the lofty Cumberland Mountains, in that State, grass grows during the entire win- ter, and snow rarely covers the ground to exceed forty-eight hours! Judge Beatty’s statements in relation to Kentucky (in the same letter) show that the luxuriant blue-grass pastures of that State will sustain sheep during the entire winter; and that they frequently obtain their whole subsistence on the grasses, even on the mountains. Let us now turn to Virginia, the most northern of the Southern States. In a recent letter to me, John 8. Skinner, Esq. says : “ Hon. Mr. Coles, a Member of Congress from Virginiat—a sedate, attentive and practical farmer—once informed me that his flock of 200 sheep, kept in good condition summer and winter, did not cost him $10 a year. . . . . You must know that they, in the general way, as I believe, never feed their sheep, winter or summer, except where the ground is covered with snow—which is rarely the case, and then the snow does not lie more than a day, or at most two days. . . . No doubt winter pasture might be provided by sowing rye in the proper season (the usual system is to sow it the last thing, and as long as the farmer can ‘“ catch a chance’’) and putting the ground in good condition; and in that way adequate provision might be made for any deficiency of natural pasture. . . . . When the snow does cover the ground in Virginia, they give the sheep corn-blades—an excellent fodder. I think the rule was when I was a boy (in the rare exigency alluded to) to give them a bundle of blades each. A bundle of blades compacted would be about as large as the upper part of your arm.” North-Western Virginia seems to be considerably colder than the corre- sponding portion of the State east of the mountains; and the winter fod-_ dering season is not greatly shorter—though the amount of fodder con- sumed must be far less—than in Western Pennsylvania, or in many por- tions of New-York.|| Yet, singularly enough, more sheep are bred here In proportion, probably, tuan in any other portion of the Southern States! * Some other paragraphs from this letter are omiited for quotation under the heads of which they specif- ically treat. 7 Hon S Strong, a Member of Congress from this (N. Y.) State, writes me, after consultation with vari- ous Southern Members, that “ good lands may be purchased for $1 50 per acre, and in great abundance, in most of the Southern States.” Mr. Garret Andrews, of Wilkes Co., Georgia, in a communication in the American Agriculturist (April, 1844), says: “Several hundred acres (in the middle or hilly zone) are often sold for # dollar or Jess per acre. ‘The usual rale is to sell the wood-land for what it may be thought to be worth, and give the pur- chaser the old lands and the houses for nothing. . . . . For $1.000 or $1,500, a comfortable house and out-houses, garden, &c. may be had, ‘vith several hundred acres of land, . . wanting nothing but a fair chance to become as fertile as may be desired. . . . ‘here is no end of the materials for manure.” I recentiy saw it stated by a gentleman in a communication which was published in the N. Y. Farmer and Mechani-, that he was authorized to give away good land in the Cumberland Mountains to sober and induse trious settlers. The prices in the N. C. Mountains will be seen from Mr. Clingman’s letter, (Letter IV.) + Mr. Coles resided in Pittsylvania, a county adjoining North Carolina, in the middle or hilly zone. \| Jesse Edgington, of Holliday’s Cove, Brooke Co., Va. writes me: “ Our average time of foddering ig at least 4 months, and we generally provide provender equal to 5 tons of hay for each hundred grown shecp, fur the winter.” SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 61 This region being essentially Northern in its characteristics no allusion will be had to it in subsequent remarks. It will be seen from the preceding statements that in many, if not most situations, throughout the whole Southern States, sheep will obtain suffi- cient food throughout the year from the pastures,* or from autumn-sown grains, excepting on the higher or more northern mountains. As has been before remarked, as the grain subsequently yields its crop, its tillage is not properly chargeable among the expenses of producing wool. The prepa- ration of hay, and labor of foddering, are also dispensed with. By the rule of estimation followed in relation to New-York, the items on the debit side of the account would then be—interest on purchase money ; interest on land; expense of shearing; salt, tar, and general supervision ; and loss by death. ‘The items on the credit side would be the same with those of New-York. Your own statements, Sir, as well as those of Mr. Simpson, show that, in many situations, both in the tide-water and hilly zone, three sheep can be supported on the herbage of an acre, without other fodder. His state- ments show that such lands can be bought at “from 50 cents to $1 50 per acre.” The annual account then would stand thus: Dr. $ cts. Cr. $ cts. 100 sheep—to interest on purchase money, at By 300 lbs, of wool at 31 cents per pound.-.$93 00 Since per nend sisi 2 -S-oce ond veae a $8 75 | ‘“* 80 lambs, at 624 cents per head.-......- 50 00 To interest on 334 acres of land at $1 50.-.-... aes 1 MCSE cron d eh Paso rriaenees Ce nocconeonBeceace 28 00 TEX PEMECION SNEALIN Ds «ble eles siaiclalslalaial= 1a AMOOR |e 2 Mipigpany tea ae et eee UT eee a 171 00 “ salt, tar, and general supervision ..---...- 8 00 RHEE EG CER RS EEE e ee nt A “ loss by death 2 per cent. over and above value of pulled’ wool <2-5-- ,0.2.-20----.- 2 50 Total.------.-------+----0----+-+-- $26 75 Balance) ses: - 21.28. ...se sce. sage eae ee $144 25 Making $4 32, or two hundred and eighty-eight per cent. clear profit per acre, on lands worth $1 50! By the respective estimates it will be seen that the gross cost of pro- ducing a pound of wool (allowing 3 lbs. to the fleece) is, in the Southern States, 8,4, cents; in New-York 2722 cents{—or nearly three and a half tumes greater inthe latter! I have put down the expense of shearing the same in both cases, and the supervision, South, twice as high as the swm- mer care, in the North. Shearing always costs $1 a day, per hand, in the North, and the summer care devolves upon the paid laborer whose eve hour counts. The shearing would not be worth to exceed $2 a hundred on a plantation where slaves are kept, and the supervision or care could scarcely be considered an expense, when it could be borne mainly, if not entirely, by superannuated or decrepit slaves, or even by children. The real expense of growing wool on land of this quality and price would be about 5;'; cents per pound ;|| and calling the fleece 4 lbs. (which weight it always ought to be made to attain) it would but little exceed 3} cents.§ This is above Mr. Coles’s estimate of expense in southern central Vir- ginia, and Mr. John 8. Skinner has repeatedly expressed the opinion that it could be grown in various parts of the Southern States at 3 cents per * This supply could be rendered far more certain and available, where desirable, by leaving a portion of the fields undepastured in the latter part of summer and autumn. This “fog” or after-grass would not only attord much food, of itself, but it also greatly favors the sprouting of the young grass underneath it, by the protection it offers from frosts and cold winds. t I have put this down the same as at the North, because I suppose it is just as valuable at the South, and quite as much needed, Few are disposed to appreciate the value of manure when it is not presented to their view in bulk, as in the barn-yard; but it is worth quite as much, dropped in the first instance over the fields. I feel confident that I have not over-estimated its value either for the South or the North. { To obtain these results, I divided the whole annual expense, as set down in the respective estimates, with the exception of the charge of 2 per cent. for loss by death, by the amount of wool produced. [Tor reasons already given, I do not consider the wool chargeable with such loss by death, except in an es- timate where the full product of wool and lambs is carried out. || In this estimate I call shearing $2 per hundred, salt and tar $1, and supervision nothing. § Estimated as in the preceding note. 62 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. pound.* My own impression, however, is that the land, properly in- closed, that will support 3 sheep per annum, will cost, except in occa- sional localities, not less than $4 or $5, let the amount be more or less ; and this would bring the cost of production (with 3-lb. fleeces) to between 7 and 8 cents per pound. I shall hereafter assume it to be 8 cents. On many of the more northern mountains of the Southern States, and on the high peaks farther south, neither the grasses nor grain grow suffi: ciently to support sheep, unless the range is very large in proportion to the number, during the winter.t Here, as in the Northern States, dry feed must be prepared for the winter subsistence of sheep. This can be read- ily done, as the best meadow grasses of the North and the clovers flourish on the sides of the mountains.{ There is little doubt that sheep can be wintered on dry feed on many of the mountains, and yet, on account of the extreme cheapness of the lands, the cost of producing wool not exceed eight cents per pound. In the circumstances of many of the lowland plantations, it would be a most economical arrangement to summer the sheep on the mountains, and then drive them to these plantations to be wintered on pasture, fog, or grain fields, according to convenience. After the lambs have reached a sufficient age in the spring, and the sheep are shorn, marked, &c., a flock might be sent thirty, fifty, or even a hundred miles to its summer range on the mountains, at a trifling expense; and large numbers could be kept there under the surveillance of a single shepherd and a brace or two of dogs. By this system the lowland plantation would be saved from maintaining pasture on more expensive lands; many of its less marketa- ble products could be converted into wool, meat, and manure; and it would be enriched by the wintering of the sheep. Such, you are aware, is the system of sheep husbandry in Spain. The sheep are wintered on the plains of Estremadura, sometimes reaching the north of Andalusia. Both of these provinces, though in a latitude cor- responding with that of a portion of the United States, extending from Albemarle Sound to a little north of Philadelphia, are parched, during the summer, to a state of arid sterility, by the burning winds of Africa.|| In * See Monthly Journal of Agriculture. + With suflicient range, however, they not only obtain subsistence, but get fat. John S. Skinner, Esq., writes me: ‘Inthe mountains of Virginia, viz., at the Warm Springs, Dr. Brockenboro told me that a flock of sheep which he had bought for use during the watering season, strayed, and got off beyond reach during the summer; that the winter alter they were rarely seen: and that as chance offered they were shot; and that tiner and fatter mutton he never desired to see.” The Warm Springs are in Bath county, among the Western or Allegany Mountains, a few minutes north of latitude 389°, { See Mr. Goggin’s statements in Letter 1V. Since the above was written, I have received the following statements from Mr. W. Murdock, of Asheville, Buncombe county, North Carolina: “Excellent swards of grass are grown inthis district from Orchard grass or Cock’s-foot. Timothy and Italian Rye grass J have found to thrive remarkably well, I never saw them do better in any country. I » received my seeds from England, and they sueceeded admirably, and in ground by no means favorable to a fair trial. Turnips succeed remarkably well here, and even 150 miles farther south, as I am informed by Mr. Edward Calhoun—the kinds I don’t know—but here the Globe, Aberdeen, Norfolk, &c., do well. .... If grounds were reserved as you suggest, for the winter feeding of sheep, the fall growth being under- pastured. and if some of the stubbles were plowed up and sown broadcast with turnips mixed with rape or colza. very little fodder will be required, in fact only when snow is on the ground, which seldom ex- ceeds fifteen or twenty days during the year.” [This fully confirms the positions assumed by me near the ciose of Letter IV.] “T think that Curled Kale would be excellent for the winter keep of sheep, or cattle of any kind. J got some seed from England and sowed it like any cabbage seed. J put out the plants two feet asunder in but tolerable ground. It grew three feet high and two feet in diameter. That | planted in the open field the sheep got at in October, and ate it, stock, branches and all, to the ground. That planted in the garden has, like the rape, stood the severe frosts uninjured. It is a delightful vegetable all the spring, and stands a warm oracold climate... .. This and rape are.[ think, all the green food necessary to keep sheep through the winter, with the addition of a little hay. Rape may be sown broadcast in moist weather in May or June, and mown off for the sheep, when required, about six inches above ground. Ifthe shoots are not required for pasture, let them go to seed, and the feed will pay better than any other crop, for making oil and rape cake.” || Here is a notable instance of the want of correspondence between isothermal and latitudinal lines be- tween the west of Europe and the eastern portion of our own Continent. The two Spanish provinces the latitude of which is above given, have a climate more resembling the scorched llanos of Caraccas than any portion, even the most southerly, of the United States. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 63 the winter, however, they are covered with verdure. About the first of May the sheep start for the mountains.* Formerly many of them rested on the lofty parameras and mountain sides of Old and New Castile—the _ latter bleak, sterile and craggy, compared with the sides of our own South- ern mountains. Buta friend recently from Spain informs me that those once magnificent flocks (now, alas! thinned by confiscation,t the whole- sale plunder of invaders,t and for the subsistence of adverse armies,||) do not at present stop in any considerable numbers on the Castilian mountains, but pass north to the Cantabrian, and that portion of the Iberian range north of Soria—or crossing the latter, spread over the Eastern Pyrenees, and the mountains of Saragossa north of the Ebro. Anything like an elaborate comparison between the facilities for sheep husbandry furnished by the mountains of Spain and the Apalachians of’ the United States, south of the Potomac, would, perhaps, be out of place in this connection. But a glance at them may throw useful light on the question of comparative profit. Ifthe Spaniard can grow wool at a profit, where the natural and physical features of the country gives him no ad- vantage over us, we can certainly do so; for in every other respect we have the advantage. The Eastern Pyrenees rise to a hight of 10,000 feet,§ more than double that of the Peaks of Otter, or that of any other portion of the Apalachian range, with the exception of a few summits in North Carolina. Mount Perdu, one of the Pyrenees, is 11,283 feet in hight, or 4,807 feet higher than the Black, the highest mountain of the United States east of the Mis- sissippi. Maladetta, Vignemale and others rise considerably above 10,000 feet.** Glaciers exist on different parts of the whole chain. “ The acclivity of the Pyrenees on the side of Spain, is often extremely steep,tt present ing a succession of rugged chasms, abrupt precipices, and huge masses of naked rock.”it Minano, a Spanish writer of authority, in defending his countrymen from the charge of indolence, speaks particularly of the ef forts of the hardy peasantry on the “almost inaccessible mountains of the Asturias, Galicia and Catalonia.” The vegetation on these mountains is ex- tremely variable, in some places being as luxuriant as the best on our South- ern Apalachjans, but more frequently dwarfish and meager. On large portions of them it is entirely wanting. The northern accliyities are fre- quently swept by cold and piercing gales from the Bay of Biscay. On the whole, it will be seen that they do not compare with our southern moun- tains in the advantages which they offer for sheep husbandry,|| || * For singular and interesting particulars in relation to their march, &c., and the municipal regulations pertaining thereto, see Livingston on Sheep, p. 36 et supra. + Some of the choicest flocks in Spain were contiscated by the Government during the great anti-Gallic struggle. In the winter of 1809, the Spanish Junto contiscated the great flocks of the infamously celebrated Godoy and several other nobles, and they were bought by foreigners for exportation. { The French Marshals, not finding anything in Spain to benefit the five arts of la belle France, as in Italy, condescended, it is said, to benefit her Agriculture, by driving home some of the best flocks of Spain. The Allied Armies compelled the restitution of the marble and canvas, but those priceless flocks either could not be re-collected, or they were not regarded as of sufficient importance to be returned. || The Commissariat of the English, French and Spanish armies, “The foe, the victim, and the fond ally,” found the great Spanish flocks a very convenient resort, and availed themselves of it fully. The Guerillas, contrabandists, and fugitive inhabitants, of course, did the same. Malte Brun. | tb. ** Encyclopedia Americana ; art. Pyrenees. Montserrat (in Catalonia), so famous for its monastic establishments, will occur to you in this connec- tion—where the steepness is so great that the monks ascend from hermitage to hermitage by ladders or stairs cut in the rocks ! tt Encyclopedia Americana ; art. Pyrenees. || || How much the associations of early life—early reading—dispose us to exaggerate even the physical extent of the region covered by these mountains, connected as they are with so many romantic and inter- esting remembrances! The whole chain, extending from Cape Finisterre to Port Vendres, does not exceed 250 miles in length; and the space covered by it is not, in Western parlance, a “ circumstance ” to that oc- cupied by our Southern Apalachians! Yet, in the western ha/f of this chain, Pelayo and _his successors maintained their Visi-Gothic kingdom, overthrew the descendants of the Abassides and Omrniades, and finally wrested Spain from the Moorish yoke. Who remembers, without the map under his eye, that Baa 64 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. The route pursued by the Spanish flocks from, say, the middle of Es- tremadura to the Cantabrian mountains (the western portion of the Py- renees), cannot fall short of 300 miles. It equals 270 miles in a direct line. In additionto the length of the journey, they are compelled to cross the Castilian mountains, and if they come from the south of Estremadura, also the mountains of Toledo. Their route to the eastern Pyrenees would be farther and still more difficult. Every circumstance, then, excepting municipal regulations,* gives our Southern States, on both sides of the Apalachians, a manifest advantage over Spain, for the purposes of migra- tory sheep husbandry. Before closing the investigation of the question of the direct profits of wool-growing in the Southern States, it is proper to inquire if there are any special local militating causes or disadvantages not yet adyerted to which should be taken into the account. Diligent investigation has satis- fied me that there are no such causes—on the other hand, that there is a remarkable exemption from them—with one exception. That exception is the destruction caused by wolves and dogs. Wolves are found in nearly all new, and particularly in mountainous countries ; but they invariably rapidly give way before the extension of populationt They have even now ceased to be very destructive in the most sparsely settled regions of the South. Mr. Simpson, in the letter be- fore quoted from, says : “There are but few wolves in South Carolina, excepting on the mountains. Otherwise, our sheep which roam at large untended by shepherd, and uncared-for by any one, would soon be exterminated. The wolves are not numerous even on the mountains. They are not so destructive as dogs, which every now and then attack and destroy the sheep. A trusty shepherd, with a dog or two and a rifle, would prevent this.” These remarks would apply equally well to nearly all the Southern States. Wolves do but little damage, and would soon cease to do any ; but the miserable, prowling curs are, in many places, a serious detriment. There is something singular in the fact that while so much complaint is made of them in the Southern and Western States, in New-York, where there is certainly a great surplus of them, we hear little, comparatively speaking, of their depredations. I am inclined to attribute it to the fact that dogs are here constantly familiarized with the sight of sheep. The first even playful movement of the adventurous puppy toward them is severely chastised, and he is thus educated to recognize them as within the category of “ protected ” animals. The dog which slays or even pur- sues a sheep, finds a long pedigree or a silver collar utterly unavailing to save him from immediate death.t But even in the South or West, the loss occasioned by the depredations nockburn was fought and Flodden lost to defend a Kingdom of half the dimensions of a good-sized Ameri- can State! In comparing the agricultural capabilities—and especially in estimating the ultimate result of agricultural competition between our own country and the European ones, we rarely take sufficiently into view the great disparity in territorial dimensions, * For the monopoly of privileges conferred on the flock-masters of Spain to the oppression and prostra- tion of every other branch of husbandry, see Lasterie. and also Livingston on Sheep. + A bounty of $10 is paid for the destruction of every full-grown wolf, and $5 for a wolf's whelp in the State of New-York. { In New-York it is provided by law that every bitch over three months old shall be taxed $2; every ad- ditional one owned by the same man $5; two dogs over 6 months old $l; every additional one $3. The avails of these taxes constitute a fund, out of which Supervisors of Counties are to pay for any sheep slain by dogs whose ownets are unknown. — This is not often enforced. ‘ Any person may kill any dog “ which he shall see chasing, worrying, or wounding any sheep,” unless by direction of owner. ‘ nT Es The owner or possessor of any dog on being notified “of any injury done by his dog to any sheep, or his dog having chased or worried any sheep,” must within 48 hours kill his dog. or forfeit $2 50, and the farther sum of $1 25 for every 48 hours thereafter, unless “it shall satisfactorily appear to the Court that it was not in the power of such owner or possessor to kill such dog.” Revised Statutes of New-York, vol. i chap. xx., title xvii. \ emcey SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 65 of other animals, or the expense of guarding against them, would be light compared with that in some of the wool-growing regions of the Old World. In Australia, the sheep are exposed to the attack of wolves, dogs, and convicts, and are constantly attended by a shepherd, and nightly folded, and guarded by a watchman with dogs and a fire.* At the Cape of Good Hope, the shepherd and folding system is also fol- lowed. In addition to wolves, and wild dogs which hunt in packs, and from their superior sagacity are much more formidable than wolves,} the Cape sheep are preyed upon by a variety of animals, and when they pass the mountains to glean the herbage which springs on the banks of the streams on the vast and lonely Karoos, they are exposed to the attack of the lion, the panther, the leopard, and the whole Feline family, so abund- ant and so particularly formidable in Southern Africa.t And they have had, and probably yet have, an enemy more destructive than all of these, in the Bushmen, more wild, irreclaimable, and predatory than their con- geners, the Bedouins of the Arabian desert.|| I have seen it proposed§ to teach young cattle to protect sheep from dogs, in the following manner: Turn a few steers into the pasture with the sheep, and with them a cow or two, having young calves at their sides. Send a dog into the field, and immediately the cows, followed by the steers, will commence a furious onset on the dog, and gore him or drive him from the field. After this is repeated a few times, it is said the steers will suffer no dog to enter the inclosure. This might do very well under some circumstances, but I should prefer to rely on the remedy proposed by Mr. Simpson: the dog and the rifle. There are no “shepherd dogs” large and powerful enough to encounter and zl wolves and vagrant dogs, excepting the great sheep-dog of Spain ; and he is so irreclaimably ferocious to all excepting his charge, that he might frequently bring his owner into difficulty, and even endanger human life. My impression is that a shepherd dog or two, to be on the alert, and a brace of mastifts to capture and, if need be, slay wolf or cur, would be adequate protection for the sheep on a considerable range, and the expense of maintaining them would be trifling. : * Cunningham's ‘‘ Two Years in New South Wales,” vol. i. p. 251. f Missionary Labors and Scenes in Southern Africa, by Rev. Robert Moffat, pp. 23-4. {The following stanza from the spirited lines of Freiligrath—* The Lion’s Ride ”—will occur to you: “ And the vulture scenting a coming carouse, Sails, hoarsely screaming, down the sky ; The bloody hyena, be sure, is nigh, Fierce pillager he of the charnel-house ! The panther, too, who strangles the Cape-Town sheep As they lie asleep, Athirst for his share in the slaughter, follows ; While the gore of their victim spreads like a pool in the sandy hollows!” || To these may be added the savage Kaffirs, who, in their recent struggle with the Colonial Government, destroyed and drove off immense numbers of cattle and sheep. In 1834, “ the natives,” says Youatt, “ drove off or destroyed 80,000 cattle and sheep almost innumerable.” § By a writer in the American Agriculturist. 66 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. LETTER VI. PROFITS OF SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHERN STATES—2. AS THE BASIS Of AMELIORATION IN NATURALLY STERILE AND WORN-OUT SOILS. Feasibility of rendering the naturally sterile and worn-out Soils of the South productive. -..Means must be ample and cheap---Ordinary Animal Manures from Stables, &c., not attainable in sufficient quantity—too expensive if transported far by land carriage..-Animal Manures of Commerce still more out of the ques- tion...Gypsum—not sufficient of itself...Wood Ashes—Leached Ashes—their great value, but limited quantity .-. Lime (marl)..-Swamp Mud—inexhaustible quantity of each...Valuable Effects of Lime on Soils...Otherwise when there is a deficiency of Organic Matter..-Opinion of Johnston, Brown, Lord Kaimes, Anderson, Morton, Thaér, Petzholdt, Chaptal...Southern Tertiary and Granitic Soils destitute of Organic Matter... Expensiveness of Marl—not very permanent in its ettects...The best Swamp Mud worth more per load..-.This, too, an expensive manure. .. Both too costly for extensive ameliorations. . -Is there, then, any resort?—There is—it is to be found in a Mixed System of Green and Animal Manuring, the lat- ter made attainable by Sheep Husbandry-.--Experience and Testimony of various English Farmers under analogous circumstances... Reasons why Sheep are preferred to Horned Cattle for this purpose. ..Con- sidered more profitable in England, and by some in the United States, independent of Fleece. - - Singular Hallucination of Col. Taylor on this subject...Sheep preferred as Improvers of Poor Lands in the North- ern and Eastern States, but the end sought by different means from those employed in England...The English System—Reasons why it is inapplicable in the United States..-System in the Northern and East- ern American States...Proper System in the Southern States, on Lands now partly Grassed, and on Naked Soils. ..Green Manuring—how accomplished—Proper Plants for the purpose—Practical Rules—Expensive- ness..-Should the Pasture Lands of the South be exclusively devoted to Sheep Grazing ?—Should not... Home Demand should be supplied by Home Production, in the Staples furnished by all the Domestic Animals—Reasons therefor...As a surplus or exporting Animal Staple, Sheep furnish the one in which the South can best compete with other Producers. Dear Sir: Let us now pass to the second point in reference to which we are to consider the profits of sheep husbandry in the Southern States, viz.: the practicability and comparative economy of making it the basis of an effectual amelioration in soils naturally sterile, or those which have been rendered so by excessive and injudicious cultivation. The first of these classes of soils is confined, mainly, to the tide-water zone. ‘The second is found both in this and the hilly zone, and, I need not say, in immense quantities. How can these soils be profitably ameliorated ? It is certain that this can only be done by the introduction into them of substances fitted to be- come the food of plants—or which, by chemical combinations or changes, prepare other substances to become such food. On soils naturally too sterile to sustain useful vegetation, the quantity of fertilizing matter intro- duced must be comparatively large. Hence it must be cheap, or its cost will more than overbalance its advantages. There are various manures which separately, or in conjunction, would convert the worst acre of bar- ren sand between Richmond and Raleigh, or, if you please, on the Desert of Sahara, into a fertile garden, provided it could have timely rains and be protected from the burying sands. But it is utterly useless to argue the feasibility of this means or that, without at the same time examining its economy. The direct and profuse application of animal manures, for example, would probably effectually ameliorate any of these soils. But where are these manures to be obtained, in a region where the first necessary condi- tion for their production, 7. e. the vegetation necessary to support domes- tic animals, is wanting? The quantity accumulating in the cities and vil- lages of a comparatively sparsely populated region—in a climate where the preservation of putrefying substances would be incompatible with a SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 67 health, would be inconsiderable. And whether more or less, it would not pay the cost of transportation to any considerable distance by land car- riage. Guano, poudrette, bone-dust, and all the expensive manures of commerce, are still more out of the question. Gypsum, on account of the smallness of the quantity requisite, is a cheap manure, and, reasoning from analogy, should be a valuable one, under proper circumstances, at least on the granitic soils of the South.* Mr. Ruffin states that it produces little ef- fect in the Tertiary sands.t It is considered by practical men to be, at the best, rather an aider of organic manure than a substitute for it, and when repeatedly applied without any other fertilizing substance, it ceases to produce any visible effect. On an exhausted soil, the chemical consti- tution of gypsum shows that it could not replace a// the substances ab- stracted by the plants ; and on one naturally sterile, there is small proba- bility that it would happen to supply the only deficiency necessary to the production of vegetation. Wood ashes constitute a most valuable manure on probably every class of soils, and, unlike lime, gypsum, soda, etc., which afford only a limited number of those substances which constitute the necessary food of plants, they afford in a greater proportion than any other manure the inorganic substances which are taken up and assimilated by plants.t They are used with the most beneficial effect on the granitic soils of New-England, the calcareous and aluminous ones of Middle New York, the silicious ones of the southern or grazing region, and on the Ter- tiary sands of Long Island. On the latter, of the same geological forma- tion with your tide-water zone—in fact but a continuation of it—even the leached or washed ashes bring a shilling per bushel (the same that is paid for the unwashed ashes by the soaper and manufacturer of pearl or pot ashes) for agricultural purposes.|| But the supply cannot be made sufh- ciently large for extensive agricultural ameliorations, without a destruc- tion of the forests, which would inflict a grievous and utterly inexcusable wrong on posterity. The Southern Atlantic and Gulf States possess two natural and inex- haustible deposits of fertilizing matter, which, it is supposed by many, would be fully adequate to the general “‘ reclamation ”’§ of their barren and exhausted evils. The first of these is the marl, which underlies large por- tions of the low country of Virginia and South Carolina, and probably the *T refer here to the successful example of its use on the granitic soils of New-England. I have particu- larly specified this class of soils because your barren ones are limited to them and tothe Tertiary. Gypsum is used at the North on nearly every class of soils with advantage—calcareous, aluminous, silicious and all intermediate varieties. It will be found very valuable, I have no doubt, on your mountain lands, particu- larly in localities where the clovers flourish. ¢ Ruffin’s Agricultural Survey of South Carolina, 1843. { To show the value of ashes as the food of plants, and at the same time the difference between those made from different woods, I append the following analyses of those of two well-known southern trees. That of oak ashesis by Sprengel, that of pitch-pine ashes by Berthier: Constituents. | Oak. Pitch-Pine. Constituents. Oak. Pitch-Pine. Biliea + ve Steels ee 29-95 7-50 POmsives ssc st. seers 16-20 14-10 Alumina) s./.-32 <<. Sddavs 2.82822. eG 6-73 20-75 Oxide of [ron .-.... i 8-14 11-10 Sulphuric Acid ...... 3°36 3-45 Oxide of Manganese 2°75 Phosphoric Acid .--. 1-92 0-90 Times. = n= = $558,458 $759,646 $190,352 $754,441 | $1,553,789 | $1,107,305 BY lo eeote cere sins Exc’ding 7 cts.a lb. 801,087 1,004,312 54.695 97,019 136,005 26,921 Motalene = | $1,359.545 | $1,763,958 | $245,047 $851,460 | $1,689,794 | $1,134,226 It may be a matter of interest to know from what countries these wools were imported. The following Table} will give this information for the last fiscal year, (1846,) and will also give a general idea of our wool trade. TABLE No. 10. Wools not exceeding 7 cents Wools exceeding 7 cents WHENCE IMPORTED. per pound. per pound. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Pounds. Dollars. Pounds. | Pounds. Baeble se soa ce Sse Sew edere’- Hen sae mens 955,163 60,678 Hanse Towns. .-..----------+-------- 6,966 330 13,820 8,433 Holland? 22 2 562- Seen whic tccere acme ees 170 93 Dutch West Indies........--.0++s--- 10,774 556 Belgium.-.-...---------+-----+---+-- 7,177 248 1,407 775 Tirtelande 8 Se Sees RL 1,188,800 35,944 28,406 6,668 Scotland sve oH Soke cases cs cemeelee 21,132 1,382 Gibraltar. < scciciejejnn one inet e neneice Y= 207,006 12,339 Cape of Good Hope...-.------------- 83,662 6,810 British West Indies. ............---- 8.694 537 522 70 British American Colonies....-..--.-- 168,589. 9,543 39,346 4,562 TsO NIS AS BO EOS Oe SOR OR wileatee 84,799 5,424 396 40 SPAM. cece cweacewscac-veee ces aee 20,730 1,425 Melly soc e fms slclonte pieiaietcim=s ee ress 81,156 4,720 Trieste (Austria)..........-..-------- 111,981 8,151 Pegi. ele ect eta Ne eine wl coeieain ele 5,744,328 398,822 Morocco (Airica).. oo. afore. Snce= se a 72,816 4,554 Me mica te se eee ero -e Senta ote 425,148 26,984 TB 77 A pe ARE IS Pp Se Ca A 45, 215 3,083 Argentine Republic.............---- 4,295,659 327,572 43,831 6,011 GR eee Ses sb. We aes. 1,819,772 130,837 ; Ieee re ks 2S ace si ela ata ee aie tars 122,686 8,588 JAB EGBA Ell WA be Ae eee se 945,729 58,778 2,397 269 TROL ee ee 16,427,952 | 1,107,305 130,295 26,921 That the course of trade indicated bythe above Table, will, as has been already intimated, be materially affected by the New Tariff, I think there can be but little doubt. That of several of the places enumerated, too, has been, heretofore, merely a transit one. To the following letter from the most extensive, and concededly leading American woolen manufacturer, I would call your particular attention. Several of its declarations, placed in italics, by me, are highly significant. LowELt, Mass., Feb. 10, 1847. Henry S. RAnpDAut, Esq., Cortland Village, N. Y. My Dear Sir: Your very kind and interesting favor of the 27th ult. duly came to hand and should, if practicable, have received an earlier reply. The business of wool-growing in this country is destined to be of immense importance, and I am firm in the belief that within twenty-five years we shall produce a greater quantity than any other nation. * Compiled by me from Reports of the Secretary of the Treasury. + The fiscal year 1842 ended on the 30th of September. Since then, the returns of imports and exports have been made up to the 30th of June. This year, therefore, embraces the imports of nine months only, ending on June 30, 1843; and subsequent years end 30th of June, 1844, 1845, and so on. t Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1846, 4 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 125 You ask, ‘‘Is the present home demand supplied?” There is not enough annually raised in the country by 10,000,000 lbs. to meet the demand of the manufactones. You ask, ‘‘ What countries we can export wool to, &c.?’’ This country will not export wool regularly for fifteen years, for the reason that the consumption will increase as rapidly as the production. Ican point out articles made of wool now imported, which will require thirty millions of pounds of that of a medium and fine quality, to supply the consump- WON. oo arlene The business of manufacturing wool in this country is on a better basis than ever before, inasmuch as the character, skill and capital engaged in it are such that FOREIGN COMPETI- TION IS DEFIED. A very few years and all articles of wool used here will be of home manu- acture. i Now I beg of you to keep the wool-growers steady to the mark. Let them aim to excel in the blood and condition of their flocks, and the day is not distant when they will be amply remunerated. I shall always have great pleasure in hearing from you, and remain Yours most truly, SAM. LAWRENCE. Mr. Lawrence has certainly got the annual deficit of home wools low enough. Table 10 shows that it was upward of 16,000,000 lbs. during the last fiscal year, 1846. ‘This, of itself, is something of a margin for the South, or some other new domestic producer, to fill! Hitherto we have simply considered the amount of wool necessary to supply our manufactories. But these establishments fall very far short of working up all the wool consumed in the United States, even exclusive of home-made fabrics. The following Table* will show the value of the woolens imported for twenty-five years, up to and including 1845: TABLE No. 11. 1821.. $7,437,737|1826.. $8,431,974|1831. $12,627,229/1836. $21,080,003|1841. $11,001,939 1822...12,185,904/1827... 8,742,701/1832... 9,992,424)1837... 8,500,292)1842-.. 8,375,725 1823... 8,268,038)1828... 8,679,505/1833 ...13,262,509|1838--.11,512,920)1843_.. 2,472,154 1824... 8,386,597/1829... 6,881,489|1834...11,879,328)1839...18,575,945|1844... 9,475,762 1825...11,392,264/1830... 5,776,396/1835...17.834,424/1840... 9,071,184]1845...10,666,176 Here is another and still broader “margin” for both the American Wool-Grower and the American Manufacturer to fill! With a country well adapted to the production of wool as any the sun shines on—which, all things considered, can produce it more cheaply than any extended portion of any trans-Atlantic country—shall we continue to import raw wool ? Whether we should continue to import woolens is sufficiently answered by the last paragraph but one of Mr. Lawrence’s letter, fully sustained as the facts therein set forth are by those infallible tests—the dividends of our manufacturing establishments. The minimum of these, in well managed establishments, has already been stated to be about ten per centum per annum,t and in Mr. Lawrence’s own great establishment the dividend of: 1846 was fifteen per cent. Does any one suppose that the manufacturers of England, with all the advantage they can derive from cheaper labor {— (but with vastly higher prices for suitable sites and buildings—land taxes, parochial taxes, income taxes—freights and duties on imported wools, etc. etc.)\—do or can make dividends touching even the lowest rate above stated? They cannot.|| * Report of ie Secretary of the Treasury, 1845. t See Letter VII. t Though not directly advised on the point, [ take it for granted that the cost of machinery, also, is some- what less in England. : || It may be said that the two last-named expenses fall on the consumer. They doubtless would, but the English manufacturer has to compete with those of France and the United States, a much larger propor- tion of whose stock is of home growth—the latter entirely, in fine fabrics. The abrogation of the Corn-Laws will be of immense advantage to the English manufacturer, and enable him to better compete with other countries. But while the Bank of England ordinarily discounts paper at from 3 to 4 per cént., and while this is the common rate of interest in that country, it could not be expected that manufacturing capital would be allowed to draw 8 or 10, and much less 15 per cent. Such dividends, in a country whose uninvested capital, or that drawing so low a rate of interest, is so superabundant, would at once invite a competition which would speedily bring the profits of manufacturing capital down to a \evel with those of other commercial capital. We may, therefore conclude that no such dividends are made, 126 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Is it said that our manufacturing companies have often been com- pelled to suspend, or break up, even under laws as favorable to them as those now in operation? The reason for this is too pointedly and perti- nently stated by Mr. Lawrence to require any addition at my hands, in the following extract from a letter to me, bearing date April 13, 1847; and it will be seen in the concluding sentence that the bold and manly decla- rations of his preceding letter were not the result of a casual or momentary, confidence, but are deliberately reasserted : “ The manufacture of wool has often been disastrous to parties who have embarked in it for many reasons, two of which are suflicient—a want of capital and a want of skill. These difficulties are being obviated. Capitalists are more ready to embark under certain auspices, and the amount of skill is very fast mcreasing, so that this branch is on a footing not to be moved.” Undisturbed by those changes of vacillating legislation, or those move- ments in the National Legislature pointing to such changes—at one time enormously pampering the manufacturing interest, and leading to over- action and rash adventure—at another, threatening it with disaster and utter subversion—our manufacturers will steadily, nay, rapidly advance. If Now LET ALONE, they will soon not only ‘defy foreign competition’ in the home market, but there is not a single good reason to prevent them from defying it in the great and opening market of South America, and even in the Old World. Some evils or errors in commercial legislation are less to be deprecated than constant changes. The present Tariff, so far as it affects wool and woolens, is the result of a compromise of inter- ests. It may not be perfect in principle or detail. But it does not seem to flagrantly favor or oppress any interest. I speak not in the spirit of a politician, or of the representative of an interest or section, when I express the hope that no change will be made or attempted in this portion of the Tariff, until the lapse of years shall bring about other changes requirmg it, or until ample experience shall clearly call for a revision of the system. I have spoken of two “margins” to be filled by the American wool- rower—the present deficit in supplying our own manufactories, and sec- ondly, the prospective one, as our manufactures increase, so as to overtake and then keep pace with the consumption of an increasing population. The demands of our manufactories will advance part passu with the pro duction, Mr. Lawrence predicts, for at least fifteen years. Why not fox fifty, or a hundred! Letus glance at the prospective consumption, and see if, independent of exportations, it is likely to require any curbs or limits to be placed on production or manufacture. In the debates in Congress on the Tariff in 1828-9, Mr. Mallary esti mated the consumption of woolens in our country at $72,000,000 per ann. ;—$10,000,000 imported ; $22,000,000 manufactured ; $40,000,000 home-made. The Committee of the “ Friends of Domestic Industry,” who met in New-York in 1831, reported that the proportion between the amount of wool worked up in factories to that in families was as 3 to 2; that the entire annual product of wool and its manufactures in the U. 8. was $40,000,000. These are the only accessible published estimates which now occur to me. The Census of 1840 shows that the value of woolens made in our manu- factories in 1839, was $20,696,999. The import of foreign woolens the same year was $18,575,945, and of raw wool* $1,359,445. It should be remarked, however, that the import of woolens is considerably higher than that of any year before or since. Taking the average of the same three * Taking the average product of 1837-8-9, asin Table 9. The separate import of 1839 is not before me. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 127 years for which the import of the raw wool is given,* (1837—8-9,) it would reach but $12,863,051. If we suppose the consumption to equal the sup- ply, this would give $33,560,050 as the value of the fuctory-made woolens consumed in the United States in 1839. I confess I have no data other than conjectural ones, to determine the amount of the home-made manufactures for that or any other year ; nor do I know that any other person has, or can, have such information. The United States Census, singularly enough does not include this as a separate item. It strikes me, however, that Mr. Mallary’s estimate is too high, and that of the Report of the “ Friends of Domestic Industry ” too low. The proportion of home-made to factory woolens is, no doubt, annually decreasing, for reasons already stated ;+ but as far back as 1839, it would perhaps be a fair estimate to set them down as even. This would give $67,120,100 as the value of the woolens con- sumed by a population of 17,069,453, or nearly $4 per head. Allowing that every dollar in the manufactured article would represent one pound of stock, or raw wool—and taking slave-cloths, blankets, carpets, coarse home-made fabrics, factory plains, etc., all into account, a dollar is an am- ple sum to offset against every pound of the raw material—it follows that our whole population annually consume four pounds of wool per head. Judge Beatty of Kentucky, in an estimate published originally in the American Agriculturist, which has been much quoted, sets down the con- sumption as about 6 lbs. per head. An ordinary Northern farmer or la- borer, in comfortable circumstances, will consume about 20 lbs. per an- num ;{ the poorer one not far from 15 lbs.; a boy of 8 years old, full 4 lbs. ; a girl of that age (in the country, where females are dressed in woolens,) something more than half of that amount. In the cities and villages there is a large class whose consumption for dress ranges from 30 to 40 and even 50 lbs., and, including carpets, much more. A Southern slave consumes from 8 to 10 lbs. Four pounds, therefore, would not seem to be a high es- timate, per head, for our whole population. Let us now take a glance at the increase of population in the United States. The six different Censuses give the following results : TABLE 12. WoO apulationy seses shee sees 3,929,827 11820; Population sc .ifs- 2.80... 9,638,191 1800, SERN eh Gas Oa 5,305,941 | 1830, 2 eter peyate tu ee eae 12,866,020 1810, BA MGs th part of an inch in diameter.” By consulting Doct. Emmons’s preceding statements, it will be seen that the wool of my prize ram “ Pre- mium” is only about z,'goth of an inch in diameter! This forcibly shows the improvement which has been made on the Merino wool of Spain in the United States. “The Merino, though the native of a warm climate, becomes readily in- ured to the greatest extremes of cold, flourishing as far north as Sweden, without degenerating in fleece or form. It is a patient, docile animal, bear- ing much confinement without injury to health, and possesses none of that peculiar ‘ voraciousness of appetite,’ ascribed to it by English writers.*— Accurately conducted experiments have shown that it consumes” a. little over “two pounds of hay per diem, in winter; the Leicester consumes from three and a half to four; and the common wooled American sheep would not probably fall short of three. The mutton of the Merino, in spite of the prejudice which exists on the subject, is short grained and of good flavor, when killed at a proper age,” and weighs from ten to fourteen pounds to to the quarter. “ It is remarkable for its longevity, retaining its teeth and continuing to breed two or three years longer than the common sheep,” and at least half a dozen years longer than the improved English Breeds; “ but it should be remarked in connection with this fact, that it is corres. pondingly slow in arriving at maturity. It does not attain its full growth before three years old, and the ewes in the best managed flocks, are rarely permitted to breed before they reach that age.” The Merino is a far better breeder than any other fine-wooled sheep, and my experience goes to show that its lambs, when newly dropped, are hardier than the Bakewell, and equally so with the high bred South- Down. The ewe is not so good a nurse, however, as the latter, and will not usually do full justice to more than one lamb. LHighty or ninety per cent. is about the ordinary number of lambs usually reared, though it often reaches one hundred per cent. in carefully managed or small flocks. “We have already adverted to the cross between the Merino and the native sheep. On the introduction of the Saxon family of the Merinos, they were universally engrafted on the parent stock, and the cross was contin- ued until the Spanish blood was nearly bred out.” When the admixture took place with judiciously selected Saxons, it resulted not unfavor- ably for certain purposes. But unfortunately these instances of judicious crossing were rare. Our country was flooded by eager speculators, with the feeblest and least hardy Merinos of Germany. Fineness of wool during _*Youatt, p. 149, SS) 138 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. the period of this strange excitement, was made the only test of excellence, no matter how scanty its quantity, no matter how diminutive or miserable the carcass. Governed by such views, the holders of most of our Merino flocks purchased these over-delicate Saxons, and the consequence was as might have been foreseen—their flocks were ruined.” ate = FoWLaND oa SAXON RAM Saxons.— In the year 1765, Augustus Frederick, Elector of Saxony, ob- tained permission from the Spanish Court to import two hundred Merinos, selected from the choicest flocks of Spain. They were chosen principally from the Escurial flock, and on their arrival in Saxony, were placed on a private estate belonging to the Elector, under the care of Spanish shepherds. So much importance was attached to the experiment, as it was then con- sidered, that a commission was appointed to superintend the affairs of the establishment; and it was made its duty to diffuse information in relation to the management of the new breed ; to dispose of the surplus rams at prices which would place them within the reach of all holders of sheep ; and finally, by explaining the superior value of the Merinos, to induce the Saxon farmers to cross them with their native breeds. Popular preju- dice, however, was strong against them, and this was hightened by the rava- ges of the scab, which had been introduced with them from Spain, and which proved very destructive before it was finally eradicated. But when it became apparent that the Merino, so far from degenerating, had im- ' proved” in the quality of its wool, in Saxony, “‘ the wise and patriotic efforts of the Elector began to reap their merited success, and a revolution took place in popular sentiment. The call for rams became so great that the Government resolved on a new importation, to enable them more effec- tually to meet it, and to improve still farther the stock already obtained. For this purpose an individual, considered one of the best judges of sheep in Saxony, was dispatched to Spain in 1777, with orders to select three hun- dred. Forsome reason, probably because he experienced difficulty in obtain- ing greater number presenting all the qualifications he sought, he return- SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH: 139 es ha 3 MAR eee ro et ed with but one undred and ten. They were from nearly all the different flocks of Spain, but principally the Escurial—and were considered decided- ly superior to the first importation. In addition to the establishment at Stolpen, already founded, others were now commenced at Rennersdorf, Lohmen, &c.; schools were established for the education of shepherds ; publications were distributed by. the commissioners. to throw information on the subject before the people; and the Crown tenants, it is said, were each required to purchase a certain number of the sheep.” Mr, Spooner* states that there are two distinct breeds of the Saxon Me- rino sheep, the first “ having stouter legs, stouter bodies, head and neck com- paratively short and broad, body round, The wool grows most on the face and legs—the grease in the wool is almost pitchy.” The other breed call- ed Escurial have longer legs, with a long, spare neck and head, with very little wool on the latter, and a finer, shorter and softer character in its fleece, but less in quantity. The fleece in the Escurial averages from one and a half to two pounds in ewes, and two to three pounds in rams and. wethers, while in the others it is from two and a quarter to three and a quarter in ewes, and from four to six pounds in ram and wethers. These varieties cannot be amalgamated successfully. ' The preceding portrait is a favorable specimen of the Escurial Saxon, copied from a cut, after a drawing by Harvey, in Mr. Spooner’s work. - That the German. shepherds have sacrificed the hardiness of the Merino, and indeed almost everything else, for fineness of staple, there can be but little doubt. Their method of managing the sheep and its effects are thus described by Mr. Carr, a large sheep-owner of Germany :t “They are always housed at night, even in summer, except in the very finest weather, when they are sometimes folded in the distant fallows, but never taken to pasture until the dew is off the grass. In the winter they are kept within doors altogether, and are fed witha small quantity of sound hay, and every variety of straw, which has not suffered from wet, and which is varied at each feed; they pick it over carefully, eating the finer parts, and any grain that may have been left by the threshers. Abundance of good water to drink, and rock- salt in their cribs, are indispensables. . ... . They cannot thrive in a damp climate, and it is quite necessary that they should have a wide range of dry and hilly pasture of short and not over-nutritious herbage. If allowed to feed on swampy or marshy ground, even once or twice, in autumn, they are sure to die of liver complaint in the following spring. If they are permitted to eat wet grass, or exposed frequently to rain, they disappear by hundreds with consumption. In these countries it is found the higher bred the sheep is, especially the Escurial, the more tender !”’ Such are the common views of the sheep, and their treatment over Germany, Prussia, and Austria. Various statements of the methods adopt- ed by Baron Geisler, Graf Hunyadi, and other eminent flockmasters, will be found in Dr. Bright’s Travels in Lower Hungary, Paget’s Travels in Hungary and Transylvania, Jacob’s Travels in Germany, &c. The qualities of the Saxons as breeders and nurses, may be inferred _ from the following regulations, for the management of his flock, by Baron Geisler.t “ During the lambing period, a shepherd should be constantly day and night in the cote, in order that he may place the lamb, a soon as it is cleaned, together with its mother, in a separate pen, which has been before prepared. The ewes which have lambed should, during a week, be driven neither to water or pasture; but low troughs of water for this pur- pose are to be introduced into each partition, in order that they may easily and at all times quench their thirst. It is also very useful to put a small quantity of barley-meal into the water, for by this means the quantity of the ewe’s milk is much increased. When the lambs are-so strong that they can eat, they are to be separated by degrees from their mothers, and fed with the best and finest oats, being suffered at first to go to them but three times a day, early in the morning, at mid-day, and in the evening, and so to continue till they can travel to pasture, and fully satisfy themselves.” * Spooner, p. 57. + Quoted by. Spooner, p. 58. ft IJbid., p. 59. 149 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. The following history of the introduction of the Saxons into the United States, was compiled by me from written memoranda, and the oral state- ments of Mr. Grove, submitted to the Committee of New-York State Ag- ricultural Society, already alluded to, of which I was Chairman, and was published in my Report, credited, of course, to Mr. Grove individually, as no other member of the Committee was conversant with the facts nar- rated.* “ The first importation of Saxony sheep into the United States was made by Mr. Samuel Henshaw, a merchant of Boston, at the instance of Col. James Shepherd, of Northampton. They were but six or seven in number. In 1824, Messrs. G. & T. Searle, of Boston, import- ed 77 Saxon sheep. They were selected and purchased by a Mr. Kretchman, a correspond- ent of the above firm, residing in Leipsic, and shipped at Bremen on board the American schooner Velocity. I was engaged to take charge of the sheep on the passage, and I also shipped six on my own account. Iam sorry to say that as many as one-third of the sheep ae by Kretchman, (who shared profit and loss in the undertaking,) were not pure- blooded sheep. The cargo were sold at auction at Brooklyn, as ‘ pure-blooded electoral Sax- ons,’ and thus unfortunately in the very outset the pure and impure became irrevocably mix- ed. But I feel the greatest certainty that the Messrs. Searle intended to import none but the pure stock—the fault lay with Kretchman. In the fall of 1824, I entered into an arrange- ment with the Messrs. Searle to return to Saxony, and purchase in connection with Kretch- man, from 160 to 200 Electoral sheep. I was detained at sea seven weeks, which gave rise to the belief that I was shipwrecked and lost. When I finally arrived, the sheep had been al- ready bought by Kretchman. On being informed of what the purchase consisted, I protested against taking them to America, and insisted on a better selection, but to no purpose. A quarrel ensued between us, and Kretchman even went so far as to engage another to take charge of the sheep on their passage. My friends interposing, I was finally induced to take charge of them. The number shipped was 167, 15 of which perished on the passage. They were sold at Brighton, some of them going as high as from $400 to $450. A portion of this importation consisted of grade sheep, which sold as high as the pure-bloods, for the Ameri- can purchasers could not know the difference. It may be readily imagined what an induce- ment the Brighton sale held out to speculation, both in this country and Saxony. The Ger- man newspapers teemed with advertisements of sheep for sale, headed ‘ Good for the Ameri- can Market;’ and these sheep, in many instances, were actually bought up for the American market at five, eight or ten dollars a head, when the pure-bloods could not be purchased at from less than $30 to $40. In 1836, Messrs. Searle imported three cargoes, amounting in the ag- gregate to513 sheep, They were of about the same character with their prior importations, in the main good, but mixed with some grade sheep. On the same year a cargo of 221 arrived, on German account, Emil Bach, of Leipsic, supercargo. A few were good sheep and of pure blood ; but taken as a lot they were miserable. The owners sunk about $3,000. Next came acargo of 210 on German account; Wasmuss and Multer, owners. The whole cost of these was about $1,125, in Germany. With the exception of a small number, procured to make a flourish on, in their advertisements of sale they were sheep having no pretensions to purity of blood. In 1827, the same individuals brought out another cargo. These were selected exclusively from grade flocks of low character. On the same year the Messrs. Searle made their last importation, consisting of 182 sheep. Of these I know little. My friends in Ger- many wrote me that they were like their other importations, a mixture of pure and impure blooded sheep. It is due, however, to the Messrs. Seale to say that, as a whole, their im- portations were much better than any other made into Boston. “T will now turn your attention to the importations made into other ports. In 1825, 13 Saxons arrived in Portsmouth. They were miserable creatures. In 1826, 191 sheep arrived in New-York, per brig William, on German account. A portion of these were well descend- ed and valuable animals, the rest were grade sheep. In June the same year, the brig Lou- isa brought out 173 on German account. Not more than one-third of them had the least pre- tensions to purity of blood. Next we find 158, shipped at Bremen, on German account.— Some were diseased before they left Bremen, and I am happy to state that twenty-two died before their arrival in New-York. All I intend to say of them is, that they were a most cu- rious and motley mess of wretched animals. The next cargo imported arrived in the brig Maria Elizabeth, under my own care. They were 165 in number, belonging to myself and F. Gebhard, of New-York. These sheep cost me $65 a head when landed in New-York.— They sold at an average of $50 a head, thus sinking about $2,400! I need not say that they were exclusively of pure blood. A cargo of 81 arrived soon after, but I know nothing of their quality. The next importation consisted of 184, on German account, per brig Warren. With a few exceptions they were pure-blooded and good sheep. We next have an importa- tion of 200 by the Bremen ship Louisa. They were commonly called the ‘ stop sale sheep. * Mr. Morrel in his American Shepherd, quotes this as a “ Report” drawn and read by Mr. Grove, (one is left to infer,) before the New-York State Agricultural Society. ‘This is doubtless an inadvertance. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 141 They were of the most miserable character, some of them being hardly half-grade sheep.— The ship Phebe Ann brought 120 sheep, of which I know little; and 60 were landed at Philadelphia, with the character of which I am unacquainted. Having determined to settle in America, I returned to Saxony, and spent the winter of 1826-7 in visiting and examining many flocks. I selected 115 from the celebrated flock of Machern, embarked on board the ship Albion, and landed in New-York June 27, 1827. In 1828, I received 80 more from the same flock, selected by a friend of mine, an excellent judge of sheep. I first drove them to Shaftsbury, adjoining the town of Hosic, where I now reside. On their arrival they stood me in $70 a head, and the lambs half that sum.’’ “Tt will be inferred from the facts above stated that there are few Sax- on flocks in the United States that have not been reduced to the quality of grade sheep, by the promiscuous admixture of the pure and the impure which were imported together, and a// sold to our breeders as pure stock.” And independent of this, there are but exceedingly few flocks which have not been again crossed with the Native or Merino sheep of our coun- try, or both. Those who early purchased the Merino, crossed them with the Native; and, when the Saxons arrived, these mongrels were bred to Saxon rams. This is the history of probably three-quarters of the “Sax- on” flocks of the United States, and among them some, as I know, among the most celebrated. As these sheep have now so long been bred toward the Saxon that their wool equals that of the pure-bloods, it is exceedingly problematical in my mind whether they are any worse for the admixture : when crossed only with the Merino, it is undoubtedly to their advantage. Though I once thought differently, experience has satisfied me that the American Saxon, with these early crosses in its pedigree, is a hardier and more easily kept animal than the pure Escurial or Electoral Saxon. As with the Merino, climate, feed, and other causes, have doubtless conspired to add to their size and vigor; but, after all, I have not a doubt they usually owe more of it to those early crosses. The fleeces of the American Saxons weigh, on the average, from 2 or 2} to 3 lbs. They are, comparatively speaking, a tender sheep, requiring regular supplies of good food, good shelter in winter, and protection in cool weather from storms of all kinds ; but they are evidently hardier than the parent German stock. In docility and patience under confinement, late maturity, and longevity, they resemble the Merinos, from which they are descended ; though they do not mature so early as the Merino, nor ordinarily live so long. They are poorer nurses; their lambs smaller, fee- bler, and far more likely to perish, unless sheltered and carefully watched. They do not fatten so well, and, being considerably lighter, they consume an amount of food correspondingly less. Taken together, the American Saxons bear a much finer wool than the American Merinos; but Dr. Emmons’s measurements show that this is not always the case, and many breeders of Saxons are now crossing with the Merino, in the expectation of increasing the weight of their fleeces without deteriorating its quality.* Though I am in possession of wool from Saxons in Connecticut and Ohio, which compares well with the higher grades uf German wool,t and though there are doubtless other flocks of equal quality in the country,t our Saxon wool, as a whole, falls considerably below that of Germany ; and I never have seen a single lock of the American equaling some samples, given me by a friend recently * Mr. Lawrence believes this practicable, and Mr. Morre] and various other Saxon breeders have for some time bred in this way. t Fully equaling, and, I think, better than some German wool I recently saw, which, all expenses in- cluded, stood the purchaser in $1 60 per pound! { Dr. Emmons stated, subsequently to his measurements above, that he had received wool from the flock of Dr. Beekman, considerably finer than the Saxon wool figured. 142 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. | from Europe, which came from Styria, south of Vienna, in Austria. The inferiority of the American to the German wool is not due to climate or other natural causes, nor is it owing to a want of skill on the part of our breeders. It is owing to the fact that but a very few of our manufactur- ers have ever felt willing to make that discrimination in prices which would render it profitable to breed those small and delicate animals which _pro- duce this exquisite quality of wool. No American breeder thinks of hous- ing his sheep from the summer rains and dew, or observing any of the hot- house regulations—at least in the summer—of Graf Hunyadi, or Baron Geisler! If he did, his wool would not probably pay ha/f of its first cost. When our manufacturers wish to find these wools in the home market, they must learn to pay for them in the home market as liberally as they are compelled to to obtain them in foreign ones! THE NEW LEICESTER, OR BAKEWELL. The portrait above is copied from one of a sheep of this variety, belong- ing to the Duke of Bedford, given in Mr. Youatt’s work on Sheep. “The unimproved Leicester was a ‘ large, heavy, coarse-wooled breed’ of sheep, inhabiting the midland counties of England. It is described also as having been ‘a slow feeder, and its flesh coarse-grained, and with little flavor.” The breeders of that period regarded only size and weight of fleece. The celebrated Mr. Bakewell, of Dishley, was the first who adopt- ed a system more in accordance with the true principles of breeding. He selected from the flocks about him those sheep ‘whose shape possessed the peculiarities which he considered would produce the largest propor- tion of valuable meat, and offal,’ and having observed that animals of me- dium size possess a greater aptitude to take on flesh, and consume less food than those which are larger, and that prime fattening qualities are rarely found in sheep carrying a great weight of wool, he gave the prefer- ence to those of smaller size, and was satisfied with lighter fleeces.” To reach the wonderful results obtained by Mr. Bakewell, it was supposed that he resorted to a cross with some other varieties, but it is believed by some that he owed his success only to a judicious principle of selection, and a steady adherence to certain principles of breeding. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 143 It is exceedingly unfortunate that this eminent breeder has left us so much in the dark in relation to those principles of breeding, adopted by him, which led to such signal success in his efforts to improve both the cattle and sheep of the region in England in which he resided. All of his measures were veiled in impenetrable secrecy even from his most intimate friends, and he died without voluntarily throwing the least light on the subject. The whole inception and management of his famous “ Dishley Society’* betrays selfishness the most intense, and, in plain English, mean- ness the most unalloyed. Should a man claiming to be a gentleman, in this country, make valuable discoveries in breeding, or in any other de- partment of husbandry, and closely conceal them from the public, his con- duct would meet with universal reprehension and contempt ;t yet the thing seems to be considered a matter of course, or is at least passed over with- out censure, in Youatt, Spooner, Bischoff, and a host of earlier writers, all of whom laud Mr. Bakewell to the echo! “The improved Leicester is of large size, but somewhat smaller than the original stock, and in this respect falls considerably below the coarser varieties of Cotswold, Lincoln, &c. Where there is a sufficiency of feed, the New Leicester is unrivaled for its fattening properties, but it will not bear hard stocking, nor must it be compelled to travel far in search of its food. It is, in fact, properly and exclusively a lowland sheep. In its ap- propriate situation, on the luxuriant herbage of the highly cultivated lands of England, it possesses unrivaled earliness of maturity ; and its mutton, when not too fat, is of a good quality, but is usually coarse, and compara- tively deficient in flavor, owing to that unnatural state of fatness which it so readily assumes, and which the breeder, to gain weight, so generally feeds for. The wethers, having reached their second year, are turned off in the succeeding February or March, and weigh at that age from thirty to thirty-five pounds to the quarter. The wool of the New Leicester is long—averaging, after the first shearing, about six inches; and the fleece of the American animal weighs about six pounds. It is of coarse quality, and little used in the manufacture of cloths, on account of its length, and that deficiency of felting properties common, in a greater or less extent, to all the English breeds. As a combing wool, however, it stands first, and is used in the manufacture of the finest worsteds, &c. “ The high bred Leicesters of Mr. Bakewell’s stock became shy breed- ers and poor nurses, but crosses subsequently adopted ” have, to some ex- tent, obviated these defects. So far as my experience has extended in this country, however, the lambs are not very hardy, and require considerable attention at the time of yeaning, particularly if the weather is even moder- ately cold or stormy. Neither can the grown sheep be considered, in my opinion, very hardy. They are much affected by sudden changes in the weather, and a sudden change to cold is pretty sure to be registered on their noses by unmistakable indications of catarrh or ‘ snuffles.’ “In England, where mutton is generally eaten by the laboring classes, the meat of this variety is in very great demand; and the consequent re- turn which a sheep possessing such fine feeding qualities is enabled to make, renders it a general favorite with the breeder. Instances are re- corded of the most extraordinary prices having been paid for these ani- * For the Regulations of this Society, see Youatt, p. 317. t Of course I do not include in this category those nameless venders of recipes for killing Canada This- fles, rate, &c. &c.; and men who spend their time and property in inventing improved implements, etc., are entitled to the pay offered by the Patent laws. But, among our agriculturists of standing, who has ever known of a single instance of a valuable discovery in the operations of husbandry being concealed or with- held from the public?) Who has known a breeder of rank wheedle a partner out of one-half of a valuable bull, and then refuse the quondam partner the services of that bull at any price, lest he should prove a dangerous rival in breeding? Yet, what English writer has expressed any contempt for such meanness ? These things would not “ go down” among us “ repudiators” ! : 144 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Soe a a es EEE eee mals, and Mr. Bakewell’s celebrated buck “Two Pounder” was let for the enormous price of four hundred guineas fora single season! The. New Leicester has spread into all parts of the British Dominions, and been imported into the other countries of Europe and the United States. They were first introduced into our own country by the late Christopher Dunn, Esq., of Albany, about twenty-five years since.* Subsequent import- ations have been made by Mr. Powel, of Philadelphia, and various other gentlemen.” It is no more than justice to say that this breed has never proved a fa- vorite with any large class of American farmers. Our long, cold winters, but more especially our dry, scorching summers, when it is often difficult to obtain the rich, green, tender feed in which the Leicester delights—the general want of green feed in the winter, robs it of its early maturity, and even of the ultimate size which it attains in England. Its mutton is too fat, and the fat and lean are too little intermixed, to suit American taste. Its wool is not very salable, from the much to be regretted dearth of worsted manufactories in our country. Its early decay and loss of wool constitute an objection to it, in a country where it is often so difficult to advantageously turn off sheep, particularly ewes. But, notwithstanding all these disadvantages, on rich lowland farms, in the vicinities of consid- erable markets, it will always probably make a profitable return. The following description of what constitutes the desirable characterist- ics of this breed, is from the pen of Mr. Youatt :t “The head should be hornless, long, small, tapering toward the muzzle, and projecting horizontally forward. The eyes prominent, but with a quiet expression. The ears thin, rather long, and directed backward. The neck full and broad at its base, where it proceeds from the chest, so that there is, with the slightest possible deviation, one continued horizon- tal line from the rump to the poll. The breast broad and full; the shoulders also broad and round, and no uneven or angular formation where the shoulders join either the neck or the back—particularly no rising of the withers, or hollow behind the situation of these bones.— The arm fleshy through its whole extent, and even down to the knee. The bones of the leg small, standing wide apart; no looseness of skin about them, and comparatively bare of wool. The chest and barrel at once deep and round; the ribs forming a considerable arch from the spine, so as in some cases, and especially when the animal is in good condition, to make the apparent width of the chest even greater than the depth. The barrel ribbed well home ; no irregularity of line on the back or belly, but on the sides; the carcass very grad- ually diminishing in width toward the ramp. The quarters long and full, and, as with the fore legs, the muscles extending down to the hock ; the thighs also wide and full. The legs of a moderate length; the pelt also moderately thin, but soft and elastic, and covered with a good quantity of white wool—not so long as in some breeds, but considerably finer.” Tue Sours-Down.—“ This breed of sheep has existed for several centu- ries in England, on a range of chalky hills called the South Downs. They were, as recently as 1776, small in size, and of a form not superior to the common wooled sheep of the United States. Since that period, a course of judicious breeding, pursued by one man (Mr. Ellman, of Glynde, in Sussex), has mainly contributed to raise this variety to its present high degree of per- fection, and that, too, without the admixture of the slightest degree of foreign blood. In our remarks on this breed of sheep, it will be understood that we speak of the pure improved family, as the original stock, presenting, with trifling modifications, the same characteristics which they exhibited sixty years since, are yet to be found in England—and as the middle space is occupied by a variety of grades, rising or falling in value, as they approximate to or recede from the improved blood. “ The South-Down is an upland sheep, of medium size, and its wool, which in point of Jength belongs to the middle class,” has been estimated to rank with half-blood Merino, and was so estimated in my Report, quo- = Now about 35 years since. t Youatt on Sheep, p. 110. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 145 ae an nee tations from which constitute so large a portion of this Letter. But both subsequent experience, and information derived from other sources, have convinced me of the erroneousness of this opinion. South-Down wool is HOWLAND. KZ Nav Vie. oh : hie —= eae x S A ” SOUTH-DOWN RAM. essentially different from Merino wool of any grade, though the fibre in some of the finest fleeces may be of the same apparent fineness with half or one-quarter blood Merino. The following cut from Youatt,* gives the microscopic appearance, says that gentleman, of a “prime specimen of picklock South-Down wool,” 1 being viewed as a transparent, and 2 as an opaque object.” The fibre is =45th part of an inch in diameter. The cups or leaves of 2 ‘are roughened irregular, and some of the leaves have ex- ceedingly short angles,” but they are far sharper, more numerous and regular (the points which give wool its felting property) than in ordinary South-Down wool. In the latter, the cups are rounded and have a “ rhomboidal”’ in- stead of that sharp and “hooked” character which distinguishes the Me- rino and Saxon. South-Down wool is deficient in felting properties. It makes a “ furzy, hairy ” cloth, and is no longer used in England, unless largely admixed with foreign wool, even for the lowest class of cloths. The following testimony was given by some of the most eminent manu- facturers, wool-factors, staplers, and merchants of England, before the Committee of the House of Lords in 1828, several times previously al- luded to : t * Youatt, p. 236, + See Bischoff, oT pp. 145 to 155. 146 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Mr. Cuartes Butt, wool agent, Lewes.—‘ Formerly it [South-Down wool] was used for clothing purposes; now it is impossible to sell it for that manufacture; . . . . it is used for baizes and flannels in a very large way.” Mr. Wittiam Cunnineton, wool-stapler, Wiltshire.—‘‘ The public will not wear the South-Down cloths, they are so very coarse.” Mr. James Fison, wool dealer, Thetford.—‘ There has been deterioration in the quality of (South-Down) wool; the general weight of the fleece 20 years ago was 2 pounds to 24, and it is now 3 pounds to 34, our wool used to be made into cloths, and returned into Nor- folk, and used by myself and the agriculturists. We do not get the same cloth now ; neither myself nor the farmer would wear it, because of the deterioration of quality.” Mr. James Hussarp, wool agent, Leeds.—South-Down wool is not ‘“‘now employed for the purpose of making cloth; it has been forced down two or three steps in the scale of wool, and is now used for flannels and baize.... . The wool gets more frothy and open, and in manufacturing it does not felt and improve so well; it works more flannely.” .... Mr. Joun Brooke, manufacturer, Howley.—‘‘ Manufacture principally blue cloths from 7s. to 24s. and 25s. per yard, and also narrow cloths. ... . Had the Duke of Norfolk’s wool, Mr. Ellman, junior’s, clip from 1817 and 1822, and Mr. Ellman, senior’s, from 1817 to 1821... .. Kept to English wool longer than any house in the neighborhood... . . Ceased to manufac- ture it entirely in 1823 or 1824,.... found our neighbors were sending out better cloths than we were, not only at the same price, but better manufactured cloths, and we lost our cus- tomers.” Mr. Bensamtn Gott, merchant and manufacturer, Leeds.—“ I formerly used 150 packs of English wool weekly; the disuse of English wool was gradual, commencing about the year 1819, continuing to 1823 and 1824, about which time I began to manufacture exclu- sively from foreign wool. The disuse of English wool arose from the quality and the ad- vantage of using foreign wool compared with our own. I could not now make an article which would be merchantable at all for the foreign market, (that remark applies equally to the home trade,) in certain descriptions of cloth, except of foreign wool.” . . . These wools (the domestic and foreign,) ‘‘ have different properties.” Mr. WittiamM Iretanp, Blackwell Hall factor, London.—‘‘ We have been using English wool for second and livery cloths, but recently they have been so very much lowered in quality we have not been able to make use of them at all, and have been obliged to make use of low German and low Spanish wools for that purpose.” Mr. J. Surctirre, wool-stapler, Huddersfield_—‘‘ South-Down wool was formerly ap- plied for making cloth for home consumption regularly, for the clothing of servants, &e. It was also used for army clothing. It is now no longer used for those purposes. It makes a furzy, soft, hairy piece; it has not that fastness in it that foreign wool has.” Many other individuals testify to the same effect, and the extremely low character of South-Down wool for carding purposes may be regarded as definitely settled. But as it has deteriorated it has increased in length of staple in England, and to such an extent that improved machinery enables .itto be used as a combing wool—for the manufacture of worsteds. Where this has taken place it is quite as profitable, in England, as when it was finer and shorter. In the United States, where the demand for combing- wool is so small that it is easily met by a better article, perhaps thi would not be the case. And it may be problematical whether the proper combing length will be easily reached, or at least maintained in this coun- try, in the absence of that high feeding system which has undoubtedly given the wool its increased length in England.* The average weight of fleece in the hill-fed sheep is 3 Ibs.; on rich lowlands a little more. Mr. John Ellman, Jr., testified before the Com- mittee of the House of Lords that he was then “ keeping his sheep better than formerly—fattening them, which rendered the fleece heavier—that they then averaged about 3 lbs. of wool.” t “ But the Down is cultivated more particularly for its mutton, which for quality takes precedence of all other” (from sheep of good size) “in the English markets. Its early maturity and extreme aptitude to lay on flesh, render it peculiarly valuable for this purpose. The Down is turned off at two years old, and its weight at that age is, in England, from 80 to 100 Ibs. High fed wethers have reached * Nearly or quite every individual who testifies to the deterioration and increased length of the South- Down wool before the Lord’s Committee, assign this as the cause of the change. t Bischoff, vol. ii., p. 137. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 147 from 32 to even 40 lbs. a quarter! Notwithstanding its weight, the Down has, in the language of Mr. Youatt, a patience of occasional short keep, and an endurance of hard stocking, equal to any other sheep. This gives it a decided advantage over the bulkier Leicester, Lincolns, &c., as a mutton sheep, in hilly districts and those producing short and scanty herbage. It is hardy and healthy, though in common with the other Eng- lish varieties much subject to the catarrh or “snuffles,” and no sheep bet- ter withstands our American winters. The ewes are prolific breeders and good nursers. The Down is quiet and docile in its habits, and though an industrious feeder, exhibiting little disposition to rove.” Like the Leices- ter, it is comparatively a short-lived animal, and the fleece continues to decrease in weight after it reaches maturity. It crosses better with short and middle wooled breeds than the Leicester. ‘“ A sheep possessing’such qualities must of course be valuable in upland districts in the vicinity of markets. They have been introduced into every part of the British Do- minions, and imported into various other countries. The Emperor of Russia paid Mr. Ellman three hundred guineas for two rams, and in 1800 ‘a ram belonging to the Duke of Bedford, was let for one season at eighty guineas, two others at forty guineas each, and four more at twenty-eight guineas each.’ These valuable sheep were introduced into the United States a few years since by Col. J. H. Powell, of Philadelphia, and a small number was imported by one of the members of this Committee in 1834. The last were from the flock of Mr. Ellman, at a cost of $60 ahead. Sev- eral other importations have since taken place.” The ram and ewe, the portraits of which are given, are the descendants of the importation of Francis Rotch, Esq., alluded to in the preceding paragraph. They are most spirited likenesses, and were kindly furnished me by that gentleman, to accompany this Letter. They are exceedingly <4. oy SS id = = = ‘ ———— = (eee & 4; (iY Yas ih Sf \ ( ( ee ‘ ‘\ < f a Sy 136 4 R ane : Sau Se ay 3} . ni y S \ ie Ba ¥ sy \ Sg GAN IF Ni : 8S 8 RS Ae 3s NaS SSE SS RY S ER Mil = —— , a) = MD err CO EC CO Ding a eS SSS ae pow ano. DEL. & Se So SS ne eS SOUTH-DOWN EWE. characteristic of the Ellman stock. Not so large as the later importations of Mr. Rotch from the celebrated flock of Mr. Webb, they are, in the 148 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. / opinion of that gentleman, as well as in my own, a more beautifully formed and not less profitable animal. or compactness—great weight in a small compass—they are perhaps unrivaled. The following is the description of the perfect South-Down by Mr. Ell- man, the founder of the improved breed : ‘The head small and hornless ; the face speckled or gray and neither too long nor too short ; the lips thin, and the space between the nose and the eyes narrow; the under jaw or chap fine ana thin; the ears tolerably wide and well covered with wool, and the tore- head also, and the whole space between the ears well protected by it, as a defence against the fly. Ks The eye full and bright but not prominent. The orbits of the eye, the eye-cap or bone not too projecting, that it may not form a fatal obstacle in lambing. “The neck of a medium length, thin toward the head, but enlarging toward the shoul- ders, where it should be broad and high and straight in its whole course above and below. The breast should be wide, deep, and projecting forward between the fore-legs, indicating a good constitution and a disposition to thrive. Corresponding with this, the shoulders should be on a level with the back, and not too wide above: they should bow outward from the top to the breast, indicating a springing rib beneath, and leaving room for it. “« The ribs coming out horizontally from the spine, and extending far backward, and the last rib projecting more than others, the back flat from the shoulders to the setting on of the tail; the lom broad and flat; the rump broad and the tail set on high, and nearly on a level with the spine. The hips wide; the space between them and the last rib on ei- ther side as narrow as possible, and the ribs generally presenting a circular form like a barrel. “The belly as straight as the back. “The legs neither too long nor too short; the fore-legs straight from the breast to the foot; not bending inward at the knee, and standing far apart both before and behind; the hock having a direction rather outward, and the twist, or the meeting of the thighs behind, being particularly full, the bones fine, yet having no appearance of weakness, and of a speckled or dark color. The belly well defended with wool, and the wool coming down before and behind to the knee and to the hock ; the wool short, close, curled and fine, and free from spiry projecting fibres.”’ THE COTSWOLD SHEEP. The above cut is copied from one in Mr. Spooner’s work on Sheep— the original drawing being by Harvey. The Cotswolds, until improved by modern crosses, were a very large, , x SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 149 coarse, long-legged, flat-ribbed variety, light in the fore-quarter—shearing a long, heavy, coarse fleece of wool. They were hardy, prolific breeders and capital nurses. They were deficient in early maturity, and did not possess feeding properties equaling those of the Down or New Leicester. To across with the latter variety we owe the modern or improved Cots- wold. Having had no personal experience with the breed,* I prefer quoting the descriptions of the later standard English writers, to the task of compilation. The following is from Spooner : f “ The Cotswold is a large breed of sheep, with a long and abundant fleece, and the ewes are very prolific and good nurses. Formerly they were bred only on the hills, and fatted in the valleys, of the Severn and the Thames; but with the inclosure of the Cotswold Hills and the improvement of their cultivation they have been reared and fatted in the same district. They have been extensively crossed with the Leicester sheep, by which their size and fleece have been somewhat diminished, but their carcasses considerably im- proved, and their maturity rendered earlier. The wethers are now sometimes fattened at 14 months old, when they weigh from 15 lbs. to 24 lbs. per quarter, and at two years old increase to 20 Ibs. or 30 lbs. The wool is strong, mellow, and of good color, though rather coarse, 6 to 8 inches in length, and from 7 lbs. to 8 lbs. per fleece. The superior hardihood of the improved Cotswold over the Leicester, and their adaptation to common treatment, together with the prolific nature of the ewes and their abundance of milk, have rendered them in many places rivals of the New Leicester, and have obtained for them, of late years, more attention to their selection and general treatment, under which man- agement still farther improvement appears very probable. They have also been used in crossing other breeds. and, as before noticed, have been mixed with the Hampshire Downs. It is, indeed, the improved Cotswold that, under the term New or Improved Oxfordshire Sheep, are so frequently the successful candidates for prizes offered for the best long-wooled sheep at some of the principal agricultural meetings or shows in the Kingdom. The quality of the mutton is considered superior to that of the Leicester, the tallow being less abundant, with a larger development of muscle or flesh. We may, therefore, regard this breed as one of established reputation, and extending itself throughout every district of the Kingdom.” Of the method of crossing between the Cotswolds and Leicester, Mr. Youatt remarks :} “The degree to which the cross may be carried must depend upon the nature of the old stock, and on the situation and character of the farm. In exposed situations, and somewhat scanty pasture, the old blood should decidedly prevail. Ona more sheltered soil, and on land that will bear closer stocking, a greater use may be made of the Leicester. Auother circumstance that will guide the farmer is the object that he principally has in view. If he expects to derive his chief profits from the wool, he will look to the primitive Cotswolds ; if he expects to gain more as a grazier, he will use the Leicester ram more freely.” Cotswold sheep of good quality have been imported into the United States by Messrs. Corning & Sotham, of Albany, and are now bred by the latter gentleman. I believe there were several earlier importations— but of their dates or particulars I am not advised. Tue Cuevior Surep.—sheep of this breed have been imported into my immediate neighborhood, and were subject to my frequent inspection for two or three years. They had the appearance of small Leicesters, but were con- siderably inferior in correctness of proportions to high-bred animals of that variety. They perhaps more resemble a cross between the Leicester and the old “ native” or common breed of the United States. Their fleeces were too coarse to furnish a good carding wool—too short for a good combing one. Mixed with a smaller lot of better wool, their this year’s clip sold for 29 cents per pound, while my heavier Merino fleeces sold for 42 cents per pound. ‘They attracted no notice, and might at any time have been bought of their owner for the price of common sheep of the same weight. I believe the flock was broken up and sold to butchers and others this spring, after shearing. They were certainly inferior to the description of the breed by Sir John Sinclair, even in 1792, quoted by Mr. Youatt,|| and * With every breed previously described, I have had ample personal experience. I have merely seen Cotswold flocks. t Q.0., p. 99. t Q.»., p. 340, ll Q. v., pp. 285, 286. 150 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. had all the defects attributed to the original stock by Cully.* They might not, however, have been favorable specimens of the breed. On the steep, storm-lashed Cheviot Hills, in the extreme North of Eng- land, this breed first attracted notice for their great hardiness in resisting N ) ir y i i WN ie ‘ANG Lan (ae f ( us i’ “0ZY CHEVIOT EWE. cold and feeding on coarse heathery herbage. A cross with the Leices- ter, pretty generally resorted to, constitutes the improved variety. The characteristics of the Leicester are quite evident in the portrait of the Cheviot Ewe, above, copied from Mr. Youatt. Professor Low thus speaks of the result of this cross : “The Cheviot breed amalgamates with the Leicester, and a system of breeding has been extensively introduced for producing the first cross of this descent. The rams employed are of the pure Leicester breed, and the progeny is superior in size, weight of wool, and tenden- cy to fatten, to the native Cheviot. . . . The benefit, however, may be said to end with the first cross, and the progeny of this mixed descent is greatly inferior to the pure Leicester in form and fattening properties, and to the pure Cheviot in hardiness of constitution. Of the improved Cheviot Mr. Spooner says: “This breed has greatly extended itself throughout the mountains of Scotland, and in many instances supplanted the Black-faced breed; but the change, though in many cases ad- vantageous, has in some instances been otherwise, the latter being somewhat. hardier, and more capable of subsisting on heathy pasturage. They are, however, a hardy race, well suited for their native pastures, bearing with comparative impunity the storms of winter, and thriving well on poor keep. Though less hardy than the black-faced sheep of Scotland, they are more profitable as respects their feeding, making more flesh on an equal quantity of tood, and making it quicker. They have white faces and legs, open countenances, lively eyes, without horns. The ears are large, and somewhat singular, and there is much space between the ears and eyes. The carcass is long; the back straight; the shoulders rather light; the ribs circular; and the quarters good. The legs are small in the bone and cov- ered with wool, as well as the body, with the exception of the face. The Cheviot wether is fit for the butcher at three years old, and averages from 12 lbs. to 18 lbs. per quarter—the mutton being of a good quality, though inferior to the South-Down, and of less flavor than the Black-faced. . 2. . The Cheviot, though a mountain breed, is quiet and docile, and ea- sily managed. The wool is fine, (?) closely covers the body, assisting much in preserving it * See Cully on Live Stock, p. 150. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 151 from the effects of wet and cold; the fleece averaging about 34 lbs. Formerly the wool was extensively employed for making cloths, but having given place to the finer Saxony wools, it has sunk in price, and been confined to combing purposes, It has thus become altogether a secondary consideration.” . . . If Mr. Spooner is not made to say that the wool is “ fine” by an omis- sion of qualifying words, or some other misprint, his ideas of fineness must be singular indeed! The South-Down wool, rejected for carding pur- poses, is several shades finer than the Cheviot! The latter is of about the quality of Leicester, the number of serrations about the same, and, says Mr. Youatt, speaking of the microscopic appearance of the wool, “the derivation of the breed (from the Leicester) is well illustrated by the formation of the fibre.” Mr. John Varley, manufacturer, of Stanningley, near Leeds, thus testi- fied before the Lords’ Committee :* “T attribute the low price of Cheviot wool to deterioration ; it is deteriorated very much in point of hair; it was formerly the fashion of the day for Cheviot wool to be worn as cloth ; " it is not the fashion now. It is not fit to make fine cloths, as it was then. .... “ The wool is grown coarser and longer, and only fit to make low coatings and flushings.” This is confirmed by the testimony of other witnesses before the Com- mittee; and Mr. Youatt on the same subject remarks,} “that the wool is inferior to the South-Down.” Broap-TaAitep AstatTic AND AFrricaAN Surep.—I allude to the Broad- tailed race of sheep, not from any high estimate which I place upon their value, but because they constitute one of the breeds now existing in a state of purity in the United States. Some “ Tunisian Mountain Sheep” were received by Col. Pickerin when abroad, and were distributed by him in Pennsylvania.t They are highly spoken of by Col. Powell as a cross with the Dishley and South- Down. They have, I believe, long since become extinct. It was Commodore Porter, I think, who, you informed me, sent home some of the Broad-tailed sheep of Asia, obtained from Smyrna, pure- blooded descendants of which yet exist in South Carolina.|| I have care- fully examined the specimens of wool of the full blood and the grades of this variety forwarded by you. No. 3, taken from the skin of a full-blood, is 8 inches long, pure white, consisting of coarse hairs, uneven in their lencth and diameter—the same hair of uneven diameter in different parts of it, and the whole intermixed for about 4 inches from the roots, with a fine, downy or cottony wool. No. 2, about 33 inches long from the side of a three-fourths blood ram, is much evener in quality, with no hairs as coarse or wool as fine as in No. 3. It contains some jarr, or short, sharp- ointed hairs, and is a dry, and, I should judge, rather unworkable wool, not we// adapted to either carding or combing. No. 1, from thigh of same animal, is 8 inches long, resembles No. 3, but not so great a distinction between the hair and the wool. No. 4, from a three-fourths blood 4-year- old ewe, is about 2 inches long, contains a few colored hairs, resembles No. 2, but is somewhat coarser. All these samples are destitute of yolk, and apparently come from loose, light, dry, open fleeces. They do not strike me as wools which could be as profitably cultivated as many others, for any objects or under any circumstances, If the object is mutton instead of wool, it seems to me that a better se- lection can be made, from some of the English breeds—which intermingle * Bischoff, vol ii, p. 144. Mr. Youatt quotes the substance of the above, and fully sustains Mr. Varley’s views. f E t Q.-v., p. 25. { See Essay on Various Breeds of Sheep, by Col. John Hare Powell, published in the Memoirs of the Board of Agriculture of the State of New-York, vol. iii., p. 377, (1826.) || in Letter Vth I inadvertently spoke of these as a large breed of sheep. They are not above medium size, or rather, may be said to be a smallish race. ~— 152 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Se their fat and muscle in such a manner as to render both palatable, instead of depositing a greatly disproportioned share of the former in one luscious mass, forming an impediment to breeding, and an unsightly appendage in the eye of the breeder. All the different varieties of the Broad-tailed and Fat-rumped sheep will be found described in Youatt, and I will not now consume your time with them. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 153 LETTER XI. THE MOST PROFITABLE BREED OF SHEEP FOR THE SOUTH—PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. Breeds should be adapted to the circumstances of a Country...Circumstances requiring a Mutton Sheep ..-Comparison between Mutton Sheep—The South-Downs, Leicesters and Cotswolds..-How far the Feed Markets, &c., of the South demand such breeds...What breed of Sheep will give the greatest value of Wool from the feed of an acre ?...Comparative Consumption and Wool Product of the Mutton breeds and the Merino—Other Expenses—Comparative Hardiness, &c...A pound of fine wool can be grown as cheaply. as a pound of coarse—worth more for market or for consumption...The Mutton of the Merino and its Crosses... What sub-variety of the Merino best adapted to the wants of the South ?... Review of the His- tory of Wool-Growing and the Wool Markets since 1824... ariffs and Prices.-..Injudicious course of the Manufacturers—Have discouraged the growth of fine wool and encouraged that of medium and coarse... A surplus of medium wools, and a bare or short supply of fine.. Manufacturers now in the power of fine wool growers.. Interest of the Manufacturers to encourage the growth of fine wools by paying better prices—-are beginning to do so—will be compelled to continue this course...Will the North furnish the increasing demand {—No—Reasons...Fine wool in every point of view more profitable than coarse for cultivation in the South...Comparison between Merinos and Saxons...Crosses between them... Points which constitute excellence in a Merino—proper size—per centage of wool to live-weight—shape and gen- eral appearance—skin—wrinkles. ..'The wool—what parts it should cover—its gum—length and weight of fleece—evenness—sty le—softness—serration—manner of opening, &c... Principles of breeding. . In and-in breeding. .-Crossing..-lngiish Crosses with the Merino.-.Views of Mr. Livingston concerning the use of cross-bred rams—of the French breeders—of the author...Great importance of starting a flock with choice rams—with diiferent strains of blood. Dear Sir: No one breed of sheep combines the highest perfection in all those points which give value to this race of animals. One is remarkable for the weight, or early maturity, or excellent quality of its carcass, while it is deficient in quality or quantity of wool; and another which is valu- able for wool, is comparatively deficient in carcass. Some varieties will flourish only under certain conditions of feed and climate, while others are much less affected by those conditions, and will subsist under the greatest variations of temperature, and on the most opposite qualities of - verdure. In selecting a breed for any given locality, we are to take into consid- eration jirst, the feed and climate, or the surrounding natural circum- stances; and, second, the market facilities and demand. We should then make choice of that breed which, with the advantages possessed, and un- der all the circumstances, will yield the greatest net value of marketable product. Rich lowland herbage, in a climate which allows it to remain green during a large portion of the year, is favorable to the production of large carcasses. If convenient to markets where mutton finds a prompt sale and good prices, then all the conditions are realized which call for a mut- ton, as contradistinguished from a wool-producing sheep. Under such cir- cumstances, the choice should undoubtedly, in my judgment, rest between the improved English varieties—the South-Down, the New Leicester, and the improved Cotswold or New Oxfordshire sheep. In deciding betweer these, minor and more specific circumstances are to be taken into account. If we wish to keep large numbers, the Down will herd* much better than the two larger breeds ; if our feed, though generally plentiful, is liable to be shortish during the drouths of summer, and we have not a certain sup- ly of the most nutritious winter feed, the Down will better endure occa-, sional short keep: if the market calls for a choice and high-flavored mut- ton, the Down possesses a decided superiority. If, on the other hand, we * That is, remain thriving and healthy when kept together in large numbers. 154 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. wish to keep but few in the same inclosure, the large breeds will be as healthy as the Downs; if the pastures be wettish or marshy, the former will better subsist on the rank herbage which usually grows in such situa- tions ; if they do not afford so fine a quality of mutton, they, particularly the Leicester, possess an earlier maturity, and both give more meat for the amount of food consumed, and yield more tallow. The next point of comparison between the Long and Middle wooled families, is the value of their wool. Though not the first or principal ob- ject aimed at in the culture of any of these breeds, it is, in this country, an important item or incident in determining their relative profitableness. The American Leicester* yields about 6 lbs. of long, coarse, combing wool; the Cotswold something more, but this perhaps counterbalanced by other considerations ; the Down from 3 lbs. to 4 lbs. of a low quality of carding wool. None of these wools are very salable, at remunerating prices, in the American market. Both will become more so, as manufactures of worsted, and of flannels and baizes, increase. The difference in the weight of fleeces between the breeds is, per se, a less important consideration than would first appear, and for reasons which will be given when I speak of the connection between the amount of wool produced and the food con- sumed, by sheep. Of the Cheviots I have taken no notice in this connection, as they are obviously inferior to the preceding breeds, except in a capacity to endure rigorous weather, and to subsist on heathy herbage. No part of the South has a climate too severe for the more valuable races, and its grasses and other esculents, wherever found, and as far as they go, are, making the proper allowances for wet and dry lands, highly palatable and nutri- tious to all the varieties which respectively feed in such situations. Under the natural and artificial circumstances already alluded to, which surround Sheep Husbandry in many parts of England—where the fattest and grossest quality of mutton is consumed as almost the only animal food of the laboring classes—the heavy, early maturing New Leicester, and ‘the still heavier New Oxfordshire sheep, seem exactly adapted to the wants of producer and consumer, and are of unrivaled value. To depasture poorer soils—sustain a folding system—and furnish the mutton which sup- plies the tables of the wealthy—the South-Down is an equal desideratum. Have we any region in our Southern States, where analogous circum- stances demand the introduction of similar breeds? The climate, so far as its effect on the health is concerned, is adapted to any, even the least hardy varieties ; but not so its effects on the verdure on which they are to subsist. The long, scorching summers, so utterly unlike those of England, leave the grass on lands stocked heavily enough for profit, entirely too dry and short for the heavy, sluggish Long Wools. This is particularly true in the tide-water zone. Mutton, too, sheeted over externally with three or four inches of solid fat,t even if it could be made acceptable to the slave, in lieu of his ration of bacon—a thing more than doubtful— would never find any considerable market off from the plantation. So far as the supply of feed is concerned, the above remarks apply, though not equally, tothe South-Down. It will live and thrive where the Long Wools would dwindle away, but it is a mistake to suppose that the heavy im- *Tuse the word “ American” Leicester, because it is notorious that this, as well as the Cotswold—and all the other heavy English varieties, soon lose in the weight of their fleeces when subjected to the climate and the (best ordinary) system of feeding in the United States. I should except, perhaps, a few highly pampered animals. t Five and even six inches of solid fat, on the rib, is not uncommon in England. In the Cotswolds the fat and lean are more intermixed, and the mutton is of a better quality ; but it would be considered en- Urely too luscious and tallowy by Americans. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 155 proved South-Down will subsist, and attain its proper weight and fatness, on very poor or very scant herbage. The old unimproved variety would, like some other smallish and hardy races, obtain a living on keep as poor as that which grew on the lightest and thinnest soils of Sussex. Moulded by the hand of Ellman, and other breeders, to better fulfill the conditions of a mutton sheep, in size and other particulars, they demand that in- creased supply of food which the formation of additional fat and muscle require. Retaining some of the properties of the parent stock, they are less sluggish, and bear travel better than the Long Wools; but with them as with the latter, and all other animals, much or prolonged exercise in pursuit of food or otherwise, is unfavorable to obesity. Men, and par- ticularly owners, in advocating the claims of this breed and that, seem not unfrequently to forget that the general physical laws which control in the development of all the animal tissues as well as functions, are uniform. Better organs will doubtless make a better appropriation of animal food ; and they may be taught, so to speak, to appropriate it in particular direc- tions—in one breed, more especially to the production of fat—in another, of muscle or lean meat—in another, wool. But, ceteris paribus, large animals will always require more food than small ones. Animals which are to be carried to a high state of fatness must have plentiful and nutri- tious food, and they must exercise but little in order to prevent the unne- cessary ‘‘ combustion” in the lungs, of that carbon which forms more than seven-tenths of their fat. Noart of breeding can countervail these estab- lished laws of Nature. Again, there are no facilities in the South for marketing large quantities of mutton—of a tithe of that which would be annually fitted for the sham- bles, were Sheep Husbandry introduced to anything like the extent I have recommended, and with the mutton breeds of sheep. With few cities and large villages—with a sparse population—with an agricultural population the greatest drawback on whose pecuniary prosperity is their inability to market their own surplus edibles—not a particle of rational doubt can ex- ist on this point. True, I have expressed the opinion that, both as a mat- ter of healthfulness and economy, mutton should be substituted for a moi- ety of the bacon used on the plantation; but with such a change, in a country so exclusively agricultural, each landholder would raise his own supply, and thus no market be created. It may then be regarded as a set- tled point that the production gf wool is the primary, the great object of Southern Sheep Husbandry. In instituting a comparison between breeds of sheep for wool-growing purposes, I will, in the outset, lay down the obviously incontrovertible proposition that the question is not what variety will shear the heaviest or even the most valuable fleeces, irrespective of the cost of production — Cost of feed and care, and every other expense, must be deducted, to fairly test the profits of an animal. Ifa large sheep consume twice as much food as a small one, and give but once and a half as much wool, it is obviously more profitable, other things being equal, to keep éwo of the smaller sheep. The true question then is, with the same expense in other particulars, From what breed will the verdure of an acre of land produce the greatest value of wool ? Let us first proceed to ascertain the comparative amount of food con- sumed by the several breeds. There are no satisfactory experiments which show that breed, in itself considered, has any particular influence on the quantity of food consumed. It is found, with all varieties, that the con- sumption is in proportion to the live weight of the (grown) animal. Of course, this rule is not invariable in its individual application, but its gen- 156 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. eral soundness has been satisfactorily established. Spooner states that grown sheep take up 31 per cent. of their weight in what is equivalent to dry hay per day, to keep in store condition. Veit places the consumption at 24 percent. My experience would incline me to place it about midway between the two. But whatever the precise amount of the consumption, if it is proportioned to the weight, it follows that if an acre is capable of sustaining three Merinos weighing 100 lbs. each, it will sustain but two Leicesters weighing 150 lbs. each, and two and two-fifths South-Downs weighing 125 lbs. each. Merinos of this weight often shear 5 lbs. per fleece, taking flocks through. The herbage of an acre, then, would give 15 lbs. of Merino wool, and but 12 Ibs. of Leicester, and but 9% lbs. of South-Down (estimating the latter as high as 4 lbs. to the fleece)! Even the finest and lightest fleeced sheep ordinarily known as Merinos, average about 4 lbs. to the fleece, so that the feed of an acre would produce as much of the highest quality of wool sold under the name of Merino, as it would of New Leicester, and more than it would of South-Down! The former would be worth from fifty to one hundred per cent. more per pound than either of the latter! Nor does this indicate all the actual difference, as I have, in the preceding estimate, placed the live-weight of the English breeds low, and that of the Merino high. The live-weight of the four- pound fine-fleeced Merino does not exceed 90 lbs. It ranges from 80 to 90 lbs., so that 300 Ibs. of live-weight would give a still greater product of wool to the acre.* I consider it perfectly safe to say that the herbage of an acre will uniformly give nearly double the value of Merino, that it will of any of the English Long or Middle wools. The important question now remains, What are the other relative ex- penses of these breeds? I speak from experience when I say that the Leicestert is in no respect a hardier sheep than the Merino—indeed, it is my firm conviction that it is Jess hardy, under the most favorable circum- stances. Jt is more subject to colds, and I think its constitution breaks up more readily under disease. The lambs are more liable to perish from ex- fee to cold, when newly dropped. Under unfavorable circumstances— erded in large flocks, pinched for feed, or subjected to long journeys— its capacity to endure, and its ability to rally from the effects of such draw- backs, do not compare with those of the Merino. The high-bred South- Down, though considerably less hardy than the unimproved parent stock, is still fairly entitled to the appellation of a hardy animal. In this respect I consider it just about on a par with the Merino. I do not think, how- ever, it will bear as hard stocking as the latter, without a rapid diminution in size and quality. If the peculiar merits of the animal are to be taken into account in determining the expenses—and I think they should be— the superior fecundity of the South-Down is a point in its favor, as well for a wool-producing as a mutton sheep. The South-Down ewe not only frequently yeans twin lambs, as do both the Merino and Leicester, but she possesses, unlike the latter, nursing properties to do justice by them. But this advantage is fully counterbalanced by the superior longevity of the Merino. All the English mutton breeds begin to rapidly deteriorate in amount of wool, capacity to fatten, and in general vigor, at about 5 years old ; and their early maturity is no offset to this, in a sheep kept for wool- growing purposes. This early decay would require earlier and more rapid slaughter or sale than would always be economically convenient, or even possible, in a region situated in all respects like the South. It is well, on b: = is understood that all of these live-weights refer to ewes in fair ordinary, or what is called store condition. ft I speak of full-blood Leicesters. Some of its crosses are much hardier than the pure bred sheep. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 157 properly stocked far ms, to slaughter or turn off the Merino wether at four or five years old, to make room for the breeding stock; but he will not particularly deterior ate, and he will richly pay the way with his fleece, for several years longer. Breeding ewes are rarely turned off before eight, and are frequently kept until tem years old, at which period they exhibit no greater marks of age than do the Down and Leicester at five or stz,— I have known instances of Merino ewes breeding uniformly until 15 years old! The Improved Cotswold is said to be hardier than the Leicester; but I have said less of this variety, throughout this entire Letter, as from their great size* and the consequent amount of food consumed by them, and the other necessary incidents connected with the breeding of so large animals, the idea of their being introduced as a wool-growing sheep any- where, and particularly on lands grassed like those of the South, is, in my judgment, utterly preposterous. There is one advantage which all the coarse races of sheep have over the Merino. Lither because their hoofs do not grow long and turn under from the sides, as do those of the Meri- no, and thus hold dirt and filth in constant contact with the foot, the coarse races are less subject to the visitations of the hoof-ail, and, when contract- ed, it spreads with less violence and malignity among them. ‘Taking all the circumstances connected with the peculiar management of each race, and all the incidents, exigencies, and risks of the husbandry of each fairly into account, I am fully convinced that the expenses, other than those of feed, are not smaller per capita, or even in the number required to stock an acre, in either of the English breeds above referred to, than in the Me- rino. Nor should I be disposed to concede even equality, in these respects, to either of those English breeds, excepting the South-Down. You write me, Sir, that many of the South Carolina planters are under the impression that coarse wools will be most profitably grown by them, Jirst, because there is a greater deficit in the supply, and they are better protected from foreign competition; and, secondly, because they furnish the raw material for so great a portion of the woolens consumed in the South. Each of these premises is true, but are the conclusions legitimate ? Notwithstanding the greater deficit and better protection, do the coarse wools bear as high a price as the fine ones? If not, they are not as profit- able, for [ have already shown that 7¢ costs no more to raise a pound of coarse than a pound of fine wool. Nay, a pound of medium Merino wool can be raised more cheaply than a pound of the South-Down, Leicester, or Cotswold! This I consider clearly established. Grant that the South requires a much greater proportion of coarse than of fine wool, for her own consumption. If a man needing iron for his own consumption, wrought a mine to obtain it, in which he should happen to find gold equally accessible and plentiful, would it be economical in him to neglect the more precious metal because e wanted to use the iron ? or should he dig the gold, obtain the iron by exchange, and pocket the differ- ence in value q Would it be economical to grow surplus wool, wool for market, worth from 25 to 30 cents per pound, when it costs no more per pound to grow that worth from 40 to 45 cents? And even for the home want, for the uses of the plantation—for slave-cloths, &c.—/ine wool is worth more per pound than coarse for actual wear or use! Is this propo- sition new and incredible to you? I challenge the fullest investigation of its truth, through the testimony of those familiar with the subject, or through the direct ordeal of experiment. It is true that a piece of fine broadcloth is not so strong, nor will it wear like a Chelmsford plain of treble thick- * I saw two at the late N. Y. State Fair, at Saratoga, which weighed over 300 lbs, each! 158 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ness. The threads of the former are spun to extreme fineness to econo- mize the costly raw material. To give it that finish which is demanded by fashion—to give it its beautiful nap—these threads are still farther re- duced by “ gigging” and “shearing.” But spin fine wool into yarn as coarse as that used in Chelmsfords, and manufacture it in the same way, and it would make a far stronger and more durable cloth. The reasons are obvious. Merino wool is decidedly stronger than the English coarse Long and Middle wools—or any other coarse wools—in proportion to its diameter or bulk. It felts far better, and there is therefore a greater co- hesion between the different fibres of the same thread, and between the different threads. It is also more pliable and elastic, and consequently less subject to “ breaking” and abrasion. Unless the views I have advanced are singularly erroneous, it will be seen that, for wool-growing purposes, the Merino possesses a marked and decided superiority over the best breeds and families of coarse-wooled sheep. As a mutton sheep, it is inferior to some of those breeds, but not so much so as it is generally reputed to be. If required to consume the fat and lean together, many who have never tasted Merino mutton, and who have an unfavorable impression of it, would, I suspect, find it more palatable than the luscious and over-fat New Leicester. The mutton of the cross between the Merino and “ Native”? sheep would certainly be preferred to the Leicester, by anybody but an English laborer used to the latter. It is short-grained, tender, and of good flavor. The same is true of the crosses with the English varieties. These will be, hereafter, more particularly alluded to. Grade Merino wethers (say half-bloods) are favor- ites with the Northern droyer and butcher. They are of good size—ex- traordinarily heavy for their apparent bulk*—make good mutton—tallow well—and their pelts, from the greater weight of woo! on them, command an extra price. They would, in my opinion, furnish a mutton every way suitable for plantation consumption, and one which would be well accept- ed in the Southern markets. In speaking of the Merino in this connection, I have in all cases, unless it is distinctly specified to the contrary, had no reference to the Saxons— though they are, as it is well known, pure-blooded descendants of the former. Assuming it now as a settled point, that it is to the Merino race that the wool-grower must look for the most profitable sheep, let us now proceed to inquire which of the widely varying sub-varieties of this race are best adapted to the wants and circumstances of the South. A brief glance at the history of wool-growing, and of the wool markets, for the last few years, will form an useful preliminary inquiry, and will assist us materially in arriving at a correct conclusion. On the introduction of the Saxons, about twenty-four years since, they were sought with avidity by the holders of the fine-wooled flocks of the country, consisting at that time of pure or grade Merinos. The Tariff of 1824 imposed a duty of 20 per cent. on wools costing above 10 cents per pound, gradually rising to 30 per cent., and 15 per cent. on those costing less than 10 cents. Foreign woolen clothst were subject to an ad valorem duty of 30 per cent. until June 30th, 1825, and after that it was raised to 33} percent. The Tariff of 1828 immediately raised the duty on all wools to 40 per cent. ad valorem and 4 cents per pound specific duty, and 5 per cent. was to be annually added to the ad valorem duty, until it should reach 50 * On account of the shortness of their wool, compared with the coarse breeds. + Where I uee the word “cloths” here and in the statements of the different Tariffs which follow, you will understand that I do not include carpetings, blankets, worsted stuff goods, é&c. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 159 per cent. (in 1831.) The duty on woolen cloths was also raised (after June, 1829) to 45 per cent., and that exceeding $4 the square yard to 50 per cent. Under the decisive encouragement offered to both the wool- grower and manufacturer by this Act, a great impetus was given to the production of the finest wools, and the Saxons everywhere rapidly su- perseded, or bred out by crossing, the Spanish Merinos. The latter dis- appeared almost entirely from New-York and New-England. In the fine-wool mania which ensued, weight of fleece, constitution, and every- thing else, were sacrificed to the quality of the wool. The Tariff of 1832 imposed a 40 per cent. ad valorem and 4 cents per pound specific duty on wools costing over 8 cents ; and it raised the duty on all broadcloths to 50 per cent. It made wools costing less than 8 cents per pound free of duty. The “Compromise”’ Tariff of 1833 commenced a system of progressive reductions until the maximum rate of duties should not exceed 20 per cent. The following Table will give the duties of each year, on wool and cloths, under this Act, estimating the ad valorem and specific duties on wools exceeding 8 cents, together in an average per centage :* TABLE 14. Per ct anh, 1833, | 1835. | 1837. | 1839. | 1841. | 1842, pe oaapoeting lee Han B gents per Pound free. | free. | free. | free. | free. | free. 20 at place of exportation......--------- 20 W ool costing over 8 cents per pound...... 54 50°60| 47-20] 43-80| 40-40] 30-20 WYO Ole COEDS ¢ cecil + 2 chit are mig nv cpyaie's ae | 50 | 47 44 M1, 2) (38 29 The Tariff of 1841 struck out the 20 per cent. duty on the 8 cent wools. The Tariff of 1842 again imposed an ad valorem duty of 5 per cent. on wools costing seven cents or under, and raised it on the higher wools to 30 per cent. ad valorem and 3 cents per pound specific duty, and on cloths to 40 per cent. ad valorem. The Tariff of 1846 established an ad valorem duty of 30 per cent. on all wools, and on cloths. By referring to Table 7, Letter V., it will be seen that the prices of wool have not been controlled by the amount of the protection. They reached their maximum in 1836, and then fell off, not again to rally, (except during the single year 1839)— not again to reach 40 cents—until 1844. Why was this? What pro- duced the sudden depreciation of 1837? The Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 gave too much protection to both wool-grower and manufacturer. Their pursuits became the E/ Dorado of agricultural and mercantile speculators, Skill without capital, and capital without skill, and in some cases probably thirst of gain without either, rushed into these favored avocations. The bank inflations of the period fanned the fires of speculation, and taught some of the wisest commercial heads of the country to forget the provi- dence that had hitherto distinguished them. The natural result followed. In the financial crisis of 1837, manufacturing, and all other monetary en- terprises which had not been conducted with skill and providence, and which were not based on adequate and real capital, were involved in a common destruction, and even the solidest and best conducted institutions of the country were shaken by the fury of the explosion. Wool suddenly fell almost 50 per cent. (from 54 to 30 cents per pound.)t In 1838 it ral- lied a little, and in 1839 it again reached 50 cents, but it went down nearly to the minimum point in 1840. The grower began to be discouraged. He who bred the delicate Saxons, (and, as I have already said, they now comprised the flocks of nearly all the large wool-growers in the country,) * The reduction of one-tenth of the excess over 29 per cent. took place Dec. 31st, each year, to 1841; then geemlt of the residue of the excess; and on the 30th of June, 1842, the other half of said residue was de- ducted. pares quality of the wools here alluded to will be found specified in a note on the second page of etter V. 160 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. a rl ences was not obtaining the actual first cost per pound of his wool. He clam- ored loudly for an increase of duties on the foreign article, as the reduc- tions of the “ Compromise”? Act were now approaching their ultimate standard—20 per cent.—and he attributed the low prices to this cause: Saxon wool continued low, and did not pay its first cost in 1841 and 1842. Was this due solely to the reduction of the Tariff? A reference to Table 11 (Letter TX.) will show that the import of foreign woolens was less from 1836 up to and including 1842, than for the six preceding years! Where then was the foreign competition which was driving the manufacturer to keep down the price of wools? The Tariff of 1842 raised the duty on wool 10 per cent. and added a specific duty of 3 cents per pound ; and it raised the duty on cloths from 20 to 40 per cent. The import of foreign woolens sunk, the succeeding year, to a lower point than it had touched since 1821, and in 1844 and 1846 it did not reach the average of the six years preceding the enactment of the Tariff of 1842. A reference to Table 9 (Letter 1X.) will show that the import of foreign fine wools also largely fell off. This coincided with the expectations of the advocates of a higher Tariff, but another and equally legitimate expectation entertained by the great body of Northern wool-growers—that they were to share in the benefits arising from the exclusion of foreign competition—was sig- nally disappointed. The Tariff of 1842 was enacted on the 30th day of August, and part of the clip of that year was sold under its operation. Wool sold that year lower than it had for the five preceding years, viz., for 30 cents. The next year it advanced one penny! General discourage- ment noav seized upon the growers of fine wool. The market was not overstocked—foreign competition was light, but ~s¢é/l they could not sell their wool for its first cost! To add to their mortification, the manufac- turer, by a most short-sighted policy, would scarcely make a discrimina- tion of 6d. per pound between Saxon wool and medium Merino and grade wools weighing nearly twice as much to the fleece. If the grower of me- dium wool got 25 cents per pound for fleeces weighing 4 lbs.—thus real- izing $1 per fleece—the ordinary Saxon grower would get but 30 cents per pound for fleeces weighing 21 Ibs., and thus realize but 75 cents! * When the Saxon growers found that the Tariff of ’42 brought them no relief, they began to give up their costly and carefully nursed flocks. The example, once set, became contagious, and there was a period when it seemed as if all the Saxon sheep of the country would be sacrificed to this reaction. Many abandoned wool-growing altogether, at a heavy sacri- fice of their fixtures for rearing sheep. Others crossed with coarse-wooled breeds, and rushing from one extreme to the other, some even crossed with the English mutton breeds! Some more judiciously went back to the parent Merino stock, but usually they selected the heaviest and coarsest wooled Merinos, and thus materially deteriorated the character of their wool. As the preceding period had been distinguished by its mania for fine wool, this was, by its mania for heavy fleeces !/+ The English crosses, however, were speedily abandoned.t{ The Merino regained his * And though the larger, stronger sheep, bearing the medium wool, would eat more, it was far hardier, required less protection and care of every kind, and would increase more rapidly—circumstances which would far more than counterbalance its excess of consumption t+ I make no claim of having possessed greater sagacity or foresight in these particulars than the mass of breeders. I began with the Merino. These | crossed with the Saxon, and I also bred the pure-blood:Sax- ons for several years. Unsatisfied with these, I made some experiments with the English mutton breeds, both as pure bloods and crosses. . Finding none of them equal to the Merino as a wool-producing sheep, I returned to the latter, and I bred for heavy fleeces until the manufacturers saw fit to make a juster discrim- ination in the prices paid by them for the different qualities of wool. {1 mean by those who sought to improve their fine-wooled flocks by an English cross. English and all other coarse-wooled sheep are immensely and rapidly improved, for wool-growing purposes, by a proper fine-wooled cross, as 1 have already and shall again have occasion to mention. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 161 (ARERR RE te te «090g oun Aah ARE et RE Ree supremacy, lost for nearly twenty years, and again became the popular favorite. It was generally adopted by those who were commencing flocks in the new Western States, and gives its type to the sheep of those re- ions. It will be seen from the preceding facts that the supply of fine wool* has proportionably decreased, and that of medium and coarse increased. This has driven the manufacturers to make a juster discrimination in rices. They now realize that their own short-sighted economy has been all but fatal to fine wool-growing in the United States. And they cannot but feel that in destroying this interest, they destroy themselves. Our manufacturers are not so miserably blind as to dream of drawing their raw material from foreign countries—of paying an import duty of 30 per cent. and then competing with the English manufacturer who pays an import duty not exceeding two pence per pound! It is doubtful, in my mind, whether the home supply will not fall considerably short of the home demand for fine wool for this year !+ The point has been already reached where but a little more discouragement, or a little longer continued discouragement, would have banished these wools from the country! So far, the manufac- tories have not felt this evil, for they have not been compelled to import. Neither pampered nor persecuted by the Tariff of 1846—called for by the consumption of the country—with solid capital and greater experience and skill at their command—they are rapidly increasing, and rising on a solider basis than ever before. So, to sustain our manufacturing interest, (that engaged in the manufacture of fine cloths,) it is absolutely necessary that the diminution of fine wools be not only immediately arrested, but that the growth of them be immediately and largely increased. These facts now first beginning to be clearly appreciated by the manufacturer— will deter him from resorting to his former suicidal policy. Instances have recently come to my knowledge of manufacturers offering to contract with fine-wool growers for their entire clips, for a term of years, at an ad- vance on present prices—prices, be it remembered, higher than they have been except for two years (1839 and 1844) since the overthrow of 1837. Should the manufacturer, however, again forget his own interest, the fine- wool grower has it in his power to teach it to him most effectually. In- stead of being discouraged and driven from the business, he has but to withhold his wools for a season—say for a few months, to compel the for- mer to import wools at a ruinous cost—stop his machinery, or pay fair rices at home! I believe in no combinations to control prices. Some- thing far better than vague report, however, says that several of the large manufacturing establishments of New-England employed the same agents, last season, to buy much, if not all of their wools—and that these wools were subsequently divided by bidding or otherwise, among the parties to the transaction! Js this denied? I think it will not be denied. If this was so, what was it but a combination to control prices?{ But whether * To make myself clearly understood, I will, in the remarks which follow, classify wools as follows: su- perfine, the choicest quality of wool grown in the United States, and never grown here excepting in com. paratively small quantities ; fine, good ordinary Saxon; good medivm, the highest quality of wool usually known in the market as Merino; medium, ordinary Merino ; ordinary, grade Merino and perhaps selected South-Down fleeces ; coarse, the English long wools, &c. This subdivision is not minute enough, by any means. to express fully the number of well-detined classes which exist in wool. A farther multiplication of them here, however, I have thought would only tend to confusion. {The position has been all along taken that the general supply was under the demand, but the deficit hitherto has been principally in medium and coarse wools. See Table 9, Letter 1X + And before leaving this point, I will ask another question: Why were most of the wools of New-York and New-England untouched and unlooked at by the agents of the manufacturers this year, contrary to all preceding customs for two or three months subsequently to shearing? ‘These same agents flocked in droves to the Western States and bought up their entire clip immediately after shearing, while reports were constantly coming back that this manufactory and that had purchased its entire supply for a year, or perhaps two years ? Was this because the Eastern growers demanded exorbitant prices? Was it because anything like an’ approach to a supply of fine wools could be found in the West? Or was it the result of a 162 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. so or not, when we compare the profits which have inured to the growers and manufacturers of fine wool for the last few years, it behooves the for- mer both to speak and act decidedly. Their interests have been sacrificed long enough ! But it isto be hoped that the grower of these wools will not be hereafter driven to the alternative of either suffering himself, or of defending himself by retaliatory measures. Some few of the manufac- turers have always, I believe, taken a high and liberal course. Enough others, as already remarked, now see the necessity of such liberality to prevent any combined or general effort to depress prices. Will the North again turn its attention to the growth of superfine and fine wools—again supply the demand, and keep up with it as it increases ? Not unless stimulated by the inducement of extraordinary profits—not, certainly, against the competition of the South. The climate north of 419, or, beyond all dispute, north of 42°, is too severe for any variety of sheep commonly known, which bear either of these classes of wools. In fact, the only such variety, in anything like general use, is the Saxon; and this is a delicate sheep, entirely incapable of safely withstanding our Northern winters, without good shelter, good and regularly administered food, and careful and skillful management in all other particulars. When the season is a little more than usually backward, so that grass does not start prior to the lambing season, it is difficult to raise the lambs of the mature ewes— the young ewes will in many instances disown their lambs, or, if they own them, not have a drop of milk for them; and if in such a crisis, as it often happens, a north-east or north-west storm comes driving down, bearing snow or sleet on its wings, or there is a sudden depression of the temper- ature from any cause, no care will save multitudes of lambs from perish- ing.* And it will not do to defer the time of having them dropped to es- cape these evils, or they will not attain size and strength enough to pass safely through their first winter.t’ A few large sheepholders, whose farms, buildings, etc., have been arranged with exclusive reference to the rearing of these sheep, may continue to grow fine wool wnt driven from it by the competition of the South; but many of these have recently adopted a Merino cross. The ordinary farmers, the small sheepholders, who, in the ageregate, grow by far the largest portion of our Northern wools, have im- bibed a deep-seated aversion—nay, a positive disgust—against the Saxon ‘sheep. They have not the necessary fixtures for their winter protection, and they are entirely unwilling to bestow the necessary amount of care on them. Besides, mutton and wool being about an equal consideration with this class of farmers, they want larger and earlier maturing breeds. But, above all, they want a strong, hardy sheep, which demands no more care than their cattle. The strong, compact, medium-wooled Merino—or, per- haps still more generally, its crosses with coarse varieties, producing the wool which I have classified as ordinary—will be the genera] favorites. — The same reasons will weich still more strongly in the North-west, where, as I have shown, the climate isa still worse one for delicate sheep. All these causes will tend to swell the amount of medium, ordinary and coarse concerted movement to bring the Eastern grower into taking last year’s prices? It actually did so, ina multitude of instances—or, he was contented to receive the slightest advance on them! This will be found true of nearly all who sold soon after the market opened in the East. If not the result of a concerted and combined movement, the general desertion of the Eastern and resort to the Western market by the manu- facturers was a most singular coincidence! These manufacturers are now fain to purchase Eastern wools at a considerable advance from the prices of 1846—and. as already hirted, it is highly problematical, in my mind, whether they will not be compelled to import at a still higher advance, to eke out a deficiency! It is to be hoped that this will be the last Act in the drama of folly and suicide played by our manufacturers. * Not even in close barns, and with constant attendance. + North of latitude 429, it is necessary, as a general rule. that lambs be dropped in the first half of May, to give them this requisite size and strength Occasional cold storms come nearly every season up to that eriod, and not unfrequently up to the tirst of June. Mr. Grove was a decided advocate of early lambs.— He used to say that “it was better to lose two of them in the spring than one in the fall.” SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 163. wools. Though the reaction has been but recent, the market demand for medium and ordinary wools is now better supplied—nearer being glutted, so far as I am enabled to judge—than that for fine and superfine. And should the market become glutted with either or both, it is important to remember that the latter will be far more profitable for export than the former. Every consideration, then, in my judgment, points to wools ranging from good medium upward, instead of the lower classes, as the most profitable staples for cultivation in the South. The only question which now arises on this point is, from which variety, the Saxon or Merino, shall the South attempt to cultivate these wools ? It is generally supposed, and as a general thing it is true, that the Me- rino bears no better wool than that which I have classified as good medi- um. But the measurements of Dr. Emmons (given in Letter X.) show, by the infallible testimony of the microscope, that heavy-fleeced Merinos sometimes equal—nay, surpass Saxons, in fineness. The fact is more de- cisive, as the Saxon fibres there measured came not only from the most celebrated flocks—from the prize sheep at State Fairs—but it also came from samples, in most instances, given by the owners for public exhibition. I do not claim that Merinos like these are common. They are rather to be regarded in the light of those prodigies of excellence which occasion- ally appear, but which it is difficult to reproduce with anything like uni- formity. Nor are lesser fleeced Merinos, bearing wvol equal to ordinary Saxon, very common. During the fine wool mania, all, who sought fine wool, bred the Saxon sheep, or crossed with it; and the few who stood out, and clung to the Merino, generally aimed to distinguish it as widely as possible from the former, by increasing the weight of its fleece, to the disregard of its fineness. ‘This, too, was the general disposition during the heavy-fleeced mania. Of consequence, but very few of our breeders have ever, or until recently, sought a high degree of fineness in fleece in breed- ing the Merino. Recent experience has satisfied me that this is rapidly attainable. Mr. Lawrence, in a quotation already made by me (in Letter I.), says: “I believe a breed may be reared which will give four pounds of exquisitely fine wool to the fleece.” I know by multiplied experiments that once interbreeding between an ewe bearing good medium wool (the fleece weighing, say, from 44 lbs. to 5 lbs.), with a Merino ram of suffi- ciently high quality, will produce wool in the offspring equaling ordinary Saxon, and a fleece averaging 4 lbs., with none of its weight made up of gum. The result of two such interbreedings will bring the progeny of a heavy-fleeced medium ewe (provided her fleece is properly even) to the same point. The four-pound fine-fleeced Merino would be a far more profitable animal than the Saxon, other things being equal. But other things are not equal. The former is every way a hardier animal, and a better nurse. It is about 20 lbs. heavier, and therefore consumes more feed; but I consider this additional expense more than counterbalanced by the additional care and risk attending the husbandry of the Saxon. If required to keep the number good, and give the proper attention to the rearing of lambs, I would sooner engage to keep, at the same price, one thousand such Merinos for a year, than to keep the same number of Saxons. It would be practicable, doubtless, to increase the Saxon’s fleece to 4 Ibs.; but any one, familiar with such experiments, knows that it is far easier to increase fineness of wool, by diminishing weight of fleece and carcass a little, than it is to increase weight of fleece and carcass without lowering the quality of the wool. And there is this additional objection to the latter 164 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. system of breeding, so far as the Saxon is concerned. The breeder is not only called upon to increase the weight of its fleece and carcass, but to en- graft on it hardiness of constitution, nursing properties, etc., which by no means follow, as a matter of course, its improvement in the former partic- ulars. These, and particularly the latter, could only be attained, so as to be transmissible with a proper degree of certainty from parents to offspring, by years of breeding, accompanied by a rigorous course of selection. If, therefore, you were called upon to form a variety just suited to your wants, the Merino would present the most ductile and the safest materials. But the Southern agriculturist, just entering upon sheep-rearing, would not be prepared to conduct nice experiments in breeding. He wants a breed or variety already prepared to his hand. And for the same reasons, notwith- standing the fineness of his climate, he wants a hardy breed—one that de- mands no extra skill, no great experience, for its management. Merinos reaching or closely approaching the standard above specified are now to be found, while there is no corresponding variety of Saxons; and to incur the risks arising from inexperience, want of preparation, &c., the superior hardiness of the former would, of course, render them entirely prefer- able. Some have recommended a cross between the Saxons and Merinos, as a cheap and ready method of obtaining a four-pound fine-fleeced sheep. A properly selected Saxon ram, crossed with good medium and medium- wooled Merino ewes, cutting from 5 lbs. to 54 Ibs. of wool, will almost uni- formly produce this result. And it is easier now to get the Saxon than the Merino, fine enough for this purpose. Ora flock may be bred up from Saxon ewes and a Merinoram. The objection to both courses is the same, though not equal to that which exists against breeding the full-blood Sax- ons—viz., the production of a feeble and a poor nursing sheep. The latter evil, especially, clings for generations to these cross-bred animals, so far as my experience and observation have extended, And unless Saxons are selected which do not possess the characteristic faults of the variety, the cross-breds are inferior to pure-blood Merinos in many other and essential particulars, notwithstanding the fleece may be all that.we desire. There is another important point where the pure-blood Merino possesses a marked advantage. Few Southern wool-growers will commence their flocks exclusively with high-bred animals of any kind. With a few of them to breed rams from, and to gradually grow up a full-blood flock, they will mainly depend upon grading up the common sheep of the country. With the long-legged, bare-bellied, open-wooled sheep common in the South (as it once was in the North‘, the Saxon makes an indifferent cross. Their faults run too much 2m the same direction, in all save the fineness of wool, for, however good its shape, the wool of the Saxon is comparatively short and open. It therefore shortens the wool of the common sheep, without adding much or any to its thickness, and thus the fleece remains a light one. Precisely all this is the reverse of what results from a cross between the Merino and the common sheep. The wool is but little shortened, un- less the staple of the common sheep was very long; it is essentially thick- ened ; it is made to extend:over the belly ; the fleece is, therefore, greatly increased in weight ; the sheep is rendered more compact and “stocky,” and it is brought nearer to the ground. Even the first cross, though its fleece is somewhat wneven, is a prime sheep for the wants of ordinary farm- ers, and among these it is, accordingly, a decided favorite, over the whole Northern States. A majority of them would, I think, give it preference over any other kind or variety of sheep. Two or three more proper Me- rino crosses raise it to the rank of a first-rate wool-growing sheep—scarcely SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 165 inferior to the full-blood Merino in anything, save that 7¢ does not transmit tts good qualities with quite so much certainty to its offspring.* Let us now proceed to inquire what are the points which constitute ex- cellence, or mark a departure from it, in the class of Merino sheep which J have attempted to show form, in every point of view, the most suitable variety to commence wool-growing with in the South. What should be its size, weight of fleece, shape, general appearance, style of wool, &c. &c.4 Size, within extremes, is not, per se, a matter of much consequence.— There should, however, be un7formity in this particular, at least through the same flock, not only for their good appearance, but larger sheep are apt, by their superior strength, to crowd away small ones from the rack or trough. A sheep very small of zts breed and family, is commonly less hardy. If very large, ¢¢ must travel farther to fill itself ; and, therefore, this would be an objection to it in a breed designed to graze on short and scant pas- turage—for the extra exercise thus made necessary would cause it to waste (in the form of carbon, in the lungs) a considerable portion of the food, which would, under other circumstances, be converted into animal tissues. Very large, like very small animals, of the same species—and, I am in- clined to think, the former more frequently—lack the robustness, vigor of muscle, capacity to endure unusual and protracted exercise, or privation of food, or any other unfavorable deviation from ordinary habits, possessed by compact medium-sized animals. This rule will be found to apply among all domestic animals. Lastly, [am not prepared to prove, but I deleve that, with the same breeding, the woolly, like the osseous and muscular tis- sues of a large Merino sheep, will not be as fine as those of a smaller one. I do not found this opinion, so far as wool is concerned, upon, nor do I claim that it is supported by, any analogies. I state it as solely the result of individual observation. If it is a tendency which can be successfully re- sisted, I never have been fortunate enough to have a sufficient number of instances brought under my eye, in any one flock, to have them constitute anything more than sparse exceptions to what I deem a well established rule. I have never known a family of very large Merinos bearing anything better than medium wool; and the first step to any decided improvement in them immediately reduces their weight, for it can only be effected by interbreeding with finer and smaller families. Ewes weighing from 80 lbs. to 90 lbs. alive, in good fair store condition, are of about the proper size, in my judgment, where jine wool is the object.t Rams should weigh 40 Ibs. or 50 Ibs. more. Ewes of the large Merino families weigh from 100 lbs. to 110 Ibs.—the rams 50 lbs. more; nor do even these equal the size of some of the late imported French Merinos. A relation analogous to the preceding one, exists between the weight of the fleece and its quality. This point has already been sufficiently set forth on another page. The opinion is there expressed that the Merino may be easily bred, by judicious selection of sire and dam, to bear 4 lbs. of fine wool, or wool equaling ordinary Saxon. I would now add that, as a gen- . eral rule, and in large flocks, I do not believe more than this can be ob- tained, without a depreciation in the quality, among ewes. The ram’s fleece should in all cases, in a very superior animal, be about double that of the ewe. Five per cent. of the live-weight of the carcass, with ewes, is the maximum weight of fine wool, which we can, in the present state of breeding, look for with any uniform certainty. This would give a fleece of 4 lbs. to 80 Ibs. of live-weight. As the fine-wool Merinos increase, and thus give a wider range and better selection of materials for nice experi- * The latter point will be more particularly adverted to in a subsequent part of this Letter. t Saxons weigh about 20 lbs. less, 166 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ments, it is very possible that the per centage of the fleece may be increased, Mr. Lawrence, in speaking of attaining a four-pound fleece of “ exquisite” quality, undoubtedly alluded to the wool which I have classed as superfine. The four-pound fleeced fixe Merino ean undoubtedly be made superfine, by diminishing the weight of its fleece 10 or 12 ounces or a pound; and even then it will be a hardier and better animal than the finer class of Saxons which now produce this wool. But whether Mr. Law- rence’s standard can be fully attained, neither experience nor obser- vation enable me to decide. If it could, and the sheep be equal to the four-pound fine-fleeced Merino in other respects, we should have a perfect sheep. Such wool has sold this year at upward of 60 cents per pound, which would bring the fleeces to $2 40 a piece! It may be well here to glance at the comparative worth of fleeces in the several Merino families, taking this year’s prices, and taking the weights which are usually found accompanying the several qualities, in prime ordinary flocks. A fine fleece of 4 lbs., at 50 cents,* would be worth $2; good medium, weighing 44 Ibs., at 40 cents, $1 80; medium, weighing 5 Ibs., at 32 cents, $1 60. And the consumption of feed rises with the diminution of quality. Admitting the daily consumption of hay for 150 days to be 3 per cent. to the live- weight, 100 fine Merinos, averaging 85 lbs. each, would consume about 19 tons of hay; and 100 medium Merinos, averaging 105 Ibs. each, would consume about 23} tons—an important difference in their relative ex- penses! The fine-wooled Merino does not, like the Saxon, lose his ad- vantage in this particular by his inferior hardiness. The shape and general appearance of the Merino should ‘be as follows: The head should be well carried up, and inthe ewe hornless. It would be better on many accounts to have the ram also hornless, but, being usu- ally characteristic of the Merino, many prefer to see them. The face should be shortish, broad between ‘the eyes, the nose pointed, and_in the ewe fine and free from wrinkles. The eye should be bright, moderately prominent, and gentle in its expression. The neck should be straight (not curving downward), short, round, stout—particularly so at its junction with the shoulder, forward of the upper point of which it should not sink below the level of the back. The points of the shoulder should not rise to any perceptible extent above the level of the back. ‘The back, to the hips, should be straight; the crops (that portion of the body immediately back of the shoulder-blades) full; the ribs well arched; the body large and ca- pacious; the flank well let down; the hind-quarters full and round—the flesh meeting well down between the thighs, (or in the “ twist.”) The bosom should be broad and full; the legs short, well apart, and perpendic- ular, (?.e., not drawn under the body toward each other when the sheep is standing.) Viewed as a whole, the Merino should present the appearance of a low, stout, plump, and—though differing essentially from the English mutton-sheep model—a highly symmetrical sheep. The skin is an important point. It should be loose, singularly mellow, of a rich, delicate pink color. A colorless skin, or one of a tawny, ap- proaching to a butternut hue, indicates bad breeding. On the subject of wrinkles, there is a difference of opinion. Being rather characteristic of the Merino—like the black color in a Berkshire hog, or the absence of all color in Durham cattle—these wrinkles have been more regarded, by nov- ices, than those points which give actual value to the animal ; and shrewd breeders have not been slow to act upon this hint! Many have contended that more wool can be obtained from a wrinkled skin; and this is the view * This is not high for fine Merinc wool. Though I sold my lot for 42 cents, I was offered 50 cents for the fleeces of nearly all my later-bred sheep, if I would sell them separately. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 167 of the case which has induced both the Spanish and French breeders to cultivate them—the latter to a monstrosity. I confess that I agree, to a considerable extent, with Mr. Joshua Kirby Trimmer,* that “this idea is as w:ld‘as that which some of our theorists have entertained, that, by lay- ing lands in high ridges and low furrows, the surface of the earth and its produce is increased.” Though I once entertained a different opinion, the steel-yards have satisfied me that an exceedingly wrinkled neck does not add but a little to the weight of the fleece—not enough to compensate for the deformity, and the great impediment which it places in the way of the shearer. I have owned rams, the labor of shearing six of which, in a nice and workmanlike manner—cutting the wool off short and smooth, on and among the multitude of folds and wrinkles—was fully equivalent to shear- ing fifteen ordinary Merino rams, or twenty-five ewes—that is to say, a day’s work for one man. And none but a skillful shearer could, with any time given him, clip the wool short and smooth among the wrinkles, with- out frequently and severely cutting the skin. A smoothly drawn skin, and absence of all dewlap, on the other hand, would not, perhaps, be desirable. The wool of the Merino should densely cover the whole body, where it can possibly grow, from a point between and a little below the eyes, and well up on the cheeks, to the knees and hocks. Short wool may show, particularly in young animals, on the legs, even below the knees and hocks—but long wool covering the legs, and on the nose below the eyes, is unsightly—without value—and on the faces it frequently impedes the sight of the animal, causing it to be ina state of perpetual alarm, and disqualifying it to escape real danger. Neither is this useless wool, as seems to be thought by some, the slightest indication of a heavy fleece, I have as often seen it on Saxons scarcely shearing 2 lbs. of wool, and on the very lightest fleeced Merinos. The amount of gum which the wool should exhibit, is another of the mooted points. Here, as in many other particulars, experience has changed my earlier impressions. Merino wool should be yolky or “ oily,” prior to washing—though not to that extreme exteut, giving it the ap- pearance of being saturated with grease, occasionally witnessed. The extreme tips of the wool may exhibit a sufficient trace of gum to give the fleece a darkish cast—particularly in the ram——but a black, pitchy gum, resembling semi-hardened tar, extending an eighth or a quarter of an inch into the fleece, and which cannot be removed in ordinary washing, is, in my opinion, decidedly objectionable. There is a white or yellowish concrete gum, not removable by common washing, which appears in the zxéertor of some fleeces, which is equally objectionable. The weight of fleece remaining the same, medium length of staple, with compactness, is preferable to long, open wool, inasmuch as it constitutes a better safeguard from inclemencies of weather, and better protects the sheep from the bad effects of cold and drenching rains in spring and fall. The wool should be as nearly as possible of even length and thickness over the whole body. Shortness on the flank, and shortness or thinness on the belly, are serious defects. «Evenness of fleece ” is a point of the first importance. Many sheep exhibit good wool on the shoulder and side, while it is far coarser and even hairy on the thighs, dewlap, &c. Rams of this stamp should not be bred from by any one aiming to establish a superior fine-wooled flock, and all such ewes should be gradually excluded from those selected for breeding. The “style of the wool” is a point of as much consequence as mere * “ Practical Observations on the Improvement of British Fine Wools, &c.” by the above, 1828. 168 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. TOMY acum VU en Aare EE ee ee fineness. Some very fine wool is stiff and the fibres almost straight, like hair. It has a dry, cottony look. ‘This is a poor, unsalable article, how- ever fine the fibre. Softness of wool—a delicate, silky, highly elastic feel, between the fingers or on the lips, is the first thing to look after. This is usually an index, or inseparable attendant, of the other good qualities, so that an experienced judge can decide, with little difficulty, between the quality of two fleeces, in the dark! Wool should be finely serrated or crimped from one extremity to the other—i. ¢., it should present a regular series of minute curves, and, generally, the greater the number of these curves in a given length, the higher the quality of wool in all other particulars. The wool should open on the back of the sheep in connected masses, instead of breaking up into little round spiral ringlets of the size of a pipe-stem, which indicate thinness of fleece; and when the wool is pressed open each way with the hands, it should be dense enough to con- ceal all but a delicate rose-colored line of skin. The interior of the wool should be a pure, glittering white, with a lustre and “ liveliness ” of look not surpassed in the best silk. The points in the form of the Merino which the breeder is called upon particularly to eschew, are—a long, thin head, narrow between the eyes— a thin, long neck, arching downward before the shoulders—bad crops— back falling behind the shoulders—narrow loin—flat ribs—steep, narrow hind quarters—long legs—thighs scarcely meeting at all—legs drawn far under the body at the least approach of cold. All these points were sep- arately or conjointly illustrated in many of the Saxon flocks which have been recently swept from the country. The points to be avoided in the fleece have been sufficiently adverted to. Having thus attempted to establish a standard for the Merino-breeder, it remains that we examine some of the most important principles, in breeding, by which that standard is to be reached or maintained, The first great starting-point, among pure-blood animals, is that “like will beget like.” If the sire and dam are perfect in any given point, the offspring will generally be; if either is defective, the offspring will (sub- ject to a law presently to be adverted to) be half way between the two; if both are defective in the same point, the progeny will be more so than either of its parents—it will inherit the amount of the defect in both pa- rents added together. There are exceedingly few perfect animals. Breed- ing, then, is a system of counterbalancing—breeding out—in the offspring, the defects of one parent, by the marked excellence of the other parent, am the same points. The highest blood confers on the parent possessing it the greatest power of stamping its own characteristics on its progeny ; bat blood being the same, the male sheep possesses this power in a greater degree than the female. We may, therefore, in the beginning, breed from ewes possessing any defects short of cardinal ones, without impro- priety, provided we possess the proper ram for that purpose ; but the flockmaster, aiming at a high standard of quality, should gradually throw out from breeding all ewes possessing even considerable defects, Every year should make him more rigorous in his selection. But from the be- ginning—and in the beginning more than at any other time—the greatest care should be evinced in the selection of the ram. If he has a defect, that defect is to be inherited by the whole future flock. If it is a materjal one, as, for example, a hollow back, bad crops, a thin fleece, or a highly uneven fleece, the flock will be one of low quality and little value. If, on the other hand, he is perfect, the defects in the females will be lessened, and gradually bred out. But it being difficult to find perfect rams, we are to take those which have the fewest and lightest defects, and none of SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 169 these material ones, like those just enumerated. And these defects are to be met and counterbalanced by the decided excellence (sometimes running to a fault) of the ewe, in the same points. If the ram is a little too long- legged, the shortest-legged ewes should be selected for him; if gummy, the dryest-wooled ewes ; if his fleece is a trifle below the proper standard of fineness, (but he has been retained, as it often happens, for weight of fleece and general excellence,) he is to be put to the finest and lightest fleeced ewes, and so on. Having a selection of rams, this system of coun- terbalancing would require little skill, if each parent possessed but one fault. If the ewe was a trifle too thin fleeced, and good in all other par- ticulars, it would require no nice judgment to decide that she needed to be bred to an uncommonly thick-fleeced ram. But most animals possess, to a greater or less degree, several defects. To select so that every one of these in the dam shall meet its opposite in the male, and vice versa, re- quires not only plentiful materials to select from, but the keenest dis- crimination. ‘The time and the convenient method of selecting the ewes for the several rams, and the subsequent management, will be hereafter pointed out. We will now suppose that the breeder has established his flock—that he has done so successfully, and given them an excellent character. He is s00n met with a serious evil. He must “ breed in-and-in,” as it is called —that is, interbreed between animals more or less nearly related in blood —or he must seek rams from other flocks, to the risk of losing or changing the distinctive character of his flock, hitherto sought so sedulously, and built up with so much care. It is contended by the opponents of in-and-in breeding that it renders diseases and all other defects hereditary, and that it tends to decrease of size, to debility, and a general breaking up of the constitution. Its apologists, on the other hand, insist that, if the parents are perfectly healthy, incestuous connexion does not, per se, tend to any diminution of healthiness in the offspring ; and they also claim, what must be conceded, that it enables the skillful breeder much more rapidly to bring his flock to a particular standard or model—and much more: easily to keep it there—unless it be true that, in course of time, they will dwin- dle and grow feeble. So far as the effect on the constitution is concerned, both positions may be, to a certain extent, true. But it is, perhaps, difhi- cult to. always decide with certainty when an animal is not only free from disease, but from all tendency or predisposition toward it. A brother and sister may be apparently healthy—may be actually so—but may possess an idiosyncrasy which, under certain circumstances, will manifest itselfi— If these circumstances do not chance to occur, they may live, apparently possessing a robust constitution, until old age. If bred together, their off- spring, by a rule already laid down, will possess the idiosynerasy in @ double degree. Suppose the ram be interbred with sisters, half-sisters, daughters, grand-daughters, &c., for several generations, the predisposition toward a particular disease—in the first place slight, now strong, and con- stantly growing stronger—will pervade, and become radically incorporated into, the constitution of the whole flock. The first time the requisite ex- citing causes are brought to bear, the disease breaks out, and, under such circumstances, with peculiar severity and malignancy. If it be of a fatal character, the flock is rapidly swept away; if not, it becomes chronic, or periodical at frequently recurring intervals. 'The same remarks apply, in part, to those defects of the outward form which do not at first, from their slightness, attract the notice of the ordinary breeder. They are rapidly increased until, almost before thought of by the owner, they destroy the value of the sheep. That such are the ei effects of in-and-in breed+ / 170 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ing, with such skill as it is ordinarily conducted, all know who have given attention to the subject; and for these reasons the system is looked upon with decided disapprobation and repugnance, as among all kinds of domes- tic animals, by nine out of ten of the best practical farmers of the Northern States. How, then, shall the sheep-breeder avoid the effects of in-and-in breed- ing, and at the same time preserve the character of his flock? He should do so by seeking rams of the same breed, and possessing, as nearly as pos- stble, the characteristics which he wishes to preserve in his own flock. If the latter rule is neglected—if he draws indiscriminately from all the different families or varieties of a breed—some large and some small—some long and some short-wooled—some medium and some superfine in quality— some tall and some squabby—some crusted over with black gum, some entirely free from it, &c. &c.—breeding will become a mere hotch-potch, and no certain or uniform results can be looked for. So many varieties cannot be fused into one, for a number of generations ;* and it not unfre- quently happens, as between the different classes of Saxons alluded to by Mr. Spooner,t that certain families can never be successfully amalgamated. But suppose the breeder has reached no satisfactory standard—that his sheep are deficient in the requisites he desires? If the desired requisites are characteristic of the breed he possesses, he is to adhere to the breed, and select better animals to improve his own inferior ones. If he has an infe- rior flock of South-Downs, and wishes to obtain the qualities of the best South Dams, he should seek for the best rams of that breed. But if he wishes to obtain qualities not characteristic of the breed he possesses, he must cross with a breed which does possess them, If the possessor of South- Downs wishes to convert them into a fine-wooled sheep similar to the Me- rino, he should cross his flock steadily with Merino rams—constantly in- creasing the amount of Merino and diminishing the amount of South-Down blood. To effect the same result, he would take the same course with the common sheep of the country, or any other coarse race. There are those who, forgetful that some of the finest varieties now in existence, of several kinds of domestic animals, are the result of crosses, bitterly inveigh against the practice of crossing, under any and all circumstances. As fre- quently conducted, where objects incompatible with each other are sought to be attained—as, for example, an attempt to unite the fleece of a Merino and the carcass of a Leicester, by crosses between those breeds—it is an unqualified absurdity. But under the limitations already laid down, and with the objects specified as legitimate ones, objection to crossing savors, in my judgment, of prejudice the most profound, or quackery the most unvarnished. The cry, “ buy full-bloods,” with such men, generally means, “ buy our full-bloods !”’ It is neither convenient, nor within the means of every man wishing to start a flock of sheep, to start exclusively with full- bloods. With a few full-bloods to breed rams from, and to degin a full- blood flock, the Southern breeder will find it his best policy to purchase the best common sheep of his country, and gradually grade them up with Merino rams. In selecting the ewes, fair size, good shape, and a robust constitution, are the main points—the little difference that exists between the quality of the common sheep’s wool is of no consequence. For their wool they are to look to the Merino; but good form and constitution they can and ought to possess, so as not to entail deep-rooted and entirely ua- necessary evils on their progeny. * This occasions the want of uniformity in the Rambouillet flock in France, which was begun by a pro- miscuous admixture of all the Spanish families. t Quoted in Letter X. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 171 I have already spoken, in this Letter, incidentally, of the effect on the fleece of the common sheep, by crossing with the Merino and breeding steadily toward the latter; and also of the mutton of this cross, as well as that of the Merino and the English breeds. The result of the cross with the common sheep has been sufficiently described. I would add a few remarks in relation to that with the South-Down and Leicester —hboth of which I have tried until sufficiently satisfied with the result. Resolved on making an experiment with a Down and Merino cross, a few years since, and finding it difficult to obtain Down ewes* of the proper quality, I obtained a small, compact, exceedingly beautiful, fine and even- fleeced Down ram,t} and crossed him with a few large-sized Merino ewes. The half-blood ewes were bred to a Merino ram, and also their female progeny, and so on. The South-Down form and disposition to take on fat manifested itself, to a perceptible extent, in every generation which I bred,{ and the wool of many of the sheep in the third generation (Z-blood Merino and +-blood Down) was very even, and equal to medium, and some of them to good medium Merino. Their fleeces were lighter than the full-blood Merino, but increased in weight with each succeeding cross back toward the latter. Their mutton of the first, and even the second cross, was of a beautiful flavor—and it retained some of the superiority of South-Down mutton to the last. lat the same time purchased a few Leicester ewes,|| and, as in the preceding case, taking one cross of the blood, I bred toward the Merino. The mongrels, to the second generation (beyond which I did not breed them) were about midway between the size of the two parent stocks— with wool shorter, but far finer and more compact than the Leicester— their fleeces about the same in weight as in the present stocks§—and alto- gether they were a showy and profitable sheep, and well calculated to please the mass of farmers. Their fleeces lacked evenness—their thighs remaining disproportionately coarse and hairy; and making up my mind that this would always be a tendency of the sheep of this cross, | aban- doned them without farther experiment. In relation to the number of crosses necessary before it is proper to breed from a mongrel ram, there is a difference of opinion. Mr. Livings- ton says :{ “Tt is now so well established as not even to admit of the smallest doubt that a Merino in the fourth generation, from even the worst-wooled ewes, is in every respect equal to the stock of the sire. No difference is now made in Europe in the choice of a ram, whether he is a full-blood or a fifteen-sixteenths.’”’ .... ‘The French agriculturists say that however coarse the fleece of the parent ewe may have been, the progeny in the fourth generation will not show it.’ I am constrained to differ with even this high authority. I admit that the only value of blood or pedigree, in breeding, is to insure the hereditary transmission of the properties of the parent to the offspring. As soon as a mongrel reaches the point where he stamps his characteristics on his progeny, with the same certainty that a full-blood does, he is equally valuable, provided he is, individually, as perfect an animal. But I do not * To carry out the commonly received principle in breeding, that in crossing between different races. the ram ofthe smaller should be put to ewe of the larger one. + This ram, obtained from Francis Rotch, Esq., was got by a prize ram of Mr. Ellman’s, and from one of his choicest breeding-ewes, and showed infinitely more style, as well as fineness and evenness of wool, than the common Downs of our country. He was not larger than a large-sized Merino ram. } These I finally put off to save myself the trouble of breeding several kinds of sheep on the same farm. } Descended from the flock of the late Robert Adcock. of Otsego County, N. Y.—considered at the time equal to any flock in the State. : By 4 That is, about 5lbs. I have put down the Leicester fleece, in my description of the breed, at 6 lbs., as this is the amount generally claimed for them ; but in the few cases brought within my direct knowledge, they have never averaged it. My ewes above alluded to did not, I think, average quite 5 lbs. @ Essay on Sheep, pp. 181, 188. 172 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. believe that this can be depended upon, with any certainty, in rams of the fourth Merino cross. My only experience in this particular is in the ob- servation of other men’s flocks who have bred with high-grade rams.* These have invariably lacked the style and perfection of thorough-bred flocks. The sixth, seventh, or eighth cross might be generally, and the last perhaps almost invariably, as good as pure-blood rams, but I confess I should still prefer to adhere to the latter. Pure blood is a fixed stand- ard, and were every breeder to think himself at liberty to depart from it, in his rams, each one more or less, according to his own judgment or caprice, the whole blood of the country would become adulterated. No man would be authorized to sell a ram of any cross, be it the tenth, or even the twentieth, as a full-blood. It is all-important for those commencing flocks either of full-bloods, or by crossing, to select the choicest rams. A grown ram may be made to serve || from 100 to 150 ewes in a season. A good Merino ram will, speaking within bounds, add more than a pound of wool to the fleece of the dam, on every lamb got by it, from a common-wooled ewe.§ Here is one hundred or one hundred and fifty pounds of wool for the use of a ram for a single season! And every lamb subsequently got by him addsa pound to this amount. Many a ram gets, during his life, 800 or 1,000 lambs! Nor is the extra amount of wool all. He gets from 800 to 1,000 half-blooded sheep, worth double their dams, and ready to be made the basis of another and higher stride in improvement. A good ram, then, is as important, and, it seems to me, quite as valuable an animal as a good farm-horse stallion! When the number of a ram’s progeny are taken into consideration, and when it is seen over what an immense extent, even in his own direct offspring, his good or bad qualities are to be perpetuated, the folly of that economy which would select an inferior one is sufficiently obvious. Every one desirous of starting a flock will find it his best economy, where the proper flocks to draw rams from are not near him, to purchase several of the same breed, of course, but of different strains of blood. Thus, ram No. 2 can be put on the offspring of No. 1, and wice versa; No. 3 can be put upon the offspring of both, and both upon the offspring of No. 3. The changes which can be rung on three distinct strains of blood, without in-and-in breeding close enough to be attended with any considerable dan- ger, are innumerable.{[ But if these rams of different strains are bought promiscuously, without reference to similarity of characteristics, there may, and probably will be differences between them, and it might require time and skill to give a flock descended from them, a proper uniformity of character. Those who breed rams for sale should be prepared to furnish different strains of blood with the necessary individual and family uni formity. *T have never knowingly bred with any other ram than a pure-blood, of any stock, or for any purpose. li By methods hereafter to be described. § That is, if the ewe at 3 years old sheared 3 lbs. of wool, the lamb at the same age will shear 4 lbs. of wool. §] The brother and sister are of the same blood; the father and daughter, half; the father and grand- daughter, one-fourth ; the father and great grand-daughter, one-eighth, and so on. Breeding between an- imals possessing one-eighth of the same blood, would not be considered very close breeding ; and it is not ene one in rugged, well-formed families, to breed between those possessing one-fourth of the same 00 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. L73 ——— LETTER XII. SUMMER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. Tagging—necessity of—method of doing it...Burs—how avoided... Lambing—time of—Inclosures for— Mechanical Assistance—when rendered—assisting the Lamb—Feeding—necessary care in—Warming— Foster Ewes...Pens...“ Pinning”...Numbering and Registering—advantages of—Von Thaér's System of Numbering—manner of doing it conveniently—Mr. Grove'’s form of a Register. ..Castration and Docking —proper time and method...Washing—time—necessary apparatus—“ wetting”—manner of washing— ordinary waste in subsequent cleansing... Cutting the Hoofs—best time—implements—method...Time between Washing and Shearing...shearing—proper conveniences for—catcher’s business—directions to shearer—general directions. ..Shearing Lambs—shearing Sheep semi-annually—objectionable practices. .. Doing up Wool—Wool Table and Trough—handling fleece—arrangement on table—folding—rolling—ty- ing—proper twine. -.Storing Wool—Wool-Room. - -Sacking Wool—methods. - .Sorting the Flock at shear- ing—how done.-.Marking Sheep—the proper way---Cold Storms after Shearing. - .Sun-scald - - -Ticks— how destroyed... Maggots—preventives...Cutting the Horns.-.-Division of Flocks for Summer..-.Hop- pling—Clogging, &c...Dangerous Rams...Fences-..-Salt...Tar...Water...Shade...Weaning Lambs... Fall Feeding..-Shepherd’s Crook. Dear Sir: Agreeably to your request, and that of various other South- ern friends, I proceed to give directions for the practical management of sheep “ plain and minute enough for the guidance of those entirely unac- quainted with the subject.” I will begin with their Summer Management.* Tacerne.—lIf sheep are kept on dry feed through the winter, they will usually purge more or less, when let out to green feed in the spring. The wool around and below the anus becomes saturated with dung, which forms into hard pellets, if the purging ceases. But whether this takes place or not, the adhering dung cannot be removed from the wool in the ordinary process of washing. It forms a great impediment in shearing, dulling and straining the shears to cut through it when in a dry state, and it is often impracticable so to do. It is difficult to force the shears be- tween it and the skin, without frequently and severely wounding the latter. Occasionally, too, flies deposit their eggs under this mass of filth prior to shearing, and the ensuing swarm of maggots, unless speedily discovered and removed, will lead the sheep to a miserable death. Before sheep are let out to grass, each one should have the wool sheared from the roots of the tail down the inside of the thighs, over the surface included between the dotted lines in Fig. 16. the cut. The wool should be sheared from off the en- tire bag of the ewe, that the newly dropped lamb may more readily find the teat, and from the scrotum, and so much space round the point of the sheath of the ram, as is usually kept wet. If the latter place is neglected, soreness and ulceration sometimes ensue from the con- stant maceration of the urine. Sometimes each tagger catches and holds his own sheep, but it is, on the whole, better, I think, to have an assistant catch the sheep and hold them while they are tagged. ‘The latter process requires a good shearer, as the wool must be cut off closely and smoothly, or the object is but half accomplished, and the sheep will have an unsightly and ridiculous appearance, when the remainder of their fleeces is taken off; 5 4 4 * [have not thought it necessary to mark with quotation points, various extracts in this Letter, from a series of Letters written by me a number of years since, and published in the “ Valley Farmer.” 174 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. and, on the other hand, it is not only improper to cut the skin of a sheep at any time, but it is peculiarly so to cut that on the bag of an ewe near lambing. The wool saved by tagging will far more than pay the ex- penses of the operation. It answers well for stockings and other ordinary domestic purposes, or it will sell for something like half the price of fleece wool. Humanity and economy both dictate that care should be taken in han- dling sheep at all times, and it is especially important with ewes heavy with lamb. It is highly injurious and unsafe to chase them about and han- dle them roughly, for even if abortion, the worst. consequence of such treatment, is avoided, they become timid and shy of being touched, render- ing it difficult to catch or render them assistance at the lambing period— and even a matter of difficulty to enter the cotes where it is sometimes necessary to confine them at that time, without having them driving about pell-mell, running over their lambs, &c. It may not be known to every one, that if a sheep is suddenly caught by the wool when running, or is lifted by its wool, the skin is to a certain extent loosened from the body at the points where it is thus seized, and if killed a day or two afterward, blood will be found settled about those parts. A man knowing this, and subsequently guilty of such gratuitous brutality, richly deserves to be kicked out of the sheep-yard. When sheep are to be handled, they should be inclosed in a yard just large enough to hold them without their being crowded—so they shall have no chance to run and dash about. The catcher should stop them by seizing them by the hind leg close above the - hock, or by clapping one hand before the neck and the other behind the buttocks. Then, not waiting for the sheep to make a violent struggle, he should throw his right arm over and about it immediately back of the shoulders, place his hand under the brisket, and lift the animal on his hip. If the sheep is very heavy, he can throw both arms around it, clasp his fingers under the brisket, and lift it up against the front part of his body. He then should set it carefully on its rump on the tagging-table, (which should be 18 or 20 inches high,) support its back with his legs, and hold it gently and conveniently until the tagger has performed his duty. Two men should not be permitted to lift the same sheep together, as it will be pretty sure to receive some strain between them. A good shearer and assistant will tag 200 sheep per day. Where sheep receive green feed all the year round, as they will do in many parts of the South, and no purging ensues from eating the newly- starting grasses in the spring, tagging will not be necessary. Burs, &c.—If sheep are let out in the spring into pastures where the dry stalks of the Burdock (Arctium lappa), or the Hound’s Tongue, or Tory-weed ( Cynoglossum officinale), have remained standing over the win- ter, the burs are caught in their now long wool, and, if numerous, the wool is rendered entirely unmarketable, and almost valueless. Even the dry prickles of the common and Canada thistles, where they are very numer- ous, get into the neck-wool of sheep, as they thrust their heads under and among them to crop the first scarce feed of the Northern spring ; and, in- dependently of injuring the wool, they make it difficult to wash and other- wise handle the sheep. The Burdock being a large and not very frequent plant, there is no excuse for its being found on the farm. The Hound’s Tongue is very prevalent in® forests and partly wooded pastures in the North, and it is not conspicuous enough to be easily eradicated, though careful sheep-farmers often do so. If sheep are let into pastures contain- ing it, it must be only in the summer and fall, after shearing. The burs, SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 175 not sunk so deeply in the short wool, will wear out during our winters— but no man thinks of letting his sheep into pastures containing it, before shearing in the spring. Indeed, sheep should be kept on the cleanest pas- tures—those free from these and all similar plants—during this period; and, in a region where they are pastured the year round, if such pests are not eradicated—which J should consider indispensable—the sheep should be kept from contact with them for some months prior to shearing. Lampine.—Lambs are usually dropped, in the North, from the first to the fifteenth of May. In the South, they might safely come earlier. It is not expedient to have them dropped when the weather is cold and boister- ous, as they require too much care; but the sooner the better, after the weather has become mild, and the herbage has started sufficiently to give the ewes that green food which is required to produce a plentiful secretion of milk. It is customary in the North to have fields of clover, or the earli- est grasses, reserved for the early spring feed of the breeding ewes; and, if these can be contiguous to their shelters, it is a great convenience—for the ewes should be confined in the latter, on cold and stormy nights, during the lambing season. If warm and pleasant, and the nights are warmish, I prefer to have the lambing take place in the pastures. I think sheep are more disposed to own and take kindly to their lambs thus, than in the confusion of a small inclosure. Unless particularly docile, sheep in a small inclosure crowd from one side to another when any one enters, running over young lambs, pressing them severely, &c. Ewes get separated from their lambs, and then run violently round from one to another, jostling and knocking them about. Young and timid ewes get separated from their lambs, and fre- quently will neglect them for an hour or more before they will again ap- proach them. If the weather is severely cold, the lamb, if it has never sucked, stands a chance to perish. Lambs, too, when just dropped, in a dirty inclosure, in their first efforts to rise, tumble about, and the mem- brane which adheres to them becomes smeared with dirt and dung—and the ewe refuses to lick them dry, which much increases the hazard of freezing. Nevertheless, all this must be incurred in cold storms, and in sudden and severe weather ; and, therefore, it should be the effort of every shep- herd to teach his sheep docility. I have seen the late Mr. Grove walk about a barn filled with his Saxons, not only without their crowding from side to side, but many of them absolutely lying still while he stepped over them! Isay it “must be incurred.” I mean by this that it is the safest course with all breeds, and a matter of necessity with others. It takes but a very moderately cold night to destroy the new-born Saxon lamb, which (the pure blood) is yeaned nearly as naked as achild! During a severely cold period, of several days’ continuance, it is almost impossible to rear them, even in the best shelter. The Merino, South-Dow»m, and some other breeds, will endure a greater degree of cold with impunity. Inclosures, when used for yeaning, should be kept clean by frequent lit- terings of straw—not enough, however, thrown on at one time, to embar- rass the lamb about rising. The ewe does not often require mechanical assistance in parturition — Her labors will sometimes be prolonged for three or four hours, and her loud moanings will evince the extent of her pain. Sometimes she will gu about several hours, and even resume her grazing, with the fore-feet aml nose of the lamb showing at the mouth of the vagina. But, if let alone, Nature will generally finally relieve her. Tuis might not do with the 176 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. heavy English breeds. I should infer not, from the elaborate directions, in the premises, by Youatt, Blacklock, and other English wiiters on Sheep; though with the comparatively small number of these varieties which I have bred, I hive had no difficulty in this particular. Among the thou- sands and thousands of fine-wooled sheep which I have bred, I never have known a single instance of a false presentation of the foetus, and never have had mechanical assistance rendered in to exceed half a dozen in- stances. ‘The objection to interfering, except as a last resort, is that the ewe is frightened when caught, and her efforts to expel the lamb cease — When aided, the gentlest force should be applied, and only in conjunction with the efforts of the ewe. : While the lamb is tumbling about and attempting to rise, and the ewe is licking it dry, it is better to be in no haste to interfere. A lamb that gets at the teat without help, and gets even a small quantity of milk, knows how to help itself afterward, and rarely perishes. If helped, it sometimes continues to expect it, and will do little for itself for two or three days.— The same is true when lambs are fed from a spoon or bottle. But if the lamb ceases to make efforts to rise, particularly if the ewe has left off licking it while it is wet and chilly, it is time for the shepherd to render his assistance. It is better not to throw the ewe down, as is fre- quently practiced, to suckle the lamb, because instinct teaches the latter to point its nose upward in search of the teat. It is doubly difficult, there- fore, to induce it to suck from the bag of the prostrate ewe; and when taught to do this, by being suckled so several times, I have invariably no- ticed that it renders it awkward about finding the teat 7m the natural posi- tion, when it begins to stand and help itself, Nothing is stupider than a weakly lamb! Carefully disengaging the ewe from her companions, with his crook, the assistant should place one hand before the neck and the other behind the buttocks of the ewe, and, then pressing her against his knees, he should hold her firmly and stilly, so that she shall not be constantly crowdiug away from the shepherd. The shepherd should set the lamb on its feet, inducing it to stand, if possible ; if not, supporting it on ats feet by placing one hand under its hody—place its mouth to the teat, and encour- age it to suck by tickling it about the roots of the tail, flanks, &c., with a finger. The lamb, mistaking this last for the caresses of its dam, will re- double its efforts to suck. Sometimes it will evince great dullness, and even apparent obstinacy, in refusing for a long time to attempt to assist itself, crowding backward, &c.; but the kind and gentle shepherd, who will not sink himself to the level of a brute by resenting the stupidity of a brute, will generally carry the point by perseverance. Sometimes milking a little into the lamb’s mouth, holding the latter close to the teat, will in- duce it to take hold. If the ewe has no milk, the lamb should be fed until the natural supply commences, with smal] quantities of the milk of a mew-milch cow. This should be mixed, say half and half, with water—with enough molasses to give it the purgative effect of biestings, or the first milk—gently warmed to the natural heat (not scalded and suffered to cool), and then fed through a bottle with a sponge in the opening of it, which the lamb should suck, if it can be induced so to do. If the milk is poured in its mouth from a spoon or bottle, as already remarked, it is frequently difficult afterward to induce it to suck. And, moreover, unless milk is poured in the mouth slowly and with care—no faster than the lamb can swallow—a speedy wheezing, the infallible precursor of death, will show that a portion of the fluid has been forced into the lungs. I have known lambs frequently killed in this way. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 177 1f a lamb becomes chilled, it should be wrapped up in a woolen blanket, and placed in a warm room—giving a little milk as soon as it will swal- low. A trifle of pepper is sometimes placed in the milk, and I think with good effect, to rouse the cold and torpid stomach into action. Some of the Yankee old ladies, under such circumstances, “ bake” the lamb, as it is called—z. e., put it in a blanket in a moderately heated oven, until warmth and animation are restored. Others immerse it in tepid water, and subsequently rub it dry. This is said to be an excellent method where the lamb is nearly frozen. I never have tried it. A good blanket, a warm room, and sometimes, perhaps, a little gentle friction, have always sufficed. If a strong ewe, with a good bag of milk, chances to lose her lamb, she should be required to bring up one of some other ewe’s pair of twins—or the lamb of some feeble or young ewe, having an inadequate supply of milk. Her own lamb should be skinned, as soon as possible after death, and the skin sowed over the lamb which she is required to foster. She will sometimes be a little suspicious for a day or two, and if so, she should be kept in a small pen with the lamb, being occasionally looked to. After taking well to it, the false skin may be removed in three or four days. If no lamb is placed on a ewe which has lost her lamb, and which has a full bag of milk, the milk should be drawn from the bag once or twice, or garget may ensue. If it does not, permanent indurations, or other re- sults of inflammatory action will often take place, injuring the subsequent nursing properties of the animal. When milked, it is well to wash the bag for some time in cold water. It checks the subsequent secretions of milk, as well as abates inflammation. Garget will be treated under the head of Diseases of Sheep. Sometimes a young ewe, though exhibiting sufficient fondness for her lamb, will not stand for it to suck; and in this case, if the lamb is not very strong and persevering, and especially if the weather is cold, it soon grows weak and perishes. The conduct of the dam in such cases is occasioned by inflammatory action abort the bag or teats—and, perhaps somewhat by the novelty of her position! In this case the sheep should be caught and held until the lamb has exhausted the bag, and there will not often be any trouble afterward, though it may be well enough to keep them in a pen together until the fact is determined. I have several times spoken of pens. They are necessary in the cases | have mentioned, and in a variety of others. It is therefore well for the flock-master to be always provided with a few of them for emergencies, They need not be to exceed eight or ten feet square, and should be built of light materials, and fastened together at the corners, so they can be readily moved by one, or, at the most, two men, from place to place, where they are wanted. Their position should be daily shifted when sheep are in them, for cleanliness and fresh feed. Light pine poles, laid up fence fashion, and each nailed or pegged to the lower ones, at the cor- ners, as laid on, would make excellent ones. Two or three sides of a few of them should be wattled with twigs, and the tops partly covered to shel- ter feeble lambs from cold rains, piercing winds, &c. i Young lambs are subject to what is technically called ‘“ pinning,”—that is, their first excrements are so adhesive and tenacious that the orifice of the anus is closed, and subsequent evacuations prevented. The adhering matter should be entirely removed, and the part rubbed with a little dry clay to prevent subsequent adhesion. Lambs will frequently perish from this cause if not looked to for ei few days. 178 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. NuMBERING AND ReEGIsTERING.—This is not absolutely necessary for the wool-grower, though it is, in many points of view, a vast convenience to him, and leads to a degree of system in his efforts after improvement, and gives a definiteness and precision to the execution of his plans, otherwise unattainable. But the breeder—he who makes it his business more par- ticularly to raise choice animals to sell for breeding purposes—is unwor-, thy of the name, if he does not. regularly number and register his sheep, so that he can trace the descent of any ram.or ewe, through any number of generations. This is not merely to gratify an idle curiosity, or to fur- nish a purchaser with a sounding pedigree. Every breeder is under the ne- cessity of directly breeding in-and-in, or of occasionally employing new strains of blood. If the latter step is often resorted to, the hazard is in- creased of changing the character of the flock.* If he numbers and regis- ters his sheep, he can breed “ closer,” t and consequently longer, without a change, without the hazard of confusion or mistake. Where half a dozen, or even three or four rams are used in the flock the same year, it would be beyond the power of any breeder, relying on his memory alone, to decide, six or eight or ten years subsequently, which were the daughters, grand- daughters, and great-grand-daughters of each. If the rams A and B be un- related, A may be put to the daughters of B, and then B be put to the produce, (¢. e., his own grand-daughter, got by A,) without “close” breed- ing—because they possess but one-quarter of the same blood. Then the great-grand-daughter may be again put to A, because she possesses but one- quarter of Ais blood, As I remarked in my last Letter, with ¢hree strains of blood to start with, the breeder may ring innumerable changes, without ever trenching on that line which marks the boundaries of close breeding. He who pretends that he can preserve such multiplied classifications in his memory alone, is unworthy of the least confidence. There is another very important consideration. Numbering and regis- tering enables the breeder to trace breeding effects definitely to their causes. Suppose that he finds that an unusual number of his young ewes are poor nurses—or exhibit some imperfection of form or wool. He can re- move the present effect by throwing out the defective ones. But the undis- covered cause may still remain in operation. It may be a particular ram, or the result of interbreeding between such ram, and ewes of a certain strain of blood. If this ram, or perhaps others got by him, be permitted to breed, or breed with a particular class of ewes, the evil creeps along in the flock, its cause remaining undiscovered. But if the breeder could fix the precise pedigree of every sheep, from an accurately kept register, he would soon ascertain what strains of blood, or the conjunction of what strains, produced the evil. By the same means, he could as readily trace. the sources of particular excellence. The system of numbering invented by the celebrated Von Thaér is far preferable to any other which Lhave seen.{ It is as follows: || * Aram of anew strain of blood, though of prime quality, and apparently possessing the same charac- teristics with the flock, does not always interbreed well with the flock in all those minute particulars which the breeder is bound to notice, though they might escape the eye of the ordinary flock-master. Every breeder, therefore, who has a flock that suits him, is exceedingly averse to an infusion of new blood, and resorts to it only as a matter of necessity, + That is, he can breed in-and-in somewhat. ‘“ Close” breeding is breeding between near affinities, such as between brother and sister, whichare of the same blood, or between a father and a grand-daughter be- gotten on a daughter, which would be three-fourths of the same hldod, &c. . ¢ It will not cause half the mutilation of. the system given in the American Shepherd—is simple, and gives the age, which the former does not. Neither can this system of giving the age be ingrafted on that system of numbering. || As furnished me by Mr. Grove, a number of years since, with this exception, that the point of the right ear cut square off, he made to stand for 700 instead of 500, as I have placedit. I made this change, as the notch and clip standing for 100 and 400, coming on the point of the same ear, there was no com- bination ty express 500. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 179 One notch over the left ear, (that which is on your left when the face of the sheep is from you,) stands for 1; two notches over the same, for 2. One notch under the left ear stands for 3. Three such notches carry up the number to 9. One notch ‘over the right ear stands for 10 ; two such for 20. One notch under the same stands fur 30; and three such for 90. Combinations of the above (three notches under each ear) would carry up the number to 99. These four classes of notches which express all parts of a hundred, are shown in the first of the annexed cuts. A sheep marked like fig. 17 would be No. 44. A notch in the énd of left ear, as in fig. 18, a) stands for 100; in right do. 200. In addition to — these there are on the same cut two 1 notches, one 3 notch, one 10 do., and two 30 do. Adding the whole together, the sheep would therefore be No. 375. As the 100 and 200 notches, together, make 300, no separate notch is required for the latter number. The point of the left ear cut square off, as in fig. 19, cut, stands for 400; the point of the right cut square off, for 500. The latter and the 100 notch would make 600, and so on. The lambs of each year and each sex are num- bered from 1. The age is expressed by round holes through 1 the ears, standing for the year in which the sheep No. 909-1848. is born. As there is no possibility of making a mistake of ten years in the age of .a sheep, these marks are the same be- tween each tenth year of the century. Between 1840 and 1850, xo hole would express 1840; one hole in the left ear, 1841; two boles in the left ear, 1842; one hole in the right ear, 1843; one hole in the right and one in the left, 1844; one hole in the right and two in the left, 1845; two in the right, 1846 ; two in the right and one in the left, 1847; two in each, 1848 ; three in the right, 1849; none in either, 1850—and the same for the next ten years. Examples are given in the preceding cuts. In other words, one hole in the left ear signifies 1, and one in the right 3, as applied to the years between each tenth of a century—and the combinations of these holes are made to express all the intermediate years, with the exception of the tenth. Every ewe, when turned in with the ram, should be given a mark (en- tirely distinct from the mark of ownership) which will continue visible un- til the next shearing. Nothing is better for this purpose than Venetian Red and hog’s lard, well incorporated, and marked on with a cob. The ewes for each ram require a differently shaped mark, and the mark should also be made on the ram, or a minute of it in the sheep-book. Thus it can be determined at a glance by what ram the ewe was tupped, any time before the next shearing. The holes in the ears, indicating the year, being the same on the whole annual crop of lambs, may be made at any convenient time. The holes are most conveniently made by a saddler’s spring-punch, the cutting cyl- inder of which is about ;% of an inch in diameter. If too small, the holes will grow up in healing. In numbering, it is difficult to prevent mistakes, if it is deferred until 180 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. the lamb attains much size. If penned with the dams when a month or two old, hours will sometimes elapse before each lamb will suck—the only certain indication to which ewe it belongs. It being perfectly safe to per- form this process when the lamb is only about a day old (or as soon as the lamb can walk, if it is a strong one), the shepherd carries the xotcher in his pocket, and a little book, each page being ruled into six columns, and headed as in the register presently given. This constitutes the day-book, which is subsequently drawn off on the Register. The notcher which I use is of my own invention, and I have found it far preferable to any I have seen elsewhere. It consists of a saddler’s spring- punch—the cutting cylinder being taken out, and a little sharp chisel of the same length being screwed in its place. The edge of the chisel de- scribes a semi-ellipsis, cutting a notch out of the ear + of an inch deep, and a little over ;3; wide at the base. A triangular cut in the ear, with so nar- row a base, will grow together for some distance from the apex. This instrument is far more convenient than ‘a chisel and block. The shepherd, on finding a lamb of the right age to mark, goes quietly up to it, stopping it by the neck with his crook if it attempts to run away. The ewe will come near enough, in a moment or two, to be secured by the crook, and then the shepherd notes her number and age, and enters it in his pocket-book, and also by what ram tupped. The lamb then is num- bered with the notcher, and this and its general appearance is noted down in the appropriate columns. If the ewe is too wild to be caught, the lamb may be notched—the number of the sire, &c., entered—and the number of the ewe subsequently ascertained in the pen. I have two forms of Breeding Registers, originally furnished me by my lamented friend, the late Mr. Grove. One contains ten columns, the other eight. I have adopted the simplest one, omitting two of the columns, which leaves the Register in the following form: BREEDING REGISTER—1845. No. of |Tupp'd by| Date of | No. of Lamb. Dam. | Ram No. | Lambing.| Rams. | Ewes. Coarsish—wrinkly—thick, short-legged, and stout— } bad crops—ewe plenty of milk, and kind. Fine—-thin—-long-legged—-wool short—-will lack constitution—ewe kind—little milk. eri but of good shape and fine wool—No. 3 Classification and Remarks. ‘ wrinkly and like sire—No. 2 more like dam.— Ewe plenty of milk, but careless. The lamb was born dead, very small. Same last 11—41] 7—43 ; May 5. year. This ewe had better be thrown out of breeding. The first entry above records the following facts: “ The ewe No. 22, born in 1840, tupped by the ram No. 16 of 1839, dropped on the 4th of May a ram lamb, which was marked No. 1, its character being as described under the head of ‘ Classification and Remarks.’ ” The column of “ Remarks” is a very important one, if the minutes are made with accuracy and judgment. It should include an enumeration of all the prominent characteristics of the lamb, and of the appearances of the ewe as a breeder and nurse. These records will, in a single season, decide the character of a ram as a stock-getter, and that of the ewe, ina year or two, as a breeder and nurse. - EMAScULATION AND Docxine.—These should usually precede washing, as at that period the oldest lambs will be about a month old, and it is safer to perform the operations when they are a couple of weeks younger.— Dry, pleasant weather should be selected. Castration is a simple and safe (644) ‘ SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 181 process. Let aman hold the lamb with its back pressed firmly against his breast and stomach, and all four legs gathered in front in his hands.— Cut off the bottom of the pouch, free the testicle from the inclosing mem- brane, and then draw it steadily out, or clip the cord with a knife, if it does not snap off at a proper distance from the testicle. Some shepherds draw both testicles at once with their teeth. It is common to drop a little salt into the pouch. Where the weather is very warm, some touch the end of the pouch (and that of the tail, after that is cut off) with an oint- ment, consisting of tar, lard, and turpentine. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, however, they will do just as well, here, without any application. The tail should be cut off, say one and a half inches from the body, with a-chisel on the head of a block, the skim being slid up toward the body with a finger and thumb, so that it will afterward cover the end of the stump. Severed with a knife, the end of the tail being grasped with one of the hands in the ordinary way, a naked stump is left which it takes some time to heal. It may occur to some unused to keeping sheep, that it is unnecessary to cut off the tail. If left on, it is apt to collect filth, and, if the sheep purges, it becomes an intolerable nuisance. Wasuine.— This is usually done here about the first of June. . The cli- mate of the Southern States would admit of its being done earlier. The rule should be to wait until the water has acquired sufficient warmth for bathing, and until cold rains and storms, and cold nights, are no longer to be expected. Sheep are usually washed by our best flock-masters in vats. A small stream is dammed up, and the water taken from it in an aqueduct (formed by nailing boards together), and carried until sufficient fall is obtained to have it pour down a couple of feet or more into the vat. The body of water, to do the work fast and well, should be considerable—say 24 inches wide, and five or six deep—and the swifter the current the better. The vat should be say 34 feet deep, and large enough for four sheep to swim in it. A yard is built near the vat, and a platform from the gate of the yard extends to and encircles the vat on three sides. This keeps the washer Fig. 20. 2 AYete (ITE TN ane NY nn | == Hi 7ST } : AS | AA : EW te f i = ty WN d Z yaw )) yy { 7 ¢ , ‘ = 1 AEST ae \ \’ SPSS 0 ell POV oy al = = = WAR at Ree Ke ‘ i ‘ => ONY os = Ny San ‘ aw N OSU ‘ WOWLAND pe} WASHING APPARATUS. from standing in the water, and makes it much easier to lift the sheep in and out. The cut here’given exhibits all the necessary appendages. The 182 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. yard is built opposite the corners of two fields (1 and 2), to take advantage of . the angle of one of them (1), to drive the sheep more readily into the yard (3). This yardshould be large enough to hold the whole flock, if it does not exceed 200; and the bottom of it, as well as of the smaller yard (5), un- less well sodded over, should be covered with coarse gravel, to avoid be- coming muddy. If the same establishment is used by a number of flock- - masters, graveling will be always necessary. As soon as the flock are confined iu yard 3, the lambs are all immediately caught out from among them, and set over the fence into yard 4. This is to prevent their being ‘trampled down, as it often happens, by the old sheep, or straying off if let loose. As many sheep are then driven out of yard 3 into the smaller yard 5 as it will conveniently hold. A boy stands by the gate next to the vat, to open and shut it (or the gate is drawn shut witha chain and weight), and two men, catching the sheep as directed under the head of tagging, com- mence placing them in the water for the preparatory process of “ wetting.” As soon as the water strikes through the wool, which occupies but an in- stant, the sheep is lifted out and let loose.* The vat should, of course, be in an inclosed field, to prevent their escape. The whole flock should thus be passed over, and again driven round through field 1 into yard 3, where they should stand, say, an hour, before washing commences. There is a large per centage of potasht in the wool oil, which acts upon the dirt, independently of the favorable effect which would result from thus soaking it for some time with water alone. If washed soon after a good shower, previous wetting might be dispensed with ; and it is not absolutely necessary, perhaps, in any case. If the water is warm enough to keep the sheep in it for the requisite period, they may be got clean by washing without any previous wetting—though the snowy whiteness of fleece which tells so on the purchaser, is not so often nor so perfectly attained in the latter way. Little time is saved by omitting “wetting,” as it takes propor- tionably longer to wash, and it is not so well for the sheep to be kept such a length of time in the water at once. When the washing commences, two and sometimes four sheep are plunged into the vat. When four are put in, two soak while two are washed. But this should not be done, unless the water is very warm, and the washers are uncommonly quick and expert. On the whole, it is rather an objectionable practice, for few animals suffer as much from the effects of a chill as sheep. Ifthey have been previously wetted, it is wholly un- necessary. When the sheep are in the water, the two washers commence kneading the wool with their hands about the breech, belly, &c., (the dirtier parts,) and they then continue to turn the sheep so that the descend- ing current of water can strike into all parts of the fleece. As soon as the sheep are clean, which may be known by the water running entirely clear, each washer seizes his own by the fore parts, plunges it deep in the vat, and taking advantage of the rebound, lifts it out, setting it gently _ down on its breech on the platform. He then, if the sheep is old or weak, (and it is well in all cases,) presses out some of the water from the wool, and after submitting the sheep to a process presently to be adverted to, lets it go. There should be no mud about the vat, the earth not cov- ered with sod, being graveled. Sheep should be kept on clean pastures from washing to shearing—not where they can come in contact with * Where there are conveniences for so doing, this process may be more easily performed by driving the sheep through a stream deep enough to compel them to swim. But swimming the compact-fleeced, fine- weoled sheep for any length of time, as is practiced with the Long-Wools in England, will not properly cleanse the wool for shearing } Vauquelin, quoted by Youatt, says that it consists mostly of soapy matter with a basis of potash; 2. Carb. of potash ; 3. Acetate of potash; 4. Lime; 5. Muriate of potash SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 183 the ground, burnt logs, &c.—and they should not be driven over dusty roads. . The washers should be strong and careful men, and protected as they are from anything but the water running over the sides of the vat, they can labor several hours without inconvenience, and without drinking whisky until they cease to know whether a sheep is well washed or well ‘treated, as was the bad old fashion. ‘Two hundred sheep will employ two expert men not over half a day, and I have known this rate much ex- ‘ceeded. It is a great object, not only as a matter of propriety and honesty, but even as a matter of profit, to get the wool clean and of a snowy whiteness. It will always sell for more than enough extra, in this condition, to offset against the increased labor and the diminution in weight. Mr. Lawrence wrote me, a few years since, that the average loss in American Saxon wool, in scouring, (after being washed on the back,) was 36 per cent., and in American Merino 423 per cent.! Curtine THE Hoors.—The hoofs of fine-wooled sheep grow rapidly, turn up in front and under at the sides, and must be clipped as often as once a year, or they become unsightly, give an awkward, hobbling gait to the sheep, and the part of the horn which turns under at the sides holds dirt or dung in constant contact with the soles, and even prevents it from being readily shaken or washed out of the cleft of the foot in the natural movements of the sheep about the pastures, as would take place were the hoof in its proper shape. This greatly aggravates the hoof-ail, and the difficulty of curing it—and in England it is thought to originate the isease. It is customary to clip the hoofs at tagging, or at or soon after the time of shearing. Some employ a chisel and mallet to shorten the hoofs, but then the sheep must be subsequently turned on its back to pare off the projecting and curling-under side crust. If the weather be. dry, or the sheep have stood for some time on dry straw, (as at shearing,) the hoofs are as tough as horn, and are cut with great difficulty—and this is in- creased by the grit and dirt which adheres to the sole, and immediately takes the edge off from the knife. The above periods are ill chosen, and the methods slow and bungling. It is particularly improper to submit heavily pregnant ewes to all this un- necessary handling at the time of tagging. When the sheep is washed and lifted out of the vat, and placed on its rump on the platform, the gate-keeper advances with a pair of toe-nippers, and Fig. 21. the washer presents each foot sepa- rately, pressing the toes together se they can be severed at a single clip. - The nippers shown in the cut, can be TOE-NIPPERS. made by any blacksmith who can tem- per an ax or chisel. They must be made strong, with handles a little more than a foot long, the rivet being of half-inch iron and confined with a nut, so that they may be taken apart for sharpening. The cutting edge should descend upon a strip of copper inserted in the iron, to prevent it from being dulled. With this powerful instrument, the largest hoofs are severed with a moderate compression of the hand. Two well-sharpened knives, which should be kept in a stand or box within reach, are then grasped by the washer and assistant, and with two dexterous strokes to each foot, the side crust (being free from dirt, and soaked almost as soft as 184 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. a cucumber,) is reduced to the level of the soles. Two expert men will go through these processes in less time than it will take to read this de- scription of them! The closer the paring and clipping, the better, if blood is not drawn. An occasional sheep may require clipping again in the fall. TIME BETWEEN WASHING AND SueaRiNG.—This depends altogether on circumstances. From four to six days of bright warm weather is sufh- cient. If cold and rainy, or cloudy, more time must elapse. I have known the wool to remain in an unfit condition to shear a fortnight after washing. The rule is, the water should be thoroughly dried out, and the natural oil of the wool should so far exude as to give the wool an unctuous feel and a lively, glittering look. If you shear it when dry, like cotton, before the oil has exuded, you cheat yourself, and the wool will not keep so well for long periods.* If you leave it until it gets too oily, you cheat the manu- facturer, or what more often happens, you lose on the price. Sueartnc—Is always done, in this country, on the threshing-floors of our barns, sometimes on low platforms, but more commonly on the floor itself. The following cut represents a common Northern barn properly arranged for this purpose. Fig. 22, I Hib Hi, | IAAT ii i Mh Hl ; wi N nM He Ki a | il, ns i mil Wf 4 la on _ On the threshing-floor, three men are seen shearing—twc of them using a low table or platform, say 18 or 20 inches high. The “ bay” t (1, 2) nearest the eye is divided by a temporary fence, one part (1) being used for the yarding of the sheep, and the other (2) for doing up the wool, &c. The inclosure 1 should communicate by a door with another and larger yard outside of the barn. Both of these should be well littered down with * Tt is also very difficult to thrust the shears through this dry wool in shearing. _ : + The room for storing hay, grain, &c., which is always found on one. and sometimes on each side of the threshing-floor in a Northern barn, is provincially termed a “ bay "—and the low division between this and the threshing-floor a “ breastwork.” SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 185 straw, and fresh straw thrown on occasionally, to keep the sheep clean while shearing. No chaff, or other substances which will stick in the wool, should be used for this purpose. When the dew has dried off from the sheep, on the morning chosen for shearing, a portion of the flock sufficient to last the shearers half a day, is driven into the outside yard, and a con- venient number into the bay (1). An assistant catches the sheep, lifts them off from the floor as already directed, and delivers them at the door through the “ breastwork ” (3) to each shearer. The shearer before taking the sheep, picks off any loose straws sticking to its wool, and if dung ad- heres to any of the feet, brushes it off with a little besom formed of twigs, hung up near the door for that purpose. The shearer then takes the sheep to his stand, and commences shearing. The floor or tables used for shearing should be planed or worn perfectly smooth, so that they will not hold dirt or catch the wool. They all should *e thoroughly cleaned, and, if necessary, washed, preparatory to shearing. It is the catcher’s business to keep the floor constantly swept, dung re- moved, &c. Having a mew stand or place swept for the shearer who has just finished his sheep, he catches him another, and then clears up the stand previously occupied. He first lifts the fleece, gathers it up so that it shall not be torn or drawn asunder, and turning his arms so as to invert it, (2. e., bring the roots of the wool downward,) deposits it on the folding- table (4). He then picks up the “fribs”’ (small loose locks) left on the floor, which are deposited in a basket or on a corner of the table. Lastly, he sweeps the spot clean, to be again occupied by the shearer. An: active fellow will tend four shearers, and do up the fleeces. But he should not be hurried too much, or he cannot give sufficient time to dog up. A small boy or two are handy to pick up fribs, sweep, &c. If there are any sheep in the pen dirty from purging or other causes, they should first be caught out, to prevent them from dirtying the others. It is difficult, if not impossible, to give intelligible practical instructions which would guide an entire novice in skillfully shearing a sheep. Prac- tice is requisite. The following directions from the American Shepherd;* are correct, and are as plain, perhaps, as they can be made > “« The shearer may place the sheep on that part of the floor assigned to him, resting on its. rump, and himself in a posture with one (his right) knee on a cushion, and the back of the ani- mal resting against his left thigh. He grasps the shears about half-way from the point to the bow, resting his thumb along the blade, which affords hum better command of the points. He may then commence cutting the wool at the brisket, and proceeding downward, all upon: the sides of the belly to the extremity of the ribs, the external sides of both thighs to the edges of the flanks ; then back to the brisket, and thence upward, shearing the wool from the breast, front, and both sides of the neck—but not yet the back of it—and also the poll or fore part, and top of the head. Now the ‘jacket is opened” of the sheep, and its position and that of the shearer is changed, by being turned flat upon its side, one knee of the shearer resting on the cushion, and the other gently pressing the fore quarter of the animal, to _pre- vent any struggling. He then resumes cutting upon the flank and'rump, and thence on- ward to the head. Thus one side is complete. The sheep is then turned on to the other: side, in doing which great care is requisite to prevent the fleece from being torn, and the- shearer acts as upon the other, which finishes. He must then take his sheep near to the door through which it is to pass out, and neatly trim the legs, and leave not a solitary lock anywhere as a harbor for ticks. It is absolutely necessary for him to remove from his stand to trim, otherwise the useless stuff from the legs becomes intermimgled with the fleece-wool. In the use of the shears, let the blades be laid as flat to the,skin,as possible, not lower the points too much, nor cut more than from one to two inches at a clip, frequently not so,.much, depending on the part and compactness of the wool.” In addition to the above, I would remark that the wool should be cut off as close as conveniently practicable, and even. It may be cut too close, so that the sheep can scarcely avoid “ sun-scald,” but this is very unusual, * Pages 179, 180. 2A 186 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOULH. If the wool is left ridgy and uneven, it betrays that want of workmanship which is so distasteful to every good farmer.* Great care should be taken not to cut the wool twice in two, as inexperienced shearers are apt to do. It is a great damage to the wool. It is done by cutting too far from the point of the shears, and suffering the points to get too elevated. Every time the shears are pushed forward, the wool before cut off by the points, say a quarter or three-eighths of an inch from the hide, is again severed. To keep the fleece entire, so important to its good appearance when done up, (and therefore to its salableness,) it is very essential that the sheep be held easily for tése/f, so that it will not struggle violently. To hold it still by main strength, no man can do, and shear it well. The posture of the shearer should be such that the sheep is actually confined to its position, so that it is unable to start up suddenly and tear its fleece, but it should not be confined there by severe pressure or force, or it will be constantly kicking and struggling. Heavy-handed, careless men, therefore, always complain of getting the most troublesome sheep. The neck, for example, may be confined to the floor by placing it between the toe and knee of the leg on which the shearer kneels, but the lazy or brutal shearer who lets his leg rest directly on the neck, soon provokes that struggle which the animal is obliged to make to free itself from severe pain, and even perhaps to draw its breath ! Good shearers will shear, on the average, twenty-five Merinos per day, and a new beginner should not attempt to exceed from one-third to one- half that number. It is the last process in the world which should be hur- ried, as the shearer will soon leave more than enough wool on his sheep to pay for his day’s wages. 4 It has been mentioned that but enough sheep should be yarded at once for half a day’s shearing. The reason for this is that they shear much more easily, and there is less liability of cutting the skin, when they are distended with food, than when their bellies become flabby and collapsed for the want of it. This precaution, however, is often necessarily omitted in showery weather. It is very convenient to have the outside pen which communicates with the “bay,” covered. On my farm, it is one of the regular sheep-houses. If it is showery over night, or showers come up on the day of shearing, a couple of hundred sheep may be run in and kept dry. And they can be let out to feed occasionally during the day on short grass. If let out in long wet grass, their bellies will become wetted. Wool ought not to be sheared, and must not be done up, with any water In it. ware Suearine Lamps, anp Sueartinc Sneep Semi-AnnuaLiy.—Shearing lambs is, in my judgment, every way an abominable and unprofitable prac- tice—in this climate, at least. The lamb will give you the same wool at a year old, and you strip it of its natural protection from cold when it is young and tender, for the paltry gain of the zzterest on a pound or a pound and a half of wool for six months—not more than two or three cents—and this all covered by the expense of shearing. Iam aware that it is customary, in many parts of the South, to shear grown sheep twice a year; and there may be a reason for it where they receive so little care that a portion are expected to disappear every half- year, and the wool to be torn from the backs of the remainder by bushes, thorns, &c., if left for a longer period. But when sheep are inclosed, and *T hold that man is not half a farmer who has not a dash of the esthetic mixed up with his utilitarianism. Profit should not often be sacrificed to appearances, but where they are strictly compatible, he who disre- gards the latter betrays a sordid and uncultivated mind. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 187 treated as domestic animals, there may be less barbarity in fall-shearing them than in the case of tender lambs, but I cannot conceive of any better reason for it than in the former case, on the score of utility. Any gain resulting from it cannot pay the additional expense it occasions. Doine-up Woou.—The fleece has been deposited on the “ folding table,” and he whose business it is to do it up, first proceeds to spread it out, the outer ends upward, bringing every part to its natural relative position— The table, with a fleece spread out on it, is represented in fiz, 23. The table ‘should be large— say five feet wide and eight long—that, if necessary, several unspread fleeces may be put upon it at the same time, and still give room forspread- j == ing one. It should i RT ive Pig eee be about three feet ratte Rae: high. After the fleece is spread, dung, burs, and all other extraneous substances are carefully re- moved from it with a pair of shears. It is then pressed together with the hands, so that it will cover but little if any more space than it would oc- cupy on the skin of the animal, if that was placed wnstretched on the table. About a quarter of the fleece, lengthwise, or from head to tail, (represented by 1 in the above cut,) is then turned or folded in (inverting it,) toward the middle. The opposite side (2) is next folded inward in the same way, leaving the fleece ina long strip, say 18 inches wide. The forward end (3) is then folded toward the breech, to a point (represented by dotted line) corresponding with the point of the shoulder. The breech (4) is next folded toward the head. The fleece now presents an oblong square rep- resented by 5 and 6. On the breech, in a small, compact bunch—so they can be, subsequently, readily sepa- rated from the fleece—the clean fribs are placed. They do not include “trimmings,” (the wool from the shanks,) which should not be done up in the fleeces. The fribs may be laid in at some earlier stage of the folding —but if thrown on top of the fleece, as is very customary, before it is fold- ed at all, they show through, if the latter gets strained apart, as it fre- quently happensin the process of roll- ing—and being coarser and perhaps less white than the fine shoulder wool, they injure the appearance of the = fleece. The fleece is now folded to- woot reagent gether by turning 5 over on to 6, and the tyer carefully sliding it around on the table with his arms, so that the shoulder shall be toward him, it appears as in fig. 24, ready to go into the wool-trough. The wool-treugh, which is above represented Fig. 23. Fig 24. ! 185 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. with one of its sides off, to exhibit the interior arrangement, should form a part of the table, and should be about 93 inches wide and 9 deep, and its length corresponding with the width of the table, would be five feet. Near its back end, and about one-third of its width from each side, gimlet holes are bored just large enough for the passage of ordinary wool-twine. Two balls of twine are placed in a vessel beneath, the ends passed through the holes, and the whole length of the trough, and are fastened in front by being drawn into two slits formed by sawing a couple of inches into the bottom of the trough. The holes and slits should be small enough, so that the twine will be kept drawn straight between them. The tyer placing his hands and arms (to the elbow) on each side of the fleece folded as above, now slides it into the trough. There are two methods of having it lie in the trough, represented by the following cuts. That on the left is the more ordinary, but not the best method. It will bring to the two ends of the done-up fleece (the parts most seen in the wool-room) the ridge of the back and two lines half way down each side of the sheep. The for- mer is sometimes a little weather-beaten, and if any hay-seeds have fastened in the fleece, they show most on the back.* And the two lower lines are a little below the choicest _wool.— Placing it in the trough as in the right-hand figure, rolling would bring both ends of the fleece from the wool between four and five inches from the ridge of the back, the choicest part of the fleece. Besides, the edges of the breech fold, which is not so fine as the shoulder, which sometimes show by the first method of rolling, are always concealed by the last. The wool being in the trough, the tyer steps round to the back end of it, and commences rolling the fleece from the breech to the shoulder. He rolls it as tightly as possible, pressing it down and exerting all the strength of his hands—minding, however, not to tear the outside fold—or strain it so apart as to exhibit the outer ends of the next inside layer or fold. When the rolling is completed, he keeps it tight by resting the lower part of his left arm across it, reaches over with the right, and withdrawing one of the ends of the twine from the slit, places it in the left hand. Then seizing the twine onthe other side of the fleece with his right hand, he draws the twine once about the fleece with his whole strength, and ties it in a hard or square knot. The fleece will then keep its position, and the other twine is tied in the same way. The twines should be drawn with a force that would cut through the skin of a tender hand in a few moments.t The twines are then cut within an inch of the knots, with a pair of shears. The fleece is slid out of the end of the trough, when it will be a solid, glittering mass of snowy wool, in the shape shown in the cut on the right. If well and tightly done up, however, the divisions given on the end of the fleece, in the cut, to exhibit the foldings, will not be perceptible—and nothing but an unbroken mass of the choicest wool of the fleece. The twine should be of flax or hemp, and of the diameter of ordinary sized hardware twine. ~Cotton might do, if smooth and hard enough so that no particles of it could become incorporated with the wool—in which event it does not separate from the wool in any of the subsequent processes, and receiving a different color from the dyes, spots the surface of the cloth. FLEECE, * Hay-seed, or rather its chaff, will not wash entirely out of wool. t It is customary with some tyers to wear a glove on the right hand—or cots on the two fore-fingers. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 189 It is scarcely necessary to remark that it is considered perfectly fair by the purchaser, to take all the pains above recommended, to “ put the best side out” in doing up wool, provided every fleece is done up by itself. He expects it, and graduates his prices accordingly. He who neglects it, therefore, cheats himself. But to do up coarser fleeces, or any parts of them, in finer ones—put in “ trimmings”’—leave in dung—or use unne- cessary twine—are all base frauds. Sometimes the careless sheep-owner will have his wool filled with. burs, which he cannot or will not remove. In that case he is bound to unequivocally apprise the buyer of the fact, and allow him to open fleeces until satisfied of the precise extent of the evil. #2 Storing Woort.— Wool should be stored in a clean, tight, dry room. It is better that it should be an upper room, for reasons presently to be given, and it should be plastered, to exclude dust, vermin, insects, &c. Rats and mice love to build their nests in it, to which they will carry grain chaff and other substances, injuring much wool—and it is singular that if accessible to the common bumble-bee, numbers of their nests will be found init. A north and pretty strong light is preferable for a wool-room. When the wool-tyer removes each fleece from the trough, he places it in a long, high basket, capable of holding a dozen fleeces, and it 1s imme- diately carried to the wool-room—or he piles it on the clean floor in the inclosure in which his table stands, to be subsequently carried away. In either case, the fleeces are not thrown down promiscuously, which injures their shape, but are laid regularly one above another, on their sides. In the wool-room it is laid in the same way in smooth, straight north and south rows (supposing the light to be let in from the north) with alleys between, in which a man can pass to inspect the wool. The rows ought not, perhaps, to be more than two deep, so that the end of every fleece can be examined, but as it cannot be piled up more than about four fleeces high in this way, without liability of falling, it is customary to make the rows three or four fleeces deep—laying the lower ones a little wide, so that the pile may slightly recede as it goes up. In this way they may be piled six fleeces high. Where the character of the flock is known, or that of the seller relied on, it makes little difference. It is considered fairest to pile the fleeces without any discrimination as to quality, in the wool- room. Sackxine Wooi.— When the wool is sold, or when it must be sent away to find a market, it is put up in bales nine feet long, formed of 40-inch “burlaps.” The mouth of the sack is sowed, with twine, round a strong hoop (riveted together with iron, and kept for the purpose,) and the body of it is let down through a circular aperture in the floor of the wool-room.* The hoop rests on the edge of the aperture, and the sack swings clear of the floor beneath. A man enters the sack, and another passes the fleeces down to him. After covering the bottom with a layer, he places a fleece in the center and forces down others around it, and so on to the top, which is then sowed up. Each fleece should be placed regularly with the hands, and then stamped down as compactly as possible, so that the bale when completed shall be hard and well filled in every part. The bulk of a given weight of wool will be greatly affected by the care with which this pro- cess is performed. Those who do not expect buyers to come and look at their wool, sack it immediately after shearing. A temporary scaffolding is erected near * Itis to secure this convenience that the wool-room is best placed on the second floor. 190 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. the wool as deposited by the tyer, and one man tosses up fleeces to a sec- ond, who catches them and passes them down to the man in the sack. A light frame, to suspend the sack, and part way up it a standing-place for the catcher, would be a convenient appendage to the establishment of a wool-grower who does not store his wool in a wool-room. With a set of stairs up to his midway standing-place, an active fellow would keep the treader supplied, without any assistance. In the absence of any agreement, the price of wool, delivered at che residence of the purchaser, does not include the cost of sacks and sacking. It is customary, however, for growers of small parcels,.and those who keep no conveniences for sacking, to carry their wool tied up in sheets, &c., and deliver it to the purchaser at the nearest village or other point, where he has made arrangements for sacking. SeLecTion.—The necessity of annually weeding the flock, by excluding all its members falling below a certain standard of quality, and what the points are to which reference should be had in establishing that standard, have already been sufficiently adverted to in discussing the principles of breeding. The time of shearing is by far the most favorable one for the flockmaster to make his selection. He should be present on the shearing- floor, and inspect the fleece of every sheep as it is gradually taken off. If there is a fault about it, he will then discover it better than at any other time. A glance, too, reveals to him every fault of form, previously con- cealed wholly or in part, by the wool, as soon as the newly shorn sheep is permitted to stand on its feet. He takes down the number and age of the sheep on his tablet, and if not sufficiently defective in form or quality of fleece to call for its condemnation, in a pair of scales suspended near the wool-tyer’s table, he determines the weight of the fleece. If this, too, is satisfactory, he marks “ retained’ opposite the sheep’s number on his tab- let. If more or less defective in any point, he weighs this against the other points—taking also into consideration the age of the sheep, its char- acter as a breeder, its nursing properties, quietness of disposition, &c.— and then, in view of ali these points, the question of retention or exclusion is settled. A remarkably choice ewe is frequently kept until she dies of old age. A poorish nurse or breeder would be excluded for the lightest fault, and soon. I have been in the habit, for a number of years, of using a book kept for this purpose, each page being ruled and headed thus: Number. Qual. of Fleece. Form. Wt. of Fleece. Conclusion. 27, °42 p. fi: 42. r. 30, 744 0. b. 4 e. The figures in the first column signify No. 27 of the year 1842, and No. 30 of the year 1844. The letters in the succeeding columns stand for the words “ prime,” “ fair,” “ ordinary,” and “ bad ”—marking the gradations of quality. The letters in the last column signify “retained,” or “ ex- cluded.” Such a record will lead to far greater accuracy than by any other method, and it is extremely valuable for purposes hereafter to be stated. , If the sheep are not numbered, the flock-master should note each appear- ance, as above directed, have the sheep held by the neck by an assistant} or discharged by the shearer into a small pen at the door for that purpose, until the fleece is weighed, and then if he decides to exclude it, he gives it a small mark on the shoulder, consisting of Venetian Red and hog’s lard, (conveniently applied with a brush or cob.) SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 191 ~Marxine Sueer.—The sheep should be marked soon after shearing, or mistakes may occur. Every owner of sheep should be provided with a marking instrument, which will stamp his initials, or some other distinctive mark, such as a small circle, oval, triangle, square, &c., at a single stroke, and with uniformity, on the sheep. It has been customary here, to have the mark cut out of a plate of thin iren, with an iron handle terminated by wood. But one made by cutting a type or raised letter (or character) on the end of a stick of light wood, such as pine or basswood, is found to be better. If the pigment used be thin, and the marker be thrust into it a little too deeply, as often happens, the surplus will not run off from the wood, as from a thin sheet of iron, to daub the sides of the sheep, and spoil the appearance of the mark; and if the pigment be applied Zot, the former will not, like the latter, get heated, and increase the danger of burning the hide. Various pigments are used. Many boil tar until it will assume a glazed, hard consistency, when cold, and give it a brilliant black color by stirring in a little lamp-black when boiling. It is applied when just cold enough not to burn the sheep’s hide, and it forms a bright, conspicuous mark the year round. I have always used this, though the manufacturer would prefer the substitution of oil and turpentine for tar, as the latter is cleansed out of the wool with some difficulty. I boil it in a high-sided iron vessel (to prevent it from taking fire) on a small furnace or chafing-dish near where it is to be used. ‘When cool enough, forty or fifty sheep can be marked before it gets too stiff. It is then warmed from time to time, as necessary, on the chafing-dish. The rump is a better place to mark than the side. The mark is about as conspicuous on the former, under any circumstances, and it is more so when the sheep are huddled in a pen, or when they are running away from you. And should any wool be injured by the mark, that on the rump is less valuable than that on the side. It is customary to distinguish ewes from wethers by marking them on different sides of the rump. Many mark each sheep as it is discharged from the barn by the shearer. It consumes much less time to do it at one job, after the shearing is com- pleted; and it is necessary to take the latter course, if a hot pigment is used. Koi Coip Srorms arTer Sueartnc.—These sometimes destroy sheep, in this latitude, soon after shearing—particularly the delicate Saxons. I have known forty or fifty perish out of a single flock, from one night’s expo- sure. The remedy, or rather the preventive, is to house them, or in de- fault of the necessary fixtures to effect this, to drive them into dense for- ests. I presume, however, this would be a calamity of rare occurrence in the “ sunny South.” wo Sun-Scatp—Might be more common. When sheep are sheared close in very hot weather—have no shade in their pastures—and particularly where they are driven immediately considerable distances, or rapidly, over burning and dusty roads, their backs are so scorched by the sun that the wool comes off. It is not common, however, here. You may see one such in a flock of a hundred. Let alone, the matter is not a serious one, but the application of refuse lard to the back will accelerate the cure, and the starting of the wool. me Ticxs.—These, when very numerous, greatly annoy and enfeeble sheep in the winter, and should be kept entirely out of the flock. After shear- ing, the heat and cold, the rubbing and biting of the sheep soon drive off 192 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. the tick, and it takes refuge in the long wool of the lamb. Wait a fort- night after shearing, to allow all to make this transfer of residence. Then boil refuse tobacco leaves until the decoction is strong enough to kill ticks beyond a peradventure. This may be readily tested by experiment. Five or six pounds of cheap plug tobacco, or an equivalent in stems, &c., may be made to answer for 100 lambs. The decoction is poured into a deep, narrow box, kept for this purpose, and which has an inclined shelf one one side, covered with a wooden grate, as shown in the cut. One man holds the lamb by the hind legs, another clasps the fore-legs in one hand, and shuts the other about the nostrils to prevent the liquid entering them, and then the lamb is entirely immersed. It is immediately lifted out, laid on one side on the grate, and the water squeezed out of its wool. Itis then turned over and squeezed on the other side. The grate con- pow ano ducts the fluid back into the box. If the lambs are regu- larly dipped every year, ticks will never trouble a flock. The effect of tobacco water in scab, will be hereafter adverted to. Maceors.—Rams with horns growing closely to their heads, are very liable to have maggots generated under them, particularly if the skin on the surrounding parts gets broken in fighting, and these, if not removed, soon destroy the sheep. Both remedy and preventive is boiled tar—or the marking substance heretofore described. Put it under the horns, at the time of marking, and no trouble will ever arise from this cause. Some- times when a sheep scours in warm weather, and clotted dung adheres about the anus, maggots are generated under it, and the sheep perishes miserably. Preventive: remove the dung. Remedy: remove the dung and maggots, the latter by touching them with a little turpentine, and then apply sulphur and grease to the excoriated surface. Maggot flies, says Blacklock, sometimes deposit their eggs on the backs of the long, open-wooled English sheep, and the maggots during the few days before they assume the pupa state, so tease and irritate the animal, that fever and death are the consequence. Tar and turpentine, or butter and sulphur, smeared over the parts are given as the preventives. The Merino and Saxon are exempt from these attacks. SHorTENING THE Horns.—A convolution of the horn of a ram sometimes so presses in upon the side of the head or neck, that it is necessary to shave or rasp it away on the under side, to prevent ultimately fatal effects. The point of the horn of the ram and ewe both not unfrequently turn in so that they will grow into the flesh and sometimes into the eye, unless shortened. The toe-nippers will often suffice on the thin extremity of a horn, but if not, a fine saw must be used. The marking time is the best one to attend to this. ‘Fig. 27. DIPPING-BOX. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 193 - Division or Fiocks.—It is customary at, or soon after shearing, to make those divisions in large flocks, which utility demands. It is better to have not to exceed two hundred sheep run together in the pastures, though the number might perhaps be safely increased to three hundred, if the range is extensive. Wethers and dry ewes to be turned off, should be kept sep- arate from the nursing-ewes, and if the flock is sufficiently numerous to require a third division, it is customary to put the yearling and two-year- old ewes and wethers and the old, feeble sheep together. It is better in all cases to separate the rams from all the other sheep, at the time of shearing, and to inclose them in a particularly well-fenced field. If put even with wethers, they are more quarrelsome, and when cool nights ar- rive, will worry themselves and waste their flesh in constant efforts to ride the wethers. The Merino ram is a quiet animal compared with the com- mon-wooled one, but poor fences, or fences half the time down, will tempt him to jump, and if once taught this trick, he becomes very troublesome as the rutting period approaches, unless hoppling, yoking, clogging, or “poking ” is resorted to—either of which causes the animal to waste his flesh and strength, and are the causes of frequent accidents. Hopruine, Ciogeine, &c.—Hoppling is done by sowing the ends of a leathern strap (broad at the extremities so that it will not cut into the flesh) to a fore and hind leg, just above the pastern joints—leaving the legs at about the natural distance apart. Clogging is fastening a billet of wood to the fore leg by a leather strap. Yoking is fastening two rams two or three feet apart, by bows around their necks, inserted in a light piece of timber, say two by three inches in size. Poking is done by inserting a bow in a short bit of light timber, into which bit (worn on the under side of the neck) a rod is inserted which projects a couple of feet in front of the sheep. These, and similar devices, to prevent rams scaling fences, may ‘be employed as a last resort, by those improvident farmers who prefer by such troublesome, injurious, and at best, insecure means, to guard against that viciousness which they might, so much more easily, have prevented from being acquired. —_— Danecerovus Rams.—From being teased and annoyed by boys, or petted and played with when young—and sometimes without any other stimulant than a naturally vicious temper—rams occasionally become very trouble- some by their propensity to attack men or cattle. I know of one for which his owner has refused $250, which will permit no man to enter the field with him without making an immediate onset on him, Ihave known several that would knock down the ox or horse which presumed to dis- pute the possession of a lock of hay with them. A ram which is known to have acquired this propensity should at once be hooded, aud, if not valuable, at the proper season converted into a wether by “ cording.” But the courage thus manifested, is usually the concomitant of great strength and vigor of constitution—and of a powerfully developed frame. If good in other particulars, it is a pity to lose the services of such an animal. I have in several such instances hooded them, by covering their faces with leather in such a manner that they could only see a little backward and downward. They must then, however, be kept apart from the flock of rams, or they will soon be killed or injured by blows, which they cannot see to escape. It sometimes happens that a usually quiet tempered ram will suddenly exhibit some pugnacity when you are salting or feeding the flock. If you turn to run, you are immediately knocked down, ard the ram learns, at 2B 194 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. that single lesson, the secret of his mastery, and the propensity to exercise it. The ram giving his blow from the summit of the parietal and the pos- terior portion of the frontal bones on the top of the head, (and not from the forehead,) couches his head so low when he makes his onset, that he does not see forward well enough to swerve suddenly from his right line, and a few quick motions to the right and left enable you to escape him. Run in upon him, as he dashes by you, with pitchfork, club, or boot-heel—punish- ing him severely by blows, (about the head if the club is used,) and giving him no time to rally until he is thoroughly cowed.* Frncres.—Poor fences will teach ewes and wethers to jump, as well as rams, and for a jumping flock there is no remedy but immoderately high fences, or extirpation. One jumper will soon teach the trick to a whole flock, and if one by chance is bought in, it should be immediately hoppled or killed. The last is by far the surest and safest remedy. SaLt.—Salt, in my judgment, is indispensable to the health of sheep, particularly in the sammer—and I know not a flock-master among the hun- dreds, nay, thousands with whom I am acquainted, who differs with me in this opinion. It is common to give it once a week while the sheep are at grass. * It is still better to give them free access to salt at all times, by keeping ~ it in a covered box, open on one side, like the following: A large hollow log, with holes cut along the Fig. 28. side, for the insertion of the beads of the sheep will make a respectable substitute. A sheep hav- ing free access to salt at all times, will never eat too much, and it will take its supply when and in what quantities Nature SS demands, instead of eat- Aes =) ing voraciously at stated periods, as intermediate abstinence will stimulate it do. When fed but once a week, it is better to have a stated day, so that it will not be forgot- ten, and it is well to lay the salt on flat stones, though if laid in little handsfull on the grass, very little will be lost. Tar.—This is supposed by many to form a very healthful condiment for sheep. The nose of the sheep is smeared with it, and it is licked and swallowed as the natural heat of the flesh, or that of the weather, causes it to trickle down over the nostrils and lips. Others, suffering the flock to get unusually salt hungry, place tar upon flat stones, or in troughs, and then scatter salt on it, so that both shall be consumed together. Applied to the nose, in the nature of a cataplasm, I have no doubt that it is advan- tageous in catarrhs—and put on the same place, at the proper periods, it may perhaps, by its odor, repel the visitations of the fly ( Géstrzs ovis), the eggs of which produce the “ grub in the head.” As a medicine it may be valuable, and even as a detergent in the case specified, but as a condiment | i AA * This may be pronounced harsh “ measure for measure,” and some may think it would tend to increase the viciousness of the animal. Repeated instances have proved the contrary to me. And if their mastery is once acknowledged, it is never forgotten by them. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 195 simply, for a perfectly healthy animal, I confess I have no confidence in its utility. pa Warer.— Water is not indispensable in the summer pastures, the dews and the succulence of the feed answering as a substitute. But my impres- sion is decided that free access to water is advantageous to sheep, particu- larly to those having lambs ; and I should consider it a matter of import- ance on a sheep farm, to arrange the pastures, if practicable, so as to bring water into each of them. Saape.—No one who has observed with what eagerness sheep seek shade in hot weather, and how they pant and apparently suffer when a hot sun is pouring down on their nearly naked bodies, will doubt that, both as a matter of humanity and utility, they should be provided, during the hot summer montlis, with a better shelter than that afforded by a common rail fence. Forest-trees are the most natural and best shades, and it is as con- trary to utility as it is to good taste to strip them entirely from the sheep- walks. A strip of stone-wall or close board fence on the south and west sides of the pasture, will form a passable substitute for trees. But in the absence of all these, and of buildings of any kind, a shade can be cheaply constructed of poles and brush, in the same manner as the sheds of the same materials for winter shelter, which will be described in my next Letter. Weanine Lamps.—Lambs should be weaned at four months old. It is better for them, and much better for their dams. The lambs when taken away should be put for several days in a field distant from the ewes, that they may not hear each other’s bleatings. The lambs when in hearing of their dams, continue restless much longer, and they make constant and frequently successful efforts to crawl through the fences which separate them. One or two tame old ewes are turned into the field with them to teach them to come. at the call, find salt when thrown to them, and eat grain, &c., out of troughs when winter approaches. The lambs when weaned should be put on the freshest and tenderest feed. I have usually reserved for mine the grass and clover sown, the pre- ceding spring, on the grain fields which were seeded down. The dams, on the contrary, should be put for a fortnight on short, dry feed, to stop the flow of milk. They should be looked to, once or twice, aud should the bags of any be found much distended, the milk should be drawn and the bag washed for a little time in cold water. But on short feed, they rarely give much trouble in this particular. When properly dried off, they should be put on good feed to recruit, and get in condition for winter. aed Fatt Frepinc.—In the North, the grass often gets very short by the 10:h or 15th of November, and it has lost much of its nutritiousness from repeated freezing and thawing. At this time, though no snow has yet fulleu, it is best to give the sheep a light daily foddering of bright hay— or a few oats in the bundle. Given thus for the ten or twelve days which precede the covering of the ground by snow, fodder pays for itself as well as at any other time during the year. I have usually fed oats in the bun- die, or threshed oats, (about a gill to the head,) in the feeding-troughs, carried to the fields for that purpose. Tue Croox.—This implement has been several times alluded to as a convenient one for catching sheep. Jt is made in the form exhibited ix 196 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. the cut, of 3-inch round iron, drawn smaller toward the point—and the point made safe by a knob. The other end is furnished with a socket, which receives a handle six or eight feet long. The manner of using it is thus described in Mr. Ste- phens’s admirable “ Book of the Farm”: “The hind-leg is hooked in at a, from behind the sheep, and it fills up the narrow part beyond a, while passing along it until it reaches the loop, when the animal is caught by the hock, and when secured, its foot ea- sily slips through the loop. Some caution is required in using the crook, for should the sheep give a sudden start forward to get away, the mo- ment it feels the crook the leg will be drawn forcibly through the narrow part, and strike the bone with such violence against the bend of the loop as to cause the animal considerable pain, and even occasion lameness for some days. On first embracing the leg, the crook should be drawn quickly toward you, so as to bring the bend of the loop against the leg as high up as the hock, before the sheep has time even to break off, and be- ing secure, its struggles will cease the moment your hand seizes the leg.” No flock-master should be without this implement, as it saves a vast deal of yarding, running, &c., and leads to a prompt examination of every improper or suspicious ap- pearance, and a timely application of remedy or preven- tive—which would often be deferred if the whole flock had to be driven to a distant yard, to enable the shepherd to catch a particular sheep. Fig. 29. SHEPHERD’S CROOK. Dexterity in the use of the crook is speedily acquired by any one; and if a flock are properly tame, any one of its number can be readily caught by it, at salting-time—or, generally, at other times, by a person with whom the flock are familiar. But itis at the lambing-time, when sheep and lambs require to be so repeatedly caught, that the crook is more particularly ser- viceable. For this purpose, at this time alone, it will pay for itself ten times over in a single season, in saving t2me, to say nothing of the advan- _ tage of the sheep. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 197 LETTER XIU. WINTER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. Use of Rams—proper age, number, &c.—selecting ewes for—different methods of coupling—way to treat rams...Division of Flocks for Winter...The Hospital... Yards—when necessary. -.Feeding-Racks—vari- ous plans of—the Box Rack—the Hole Rack—the Sparred Rack—the Hopper Rack—their respective ad- vantages—improvements suggested... Troughs. -.-.Grain-Boxes...Barns and Sheds—necessity of shelter at the North—the common Northern Sheep-Barn...Stells—the Outside Stell—Ancient Stells—Inside Circular Stell—Circular Stell fitted up with racks -..Tree-Coverts...Cheap Sheds—fitted between stacks, barracks, &c...Value of Barracks for the Preservation of Fodder...The Main Sheep-Barn of the Farm or Plantation, with Shearing-Floor, &c.—arrangements for breeding-ewes...Feeding sheep in yards with other stock— improper—reasons...Hay-Holders...Wiuter Dry Feed for Sheep—Variations in Feed—German views on this subject—proper kinds of fodder—Boussingault’s Table of the Nutritive Equivalents of different kinds of Fodders...Etfect of Food in the Production of Wool—De Reaumur's Table showing the Effects of Food in this particular. ..Etfect of Food in producing Fat and Muscle...Fattening Wethers in the North-..Feed- ing Grain to Stere-Sheep in Winter—when practiced at the North—economy of so doing—kinds of grain preferred—necessity of regularity in quantity—difficulty of raising the condition of poor sheep in the win- ter..-Feeding Roots, Browse, &c.—Roots a Substitute for Grain—to what sheep they may be fed—Hem- lock Browse—when and in what manner useful—substitutes for... Winter Feed of Breeding-Ewes...Ne- cessity of regularity in the times of feeding sheep...Salt...Water. Dear Sir: As the turning out of the rams usually takes place, here, on the first day of winter, I will describe the proper accompanying arrange- ments, as the first step in winter management. Use or Rams.—The period of gestation in the ewe averages five months, Merino rams are frequently used from the first to the tenth year, and even longer. The lambs of very old rams are not supposed to be as vigorous as those of youngish or middle-aged ones, but where rams have not been overtasked, and have been properly fed, I confess I have been able to dis- cover very little difference in their progeny on account of age. A ram lamb should not be used, as it retards his growth, injures his form, and, I think, permanently impairs his vigor and courage. A yearling may run with 30 ewes, a two-year-old with from 40 to 50, and a three-year-old with from 50 to 60. Some very powerful, mature rams will serve 70 or 80 ewes; but 50 is enough, where they run with the ewes. I am satisfied that an impoverished and overtasked animal does not transmit his indi- vidual properties so decidedly to his offspring as one in full vigor. Several rams running in the same flock excite each other to an unnat- ural and unnecessary activity, besides injuring each other by constant blows. It is, in every point of view, bad husbandry, where it can be evoided, and, as usually managed, is destructive to everything like careful and judicious breeding. The nice adaptation which the male should pos- sess to the female, already discussed under the head of Principles of Breeding—counterbalancing her defects with his own marked excellence in the same points, and, in turn, having his defects counterbalanced by her excellencies—how shall this be accomplished, where half a dozen or more rams are running promiscuously with two or three hundred ewes ? Before the rams are let out, the flock-master should have all the breed- ing-ewes brought together in one yard. He has carefully inspected his stock rams and noted every defect and peculiarity of their fleeces and forms. The breeding register is before him to settle every pedigree, pro- vided his stock rams are nearly enough connected with some portions of the flock to render it necessary to guard against in-and-in breeding. The shepherd catches a ewe and places her before him. The pedigree being 198 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. determined, he first notes her form, and then opening the wool on the shoulder, thigh and belly, notes the length, thickness, quality, and style of the staple. If he kept the minutes at shearing recommended by me (un- der the head of “ Selection”) it will save much time and lead to far more accurate classification. When every point in the ewe is determined, he decides which ram, on the whole, is best calculated to perpetuate her ex- cellencies both of fleece and carcass, and best counterbalance her defects in their mutual offspring. With a pigment composed of Venitian red and hog’s lard, he then, as has been already mentioned under the head of Registering, gives the ewe a mark which will last until the next shearing, which will show by what ram she was tupped. Those selected for each ram are placed in different inclosures, and the chosen ram placed with them. In four weeks’ time, the rams are withdrawn, and the flocks doubled or otherwise rearranged for winter, as may be necessary. This looks like taking considerable trouble, but having practiced it for years on my farm, and having always made these selections myself, I know that in reality the trouble is very slight—nothing, when the beneficial re- sults are taken into consideration. With a couple assistants, to catch, a day would suffice for effecting the proper classification and division of sey- eral hundred ewes. Where choice rams are scarce, so that it is an object to make the ser- vices of one go a great way—or where it is impossible to have separate inclosures, (as on farms where there there are a , great number of breeding-ewes, or where the shep- Fig. 30. herd system is adopted to the exclusion of fences,) he pane the following method may be resorted to. Build a hut containing as many apartments as you wish to use rams, with an alley between them. That part pin 9 Fear of fig. 30 which is surrounded by black lines repre- sents the hut divided into four apartments, each fur- ; nished with a feeding-box and trough in one corner. Gates or bars open from each apartment into the alley, and at each end of the alley. The dotted lines inclose a yard just sufficient to hold the flock of breeding-ewes. A couple of strong rams (of any quality) for about every hundred ewes, are then aproned, their brisk- ets rubbed with Venitian red and hog’s lard, and they are let loose among the ewes. Aproning is performed by sewing a belt of coarse sacking broad enough to extend from the fore to the hind legs, loosely but strongly round the body. To prevent its slipping forward or back, straps are car- ried round the breast and back of the breech. It is indispensable that it be made perfectly secure, or all the labor of this method of coupling will be far worse than thrown away. The pigment on the brisket should be renewed every two or three days—and it will be necessary, usually, to change the “teasers,” as these aproned rams are called, about once a week, as they do not long retain their courage under such unnatural cir- cumstances. Twice a day the ewes are brought into the yard in front of the hut. Those marked on their rumps by the teasers are taken into the alley. Each is admitted to the ram for which she is marked once, and then goes out at the opposite end of the alley from which she entered, into a separate field from that containing the flock from which she was taken. A powerful and vigorous ram from three to seven. years old, and properly fed, can thus be made to serve from 150 to even 200 ewes, with no greater injury than from running loose with 50 or 60. Ssencancconsesnazannconser—=- -— el SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 199 This, too, looks like a great amount of labor to attain the result sought, but having had it formerly practiced for two years on my farm, I know that when conducted with system, and by a prompt and handy shepherd, it consumes no great amount of time. Rams will do better, accomplish more, and last two or three years long- er, if daily fed with grain, when on service, and it is well to continue it, gradually decreasing the quantity, for a few days after they are withdrawn from the flock of ewes. A ram should receive the equivalent of from half a pint to a pint of oats, daily, when worked hard. They are much more conveniently fed when kept in huts. If suffered to run at large, they should be so thoroughly tamed that they will eat from a measure held by the shepherd. Careful breeders thus train their stock-rams from the time they are lambs. It is very convenient, also, to have them halter-broke, so that they can be led about without dragging or lifting them. An iron ring attached to one of the horns, near the point, to which a cord can be at- tached for leading, confining, &c., is very useful and handy. If rams are wild, it is a matter of considerable difficulty to feed them separately, and it can only be effected by yarding the flock and catching them out. Some breeders, in addition to extra feeding, take the rams out of the flocks nights, shutting them up in a barn or stable by themselves. There is no objection to this practice, and it is a great saving of their strength. Rams should not be suffered to run with the ewes over a month, at least in the North. It is much’ better that a ewe go dry than that she have a lamb later than the first of June. And after the rutting season is over, the rams grow cross, frequently striking the pregnant ewes danger- ous blows with their heavy horns, at the racks and troughs. Division or Frocxs.—If flocks are shut up in small inclosures during winter, according to the Northern custom, it is necessary to divide them into flocks of about 109 each, to consist of sheep of about the same size and strength. Otherwise the stronger rob the weaker, and the latter rap- idly decline. This would not be so important where the sheep roam at large, but even in that case some division and classification are necessary, —or, at all events dest. It is best, indeed, as already stated, even in sum- mer. The poorer and feebler can by this means receive better pasture, or a little more grain and better shelter in winter. By those who grow wool to any extent, breeding ewes, lambs, and weth- ers are inyariably kept in separate flocks in winter; and it is best to keep yearling sheep by themselves with a few of the smallest two-year-olds, and any old crones which are kept for their excellence as breeders, but which cannot maintain themselves in the flock of breeding-ewes. Tue Hospitat.—Old and feeble, or wounded sheep, late-born lambs, etc., should be placed by themselves, if the number does not even exceed a score. They require better feed, warmer shelter, and more attention. But after all, unless the sheep are of a peculiarly valuable variety, it is better to sell them off in the fall at any price,—or to give them to some poor neighbor who has time to nurse them, and who may thus commence a flock. Yarvs.—Experience has amply demonstrated, that in the climate of the Northern and Eastern States—where no grass grows from four to four and a half months in the winter—and where, therefore, all that can be obtain- ed from the ground is the repeatedly frozen, innatritious herbage left in the fall—it is better to keep sheep confined in yards, excepting where the ground is covered with snow. If suffered to roam over the fields at other 200 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. times, they get enough grass to take away their appetite for dry hay, but not enough to sustain them; they fall away, and towards spring they be- come weak, and a large proportion of them frequently perish. I speak, of course, of flocks of some size, and on properly stocked farms. A few sheep, with a boundless range, would do better. Some of our flock-masters let out their sheep occasionally for a single day, during a thaw; others keep them entirely from the ground until let out to grass in the spring. I prefer the former course, where the sheep ordinarily get nothing but dry fodder. It affords a healthy laxative, and a single day’s grazing will not take off their appetite from more than one succeeding dry feed. It is necessary, here, to keep the sheep in the yards until the feed has got a good start in the spring, or they, particularly breeding-ewes, will get off from their feed, and get weak at the most crit- ical time for them in the year. Yards should be firm-bottomed, dry,—and they should, (in this climate,) be kept well littered with straw. My impression is that the yarding system will never be practiced to any extent in the South. It certainly should not be, where sheep can get their living from the fields. How far, and under what circumstances, they will do this, has already been sufficiently discussed in my preceding Letters. Frrpinc-Racks.—When the ground is frozen, and especially when covered with snow, the sheep eats hay better on the ground than anywhere else. When the land is soft, muddy, or foul with manure, they will scarce- ly touch hay placed on it. It should then be fed in racks. These are of various forms. Figure 31 gives the common box rack, in the most general use in the North. It is ten feet long, two and a half wide, the lower boards a foot wide, the upper ones about ten inches, the two about nine inches apart, and the thie eH corner posts three by three, or three and a half by two and a half inches. The boards are spiked on these posts by large flat headed nails wrought for the purpose, and the lower edges of the upper boards and the upper edges of the lower ones are rounded so they shall not wear the wool off from the sheep’s necks. The lower boards and the opening for the heads, should be two or three inches narrower for lambs. If made of light wood, as they should be, a man standing in the inside and middle of one of these racks, can easily carry it about—an important desideratum. Unless overfed, sheep waste very lit- tle hay in them. A capital shed or barn rack is represented in the following cut. The ull 2 Se rane mi HOWLAND SC =a = te Ss HOLE RACK. =< holes are eight inches wide, nine inches high, and eighteen inches from center to center. Sheep do not crowd and take advantage of each other SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 201 so much with these as with box racks. But they would be too heavy and unnecessarily expensive for a common out-door rack. Fig. 32 represents a box, the front formed of a board nailed on horizontally, but they are usually formed by nailing the boards perpendicularly, the bottoms on the sill of a barn, and the tops to horizontal pieces of timber. In the South, as in England, racks will not be so necessary for that constant use to which they are put in colder countries, as for depositories of dry food, for the occasional visitation of the sheep. In soft warm weather, when the ground is unfrozen, and any kind of green herbage is to be obtained, sheep will scarcely touch dry fodder—though the little they will then eat will be highly serviceable to them. But in a sudden freeze, or on the occurrence of cold storms, they will resort to the racks, and fill themselves with dry food. By an instinct beautifully illustrative of the providence of the Creator, sheep anticipate the coming storm, and eat an extra quantity of food to sustain the animal heat, during the succeeding depression of temperature. They should always have racks of dry fod- der to resort to in such emergencies. These occasionally used racks should have covers or roofs to protect their contents from rain, as otherwise the feed would be often spoiled be- fore but a small portion of it was consumed. Hay or straw saturated with water, or soaked and dried, is only eaten by the sheep as a matter of ab- solute necessity. ‘The common box rack (fig. 31) would answer the pur- pose very well by placing on the top a triangular cover or roof formed of a couple of boards, (one hung at the upper edge with iron or leather hin- ges so that it could be lifted up like a lid ;) making the ends tight; draw- ing in the lower edges of the sides so that it shall not be more than a foot wide on the bottom ; inserting a floor; and then mounting it om and mak- ing it fast to two cross sills four or five inches square to keep the floor off from the ground, and long enough to prevent it from being easily overturn- ed. The lower side board should be narrower than in fig. 31, on account. | of the increased hight given its upper edge by the sills. Still better, but somewhat more expensive, would be a rack of the same construction, with the sides like those of fig. 32. Or, the sides might consist of rundles as in fig. 33. In either of the preceding, the top might be nailed down, and the fodder inserted by little doors in the ends. The following form and description of an English rack is from the “ Book of the Farm.’’* SPARRED RACK. “T have found,” says Mr. Stephens, “this form convenient, containing as mucli straw at atime as should be given, admitting the straw easily into it, being easily moved about, of _ * It will be found in the reprint of this splendid work, in Fhe Farmers’ Library, vol. ii, p. 449: 2C 202 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. easy access to the sheep, and being so near the ground as to form an excellent shelter, It is made of wood, is 9 feet in length, 44 feet in hight, and 3 feet in width, having a sparred rack with a double face below, which is covered with an angled root of boards to throw off the rain. The rack is supported on two triangular-shaped tressels , shod with iron at the points, which are pushed into the ground, and act as stays against the effects of the wind from either side. The billet ¢, fixed on the under or acute edge of the rack, rests upon the round, and in common with the feet, supports it from bending down in the middle. The id a is opened on hinges when the fodder is put into the rack... . . Such a rack is easily moved about by two persons, and their position should be changed according to a change of wind indicative of a storm.” I used racks formed of rounds (or “ sparred”) for several years, and found them decidedly objectionable. The sheep grasping a lock of hay in its mouth, brings the head to its xatural position, and then draws in the adhering fibres in the process of mastication. But when eating from a rack, 7¢ will not pick up the hay which it drops under foot. In the box or hole racks (figs. 31 and 32) most sheep will not withdraw their heads from the openings, as they can there hold them in the ordinary position for mastication, and as, if they step back to do so, they are very liable to be crowded out of their places. The hay, therefore, is not drawn out of the rack, and if any is dropped, it falls within it and is saved. Ata sparred rack, the sheep will not keep its nose between the rundles (in a horizon- tal or upward position) until it detaches a mere mouthfull of hay. It will, particularly when partly sated, ¢w2tch out its fodder prior to mastication, and all which scatters off and drops to the ground, is trampled under foot and wasted, except for the mere purpose of manure. A considerable loss will always result from this cause. And there is another objection to this form of rack, particularly where it runs down to an acute edge on the bottom, as in fig. 33. The sheep frequently drawing the hay from the lower part, will shake down from above hay-seeds and chaff into the wool on their head and necks; and the wind will sometimes carry these as far as their shoulders and even their ' backs. As heretofore remarked, these cannot be washed out, and they materially lower the market value of the wool. The following rack has been used and is highly approved by my friend, George Geddes, Esq., of Fairmount, N. Y., to whom I am indebted for the drawing and description of the cut. It serves both for a rack and feeding-trough. THE HOPPER-RACK. “ THE CIRCULAR STELL FITTED UP WITH HAY-RACKS. But in determining upon the best winter shelters, for the various re- gions in the South, the fact must not be lost sight of that cold rains, or rains of any temperature, when immediately succeeded by cold or freezing weather, or cold, piercing winds, are more hurtful to sheep than even snow- storms—and that consequently sheep must be adequately guarded against them. There must also be suitable shelter from any storms to which the country is subject, 7m the lambing season. Any person with the least ex- perience can determine whether an inclosed clump of trees will answer these purposes, in his own immediate region. I think it very probable that in the Gulf States, and some of the lower Atlantic ones—particularly in regions near the ocean—these tree coverts, 208 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. surrounded by fences to break the winds, would be found sufficient. In sections infested with wolves, they might also be made to answer for folds, by carrying the fence to the requisite hight, to bar the ingress of the wolf, But farther north, and on the high lands and mountains, better shelters would, I am inclined to think, in the end, be found more economical. The simplest and cheapest kind of shed is represented in the following cut (fig. 44). It is formed by poles or rails, the upper ends resting on a strong horizontal pole supported by crotched posts set in the ground. It may be rendered rain-proef by pea-haulm, straw, or pine boughs. Fig. 44. W.HOWLAND SC eg LS eS ae SHED OF RAILS. In a region where lumber is yery cheap, planks or boards (of sufficient thickness not to spring downward and thus open the roof) battened with slabs, may take the place of the poles and boughs; and they would make a tighter and more durable roof. If the lower ends of the boards or poles are raised a couple of feet from the ground, by placing a log under them, the shed will shelter more sheep. These movable sheds may be connected with hay-barns, “ hay-barracks,” stacks, or they may surround an inclosed space with a stack in the middle like fig. 43. In the latter case, however, the yard should be square, in- stead of round, on account of the divergence in the lower ends of the boards or poles, which the round form would render necessary. Sheds of this description are frequently made, in the North, between two stacks. The end of the horizontal supporting pole is placed on the stack-pens, when the stacks are built, and the middle is propped by crotched posts. The supporting-pole may rest, in the same way, on the upper girts of two hay-barracks ; or two such sheds (at angles with each other) might form wings to this structure. The “ barrack,” as it is pro- vincially termed inthe North, would, it strikes me, afford a most econom- ical and a most convenient way of storing fodder in the South. It is ea- sily movable, so that it possesses the same advantage that stacks do, in manuring different parts of the field or farm. On the other hand, the fod- der cannot be drenched by a winter rain, as in a partly fed out stack. Hay can be more rapidly stored in it than on a stack at any time, and you can pitch into it to the last moment, when threatened with rain, without stopping to round up the top as is necessary in a stack. The outside is not weather-beaten and damaged, as is the case with the sides, and fre- quently with a considerable of the top of a stack. Fig. 45 (on the next page) represents the form of a barrack. It is 12 feet square on the bot- tom, and the frame is formed by girting together four strong poles, 16 feet long, at the bottom, and 6 feet from the bottom. Boards 6 feet long are nailed perpendicularly on the girts.. Two-inch holes are bored at con- venient distances through the corner poles, so that the roof, which rests SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 209 on pins thrust through these holes, can be raised or lowered, at pleasure. It is occasionally lowered as the fodder gets lower in the barrack, so that rain or snow shall not drive under it. Itseems to me that this structure would be remarkably well adapted to the storing and feeding out of un- Fig. 45. threshed peas, which, as has been remarked in a former Letter, are so advantageously raised at the South, and constitute so admirable a feed for sheep. On all large sheep-farms con- venience requires that there be one barn of considerable size, to con- tain the shearing-floor, and the ne- cessary conveniences about it for yarding the sheep, &c. This should also, for economy, be a hay-barn, (where hay is used,) and from its Hearts : necessary. size (for the shearing- floor), it should hold hay for 400 sheep. It may be constructed in the corner of four fields, so that four hundred sheep can be fed from it, with- out making improperly sized flocks. At this barn it would be expedient to make the best shelters, and to bring together all the breeding-ewes on the farm, if their number did not exceed 400. Thus the shepherd would be saved much travel at all times, and particularly at the lambing-time, and each flock would be.under his almost constant supervision. I offer the following ground-plan of a barn with fixtures, &c., as one which I think will be found well adapted to the purpose above specified. The upper is the north part of the plan. Fig. 46. 2 Mins ae f Poet Sel) uaa ahi “HOWLAND eS y aN Ly > The dotted lines a,a,a,a,are the fences dividing four fields, which would corner at the south-east corner of the barn. The barn is surrounded by double lines, and the sheds by double lines on the backs and ends—the dots in front of them, representing the crotched posts supporting their front. The single black lines round the yards, represent tight board fences, which screen the four yards 4, c, d, e, from every wind. There are two pumps and troughs at h, h, which accommodate the whole four fields, if a want of springs or streams in them render Hess necessary. The sheds are so ar- 210 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. fs aE TE i CR lS Ree A 6! 0: 5 a I RS ranged that even without the screens they entirely shut out the north and west winds—the prevailing and severe winter ones of this region—and if other ones are more prevalent in other regions, the sheds can be changed accordingly. Each of the sheds is 50 feet long and 12 feet wide—six square feet being the smallest proper allowance of sheltered area for each sheep. The barn is 48 feet square, a floor 13 feet wide running east and west through the center, for shearing and for the drawing in of hay. An alley 4 feet wide and 8 feet high (boarded up on the side toward the mow, and covered at the top) cuts off the lower part of each bay from the east wall of the barn. This is for carrying hay into the yards 4, c. It is carried into the yards d, e, from the large doors at each end of the shearing- floor (or from smaller ones cut through them.) The south bay is repre- sented as divided by a temporary fence, cutting it into two pens f, g. The outside inclosure c, for yarding the sheep, communicating by a door with f, and g being used as a room to tie up wool in, presents precisely the same arrangement which is exhibited in the cut of the shearing-barn (fig. 22) in Letter XII. The barn here given (fig. 46) is probably larger than would be neces- sary for 400 sheep, in most parts of the South. Its necessary size is a question to be entirely determined by the climate. For large flocks of sheep, I should regard the storage of some hay or other fodder for winter as an indispensable precautionary measure, at least, in any part of the United States ; and, other things being equal, the farther north, or the more elevated the land, the greater would be the necessary amount to be stored. The shearing-floor shortened to 30 or 35 feet, would still, perhaps, be sufficiently commodious, and this would reduce the diinensions of the barn east and west 13 or 18 feet; and one of the bays might be dispensed with. But having constructed so large, so smooth, and so tight a barn-floor as the shearing one ought to be, it would be good economy to use it for the threshing of grain. One of the bays, therefore, might be used for the storage of grain in the sheaf. I have always considered this an excellent arrangemeut in a Northern barn of this description, as in our cold climate the sheep require much straw litter in their sheds, yards, &c. Thrown out to them daily, as threshed, much bright straw and chaff will be con- sumed by them—particularly of greenish cut oats, The yards ¢, e, in fig. 46 are represented but the width of the barn, 48 feet.. 1f these were reduced too much, by diminishing the size of the barn, the shed of ¢ could be carried farther west at 7, and that of e farther north at 7, being connected with the barn by wind-breakers, composed of a tight board fence, as high as the summit of the sheds. Or, what would perhaps be better, the fences thrown forward in a straight line from the ends of these two sheds might be continued until they intersected each other, and a fence from their point of intersection to the south-east corner of the. barn would divide the two yards. heh Frenne Sarep with oTHER StocK.—Sheep should not run or be fed, in yards, With any other stock, Cattle hook them, often mortally. Colts tease and frequently injure them. It is often said that “ colts will pick up what sheep leave.” Well-managed sheep rarely leave anything—and if they chance to, it is better to rake it up and throw it into the colts’yard, than to feed them together. If sheep are not required to eat their feeds pretty clean, they will soon learn to waste large quantities. But if sheep are overfed with either hay or grain, it is not proper to compel them by starvation to come back and eat it. They will not unless sorely pinched. Clean out the troughs,—or rake up the hay, and the next time feed less. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 211 Hay-Hotpers.— Where hay or other fodder is thrown out of the upper doors of a barn into the sheep-yard, as it always must necessarily be in a barn constructed like fig. 38, or any mere hay-barn, or where it is thrown from a barrack or stack, the sheep immediately rush on it, trampling it and soiling it, and the succeeding forkfulls fall on their backs, filling their wool with dust, seed and chaff. This is avoided by hay-holders—yards 10 feet square—either portable by being made of posts and boards, or simply a pen of rails, placed under the doors of the barns, and by the sides of each stack or barrack. The hay is pitched into the holder, in fair weather enough for a day’s foddering at a time, and is taken from this by forkfulls and placed in the racks. I would here offer a necessary caution in rela- tion to the use of rails or poles, for stack-pens or hay-holders, The poles should be so small as to entirely prevent the sheep from inserting their heads between them after hay. A sheep will often insert its head where the opening is wide enough for that purpose, shove it along or get crowded along, to where the opening is not wide enough to withdraw the head, and it will hang there until observed and extricated by the shepherd. If, as it often happens, it is thus caught when its fore parts are elevated by climb- ing up the side of the pen, it will continue to lose its fore footing in its struggles, and will soon choke to death. Winter Dry Freep ror Suere.—The proper dry winter fodder for sheep has already been repeatedly alluded to, in general terms. Volumes have been expended on this subject, particularly in Germany—and curious and elaborate systems of feeding given. In Germany great stress is laid on variety in the winter fodder. Inthe German Farmer’s Encyclopedia, the following table of the proper variations and amounts of feed is given by Perret. TABLE 15. , Loth, Loth, Loth, Day. | Lbs. |equal Morning. Lbs. | equal Noon. Lbs. | equal Evening. MB 02. 1g 0%, % 0% 1 21 |hay 21 |hay 21 |hay 2 1 1 lrye straw 1 | 22 lhay a 1 jrye straw 3 23 |bean straw | 96 |vetch-hay 23 |bean straw 4 i wheat straw 1 sainfoin 1 wheat straw 5 1 6 joat straw 21 \hay 1 6 |oat straw 6 1 6 |artichoke stalk 1 | 19 |red clover 1 6 Jartichoke stalk ui 1 8 |turkey wheat 1 | 12 |lucern 1 8 |turkey-wheat str’w] 8 1 8 |buckwheat straw 1 | 16 |hay 1 8 |buckwheat straw 9 1 6 |oat straw | 7 |horse-beans 1 6 joat straw 10 19 |red clover | 19 |red clover 19 |red clover 11 18 |sainfoin 18 |sainfoin 18 |sainfoin 12 i 6 |millet straw 1 6 |millet straw 1 6 |millet straw 13 30 |lentil straw 21 |hay 30 |lentil straw 14 30 |pea straw 21 |hay 30 | pea straw 15 30 jbarley straw 1 artichoke stalk 30 |barley straw 16 1 | 10 |horse-bean straw 1 | 10 |horse-bean straw 1 | 10 |horse-bean straw 17 1 1 jrye straw 1 | 11 Jjoat straw 1 1 |rye straw 18 1 wheat straw 1 | 9 joat straw i! 3 | wheat straw 19 L 6 Irye straw i betas Suhons n 3 | wheat straw 20 ] | 6 joat straw I turkey wheat 1 6 |oat straw 21 | 1 3 | wheat straw 22 lartichoke stalk 1 6 |oat straw 22 | 30 |lentil straw | 1 | 30 |vetch straw | 30 |lentil straw Or ice tk 6 ‘oat atraw if 6 |wheat straw i! | 6 loat straw The same writer gives the following as the proper winter feed of a ewe, the month preceding lambing : : 212 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. TABLE 16. In the morning, } 1b. of good oat straw. ist day.. -- noon ....} -. of good hay of clover. | -- evening-.} .. of good barley straw. -- morning .$ .. of millet straw. | 2d day -. i -- noon ....2 .. of potatoes with 4 oz. of chopped straw, and 4 oz. of oats. -- evening-.3 .. of barley straw. -- morning .} .. of hay. 3d any .§ -- noon....}% -. of hay, -- evening..1 -. of wheat, oat, barley or buckwheat straw. -- morning .} -- of summer straw. 4th day..2 °° 200 --- -} .. of chopped straw, with 3 oz. oats and 3 oz. bran, moistened : ves with water. | -- evening..} -. of winter straw. - morning -} -. of hay. 5thday..2 .. noon ....2 .. of potatoes with } lb. of chopped straw. -.- evening..} -. of winter straw. -- morning .} -. of hay. 6th day... -- noon ....asin 4th day, { -- evening-.1 lb. of straw. All this would be infinitely “ more nice than wise,” in any part of the United States. Variations of dry fodder are well enough, but hundreds and thousands of Northern flocks receive nothing but ordinary hay, con- sisting mainly of Timothy, ( Phleum pratense,) some Red and White Clo- ver, ( Trifolium pratense et repens,) and frequently a sprinkling of June or Spear grass, (Poa pratensis, ) during the entire winter. Others receive an occasional fodder of corn-stalks and straw—and some farmers give a daily feed of grain through the winter. Where hay is the principal feed, it may be well, where it is convenient, to give corn-stalks (or ‘“ blades’’) every fifth or sixth feed, or even once a day. Or the daily feed, not of hay, might alternate between blades, pea-straw, straw of the cereal grains, &c. Should any other fodder besides hay be the principal one, as, for example, corn- blades or pea-haulm, each of the other fodders might be alternated in the same way. It is mainly, in my judgment, a question of convenience with the flock-master, provided a proper supply of palatable nutriment within a proper compass, is given. Hay, clover, properly cured pea-haulm, and corn- blades are palatable to the sheep, and each contain the necessary supply of nutriment in the quantity which the sheep can readily take into its stom- ach. Consequently, from either of these, the sheep can derive its entire subsistence. The same remarks may, possibly, apply to greenish cut oat and barley straw; but it would not, I apprehend, be economical or alto- gether safe to confine any kind of sheep to the straw of the cereal grains unless some of those little hardy varieties of sheep which would be of no value in this country. Experiment will readily show the flock-master what kinds of food are palatable and agree with the health of his flock. The following exceedingly valuable Table, prepared by Boussingault, will give the value of various kinds of feed in comparison with ordinary natu- ral meadow hay, as ascertained by himself, Von Thaér, Block, and other distinguished Agricultural Chemists. The results are obtained by chemi- cal analysis,.and by actual experiments in feeding. The amount of nitro- gen in 100 parts is made the chemical test of value, as it shows the quan- tity of fibrin, albumen, and casein, (by multiplying by 6.3.) _The experi- mental result is obtained by weighing the animal and the feed, and giving him enough of each to maintain him in good condition. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. _ 213 TABLE 17. FODDERS. TABLE OF THE NUTRITIVE EQUIVALENTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FUDDERS. Me = 2 3 8 5 F eat apis Po] ad w o = 3 Kinds of Food. - ¥ fe a S 38 < > & 4 Remarks, Sei eclgss|/ ae lalA la ]fey es is zm |zs® . 8 Ordinary natural meadow hay.--.} 11.0} 1.34] 1-15} 100} 100! 100] 100] 100} 100 Do. of fine quality.......--..-2.- 14.0} 1.50] 1.30} 98 On BELO Chee Lic tates Nelaise so cte sey oi « 18.8] 2.40] 2.00) 58 Do. freed from woody stems..... 14.0] 2.44] 2.10) 55 ILucern' haya: (fers aehieeiciies:= 16.6] 1.66] 1.38} 83 90 90] 100/90, 90 Dombasle, Red clover hay, 2d year’s growth.} 10.1} 1.70] 1.54) 75] 100) 90 go} 100 [Crud. Red clover cut in flower, green, do.| 76.0 0.64] 311] 430 450| 425 : New wheat straw, crop 1841.-...-. 26.0] 0.36] 0.27] 426] 200} 360] 150] 450) 300/500 Rieder. Old WHEBtstraw recs) 40 -= 02 - 1-15 8.5} 0,53] 0.49) 235 Do. do. lower parts of the stalk...| 5.3] 0.43] 0.41| 280 Do. do. upper part of do. andear..| 9.4| 1.42) 1.33] 86 New rye-straw. ou Sensi aceved 18.7| 0.30] 0.24) 479} 200) 500] 150] 666 Old: Covey ase oasis omistesotinds aolys 12.6} 0.50} 0.42) £50 Mat-BthAW-\= a sjcie = ciaimrhol Bice miei Seiate 21.0] 0.36} 0.30) 383] 200) 200] 150] 190] 200/400 Schwertz. Bade yidooe 2s yaaa ese earn 11.0} 0.30] 9.25) 460) 193] 180} 150] 150] 200/400 do. Dea Owes ane see ope ae det se eae 8.5] 1.95} 1.79) 64] 165) 200] 150] 130) 150/90 Pohl. INGE IAG: Sh roan mcis ovis orc coe einsiete 19.0} 0.96} 0.78) 147 250 Buck Wheat Osc mci os vic eaccens sc 11.6] 0.54] 0.48) 240 200; , LETH) GOcee Sas see ee «nk oade need - 9.2) 1.18] 1.01) 114] 160} 200 130} 150 he in flower and dried } 11.0] 1.16) 1.14] 101 195 100 Matdtantanseers ce ten sa eemer 0} 2. 0 55} 209 300 Field-beet leaves...........-.--.- 5 ; 0.50} 230) 600 600 @hrrot dot.c.e8- 208 Syieonka Qa) 0.85) 135 Jerusalem artichoke stems 0.37] 311 325 Lime-trees, young shoots . 1.45} 79) 73 Canada Poplar do-......---..--.. 2.5] 2.29) 0.86) 134] 67 (s Dade de tata mnocina te sme Sse ae 4) 2. 0.92) 125) 83 Acacia do. (autumn)..--......... . 56) 0.72) 160 Drumjeabbage, s.cea028-sabncbe =: -3/ 3. 0.28) 411) 556) 500) 250} 429] 600 SWeadishilurnlip.:.- vaccseciccentes 0) 1.83] 0.17) 676 300 300} 250 Murnip cess ey ses geese. bees es. 2.5} 1.70} 0.13) 885] 533) 600] 290) 526) 450 Field-beet (1838)......-...-5.---- 87.8) 1.70} 0.21] 548) 366! 400] 250] 460} 250 Do. white Silesian. ....--........ 85.6] 1.43} 0.18) 669! 366! Warr OES ahs ee weeps ahi. een Shee 87.6) 2.40] 0.30} 382! 205| 250} 225] 300] 250/380 Boussingault. Jerusalem artichokes (1839). ----- 79.2) 1.60] 0.33) 348 280 do. ios (aden. 1. Meee th Te 75.5| 2.20] 0.42] 274 Potatoes (1838) oe) cop apie antenna 69.9} 1.50} 0.36] 319] 216} 200} 150} 200) 200/280 Boussingault. Do: GUBAG) en oe mente dais'aa wie ola cre nee 79.4) 1.80] 0.37) 311 Do. after keeping in the pit.......| 76.8} 1.18] 0.30} 383] 400 Cider apple pulp dried in the air..| 6-4) 0.63} 0.59) 195 Beet-root from the sugar mill..... 70.0 0.38) 303 Vetches in seed 14.6] 5.13] 4.37) 26] 30) 54 66! 40 Field-beans ....... 7.9) 5.50} 5.11] 23} 30} 54] 50) 73) 40 White peas (dry) 8.6) 4.20} 3.84) 927) 30] 54) 48] 66) 40 White: haricotss. 326.622.0522 -- 5.0} 4.30} 4.58] 25 39 gentile. hrc isa sngee seca bese 9.0} 4.40} 4.00} 29 New Indian Com... .....i..-.:-2 18.0} 2.00} 1.64) 70 52 59 Boussingault. Buckwheat)saiee sass eck ecaceas 12.5} 2.40] 2.10) 55 64 Hatley. G1 Sushensenk dldai suite aint, 13.2| 2.02] 1.76 65| 33] 61| 53] 76| 50 (| Barleyemeal. . Gaewene 35 ese 13.0} 2.46] 2.14) 54 Oatsi(18s8) 7.2205 ote donc core 20.8] 2.20] 1.74] 68 71 86] 60 Dal Gi836): 5. cece jet oh a ole oN 12.4] 2.22} 1.92) 60 RVG. (1RgS) 4 ane sate etaten o's.c.< 6 11.5} 2.27] 2.00) 58 Wheat (1836, Alsace).......----. 10,5} 2.33} 2.09] 55) 27) 52] 46] 64) 40 Do. from highly manured soil.....| 16.6] 3.18} 2.65) 43 105 Some specimens Reeents Bran. 2c 12 Se~ eee oak 1] 2. 1.36] 85 rat ; aro twicdan Geb: Wheat husks or chaff. 0.85} 135 Rice (Piedmont).......... suet ABs 4 1.20} 96 Gold of Pleasure seed (Madia)....} 8.0} 4.00} 3.67) 31 DouCake:,, -a- ) oz. | clba: . omb, in food, 1000 pounds of raw potatoes, with salt......- 461 6 eg) 42 53 0.36 1000" 3. « “without salt... ..- 44 Cela 10 142 0.36 2000: n#5. raw mangel-wurzel ..........- 38 5 31 6 52 0.21 1000... Pease ..--.--- 202 - eee eee eee ees 134 14... Ja 41-6 3.83 fO0U". ae wheal, ---4--. 4-5-5 -petasbee aaa 155 13° «132 59 «#69 2.09 1000 a rye, with sale. 4-22-02. ene ee 90 13. 142 35 11} 2.00 S090) nye e rye, without salt.............- 83 12... 102-1/'), B39 484 2.00 1000 -<.. OBIS. bop ben dec=ape nn bee cee 146 9 .12 40 8 1.70 1000 Bs bprley's..352.qUee ee eee 136 11 63 60 1 1.90 1000), :<. backwheak:\: .\4- <..cpemcaemeades 120 10 42 33 °°8 2.10 $000; 2.‘ goed Bay..d-.0b.-t “ When a rotted sheep is examined after death, the whole cellular tissue is found to be infiltrated, and a yellow serous fluid everywhere follows the knife. The muscles are soft and flabby: they have the appearance of being macerated. The kidneys are pale, flaccid, and infiltrated. The mesenteric glands enlarged, and engorged with yellow serous fluid, The belly is frequently filled with water or purulent matter; the peritoneum is everywhere thickened, and the bowels adhere together by means of an unnatural growth. The heart is enlarged and softened, and the lungs are filled with tubereles. The principal alterations of structure are in the liver. It is pale, livid, and broken down with the slightest pressure ; and on being boiled it will almost dissolve away. When the liver is not pale, it is often curiously spotted. In some cases it is speckled like the back of a toad. Nevertheless, some parts of it are hard and schirrous ; others are ulcerated, and the biliary ducts are filled with flukes. Here is the decided seat of disease, and it is here that the nature of the malady is to be learned. Jt is inflammation of the liver. . . . The liver attracts the principal atten- tion of the examiner: it displays the evident effects of acute and destructive inflammation ; and still more plainly the ravages of the parasite with which its ducts are crowded. Here is plainly the original seat of the disease—the center whence a destructive influence spreads on every side. ... The Fluke—the Fasciola of Linnwus—the Distoma hepaticum of Rhodolphi—the Planaria of Goese—is found in the biliary ducts of the sheep, the goat, the deer, the ox, the horse, the ass, the hog, the dog, the rabbit, the guinea-pig, and various other animals, and even in the human being. It is from three quarters of an inch to an inch and a quarter in length, and from one-third to half an inch in greatest breadth. * Spooner, p. 391, et supra. + Youatt, p. 447, et supra. 248 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Figs. 56 and 58 represent this parasite of its usual size and appearance, and its resem- blance to a minute sole, divested of its fins, is very striking. The head is of a pointed form, round above and flat beneath; and the mouth opens laterally instead of vertically. Fig. 57. Fig. 58. THE FLUKE. There are no barbs or tentacule, as described by some authors. The eyes are placed on the most prominent part of the head, and are very singularly constructed (fig. 57). They have the bony ring of the bird. . .. The anastomoses of the blood-vessels which ramify over the head are plainly seen through a tolerable microscope. The circulating and digestive organs are also evident, and are seated almost immediately below the head. The situation of the heart is seen in fig. 56, and the two main vessels evidently springing from it, and extending throngh almost the whole length of the fluke. Smaller blood-vessels, if so they may be called, ramify from them on either side. The convolutions of the bowels appear in fig. 59, and the vent, both for the feces and the ova, and probably for the connection be- tween the sexes, is on the under part, and almost close to the neck. ... . In the beliy, if so it may be called, are almost invariably a very great number of oval particles, hundreds of which, taken together, are not equal in bulk to a grain of sand. They are of a pale red color, and are supposed to be the spawn or eggs of the parasite... . . There can be no doubt that the eggs are frequently received in the food. Having been discharged with the dung, they remain on the grass or damp spot on which they may fall, retaining their vital principle for an indefinite period of time. . . . They find not always, or they find not at all, a proper nidus in the places in which they are deposited; but taken up with the food, escaping the perils of rumination, aud threading every vessel and duct until id arrive at the biliary canal, they burst from their shells, and grow, and probably multi- Se ene Leeuwenhoek says that he has taken 870 flukes out of one liver, exclusive of those that were cut to pieces or destroyed in opening the various ducts. In other cases, and where the sheep have died of the rot, there were not found more than ten or twelve. . . . Then, is the fluke worm the cause or the effect of rot?’ To a certain degree both. They aggravate the disease; they perpetuate a state of irritability and disorganization, which must necessarily undermine the strength of any animal... . . Notwithstanding all this, however, if the fluke follow the analogy of other entoza and parasites, it is the effect and not the cause of rot... .. The rot in sheep is evidently connected with the soil or state of the pasture. It is con- fined to wet seasons, or to the feeding on ground moist and marshy at all seasons. It has reference to the evaporation of water, and to the presence and decomposition of moist vege- table matter. It is rarely or almost never seen on dry or sandy soils and in dry seasons ; it is rarely wanting on boggy or poachy ground, except when that ground is dried by the heat of the summer’s sun, or completely covered by the winter’s rain. On the same farm there are certain fields on which no sheep can be turned with impunity. There are others that seldom or never give the rot. The soil of the first is found to be of a pervious nature, on which wet cannot long remain—the second takes a long time to dry, or is rarely or never s0..... Some seasons are far more favorable to the development of the rot than others, and there is no manner of doubt as to the character of those seasons. After a rainy summer ora moist autumn, or during a wet winter, the rot destroys like a pestilence. A return and a coutinuance of dry weather materially arrests its murderous progress. Most of the sheep SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 249 that had been already infected die ; but the number of those that are lost soon begins to be materially diminished. It is, therefore sufficiently plain that the rot depends upon, or is caused by, the existence of moisture. A rainy season and a tenacious soil are fruitfal or inevitable sources of it... .. The mischief is effected with almost incredible rapidity.” Mr. Youatt here gives various instances to prove that rot is engendered in a few hours and even minutes.* He farther says : “Tt is an old observation that all pasture that is suspected to be unsound, the sheep should be folded early in the evening, before the first dews begin to fall, and should not be released from the fold until the dew is partly evaporated. .... Then the mode of preyention—that with which the farmer will have most to do, for the sheep having become once decidedly rotten, neither medicme nor management will have much power in arresting the evil—consists in altering the character of as much of the dan- gerous ground as he can, and keeping his sheep from those pastures which defy all his attempts to improve them. ... . If all unnecessary moisture is removed from the soil, or if the access of air is cut off by the flooding of the pasture, no poisonous gas has existence, and the sheep continue sound... . . The account of the treatment of rot must, to a considerable extent, be very unsatis- factory. ”’ Mr. Youatt proceeds to recommend the sale of sheep to the butcher when they are found to be rotted! Rot hastens for a short period the accumulation of fat. Bakewell—a man whose name is associated with the exhibition of prodigious abilities in the improvement of stock, but, in my mind, tarnished also by an equal exhibition of selfishness and absolute meanness—displayed a characteristic sagacity in purposely rotting his sheep to avail himself of the above circumstance!t It is with pain [ make the following quotation from Youatt—the only thing of such a char- acter | remember to have noticed in his voluminous works : “Tt is one of the characters of the rot to hasten, and that to a strange degree, the accu- mulation of flesh and fat. Let not the farmer, however, push this experiment too far. Let him carefully overlook every sheep daily, and dispose of those which cease to make pro- gress, or which seem beginning to retrograde. It has already been stated that the meat of the rotted sheep, in the early stage of the disease, is not like that of the sound one; it is pale and not so firm; but it is not unwholesome (!) and it is coveted by certain epicures, who, perhaps, are not altogether aware of the real state of the animal(!!) All this is matter of calculation, and must be left to the owner of the sheep; except that, if the breed is not of very considerable value, and the disease has not proceeded to emaciation or other fearful symptoms, the first loss will probably be the least; and if the owner can get any- thing like a tolerable price for them, the sooner they are sent to the butcher, or consumed at home, the better. Supposing, however, that their appearance 7s beginning to tell tales about them, and they are too far gone to be disposed of in the market or consumed at home, are they to be abandoned to their fate? No: far from it.” Conceding to Mr. Youatt the whole benefit of that saving clause about “consumption at home,” the above sentence is one which I could well wish stricken from his valuable work. The sale of the meat of diseased animals, for human consumption, is abhorrent to decency and propriety, and there is not a respectable American family which would not revolt at the idea of either selling or consuming such meat. Of the treatment of rot, Mr. Youatt continues : “Tf it is suited to the convenience of the farmer, and such ground were at all within his reach, the sheep should be sent to a salt-marsh in preference to the best pasture on the best farm. There it will feed on the salt incrusted on the herbage. and pervading the pores of every blade of grass. A healthy salt-marsh permits not the sheep to become rotten which graze upon it; and if the disease is not considerably advanced, it cures those which are sent upon it with the rot. ... Are there any indications of fever—heated mouth, heaving flanks, or failing appetite? Is the general inflammation beginning to have a determination to that part on which the disease usually expends its chiefest virulence? Is there yellow- * Youatt, p. 453. 1 So say both Spooner and Youatt. 2 I 250 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ness of the lips and of the mouth, of the eyes, and of the skin? At the same time, are there no indications of weakness and decay? Nothing to show that the constitution is tatally undermined? -Bleed—abstract, according to the circumstances of the case, eight, ten, or twelve ounces of blood. There is no disease of an inflammatory character at its commencement which is not benefited by early bleeding. To this let a dose of physic succeed—two or three ounces of Epsom salts, administered in the cautious manner so fre- quently recommended ; and to these means let a change of diet be immediately added— good hay in the field, and hay, straw, or chaff, in the straw-yard. The physic having operated, or an additional dose, perchance, having been administered in order to quicken the action of the first, the farmer will look out for farther means and appliances. .... Two or three grains of calomel may be given daily, but mixed with half the quantity of opium, in order to secure its beneficial, and ward off its injurious effects on the ruminant. ‘To this should be added—a simple and cheap medicine, but that which is the sheet-anchor of the practitioner here—common salt... . . In the first place, it isa purgative inferior to few, when given in a full dose; and itis a tonic as well as a purgative. .... A mild tonic, as well as an aperient, is plainly indicated soon after the commencement of rot. The doses should be from two to three drachms, repeated morning and night, When the inflammatory stage is clearly passed, stronger tonics may be added to the salt, and there are none superior to the gentian aud ginger roots; from one to two drachms of each, finely powdered, may be added to each dose of the salt... . . The sheep having a little recov- ered from the disease, should still continue on the best and driest pasture on the farm, and should always have salt within their reach... . . The rot is not infectious.” Diarrnea.—This disease is often more properly a xervous than a febrile one—in the former case, a morbid increase of the peristaltic motion of the bowels—in the latter, an inflammation of the mucous coat of the smaller intestines. But for the purpose of viewing it in connection with dysen- tery, to which it is sometimes closely allied, and into which it often runs —and which is clearly a febrile disease—it will be described here. Common diarrhea, purging, or scours, manifests itself simply by the copiousness and fluidity of the alvine evacuations. It is brought on by a sudden change from dry feed to green, or by the introduction of im- proper substances into the stomach. It is important to clearly distinguish this disease from dysentery. In diarrhea there is no apparent general fever; the appetite remains good; the stools are thin and watery, but unaccompanied with slime (mucus) and blood; the odor of the feces is far less offensive than in dysentery ; the general condition of the animal is but little changed. Treatment.—C onfinement to dry food for a day or two, and a gradual re- turn to it, oftentimes suffice. I have rarely administered anything to grown sheep, and never have lost one from this disease. To lambs, especially if attacked in the fall, the disease is more serious. If the purging is severe, and especially if any mucus is observed with the faeces, the feculent mat- ter should be remoyed from the bowels by a gentle cathartic—as half a drachm of rhubarb, or an ounce of linseed-oil, or half an ounce of Epsom salts toa lamb. This should always be followed by an astringent, and in nine cases out of ten, the latter will serve in the first instance. I gener- ally administer, say, + 0z. of prepared chalk in half a pint of tepid milk, once a day for two or three days, at the end of which, and frequently after the first dose, the purging will have ordinarily abated or entirely ceased. The following is the formula of the English “ sheep’s cordial” usually perscridee in cases of diarrhea by the English veterinarians, and there can e no doubt it is a safe and excellent remedy—better probably than sim- ple chalk and milk, in severe cases: Take of prepared chalk one ounce, powdered catechu half an ounce, powdered ginger two drachms, and pow- dered opium half a drachm ; mix them with half a pint of peppermint wa- ter—give two or three table-spoonsfull morning and night to a grown sheep, and half that quantity to a lamb. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Qh, = Dysentery.—Dysentery is caused by an inflammation of the mucous oz inner coat of the larger intestines, causing a preternatural increase in their secretions, and a morbid alteration in the character of those secretions. It is frequently consequent on that form of diarrhea which is caused by an inflammation of the mucous coat of the smaller intestines. The inflam- mation extends throughout the whole alimentary canal, increases in viru- lence, and it becomes dysentery—a disease frequently dangerous and ob- stinate in its character, but. fortunately not common among sheep in this patt of the United States. Its diagnosis differs from that of diarrhea in several readily observed ‘particulars. There is evident fever; the appe- tite is capricious, ordinarily very feeble ; the stools are as thin or even thin- ner than in diarrhea, but much more adhesive in consequence of the pres- ence of large quantities of mucus. As the erosion of the intestines ad- vances, the feces are tinged with blood ; their odor is intolerably offensive ; and the animal rapidly wastes away. The course of the disease extends from a few days to several weeks. Treatment.—1 have seen but a few well-defined cases of dysentery, and in the half-dozen instances which have occurred in my own flock, I have usually administered a couple of purges of linseed-oil, followed by chalk and milk as in diarrhea (only doubling the dose of chalk), and a few drops of laudanum, say twenty or thirty—with ginger and gentian. Ac- cording to my recollection, about one-third of the eases have proved fatal, but they have usually been old and feeble sheep. Farther inquiry satisfies me that moderate bleeding should be resorted to in the first or inflammatory stage of the disease, or whenever decided febrile symptoms are found to be present. Mr. Youatt prescribes bleeding, cathartics, mashes, gruel, &c. He says: “Two doses of physic having been administered, the practitioner will probably have re- course to astringents.. The sheep’s cordial will probably supply him with the best; and to this, tonics may soon begin to be added—an additional quantity of ginger may enter into the composition of the cordial, and gentian powder will be a useful auxiliary. With this—as an excellent stimulus to cause the sphincter of the anus to contract, and also the mouths of the innumerable secretory and exhalent vessels which open on the inner surface of the im- testine—a half grain of strychnine may be combined... . . Smaller doses should be given for three or four days.” GarceT—Is an inflammation of the udder, with or without gene- ral inflammation. Where simply an inflammation of the udder, it is usual- ly caused by a too great accumulation of milk in the latter prior to lamb- ing, or in consequence of the death of the lamb. It is not the serious maia- dy, here, described by the English veterinarians. Treatment.—Drawing the milk partly from the bag so that the hungry lamb will butt and work at it an unusual time in pursuit of its food, and bathing it a few times in cold* water, usually suffices. If the lamb is dead, the milk should be drawn a few times, at increasing intervals, washing the udder for some time in cold water at each milking. In cases of obdurate induration, the udder should be anointed with iodine ointment. If there is general fever in the system, an ounce of Epsom salts may be given. NERVOUS DISEASES. Apop.exy.—Soon after the sheep are turned to grass in the spring, one of the best conditioned sheep in the flock is sometimes suddenly found dead. * The English veterinarians recommended warm fomentations. Zan SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. The symptoms which precede the catastrophe are occasionally noted. The sheep leaps frantically into the air two or three times, dashes itself on the ground and suddenly rises, and dies in a few moments. Such cases occur but now and then, and none have ever occurred in my flock to my knowledge. I have therefore had no opportunity of observing the diagnosis, or making dissections. There can be little doubt, however, that the disease is apoplexy. Desirous to raise the condition of a poorish flock (the poorest sheep culled from my other flocks) somewhat too rapidly, perhaps, some winters since, in addition to good hay three times a day, I ordered them fed a gill of oats per head; and as rapidly as it could be done without bringing on scours, I had them fed a liberal allowance of Swedish turnips—about as much as they would eat up clean. They gained perceptibly. One day a sheep was reported to me as having become suddenly blind and motion- less. I immediately examined it. It was in good fair condition. It stood with its head a little down—its eyes were glassy and staring—it was stone blind! The evening before nothing unusual had been perceived about it. I bled it at the inner angle of each eye, and the blood had scarcely started before its sight began to return. In less than a minute it walked off among its companions. It had no relapse. Another case was soon re- ported; I treated it in the same way, and with the same apparent effect. The symptoms soon returned, however, and I bled again. This appeared to produce but a partial restoration of the sight. ‘The sheep would not follow its companions into and out of the sheep-house. When approach- ed, it would run about knocking its head against fences, &c. It lost con- dition, finally became unable to rise, and died. Another one, after being bled, fed regularly, but its sight was never restored. It lived along thus for three or four weeks, and then fell into a hole containing water, and perished. Another apparently recovered, all but sight, and continued in my flock for more than a year afterward. The eye was bright and clear, as in gutta serena, and the blindness would not be suspected, unless the sheep was cornered up. Then, if the catchers remained momentarily still, it would as soon run into their arms or against the fence, as in any other direction. Perhaps fifteen cases occurred. In three or four instan- ces the blind sheep, when they moved, constantly traveled round in a circle. In about as many cases, they twisted themselves about without progressing, the head was drawn round toward one side, they fell, ground their teeth, and their mouths were covered with a frothy mucus. In neither of the latter description of cases did bleeding at the inner angles of the eyes afford anything more than temporary relief. They all proved fatal. At the time these things occurred, I regret to say that I had paid but very little attention to veterinary science, and had never made a dissec- tion. I did nothing but bleed at the inner angles of the eyes, and made no post-mortem examinations. Paking into consideration the feed and the symptoms, there can be but little doubt, I think, that all these cases were referable to a determination of blood to the brain. The sheep were not fat, but the secretions of blood were rapidly and powerfully increased by rich and abundant food. Treatment.—lf the eyes are prominent and fixed, the membranes of the mouth and nose highly florid, the nostrils highly dilated, and the respira- tion labored and stertorous, the veins of the head turgid, the pulse strong and rather slow, and these symptoms attended by a partial or entire loss of sight and hearing, it is one of those decided cases of apoplexy which require immediate and decided treatment. As the good effects of vene- SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 253 section, in all cases, and especially in this, depend not only upon the amount of blood abstracted, but also upon the rapidity with which it is drawn from the veins, the eye-veins are not the proper ones to open. They are so small that the blood flows slowly, and if cut directly across, as is usually done, they soon contract, and the flow of blood is arrested before a sufl- cient quantity has been abstracted. It is better to have recourse at once to the jugular vein. The animal should be bled until an obvious constitu tional effect is produced—the pulse lowered and the rigidity of the muscles relaxed. An aperient should at once follow bleeding, and if the animal is strong and plethoric, a sheep of the size of the Merino would require at least two ounces of Epsom salts, and one of the large mutton sheep more. If this should fail to open the bowels, half an ounce of the salts should be be given, say, twice a day. In the milder cases which I have mentioned as occurring in my own flock, I think had I bied more thoroughly, in the very first attack, and given a mild aperient of Epsom salts, most of the sheep would have re- covered, Purenitis, Tetanus, Ermepsy, Patsy, Rasirs.—I never have seen a well-defined case of either of these maladies among our sheep, though, in a few instances, something which struck me at the time as somewhat analogous to paralysis or palsy. Palsy is a diminution or entire loss of the powers of motion in some part of the body. I have occasionally seen, in the winter, poor lambs, or poor pregnant ewes, or poor feeble ewes immediately after yeaning in the spring, lose the power of walking or standing rather too suddenly to have it satisfactorily referable to in- creasing debility. ‘The animal seems to have lost all strength in its loins, and the hind-quarters are powerless. It makes ineffectual attempts to rise, and cannot stand if placed upon its feet. Treatment—W armth, gentle stimulants, and good nursing, might raise the patient, but in nineteen cases out of twenty it would be more econo- mical and equally humane, to at once deprive it of life. Coxic.—Sheep are occasionally seen, particularly in the winter, lying down and rising every moment or two, and constantly stretching their fore and hind legs so far apart that their bellies almost touch the ground. They appear to be in much pain, refuse all food, and not unfrequently die, unless relieved. This disease is popularly known as the “ stretches,” and is erroneously attributed ‘to introsusception of an intestine. Some farmers worry the sheep with a dog, and others hold it up by the hind legs, to effect a cure! I consider it a sort of flatulent colic induced by costiveness. Treatment—Half an ounce of Epsom salts, a drachm of ginger, and sixty drops of essence of peppermint. The salts alone, however, will effect the cure, as will an equivalent dose of linseed-oil, or even hog’s lard. 254 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. LETTER XVI. DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT—(Continued.) Cachectic Diseases..-Hydatid on the Brain—diagnosis—common methods of treating it—treatment of French and [!nglish veterinarians...The Pelt Rot...Local diseases...Grub in the head—the nature of the disease, if one—erroneous popular opinions—location of the grub—description of the fly (@strus evis)—method of attacking the sheep—conduct of the sheep—appearance of the larva—its habits—the chrysalis—the larva found in the heads of healthy sheep—not believed to be the cause or source of fatal disease—Mr. Bracy Clark’s and Mr. Youatt’s opinion—method of preventing and of expelling the grub... Scab—nature of it—habits of the acari—description of them—contagiousness of the disease—post-mor- tem appearances—treatment...Erysipelatous scab—treatment.--Disease of Bitlex Canal—nature and treatment. .-Hoof-ail—first indications—erroneous statements of foreign veterinarians—of Mr. Youatt— author's experience with it—diagnosis—chronic hoof-ail—can it be cured ?—difficuliies—preparation of the foot—ordinary treatment—proper treatment—cost of curing a flock—cheap partial remedies—sug- gestions—contagiousness of the disease—how communicated.--Fouls—cause and treatment. ..Broncho- cele or goitre—diagnosis—treatment. .-Miscellaneous diseases...Poison from eating Laurel—symptoms— treatment...Sore Face—cause and treatment. ..Loss of cud—not a disease. . . Hoove—cause—symptoms— cure...Obstruction of Gullet, or choking—treatment...Fractures—treatment, &c...Method of adminis- tering medicine into the stomach...Method of bleeding. -.The place of feeling the pulse.-.List of medi- cines employed in treating the diseases of sheep.--Ale-.-Aloes-.-Alum---Antimony-..Arsenic...Blue Vitriol...Camphor....Carraway seeds....Catechu....Chalk..-Corrosive Sublimate-- - Digitalis... Epsom Salts...Gentian...Ginger..-lodine...Lard...Lime, carbonate of...Lime, chloride of....Linseed Oil... Mercury..-Muriatic Acid.-.Nitrate of Potash..-Nitrate of Silver...Nitric Acid...Opium..-Pepper... Pimento...Rhubarb...Salt...Sulphate of Iron...Sulphur....Sulphuric Acid....Spirit of Tar....Tar.-. Tobacco. ..Turpentine-..Verdigris-..Zinc. CACHECTIC DISEASES. Hypatiw on THE Bratn.—This disease, known as turnsick, sturdy, staggers, etc., is spoken of by Chancellor Livingston, and other writers of reputation, as having occurred in this country within their own obser- vation. I have never seen a case of it, and shall be obliged, therefore, to make use of the descriptions of others. Mr. Spooner says : “ The symptoms are a dull, moping appearance, the sheep separating from the flock, a wandering and blue appearance to the eye, and sometimes partial or total blindness ; the sheep appears unsteady in its walk, will sometimes stop suddenly and fall down, at others gallop across the field, and after the disease has existed for some time will almost constantly move round in a circle—there seems, indeed, to be an aberration of the intellect of the animal. These symptoms, though rarely all present in the same subject, are yet sufficiently marked to prevent the disease being mistaken for any other. On examining the brain of sturdied sheep, we find what appears to be a watery bladder, termed a hydatid, which may be either small or of the size of a hen’s egg. This hydatid, one of the class of entozodns has been termed by naturalists the hydates polycephalus cerebralis, which signifies the many-headed hydatid of the brain; these heads being irregularly distributed on the sur- face of the bladder, and on the front part of each head there is a mouth surrounded by minute sharp hooks within a ring of sucking disks. These disks serve as the means of attachment by forming a vacuum, and bring the mouth in contact with the surface, and thus by the aid of the hooks the parasite is nourished. The coats of the hydatid are disposed in several layers, one of which appears to possess a muscular power. These facts are developed by the microscope, which also discovers numerous little bodies adhering to the internal membrane. The fluid in the bladder is usually clear, but occasionally turbid, and then it has been found to contain a number of minute worms. ” According to Mr. Youatt, this disease attacks many of the weakly lambs in the English flocks. It usually appears, he remarks, “ during the first year of the animal’s life, and when he is about or under six months old.” It succeeds a ‘‘a severe winter and a cold, wet spring.”— He says: “Tf there is only one parasite inhabiting the brain of a sturdied sheep, its situation is very uncertain. It is mostly found beneath the pia-mater, lying upon the brain, and in or upon the scissure between the two hemispheres. If it is within the brain, it is generally in one of the ventricles, but occasionally in the substance of the brain, and, in a few instances, in that of the cerebellum. .... SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 255 This is a singular disease; but it is a sadly prevalent and fatal one in wet and moorish districts. .... It is much more fatal in France than in Great Britain, It is supposed that nearly a million of sheep are destroyed in France every year by this pest of the ovine The means of cure are exceedingly limited. They are confined to the removal or des- truction of the vesicle. Medicine is altogether out of the question here.” Many barbarous methods have been adopted to rupture the hydatid, which I will not disgust you by repeating. Mr. James Hogg thrust a wire up the nostrils of the sheep, and through the plate of the ethmoid bone into the brain, and thus, as he assures us, punctured the hydatid and “cured many a sheep!”* This practice, which I cannot characterize otherwise than as atrocious, is justly condemned by Mr. Youatt. The dotted lines d, e, and d, d, in fig. 49, show how limited a portion of the brain could be reached with a wire or trochar by piercing the plate of the ethmoid bone—the only portion of the walls of the skull thin enough to be so pierced by a trochar introduced at the nostrils. Mr. Parkinson “ pulled the ears very hard for some time,” and then cut them off close to the head ! t Where the hydatid is not imbedded in the brain, its constant pressure, singularly enough, causes a portion of the cranium to be absorbed, and finally the part immediately over the hydatid becomes thin and _ soft enouch to yield under the pressure of the finger. When such a spot is discovered, the English veterinarians usually dissect back the muscular integuments, remove a portion of the bone, carefully divide the investing membranes of the brain, and then, if possible, remove the hydatid whole —or, failing to do this, remove its fluid contents. The membranes and integuments are then restored to their position, and an adhesive plaster placed over the whole. The French veterinarians usually simply punc- ture the cranium and the cist with a trochar, and laying the sheep on its back, permit the fluid to run out through the orifice thus made. A com- mon awl would answer every purpose for such a puncture. The puncture would be the preferable method for the unskilled practitioner. But when we take into consideration the hazard and cruelty attending the operation at best, and the conceded liability of a return of the malady—the growth of new hydatids—it becomes apparent that, in this country, it would not be worth while, unless in the case of uncommonly valuable sheep, to resort to any other remedy than depriving the miserable animal of life. Pe.t Rot—lIs classified as a disease by Mr. Livingston, and various other American writers. Mr. Livingston says : “This is often mistaken for the scab, but it is in fact a different and less dangerous disease ; in this the wool will fall off, and leave the sheep nearly naked ; but it is attended with no soreness, though a white crust will cover the skin from the wool which has dropped. It generally arises from hard keeping and much exposure to cold and wet, and, in fact, the animal often dies in severe weather from the cold it suffers by the loss of its coat. The remedy is full feeding, and a warm stall, and anointing the hard part of the skin with tar, oil, and butter.” } I have seen frequent cases of the pelt rot, but never have done any- thing for it, scarcely considering it a disease. If the condition of a poor sheep is raised as suddenly as practicable, by generous keep in the winter, the wool is very apt to drop off, and if yet cold, the sheep will require warm shelter. * Hogg on Sheep, p. 59. 1 Parkinson on Sheep, vol. 1, p. 412. 4 Livingston on Sheep, Appendix, p. 179. 256 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ' LOCAL DISEASES. “Grup In Tuc Huean.”—If the “ grubs” found in the frontal and max- illary sinuses of the sheep actually, in any case, produce disease, it must be, in my judgment, by the irritation and inflammation which they induce in the mucous membrane which lines those cavities. The popular theory that the grub causes death by boring through the bony walls which sur- round the brain, and attacking the substance of the brain itself, is, it seems to me, utterly absurd. The only part of the skull where it could even be fancied that such a perforation would be practicable, is the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone (11 of fig. 49,) which is very thin and is pierced with numerous small holes for the passage of nerves. But an inspection of the same figure will show that the sinus where the parasite is generally found lodged, is not in immediate juxtaposition with the cribriform plate, and that a passage from the former to the brain, would lead directly through the frontal bone—the thickest one of the whole cranium. I neversaw but one grub in the cells of the ethmoid bone near the cribriform plate, and that, I judged at the time, was thrown there accidentally by the violence attending the opening of the head.* But if the grub actually penetrates to the brain, the fact would readily be disclosed after death. The full- grown grub would necessarily leave an orifice of considerable diameter through the skull. Who has seen any such orifice in the cribriform plate or elsewhere 1 Who has seen any orifice but the natural ones of the crib- riform plate, filled with the nerves which pass throughthem? The farmer splits open the head of a sheep with an ax, cutting, mangling and scatter- ing its contents, by the repeated blows necessary to effect his purpose.— Under such circumstances grubs are sometimes found scattered through all the nasal cavities—over and among the brains—and on the ground.— The proof is just as strong, here, that prior to opening the head, some of the grubs were on the ground, as that they were in the brain ! The “grub” of popular parlance is the larva of the Gistrus ores, or gad-fly of the sheep. The latter is represented of the nat- ural size in figures 60 and 61. It is composed of Fig. 60: five rings. It is tiger-colored on the back and - belly, sprinkled with spots and patches of brown. The wings are striped. The comparative propor- tions of the head, corslet, wings, etc. are suflicient- ly seen in the cuts. He who desires a full, scien- tific description of these insects, or who would SHEEP GAD-FLY. fully investigate their habits and economy, will do well to consult the excellent monograph of them by Mr. Bracy Clark the celebrated veterinarian. The sheep gad-fly is led by instinct to deposit its eggs within the nos- trils of the sheep. Its attempts to do this, most common in July and Au- gust, are always indicated by the sheep, which collect in close clumps with their heads inward and their noses thrust close to the ground, and zn- to it, if any loose dirt or sand is within their reach. If the fly succeeds in depositing its egg, it is immediately hatched by the warmth and moisture of the part, and the young grubs, or larve, crawl up the nose, finding their devious way to the sinuses, where, by means of their tentacule, they at- tach themselves to the mucous membrane lining those cavities. During the ascent of the larve, the sheep stamps, tosses its head violently, and of- ten dashes away from its companions wildly over the field. The larve re- * The head was cloven with an az! It is proper to say, however, that various writers speak of having found the grubs in the ethmoid cells, and indeed in all the nasal cavities. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 257 main in the sinuses feeding on the mucus secreted by the membrane, and apparently creating no farther annoyance, until ready to assume their pu- pa form in the succeeding spring. Figures 62 and 63 give the shape and an upper and under view of the full-grown larva. THE ‘“‘GRUB’’ OR LARVA OF THE SHEEP GAD-FLY. The body consists of eleven rings, colorless in the young grub, but the elevated portions growing darker with age, and becoming a dark brown when the full size is attained. There are round spots of a still darker color on each of these bands. At the edges of the rings are a few short hairs, and lower down some round darkish spots, as shown in fig. 62.— Small red spines, as shown in fig. 63, cover the space between the rings on the belly. The remainder of the body (with the exception of the poste- rior stigmata) is white. The tentacule, as well as certain appendages on each side of the anus, the purposes of which have not been discovered, are seen in fig. 63. ” The larva having remained in the sinuses through the fall and winter, abandons them as the warm weather advances in the latter part of spring. It crawls down the nose, creating even greater irritation and excitement than when it originally ascended, drops on the ground, and rapidly bur- rows into it. In afew hours its skin has contracted, become cf a dark brown color, and it has assumed the form of a chrysalis, as seen in fig. 64, Or rather, this figure exhibits the she// of the chrysalis, af- ter the escape of the fly ; and fig. 65 shows the upper ex- hg Apa: tremity or head of the pupa, detached by the fly in its es- ‘ cape. The experiments of Valisnieri go to show that the Cés- trus ovis never eats—and this is the received opinion.— The male, after impregnating two or three females, dies, and the latter having deposited their ova in the nostrils of the sheep, also soon perish. The larva in the heads of sheep may, and probably do add to the irritation of those inflammatory diseases, such as catarrh, which attack the membraneous lining of the nasal cavities; and they are, as we have seen, a powerful source of momentary irritation in the first instance, when ascending to and descending from their lodging-place in the head. But in the interval between these events—extending over a period of several months—not a movement of the sheep indicates the least annoy- ance at their presence, or reveals to the veterinarian whether they exist in the sinuses or not. It would be very difficult to believe that all the local irritation which these parasites could cause, would be sufficient to termi- nate life, and, so far as my observation has extended, post-mortem exam- ination discloses no lesions which would in anywise sanction such belief. The larvze, moreover, are found, at the proper season, in the heads of near- ly all sheep—the healthy as well as the diseased—and I never have been able to ascertain that the number of themis greater, on the average, in the heads of those sheep which were supposed to have fallen victims to their attacks, than in the heads of perfectly healthy sheep slaughtered for the table. And to prove that the popular ideas on the subject are but vague 2K SHELL OF CHRYSALIS. 258 SHEEP MUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. and crude—not the result of that long and close comparison of symptoms, results, and post-mortem appearances, which would give weight to the opinions of the most unerudite—we have but to notice a few of the cases popularly referred to the “ grub in the head.” A sheep in the highest condition and apparent health leaps into the air two or three times, and suddenly dies, and if a grub can be found in the cavities of the head, that is the undoubted destroyer. Another wastes away for months and dies lingeringly, a mere skeleton, and the same proof establishes the same fact. Whether there has been fever or no fever—whether there has been obsti- nate constipation, or equally obstinate dysentery—whether one viscus or another exhibit traces of abnormal action—whether the disease has been acute or chronic—in a word, whatever the form or character of the mal- ady—however diametrically different the diagnosis and the lesions, it is a clear case of ‘‘ grub in the head,” if two or three of those parasites are found there ! Mr. Bracy Clark and Mr. Youatt, so far from regarding the larva of the Céstrus ovis as the cause of a fatal disease, suggest that they may even promote the health of the sheep by diminishing the tendency to cerebral disease—especially determinations of blood—by establishing counter irri- tation! Mr. Spooner does not speak of their producing fatal effects in any instances, nor am I aware that any late scientific veterinarians do. Treatment—Though the presence of the grub constitutes no disease, some think it well to diminish their number by all convenient means.— One simple way of effecting this is by turning up with a plow a furrow of earth in the sheep pasture. Into this the sheep will thrust their noses on the approach of the Céstrus, and thus many of them escape its attacks.— Some farmers smear the noses of their sheep with tar occasionally, during the proper season—the odor of which is believed to repel the fly. Others compel the sheep to smear their own noses every week or two, by feed- ing them their salt sprinkled over tar. Blacklock says that the larvae may be dislodged even from the sinuses, by blowing tobacco smoke for some moments through the tail of a pipe into each nostril. I have never tried the experiment. Tue Scas.—The scab is a cutaneous disease, analogous to the mange in horses and the itch in men. It is caused and propagated by a minute insect, the acarus. M. Walz, a German veterinarian, who has thrown great light on the habits of these parasites, says: “Tf one or more female acari are placed on the wool of a sound sheep, they quickly travel to the root of it, and bury themselves in the skin, the place at which they penetrated being scarcely visible, or only distinguished by a minute red point. On the tenth or twelfth day a little swelling may be detected with the finger, and the skin changes its color, and has a greenish blue tint. The pustule is now rapidly formed. and about the sixteenth day breaks, and the mothers again appear, with their little ones attached to their feet, and covered by a portion of the shell of the egg from which they have just escaped. These little ones im- mediately set to work, and penetrate the neighboring skin, and bury themselves beneath it, and find their proper nourishment, and grow and propagate, until the poor animal has myri- ads of them to prey on him, and it is not wonderful that he should speedily snk. Some of the male acari were placed on the sound skin of a sheep, and they too burrowed their. way and disappeared for a while, and the pustule in due time arose ; but the itching and the scab soon disappeared without the employment of any remedy. The figures on the next page are copied from M. Walz’s work : The female acarus brings forth from eight to fifteen young at a litter. The scab is often produced spontaneously in England by mismanage- ment of various kinds, such as “bad keep, starvation, hasty driving, dogging, and exposure afterward to cold and wet ;” and it spreads rapidly SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 259 by contagion. It is very prevalent there, and annually causes an immense loss in the wool and flesh of the British flocks. In the United States it is comparatively little known, and so far as I am able to learn, never origin- ates spontaneously. It is a singular fact that short-wooled sheep, like the Fig. 66. Fig. 67. Fig. 68. THE ACARUS WHICH CAUSES SCAB. Fig. 67.—The acari of their natural size on a dark ground. Fig. 66.—The female of 366 times the natural size, larger than the male, of an oval form, and provided with eight feet, four before and four behind. a.—The sucker. 6. b. b. b.—The four anterior feet, with their trumpet-like appendices. c. c.—The two interior hind feet d. d—The two outward feet, the extremities of which are provided with some long hairs, and on the other parts of the legs are shorter hairs. To these hairs the young ones adhere, when they first escape from the pustule. e.—The tail. containing the anus and vulva, garnished with some short hairs. Fig. 68.—The male on its back, and seen by the same magnifying power. a,—The sucker. b. b. b. b.—The fore-legs with their trumpet-like appendices, as seen in the female. c. c—The two hind-legs, with the same appendices and hairs. d.—The rudiments of the abdominal feet. e.—The tail. ; ¥ Merino, are much less subject to its attacks, and this is probably one reason for its little comparative prevalence in the United States. Mr. Youatt observes: “The old and unhealthy sheep are first attacked, and long-wooled sheep in preference to the short; a healthy short-wooled sheep will long bid defiance to the contagion, or probably escape it altogether.” It spreads from individual to individual and from flock to flock, not only by means of direct contact, but by the acari left on posts, stones, and other substances against which diseased sheep have rubbed themselves. Healthy sheep are therefore liable to contract the malady ifturned on pastures pre- viously occupied by scabby sheep, though some considerable time may have elapsed since the departure of the latter. The sheep laboring under the scab is exceedingly restless. It rubs it- self with violence against trees, stones, fences, &c. It scratches itself with its feet, and bites its sores and tears off its wool with its teeth. As the pustules are broken, their matter escapes, and forms scabs covering red, inflamed sores. The sores constantly extend, increasing the misery of the tortured animal. If unrelieved, he pines away and soon perishes. I have never had an opportunity to observe the post-mortem appear- ances. Mr. Youatt’says: “ The post-mortem appearances are very uncertain and inconclusive. There is generally chronic inflammation of the intestines, with the presence of a greatnumber of worms. The liver is occasionally schirrous, and the spleen enlarged ; and there are frequently serous effu 260 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. sions in the belly, and sometimes in the chest. There has been evident sympathy between the digestive and the cutaneous systems.” Treatment.—About twelve years since, I purchased 150 fine-wooled sheep just driven into the county from a considerable distance. I placed them on a farm then owned by me, in another town, and did not see them for about three weeks. One of my men then reported to me that the sheep were amiss—that they were shedding off their wool—sore spots were be- ginning to show on them—and that they rubbed themselves against the fence-corners, &c. Though I had never seen the scab, I took it for granted that this was the disease. No time was to be lost, as I had 700 other sheep on the farm—though fortunately, thus far, the new comers had been kept entirely separate from them. Barely looking into Mr. Livingston’s work for a remedy, I provided myself with an ample supply of tobacco and set out. The sheep had been shorn, and their backs were covered with scabs and sores. ‘They evidently had thescab. I had a large potash kettle sunk partly in the ground as an extempore vat, and an unweighed quantity of tobacco put to boiling in several other kettles. The only care was to have enough of the decoction, as it was rapidly wasted, and to have it strong enough. A little spirits of turpeutine was occasionally thrown on the decoction, say to every third or fourth sheep dipped. It was neces- sary to use it sparingly, as, not mixing with the fluid and floating on the surface, too much of it otherwise came in contact with the sheep. Not at- tending to this at first, two or three of the sheep are thrown into great ag- ony, and appeared to be on the point of dying. I had each sheep caught and its scabs scoured off, by two men who rubbed them with stiff shoe- brushes, dipped in a suds of tobacco-water and soft soap. The two men then dipped the sheep all over in the large kettle of tobacco-water, rub- bing and kneading the sore spots with their hands while immersed in the fluid. The decoction was so strong that many of the sheep appeared to be sickened either by immersion or by its fumes; and one of the men who dipped, though a tobacco-chewer, vomited, and became so sick that his place had to be supplied by another. The effect on the sheep was almost magical! The sores rapidly healed, the sheep gained in condition, the new wool immediately started, and I never had a more perfectly healthy flock on my farm. Though adminis- tered with little reference to economy, the remedy was a decisive one.— With a vat like fig. 27, (Letter XII,) this would not necessarily be a very expensive method, with sheep recently sheared. But the assaults of the scab usually come on in the spring before shearing time, and it would re- quire an immense quantity of the tobacco decoction to dip sheep with their fleeces on, however carefully it might be pressed out. The following is the remedy recommended by Chancellor Livingston: “First, I separate the sheep (for it is very infectious) ; I then cut off the wool as far as the skin feels hard to the finger ; the scab is then washed with svap-suds, and rubbed hard with a shoe-brush, so as to cleanse and break the scab. I always keep for this use a decoction of tobacco, to which Ladd one-third by measure of the lye of wood ashes, as much hog’s-lard as will be dissolved by the lye, a small quantity of tar from the tar-bucket, which contains grease, and about one-eighth of the whole by measure of spirits of turpentine. This liquor is rubbed upon the part infected, and spread to a little distance round it, in three washings, with an interval of three days each. I have never failed in this way to effect a cure when the disorder was only partial. . . . | I cannot say whether it would cure a sheep infected so as to lose half its fleece.’ The following remedies are much used in Great Britain: No. 1.—Dip the sheep in an infusion of arsenic, in the proportion of * Livingston’s Essay. Appendix, p. 177. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 261 half a pound of arsenic to twelve gallons of water. The sheep should pre- viously be washed in soap and water. The infusion must not be per- mitted to enter the mouth or nostrils. No. 2.—Take common mercurial ointment, for bad. cases, rub it own with three times its weight of lard—for ordinary cases, five times its weight of lard. Rub alittle of this ointment into the head of the sheep. Part the wool so as to expose the skin in a line from the head to the tail, and then apply a little of the ointment with the finger the whole way. Make a sim- ilar furrow and application, on each side, four inches from the first, and so on over the whole body. The quantity of ointment (after being com- pounded with the lard) should not exceed two ounces, and considerably less will generally suffice. A lamb requires but one-third as much as a grown sheep. ‘This will generally cure, but if the sheep should continue to rub itself, a lighter application of the same should be made in ten days. No. 3.—Take of lard or palm oil 2 lbs., oil of tar x 1b., sulphur 1 lb— Gradually mix the last two, then rub down the compound with the first— Apply in the same way as No, 2. No. 4.—Take of corrosive sublimate 3 lb., white hellebore, powdered, 3. Ib., whale or other oil 6 gallons, rosin 2 Ibs., tallow 2 lbs. “ The first two to be mixed with a little of the oil, and the rest being melted together, the whole to be gradually mixed.” This is a powerful preparation and must not be applied too freely. Mr. Spooner gives the preference to No. 1, as least troublesome; Mr. Youatt to No.2; and the author of the Mountain Shepherd’s Manual to No. 4. I should certainly prefer No. 3, if it is, as it is asserted to be, equally effectual, for the reason that it contains no poisonous or dangerous ingredients. An erysipelatous scab, or erysipelas, attended with considerable itch- ing, sometimes attacks the English flocks, but I have heard of no cases of it here. This would be classified as a febrile disease. It is treated with a cooling purgative, venesection, and oil or lard applied to the sores. Disease or THE Birtex Canau.—F rom the introduction of foreign bod- ies into the biflex canal, or from other causes, it occasionally becomes the seat of inflammation. This is sometimes confounded with the hoof-ail, but the diseases are entirely distinct and different from each other. In- flammation of the biflex canal causes an enlargement and redness of the pastern, particularly about the external orifice of the canal. The toes are thrown wide apart by the tumor. I never have known it to attack more than one foot, and never have allowed it to go to the point of ulceration, which it is said to do if neglected. There is none of that soreness and disorganization between the back part of the toes—and none of that pecu- liar fetor which distinguishes the hoof-ail. JI never have found it anything like so serious a disease as it is described to be by the English veterina- Trians. Treatment.—I have always scarified the coronet, making one or two deeper incisions in the principal swelling around the mouth of the canal —covered the foot with tar—and paid no more attention to it. Hoor-A1..—The first symptom of this troublesome malady, which is or- dinarily noticed, is a lameness of one or both of the fore feet. But on daily examining the feet of aflock which have the disease among them, it will be readily seen that the lesions manifest themselves for several days before they are followed with lameness. Scarcely any English writer whom I 262 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. have read, describes with respectable accuracy the first appearances of the hoof-ail as it exhibits itself 7 this country, and among the fine-wooled sheep.* Mr. Youatt says: “ The foot will be found hot and tender, the horn softer than usual, and there will be en- largement about the coronet, and a slight separation of the hoof from it, with portions of the horn worn away, and ulcers formed below, and a discharge of their fetid matter. The ul- cers, if neglected, continue to increase ; they throw out fungous granulations, they separate the hoof more and more from the parts beneath, until at length it drops off.” The above is ot a description of the consecutive symptoms of the hoof- ail as Ihave seen them. The hoof, instead of being softened, is percepti- bly hardened, I think, by the presence of the disease. There is occasion- ally an enlargement about the coronet, but this is not common in the out- set; and so far from the horn first separating from the foot at that point, it is the last place where it usually adheres when the soles are eaten away by the ulcerous matter, and the mere outside shell remains. I never have known a hoof to drop off, entire, in the sense in which I understand the closing part of Mr. Youatt’s remark. My first introduction to this disease was by its breaking out in its most malignant form in a flock of eight hundred sheep, with which I had placed, early in the preceding spring, a few valuable sheep received from abroad which were infected with the hoof-ail, without my having the slightest sus- picion of the fact. The disease, when of long standing, and well kept un- der, shows itself but very little during the winter and spring, unless the foot is directly examined. Every sheep in that eight hundred took the disease, sometimes first in one foot, then in another, then in a third, and when the fourth one was attacked, perhaps it was again bursting out in one of the cured feet! I considered the sheep valuable, had much of the esprit du corps of a young flock-master, and was determined to conquer the malady at any cost and at all hazards. I have little doubt that every sheep in the flock was “ doctored” on the average ten times each, and it was very rarely that I permitted any other person than myself to cut away the horn and prepare the foot of a single sheep for the application of the reme- dies! When I look back to that period—the sheep on some remote pas- tures—not a shed on them to shelter myself or assistants from the burning August sun as we bent ten or twelve hours a day over our task—our only “operating room” a yard in the corner of two fields—blood and pus en- crusting hands and garments, and occasionally by an unlucky stroke of the knife showered over face and bosonm—the crawling maggots—the intolera- ble fetor :—I hardly know whether to take credit to myself for or to laugh at the stanchness of my zeal. But, worst of all, with all my labor, I had —“ scotch’d the snake, not killed it!” The disease appeared in my flock, though in a much mitigated form, the next summer. I think I then cured it—but I was not allowed to es- cape thus. In the succeeding summer, accident again brought it among my sheep. In a word, I have first and last served a five years’ appren- ticeship to combating the hoof-ail. Having seen it in every possible phase —having experimented with almost every recommended remedy not obvi- ously empirical—I shall be excused if 1 speak my own opinions with a de- * As 1 have before stated, when discussing “ the most profitable breed for the South,” the hoof of the Me- rino and thut of the English Long-Wooled races, is essentially different. The latter usnally retains its natu- ral shape and thickness, and although the side-crust sometimes turns under, it is but a comparatively thin slip of horn, which is subsequently worn or broken off—or it is easily removed by the knife. ‘The hoof of the Merino grows rapidly, especially when the animal has the hoof-ail. 'The horny soles will sometimes be- , come nearly an inch thick, and the toes will elongate and turn up in frout like horns, to the length of three and even four inches. The weight of the Merino is much less than that of the Long-Wool. Take these facts into consideration, together with some of the other circumstances detailed in the introductory remarks to Letter XIV, and perhaps it sufficiently accounts for some differences in the diagnosis of the disease be- éween the two countries. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 263 gree of confidence, even if they chance to conflict with those of professed and eminent veterinarians. As all are aware, the horny covering of the sheep’s foot extends up, gradually thinning out, some way between the toes or divisions of the hoof, and above these horny walls the “cleft” is lined with skin. When the points of the toes are spread apart, this skin is shown in front, covered with short,soft hair. The back part of the toes, or the “ heels,” can be sep- arated only to a little distance, and the skin in the cleft above them is naked. Ina healthy foot, the skin throughout the whole cleft is as firm, sound, dry and uneroded, as on any other part of the animal. The first symptom of hoof-ail is a slight erosion, accompanied with in- flammation and heat of the naked skin in the back part of the cleft, imme- diately above the heels. The skin assumes a macerated appearance, and is kept moist by the presence of asanious discharge from the ulcerated sur- face. As the inflammation extends, the friction of the parts causes pain and the sheep limps. At this stage the foot externally, in a great ma- jority of cases, exhibits not the least trace of disease, with the exception of a slight redness, and sometimes the appearance of a small sore at the upper edge of the cleft, when viewed from behind. The ulceration of the surface rapidly extends. The thin upper edges of the inner walls of the hoof are disorganized, and an ulceration is estab- lished between the hoof and the fleshy sole. A purulent fetid matter is exuded from the cavity. The extent of the separation daily increases, and the ulcers also form sinuses deep into the fleshy sole. The bottom of the hoof disappears, eaten away by the acrid matter, and the outer walls, en- tirely separated from the flesh, hang only by their attachments at the coro- net. The whole fleshy sole is now entirely disorganized, and the entire foot is a mass of black, putrid ulceration; or, as it more commonly hap- pens, the fly has struck it, and a dense mass of writhing maggots cover the surface, and burrow in every cavity. The fore-feet are generally first at- tacked, and most usually but one of them. The animal at first manifests but little constitutional disturbance. It eats as usual. By the time that any considerable disorganization of the structures has taken place in the first foot—sometimes sooner—the other fore-foot is attacked. That be- coming as lame as the first, the miserable animal seeks its food on its, knees, and if forced to rise, its strange, hobbling gait betrays the intense agony occasioned by bringing its feet in contact with the ground. There is a bare spot under the brisket of the size of the palm of a man’s hand, which looks red and inflamed. There is a degree of general fever—and the appetite is dull. The animal rapidly loses condition, The appearance of the maggot soon closes the scene. Where the rotten foot is brought in contact with the side in lying down, the filthy ulcerous matter adheres to andi saturates the short wool, (it being buta month and a half or two months af- ter shearing,) and maggots are either carried there by the foot, or they, are soon generated there. A black crust is soon formed round the spot, It is the decomposition of the surrounding structures, and innumerable maggots are at work below, burrowing into the integuments and mus- cles and eating up the miserable animal alive.. The black festering mass rapidly spreads, and the poor sufferer perishes, we caunot suppose other- wise than in tortures the most excruciating. Sometimes but one fore-foot is attacked, and subsequently one or both hind ones. There is no uniformity in this particular, and it is a singular fact that when two or even three of the feet are dreadfully diseased, the fourth may be entirely sound. So also one foot may be cured, while ev- ery other one is laboring under the malady. 264 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. The highly offensive odor of the ulcerated feet is so peculiar that it is strictly pathognomonic of the disease—and would reveal its character to one familiar with it, in the darkest night. When the disease has been well kept under during the first season of its attack, but not entirely eradicated, it will almost or entirely disappear as cold weather approaches, and does not manifest itself until the warm weather of the succeeding summer. It then assumes a mitigated form— the sheep are not rapidly and simultaneously attacked—there seems to be less imflammatory action, constitutionally, and in the diseased parts—the course of the disease is less malignant and more tardy, and it more readi- ly yields to treatment. If well kept under the second summer, it is still milder the third. A sheep will occasionally be seen to limp, but its con- dition will scarcely be affected, and dangerous symptoms will rarely su- pervene. One or two applications made during the summer, in such a way, as I shall presently describe, that one thousand sheep can be sub- mitted to the treatment in half a day—with but a trifle of labor and ex- pense—wiill now suffice to keep the disease under. At this point.a little vigor in the treatment will entirely extinguish the disease. With all its fearful array of symptoms, can the hoof-ail be cured in its Jirst attack on a flock? The worst case can be promptly cured, as | know by repeated experiments. Take a single sheep, put it by itself, and ad- minister the remedies daily after the English fashion, or as I shall presently prescribe, and there is not an ovine disease which more surely yields to treatment. But as already remarked, in a preceding Letter, in’ this country, where sheep are so cheap, and labor in the summer months so dear, it would out of the question for an extensive flock-master to at- tempt to keep each sheep by itself, or to make a daz/y application of rem- edies. There is not a flock-master within my knowledge who has eyer pretended to apply his remedies oftener than once a week, or regularly as often as that, and not one in ten makes any separation between the dis- eased and healthy sheep of a flock into which the malady has been once in- introduced. ‘The consequence necessarily is that though you may cure the sheep now diseased, it has infected or inoculated others—and these in turn scatter the contagion, before they are cured. There is not a particle of doubt—nay, I know, by repeated observation, that a sheep once entirely cured may again contract the disease, and thus the malady performs a per- petual circle in the flock. Fortunately, however, the susceptibility to con- tract the disease diminishes, according to my observation, with every suc- ceeding attack; and fortunately also, as already stated, succeeding attacks, ceteris paribus, become less and less virulent. What course shall then be pursued? Shall the flock-master sacrifice his sheep—shall he take the ordinary half-way course—or shall he expend more on the sheep than they are worth in attempting to cure them? Nei- ther. The course I would advise him to pursue, will appear as I detail the experiments I have made. Treatment.—The preparation of the foot, where any separate individual treatment is resolved upon—and this is always necessary, at least in bad cases—is a subject of no dispute. But the labor can be prodigiously economized by attention to a few not very commonly observed particulars. Sheep should be yarded for the operation immediately after a rain, if prac-° ticable, as then the hoofs can be readily cut. Ina dry time, and after a night which has left no dew on the grass, their hoofs are almost as tough as horn. They must be driven through no mud, or soft dung, on their way to the yard, which would double the labor of cleaning their feet.— The yard must be small, so they can be easily caught, and it must be kept SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 265 well littered down, so they shall not fill their feet with their own excre- ment. Ifthe straw is wetted, their hoofs will not of course dry and harden as rapidly as in dry straw. Could the yard be built over a shallow, grav- elly-bottomed brook,* it would be an admirable arrangement. The hoofs would be kept so soft that the greatest and most unpleasant part of the la- bor, as ordinarily performed, would be in a great measure saved, and they would be kept free from that dung which by any other arrangement will, more or less, get into their clefts. The principal operator or foreman seats himself in a chair—a couple of good knives, a whetstone, the powerful toe-nippers (fig. 21, Letter X1II,) a bucket of water with a couple of linen rags in it, and such medicines as he chooses to employ, within hisreach. The assistant catches a sheep and lays it partly on its back and rump, between the legs of the foreman, the head coming up about to his middle. The assistant then kneels on some straw or seats himself on a low stool at the hinder extremity of the sheep. If the hoofs are long, and especially if they are dry and tough, the assist- ant presents each foot to the foreman, who shortens the hoof with the toe- nippers. If there is any filth between the toes, each man takes his rag from the bucket of water, and draws it between the toes and rinses it, un- til the filth is removed. Each then seize their knives, and the process of paring away the horn commences. And on the effectual performance of this, all else depends. A glance at the foot will show whether it is the seat of the diseased action. The Jeast experience cannot fail in properly set- tling this question. An experienced jimger, placed on the back of the pastern close above the heel, would at once detect the local inflammation (by its heat) i the dark. If the disease is in the first stage—/.e. there is merely an erosion and ul- ceration of the cuticle and flesh in the cleft above the walls of the hoof, no paring is ecessary. But if ulceration has established itself between the hoof and the fleshy sole, the ulcerated parts, be they more or less exten- sive, MUST BE ENTIRELY DENUDED OF THEIR HORNY COVERING, cost what it may of time and care. It is better not to wound the sole so as to cause it to bleed freely, as the running blood will wash off the subsequent applica- tion, but no fear of wounding the sole must prevent a full compliance with the rule above laid down. At the worst, the blood will stop flowing after a little while, during which time no application need be made to the foot. If the foot is in the third stage—a mass of rottenness and filled with maggots—in the first place pour a little spirits of turpent#ie (a bottle of it, with a quill through the cork, should be always ready,) on the maggots and most of them will immediately decamp, and the others can be re- moved with a probe or small stick. Then remove every particle of loose horn, though it should take the entire hoof—ana it will generally take the whole hoof in such cases. The foot should be now cleansed with a solu- tion of chloride of lime, in the proportion of one pound of chloride to one gallon of water. If this is not at hand, plunging the foot repeatedly in water, just short of scalding hot, will answer every purpose. The great object is to clean the foot thoroughly. If there are any considerable fun- gous granulations, (“ proud-flesh,”) they should be excised with a pair of scissors, or the actual cautery (hot iron.) And now comes the important question what constitutes the best remedy ? The recommended prescriptions are innumerable. The following are some of the most popular ones.} 1. 4 oz, blue vitriol, 2 oz. of verdigris. * A portion of any little brook might be prepared by planking the bottom, and widening it if desirable. + The first three are given in the American Shepherd, pp. 379-80. 266 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. to a junk-bottle of wine, 2. Spirits turpentine, tar and verdigris in equal parts. 3. 3 quarts of alcohol, 1 piut spizits of turpentine, | pint of strong vinegar, 1. lb. blue vitriol, 1 lb. copperas, 14 lbs. verdigris, 1 lb. alum, 1 Ib. of saltpetre, pounded fine: mixin aclose bottle, shake every day, and let it stand six or eight days before using: also mix 2 pounds of honey and 2 quarts of tar, which must be applied after the previous compound, “ Two applications. will entirely remove the disease,” says this recipe, which was once, I believe, hawked about the country as a patent cure—being sold at five dollars to each purchaser, he giving a promise of inviolable se- crecy! 4. Apply diluted aquafortis (nitric acid) with a feather to the ul- cerated surface. 5. Apply diluted oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) in the same way. 6. Same of muriatic acid. 7. Dip the foot in tar nearly at the boiling point, &c. After a thorough trial of the above and a multitude of other prescrip- tions,* I haye come to the conclusion that inthe first and second stages of the disease—before the ulcers have formed sinuses into the sole, and wholly or partly destroyed its structure—that no application, simple or compound, is preferable to a saturated solution of blue vitriol, (sulphate of copper.) In my judgment, no beneficial addition can be made to it as a remedy. Ofthe manner of applying it I shall speak presently. In the third stage, when the foot is a festering mass of corruption, after it has been cleansed as already directed, it requires some strong caustic to remove the unhealthy granulations—the dead muscular structures—and to restore healthy action. Lunar caustic I think preferable to any other application, but it is too expensive. Mr. Youatt gives a decided prefer- ence to chloride of antimony, and I think him correct. This is frequently, not attainable in the country drug-stores, and muriatic acid may be re- sorted to, or even nitric or sulphuric acid. The diseased surface is touched with the caustic (applied with a swab formed by fastening a little tow on the end of a stick,) until the objects above pointed out are obtained. I have then usually treated the foot with the solution of blue vitriol, and sub- sequently coated it over with tar which has been boiled, and is properly cooled. The last protects the raw wound from dirt, flies, &e. Sheep in this stage of the disease should certainly be separated from the main flock, and looked to as often as once in three days. With this degree of atten- tion, their cure will be rapid, and it is astonishing with what celerity the obliterated structures of the foot will be restored. The ordinary method of using the solution of blue vitriol is to pour it from a bottle with a quill in the cork, into the foot, when the animal lies on its back between the operators, as already described. In this way a few cents’ worth of vitriol will serve for a large number of sheep. But the method is imperfect, because, without remarkable care, there will al- most always be some slight ulcerations not uncovered by the knife—the passages to them will be devious, and perhaps nearly or quite closed— and the solution will not reach them. Thus the disease will only be tem- porarily suppressed, not cured. I had a flock of sheep a few years since which were in the second sea- son of the disease. They had been but little looked to during the sum- mer, and as cold weather was setting in, many of them were consid- erably lame—some of them quite so. The snow fell and they were brought into the yards, limping and hobbling about deplorably. This sight, so dis- graceful to me as a farmer, roused me into activity. I bought a quantity *Many of them resorted to “against the stomach of my sense,” to give myself and others indisputable ocular proof of their inutility—or that they were no_ better than cheaper, simpler, aud more easily attain- able medicines SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 267 of blue vitriol—made the necessary arrangements—and once more took the chair as principal operator! Never were the feet of a flock more thoroughly pared. Into a large washing tub, in which two sheep could stand conveniently, I poured a saturated solution of blue vitriol and water, as hot as could be endured by the hand even for a moment. The liquid was about four inches deep on the bottom of the tub, and was kept at about that depth by frequent additions of ho¢ solution. As soon as a sheep’s feet were pared, it was placed in the tub and held there by the neck, by an as- sistant. A second one was prepared and placed beside it. When the third one was ready, the first was taken out, and so on. Two sheep were thus constantly in the tub, and each remained in it about five minutes — The cure was perfect! There was not a lame sheep in the flock during the winter or the next summer! The hot liquid penetrated to every cavity of the foot, and doubtless had a far more decisive effect even on the uncovered ulcers, than would have been produced by merely wetting them, Perhaps the lateness of the season was also favorable, as in cold weather the ulcers of ordinary virulence discharge no matter to inoculate the healthy feet, and thus, atthe time of applying the remedy, there are no cases where there has been inoculation not yet followed by those lesions which admit of cure. Whether so thorough a soaking would destroy the virus in the in- oculated foot, 1 cannot pretend to decide. I think that the vitriol required for the above one hundred sheep was about twelve pounds, and that it cost me fifteen cents per pound. The ac- count then would stand thus: TS ibey of avitriol ‘at’ 15 icenteecia5 ee sicc a he wintie tetac se ie =< bot nls $1,80 gbonol samen One Gay CACD on a seeiccie ieretenjee mae seme elas ciapecioe 2,25 Pte ats ole «piadbine Acie sides douiee wie epee Ae ater fiaick cane pee or about four cents per sheep. I have not a doubt that three such appli- cations at intervals of a week, would effectually cure the disease, as every new case would be arrested and cured before it had time to inoculate others. I have no doubt that it would do this at any time of year, and even during the first and most malignant prevalence of the contagion, pro- VIDING THE PARING WAS SUFFICIENTLY THOROUGH. ‘The second and third parings would be a mere trifle, and the liquid left at the first and second applications could again be used. Thus sheep could be cured at about twelve cents per head. This is vastly cheaper in the long run than the ordinary temporizing method—where people count the cost of a few pounds of blue vitriol, but not their time, and who thus keep the disease lingering in their flocks for years. Indeed, if partial and temporizing treatment is all that is aimed at,—if the flockmaster is content to simply keep the disease under—I can point out methods quite as efficacious as the common one by paring and applying washes from a bottle—as ordina- rily performed—and not costing a tithe as much. Between the corners of two sheep-pastures (1, 2, of fig. 69,) construct _ the dividing fence as represented in the cut. A narrow passage is thus left from one field to an- other. ‘his passage should be about 2 or 23 feet wide and 12 feet long. The fence on each side of the passage should be an upright board fence, so that the space can be entirely filled on the bot- tom with a flat trough, (the bottom formed of a ; plank) with side and end boards about five inches high. In this trough place say a bushel and a half or two bushels of un- Fig. 69. 268 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. slacked lime,* slack it, and then fill the trough nearly full of water— Through this drive the flock several times from one field to the other—un- til the lame ones manifest much suffering. Repeat this once a week the first summer that the disease appears, putting in fresh lime each time.— This does not appear to cure the hoof-ail, but it keeps it under; the sheep keep their condition, and show little lameness. ‘The second or third sum- mer of the disease, three or four such applications usually answer for the entire season. Some use dry slacked lime, as the same trough-full will then answer for several applications. The trough in this case must have a roof over it. I never have tried the last method. If the dry lime will get sufficiently between the toes—and it is said to—it will answer the purpose where it touches more effectually than even the liquid, but it would not be so likely to penetrate into cavities. Some who use the lime remedy, pare the feet once pretty thoroughly prior to the first application, but afterward neglect them. Others neglect paring entirely, 2. e. beyond shortening the toes once a year, as is practiced with all fine-wocled flocks. Fig. 70 is an improvement on the Fig. 70. more common arrangement exhib- ited in fig. 69. The dotted lines enclose good-sized yards in the cor- ners of two adjoining pastures— Two drivers can yard the sheep in one of these, and drive the sheep from one to the other any number of times, without chasing them about a large field. The labor can therefore be performed much more rapidly, and it requires less force. A couple of active fellows would yard and submit a flock of two or three hundred sheep to the process in less than an hour. When the sheep are first yarded, if there are any very lame ones, draw them out and place them in one of the small pens (a, 6.) Their feet can be examined, and if necessary a little extra pains taken with them, by paring, cauterizing, etc. Each sheep as treated is put into the other small pen, where it can be re- tained until the flock is discharged, and then removed to a separate pas- ture from the others, if considered desirable. Where two yards are constructed, as in fig. 70, it is obvious that the ar- rangement can be made elsewhere as well as in the corner of two fields, though if the sheep are wild, it may require a few rods of wing fence (in the place of the dividing one between the fields, as seen in figures 69 and 70,) for the more convenient cornering of the sheep to yard them. Thus one such apparatus might be made to conveniently answer for a whole farm, though thousands of diseased sheep were scattered in different flocks over it, and may be placed at a spot where water, etc. are convenient. Where lime and water are used, the sheep must be driven through the trough slowly and quietly—as otherwise the lime will be scattered over their wool, into their eyes, &c. If the lime is fresh burned and_ highly caustic, it would be likely to destroy their eyes. Indeed, pure fresh-burned lime sometimes will take the hair off from their pasterns and shanks. It is better, therefore, to use it when somewhat re-carbonized by exposure to the air. Wood ashes are said to produce the same effect with lime. It is claimed that sheep kept on lands where the timber has been recently burned, (“new clearings,”) will recover fromthe hoof-ail. Query: If this be true * To be added to, from time to time, if the number of sheep run through is large enough to waste it mate- rially, before they are sufficiently treated. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 269 might not the lye of ashes, of the proper strength, make an adequate sub stitute for lime and water 4 Some Northern farmers drive their sheep over dusty roads as a remedy for hoof-ail ! Opposed as it would seem to be to sound theory—sadly as it is at variance with the practice of foreign veterinarians who employ “tow-pledgets,” “ gaiter boots,” etc., to exclude all dirt from the diseased surface, it does actually seem in cases of ordinary virulence—especially where the disease is chronic—to dry up the ulcers and keep the malady under! There is an important point to be regarded in exhibiting remedies for the hoof-ail, the mention of which I have reserved until now, as it concerns all remedies equally. Many farmers select rainy weather to ‘‘ doctor” the sheep. ‘Their feet are then soft, and it is therefore on all accounts good economy, when the feet are to be pared, and each separately treated, pro- vided they can be kept in sheep-houses, or under shelters of any kind, until the rain is over and the grass again dry. If immediately let out in wet grass of any length, the vitriol or other application is measurably washed away. This is avoided by many, by dipping the feet in warm tar —an excellent plan under such circumstances. The tar is probably a good application at any time, but I do not consider it necessary, in ordinary cases, unless the sheep must be turned out into wet grass. A flock of sheep which have been cured of the hoof-ail, are considered more valuable than one which has never had it. They are far less liable to contract the disease from any casual exposure—and its ravages are far less violent and general among them. I am strongly disposed to believe that hoof-ail is propagated in this country only by imoculation—the contact of the matter of a diseased foot with the integuments lining the bifurcation of a healthy foot. That it is propagated in some of those ways classed under the ordinary designation of contagion is certain. I could indisputably authenticate more than a hundred cases, where the sheep on a farm, indeed through a neighbor- hood, had been notoriously exempt from hoof-ail from the first settlement of the country—so that the inhabitants did not even know what the disease was—until some diseased flock was introduced from abroad. It was so in the region where I live, and I well recollect when a flock of Saxons, driven from a neighboring county, first introduced it among our sheep. There has not been a diseased flock in the county which could not trace it back to that flock. And the contagion was spread by them as readily on our dry hill-farms as on low and moist ones. That it may be propagated by enoculation I know by direct experiment. I have placed the matter of diseased feet on the skin lining the cleft of a healthy foot under a variety of cireumstances—sometimes when that skin was in its ordinary and natural state—sometimes after a very slight scari- fication—sometimes when macerated by moisture. The disease has been communicated under each of these circumstances, and in a majority of all the instances, amounting to sixteen or seventeen. ‘ That there is not even a supposed or pretended case, to my knowledge, on record where the disease has originated spontaneously, in the Northern States, I have already asserted.* I regard Professor Dick’s statements of the manner in which the disease originates, which I have quoted,t as wholly inapplicable to our country with its present breeds of sheep, and 1 cannot sufficiently express my surprise that this eminent veterinarian should nave adopted—what I deem so unqualified an absurdity—the non- contagion theory. Ihave been disposed to trace the propagation of the disease exclusiye- *In the beginning of Letter XIV. tIb. 270 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. — ly to wmoculation, from having observed on my own farm and elsewhere, that healthy flocks have occupied with impunity fields adjoining those oc- cumied by diseased ones—an open board or rail fence only separating them. I have drawn the same inference also from the manner in which the disease attacks flocks. The whole, or any considerable number, though sometimes rapidly, are never smultaneously attacked, as we should expect among animals so gregarious, if the disease could be communicated by simple contact, inhaling the breath or other effluvium. But not having pos- itive and demonstrative proof of the correctness of the proposition, I would advise no man to incur any risks, unnecessarily, founded on this assump- tion, without first satisfying himself on the point. The matter of diseased feet is left on grass, straw, and other substances, and thus is brought in contact with the inner surfaces of healthy feet— Sheep therefore contract the disease from being driven over the pastures, yarded on the straw, &c., where diseased sheep have been, perhaps even days before. The matter would probably continue to inoculate until dried up by the air and heat, or washed away by the rains. The stiff upright stems of closely mown grass (as on meadows,) are almost as well calcu- lated to receive the matter of diseased feet, and deposit it in the clefts of healthy ones, as any means which could be devised artificially. I do not consider it entirely safe to drive healthy sheep over roads, and especially into washing-yards or sheep-houses, where diseased sheep have been, until rain has fallen, or time has elapsed for the matter to dry up. On the moist bottom of a washing-yard, and particularly in houses or sheds, kept from sun and wind, and rain, this matter might be preserved for some time in a condition to inoculate. Fouts.—Sheep are much less subject to this disease than cattle, but are subject to it if kept in wet, filthy yards, or on moist, poachy ground, It is an irritation of the integument in the cleft of the foot, slightly resembles incipient hoof-ail, and produces lameness. But it produces no serious structural disorganization—disappears without treatment—is not con- tagious—and appears in the wet weather of spring and fall, instead of the dry, hot period of summer when the hoof-ail rages most. A little solution of blue vitriol, or a little spirits of turpentine, either followed by a coat- ing of warm tar, promptly cures it. Goitre or Broncnocete.—I never have seen this classed among the diseases of sheep, but the “swelled neck” in lambs is, like the goitre, an enlargement of the thyroid glands, and it is strikingly analogous to, if not identical with, that disease. It is congenital. The glands at birth are from the size of a pigeon’s to that of a hen’s egg—though more elongated and flattened than an egg in their form. The lamb is exceedingly feeble, and often perishes almost without an effort to suck. Many even make no effort to rise, and die as soon as they are dropped. Itis rare that one lives —thouch three or four years since, a lamb in my flock having one of the thyroid glands enlarged, grew up a large, healthy sheep. At a year old, when disposed of, the enlarged gland was of the size of a goose-egg. No inconsiderable number of lambs annually perish from this disease.— It does not appear to be an epizodtic, though I think it more prevalent some seasons than others. It does not seem to depend upon the water, or any other natural circumstances of a region, (as goitre is usually supposed to,) as it may not prevail in the same flock or on the same farm once in ten years. { never have been able to trace it to any particular kind of food. That when it does appear, it is induced by some common local or SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Q71 alimentary cause, I am inducéd to infer from the fact that its attacks are rarely isolated. When there are any instances of it in a flock, there are usually a number of them. I have lost lambs by it two seasons— from six to ten per cent. of the whole number. Francis Rotch, Esq. of Louisville, Otsego county, lost a much heavier per centage than this (my impression would now be nearly fifty per cent.) of his choice South-Down lambs, a few years since. JI am acquainted with various other instances where the loss has ranged from ten to twenty per centum. When congenital goitre has thus appeared among my lambs, the ewes have been in unusually high condition. 'The same was true of Mr. Rotch’s ewes, as he wrote me at the time. Whether this coéxistence implies caus- ality, I do not pretend to decide. High condition in the ewe may be one of the inducing causes. Treatment—I know of no treatment which will reach the case. Indeed, the lamb is dying, almost, when born—and remedies are out of the ques- tion. Should one having the disease chance to live, it would scarcely be worth while to attempt reducing the enlargements of the glands. Perhaps keeping the breeding ewes uniformly in fair, plump, but not igh condi- tion, would be as effectual a preventive as any. MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES. Poison From Eatine Lavret.—l! often hear of this from our drovers, who take sheep in the spring to the Philadelphia and New-Jersey mar- kets, through Northern Pennsylvania, on the Old Red Sandstone formation of which the beautiful Kalmia angustifolia is abundant. The following description of the effects on the sheep of eating this plant, and the proper remedial treatment, though, I confess, not very satisfactory to me, I ex- tract entire from the “ American Shepherd,’ * as I have no experience whatever in the premises, and no better account within my reach : “‘ Sheep and calves will often, in the winter or spring of the year, eat greedily of the low Laurel (Kalmia angustifolia). The animal appears to be dull and stupid, swells a little, and is constantly gulping up a greenish fluid which it swallows down ; a part of it will trickle out of its mouth, aud discolor its lips. The plant probably brings on a fermenta- tion in the stomach, and Nature endeavors to throw off the poison herb by retching or yomiting. Treatment.—In the early stages, if the greenish fluid be suffered to escape from the stomach, the animal most generally recovers. To effect this, gag the sheep, which may be done in this manner : Take a stick of the size of your wrist and six inches long—place it in the animal’s mouth—tie a string to one end of it, pass it over the head and down to the other end, and there make it fast. The fluid will then run from the mouth as fast as thrown up from the stomach. In addition to this, give roasted onions and sweetened milk freely.” I have somewhere, I think, seen drenches of milk and castor-oil pre- scribed for sheep poisoned with laurel; and I should, without farther knowledge of the subject, consider it treatment promising better results than the preceding. Sore Face.—Sheep feeding on pastures infested with John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) not unfrequently exhibit an irritation of the skin about the nose and face, which causes the hair to drop off from the parts. The irritation sometimes extends over the whole body, though no such case has fallen under my observation. Mr. Morrel says: f “ If eaten in too large quantities, it produces violent inflammation of the bowels, and is frequently fatal to lambs, and sometimes to adults.” Treatment —Rub a little sulphur and lard on the irritated surface. If there are symptoms of inflammation of the bowels, Mr. Morrell prescribes * American Shepherd, p. 361. { Ib. 374. 272 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. tar— putting it into the mouth of the sheep with a flattened stick.’ Abundance of salt is considered, and probably truly, a preventive. I have a sheep pasture considerably infested with this difficultly extermi- nated weed, and I do not recollect an instance of a sheep exhibiting the effects of eating it, in several years. It is certain that my sheep have plenty of salt, whether this is the preventive or not. Sore Movutu.—The lips of sheep sometimes become suddenly sore in the winter, and swell to the thickness of a man’s hand. The malady occasionally attacks whole flocks, and becomes quite fatal. No cases of it having been brought under my observation, I am unable to state whether, in accordance with the popular description, the lesions are con- fined to the lips. I should presume not. It is usually attributed to noxious weeds cut with the hay. Trcatment.—Mr. Morrell states that he has had the disease in his flock, and has cured it immediately by smearing the diseased lips with tar.* Loss or Cup.—The “loss of the cud” ranks as an important disease in the nosology of the ‘‘ Cattle Doctor,” and frequently calls forth all the skill of that functionary to manufacture a mew cud, which is placed in the mouth of the animal as a substitute for the one which was lost! That person must be little versed in the physiology of ruminants who needs to be told that the accidental loss of one of the cuds, in the process of re- mastication, would be a matter of no sort of consequence. The sheep, as well as the cow, not unfrequently nearly or entirely ceases to ruminate, but this is the result, not the cause, of disease. It is: diagnostic of all important diseases, and when observed, its warning should never go un- heeded. Hoove.—This is not common, to any dangerous degree, among sheep, but if turned upon clover when their stomachs are empty, it will some- times ensue. It is a distention of the paunch by gas extricated from the fermentation of its vegetable contents, and evolved more rapidly, or in larger quantities, than can be neutralized by the natural alkaline secretions of the stomach. When the distention is great, the blood is prevented from circulating in the vessels of the rumen, and is determined to the head. The diaphragm is mechanically obstructed from making its ordi- nary contractions, and respiration, therefore, becomes difficult and imper- fect. Death soon supervenes. In ordinary cases, gentle but prolonged driving will effect a cure. Where the animal appears swelled almost to bursting, and is disinclined to move, it is better to at once open the paunch. At the most protuberant point of the swelling, on the left side, a little below the hip bone, plunge a trochar or knife, sharp at the point and dull on the edge, into the stomach. The gas will rapidly escape, car- rying with it some of the liquid and solid contents of the stomach. If no measures are taken to prevent it, the peristaltic motion, as well as the collapse of the stomach, will soon cause the orifices through the abdomen and paunch not to coincide, and thus portions of the contents of the former will escape into the cavity of the latter. However perfect the cure of hoove, these substances in the belly will ultimately produce fatal irritation. To prevent this, a canula or little tube should be inserted through both orifices as soon as the puncture is made. Where the case is not imminent, alkalies have been sometimes successfully administered, which combine * American Shepherd, p. 375. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 273 at a en a ee rae er with the carbonic acid gas, and thus at once reduce its volume. A flexi- ble probang—or, in default of it, a rattan or grape-vine—with a knob on the end, may be gently forced down the gullet, and thus the gas permitted to escape. OssTRUCTION OF THE GULLET, oR “ CHoxiNnG.’’—After pouring a little oil in the throat, the obstructing substance can be frequently moved up or down by external manipulation. If not, it may usually be forced down with a flexible rod, the head of which is guarded by a knob or a little bag of flax-seed. The latter having been dipped in hot water for a minute or two, is partly converted into mucilage, which constantly exudes through the cloth, and protects the esophagus from laceration. But little force must be used, and the whole operation conducted with the utmost care and gentleness, or the esophagus will be so far lacerated as to produce death, although the obstruction is removed. Fractures.—Of these Mr. Blacklock concisely says : “If there be no wound of the soft parts, the bone being simply broken, the treatment is extremely easy. Apply a piece of wet leather, taking care to ease the limb when swelling supervenes. When the swelling is considerable, and fever present, you can do no better than open a vein of the head or neck, allowing a quantity of blood to escape, proportioned to the size and condition of the animal, and the urgency of the symptoms. Purgatives in such cases should never be neglected. Epsom salts, in ounce doses, given either as a gruel or a drench, will be found to answer the purpose well. If the broken bones are kept steady, the cure will be complete in from three to four weeks, the process of reunion always proceeding faster in a young than in an old sheep. Should the soft parts be injured to any extent, or the ends of the bone protruding, recovery is very uncertain, and it will become a question whether it would not be better at once to convert the animal into mutton. ” TREATMENT. Mernop or ApministerInc MepicineE INTO THE Stomacu.—The stomach into which we wish to administer medicines, is the fourth, or digesting stomach. The comparatively insensible walls of the rumen are but slightly acted upon, excepting by doses of very improper magnitude. For the reasons given when the course of the food through the stomachs was described, medicine to reach the fourth stomach should be given in a state as near approaching fluidity as may be. And even then it may be given in such a manner as to defeat our object. Mr. Youatt says: “Tf the animal forcibly gulps fluids down, or if they are given hastily and bodily by the medical attendant, they will fall on the canal at the base of the gullet with considerable momentum, and force asunder the pillars and enter the rumen; if they are drank more slowly, or administered gently, they will trickle down the throat and glide over these pillars, and pass on through the maniplus to the true stomach. ” Mertuop or Bieepinc.—Bleeding from the ears or tail, as is commonly practised, rarely extracts a quantity of blood sufficient to do any good where bleeding is indicated. To bleed from the eye-vein, the point of a knife is usually inserted near the lower extremity of the pouch below the eye, pressed down, and then a cut made inward toward the middle of the face. Daubenton recommends bleeding from the angular or cheek vein, ke in the lower part of the cheek, at the spot where the root of the fourth tooth is placed, which is the thickest part of the cheek, and is marked on the external surface of the bone of the upper jaw by a tubercle, sufficiently prominent to be very sensible to the finger when the skin of the cheek is touched. This tubercie is a certain index to the angular vein which is placed below... . . The shepherd takes the sheep between his legs; his left hand more advanced than his right, which he places under the head, and grasps 2M Q74 ' SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. the under jaw near to the hinder extremity, in order to press the angular vein, which passes in that place, to make it swell; he touches the right cheek at the spot nearly equidistant from the eye and mouth, and there finds the tubercle which is to gwde him, and also feels the angular vein swelled below this tubercle; he then makes the incision from below upward, half a finger’s breadth below the middle of the tubercle.”’ ¢ When the vein is no longer pressed upon, the bleeding will ordinarily cease. If not, a pin may be passed through the lips of the orifice, and a lock of wool tied round them. For thorough bleeding, the jugular vein is generally to be preferred. The sheep should be firmly held by the head by an assistant, and the body confined between his knees, with its rump against a wall. Some of the wool is then cut away from the middle of the neck over the jugular vein, and a ligature, brought in contact with the neck by opening the wool, is tied around it below the shorn spot near the shoulder. The vein will soon rise. The orifice may be secured, after bleeding, as described in the pre- ceding method. As once before remarked, the good effects of bleeding depend almost as much on the rapidity with which the blood is abstracted, as on the amount taken. ‘This is especially true in acute disorders. Blacklock tersely remarks: “ Hither bleed rapidly or bleed not at all.’ The orifice in the vein, therefore, should be of some length, and I need not inform the least experienced practitioner that it should be made lengthwise with the vein. A lancet is by far the best implement, and even a short-pointed penknife is preferable to the bungling fleam. ~ Another important rule in venesection is that, where indicated at all, it should always be resorted to as nearly as possible to the commencement of the malady. The amount of blood drawn should never be determined by admeasure- ment, but by constitutional effect—the lowering of the pulse, and indica- tions of weakness. In urgent cases as, for example, apoplexy or cerebral inflammation, it would be proper to bleed until the sheep staggers or falls. The amount of blood in the sheep is less, in comparison, than that in the horse or ox. The blood of the horse constitutes about one-eighteenth part of his weight, that of the ox at least one-twentieth, while the sheep, in ordinary condition, is one-twenty-second. For this reason, we should be more cautious in bleeding the latter, especially in frequently resorting to it. Otherwise, the vital powers will be rapidly and fatally prostrated. Many a sheep is destroyed by bleeding freely in disorders not requiring it, and in disorders which did require it at the commencement, but of which the inflammatory stage has passed. Tue Puace or Feerine tut Putse.—The number of pulsations can be determined by feeling the heart beat on the left side. The femoral artery passes in an oblique direction across the inside of the thigh, and about the middle of the thigh its pulsations and the character of the pulse can be most readily noted. The pulsations per minute in a healthy adult sheep are set down by Gasparin at 65, by Youatt at 70, and by Hurtrel d’Arboval at 75. My own observations accord most nearly with those of Grasparin. LIST OF MEDICINES EMPLOYED IN TREATING THE DISEASES OF SHEEP. Axe.—In cases of debility, unaccompanied with fever, a small amount _of ale is sometimes found a good stimulant. It may be given to feeble SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 275 sheep which have become unable to stand from having been too long cast —especially if they have laid on the snow, or on damp cold ground. It is sometimes given in addition to other medicine, in the place of the ordi- nary stimulants. Auors—Are occasionally used as a purgative in sheep medicine by farmers, but their use is justly condemned by all veterinarians. Atum—Used as an astringent, but is inferior to many others. Antimony ( The chloride or butyr of )—the best caustic to remove fun- gous granulations, dead muscular structures, etc., in the last and worst stage of hoof-ail—applied with a swab or feather. Arsentc—Employed in the proportion of half a pound to twelve gal- lons of water, to cure scab. An infusion of it is also used to kill ticks, &c. From its liability to adhere to vessels, or to come in contact with sub- stances which may be subsequently eaten, it is a dangerous remedy, and one which I would never have employed on my farm. Buue-Virrion (Sulphate of Copper )—Used internally as a strong tonic, but inferior to others. Dissolved in hot water, and applied to morbid sores, an astringent, alterative, and mild caustic, of the most admirable character. It is superior to all other applications in ordinary cases of hoof-ail. Campuor—Used with oil as an external stimulant on swellings, &c. Carraway-Seeps—Given favorably in doses of two or three drachms, as a stomachic with other medicines. Catecuu—A valuable astringent, in doses of half a drachm. It is one of the ingredients of the celebrated “ sheep’s cordial,” spoken of under the head of “ diarrhea. ’”’ Cuatx, Prepared, by its alkaline properties, neutralizes the acidity of the stomach, and thus checks diarrhea. It is a very valuable remedy in doses from half an ounce to an ounce, exhibited as directed under the head of “ diarrhea,” Corrosive Susuimate ( Bi-chloride of Mercury )-—The most convenient form in which mercury can be exhibited internally. The proto-chloride, or calomel, from its great gravity, could not, with any certainty, be made to reach the fourth stomach. It would seem that mercury should be a use- ful remedy in several of the diseases of sheep. I have administered it only in the cases specified under the head of “ malignant epizodtic catarrh,” and then apparently with some benefit. It would be well if a series of careful experiments could be instituted of its value in the appro- priate ovine diseases. It is very little used by veterinariaus, in this coun- try or Europe. A solution of corrosive sublimate is used for the destruc- tion of ticks, &c., and sometimes as a wash in the scab, but its use for these purposes is liable to the same objections with that of arsenic. Dietratis (Forglove)—A sedative employed in most of the fever medicines of the English veterinarians. Dose, one scruple. Epsom Sauts (Sulphate of Magnesia )—In doses from half an ounce to one, and in some few cases two ounces, the best purgative which can, in almost every disease, be administered to sheep. Grntian—Decidedly the best vegetable tonic in use. Dose, from one to two drachms. Gincer—A stomachic and tonic, given with almost every aperient, in doses of from half a drachm to a drachm. It prevents griping. Topine.—The hydriodate of potash in the proportion of one part to 276 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. seven or eight parts, by weight, of lard, constitutes an ointment which is a powerful stimulant to the absorbent vessels, and therefore is an excellent application to glandular swellings, or to indurated tumors. It is a good application to the swelled udder (gq. v.) in garget. Larp—A mild and gentle purgative in doses of two ounces. The basis of most ointments, and applied externally in almost every case as an emollient and lubricant in the place of oils. Lime, Carbonate of—Used as a caustic to run flocks of pao through, in the “ hoof-ail,” guem vide. Lime, Chloride of—An excellent antiseptic and disinfectant, and a good application to foul ulcers. Linseep-Oi.—A good purgative in two ounce doses. Preferable to Epsom salts in cases of great intestinal irritation, but not otherwise. Mercury.—The common mercurial ointment, rubbed down with five parts of lard, for severe cases, and seven parts for ordinary cases, ot scab, is an effectual cure, Mouruiatic Acip (Spirit of Salt )—Next to chloride of antimony, the best caustic in the worst stage of hoof-ail. Nitrate or Porasu (Mtre or Saltpetre)—In doses one drachm, a cooling diuretic. Nirrarte or Sizver ( Lunar Caustic )—Superior to all other caustics, but too expensive for general use. For poisonous wounds, and_ particularly for the bite of a mad dog, it has no substitute. Nireic Acip ( Aquafortis )}—-Sometimes used as a substitute for chloride of antimony, or muriatic acid, as a caustic in hoof-ail. Used by drovers, also, to harden the soles of feet which have become thin and tender by driving. It is touched over the sole with a feather. Orrum—An invaluable sedative, and anti-spasmodic, and is employed in nearly all prescriptions for diarrhea and dysentary, and also in colic drinks. It is an important part of the “sheeps cordial.” It is commonly used in the form of a tincture, or laudanum. Dose, one drachm. Perrer, Black—Given in small quantities in milk, to —— leanibe, when chilled. . Pimento ( Allspice)—A substitute for ginger, in the same doses, but not so valuable. Ruvuspars—Unites the properties of a cathartic and subsequent astrin- gent. In small doses it is a tonic and stomachic, invigorating the diges- tion. When the bowels are relaxed and torpid, and the stomach in a feeble state, it would seem the most appropriate purgative, when a purga- tive is indicated. Sait (Muriate of Soda)—An ounce constitutes a purgative ; in small quantities a tonic and stomachic. The necessity of keeping sheep freely supplied with salt has been referred to under Summer and Winter Man- agement. Sutpuate or Tron (Copperas, or Green Vitriol)—Used in washes for the hoof-ail, but superseded by sulphate of copper. Internally, a tonic. Sutrnur, Flower of—In doses of from one to two ounces, a good aperient. It is the basis of various ointments. Sutpuuric Acip (Oil of Vitriol)—A powerful caustic, used as a sub- stitute for the acids already alluded to, in the worst stage of hoof-ail. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. are) f ‘Spirit or Tar—Destroys maggots, and repels the attack of flies. Flies will not approach a part over which it has been smeared. Tar—lIs a valuable application to the feet, nose, back of the horns, &c., ander the various circumstances detailed in Summer Management, and in the treatment of grub in the head, hoof-ail, &c. Topacco—An infusion of it destroys vermin, and also is a cure for scab, quem vide. TurPenTINE, Spirits of—Prevents the attack of flies, and drives away maggots. It is a useful application to old sores, wounds, &c. Verpieris (Acetate of Copper )—Used in hoof-ail; but adds nothing, I think, to the good effects of the sulphate of copper. Zinc, Carbonate of—Mixed with lard, constitutes a valuable emollient and healing ointment. It is mixed in the proportion of one part of the carbonate, by weight, to eight of the lard. 278 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. LETTER XVII. SHEEP-DOGS. WOOL DEPOTS, &c. The estimation in which dogs have been held by different nations, &c...The Sheep-Dog—Buffon's description of him...‘(he Spanish Sheep-Dog—Origin—Introduction into the United States—Value— Arrogante—his history...The Hungarian Sheep-Dog—Mr. Paget’s description of—probable origin— ihe Mexican xheep-Dog—Mr. Lyman’s description of—Mr. Kendall’s...South American sheep-Dogs—Dar- win’s description of...The English Sheep-Dog—Mr. Gates’s description of...Mr. Colman’s...Vhe Scotch sheep-|)og—Mr. Hogg’s account of..Mr. Peters’s...Necessity of accustoming Sheep to a dog.-.Wool Depots— ir. Klanchard’s account of their origin—Letter from Mr. Peters, describing their object, methods of doing business, and advantages—Utility of these depots—their especial utility to the South...A correc- tion—Mr. Rutlin. .-Note in relation to Australia—Statistics ofits Wool Trade brought down to 1846. Dear Sir :—In all ages of the world, and among nearly all nations, savage and civilized,* the dog has been the friend and cherished com- anion of man. The Egyptians placed him among their gods. The Greeks held him in the highest estimation. His figure mingles with that of warriors and demi-gods on their friezes; and Argus, the dog of Ulysses, lives as immortal in the Odyssey, (vzde Book X VIL, p. 344 to 400) as his sagacious master, or the faithful Penelope. Alexander the Great founded a city in honor of adog! The Romans treated him with similar respect. His skin covered the statues of the sacred Lares; his figure, as the emblem of care and vigilance, stood at the feet of these household gods—venerated and loved as the tutelary manes of departed ancestors. Horace in his Ode to Cassius Severus (Book V., Ode VI.,) compares bim- self to the Molossian, or the tawny Spartan dog, which defends the flocks, and with ears erect, pursues the wild beast through the deep snows. Virgil, ° in the delightful Georgics, admonishes the Roman shepherds not to neglect the care of their dogs : “Nec tibi cura canum fuerit postrema: sed una Veloces Spartz catulos, acremque Molossum, Pasce sero pingui: nunquam, custodibus illis, Nocturnum stabulis furem, incursusque luporum, Aut impacatos a tergo horrebis Iberos.” [Georg. Liber III., commencing at line 404. Thus translated by Sotheby: Nor slight thy dogs ; on whey the mastiffs feed, Molossian race, and hounds of Spartan breed ; Beneath their care, nor wolves, nor thieves by night, Nor wild Iberian shall thy fear excite. These ‘Spartan hounds,” I may remark, par parenthesis, are the ones spoken of by Shakspeare, in that glorious description of the music of a pack in full cry, and of the points of a hound, in Midswmmer-Night’s Dream: Hippolita.—I was with Hercules, and Cadmus, once, When in a wood of Crete they bayed the bear With hounds of Sparta: never did I hear Such gallant chiding ; for, besides the groves, The skies, the fountains, every region near Seemed all one mutual cry: I never heard So musical a discord, such sweet thunder. Theseus —My hounds are bred out of the Spartan kind, So flewed, so sanded; and their heads are hung With ears that sweep away the morning dew; Crook-kneed, and dew-lapped, like Thessalian bulls; Slow in pursuit, but matched in mouth like bells, Fach under each. Acry more tunable Was never hallo’d to, nor cheered with horn, In Crete, in Sparta, nor in Thessaly. * The only exceptions which now occur to me are the Jews, the Hindoos, and the Mahommedan nations and tribes. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 279 Arrian, Pliny, Oppian, lian, and a host of other writers of the Empire, descant on the praises of the dog, or give anecdotes of his courage, strength, and fidelity. In the chivalric ages, he was the companion of knights and-princes—the soul of the manly field-sports of those times. Even prelates followed him to the chase. The abbots of St. Hubert dred a celebrated race of hounds. St. Hubert himself, St. Eustace, and many others on the canonized calen- dar, were keen hunters. “ Whereupon,” says the author of the “Noble Art of Venerie,” &c., published in 1611, “we may conceive that (hy the grace of God) all good huntsmen shall follow them into Paradise !” Truly, a consoling religious sequitur / Scott, in his beautifully descriptive poetry, and still more poetical prose, has given us a whole picture gallery of dogs, from the Middle Ages down. The few which start up first in memory, (in my memory,) because, proba- bly, linked with the most interesting associations, are Fangs—a genuine Saxon—gaunt and unkempt, but stanch as his master, Gurth, the son of Beowulph ; the noble hound of Sir Kenneth; the “two dogs of black Saint Hubert’s breed,” that with Fitz-James pursued their quarry into the wild pass of the Trosachs ; the faithful little terrier, which, “on the dark brow of the mighty Hellvellyn, The much-loved remains of her master defended, And chased the hill fox and the raven away;” and last, not least, Hector McIntyre’s bitch Juno, which stole the butter, and broke the “lachramatory from Clochmaben,” of the glorious old Antiquary. They stand out on the canvas like Landseer’s pictures. We pause tu hear them bark / It has often occurred to me that Scott omitted a fine opportunity, indeed, made a hzatus vale deflendus, in not introducing one or more of the Alpine spaniels—or dogs of Mount St. Bernard—into his Anne of Geierstein, providing it could be done, (on which point I am uninstructed,) without a violent anachronism. When Arthur clung dizzy and stupefied to the trunk of the tree which hung over the beetling verge of the precipice—when the cry of the Swiss maiden announced approach- ing succor, should it not have had for its accompaniment the baying of one of those great dogs of the Alps—the deep and far-heard reverbera- tions of which so often calls help to the perishing traveler, for miles, through the howling storm? Should not the dog of Donnerhugel, on the night-watch of Grafts-lust, have been of the same breed—huge, shaggy, and daring as himself The portrait of Barry, a Bernardine dog which saved the lives of forty persons, and finally perished in an avalanche in guid- ing some travelers to St. Pierre, is to be found in every print-shop. It represents him carrying a child on his shoulders—clinging by his shaggy hair,—which he found in the Glacier of Balsore, and rescued from approaching death. Scott is not the only modern poet who has admired and sung the praises of the dog. And I do not recollect the instance of one, who has mentioned him, that is, the well-bred dog, who has not praised him, except Byron in these moody lines: “Perchance my dog will whine in vain, Till fed by stranger hands; But long ere I come back again Would tear me where he stands.” In his epitaph on his Newfoundland dog, the noble poet retracted this ungenerous libel, and pays one of the warmest tributes to the fidelity of the dog, on record. ¢ Volumes of anecdotes of canine sagacity might be easily compiled. 280 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ——t Reasoning powers the dog undoubtedly possesses, quite on a par with ordinary humanity, if we may believe scores of these writers. But it is probable that the grandsires of some of them “drew good long-bows at Hastings,” and they, like Hubert, may lay claim toa hereditary knowledge of the weapon. It is to be feared that dog-stories will soon be sunk to a par with fish-stories / The truth is, the dog knows enough, and there are authenticated cases enough of his wonderful sagacity, without having an air of discredit thrown over the whole of them, by fanciful exaggera- tions. The comparative intelligence, and the comparative value to man, of the different species of the dog, would be very differently estimated by those who have been placed in situations to be particularly benefited by the peculiar instincts of this race or that. Nearly every species has some traits, some uses, where it is unequaled by the others; and each in its »lace is valuable. I do not, however, mean these remarks, or any others which I have made in favor of the dog, to apply to the mongrel tribe of curs. That there have been valuable individuals from this disreputable stock, all must admit; but the miserable, cowardly and thievish character of the mass of them has been proverbial in all time. Far too many of them are kept by our farmers in the place of noble and serviceable animals and multitudes of them, owned by idlers and vagabonds, infest the country and do ten times more mischief to our flocks than diseases and beasts of prey. . Tue Surer-Doc.—Buffon thus eloquently describes the sheep-dog,* and compares his sagacity and value to man, with other racest : “ This animal, faithful to Man, will always preserve a portion of his empire and a degree of superiority over other beings. He reigns at the head of his flock, and makes himself better understood than the voice of the shepherd. Safety, order, and discipline are the fruits of his vigilance and animal. They are a people submitted to his management, whom he con- ducts and protects, and against whom he never applies force but for the preservation of good order. . . . If we consider that this animal, notwithstanding his ugliness, and his wild and melancholy look, is superior in instinct to all others; that he has a decided character in which education has comparatively little share ; that he is the only animal born perfectly trained for the service of others; that, guided by natural powers alone, he applies himself to the care of our flocks, a duty which he executes with singular assiduity, vigilance, and fidel- ity; that he conducts them with an admirable intelligence, which is a part and portion ot himself; that his sagacity astonishes at the same time that it gives repose to his master, while it requires great time and trouble to instruct other dogs for the purposes to which they are destined ; if we reflect on these facts, we shall be confirmed in the opinion that the shepherd’s dog is the true dog of Nature, the stock and model of the whole species,” I shall call attention to but a few of the most distinguished varieties of the sheep-dog. Tue Sreanisu Sueep-loc.—Of the origin of this celebrated race, I do not recollect to have seen anything. I have observed them several times spoken of, latterly, in newspapers and agricultural publications, as the same variety with the Alpine Spaniel, or Bernardine dog. This, I think, must be an error, though there may be a general resemblance between the two species. Arrogante, on the next page, though a dog of pro- digious power, decidedly lacks the massive proportions, both in body and limbs, of several Bernardine dogs, which I have seen, of unquestiona- * I stated near the close of Letter V. that there are no paca dogs large and powerful enough to en- counter and kill wolves and vagrant dogs, except the great Sheep.dog of Spain, and that he is so ferocious thet he might frequently bring his owner into difficulty, and even endanger human life.—I was mistaken. Crosses between this and other species seems to have mitigated the ferocity of the Spanish dog, and still left it within the power of two to overcome a wolf, as will appear from what follows. + Buffon’s Natural History, vol. v., pp. 306, 318. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 28] ble lineage. The temper and disposition of the two species, too, seems to me to be essentially different. Mr. Trimmer, and various other foreign writers, speak in warm terms of the value of the Spanish sheep-dog, for guarding the migratory flocks of that country from the attacks of wolves—staying behind to protect fee- ble and lagging sheep, &c. In the Memoirs of the Pennsylvania Agricul- tural Society, there is a communication from the well-known John Hare Powell, Esq., of Philadelphia, from which the following are extracts :— “The first importations of Merino sheep were accompanied by some of the large and powerful dogs of Spain, possessing all the valuable characteristics of the English shepherd’s dog, with sagacity, fidelity and strength peculiar to themselves. . . . . Their ferocity, when aroused by any intruder, their attachment to their own flock, and devotion to their master, would. in the uncultivated parts of America, make them an acquisition of infinite value, by affording a defence against wolves, which they readily kill, and vagrant cur dogs, by which our flocks are often destroyed. The force of their instinctive attachment to sheep, and their resolution in attacking every dog which passes near to their charge, have been forcibly evinced upon my farm.” Fig. 71. ARROGANTE—A SPANISH SHEEP-DOG, Arrogante, whose portrait is above given with admirable fidelity, was imported from Spain with a flock of Merinos, a number of years since, by a gentleman residing near Bristol, England. His subsequent owner, Francis Rotch, Esq., of this State, thus describes him in a letter to me, which, though not intended for publication, I will venture to make a few extracts from : “T have, as you desired, made you a sketch of the Spanish sheep-dog Arrogante, and a villainous looking rascal he is. A worse countenance I hardly ever saw ona dog! His small blood-shot eyes, set close together, give him that sinister, wolfish look, which is most unattractive ; but his countenance is indicative of his character. There was nothing affec- tionate or joyous about him. He never forgave an injury or an insult: offend him, and it was for life. I have often been struck with his resemblance to his nation. He was proud and reserved in the extreme, but not quarrelsome. Every little cur would fly out at him, as atsome strange animal; and I have seen them fasten for a moment on his heavy, bushy tail, and yet he would stride on, never breaking his long, ‘ loping,’ shambling trot. Once I saw bim | a 282 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. turn, and the retribution was awful! It was upon a large, powerful mastiff we kept as a night-guard in the Bauk. He then put forth his strength, which proved tremendous! His coat hung about him in thick, loose, matted folds, dirty and uncared-for,—so that I presume a dog never got hold of anything about him deeper than his thick, tough skin, which was twice too large to fit him anywhere, and especially around the neck and shoulders. The ouly other evidence of his uncommon streugih which I had observed, was the perfect ease with which he threw himself over a high wall or paling, which often drew my attention, because he seemed to me wanting in that particular physical development which we are accustomed to consider as necessary to muscular power. He was flat-chested, and flat- sided, with a somewhat long back and narrow loi. (My drawing foreshortens his length.) His neck, forearm and thigh certainly indicated strength. If the Spanish wolf and the dog ever cohabit, he most assuredly had in him such a cross; the very effinvia of the animal be- trayed it. In all in which he differed from the beautiful Spanish shepherd-dog, he was wolfish both in form and habits.* But, though no parlor beauty, Arrogante was unquestion- ably a dog of immense value to the mountain-shepherd. Several times, he had met the large wolf of the Appenines, and without aid slain his antagonist. The shepherds who bred him said it was an affair of no doubtful issue, when he encountered a wolf siugle-handed. His lustory, after reaching England, you know.” Some portions of that history I cannot resist the temptation of narrating, as illustrative of the character of this interesting breed, and commemora- tive of the virtues of the stern, but honest and dauntless Arrogante. If his courage was tinctured with ferocity, and sometimes instigated by a revenge, going a little beyond the canon which permits bad debts to be paid in kind, be did everything epenly ! He made no sneakish, cur-like attacks, on the heels of his foe. By him, as by Robin Hood and his merry men—commemorated by Drayton— “ Who struck below the kn e [was} not counted then a man ;” and his spring was always at the throat of his quarry. But he made not that deadly spring until he gave “ warning fair and true,” and never with- out provocation.t Soon after Arrogante’s arrival in England, a ewe under his charge chanced to get cast in a ditch, during the temporary absence of the Span- ish shepherd who had accompanied the flock and dog at their importation. An English shepherd, in a spirit of vaunting, insisted on relieving the fal- len sheep, in preference to having the absent shepherd called, though warned by his companions to desist. The stern stranger dog met him at the gate and also warned him with sullen growls, growing more menacing as he approached the sheep. The shepherd was a powerful and bold man, and felt that it was too late now to retract with credit. On reaching the sheep, he bent carefully forward, with his eyes on the dog, which instantly made a spring at his throat. A quick forward movement of his arm saved his throat, but the arm was so dreadfully lacerated that immediate am- putation became necessary. To save the dog, which had but done his duty, as he had been taught it, from the popular excitement, he was ship- ped in a vessel which sailedthat very afternoon, from Bristol for America. He was sent to Francis Rotch, Esq., then a resident of New-Bedford. Fora long time Arrogante would not pay the least attention to his new master ; the voice of the latter would scarcely arrest him for a moment. After attempting in vain, for several weeks, to obtain some recognition of mastersbip from him, Mr. Rotch chained him securely to a tree, punished him severely, and then, with not a few misgivings, released him. But he submitted, for he well kuew that the punishment came from his master, and afterward gave a cold, haughty obedience to all required of him. *T never have supposed, from the several conversations which I have had with Mr. Rotch on the sub- ject, that Arrogante was anything less than a thorough-bred Spanish shepherd-dog. Mr. Rotch here means that he was an ill-favored individual of the family—and he thinks that this may be owing to a bar-sinister on his escutcheon, left there by some wolfish gallant. His temper was even less ferocious than Mr. Powell describes that of his Spanish dogs. t Was there anything wolf-like in all of this? SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 283 Stupid and apparently sleeping much of the day, nothing, however, escaped his observation, or was subsequently erased from his memory. It led round a building, or enclosure, or even an open space, at night-fall, in a manner to evince particular design, during the entire night like a senti- nel he traversed some part of the guarded ring, permitting neither man nor beast to pass zm or out from it. Arrogante was a “ temperance man,” of the straightest sect—an out-and- out ¢eetotaler—and if tolerant of deviations from his creed, he could bear none, from the sobriety of his practice. Never would he confess acquain- tance with a drunken man—though the hand of that man fed him. The bailiff, who usually fed Arrogante, used occasionally to come home late in the evening a little “‘ fow,”’and never could he in this condition get his foot on the premises! The old man has plead guilty to more than one night’s lodgings on the ground, in consequence of Arrogante’s temperance scru- ples. On one occasion a couple of sailors, to take advantage of the tide, came unexpectedly, and without giving any notice, on the farm, at 3 A. M., to take away some potatoes they had purchased. Arrogante thought it was not so “nominated in the bond ;” he forced them to clamber into an empty cart, and there he kept them until morning. They tried the expe- riment of putting a leg over the side once or twice, but were admonished in too unequivocal a manner to keep quiet, to need any farther hints. They lost the tide, and were in great tribulation, but, like honest fellows, confessed the fault was their own. I might, did limits allow, recount many more anecdotes displaying the iron determination and fixed precision with which this noble dog obeyed his instructions in guarding sheep or other property committed to his charge. He was a decided “ strict constructionist,” swerving not from the letter of his commission, and woe to him who attempted to counteryail the tenor of that commission ! Drunkenness was destined to prove as fatal as it was detestable, to Arro- gante. A gentleman occupied a cottage orné by the sea-side, the lane to which ran along the farm, and near the stable which Arrogante made his head-quarters, when not on particular duty. The gentleman was reg- ularly ¢mtroduced to him, and warned against ever provoking him. Re- turning him home late one Saturday evening on horseback, from a conviv- zal meeting, as he galloped through the lane, he met the dog, and wan- tonly struck him or struck at him with a hunting-whip. He was a large man, and rode a tall, powerful horse, and being under speed, he escaped before the astonished dog recovered from his surprise. But the insulted blood of Castile rushed in boiling currents through the veins of the mad- dened Arrogante. He felt, like his countryman De Lerma, in Epes Sar- gent’s tragedy of Velasco— “ Struck like a menial! buffeted ! degraded ! Spare not my life, if mercy thou would show, Thou givest me back only what thou hast made A burden, a disgrace, a misery !” But Arrogante felt both the power and will to avenge himself, and he resolved on a bloody retribution. The next morning the gentleman was on his way to church, mounted as before. The dog heard and knew the tread of his horse, rose from his lair in the stable, walked to the road-side, and stood grimly awaiting his in- sulter. When the latter had approached within a few yards, Arrogante, like a missile projected from a catapult, met him 7 the air, in a deadly spring at his throat. The sudden jump and swerve of the frightened and 284 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. very active horse, saved the rider’s throat and his life—but so narrowly had he escaped, that he felt the gnashing teeth of the frenzied brute scrape down his dress, where they came in contact with and closed upon his watch, tearing it away with the adjacent clothing. The horseman fled for his life, while the baffled dog vented his rage on the gold watch which he had captured, by chewing it tto atoms! The cause of this ter- rible onset not being disclosed at the time, Mr. R., though convinced from the character of the dog that he had not been the aggressor, felt constrain- ed to give orders to have him shot. Tue Hunearian Sueer-Doe.—The following description of the Hunga- rian Sheep-Dog, occurs in Paget’s ‘“ Hungary and Transylvania :’’* “Tt would be unjust to quit the subject of the Puszta Shepherd without making due and honorable mention of his constant companion and friend, the juhész-hatya—the Hungarian shepherd dog. The shepherd dog is commonly white, sometimes inclined to a reddish brown, and about the size of our Newfoundland dog. His sharp nose, short erect ears, shaggy coat, and bushy tail give him much the appearance of a wolf; indeed, so great is the resemblance, that I have known a Hungarian gentleman mistake a wolf for one of his own dogs. Except to their masters, they are so savage thatit is unsafe for a stranger to enter the court-yard ofa Hungarian cottage, withoutarms. I speak from experience; foras I was walk- ing through the yard of a post-house, where some of these dogs were lying about, apparently asleep, one of them crept after me, and inflicted a severe wound on my leg, of which I still bear the marks. Before I could turn round, the dog was already far off ; for, like the wolf, they bite by snapping, but never hang to the object like the bull-dog or mastiff.. Their saga- city in driving and guarding the sheep and cattle, and their courage in protecting them from wolves and robbers, are highly praised; and the shepherd is so well aware of the value of a good one, that it is difficult to induce him to part with it.” I have little doubt that the Hungarian dogs above described are the descendants of the Spanish ones, introduced into Hungary with the Meri- no sheep, though possibly they may be somewhat crossed by interbreeding with the dogs of the country. Tue Mexican Sureep-Doc.—The following acccount of these noble dogs appears as a communication from Mr. J. H. Lyman, in the third volume of the American Agriculturist :t * Although Mr. Kendall and some other writers have described this wonderful animal as a cross of the Newfoundland dog, such, I think, cannot be the fact; on the contrary, I have no doubt he is a genuine descendant of the Alpine mastiff, or more properly, Spanish shep- herd dog introduced’ by them at the time of the Conquest. He is only to be found in the sheep-raising districts of New Mexico. The other Mexican dogs, which number more than a thousand to one of these noble animals, are the results of a cross of everything under the sun having any affinity to the canine race, and even of a still nobler class of animals if Mexi- can stories are to be credited. It is believed in Mexico, that the countless mongrels of that country owe their origin to the assistance of the various kinds of wolves, mountain cats, lynxes, and to almostif not every class of four-footed carnivorous animals. Be this as it may, those who have not seen them can believe as much as they like ; but eye-witnesses can assert, that there never was a country blessed with a greater and more abundant variety of misera- rable, snarling, cowardly packs, than the mongrel dogs of Mexico. That country of a surety would be the plague-spot of this beautiful world, were it not for the redeeming character of the truly noble shepherd dog, endowed as it is with almost human intellect. I have often thought, when observing the sagacity of this animal, that if very many of the human race possessed one half of the power of inductive reasoning which seems to be the gift of this animal, that it would be far better for themselves and for their fellow-creatures. The peculiar education of these dogs is one of the most important and interesting steps pursued by the shepherd. His method is to select from a multitude of pups a few of the healthiest and finest-looking, and to put them to a sucking ewe, first depriving her of her own lamb. By force, as well as from a natural desire she has to be relieved of the con- tents of her udder, she soon learns to look upon the little interlopers with all the affection she would manifest for her own natural offspring. For the first few days the pups are kept in the hut, the ewe suckling them morning and evening only; but gradually, as she be- * Hungary and Transylvania, by John Paget, Esq., vol. ii., p. 12, et supra. + Page 241, SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 285 comes accustomed to their sight, she is allowed to run in a small enclosure with them until she becomes so perfectly familiar with their appearance as to take the entire charge of them. After this they are folded with the whole flock for a fortnight or so, they then run about during the day with the flock, which after a while becomes so accustomed to them, as to be able to distinguish them from other dogs—even from those of the same litter which have not been nursed among them. ‘The shepherds usually allow the slut to keep one of a litter for her own particular benefit ; the balance are generally destroyed. After the pups are weaned, they never leave the particular drove among which they have been reared. Not even the voice of their master can entice them beyond sight of the flock ; neither hunger or thirst can do it. I have been credibly informed of an instance where a single dog having charge of a small flock of sheep, was allowed to wander with them about the mountains, while the shepherd returned to his village for a few days, having perfect confidence in the ability of his dog to look after the flock during his absence, but with a strange want of foresight as to the provision of the dog for his food. Upon his return to the flock, he found it several miles from where left, but on the road leading to the village, and the poor faithful animal in the agonies of death, dying of séarvation, even in the midst of plenty ; yet the flock had not been harmed by him. A reciprocal affection exists between them which may put to blush many of the human family. The poor dog recognized them only as brothers and dearly loved friends; he was ready at all times to lay down his life for them; to attack not only wolves and mountain cats, with the confidence of vic- tory, but even the bear, when there could be no hope. Of late years, when the shepherds of New Mexico have suffered so much from Indian marauders, instances have frequently occurred where the dog has not hesitated to attack his human foes, and although transfix- ed with arrows, his indomitable courage and faithfulness have been such as to. compel his assailants to pin him to the earth with spears, and hold him there until dispatched with stones. In the above instance the starving dog could have helped himself to one of his little bro- ther lambs, or could have deserted the sheep, and very soon have reached the settlements where there was food for him. But faithful even unto death, he would neither leave nor molest them, but followed the promptings of his instinct to lead into the settlement; their unconsciousness of his wants and slow motions in traveling were too much for his exhaust- ing strength. These shepherds are very nomadic in character. They are constantly moving about, their camp equipage consisting merely of a kettle and a bag of meal ; their lodges are made in a few minutes, of branches, &c., thrown against cross-sticks. They very seldom go out in the day-time with their flocks, intrusting them entirely with their dogs, which faithfully return them at night, never permitting any stragglers behind or lost. Sometimes different flocks are brought into the same neighborhood owing to scarcity of grass, when the wonder- ful instincts of the shepherds’ dogs are most beautifully displayed ; and to my astonishment, who have been an eye-witness of such scenes, if two flocks approach within a few yards of each other, their respective proprietors will place themselves in the space between them, and as is very naturally the case, if any adventurous sheep should endeavor to cross over*to visit her neighbors, her dog protector kindly but firmly leads her back, and it sometimes happens, if many make a rush and succeed in joining the other flock, the dogs under whose “charge they are, go over and bring them all out, but, strange to say, under such circumstances they are never opposed by the other dogs. They approach the strange sheep only to prevent their own from leaving the flock, though they offer no assistance in expelling the other sheep. But they never permit sheep not under canine protection, nor dogs not in charge of sheep, to approach them. Even the same dogs which are so freely permitted to enter their flocks in search of their own, are driven away with ignominy if they presume to approach them without that laudable object in view. Many anecdotes could be related of the wonderful instinct of these dogs. I very much doubt if there are shepherd dogs iu any other part of the world except Spain, equal to those of New-Mexico in value. The famed Scotch and English dogs sink into insignificance by the side of them. Their superiority may be owing to the peculiar mode of rearing them, but they are certainly very noble animals, naturally of large size, and highly deserving to be introduced into the United States. A pair of them will easily kill a wolf, and flocks under their care need not fear any common enemy to be found in our country. J. H. Lyman.” Mr. Kendall* speaks of meeting, on the Grand Prairie, —a flock numbering seventeen thousand, which immense herd was guarded by a very few men, assisted by a large number of noble dogs, which appeared gifted with the faculty of keeping them together. There was no running about, no barking or biting in their system of tactics; or the contrary, they were continually walking up and down, like faithful senti nels, on the outer side of the flock, and should any sheep chance to stray from its fellows, the dog on duty at that particular post, would walk gently up, take him carefully by the ear, * Vol. I., p. 268. 286 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. and lead him back to the flock. Not the least fear did the sheep manifestat the approach of these dogs, and there was no occasion for it. These noble animals seem, according to these and various other corre- sponding accounts I have seen of them, to leave nothing to desire in the way of a sheep-dog, either for guarding or managing flocks. They would be in- valuable in our Southern States, to protect the flocks from the cur-dogs which so often attack them, and from the occasional wolves. I hope efforts will be made to introduce them into our country, and then they should be bred in the utmost purity. Sourn American Snerp-Doe.—Similar to the preceding in character and habits, are the sheep-dogs to be found in various parts of South Amer- ica. They, too, are undoubtedly an offshoot from the Spanish stem. The following interesting account of them is from Darwin’s Journal : “ While staying at this estancia (in Banda Oriental), I was amused with what I saw and heard of the shepherd dogs of the country. When riding, it is a common thing to meet a large flock of sheep guarded by one or two dogs, at the distance of some miles from any house or man. I often wondered how so firm a friendship had been established. The method of education consists in separating the puppy, when very young, from the bitch, and in accustoming it to its future companions. A ewe is held three or four times a day for the little thing to suck, and a nest of wool is made for it in the sheep-pen.—At no time is it allowed to associate with other dogs, or with the children of the family. The puppy, moreover, is generally castrated ; so that when grown up, it can scarcely have any feelings in common with the rest of its kind. From this education it has no wish to leave the flock, and just as another dog will defend its master, man, so will these the sheep. It is amusing to observe, when approaching a flock, how the dog immediately advances barking—and the sheep all close in his rear as if round the oldest ram. These dogs are also easily taught to bring home the flock at a certain time in the evening. Their most troublesome fault when young is their desire of playing with the sheep, for in their play, they sometimes gallop their poor subjects most unmercifully. The shepherd dog comes to the honse every day for some meat, and immediately it is given to him he skulks away as if ashamed of himself. On these occasions the house dogs are very tyraunical, and the least of them will attack and pursue the stranger. The minute, however, the latter has reached the flock, he turns round and begins to bark, and then all the house dogs take very quickly to their heels. Ina similar manner a whole pack of hungry wild dogs will scarcely ever (and I was told by some, never), venture to attack a flock guarded even by one of these faithful shepherds. The whole account appears to me a curious instance of the pliability of the affections of the dog race ; and yet, whether wild, or however educated, with a mutual feeling of respeet and fear for those that are fulfilling their instinct of association. For we can understand on no principle the wild dogs being driven away by the single one with its flock, except that they consider, from some confused notion, that the one thus associated gains power, as if in com- pany with its own kind. F. Cuvier has observed that all animals which enter into domes- tication consider Man as a member of their society, and thus they fulfil their instinct of asso- ciation. In the above case the shepherd dogs rank the sheep as their brethren; and the wild dogs, though knowing that the individual sheep are not dogs, but are good to eat, yet partly consent to this view, when seeing them in a flock, with a shepherd dog at their head.” OTHER LARGE RACES OF SurEep-Docs.—There are one or two fine species in France, as those of Brie, and Auvergue. In a letter from G. W. Lafavette, to John S. Skinner, Esq., the latter are pronounced equal to the Spanish dogs.* Large powerful races, everywhere possessing the same general characteristics, are to be found in almost every country excepting our own, where the fine-wooled breeds of sheep have been ex- tensively introduced. With a commerce extending to all the maritime nations of the world, singular it is that so little pains have been taken to introduce them. Tue Eneuisn Surer-Doe.—The following are portraits of a Drover'’s dog, * See Farmers’ Library, Vol. i., p. 465. SHEEP HUSBANDRS IN THE SOUTH. 287 and a Scotch Colley slut, imported by B. Gates, of Gap Grove, Lee ch. Illinois. They are taken from The Farmers’ Library.* Fig. 72. DROVER’S DOG, AND COLLEY SLUT. The Drover’s dog, or English sheep-dog, or Butcher’s dog—for by aut of these names is he known—is considerably smaller than the species or families heretofore described, but he is a larger and more powerful dog than the Colley. Mr. Gates, in the communication accompanying the portraits, remarks: “ Much has already been written on the intelligence of the Scotch Colley. My opinion is that the English “ Butcher’s dog” is no way lacking on that point. Any reader who has visited Smithfield market in London, on Monday or Friday, will, no doubt, have formed the same opinion. There you have an opportunity of seeing a number of these useful animals at their work. It would, in fact, be almost impossible to conduct this market without their aid. There a vast number of different animals are brought for sale from all parts of the country, to supply this great metropolis, and are collected in the smallest possible space. The difficulty of keeping them from mingling with others falls principally on the dog. If one slips away, or a particular one is wished to be caught, it is pointed out to him, and is re- turned back, or held till the owner takes it—the dog always holding them by the side of the head, so as not to bruise the body. By a word or motion of the band, they will run over the backs of the sheep, to stop them or turn them in a different direction. I have often admired, with astonishment, their quick and intelligent actions. They appeny to read the thoughts of their master by his countenance, for their eye is continually on his, or the flock. Nothing else can attract his attention when he has work to perform, and at times I have thought he acted with more judgment than the owner. . . . The breed of “ Boxer,” (whose portrait is above given,) is sometimes called the Drover’s or Tailless breed.” Mr. Colman, in one of his Reports, says: “ For a week or more before the tryst, the roads leading to Falkink will be found crowded with successive droves of cattle and sheep, proceeding to this central point; and it is ex- tremely curious on the field to see with what skill and care the different parties and herds are kept together by themselves. In this matter the shepherds are generally assisted by * VoL i., p. 575. 288 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. their dogs, which appear endowed with a sagacity almost human, and almost to know every individual belonging to their charge. They are sure, with an inflexible pertinacity, to bring back a deserter to the flock.” : Mr. T.C. Peters, (now of Buffalo, N. Y.,) on his return from Europe, a few years since, brought over a Drover and a Colley. His testimony to their extraordinary value will be found in the American Agriculturist, vol. iii., page 76. Fig. 73. THE COLLEY. ‘Tue Scorcn Suerp-Doe or Coitvey.—The light, active, sagacious Colley admits of no superior—scarcely of an equal—where it is his business merely to manage his flock, and not to defend them from beasts larger than himself. Mr. Hogg says that “a single shepherd and his dog will accomplish more in gathering a flock of sheep from a Highland farm than twenty shepherds could do without dogs. Neither hunger, fatigue, nor the worst treatment will drive him from his master’s side, and he will follow him through every hardship without murmur or repining.” | The same well-known writer, in a letter in Blackwood’s Magazine, gives a most glowing description of the qualities of his Colley, “Sirrah.” One night a flock of lambs, under his care, frightened at something, made what we callin America a regular stampede, scattering over the hills in several different bodies, “ Sirrah,”’ exclaimed Hogg in despair, “ they’re a’ awa!” The dog dashed off through the darkness. After spending with his assistants, the whole night in a fruitless search after the fugitives, Mr. Hogg commenced his return to his master’s house. Coming to a deep ravine, they found Sirrah in charge, as they at first supposed, of one of the scattered divisions, but what was their joyful surprise to find that not alamb of the whole flock was missing ! Of the stanch devotedness of the Colley, under any and all circum- SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 289 stances, Mr. Peters gives, in the American Agriculturist, the following characteristic illustration, copied from a Scotch paper: “The master of the bitch purchased at a fair some eighty sheep, and having occasion to stay a day longer, sent them forward and directed his faithful Colley to drive them home, a distance of about 17 miles. The poor bitch, when a few miles on the road, dropped two whelps; but faithful to her charge, she drove the sheep on a mile or two farther—then allowing them to stop, she returned for her pups, which she carried some two miles in advance of the sheep, and thus she continued to do, alternately carrying her own young ones, and taking charge of the flock, till she reached home. The manner of her acting on this: occasion was gathered by the shepherd from various persons who had observed her on the road.” The Colleys are not now uncommon in the Northern States, and I have often seen proofs of their singular sagacity in collecting, driving, and guarding sheep, and in catching out one from the flock when directed by their masters. I have often seen one drive a flock of fifty or sixty sheep through a crowed street, encountering teams, pedestrians, and other dogs at every step—without the slightest assistance. AccusToMING THE SueEp To THE DoG.—It is a mistake to suppose that a trained sheep-dog will manage any strange flock, however wild and unac- customed tosuch company. ‘The sheep must be gradually made acquainted with, and accustomed to the dog. They must know—and they will readily learn it—that he is their friend, their guardian and protector, instead of that hereditary enemy which their instinct teaches them to fly from. A want of knowledge of this fact has frequently led to disappoint- ment and disgust, to a giving up of the valuable dog which it has cost pains and money to procure. Mr. Skinner relates a ludicrous incident of Mr. Jefferson, arising from his not being apprized of this fact. A thoroughly broken sheep-dog had been sent him from abroad, and the great Sage of Monticello, after having held forth ore rotundo to some visitors, on the value of these dogs, and their immense convenience—nay, their indispens- ability in managing flocks, led forth his guests to give a practical exempli- fication of the qualities of his dog. At the word, the latter made for the sheep. The terrified animals fled in all directions, some of them dashing themselves over precipices and breaking their necks. The dog either shared the same fate, or, mortified at his failure, felt his pride too deeply wounded to return. Mr. Jefferson never recovered him! WOOL DEPOTS. Commission merchants who confine their operations exclusively to the sale of Wool, have opened large stores or ‘‘ Dépots,” at three or four points in the Northern States, Of the origin of this system, Mr. H. Blanchard, of Kinderhook, N. Y., thus spoke at the Agricultural meeting at the Assembly Chamber, Albany, Feb. 3, 1848 : ‘From facts that were ascertained by Hon. J. P. Beekman, (then President of the N. Y. State Agricultural Society,) at the State Fair held in Poughkeepsie, in 1844, he became con- vinced that the growers of Dutchess county, by reason of the superior facilities afforded them for the sale of their fine wools, were procuring from six to eight cents per pound more than many wool-growers in other sections of the State who produced the same quality of wool. The large quantity of fine wool grown in that county, offered great inducements for manufacturers ana purchasers of fine wool to make that a place of resort to obtain their sup- plies, and thusa fair competition was awakened, which resulted in a just appreciation of the relative value of their wools, and remunerating prices to the fine wool grower. Soon after Dr. B.’s return, the evils consequent upon the system of selling wools in our county, as well as elsewhere, became a matter of discussion between him and other wool-growers in our vicinity and myself, the result of which wasa request from them that I would open what we now term a “‘ Wool Dépét.”” The principles involved in the dépét system are not new, it being conducted upon those of a commission business; but it is only the details and appli 20 290 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. cation of these principles to wool when received direct from the grower, that had never be- fore in this country beeu applied in the same discriminating manner, and with as little expense as by this system.” The objects and advantages of the system, and the method of conduct- ing these establishments are clearly set forth in the following letter from my friend Mr. Peters, to whom, as a keeper of one of these Dépéts, and a gentleman of conceded ability—as well as_ skill, energy and success in this and in his other business operations—I thought it appropriate to apply for this information. H. S. Ranpatt, Esq. BurFrato. N. Y., Dec. 16, 1847. My Dear Sir: Your kind favor of the 12th inst., making inquiries relative to the Wool Depot system, is before me. It will give me pleasure to answer your queries, not that by so doing I can add anything to the exceeding great value of your Letters to the whole country, and especially to the South and West—yet from my own experience as a wool-grower, and in the management of a Wool Depét which I established at this place-last spring, I may give some information that will be useful to your readers, and may they be millions. In so doing, I will give you 1st, An account of the object; 2d, The method of doing business; and 3d, The advantages of the Wool Depét system. Tux Ossect.—Upon no sheep is the wool exactly alike over the whole body; nor is the wool exactly alike upon any single flock. In most flocks there is a great diversity—greater than there should be for the farmer’s profit. There is, then, a variety of grades of wool in every flock, and in every section of the country where wool is grown. $ Manufacturers first grade the wool; that is, sort the fleeces, making from five to eight or nine different grades. Each fleece is then opened, and stapled, or sorted into the various grades of the factory. Some manufactories use only the finest, others only the coarsest, and others again use only one kind of the intermediate sorts, so that from a single flock, I sold this year wool to five different manufacturers, no one wanting or working the kind that the other wanted. The object of the Wool Depét is to sort and arrange the wool, that the manufacturer can readily obtain the particular kind adapted to his machinery, and to obtain for each sort its fair market value. Metuop or pone Business.—The system originated with Mr. H. Blanchard, at Kinder- hook, some three years ago. Last year, we sent our wool to Mr. Blanchard, and during the winter I visited his establishment, and was so well satisfied with the operation of it, and of the vital importance of the system to the wool-growers everywhere, that I at once made arrangements to open one at this point. I accordingly commenced operations in the spring, and have been successful beyond my most sanguine expectations. J have a competent and experienced sorter, and when wool is sent in, it is at once sorted in the fleece, each sort weighed, and entered in a book under the name of the person send- ing it. Tf have adopted Mr. Blanchard’s method of sorting, as experience has shown that to be the best, under all circumstances. I make, then, five sorts, taking full-blooded Merino for No. J,-and grading down to coarse common wool, which is No. 5. Saxony I grade into Extra, Prime 1, and Prime 2. Then there isa kind of wool which is admirable for combing, and another kind that is wanted for De Laines;—these form five more sorts, making thus ten sorts. But as there is sucha difference in the condition of wool when brought into the Depot, [ usually make two sorts of each number. Thus I have No. 2, and No. 2a. No. 2 is usually good, but No. 2.4 is of the same grade, but is in better condition, every way a choice article, but still not fine enough to gointo a higher grade. The wool is actually -worth two or three cents per lb. more than the other number to which it belongs, and but for making this distinction, would not bring its full value. When the wool is properly sorted, it is piled up in a manner that will enable the parchaser to see it at a good advantage ;—in- ‘sured, and held until the market requires it. I make all my sales here, and for cash. When the sales are closed, an account is made out and sent to those who have sent me their wool; usually, an account is rendered as fast as any part of a man’s wool is sold. I have often been asked, how I could tell whether any man’s wool was sold, unless the whole of a ‘sort was sold ata time. Itis very easy. Suppose A. has 100 lbs. of No. 1, and I have sold 20,000 lbs. out of 40,000 lbs.—that being the whole amount inthe Depot. I have sold one- half of each man’s No. 1, and I turn to A.’s account and give him credit for 50 lbs. sold, and s0 go through and credit each man with his proportion of that number sold. The charges are, for receiving, sorting, and selling, one cent per lb., and the insurance— which is usually about 30 cts. on $100, for three months. Cartage from the dock is usually three cents per bale. The sacks are returned or sold at the option of the owner. They are SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 291 usually worth about fifty cents, more or less, according to their condition. Each man’s wool is carefully examined ; if put up in bad order, it is so noted, and a deduction made by the sorter, to make it as it should be. So that it is no object for a man to send to the Dépét wool in a bad condition. Tue ApvantTacrs.—The foregoing facts would seem to be so plain that it cannot be necessary to refer to the advantages. No man, however, is more at the mercy of the specu- ‘ator, than the wool-grower. The very fact that he has so many kinds of wool in his clip, prevents him from ascertaining the market value of the whole, for being in comparatively small quantities, he has not enough, if ever so well sorted, to make it an object for the differ- ent manufacturers to visit him. He is therefore compelled to sell his whole clip at the price of his present quality, and at prices from five to fifteen cents per lb. under the real market value of his wool. Allow me to illustrate by an example. A farmer has his wheat, © corn, oats, and barley, all mixed, and carries it to market in this condition. Will anybody give him the value of each kind of grain? On the contrary, they would not be willing to pay even the value of the cheapest kind. And yet each kind by itself has a market value. Precisely in the same situation is the wool-grower, except that he has no means of knowing the value of the various sorts of wool, except from the speculator. The advantage of the Dépét system, then, is, that there his wool is properly sorted. The wheat is separated from the corn, the corn from the oats, and the oats from the barley, and each is made to bring its fair market value. By having an extensive correspondence amon the manufacturers throughout the country, I am kept constantly advised of the market ; onl knowing the price of cloth in the cities, [am enabled to know toa certainty what the price of the various grades of wool should be. When the manufacturer can get the kind of wool he wants, and in large quantities, he is willing to pay, and does pay a better price than when he has to buy that which he does not want, to get the right sort. It also equalizes the market, and brings the producer and the manufacturer together, without being compelled to pay agents or speculators, and prevents that fluctuation of the market which is always produced by speculation. But there is another very great advantage growing out of the system. It enables the wool- growers in the various sections of the country to compare wool, and to know who has really the best and most profitable kinds of sheep. It has been strikingly manifest with me this season. For I have been enabled to point out to people in different States West, where they could find the most profitable sheep, by the wool which had been sent me. And in one instance men had been over five hundred miles after sheep, and paid high prices, when there were sheep in their own town worth double the money. There is no difficulty in sending wool here from any part of the country bordering upon the Ohio, or its tributaries. The expense of transportation will range from one to one and a half cents per lb.—depending much upon the bargain made with the clipper. I have re- ceived wool this year from all the Western States, in some instances as far West as the Mis- sissippi River, and the average cost for freight has been about one cent per Ib. It was urged by many last spring that this city was not a good pvint, inasmuch as it was not sufficiently central in its location. For nothing is more certain, than that a wool Depot, to be successtul, must be so located as to command a large amount of wool. The larger amount you can concentrate at a point, the more rapid and sure will be your sales. To this city the products of the West naturally tend, and to this point the producer can calculate with great certainty when, and at what expense it willarrive. But after its trans-shipment here, expenses accumulate, without any corresponding benefit. And it is peculiarly so, in regard to wool, coming as it often does in bad order, sacks torn, broken, and wet. But I have made my letter already longer than I intended, and in speaking of my own Dépét have perhaps gone more into detail than is necessary. This much I must be permitted to say to every wool-grower, that the Wool Depot system, properly conducted and patronized, is indispensable to ultimate and profitable success. I remain, my dear sir, Very sincerely yours, T. C. Peters. Messrs. Perkins and Brown have a Dépét at Springfield, Mass.; and I believe the establishment of two or three others is in contemplation, by companies or individuals. Conducted with skill and fidelity, there can be but little doubt that these establishments are alike beneficial to the wool-grower and manufacturer. That Mr. Blanchard’s and Mr. Peters’s have thus far been so conducted, there is not the least doubt. Of the other I know nothing, though report speaks well of it. The design was not regarded with much favor, in the out set, by many of our most extensive wool-growers. They preferred to “ do / 292 SHETP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. their own business, ” and not “pay the wages of an intermediate agent.”’ But the advantages derived from selling the wool in sorted lots, have been found to far more than overbalance the one cent per pound paid to the “agent” or Dépét keeper, and the system is rapidly gaining favor. Many of our most experienced wool growers in this State—men the most com- petent to favorably dispose of their wool—have sent their wool to Messrs. Blanchard and Peters, and I have yet to see or hear of the first person who has been disappointed in the result. If wool Dépéts are beneficial in the North, where the agents of different manufacturers, and “ speculators,” visit every man’s barn to bid on his wool—and among a class of growers, too, who, from long experience, are familiar with the qualities and comparative values of the staple—how much more beneficial would they be to regions in which the growers are so scattered that they are rarely visited by traveling agents—or if so, not in numbers sufficient to produce that competition which would compel them to offer the fair market value of the article: and where, perhaps, in many cases, the growers themselves have not sufficient experience to determine the exact grade of their own clips, even supposing them correctly notified from time to time from abroad, of the market value of the several grades. The Dépot system, in my judgment, removes the great and only serious obsta- cle to successful wool-growing in the South. It is not necessary that Dépéts be established 7 the Southern States, to have those States reap the full benefit of the system. For the present, and for some time to come, at least, the North will furnish the best home mar- ket for fine wools. The wool therefore must, until some changes take place, come to the North before it is sold; and the transportation must be equally subtracted from the avails, whether the sale is effected at home or ata Northern wool Dépot.. Indeed, it would be better to store it in a Dé- pot at Kinderhook or Buffalo, than at Charleston or Nashville. And this is for the reason that the two former are much nearer to, and can be more speedily visited by the principal woolen manufacturers of the Uni- ted States, than the latter. The New-York or New-England manufac- turer would be little likely to send an agent to Charleston or Nashyille, if he could supply his wants equally cheaply (with the addition of cost of transportation), from Buffalo, Kinderhook, or Springfield. And ifsupphed any more cheaply at the former places (price of transportation excepted), be it remembered, it would be so much unnecessarily taken out of the pocket of the grower. Should the South at any future day find it more for her interest to ship her wools to Europe, the above considerations will cease to be valid. She would then want Dépéts as much as now, for far more gain, proportiona- bly, is made by sorting wool for the foreign, than the American markets. But in that event, the Dépéts would assume a different character, and they would be most appropriately located at the port whence the wools were shipped. A CORRECTION.—MR. RUFFIN. In the beginning of Letter VI., 1 made the following remark in relation to Hon. Edmund Ruffin—* He seems to think lime, of itself, adequate to the full and permanent amelioration of the tertiary soils.’—This remark was made on a somewhat too hasty inspection of some of Mr. Ruffin’s po- . sitions in the Agricultural Survey of South Carolina. Since writing it, I nave had the pleasure of reading for the first time Mr. R.’s highly valua- lle work on Caleareous Manures, and find that I was in error in the state- ment above made. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 293 NOTE IN RELATION TO AUSTRALIA. Since the preceding Letters were completed, the exceedingly interesting article from the (English) Farmers’ Magazine, which is published below, has met my eye. It will be seen from it that the conclusions arrived at by me (see page 123,) in relation to the vast increase in the trans-Atlantic demand for wool and woolens, are in a rapid course of verification. I wrote from statistics extending down to 1840. In that year the English import of wool was forty-six millions of pounds. In 1845, according to the subjoined authority, it was seventy-six millions of pounds. And this rapid increase took place, notwithstanding the vast extension in the woolen manufactures in other nations, particularly in Germany, France, Spain and Belgium. The extract given from Waterton’s “Cyclopedia of Com- merce,” asserting the improbability of a much greater extension of the English woolen manufactures, “unless new markets shall be opened,” may be true. But new markets are yet to spring up in Central and Northern Asia, and even in Northern Europe, which will, in the aggregate, require an increase of woolen manufactures which the boldest calculator now scarcely dreams of. Jor the reasons for this opinion, see page 123.— Whether England is to supply a greater or less portion of this increasing demand remains to: be seen. If she continues as well prepared as she now is to compete with other manufacturing nations, doubtless she will contribute her full share to that supply. It will also be seen, from the annexed paper, that what I predicted (see page 121) in relation to the prospective competition (from the year 1840) in wool-growing, between the densely populated countries of Western Europe and those in newer settled regions, where land is cheap and popu- lation comparatively sparse, has already come to pass. Spain, and even Germany, which in 1840 supplied England with nearly twenty-two million pounds of wool—nearly half of the whole import of the latter—have now been driven almost entirely out of the English market! But, says the Sydney Herald, Germany, Spain, etc., have renewed the contest in another form: they have extended their manufacturing operations, and now manu- facture their own wool. Admit this: but if German wools cannot com- pete with others in the English market, which are brought from fifty times the distance, they cannot compete with them even in the German market, unless the latter are kept out by duties. The German manufacturer, then, in working up home wools, pays more for his raw material than the Eng- lish manufacturer, and he cannot, therefore, compete with him in foreign markets, nor even in the home one, without a protective Tariff which would raise the price of the English to that of the German article— Tariffs materially enhancing the cost of the necessaries of life will not long be tolerated by the consuming millions, in regions where civilization has penetrated. It seems that Australia and Van Diemen’s Land are the successful com- petitors which have driven Germany and Spain from the English woal market. The views set forth by me in Letter IX. in relation to the ad- vantages of the former for wool-growing compared with those of Hungary, Southern Russia, North and South America, remain the same ;. indeed, a careful review of my positions has served to farther convince me of their correctness. The character of the population, and the better commercial regulations of Australia, have given her a present advantage over new ri- vals in the Old World; and America has not yet entered the field of com- petition. When the Anglo-Saxon of North America enters the lists with the Anglo-Saxon of Australia, natural advantages will not, as now, be 294 | SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. overbalanced by superior energy and enterprise. The Anglo-Australian will, to say the least of it, meet his full equal in these particulars. And, on the other hand, there is not a rational doubt that the natural and other present advantages of all kinds are on the side of the Anglo-American. The portion of North America included in the proper wool-growing zone is immensely greater than in Australia; our climate, all things considered— considering the occasional terrible drouths of Australia—is the best; our lands are cheaper, and will certainly average as good, including our whole Atlantic coast, and including only our territory between the Apalachians and the Rocky Mountains, our land will average by far the best; labor is not dearer among us; we are not a quarter as distant from the English markets ; the wool from all parts of our immense interior, instead of be- ing dragged long and expensive journeys in “bullock drays,” is already whirled along by steam, or boated on canals or rivers to the seaboard, at a comparatively trifling expense. It would'be difficult to name a particu- lar, excepting in the two-cent duty, in which large portions of the United States have not the advantage over Australia for supplying the English wool market, and in other European markets we have perhaps every ad- vantage over that Colony. ‘Tur AvustraLtan Woot Trave*—[By Wm. Westgarth, Esq.]—The importance at present assumed by the Australian wool trade in the lists of British Commerce, demands some degree of attention in the history of an Australian settlement. I shall, therefore, de- vote the present chapter to a short account of this branch of Commerce, in its capacity both of an export from the Australian Colonies and an import into the British market. In the year 1836, the quantity of wool exported from Sydney amounted to 3,700,000 Ibs. weight. The proportion for the Port Philip district, included im this amount, could not, at so early a period of her existence, have exceeded 60,000 lbs. weight. Five years afterward the annual produce had attained to 1,578,000 lbs.; and the lapse of a similar period, bring- ing us down to the year 1846, exhibits the astonishing quantity of 7,400,000 lbs.t During this interval of ten years the quantity of wool exported trom Sydney, exclusive of any from Australia Felix, had increased from three and a half millions to nearly twelve millions of pounds weight. The importation of wool into the British market appears, indeed—like the rise of the Aus- tralian Colonies—to be but a business of yesterday, and one, among numerous other in- stances, of the wondertul extension of Modern Commerce. In 1820, the quantity imported was under ten millions of pounds weight; in 1845, it had risen to seventy-six millions. The proportion from the Australian Colonies in the former year was the one-hundredth part ; it now forms nearly one-half of the whole importationt; and at the steady and rapid ratio of the present increase of Australian wool, the lapse of a few years will exhibit a quantity far greater than the united total of the wool at present imported into Britain from every quar- ter of the world. The following Table exhibits the respective averages, in round numbers, for each period ‘of five years from 1826 to 1845; the numbers representing millions of pounds weight: Average of years. Foreign Wool, Colonial Wool. Total VOZG=30E-. . hse ele oS cicea a ween 25 2 27 TOBU Std. Bob es hataeteriecis cue bee 34 4 38 MS BA Oe ee ie nininidisinin nininininie = \ 5 ae Sees» aw 12 00 Total outlay and expense for feeding one year, - - $140 00 APPENDIX. 299 RECEIPTS. 2 lbs. wool per head is 200 lbs., at 20 cents, - - - $40 00 80 lambs at $1 when one year old, - - . - - - 80 00 This is 85 per cent. $120 00 In this instance the wool costs the farmer nothing. Deduct $90, the value of the original stock of ewes at the commencement of the next year, from $140, the total outlay, and you have $50, which the ‘value of the lambs more than equal. Compare it with farming or planting : A. buys anegro for - - - - - - - - : - $700 00 Furnishes him with fifteen acres of land at $5, - . - - - 75 00 Half the expenses of a horse and plough, - - - - - - 50 00 For his board and clothing, - - - - - ° - - - 20 00 $845 00 RECEIPTS. His labor, 160 barrels corn at 40 cents, - - - - $64 00 5 bags cotton at $30 a bag, - - - - - : - 150 00 $214 00 This is equal to 25 per cent., certainly as much as any man im this neighborhood makes. I have purposely made this large estimate that no one can say it is under the truth. B. buys 500 ewes and 20 bucks, common stock, at $1, - - : $520 00 Employs a shepherd, - . - - - - - : - - 175 00 Pays 20 cents for winter feed per head, — - - : - - - 104 O00 Pays for tar and salt, - - - - - - - - - - 20 OU B. has $76 less than A. in the outlay, - - - - . - - $819 00 RECEIPTS. 3 Ibs. wool per head is 1560 Ibs. at 20 cents, - $312 00 80 lambs to the 100 ewes is 400 lambs at $1, - - 400 00 —_— 712 ~«+00 Deduct for loss over skins and wool of those that die, 2 per cent, 18 40 $693 60 The outlay of A. (#890) brings him $210, equal to 25 per cent. The outlay of B. ($819) brings him $693 60, equal to 85 per cent. This calculation will do for the neighborhood of Pendleton or lower down, where sheep have to be fed during the winter. But for all that part of Pickens and Greenville district, extending south for twenty-six or thirty miles from the foot of the mountains, the profits would be larger. For in that belt of country, 1am informed by many residents—General Garvin among them—that the range affords sufficient food for sheep the entire year. Even when snow is on the ground, they paw the snow away and get sus- tenance from the winter grass. For that section I would alter the calculation thus : B. buys 500 ewes and 20 bucks, : - - - - - - $520 00 Pays for a shepherd, - - - - - - . - - - 175 00 Pays for salt and tar, - - - - - ° - - - 20 00 $715 00 RECEIPTS. 1560 Ibs. wool at 20 cents, - - - - - $312 00 90 lambs to the 100 ewes is 450 at $1, - - - 450 00 ———_ 762 00 Deduct for loss 2 per cent. over skins and wool of those that die, 19 00 $743 00 Making $28 more than 100 per cent. 300 APPENDIX. But try it onascale that every one can compare with his own expe- rience. B. buys 3 ewes and 1 buck for - - - . - - - - $4 00 He shears 12 lbs. of wool at 20 cents, - - - - - 2 40 2 lambs at $1, - - - - - - - - ° - 2 00 4 40 Over 100 per cent. These are suppositions. Take what has actually occurred in Pickens district. Mr. Stribling, as I am informed by himself, bought one ewe for $1: In 1846 she had 3 lambs, - - - - - - $3 00 Sheared 2 lbs. wool at 20 cents, - - - - . - AO $3 40 In 1847, same ewe had 2 lambs, - - - - - - 2 00 Sheared again 2 lbs. wool at 20 cents, - - - - - AO Each one of the last year’s lambs had a lamb apiece, - - 3 00 And sheared from the 3, 6 lbs. wool at 20 cents, - - =n 220 6 60 This is an increase of eight in two years from one ewe, and Mr. Stribling says at this time the whole are alive. I admit this is an extraordinary case, and it is only mentioned to show there are cases of actual increase far above any of those calculations made above. If, then, the climate be not only adapted to fine wool, but also to the coarse—if the range, which is abundant and sufficient to feed a flock the entire year; and if the above calculations are founded on data anywhere near correct, what more can be desired to show the applicability and value of sheep husbandry to this section. From three very respectable woo] growers, one from each of the states of Pennsylvania, New York, and Ohio, I was told the way to make a calcu- lation on the profits of sheep husbandry in a reasonably safe way, was to put down every year one-ninth less of lambs than you have ewes, and then deduct one-tenth from the whole for deaths in that year. Thus, say you have - - - - - - - - - 100 ewes. From 100 deduct one-ninth, and you have’ - - - - - - 89 lambs. 1 eiat Then deduct one-tenth for deaths, - - - - - - - 18 And you have - - - - - . - - - - - 171 To start with the next year. On this basis I have taken one hundred ewes and run the calculation on for eight years. The result was: Wool sheared in eight years, - - - - - - - - 17,190 lbs. The gentlemen above alluded to, say that half the wool will pay all ex- penses, even when the winters require five months’ feed : Deduct, then, one-half, 8,595, at 20 cents, - - - - - $1719 00 The increase amounted to 2067 sheep, at $1, - - - - 2067 00 Total, - - - - - - $3786 00 This result, if attained, would exceed fifty per cent. compounded. They say, too, it is a safe estimate to say that the lambs of each year will pay the expenses of the whole flock for that year in Pennsylvania. They more than APPENDIX. 301 ‘doit here. Allow eighty lambs to one hundred ewes, and you have from five hundred ewes, four hundred lambs; deduct one-tenth for deaths, and You have 360 at $1, - - - - - - - - - - $360 00 Charge 20 cents per head for 900 sheep, makes - - - 180 00 Charge for shepherd, - - . - - - - - 150 00 — 330 00 Lambs over-pay expenses by - - yen - - - : $30 00 All these calculations are made on the supposition that sheep get a part of that regular attention which all farmers give to their other domestic ani- mals, And to make sheep husbandry successful, it is not only necessary that this attention should be given, but every one who attempts it should know something of their diseases and the cures, and also the summer and winter management. This can be acquired only by their own, or the ex- perience of others. Easy access can be had to the experience of northern wool growers, who are proverbial for being close observers. ‘They say the disease called the “ scours”’ is the principal one to which sheep are liable, produced by excess of rich green food, and cured easily by a change to dry, but if allowed to continue, is fatal. From the introduction into the United States, in 1808, of Merino sheep from Spain, owners of this stock have considered it of the first importance to preserve the quality and quantity of their fleece, and if possible, to im- prove both. They ascertained that lambs from young and healthy sires improved, while those from old ewes fell back both in quality and quantity of fleece. Among them it is now a settled practice not to breed from ewes over seven or eight, nor from bucks over six years old. It is very important to resort to the evidence of age the teeth afford. Their books have been par- ticular in describing these evidences, which I will copy: “During the first year, lambs have eight small teeth in front, in the upper jaw, called nippers ; at a year old, the centre two shed, and two larger teeth take their place. At two years old, the next two are lost, and supplied by two larger ones. Thus losing and being supplied by two larger ones annually, till five—then they have a full set. At eight or nine they begin to lose their nippers—two every year—and by thirteen or fourteen years old, they have lost their entire set.” It is evident that during the time ewes are losing their teeth, they become less and less able to supply themselves with food, consequently afford less and less milk for their young. Thus the degeneracy is accounted for. In Vermont, where wool is as much their staple as cotton in South Carolina, so important do they consider it not to breed from ewes after they begin to lose teeth, that although mutton is not used by the inhabitants for the table, they sell their old stock to be fed to hogs. In most of the other northern states, their ewes at that age are kept from the bucks, and fattened for market. From their known skill in managing well what they undertake, we may safely take their usage as a guide, when it is applicable to our situation. With them grass is the entire food of their flocks—green meadows for summer pasture and hay for winter. Their win- ters require five months’ constant feeding, during which they estimate each sheep to consume fifty cents worth of hay. All stock is then kept enclosed, and the attention to turning sheep to pasture in summer, and feeding sheep in winter, requires but little labor in addition to their other stock. Flocks require close attention but at three times in the year—the tupping, the lambing, and shearing seasons. Ewes go with lamb one hundred and twenty-five days, or five months, and they so manage as to have the lambs 302 APPENDIX. brought in April and May; (here February is esteemed by many a better month.) To do this, the bucks must be kept impounded, except at the time desired. From the great superiority of early lambs, this part of sheep husbandry is-esteemed very important. During lambing season, close attention is required to guard both ewe and lamb from storms and cold winds—to see that the ewe acknowledges her lamb, and to keep up the marking and altering as the lambs get between five and ten days old. Ten days previous to shearing time they prepare for it by washing the wool on the sheep’s back, that the natural oil of the wool, which is destroyed by the washing, may have time to be renewed, without which the wool feels and works harsh. ‘The washing is done at spouts or pools, prepared for the purpose, and the other flocks are kept on clean pastures till sheared. As the proper preparation of an article for market is justly considered of the next importance to a good article, I will describe this process minutely, as practised for the northern market. The shearing is done on a clean floor, and each fleece is kept unbroken. When sheared, it is rolled outside in, until it is reduced to a lump about ten inches each way, and then tied with strings in two places. For packing the wool, a bag is used nearly as large as our cotton bags, which, after sewing to a hoop at top, they hang through a hole in an upper floor, a little less in diameter than the hoop; here the fleeces are packed down by the foot, the weight of an ordinary sized man being a sufficient pressure. Thus finished, the wool is ready for a northern or European market. Manufacturers will not give full price for wool unless the fleeces are unbroken; because, before manufacturing, they consider it necessary to have each fleece divided into five qualities, which they cannot do if the wool of different fleeces is emptied together. Different modes of summer management are followed in different coun- tries, The one followed in Australia, as described by Mr. Randall, is not only less troublesome, but would be better suited to our mountain region. There they roam over the plains, under charge of a shepherd, in flocks of three hundred to one thousand. Every night, some two or more of these flocks are penned together, during the entire year. Breeding promiscuously from the bucks that run with the flocks, allowing three or four to the hun- dred ewes. At the Cape of Good Hope, he says the same practice pre- vails ; and from both of these places the wool exported is equal, and in some instances superior in quality to the Merino. The statements here given, Mr. President, we have carefully considered, and believe to be truae—and we submit them under the belief that if the im- portance of sheep husbandry was duly considered, especially by the districts lying north and contiguous to the mountains, much additional comfort and wealth might be added to that already delightful region. All which is respectfully submitted. R. F. SIMPSON. Note.—Since this report was read, I have been informed by Mr. Thomas M. Sloan, that his wool does not cost him more than five cents a pound— and by Mr, Morris, at Pickens C. H., that for care, shearing, &c., of a small flock of eight ewes, worth eight dollars, kept on Ocone mountain, he paid one-half of the spring clipping, equal to three-quarters of a pound per head, and that from them he had, after paying all expenses, $3 60, and eight lambs worth eight dollars—$11 60. And by Mr. Shepherd, a tenant on APPENDIX. , 303 Mr. J. O. Lewis’s Tamosa estate, that in 1846 he took with him from Green- ville a few sheep, Among which were 4 ewes, worth - - > - - - - $4 00 They had 4 lambs, worth - - - - - - - 4 00 Thinks he sheared 3 lbs. per head, but say 2, which is 8 lbs. at 20 cts. 1 60 — 5 60 In 1848, from 8 sheared 14 Ibs. wool at 20 cents, - - - 2 80 And had 8 lambs, worth - - - - - - - 700 — 9 80 $15 40 Salt and shearing was the only expense. He had only offered to feed them once in the two years, and then they refused to taste corn shelled to them. H. ANCRUM ON WOOL MATTRESSES. Asu.ey, Pike county, Mo. A sound man in one night of seven hours’ sleep, generally perspires fifty ounces avoirdupois or four pounds troy weight; we cannot wonder at that, since there are above three hundred thousand millicns of pores in the body of a middle-sized man, and that in the last hours of sleep one perspires most ; hence the impropriety and the weakness of lying too long in a soft bed, and the necessity of lying on a comparatively hard elastic bed, such as a wool mattress. In France, wool mattresses are generally adopted, conse- quently you never meet with a bad bed there. I have travelled all over France, and never met with a bad bed, and a very recent intelligent Ameri- can traveller of great observation, mentions, on his removal from England to France, that he found the French beds delicious, because the beds are wool mattresses. Mode of Making a Wool Mattress.—The first thing to constitute a good healthy bed is, that it must be absolutely flat, therefore all bedsteads should have wooden laths instead of sacking, which always gives and forms a hol- low ; the wool is carded by hand, and all knots and extranecus matter taken out; the great point is to make it thick enough. The best bed I slept in, in my life, had sixty pounds of wool in it, but the bed was a very large extra size; half that quantity will make a small bed, but if you wish to lie luxuriously, yet hard, do not stint the wool, that makes all this difference ; it lasts for ever—the covering is washed once a year; the wool is carded, and a few pounds of wool added, and the bed is sweet amd new. However luxuriously he may be, let any gentleman have a good wool mattress made, and let him ride forty or fifty miles and thoroughly fatigue himself, he will then know the value of such a bed. My object is also to increase the home consumption of our wool. There are twenty odd millions in the United States; say five to each family, four millions; say three beds to each family, taking the whole population, twelve millions; say thirty pounds of wool to each bed, three hundred and sixty millions of pounds of wool; say thirty-four millions of sheep in the United States, say eighty million pounds of wool; this will consume more than four years’ clip of our wool. This ought to be promulgated to increase the consumption of our wool, and such wool as cannot be sold abroad. Independent of the benefit to all im then health, who adopt wool mattresses on account of their cleanliness and dura- bility, in the end, they are cheaper than any other bedding. Every thing that increases the home consumption of our wool is of na- tional importance, as is every thing that will promote the general health of 304 APPENDIX. our people. In this changeable and rigorous climate in winter, if all were to wear flannel, particularly narrow-chested and delicate females, it would be of the greatest benefit to their health, and save them many a fit of sick- ness. When we consider how cheap the English sell their Welsh flan- nel, it ought to stimulate our manufacturers; I must, however, observe, that I never purchased any flannel in the United States equal to the real Welsh flannel, or that did not shrink, or that wore near so long as the English flannel. The English flannel has a nap on both sides, which renders it warm and soft, and it washes soft to the last. The United States flannel that I have used washes harsh, and the wear is not near so agreeable as real Welsh flannel, but surely all these difficulties can be overcome by our people, and they can make as good flannel as the best Welsh flannel. It is well known that woollen clothes, such as flannels, worn next the skin, promote insensible perspiration. May not this arise principally from the strong attraction which subsists between wool and the watery vapor which is continually issuing from the human body? That it does not depend entirely on the warmth of that covering is clear, because one degree of warmth produced by wearing more clothing of a different kind does not produce the same effect. The perspiration of the human body being absorbed by a covering of flannel, it is immediately distributed through the whole thickness of that substance, and by this means exposed by a very large surface to be carried off by the atmosphere, and the loss of the watery vapor which the flannel sustains on the one side by evaporation, being immediately restored from the other in consequence of the strong attraction between the flannel and this vapor, the pores of the skin are disencumbered, and they are continually surrounded with a dry and salubrious atmosphere. It is astonishing that the custom of wearing flannel next the skin should not have prevailed more universally ; it is certain it would prevent a number of diseases, and there certainly is no greater luxury than the comfortable sensation which arises from wearing it, after one is accustomed to it. It isa mistaken notion that it is too warm clothing for summer; it may be worn in the hottest climates, at all seasons of the year, without the least inconvenience arising from wearing it.* It is the warm-bath of a perspiration confined by a linen shirt, wet with sweat, which renders the summer heats of southern climates so insupportable ; but flannel promotes perspiration and favors its evaporation, and evaporation, as it is well known, produces positive cold. I can vouch for the truth of every word of this. I wear the same kind of flannel all summer as I do in winter with sleeves; when I take extra exercise and perspire freely, my body and flesh is always cool and comfortable, and in part I owe it to wear- ing flannel that I hgve never had either fever or ague in this western coun- try, which is full of it. All this may appear trivial, and sanitary rules are disregarded, but it is all of the utmost importance and to all, Say fifteen millions of our people wear flannel! next their skin, and three flannel waist- coats to each, that is forty-five millions of waistcoats, at two yards each, (not enough with sleeves as they ought to be made,) ninety millions of yards of flannels in waistcoats only. Old people, delicate women and children, and above all, consumptive people, ought all to wear flannel drawers as well as a flannel waistcoat; if this was adopted, the great sickness that prevails in the United States would be much diminished. Men drink spiritucus. liquors to increase the animal heat, and feel that glow that is called com- fortable. Let them wear flannel next their skin instead, and keep the body warm and the head cool. * The firemen in steamboats could not exist if they wore linen instead of flannel shirts. The pleasant- est of all mattresses is one made of a mixture of wool and hair. [Eps. PLovaH, Loom, AnD ANVIL. ] INDEX. A. Abdomen, the. Page 228. contents of the, 228—233. Abomasum, cut of the, 228. structure and functions of the, 229. Acarus of scab, cut of the, 259. description and habits of the, 258—259. how produced, 258. Acetate of copper. See Verdigris. Afghanistan, advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry, 118. Africa, (exclusive of Cape of Good Hope,) sheep of, 151. exports of wool to England from, 110. exports of wool to U.S. in 1846, 124. quality of wool exported from, 90. Age, determined by the teeth, 237, 238. names indicative of the, 237. length of, in different breeds, 156, 157. Agrostis (stricta) vulgaris. See Herds-grass. Air-cells, description of the, 235. Alabama, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. value of woollen goods manufactured in, Li. price of land in, 60. adaptation of mountain lands of, to sheep husbandry, 47. Ale, the use of, in sheep medicine, 274. Allegheny mountains. See Apalachian moun- tains. Allspice, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Aloes, use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Alum, use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Anatomy of the sheep, 227, 238. how far necessary to be studied, 227. proper subjects for the study of, 227. directions for studying, 227, 228. Animals which destroy sheep in the South, 64 in Australia, 65. at the Cape of Good Hope, 65. how guarded against, 65. Antimony, the use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Aorta, the, 234. Apalachian mountains of U. S., where situated, 30. area occupied by, 30. geology and soils of, 30, 31, 43, 44, 46,49. A oraie of, 43. grasses which flourish on, 43, 44, 47, 59, 62 adaptation of, to pasturage, 44, 46, 47, slimate on, 4451, 59. price of lands on, 44, 46—48, 59. apople confounded with grub in the head, 258. cause and treatment of, 251—253, | Arachis. See Pindars. Arctium lappa, injurious to wool, 131. Argentine Republic. See Buenos Ayres. Arsenic, the use of, in sheep practice, 275. Arteries, the, 234. Artichokes, value of, as a fodder, 213. straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211. Ashes, as a fertilizer in the South, 67. leached, 67. analysis of, 67. Asia. See names of countries of. exports of wool from to U.S. in 1846, 124. Asiatic sheep. See Broad-tailed sheep. Asia Minor, adaptation of, to sheep hus- bandry, 118. ; Auricles of the heart, the, 234. Australia, introduction of sheep into, 25. introduction of Merinos into, 25. effect of climate of, on quality of wool, 25—29. wools of, compared with Spanish, 26. wools of, compared with Saxon, 26. exports of wool from, 25. exports of wool brought down to1846, 294. how sheep are managed in, 26. sheep husbandry of, compared with Saxon, 26. general adaptation of, to sheep hus- bandry, 25, 119—121. soils and products of, 119. price of land and labor in, 119—12T. climate of, 120. remarkable drouths of, 120. wild beasts in, destructive to sheep, 12h. vast distance of, from European markets, prospect of the increase of wool in, 121. note giving statistics of wool trade of, brought down to 1846, 294. Austria, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 114,116. See Germany and Hungary. soils of, 114. climate of, 115. management of sheep in, 139. exports of wool from, to U. S.in 1846, 124, Aquafortis, use of, in sheep practice, 276. B. Baden, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 114. Bakewell, Mr., the former of the New Lei- cester breed, 142. the conduct of, as a feeder, censured, 143, 249. i Barley, value of, in producing live weight, wool and tallow, 214. per cent. of nitrogen in, 214. value of straw of, as a fodder, 213. straw of, fed to sheep in seer i 211. 05 Barns for sheep, cut of. Page 205. ground-plan of, with sheds and yards, 209. Barrack for hay, description and cut of, 209. Bavaria, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 114, 115. Beans, value of, as a fodder, 213. straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211. Beet field, value of, as a fodder, 213. white Silesian, value of, as a fodder, 213. Belgium, exports of wool from, 110. exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846, 124. late increase of manufactures in, 294. Beloochistan, advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry, 118. Bermuda grass in the South, 38. its enormous product, 38. its adaptation to meadow or pasture, 38. its adaptation to barren sands, 38. Bichloride of mercury, use of, in sheep me- dicine, 275. Biflex canal, description of, 238. disease of, 261. Bile, account of the, 231. Biliary duct, description of the, 231. Bladder, the, 233. Blain, unusual in U. S., 222. Blankets for slaves, description of, 87, 90. cost of manufacturing, 87, 90—92. Bleeding, place for, 273, 274. rules for, 274. the quantity of blood to be abstracted in, 274 Blood, the circulation of the, 235. the importance of purity of, in breeding, 168, 171, 172. Blue grass, as the food of sheep, 212. in the North, 33. in the South, 37. on the Southern mountains, 44, 47, 48. Blue Ridge of mountains, location of, 30. Also, see Apalachians. geology of, 30. soils and products of, 31, 44—47, 59. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 4447, 59, Bone dust, as a manure in the South, 67. Bot. See Grub in the Head. Box for feeding grain to sheep, cut of, 203. for dipping lambs, cut of, 192. Brain, description of the, 236. Brazil, a portion of, in wool zone, 105. exports of wool from, 110. exports of wool from, to U.S. in 1846, 124. Breeding, principles of, 168—172. importance of selection in, 168, 190. in and in, effects of, 169. in and in, how avoided, 170, 172. crossing, when admissible in, 170. crossing, how conducted, 172. crossing, method of starting flocks in the South by, 170. crossing, importance of selecting good rams for, 172. register, how kept, 180. British America, exports of wool from, 110. to U.S. in 1846, 124. British West Indies, exports of wool from, 110 10, to U.S. in 1846, 124. Broad-tailed sheep introduced into the U.S., 151 wool and mutton of the, 151. INDEX. Bronchial tubes, the, 235. Bronchitis, description and treatment of, 240. Bronchocele. See Goitre. Browse, feeding of, in winter, 217. Buckwheat, value of, in producing live weight, wool and tallow, 214. per cent. of nitrogen in, 214. value of straw of, as a fodder, 213. straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 21]. Buenos Ayres, advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry, 105, 106. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, com- pared with U.S., 106. exports of wool from, 105. exports of wool from, to U. S., in 1846, 24, pampas of, 105. inhabitants of, 105. Burdock, injurious to wool, 131. C. Cabbage, value of, as a fodder, 213. Cabul, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 118 Cachectic diseases, 254, 255. Camphor, use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Cape of Good Hope, 65, 119. Merinos introduced in, 26. Merinos, their increase in, 26. exports of wool from, 110. exports of, to U. S. in 1846, 124. wool of, compared with Australia, 26. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 65, 19 climate of, 26, 119. climate of, effect of, on quality of wool, 26. face of the country in, 119. remarkable drouths in, 119. prevalence of wild beasts in, 119. Capillaries, functions of the, 234. Caraway seeds, the use of, in sheep medi- cine, 275. Cardiac opening, the, 231. Carrots, value of, as a fodder, 213. Castration of rams, 180. Cataract, the, 239. Catarrh, common, description and treatment of, 240. malignant epizootic, description of, 240— 247. malignant epizootic, ravages of, in U. S., 240. malignant epizootic, treatment of, 245, 246. Catechu, use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Cattle doctor, the most dangerous of mala- dies, 226. Caul. See Omentum. ; Census of U.S., inaccurate in its wool re- turns, 18. Cerebellum, the, 236. Chalk, the use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Chelmsford plains, for slave cloths, 86, 90. quality and cost of manufacturing, 90—93. Cheviot sheep, introduction of, into U. S., 149 description of, 149, 150, 154. low quality of their wool, 151. Chili, portion of, in the wool zone, 105. exports of wool from, 110. exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846, 124. INDEX. 307 China, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, Page 118. Choking, treatment of, 273. Chyle, account of the, 231. Climate, not controlled by latitude, 104. of various countries compared, 104. range of, in which fine sheep are bred, 17, 18. range of, in which wool can be most eco- nomically grown, 103, 104. of U.S., favorable to sheep, 18, 103, 104. effect of, on health of sheep, 18, 103. effect of, on the amount of wool, 22. effect of, on the quality of wool, 23, 27—29. Clogging sheep, how done, 193. Clover, red, as the food of sheep, 212. value of, cut in different states, as a fod- der, 213. acclimation of, in Virginia, 36. acclimation of, on the mountains of Vir- ginia, 44, 47. acclimation of, south of Virginia, 44, 47. not indispensable, 44, 47. substitute for, as a fodder, and manuring crop, 39, 41. white, as the food of sheep, 212. flourishes on the southern mountains, 45, 47. Coecum, cut of the, 232. Colic, symptoms and treatment of, 253. Cold storms, dangerous effects of, after shear- ing, 191. Colombia, exports of wool from, 110. Colon, cut of the, 232. Cobza, value of, as a fodder, 213. Copperas, sulphate of, use of, in sheep medi- cine, 275. Corn, Indian, as food for sheep, 216. value of, as a fodder, 213. blades of, as sheep fodder, 41, 212, 214. stalks of, as a sheep fodder, 41, 212,214. Corrosive sublimate, use of, in sheep medi- cine, 275. Cotswold sheep, origin of, 149. introduction of, into the U. S., 149. description of, 149. crosses of, with other breeds, 149. eut of, 148. Cotton, statistics of the crop of, 79. cost of growing, 79, 85. cost of growing, compared with that of growing wool, 85. should alternate with other crops, 78—83. alternating of, with wool growing pro- posed, 81. rotations for-such alternation proposed, 83, 84. more should be grown on less land, 80, 85. seed of, as a food for sheep, 216. Crab grass, account of the, 37. Creeping panic grass. See Bermuda grass. Crimea, advantages of, for wool growing, 117. Merinos introduced in, 117. Crook, uses of the, described, 196. cut of the. 196. Crossing breeds and varieties, object of, 170. effects of, 170—172. advantages of, under some circumstances, 162, 164, 170. Cud, loss of the, not a disease, 272. Cumberland grass. See Bermuda grass. Cumberland mountains described, 43. Also, see Apulachians. Gigs adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, Curled kale, as food for sheep, 62. flourishes on southern mountains, 62 Cynodon dactylon. See Bermuda grass. Cynoglossum officinale, injurious to wool, 174. See Hound’ s-tongue. Cystisis, unusual in U. S., 238. D. Dactylis glomerata. See Orchard grass. Dangerous rams, how managed, 193. Denmark, exports of wool from, 110. Depots for wool. See Wool Depots. Diaphragm, structure and functions of, 234. Diarrhea, description and treatment of, 250, Digestion, the process of, 229—231. Digitalis, use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Digitaria sanguinalis, account of the, 37. Diseases, the classification of, adopted, 226. same causes do not produce the same, in different countries, 220. popular superstitions concerning causes of, 220, 221. many of those of England not found in U.'S., 291 — 223; 238: difference in the type of, in England and U. S., 224. treatment of, in England and U. S. dif- ferent, 224. English treatment of, too expensive, 224, 225. English treatment requires too much skill for popular use, 225. English treatment, its pharmacopceia too extensive, 225. treatment of, by “cattle doctors’’ dan- gerous, 226. better do too little for, than too much, 226. Dissection indispensable to learn nature and treatment of diseases, 227. amount of instruction necessary to per- form, 227. directions for, 227, 228. proper subjects for, 227. Division of flocks proper in summer, 193. necessary in winter, 199. Docking sheep, necessity for, 181. how performed, 181. Dogs, sheep. See Sheep dogs. destruction of sheep in the South by. 64. legal enactments in relation to killing sheep by, in New York, 64. methods of protecting sheep from, 65. Down sheep. See Southdowns. Dropsy, acute, unusual in U. S., 222. Drouths, the severe, which prevail in Aus- tralia and the Cape of Good Hope, 119, 120. Ductus choledochns, funetions of the, 231. Duodenum, cut of the, 232. Dura mater, the, 236. Dutch West Indies, exports of wool from, to U.S. in 1846, 124. Duties on wool in different nations. Tariffs. Dysentery, difference between, and diarrhea, 25% nature and treatment of, 261. See 308 E. Ear, numbering sheep by notching. Page 179. Von Thaer’s system of, 178, 179. cuts illustrating, 179. - when done, 180. notcher, described, 180. holes in, to record age, 179. holes in, how made, &c., 179. East Indies, increasing exports of wool from, 110, 111. in what countries of the, wool is grown, ll H 8. Ellman, Mr. the great improver of the South- downs, 144. Emasculation of rams, how performed, 181. England, duties of, on imported wool, 106. table of imports of wool of, and from whence imported, every fifth year for thirty years, 110. imports of wool of, compared with other nations, 108. imports of, brought down to 1846, 294. vast increase of imports of wool of, in sixty-nine years, 123. subsequent increase in imports of, 294. exports of woollens from, 108. exports of wool from, 109. exports of wool from, to U. S., 110. exports of wool from, to U.S. in 1846, 124. number of sheep in, 109. produce of wool in, 109. production of wool in, does not meet the home consumption, 109. general advantages of, for wool growing, 111. sheep necessary to sustain tillage of, 71. sheep dogs of, 286. Enteritis, little known in U. S., 238. Epiglottis, description of the, 236. Epilepsy, little known in U, S., 253. Epsom salts, the use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Erysipelatous scab, 261. Ethmoid bone, cut of the, 236. Ewes, proper age of, to begin breeding, 137. proper number to be put to one ram, 197. different methods of putting toram, 198. feed and management of, during preg- nancy, 217. pregnant, should be watered separately, 199 Eye, inflammation of the, how treated, 239. F. Fall feeding, a good preparation for winter, 195 Febrile diseases, account of the, 238—251. Feeding sheep in yards with other stock im- proper, 210. Felting property in wool accounted for, 137. Fences, poor ones teach sheep to jump, 194. Fever, inflammatory, little known in U.5S., 238 malignant, little known in U. S., 238. typhus, little known in U. S., 238. Flaxseed. See Linseed. Fleece, evenness of, important, 167. how prepared for folding, 187. how folded, 187, 188, INDEX. Fleece, cuts of table and trough for folding the, 187, 188. proper twine for tying, 188. cut of, properly done up, 188. Florida, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen goods manufactured in, 17. Fluke worm, cuts of the, 248. account of the, 247, 248. Fly, its attacks and their effects, 173, 192. how avoided, 173, 192. Fodders, table of nutritious equivalents of, 213. increase in weight, wool and tallow, from using different kinds of, 214, 215. table of winter variations in, for sheep, 211. table of, for ewes, a month prior to lambing, 212. for winter feed of breeding ewes, 217. amount consumed influenced by tempe- rature, 217, 218. cereal grains for store sheep, 215, 216. ruta bagas for store sheep, 215, 216. Indian corn to be fed with care, 216. regularity in giving, very important, 217. Folding, how done in England, 72. objects of, in England, 72. inexpedient in U. S., 73. Folding of fleeces. See Fleece Food. See Grasses and Fodders. Foot rot. See Hoof-ail. Fouls, cause and treatment of, 270. Foxglove. See Digitalis. Fractures, treatment of, 273. France, area of, 111. population of, 111. number of sheep in, 111. exports of wool from, 110. exports of, to U. S. in 1846, 124. exports of woollens from, 108. late increase in manufactures of, 111,296. imports of wool of, 108. duties of, on imported wool, 106. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 111. soil and products of, 111. French Merinos, account of, 133. cut of wool of, 135. quality of wool of, compared with Spa- nish and American families, 135, 136. weight of fleeces of, 133. French sheep dogs, 285. Frontal bone, cut of section of, 236. Frontal sinuses, cut of, 236. locality of the bot or grub in the head, 256. ‘ G: Gad-fly of the sheep. See Gstrus ovis. Gall bladder, account of the, 233. Garget, description and treatment of, 251. Gastritis, little known in U. S., 238 Generative organs, the, 233. Gentian, the use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Georgia, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. INDEX. 309 Georgia, woollen goods manufactured in. Page 17. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 42, 59, 60. price of land in, 60. adaptation of mountain lands of, to sheep husbandry, 47. Germany, area of, 114. population of, 114. face of the country in, 114. soils of, 114. climate of, 115. land tenures in, 115. system of sheep husbandry in, 115, 139. method of managing sheep in, 139. circumstances under which the wool of, is grown in, 115, 116. export of wool from, 110, 114. export of woollens from, 108. late increase in woollen manufactures of, 296. general advantages of, for woo! growing, 114—116. general advantages of, compared with WES. Ge general advantages of, Mr. Grove’s opinion, 116. Gestation, period of, 197. Gibraltar, exports of wool from, 110. exports of, to U.S. in 1846, 124. Ginger, the use of, in sheep medicine, 275. Glands, the parotid, 236. the thyroid, 236. the thyroid, diseases of, 270. the salivary, 236. Glottis, account of the, 236. Goggles. See Hydatid in the brain. Goitre, account of the, 270, 271. Grain, policy of feeding to store sheep in winter, 215. best kinds of, for winter feed, 216. equivalents of, in nutriment, 213. effects of different kinds of, in producing wool, tallow and muscle, 214. Grain box for sheep, cut and description of, 203. Grasses, natural ones of the South, 36—39, 44,45, 47—49, 58, 59. varieties of, which should be tried in the South, 33, 35—38. best acclimated ones of the South, 33, 36—38. manner of forming swards of, in the South, 73—75. Great Bucharia, wool trade of, 118. Greece, exports of wool from, 110, 114. (In Table on page 110 it is called Morea.) advantages of, for sheep husbandry. See Remarks on Turkey, 104, 114. Grub in the head, description of the, 256, 257. the larva of the G&strus ovis, 257. cuts and description of the Gistrus, 256. time Cistrus deposits its eggs, 256. locality and habits of the larva, 256, 257. cuts and description of the larva, 257. cut and description of the chrysalis, 257. do the larva produce disease in the sheep ? 257, 258. opinions of eminent veterinarians in rela- tion to, 258. method of preventing and expelling the larva, 258. Guano, as a manure in the South, 67. Guatemala, exports of wool from, 110. salir and Man, exports of wool from, 0. Gullet, obstructions of, how treated, 273. Gypsum as a fertilizer in the South, 67. Hi. Handling sheep, directions for, 174. Hay, different value of different qualities of, as fodder, 213. comparative value of, in producing live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. nitrogen in, 214. Hay holders for winter foddering described, 211. Hanse ‘Towns, exports of wool from, to U.S. in 1846, 124. Head, for proper form of, see the descrip- tions of the several breeds, and prin- ciples of breeding. cut of the bones of the, 236. Heart, structure and functions of the, 234, 235. Hedysarum onibrichis. See Sainfoin. Hepatization of the lungs, description of, 239. Herds grass, character of, 33, 37. flourishes in South Carolina, 36, 59. flourishes on the mountains of North Carolina, 44. the soils adapted to, 37. Hindostan, wools exported from, 108. Holland, exports of wool from, 110. exports of wool from, to U.S. in 1846, 124. exports of woollens from, 108. Honeycomb, or second stomach. See Reti- culum. Hooding dangerous rams, how done, 193. Hoof, periodical shortening of the, necessary, 183. best time and method for cutting the, 183. cut of toe-nippers for shortening the, 183. Hoof-ail, erroneous statements of English writers concerning, 262. author’s experience with the, 262, consecutive symptoms of, 263. treatment of, 264—269. preparation of the foot for treatment in the different stages of, 265. common remedies for, 265, 266. common method of treating, inefiectual, 264. effectual method of treating, 266, 267. effectual method of treating, expense of, 267. cheap method of keeping under, 267, 268. cheap method of keeping under, cuts of arrangements for, 267, 268. evident contagiousness of, 269, 270. propagated by inoculation, 269, 270. is it propagated otherwise than ‘by ino- culation? 270. does not originate spontaneously in U.S., 222, 223, 269. originates spontaneously in England, 223. Hoof-rot. See Hoof-ail. Hoove, cause and treatment of, 272, 273. 310 INDEX. Horns, objectionable. Page 166. method of shortening, 192. cause and treatment of maggots under the, 192. Hopplin ‘sheep, how performed, 193. Hospital for feeble sheep, in winter, 199. Hound’s-tongue, the burr of, injurious to wool, 174. Hungary, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 115—117. advantages of, compared with those of other countries, 117. climate of, 115, 116. soils of, 116. land tenures in, 116. want of market facilities in, 116, 117. Prince Esterhazy’s flock in, 116. sheep dogs of, 284 Hydatid in the brain, 254, 255. causes of, 254. prevalence i in England of, 254. not very common in U. S., 254. barbarous popular method of treating, 255. proper treatment of, 255. I. Tleum, cut of the, 232. , advantages on — of, for wool growing, 96—103 Saxon sheep introduced into south of, 27. rot prevails in south of, 222. In-and-in breeding, effects of, 169. Independent Tartary, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 118. Indiana. oe of, for wool growing, 96—1063 Inflammation of the bladder. See Cystitis. of the brain. See Phrenitis. of the eye. See Opthalmia. of the intestines. See Enteritis. of the larynx. See Laryngitis. of the lungs. See Pneumonia. of the liver. See Rot. of the stomach. See Gastritis. of the udder. See Garget. of the membrane Reet 3 the thorax. See Pleuritis. of the mucous membrane lining the bronchial tubes. See Bronchitis. of the mucous coat of the smaller intes- tines. See Diarrhea. of the mucous coat of the larger intes- tines. See Dysente of the mucous membrane lining the nasal passages. See Catarrh. of the cellular tissue of the tongue. See lain. Intermaxillary bone, cut of the, 236 Intestines, cut of the, 232. Iodine, use of, in sheep medicine, 275, 276. Iowa, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 96—103. Italy, a of, for sheep husbandry, eit of wool from, 110. exports of woollens from, 108. area of, 113. population of, 113. soil and climate be 113. vasturage of, 113 - Jejunum, cut of the, 232. John’s-wort, bad effects of, on io 271. bad effects of, how treated, 271, 272. Jugular vein, the best place for bleeding, 274 June grass. See Blue grass. K. Kalmia angustiflora, poisonous to sheep,271. antidotes for, 271. Kentucky, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen manufactured in, 17. fine wooled sheep bred in, 27. — advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 27, 47, 48. adaptation of mountain lands of, for sheep husbandry, 47, 48. Kidneys, structure and functions of the, 233. rr Lacteals, the, 231. Lambs, how fed in winter, 215, 216. should be wintered separately, 199, Lambing, proper time for, 175. shelters necessary for, 175. assistance when to be rendered ewe in, 175. care of the newly d ropped lamb, 176. changing dams, how done, 177. irritation of the bag, how managed, 177. the convenience of pens in, 177. pinning of young lambs after, 177. Lard, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Larynx described, 235. Laryngitis, little known in U. S., 238. Laurel, low, poisonous to sheep, 271 Leg, treatment of, when fractured, 273. Leicester sheep, origin of the, 142. cut of the, 142. cut of the microscopic appearance of wool of, 136. general description of, 143, 154. characters of as breeders, 143. degree of hardiness of, 143. points aimed at by breeders of. 144. introduction of, mto U. 5., 144. Lentils, value of. as a fodder, 218. straw of, value of, as a fodder, 213. straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211. Lice, method of destroying. 192. Lime, chloride of, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. carbonate of, use of, in sheep practice, 276. as a fertilizer in the South, 67—70. as a fertilizer, when valuable, 68 as a fertilizer, Johnson’s opinions con- cerning, 68. as a fertilizer, Von Thaér’s opinion con- cerning, 68. asa a Petzholdt’s — con- cerning, 6 INDEX. Lime, as a fertilizer, Chaptal’s opinion con- cerning. Page 69. Linseed, use of, to guard the end of a pro- bang. See Choking. caked, value of, as a fodder, 213. oil, use of, .in sheep medicine, 276. Little Bucharia, exports of wool from, 118. Liver, structure and functions of the, 232, 233. diseases of the. See Rot. Lolium perenne. See Rye grass. Lombardy, advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry, 113. Long wool, the goods in which it is em- ployed, 143, 151. the sheep which produce it, 143, 149, kote market for, in U. S., 154. Loss of cud, not a disease, 272. Louisiana, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen goods manufactured in, 17. price of land in, 60. Lucern, unsuccessful in the North, 33. succeeds on the southern mountains, 47. value of, as a fodder, 213. fed to sheep in Germany, 211. Lunar caustic, use of, in sheep practice, 276. Lungs, structure and functions of the, 235. epatization of the, described, 239. diseases of the, 239, 240. Lupins, white, as a green manuring crop in the South, 74. Lupinus albus. See Lupins. Lymph, the, 231. Lymphatics, the, 231. M. Madia, value of, as a fodder, 213. Maggots on sheep, cause and treatment of, 195 Malta, exports of wool from, 110. Man, Isle of. See Guernsey and Man. Mangel wurzel, value of, in producing live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. per cent. of nitrogen in, 214. Maniplus, structure and functions of the, 229, cut of the, 228. Manufactures of. wool. See Woollen Manu- factures. Manulactories. See Woollen Factories. Manufacturers of wool, American, their suc- cess identified with that of the wool growers, 161. have not properly discriminated in the prices of different qualities of wool. 160. combinations of, to lower prices of wool, 161. Manures, table of comparative values of, 40. the available ones in the South, 67—76. green, use and economy of, 70, 72, 74, 75. the cheapest, for the South, 73—75. where applied in a proper rotation of crops, 84. Manyfolds. See Maniplus. Marking sheep, the brand for, 191. suitable pigment for, 191. how and when done, 191. 311 Marking sheep, on the ears, how done, 179. Marl, as a fertilizer, South, 67—70. as a fertilizer, when valuable, 68, 70. as a fertilizer, expensiveness of, 70. Meadow fox-tail grass, flourishes on the southern mountains, 47. Medicago sativa. See Lucern. Medicines, list of, for sheep, 274—277. directions for administering into the sto- mach, 273. Mercury, preparations of, in sheep medicine, 275, 276. Merinos, introduction into the U. S., 132. their gradual spread in the U. S., 132. causes of their subsequent decrease in U. 8., 158, 159. align” their rapid restoration to public favor in U.S., 160, 161. Spanish families of, 132. Spanish, amount and quality of wool yielded by, 133, 135. Spanish, cut of wool of, 135, 137. French family of, described, 133. French, amount and quality of wool yielded by, 133, 135. French, cut of wool of, 135. American families of, described, 133, 134. American, amount and quality of wool yielded by, 55, 134—137. American, cuts of wool of, 135, 136. American, cut of ram of, 131. American, cut of ewe of, 134. American, hardness of, 137. American, profits of a premium flock of, 5D. American, prices of wool of, 55. range of climate endured by, 137. countries successfully introduced in, 17, 18. consumption of food by, compared with other breeds, 137. 4 as breeders and nurses, compared with other breeds, 137. proportion of wool to amount of food consumed, compared with the English breeds, 156. as mutton sheep, compared with English breeds, 158. for production of fine wool, compared with Saxons, 163, 164. crosses with Saxons, 134, 138, 141, 164. crosses with native sheep, 164. crosses with Southdowns. 170, 171. crosses with Leicesters, 171. the best variety of sheep for the South, 163, 165—168. proper size of, 165. proper form of, 166. proper weight of fleece of, 165. proper length and density of wool cf, 167, proper evenness of wool of, 167. proper style of wool of, 168. proper amount of gum on wool of, 167. proper quality of skin of, 166. points to be avoided in, 168. Mesentery, cut of the, 232. Mesenteric glands, the, 231. Mexico, adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 105. exports of wool from, 110. ; exports of wool from, to U. 8. in 1846, 124, 312 INDEX. Mexico, sheep dogs of. Page 284—286. Microscopic views of wool, 135—137, 145. Middle wools. See Southdown wool. Midriff. See Diaphragm. Millet, productiveness of, South, 37, 38. straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211, 212. value of, as a fodder, 213. Milt. See Spleen. Miscellaneous diseases, 271—273. Mississippi, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen goods manufactured in, 17. fine wooled sheep bred in, 27. latitude, &c., of, compared with Aus- tralian, 27. Missougi Territory, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 96—103. Modena, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 113. Mogadore wool, 90.: Morea, exports of wool from, 110. Greece. Morocco. See Africa. Mountains of the South. See Mowntain zone, under head of Southern States. Mud, as a fertilizer. See Swamp mud. Muriate of soda. See Salt. Muriatic acid, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Mutton, economical food for slaves, 56, 57. its effects on the system compared with other meats, 56. the quality of, in different breeds of sheep, 153, 154, 158. Also, see the different breeds. sheep, the English. See Southdowns, Leicesters, and Cotswolds. sheep, where they constitute the most profitable variety, 153, 154. sheep, comparison between varieties of, 153, 154. sheep, unadapted to most parts of the South, 154, 155. sheep, less profitable in the South than Merinos, 158. See N. Naples, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, vila Nasal bones, cut of the, 236. Native sheep (so called) of the U. S., origin of, 130. general characteristics of, 131. crosses with other breeds, 131. 164. policy of grading up with the Merino in the South, 164, 170. selection of, to cross with Merinos, 170. do not cross successfully with Saxons, 164. Nerves, the, 236. Nervous diseases, the, 251. ‘ New England, advantages of, for wool rowing, 95. New Jersey, advantages of, for wool grow- ing, 95. New Leicester sheep. See Leicester. New Oxfordshire sheep. See Colswolds. New South Wales. See Australia. New York, population of, 17. New York, sheep introduced in by the Dutch colonists, 130. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen goods manufactured in, 17. grass lands of, how managed, 32. price of grazing lands in, 53. price of sheep in, 53. cost of producing wool per pound in, 61. profits of wool growing in, 5355. Nitrate of silver. See Lunar caustic. Nieig of potash, use of, in sheep medicine, 76. Nitre. See Nitrate of potash. Nitric acid, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. North Carolina, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. amount of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen goods manufactured in, 17. price of land in, 44, 60. adaptation of mountain lands of, to sheep husbandry, 44—46. Norway, exports of wool from, 110. climate and flora of, 104, 105. Numbering sheep, advantages of, 178. See Registering. Von Thaér’s system of, 179. cuts illustrating, 179. O. Oats, value of, in producing live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. per cent. of nitrogen in, 214. value of straw of, as a fodder, 213. straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211. Odessa, exports of wool trom, 117. CHsophagus, course of the, 234—236. entrance of, into stomach, 228, 229. obstructions of the, how treated, 273. (Esophagean canal,structure and functions of the, 229. CEstrus ovis, description of, 256. natural history of, 256, 257. cuts of, 256. Ohio, advantages of, for wool growing, 95. Omentum, description of the, 228. One crop system of the South, 81. exhaustion of land consequent on the, 81, 82. exhaustion of land consequent on the, De Candolle’s, Macaire’s, Mirbel’s, Braconnet’s and Gyde’s theories and experiments on, &1. Opium, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Opthalmia, treatment of the, 239. Orchard grass, unsuccessful in New York, est flourishes on the southern mountains, 62. Orkney, wool of, 90 Otter sheep of the U. S., 129. Ovaries, the, 233. P? Palsy, nature and treatment of, 253. Pancreas, structure and functions of the, 252, Panicum milliaceum. See Millet. INDEX. 313 Panicum sanguinale. See Crab grass. Papal States, advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry. Page 113. Parietal bone, cut of a section of, 236. Parma, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 113. Parotid glands, the, 236. Parturition. See Lambing. Pastures, the natural ones of the South, 33, 34, 36, 4448, 59, 60. how formed on sterile lands, 73—75. Patagonia, portion of, in wool zone, 105. Paunch. See Rumen. Peas of the South, 39. substitute for clover in the South, 39, 41. value of, as a fodder, 39, 41, 213, 214. value of, in the production of live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. per cent. of nitrogen in, 214. value of, as a green manuring crop, 74, oe what time plowed under for green ma- nure, 75. haulm of, valuable as a fodder, 39, 213, 214. haulm of, valuable as a manure, 40. chemical analysis of, 39. Pedigree, only, value of, 171. Pelt-rot, description and treatment of, 255. Pens for the lambing season, how con- structed, 177. Pennsylvania, adaptation of, to sheep hus- bandry, 95. 2. Pepper, black, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Pericardium, the, 234. Persia, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 104, 118. Peru, exports of wool from, 110. exports of wool to U.S. in 1846, 124. Pharynx, the, 235, 236. Phleum pratense. See Timothy. Phrenitis, rare in U. S., 253. Pia mater, the, 236. Pimento, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Pindars, value of, as a fodder, 213. Pinning, fatal to lambs, how managed, 177. Pleura, the, 234. Pleuritis, little known in U. S., 238. Pleurisy. See Pleuritis. Pneumonia, nature and treatment of, 239, 240. Poa pratensis. See Blue grass. Poisonous plants to sheep, 271. Portugal, exports of wool from, 110. Potatoes, Irish, as a winter feed for sheep, Aleta: value of, in the production of live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. per cent. of nitrogen in, 214. sweet, winter feed of sheep, 41. Poudrette, as a manure, South, 67. Prairies of the Western States described, 95—107. advantages on the, for wool growing, 95—107. natural grasses of the, 96—99. natural grasses, succulent during but a short season, 96, 97. natural grasses, rapidly exterminated, 96. natural grasses, will not alone support sheep, 96. } natural grasses, make poor hay for sheep, 98. Prairies of the Western States will not pro- _ duce winter pasturage, 98. Rae of winter foddering necessary on, cost of sheep husbandry on, compared with Eastern States, 99. oor pt fuel, fences and buildings on, 99, difficulties in the way of the shepherd system on, 100, 101. scarcity of water on, 101. cumae of, variable and excessive, 102, 03. climate of, States, 102. climate of, compared with Southern States, 102, 103. climate of, unfavorable to fine wooled sheep, 103. Pregnant ewes, how managed. See Ewes. Prussia, for general description of, see Ger- many, 114—116, exports of wool trom, 110. exports of woollens from, 108. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 116. climate of, 104, 115. management of sheep in, 139. compared with Eastern | Pulse, place for feeling the, 274. natural rapidity of, 274. Purging. See Diarrhea. Pylorus, the, 228, 231. R. Rabies, uncommon in U. S., 253. Racks, for feeding sheep, 200—202. box, cut and description of, 200. hole, cut and description of, 200. sparred, cut and description of, 201. hopper, cut and description of, 202. Rams, method of castrating, 180, 181. dangerous ones, how managed, 193. importance of careful selection in, 172. objections to several running in the same flock of ewes, 197. necessity of selecting ewes in reference to quality of, 197. proper age of, to put to ewes, 197. different methods of putting to ewes, 198. how fed when running with ewes, 199. time allowed to run with ewes, 199. number of ewes those of different ages will serve, 197. not allowed to run with ewes in sum- mer, 193. Rambouillet Merino. See French family of, under head of Merinos. Rape, as food for sheep, 62. flourishes on southern mountains, 62. Rectum, the, 232. Red-top. See Herds grass. Red water. See Dropsy, acute. Registering sheep, Mr. Grove’s and author’s method, 180. importance of, 178. Respiratory passages, the, 235. Respiration, how produced, 234. Resting lands, meaning of the term in agri- culture, 82. theory of, 82. inexpediency of, 82. Reticulum, description of the, 228. 314 INDEX. Reticulum, functions of the. Page 230. Rice, value of, as a fodder, 213. Roots, for winter feed of sheep, 213, 214, 216. Root troughs, cut of, 203. Rot, not known in most parts of U. S., 222. other diseases mistaken for, 222. has appeared in ‘l'ennessee and Illinois, 222. prevalence of, in Europe, 221, 222. causes assigned for the, 223, 248, 249. symptoms of the, 247. post-mortem appearances of, 247. cuts of the fluke-worm of, 248. suddenness with which it is engendered, 249, English custom of selling rotted sheep to the butcher, 249. treatment of the, 249, 250. Rotation in crops, necessity of, 81, 82. necessity of, in the South, 78—83. a system of, recommended for the South, 83—85. Rumen, structure of the, 228. cut of the, 228. functions of the, 229. unnatural distension of the. Rumination, the process of, 230. Russia, climate of, 104, 117, 118. soil and products of, 117. face of the country in, 117. the south of, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 117. the south of, compared with Hungary, 117. the south of, compared with prairies of the U. S., 117. Merinos introduced in, in 1802, 117. Merinos, rapid increase of, in, 117. exports of wool from, 110, 117. exports of wool to U. 8. in 1826, 124. Ruta bagas, as sheep feed, 213, 216. Rye, for winter pasturage in the South, 40, 58. value of grain of, in producing live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. per cent. of nitrogen in, 214. dry straw of, value of, in different states, as a fodder, 213. fed to sheep in Germany, 211. Rye grass, unsuccessful in New York, 33. flourishes on southern mountains, 47,62. See Hoove. S. Sacking wool, how performed, 189. proper sacks for, 189. Salt, necessary for sheep in summer, 194. necessary for sheep in winter, 218. effect, in conjunction with fodders, in in- creasing live weight, wool, and tallow, 214, as a medicine, 276. box, for salting sheep, cut of, 194. Saltpetre, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Sainfoin, 33. fed to sheep in Germany, 211. Sardinia, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 113. Saxon sheep, origin of, 138. eut of ram, 138. varieties of, 139. microscopic appearance of wool of, 136. Saxon sheep, German management of, 116, 139. introduction of, into U. S., 140, 141. deterioration of blood of, in U. S., 141. quantity and quality of wool of, in U.S., 141, wool of, in U. S., compared with parent stock, 141, 142. general description of, 141. defects of, as breeders and nurses, 139, 141. defects of, in hardiness, 139, 141. how far adapted to climate in northern states, 162. superseded the Merinos for a time in U2 8:, 159; rapid decrease of, in the U. S., 160. dislike to, among northern farmers, 162. compared with Merinos for growing fine wool, 163. improved by across with Merinos, 136, 137, 141. crosses of, with native sheep, 141, 164. Saxony, soils of. 114. climate of, 104, 115. face of the country in, 114. management of sheep in, 116. Scab, description of, 258. cuts of the acarus producing it, 259. habits of the acarus, 258. circumstances under which the acarus makes its attacks, 258. short-wooled sheep comparatively ex- empt from, 259. : contagiousness of, 259. prevalence of, in England, 259. treatment of, 260, 261. Scotland, (included, in most respects, in de- scription of England.) exports of wool from, to U. 8. in 1846, 124. mountains of, only kept in pasture by sheep, 71. Scours. See Diarrhea. Sedge grass, eaten by sheep, 49. : Selection, annual necessity of, in flocks, 190. rules for, 190. form of a register to expedite, 190. Shade, necessity of, in sheep pasture, 195. Shearing, proper time of, 184. time between, and washing, 184, cut of arrangements for, 154. rules and regulations for, 185, 186. of lambs, objected to, 186. of sheep, semi-annually, objected to, 186. Sheds for sheep, cuts of, 205, 208. the cheapest, 208. ‘ Shelter for sheep in winter. See Sheds, Stills, &e. Sheep, bred in all climates, 17. number of, in the southern states and in New York, 17. indispensable for support of poor lands, 71. indispensable to support tillage in Eng- land, 71, 72. system of sustaining tillage lands by, in England, 71, 72. poor lands improved by, in northern states, 72. system of improving poor lands by, in the South, 73—76. better manurers than other stock, 71, 72. INDEX. 315 Sheep, improve the character of the vegeta- | South America, for other particulars of, see tion. Page 57. Buenos Ayres, &c. extirpators of briers and shrubs, 57. Southdown sheep, origin of, 144. small risk by death, in breeding, 57. impropriety of feeding, in yards with other stock, in winter, 210. comparison of breeds of, 153, 154, 163, 164. comparison in respect to weight of fleece, 154, 156, 157. comparison in quality of wool, 154. comparison in consumption of food, 154, 156. cut of ram, 145. cut of ewe, 146. auines wool viewed through microscope, 145. general description of, 144, 145, 148, 154. value of, as a mutton sheep, 146, 147. weight and quality of fleeces of, 146. wool of, deficient in felting properties, 145, 146. introduction into U. S., 147. comparison in proportion of wool to| South Carolina, population of, 17. food consumed, 156. comparison in hardiness, 156, 157. comparison in longevity, 156, 157. comparison in mutton, 153, 154, 158. comparison in bearing hard stocking, 154, 155, 156. comparison in profitableness in the South, 156, 157. how they should be caught and other- wise handled, 174. washing of. See Washing sheep. shearing of. See Shearing. (for other particulars of tle management of, see the different heads.) cordial, how compounded, 250. dogs, of the ancients, 278, 279. dogs, of Spain, 280—-284. dogs, of Spain, cut of, 281. dogs, of France, 286. dogs, of Hungary, 284. dogs, of England, 287. dogs, of England, cut of, 287. dogs, of Scotland, 288. dogs, of Scotland, cut of, 288. dogs, of Mexico, 284—286. dogs, of South America, 285. dogs, sheep must be familiarized with, 288. Silesia, climate of, 104, 115. face of the country, 114. character of the soil, 114. Slave cloths, description, 85, 86, 89, 90. expense of imported, 85, 86, 89. actual first cost of, 90, 91. great profits of manufacturers of, 90, 91. should be manufactured in the southern states, 87. offers of northern manufacturers to fur- nish below present prices, 90, 91. cost of manufacturing as good or better plains in the north, 86. east of manufacturing ‘‘ at the halves,’’ it cost of manufacturing by hand on plan- tations, 89. Smith’s Island sheep, 129. Smyrna wools, quality of, 90. Snuffles. See Catarrh. South America, portion of, in the wool zone, 105. climate of, 104, 105. exports of wool from, 105. sheep husbandry in, 105. advantages of, for wool growing, 105, 106. advantages of, compared with U. S., 105, 106. Pampas of, compared with prairies of sheep dogs of, 285. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21, woollen factories in, 17, woollen goods manufactured in, 17. price of land in, 59, 60. neglect of grass culture in, 31. hay imported into, 31. adaptation of soils of, to grass culture, 3d, 32, 34,109; OO. adaptation of climate of, to grass culture, 36. system of cropping in, 32, 79. system of cropping compared with New York, 32, 33. system of cropping, change in, recom- mended by legislature, 79, 80. system of cropping, utility of sheep husbandry in effecting such change in, 85. cost of keeping sheep in, 59, 60. winter pasturage fur sheep in, 58—60. adaptation of mountains of, to sheep pasture, 47, 59. present method of managing sheep in, 59, 60. wolves in, 64. Southern States, what states included under this designation, 30. area of, 30, 94. natural features and geology of, 30, 31. quality of soils of, 30, 35, 42, 69. profits of sheep husbandry in, 58—62. profits of, compared with other hus- bandry in, 76, 77. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 77. advantages of, compared with other states and countries. See Wool grow- me, advantages of, for migratory sheep hus- bandry, 62. advantages of, for migratory sheep hus- bandry, compared with Spain, 62—64. expense of keeping sheep in, 59, 60. _ expense per pound, of growiug wool in, 61. expense per pound, of growing wool in, compared with New York, 61. prejudice in, against sheep husbandry, and causes of, 72, 81. sheep exposed to dogs and wolves in, 64. compared with other countries in above particular, 65. prices of land in, 44, 46, 47, 60. amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils of, by sheep husbandry, 52, 70—72. ’ amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils of, by sheep husbandry, more cheaply than by the available manures, 67. 316 worn-out soils of, by sheep husbandry, more cheaply than by marl. Page 0 amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils by sheep husbandry, considered cheap- est in England, 71, 72. amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils by sheep husbandry, considered cheap- est in the Northern States, 73. amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils |: by sheep husbandry, why preferable to cattle husbandry, 71, 72. amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils by sheep husbandry, other means available in conjunction with, 74, 75. method of forming pastures on sterile soils of, 73, 74. veel of present one-crop husbandry in, 78—81. sheep husbandry, basis of convertible husbandry in, 52, 78. convertible husbandry in, the strong ne- cessity for, 82. convertible husbandry in, recommended by a committee of the legislature of South Carolina, 79, 80. convertible husbandry in, recommended in Judge Seabrook’s Report, 80. rotation of crops for, proposed, 83—85. should rear their own products for con- sumption, 76, should manufacture their own coarse woollens, 85—89. cost of manufacturing and importing these in, compared, 86—87, 89—93. cost of manufacturing slave cloths in, by hand, 88. divided into three zones, 30. es territorial limits of these zones, 30, 1 tide-water zone of, 30. natural features and geology of, 30. quality of the soil of, 30, 35, 69. say ig with portions of New York, compared with Flanders, 35. how ameliorated, 35, 68. adaptation of, to the grasses, 31—38. adaptation of, to clover, 32, 36. adaptation of, to other fodders, 38—4I. causes of failure in acclimating grasses rea is fi ees 8 proper grasses to introduce in, 37—40. natural grasses of, 36, 37. natural pastures of, 33, 34. number of sheep per acre which could find subsistence in, 58, 94. winter pasturage of, 31, 40, 58, 59. prices of land in, 60, 61. present system of cropping in, 32. climate of, adapted to growing fine wool, 23—29. hilly zone of, 20. face of the country and geology of, 42. quality of the soil, 42. INDEX. Southern States, amelioration of sterile and Southern States, mountain zone of, 30. altitude of the Blue Ridge, Alleghany, and Cumberland chains, 43, 63. altitude of, compared with the moun. tains of Spain, 63. shape of the mountains of, 43. geology of, 43. character of the soil of, 44, 46, 49. large portions of, arable, 43. table lands on, 43. grasses of, 43, 44, 47, 59, 62. white and red clover, lucern, and rye grass flourish on, 47. timothy and orchard grass flourish on, 44, 62. adaptation of, to pasturage, 4447, 59, 6 26 adaptation of, tosheep husbandry,44—51, 59 adaptation of, to Hon. T. L. Clingman’s statements concerning, 44, 45. adaptation of, to Mr. H. M. Earle’s state- ments concerning, 46. adaptation of, to Col. E. Colston’s state- ments concerning, 47. adaptation of, to Hon. W. L. Goggins’s statements concerning, 47. adaptation of, to Hon. A. Stevenson’s statements concerning, 47. adaptation of, to Hon. A. Beatty’s state- ments concerning, 47. adaptation of, to Mr. C. F. Kramer’s statements concerning, 48. adaptation of, to Hon. R. F. Simpson’s statements concerning, 59. adaptation of, to Mr. N. Murdoch’s statements concerning, 62. winter pasturage on, 47—49, 59. adaptation of, to turnips and other fod- ders, 62. climate of, 44—51, 59. climate of, shown by vegetation of, 50, ule climate of, compared with that of New York, 49, 50. price of lands in, 44, 46, 47, 48, 59. wolves in, 64. Spain, sheep husbandry of, 62, 63. great decrease in wool growing in, 111. migratory sheep husbandry of, and its disadvantages, 113. advantages of, for migratory sheep hus- bandry, compared with those of south- ern states, 62, 63. evil effects of the Mesta in, 113. height, climate, and vegetation of moun- tains of, 62, 112. general advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry, 62, 63, 112. soil and products of, 112. number of sheep in, 112. decreased exports of wool from, 110,111. exports of wool to U. 8S. in 1836 and 1846, 111, 124. other exports from, 112. sheep dogs of, 280—284. method of enriching soils of, 72. Spear grass. See Blue grass. adaptation of, to grasses and grains, 27, | Spergula arvensis. See Spurry. 42, 59, Sphenoid bone, cut of, 236. . method of forming pastures in, 74. Spirit of salt. See Muriatic acid. adaptation to sheep husbandry, 43, 59. of tar, use of, in sheep practice, 277. price of lands in, 59, 61. Spleen, structure and functions of the, 231, climate of, 42, 59. BPE : quality of, west of the mountains, 51. Spurry, asa green manuring crop, South, 74. INDEX. 317 Staggers. See Hydatid in the brain. Stell, description of the. Page 206, 207. cut of outside one, 205. cut of ancient ones, 206. cut of inside circular ones, 207. cut of circular one, with racks, &c., 207. Sternum, the, 228. St. Helena, exports of wool from, 110. Stomachs of the sheep, description of, 228— ] 231. cuts of the, 228. structure and functions of each of the, 228, 229. course of the food through the, 229, 230. conflicting theories concerning, 230. Storing wool, 189. Also see Wool depots. Storms, bad effects of cold ones after shear- ing, 191. Sturdy. See Hydatid in the brain. Sulphate of copper, use of, in sheep prac- tice, 275. Sulphate of magnesia, use of, in sheep prac- tice, 275. Sulphur, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. Sun-scald, cause and treatment of, 191. Swamp mud, its value as a fertilizer, 70. Sweden, exports of wool from, 110. Sweet-bread. See Pancreas. Syria, climate of, 104. adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 117, he Table 1. Of population, number of sheep, pounds of wool, woollen factories, and value of manufactured goods in south- ern states and in New York, 17. 2. Of average weight of fleeces in southern states and New York,18, 20, 21. 3. Of average weight of fleeces in four counties of each of the above states, 20. 4, Of comparative value of manures,40. 5. Of the flowering of plants, &c., in New York, 49. 6. Of thermometrical observations in New York, 50. 7. Of the average prices of wool in New York, 53. 8. Of importations of wool into Eng- land every fifth year, from 1810 to 1840, 110. 9. Of importations of wool into U. S. annually, from 1837 to 1846, 124. 10. Of importations of wool into U. §. in 1846, with countries from which imported, 124. 11. Of woollens annually imported into U.S8., during twenty-five years, 125. 12. Of increase of population in U. S., from 1790 to 1840, 127. 13. Ofincrease of population and amount of wool required in U. S., at different periods, for one hundred and fifteen years, 128. 14. Of the progressive reductions in du- ties on wool and woollen, under the | ‘* Compromise Tariff’’ of 1833, 159. Tagging, necessity of, 173. ow performed, 173, 174. cut explanatory of, 173. Tar, propriety of feeding of, to sheep, 194. uses of, in sheep practice, 277. Tariffs on wool, of France, 106. of England, 106. of U.S., on wools and woollens, enacted in the years 1824, 1828, 1832, 1833, 1841, 1842, and 1846, 158, 159. effect of those of U.S. on the prices of wool, 159, 160. effect of those of U.S. on importations of wool, 159, 160. effect of those of U. S. on importations of woollens, 160. effect of those of U. S. on domestic pro- duction of wool, 159. effect of those of U. S. on the quality of domestic wool, 159, 160. frauds practised in invoicing coarse wools imported into U. S., under that of 1842, 107. effect of that of 1846 on manufactures of U.S., 106, 125, 126, 161. effect of fluctuations in, on manufac- tures, 126. Tasmania. See Australia. Taurida. See Crimea. Taylor, Col. John, of Virginia, his erroneous views in relation to sheep husbandry, 72, 81. Teeth, number and description of, 237. indicative of the age, 237. cuts of, at different ages, 237. difference in the retention of, by different breeds, 238. causes of premature loss of, 238. should be removed in some cases, 238. Temperature, influence of, on quality of wool. See Climate. Tennessee, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. pounds of wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen manufactured in, 17. fine wooled sheep introduced in, 27. fine wooled sheep, wool of, not deterio- rated in, 27. adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 27, 48 adaptation of mountains of, to sheep husbandry, 48. price of lands in, 47, 48. Tetanus, unusual in U. S8., 253. Thibet, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 118. wool exported from, 118. Thoracic duct, the, 231. Thoracic viscera, the, 234. Thorax, the, 234. Thyroid glands, the, 236. diseases of the, 270, 271. Ticks, mode of destroying, and keeping out of flock, 192. Tobacco, use of, in sheep practice, 277. Timothy, the favorite meadow grass, North, 33 as the food of sheep, 212. success on southern lowlands question- able, 37. succeeds on southern mountains, 44, 62. Toe-nippers, description and use of, 183. cut of, 183 Tory weed. See Hound’s-tongue. Trees, clumps of, for winter shelter, 207. 318 Trifolium repens. See Clover, white. Trifolium pratense. See Clover, red. Troughs, for feeding roots or grain. Page 203. for feeding roots or grain, cuts of, 203. for folding wool, 187. for folding wool, cut of, 187. Tunica arachnoides, the, 236. Tunisian sheep, introduced into U. S., 151. character of, 151, 152. Turbinated bones, cut of the, 236. Turnips, succeed on the southern mountains, 62. how fed off by sheep in England, 72. value of, as a fodder, 213, 216. Swedish. See Auta baga. Turnsick. See Hydatid in the brain. Turpentine, spirits of, use of, in sheep prac- tice, 277. Turkey, soils and climate of, 118. soils and climate of, in Europe, 114. face of the country in, 114. population of, 114. Institutions of, unfavorable to sheep hus- bandry, 114. exports of wool from, 109, 110. exports of carpets, 108. Tuscany, advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry, 113. Typhus fever, not common in U. S., 238. UF Ukraine, Merinos introduced in, 117. advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 117. United States. number of sheep and pounds of wool in, in 1839, 123. breeds of sheep in, 129. exports of wool to England for thirty years from, 110. exports of wool in 1845, 1846, 122. annual imports of wool of, from 1837 to 1846, 124. annual imports, from what countries, in 1846, 124. annual imports of woollens, from 1821 to 1845, 125. annual consumption of woollens in, 126, 127. annual consumption of woollens in, per head of population, 127. proportion of woollens consumed in, do- mestic, 126. proportion of woollens consumed in, im- ported, 126. proportion of domestic made in manufac- tories, 126. proportion of domestic made in families, 126. increase of population in, 127. amount of wool which will be requisite for population of, at different periods, for one hundred and fifteen years, 128. adaptation of, to sheep husbandry. See Southern States, New England, Prai- ries, and the states by name. adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, com- pared with Germany, 116. adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, Mr. Grove’s opinion concerning, 116. adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, com- pared with other countries. See Wool growing. INDEX. United States, woollen manufactories of. See Woollen factories. tariffs of, on wool. See Tariffs. (for all other particulars concerning, see names of the things in relation to which information is sought.) Uraguay, in the wool zone, 105. Ureters, the, 233. Urethra, the, 233. Urinary organs, description of the, 233. Uterus, description of the, 233. ¥. Vagina, description of the, 233. Van Diemen’s Land, See Australia. Veins, description of the, 234. Vena cava; the, 234. Ventricles, the, 234. Verdigris, use of, in sheep practice, 277. Vetches, dried into hay, value of, as a fodder, 213. Veterinary works, character of American, 219. character of English, 219. how far English ones are applicable in U.S., 220. Virginia, population of, 17. number of sheep in, 17. wool grown in, 17. average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. woollen factories in, 17. woollen goods manufactured in, 17. adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 42, 47, 60. adaptation of mountains of, to sheep husbandry, 47. adaptation of north-western, to sheep husbandry, 60. winter herbage on mountains of, 62. winter pasturage in other parts of, 60. cost of keeping sheep in, 60, 61. price of lands in, €0. Vitriol, blue, value of, in sheep practice, 275. green, use of, in sleep practice, 276. oil of, as a caustic in sheep practice, 276. W. Washing sheep, cut of apparatus for, 181. vats and yards for, 181. directions for, 182. time to elapse after, before shearing, 184. Water necessary for drink of sheep, 195, 218. Weaning lambs, proper time for, 195. how managed, 195. Welsh plains, for slave cloths. See Slave cloths. Wheat, value of, in producing live weight, wool, and tallow, 214. per cent. of nitrogen in, 214. straw of, value of, in different states, as a fodder, 213. fed to sheep in Germany, 211. chaff of, value of, as a fodder, 213. bran of, value of, as a fodder, 213. Wind-pipe, the, 235. _ Winter teed. See Fodders. Wire grass. See Bermuda grass. Wirtemberg, advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry, 114. INDEX. 319 - Wisconsin, advantages of, for sheep hus- bandry. Page 95—103. Wolves, in the Southern States, 64. how guarded against, 65. See Sheep dogs. Wool, zone in which it can be profitably grown, 103, 104. fabrics of. See Woollens. chemical analysis of, 214. quality of that of different breeds com- pared, 154, growth of, influenced by quantity of feed, 28. growth of, influenced by kind of feed, 214, quality of, influenced by climate, 23—29. quality of, influenced by climate, opinions of eminent judges on this point, 23— 29: grows softer and longer in warm cli- mates, 28, 29. quality of, made coarser by abundant feed, 23. can this tendency of abundant feed to coarsen, be counteracted ? 24, 28. felting property of, accounted for, 137. terms used to express different qualities of, 161. fine, proper characteristics of, 167, 168. fine, proper amount of yolk and gum of, 167. fine, proper length of, 167. fine, proper evenness of, 167. fine, proper softness and elasticity of, 168. fine, proper serrations of, 168. fine, proper color and brilliancy of, 168. Merino and Saxon compared, 163. cuts of Merino and Saxon, 135—137. middle character and uses of, 110, 145, 146. middle character of, the sheep which pro- dace it, 145. cut of the Southdown, 145. long, character and uses of, 143, 151. long, character of the sheep which pro- duce it, 143, 149, 151. cut of Leicester, 136. comparative profit of growing fine and coarse in U.S., 154—163. comparative value of fine and coarse for strength and wear, 157, 158. not a fair discrimination in prices of, made by manufacturers of U. S., 160. promised improvement in above parti- cular, 161. shrinkage of, in manufacturing, 86, 88, 3 prices of, in New York, for fourteen years, 53. prices of, in England, 25. amount of, grown in U. S., 123. amount of, grown in Southern States, 17. amount of, grown in New York, 17. average weight of, per fleece, in Southern States, 18, 20. average weight of, per fleece, in New Work, 18) 21, 53. amount of, grown in U. S., does not meet home consumption, 123—126. amount of, annually grown in U. S., 123. amount of, consumed in U. S., 123—127. wager of, consumed per head in U. S., 16 Wool, amount of, imported into U. S., from 1821 to 1846, 124, 125, amount of, exported from U. S., 122. amount of, manufactured in U. S., 126, 127. amount of, required to supply demand in U. S., at different future periods, 128. table of imports of, into England, 110. table, brought down to 1846, 294, increase in amount of, imported into England, from 1771 to 1840, 123. increase in amount of, imported into England, from 1840 to 1846, 294. increasing demand for, throughout the world, 123. one of the most marketable agricultural products, 77. amount of, grown in different countries. See names of countries. i comparative profits of growing in differ- ent countries. See Wool growing. can be more profitably grown in southern than northern U. S., 163. will northern compete with Southern States in growing ? 162, method of washing, 181. method of washing, cut of arrangements for, 181. method of shearing, 184. method of shearing, cuts of arrange- ments for, 184. method of doing up, 187—189. method of doing up, cut of arrangements for, 187, 188. method of storing in wool room, 189. method of sacking, 189. room for storing, how arranged, 189. depots, origin and objects of, 289, 290. depots, plan and regulations of, 290. depots, advantages of, 291. depots, peculiarly advantageous to the southern wool grower, 292. Woollens, some processes and facts in manu- facturing of, described, 87, 88. amount of, made in factories of U. S., 126. U2: amount of, made in families in U. S., 126, 127. amount of, made in Southern States in 1SB95 dt: amount of, made in New York, in 1839, 17. amount made in families decreasing, and causes, 89. amount imported into U.S., from 1821 to 1845, 125. amount consumed in U. S., 126, 127. amount consumed per head in U. S., 127. amount required for future consumption in U.S., 128. for slaves. See Slave cloths. Woollen factories, table of, in Southern States, and in New York, in 1839, 40. rapid increase of, in the North, 86. further increase of, called for, 125, 126, 128. great profits of, in the North, 86—93, 125, Ton. would be equally profitable in the South, 86. stability of, in U. S., 125, 126, 161. foreign competition defied by, under present tariff, 125. 320 INDEX. Woollen factories, juitines by vacillating | Wool growing, in Mexico, 105. legislation. Page 126. Wool growing, probable increase or decrease of, in various countries, 121, 122. in U. S., advantages for. See names of states and regions. in Alabama, 42, 47, 60. in Florida, 42, 60. in Georgia, 42, 47, 60. in Illinois, 27, 95—103. in Indiana, 95—103. in Iowa, 95—103. in Kentucky, 27, 47, 48. in Louisiana, 18, 30, 38. in Mississippi, 27, 38. in Missouri Territory, 95—103. in New England, 95. in New Jersey, 95. in North Carolina, 43—46. in Ohio, 95. in Pennsylvania, 95. on prairies, 95—103. in South Carolina, 47, 58—60. in Tennessee, 27, 48. in Virginia, 42, 47, 60. in Wisconsin, 95-103. Wool growing in foreign countries. names of countries. in Afghanistan, 118. in Asia Minor, 118. in Australia, 25, 119—121, 294. in Austria, 114—116. in Baden, 114. in Bavaria, 114. in Beloochistan, 118. in Buenos Ayres, 105, 106. in Cabul, 118. in Cape of Good Hope, 65, 119. in China, 118. in Crimea, 117. in England, 111. in France, 111. in Germany, 114—116. in Great Bucharia, 118. in Greece, 114. in Hungary, 116, 117. in Independent Tartary, 118. in Italy, 113. in Lombardy, 113. See THE in Modena, 113. in Naples, 113. in Papal States, 113. in Parma, 113. in Persia, 104, 118. in Prussia, 114, 116. in Russia, 117. in Sardinia, 113. in Saxony, 115. in Silesia, 104, 114, 115. in South ‘America, 105, 106. in Spain, 62, 112. in Turkey, 114, 118. in Tuscany, 113. in Ukraine, 117. in Van Diemen’s Land, 121. in Wirtemberg, 114. Wool market, of the world, 108, 109, 123. of England, 108, 110, 294. of France, 108, 109. of German States, 114, 295, 296. of United States, 123—128. foreign producers cannot compete with us In that of U.S., 108, 122, 123. U.S. producers can compete in foreign, with foreign producer, 108, 122, 296. prasiect of increase in, universally, 123, Wool a See Yolk. ies Yards for sheep in winter, 199. necessary in the North, 200. Yoking rams, how done, 193. Yolk of wools, chemical analysis of, 182. proper amount of, in fleece, 167. Youatt, his character as a veterinary writer, 219. Zs Zinc, carbonate of, use of, in sheep practice, 27. sulphate of, use of, in sheep practice, END. Et. Av, le yy pe f i J ’, al nt CC ee ee 1 4 ' ar) bie , ty Ay aa dB pobenvianee a rue oa)