urmit at ali

SHEEP HUSBANDRY;

WITH

AN ACCOUNT OF THE DIFFERENT BEEEDS,

AND GENERAL

DIRECTIONS IN REGARD TO SUMMER AND WINTER MANAGEMENT, BREED-
ING, AND THE TREATMENT OF DISEASES.

BY HENRY S. RANDALL, LL

IATB SBCRETAKT OF STATE OF THE STATS OF MEW TORS.

WITH HIS LETTER TO THE TEXAS ALMANAC OX

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS,

GEO. W. KENDALL'S ON SHEEP RAISING- IN TEXAS.

Neiv-York:
JUDD & COMPANY,

245 BROADWAY.

\ ' I

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1860, by

C. K SAXTOtf, BARKER & CO.,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of Ne^ "York.

PREFACE.

So full and complete is the exposition of tlie subject as discussed
in the following pages, and so clearly are the scope of the work and
the circumstances which prevailed with its accomplished author, to
pass it through our hands to the public, explained in his own " INTRO-
DUCTION," that only in compliance with a common custom in book-
making, might any thing have been deemed necessary in the way of
preface ; were it not to acquit ourselves of the obligation to tender
thus publicly to Col. RANDALL, not our own thanks merely, but those
of' the agricultural community, for the great benefit which must ensue
to it, in the proportion that this instructive contribution to the stock
of our agricultural knowledge and literature may command the atten-
tion to which it is, on every account, so well entitled.

An agricultural correspondence, reaching far back, and spreading
widely over the Southern States, to which has been more recently
added considerable extent of personal observation, had with us^
already established the conviction, that in no other part of our coun-
try, perhaps, does there exist a resource at once so fruitful, and so
little availed of, as that which is possessed in that region, for the pro-
secution of this — one of the most interesting and important branches
of Husbandry that any country can enjoy.

But while it has been easy to perceive this defect so apparent in their
agricultural economy, amounting in the aggregate to a national loss
of no inconsiderable magnitude ; it was not so easy to expose, as
Col. Randall has done, the fallacy of the difficulties that were sup-
posed to stand in the way, or to indicate how the real impedimenta
which do exist may be overcome, or materially mitigated.

Something of these imaginary difficulties, for successful Sheep
Husbandry, may, as we believe, be assumed to have their origin in the
prejudices engendered in the minds of Southern agriculturists, by the
sweeping condemnation of it to be found in the celebrated and deserv-
edly popular essays of ARATOR, by Col. John Taylor — clarum vane-
rabile nomen ! and it may be that these prejudices are referable in a
degree, also, to the concurrent opinions of the no less celebrated John
Randolph, " of Roanoke," who, even on the floor of Congress, gave
them utterance in vehement and bitter denunciation against the harm-

PREFACE.

less animal itself — going so far in his animosity to it, and to all en-
couragement of the great industry which it was formed to subserve,
as to declare, that he would at any time go out of his way " to kick a
theep !" Nor would it be unreasonable to apprehend that these im-
pressions against the policy and profit of sheep-breeding, as an import-
ant object of attention for the Southern land-holder, have taken root
the more kindly in the minds of a people unaccustomed, if not na-
turally averse to that careful and minute attention which the successful
prosecution of this business demands — a people whose sons, it may be
feared, still find it easier, if not more commendable, to follow in the
venerated footsteps of their sires, than to encounter for themselves the
labor of investigation, and the trouble (together with some expense)
of new arrangements incident to every new employment of labor and
capital. The general impression, in fact, is, (the reader will judge
how far it is just,) that cultivators- of the soil everywhere are, of all
classes, the least apt to embark in any new enterprise, however pro-
mising. They talk and talk about it, but rarely go about ; and per-
haps it may be better that it should be so ; yet it is well to remember
that precipitancy is one thing, and torpor quite another ! We once
knew a farmer (so called)* in Calvert county, who, being told, as he sat
toasting himself in the chimney corner on a cold winter's night, that
fhe house was on fire ! without moving, from his seat, answered, « call
the people!"

In opposition to all that has been urged or imagined against Sheep
Husbandry in the South, on the score either of ill-adapted climate,
deficiency of suitable forage, want of adequate demand for wool, or
other obstacles, the whole subject has been so admirably and thoroughly
canvassed in the work here offered, that further argument would be
superfluous ; otherwise we might oppose to the hitherto prevailing be-
lief, if not prejudice, the experience of some, on a limited scale, and
the well-settled opinion of yet many more among the most enlightened
of our acquaintances in that region — gentlemen uniting ample oppor-
••unities with close habits of observation on all questions of rural
economy, and who have not hesitated to express the confident belief,
that profitable and interesting as has been the growing of cattle in
western Virginia, an equal amount of capital and attention, devoted
to sheep and wool growing in the same section of country, would bo
yet more remunerating. Looking for reliable information yet further
eouth, and back to a period more remote, even anterior to our decla-
ration of independence, it may not be out of place to quote an evi-
dently careful and intelligent author of a work on the climate and
products of each of the then English colonies. Speaking of Georgia,
and her well-ascertained adaptation to the growth of silk, the vine,
the olive, mr.dder and wool, he remarks : " Wool, we [England] take

PREFACE.

in large quantities from abroad, because it is of a kind we cannot pro-
duce in England : our colonies on the continent of North America,
South of New York, produce a wool entirely similar to the Spanish.
No staple they could produce would, therefore, be more advantageous
to Great Britain. It is well known that a piece of fine broadcloth
cannot be made without Spanish wool ; it is also known that the
Spaniards have of late years made great efforts to work up their own
wool ; if they should succeed, or if they should by any other means
prevent the export of it, our woollen fabrics, though they might not
be stopped, would at least be burdened with a fresh expense and a
new trouble ; all which would be prevented by encouraging the import
of wool from America : and at the same time that this good effect was
wrought, another would be brought about, in cramping the manufac-
tures of the colonies"

Unfortunately for the agricultural interest of our country particu-
larly, the desire to " cramp the manufactures of the colonies," here so
candidly avowed as the settled policy of England, not only survived
the Revolution, but has been so well fostered by our own subserviency
to it, as to render our independence, in resnect of this and other no
less important industrial pursuits, rather nominal and fictitious than
substantial and true ; nevertheless, with the odds of pauper labor and
immense capital against us, thanks to the ingenuity and enterprise of
our people, we need not despair of final success with any thing like fair
consideration on the part of our own government. For this opinion
we need have no better authority than that of SAMUEL LAWRENCE,
the enlightened and liberal proprietor of the Middlesex Mills, at
Lowell, who says, « the business of manufacturing wool in this coun-
try is on a better basis than ever before, inasmuch as the character,
skill, and capital engaged in it are such as to defy foreign competi-
tion." Occasional revulsions, such as the present, will occur from
causes abroad over which we have no control, but let not the wool
grower relax in the care of his flock, for the same far-seeing manu-
facturer has declared that he could point to articles of wool now im-
ported, that will require thirty millions of pounds of medium and fine
quality to supply the demand.

After all, then, on viewing the importance of the inquiry to nume-
rous friends for whose welfare we profess to entertain unaffected con-
cern, and the great extent of the district which seemed to us to be so well
adapted to the growth of sheep and wool — the magnitude of the interest*
involved swelled upon the contemplation, begetting a conviction that as
a question of practical agriculture, it was not to be worthily and well
treated by a few hasty and superficial essays, or by more elaborate
compilations in relation to the oft-repeated natural history of the ani-
mal, its prominence in scriptural annals, &c., unsustained by that

6 PREFACE.

laborious and discriminating comparison of facts and authorities to
illustrate its uses and its value, and by that fulness of personal ex-
perience in the breeding and management of the various raccs^ " in
sickness and in health," which constitute the excellence of these lei
ters to Col. Allston.

Under all these circumstances, the- reader of the work here pre-
sented may well judge how fortunate that it should have been under-
taken, con amore, by a gentleman so well prepared by general scholar-
ship, by exact practical knowledge, and by extensive inquiry into the
.mercantile and manufacturing, as well as the agricultural bearings of
the question.

It is due, however, no less in justice to ourselves than to truth, to
add, that in urging him to undertake it, we had no idea of committing
the author to such an amount of labor, even had we foreseen that
being, as he says, a " labor of love," it would have thus ended in pro-
ducing, as in our judgment it has, decidedly, the best work on the sub-
ject of Sheep, that has at any time appeared in our country.
. May we not refer, for the soundness of this opinion, as well to
its originality and strictly American character, as to the comprehen-
siveness with which it presents the subject in its various relations, in-
structive alike to the merchant, the manufacturer, the political
inquirer, and the legislator ; as to the practical farmer ? Nor is it to
be characterized alone by its utility in these respects ; for the reader
will agree with us that its entire fairness and freedom from narrow
views and local prejudices, much enlarge, in a moral and instructive
view, its title to general confidence and favor.

Finally, as far as the public judgment may be anticipated in refer-
ence to a production originally appearing disadvantageously, in de-
tached parts, and not until now finished and embodied ; if we may
, conclude from the favorable manner in which such portions have been
•reviewed and recommended, by some of the leading journals of the
country, the writer may well felicitate himself on having rendered a
most acceptable service not only to his brother farmers, but to his
countrymen generally ; while we may unaffectedly, and, as we think,
confidently add, it establishes for Col. Randall himself a claim to stand
jn front of those whose pens, some of them under high motives of
patriotism, have been engaged in illustrating one of the most irnpor-
slant of all our industrial pursuits; nay, one which may be considered
essential, in an eminent degree, to our national independence.

J. S, SKINNER.

INTRODUCTION.

TBK subject ol Sheep Husbandry has recently attracted moit attention m oia
Southern and South-western States, than at any previous period. The want of a
staple or product, the cultivation of which should render productive the capital in*
vested in millions of acres of mountain and other lands, which do not now yield ai
farthing of income, and which, from their soils, situation, or other circumstances,,
are unadapted to the growth of any of the present Southern staples, has struck every
Southern man, as well as every traveller of ordinary intelligence, who has passed
through the regions indicated. The want, too, of some class of domestic animals
to constitute the basis, or pivot as it were, of a system of convertible husbandry on
the tillage lands of the South, to take the place of the present imperfect rotations*
of crops, and new and old field-system, has become apparent to many of her mor&
investigating agriculturists.

The fact that the mountain and other unproductive lands alluded to cannot be
made to profitably yield any vegetable products but pasturage ; that for the present,,
and for a long time to come, at least, the bulk of them will not afford a pasturage
adapted to the support of large animals ; could not but suggest the growing of wool,,
as their best, if not their only available staple. The similarity of their general clU-
mate, too, with that where wool is most cheaply grown on the Eastern Continent,
was a consideration promising favorably to this husbandry. And, finally, it had?
not failed to strike men of ordinary commercial intelligence, that of those animal'
staples, to the production of which a Southern climate is adapted, the Sheep fur-
nishes a vastly more marketable one than any of the larger grazing animals.

The superiority of the Sheep over other animals for supporting the fertility of
tillage lands, by converting a portion of their products into manure, was not s<*
apparent. But the well-known fact that they receive the preference for this pur-
pose, in some of the best agricultural countries of the world, made it sufficiently-
probable to demand a full investigation, before adopting an adverse conclusion, espe-
cially as what has been said in relation to climate and the marketableness of animal
staples, was as applicable to these lands, in the South, as to those adapted only to
grass.

But Sheep Husbandry as a system, and especially a system tested by experience*
was scarcely known in any of the Southern States excepting in western Virginia.
Whether the theoretical considerations and natural circumstances which apparently-
farored its introduction would be met, in practice, with unforeseen obstacles, was a
matter calling for grave circumspection. The Southern agriculturist is ever wary
of innovation, and very properly averse to rash experiment. He knew, it is truey
that his roving and untended " native" sheep obtained subsistence, and found n»

f? INTRODUCTION.

enemies to their health but the wolf and cur, on all the Southern zones. Uul
whether the local climate and herbage of those different zones — the low, level.
Tertiary sands of the Atlantic plain — the granite hills of the middle, and the ele-
vated Paleozoic or Transition regions of the mountain zone — would be found to
agree with the more valuable breeds of sheep ; whether their wool would retain its
qualities or degenerate in these several localities ; whether a greatly increased sup-
ply of wool would find a remunerating price in market; whether the mountains
could be converted into sheep-pastures, and wool produced on them without an
expense which would absorb all the profits ; whether Sheep Husbandry could be
made a substitute for " resting," or expensive artificial manures, in restoring to the
cotton, tobacco, and grain lands of the middle and tide-water zones the fertility
withdrawn by tillage ; and various other important correlative questions were all
problems to him. And to add to the difficulties of forming a correct opinion, and
especially of instituting safe and satisfactory experiments, he was ignorant of all
Ihe practical details and manipulations of Sheep Husbandry : he knew little of the
various breeds, and their respective adaptation to his wants.

For information on the subject of practical Sheep Husbandry and breeds of sheep,
there are a multitude of European, and several American works, of great value.
But for the answers to the questions in the preceding paragraph, which involve the
particular bearings and adaptation of this husbandry, of the different breeds, etc.,
to the agricultural circumstances and wants of the various regions of the South-
where was the inquirer to find the desired information? Some well-written letters,
embracing portions of these topics, have appeared from time to time in our agricul-
tural journals. They have been of great value in drawing attention to the subject.
But they have not usually occupied limits sufficient for the examination of more
than a single phase of the general subject, or they have been mere coup cTceils cf
that subject, omitting all but a few important facts and considerations of a general
character. They have, too, usually been replied to, or published contemporaneously
in the same or other agricultural journals, with contradictory statements — some-
times with crude and erroneous speculations— calculated to confuse or mislead the
inexperienced inquirer. Beyond these occasional Letters in the agricultural jour-
nals, nothing, so far as I am aware, has appeared on this subject.

A practical farmer, I have bred nearly all the approved varieties of almost every
iind of domestic stock — of every kind commonly kept on Northern farms — and
;have been familiar with the details of their management and husbandry. I have
owned flocks of sheep, and been more or less familiar with them, from my child-
hood ; and for the last fifteen years have made their economy, their habits, their
'comparative profitableness with other kinds of stock, and the comparative value of
ilheir breeds, matters of careful and constant observation and experiment.

When Corresponding Secretary of the New York State Agricultural Society, a
few years since, the facts drawn out by me in an extensive correspondence with
•eminent Southern agriculturists, united to what knowledge I had previously ob-
tained by reading and personal observation of the Southern States, led me to th
impression that there were numerous considerations and natural circumstances
strongly indicating the expediency of introducing wool-growing extensively into
those States. But at that time, my attention, in common with that of many if not
tmost, of the Northern flock-masters, was turned towards the prairies of the North-
vest, as a region capable of sweeping away all American competition in this branch
of husbandry. Glowing estimates and calculations had been predicated on very
ipartial experiments. The value of the natural grasses, the character of the winters
and general climate, and the general facilities of the prairies for wool-growing, were
then little understood here, and had been made the subjects of much favorable exag-

INTRODUCTION. 9

geration. Facts subsequently ascertained, have, it cannot be denied, materially
changed the impressions of our flock-masters on this subject. Whether correctly
or incorrectly, they no longer fear Western competition in growing fine wool. My
own coincides with the popular impression on this topic, if we consider that com-
petition in its relations to a period, not far distant in the future.

The adoption of these views led me to again turn my attention, never entirely
withdrawn, more particularly to the capabilities of the South for this branch of hus-
bandry. ' My conclusions and the reasons for them will be found in the following
Letters. In a letter to Hon. Robfert J. Walker, Secretary of the Treasury, pub-
lished in his Treasury Report of 1845, and in a series of letters published in tho
Virginia " Valley Farmer," the same year, I stated some of the general conclu-
sions I had then arrived at on this topic. These publications were followed by
letters from gentlemen residing in Virginia, North and South Carolina, Tennessee,
Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkansas, making farther inquiries, and usually impart-
ing more or less local information on the subject. Some of these were practical
men, only seeking information on practical points ; others, eminent for intelligence
and legislative experience, embraced a more comprehensive field of investigation,
and sought from me, as probably from other, sources, to ascertain by a wide range
of general facts and statistics, the probable bearing, now and in future, of an exten-
sive system of wool-growing on the Agriculture, Commerce, Manufactures, domes-
tic consumption — in short, the whole domestic economy of our Southern States.

Answers to these questions demanded careful investigation, and involved a greai
variety and complexity of details in the practical department of the subject, ren-
dered-far more numerous by the wide differences existing between the soils, esta-
blished husbandry, and even the climates, of the three distinct and well-defined
zones already alluded to. The location of some of my correspondents was on the
mountains of Virginia, the Carolinas, and Tennessee — others on the hilly zone of
the same States — others on the Tertiary sands of the tide-water zone, and the Cre-
taceous plains of the Mississippi and Arkansas. To give opinions on all the topics
referred to, and in reference to natural circumstances so various, supported by even
a respectable show of corroborating facts, was an undertaking requiring considera-
ble time and labor : to repeat them separately to each correspondent, was wholly
out of the question.

Requested by Mr. Skinner, a little more than a year since, to prepare a series of
Letters on Sheep Husbandry, and especially on Sheep Husbandry in the South, for
The Farmers' Library, it occurred to me that a compliance with his request would
snable me to answer each of my correspondents by once writing; and moreover, I
could feel, under such circumstances, that I could properly afford to bestow an
amount of time and elaboration on my communications which I should otherwise
find impracticable. And I confess, I also thought if the information I could impart
would prove of value to my personal correspondents, it might also prove so to many
others among the numerous readers of a popular agricultural magazine. The liberal
offer of the Publishers to provide all such cuts as I should choose to direct, was an
additional inducement to adopt this medium of communication. I have often felt
the want of these in agricultural letters of my own, and in reading the works of
others. In describing a breed of sheep, for example, to a person who has never
seen them, the best chosen words convey but a vague impression. In many other
cases also, cuts exhibit at a glance what it would require much circumlocution to
describe ; and they in many instances convey ideas to the mind with a definiteness,,
correctness, and exemption from possibility of misunderstanding, which worda
alone never could. The cuts include portraits of all the breeds which I supposed
could of possibility possess, or claim to possess, superior value, for any region 01

B

10 INTRODUCTION.

locality within the United States; all the necessary anatomical figured, with those
of the less known insect and parasitic enemies of the sheep ; and finally, represen-
tations of every implement, fixture, or process employed in Sheep Husbandry,
where I thought they would convey important information — and particularly new
information — more clearly than it could be done by words. Many of the latter
class of illustrations have never before been, so far as I am aware, attempted; and,
representing as they do the results of years of inquiry and experiment, I trust they
may prove of service to beginners— particularly in regions where Sheep Husbandry
has been hitherto little known. t

The Letters were begun and concluded exclusively as a " labor of love." To
possess the consciousness that even a limited portion of my fellow-men have been
benefited by my labors, would be all, and the noblest recompense to which I could
aspire. Nor do I feel, that in attempting to benefit the agriculturists of one section
of our country, by urging them to appropriate a branch of industry now giving sub-
sistence to those of another section, I am seeking the good of the former at the
expense of the latter. Every region has natural advantages, or those resulting from
the natural course of events, for different branches of industry. A right to these
odvantages enures from a right to the soil ; and the former is just as natural and
sacred a right as the latter. To attempt to wrest them from the holder by legisla-
tion, is oppressive ; to withhold from him any knowledge necessary to the enjoy-
ment of them, is unfraternal and unmanly. If Virginia can grow wool, or any other
staple, more cheaply than New York, let her do it. She will only force New York
to fall back on the production of some other staple, or to adopt some other branch
of industry. And why not ? Why should there not be a division of production,
where it is called for by natural circumstances, at least within the limits of a com-
mon nation ? It is doubtless well for every region, whether extensive or limited,
to produce its own necessaries of life to the greatest economical extent. But an
attempt to force Nature against her manifest capabilities, for the sake of attaining a
fancied local independence, is to inflict a real evil, in the hope of attaining an ima-
ginary good. History is full of instances where the prosperity of large masses of
individuals, and even whole nations, has been crippled, in futile efforts to upbuild
this or that branch of industry, in spite of natural obstacles, or against the compe-
tition of regions possessing greater natural advantages. Among the foolish, selfish,
and even iniquitous legislation of past ages, there has been none perhaps productive
of more real mischief to human industry than the intermeddling enactments of go-
vernments, ostensibly designed for its benefit. Masses of men, because divided by
a rivulet, speaking a different language, or owning the sway of different potentates,
have aspired to that physical independence of each other, and of the whole world,
which the God of nature rendered economically, if not absolutely impossible. The
Vexatious restrictions on trade and commerce imposed in pursuit of this object by
one government, were met by retaliatory ones by others, until international com-
mercial legislation became a confused labyrinth of enactments — their absurdity only
equaled by their mischievousness. And like the elephants formerly used by bar-
oarian nations in battle, they nearly as often trampled down their friends as their
enemies. The era of these things is rapidly passing away. That patriotism which
includes only a province or State, among one common people, is beginning to be
recognised as narrow and sordid : nay, among intelligent men, that philanthropy is
beginning to be thought meagre and unexpansive which stops even at the boundaries
of Nations. •

In preparing the following Letters, I have labored under disadvantages insepara-
ble from the circumstances under which they have been prepared. I have written
them from month to month, amid the hurry of other pursuits, with little idea of what

INTRODUCTION. 11

would be their ultimate limits — usually with one or more of the immediately pre-
ceding numbers in the hands of the printer, and consequently not under my inspec-
tion. I have not therefore had that opportunity to proportion the space devoted to
the several topics, avoid repetition, and correct errors, possessed by him who com-
pletes and revises, before any portion of his manuscript is rendered unalterable by
•tereotyping.

Reliance on insufficient authority has in a very few instances led me into errors,
but fortunately, so far as discovered, they have been of trifling importance, and in
relation to matters of no especial moment. Those thought worthy of notice have
been corrected in subsequent parts of the body of the work. The causes I have
named, therefore, affect rather the literary character of the Letters, than their
general accuracy.

In stating important facts and conclusions, I have consulted such writers of repu-
tation as were within my reach. Among the foreign ones who have prepared works
on Sheep Husbandry, or expressed important opinions on some of its separate
topics or facts, or who have alluded to the Sheep Husbandry of particular countries
or nations, reference has been had to the following, either by consulting their works,
as I have in most instances been able to do — or by quotations from them found in
the works of other writers of reputation; — Anderson, Bakewell, Barnes, Barrow,
Bischoff, Blacklock, Kourgoing, Bright, Carr, Coventry, Culley, Cunningham,
D'Arboval, Darwin, Daubenton, Dick, Ellman, Gasparin, Gilbert, Goese, Harrison,
Hogg, Hood, Howitt, Hubbard, Jacob, Lang, Lasteyrie, Leeuwenboek, Lichsten-
stein, Linnaeus, Low, Luccock, Maitland, Malte-Brun, McCulloch, Moffat,
McKenzie, Paget, Parkinson, Parry, Petri, Pictet, Powell, Reaumur, Rodolphi,
Sinclair, Slade, Southey, Spallanzani, Spooner, Stephens, Swaine, Trail, Trimmer,
Valasnieri, Vanderdonk, Von Thaer, Walz, Western, Willmer & Smith, Youatt,
Young, and some others. Of our domestic writers, I have aimed to consult all of
the most prominent ones. It is not necessary to enumerate them, extending, as the
list would, to hundreds.

The examination of these writers, foreign and domestic, has been no recent under-
taking with me. For years, I have found It a source both of instruction and plea-
sure, to peruse their works. Where they have proposed any thing new to me, which
I thought promised favorable results, I have usually sought the first opportunity to
put their propositions to the experimentum crucis of actual trial. I haye often thus
learned valuable facts. But I have nearly or quite as often ascertained* that what
may be true of one breed, in one climate, or under one set of circumstances, is not
true when all or a part of these conditions are changed. The English and German
systems of management, for example, I regard as almost wholly inapplicable here,
on account of the entire different relation which the prices of land and labor beai
toward each other in those countries and our own. And I sometimes have had the
conviction forced upon me, that writers even of reputation have assumed positions
in relation to practical matters, which they must have derived from other sources
than direct personal experience.

While I have carefully reviewed and collated the opinions of other writers on
doubtful practical points, I have in all instances, as will be seen in the following
pages, preferred the results of personal experience and observation, to adverse
authority, however eminent. Compilations, it seems to me, are sufficiently abun-
dant, and I have thought it better to give my own opinions, leaving them to stand or
fall, as they shall be found accurate or inaccurate. Where I have found it necessary
to rely on others for any fact, or have quoted their opinions, I have uniformly given
them credit. To my kind correspondents, particularly my Southern correspondents
—many of whose communications are not published en account of their reluctance

12 INTRODUCTION.

to be cited as authority for facts, where their modesty leads them to underrate theif
own comparative knowledg-e and experience — I tender my thanks for theif
assistance.

I have addressed the Letters to Col. R. F. W. ALLSTON, of Waccamaco Beach,
near Georgetown, South Carolina — a gentleman to wliom I am indebted for much
valuable information on the subject of Southern Agriculture, and who has evei
evinced a most earnest desire to contribute to the improvement of that Agriculture.

HENRY S. RANDALL.

COSTTEISTS.

LETTER I.— EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON THE HEALTH AND WOOL-PRODUCING QUALITIES OF
SHEEP, 15

LETTER II.— EFFECT OF CLIMATE, (continued,) 23

LETTER IIL — ADAPTATION OF THE SOILS, HERBAGE, ETC., OF THE SOUTHERN STATES TO
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. — 1. OF THE Low OR TIDE-WATER REGION, CO

LETTER IV.— THE ADAPTATION OF THE SOILS, HERBAGE, ETC., OF THE SOUTHERN
STATES TO SHEEP HUSBANDRY, (continued.) — 2. OF THE MIDDLE OR HILLY ZONE. —
3. Off THE MOUNTAIN REGION, 42

LETTER V. — PROFITS OF SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHERN STATES.—!. DIRECT
PROFIT ON CAPITAL INVESTED, '. 52

LETTER VI. — PROFITS OF SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. — 2. As THS
BASIS OF AMELIORATION IN NATURALLY STERILE AND WORN-OUT SOILS, 6S

LETTER VII. — PROFITS OF SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. — 3. BY GIV-
ING TO SOUTHERN AGRICULTURE A MIXED AND CONVERTIBLE CHARACTER. — 4. BY
FURNISHING THE RAW MATERIAL FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF DOMESTIC WOOLLENS,.. 78

LETTER VIII. — PROSPECTS OF THS WOOL MARKET — FUTURE DEMAND AND SUPPLY, — 9-4

LETTER IX. — PROSPECTS OF THE WOOL MABKET — FUTURE DEMAND AND SUPPLY, 108

LETTER X. — BREEDS OF SHEEP IN THE UNITED STATES, 129

LETTER XL — THE MOST PROFITABLE BREED OF SHEEP FOR THE SOUTH — PRINCIPLES

OF BREEDING, 153

LETTER XII. — SUMMER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP, 173

LETTER XIIL— WINTER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 197

LETTER XIV. — ANATOMY AND DISEASE OF SHEEP, 219

LETTER XV. — ANATOMY OF THE SHEEP, (continued.) — DISEASES AND THEIR TREAT-
MENT, 234

LETTER XVI. — DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT, (continued,) 254

LETTER XVIL— SHEEP Does, WOOL DEPOTS, ETC., 278

APPENDIX.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN SOUTH CAROLINA , 297

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS, 805

SIIEEP RAISING IN TEXAS, 320

SHEEP HUSBANDRY

IN TUB

UNITED STATES,

A SEKIES OF LETTERS TO E. F. ALLSTOtf,

OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

LETTER I.

EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON THE HEALTH AND WOOL-PRODUCING
QUALITIES OF SHEEP.

Introductory Remarks. ..Wool-Growing and Manufacturing Statistics of the Southern States compared
trith those of New-York... Effect of Warm Climates on the Health of Sheep. ..Sheep in the Southern
States below latitude 32°. ..Effect of Climate on Wool-Producine Qualities of Sheep — on the Quantity ol
the Wool... Weight of Fleeces in the Southern States indicated by U. S. Census of 1840— Important Oinig-
gions in that Census — Other important Errors in it. ..Table of Weights of Fleeces in Four Counties where
they average highest in each of the Southern States and in New-York — Latitude, Topography and Climate
yf those Counties... Warmth of Climate conducive to the Production of Wool— Reasons.

R. F. W. ALLSTONf.Eaq—

Dear Sir : That spirit which prompts communities and States to at-
tempt to render themselves independent, so far as the supply of physical
wants is concerned, of other communities and States, is an eminently
proper one, up to certain limits. Beyond these, it degenerates into mere
sectional selfishness, as deserving of reprobation in the community as in
the individual — nay, more so, for it militates more widely against the in-
terests and happiness of mankind. Agriculture supplies the most of our
physical wants which are not administered to spontaneously by Nature.
In this great department of human labor,it is not difficult to decide how far
the inhabitants of each particular region are called upon to rear from the
earth what their wants require. Nature herself has, in the distribution of
soils and climates, both indicated and limited the production of many of
the agricultural staples, by geographical boundaries, sometimes topically

15

16 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

and sometimes by whole regions. This compels those practicing Agricul-
ture, both as individuals and masses, to make that " division of labor"
which, as in the mechanic arts, gives a better knowledge of its principles
and a greater expertness in its practical manipulations. It also creates
the necessity of exchange. Exchange is commerce, and commerce begets
and diffuses civilization.

Agricultural production, then, should be controlled by the demand or
want, and by the adaptation of the country to such production. It would
"he absurd, for example, for New-York to attempt to raise its own rice
and cotton, instead of exchanging the surplus of what it can most readily
produce for that rice and cotton, or selling its surplus where it is wanted,
and buying the rice and cotton with the proceeds. But, on the other hand,
it would be equally absurd for New- York to be dependent on South
America or Australia for her wools, when she can raise that staple just as
well as those countries, and thus save paying for transportation and the
hire or commission of the agents of exchange.

Though Nature both indicates and limits the production of staples by
soils and climates, she too rigidly enforces the primal curse, or perhaps
we should say blessing, of labor, to bring forth each, indigenously, in the
regions adapted to it, or ever to place them there, unless transported by
the enterprise and industry of man. The potato and maize were a recent
gift from this continent to the eastern. The debt has been repaid by rice,
the sugar cane, the horse, the cow, the sheep, and a multitude of other
plants and animals. How singular is the history of some of their deporta-
tions ! The sugar cane, now furnishing an important staple in some of our
own Southern States, originated in the eastern confines of Asia ; was noF
vouchsafed to the Greek and Roman ; traveled into Arabia about the
last of the thirteenth century ; passed thence into Africa ; was carried
by the Moors into Spain ; by the Spaniards and Portuguese into the West
India Islands ; and thence we received it. Rice, the great staple of
your own State, sir, a plant of which it has been said that it " has altered
the face of the globe and the destiny of nations," originated also in Asia,
and has traveled by the same slow stages, until it has reached that low
zone which skirts our south-eastern shores, to render its vast marshes, oth-
erwise useless, as profitably productive as the best grain or cotton lands
of the Southern States.

Hero, sir, we find an instructive lesson. Other regions there are in our
Southern States, now, nearly as useless as would be her " hammocks "
without rice, inviting the introduction of some other great staple to sup-
ply, if feasible, a home demand, and a surplus for profitable exportation.
If this great object can be achieved, and by the same means, the husbandry
of the regions now under cultivation be made to assume that mixed and
convertible character which will both add to their present proceeds, and
better sustain their fertility, for future demands on them, a benefit will be
conferred on the South the present and final results of which it would
be difficult to overestimate. Repudiating theoretic speculation and vague
conjecture — advancing just so far and no farther than we find our way
illumined by the broad and certain light of facts, let us inquire what im
portant staple there is, not now extensively produced at the South, which
would come within and at the same time fill the requirements I have men-
tioned.

Woolen fabrics constitute an important item in the imports of the South-
ern States, and for these they exchange the proceeds of no inconsiderable
proportion of their industry with the Northern States and with Europe.

The following table will exhibit the population, and the amount of home

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

17

production in these staples, according to the U. S. census of 1840, in the
States south of the Ohio and Potomac, and west of the Mississippi, (in-
cluding Louisiana,) in 1839. To these are added, by way of comparison,
the statistics of the State of New-York, under the same heads, for the
same year :

TABLE No. 1.

STATES.

Population.

No. of Sheep.

Lbs. of Wool.

No. of Woolen
Factories.

Value of Woolen
Man ufactured
Goods.

Virginia . --

1,239,797

1,293,772

2,538,374

41

147,792

North Carolina . . .
South Carolina . . .

753,419

594.398
691 392

538,279
232,981
267 107

625,044
299,170
371,303

3
1

3,900
1,000
3,000

Florida

54 477

7 198

7,285

590 756

163,243

220,353

375651

128,367

175,196

3;"2,411

98,072

49.283

Tennessee . .....

829,210

741,593

1,060.332

26

14,000

Kentucky

779,825

1,008,240

1,786,847

40

151,246

Total

6.261,336

4,478,852

7,133,187

/ 114

320,938

2,428,921

5,118.777

9.845,295

323

3,537,337

The above is only given to indicate approximate general results ; for,
as I shall subsequently show, the returns of the product of wool are inac-
curate to the last degree.

The question now arises, whence the immense disparity in the growth
and manufacturing of wool in the State of New-York, comprising 46,000
square miles of territory, and less than two and a half millions of popula-
lation, and the ten States above enumerated, covering an area of 495,000
square miles, and exceeding six millions of population ] Is the growing of
wool, (for we will first consider this, as the main question, leaving the sub-
ject of manufacturing for subsequent examination,) to its present extent,
profitable or unprofitable in the State of New- York ] I contend, and shall
attempt to prove, that taking a term of say ten or fifteen years, it has been
the most profitable branch of industry earned on in the State. If this is
true, why is it not equally profitable in the Southern States ]* Is there
anything in their climate which renders them less favorable to the health
or wool-producing qualities of the sheep — or is there anything in their
topographical features, soils, herbage, or other circumstances, which unfits
them for a natural and easy adaptation to sheep husbandry ] Or have
they other staples so much more profitable that it is not an object to grow
wool?

Having bestowed some attention on these points, and having been prac-
tically familiar with the most minute details of sheep husbandry from my
childhood, I have thought that the conclusions I have arrived at, and the
facts on which I have based them, might not be uninteresting to you. To
bring these facts connectedly before you, I shall necessarily be driven to
repeat some matter from my own and the writings of others, which you
have doubtless before seen in the publications of the day.

Let us now take up the first of the two preceding questions ; and first 1
will call your attention to the effect of Climate.

Sheep have been bred, time out of mind, on the Eastern Continent,
from the Equator to the 65th degree of north latitude, from the burning
plains of Africa and Asia, to the almost perpetual frosts cf Iceland. The
Merino, (the different families of which, as will be shown, constitute the
only varieties suitable for wool growing on a scale of any considerable
extent,) has been ired in Europe, for ages, as far south as between the

* When I use the words " Southern States," without farther specification, you will understand me to
mean the ten enumerated in Table let.

(651) C

18

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

36th and 37th parallels of latitude, and has, within the last few years, been
acclimated with perfect success as far north as various points in Sweden.

If any difficulty exists in the climate of the United States, rendering it
unsuitable for the rearing of sheep and wool, it must be its heat ; and this
must affect the wool-producing qualities of the animal alone, and not its
health, as the following facts will show. There were upward of 660,000
sheep in the five most southern States, in 1839. In Florida, they have
been acclimated as far south as the 29th degree. In Louisiana, Mississippi,
Alabama, and Georgia, they not only flourish in the northern and more
elevated sections, but on the low, fenny, tide-water region which skirts the
Gulf of Mexico. In the above five States there were, in 1839, upward of
190,000 sheep below the 32d degree of latitude, viz. : in Georgia 32,986,
Florida 7,198, Alabama 22,053, Mississippi 56,780, Louisiana 81,627-.*
They graze with equal impunity the vegetation on the margin of the
Great Okefinokee Swamp (in Georgia and Florida) and on that which
rankly flourishes among the ooze at the mouths of the Mississippi. It may
interest some less acquainted than you are, sir, with this subject, to know
that in 1839 the county in which New-Orleans stands (Orleans) contained
1,807 sheep; Jefferson, on the opposite side of the river, 6,871 ; St. Ber-
nard, extending from Orleans to the Gulf, 1,154 ; Plaquemine, almost sur-
rounded by the waters of the Gulf, and comprising the delta of the Missis-
sippi, 1,832 ; Lafourche Interior, on the Gulf, 1,253 ; Terrebonne, another
Gulf county, 1,013; St. Mary's, another, 8,211; and La Fayette, another,
2,622.t

No portion of the United States is lower, hotter, or more unhealthy
than much of the preceding, and none, according to commonly received
notions, would be more unsuited to the healthy production of sheep. Yet,
that they are healthy in these situations is a matter of perfect notoriety to
all conversant with the facts. So far as health is concerned, then, we arc
assuredly authorized to assume the position that no portion of the United
States is too warm for sheep.

We come now to the effect of climate on the wool -producing qualities
of the animal. Assuming the census returns of the United States in 1840
as reliable data, they would furnish strong proof that *he warmth of the
climate has a marked effect in diminishing the weight of wrool per sheep ;
and they have been adduced as furnishing conclusive evidence to that ef-
fect, by persons more accustomed to broad assertion than patient invest!
gation.

The following will give the weight of wool per head in the States enu-
merated in Table No. 1, estimated from the census returns of 1840 :

TABLE No. 2.

Virginia . .

Lbs. Oz.

. 1 7 845

Lfa. Oz,
1 4 146

North Carolina ....

1 2 221

1 4 227

1 3 539

0 8 040 |

1 4 487

1 4 809

1 0 410

1 6 971

New- York...

lib. 7 68(

) OZ.

But an examination of the census will show that so far as several cf
these States are concerned, it is entitled to very little credit, in this par-
ticular, and that it is correct in relation to none of them.

In Louisiana, in fourteen counties from which 30,261 sheep, or nearly
one-third in the whole State, are returned, not a pound of wool is returned.

In Florida, four counties, returning 228 sheep, return no wool. Let ut

U. 8. Onsus. 1B4G.

•Ib

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. (9

examine the comparative products, per head, as set forth in some of the
counties from which returns of sheep and wool are both made, with a view
of testing their accuracy. Escambia returns 485 sheep, and 837 Ibs. of
wool; Walton .386 sheep, and 575 Ibs. of wool; Leon 1,798 sheep, and
3,360 Ibs. of wool— or an approximation to 2 Ibs. of wool per head. Nas-
sau returns 436 sheep, and 1,200 Ibs. of wool, or about 3 Ibs. per head.
On the other hand, Gadsden returns 1,875 sheep and 512 Ibs. of wool ;
Jefferson 752 sheep, and 300 Ibs. of wool ; Madison 223 sheep, and 50 Ibs.
of wool ; Jackson 960 sheep, and 376 Ibs. of wool, or not quite a third of
a pound per fleece ! Now Leon is bounded on the west by Gadsden, and
on the east by Jefferson, and all lie in the same latitude, and do not differ
essentially in their soil, herbage, or temperature ! Madison lies imme-
diately east of Jefferson, (though its southern angle extends somewhat
farther south,) and Jackson joins Walton. Nassau is in the same latitude.
Hamilton, returning no sheep, returns the product as 20 Ibs. of wool !

In Mississippi, eight counties returning 15,227 sheep, return no wool;
and there are repeated instances of the same glaringly obvious errors that
have been exhibited in the statistics of Florida. For example, Smith
county returns 741 sheep, and 1,067 Ibs. of wool; Wayne 921 sheep, and
1,466 Ibs. of wool. Jasper, bounding Smith on the east, returns 1,848
nheep, and 418 Ibs. of Wool; and Clarke, bounding Wayne on the north,
1,199 sheep, and 188 Ibs. of wool ! By this, the sheep of Clarke shear luss
than 3 oz. per head, while those of the next county shear over a pound
and a half per head. There are various other instances of under returns
in the State.

In Alabama, two counties returning 2,138 sheep, return no wool; and1
in eight counties there are the same glaring instances of under returns witb-
those given above.

In Georgia there is but one omission to return the wool, where the
sheep are returned. In that county there were 3,360 sheep. There are-
eight or nine instances of obvious under returns, but these in the aggre-
gate of the State are partly balanced by two gross cases of over returns.
Cobb county returns 3,524 sheep, and 36,057 Ibs. of wool; and Richmond
758 sheep, and 3,032 Ibs. of wool !

In South Carolina there are at least six instances of under returns.

In North Carolina there are no returns of wool in one county, contain-
ing 2,163 sheep, and in another 7,260 Ibs. of wool are returned, and no.
sheep. There are ten cases of obvious under returns. In one of them
46,340 sheep are made to yield but 12,686 ibs. of wool.

In Virginia there are no omissions, and no obvious under returns. There
are several over returns.

In Tennessee there are no omissions, but there are seven obvious under
returns and two or three over returns.

In Kentucky and New-York there are not sufficient erroneous returns-
to materially vary the aggregate.

The foregoing facts show that the Marshals in many counties in the
most southern States entirely neglected their duty in returning the pro.
duct of wool ; and where over or under returns have been made, it is
probable that, by a misapprehension of duty, the amount of wool on hand,
was ascertained and noted down, instead of the annual clip.

And there is another and general error in these statistics, throughout all
the States, by the census including in the number of sheep the lambs of
the current season, which had not, of course, been sheared at the time of
taking the census. A, at the time of taking the census, owned a flock of
200 sheep over me year old, and 100 lambs. He would o-ive in his flock

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

to the Marshal as 300, of course, for the census makes no distinction be-
tween lambs and grown sheep. He gave in 600 Ibs. of wool, which would
be 3 Ibs. per head for those which had been sheared. But by the lambs
being included in the census returns, it is made to appear that his sheep
sheared but 2 Ibs. of wool per head. In the next census the lambs and
sheep should be separately returned, not only to obtain accuracy, (without
which iueh statistics are valueless,) but the annual increase thus indicated
\vould be, of itself, an interesting and valuable statistic.

In the preceding enumeration of erroneous returns, I have set down
none as under returns where the product of wool has not been given as
less than a pound per head; and where it has fallen under that amount,
the returns from contiguous counties, possessing the same natural features,
exhibiting a far superior product, as well as the general complexion of the
returns throughout the State, have authorized me beyond a reasonable
doubt so to consider it. I may add, that it is a fact of universal notoriety
that there is no variety of sheep in any section of the United States, whick
shears but a pound of \vool per head.* A careful inspection of the census,
moreover, will not fail to satisfy any one that there are a multitude of under
returns, (not specified by me, as the product is given over 1 Ib. of wool per
head,) in most of the States. This is shown by the same kind of compari-
sons which have already been alluded to. These are far more common in
the extreme Southern States, where wool growing had not yet (in 1839)
been reduced to any system, and where sheep had been little looked after
or regarded. These errors grow less, as we approach the wool-growing
regions of the north and north-west.

Taking those returns which we are authorized to consider correct,t it
will appear that there is no great difference in the average product of wool,
per head, in States separated by from ten to fifteen degrees of latitude,
and no more than is clearly referable to incidental or extraneous causes,
unless we come to the conclusion that the difference is in favor of the
Southern States. In proof of this, the following table is offered, giving
the products of some of those counties in each of the States enumerated
in Tables No. 1 and No. 2, which exhibit the highest averages rer head,
(excluding those obviously over returned.)^

TABLE No. 3.

STATE.

COUNTY.

Average Weight of Wool
per Sheep.

Total average of
the Counties given\\

Fauouier . '. -

Lbs. - Oz.

2 2f|ff
2 0#yft
2 2-J~~—
2 l||||9

Lbs. Oz.

2 1}

Harrison

North Carolina <

Ohio

Rockingham . . .

Currituck .

a ?«£

2 6JWV

i lajjHf*
i STW,

2 0 1

Person

Perquimans . . .
Tvrrel..

* I consider such to be unde^ returns, independent of the mistake made by including lamba ia ih»
•numeration,

t With the exception of the error arising from tne return of lambs— which perhaps would not greatly
»«ry the proportionable result.

\ It is proper to say that though I designed to t«ke the highest averages. I did not go through a formal
reckoning of the average in every county in the eleven States. 1 took those which appeared the highest
after a somewhat careful general inspection.

y Excluding the fractious of the ounces in preceding column.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

TABLE No. 3— (Continued.)

STATE.

COUNTV.

Average WeiglU oj Wool
per Sheep.

'/'oia/ average ttj
Ike Counties given.

\

Sou tli Cnrolina . •<,

[" Beaufort . . -

Lbs. Oz.

2 ism*

2 4jWr
2 0
1 12J-iff

JLbs. Oz.

2 3

Darlington
Georgetown . . .
Richland

Bibb

2 3flft
1 15W
2 105Wj
2 1||

2 3}

JVIuiTav

Florida

I \VI<TCTS

vvloo * * * ' '

Ware

Escambia

i HAV

1 "Iff
2 13-ft0,

2 If

Leon

\

.Alabama l

Nassau

I Blount

1 16tf
2 6H«

1 15TWo
2 0-fHf

2 1

Jackson

-A.utau°*a

'

Greene

Claiborne
Hinds ....

2 7fHt

3

2 7J|j.

2 7£

[ Perry

1

Louisiana •••••» 5

\Varren

Concordia.
1 St. Helena
1 St. Tammany . .
Washington —

2 15UV

i 7!SJi .

'jfSTT

2 m

1 14«

2 11

i
Tennessee . . . •<

1" De Kalb . . .

2 2U|
2 4ii!
2 OTiVrs

9 2iA°45

2 2}

! Franklin

\ Smith .

1

Wilson

^

Bourbon

O 113897

«* iaTTTff
2 H^Vft

; V'w

a 6TTT9 ,

2 7—

Clarke .

Lawrence " .

\
New- York «<

Scott

r Westchester . .
1 Ulster

a io*ftV
2 s«y&

O O 5 7 6 6

2 5 !

1 Saratoga
Orleans

2 ^-GoTl
0 0 4 2 1 5 4

f ^6"9TirT

Taking these averages as a test, it would appear that the difference
between the average products of the Southern States and New York is, in
some instances, in favor of the former. Kentucky in the middle, and Mis-
sissippi in the extreme South, exceed the average of New York.

It is proper to say, however, that various local circumstances may have
effected these results, and that taking the average of a considerable num-
ber of counties, in the several States, would essentially vary them. Not-
withstanding this, the testimony which they offer is important, and be-
comes more so regarded in connection with another circumstance. The
comparative statistics of the extreme Southern States themselves show
that in a majority of cases their best products of wool come from then
Southern and warmer counties.

Of the four counties in Louisiana, the product of which is given aboi?«%

22 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

the most northern lies between the 31st and 32d degrees of latitude, and
all of the other three south of latitude 31°. St. Tammany, which exhibits
the second best product, borders on Lake Pontchartrain. The State ex-
tends north to latitude 33°.

In Florida, all the counties given lie in the same latitudes.

Mississippi extends north to latitude 35°. All the counties given are
eouth of 32° 30', and one in latitude 31°.

In Alabama, extending north to the same latitude with the above, two
of the counties given are in the northern or mountain region, and two of
them south of 33°.

In Georgia, (same northern line,) one of the counties given is in the ex-
treme north, two south of 33° and one in latitude 31°, being the county
in which lies the major portion of the Great Okefinokee Swamp !

In South Carolina, two of the counties (both bordering on the ocean)
are in the low, marshy, tide-water region ; and the other two are in the
central region.

In North Carolina,two of the counties given join the ocean ; one is on Albe-
marle Sound, while one lies in the central and northern portion of the State.

In comparing the product of wool in the Southern States with that of
the Northern — and more particularly with that of New-York — we must
not lose sight of the fact that in the latter wool growing has become an
important business, and is reduced to a system. The sheep are kept in
pastures, and are sheared at regular intervals. In the Carolinas, Georgia,
and the Gulf States, precisely the reverse of all this was generally true,
at least up to the year 1839. The sheep were little cared for; were suf-
fered to breed promiscuously ; and they roamed at large through forests,
where, as the warm season advanced in the spring, their wool, beginning
to detach itself, was left on shrubs and brambles, arid in not rare instances
considerable portions of it were thus lost prior to shearing.*

Giving their due weight to the preceding facts, the defects in the census;
etc., it is, I think, undeniable that they account for all the deficiency in
the average product of wool per sheep in our most southern States, com-
pared with that of New- York, as set forth in Table No. 2. Indeed, sir,
my own convictions are decided, and the facts reported appear to fully
sustain them, that warmth of temperature, at least to a point equaling thd
highest mean temperature in the United States, is not injurious, but abso
lately conducive to the production of wool. The causes of this are in-
volved in no mystery. Warm climates afford green and succulent herb-
age during a greater portion of the year than cold ones. Sheep plentifully
supplied with green herbage keep in higher condition than when confined
to that which is dry. High condition promotes those secretions which form
wool. Every one at all conversant with sheep well knows that if kept
fleshy the year round, they produce far more wool than if kept poor. A
half a pound's difference per head is readily made in this way. Within
the maximum and minimum of the product of a sheep or a flock, the ra-
tio of production always coincides with that of condition.

I have dwelt on this point at great and perhaps tedious length, sir, as
the results set forth in the United States Census, unexplained-, would
clearly point to a different conclusion from that to which I. have arrived.
To invalidate testimony, ostensibly so certain and reliable, as well as to
combat deep-rooted prejudices, I have deemed it necessary to scan thor-
oughly the accessible facts in the case.

* I make no account of difference in breeds, as affecting the product of wool between the Romh and
Horth. The crude Merino?, not uncommon in New-York, would produce far more wool than the "na-
tives," the principal sheep in the South in 1839. But the latter would equal or exceed the product of th<
numerous Saxon flocks of New- York.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 23

LETTER II.

EFFECT OF CLIMATE, CONTINUED.

Effect of Climate on quality of Wool... Warmth of Climate renders Wool coarser — Reasons ... Effect of
Herbage... Opinions of Youatt— Doctor Parry— English Staplers— Writer. ..Can the tendency to grow
coarser be resisted?. ..Opinions of Youatt — Lasteyrie — Mr. Lawrence... Experiment in Australia— Cape of
Good Hope— South' of Illinois— Kentucky— Tennessee— Mississippi— New-York... Warm Climates render
Wools softer and longer, thus adding materially to their value. . .Proved to be the case in Australia. . .Tes-
timony of English Wool-factors and Staplers... Same effect produced in the United States... Testimony
cf Mr. Cockrill.

Dear Sir : We come now to discuss the effect of Climate on the quality
of WOOL

There can be but little doubt, other things being equal, that the pelage
of the Sheep and some other animals, becomes finer in cold climates and
coarser in warm ones. This is usually attributed, by theoretical writers,
to the' effect of cold and heat in contracting or expanding the pores. This
may have some effect, but to suppose that the delicate tissues of the skin
can act, to any great extent, mechanically, in compressing the harder and
highly elastic ones of the hair or wool, or compel their attenuation so as
to permit their escape through diminished apertures, like the process of ,
wire drawing, is, it seems to me, to assume that matter acts contrary to
its ordinary laws. I am rather disposed to look for the causes of this
phenomenon, in the amount and quality of the nutriment received by the
animal. It was stated, in my preceding letter, that warm climates, by
affording succulent herbage during a greater portion of the year, maintain
in greater activity those secretions which form wool, and thus increase the
quantity or weight of the fleece. The weight is increased by increasing
the length and thickness of the separate fibres, just as plants put forth
longer and thicker stems on rich soils than on poor ones.

Mr. Youatt, in his excellent and much quoted work on Sheep, after dis-
cussing and admitting, to a certain extent, the influence of warm temper-
atures in rendering wool coarser, says :

" Pasture has a far greater influence on the fineness of the fleece. The staple of the wool,
like every other part of the sheep, must increase in length or in bulk when the animal has
a superabundance of nutriment ; and, on the other hand, the secretion which forms the wool
must decrease like every other, when sufficient nourishment is not afforded. When little
cold has been experienced in the winter, and vegetation has been scarcely checked, the
sheep yield an abundant crop of wool, but 'the fleece is perceptibly coarser as well as
heavier. When frost has been severe and the ground long covered with snow — if the flock
has been fairly supplied with nutriment, although the fleece may have lost a little in weight,
it will have acquired a superior degree of fineness and a proportionate increase of value,'
Should, however, the sheep have been neglected and starved during this prolongation of
cold weather, the fleece as well as the carcass is thinner ; and although it may have pre-
served its smallness of filament, it has lost in weight and strength and usefulness. These
are self-evident facts, and need not be enforced by any labored argument."*

Doct. Parry, a correct and able English writer, remarks :

" Sheep breeders have observed a sort of gross connection between, the food and quality
of the fleece. . . . The fineness of a sheep s fleece of a given breed is, within certain
limits, inversely as its fatness, and perhaps also (although I am not certain on this point) aa
the quickness with which it grows fat. A sheep which is fat has usually comparatively
coarse \\<<«oi, and one which is lean, either from want of food or disease, has the finest wool;
and the veij' same sheep may at different times, according to these circumstances, hava
fleeces of all tin. Sxtermediate qualities from extreme fineness to comparative coarseness."

* Yooatt on Sheep, p '''O.

24 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

In an examination before the English House of Lords, in 1828, various
eminent staplers* testify, most decidedly, to the deterioration (in fineness)
of the British wools and their increase in length of staple, " since the
introduction of artificial food and the adoption of the forcing system.'5

My own observations fully corroborate these positions. I have exam-
ined, in repeated instances, with a good microscope, the wool of incivid-
ual sheep in my flock, taken in seasons when they have maintained a high
condition, and in others, when, from some incidental cause they have been
in ordinary or poor condition, and the difference in length and fineness is,
uniformly, distinctly perceptible.

If the sheep breeder in warm climates can take advantage of the ten
;lency to produce greater quantities of wool, following that supply of suc-
.culent herbage throughout the year which Nature has placed at his disposal,
and at the same time, by any unexpensive means which he can employ,
combat the correlative tendency to increased coarseness of fibre, he has
•most assuredly, other things being equal, an entire advantage over the
breeder in colder regions.

We come now to the important inquiry, Can this latter tendency be
successfully combated ; or, in other words, can wool of any desirable
fineness be produced in countries as warm, for example, as Louisiana,
Mississippi, &c. 1

Let us examine Mr. Youatt's testimony on this point also. He says :
" Temperature and pasture have influence on the fineness of the fibre, and one whicn the
farmer should never disregai'd ; but he may, in a great measure, counteract this influence by
careful management and selection in breeding. ... A better illustration of this cannot
be found than in the fact that the Merino lias been transplanted to every latitude on the
temperate zone, and some beyond it — to Sweden in the North and Australia in the South —
and has retained its tendency to produce wool exclusively, and wool of nearly equal fineness
and value. "t

Mr. Lasteyrie, equally good authority, uses the following language.
When he speaks of the preservation of the breed in its " utmost purity,"
we are undoubtedly to understand him to refer as much to the fineness of
the wool as any other point, this being the distinguishing mark or excel
lence of the breed.

1 The preservation of the Merino race in its utmost purity at the Cape of Good Hope, in
the marshes of Holland, and under the rigorous climate of Sweden, furnish an additional
support of this, my unalterable principle : fine wool sheep may be kept wherever iutelli
geat breeders exist. "$

Samuel Lawrence, Esq. the head of the great Lowell Manufacturing
Company, in Massachusetts, who, by his vast purchases of fine wool in all
parts of the United States for a long term of years, and his intimate prac-
tical acquaintance with the quality of the article, is entitled to have his
opinion on this point regarded as of as great weight as that of any other
individual, says :

" That the properties of wool are affected by herbage and soil, I have not a doubt, and
were it not invidious, I would name some sections where wool growers are greatly favored
by Nature. One thing is certain, whatever may be the character of the soil, where there
are good shepherds there is sure to be found good wool. By judicious selections and cross-
ing, I believe a breed may be reared which will give four pounds of exquisitely fine wool
lo the fleece."||

This last sentence of this important extract, though not bearing so par-
ticularly on the point under examination, is recorded in its original con-
nection for subsequent reference.

Australia and the Cape of Good Hope being cited by the distinguished

*Youat* on Sheep, p. 71, where the names and testimony of these Individ aals are given ; and more at
length in Bischoff on Wools, &c., vol. ii. pp. 118— 200. tPp-C9— 70.

I Lwtevrie on Merino Sheep, p. 101. fi Letter of Mr. L-, published in ' American gkapherd," p. 430,

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

English and French writers above quoted, as offering instances of the per-
fectly successful acclimation of Merinos, without deterioration of tlieir
wool, in warm climates, it may be well to inquire a little more particularly
what the climate of those countries is ; and what, if any, the other cir-
cumstances connected with them, having an influence on the quality of
the wools grown in them.

Port Jackson, in Australia, in the vicinity of which the Merinos were
first introduced, and are now extensively bred, lies in 33° 55' South lati-
tude, corresponding as nearly with the latitude of Georgetown, South
Carolina, as that of any othei important point in our country.* In do
scribing this region (New South Wales) Malte Brun says :

" The coast itself is high but not mountainous ; and it is partly shaded by trees of gigantic
size. Toward the south-east a great part is covered with coppice ; much also is occupied
with marshes. About Botany Bayt the soil is black, rich and exceedingly productive iji
plants. The north-east part seems lower. The coast is covered with mangroves. . . .
The heat of December rises to 112° Fahrenheit. The forests and the grass have been known
spontaneously to take fire.t The North-west wind, like the Khamseen of Egypt, scorches
the soil and reduces it to a light dust. . . . Notwithstanding these disadvantages, tho
climate is very healthy, and very favorable to population. . . . Those parts in which
different trials have been made have rather too warm a climate for common barley and oata.
though these grains have been found to succeed tolerably well on the poorer soils. . .
All the vegetables grown in England are produced in the English colony. . . Peaches,
apricots, nectarines, oranges, lemons, guavas, loquets, cherries, walnuts, almonds, grape*
pears, pomegranates and melons attain the highest maturity in the open air."||

The country, most of it, is remarkably deficient in water, § though many
portions are subject to destructive inundations.^} Its drouths are unequaled
for their duration and intensity in, perhaps, any inhabited portion of the
globe.** Its vast plains, occasionally highly fertile, but more usually, only
*n detached spots, afford pasture throughout the year.

The physical features of this country, its system of sheep husbandly,
etc. will be more particularly alluded to hereafter.

The English first introduced into this remote possession the coarse hairy
sheep of Bengal. In the short space of three years these were so far
changed by the effect of the climate and other circumstances, that then
hair was entirely gone, and was succeeded by a fleece of wool.tt The
South-Down and Leicesters were subsequently introduced, and theii
crosses with the Bengal sheep soon became as fine as the pure bloods of
the former. At length some Merinos were imported by the colonists,
and, says Mr. Youatt, " The experiment was satisfactory beyond their ex-
pectation. The third or fourth cross with the then prevalent sheep of tho
colony produced an animal with a fleece equal to that of the pure Merino
in Europe ; and the wool of the pure blood seemed to improve as rapidly
as the native breed had done. "If In 1810, the export of wool from Aus-
tralia and Van Dieman's Land was 167 Ibs. ; in 1833, it had reached
3,516,869 Ibs.ljH In 1843, it amounted to 16,226,4*00 lbs.§§

The following, from a table in McCulloch's Dictionary of Commerce,
will show the current prices (reduced to American- currency) of some of
the imported and domestic wools, in London, March, 1834 :

$ cts. $ cts.

SPANISH..... perlb. — 60 to — 77

PORTUGUESE — 44 " — 62

GERMAN. SAXON, &c — 48" 1 15

AUSTRALIAN .. .. — 50 " 1 00

ENGLISH : $ cts. $ ctn

North & South-Down, perlb. — 44 to — 48

Leicester — 33 " — 4<T

Lincoln, Cotswold, llomney

Marsh — 40 « — 4i

* Georgetown is perhaps half a degree nearer the Equator,
t This place is twelve miles south of Port Jackson.

J Malte Brun cites Collins (an aiithor frequently quoted in relation to New South Wales) for this strong
ind, perhaps, exaggerated assertion. || Malte Brun, vol. i. pp. 600—605.

§ Spooner, Youatt, etc. fl Malte Brun. ** See McCulloch's Commercial Dictionary.

ft Youatt on Sheep, p 184. Spooner, Diseases of Sheep, p. 62.

U Ib. v. 184. [Ill Ib. et Spooner. §§ Spooner.

26 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

It will be seen from this, that the best Australian wools already excelled
the best Spanish, and were more than midway between them and the best
^axon. When we consider the almost infinite difference in the care, both
in breeding and management, bestowed on the Saxon and Australian sheep,
it shows most conclusively the adaptation of the ciimate of Australia to
tho production of the finest wool — or, at least, that the adverse effects of
iis warm temperature, and the incidents to that temperature, are easily
overcome. IriuSaxony, sheep are numbered, oftentimes their separate ped-
igrees registered, and each breeding ewe is stinted to a ram carefully se-
lected with reference to her individual qualities. In Australia, where less
capital and labor are employed, flocks of about three hundred breeding
ewes* — where the country is destitute of timber, sometimes a thousand! —
loam from one fertile and watered spot to another over the vast plains, in
charge of the convict shepherd ; and this system is followed throughout
the year, including the tupping season. Three flocks are always penned
together at night,f so that as many as nine hundred breeding ewes, of va-
rying quality, must be promiscuously bred to, say, from thirty to thirty-five
lams, running promiscuously among them.

The Cape of Good Hope is in south latitude 34° 23' 40".

Mr. Youatt, in describing the sheep husbandry of this region, overesti-
mated, I think, the heat of the climate. Separated by lofty mountain
ranges from the interior of Africa, the fertile regions adjoining the coast
are not swept by its scorching winds, and the temperature is comparatively
mild. " In a meteorological register kept at Cape Town, from Sept. 1818
to Sept. 1821, embracing a period of three years, the highest heat marked
is 96°, the lowest 45°, Fahrenheit. The mean and annual temperature
scarcely 68° — of winter 61°, of summer 89°."j| But sheep and their wool
suffer from the fine sands which are lifted and driven by the prevailing
winds. Says Malte Brun, " the wind blows often from the south-east with
great violence. Nothing can be secured from the sands which it drives
before it; they penetrate the closest apartments and the best-closed trunk*;.
At this time it is not prudent to go out without glasses, lest the eyes should
be injured."§

Though the climate can scarcely be designated a "torrid" one, as Mr.
Youatt speaks of it, the mean temperature of its winter (61°) conclusively
shows that cold can have nothing to do here with rendering the wool finei
by a contraction of the pores. If, therefore, it can be shown that the wool
of the fine breeds does not deteriorate in quality, it sufficiently proves that
Australia is not an incidental exception in the testimony which it presents
on the point under examination, but that it illustrates the uniform opera-
tion of the physical laws which pertain to the growth of wool.

After one or two unsuccessful attempts, the Merinos were acclimated
at the Cape by the English colonists. In 1S04, the colony numbered 536,-
634 sheep. In 1811, there were 1,293,740. In 1810, the import of wool
into Great Britain was '29,717 Ibs. ; in 1833, it was 93,325 lbs.fi

In Willmer & Smith's " Liverpool Annual Wool Report," for 1846, it
is stated, " The shipments from this quarter (Cape of Good Hope) show
great improvement, amply testified by the high rates the best flocks have
commanded during the season. . . The best parcels now take rank
with those from Australia."** The system of breeding and general man-
agement at the Cape closely correspond with those of Australia.

Let us now, sir, turn to the experience of our own country. I do nol

* Cunninsham's "Two Years in South Walrs.'' t lb. J Ib.

l| Malte Brun, vol. ii. p. 112. $ lb. vol. ii p. 112.

V Youatt on Sheep, p. 184. ** Willincr &. Smith's European Times of Jan. 4, 1846.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

know that a sufficient number of experiments have bee", made as near the
Equator as Cape Town and Port Jackson, to have their testimony regard-
ed as entirely decisive on the point under consideration, but those have
been made which throw much light on this question, if, indeed, any more
is considered necessary. In the south of Illinois (Edwards county), in
about latitude 38° 30', the finest varieties of sheep were introduced by
Mr. George Flower, about twenty years since, from which he has bred up
an extensive flock. That gentleman says :* " No deterioration in the wool
has taken place ; on the contrary, the wool fibre is somewhat finer." I
have myself seen various specimens of Mr. Flower's wool, of the clip of
1844, and it bore an excellent character for fineness and evenness.

In a letter which I received from Hon. Henry Clay, in 1839, he says :
" I have for some years had only the pure Saxony at my residence ; but I
am now satisfied that I should have derived more profit from sheep pro-
ducing a wool less fine.f The climate of Kentucky is, however, well
adapted to the Saxon sheep." Mr. Clay's residence is in about latitude 38°.

Mr. Mark R. Cockrill, of Nashville, Tennessee, in a letter published in
the American Shepherd,| says :

" I have about a thousand head of fine sheep, and from 400 to 500 long-wooled or mutton
eheep. My Saxon sheep were imported in 1824 or '26 — I cannot say which — and I find as
yet no falling off in quantity or quality of their fleeces ; on the contrary, I believe a little
improvement on both points, and a little more yolk, when well provided for, which, you
know, does not abound much in the Saxon breed. In addition, the fleeces are a little more
compact than formerly — hence more weight ; and, from our mild climate, the staple has be-
come longer. . . I assert it to be a fact that the cotton region I am now in [Mr. Cockrill
dates from Madison county, Mississippi, where a part of his sheep are kept], in about lati
tude 32° north, is better than any country north of it to grow wool, as the sheep can be kept
all the time grazing, by sowing small grain ; for, if grazed off, it quickly grows again in a
"ew days ; and the wool of the fine Saxon sheep in this climate is softer and more cotton-like
than any I have ever seen, although I have samples from all parts of the world. I have
traveled from this very place to Boston, sampling all the sheep of note on the way, and I
found nothing 011 my journey or at Boston as good as the wool I had grown, and so said all
the wool staplers whom I met with, and they were not a few. I presumed, in reality, that
the blood of my sheep was no better than many I saw, but the superiority of my wool I as-
cribed to our climate, and the provision for the sheep of succulent food the year round.—
The weight of my fleeces is fair — say from 3 to 5£ Ibs. each. . . Tennessee is not the true
grass climate ; about 28° north is the most congenial for grass : notwithstanding, our State is
fair for pasture ; blue and oi'chard grass, white and red clover, prosper pretty well. . .
There is much country in Tennessee and other Southern States not fit for the plow, and
would do admirably well for fine-wooled sheep, and can be profitably so employed. A small
capital thus appropriated here in Mississippi would 3o better than cotton growing at present
prices."

Nashville is in about latitude 37° 15' ; and Madison county, Mississippi
is about half a degree farther north than mentioned by Mr. Cockrill, viz
extending from 32^° to 33° ; its county seat (Canton) being more than a
degree nearer the Equator than Port Jackson in Australia, and about twc
degrees nearer than the Cape of Good Hope !

Mr. Morrel, the compiler of the " American Shepherd," has obtained
specimens of Mr. Cockrill's wool, and he says of them, " Judging from the
samples, the conclusion is inevitable that little or no deterioration has been
produced by the climate."||

This testimony of Mr. Cockrill is very important, both from the length
and extent of the experiment. I have no doubt of the perfect correctnesb
of his assertion that his wool has improved in those low latitudes ; but the
cause assigned by him cannot be received as the correct one, so far as the
increased fineness of the fibre is concerned. The improvement in this par-
ticular, under a system of feeding which has " increased" both the " quan-

" In a letter published in the Prairie Farmer. t Mr. Clay here alludes to the MeMnos.
J P. 409. 11 American Shepherd, p. 41.

28 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

tity" and the " yolk" of the fleece, cannot be ascribed to the climate, 1101
to the feeding itself. It is undoubtedly owing to Mr. C.'s system of breed
ing and selection, a point which will be fully discussed hereafter.

If feed or condition exercise the principal influence on the fineness of
wool (that is, within the range of variation to which it is subject oil the
same individuals), it follows that the effect may be produced in any climate,
for high condition throughout the year is attainable in the most rigorous
ones, by the supply of plentiful and rich food. The wool secretions aro
incident mi condition — fatness, however superinduced.* It again fpllows
that if wool of the highest degree of fineness (for the breed) can be pro-
duced in New-York, although the sheep is kept in a decidedly fat state
throughout the year — quite as fat as it would become, grazing on green
feed all the year round — that wool of equal fineness can be produced by
the observance of the same influencing conditions (apart from feed) by the
southern breeder.

Here again, undeterred by any considerations of what I deem a false
modesty, I shall offer facts founded on my own personal experience as a
sheep breeder ; and I would remark, once for all, that throughout the
whole of these letters I shall never so far prefer beliefs founded on the as-
sertions of others, to actual knowledge, based on facts repeatedly and con-
stantly brought under my personal inspection, for a number of years, as
to suppress the latter, to rely solely on the former.

I have succeeded, in repeated instances, in producing an exquisite qual-
ity of wool, decidedly above the average of the breed (Merino) in tlio
heavy fleeces of sheep kept fat the year round. I have made it a sort of
a test latterly, in the selection of rams, to choose only those which not
only carry heavy fleeces, in any condition, but which, in the highest, yield
a wool equaling the choicest samples to be found on this variety. These
facts will, by and by, be placed in a definite and tangible form, by the re-
corded testimony of the scales and the microscope.

But though the natural effects of warm climates and their incidents, to
increase the bulk or coarseness of the fibre, is one which can easily be re-
sisted, they work a change of another kind in the character of wool. They
cause a longer fibre and a greater softness of staple. The effect of succu-
lent nutriment during the year in increasing the amount of the wool will
exhibit itself; but the skill of the breeder can so far regulate its action,
that the increase is in the length,' rather than in the diameter or bulk of the
fibres. It is not difficult to conjecture why a staple of more rapid growth,
supplied to excess with the secretions which enter into its composition, un-
exposed to great and rapid, variations of temperature, should retain a
greater degree of softness than one produced under opposite conditions.
But, whatever the causes of these phenomena, their existence is placed
beyond a doubt.

The increased length of staple, resulting from the nutriment of warm
climates, has been sufficiently adverted to. The following statements made
by some of the most eminent wool-factors, staplers, etc. in England, before
a Committee of the House of Lords, in 1828, place the other point beyond
controversy.!

Mr. Henry Hughes, wool-broker, London, says :

* No one has asserted, BO far as I am informed, that dry feed will produce less woo*, than preen feed, if
the same degree of fatness is kept up. On the other hand, the rich cereal grains, oil-cake, &c. (without
•ome of which a high degree of fatness cannot be maintained, on dry feed alone, during the four or five
months' winter in latitudes north of 42°), might be supposed to be quite aa conducive to the production of
wool as grasses.

t For extended minutes of this very interesting investigation into the state of the wjol-trnde, &c. ike. ia
Great Britain, see Bischoff on Wool. &c., vol. ii. p. 118 to 200.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 29

u Latterly they (Australian and Van Dienmn's Land wools) have been of varied qualities,
but all possessing an extraordinary softness, which the manufacturers here so muct admire
that they are sought for more than any other description of wools, from that peculiar quality,
which is supposed to arise from the climate alone. They are known to require less of the
milling or fulling power than any other descriptions of wools. . . They are better adapted
than the German, wools to mix with British wools, because the superior softness which I
have stated gives a character, when mixed with English wool, that the other does not, from
the hardness of the fibre."*

Mr. Stewart Donaldson, merchant, London, says :

" I haye no hesitation in pronouncing that the wools of New South "Wales and Van Die-
man's Land are decidedly preferred to the apparently similar descriptions of German wool.
. . . They have a softness and silkiness about them which, when worked up into cloth,
shows itself more distinctly than in the raw material. I conceive that it is dependent on the
climate alone. 1 am of opinion that wool of that quality could not be produced in any part
of Europe."!

Mr. Thomas Legg, wool-stapler, Bermondsey, says :

•• There are some of these wools of very beautiful quality, as good as any of the German
woold."t

Mr. Thomas Ebswoith, wool-broker, London, says:

" The peculiarity of the climate of New South Wales appears to have a very great effect
on wool, so as to reduce it from a harshness to a very fine texture."]]

This was the substance of all the testimony on this particular point ;
arid when it is understood that the investigation was an issue between rival
interests, where all the facts were thoroughly sifted, the fact that the above
assertions were undisputed shows that they were considered of an undis-
putable character.

Allusion has already been made to the loose and careless system of
sheep-breeding, etc. in Australia, compared with that in Qermany. Tak-
.ng this into consideration ; taking also into consideration that the flock
furnishing the best wool in Australia (Capt. McArthur's) is composed of
grade sheep (Bengal and English, graded up with Merino and Saxon rams),
the trifling effect of climate is made more strikingly to appear.

The statements of Mr. Cockrill in relation to the softness of the wools
grown in Tennessee and Mississippi, sustain and 'are sustained by those
above given ; and they go to show that it is the result of a general law
and :not of any peculiar local influences peculiar to Australia

* Btichcff on Wool, &c. roL ii. pp. 189-3. t Ibid. 183-4. J IWd. 184. H Ibid. !§1

30 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

LETTER III.

ADAPTATION OF THE SOILS, HERBAGE, &c. OF THE SOUTHERN STATES TO
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 1. OF THE LOW OR TIDE-WATER REGION

Natural Features of the Southern States— Divided into three Zones. ..The Natural Features, Soils, &c. <rf
each... The Tide-water Zone— Its destitution of Artificial Pastures and Meadows... Causes— Small" amount
of Domestic Stock kept — Unsuccessful Experiments in raising Clover and Grasses. ..Reasons why those
Experimer v weie unsuccessful— Land too much Exhausted by Severe Tillage — System of Tillage com'
pared with *.aat of the Grazing Regions of New-York— Experiments unsuccessful, also, because improper
varieties of Clover and Grass were tried. ..Much of the Land adapted to Gruss— Shown by its Natural Pas-
tures— Statements of Col. Allston — Opinions of Mr. Ruffin — of a Committee of the S. C. Agricultural Soci-
ety...Land compared with that of Flanders— also with some parts of New-York... Climate peihaps unfa-
rorable to certain Northern Grasses and to Red Clover — Opinion of Mr. Ruffin — Statements of Milton (S.
C.) Agricultural Society. . .Clover not indispensable. . .Experiments suggested. . .Valuable indigenous and
acclimated Grasses— Crab Grass — Millet — Bermuda Grass— its great value— Statements of MrrAffleck...
Peas — Their great value in the Southern States as a Green Crop Manure — Sprengel's Analysis of them —
The Value of their Straw as a Manure compared with various substances — Table of the Value of Manure*
by Payen and Boussingault... Oats, Rye and Barley — Corn Blades — Sweet Potatoes. ..Conclusions frof
foregoing.

Dear Sir : Having discussed, in my previous letters, the effects of warm
climates and some of their incidents, on the health of sheep, and on the
quantity and quality ^f their wool, we come now to the second branch of
my original inquiry — Is there anything in the natural features, soils, herb-
age, &c. of the .Southern States, which unfits them for a natural and easy
adaptation to sheep husbandry ?

The vast region south of the Ohio and Potomac, and west of the Missis-
sippi— comprising an area considerably exceeding that of France, Spain
and Portugal* — is distinguished, by its natural features, into three distinct
zones, parallel to each other and to the Atlantic coast.

The lower or tide-water zone, which skirts the Atlantic, is a low, flat,
sandy, and oftentimes marshy plain, from 50 to 100 miles wide, compara-
tively recent (tertiary) in its formation, and covered with pine forests ovea
the greatest portion of its extent. The soils on the dry lands are generally
light, and sometimes too sterile to admit of profitable cultivation ; that in
the swamps and river bottoms, where the sand is replaced by a rich allu-
vion, is exceedingly fertile. The middle or hilly zone rises from the level
of the preceding, first into gentle hills, and finally into high and oftentimes
broken ground, as it approaches the mountains. The width of this does
not greatly vary from that of the preceding. The formation is almost ex-
clusively primary ;t and the soil varies, sometimes being poor, but more
generally ranging, in its natural state, from medium to highly fertile. The
forests consist of oak and other deciduous trees. The third or mountain
region is formed by the different chains and groups of the great Apalach-
ian range, of mountains, and occupies not far from 70,000 square miles of
the central portion of the territory under consideration.! It comprises the
middle of Virginia, the west of North Carolina and South Carolina, the
north of Georgia and Alabama, and the east of Tennessee and Kentucky.
Its formation on the eastern declivities of the Blue Ridge (the most east-
ern chain) is primary, and thence to the Alleganies the rocks belong to

* Spain contains 170,000 square miles, Portugal 40,000, France 200,000— in all 410,000. Allowing 10,000
tquare miles of Louisiana to be east of the Mississippi, the area of the region referred to is 456',00i square
miles.

t There are one or two interrupted belts of new red czndstont — vide McClure.

J Estimated not far, 1 think, from correctly, »»y myself. I can rind no authority on this point.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 31

the Transition order.* Its soil varies from thin and light to that of exu-
berant fertility. West of the mountains, the hilly zone rests on Transition
rocks and coal measures, and is succeeded west and south of Virginia by
the vast rolling or level plains which extend to the Ohio and Mississippi ;
and which, instead of the silicious sands of the eastern coast, exhibit rich
and varying soils resting on limestone and other Transition and Cretaceous
rocks. In Virginia, the hilly region, which is one vast coal measure, extends
to the bottom lands of the Ohio ; and its soils, taken as a whole, range from
ordinary to meager.t

We will now proceed to examine the capabilities and adaptation of each
aone, separately, for the purposes of sheep husbandry. It has already been
shown that sheep are he&ithy, and produce as heavy, and may be made to
produce as fine fleeces as elsewhere, in the tide-water zone. They are
easily kept — finding, in a climate so mild, considerable succulent food even
in the winter ; and, south of North Carolina, large numbers would subsist
during the entire winter on the hardier wild herbage which continues green
in the forests and swamps. If this region was stocked with sheep, to the
extent alone to which they could find subsistence, summer and winter, on
wild herbage — or, in other words, get a living without costing their own-
ers anything — the present number would be largely increased, and their
wool and mutton would add materially to the annual income of the own-
ers of the soil. But a better system would undoubtedly be not to depend
upon wild herbage alone, but to have pastures or sheep-walks seeded with
the best grasses which will flourish on them, and provision made for a quan-
tity of dry fodder, or some substitute for it, for winter use.

Can this summer and winter feed be produced, in the region under ex-
amination, to- any considerable extent, at an expense which would render
ita conversion into wool and mutton profitable 1 There are patches of
good natural pasture in many parts of the tide-water zone, apart From the
ealt or fresh water marshes. But artificial pastures and meadows have
rarely been attempted. The planters in this portion of South Carolina, for
example, actually import hay ! " Many of the cotton and rice planters .
. . in some dases buy hay from New-England. . . . Northern and
(in some cases) European hay is even carried up to supply Augusta and
Columbia, along rivers which flow through swamps covered with natural
grass, so rank and luxuriant as to be almost impenetrable."^

This neglect of grass culture springs from several causes. Little farm-
stock, comparatively speaking, is reared or kept by the rice and cotton-
planters, from the fact! that most of the labor on such plantations is per-
formed by men ; and the few animals kept are fed on wild herbage, or the
offal of crops which are raised for other purposes. The carnage and
draught horses and mules are fed in the winter on the leaves or " blades "
of corn ; and the neat stock get their living in the swamps, and in the
corn fields, where the greatest portion of the stalks are usually left stand-
ing.

Nor is it to be denied that various unsuccessful experiments have been
made in the cultivation of the grasses and clover, which have discouraged
farther efforts, and led many to infer that the soil or climate, or both, are
decidedly uncongenial to them. That the soil or climate is as favorable to
the production of rich, thick swarded pastures or meadows, as in many

* So termed by Werner. Though little used now by geologists, I resort to it as the shortest descriptive
epithet which will include all these'rocks, unless it be the Hemilisyan of Bronsmiart, the Submedial of Co-
nybeare, or the Gray wacke of De la Beche— neither of which is so familiar, nor, it appears to me. any bet
ter. The Transition rocka are equivalent to both tho Cambrian of Prof. Sedgwick, and the Silurian of Mr
Murchison — whose nomenclature i» adopted by Lyell. Phillips, Mantell, &R.

t Dr. Morse, Mitchell, &c. { Jluffin'a Agricultural Survey of South Carolina, 18-13, p. 73

32 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

parts of the Northern States, I do not contend. Some of these soils are
doubtless, naturally too ban-en to be made to produce good yields of grass,
without an expenditure which would more than counterbalance the profits
accruing from them. Others have been sunk nearly to the same level by
wasting and improvident tillage ; and it is on lands of the latter class,
mainly, that the experiments in introducing the grasses and clover have
been made. As long as they would produce cotton or corn, these crops
were annually taken from them, with perhaps an occasional year of rest
(i. e. lying without any crop being sown on or taken from them) ; and,
when reduced to such a degree of barrenness that the crop fell short of re-
paying the cost of producing it, clover or grass was resorted to in the vain
nope of suddenly repairing, through their instrumentality, the ravage and
desolation of years. The following is from the report of a Committee of
the Fishing Creek Agricultural Society, Chester District, South Carolina,
made to the President of the State Society in 1843 ; and, though this dis-
trict is not in the tide-water zone, the system of cropping described is more
or less the prevailing one* throughout much of the cotton growing region :

" We generally plant cotton on fresh land four or five years in succession — then corn —
then wheat or oats — again corn and cotton ; and, after it will produce little else, we sow it
hi rye, and let it rest two or three years. There are no fixed principles observed in the ro-
tation of crops. . . . We have no data whereby to fix the expense of cultivation accu-
rately. We know this, however, that at the price of produce for the last two or three years,
we are sinking money, "t

I ask what would be expected, in the way of grass or clover, from some
of the best grazing lands of New- York, after being cropped with grain
crops from ten to twelve years consecutively, with little or no manure ] —
However carefully seeded with the best grasses, or with clover, they wctild
riot form meadows worth mowing, nor pastures where an acre would sum-
mer a sheep — though, as now managed, an acre is poorly grassed that will
riot summer five or six sheep. Take the map of New-York, Sir, and draw
a right line from Buffalo to a point a little south of Albany — say Coxsackie
— and all the region, speaking in general terms, south of this line arid west
of the Catskill Mountains, is mainly devoted to grazing. It is the best
grazing region of the State, and much of it is equal to any in the Northern
States. The best farmers in no part of it take off to exceed three grain or
root crops before seeding clown to grass ; and, unless the soil is unusually
rich, it is customary to give barn-yard manure to one of these crops. This
is almost invariably the case where the land was in meadow when broken
up. Where no manure is given on meadow lands, or even on lightish pas-
ture lands, two grain crops are considered sufficient by the most provident
farmers — it being an axiom among such, that all ordinary or thinnish soils
should be nearly or quite as rich when seeded down as when broken up.
In other words, they draw from the soil only what is equivalent to the
strength or fertilizing properties of the sod, and of the manure given. —
When seeded down to grass, these lands are usually depastured by cattle
or sheep several years before they are again broken up. If converted into
meadow, they are top-dressed from time to time with gypsum, and some-
times with stable manures.J The poorest soils, rocky hill-sides, declivities
much subject to washing and gullying, are rarely broken up after being
once properly seeded down. I repeat it, Sir — take all the grazing lands
of New-York, and crop them as severely as it is reported above to be done
in Chester District, South Carolina, and they would become so sterile that,

* Id eet, so far as constant cropping without returning anything to the soil is concerned.
t See Ruffin's Agricultural Survey of South Carolina, 1843— Appendix, p. 6.

J [t is not considered good economy, however, to top-dress any meadows with stable manure* which
trc dry and arable, and con thus be subjected to the regular rotations of the farm.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 33

unless resuscitated by copious applications of manure, they would not
yield grass enough to pay the expanse of keeping them under fence, until
they had lain waste for a quarter of a century.

Another cause of the failures which have attended some of the efforts to
introduce the culture of clover and the grasses on the tide-water zone, in
the Southern States, may, and probably has, existed in the improper selec-
tion of the varieties sown. As the first crop on a very meager soil — red
clover, for example — is not appropriate in any region. In Flanders, the
natural soils of much of which so closely resemble those of the zone under
examination, it is not sown until the land is enriched and got in condition
by several preparatory crops. The different grasses seem to be affected
by various conditions in the soil or atmosphere, or both, which it is fre-
quently difficult or impossible to detect. Timothy grass ( Pklcum pratcnse)
is decidedly the favorite meadow grass of the grazing regions of New-
York. White clover (Trifolium rcpens) invariably comes up spontane-
ously on those lands. Red clover ( T. pratense) is sometimes sown with
Timothy in meadows, and generally in pastures. Red Top* (Agrostis
(stricta) vulgaris) is preferred on wet lands, where it comes up spontane-
ously. It is considered a prime pasture and meadow grass in such situa.-
tions. June or Spear grass (Poa pratensis), the Blue grass of the South
ern and Western States, so piized there and also in England,! is consid-
ered an unprofitable intruder in our meadows, where it comes up sponta-
neously, and ultimately drives out the Timothy. The meadows are then
said to be " run out," and are broken up. I have never known the seed
of this grass sown in a single instance ! The favorite Rye grasses of Eng-
land (Lolium perenne var. bienne), Lucern (Medicago sativa), Sainfoin
( 'Hedysarum onibrickisj, Orchard grass (Dactylis glomcrata), and various
others equally celebrated in England and on the Continent, have been
tried in New- York, and the experiments are generally regarded as decided
failures. None of them, at all events, have obtained a footing among the
grasses sown by our best farmers. On the other hand, the Red Top of
New-York is but little regarded in England, \ and Timothy was not in
much better repute until the Woburn experiments demonstrated its great
value for hay. Even now it is considered inferior, in general value, to
many other grasses.) | All this goes to show that even the hardiest grasses
have their favorite situations ; and that we are not authorized to pronounce
against the practicability of forming pastures and meadows in a given re-
gion, because we have failed in a trial with two or three grasses, out of a
list of as many hundreds.

It has already been remarked that there are patches of good natural
pasture on the dry as well as the wet portions of the tide-water zone
These are frequent and extensive, and could be rendered infinitely more
so by simply clearing the land. In your Memoir on the Cultivation of
Rice, furnished to Mr. Ruffin, while making the Agricultural Survey of
South Carolina, in 1843, you say :

" At first, rice was cultivated on the high land, and on little spots of low ground, as they
were met with here and there. These low grounds being found to agree ^better with the
plant, the inland swamps were cleared for the purpose of extending the culture, In the
process of time, as the fields became too grassy and stubborn, they were abandoned for new
clearings ; and so on, until at length was discovered the superior adaptation of the tide-lands,
wad the great facilities for irrigation afforded by their location. For these, the inland planta-
tions were gradually and slowly abandoned, until now, that the great body of land, which

* Sometimes known as " Upright Bent grass," and in the Southern States as Herds-grass.
t Pronounced by Sole the best of all the grasses.

t Agrostis vulgaris is pronounced " a worthless or rather a mischievous plant," by Sir George Sinclair I

(I "Our opinion," says Louden, " is that neither Timothy nor (some other grasses named) is ever likely

to be cultivated in Britain." *

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

little more than a century ago furnished for exportation over 50,000 barrels of rice, now lie*
utterly waste, constituting, where trees have not overgrown it, the finest natural pasture
which could be desired."* »

Mr. Ruffin in his Report of the Survey, of the same year, asserts :

" Few countries possess greater natural facilities, or which are more improvable by in.
d istry, for producing in abundance, grass, hay and live-stock, and their products of meat,
milk and butter, all .of which are now so deplorably deficient.''!

The Committee appointed by the State Agricultural Society of South
Carolina to take into consideration the scheme of reducing the quantity
of cotton grown,J in their Report observe :

" Millions of acres in South Carolina, including the lower country, are admirably adapted
to the raising of rich grasses. This might be added as another branch of industry, from
which reasonable profits could be realized, and might very well bo added to the cotton
planter's income."

Corresponding statements, on equally indisputable authority, might be
indefinitely multiplied, not only in relation to that portion of the tide-
water zono lying within the limits of South Carolina, but in all the South-
ern States. South Carolina occupying a central geographical and lati-
tudinal position, in reference to this zone, and its soils on it, about
averaging, so far as I can learn, with that of the other States, it is not
necessary to pursue the inquiry.

Where fine natural pastures spring up spontaneously on deserted lands,
more or less impoverished — probably in most instances considerably so —
how little difficulty would there be in forming, almost immediately, the
best artificial pastures and meadows on millions of acres of just such land,
(only that it is in its virgin state, and consequently far better,) now in un-
productive forest ! And how small would be the amount of skill requisite
to convert millions of acres more of cotton lands — which do not now yield
emunerating crops — into pastures and meadows, which, as I shall show,
would yield their owners a handsome remuneration !

And the culture of the grasses need not stop with these comparatively
good and medium lands. They can be made to stretch their carpet of
green over the poorest of your sands — over those now covered with stunt-
ed pines, or which, scorched and naked, reverberate back fiercely the
burning heat of a southern sky.

There are few regions in the tide-water zone possessing poorer soils
than some cultivated portions of New- York. In the vicinity of Albany,
(between that city and Schenectady, for example,) the same loose, silicious
sands, the same, though perhaps rather more stunted, growth of pines,
would almost compel you to fancy yourself somewhere between Richmond
and "Wilmington, on the route of the great Southern Railroad ! Denuded
of their meager covering of dwarf pines, and the cohesion produced by
their interlacing roots, these sands would be lifted and driven about by
the winds. Yet on such a soil as this, you find the farm of the late cele
brated Jesse Buel ! And fertile grass fields, dotted here and there with
splendid mansions, are every year stretching out farther and farther amonfl
the arid sands. How are these rapid transformations in the fertility of
the soil accomplished I The stables, and mews, and cesspools of Albany
can give the answer !

The following description of the natural soils of Flanders, now prover*
bial for its fine crops and rich pastures and meadows, is from the pen of
that able English agricultural writer, Rev. W. L. Rham :

* Asrriculturft.1 Survey of South Carolina, 1843. Appendix, p. 14. t Ih. p 73.

J The Committee consisted of Whitemareh B. Seabrook, Esq., John B. O'Neal!, Esq., and W. J.
Ewj.— «tnd the Report was Kale, I believe, in January, in 1846.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 35

" The greater part of the land in Flanders is naturally poor ; and in extensive districts,
which now have the appearance of the greatest richness at harvest time, the original soil waa
once little better than the blowing sands which are met with in the neighborhood of the sea
Neither is it a genial climate which brings forward the fruits of the earth in abundance ; for
the climate is inferior to that of France or the southern parts of Germany. The soil may be
divided into two classes. The first consists of the alluvial clay loams near the coast; tne
second, of various sands and light loams which are found in tile interior. The most fertile is
that of the low lands which have been reclaimed from the sea by embankments ; it is chiefly
composed of a muddy deposit mixed with fragments of marine shells and fine sea sand . .
In the interior of East and West Flanders the soil varies considerably ; but the prmcipal
part is of a sandy nature. The sand, and a heavier loam which scarcely deserves the name
of clay, are found much intermixed, which is owing to an alternation of layers of sand arid
loam, which are found by digging to a considerable depth. These layers are not of great
thickness, and the accidental circumstance of the washing away of the sand in some place-*
and the depositions from rivers in others easily account for this variety. Some of the eleva-
tions, which are nowhere considerable, consist of a very poor sand, and suggest the idea of
their having once been the sands of the sea blown into hills, as is observable on the coast.
These hills," if they may be so called, are naturally so barren that they were, not very long since,
covered with heath, or at best planted with fir trees ; but they have gradually been culti-
vated and improved, and only a few remain in their original state of heath and wood. The
poorer sands have been brought into cultivation chiefly by the persevering industry of small
proprietors and occupiers."

Have we not here a good general description of much of our southern
Atlantic coast — the tide swamp and sandy plain — and even a graphically
minute account of the " Sand Hill " region of South Carolina 1

Instances of the reclamation of such lands might be indefinitely mul-
tiplied.

I do not offer the above facts to prove that it is either profitable or ex-
pedient to reclaim all the sterile lands of the southern sea-board by the same
means that have been resorted to about Albany, or in Flanders. Except
in the vicinity of cities, where manures are plentiful and cheap, and un-
common market facilities are offered, it would not be profitable, unless it
can be accomplished by less expensive means.

But it proves one and an important position : that it is the sterility of
such soils — or perhaps their loose and "blowing" character in some places,,
their sun-baked hardness in others — which prevents them from spontane-
ously producing esculent herbage ; and nothing in them, as has been
frequently fancied, positively deleterious to vegetation. And it follows,,
hence, that whenever it is profitable to convert them into grass lands, it is
practicable so to do by the proper application of manures. But do I hear
some of your South Carolina neighbors, of the anti-improvement school,,
(if you have any such,) say, " If our soils are, or can be made, generally,
suitable for the production of the grasses, our climate cannot 1 " This
position is obviously incorrect, as warmer climates, as, for example, Aus-
tralia, the Cape of Good Hope, and various others, produce, where the
soils are favorable, a luxuriant growth of grasses ; and South Carolina
herself, as has been already shown, produces them bountifully in situations
where neither the latitude nor the elevation abates one jot of the heat of
your fervid climate.

It is not impossible that the climate of the States farthest south — south,
say, of North Carolina — may be unfavorable to certain grasses and cloveis ;•
and perhaps so to the favorite ones of the Northern States. In relation
to led clover, however, the acclimation of which is regarded by many as
so important to those States, it seems Mr. Ruffin thought otherwise. He
itya:

" Perennial, or other permanent grasses, of which, doubtless, there may be found some'
peculiarly suited to the warm climate, (South Carolina,) would still more serve to give the
great benefits of changed condition to the fields, independent of the much needed benefits
of grass husbandry for feeding of live-stock and giving rest and manure to the land. The
"Trasses whose value has bees, fully established by long experience in more northern coun

36 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

tries, should be tried — not because they are from the North, (which in itself is a strong ob-
jection,) but merely because their good qualities are known, and possibly some such gra»nee
may as well suit a more southern dime. And such. I trust, is red clover, the best^of all
green and manuring crops. For although this was long held to belong to the North only, I
nave fully experienced that its locality and the perfection of its growth are fixed much more
by peculiarity of soil than by latitude. Not more than twenty years ago it was as general
a belief in Lower Virginia, as now in South Carolina, that there the soil was too scanty and
the sun too hot to raise red clover. But since marling and liming have made many of theso
•oils calcareous, it is found that neither the sandy soil nor hot and dry climate forbid the
raising excellent and profitable crops of clover. And so hereafter it will be found iu South
Carolina."*

In a Report by a Committee of the Milton Agricultural Society, (em-
bracing adjacent parts of Laurens and Newberry Districts, S. C.) made to
the State Society in 1843, they state :

" Our native grasses, except the crab grass, are of the poorest kind, principally sedge. Of
the artificial grasses, some trials have been made with red clorer and herds-grass. t On rich
lots the first appears to succeed veiy wrell. For alternating with tillage crops we do not
know of its having been tried ; but our impression is, that without manuring more highly
than is customary here, it will not answer. We are not aware that it has ever been sowed
with gypsum. The herds-grass, as far as it has been tried, appears to succeed very well on
the bottoms that border our branches and creeks. "J

Lawrence and Newberry are not in the tide-water region, but so far as
the effect of climate alone is concerned, their testimony has an equal
bearing.

I have little doubt that red clover may be cultivated on good, rich soils
even in the States south of North Carolina, and may possibly become, un-
der some circumstances, a profitable crop in their rotations ; but, as has
been already remarked, it will not do as tijirst crop on very meager soils,
in any climate — and still less so, I apprehend, on such soils south of lati-
4ude 34°. It is not, therefore, the crop which you need, to cheaply ame-
liorate your poor and exhausted soils, to fit them either for grazing or for
tillage. Grant that such soils can be fitted to produce it, as Mr. Iluifiri
Suggests, by the application of lime or marl,|| these manures will be found
.expensive, can be but slowly obtained in quantities sufficient to apply to
large tracts, and, besides, when the soil is sufficiently ameliorated to carry
clover, it will carry most if not all of your ordinary tillage crops. Though
;doYer would aid materially in the rotation, in sustaining or even improv-
ing the fertility superinduced by lime or any other fertilizer, it is not, and
cannot be made the original fertilizer on the sterile sands of warm climates.
When we talk, therefore, of the initiatory steps by which such soils shall
be brought from a state of barrenness to a state of production, clover does
not come within the category of appropriate agents.

Though red clover ranks in the first class, if not the first in that class,
on appropriate soils, as a grazing and manuring crop, I have never regard-
ed it as indispensable — as what the lawyers would style a sine qua non—
even in sustaining fertility anywhere except on rich calcareous wheat
lands, where a severe and exhausting rotation is resorted to. Where
wheat is taken from the soil at least every alternate year, for ten, fifteen,
01 twenty years, without any manure, excepting the intervening crop, and
the droppings of animals depastured on it, clover will better sustain the
land in the ultimately fatal struggle, than perhaps any other green na-

* Ruffin's Ajrricultural Survey of S. C.. 1843, p. 8t.

t This should be the Agrostis stricta or vulgaris— the Red Top of the North. Some writers deftj'm.-ite B
ts the one species, some aa the other.

t Ruffin's Agricultural Survey of S. C., 1843 ; Appendix, p. 9.

|| Unless, however, the soil contains more organic matter than I suppose to be the cane with many <*
your »a,ndy soils, theory and practice both show that lime will not prove the proper manure. Though* ex-
eecdingly valuable in its p.ace, experience shows that it is no- agricultural panacea. I shall allude to this sub-
jcct move fullv »u a subseruent letter

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 37

During crop. But on the silicious grazing soils of Southern* New-Y ork, it
Is rarely used exclusively as a manuring crop, and is but little used, ex-
cepting slightly admixed with timothy, for pasture or meadows.* I think
it should be used more ; but the fact stated shows that clover is not re
guarded by practical men, who are perfectly familiar with it, as that indis-
pensable crap, in all situations, which some of its more extravagant pane-
gyrists would lead us to suppose. The conclusions which I wrould ha-ve
you deduce from the above facts and statements are, simply, that if clover
is found to flourish with you without extra trouble and expense, you will
do well to make use of it in your rotation ; if not, it is chimerical, in my
judgment, to engage in an expensive struggle with natural disadvantages
to force its cultivation.

The herds-grass (red top) spoken of by the Milton Society, is a good
grass on moist (but not boggy) soils, and having been found to succeed
with you, is worthy of trial in such situations, but on dry soils, especially
on arid sands, it would entirely fail. Nor have I much confidence in
either timothy or spear (blue) grass, in such situations, in your latitude —
none at all in the former.

It would be well, probably, to try limited experiments with all grasses,
domestic and foreign, which have succeeded well on soils similar to your
own ; as among these, some may be found which disregard climate, or are
even better fitted to your climate than their indigenous one, as was the
case with timothy at the North. The same remark is also true in rela-
tion to certain other esculents which are used as substitutes for the grasses,
and for green manuring crops.

Notwithstanding the evident propriety of such experiments, I am
strongly inclined to the opinion that it is to your own native grasses and
esculents, or those of some kindred climate, you must look mainly for the
basis of your grazing husbandry — arid through this, the amelioration of
your poor and exhausted soils.

I regret that 1 can find no list of those native grasses which sward over
the deserted lands of the tide-water zone, and flourish with a tropical lux-
uriance in its swamps. You allude to them as * native " grasses, so does
Mr. Rufh'n. Mr. Seabrook, in his Report .on Cotton Culture, J speaks of
" crop grass," by which I suppose he means Crab grass, (Panicum san-
guinale,) coming up spontaneously after spring-sown peas ; but farthei
than this, neither of you specify varieties.|| Among these indigenous ones,
particularly those which spontaneously make their appearance on dry
lands, it would be exceedingly singular if there are not several very valua
ble grasses for your soils and climate — grasses the seeds of which should
form a part, if not suitable for the whole sowing, on the same kinds of
§oils on which they are found flourishing.

Crab grass grows in all parts of the southern States, and is a fair, though
not a very superior pasture and meadow grass.

Golden millet (Panicum milliacenm) is a great producer and withstands

1 know of but very few farmers excepting myself, in this, (Cortland,) one of the best of the grazing
counties, who sow unmixed clover seed. I confess myself decidedly partial to the crop. You may ride
ten miles or more in many directions from my house, where half and frequently more than three-fourth*
of the fields are in pasture or meadow, without observing rive acres of unmixed clover.

J For this elaborate and exceedingly able Report or Memoir, see Farmers' Library, 1845, October, No-
vember and December Nos.

I! Since writing the above, I have received from a South Carolina correspondent the following list of
jp-asses and other esculents which flourish in the lower part of that State. Crab grass (Digitaria sangui-
nails), earlier — the " Crowfoot" (Eltusinc Indica), a little later, are, he says, the best grasses for hay, and
drive in cultivated grounds from the month of June till frost. The "Wild Okra" (Viola palmata), th«
''Partridge Berry" (Mitckella repens), the Wild Pea Vine, and several other esculents, obscure and ua-
k»4»wi: by name, flourish in most natural pastures from early spring till November.

38 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

a warm climate, but it requires a good soil. It has been cultivated with
great success by Mr. Affleck in (Adams county) Mississippi.

Bermuda grass* ( Cijnochn dactijlon) I have been led to consider, from
the representations of Mr. Affleck, as the best grass, both for pasture and
xneadow, on the -sterile sands of the tide-water zone. If half this enlhu-
oiistic admirer believes of it is true, it is of inestimable value to the South,
and for permanent pastures and meadows, is by far the best grass in the
United States. Mr. A. says :

" We are fully aware of all the objections made to the spreading of this grass, and have
a practical knowledge of all the trouble it occasions ; and having also had several years' ex-
perience of its great, its incalculable value, we have no hesitation in stating that the latter is
manifold greater than the former. The time is not iar distant when all the rough feed cDn-
aumed on plantations will be made from this grass ; and when the planter will consider his

hay crop as of much more importance than Ins sugar or cotton The excellence of thia

plant for pasturage is evinced by two circumstances. It is preferred by stock of every de-
scription to all other grass, and it grows luxuriantly in every kind of soil. It possesses an
additional advantage, that of binding the loosest and most barren sandy tracts. But when it
•has once taken possession of close, rich soil, its -extirpation is so difficult as almost to defy all
the skill, industry and perseverance of farmers. It is used to bind the levees on the banks
of the Mississippi, and of railroads. We saw it at Macon, Geo., Charleston, S. C., and so
on, as far north as City Point, Virginia, where it partially covers the wharf. One hundred
pounds of grass afford upward of fifty of dry hay ; and ice do cut, as a regular crop, five
tons of hay per acre each season. Were we to state how much more has been cut, we might
strain the belief of our readers. No other grass will yield such an amount of valuable hay ;
surpass it in nutritive qualities; support on an acre of pasture such a quantity of stock ; will
improve the soil more quickly ; or so effectually stop and fill up a wash or gully. But, on
the other hand, its extirpation, when once well established, is almost impossible ; though to
check and weaken it, so far as to grow a grain or cotton crop, is easy enough. To do this,
pursue the course of the best farmers of Kentucky in their management of a blue-grass sod—
with a good breaking plow, having a wheel and coulter, and a stout team, turn over evenly
and nicely a sod four inches thick and as wide as the plow and team are capable of, follow
in the same furrow with another plow which casts the dirt well, and throw out as much of
the fresh earth on top of the sod as possible or the depth of the soil will admit of. The crop
that follows can easily be tended without disturbing the sod, and its gradual decay will
greatly increase whatever crop may be planted on it — and that should be a shading one,
corn and peas or pumpkins, -or winter oats followed by peas. Good farmers will understand
that heavy crops of hay cannot be removed, for many successive years, from any land, with-
out some return in the shape of manure. To the careful, judicious farmer, who wishes to
improve his land and his stock, and who does not expect to grow any crop without trouble,
and who uses good plows, and keeps a stout team and that in prime order, we earnestly
recommend to try an acre or two of this grass, in a situation where it cannot readily spread.
To the careless farmer we say touch it not."t

The same gentleman writes me under date of Dec. 10th, 1846 :

11 Bermuda grass well set, which affords the finest and most nutritious pasturage I have
ever seen, will keep almost any number of sheep to the acre — three or four times as many
as the best blue-grass ! "

Unless this is gross and willful exaggeration,^ here you have a grass
which is not only highly palatable and nutritive, but which will yield
more than double both of pasturage and hay, than the best grass or clover
of the Northern States ! || It has been tried as far south as New-Orleans,
and the climate found no detriment to it. It will flourish on dry and al-
most barren sands. § What can the farmer on the dry lands of the tide-
water zone ask more 1 [ts inextirpable character I regard as decidedly in

* Cumberland Grass — Wire grass of Virginia — Creeping Panic grass.

t See Norman's Southern Agricultural Almanac, for 1847.

j Neither of which are we permitted to suspect, from the well-known character and intelligence af Mr
Affleck.

|i People here in the North sometimes talk of getting three tons of timothy and four tons of clover (at
Ivro cuttings) per acre, but it is not done on one acre in ten thousand, on the best meadows ! Twa tons lg
a gcod, and by far above a medium yield, of timothy, and three, of clover. The large amounts of Ber-
muda sometimes cut, which Mr. A. does not mention for fear of "straining the belief of his readers " ha
has stated to me personally, to be eight tons! ! — equivalent to the yield of three first-rate acres c<" Mnoth/
Mi the bent grazing lands of Southern New- York.

8 Mr. AiHeck informs me he has repeatedly seen it growing w^ll w such situations.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY. IN THE SOUTH. 39

its favor on millions and millions on the thinner and poorer soils of that

zone — as once admitted, it will put an end to the unprofitable tillage

practiced on them, and remove all temptation to resort to it on others, as

;y are gradually rescued from barrenness. It will thus compel the

Joption of that pastoral system which can alone make these lands prof-
itable, or save them, if the forebodings of those who have been reared on
them and are deeply attached to them, can be credited, from ultimate de-
ecrtion.*

You have another fodder crop — and which may be made a green ma-
nuring one, in no respect inferior to clover. The pea is to the South what
clover is to the North.t There is something in your soil or climate, or
both, which seems to be specifically adapted to the development of this
plant — f Dr it nourishes with you under a much greater variety of soils -and
circumstances than at the North. A leguminous plant, like clover, it draws
much of its aliment from the atmosphere ; and it is perhaps as sensibly
affected by the same cheap manure, plaster. Its haulm or straw, if cut and
cured greenish, and well taken care of, makes a good, rich fodder relished
by all kinds of stock. Peas are greedily eaten by neat stock, swine, and
sheep, for which they form a healthy and highly nutritious- food. The
white field pea of the North is considered equivalent to our corn,f by
measure, in fattening swine. For sheep, and particularly for breeding
ewes, there is probably no feed in the world equal to nicely cured pea
haulm, j| with a portion of the seed left unthreshed.§ It gives them condi-
tion and vigor — and prepares them to yield a bountiful supply of rich milk
to their young.

Though the pea is an annual, it becomes in effect a perennial, South,
when it is desired, by suffering it to stand until some of the grain shellw
out.ft It will mature in a southern climate, sown late in the summer, so
that one, and even two preceding crops of it might first be plowed in as a
manure. It will ripen among Indian corn, sown after that plant has ceased
to grow, and there have been successful experiments of sowing it late with
wheat, oats, &c., to have it obtain its growth (to be plowed under as ma-
nure) after those crops have been harvested.

Sprengel gives the following analysis of the pea. 1,000 parts in the
common dry state yield

Potash and soda. ...

Seed.
15-50

Straw.

Sulphuric acid

tittd
0-52

Strain.

Lime and maqnesia .

1-95

30-70

Chlorine .

•38

ti-oo

Phosphoric acid

1-90

2-40

Silica, iron, &c

4-40

10-85

* Statements of this kind have been repeatedly made in the pages of the Monthly Farmer by southern
gentlemen.

t I had labored under the impression that the so-called pea — cultivated as a manuring crop in the South
ern States, was in reality a variety of the bean ; but Mr. Ruffin in his Agricultural Survey of South Caro-
lina, (see Report of 1843, p 81,) and Hon. VV. 13. Seabrpok in his Memoir on Cotton Culture, (see Monthly
Journal of Agriculture, Dec., 1845, p. 287,) speaks of this crop— the former again and again— as peas, with-
out the qualification which would be expected from gentlemen of so much learning, in case they wero
cpeaking of a plant by a vulgar misnomer, instead of its real name. The peculiar value of the crop at th«
South in the particulars described, I find asserted by Mr. Ruffin, Mr. Affleck, and various other writers and
Agricultural Societies, in the strongest terms, and therefore it makes little difference, practically, whether
the name is correct or not , but if not, the following analyses, &c., are misplaced. The bean resemble*
the p?a in its qualities and value, but is rather inferior to it.

J The small, hard corn of the North contains more nutriment per bushe? than the ]arge southern com.

|| That is, cut and cured so that it will come out of the stock or mow bright, and with the leaves looking
green— instead of having the ferruginous hue of over-ripe clover.

§ If cut greenish and well cured, the greener pods will not thresh out readily, and then they are in ex-
actly the proper condition for breeding-ewes. If the crop is very light, cut it when all the pods are quito
green, and feed it out without threshing.

IT This is, however, poor economy in any case. If the objec is peas, it is wasteful to the crop, and the
quantity sown is uncertain ; besides, the haulm is ruined for fodder. If the object is manure, the loss is
etill greater. Plants in drying lose the nitrogen contained in their sap, give up their saline matters, and are
" resolved more or less completely into carbonic acid, which escapes into the- air, and is so far lost." — See
Liehig on this subject, and ilso the clear and able remarks of Johnston, (Johnston's Agricultural Chemistry.
vrL ii. p. 176, et supra.)

SHEEP HUSBANDRY N THE SOUTH.

The following table ol the comparative value of manures, deduced from
analyses made by Payen and Bouasmgault, will show the remarkable com
parative value of the pea as a manuring crop, and it will be found other
wise useful for reference :

TABLE No. 1.

Kinds of Manure.

7-6
8-5

19-

LI-

12'

Farm yard dung. .

Dung water

Wheat straw

Rye straw

Oat straw

Barley straw

Wheat chaff.

Pea straw

Millet straw

Buckwheat straw.
Dried potato tops .
With'd 1'ves of beet-root 88

Do. of potatoes

Do. of carrots

Do. of heather

Do. of oak

Do. of poplar

Do. of beech

Clover roots

Burned sea-weed

Oyster shells

Sea shells

Sea-side marl

Solid cow-dung

Urine of cows

Solid horse-dung

Horse urine

Pig dung

Sheep dung

Pigeon dung

Guano

Do

Fresh bones

Feathers

Woolen rags

jHorn shavings

Coal soot

jWood soot

iPicardy ashes

51
39

9

3
17

1-0
85-9

15-6

9-2

Nitrogen in, \ Quality I
.OQof matter, according to\
I state.

2-30
2-94
1-90
1-5?
1-1?
1-91
1-77
0-40
0-40
0-05

Wet. | Dry.| Wet. ]•

0-41

0-06

0-24
0-i7

0-28

0'48

0'55
0'85
1-74
1-18
0-54
1-18
1-61
0-38

0-32
0*44
0-55

12-50 2'61
0-63
1-11
8-30
5-00

15-7313-95
5-31

_. __ 15-34

20-26 17-98

9-0 15-78J14-36 80!

1-15
0-65

]'JO

22

150

97

80

100

2

GO

42-5

TO

57-5
, 212-5
100 447-5
49l 11)5
27 1 120

92-5
1 25
137-5
212-5
425
293

26

117

641
172

462

134
294
402-5
95
80
13
128
80
110
137-5
652-5
157-5
277-5

2075

1247

3487

1326

3835

4495

3590
337-5
287-5
162-5

100

650

975

542

750

207

100

203

361

453

43

85

66

103

125

167

102

110

488

488

3750

377

84

51

88

I?

65

31J
I*]

11

9;
12i

122
149

silent
ding

Off.

Wet

Remarks.

100

Average of Bechelbixuu.

68

Washed by the rain.

167

Fresh of Alsace, 1838.

235

Of Alsace.

143

do.

174

do.

47

do.

22

do.

51

do.

83

do.

108

80

Of mangel-wurzel.

73

Withered top and leaves.

47

23

Dried in the air.

34

Leaves fallen in autumn.

74

do.

34

do.

25

Dried hi the air.

105

125

769

Dried sea-shells of Dunkirk

78
125
91

73
151
63
36

The horse drank but little, tha
[urine was thick.

Of Bechelbronn.
Imp. into Eng. in its ord. state.'
Imp. into France, do.
As sold by the melters.

It will be seen that pea straw is worth, as a manure, from 5 to 9 times
as much as the straws of the small grains — is better than clover roots, arid
actually equals farm-yard dung !

Rye, oats and barley send up a good growth of straw, in many parts
of this zone, even where the product of grain is small ; and, sown in the
fall, they afford sweet green pasturage, during the entire winter, in the
more southern latitudes. This is a very important and a very favorable
consideration in an economical system of sheep husbandry. All winter
green feed (roots) in the Northern States must be cultivated, harvested,
protected from the frosts of winter in cellars, and daily fed out — which ne-
cessarily renders it expensive. Where winter field crops can be depas-
tured on the ground, it saves the greatest proportion of this expense ; and,
though winter green feed is not indispensable to sheep, it promotes their
health, early maturity, and is especially valuable to breeding-ewes. All
ihe crops above named, too, can be profitably made use of as green
manure.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 41

Blades of corn, well cured, are relished by sheep, and they thrive 01
them.*

The sweet potato is also readily eaten by them, and it fattens them per
haps as rapidly as any other root crop. Although it might be regarded ai
Coo valuable for sheep feed, in regions where the whole force is given U
the culture of cotton, there are others where, I cannot but believe, it migh?
oe occasionally if not regularly resorted to with profit, unless rye, oats
oarley, &c. can be provided so much more cheaply that it is no object so
to do. It is so cheaply planted by slips, and tilled with so little trouble,
and it so admirably prepares land for subsequent crops,t that, on rich and
otherwise favorable soils, my impression is strong it is, at all events, as
cheap a winter feed for stock in the South as the Irish potato is in the
North. Its average yield is about two-thirds that of the latter. The Irish
potato is universally regarded as one of the cheapest feeds that can bo
given to all kinds of stock, to which it is adapted in the North. It is true
that it is not fed so much as it would otherwise be, with us, in the winter,
by reason of the cold. It is difficult to protect this root from freezing, and
at the same time leave it accessible for daily feeding, without putting it in
dwelling-house cellars, which are usually at some distance from the feed-
ing barns and yards ; and besides, the conversion of this citadel of a north-
ern matron's culinary stores, into a great, dirty root pit, would be a most
grierous infringement on all the canons of good housewifery !

The foregoing facts show that the Southern States have already all that
is necessary to feed stock and fertilize their fields. Their pea, take it all
in all, is a full equivalent for the clover of the North.J By means of it —
of Bermuda and some other grasses — aided by the droppings of sheep, and
other cheap and convenient manures, a large proportion of the tide-water
aone, no\v so unproductive, can be converted into grazing lands, which will
yield as good a per centage on present capital and investment as the best
cotton uplands, and produce wool at a less expense pcr pound tlian any re-
gion of the United States north of the Potomac.

* A friend of mine wintered a few Merino sheep on not only the blades, but the stalks, of our northern
corn, chopping the whole up together, and adding a little bran or shorts. He found it cheap feed, and the
sheep got fat enough to slaughter before spring.

t After the crop is harvested, swine are turned in, and they root the ground over so deeply and tho:--'
cmghly that it is in a better state of tillage than could be produced by mere spring plowing.

\ Mr. Ruffin, the great advocate for clover, admits that in the South it is not fitted to precede Indian corn,
oa account of the destructive cut worms it harbors, unless the land be plowed "early in winter," or othet
precautionary steps are uken. The pea is not liable to this objection. See Rulfia's Ag. Survey cf S. Cs

42 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

LETTER IV.

TEE ADAPTATION OF THE SOILS, HERBAGE, &c. OF THE SOUTHERN
STATES TO SHEEP HUSBANDRY, CONTINUED. 2. OF THE MIDDLE ()a
HILLY ZONE. 3. OF THE MOUNTAIN REGION.

Climate, Soils, and Productions of the Middle or Hilly Zone — Irs evident Adaptation to Sheep IIusbp.ndry
...The Mountain Region... Altitudes of different Ranges and Peaks — Their general Shape — Freedom from
Rocks. Precipices, &i:... Table Lands— Their Geological Formations — Products.. .Mr. Clingman's Letter
describing the Roan and other Mountains in North Carolina. . -Mr. Buckley's Counter Statements... Mr.
Karle's Description of the Mountains in Henderson and Rutherford Counties, North Carolina. ..Col. Cola-
ton's Statements in relation to the Mountains in Berkley County, Virginia.. .Hon. A. Stevenson's in rela-
tion to the Blue Ridge, and the Mountains in the South-west of Virginia — Hon. W. L. Goggin's in relation
to the same. . .Judge Beatty's Account of Sheep Husbandry on the Cumberland Mountains— Mr. Kramer's
...Mr. Buckley's Views in relation to the North Carolina Mountains examined and objected to... Climate
of the Roan and others compared with that of the Grazing Lands of New-York. .. Statistics showing the
Forwardness of the Seasons and the Temperature in New-York. . .Effect of Elevation on Temperature
On Vegetable Productions.

, Dear Sir : The middle or hilly zone is high, dry, healthy, and has a
mild and, compared with the North, equable climate.* Its soils possess
the ingredients due to its formation — disintegrated granite — and are far
more fertile than those of the lower zone. Sometimes on the summits of
the hills they are poor and thin, and there are occasionally extensive ranges
of poor land, as in Virginia ; but as a general thing, they vary from fair to
good ; and on the bottom lands of some of the rivers and larger creeks,
they possess remarkable fertility. The valleys, however, are generally
narrow, and are everywhere the bed of streams, which abundantly water
this whole region, and furnish inexhaustible facilities for mills and manu-
factories. The slight cohesion of the soil, aided by the face of the country
and the system of tillage pursued in many parts of it,t render it peculiarly
subject to washing by heavy rains. The hill-sides are frequently cut into
deep gullies,. rendering aration difficult,! and the surface soil is washed
into the valleys and into the beds of the creeks, not only impoverishing the
high lands, but, by impeding the courses of the streams, in some regions
converting those of the valleys into unhealthy marshes.||

Grasses suited to the climate flourish when sown, and on lands not ut-
terly worn out, throughout all this region; and there is little doubt that
every variety which could be acclimated on the sands of the lower zone,
could be more readily acclimated here — and probably various others. The
pea succeeds in nearly every situation ; oats also form a valuable ma-
nuring crop in some parts ; while on many of the alluvial bottoms, such,
for example, as the Blackjack lands of South Carolina — rye grows luxuri-
antly, answering a valuable purpose either for grain, manure, or for winter

* The range ol the thermometer is sometimes 60° to 75° in a single month (March or April) in Nevr-
York!

t That is, a constant succession of clean tillage crops, such as cotton, corn, and tobacco.

J The Fishing Creek Agricultural Society, in their Repoi't before quoted from, say : "The only really
waste land we have is our old fields, many of which are so washed end gullied as to be absolutely irre-
claimable." Mr. Ruffin says that "the destruction both of soil and of fertility has been enormous " from
this cause.

|| " The country was, at first, as its features indicated, nearly free from malaria and all its noxious effects
But as soon as the incessant and injudicious use of the plow caused the soil to be washed from the hilly
grounds into the bottoms, the before unobstructed clean bordered channels of all the small streams were
filled and clogged with earth, and vegetable rubbish, and fine" matter, and the adjacent low lands were
thereby renderedlswampy. The washing of the high land earth into the valleys so altered the original sur-
face level as to kill the trees ; and their decay, and. later, the obstructions by their fallen trunks, increased the

ceneral evi! I infer" that these ranges "have mainly served to nourish malaria and increase tha

/nalijnity of disease." [Ruffin' a Ag. Survey of S. C., 1843, p. 96.J

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SC UTH. 43

feed for stock. In this last particular, it would be, as I lia\o before saM
an important auxiliary in sheep husbandry.

The adaptation of mo^t of this region to sheep husbandry is too obviouj
to require extended comment ; and it becomes, therefore, simply a ques-
tion of profit and loss, whether it is expedient to introduce it.* Let us turn
therefore, to the adaptation of the mountain region to this branch of industry

The altitude of the southern mountains, with a few exceptions, is nol
very considerable. The loftiest, the Black and the Roan, in North Caro-
lina, are respectively 6,476 and 6,038 feet in hight. The Peaks of Otter,
the highest, and summits of the Blue Ridge in Virginia, are 4,250, and the
highest Alleganies 2,500 feet high. Table Mountain in South Carolina
is about 4,000, and the terminal masses of the Blue Ridge in Georgia are
about l,500.f The hight of the Cumberland Mountains, the most western
chain, I nowhere find stated, but they are not reputed as high as some of
the preceding. It will be seen, therefore, that none of the southern moun-
tains rise above the range of the grasses. They are usually broad at the
base, easy of ascent, and rounded or flattened on their summits, instead
of rising from narrow bases into steep pyramidal forms with conical peaks ;
and from their geological formations and their shape (resulting probably
from that formation,) they are uncommonly free from exposed rocks, preci-
pices and abrupt acclivities. With the exception, perhaps, of the Cum-
berland chain, large, exposed rocks abound far less, on most of these
mountains than in many parts of New-England, or even the Old Red Sand-
stone region of Pennsylvania, which are not only pastured, but plowed !
Indeed, a side-hill plow, drawn by oxen, could be used on very many of
the southern mountains, if cleared, to their very summits ; and this is true,
singular as it may appear, of some of the loftiest of them.J The Cumber-
land Mountains are spoken of by Doct. Morse, as " stupendous piles of
craggy rocks," and in these statements he has been followed by more re»
cent geographers. But if this description applies to some portions of the
chain, it certainly does not to others, as I shall have occasion to show.

On the sides, and sometimes on the summits of the mountains in differ-
ent parts of this whole region, extensive plains or table lands, already
pretty well covered with wild and domestic grasses and nutritious escu-
lents, not unfrequently occur. Esculents suitable for sheep are to be
found in greater or less quantities on nearly all of them.

West of the summit of the Blue Ridge, the geological formations, as
has before been stated, belong to the Transition period — a rather unusual
circumstance in mountain ranges, and undoubtedly more indicative of
fertility in the superincumbent soils than the ordinary Primary formation. |j
Indeed, they are the same with those of the best grazing lands of South-
ern New- York, and subtracting climatic and other§ effects of elevation,
they should possess a general correspondence in their properties and pro-
ducts, with the latter.^]

* This question will be fully discussed in a subsequent letter.

t For these altitudes. I am indebted to Professor Mitchell.

} For example, the Roan.

|| It is true that soils formed from Primary rocks, when sufficiently fertile to sustain herbage of any kind
are peculiarly adapted to the production of sweet grasses; bat mountains of this formation are usually
eteeper, from the slower decomposition of granite, gneiss, and Dther Primary rocks, and their steepness ex
poses them to increased abrasion, or washing. Hence their soils frequently but thinly cover the rocks,
mnd are of a meager and lixiviated character.

§ To wit. abrasion and denudation by rains. And, moreover, the '• northern drift " of New- York has added
* little lime to the soils formed from these rocks, and thus supplied, measurably, a want existing in all of
them for most tillage crops.

li" For example, (he ''Slate Hills." which rise on the west of Augusta, Rockingham, Shenandoah, Fred-
erick and some other counties in Virginia, are composed of the same rocks (Hamilton group, including
Genesee slate of the New-York system.) which underlie some of the best soils in New-York; ard much
of the land between these hills and the Allegauies rests on the same rocks, (Chemung,) which underlie
the southern grazing region of New- York.

44 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

In ascertaining the particular products of these mountains, their climate,
and general adaptation to sheep husbandry, I will first call your attention
to the often quoted letter from Hon. T. L. Clingman, of North Carolina,
lo John S. Skinner, Esq., in 1844. Mr. Clingman says :

" You state that you have directed some attention to the Sheep Husbandry of the United
States, in the course of which it has occurred to you that the people of the mountain regions
of North Carolina, and some of the other Southern States, have not availed themselves suffi-
ciently of their natural advantages for the production of sheep. Being myself well acquaint-
ed with the western section of North Carolina, I may perhaps be able to give you most of
the information you desire. As you have directed several of your inquiries to the county
of Yancey, (I presume from the fact, well known to you, that it contains the highest mouik-
tains in any of the United States.) I will, in the first place, turn my attention to that county.
First, as to its elevation. Dr. Mitchell, of our University, ascertained that the bed of Tow
River, the largest stream in the county, and at a ford near its center, was about 2,200 feet
above the level of the ocean. Burnsville, the seat of the court-house, he found to be be-
tween 2,800 and 2,900 feet above it. The general level of the country is, of course, much
above this elevation. In fact, a number of the mountain summits rise above the hight of
6,000 feet. The climate is delightfully cool during the summer; in fact there are very few
places in the county where the thermometer rises above 80° on the hottest day. An intel-
ligent gentleman who passed the summer in the northern part of the county (rather the
more elevated portion of it) informed me that the thermometer did not rise on the hottest
da ~s above 76°.

' You ask, in the next place, if the surface of the ground is so mucn covered with rocks ae
to reader it unfit for pasture ? The reverse is the fact; no portion of the county that I have
passed over is too rocky for cultivation ; and in many sections of the county one may travel
miles without seeing a single stone. It is only about the tops of the higher mountains that
rocky precipices are to be found. A large portion of the surface of the county is a sort of
elevated table-land, undulating, but seldom too broken for cultivation. Even as one as-
cends the higher mountains, he will find occasionally on their sides flats of level land con-
taining several hundred acres in a body. The top of the Roan (the highest mountain in the
county except the Black) is covered by a prairie for ten miles, which affords a rich pasture
during the greater part of the year. The ascent to it is so gradual that persons ride to the
top on horseback from almost any direction. The same may be said of many of the other
mountains. The soil of the county generally is uncommonly fertile, producing with tolera-
ble cultivation abundant crops. What seems extraordinary to a stranger is the fact that the
soil becomes richer as he ascends the mountains. The sides of the Roan, the Black, the
Bald, and others, at an elevation even of five or six thousand feet above the sea, are covered
with a deep, rich vegetable mould, so soft that a horse in dry weather often sinks to the fet-
lock. The fact that the soil is frequently more fertile as one ascends is, I presume, attrib-
utable to the circumstance that the higher portions are more commonly covered with clouds ;
and the vegetable matter being thus kept in a cool, moist state while decaying, is incorpo-
rated to a greater degree with the surface of the earth, just as it is usually found that the
north side of the hill is richer than the portion most exposed to the action of the sun's rays.
The sides of the mountains, the timber being generally large, with little undergrowth and
brushwood, are peculiarly fitted for pasture grounds, and the vegetation is in many places as
luxuriant as it is in the rich savannah of the low country.

44 The soil of every part of the county is not only favorable to the production of grain, but
is peculiarly fitted for grasses. Timothy is supposed to make the largest yield, two tons of
hay being easily produced on an acre, but herds-grass, or red-top, ami clover succeed equally
well ; blue-grass has not been much tried, but is said to do remarkably well. A friend
showed nie several spears which he informed me were produced in the normern part of the
county, and which by measurement were found to exceed TO inches in length. Oats, rye.
potatoes, turnips, &c., are produced in the greatest .abundance.

44 With respect to the prices of land, I can assure you that large bodies of uncleared, rich
land, most of which might be cultivated, have been sold at prices varying from 25 cents U»
50 cents per acre. Any quantity of land favorable for sheep-walks might be procured in
any section of the county at prices varying from one to ten dollars per acre

44 The few sheep that exist in the county thrive remarkably well, and are sometimes per-
mitted to run at large during the winter without being fed and without suffering. As the
number kept by any individual is not large enough to justify the employment of a shepherd
to take care of them, they are not unfrequently destroyed by vicious dogs, and more rarely
by wolves, which have not yet been entirely exterminated.

41 1 have been somewhat prolix in my observations on this county, because some of your
inquiries were directed particularly to it, and because most of what I have said of Yancey is
true of the other counties west of the Blue Ridge. Hay wood has about the same elevation
and climate as Yancey. The mountains are rather more steep, and the valleys somewhat

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 45

broader; the soil generally not quite so deep, but very productive, especially in grasses. In
some sections of the county, however, the soil is equal to the best I have se^n.

" Buncombe and Henderson are rather less elevated ; Ashville and Hendersonville, the
county towns, being each about 2,200 feet above the sea. The climate is much the same,
but a very little wanner. The more broken portions of these counties resemble much the
mountainous parts of Yancey and Haywood, but they contain much more level land. In-
deed the greater portion of Henderson is quite level. It contains much swamp land, which,
when cleared, with very little if any drainage, produces veiy fine crops of herds-grass. Por-
tions of Macon and Cherokee counties are quite as favorable, both as to climate and soil, as
those above described. I would advert particularly to the valley of the Nantahalah, in Ma-
COD, and of Cheoh, in Cherokee. In either, for a comparatively trifling price, some ten or
fifteen miles square could be procured, all of which would be rich, and the major part suf-
ficiently level for cultivation, and especially fitted, as their natural meadows indicate, for the
production of grass.

" lu conclusion, I may say, that as far as my limited knowledge of such matters authorizes
me to speak, I am satisfied that there is no region that is more favorable to the production
of sheep than much of the country I have described. It is everywhere healthy and well
watered. I may add, too, that there is water-power enough in the different counties com-
posing my Congressional District to move more machinery than human labor can ever place
there— enough, perhaps, to move all now existing in the Union."

A writer in the Albany Cultivator, Mr. S. B. Buckley, of Yates county,
New- York, who has visited these mountains, thus objects to the views of
Mr. Clingman :

" These mountains have a cold, damp climate, the summits of the highest being covered
with clouds and mists a large portion of the summer season. Cold rains are of frequent oc-
currence, doubtless causing the deep vegetable mould alluded to by Mr. C. A large por-
tion of the county of Yancey is an elevated table-land which is so damp and cold that the
inhabitants do not raise corn sufficient for their own consumption Mr. Husted in-
formed me that in many seasons there was scarcely a month in the year without frost ....
that he had been on the top of the Roan on the 25th of June, when a snow storm arose and
completely covered the mountain, and that there were few days in the year but that it was

foggy on the Roan I have ascended most of the high mountains in that State, and

rarely without encountering a storm, or finding their tops covered with mists, which disap-
peared in the cool of the evening, to be resumed by the wanning rays of the morrow's sun.
In encamping on the mountains, I generally found the thermometer to range from 45° to 60°.
and on the high mountains, during the day, it seldom rose above 65°. The inhabitants of
the valleys pay great attention to the raising of cattle and horses, which, in the summer sea-
son, are tunied upon the mountains in what is termed 'the range,' which consists of tall
weeds, native grasses, and in many places white clover has become naturalized. * * * *

" These remarks will apply more or less to the mountainous region of Haywood and Ma-
con counties, from which we conclude that they are not suitable to the raising of fme-wooled
sheep, judging from their elevation, damp and cold climate, which, as before remarked by
Mr. C., creates a deep vegetable mould, in which a horse will sink up to the fetlock. And
would not sheep sink in also, and be liable to have the foot-rot ? And in yeaning time would
not many lambs be lost from the frequent cold rains so common there during the month of
May?"*

In a previous communication in the Cultivator the same writer says : f

" On the 12th of May I arrived at Ashville, (the capital of Buncombe county,) intending
to visit Mt. Pisgah, a high conical mountain in full view, about twelve miles distant, over-
topping its neighbors. I was told that the season was not far enough advanced to bring
vegetation forward on the high mountains. . . . The climate of this region is not much, if
any, warmer than that of Western New-York. During the summer of 1842, the thermome-
ter ranged generally from 70° to 85° in the valleys, while on the mountains it was frequently

about 60°, and sometimes much lower When I left the southern portion of Alabama,

it was the middle of March ; the woods were green, with their full expanded leaves ; in
about a week I had reached the elevated region south of Huntsvilie, in the northern part of
the State, where the leaves had not yet attained half their usual size. From the 1st to the
10th of April, in Middle Tennessee, the leaves were nearly full grown and the inhabitants
were busy in planting corn ; but at the middle of April, for thirty miles on the table land of
the Jumberland Mountains, the trees had just begun to put forth their leaves, and the ground
•was white in the morning with a severe frost.

" On descending into the plains of East Tennessee, the country was green with verdure.
and the farmers were there also busy in planting corn, and now, the middle of May, among

* See Albany Cultivator, 1846, p. 242. t Ib., 1946, p, 174

46 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH

the mountains of North Carolina, I found myself where vegetation had scarcely dollied tha
plains and woods with green, while the leaves of the high mountain trees were about half
grown. I should also remark that the spring of 1842 was from two weeks to a month ear
Her than usual."

I record a portion of the last extract for subsequent reference ; anc the
object of these communications being to arrive at the truth, and net to
ride a favorite hobby, or advance a preconceived theory, I have thought
it proper to give the substance of all this gentleman's remarks, embodying
as they do all the objections, real or supposed, which exist against the
highest mountains in the whole Southern States for the purposes of sheep
husbandry.

Per contra, we have the following statements of Henry M. Earle, Esq.,
of Pacolett, Rutherford Co., North Carolina : *

" On the question whether wool-growing vail succeed in North Carolina or not, I would
say that it depends entirely upon the exertions used, as I am thoroughly convinced that the
country and climate arc altogether favorable. The objections raised by Mr. Buckley, if they
existed in all the mountain region, might be considered serious ; but as they can only be of-
fered against a few very high mountains, situated in the midst of many other mountains, and
far from any level or plain country, such a hiding place as he speaks of would not be such a
place as persons raised in civilized or refined society would wish to settle in. The Roan
and Black Mountains were selected by Mr. Thos. Clingman, because they were the most
elevated and noted mountains in Yancey Co., and not, I presume, because he thought they
would afford the best pasturage for sheep ; if so he was mistaken. On those mountains and
in their vicinity are the finest grazing lands for cattle ; and so there is in the low, marshy
land of South Carolina ; but neither location is favorable for sheep. I agree with Mr. Buck-
ley, 'that a large portion of the county of Yancey is an elevated table land, which is so
damp and cold that the inhabitants frequently do not raise com sufficient for their own con-
sumption.' This is partly owing to the climate ; but mostly to the character of many of the
inhabitants of those sparsely inhabited regions, where they too frequently depend upon tno
BMCCCSS of the chase for the larest ortion of their subsistence.

" But if Mr. Buckley, or any other gentleman of observation, will come 60 miles far-
ther south — on the line of the Blue Ridge, into Henderson and Rutherford counties, about
the Tryon Mountain, which is the first that he will ascend in rising up from the level coun-
try east of the Blue Ridge, along the Howard-Gap Turnpike — high on the acclivity of the
Tryon he will find a bench of land which possesses a very peculiar characteristic. At night,
generally, there is a pleasant breeze, and for several miles along the mountain side there is
never any dew to be found, and it is very rare that they have frost except in winter ; and
when the whale country above and below is covered with sleet, along this mountain side
there is none. Here grow the finest native grapes that I ever saw, and the fruit crop never
fails. And here are grown the heaviest wheat and rye in all the country. Here the inhabit-
ants have the first dawn of the morning sun, and persons unaccustomed to the view fancy
that they can almost see him coming up from the watery deep. On the eastern side of this
mountain is the earliest pasturage in spring, and the latest in the fall that is found in the
\vhole range of mountains.

" This location is about 40 miles E. S. E. from Ashville, and 20 miles S. S. W. from
Rutherfordton. Here two of those ever persevering men from the North, called Yankees,
have commenced to wall in a vineyard, and to cultivate the broom-corn for manufacturing
brooms. They have the purest, water that flows out of the earth, and around them are
beautiful cascades more than a hundred feet high, and above them tha toppling peak of the
Tryon.

" Thousands of persons throng this mountain region during the summer, to enjoy the pure,
bracing atmosphere, which on the eastern face of the mountain is dry and healthful ; but
farther back, in the mountains of the French Broad, there is much more dampness and
heavy fogs.

" You may readily conclude that along the eastern slopes of these mountains, the climato
and country are finely adapted to the growth of wool, as may also be seen by many of the tina
fl'.jcks of native unimproved sheep, which wander here untended, regardless of wolve* or
dogs, thevr greatest enemies.

" For two hundred miles along the eastern slopes of these mountains, south, there aw
situations well suited for large flocks of sheep, and land is cheap. In many places it doe*
uot cost more tlian 20 cents per acre, and very fair land may be had for 40 cents per acre. '

In an Address,* remarkable for the force and pertinency of its sugges-

* See Albany Cultivator. 3846, pp. 335-330.

t Delivered in Martinsbunj, Va., Oct. 30th. 1845, before the Berkley Ccranty Agricultural Society, pub-
lished in the Valley Farmer," Dec. 1845, and Jan. 1846.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

tions, Col. Edward Colston, of Berkley county, Virginia, makes the fol-
lowing statements :

" The western part of our county, containing perhaps 30,000 acres, is mountainous. I
have ridden there for ten miles without seeing a human habitation, and although from iti
abundant herbage it might sustain for its owners 20,000 head of sheep, not a single one is t«
be found grazing on its surface. In tlxis region may be found, also, much land fit for culd-
% ation, with fine meadows and abundant water. Yet all this is worthless to our community,
and a dead capital to the proprietors. There is territory and grass enough here to be di-
vided into three or four sheep-walks, each sustaining from 3,000 to 4,000 sheep during the
summer, with meadow and arable land enough, at a small expense, to provide amply for
winter sustenance."

Hon. Andrew Stevenson, of Virginia, in a letter to Mr. Skinner,* says :

' Virginia has many advantages for breeding sheep, not surpassed in the United States
The middle part of the State, and especially the whole range of the south-west Mountains
and Blue Ridge, afford. the greatest facilities for fine sheep-walks. Hills covered with fine
herbage, extensive inclosures, abundance of running water, and well sheltered by trees
against the heat and sun of summer."

The following extracts are from a communication in the Monthly Jour-
nal of Agriculture,! by Hon. W. L. Goggin, who recently represented the
District he describes in Congress :

" Bedford, the county in which I reside, is bounded on the south side by the Stauntoii
River, on the north by the James River, while its western extremity, the whole length,

reaches the top of the Blue Ridge The Peaks of Ottert are situated in this county,

on the north-west corner — they are not only beautiful themselves, when seen as they are in
the distance, but the whole range of the Blue Ridge presents, perhaps, here, the most inter-
esting view of the kind in the State. These mountains afford an unlimited range for stock,
and the advantages for sheep-walks (mild as is the climate, combined, with the productive-
ness of the soil) that are nowhere equaled, as is believed, except by similar situations in

the neighboring counties Ranges for sheep may be had at a very reduced price on

the mountains, and where, too, could be produced all the grasses in which they delight, such
as the red and white clover, the meadow fox-tail, short blue meadow-grass, lucern, rye-grass,
&c. These advantages, and then the beautiful, clear streams which abound in all the moun-
tain regions, invite a pastoral life." Speaking of Amherst and Nelson counties, he says :
* The ranges for stock here, too, are extensive, and the beautiful, rich mountain sides inter-
spersed with farm-houses, some of them even elegant mansions, betoken an independence
among the inhabitants that is often found in such situations. Many of the mountains, to
their very summit?, are covered with the richest verdure." Of Madison and Greene coun-
ties he says: " Here, too, are abundant ranges, and the wonder is that sheep husbandly is
not introduced."

The character of the loftier mountains of Virginia and North Carolina,
for the production of grasses, would seem to leave no doubt, in this par-
ticular, in regard to the lower ones which form the prolongation of the
same chains in South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. Let us now turn
our glance to the great western chain — the Cumberland Mountains — in
Kentucky and Tennessee.

The following extracts are from a communication published by Hon. A.
Beatty in the American Agriculturist :

" But it is not upon our high-priced rich lands alone that we can carry on sheep husbandry
to advantage. Kentucky has a belt of hill and mountain country, bordering on the Virginia
line on the east, and on the rich lands of the State on the west, averaging about seventv°five
miles in width, extending from the Ohio River and Big Sandy, latitude 38° 30', to the' Ten-
nessee line, 3G° 30' north. The whole of this region is admirably adapted to sheen hus-
bandry ; the most northern part but a few minutes north of my residence, and extending
about two degrees farther south. The lands are very cheap : the State price of those not
yet appropriated only five cents per acre, and those purchased second-hand, more or less
improved, may be had from 25 to 50 cents per acre, and still less when unimproved. This
country in a state of nature furnishes, during the spring, summer, and full months,' a fino
range for sheep, and is susceptible of great improvement by clearing up and sowing the cul-
tivated grasses for winter feeding. This whole country is finely adapted to the' Spanish

* Monthly Journal of Agriculture, July, 1S45, pp. 37-39. ft October 1845, pp. 181-183

J Ine ioluest mountains, as before stated, of Virginia.

48 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

mode of sheep husbandry. Very large flocks might be driven to the mountain region, BOOM
thirty to sixty miles from the rich lauds, immediately after shearing time, grazed till late in
the fall, and then brought back to be sustained during the winter on the luxuriant blue
grass pastures of ths rich lands of the interior.

" A very intelligent friend, residing in the southern part of the above district of country,
speaks of it in the following terms : ' One of the strongest proofs of this region of country
being favorable to the growing of sheep stock is that we are situated in the same degree of
north latitude with the sheep-raising parts ol Spain — Leon, Estremadura, Old Castile, &c.—
oi:ly that our mountains are more richly and abundantly clad with luxuriant wild grasses
*nd fern, pea vine, and shrubbery, than the mountain regions of Spain, where they raise
each abundant stocks of sheep. Wayne County, with a few adjoining counties, affords more
fine water-power than any country of the same extent that I have ever known ; and for
health, and fine, pure drinking water, no country excels it on the face of the globe. Now is
the time to commence the business of sheep husbandry, while land can be got almost for
nothing. It is worthy of remark that our sheep, which are suffered to roam and graze hi
the mountains altogether, produce about one-fourth more wool at a shearing than the. sheep
that are raised and grazed altogether on our farms, and of much better quality.'1 In an-
other part of his letter he says : ' The tops of the mountains of Spain are sterile, without
verdure, producing no food for sheep, or other animals, to graze on. Our mountains are
quite different. They are thickly clad from bottom to top, and all over the top, with fine
rich wild grasses and shrubbery of every variety, for stock to graze on. In the midst of
our mountains are to be found a great abundance of salt water and stone coal of the finest
quality, together with a great variety of mineral waters and pure springs.'

" Another friend, residing in Knox County, writes to me : ' My sheep upon my farm, ad-
joining Barboursville, do not thrive, even with pasture and winter food, like the sheep in
the extremities of the county, which have neither pastures nor winter food, except what
they get in the woods. Without cultivated grasses of any description, sheep will live and
do well all the winter, subsisting on the spontaneous growth of the country.'

" Another friend, residing in the northern poition of the above-described mountain region,
writes that ' the counties of Carter and Lawrence, and the eastern portion of the State, are
admirably adapted to sheep husbandry. There are several flocks ot sheep in this neighbor-
hood that thrive and increase wonderfully, running at large, at little cost or trouble to their
owners. Many flocks have no other reliance, during the winter, but what they get in the
woods. The great advantages of this country for sheep husbandry are, the cheapness of the
land, it adaptation to grasses, grain, and roots — its healthfulness. Sheep delight in moun-
tain or hilly land ; the natural evergreens and shrubbery upon which sheep can feed and
subsist on in winter ; though it is riot safe to rely altogether upon these. ' "

Mr. C. F. Kramer of Woolverly Farm, Marion Co. Tennessee, ia a com-
munication, in the Nashville Agriculturist,* says :

" After having spent part of the years '43 and '44 on different parts of the Cumberland
Mountains — the part of Tennessee more particularly recommended by all writers in your
journal, and others, for sheep-walks — I have, since last fall, settled on a portion of them
near Jasper, Marion Co. and will, as briefly as possible, give you the result of my experi-
ence, which will, I believe, fully remove any erroneous impressions hitherto made.

" First, as to climate : The extreme salubrity of the mountains makes them the general
refuge of the sick. Sheep here are remarkably healthy, and exempt from disease. The
temperature is very even, varying during summer seldom more than from 75° to 80° of
Fahrenheit, nor in winter more than from 45° to 30°. Snow during the two winters, little
as there was of it, never remained forty-eight hours on the ground.

" The forest, so far from being dense, seldom contains more timber, after cutting out the
smaller growth, as dogwood, &c. than is desirable for woodland pasture.

" The rocks, as far as my rambles have extended, are ' few and far between.' The bet
ter spots of soil (and there are enough to provide every farm with sufficient remunerating
arable land, under a provident and enlightened system of tillage) are covered with nutri-
tious weeds, as pea-vine, &c. &c. which are nearly all greedily devoured by sheep and cat-
tle, and on which they fare well. The poorer soil is covered with sedge-grass, which my
sheep have invariably eaten with avidity.

" When our herds and blue grass lands, which we are laying down, will be fit for pastnr*
ing, the cost of wintering will be greatly reduced, as the former yields good grazing in Feb-
ruary— the latter during the whole winter. Our young cattle kept in good condition on the
winter-range and .two ears of corn per head per day.

" Although the wolves of our mountains are larger than those of the prairies, and may be
more difficult to exterminate entirely, yet, thanks to our good hunters, their ranks have been
already so thinned that they mostly prowl about alone, or at most in pairs, committing their
depredations by night, on the sheep and hogs that are left to shift for tbec&filvea. In \bm

• June, 1846.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

49

two years that I have been here, I know of but two instances of their having attacked younjj

E cattle by night. By day, sheep are perfectly safe ; and I should presume that eveiy
sheep-master would have his flocks, for inspection, home at night, when any common
5 will be an ample safeguard for them."

To recur, for a moment, to Mr. Buckley's statements in relation to the
Roan and some of the contiguous mountains in North Carolina — if we
concede all his positions to be correct — it but proves that they are excep-
tions to a general rule. . But a review of his facts, it seems to me, scarcely
justifies his conclusions.

The vegetation which seemed so backward to him, coining from the
warmer climate of Alabama and Lower Tennessee, was in fact but little,
if any, later than that of the elevated grazing lands of Southern New-
York. The following table* will show the average forwardness of the
Reasons at the location of fifty-eight Academies, scattered over New-York,
for a term of fifteen years. And these Academies, as would be supposed,
are rarely found on the high bleak hills. In fact, the number in the south-
ern grazing region is but small, and they are mostly on the low bottoms of
the larger streams. The same remark will also apply to the high region
between the St. Lawrence and Lake Champlain.

TABLE NO. 5.

Mean Date.

JVo. of Localities.

No. nf Observations

May 1^

4
6
" 7 *.
" 15
Juno 12
July 18
" 25
Sept. 23
Nov. 5

48
57
58
52
52
59
58
34
45
57

168
175
269
264
250
374
210
127
186
471
536

Plum do .

Strawberries ripe . . .

Hay harvest commenced .. .........

W heat do. do.

First killm? Frost

First fall of Snow

* As the Peach does not grow in the northern part of the State, this date must be considered the mean
for the southern and middle parts only, and hence is too early as compared with other trees.

The blossoming of the apple tree in the grazing regions of New-York
takes place when the leaves of the forest trees are considerably less than
half grown, as Mr. B. found them on the " high mountain trees " of North
Carolina on the 12th of May.

Snow storms sometimes occur in New- York as late as the one recorded
by Mr. B. on the Roan ; cold, damp fogs are not found destructive to
sheep in some parts of England and Scotland, where they prevail proba-
bly quite as much as on these mountains ; and there are many parts of the
grazing region of New-York, and good grazing lands, too, where the in-
habitants " do not raise corn sufficient for their own consumption." As
Mr. B. gives neither the dates nor the altitudes of his own thermometrical
observations, no conclusions can be deduced from them. Speaking of the
region about Asheville, the more definite statement is made by him, that
during the summer of 1842, the thermometer ranged generally from 70 to
85 degrees, (which he pronounces not much, if any, warmer than Western
New- York,) "while on the mountains it was frequently about 60 degrees,
and sometimes much lower." If by frequent, he meant ordinary temper-
ature, the summer climate of these lofty mountains much resembles that
of New- York in June — usually considered the month of the pleasaiitest

* This table was prepared by James IL Coffin, a tutor in Williams College, from the Report of thesA
facts annually required to be made by the Academies to the Regents of the University. This and aoma
other tables and statements of Mr. C.'s, which I shall have occasion to quote, appear in a very able paper
from him on the Climate and Temperature of New- York, in the forthcoming volume on Agriculture, in
the Natural History of the State : some sheets of which have been politely sent me by Doct. Ernmons, ih«
Pure Geologist, who has that volume in charge.

G

50

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

temperature of the year — 'equally removed from the chilliness of spring
and the sultry heats of the last two summer months. But as the altitudes
of the latter observations are not given, they present us nothing definite or
tangible. A smart walk of a few moments up or down a mountain side,
woul 1 carry one through a variation of temperature amounting to a degree.
By the rule of Professor Leslie,* commonly adopted, 300 feet of elevation
diminishes the temperature 1° ; but the experiments of Humboldt, Gay-
Lu9sac,-and various other observers, have shown that this cannot be relied
upon. One degree is usually equivalent to a greater ascent. Mr. Coffin
(in the paper before alluded to) deduces the conclusion that in the State
of New-York, the ascent necessary to decrease the temperature 1° is 350
feet. Taking the mean of the range of temperature of Asheville, as stated
by Mr. B. it gives 77^° as the average summer temperature of that place,
which, as will appear in the table below, is about 10° higner and warmer
than that of New- York for the same season and year, (excepting on the
beds of two rivers — the Hudson and Mohawk.) Applying the New- York
rule to the region of Asheville, it would require, then, an elevation of some-
thing like 3,500 feet on the mountain sides above that place, to equalize
the temperature with that of the greater portion of New- York.

To show the entire accuracy of the subjoined table of temperatures, I
would remark that it is founded on the Annual Reports of the Academies
to the Regents of the University. The observations are therefore made
by correct instruments,! on fixed conditions, and by scientific men. I have
selected the points indicated in reference solely to a fair latitudinal and
geographical distribution over the State ;t and to enable you to find them
on. the map, the name of the place, instead of the Academy, is given :

TABLE NO. 6.

Lati-
tude,.

Ehna
Lion.

Temperature 1842.

Remarks.

June.

July.

Aug.

Platbush..
Po'keepsie
Albany. . .
Potsdam .
Lowvillc .
Utica... .
Syracuse .
Pompey .
Homer. .
[tbaca... .
Prattsburg.
Rochester.
Wyoming-.
Fredonia .
JLewiston..

40°73'
41 41
42 39
44 40
43 47
43 OG
42 59
42 56
42 38
42 27

43 08
42 49
42 26
43 09

40

130
394
800
173

.1300
1096
417
1494
50H
800
345
280

64 28
61 29
65 85
59 62
60 51
63 58
59 75
57 70
58 88
63 80
56 83
60 66
59 97
63 42
62 05

72 16
76 83
72 66
67 36
67 52
70 15
65 77
64 20
64 14
69 65
65 24
66 94
71 50
69 60
G8 91

69 97
71 56
70 23
67 12
64 46
69 15
64 86
63 50
65 67
67 74
68 71
67 35
56 99
68 71
68 50

Near the extreme southern point of Long Island. ..
On the Hudson. Elevation not given.. .

Tn St. Lawrence County ; north part of State

On the Black River

( Both in same county, but given on account of dif-
( ference in elevation ... .

In the southern or grazing* rogion ....

Do. do

Do. do.

In tbe heart of the Wheat growing region

Do. do.

In the grazing region; on the shore of Lake Erie..
On Niagara River !

The five last named places are in " Western New-York."

But there is one fact stated by Mr. Buckley, in relation to the lofty
mountains of North Carolina, which, irrespective of all thermometrical
observations, demonstrates conclusively, to my mind, their adaptation to
sheep husbandry. This fact is, that white clover grows (of course, spon-
taneously,) on them. Or perhaps I should rather say, that the mountains
themselves become thermometers, their vegetation registering, by a well
settled natural law, their temperate climate. Says Malte Brun :

" Under the burning climate of the torrid zone, we have only to ascend the mountains, to
enjoy the fruits and flowers of the temperate regions. Tournetbrt found at the base of Mount

* Prof. L.'s rule, however, was only made applicable by him to tropical regions.
t Half, probably, of the thermometers in common use are imcciirHtc !

•J For the records of temperatures given, see Report of the Regents, 1843, p. 240. For latitudes and ele
rations of the Academies, see Report of 1838, pp. 212 to 215, and map

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 51

Ararat the common vegetables of Armenia; half way up, those of Italy and France; and
upon the summit those of Scandinavia. Forster saw several Alpine plants upon the moun-
tains of Terra del Fuego."

Mr. Mudie also remarks :

" If we take each mountain as the index of its own meridian, we shall find that each one
expresses, by its vegetation, all the varieties of climate between it and the pole."*

Humboldt, and our ownDoct. Forry, notice an equally striking develop
ment of this law, on the Western Continent.!

This would go to show what I have little doubt is the fact, (my impres-
sions, too, being strengthened by a comparison of latitude, elevation, and
recorded thermometrical observations,) that on the sides of the Roan and
other lofty mountains of North Carolina, and pretty well wp on their sides,
too, the climate is not greatly dissimilar from that on the high grazing
lands of New- York and New-England. On the sweetest and best of the
latter, white clover always comes up spontaneously, and will immediately
re-sward any field thrown out of tillage. It sometimes flourishes on soils
of ordinary fertility, but never on rery sour or boggy ones, or on those
the poachy character of which would render them liable to communicate
hoof-rot or other diseases. It indicates, most decidedly^ both a soil and
climate fitted for sheep.

You will not understand, Sir, of course, that in the remarks made and:
facts stated, at so great length, in relation to three or four mountains, my
object has been simply to refute the views of Mr. Buckley in relation to-
them. In a region of 70,000 square miles, the unadaptation of half a
dozen mountains, or a much greater number, to this or any other branch.
of husbandry, would be of but little comparative importance. Anticipat-
ing, however, the croakings of the timid — the exaggerated counter state-
ments of those rash and sanguine men who are ever ready to rush into
whatever is ?icw, without judgment to guide or perseverance to sustain
them : who abandon their undertakings at the first obstacle, arfd apologize
for their ficklety by magnifying the difficulties encountered by them : t
deemed it expedient to lay before you some useful data for comparisons,,
•'and conclusions,) which will be equally applicable in the case of all our
southern mountains.

The hilly and level regions west of the mountains, and lying between;
them and the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, scarcely require a separate no-
tice— particularly after the statements of Mr. Cockrill, given in my second
letter. As a whole, they are undoubtedly more fertile, and better adapted*
to the production of the grasses, than those of corresponding latitude, in*
even the hilly zone, east of the mountains.

* Mudie's World.

t Since making the extract above from Malte Bfun, I observe the following better, or. at Jerst, more deff-
nite expression of the same fact by Doct Forry : " In ascending a lofty mountain of the torrid zone the
greatest variety in vegetation is displayed. At its foot and under the burning sun, ananas ind plantain?
flourish : the regions of limes and oranges succeeds ; then follow fields of maize and luxuriant wheat • and'
•till higher, th* wr/tea of plants known in the temperate zone. The mountains of temperate unions e*hi
bk, perliap*, k>« rariety, but the change it equally striking." See Forry'a Climafi of the Uni' 'State*.

52 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

LETTER V.

FROF1TS OF SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHERN STATES.— I. D1RBC7
PROFIT ON CAPITAL INVESTED.

Different points of view in which the question of the profitableness of Sheep Husbandry in the ?outhern
States is" to be regarded. ..Direct profit on Capital invested first considered. ..Average prices of Wool in
New- York... Average weight of fleece — Price of Sheep— Increase in Lambs — Amount of Manure... Price
of Land... Number of Sheep supported per acre. .. Estimate of the Expenses nnd Profits of 100 Sheep,
taking average prices of Wool for the last fourteen years. ..Present low prices of Sheep — Causes — Esti-
mate of Profits of 100 Sheep, at present prices of Sheep and Wool. ..Profits far below what they might be
by breeding better Sheep. ..Writer's Flock — Annual yield of Wool — Prices sold at for six years — Statistics
of Premium Flock. . .Show that Wool can be produced at a large profit in New-York at present prices. . .
Healthfulness and economy of substituting Mutton for a portion of the P.acon consumed in the Southern
States... Economical advantages which Sheep possess over other animals— No risk by Death — Manure
more valuable — Best clearers of Briery Lands — Improvers of Vegetation. ..The cost of producing Wool in
the South, compared with the cost in New-York... Number of Sheep which can be supported per acre
South— Greater number than on land of the same quality North, by reason of the winter growth of grains
and grasses in the former... Col. Allston's statement — 11. L. Allen's — Col. Hampton's— Hon. R. F. Simp-
son's in relation to the Atlantic States south of Virginia. ..Price of Lands in those States. ..Winter Vege-
tation in Tennessee, Kentucky and Virginia. . .Mr. Coles's statement — John S. Skinner's. . .Recapitulation. ..
Estimate of Profits on 100 Sheep South— Compared with New-York. ..Profits on the Southern Mquntaina
...Doct. Brockenboro's statements — Mr. Murdock's. ..Economy of Migratory Sheep Husbandry. ..Advan-
tages for it in the South compared with those of Spain. ..Drawbacks on Profits of Sheep Husbandry —
Dogs and Wolves.. -Their depredations compared with those in Australia and the Cape of Good Hope. ..
Remedy.

Dear Sir: In ascertaining the Profits of Sheep Husbandry in the
Southern States, several considerations present themselves, apart from the
mere question of direct annual profit or loss on a given investment in
Sheep and in land for their subsistence. The more immediate and obvious
profit is doubtless the first question ; but in regarding the general advan-
tages or disadvantages of this branch of husbandly — particularly in a re-
gion circumstanced in all particulars as the Southern States are — we are
farther to consider the practicability and comparative economy of making it
the basis of an effectual amelioration in soils naturally sterile, or those
which have been rendered so by excessive and injudicious cultivation ;
and its comparative efficacy in giving to Southern Agriculture a mixed
and convertible character, and thereby sustaining (or improving) all the
present good tillage lands, in the place of continuing the " new and old
field " system— (tilling land until it is worn out, then abandoning it and
opening new lands,) — once so general, and even now by far too prevalent.
And there is another point of no mean importance : whether, independent
of preceding considerations, and even if the staples furnished by sheep
(husbandry proved no more profitable, in direct returns on capital invested,
than some of the present staples, it would not be better economy, on the
-whole, for the South to produce the raw material and manufacture domes-
tic woolens, particularly for the apparel and bedding of slaves, than to be
dependent for them on England or Massachusetts.

To ascertain the direct and immediate profit on investment in sheep hus-
bandry, let us appeal to well settled facts and statistics, instead of content-
ing ourselves with vague and general propositions. For the following
Table of the average prices of good wool* in the State of New- York, which
was published in my replies to Mr. Walker's "Treasury Circular" in

* Such wools as are used fcr the manufacture of broad and other cloth? of good quality— ranging, say.
from 5th hlood Merino to pure Saxon — excluding native, grade (below $th Merino) and alt English wool*.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 53

1845,* I was indebted to a most respectable and extensive purchaser of
wool, and its accuracy is beyond question.

TABLE No. 7.

Year

Avtrage price per pound.

Year.

Average price perpouni.

1882

40 cents.

1839

1833

50 do.

1840

33 do

1834

45 do

1841

35 do

18/5

.48 do.

1842

30 do

1836

. 54 do.

1843...

...-,,. 71 do

1837

30 do

1844

40 do

1838

36 do.

1845....

32* do.

It will thus be seen that for a period of fourteen years preceding 1845,
the average price of good wools was 39y cents per pound.t

The average weight of fleece in sheep yielding this wool has been about
3 Ibs. ; the pure-blood Saxons less ; but those -bearing the coarsest wool
included, in the average, more.

The average price of sheep of the quality under consideration, has been
not less than $2 per head in the fall, and lambs half that price.J The an-
nual increase in lambs would be about 80 per cent., or if less by reason of
the number of wethers in the nock, the growth of the latter would give n,
corresponding increase in profit. One hundred sheep, properly littered,
will make at least forty loads of manure during the one hundred and fifty
days during which they are confined to dry feed, in our Northern
winters.

The grazing lands of New-York, cut up as they are into small farms,[|
and each being provided with dwelling and farm buildings, are worth
from $15 to $30 per acre. Prime sheep lands will average about $20.§

In relation to the amount of land necessary to support a given number
of sheep, the experience of a good many years has satisfied me that the
rule commonly laid down on the grazing lands of New- York and New-
England, that, on the average, one acre of land will give subsistence to
three fine-wooled sheep throughout the year, is an accurate one.lj On
grain farms, it is considered good economy to keep one sheep for every
acre of cleared land which the farm contains ; on those where mixed
husbandry is practiced, two ; and, on those exclusively devoted to sheep,
three.

In the following, and all similar estimates, I shall reckon the profits on
the land and expenditures, instead of the land and the commonly nuotcd
nriccs of grass, hay, &c., consumed. These prices, in the interior, are

* See Report, of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1845, p. 461. I thought, and so stnted to Mr. Walker, that
the Table placed wools about H cents per pound too high. But subsequent information has convinced me
that 1 was in error. In my statement of the average profits of sheep husbandry, in those replies, I estima-
ted the average price of wool by the prides paid by a local and much smaller purchaser, and for a com-
paratively limited term of years. 1 was not then aware of the utter defectivencss of the U. S. Census re-
turns (pointed out in Letter II.) in relation to the annual product of wool, and therefore was misled in the
average weight of fleeces ; and, speaking from impression rather than experiment, 1 placed the value of
the manure altogether too low. Those questions and replies have led me into experiments and inquiries,
which have resulted in more accurate information. I allude to this subject, because I think it every man's
fluty to correct any errors or explain any discrepancies subsequently discovers'?- by him, in his statement*
which have been thrown before the public, and thus are placed in a position to mislead.

t During 1846 it was from 30 to 32 cents per pound, but as this estimate is not based on extensive pur-
chases, like the preceding, I have not placed it in the table.

J Including grade sheep, which form the greatest proportion of the whole number. There have been
rery few pure-blood Merinos in the State, and many of the Saxon flocks have been so miserably deterio-
rated in carcass and weight of fleece, that they have sold for low prices. But good Saxons sold much
nbove this until within three or four years ; since then, the Merinos have been rapidly driving out th«
Saxons, and those of good quality and undoubted pedigree have sold for from five to twenty-five times as
much. The higher the price, the greater the profits, by reason of the value of the increase.

|| It would be my impression that the farms in the grazing regions do not, on the average, exceed 138
acres each.

§ Id est, in the grazing region.

TT ! say " fine-wooled sheep," because the larger and coarser Downs, Leicesters, Cotsw jlde, &c. consume
much more, ae will hereafter be shown.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

merely nominal, as they cannot be obtained for beyond a small portion of
the annual crop. They do not, therefore, form a proper basis for correct
general estimates.

The expenses and losses in keeping sheep, not already alluded to, are
all set down below, as high as they will average on well managed farms.

/>r. $ cts.

100 Sheep to interest on purchase money.... 14 00

To int. on 33i acres of land at $20 per acre 4'! M>

" curing and storing luiy on il acres of above. 13 75

" expense of shearing 4 00

" salt, tar and summer care 4 00

" labor of foddering, &.c., during winter, say. 5 00
" loss by death 2 per cent, above the value of

pulled wool ' 4 00

Total $9T4i

Cr.

By ;JOO Ibs. of Wool, at 39 4-7 cts per lb.ll* 7 L 3-7

•' 80 lambs at SI per head 80 00

" 40 2-horse loads of winter manure at

50 cents per load 20 00

" summer manure, calling it only equal

to shearing and summer care* 8 00

Total... ...$-«« 7K^7

Balance $135 30 3-7

Making the net profit of $4 05, or 20^ per cent, per acre on lands
worth $20.

Since the passage of the Tariff of 1846, there has evidently been a panic
among the wool-growers of New- York, and the rise in bread-stuffs, beef,
pork, and dairy products, occasioned by the change in the British Tariff,
and the famine which has prevailed in Europe by reason of the short crops
of 1846, has tended farther to depreciate sheep, by offering inducements
supposed to be very strong, to embark in branches of husbandry furnish-
ing the former staples.! Sheep are consequently cheaper than they ever
were before. Prime grade sheep, bearing wool of as good quality as the
average of that embraced in Table 7, have in some instances sold for ten
shillings per head, and coarse common sheep for one dollar — lambs half a
dollar — making, in the ordinary proportion between lambs and grown
sheep, about 75 cents per head, taking a flock through !

Wool of the quality embraced in Table 7 has fallen to an average of say
31 cents. Under the impression that sheep and wool have reached their
minimum prices, | it becomes an interesting subject of inquiry whether
they can yet be produced, at a profit, in New- York. The following figures
I. think, will fairly show :

Dr. $ r.ts.

<>. $ rt*.

lOOdheep to interest on purchase money, at
$1 25 per head 8 75

By :k>0 Ibs of Wool, at 3L cents per pound.. .93 00
" 80 lambs, at 6'^ cents per head 50 00
" 40 2-horse loads of winter manure, at 50
cents per load '2000

To int. on 33$ acres of land at 820 per acre. .46 66
44 . cutting, curing and storing hay on 11 acres

" summer manure, calling it only equal to

" expense of shearing 4 00

" tar, salt nnd summer care 4 00

" labor of foddering. &c. during winter, say. 5 00
* loss by death 2 per ct. above the value of
pulled wool 2 50

Balance f 86 34

Total $84 66

Making $2 59, or nearly 13 per cent, net profit per acre on lands worth 820.

In the preceding estimates I have only regarded the profit of sheep hus-
bandry, as it has averaged for a series of years, among those possessing
good ordinary flocks.

* I place the summer manure, undoubtedly, considerably below its actual value. No experienced farmer
Will say that good solid sheep manure is worth less than 50 cents per load, and as the summer manure j«
at. least equal in quantity, and is deposited immediately on the land, I see no reason why it is not equallj
valuable.

t That the diminution of English duties on these staples will give them a better and steadier market, there
e»n be little doubt ; but not the very high one of the past season, occasioned by the severe famine which
has prevailed in many parts of Great Britain. Many, therefore, who have sacrificed their sheep, reckoning
on such prices, will probably find that they have "reckoned without their host."

I I say this under the decided impression that our wools, at this price, if properly washed and put up,
would triumphantly compete in the foreign markets with those of the wool-growing nations of Europe;
*nd even with those of Australia, the Cnpe of Good Hope, and other Austro-orjental regions. For a more
lull examination of this point, see Appendix D

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 55

It falls far short of that realized by breeders and flock-masters, who
started their flocks with the best pure-blood sheep then to be found in the
country ; and who have subsequently continued to improve them by great
care in breeding", and by a rigorous course of selection.

I have bred Merino sheep for a number of years, and latterly in consid-
erable numbers : and in no case have my. grown sheep averaged less than
5 Ibs. of well washed wool per annum. The quality of the wool may be
inferred from a comparison of the prices at which it has sold, with those in
Table 7. In 1846, I sold for 35 cents per pound ; in 1845, for 331 cents ;
in 1844, for 48 cents ; in 1843, for 33 J cents ; in 1842, for 35 cents, and
KO on.

To give more precise data, I select the following statement of the pro-
ducts of a flock, on which I drew the first premium offered by the New-
York State Agricultural Society for " the best managed flock of sheep,"
in 1844 :

I From the Transactions of the N. V. State Agricultural Society, 1844, p. 254.]

•• In the winter of 1843-4, I wintered in a separate flock fifty-one ewes over one year
old, two ewe lambs, two rams, one of them one and one of them two years old. Of the ewee
over one year old, twenty-eight were full-blood Merinos ; twenty-three were half-blood Me-
rinos and hall-blood South-Downs ; the two ewe lambs were three-fourth-blood Merino and
one-fourth-blood South-Down : and the two rams were full-blood Merinos. The flock were
kept as follows through the winter: They were fed hay morning and night, and were, as a
general rale, recpi>red to eat it up clean. At noon the flock were daily led three bundles of
oats and barley (which had grown mixed, say three parts oats and one part* barley,) until
the 25th of December — after which they recei\red four bundles of oats. The grain was
light and shrunken. They received no hay at noon during the winter, and usually consumed
all the straw of the grain fed them. They had a good shelter, and access to pure water at
all limes. From this flock I raised fifty-three lambs. The full-blood Merinos, including
two rains, and the two three-fourth-blood lambs, (in all 'thirty -two,) sheared one hundred
and eighty-six pounds and four ounces of washed wool, which I sold at forty-eight cents per
pound. Four of the full-bloods had two years' fleeces on. The hall-blood Merinos and
half-blood South-Downs (twenty-three) sheared eighty and one-half pounds of washed wool,
seventy-one pounds of which I sold at thirty-eight cents per pound. During the summer of
1844, the flock were kept in good ordinary pasture, and salted once a week."

Thus, the Merino fleeces averaged 5 Ibs. 13-jL oz. and sold for $2 79| each ;
and the grades between Merino and South-Down averaged 3 Ibs. 8 oz. to
the fleece, and sold for $1 33 each.

It will be observed that four of the full-bloods (they were ewes) had
two years' fleeces on. A two years' fleece will not weigh as much as two
single years' fleeces from the same sheep. On the average, it will weigh
about three-quarters as much.* On the other hand, the lot included two
three-quarter-blood lamb fleeces, which would fall below the average
weight of the others, and a portion of the flock were yearlings and two-
year olds. The Merino never attains its maximum weight of fleece before
three years old, and ordinarily not until four, and therefore the aggregate
weight of wool of the 32 sheep, given above, does not, to say the least of
it, give too favorable a view of the product of sheep of this quality. Thi*
is proved by the fact that my entire flock of full-bloods sheared abouf
three-twentieths of an ounce over six pounds each, the succeeding year.

It would give me great pleasure to subjoin similar statistics of other
carefully bred flocks, were authorized statements of them in my posses-
sion, or published within my knowledge.

It is sufficiently apparent from the above facts and estimates, that woo.
has not yet reached the lowest point at which it can be produced at an
ample profit, on lands of the value indicated, iftlie sheep are of the froper

* That is to Bay / the ehsrfe years' fleeces would equal 6 Ibs. each, a two years' fleeco, instend of weigii-
fag twice as much, or 12 IbsJ will not exceed three-quarters of such aggregate weight, or 9 Iba. The wool
wastes when it becomes so long, and perhaps does not grow so rapidly.

56 SHEEP IIU.SBANDKV IN THK SOUTH.

quality ; and these facts farther suggest the expediency of relyir^ on out
Own efforts to " protect " this interest, rather than the fickle support of
National legislation.

For the production of a cheap, wholesome, and highly nutritious food,
no animal excels the sheep. Theoretical considerations, as well as exper-
iment, show the superiority of mutton to pork in the formation of vigor-
ous muscle ;* and its tendency is less, particularly in hot climates, to en-
gender inflammatory and putrid diseases. The consumption of consider-
able quantities of fat is indispensable, in cold climates, to supply the
necessary amount of carbon to support " combustion," as Lieb'ig terms it,
fii the lungs, or, in other words, to maintain the animal heat. Hence the
Laplander and the Esquimaux find a grateful diet in train-oil, or the adi-
pose parts of Arctic fish and mammalia. That fat pork should be the
favorite meat, in the Northern States, is not perhaps so singular, but that
it (under the name of bacon) should constitute the principal one consumed
in our warm Southern latitudes, and especially that it should constitute so
large a proportion of all the food consumed,! is indeed a most anomalous
fact, and is' utterly unparalleled among the practices of other nations occu-
pying the same latitudes. The tendency of this practice to produce dis-
ease, physical inertia, indisposition and incapacity to sustain continued
activity, will not, I think, be questioned by the pathologist or the close
observer.

Mutton and lamb are a favorite, if not the favorite food of the English
of all classes. Notwithstanding all that has been said and written of the
" roast beef" of " Old England," mutton is more eaten there by people of
every rank.f On the other hand, it is evidently not a favorite meat in the
United States, though its proportionable consumption is evidently increas-
ing. Whence the difference 1 Circumstances have led to habit, and habit,
in a great measure, regulates appetite. It needs no other proof than is
to be found in the experience of every individual, to show that the appe
tite is readily trained to relish what was even positively disgusting, and to
become indifferent to what was once the most grateful.

That the preceding facts are well worthy of attention among those who
are favorable to the introduction of sheep husbandry, among planters who
supply not less than 3 Ibs. per week of good bacon, or a full equivalent, to
euch slave, on plantations where the number ranges from ten to one hun-
dred, and sometimes many more, there can be little doubt. Twenty-five
slaves would thus consume 3,900 Ibs. of bacon per annum ; and the more
common allowance of the opulent planter is about 200 Ibs. per head, or
5,000 Ibs. for twenty-five. If an equivalent for at least half of this was

* The theoretical considerations will be found sufficiently discussed in Liebig's " Animal Chemistry." Fot
experimental evidence, I know of none that can be more depended on— which approaches any nearer
wctnal demonstration — than that which is furnished by the English prize-fighters. To attain the proper con-
dition to sustain the protracted and tremendous exertions of their brutal trade, their flesh must attain the
hardness and toughness of whipcord, and they must, at the same time, maintain that physical elasticity
(technically, "corkiness,") which adds agility to iron strength. These men, while training, are snft'ered to
eat little or no adipose matter, and not even the lean of pork. Their animal food is exclusively beef or
mutton, or both. Some trainers prefer the former, some the latter. I have seen this matter very fully al-
i'jtled to, but do not now remember any more explicit authority than that contained in the following note
to Carpenter's Principles of Human Physiology, (p. 357.)

" The method of training employed by Jackson, (a celebrated trainer of prize-fighters in modern times,)
ia deduced from his answers to questions put to him by John Bell, was to begin on a clear foundation by
•n emetic and two or three purges. Beef and mutton, the lean of fat meat being preferred, constituted the
principal food ; veal, lamb and pork were said to be less digestible ('the last purges home men'). Fish
was said to be a ' watery kind of diet ;' and is employed by jockeys who wish to reduce weight by sweat'

? I mean this portion of the remark to apply more particularly to the non-laboring classes. The propor-
tion consumed by the slave, though ample, is not excessive, when his laboring habits are taken into con
•iteration

f I state this on the authority of various individuals who have been much in England, and who have
heen placed in positions to form a pretty accurate opinion. Mr. Col man speaks of the "extraordinary*
consumption of mutton in England, without, however, giving any comparative data.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 57

made in mutton, it would be far cheaper, and, if I have not erred in previ-
ous statements, better for the slave.

There are two or three other highly favorable considerations to oe taken
into account among the direct profits of rearing sheep.

The risk by death, by ordinary causes, is nothing. Two per cent, is al-
lowed in the preceding estimates, as the full product of wool and increase
is earned out. But, in reality, the sheep never dies " insolvent." If the
colt or the bullock dies on our hands, after two or three years of trouble
and expense with it, the loss is nearly a total one. If the fine-wooled
sheep dies at any age, the wool then on it, or what it has already produced,
more than covers all the cost which it has ever made us.*

Not only is the winter manure of the sheep superior to that of any other
domestic animal, the hog and fowl excepted, but it practically becomes
still more so in proportion, in summer, when scattered over the pastures,
by reason of the conditions in which it is deposited. The soft porous ex-
crements of the cowf or horse, exposed to the exsiccating action of sun and
wind, evolve most of their fertilizing properties into the atmosphere, and
this effect would increase in proportion to the warmth of the climate. The
excrements of the sheep, on the other hand, are deposited in small, hard,
rounded pellets, which fall down between the leaves of the grass, and arc-
thus in a great measure protected from the sun and wind, until they are
trodden into and incorporated with the soil.J Then, again, they need no
spreading,)! like the dung of the horse and cow. And finally, instinct, in
leading the sheep almost invariably to seek the summits of the elevations,
in warm weather, for its night quarters, leads it to deposit much more ma-
nure in proportion, where it is most needed, on the drier and more barren
hill-tops ; and where, being more remote from water-courses, less of its
juices are liable to be washed away by rains, into the streams, or on to the
lands of others.

Sheep are also far more efficient than any other animal (if we except
the worthless goat) in clearing up new lands, or neglected old ones, ol
those briers and shrubs which it is often difficult to eradicate without plow
ing; and they often abound on lands which cannot be plowed with profit.
And, when plowed, the shrubs in. the fence corners must be left (to the
utter shame of all good husbandry), or the fence must be removed-^— some-
times at a great inconvenience. The sheep delights to browse on the buds,
and to strip the bark of most shrubs, § and they thus soon destroy them. It
would be good economy for the farmer to keep his neighbors' sheep, with-
out charge, on all very briery or coppiced unarable lands, if he could not
«o stock them himself.

Finally, it is generally believed by experienced flock-masters — and ob-
servation has led me to fully coincide in the opinion — that sheep not onlv
improve the lands they depasture more than any other animal, but that
they exert an almost specific influence in improving tlic character of tft,
vegetation. All wild, poor grasses gradually disappear from their pastures

* I speak, of course, of the cost of rearing and feeding.

t Gaxzeri found that 100 parts of recent cow-dung contain 25 per cent, of dry, solid matter, and that 5 pp»
eea'c. of this is lost in 40 days by exposure to the air. I do not think this indicateu the full loss which woulc
be sustained in a southern latitude.

I These rounded pellets are covered, too, in the animal in good condition, with a coating of mucus, which
ferther protects them from evaporation.

|| Their urine, also, is voided in quantities which render it highly beneficial ; while that of the horse and
eo* is voided in such large quantities in one place that it is not only in a great measure wasted, but in a
Jry dme (so that it is not diluted by the moisture in the soil), its rich salts, so far from benefiting, actually
kill the verdure.

§ This is particularly true of the blackberry or bramble (Ri/brus villostts), and the raspberry (Rubut
idneus), -)ften great pests on new or neglected lands at the North. Sheep can even be made to attack the
elder (Sambucus canadtnsis var. pubescent), and various other troublesome intruders, by turning them upo»
them in thawing " spells," in the winter, after they have been for gome time confined to dry feed.

H

58 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

and are succeeded by the best ones ; and the sward becomes remarkably
dense and even. This is probably due to the richness and better distribu-
tion of their dung and urine.

If upward of twenty per cent, profits, over and above all expenditures,
have been and still can be made, on lands worth $20 per acre, by wool-
growing — on lands, too, where the reign of an iron winter confines sheep
to dry feed at least five months of the year — how are we to estimate those
profits on lands costing but a small part of this sum, which, though inferior
to the former, will, by reason of the shortness and mildness of the winter
support about an equal number of sheep per acre, and also save the ex-
pense of preparing dry feed, of foddering, and a large proportion of thai
laid out in barns, shelters, &c. 1

It will be seen that, by assuming the data of the last of the two preced
ing estimates (with the exception of the loss by death), the gross cost ol
producing 300 Ibs. of wool, on the grazing lands of New- York, is $82 16,
or 27^| cts. per pound. This is undoubtedly as low as it can be produced
where the fleeces do not exceed the average weight of 3 Ibs. Let us now
proceed to inquire what would be the gross expense per pound in the
Southern States.

You inform me that " one or two — not more — " sheep find subsistence
during the summer on the natural pastures of the tide-water zone in South
Carolina.* The broad-tailed, and other large breeds, now mainly fed
there, consume nearly double the amount of feed required by the fine-
wooled sheep. But, to make our estimate perfectly a safe one, we wilJ
assume that two fine-wooled sheep only will consume the summer herbage
of an acre. Fields of rye sown in September or October, you farther in-
form me, will support " two sheep and their lambs" per acre, " from the
20th of December to the 10th of March." Numerically, then, here you
have the same stocking that is borne by the lands of Ndw-York, viz. three
sheep per acre. And, making the allowance already alluded to for the
different consumption of breeds, an acre would sustain three full-grows
Merino sheep. As the rye subsequently yields its crop, the wool is not
chargeable with the expense of its tillage.

Rye will continue to grow in the winter on all lands not too sterile, 01
too elevated, south of latitude 36°, and, in favorable situations, at least
two degrees farther north. Grass, and some other hardy esculents, also
maintain a winter vegetation in many portions of the whole of this re-
gton.f

R. L. Allen, Esq., after a recent visit to the plantation of Col. Wade
Hampton, near Columbia, S. C., thus speaks of the winter verdure in that
region :

" Though everything like grass or weeds is rigidly excluded in the early stages of the
srops, yet, as these approach maturity, the thick netting of crab and various other grasse*
and plants, which are ever struggling tor existence in this warm clime, are allowed to como
forward and mature ; and their growth furnishes forage for cattle and sheep during the win-
ter, and an important addition to the vegetable manures for turning inider and adding to the
fertility of the soil. . . . The sheep, together with the cattle, mules and horses, which
are not at work, are turned into the natural pastures in summer, and, in addition to these,
they have the run of the corn-fields in winter, and without seeing any other shelter against
the severest storms than a thicket or hill -side, they thrive and fatten throughout the year. —
This condition is secured by the mildness of the climate, and the consequent growth of vego
latiou during the entire winter."

* f These statements, and all others credited to Col. Allston, are, when not otherwise specified, contained
'.' letters from that gentleman to the writer]

t Anioiy; iheee, " a plant called -Wild Rye.' affording excellent herbace during the winter months, springs
ip spontaneously on the rice-field banks, and between the cotton beds, on some plantations on the River
Vcngaree, S ~ "

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 59

John S. Skinner, Esq. thus yvrites me :*

" Col. Hampton's flock numbers 800, 1 believe. He kills the finest sort of mutton through
out the winter and spring — very fat and excellent in all respects. He told me last summer,
at Saratoga, that they never get a mouthful except what they can find in the woods and
fields."

Hon. R. F. Simpson, Member of Congress, of Pendlefc>n, South Caro
Una, thus describes the region in which he resides, and some of the contig
nous ones :t

HENRY S. RANDALL, Esq. WASHINGTON, Jan. 2&, 1847.

Dear Sir : I take much pleasure in answering your inquiries, and only regret that I have
not more time to do full justice to the subject. If my answers fail to inform you with suffi
cient clearness on any point, I shall be most happy to add to them, at your suggestion.

The Allegany Mountains, as you are aware, run from N. E. to S. W. That part of them
north of the S. C. line lies spread out in different chains or ridges to a distance of nearly 50
miles ; and the whole region is commonly called " on th» mountains." The climate is healthy
and the grass fine. Many of the valleys in this region are very rich, particularly on the wa-
ter-courses. The ground is covered with snow as much as four weeks annually. The range
is good, but there may be too much humidity for sheep.t The land is cheap, say $1 per
acre — but much can be bought at 50 cents. I have leamed from good authority that sheep
can be farmed out during the winter at ten cents a head, in any ordinary quantity. The
farmers who take them, too, will be liable for loss by death, in many instances.

There is a strip of country lying east of tti3 Blue Ridge, and parallel to it, from 20 to 30
miles wide, extending through North and South Carolina and Georgia, which I think espe-
cially adapted to sheep husbandry. The land is poor for the production of our southern sta-
ples, and is sparsely settled, but the pasturage is good. There is a perennial grass, known
as " woods grass," which springs up in the woods after they are burned each winter, which
makes excellent pasture for all kinds of stock. It starts vigorously in the spring, and sheep
fatten on it by the middle of July. It lasts all the summer, and provides sufficient food for
sheep during the entire winter, except when snow is on the ground, which is not more than
two or three days at a time, and usually not more than ten days during a winter.

The few days during which the grass is covered up with snow are the only ones, during
the entire year, when it is necessary to feed sheep. This is usually done with oats in the
sheaf. . . . Supposing ten sheep equal to one cow, I think one acre would afford sub
aistence to three sheep.

But few people mow here. In a few instances, herds-grass has been sown and mowed,
but the product not weighed, to my knowledge. Both herds-grass and the natural ones, on
our bottom lands, look much richer, and to all appearance would turn off a heavier crop of
hay than any meadows to be seen on the line of travel through Virginia.

As I have before remarked, the land is poor, except the small bottoms on creeks and
branches. The latter are rich, and will produce 30 bushels of corn and from 10 to 15 bush*
els of wheat per acre. They also produce oats and rye, 'but I do not know how much by
measurement. I suppose from 10 to 20 bushels each. The land is valued low — from 50 cte.
to $1 50 per acre — and it is only necessary to buy $500 or $1,000 worth of it, to embrace
sufficient bottom to raise provisions, and oats to feed sheep when snow is on the ground.—
The rangell is very large, and everybody's stock has liberty to roam over it, without hin-
drance or compensation.

Our common method of managing sheep is as follows : The flock are kept in the planta-
tion during the winter by some ; others turn out in the woods. In May they are sheared,
the lambs marked, &c., and they are turned into the out pastures. When they come up.
they are salted, and no other attention is paid to them until fall, when most persons shear
again. They are. rarely brought up unless to get a lamb for the table. This treatment ren-
ders them wild, and prone to jump into the owners' or neighbors' wheat fields, from which
they are driven out with rocks and sticks, and sometimes with dogs. They are, in all re-

* Jan. 15, 1847.

f This letter would have been more appropriately included in my IVth Letter, but was not received in
time, and it is by far too valuable and interesting to be omitted.

1 The effect of humidity on sheep is, I think, often misunderstood and greatly exaggerated. Wet, cold
toils are uncongenial to sheep, but they suffer no moi-e from those ordinary fogs and vapors which prevail
in insular positions, or which are attracted by mountain ranges, than other domestic animals. As has been
before remarked, sheep thrive in the peculiarly foggy atmosphere of England — also in Holland. Their
heUthiness on mountains is proverbial, yet these elevations are usually subject to fogs, and clouds rest on
the sides or summits of the loftier ones. As the southern mountains are cleared of their trees, their atmo-
sphere will be less humid, and that soft vegetable mould (which excited the fears of Mr. Buckley) will ac-
quire the consistency which it always does en a dry foundation, when exposed to the sun and air; and it
will be the means of supplying the sheep with rich vegetable nutriment, instead of poisoning them with
•hoof-ail."

|| The provincial signification of this word, South, is the uninclosed pasturage in tht Jbrest and "out
Eelds,"— f. e., worn-out lands thrown out to commons.

60 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

•pects, treated more like outlaws than domestic animals. When out, all the flocks lath*
neighborhood mingle together. From their disposition to ramble, and the incursions of dogs,
they get scattered, and scarcely any fanner can get up to the fall shearing more than one-
half of his count.

The region above described includes Pickens, Grenville and Spartansburg, so far as this
State is concerned. ^ Going east of this strip, you at once get into good land, where the set-
dements are frequent. Here snow is rare, and wheat, rye and barley are used for winter
pastures for sheep, and they continue growing during the winter. Wood grass does not
abound in this region, as the woods are not kept burnt.*

Very respectfully, yours, &c. R. f. SIMPSON.

The preceding statements give a sufficient idea of the expense of feed-
ing sheep in the Carolinas, Georgia, and the Gulf States. In all of these,
there is a striking similarity in soils and natural products, and also in cli
mate — with, perhaps, the exception of North Carolina, which is a trifle
colder. In all of them, as wfell as in all the other Southern States, land
can be bought at the same low prices.t

The cost of the winter forage of sheep in Tennessee may be inferred
from the statements of Mr. Kramer, (in Letter IV.) On even the lofty
Cumberland Mountains, in that State, grass grows during the entire win-
ter, and snow rarely covers the ground to exceed forty-eight hours'! Judge
Beatty's statements in relation to Kentucky (in the same letter) show that
the luxuriant blue-grass pastures of that State will sustain sheep during
the entire winter; and that they frequently obtain their whole subsistence
on the grasses, even on the mountains. Let us now turn to Virginia, the
most northern of the Southern States. In a recent letter to me, John S.
Skinner, Esq. says :

" Hon. Mr. Coles, a Member of Congress from Virginia* — a sedate, attentive and practical
fanner — once informed me that his flock of 200 sheep, kept in good condition summer and

winter, did not cost him $10 a year You must know that they, in the general

way, as I believe, never feed their sheep, winter or summer, except where the ground is
covered with snow — which is rarely the case, and then the snow does not lie more than a
day, or at most two days. . . . No doubt winter pasture might be provided by sowing
rye in the proper season (the usual system is to sow it the last thing, and as long as the
farmer can " catch a chance") and putting the ground in good condition ; and in that way

adequate provision might be made for any deficiency of natural pasture When

the snow does cover the ground in Virginia, they give the sheep corn-blades — an excellent
fodder. I think the rule was when I was a boy (in the rare exigency alluded to) to give
them a bundle of hlades each. A bundle of blades compacted would be about as large as
the upper part of your arm."

North- Western Virginia seems to be considerably colder than the corre-
sponding portion of tlio State east of the mountains ; and the winter fod-
dering season is not greatly shorter — though the amount of fodder con-
sumed must be far less — than in Western Pennsylvania, or in many por-
tions of N«\v-York.|| Yet, singularly enough, more sheep are bred here
in proportion, probably, than in any other portion of the Southern States !

* Some other paragraphs from this letter arts omitted for quotation under the heads 01' which they specif-
ically treat

t Hon. S. Strong, ft Member of Congress from this (N. Y.) State, writes me, after consultation \vith vari-
ous Southern Member*, thai " good lands may be purchased for $>1 50 per acre, and in great abundance, hi
most of the Southern State.*."

Mr. Garret Andrew*, of Wilkcs Co., Georgia, in n communication in the American Agriculturist (April,
1844), save : "Several hundred acres (in thr. middle or hilly zone) are often gold for a dollar1 pr left* per
•ere. The usual rule is to fell the wood-land for what it may bo thought to be worth, and pivc the pur

chaser the old landu and the houses for nothing For $1.000 or $1,500, a comfortable house and

oat-hou'es, garden, &c. may be had, *vith *ereral hundred acres of land, . . • wanting nothing but a fail
Chance to become ns fertile as may be <le*ired. . . . There is no end of the materials for manure."

I recently 6-%v/ it staled by a ger-tleman in a communication which was published in ihe N. Y. Farmer acf
Mechani.-, that he was authorized to gicc away good land in the Cumberland Mountains to sober and indut
trioas eenlci*.

The prices in inc N. C. Mountains will be seen from Mr. Clingman's letter, (Letter IV.)

SMr. Coles resided in Pittsylvania, a county adjoining North Carolina, in the middle or hilly zone.
Jesse Edgifigtoil, of Hollidny's Cove, Brooke Co , Va.. writes me : " Our average time of foddering It
at least 4 month*, and we generally provide provender equal to 5 tons of hay for each hundred grow*
•beep, fur the winter."

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

This region being essentially Northern m its characteristics no allusion
will be had to it in subsequent remarks.

It will be seen from the preceding statements that in many, if not most
situations, throughout the whole Southern States, sheep will obtain suffi-
cient food throughout the year from the pastures,* or from autumn-sown
grains, excepting on the higher or more northern mountains. As has been
before remarked, as the grain subsequently yields its crop, its tillage is not
properly chargeable among the expenses of producing wool. The prepa-
ration of hay, and labor of foddering, are also dispensed with. By the
rule of estimation followed in relation to New-York, the items on the debit
side of the account would then be — interest on purchase money; interest
on land ; expense of shearing; salt, tar, and general supervision ; and loss
by death. The items on the credit side would be the same with those of
New- York.

Your own statements, Sir, as well as those of Mr. Simpson, show that,
in many situations, both in the tide-water and hilly zone, three sheep can
be supported on the herbage of an acre, without other fodder. His state-
ments show that such lands can be bought at " from 50 cents to $1 50 per
acre." The annual account then would stand thus :

Dr. $ cts.

Or. $ cts.

100 sheep — to interest on purchase money, at
$1 25 per head .- $875

By 300 Ibs. of wool at 31 cents per pound... $93 00
•• 80 lambs, at 62.} cents per head 50 00

" Manure t 28 00

14 expense of shearing 4 00

'• loss by death 2 per cent, over and above

Total $26 75

Balance $144 25

Making $4 32, or two hundred and eighty-eight per cent, clear profit per
acre, on lands worth $1 50 !

By the respective estimates it will be seen that the gross cost of pro-
ducing a pound of wool (allowing 3 Ibs. to the fleece) is, in the Southern
States, 8^2- cents ; in New-York 27|^ cents! — or nearly three and a half
times ^rvater in the latter ! I have put down the expense of shearing the
same in both cases, and the supervision, South, twice as high as the sum
mer care, in the North. Shearing always costs $1 a day, per hand, in the
North, and the summer care devolves upon the paid laborer \vhose every
hour counts. The shearing would not be worth to exceed $2 a hundred
on a plantation where slaves are kept, and the supervision or care could
scarcely be considered an expense, when it could be borne mainly, if not
entirely, by superannuated or decrepit slaves, or even by children. The
real expense of growing wool on land of this quality and price would be
about Sj1^ cents per pound ;|| and calling the fleece 4 Ibs. (which weight it
always ought to be made to attain) it would but little exceed 3-J cents.§
This is above Mr. Coles's estimate of expense in southern central Vir-
ginia, and Mr. John S. Skinner has repeatedly expressed the opinion that
it could be grown in various parts of the Southern States at 3 cents per

* This supply could be rendered far more certain and available, where desirable, by leaving a portion of
the fields undepastured in the latter part of summer and autumn. This "fog"' or after-grass would not only
•tibrd much food, of itself, but it also greatly favors the sprouting of the young grass underneath it, by the
protection it offers from frosts and cold winas.

t 1 have put this down the fame as at the North, because I suppose it is just as valuable at the South.
And quite is much needed. Few are disposed to appreciate the value of manure when it is not presented
to their view in bulk, as in the barn-yard ; but it is worth quite as much, dropped in the first instance
over the fields. I feel confident that I have not over-estimated its value either for the South or the North.

J To obtain these results, I divided the whole annual expense, as set down in the respective estimate*,
with the exception of the charge of 2 per cent, for loss by death, by the amount of wool produced. For
reasons already given, I do not consider the wool chargeable with such loss by death, except in an eft
timate where the full product of wool and lambs is carried out.

|| In this estimate I call shearing $2 per hundr^i, salt and tar $1, and supervision nothing.

$ Estimated as in the preceding note.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

pound.* My own impression, however, is that the land, properly in-
closed, that will support 3 sheep per annum, will cost, except in occa»
eional localities, not less than $4 or $5, let the amount be more or less ;
and this would bring the cost of production (with 3-lb. fleeces) to between
7 and 8 cents per pound. I shall hereafter assume it to be 8 cents.

On many of the more northern mountains of the Southern States, and
on the high peaks farther south, neither the grasses nor grain grow suffi
ciently to support sheep, unless the range is very large in proportion to
the number, during the winter.! Here, as in the Northern States, dry feed
must be prepared for the winter subsistence of sheep. This can be read-
ily done, as the best meadow grasses of the North and the clovers flourish
on the sides of the mountains-! There is little doubt that sheep can be
wintered on dry feed on many of the mountains, and yet, on account of
the extreme cheapness of the lands, the cost of producing wool not exceed
eight cents per pound.

In the circumstances of many of the lowland plantations, it would b«
a most economical arrangement to summer the sheep on the mountain^
and then drive them to these plantations to be wintered on pasture, fog,
or grain fields, according to convenience. After the lambs have reached
a sufficient age in the spring, and the sheep are shorn, marked, &c., a
flock might be sent thirty, fifty, or even a hundred miles to its summer
range on the mountains, at a trifling expense ; and large numbers could
lie kept there under the surveillance of a single shepherd and a brace or
two of dogs. By this system the lowland plantation would be saved from
maintaining pasture on more expensive lands ; many of its less marketa-
ble products could be converted into wool, meat, and manure ; and it
would be enriched by the wintering of the sheep.

Such, you are aware, is the system of sheep husbandry in Spain. The
sheep are wintered on the plains of Estremadura, sometimes reaching the
north of Andalusia. Both of these provinces, though in a latitude cor-
responding with that of a portion of the United States, extending from
Albemarle Sound to a little north of Philadelphia, are parched, during the
summer, to a state of arid sterility, by the burning winds of Africa. || In

* See Monthly Journal of Agriculture.

t With sufficient range, however, they not only obtain subsistence, but get fat. John S. Skinner, Esq.,
writes me : " In the mountains ot Virginia, viz., at the Warm Springs, Dr. Brockenboro told me that a
flock of sheep which he had bought for use during the watering season, strayed, and got off beyond reach
during the summer; that the winter after they were rarely seen: and that as chance offered they were
rJiut; and that tiner and fatter mutton he never desired to see." The Warm Springs are in Bath county,
among the Western or Allegany Mountains, a few minutes north of latitude 38°.

{ See Mr. Goggin's statements in Letter IV. Since the above was written, I have received the following
statements from "Mr. W. Murdock, of Asheville, Huricombe county, North Carolina :

" Excellent swards of grass are grown in this district from Orchard grass or Cock's-foot. Timothy and
Italian Rye grass I have found to thrive remarkably well. I never saw them do better in any country. 1
received my seeds from England, and they succeeded admirably, and in ground by no means favorable to
a fair trial. Turnips succeed remarkably well hew, and even lf>0 miles farther south, as I am informed by

Mr. Edward Calhoun— the kinds I don't know— but here the Globe, Aberdeen, Norfolk, &c., do well

If grounds were reserved as you suggest, for the winter feeding of sheep, the full growth being under-
pastured, and if some of the stubbles were plowed up and sown broadcast with turnips mixed with rape
or colza, very little fodder will be required, in fact only when snow is on the ground, which seldom ex-
ceeds fifteen or twenty days during tli<e year." [This fully confirms the positions assumed by me near the
close of Letter IV.]

•' I think that Curled Kale would be excellent for the winter keep of sheep, or cattle of any kind. I got
«ome seed from England and sowed it like any cabbage seed. 1 put out the plants two feet asunder in bu
tolerable ground. It grew three feet high and two feet in diameter. That I planted in the open field the
•heep got at in October, and ate it, stock, branches and all, to the ground. That planted in the garden has,
like the rape, stood the severe frosts uninjured. It is a delightful vegetable all the spring, and stands a

warm or a cold climate This and rape are, I think, all the green food necessary to koep sheep

through the winter, with the addition of a litile hay. Rape may be sown broadcast in mois. weather in
May or June, and mown off for the sheep, when required, about six inches above ground. If the shoota
are not required for pasture, let them go' to seed, and the feed will pay better than any other crop, for
making oil and rape cake."

l| Here is a notable instance of the want of correspondence between isothermal and latitudinal lines be-
tween the west of Europe and the eastern portion of our own Continent. The two Spanish provinces th<
<*titude of which is above given, have a climate more resembling the scorched llanos ol'Caraccas thuuaoi
portion, even the most southerly, of the United States.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 63

the winter, however, they are covered with verdure. About the iirst of
May the sheep start for the mountains,* Formerly many of them rested
on the lofty paramcras and mountain sides of Old and New Castile — the
latter bleak, sterile and craggy, compared with the sides of our own South-
ern mountains. But a friend recently from Spain informs me that those
once magnificent flocks (now, alas ! thinned by confiscation, f the whole-
sale plunder of invaders,! and for the subsistence of adverse armies, ||) do not
at present stop in any considerable numbers on the Castilian mountains,
but pass north to the Cantabrian, and that portion of the Iberian range
north of Soria — or crossing the latter, spread over the Eastern Pyrenees,
and the mountains of Saragossa north of the Ebro.

Anything Tike an elaborate comparison between the facilities for sheep
husbandry furnished by the mountains of Spain and the Apalachians of
the United States, south of the Potomac, would, perhaps, be out of place
in this connection. But a glance at them may throw useful light on the
question of comparative profit. If the Spaniard can grow wool at a profit,
where the natural and physical features of the country gives him no ad-
vantage over us, we can certainly do so ; for in every other respect we
have the advantage.

The Eastern Pyrenees rise, to a hight of 10,000 feet,§ more than double
that of the Peaks of Otter, or that of any other portion of the Apalachian
range, with the exception of a few summits in North Carolina. Mount
Perdu, one of the Pyrenees, is 11, 283 feet in hight, fl or 4,807 feet higher
than the Black, the highest mountain of the United States east of the Mis-
sissippi. Maladetta, Vignemale and others rise considerably above 10,000
feet.** Glaciers exist on different parts of the whole chain. " The acclivity
of the Pyrenees on the side of Spain, is often extremely steep,tt present
ing a succession of rugged chasms, abrupt precipices, and huge masses of
naked rock."JJ Minano, a Spanish writer of authority, in defending his
countrymen from the charge of indolence, speaks particularly of the ef
forts of the hardy peasantry on the " almost inaccessible mountains of the
Asturias, Galicia and Catalonia." The vegetation on these mountains is ex-
tremely variable, in some places being as luxuriant as the best on our South-
ern Apalachians, but more frequently dwarfish and meager. On lar^e
portions of them it is entirely wanting. The northern acclivities are fre-
quently swept by cold and piercing gales from the Bay of Biscay. On the
whole, it will be seen that they do not compare with our southern moun-
tains in the advantages which they offer for sheep husbandry. || ||

* For singular and interesting particulars in relation to their march, &c., and the municipal regulations
pertaining thereto, see Livingston on Sheep, p. 36 et supra.

t Some of the choicest flocks in Spain were confiscated by the Government during the great antf-dallic
struggle. In the winter of 1809, the Spanish Junto confiscated the great flocks of the infamously celebrated
Oodoy and several oiher nobles, and they were bought by foreigners for exportation.

I The French Marshals, not finding anything in Spain to benefit ihefaie arts of la belle France, as in Italy,
condescended, it is said, to benefit her Agriculture, by driving home some of the best flocks of Spain. The
Allied Armies compelled the restitution of the marble and canvas, but those priceless flocks either could not
be re-collected, or they were not regarded as of sufficient importance to be returned.

|| The Commissariat of the English, French and Spanish armies,

" The foe, the victim, and the fond nlly,"

found the great Spanish flocks a very convenient resort, and availed themselves of it fully. The Guerilla*,
contrabandists, and fugitive inhabitants, of course, did the same.

ft Malte Krun. tf Ib. ** Kncycloptedia Americana; ait. Pyrcnerc.

ft Montserrat (in Catalonia), so famous for its monastic establishments, will occur to you in this cornice-
tion — where the steepness is so great ihnt the monks ascend from hermitage to hermitage by ladders 01
etairs cut in the rocks ! {t Encyclopedia Americana.; art. i'yrr.nces.

|1 1| How much the associations of early life — early reading — dispose us to exr.airerate even the physical
extent of the region covered by these mountains, connected as they are with so many romantic and inter-
esting remembrances ! The whole chain, extending from Cape Finisterre to Pott Veftdrce, does not exceed
250 miles in length; and the space covered by it is not, in Western parlance, a " circumstance " to that oc-
cupied by our Southern Apalachians ! Yet, in the western half of this chain, Pelayo and his successors
maintained their Visi-Gothic kingdom, overthrew the descendants of the Abassides and Omrniadcs, and
finally wrested Spain from the Moodsh yoke. Who remembers, without the map under his eye, that Haw

64 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

The route pursued by the Spanish flocks from, say, the middle of E»-
tremaciura to the Gantabrian mountains (the western portion of the Py-
renees), cannot fall short of 300 miles. It equals 270 miles in a direct
line. In addition to the length of the journey, they are compelled to crosg
the Castilian mountains, and if they come from the south of Estremadura,
also the mountains of Toledo. Their route to the eastern Pyrenees would
be farther and still more difficult. Every circumstance, then, excepting
municipal regulations,* gives our Southern States, on both sides of the
Apalachians, a manifest advantage over Spain, for the purposes of migra-
tory sheep husbandry.

Before closing the investigation of the question of the direct profits of
wool-growing in the Southern States, it is proper to inquire if there are
any special local militating causes or disadvantages not yet adverted to
which should be taken into the account. Diligent investigation has satis-
fied me that there are no such causes — on the other hand, that there is a
remarkable exemption from them — with one exception. That exception
is the destruction caused by wolves arid dogs.

Wolves are found in nearly all new, and particularly in mountainous
countries ; but they invariably rapidly give way before the extension of
population.t They have even now ceased to be very destructive in the
most sparsely settled regions of the South. Mr. Simpson, in the letter be-
fore quoted from, says :

"There are but few wolves in South Carolina, excepting on the mountains. Otherwise,
our sheep which roam at large unteuded by shepherd, and uncared-for by any one, would
soon be exterminated. The wolves are not numerous even on the mountains. They are
not so destructive as dogs, which every now and then attack and destroy the sheep. A
trusty shepherd, with a dog or two and a rifle, would prevent this."

These remarks would apply equally well to nearly all the Southern
States. Wolves do but little damage, and would soon cease to do any ;
but the miserable, prowling curs are, in many places, a serious detriment.
There is something singular in the fact that while so much complaint is
made of them in the Southern and Western States, in New- York, where
there is certainly a great surplus of them, we hear little, comparatively
speaking, of their depredations. I am inclined to attribute it to the fact
that dogs are here constantly familiarized with the sight of sheep. The
first even playful movement of thex adventurous puppy toward them is
severely chastised, and he is thus educated to recognize them as within
the category of " protected " animals. The dog which slays or even pur-
sues a sheep, finds a long pedigree or a silver collar utterly unavailing t(
save him from immediate death.!

But even in the South or West, the loss occasioned by the depredation*

nockburn was fought and Flodden lost to defend a Kingdom of half the dimensions of a good-sized Ameri
can State! In comparing the agricultural capabilities— and especially in estimating the uuimate result of
agricultural competition between our own country and the European ones, we rarely take sufficiently int<
Tfew the great disparity in territorial dimensions.

* For the monopoly of privileges conferred on the flock-masters of Spain to the oppression and prcwtr*
tfon of every other branch of husbandry, see Lasterie, and alBO Livingston on Pheep.

t A bounty of $10 is paid for the destruction of every full-grown wolf, and $5 for a wolf's whelp in th*
State of New-Yovk.

I In New-York it is provided by law that every bitch over three months old shall be taxed $2 ; every nd
ditional one owned by the same man $5 ; twn dogs over 6 months old $1 ; every additional one $3. The
•vails of these taxes constitute a fund, out of which Supervisors of Counties are to pay for any sheep slain
by dogs whose owners are unknown. This is not often enforced.

Any person may kill any dog " which he shall see chasing, worrying, or wounding any sheep," unless by
direction of owner.

The owner or possessor of any dog on being notified " of any injury done by his dog to any eheep, or
his dog having chased or worried any sheep," must within 48 hours kill his dog. or forfeit $2 50, and the
farther sum of $1 25 for every 48 hours thereafter, unless " it shall satisfactorily appear to the Court that it
was not in the power of euch owner or possessor to kill such dog." Revised Statutes of New-York, vol I
ebap. xx., title xvii.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 65

of other animals, or the expense of guarding against them, would be light
compared with that in some of the wool-growing regions of the Old World.

In Australia, the sheep are exposed to the attack of wolves, dogs, and
convicts, and are constantly attended by a shepherd, and nightly folded,
and guarded by a watchman with dogs and a fire.*

At the Cape of Good Hope, the shepherd and folding system is also fol
lowed. In addition to wolves, and wild dogs which hunt in packs, and
from their superior sagacity are much more formidable than wolves,t the
Cape sheep are preyed upon by a variety of animals, and when they pass
the mountains to glean the herbage which springs on the banks of the
streams on the vast and lonely Karoos, they are exposed to the attack of
the lion, the panther, the leopard, and the whole Feline family, so abund-
ant and so particularly formidable in Southern Africa.^ And they have
had, and probably yet have, an enemy more destructive than all of these,
in the Bushmen, more wild, irreclaimable, and predatory than their con-
geners, the Bedouins of the Arabian desert. ||

I have seen it proposed§ to teach young cattle to protect sheep from
dogs, in the following manner : Turn a few steers into the pasture with
the sheep, and with them a cow or two, having young calves at their sides.
Send a dog into the field, and immediately the cows, followed by the
steers, will commence a furious onset on the dog, and gore him or drive
him from the field. After this is repeated a few times, it is said the steers
will suffer no dog to enter the inclosure.

This might do very well under some circumstances, but I should prefei
to rely on the remedy proposed by Mr. Simpson : the dog and the rifle.
There are no " shepherd dogs " large and powerful enough to encounter
and kill wolves and vagrant dogs, excepting the great sheep-dog of Spain ;
and he is so irreclaimably ferocious to all excepting his charge, that he
might frequently bring his owner into difficulty, and even endanger human
life. My impression is that a shepherd dog or two, to be on the alert,
and a brace of mastiffs to capture and, if need be, slay wolf or cur, would
be adequate protection for the sheep on a considerable range, and the
expense of maintaining them would be trifling.

* Cunningham's. "Two Years in New South Wales," vol. i. p. 251.
\ Missionary Labors and Scenes in Southern Africa, by Rev. Robert Moffat, pp. 23-4.
tThe following stanza from the spirited lines of Freiligrath — " The Lion's Ilide " — will occur to you ,
" And the vulture scenting a coming carouse,
Snails, hoarsely screaming, down the sky ;
The bloody hyena, be sure, is nigh,
Fierce pillager he of the charnel-house !
The panther, too, who strangles the Cape-Town eheep

As they lie asleep,

Athirst for his share in the slaughter, follows ;

While the gore of their victim spreads like a pool in the sandy hollows ! "

S To these may be added the savage Kaffirs, who, in their recent struggle with the Colonial Government,
destroyed and drove off immense numbers of cattle and sheep. In 1834, •' the natives,'' says Youatt, "drovt
off or destroyed 80,000 cattle and sheep almost innumerable."
§ By a writer in the American Agriculturist.

G6 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

LETTER VI.

PROFITS OF SHEEF HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHERN STATES— 2. AS THB
BASIS OF AMELIORATION IN NATURALLY STERILE AND WORN-OUT
SOILS.

Feasibility of rendering the naturally sterile and worn-out Soils of the South productive... Means must b*
ample and cheap.. .Ordinary Animal Manures from Stables, &.c., not attainable in sufficient quantity— too
'expensive if transported far by land carriage... Animal Manures of Commerce still more out of the ques-
tion.. .Gyp.-um — not sufficient of itself. . .Wood Ashes — Leached Ashes — their great value, but limited
quantity.. .Lime (marl)... Swamp Mud— inexhaustible quantity of each.. .Valuable Effects of Lime on
.Soils... Other wise when there is n deficiency of Organic Matter... Opinion of Johnston, Brown, Lord
Kaimes, Anderson, Morton, Thaer, Petzholdt, Chaptal... Southern Tertiary and Granitic Soils destitute of
Organic Matter.. .Expensiveness of Marl-not very permanent in its effects.. .The best Swamp Mud worth
more per load . . .This, too, an expensive manure. . .Both too costly for extensive ameliorations. . .Is there,
then, any resort?— There is — it is to be found in a Mixed System of Green and Animal Manuring, the lat-
ter made attainable by Sheep Husbandry.. .Experience and Testimony of various English Farmers under
analogous circumstances... Reasons why Sheep are preferred to Horned Cattle for this purpose... Con-
sidered more profitable in England, and by some in the United States, independent of Fleece.. .Singular
Hallucination of Col Taylor on this subject... Sheep preferred as Improvers of Poor Lands in the North-
ern and Eastern States, but the end Bought by different means from those employed in England... The
English System — Reasons why it is inapplicable in the United States ... System in the Northern and East-
ern American States ... Proper System in the Southern States, on Lands now partly Grassed, and on Naked
Soils... Green Manuring — how accomplished — Proper Plants for the purpose — Practical Rules — Expensive-
ness. ..Should the Pasture Lands of the South be exclusively devoted to Sheep Grazing ? — Should not.. .
Home Demand should be supplied by Home Production, in the Staples furnished by all the Domestic
Animals — Reasons therefor... As a surplus or exporting Animal Staple, Sheep furnish the one in which
the South can best coirpete with other Producers.

Dear Sir : Let us now pass to the second point in reference to which
wo are to consider the profits of sheep husbandry in the Southern States,
viz. : the practicability and comparative economy of making it the basis
of an effectual amelioration in soils naturally sterile, or those which have
been rendered so by excessive and injudicious cultivation.

The first of these classes of soils is confined, mainly, to the tide-water
zone. The second is found both in this and the hilly zone, and, I need
not say, in immense quantities.

How can these soils be profitably ameliorated 1 It is certain that this
can only be done by the introduction into them of substances fitted to be-
come the food of plants — or which, by chemical combinations or changes,
prepare other substances to become such food. On soils naturally too
sterile to sustain useful vegetation, the quantity of fertilizing matter intro-
duced must be comparatively large. Hence it must be cheap, or its cost
will more than overbalance its advantages. There are various manures
which separately, or in conjunction, would convert the worst acre of bar-
ren sand between Richmond and Raleigh, or, if you please, on the Desert
of Sahara, into a fertile garden, provided it could have timely rains and
be protected from the burying sands. But it is utterly useless to argu 3
the feasibility of this means or that, without at the same time examining
its economy.

The direct and profuse application of animal manures, for example,
would probably effectually ameliorate any of these soils. But where are
these manures to be obtained, in a region where the first necessary condi-
tion for their production, i. e. the vegetation necessary to support domes-
tic animals, is wanting? The quantity accumulating in the cities and vil-
lages of a comparatively sparsely populated region — in a climate where
the preservation of putrefying substances would be incompatible with

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

67

health, would be inconsiderable. And whether more or less, it would noi
pay the cost of transportation to any considerable distance by land car-
riage. Guano, poudrette, bone-dust, and all the expensive manures of
commerce, are still more out of the question. Gypsum, on account of the
smallness of the quantity requisite, is a cheap manure, and, reasoning from
analogy, should be. a valuable one, under proper circumstances, at least on
the granitic soils of the South.* Mr. Ruffin states that it produces little ef-
fect in the Tertiary sands.t It is considered by practical men to be, at
the best, rather an aider of organic manure than a substitute for it, and
when repeatedly applied without any other fertilizing substance, it ceases
to produce any visible effect. On an exhausted soil, the chemical consti-
tution of gypsum shows that it could not replace all the substances ab-
stracted by the plants ; and on one naturally sterile, there is small proba-
bility that it would happen to supply the only deficiency necessary to the
production of vegetation. Wood ashes constitute- a most valuable manure
on probably every class of soils, and. unlike lime, gypsum, soda, etc., which
afford only a limited number of those substances which constitute the
necessary food of plants, they afford in a greater proportion than any
other manure the inorganic substances which are taken up and assimilated
by plants.f They are used with the most beneficial effect on the granitic
soils of New-England, the calcareous and aluminous ones of Middle New
York, the silicious ones of the southern or grazing region, and on the Ter-
tiary sands of Long Island. On the latter, of the same geological forma-
tion with your tide-water zone — in fact but a continuation of it — even the-
leached or washed ashes bring a shilling per bushel (the same that is pai<fc
for the unwashed ashes by the soaper and manufacturer of pearl or pot
ashes) for agricultural purposes. || But the supply cannot be made suffi-
ciently large for extensive agricultural ameliorations, without a destruc-
tion of the forests, which wouM inflict a grievous and utterly inexcusable
wrong on posterity.

The Southern Atlantic and Gulf States possess two natural arid inex-
aaustible deposits of fertilizing matter, which, it is supposed by many,,
would be fully adequate to the general "reclamation "§ of their barren and:
exhausted evils. The first of these is the marl, which underlies large por-
tions of the low country of Virginia and South Carolina, and probably the

* I refer here to the successful example of its use on the granitic soils of New-England. I have particu-
'arly specified this class of soils because your barren ones are limited to them and to^the Tertiary. Gypsum,
is used nt the North on nearly every class of Boils with advantage — calcareous, aluminous, silicious and alii
intermediate varieties. It will be found very valuable, I have no doubt, on your mountain lands, particu-
larly in localities where the clovers flourish.

t Ruffin's Agricultural Survey of South Carolina. 1843. '

J To show the value of ashes as the food of plants, and at the same time the difference between those'
made from different woods, I append the following analyses of those of two well-known southern trees.
That of oak ashes is by Sprengel, that of pitch-pine ashes by Berthier:

Constituents.

Oak.

Pitch- Pine.

Constituents.

Oalc.

Pitch-Pine.

29-95

7-50

16 -°0

Alumina

Soda

6 -73

°0'7S>

Oxide of Iron
Oxide of Manganese
Lime

£ 8-14
17-38

11-10
2-75

13 -TO

Sulphuric Acid
1 Phosphoric Acid

3-36
1-92
°-41

3-45
0-90 ,

Magnesia

1-44

4-35

Carbonic Acid

15-47

17-50

|| This fact I consider an important hint to the planters of the tide-water zone, and it is to be hoped tnat;
it is one which will not be thrown away. Leached ashes are valuable also on every other class of lands.
The southern portion of my farm (lying on Chemung rocks) is silicious. The northern part is covered:
with " northern drift," and is therefore calcareous. I use from 3,500 to 4,000 bushels of leached ashes per
annum, without any discrimination as regards the soil, and on almost every variety of crops, and invariably
with marked advantage. Doct. Emmons, our State Geologist, having in charge the volumes ou Agriculture,
stated to me that he considered these leached ashes far more valuable by bulk than a rich marl (accessible
to me) containing 90 per cent of carbonate of lime.

§ This word ("reclaim") has a provincial signification throughout the North, when applied to land. It;
means "to render productive." Unlike the words "fertilize," "enrich." etc., it implies degree as well a 9.
manner. To " reclaim " land, therefore, is to fertilize or enrich it to such a degree that it will yield fair
crops. I shall use the word both as a verb and a noun, to avoid the circumlocution otherwise necessarv
to express this idea.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY N THE SOUTH.

whole Tertiary formation, or at least that portion of it extending through
the Atlantic States. The second is the swamp mud, which, rich with the
alluvial deposition of ages, fills nearly every depression of the surface ca
pable of retaining water, in the whole tide-water zone.

Mr. Ruffiri recommends the former as the best and most attainable fer-
tilizer on both of the classes of soils under examination. He seems to
think it adequate, of itself, to their full and permanent amelioration. I do
not desire a word which I shall say to bear, or even seem to bear, a con-
troversial tone toward the views of this ardent and enlightened friend of
Southern Agriculture. In expressing my dissent from them, my limits
and the occasion only permit me to allude to a few well-settled principle'?
arid facts on which I have based my opinions. Lime acts mechanically
and chemically on soils. It stiffens loose and opens clayey ones. It is
to a certain extent, one of the necessary constituents of plants ; it neutral
izes acid substances in 'the soil; it forms compounds, and promotes the
dissolution of existing ones, to prepare suitable food for plants ; and some-
times produces certain other minor beneficial effects. But its great, its
chief object, is to produce the food of plants by its chemical action on the
organic matter in the soil. Hence, says Johnston :

" Lime has little or no effect npon soils in which organic matter is deficient;" and he far-
ther says : " Under the influence of lime the organic matter disappears more rapidly than it
otherwise would do, and that after it has thus disappeared, fresh additions of lime produce
no farther good effect ; ... it causes the organic matter itself ultimately to disappear."

" It is scarcely practicable," says Brown, ' to restore fertility to land even of the best
natural quality, which has been thus abused ; and thin moorish soils, after being exhausted
by lime, ar^ not to be restored."

"An overdose of shell marl," says Lord Kaimes, "laid perhaps an inch thick, produce*
for a time large crops, but at last renders the soil capable of bearing neither corn (grain) noi
grass, of which there are many examples in Scotland:" " The same," continues Johnston.
"" is true of lime in any form. The increased fertility continues as long as there remains mj
adequate supply .of organic (animal and vegetable) matter in the soil ; but as that disappears,
the crops every year diminish both in quantity and in qxiality."

" On poor arable lands, which are not naturally so, but which are worn out or exhausted
'by repeated liming and cropping, lime produces no good whatever." (Anderson, Brown.
Morton.)*

Let us now turn to the opinions of some of the most eminent European
Continental writers. The celebrated Thaer in his " Principles of Agricul-
ture " (Section IV. Part I.) says :

" On no soils are the effects of lime BO beneficial as on those which contain a great quan-
tity of sour humus prejudicial to vegetation, or on those v/hich have been supplied more or
'less abundantly with animal manure for a considerable period, without receiving an appli-
cation of lime, or some other substance of a similar nature. In the latter case it is frequently
much more efficacious than an amelioration of stable manure would be ; but it soon impoy.
erishes the soil so much that in a few years it becomes indispensably necessary to manure it
abundantly with rich animal or vegetable matters. As some portion of the humus, al-
though in all probability of an insoluble nature, always remains in arable lam I even when it
appears- to be much exhausted, it of course follows that an application of lime will always
be productive of very marked effects even on the poorest soils, because it will call into ac-
tion all the nutritive particles which they contain. A second amendment of a similar nature
bestowed shortly after the first, will be productive of some, although in general of much less
benefit ; and the effect of each subsequent amelioration of this nature will be progressively
diminished unless the soil receives an additional supply of humus. . . . The effect pro-
duced by lime on land of this nature (reclaimed bogs and marshes) is much more beneficial
•and durable than that of any other manure. On the other hand, repealed ameliorations of
lime will soon totally exhaust and impoverish poor and sandy soils, and reduce them to ab-
solute sterility, even though each separate application seems to be productive of some good
effect. . . . Many persons who have not rightly comprehended the cause of the effects
produced by lime, prefer it to manure, and have believed in the possibility of doing entirely
without the latter ; but the total exhaustion of the soil winch such a course of proceeding
•*nust sooner or later produce, caused them to fly to the opposite extreme. . . . An ea>

•* See Johnston's Agricultural Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 139-142.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 61*

lightened and scientific agriculturist will soon perceive tHt the use of lime can never super
sede that of dung, but that it renders this kind of manure more energetic in its action. . _. .

In many places where its ameliorating effects were known and appreciated, many agricul-
turists have calculated that marl would prove a cheaper manure than stable dung ; and
have, consequently, determined to do without the latter altogether ; and, therefore, have
diminished their stock of cattle, and sold their hay and straw. It may easily be imagined
that as soon as the chemical effects of the marl ceased to operate, as must be the case when
the land no longer contained undecomposed or insoluble substances, the soil became sterile,
and a second marling was incapable of producing any beneficial effects, there being no hu-
mus for it to act upon."

Petzholdt, in his " Lectures to Farmers on Agricultural Chemistry,"
(Lecture X VII.) says :

" Quick -lime greatly accelerates the decomposition of humus, whether of animal or vege
table origin, inducing a more speedy liberation of its salts than would otherwise take place.
This is the reason quick-lime has proved so advantageous in the cultivation of bogs ; the
lime not only accelerates the decomposition of the humus, but it may be said altogether to
be the cause of the decay of humus, which, as it exists in peat, is scarcely by itself under-
going the process at all. . . . Where there is neither humus in the soil, nor undecom-
posed silicates, the application of lime as manure will be useless. ... So much, how-
ever, is deducible from all experience, that the mere application of marl to an exhausted soil
is of no use whatever, unless it is earned on the field in such quantities as to constitute a
new soil, covering the whole surface to the depth of a foot. ... In a chemical point of
view, marl is not of any value except where tke soil requires a supply of lime. . . Tha
other minei-al constituents of marl are far too inconsiderable in amount to be reckoned upon.' J

Chaptal, in his " Chemistry applied to Agriculture," (Chap, iii., Art. 2,)
thus expresses himself :

" It is acknowledged that lime is principally useful upon fallow lands which are broken
up ; upon grass lands, whether natural or artificial, which are prepared for cultivation : and
upon muddy lands, which are to be put into a fit state for culture. It is well known that in
all these cases there exists in the land a greater or less quantity of roots, which, by the ap-
plication of lime, may be made to serve more immediately for manure, by the solubility it
will give to the new products formed by them. . . . Independently of this effect, which,
in my opinion, is the most important, lime exercises other powers, which make it a very
valuable agent in Agriculture."

These authorities might be multiplied ad injinitum.

On the alternately too loose or too hard soils of the dry and barren lands
of the tide-water zone, lime would doubtless have two salutary effects —
the mechanical one already noticed, and it would furnish one necessary
food of plants. But of its power to render these soils, or the exhausted
ones of the middle zone, anything more than transiently fertile, there is no
probability, if they are, as I suppose them to be, generally rather, and
sometimes very, destitute of organic matter. This destitution I infer from
ocular examination ;* also from the fact that they are covered with little
vegetation, with the exception of the long-leaf pine, to produce by its an-
nual decay a store of organic matter; and, finally, if this organic matter
existed in these soils in any considerable quantity, they would not be ster-
ile. They probably possess the ordinary inorganic constituents of dry
Tertiary and granitic soils, and no properties directly deleterious to vege-
tation. Organic matter, then, in my judgment, is what they principally
stand in need of to render them fertile. Now, by applying lime to them,
it would undoubtedly do good t in two ways, as before admitted; but the
considerable temporary apparent amelioration, as evinced in some instances
Ly the increased growth of vegetation, is factitious, for the lime is only act-
ing with and exhausting the little organic matter in the soil, to leave it to
greater eventual sterility. Hence the saying that " lime enriches the father
but impoverishes the son," is a true one when the lime is applied to soils
possessing but a small proportion of organic matter. On such, lime soon

* I have seen no analyses of these soils, and mean therefore as I say, simply, examination by the eye

'0 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

leads to exhaustion, unless organic matter is added to the soil in projjortion
to the waste. The theoretical and practical considerations which should
govern in the application of this fertilizer to soils are discussed more fully
aiid, in my judgment, more ably by Johnston, in his Agricultural Chem-
istry, than by any other writer. To him I take the liberty to -refer you.

Marl raised from pits, as it must necessarily be (except when denuded,
or cut through, on the beds of streams, &c.) where it occurs only as au
under-stratum in a flat country — where the pits, too, often require ma-
chiiiery, or much manual labor, to keep them free from water while work-
ing— must be an expensive manure. From its tendency to sink in the soil
it is not so permanent a one as would naturally be expected. On reclaimed
swarnp lands — as, for example, on tiie rice lands — abounding in vegetable
matter, it will be found a most efficacious manure, and, when needed, will
repay the necessary outlay ; but I fear it will be found otherwise ultimate-
ly, if not immediately, on the barren sands and exhausted granite soils of
the South. Applied with swamp mud, it would constitute a fertilizer
scarcely, perhaps, admitting of a superior, even on the latter soils. In
their single effects, however, I cannot but believe that the best swamp mud
— that which is black arid fetid by the long continued accumulation of or-
ganic substances (and especially if charged with shells, and the shields of
Infusoria) — would be worth more per load than the richest marl. The
mud, too, should be considerably cheaper than the marl, no deep excava-
tions being required to obtain it.* Digging and draught, and, in the case
of the mu»d, draught alone, would render both decidedly expensive ma-
nures, relatively to the value of the land after being ameliorated by them,
even assuming that amelioration to be complete and permanent. On lands
immediately contiguous to conveniently reached depositions of mud or
marl, on a scale so limited that it could be carried on at spare intervals
without encroaching on the regular routine of plantation labor, it might
be good economy to haul out mud and marl, and thus gradually reclaim
small pieces of laiid.f It certainly would be better economy than to waste
those intervals in idleness. But in anything like an extended and speedy
system of reclamation — the fertilization of thirty, forty or fifty acres per
annum, instead of one, two or three — the means above adverted to are, in
my humble judgment, utterly out of the question. The labor would, ab-
sorb all the labor of man and beast on the plantation ; and it is exceedingly
questionable, in my mind, whether the land, when fertilized, would sell for
the cost of the manure.

Hard would it be for many a South Carolinian or Virginian to turn his
back on the Lares and Penates of his race — forgetting many a proud local
and ancestral association — but as a question of dollars and cents, some-
times a necessary one, and, at all events, usually the paramount one,' 1
think it past a reasonable doubt that it would be better economy to de-
sert the worn-out or naturally barren soils of our South-eastern coast, and
purchase the virgin and fertile lands of the South-west (even including
the extra expense of building and fencing), than to attempt to reclaim the
former by means so expensive as those above indicated.

What, then, is the resort? Are there any means by which those lands
can be profitably reclaimed ? I answer, Yes ; and the resort is a mixed
system of green arid animal manuring — the latter made attainable by sheep
husbandry. Experience is the best test of all theories. And we have had

* I am inclined to think, however, that this mud, it" sprrnd directly on tho surface, would contaminate
the atmosphere with unhealthy miasma, generating agues and bilic't.i diseases. If so, it would require in-
corporation with the soil, hy plowing. .

t It seems to me, however, that these expensive manures would he more profitably applied in krfpmg
up the fertility of the best lands, or as assistants to other and cheaper means of reclaiming the poor ones-

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOtTiH. 71

80 little experience in the premises, in our own country, let us turn to that
of the first agricultural nation of the Old World. There is no foreign na-
tion where so high a degree of intelligence is brought to bear on farming
operations — where cause and effect are so carefully studied and accurately
noted — as in England. This care and accuracy are indispensably neces-
sary in a country where high rent and heavy taxation render good farming
or bankruptcy unavoidable counter-alternations to the agriculturist. Pre-
vailing conclusions among such a class of agriculturists — undisputed con-
clusions, too — are assuredly entitled to great respect, and may almost be
regarded as settled facts. Now the farmers of England are perfectly fa
miliar with every kind of manure accessible to our Southern farmers, un-
less it be swamp mud and cotton seed. Lime, for example, is plentiful
and cheap, and is much used in Agriculture all over the kingdom. If
either this, or any of the manures of commerce, were considered, of them-
selves, economical fertilizers of the poor, sandy or light upland soils of
England, there is no country in the world where they are more plentiful,
and, when the use of the soil and the price of products are taken into con-
sideration, more cheap.

What the settled conclusions of the English farmers are, in relation to
the profitable amelioration of those soils, will be seen from the following
undisputed testimony of some of the most eminent and respectable of them,
taken before the Committee of the House of Lords, charged with the in-
quiry into the state of the wool trade, &c. in Great Britain, in 1828, from
which I have so freely quoted in preceding Letters.

Mr. WILJ.IAM FINKNEY, Salisbury Plain: Land such as I occupy could not be main
tained without the aid of sheep. . . . The sheep are our principal dependence for suj>
porting our crops ; indeed, I could not occupy my farm without my flock.

Mr."" JOHN ELLMAN, Jr., Sussex : I do not consider it possible for the light lands upon
the Downs to be kept in cultivation without flocks. I could not keep the farm I now hold
without sheep. . . On the South Downs the wool must be grown, let the price foe
what it will.

Mi . FRANCIS HALE, Alringham, Suffolk : The description of land I occupy could not be
kept in cultivation without the aid of sheep.

Mr. HENRY KING, Chilmark, Wiltshire : The size of my farm is about 4.000 acres. I
clip annually about G,500 South-Down sheep. . . . Such lands as I occupy cannot be
kept in cultivation without the aid of sheep.

Mr. JOHN WOOLLEDGE, near Bury St. Edmunds, Sriffolk : An estate near the aboyjj
place contains 8,890 acres, let to tenants, and consists principally of poor sandy and gravelly
land, the produce of which in grain is very precarious, amounting in dry summers to little
or nothing. The occupiers, therefore, depend almost entirely on their flocks of sheep for the
payment of their rents and the employment and support of the population. ... I am
of opinion that two-thirds of the counties of Suffolk and Norfolk may be comprehended in
the sheep districts, and that they produce two pounds and a half of wool, and three-fourths
of a lamb, to the acre, upon an average. . . . The produce of the land depends materi-
ally upon the folding system ; there is not sufficient straw for manure without the assistance
of sheep.

Mr. WILLIAM ILOTT, Alley Milton, Dorsetshire : I calculate the annual growth of wooJ
in Dorsetshire at 10,000 pack's of 246 Ibs. each. It is estimated . . . that 800,000 sheep, or
one sheep and one-seventh per acre, . . . are kept in this county. A considerable part of
the county of Dorset is composed of light lands, and can only be kept in tillage by the aid
of sheep.

C. C. WESTERN, Esq. : It is utterly impossible that the Down Districts can be cultivate^
to advantage without sheep. We never fold our Merino or other sheep ; the land is too wet.

LORD NAPIER : If we had not sheep upon our lands (the highlands of Scotland), it would
become the habitation of foxes and snipes, and return to waste ; it would produce nothing
but grouse and wild game of different sorts.

Is it asked, Why are sheep preferred to horned cattle ] Many of the
reasons are given in my preceding Letter. Then, again, the scanty and
short pasturage of light lands, on which sheep will thrive, will not afford
sufficient " bite" (as it is provincially termed in the Northern States) to

72 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

profitably carry large stock. And, finally, there seems to be a settled con-
viction among the English farmers that sheep give a better return for the
food consumed, and therefore better repay the extraordinary expenditure
necessary to bring poor lands in a fit state for the plow, than any other
animal. In an able essay in the London " Plough" (June, 1846), the fol-
io wing remarks occur, which may be probably regarded as an expression
of the prevailing opinion in England :

It is justly admitted that, of all the domestic animals reared and fed for profit in Great
Britain, sheep are of the greatest consequence, both individually and in a national point ot
view, and afford a better return than can be obtained either from the rearing or feeding of
cattle ; the very fleece shorn annually from their backs is worthy of consideration.
Sheep husbandry deserves to be esteemed in all its different branches, and claims the prior-
ity of coLnideration among agriculturists."*

The manner in which the " very fleece" is here spoken of, shows that
wool occupies but a mere subsidiary place in making up the profits of
English sheep husbandry. I know many intelligent and experienced farm-
ers in this country who think sheep feeding more profitable, or equally
profitable, with cattle feeding, leaving the wool out of the account.!

The experience of the English farmers accords with that of those of our
Own Northern and Eastern States, in relation to the superior advantage?
of sheep husbandry on poor and light soils. Observation has shown both
that such soils do not profitably carry bullocks or other large animals, and
that such animals are poorer manurers than sheep. But their methods of
availing themselves of the advantages of this husbandry are entirely dis-
similar. The English farmer finds mutton and grain the marketable pro
ducts which pay best. The first returns a profit on the crop (turnips)
which produces it, and at the same time fits the land for the latter. The
high price and ready sale of mutton allows the English farmer to force the
growth of turnips on poor soils, by the application of highly condensed
manures.! In the fall the sheep are turned upon small patches of them,
surrounded by an inclpsure of hurdles. The turnips are drawn, sliced, and
laid in troughs for the sheep. "When one patch is consumed, the hurdles
are removed, and thus the field is gradually passed over — the sheep con-
verting the whole crop into animal products and manure. The land is
theti plowed for grain, and a succession of crops are taken from it. By
this means the land is soon reduced to its former level, and the same sys-
tem is again entered upon.

* After reading this and the preceding testimony, one cannot look back without a smile on the unac-
countable monomania of that excellent man and public benefactor, Col. John Taylor, in relation to sheep,
lu one of the essays of "Arator," he says:

41 My conclusions are that they require and consume far more food, in proportion to their size, than any
other stock ; that they are more liable to disease and death ; and that they cannot be made a profitable ob-
ject throughout the whole extent of the warm, dry climate and sandy soil of the United States, but by ban-
tahing tillage from vast tracts of country." . . . «• It is probable that the hot constitution of sheep pro-
daces a rapid digestion, and that insatiable appetite, by which the fact is accounted for of their flourishing
otily, to any extent, in line meadows or extensive wildernesses. If this voraciousness is not gratiiied, the
animal perishes or dwindles ; if it is. he depopulates the country he inhabits. The sheep of Spain have
kept out of existence, or sent out of it, more people than the wild beasts of the earth have destroyed from
the creation ; and those of England may have caused a greater depopulation than all her extravagant wars.
It may be owing to this animal, the independence of one country is almost overthrown, and of the other
tottering." (! ! !) He farther expresses the opinion that England, " by the help of her moisture and verdure,
ean raise wool cheaper than the United States." (!)

It would appear that Col. Taylor formed all his conclusions on a smal] flock kept by himself They ml/
have been a bad and unthrifty flock. But it is strongly probable that he was influenced by deep-rooted
prejudices, imbibed before his judgment was ripened, or his experience formed ; and that these, unknown
lo himself, warped all his views. I can account in no other way for the evident and palpable hallucination
under which he made nearly every statement in his Chapter on Sheep.

. f A gentleman who has been one of the most successful feeders of cattle and sheep in this State (P. N.
Rust, Esq. of Syracuse) recently remarked to me in conversation that he had invariably found that sheep
paid better for feedinc; than cattle.

J Bone-dust, and frequently guano or some other manure with it, is drilled in with the turnip seed, so
that much cost is obviated by making a little go a <jr£at ways ; and there is a remarkable congeniality ia
the clr'mate and atmosphere of England to the growth c " this root.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 73

In the United States, much of this system would be inapplicable and
unprofitable. Here wool, instead of mutton, is the principal object. Even
in the Southern States, where the climate would render the English sys-
tem practicable, the expense of producing either of these articles, by win-
ter turnip feeding arid folding, would add so much to its cost that it con Id
not profitably compete with that grown in the ordinary manner. The
same remark applies to the relative expense of the two systems of manur-
ing. A constant repletion of rich succulent food, like turnips, would sen-
sibly increase the amount of manure, and, by folding, it would be moie
evenly distributed. But neither of these considerations would begin to
offset against the increased expense, in a country where good lands are so
cheap and bread-stuffs so low. Besides, no good, but, on the other hand,
positive injury, would result from thus annually fattening "store"* sheep,
kept for the production of wool and for breeding.!

The system of improving poor lands in the Northern and Eastern States
by sheep husbandry, is mainly by summer pasturage. The droppings of
the sheep gradually enrich them,J and consequently increase their herb-
age. Thus, in a few years, poor and scanty pastures are converted into
rich, productive ones. This might be far more rapidly done by giving
these pastures also the winter manure of the sheep, made in the feeding
yards. But it is generally thought more profitable to give the winter ma-
nure to the richer tillage lands, which are made to supply the grain and
hay of the farm. The light pasture lands are thus kept permanently in
pasture or are only plowed, by the provident, at very long intervals. This
system is rendered necessary, or, at all events, convenient, by the topo-
graphical features of our farms. Here the poorer and lighter are generally
:he higher and more broken lands, which are less convenient of aration.
and for the hauling on of manure, or the hauling off of crops.

In the Southern States, on lands which now yield even a smallish sup-
ply of esculent grasses, the northern system is all that is necessarily re-
quired. Those grasses will every year increase, and the land will be grad-
ually fertilized, by the droppings of the sheep, without a cent's expendi-
ture on it of any kind ; and every particle of herbage will be turned to its
most profitable account, by being converted into wool, mutton and ma-
nure.

But where there is not sufficient existing verdure to form the germ, so
to speak, of a future good pasture — or, in other words, to support a suffi-
cient number of sheep to convert it, within a reasonable time, into, good
pasturage — some other course must be adopted. Proper plowing and
seeding, simply, will, I have not a doubt, be found adequate in a great
many instances where it would hardly be suspected. It is very natural to
take it for granted that a soil, not spontaneously producing the grasses, is
not fertile enough to produce them, even if properly sown upon it. But
experience has amply demonstrated the contrary in several of the North-
western States. There are various causes, besides a want of fertility,
which may produce such nudity ; but this is not the place to enter upon
speculations on this topic. Two very common and obvious causes are too
great looseness or compactness of the surface, which prevents seeds from
taking root, especially in a dry, hot climate. Plowing would always loosen

* This convenient word is provincially applied, in the Northern and Eastern States, to sheep nnd pwinc
which are to be kept over the year, to breed from (and the former to produce wool), as contradistinguished
from those which are fattening for slaughter.

t This point will again be adverted to. It is sufficient now to eny that breeding-ewes, if brought to a higt
Mate of fatness, raise fewer lambs. The lambs are bom weak, and are very apt to perish. There are alsc
other objections.

J Aided by an occasional top-dressing with gypsum.

K .

74 • SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

hard, and frequently stiffen loose surfaces.* The grass seed harrowed into
a properly prepared soil, at the suitable season of the year, might so root
itself as to withstand the subsequent heats, while those dropped on a hard
or a loose surface by birds, or borne there by winds, would be exposed
directly to the rays of the sun, which, if it did not entirely prevent germ-
ination, would dry up and kill the tender roots before they could strike
deep enough to resist its influence. Much will depend, in this experi-
ment, upon a proper selection of the variety of grass sown. That variety
should be sown which is found to flourish best on similar soils, in the same
climate, even though relatively it may be an inferior grass.t

By means as cheap and attainable as these, I have not a doubt that no
inconsiderable portions of the nearly naked soils of the lide-WLier zone
might be brought into pasture sufficiently good to make their ultimate con-
version into prime pastures, by means of sheep husbandry, certain.

On the worn-out granite soils of th« middle region, the once fertile red
clay lands — now occupied only by dwarf pines, worthless broom-grass, etc.
— deep plowing and thorough sowing (with' the aid of steeps and the cheap
top-dressing, before adverted to) would generally, I believe, bring these
lands into pretty good pasture. These soils, having been subjected only
to the one-horse plow, and hand tillage, are worn out only on the surface,
This is proved, in innumerable- instances, in Fairfax, and other northern
counties of Virginia. Lands considered entirely worn out, and sold for a
mere trifle, are subjected to the northern two-horse plow, and from one to
three inches of earth, never before disturbed, is brought to the surface,
which readily supports grass, and even grain crops — the latter tempora-
rily. Thus, most fortunately, the means are still left, with the aid D!' pas-
turage, to make many of these lands profitably productive, and to restore
them to much of their former fertility.

We come now to another class of lands which may, in many cases, be
worth reclaiming, but which will not, by merely being plowed and sown,
produce sufficient grass to make their fertilization by sheep husbandry at-
tainable— or attainable within a moderate period of time. These are thti
inferior (but not the worst) sands of the tide-water zone. Here green
manuring must be resorted to, by means of plants which will better with'
stand the climatic and other difficulties in the way of their getting well-
rooted, and which will flourish in poorer soils than the grasses. Both of
these conditions are answered by various plants. Spurry ( Spergula arvcn-
ftisj and white Lupins ( Lupinus albus) will flourish on dry, barren, and
even shifting sands, and are extensively used as green manuring crops on
such soils, on the Continent of Europe. From their rapid growth and ex-
traordinary productiveness, they are admirably adapted to this end. The
introduction of these plants would probably supply an important desidera-
tum in Southern Agriculture, unless, as I have already expressed the opin-
ion,! the pea leaves little to wish for, as a green manuring crop on every
class of southern soils. Soaked in a solution of nitre — rolled in lime — top-
dressed, after sprouting, with a slight sprinkling of ashes and gypsumjj —

* The sands of the tide-water zone aro everywhere, at greater or less depths, underlaid by clay. Thes«
might in some cases be reached by the plow, and portions of them incorporated with the superincumbent
soil

t See Letter III. } In Letter III.

|| Sprengel's analysis, in Letter-Ill., chows the larc;e amount of potash required for the seed, and of lime
fat" the; straw of the pea. The favorable effect of plaster on this, as on most other IcguminosiB, is wel'
known. Ashes, plaster and lime can be purchased here at an average of less than ten cents a bushel. A
bushel of gypsum, mixed with say two bushels of ashes, makes a top-dressing which will pay for itself a
number of" times over, on any land to which I have ever seen it. applied. In addition to rolling the seed in
•iine, a few bushels of it, or of marl, would ma!<e a good, and, where accessible and cheap, an economical
top-dressing. When I speak uf the price of lime here, I do not refer to marl. The lutler, in Its natural
•lute, could be purchased at the beds lor probably a sin" .ing a load.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

the pea would probably take root and flourish in any soil whicr. the price
of land in this country would justify an effort to render productive, novr,
or for a long term of years to come. Indeed, the capacity to produce this
plant may afford the best practical test of the economy and expediency of
attempting it in any given case. If a good green manuring crop can bo
made to grow on the soil without any more expensive aids than those
above suggested, the lever of improvement — cheap, but effectual — is placed
in the hands of the planter, and, if he possesses the least degree of energy,
\o has no occasion to seek a new soil and home by emigration.

Mr. Ruffin states, if I remember aright, that a few quarts per acre, of
peas, are sown by the Southern planters. In the North, three bushels, at
least, are sown; and this quantity would be little enough to pioduce the
largest amount of green manure.

Theory would indicate that the crop should be turned under before it
comes into full, flower,* but experience and convenience both deserve con-
sulting in the premises.

An active span of horses, with a Northern two-horse plow, and an ex-
pert plowman, would readily plow two acres per diem, on sandy soils, and
plow it well.t The expense of getting in a crop of peas can then be read-
ily estimated.

If one crop can be made to take root and grow, and is plowed under
when green, the great point is attained, and there will be neither difficulty
nor uncertainty subsequently. The organic matter thus deposited in the
&oil is the basis on which future improvements can be effected ad libitum.
As far south as South Carolina, at least two, and probably three crops
co-Aid be plowed in during a single season. This might be done in time
for winter grain, and a crop of the latter sown as a covering crop with
grass seeds. The grain would refund much of the previous expense.

Plowing in two or three crops in succession may, at first view, seem an
expensive, process ; but, with the exception of the extra seeding, it is no
more labor than is bestowed on every wheat crop by a large proportion of
the farmers of Western New-York ! When the ground is summer fal-
lowed, the ordinary practice on our wheat lands is to have it three times
thoroughly plowed and harrowed, and the first time a crop of clover is
plowed in. All this is a light outlay compared with thorough marling, or
manuring with swamp mud. And, after either of the latter processes, the
land has yet to be plowed and seeded.f

It would not be necessary to plow in as many as three crops of peas, to
'ay the foundation of ordinary pasture. Two, and possibly one, would
suffice. The comparative utility of forcing forward the fertilization of
land, rapidly or gradually, depends much upon the amount of capital which
the landholder has to devote to this object. The amount of labor subtract-
ed from the ordinary operations of the plantation would be very small, in
any case, in proportion to the object to be attained. A single expert
plowman, with a good team, could give even the three plowings to a large
field.H

* " Because flower-leaves," says Johnston, give off nitrogen into the air ; and, as this element is sup-
posed especially to promote the growth of plants, it is desirable to retain as much of it in the plant and scil
M possible." — Ag. Che.m., vol. ii., p. 185.

t Perhaps more. That amount is frequently exceeded here, on stubUe lands.

j So that the expense to be otfsetted against one of those processes (in estimating their compara?!T«
economy as a means of reclamation with green manuring) is plowing, harrowing, and seeding tidai.

|| I have attempted to fix no definite data on this point, because you, who are acquainted with plowing
Southern lands, are better competent to do so. 1 would remark, in this connection, that my conviction*
are very strong that the introduction of the two-horse plow of the Norih would lead to a decided improve,
ment in your Agriculture, from the superior manner in which it does its work, and by leading to deeper
plowing. The wheel will cause it to run as shallow as a one-horse plow, however svhere the character O;
the Boif renders it desirable.

76 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

Even in the case of either of the two classes of soils before treated of
(those now producing thinnish pasturage, or which can be converted into
pastures simply by plowing and seeding), one or more green manuring
crops would form a most excellent and accelerating initiatory step, and,
where sufficient capital is possessed, I have no doubt, a most economical
one, toward their fertilization.

In view of all my preceding statements, do you ask me if I advocate
sheep husbandry exclusively, on all the lands at the South which already
are, ^r should be devoted to grazing ] Most assuredly not. I have al-
ready laid it down as a maxim that " agricultural production should be
controlled by the demand or want, and the adaptation of the country to
such production." By this rule, the South should, at least, never import a
horse,* a mule, a pound of beef, pork, butter, cheese or wool. She wants
them all, and she can produce them all mere economically than she can
import them. That declared impossibility in politics, an imperium in im-
pcrio, should be in Agriculture, so far as it may be consistently with the
above maxim, the attitude of every farm and plantation. Each should be
independent to the greatest economical extent, so far as the production of
the necessaries, comforts and luxuries of life are concerned, of every other
farm or plantation in the world ! This mixed and multifarious farming is
objected to by theorists, inasmuch as it trenches .on the division of laboi
principle. But it favors rotation, and thereby prevents the exhaustion of
soils — leads to a more bountiful use of the every-day comforts of lifef —
and, finally, it is less hazardous. The one-crop farmer, if crop and market
are both in their most favorable state, realises great profits. But if the
market is poor, or the crop small, the loss is proportionately large. The
farmer pursuing mixed husbandry will not generally fall greatly behind
tho best profits of the other, and his losses are rarely considerable. It is
better to pi ay for a hit than a gammon, where, as in the case of the small
capitalist, affluence or penury "stand the hazard of the die .'"

If the above positions are true, the South is called upon to increase the
oreeding of other domestic animals as well as sheep. To an extent suffi-
cient to supply her own wants, I consider her imperiously called upon so
to do. I advocate the breeding of sheep specially — on a vastly more ex-
tended scale — because, as has been already shown, they are the best (if
not the only) reclaimers of your unproductive lands ; and because in that-
surplus of the products of grazing, which these extensive reclamations will
bring about, they furnish you the exporting^ article (wool) for lohich you
can find the largest extra-limital: market, and in growing which you can best
compete with other producers.

Let us suppose, for the sake of the argument, that these newly reclaimed
pasture lands would carry heavy beasts as well as sheep, and with equal
benefit to the land. After supplying the home demand, what would be
done with the surplus horses, mules and beeves 1 To what markets in tho
world could you export horses and mules, with the exception of some of
the West India islands — the markets of which a few thousand head of
these animals would annually glut ] Do you ask me what would prevent
your sending your surplus beef to England 1 Nothing. But neither tho
South, nor the North, nor the East, can compete with the great North-west

* Unless for the improvement of breeds.

t I mean by this that the planter who raises all the necessaries of life will be more liberal of them than
tne one who purchases them.

| I do not use *>he word here in i*.s technical sense. I mean carried beyond mere local limits for sale —
whether that sale be effected in tbe same State, in some other part of thc'U. 3., or abroad.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 77

in producing beef (or pork*) for exportation to foreign countries. Its im-
mense natural pastures — the profusion and cheapness with which Indian
corn can be produced on its virgin soils — give it an advantage which in-
creased transportation by no means counterbalances. The question then
arises — Why, for the same reasons, cannot the vast North-western plains
produce wool more cheaply than the South, and undersell her in our own
and the foreign markets 1 In the first place, the western pastures — that
is to say, the wild or natural ones — which produce beef so cheaply, are,
by reason of the coarseness and rankness of their verdure, not adapted ft:
tlie growing of sliccp. Secondly, the shortness and mildness of the south-
ern wrinter give a decided advantage in wool growing, by affording green
winter feed — an advantage not profitably available probably, on an extend-
ed scale, with large grass-feeding animals. Again, in the North-west,
though there is less snow, the winter is about as long, for all the practical
purposes of husbandry, as in New-York.t Killing frosts come as early in
autumn ; the naked ground is frozen as solidly, and far more deeply ; and
verdure puts forth but little if any earlier in the spring. The South then
possesses the same great advantage with the North-west in the production
of wool — cheap lands ; and, superadded to this, she has the short, mild
winters, which give her a decided advantage over both the North and
North- west. She has a marked advantage over the Northern and Eastern
States in both particulars, and, instead of importing manufactured wooln
from them, she aught to supply them, by export, with at least the raw ma-
terial. And she will do this at no distant day, unless her sons are content,
in the great struggle and battle of industrial interests, to sacrifice their
own by apathy or irresolution.

* I have not alluded to the rearing of swine any more fully, as they are but partially a grazing animal.
—But if the position assumed in the text be correct, it is another argument in favor of devoting your lands
to the production of surplus wool, instead of surplus corn.

f The winter feeding of sheep in New Yorjt has already been stated to average about one hundred ««*<

78 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

LETTER VII.

PROFITS OP SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHERN STATES.— 3. BY GIV
ING TO SOUTHERN AGRICULTURE A MIXED AND CONVERTIBLE CHAR-
ACTER.—4. BY FURNISHING THE RAW MATERIAL FOR THE MANUFAC-
TURE OF DOMESTIC WOOLENS.

Expediency of Rotation in Crops. ..Consequences of omitting it on Wheat Lands of New-York ... Mr. Gay-
lord's views. ..Consequences in the Southern States... Mr. Roper's Report in the Legislature of South
Carolina — [Cotton Statistics of that State — Comparison with other States — General Agricultural Resources
— necessity of new staples]. ..Judge Seabrook's Report to the State Agricultural Society of South Caro-
Una — [Agricultural Statistics- Remedies proposed for present " distress"] . . .Singular omission of Wool as
one of the proposed new Staples. ..Southern prejudice on this subject — Causes. ..Impropriety of the one-
crop system — Diminishes crops — Deteriorates land — Multiplies insects. ..Fertility sustained by Rotation —
Causes. .." Resting" — Its inexpediency. ..Some of the Crops of every Rotation irtust be converted mainly
into Manure — Superior economy of converting them into Animal Manure — Sheep the most profitable ani-
mals for this purpose. ..Leading principles of a profitable Southern Rotation — Six-shift Course proposed—
Five-shift Course — Six-shift Course for poor soils- ..Col. Taylor's Four-shift Course — Objections. ..Com-
parative profit of growing Wool, Cotton and Rice, incidentally alluded to. . .Economy of producing the raw
material for the Manufacture of Domestic Woolens... Cost of Slave Cloths per head per year... Prices now
paid for these Cloths — Cost of manufacturing them — Data for estimating such cost... Great profits of Man-
ufacturers in the Northern States— Their Dividends — Their method of exchanging Cloth for Wool — Work-
ins; Wool at the halves. ..Cost of Cloths obtained by these methods. ..The South may obtain the same ad-
vantages — Natural Facilities — Cost of Machinery — On what terms worked — Operations... Cloths spun and
wove by hand cheaper than the imported ones — Cost of the several processes of manufacturing them—
Estimate of Cost per yard at the North... Cost of establishing Carding and Cloth-Dressing Machinery...
Home-made Fabrics diminishing at the North — Causes... Same Causes will not operate to so great an ex
tent at the South — Reasons... Probable Cost of Home-made Cloths, South.

Dear Sir : The third great benefit claimed by me among the profits of
sheep husbandry in the Southern States was, " its. comparative efficacy in
giving to Southern Agriculture a mixed and convertible character, and
thereby sustaining (or improving) all the present good tillage lands, in tho
place of continuing the " new and old field" system (tilling land until it is
worn out, then abandoning it and opening new lands), once so general,
and even now by far too prevalent."

The first object of mixed husbandry has been already stated — -the home
supply of the various necessaries of life. Its second, and still more impor-
tant one, is the preservation of existing fertility in all soils fit for tillage. —
It certainly requires no proof or argument to demonstrate the superior ex-
pediency of maintaining the fertility of soils, if it can be done, by a rota-
tion of crops, even though each of these crops is not, separately considered,
the one which would yield the greatest immediate profit. In the language
of the hackneyed aphorism, it is never expedient to " kill the goose which
lays golden eggs." .

This constant cropping with one plant was once extensively practiced
on the wheat lands of New- York, as many of their present owners can
bitterly attest. Even now there can be no doubt that, on nearly all of
them, wheat returns too often in the rotation. These lands were once
rapidly, and are still, I fear, slowly declining in value ; while the grazing
lands of Southern New-York, where men have been compelled to be more
discreet, have been constantly improving and approximating to the former
in market value.*

* This calls to mind a letter which I received from an old and valued correspondent, the late Willis Gay.
lord, but a short time prior to his death. I had spoken of the advantages of his own, the wheat region,
•ver tho grazing region in which I reside. Mr. G. combated this idea. He thought capital invested her»

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

The same system has prevailed on the rice, tobacco, and cotton lands of
the South, and has, for a variety of reasons not necessary here to be dis-
cussed, been, in the case of the two latter at least, more fatally persisted
in. I have already alluded to the exhaustion of your soils consequent on
this course of culture, but to show the wide extent of the evil — its pecu-
niary consequences individually, and on whole States — the now admitted
necessity of a rotation of crops — the equally conceded necessity of intro-
ducing some new staple, or staples, to render the other crops in the rota-
tion, besides cotton, rice, and tobacco, remunerative — and various other con
siderations having a strong bearing on this whole question — I quote the
following statements from Southern, as well as highly authoritative sources.

The Committee on Agriculture of the House of Representatives of South
Carolina, through their Chairman, Hon. R. W. Roper, made a Report to
that body, Dec. 14, 1842, from which the following are extracts :

" Let us now turn our consideration to one other great staple, cotton, of which the statis
tics are so exact that we can ascertain by calculation what our prospects are as regards com-
petition in that article. The United States produce at present 578,012,473 Ibs. — more than
one-half the crop of the whole world. South Carolina grows of this 43,927,171 Ibs., or 1-13
part of the quantity ; but from this source of profit her palmy days are past. Every yeai
opens new lands in the West, where congeniality of soil and climate to this commodity in
creases the product per acre far beyond what can be reared at home, and consequently re
Juces the value infinitely below the costly prices which formerly enriched Carolina. These
new lands produce, on an average, 2,500 Ibs. of cotton per hand, while the lands in Carolina
yield but 1,200 Ibs., and the expenses of a laborer being about equal in either place, reduces
the Carolina cotton to half its intrinsic value. We have also the declaration of Mr. Dixon H.
Lewis, in a recent speech in Congress, that cotton, divested of Government embarrassments,
might be grown in Alabama for three cents a pound.

"Your Committee will avail itself of the lucid calculations of a distinguished and talented
tt-Iividual,* to present another view of the subject, startling in its details, and bearing strong
?J 3n the propriety of summing up all our resources. The crop of the world amounts to
1,000,000,000 Ibs., which would require, at the rate of 250 Ibs. per acre, 4,000,000 of acres
to grow this quantity. Now, the four States bordering on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico —
viz., Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama and Florida — contain 130,000,000 of acres ; proving,
ihat, if only one acre in 32 were found capable of producing 250 Ibs. to the acre, these four
States could, alone, supply the demand of all the markets in the world. In this calculation,
the produce of Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, with portions of other
States, besides 150,000,000 acres in Texas, are entirely excluded. The lands of the Gulf
States, therefore, and Texas, are sufficient to supply the demands of the world in all time to
como. Where, then, is the hope or prospect of South Carolina in the competition ? . . .

" South Carolina comprises within .her borders 16,000,000 acres of land, of which only
1,300,000 are cultivated. Of this, cotton occupies 175,700 acres ; rice, 80,000; Indian com
500,000; potatoes, 22,612; wheat, 24,079 — making an aggregate of about 800,000 acres; the
balance of 500,000 are taken up in oats, rye, barley, hay, tobacco, and a limited portion ot
other articles necessary to the supplies of life. To what use, then, is the balance of our ter

returnee! quite as good or better profits, than on the wheat lands. He thought, taken as a whole, the graz-
ing farmers were doing better than the wheat farmers. The latter, though ostensibly making an equal and
frequently better per centage, were wasting their capital. The gracing laricls and the wheat lands wore rap-
idly approaching each other in market value, by the rise of the former and the deterioration of the latter.
May this not afford a parallel to what will one day be witnessed in the Southern States ?

It is difficult for me to pass by the name of this accomplished writer— this pure, upright and philanthropic
man — without throwing one stone on the cairn of his well-merited fame. He felt himself, from his infancy,
cut "

would have pr ,

temporaries. His range of reading and study was remarkable. In his beautiful and sparkling letters to
me, every subject and almost every science is touched upon by him in a manner that shows that he at least
had mastered their general principles ; and, in the abandon of private intercourse, they seem to have been
to him as the flowerets of a garden, among which his spirit could roam with that playful and joyous activ-
ity which was denied to his poor, frail body, among the objects of the outer and physical world.

Freely, unassumingly, and without an aspiration but for the good of his fellow men, his mind poured out ,
Its stores on a variety of topics in the publications of the day. Fortunately, he gave his principal attention
to the subject of Agriculture, and, if not a discoverer (which he never claimed to be), he investigated and
collated with an industriousness of research, discrimination and perspicacity, which brought the truth from
ail the different sources where discovery or experience had left its disjecta membra, into essays, so well com-
pacted, so clearly airanged, that men of the most ordinary parts could not only understand his separate sen-
tences and positions, but their connection tod aggregate bearing, and thus master the whole subject. Peace
to his ashes !

* Gov Hairuiond.

80 ' SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

ritory, of 14,000,000 of acres, to be appropriated ? Are we forever to be supplied with stock
from the West, bread-stuffs from the Middle States, and manufactures from the North ? Is
all that we can realize from our labor to be expended abroad ? Nothing to be left for our
own improvements or our luxury ? As one means of correcting this evil, your Committee
propose an Agricultural Survey of the Slate, to determine our natural advantages, develop
our facilities of improvement, exhibit our profits and expenditures, and awaken our citizens
to the importance of vying with, the rest of the human family in all the improvements of
which our location is susceptible

" The exposition which your Committee has given, showing the great competition of for-
eign rice with our own, and that South Carolina cannot compete with the West in the cheap
production of cotton, and that she must, ere long, be driven from the market, demonstrates
the necessity of looking abroad and around us for other sources of advancement and projitt
than those we possess.

" VVe cannot expect that accident is continually to supply new staples suited to our soil
and climate, and place us beyond the reach of contingent circumstances. We must resort
to science to improve our Agriculture, and to machinery to enlarge and prepare present arti-
cles of culture, or transplant and acclimate new products, which will again, like those wo
have lost and will lose, lead off' for a period in the employment of capital, amassing of wealth
and diffusion of human happiness."

The House and Senate agreed with the Report, the same day, and its
principal recommendation, an Agricultural Survey of the State, was
adopted.

The Committee appointed by the South Carolina State Agricultural So-
ciety to consider the scheme of Col. Davie to reduce the quantity of cotton
grown, made a Report, through their Chairman, Judge Seabrook, at the
winter meeting of the Society, 1845-6, from which the following are ex-
tracts :*

''Another cause of our distress is that; in a large portion of the southern country, cotton is
cultivated, when its production does not now, and never can, at all compensate the planter
for the labor bestowed. There it is desirable for every one that other branches of industry
ehould be pursued. . . . We do not intend to encourage the cultivation of cotton to the
neglect of the other products necessaty to support or comfort. Every planter should prompt-
ly render himself independent in reference to those articles which could be produced on his
plantation. In this way he would profitably curtail the quantity of land devoted to the cot-
tcu crop. An abandonment of the present extremely defective mode of culture, and the sub-
stitution of a better, would insure a larger quantity of cotton than would be lost by diversify-
ing the products of industry. In other words, his cotton crop would be larger ; his corn,
wheat, rice, oats, barley, horses, mules, hogs, cattle, sheep, butter and vegetables, would be
the produce of his farm.

" If, however, the cotton crop is to be given up one-half, after all the reductions of it which
we have sanctioned, to what else can the planter of the South so profitably turn his attention ?
To grain ? He already, in ordinary years, produces twice as much as the Middle States, and
about one-eighth more than the West. In Indian corn alone, the produce of the South, by
her last census, was 300 million bushels. If the planter of cotton is engaged in an unprofit
able business, much more is the grain raised. . . . Millions of acres in South Carolina,
including the lower country, are admirably adapted to the raising of rich grasses. This
might be added as another branch of industry, from which reasonable profits might be real
ized, and might very well be added to the cotton planter's income. The business of tanning
and the manufactures of leather might be and ought to be enlarged. In this State, all the
means of a successful pursuit of this branch of industry are at hand and within the reach of
every one. Hides, lime, bark and mechanics (slaves) are abundant."

The remarks in both of the above extracts, though made exclusively in
reference to South Carolina, will apply equally well, in many obvious par-
ticulars, to all the old cotton and tobacco growing States.

To a Northern man, accustomed from his childhood to see sheep hus-
bandry blended, to a greater or less extent, in the operations of nearly
every farm, and to live among farmers who regard it just as indispensable,
and as much a matter of course, as the production of bread-stuffs, it seems
singular enough that neither of the above able Committees, in looking for

* As has been before stated, the other members of the Committee were Judge O'Neall and W. J. Ailston,
Esq. Mr. A. did not concur with his colleagues in the proposition that there was not already an absolute
over-production of cotton. He believed there was. In all otlier particulars, and consequently in all era-
braced in the extracts given, he concurred in the Report.

SHEEP HUSBAVDRY IN THE SOUTH, 8l

"other sources of advancement"-— " new products" — "ether branches of
industry" — both to bring into use millions of acres of unproductive terri-
tory " admirably adapted to the raising of rich grasses," and to render
profitable and preserve the fertility of the tillage lands of the State, should
not have thought of wool growing — or only thought of it, as it were, inci-
dentally— at the very heel of a catalogue of farm products, and in refer-
ence solely to supplying the home want !

Indeed, the estimate which has been set upon sheep husbandry gener-
ally, and by all classes of agriculturists, South, is a source of unmixed sur-
prise to one acquainted with this pursuit, and with the resources of that
region for sustaining it. There appears among many, if I may credit your
own writers,* to be even a prejudice against sheep and sheep husbandry,
per se ! Is this because these animals bear a staple, and give employment
to manufactories, which have claimed the " protection " of Government, to
the prejudice, in the opinion of Southern politicians, of Southern interests 1i
[s any portion of it due to the scornful denunciations of the brilliant, but
eccentric and cynical, statesman of Roanoke, who " would at any time go
out of his way to kick a sheep" ] Or is it owing to the, in most respects,
justly popular writings of Col. Taylor, of Virginia'? Hon. Andrew Ste-
venson, of the same State, in a letter to John S. Skinner, Esq., says :|

" The prejudice which the late Col. John Taylor, of Caroline (who, by-the-by, did more
for Agriculture than any man in America), had against sheep, has been the means of render-
ing this description of stock unpopular in many parts of the southern country. ... If
this distinguished patriot and statesman had lived at this day, he would have changed his
opinion."

The impropriety and inexpediency of giving all the labor and prime land
of the country to the exclusive cultivation of one or two crops, even leav-
ing the deterioration of the lands, consequent on such a course, out of the
question, is forcibly set forth in the Reports above quoted from. But that
deterioration is an infinitely more fatal evil, both to individuals and States.
An injudicious course of cropping can be easily changed; but, if the land
is entirely impoverished, the change comes too late, until labor and capital
have been employed on its restoration. The tendency, nay, the absolute
connection as cause and effect, between the one-crop system and such dete-
rioration, has been proved by too sad an experience at the South — is too
universally recognized and conceded — to find a single questioner who pos-
sesses ordinary intelligence. Whether the consequent phenomena are
solved by the excretionary theory of De Candolle, or the more ordinary
one of the exhaustion of some of those substances which constitute the ne-
cessary food of plants, the facts presented are the same.|| The soil yields
constantly diminishing crops, until it becomes incapable of producing more
than scattering and feeble plants ; an'd the insect enemies of the latter,
which would perish if deprived of their aliment by the substitution of some
other plants, multiply in a constantly ascending rati \§

* Hon. Andrew Stevenson, John S. Skinner, at. al . in Monthly Journal of Agriculture, &c.

t If such protection has prejudiced the South, what stronger reason why she should remunerate herself
by appropriating a share of it !

J Monthly Journal of Agriculture, July, 1845.

|| The theory of M. De Candolle, apparently so strongly supported by the experiments of M. Macaire, haa
found many belieyers. But the statements of the latter have been contradicted by M. Braconnet. M. Mir
bel, and finally are totally overthrown, in my judgment, by the experiments and investigations of Mr. Alfred
Gyde, of Scotland. Mr. Gyde shows that the minute excretions of plants have the same composition with
their tap; and he also watered plants with a solution of their excretions, not only without injury^but to
their manifest benefit ! For Mr. Gyde's able Prize Essay on this subject, see the Transactions of the High-
land and Agricultural Society of Scotland (March, 1846). I am not aware that this essay has been repub-
lished in our country. It certainly should be.

f) Of the latter evil, the past year furnished a pregnant example. I saw it stated last winter, in the South
Carolinian (published at Columbia, S. C.), on the authority of an Unite*! States Senator, that the falling off
In the cotton crop would be enormous, by reason of the depredation of worms. This evil is constantly in
creasing, and must continue to, while the planter continues to provide aliment for each succeeding hord*
of destroyers, by continuing on the soil the plants on which they prey.

L

82 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

Experience lias shown that if vegetables of different classes are made to
follow each other, the soil will much longer retain its productiveness.—-
Even when " exhausted" of some one or more of those ingredients neces-
eary for the healthy production of a particular plant, it is found to produce
others luxuriantly which do not require the lacking ingredients, or but very
minute portions of them And, by a most beautiful arrangement of phys-
ical causes and effects, when a plant is removed from the soil, and notwith-
standing its place is occupied by others, a process of restoration at once
commences to replace all that the absent plant has appropriated, and to
prepare the kindly bosom of the earth again for its reception. Nature
herself, in ministering to this beneficent end, becomes a great laboratory ;
and in her most ordinary, as well as her most unusual operations, she i«*
constantly producing those chemical changes, and furnishing those chem-
ical ingredients, which restore what has been abstracted by man's cupid-
ity, or lost by his improvidence. The gentle rain brings down ammonia
and carbon to plants. The frost rives the solid rocks, to disengage their
fertilizing constituents. The sun, in his flaming path, looks down not only
to warm and give us light, but to perform functions in the vegetable econ-
omy without which all herbage, except a few miserable fungi, would per-
ish ; and to all he imparts their varied and beautiful coloring. The thun-
der which shakes the walls of cities, and strikes man with awe, brings to
our aid one of the most efficient promoters of vegetation. Even the burst-
ing volcano converts its fiery crater into a crucible and retort, and gives
off that gas which forms so large a portion of all the vegetable and animal
productions of the globe : and the wild winds, which strand navies in their
course, equally diffuse it over the earth.

It follows from the above positions that naturally good lands* which aits
more or less exhausted will be gradually resuscitated by " rest," or an en-
tire exemption from tillage ; and hence the absurd idea that lands require
physical " rest," in the same sense in which the tired animal muscle re-
quires it, after continuous exertion. But, apart from the theciy, the prac-
tice of "resting" lands is inexpedient, for the following reasons: If a
plant is not continued 'on a soil until it consumes any of those inorganic
constituents necessary to its production — if, on the other hand, it is suc-
ceeded by a plant which makes its heaviest drafts on those inorganic sub-
stances which its predecessor required the least of, and vice versa — the
natural recuperative process above adverted to, aided by means which lose
to us none of the value of the crops, will repair the waste made by each
plant, before it again occupies the soil, in a judicious rotation. Hence, by
a rotation of crops, fertility can be indefinitely sustained, and the earth
each year return its increase. Thus the ends of "rest" are attained, with-
out its great and unprofitable sacrifices.

To sustain the fertility of 'the soil, some portion of the crops of every
rotation must be converted into manure. These are the " aiding means"
above alluded to. They may be converted into green or animal manure
If the former, the whole crop is plowed under. If the latter, the crop is
nrst partly converted into animal manure, by animals depastured on it, and
than this animal manure, with the remaining vegetation, is plowed under.
The last is always the most economical method, on good lands,t becauje
the crop is worth almost as much for manure, after passing through the

* I say "naturally good lands," for those entirely deficient in several of the necessary condiments of «
ter'.ile soil might require ages of rest to obtain these constituents — if, indeed, they ever would, by merely
natural causes.

t I have limited the assertion to "pood lands," because a crop of green manure, turned under Rt the
proper stage of its growih, will undoubtedly make rather more manuie than in any other way ; and it may
be expedient many times to give poor lands all. This is especially true in the reclamation of barren land*

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 83

bodies of a7iimals, as it would be turned under green; arid then we have
all the profit made on or by the animals — meat, wool, &-c. — without any
additional cost. Sheep, being the best minurers, and otherwise the most
profitable animals, will (with enough other animals to supply all the home
demand for the necessaries furnished by them) best sustain a profitable ro-
tation.

Here, perhaps, the discussion of this topic in connection with the sub-
ject matter of these letters should terminate ; but I am unwilling to aban
don it, without making a few practical suggestions as to the rotation which
would be found most profitable at the Soath — more particularly on the
valuable cotton lands, which are suffering most for the want of it. It is
manifestly impossible to lay down any rule or rules on this subject, which
can or should be rigidly acted upon, in all instances. Leading principles
can only be declared, and, if correct, the intelligent man can always vary
their application so as to meet the exigencies of his particular case.

First, I should consider it indispensable on all cotton (or tobacco) lands,*
under all circumstances, to keep at least one-third of them in pasturage, to
insure the proper amount of manure, over and above cotton seed, and
such occasional supplies of swamp mud and marl as might be obtained at
spare intervals — and all other incidental manures. Another third, 1 be-
lieve, should be generally devoted to grain for bread stuffs, for fattening
the necessary amount of bacon, and for the winter forage of horses, mules,
swine, &c. Unless the horses and mules, and, perhaps I should add, the
cows, were wintered entirely, or in great part, on grain and the offal of
the grain crops, one-third of the cultivated land in grass, would not support
animals enough to produce the manure requisite for two-thirds in cotton
and grain. But in making the above division, I spoke only of the arabl&
lands fit for the growth of cotton. Most plantations have poor, or swampy,
or rough lands, which would most profitably be kept permanently in gray*
and these would supply the deficit. The remaining third of the arable-
lands might be devoted to cotton, or, in the tobacco region, to tobacco.

By the course above proposed, the cotton (or tobacco) and wool would;
be made the salable products. The grain, grass, dairy products, bacon,.
&c., would be consumed on the plantation. This is as it should be. Eu-
ropean famine has given a stir to the latter products this .year, (and it may
for a year more,) in the Southern markets ; but with the ordinary Euro-
pean demand, the old Southern Atlantic States cannot, as we have seen*
compete at a profit with these commodities, which debouch through the-
Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, and the northern canals. With the two
wools, as they are sometimes called, the " vegetable and animal," these
States can undoubtedly sustain, themselves against the pressure of any out-
ward competition.

Such a division of crops as the one above proposed, could be effected!
by a six-course system of rotation. Let us suppose the land of the planta-
tion fit to grow corn and cotton, divided into six equal fields. I then pro-
pose the following rotation :

1st year, Grass depastured.
8d do. do.
3d Cotton.
4tli Cotton with yard ma-
nure, &.c.
Sth Corn with peas.
6th Small grains with grass
seed.

1st year,
2d ..
3d ..

4th ..
5th ..

6th ..

Grass depastured.
Cotton.
Cotton with yard ma-
nure, &c.
Corn with peas.
Small grains with grass
seed.
Grass depastured.

1st year, Cotton.
2d .. Cotton with yard rn*>
nure, &c.
3d .. Corn with peas.
4th .. Small grains with graw
seed.
5th . . Grass depastured.
6th .. do. do.

* I have not included the rice lands, because bein? deep beds of alluvial deposits, composed in a great
meRsure of organic matter, and being susceptible of irrigation, they will not wear out like ordinary eoila.
an-i stand less in need of rotatf n in their crops.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

I at y<

ad

3d

4th
5th

6th

;ar, Cotton with yard ma-
nure, &.C.
Corn with peas.
Small grams with grass
seed.
Grass depastured.
do. do.
Cotton.

1st year, Corn with pens.
2d .. Small grains with grass
seeds. •
3d .. Grass depastured.
4th .. do. do.
5th .. Cotton.
6th .. Cotton with yard ma-
nure, &c.

1st year, (Small grains with gras*
seed.
2d .. Grass depastured.
3d .. do. do.
4th .. Cotton.
5th .. Cotton with yard ma-
nure, &c.
6th .. Corn with peas.

Supposing each of these fields to contain 50 acres, this would give 100
acres of grass, 100 of cotton, and 100 of grain (50 of corn and 50 of small
grains) annually.

By this course all the hauled* manure, each year, would be given to
one-sixth of the land, and consequently the same field would not receive
it but once in six years — yet every crop would be adequately manured.
The first cotton crop would receive an ample amount from the grass roots
and the droppings of animals for two years; the second, from the hauled
manure ; the corn, from the manure left by the previous crop, and, if
needed, by a small amount of cotton seed, ashes, (or some other mineral
fertilizer,) in the hill ; the small grain crop would be amply manured by
the peas sown with the preceding corn ; and the land would go back into
grass in excellent "heart," and, if the previous tillage was what it should
be, entirely free from weeds. The com might intervene between the two
cotton crops, and thus remove the objection which exists against taking
•;wo crops of the same kind in succession. But I placed cotton 4th, be-
jause there should come a manured crop at this period of the rotation, and
I thought it better to give the manure to the more valuable crop, and be-
cause cotton, as the 5th crop, would not admit of the cultivation of the pea,
ito provide manure for the small grain succeeding. The rotation might be
thus varied, however, if circumstances should seem to render it desirable.

I have put down no meadow in the rotation on the arable lands. But
>1 believe the growth of hay to a certain extent, not only to supply any or-
dinary deficiency in winter feed beyond the quantity furnished by the
usual sourbes — but to guard against contingencies, would be good econo-
my in all cases. All farm animals must be well wintered, to give a prof-
itable return in summer ; and those occasional scarcities of fodder always
liable to overtake the farmer, should be providently guarded against. It
is never considered poor economy, in the North, to have a few tons of hay
even to summer over. The necessary meadows for the plantation might
be made on some of the less arable lands before referred to — and, when
the tillage lands are in an uncommonly fertile state and pasturage plenty,
it would do to mow one of the grass crops (the second one) of the above
rotation, though, if avoidable, I should think the other course entirely pref-
erable.

On poorer lands — the poorest class which can be profitably devoted to
•cotton growing — I would propose a five-shift course, as follows :

1st year, Grass depastured. 3d year, Cotton.

2d .. do. do. 4th .. Com with peas.

5th year. Small grains with grass seed.

"The manure to be given to the third or fourth crop, according to circum
•stances, or divided between them.

On lands of a still inferior grade, but which it may be expcdien tc
plow, at intervals, I would propose the following :

1st year Grass depastured. 4th year, Grass depastured (or mown.)

5th .- Corn with peas.

Sd
3d

do.
do.

do.
do.

6th . . Small grains with grass seed.

* I mean by this, the manure from every source which is carted upon the land in quantity, as contradi**
tlngnished from that which is dropped there by animate made by plowing under vegetable*, or carried OB
fa email quantities to drop in the lull, .&c.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 85

The number of years depastured to depend upon fertility — the poorer the
land, the longer* it should be kept in pasture.

The following is the rotation which was introduced by Col. Taylor,
north of the cotton-growing region :

let year, Corn. 3d year, Clover (and weeds) not mown nor

2d .. Wheat and clover sown — if too grazed,

poor for wheat, left at rest and not grazed. 4th - - Clover not mown nor grazed.

Of this, Mr. John J. Thomas, one of the Editors of the Albany Cuhi
vator, very justly remarks :

" It was materially opposed to ihe principles of good husbandry in several respects.- It
furnished vegetable manure only to the land. A large portion of the value of this vegetable
growth was lost, by dissipation into the air, during its decay. The returns from the land
were necessarily small, as only two years out of four produced crops for harvesting. And it
greatly increased the labors of tillage, by the increase of noxious weeds."

Had this clover been fed off by sheep, a portion of the above objections
would be inapplicable, and there would be no danger of the corn
leaving the soil too impoverished for wheat, particularly if peas were
sown with the former, to be plowed under. A crop of weeds is, of all
others, the most to be avoided, as the seeds deposited by it will continue
to sprout for years with the subsequent tillage crops, rendering them foul
arid difficult of cultivation.

I may be in a profound error, but I cannot but believe, after carefully
studying Southern Agriculture, and the circumstances which invest it,
that by adopting the six-shift system of rotation above recommended, or
something analogous to it, on the cotton lands, the desideratum expressed;
in Judge Seabrook's Report will be attained. More cotton will ulti-
mately, if not even now, be produced from less land : the other necessa-
ries of life will become mainly the product of the plantation ; a new staple
will be introduced to employ the surplus capital, as profitable at least in
its acreable products as cotton, and tending to the constant reparation, as
cotton tends to the constant waste of the fertility of the land. ,

I will not tire you, Sir, with a comparison between the relative profits
of wool and cotton growing. On looking over the answers of Southern
gentlemen to Mr. Walker's Treasury Circular, (1845,) I find that the
stated profits on cotton in the Atlantic and Gulf States, west of Louisiana,
range from 1 to 8 per cent, on capital invested — the average of all the
statements being about 4J per cent. !

I may remark incidentally that in your own able replies to that Circular,
you set down the profits of rice growing between 1842 and 1845, at 7 J per
cent.; for the ten preceding years, at " about 8 per cent."

A reference to Letter V. will show you how these profits compare with
those of wool-growing. Admitting the accuracy of the data therein given,
there is no very great difference in the cost of growing a pound of wool
and a pound of cotton !

We come now to the /0#rZA point of view in which we are to regard the
profits of sheep husbandry in the Southern States — "whether independent
of preceding considerations, and even if the staples furnished by sheep hus-
bandry proved no more profitable, in direct returns on capital invested,
than some of the present staples, it would not be better economy, on the
whole, for the South to produce the raw material and manufacture do-
mestic woolens, particularly for the apparel and bedding of slaves, than to
be dependent for them on England and Massachusetts ] "

The woolen apparel and bedding of slaves, when no part of it is manti
factured on the plantation, costs about $6 per head per annum. The
blankets imported from England weigh about 4J Ibs. and cost a little over

S6 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

$3. Thu Welsh plains, imported from England, weigh%sually net far from
13 ounces per yard, and cost from 65 to 70 cents; and fhe Chelmsfords,
a heavy, coarse article, from Massachusetts, from 50 to 58 cents.

Now what is the cost of manufacturing (including wool and every other
expense,) cloth of the same amount of stock, and better quality, than Welsh
plains 1 To the present weight of the cloth per yard add one-third, and
you have the weight of the wool in the fleece — as bought of the farmer.* If,
then, the Welsh plains weigh 13 ounces per yard, they required 17^ ounces
of fleece-wool as stock. Wool of the quality worked into " plain cloth "
or " sheep's gray," in this State, (New-York,) many shades better in qual-
ity than the stock of Welsh plains, has averaged from June to December,
1846, from, say, 20 to 22 cents a poundf — or, if pulled from the pelts of
slaughtered sheep, as is the case with large quantities of it worked into
these cloths, it did not, during the same period, stand the purchaser-in to
exceed 18 cents per pound. Assume the average to be 21 cents per pound,
and the stock of a yard of these cloths (17J ounces) would cost 22J cents.

You are familiar with the character of the " sheep's grays " of New-
York. They are worn almost universally by our farmers. Of the twenty-
five thousand men you saw at the State Fair at Rochester, at least three-
fourths of them ordinarily wear this quality of cloth for pantaloons, and
say one-half of them for coats. Its ordinary weight is from that of the
Welsh plain to 16 ounces per yard, and its style and expense of manufac
ture are superior to those of the former. It can be manufactured, in
chiding use of machinery, &c., and every process after the wool is received
in the fleece, to fitting it for market, for eleven cents per yard ! A mer-
chant of this State owns a manufactory, employing say $25,000 or $30,000
of capital, which turns off from 500 to 600 yards of cloth per diem — the
fleece-wool being converted into finished cloth in eight days. His whole
expenses, including use of manufactory, averages, according to his own
statements, not to exceed the above named price per yard. Add this sum
to the cost' of wool, and cloths containing an equal quantity and quality of
stock with Welsh plains would cost 33f cents per yard ; and you there-
fore pay for this class of cloths about one hundred per cent, beyond the first
cost, for transportation, duties, and manufacturer's profits. The latter, of
course, absorbs most of the immense sum thus paid, or rather thrown away,
annually by the Southern States. The Chelmsfords, and various other
woolen goods imported by you, are probably manufactured at nearly equal
profits.

Is it singular, then, that " acres of woolen manufactories " are now in
the process of erection in the North 1 or that existing establishments
are declaring dividends of from ten to fifteen per cent. 1 J

But I have not done with the data of manufacturing. The manufac-
turer above alluded to has, to my certain knowledge, exchanged "sheep's
grays " requiring a pound of stock per yard, for wool of the same quality
as the stock, giving a yard of cloth for i-J- Ibs. of wool. Calling this wool

* After being washed in the ordinary manner on the back of the sheep.

t Wool has risen since December.

1 1 did contemplate an enumeration of the new woolen manufactories now buiHing, or in contempla
tfon, within fhy knowledge, in this Si ate and New-England , but will mention but a few of the most im-
portant ones. The Bay State Mills now in process of erection in the new city of Lawrence, Mass.. will
Work iiu 2,000,001) Ibs. of wool per annum. One. of the mills, 200 feet long and six stories high, will go intd
operation thi* summer. The machine-shop, wool-house, etc., 'the mere offices,) will be, including wings,
thirteen hundred feet in length, »nd three stories hi«h. Their very srwcr will cost $25,000 ! A splendid
Bteam mill hns iust gone into operation in Utica, in this .^tate, which will work up 1.000,000 Ibs. of wool psi
annum. Another of the same size is in contemplation, in Utica ; another in Syracuse ; another in Auburn,
&C ! There never was a time when American manufactures stood on •» firmer basis, or were making bet
ter profits with a prospect of having them continuous. This is conceded by the ablest of the manajaciwert
tktMsilviS. as 1 shn.ll, in the proper place; show.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 87

21 cents per pound, the cloth would thus cost the purchaser 36f cents per
yard.

Any of the manufactories doing custom-work will manufacture these
goods " at the halves," so that a yard requiring a pound of stock would
cost two pounds t;f wool, or 42 cents. That as heavy as Welsh plains
would thus cost 45i cents, it being from 19J to 241 cents per yard less than
vou now pay. Yet here the manufacturer of custom-work admits the sufifi
ciency of the profit, by asking no more.

Blankets are of still coarser wool, having the appearance of Smyrna, or
inferior South American. They are not " sheared,"* which diminishes
the waste. Neither do they need dyeing matter. But independent of
these considerations, calling cost of stock per pound, and the waste from
all causes the same, 6 Ibs. of fleece-wool would make a blanket. To the
wool costing 21 cents a pound add 11 cents per pound (of the stock) for
manufacturing, and the actual cost of the blanket is $1 92. Have them
manufactured by the halves, and they would cost you 12 Ibs. of wool each,
or $2 52.

I have in the previous estimates, based my calculations on the market
price of the lower quality of medium wools.t But there is another and a
most important view of the subject. It has already been shown that the
South can produce wool, to any desirable extent, at a sum not exceeding
8 cents per pound — and, in favored localities, at a much lower rate. By
the exchanging system (wool for cloth) you would get a yard of cloth
equaling the YVelsh plain in stock, and superior in quality, for 2 Ibs. 2|- oz.
of wool, costing the producer just 171 cents ! A blanket weighing 4i Ibs.
would be obtained for 12 Ibs. of wool, costing 96 cents !

Does this sound a little like dreaming, Sir ? I ask you to carefully
examine the premises, and see if there is any escaping from these con
elusions 1

Will the South continue to slumber on, thus throwing away the fruits
of her industry ] Do you tell me that her people know nothing about
manufacturing, and have no taste for it 1 The necessary knowledge is as
readily acquired by a Southern as a Northern man ; and when that is ob%
tained, and there is a prospect of profit ahead, the taste will not long be
wanting ! You have the capital : you have natural facilities to an un-
bounded extent both to propel the machinery and produce the staple.
What more do you want ] What more can you ask ? A joint stock asso-
ciation of planters, at any suitable point, might cause a manufactory to be
erected worth say $25,000, under the direction of a skillful and experi-
enced machinist. This would turn off, say, 500 yards of cloth per diem.
If the machinery was in all respects good, and the water-powei sufficient
and unfailing, a competent and responsible Northern manufacturer could
be obtained (if desired), to take the establishment, furnishing hands, &c.y
and work the wool furnished him into cloth of the kind before described —
containing about the same stock with Welsh plains, and fitting it for mar

* * After a sufficient number of fibres have been torn up from the threads by the teazles or cards of the

* gig-mill " to form a sufficiently thick nap on the surface, these fibres are cropped or " sheared " by a ma-
chine for that purpose ; and in superfine cloths the process is several times repeated, each time cutting off
an additional portion of fibre, which is called "flocks." A dishonest custom now prevails among somt
manufacturers of working these flocks again into the body of the cloth to give them weight, denscness, and
apparent firmness. By this means the gigging and shearing process can be continued on thinnish cloths un-
til a beautiful surface is obtained, without the additional thinness and lightness consequent thereon being
apparent to any but an experienced eye. Sheep's grays and other coarse "cloths are gigged and sheared but
slightly. In eome manufactories the former process is altogether omitted, and the cloth is simply
•• brushed " prior to shearing. Such cloths are stronger, but do not look as well.

t Say of the quality of common South-Down and Native and Long wools, with a sufficient dash of Me-
rino blood in the last to make thAm carding-wools, and to bring them to about the same fineness with
ihe firs1, earned.

SS SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

ket, for eight or nine cents a yard.* I know of a manufacturer, at no great
distance from me, who thus takes §t manufactory worth perhaps $8,000 or
$10,000, and furnishes the cloth (of the above stamp,) fitted for market, for
nine cents a yard, the owner furnishing the wool, the use of the manufac-
tory, and the dyeing matter.f The supply of water at this establishment
fails during two or three months each year ; and one competent to judge
informs me that seven cents would be better pay per yard, if the machine-
ry could be kept in motion the year round. It is probable that it would
cost rather more at the South to provide the necessary fixtures, obtain
machinery, etc. ; and it would also cost more, for a period, to carry on
manufacturing, from the greater difficulty of obtaining operatives in case
of losing any of those attached to the establishment. All these disadvan-
tages, however, not of much importance at the first, will soon disappear.
Slaves should, as rapidly as the nature of the case admits of, be converted
into operatives, ar.d when the number becomes once adequate to the end, it
might be indefinitely multiplied, without those embarrassments which so
rommonly attend the attempt to mingle white and black labor.

It is cheaper to manufacture by hand,! (with the exception of carding,
fulling, and dressing,) than to purchase your slave cloths at present prices,
if slave, costs no more than free labor.

On the average, 15 knots of warp, and 15 of Jill ing, make one yard of
flannel about 5 quarters wide. The ordinary shrinkage of this, in fulling
it into cloth, is one quarter in length and width. It would therefore re-
quire 40 knots to make a yard of fulled cloth. The carding here in small
parcels costs 3 cents per pound, and 1S|- cents per pound for fulling, dye-
ino- and dressing. In considerable quantities, the carding can be hired done
for 2 cents per pound, and the other processes for one shilling per yard.
Spinning (by considerable quantities and for " cash-pay,"||) can be hired
done for 7 cents a run (20 knots) for warp, and 5 cents for filling — averag-
ing 6 cents for both. Weaving can be hired done for 6 cents per yard (of
flannel), which brings it, in the dressed cloth, to 8 cents per yard. The ac-
count would then stand thus :

Small parcels.

Large, parcels.

21 cents.

21 cents.

3 "

2 "

14 "

12 "

10 "

8 "

18| »

121 .,

Total N

66| cents.

55| cents.

Making 55-\ cents the price of a yard of domestic cloth, estimating the
wool at market price : estimating the latter at oost of production (8 cents)
the price of the finished cloth would be 42^ cents per yard, and it is &
better article for Wear than either the Welsh plains or Chelmsfords.§

* I have no doubt it could be done at a fair profit in the North for 7 cents per yard. I nm understood, of
course, to mean that the manufacturer pays uo rent, insurance, nor for repairs. The stockholders furnish
the wool, which is worked up by the former, at the stipulated price.

t Modern ingenuity has reduced the expense of this to a mere trifle. Most of the " sheep's grays," you
have observed, are of ferruginous hue. Those of this color are dyed principally by tan bark— the bark of
the hemlock (Abies canadtnsis), which is sold here at $1 75 to $2 a cord !

1 1 am aware that to "manufacture" is to make by hand, but I use the word in its popular and more gen.
oral signification. It would have been better to have compounded a word from the Latin marhiiM and
facto (machinfacture ?) to signiiy made by machinery, and thus expressed the two ideas by properly de-
rived and definitive words.

II This word " cash-pay " is one of mighty import in the regulation of prices in the interior, where a very
general (but now decreasing) system of barter prevails, and under which Wealth too often dictates to
Want what it shall receive for its labor, and also prescribes the prices of the commodities in which it pays.

5 Home-made fabrics are usually stronger and wear better than those made by machinery, (or, in other
words, manufactured cloths outwear mach.infacture.d ones !) but this is not necessarily so. The several
processes via be done undoubtedly, and probably, generally are more perfectly by machinery than by
hand. But in machine-made cloths the yarn is commonly spun liner, so there is less stock in a yard. And
Ihej are submitted to processes, described iu a previous Note, which farther impair their strength.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 89

$1,500 will set up a carding and cloth-dressing factory, which, with
three good hands, will turn off 50 yards of cloth per diem. By Table I.
it appears that in 1839 there were but 114 of these factories south of the
Potomac aud west of the Mississippi, doing an annual business of $320,-
938, while in the single State of New- York there were 323 factories, doing
an annual business of $3,537,337 ! Of the 114 Southern factories 66 were
in the States of Kentucky and Tennessee; 41 in Virginia; 3 in each o.
the Carolinas ; 1 in Georgia, and in the remaining four, none !

The number is decreasing in New-York, as manufactories of the com-
mon fabrics, worn by farmers and other laboring men, are increasing in
every direction — many of them doing custom-work either at the halves,
or at a fixed sum per yard — and all of them exchanging cloth for wool.
By either of these methods, the cloth can be obtained as cheaply, perhaps
cheaper, than to manufacture it in families. But circumstanced as you
are at the South, you can, as before asserted, manufacture more cheaply
by hand (excepting carding, fulling and dressing), than to import your
slave cloths at present prices, if provided with factories to perform theex-
cepted processes. Where the institution of slavery exists, and where
spinning, weaving, etc., can be done in those intervals of bad weather
when the time of laborers would otherwise be entirely thrown away, it is
doubtful whether any extension of even the coarse cloth manufactories
would, or ought to, in an economical point of view, banish the home-made
article. If we count the slave labor thus saved one-half the value of free
labor, and dispense with the fulling and dressing* (which we usually dis-
pensed with in manufacturing domestic slave cloths, in the interior of the
Carolinas, Georgia, etc.), the cloth would cost but 20 cents a yard, and the
dyeing might carry it to 22 cents. Let one-half the fabric be made of cot*
ton, and the cost would be still farther reduced.f

Since the above was written, I have received the samples of Welsh
plains, Chelmsford plains, and slave blankets forwarded by you. None of
these goods exceed in quantity the estimate I have put upon them in my
preceding remarks.

The Welsh plain which you state cost 65 cents per yard by the piece,
(32 inches wide,) is about the thickness of rather heavy — but not the
heaviest — sheep's gray. It is not, however, by many shades, so close and
firm a cloth, for the wrant of equal fulling ; and perhaps even this would
not give it equal firmness, by reason of the loose twist of the yarn. The
yarn is considerably coarser, (larger in diameter,) than that ordinarily em-
ployed in sheep's gray — but it derives no inconsiderable portion of its
bulk (which gives the cloth its thickness) from the loose and imperfect man
ner in which it was twisted in spinning. This is particularly the case
with the filling, which you can scarcely detach from even so open a web,
without its breaking in pieces. Accordingly, the cloth tears very easily
lengthwise, for that presenting such an apparent amount of stock.

With a sufficient amount of fulling, dyeing, (it is white,) and a little
gigging and shearing — or simply brushing — it would become identical in

* But still you want carding-machines, to card the wool ; for, by hand, It Is a slow and expensive process.

f I was shown a new article of satinets a day or two since. It was double or broadcloth width, black.
»nd the cotton warp dyed black, and could only be distinguished from a very fair piece of black broad*
cloth by examining the cut edge. The manufacturer stated that the cotton warp weighed but 3 oz. per
yard ; but I do not credit the assertion. One is strongly inclined to suspect that a cloth of this character
could not have been "got up" for any very legitimate purpose, but that it belongs in the wooden-nutmeji
•nd horn-flint category !

The ordinary satinet, when well made, is a profitable, cheap cloth.

M

90 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH

appearance with heavy sheep's gray, excepting .in the quality of the
wool. That is inferior to any I ever saw in a single piece of the former.
It appears to be of two qualities, the finest about like the Asia Minor or
African ("Smyrna" or " Mogadore ") wools; and this intermixed with
occasional still coarser sharp pointed hairs, which could come only from
An animal not many removes from the wild Argali.* In both, there is a
peculiarly dry, harsh, wiry feeling, not found in North American wools,
and which is more indicative of an inferior staple — of brittleness, and want
of felting properties — than even their coarseness. The staple is not appa-
rently a very long one. I conjecture that it is Iceland wool — or that,
mixed with Orkney, or some of the coarsest short or medium staple wools
of Scotland.

The Chelmsfords, (31 inches wide,) twilled, undyed,t cost, you inform
me, 58 cents per yard. The plain article, (i. e. untwilled,) 28 inches wide,
costs 50 cents per yard. The sample of the twilled, forwarded by you, is
a thicker, decidedly stronger cloth, with larger and far more tightly
twisted yam, than the sample of Welsh plains. The wool is of about the
same quality, though at first view it strikes you as decidedly coarser, as
the longer nap shows more of the coarse fit>res on the surface, and these
are rendered more conspicuous still by their variety of color. But on re-
solving portions of each cloth back into unmanufactured wool, I can detect
little or ns difference in its fineness, unless it be that the stock of the
Chelmsford plains possesses none of those peculiarly coarse fibres or hairs
which characterize the other. The wool used in the Chelmsfords is ap-
parently of a unger staple. It is probably South American, though it
may be Smyrna or Mogadore, as it bears a strong resemblance to the w<_c"i
of the broad-tailed sheep of Asia and Africa. You state that the Welsh
is generally thotight to outwear the Chelmsfcrd plain. This may be true
of the ordinary articles, but I think it cannot be of the samples forwarded.
Of these, the latter possesses nearly double the strength of the former
and is much the heaviest cloth.

The slave blanket, 6 feet 11 inches long, by 6 feet 5 inches wide, weigh-
ing 41 Ibs., you state cost about $3 12^ by the piece (a piece containing
16 blankets costs $50). It is manufactured of a very coarse and a long
stapled wool — not much fulled — with a long nap raised on both surfaces.
The wool in quality resembles that used in the Chelmsfords.

On the receipt of these samples, I forwarded a specimen of the Welsh
plains to two manufacturers of experience and perfect pecuniary respon-
sibility, asking them at what price per yard they would contract to furnish
me 100,000 yards of cloth of the same style and equal quality with the
sample. The question was put to both of these gentlemen and received
by them, as purely a commercial one — the opening of a commercial nego-
tiation. Each stood ready to enter immediately on the fulfillment of a
contract, based on his offer.

The following is the answer of one of the above named gentlemen :

HINBY S. RANDALL, Esq. MOBRISVILZ.E, N. Y., April 2C\ 1847.

Dear Sir : Yours of the 13th is at hand and duly noticed. I have no wool of the quality of the
sample sent, and do not wish to work foreign wool. I would like to make for you 100,000 yards
like the sample, out of our American or domestic wool. I would make it as thick and tight as the
Mmple sent, 32 inches wide, at 40 cents per yard. I could not say how much less it would cost
to get up the article from the same kind of wool with that used in the sample. I do not know
What that kind of wool is now worth in market. I have not worked any of it for two years past

Yours, truly, ' C. TILLING HAST.

* Many of the unimproved breeds have, as is common with wild animals, a coating of hair over a finer p*
lAge beneath, and it is difficult to perfectly Feparate them.

T A small portion of the wool employed in the filling is blnck, giving the cloth a dirty drab or ash color
Rot this I take to be the natural color of the wool.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

The first answer of the other manufacturer, S. Newton Dexter, Esq. of
Whitestown, Oneida Co., N. Y., (head of the Oriskany Manufacturing
Company,) it is not necessary to transcribe entire. Mr. Dexter informed
me that his machinery is calculated for the manufacture of fine cloth ; that
ihe carding of coarse wool would injure his cards ; that its manufacture
would throw him out of his regular course of business ; that he had no
wool of the quality used in the sample on hand ; that he should be com
pelled to use domestic wool ; and that for these reasons and some other
named by him, he could not undertake to fill the contract at less than 42
cents per yard — which he knew would be considered a high price.

Mr. Dexter being a gentleman equally distinguished for his correct and
able business character, and for that capacity and range of information
which give value to his opinions on all the topics connected with this in-
\3stigation, I addressed him a second communication, asking him what he
could manufacture the cloth for, giving him time to procure stock of the
same quality used in the sample. I also inclosed him proof-sheets of the
preceding part of this letter, asking him his opinion of the correctness of
my statements, in relation to the general cost of manufacturing, &c. The
following extracts from his reply will be read with interest :

Col. HENRY S. RANDALL : WHITESTOWN, April 24, 1847.

Dear Sir: Yours reached me on Wednesday. There is no doubt at all but what if I felt cer-
tain that wool could be procured of the quality of which your sample was made, at a price pro-
portionably low, 1 could have afforded to have manufactured the cloth at 37 cents per yard, aa

well as at 42, and use our coarse native wool, at a probable cost of 25 cents There has been

an advance of more than 70 per cent, in the price of lard oil. The price a short time since wa*
55 cents. The last I bought cost 95 cents in New-York. Five quarts of this oil are wanted to

every 80 yards of these cloths I cannot imagine where the wool was from out of which the

sample was made, probably from Iceland — for I recollect some twenty years CLSQ t.l»p Oriskany
Manufacturing Company obtained just such wool somewhere, when Ame'icar wool was deemed
too high, and manufactured it into miserable satinets, by which they lost a great deal of money
The wool was said to have been imported from Iceland. I was one of the Directors of the mill

then, but had nothing to do with " operating "it

You request my opinion as to the correctness of your statements of the probable cost of Welsh
plains, &c., and generally of the statements put forth by you on the subject of woollen manufac-
tories. I am not very good authority as to the cost of manufacturing coarse woolens, never hav-
iug done much in that way. I am free to say, however, that your estimates may generally be
relied on. Certainly you have allowed liberally for what would have been the cost of such wool
by the pound last year ; but I think your estimate of 17£ oz. of wool in the fleece, out of which to
manufacture one yard of cloth 32 inches wide, similar to the sample inclosed in your letter, too
low. I should think it would certainly take 20 oz., or \% pounds. The allowance of 11 cents for
manufacturing will, I am inclined to think, pay charges, but it "will not afford any profit, nor in-
terest on capital, nor leave anything for keeping machinery in repair. It is a very close calcula-
tion, when fuller's soap, lard-oil. &c., are so high.

The sheep's gray cloths that you speak of, you will observe, are generally not quite f wide —
eay 26 inches — while the sample you sent me was 32 inches. One pound of well washed fleece
wool will make a yard of sheep's gray of medium quality ; but unless the goods are flocked, the
calculation is a very close one indeed.

I am inclined to think that you overestimate the profit of manufacturing woolen goods, although
I admit that in well-managed institutions, that have the most improved machinery, with an abun-
dant capital, the profits have, at times, been very large indeed, and our friend Samuel Law-
rence, of whom you speak, is the most prominent example of such a manufacturer within my

knowledge Every new manufactory erected, if built with judgment, has one advantage

over those already in operation, and that is, they have availed themselves of all the improvements
of those in operation. And as machinery is constantly being produced at cheaper rates, a factory

of increased capacity will probably have cost less money

The Oriskany Manufacturing Company is the oldest company now manufacturing woolen
goods in the United States. They have made satinets which have sold readily at $3 50 per yard,
and have made cloths which have as readily sold for $12 per yard. Satinets full as good can
now be bought at "35 cents, and handsomer, if not better cloths, for $3. What a change is here !
And yet the Oriskany Manufacturing Company was perhaps never doing better than now. This
Company availed itself of the opportunities offered last year to obtain wool very low, to purchase
ft supply for nearly two years. This year the business will be good, that is, pay a profit of 10 per
rent, on investments, even where wool is purchased at current rates ; but I do not believe it wiil
Bay more. I will furnish you with a brief estimate :

92 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

A mil! will) a capital of $100.000 will manufacture, say 90,000 yards of 6-4 cloth, which

will bring i.» market an average of S I 50 per yard, or '. $233,006

To get these cloths into cash (for they are sold at 8 mouths, and are charged
with commission of 5 per cent., and other charges equal, in all, including in-
terest, boxing and transportation, to 12 per cent \. . .$lfi,200

Cott of 225,00(f ibs. of wool at 30 cents 67.500

3.300 gallons sporm,and lard oil at $ 1 3,300

Soap, soft and bard 3,500

800.000 teazles 1,000

Dyeing materials of all kinds 11,500

Fuel 1,000

Paper, tape, twine, nails, lumber, cards, caudles, &c 3.000

Labor, $5,000 per quarter, or JsO.OOQ

.. Insurance 2,000

Total $122,000

If I were under oath, I do not believe I should alter any of these items — or, at least, I should
add as often as I diminished, I have no doubt. You may think SI 50 a low average for cloths,
but it must be a very fair cloth to bring that sum, I assure you. You may also think 12 per ceut.
a high charge for getting these cloths into cash. &c., but it is scarcely what we pay. And the
.records of our wool book will show that 30 cents is the cost of such wool as we worlf. And our
books will prove that it has taken, for many years past, 2J Ibs. of wool to make a yard of broad-
cloth. There is 13 per cent, left for prolits here, because 1 have not allowed one cent for repairs
or taxes, or for the agents' salaries, which will swell the expenses fully up to $124,500 — within a

fraction of swallowing up all over 10 per cent Well, I admit that 10 per cent, is a great

business ; but you speak of 15, and that is going too far

Very respectfully your friend and obedient servant, S. NEWTON DEXTEIL

If, will be seen from the foregoing" letters :

1st. That where their machinery is adapted to it, manufacturers are will-
ing to make and sell goods of the same amount of stock and style of
manufacture, with Welsh plains, out of domestic wool for 40 cents per
yard ; and that manufacturers of perfect pecuniary responsibility are ready
to contract so to furnish it. This (apart from the small item of transporta-
tion) is twenty -five cents per yard, or about thirty-nine per cent, cheaper
than you now obtain these cloths : and an article manufactured from do-
mestic wool would, by reason of the far superior strength and felting prop-
erty of the stock, be much stronger and more durable than the foreign
goods.

2d. It will be farther seen that a skillful and responsible manufacturer
would furnish cloth, corresponding with Welsh plains, at 37 cents per yard,
could he procure the same quality of wool now employed in the manufac-
ture of those cloths at a price proportionably low with domestic wools,
calling the latter 25 cents per pound.

Blankets are manufactured at equally exorbitant profits ; and the
Chelmsfords, paying less transportation and no duties, approach the same
standard of profit — though, judging from your samples, I consider them
the cheapest goods.

I have given Mr. Dexter's undoubtedly fair and candid statements in
the premises — my object in these letters being, as I once before have
stated, to arrive at truth, and not to support a favorite hypothesis, or to
maintain, at all hazards, preconceived views.

My own estimates and those of Mr. Dexter, of the actual cost of manu-
facturing Welsh plains, it will be seen, differ — but not so materially as
would as first appear, when the advance of wool, soap, oil, &c., are taken
into consideration. I have no doubt that, in making his estimates, he had
his eye more on the better and more elaborate machinery of his own mills
—the more expensive arid perfect performance of the various manufactur-
ing processes common in .that class of establishments, than on the cheaper
machinery and processes necessary in the manufacture of coarse goods.
My estimates, or rather statements of cost of manufacturing sheep's gray
you will recollect, were given on supposed actual knowledge of what a
manufacturer of these goods had made tliem at. To ^hese Mr. IX seerns
*o take no exceptions.

In relation to the shrinkage of wool, Mr. Dexter undoubtedly bases his

RHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 93

opinion mainly on his own experience in manufacturing broad and other
sloths of fine quality. In these, the shrinkage of the wool from the fleece
is concededly at least half. And the firm, well finished and honestly made
Oriskany cloths, I have no doubt require the highest rate of shrinkage in
the stock. But Mr. D. concedes that a " pound of fleece wool will make a
yard of sheep's gray of medium quality." Now the Welsh plain, of the
quality of the sample, weighs 13 oz. per yard. As I have already stated,
" the ordinary weight of the sheep's gray is from the weight of the Welsh
plain to 16 oz. per yard." Thus a yard of "medium" sheep's gray out-
weighs a yard of the Welsh plain. If this is so, the former, of course, re-
quires the greatest amount of stock, the mere width making no difference
whatever. Mr. Dexter was led into this error, evidently, by overesti-
mating the weight of the Welsh plains — and this arose from the smallness
of the sample submitted for his inspection.

His statement of the cost of manufacturing broadcloths by the Oriskany
Company is entitled, I have no doubt, to the fullest reliance. In conse-
quence of his remarks on this topic I have changed a statement in the
preceding part of this letter alluded to by him, for fear it might convey an
erroneous idea. Where I spoke of " existing establishments declaring
dividends of ffteen per cent.," I have changed it, so that it now reads
" from ten to ffteen per cent.," these being the dividends, respectively, of
the Oriskany and Middlesex* Companies last year, and exhibiting ab lit
the range, probably, «f well-managed companies.

* Mr. Lawrence's great establishment at Lowell, which works up 1,700,000 ibs. of wool per smuttSB.

94 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

LETTER VHL

PROSPECTS OF THE WOOL MARKET— FUTURE DEMAND AND SUPPLY.

Amount of Wool which may be grown in the Southern States. . -If the demand is already supplied, where
is it to find a Market?... The cheaper Producer can drive his rival rrom the market, unless the disparity
of Capital is greatly against him... In Individual Capital, the South possesses the advantage over the
North. . .The South can produce Wool cheaper than New- York- - .North of latitude 40° there will he little
difference in the cost of producing Wool. . .Cost of producing it in New-England — Pennsylvania — New-Jer-
eey — Ohio. . -The Prairies — Their vast Extent — Their anticipated Advantages for Sheep Husbandry — Flocks
driven on them — Anticipations blasted, so far as keeping Sheep economically on the Natural Grasses is con-
cerned. . .Character of the Prairie Grasses — Flourish but during a short season, rendering the time of fodder-
ing longer than even in New-England.. .Another Difficulty — The Wild Grasses which the Sheep feed on
rapidly become extirpated — Statements of theEditor of the Prairie Farmer confirmatory of this, and of the
assertion in relation to the length of the time of foddering. . .His proposition to introduce Grasses which will
grow in the Winter — Impracticability — Reasons... Burning over the Prairies— Objections.. -Indifferent
quality of Prairie Hay... Principal Advantages of the Prairies for Sheep Husbandry narrowed down
to two— Cheapness of Land — Privilege of Pasturing the Public Lands... The latter Advantage rapidly
lessening. . .Cost of Preparing the Prairies for Sheep Husbandry — Materials for Fences, Buildings and Fuel
entirely wanting on the interior of them. . .Coal for Fuol plenty, but not economically available. . . Fences —
those of earth inadequate... Hedges — Require fences to protect them while growing — Their success then
doubtful. . .Timber may be grown for all of the above purposes, but would raise the cost of the land above
those of the Sheep Lands of New- York and New-England... The Shepherd System as a Substitute for
Fences — When the Sheep become numerous, it would cost more to keep them in separate flocks than
fences cost in the; East... Pasturing in Common considered— The Sheep could not be separated for any
ordinary purpose of Sheep Husbandry — There would be no protection against theft, promiscuous inter-
breeding, untimely impregnation — No way of effectually combating contagious disorders— Reasons... Nat-
ural and unremovable Objections to the Prairies — Want of Water — A Climate far mqre fickle and excessive
than in the Eastern States... Shown by the record of the thermometrical observations kept at the Military
i^osts of the United States... These compared... Wool-growing in Mexico — In South America.

Dear Sir : In recommending the production of Wool on a scale so ex-
tensive in the Southern States, as I have done in my preceding Letters,
the fact should not be lost sight of, that were these recommendations com-
plied with, one of the great staples of commerce would be enormously
increased. The Southern States — the ten* to which I have confined all
my preceding remarks and estimates— to say nothing of those in the same
latitudes west of the Mississippi — include an area of 450,000 square miles,
or 288,000,000 square acres. Allow one- eighth of this region to be in a
state of cultivation, \ or in natural pastures, and we have 36,000,000 acres
which could be more or less devoted to the growth of wool. Assuming
that, on the average, every two acres would, under proper tillage, support
one sheep, (which, it seems to me, they might do with no very material
diminution of present staples,) and that the sheep average 3 Ibs. per fleece,
the annual product of wool would be 54,000,000 Ibs. This amount might
be indefinitely added to, by diminishing the production of present staples,
How far this could be economically done, experience must determine.

If we concede the adequacy of the present supply of wool to the demand,
*aking the world together, it is apparent that an increase of 50, 7.5, or 100
millions of pounds, in one quarter, will produce an over-supply, (and thus
greatly depress prices,) unless met by an increased demand, or a corre
spending diminution in production, in some other quarter. I do not concede
the adequacy of the present supply, but shall, however, waive that point.

The question now arises, where is the wool thus produced to find a
market, if the South should, within the next ten, fifteen, or twenty years,

* Nine, besides that portion of Louisiana east of the Mississippi

t Probably the anrmnt in cultivate n, including that in natural pasture, is set down pretty high. It may
no* exceed a tenth.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE .SOUTH. 95

furnish such a surplus 1 Where is the present supply to be diminished,
or the demand increased ]

Where agricultural competition exists, as a matter of course the pro
ducer who can supply the market with the least expense to himself, has
an advantage which nothing but a disparity greatly against him in capital
can overcome. Large capital, satisfied with less gains than small capital,
Trill sometimes sustain competition with the latter, with the advantages of
the cheapness of production somewhat against it. But where the differ-
ence in first cost is considerable, the cheaper producer can always drive
his rival from the market. The aggregate agricultural capital in a region
of given size in New-York, probably would ordinarily exceed that of an
equal territory in South Carolina or Georgia. But it is not so with indi-
vidual or personal capital. While the agricultural territory and capabilities
of the latter States are in a comparatively few hands, those of New-York
and New-England are parceled out among a multitude of small holders,
who must realize the first class of agricultural profits, to support them-
selves and their families. The advantage of capital is therefore, in reality,
on the side of the South.

But independent of this consideration, I have already attempted to show
that the South can produce wool so much cheaper than New- York, that
the latter will stand no chance whatever in competing with her more
favored rival — so soon as that rival sees fit to avail herself of her advan-
tages. North of latitude 40° there will be but little disparity in the cost of
producing wool ; and therefore if the South can drive New- York to relin-
quish the production of this staple, she can do the same with all portions
of the United States lying north of this parallel, unless on the shores of the
Pacific , where the isothermal line is at least 5° north of its course east of
the Missouri. I will now enter upon some specifications, and, where ne-
cessary, proofs, to sustain this proposition.

New-England has, concededly, no advantages over New- York for the
cheap production of wool. Northern Pennsylvania is higher, colder, an'd
more sterile than most of southern New- York. South-eastern Pennsyl-
vania, and the fertile portions of New-Jersey, are the natural producers of
bread-stuffs for the less favored regions of those States, and of provisions
)f all kinds for the New-York City and Philadelphia markets. The high
^rice which good lands bear in the vicinity of such markets, would prevent
them from competing with cheap interior lands in wool-growing. There
are sheep lands of good quality in western Pennsylvania; and in the
southern section, the winters are. perceptibly a little shorter than in New-
York. This will render the production of wool upon them somewhat
less expensive than in the latter State, but it will not reduce it low enough
to allow them to compete with the cheaper lands and still shorter win-
ters of the South. The same remarks will apply to the hilly region con
stituting the south-eastern portion of Ohio.

Proceeding still farther west, we find a region extending to a vast distance
whose topographical and geological features, flora, &c., taken in connec-
tion, effectually distinguish it from the territory lying east of the Missis-
sippi and Ohio. Vast plains, called prairies, (so named by the early French
settlers from t-he French word signifying meadow,) which can be purchased
of the Government in the natural state for $1 25 per acre, and which are
usually covered with natural grasses — would seem, if these grasses are
adapted to the summer and winter subsistence of sheep, and there are no
counterbalancing disadvantages, to unite facilities for the cheap production
of wool not possessed in any other region of our country. And such supe-
riority has actually and often been claimed for them.

96 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

I propose to investigate this question at considerable length, because thero
are various considerations which, at first view, give great plausibility to this
claim. And if the prairios can produce wool cheaper than the South, it is
in vain for the latter to embark in the business — at least, beyond the ex-
tent of supplying the home demand — for BO limitless is the extent of these
natural pastures throughout the whole northern basin of the Mississippi,
that they could, perhaps, supply the entire market demand of the United
States for this staple, for an indefinite period, vast as that demand is des-
tined to be.

But a very few years have elapsed since the most sanguine anticipations
were indulged in, by large numbers of our Northern and Eastern flock-
masters, in relation to the superior capabilities and advantages of the prai-
ries over Eastern lands for sheep-walks ; and large flocks were driven hun-
dreds of miles, lands purchased, and establishments created, to realize
these supposed advantages. It is not too much to say that these anticipa-
tions— so far at least, as keeping sheep on the natural herbage of the prai-
ries is concerned, were briefly and summarily blasted. Many of the flocks
driven there, actually perished in the midst of seeming plenty. On the
whole, the experiment is generally conceded to have resulted in failure.
Let us see whether this was occasioned by mismanagement — temporary
and removable causes — or whether we must look for those causes in na-
tural and unchangeable circumstances.

Apportion of the wild prairie grasses are relished by sheep, and they thrive
on them ; but these grasses, as well as all the other varieties growing there,
flourish during but an unusually limited portion of the season. They be-
gin to dry up and lose their nutritive qualities in midsummer, and long be-
fore the foddering season has commenced on the bleakest highlands of
New-England, they are as unfit for the subsistence of sheep, as dry brush !
Where the natural grasses are alone depended upon, the foddering season
on the prairies, north of latitude 40°, will range from six to seven months
-•^rarely, perhaps, fall short of six, on lands which have been previously
depastured, provided the sheep are maintained in good condition.

And there is another material difficulty with the prairie grasses which
sheep feed on. They soon — many of them even in a single season — be-
come extirpated if kept fed down while growing. This is so singular a
fact in vegetable physiology, that I chose to state it in the words of an in-
telligent resident of the prairie region — whose local pride and partiali-
ties would naturally prompt him to give as favorable a coloring to the
agricultural advantages of his chosen home, as a regard for truth would
admit of. From a communication of J. Ambrose Wight, Esq., Editor of
the Prairie Farmer, to L. A. Morrel* — replete with useful information,
and characterized by an admirable candor — I make the following extracts :

i; Sheep or other stock, but more particularly the former, put upon a given piece of wild
prairie, and confined to it, unless the range be very large, would not continue to keep
fit one season after another, though they would at first ; but if allowed a new range each
season, they would always keep' fat. The reason is this : Sheep in such cases will go over
iheir range and select such food as they prefer, and will keep at it until it is gone. Hence'
the wild bean and pea vine, and a few other kinds of plants, will obtain their constant at-
t entions, and will be kept so short that they will, on a given piece of land, die out the first
year. Therefore if turned out on the same grounds another season, the best food will be
gone, and the poorer, with which they must then take up, alid which itself gets continually
poorer, will not sustain them in their first condition. A small flock of sheep will thus run
over a large extent of ground.

Hence the utter hollowncss of a supposition which appears to be common at the East,
that large flocks of sheep can be sustained on the wild grass of the prairies alone. Thero
are many places, it is true, where a fanner might keep a large flock on tha wUi prairies

* American Shepherd pp. 138—145.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 97

daring the summer months with profit, provided he had not too many neighbors in the
same business. But such flocks would continually lessen their own range, at the same time
that it is lessening by immigration, settlement and extended culture. I have been in the coun-
try about nine years; having gone, at the first, into an entirely unsettled region, and have
paid much attention to the matter ; and it is my belief that the wild prairies are desirable
for wool-growing to a very limited degree ; but that the cultivated prairies are desirable for
this purpose to an almost limitless extent."

The following fully sustains my preceding statements in relation to the
time of foddering. In answer, to Mr. Morrel's question, " what length of
rime is foddering necessary in Northern Illinois 1" Mr. Wight says :

" The seasons have been extremely variable since my residence here — now nearly nine
years. The winter of 1842 and '43 was the severest one since the settlement of the State;
and the foddering season lasted from the middle of October to the middle of April. The
winter of 1843 and '44, and the present one (1844-5) would require foddering for a less time,
by full two months. This is on the supposition, however, that good artificial pasturage
is provided. If the wild prairies are relied on alone for pasture and hay, full two months
must be added to the foddering season ; and stock would barely get through at that ; and I
think that sheep, in multitudes of instances, would perish. In this latitude with Timothy
Red-top and Clover pastures, the average time would be from 4£ to 5 mouths. If a <Wd
blue-grass pasture were provided, in such winters as the last and present, it might be reduced
to two months, and I am told that some so provided for, one hundred miles south of here,
have, the present winter, scarcely foddered at all. I apprehend, however, that our winter*
here will always be variable, and that it will be far more difficult to predict their len^t'i
and intensity than in New-England."

In another place Mr. Wight says :

" If, however, the question is asked, ' Does not the pasture on the prairies fail early in au
tutrm, so as to compel the removal of sheep to other pasture before it is time to go into white:*
quarters ?' I answer, yes — long before. In many sections the prairies afford no adequate

pasture for dairy purposes after the first of September The wild grasses are extreme

ly vigorous while they last, but are all, without an exception, short-lived."

The great diminution of the foddering season, where the domestic 01
cultivated grasses are already made use of, which Mr. W. anticipates may
result from the introduction of blue-grass, will be found utterly unattain-
able. Blue-grass (known as June or spear grass), is one of the common-
est varieties in New- York and New-England. Peoria, in Illinois, is in
about the same latitude with the City of New- York, and consequently that
portion of Illinois north of Peoria, corresponds with a considerable portion
of New- York, and all of Connecticut and Rhode Island. And the climate
of the former is not less rigorous, and is far more variable, than in the lat-
ter named States, as I shall presently show. Now in no portion of New-
York or New-England will the blue-grass reduce the foddering season to
two months, or anything like it. It is true that small flocks will pick up
a subsistence on this and other grasses in the winter, when the around is
not covered with snow, and if the pastures are not fed down in the fall. To
suppose, however, that this or any other herbage will continue to grow,
when the earth is frozen almost to the consistency of a solid rock, far be-
low its lowest roots, is an obvious error. In New- York, the ground 'remains
so frozen usually during the entire winter, and in Northern Illinois the cold
.is equally intense, and there is less snow to protect the earfh from its ef-
fects. The ground, therefore, is frozen quite as solidly, and considerably
deeper than in the former. Grass left standing for winter consumption,
in either State, becomes, by freezing and thawing, tough and innutritions'
In New- York, the larger flock-masters have long since ceased to make any
provision of this kind, for winter-feeding—preferring to keep their sheep
in yards, and entirely from grass.

As Mr. Wight himself very accurately remarks in another part of his
communication, " It is found to be decidedly better to keep sheep up in
small nocks, with very little ground to run over, while kept on hay, than

98 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH,

to let them run out a part of the time and get such grass as they can pick,
while there is not enough to sustain them." But the reason for this given
by Mr. W., that " they eat much dirt, are liable to be poisoned and lose
their appetite for hay," is very far from being the correct one. Green
grass always, in a great measure, deprives sheep of their appetite for dry
hay. The grass thus left standing loses its nutritive qualities, so that it
will but imperfectly sustain animals, and when the snow falls and covers
it, sheep not only cannot obtain it, but they are left without appetite for
other food. Open winters, i. e., winters without snow, are always particu-
larly fatal to sheep which are suffered to run on the pastures, in this
climate, and for the reasons above assigned. They sometimes appear to
be doing well enough up to toward the close of February ; but they are
imperceptibly losing condition and strength, and when the trying month
of March, with its stormy and fickle weather, sets in, they begin to drop
off, and all sorts of diseases — grub in the head, " the distemper," etc. — are
assigned as the causes.

It is in vain to attempt to shorten the foddering season north of latitude
40°, on this side of the Rocky Mountains, by seeking for any plant to con-
tinue its growth and tlius produce green feed in winter, unless in limited
districts, and on the margins of large bodies of water. No plant can
draw its nutriment from solidly frozen ground.

Mr. Wight proposes burning over portions of the prairies at intervals,
to cause the vegetation to start afresh, and thus prolong the grazing sea-
son on the prairies. Mr. Flower makes the same suggestion. In some
localities, and under favorable circumstances, this might, temporarily, ac-
complish the desired object ; but as population increases, and buildings
and inclosures are erected, it would constantly lead to those unfortunate
accidents, which have already, I believe, led at least one of the Western
States to prohibit by severe penal enactments, the setting fire to the dead
grass of the prairies. Besides, we have Mr. Wight's own authority for
stating that sheep actually extirpate those of the prairie grasses which they
will feed on, so that burning over could not cause these to re-sprout the
same season or afterward.

It requires but little knowledge of the habits of the sheep to know that
grasses rejected by it in summer, will not constitute a proper aliment for
it in winter, and that if confined to such food, it will not prosper. A few
sheep with liberty to pick and waste, will live on very inferior herbage in
either summer or winter, (and hence the sanguine and erroneous state-
ments put forth by owners of small flocks on the prairies,) but confine
flocks to the same food — flocks which are too numerous to be allowed the
privilege of selection and rejection in their food, and the disastrous conse-
quences will not be long in exhibiting themselves.

In reviewing the preceding facts, the principal advantages of the prai-
ries for the production of wool seem to be narrowed down to two points .
the cheapness and fertility of the lands, with a contingent right inuring to
the settler to use, without paying for it, all the unappropriated public do-
main ! If we admit that the soil of the prairies is as well adapted to tho
artificial grasses as that of New- York or New-England, (a point which, to
say the least of it, is doubtful, for experience has shown it to be other-
wise in Michigan and some other portions of the West,) the only peculiai
and exclusive advantages which the prairies have over the lands of the
old Middle and Eastern States, is their cheapness and freedom from rent
where unsettled. Emigration is rapidly abridging the latter privilege,
however — more rapidly than can well be appreciated without a reference
to the statistics of the several new North-western States. And it will be

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOU'l if. 00

remembered that when a prairie is belted round by population, and de
pastured by numerous flocks and herds, its better grasses — at least fox
sheep — would be soon exterminated, and, consequently, though there
might be ten or fifty thousand acres of common and free pasturage, it
would be of trifling avail to the flock-master.

But taking this privilege for what it is worth, and taking into account
the difference in the price of lands — calling one $1 25, and the other. $2C
per acre — and then, in my judgment, the Eastern will prove cheaper, all
things considered, than the prairie lands, for Sheep Husbandry. I speak,
of course, of the prairies as wholes — not of that narrow margin of each,
which is attached to the farms lying partly on the outer and wooded lands.

The prairies must first be plowed, undoubtedly,* to seed them down ef-
fectually with the cultivated grasses. It requires from four to six yoke of
oxen, says Mr. Solon Robinson, to break up from one to one and a half
acres per diem. Suppose we concede this expense to be paid for by the
first grain crop used as a covering for the grass ; then the prairies are to
be fenced — adequate buildings and other fixtures provided, for the use of
u family, the storage of hay, the shelter of animals, &c. Where are the
materials for these things and for fuel to be found, on a plain wholly desti-
tute of trees, unless on the occasional " islands" — and where stones are
entirely wanting, excepting sparsely scattered bowlders, and, very rarely,
rocky ridges or cliffs ] Conceding that all the wood on the margins of the
prairies will not be wanted for the local supply — which, as a general thing,
it undoubtedly will — what would be the cost of fences, buildings and fuel,
where every stick was transported from three to fifteen milest by landi
carriage ] Fuel, it has been said, can be obtained from the local deposi-
tions of coal. It is true that Illinois and south-western Indiana, at least,,
constitute one vast coal basin. But any one possessing the slightest prac-
tical accjuaintance with the subject, knows that it requires associated, ag-
gregate and corporate wealth, to carry on mining operations to an extent
sufficient to steadily and efficiently supply a considerable market. Even*
in a level country where coal is covered with a deep superficial deposi-
tion of earth, individuals may, where the stratum is cut through or uncov-
ered in ravines or the beds of streams, quarry their own coal ; but such*
opportunities are rare. The idea that individuals would find it within the-
compass of their means to sink vertical shafts and raise coal — each one:
for himself — on the bosoms of the prairies, is utterly preposterous. Coal
has never yet borne a price in our cities, which would justify even Compa-
nies in lifting it by vertical shafts. Let the coal, however, be as cheap a»
it may be, at the points of excavation, the mere cartage of it, for the
wants of a five-months winter — where the thermometer frequently indi-
cates a degree of cold from 5° to 30° below 0° — will be an onerous tax.
on agricultural industry. And canals can never furrow the bosoms of
most of those vast dry plains ; and ages must elapse before railroads wills
so interlace them, as to bring coal cheaply within the reach of population
scattered over their entire surfaces.

If we suppose that adequate buildings can be constructed, with suffi-
ient economy, with transported timber, the question still remains, What!
esource is there for fences ] Fences of earth have been proposed, but these
will not stand long enough to pay for building, unless their sides are con-
structed at such an angle as would be wholly inadequate to " turn " sheep
Hedges, besides the other considerable expense of cultivating them, would

* I have seen it stated that the seeds of the cultivated grasses would "catch " sown on the surface of the
prairie sod ! That they would do this effectually and generally, is an assertion which no practical far-? rr
will credit.

1 1'rairies are from one to thirty mQes in diameter.

100 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

require fences to protect tlicm from animals, until they attained a consider-
ble size ; and it is exceedingly questionable whether any good hedge-
plant can be found, which is capable of resisting the rigorous and fickle
climate of the North-western States. The different thorns, and other plants
used in England, have generally failed in all the Northern States.

Timber may be grown, both for fuel, houses and fences, by the proper
planting, cultivation and protection of suitable trees — but the expense and
delay attending this course would raise the prairies to, or above the piice
of New-York and New-England sheep lands.

It has been claimed that the shepherd system will render fences unne-
cessary, to any but a very limited extent, on the prairies. Now, while there
is but here and there a settler on the margins of some of these great plains,
and while a flock of sheep can constantly seek new pasturage, as the old
fails, over a boundless range, without encountering another man's flock,
sheep require so little looking after that the shepherd system is entirely
feasible and economical, notwithstanding the high price of labor. Under
such circumstances, one man, provided with a horse and a brace of dogs,
can perhaps give the necessary attention to 1,000 sheep, and have some
time for other occupations. But this state of things, terminated already on
most of the prairies this side of the Mississippi, will soon be unknown
even on those in the territories bordering on the Missouri and its west-
ern tributaries. When wool-growers become to any degree numerous on
the borders of the prairies, (as they certainly soon will, if these regions do
possess any peculiar advantages for this branch of husbandry,) how arc
sheep to be kept separate, without that multitude of shepherds which the
same services require in Spain, Germany, or Australia 1 — and whose labor
and subsistence* would cost more, during a series of years, than thefen-ccs
in regions where wood and stone are plenty.

If the sheep are not kept separate — if allowed to run promiscuously to-
gether, how could the property of each holder be separated out of the vast
general flock on a prairie five, ten or fifteen miles in mean diameter, for the
purposes of slaughter, sale, washing, shearing, folding, or any other inci-
dent of their husbandry] What protection would there be against whole-
sale theft, when no man could count his scattered flock 1 What would
prevent promiscuous interbreeding — and what object would it be, there-
fore, to attempt to procure choice breeds, or improve those already pos-
sessed? What security would there be against those vagabond rams
which the carelessness of some individual is always sure to let loose on
a neighborhood, to beget lambs on every poorly-fenced farm, to perish in
'the storms of February and March It Finally, how could contagious
and — unless promptly checked — highly malignant and fatal diseases, like;
the scab and hoof-ail, be met with the proper vigor, and treated with the
necessary skill and care, among a multitude of holders scattered over miles
•of surface; and supposing all the necessary vigor, skill and care brought
into action, what would they all avail where it was impossible to sepa
rate the healthy from the diseased — the cured from the sick ] J Let either
of these diseases break out among a flock of ten thousand sheep, running
together without inclosures, and any one familiar with their diagnosis and
treatment, knows that if it were possible to drive theni from the flock —
which is extremely doubtful — it would cost far more than the value of the

* Costing four or perhaps six times more in this than in the former countries.

t It is questionable whether in a flock running in common on a prairie, one ewe in ten would escape
untimely impregnation.

t Both of these diseases are susceptible of being communicated from a dfeeared sheep to one hut
frrently cured of them ; consequently, separation is the Mily safe and economical method, in large fiocka

prevent constant relnoculation.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 101

sheep. True, these diseases have not yet visited, so far I am awfcre, tha
Western States. The scab is, in fact, but little known at present in any
part of the United States. It may at any time, however, reappear.* The
hoof-ail, after the fury of its first onset is over, assumes a milder form—-
one which does not lead to death, if remedies are applied but once or
twice during a season — and for this reason, probably, it is allowed to
linger in many flocks in the sheep-growing regions of the U. S. It is a
strictly contagious disease, and one animal having it would rapidly innoc-
late, in the hot weather of summer, by itself and others receiving the dis-
ease from it, one or five hundred thousand sheep having access to each
other. A few years since it was a stranger to this region. Like the small-
pox when unchecked by vaccination, or any other contagious malady, it
gradually progresses from neighborhood to neighborhood — from State to
State. Good fences, confinement to the farm, and a rigorous system of
exclusion of all strange sheep, may and do save many flocks from its vis-
itation, but accidents and acts of carelessness are constantly occurring—
and so long as they continue to occur, this malady will continue its on
ward march. I consider it just as certain that it will visit and sweep over
the North-western States, as I do that flocks are scattered along between
those States and the present seat of the disease. And when it does visit
them, if it finds any great flocks congregated on the prairies, not in a situ-
ation to be immediately divided into small flocks, I venture to predict that,
with all the care and attention which the sheep will receive, the miserable
animals, eaten while yet alive by maggots — and, festering in loathsome
rottenness, will perish in multitudes — by whole flocks.t

Another objection to pasturing in common, would arise in the difficulty,
if not impracticability, of establishing and enforcing an equitable system
of joint occupancy, over or around a large prairie, so as to compel each
farmer to regulate the number of his flocks and herds by the amount of cul*
tivated pasture possessed by him.

But if we concede all the preceding difficulties to be removable, or even
removed ; if we suppose the great north-western plains to be amply sup-
plied with materials for building, fences, and fuel — there are two other dif-
ficulties in the way of their becoming the best class of sheep-walks, which,
from their nature are fixed, and, in the main, unchangeable. I allude to
the scarcity of water, and the climate.

On the " dry and rolling prairies " — those claimed to possess the greatest,
advantages for Sheep Husbandry — running water is scarce, frequently ex-
tremely so. The occasional streams are shallow and sluggish. Washing
wool on the back of the sheep, conduces, I think, to the health of the ani-
mal. It causes the sheep to shear much more easily — brings the wool into
a better marketable condition, arid diminishes transportation. Streams of
considerable depth and rapidity (where, what is better, falling sheets of wa-
ter over mill dams, £c., cannot be found), are almost indispensable to an
effectual performance of this process. Sheep, also, in many periods of
weather, require water for drink. When they are confined to dry feed, it
is indispensable, in the absence of that snow which is often, in the Eastern
States, made a substitute for water. Neither are attainable during consid-
erable periods each winter, on the prairies, without resort to a pump— a
sorry — and, (including the time of working it, when large flocks are to bo
watered), an expensive and troublesome substitute for running water.
__ Finally, the climate of the Western and North-western States is more

* Since writing the above, I have found, to my utter surprise, that this disease is within three miles of
aiy own farm, in a flock driven into the country last fall,
f A history of this disease and its gloomy diagnosis, when neglected, will be given in a subsequent

102

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

variable — exhibits more sudden and greater extremes, than the climates of
New- York and New-England. The weak and easily prostrated muscular
and vascular system of the sheep, will better endure great extremes of con-
tinuous heat or cold, than rapid and marked variations in temperature,
Subjected to t.ie latter, catarrh not violent enough to kill in its inflammato-
ry stage, but assuming a chronic form — a ad followed by a slow and wast-
ing debility, frequently attacks flocks. Sometimes it assumes an epizoo-
tic and malignant character — as during the past winter — and sweeps away
thousands of sheep.

The isothermal line (or line of equal mean heat), does not vary particu-
larly between the same latitudes in New- York or Wisconsin — or between
Virginia and Missouri. But as we leave the ocean and other large bodies
of water, the isotheral and isocheimal lines are found to diverge more
and more from the isothermal one — -and the range of the thermometer (the
extremes of heat and cold indicated by it), rapidly increases. The follow-
ing Table of temperatures, kept by officers in the Army, for a series of nine
years, is from Doct. Forry's excellent work on the " Climate of the United
States, &c."* It strikingly illustrates the fact asserted. The four points
specified are in about the same latitude.

Highest.

Lowest.

Annual ttangt

Fort Wolcott Newport, Rhode Island

85

to

83

87

9

78

96

— 10

106

Council Bluffs, near the confluence of)

104

—-16

120

Doct. Forry states that the mean annual range of the thermometer at the
following places, is as follows : at Fort Sullivan (Eastport, Me.) it is 104°,
while at Forts Snelling (confluence of the St. Peter's and Mississippi in
Iowa) and Howard, (Green Bay, Wisconsin,) in about the same latitude, it
is respectively 119°, and 123°.

At Fort Preble (Portland, Me.) Fort Niagara (near the mouth of th*
Niagara River, N. Y.), Fort Constitution (Portsmouth, N. H.) it is 99°
92°, and 97° ; at Fort Crawford, (confluence of the Wisconsin arid Missis*
sippi Rivers in Wisconsin,) on the same parallel, it is 120°.

The above instances are not isolated ones. The same law ^s found— •
other things being equal — to generally prevail throughout our own, and
perhaps all other countries t

While the cold of the Northern, and particularly the North-western
States, so greatly exceeds that of the Southern States, few would be pre-
pared for the proposition that the extremes of heat in the former, often
reach points unknown many degrees farther South ! Yet such is the
fact !

Fort Snelling, in latitude 44° 53', and occupying a central position in that
vast territory lying between the Great Lakes and the Missouri, and between
the 41st and 49th parallels of latitude— and which may therefore be pre-
sumed, to a certain extent, to afford a type of the climate of that whole re-
gion—-feels a maximum summer heat of 93° — the same with that of Wash
mgton City, in latitude 33° 53', and Old Point Comfort, Va., in latitude
37° 2'. At Fort Johnston, on the Coast of North Carolina, in latitude 34°
tho maximum heat is but 90° ; at Fort Moultrie, in Charleston Harbor
'n latitude 32° 42', it is also 9(P ; at Fort Marion. St. Augustine, Florida,

* See the above named work. p. 43. I am also indented to Doct. Forry for all the records of thermometri
sal observations, at the U S. military posts, which are subsequently quoted.

f Local exceptions exist, owinij to the prevHilinur win-Is and other causes. For example, Fort Howard
ta iniKih nearer a large body of watei than Fort Snelling. Altitude also exerts its influence.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH

in latitude 29° 50', it is 92° ; at Fort Brooke, Tampa Bay, Florida, in
latitude 27° 51', it is 92° ; and at Key West, the most southern possession of
the United States, it is 89° !

It will thus be seen that the summer heat rises higher at Fort Snelling
chan at points on the sea-board more than 20° farther South !

Now let us compare their winter temperature. The minimum tempera*
ture of Fort Snelling is — 26°.* That at Washington is -f 9° ; Old Point
Comfort 4. 20° ; Fort Johnston + 28° ; Fort Moultrie + 21° ; St. Augus-
ine-f-390; Tampa Bay + 35°; Key West + 52°! So the greatest cold
of Fort Snelling is 35° below that of Washington — the most northern and
by far the coldest of these posts — and it is actually 78° below that of a post,
(Key West), which its summer heat exceeds by four degrees !

At Fort Howard, latitude 44° 40', the seasons are even more violently
contrasted. Its maximum heat is 98°, its minimum — 25. At Rock Island,
111 , latitude 41° 28' we have already seen that the maximum is 96°, the
minimum — 10°; and at Council Bluffs, latitude 41° 45', the maximum
104°, the minimum — 16° ! At Petite Quoquille, neai New-Orleans, the
maximum is but 94°, the minimum -f- 30° 4

And an examination of the monthly variations in temperature, at our
North-western posts, will show that these are as excessive, in proportion,
as those of the year — and their suddenness can scarcely be credited by
an inhabitant of southern regions — more particularly those bordering oil
the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico.f

It cannot be said that Fort Snelling, or Rock Island, or Council Blufis,
have the summers of Italy or the South of France — for the weather is
much hotter at intervals, and is subject to far more frequent, abrupt and
violent changes than in the latter: nor have these posts winters as mild as
those of Europe, many degrees farther north .J And their winter exhibits
the same sudden and violent changes which characterize the summer
climate.

These facts, in my judgment, fully explain the remarkable mortality hi
the flocks which have been carried on the prairies, and which is usually
attributed to over-driving, poisoning, &c. The climate itself, though not
always a rapid, will prove one of the surest of poisons, unless great care —
imch greater than is requisite even on the bleak and sterile hills of New-
.England — is taken to protect them from its deleterious influences.

Facts sufficient have been adduced, probably, to convince every South
ern man how much he has to fear, ultimately, from prairie competition, in
the production of wool. Having thus attempted to measure the capabili-
ties of the various regions of our own country for the cheap production
of this staple, it may be well to turn our eyes to the comparative advan-
tages of other countries and nations — and to ask the question whether
Jh^re is any danger to the domestic producer from foreign competition.
This can be done but briefly and rapidly in the limits which I have assigned
to myself.

It will not be necessary for the purposes of the present inquiry, to ex-
amine the climate, flora, &c., of all portions of the world. The wool-
producing countries — those which have natural advantages to enable them
to produce wool cheaply enough, and in sufficient quantities, to stand any
chance in the general competition, are mainly embraced in a belt or region

[* It will be understood that the sign — before the number of decree?, indicates that it is that number of
degrees belov Zero, and the sign -j- used here, in the preceding Table, and in the subsequent paragraph, tc
avoid confusion, signifies above Zero. Publisher.}

t In the Report of the Fishing: Creek Agricultural Society, of your State, 1843, the Committee actuallj
complain of the variableness of the c'imate ! Truly, 'we can only judge by comparison !'

1 The mean winter temperature of North Cape in Norway, latitude 71°, ia 23° 72— that of Fort SneUin«
15* 95- thai of Council Bluffs, 24° 47— that of Rock Island, 26O 86.

104 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOl-TH

about 15C in width, on each side of and at varying distances from the
Equator. The variation corresponds with the variation of temperature;
in other words, the wool zone is bounded by isothermal instead of lat-
itudinal lines. Commencing on the eastern side of each continent, in the
northern hemisphere, between about 30° and 45°, it bears northwardly,
and strikes their eastern shores, say between 40° and 55°. In the south,
cm hemisphere, I am not aware that the isothermal deviations, in the
corresponding parallels, have been noted — nor are they important, so
small, comparatively, is the latitudinal area of the surfaces included be-
tween them.

Independent of minor deviations everywhere exhibiting themselves in the
iso'.hermal lines, more important local exceptions exist in many places, owing
if. elevation, proximity of bodies of water, prevailing winds, &c. Thus, south
of latitude 30° in North America, the elevations of the Cordilleras give the
mild weather of the temperate, and even the rigors of the frozen zone;
and the same is true of the Andes of South America — in Bolivia, Peru,
Ecuador and New-Grenada — in the same latitudes, where, at the eastern
foot of these declivities, the tropical sun burns up, as with fire, the verdure
of the vast llanos of Brazil and Venezuela, and exhales death from the
pestilent fens of Guiana, and the reptile-teeming marshes of the Amazon.
The same exceptions exist on the Eastern Continent, wherever mountain
chains rise to sufficient elvations to bring to bear this well known and uni-
form law for the depression of temperature, albeit in tropical or sub-
tropical regions^ The steady and mild climate of the Atlantic Ocean, and
its continual and peculiar motion on the west of Europe, preventing the
ice, which the north wind wafts down from the Arctic seas, from lodging
itself, or even approaching* those shores, strongly influences the climates
of the British Islands and Norway, rendering them more temperate than
others many degrees farther south in the interior of Europe and Asia.
Eastern Prussia, and Polish Russia, are rendered disproportionably cold
by the prevailing wind, which sweeps without resistance from the bosom
of the Arctic Ocean to the Carpathian Mountains : and the north-east wind,
laden with the frosts of Siberia, and untempered by the southern winds,
from which it is cut off by the lofty Altay Mountains, carries a cold under
which men, nay whole caravans,! perish in Persia, in the same latitude
with Northern Africa, and the confines of the burning Sahara.^ The Cas-
pian and Black Seas — Mounts Caucasus and Taurus prevent Asiatic Turkey,
and Mount Heemus, European Turkey — from experiencing similar cold.
The same wind entering Europe, reduces the temperature of ita eastern
considerably below that of its western confines ; and its effects are felt more
or less westwardly, in proportion as its course is arrested by mountains.
The climate of Silesia and Saxony is far colder and more mutable than
than that of Bohemia, from which they are only separated by the Erzge-
birge and Riesengebirge. In Northern European Russia, in Finland and
the basin of the Dwina — in the same latitudes where Norway exhibits the

«• Malte Bran's Geography— Art. Climnta of Europe. t Sir Robert Kerr Porter.

J From the delightful Arabian Nights— from the not less delightful strains of Lalla Rookh— from * thou.
feand other sources, remembered and unremembered — song, fiction and Oriental tale — Persia always rise*
!? itore fancy's eye a realm and clime of beauty :

" deep myrrh-thickets blowing round

The Ptately cednr, tamarisks,
Thick roseries of scented thorn,
Tall orient shrubs, and obelisks

Graven with emblems of the time,
In honor of the golden prime,

Of good Haroun Alraachid."

There are portions of Persia where the soil is rich and the climate delightful — but, as a whole, it is a btenk.
W-:Jle, unfruitful country— large portions of it covered with nigged mountains or saline deserts— -with «
caiuate remarkable for the rapidity and extent of ita variations.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOU1H. l()c

flora of Northern Germany — spirits freeze and quicksilver becomes malle-
able. But it is unnecessary to continue this enumeration.

Let us now take a rapid view of the wool-growing countries embraced
in the specified zones. And we will first complete the description of oui
own continent.

Mexico — that portion of it north of latitude 30° — bears too close a re-
semblance to our Western Territories conterminous with it, to require
separate notice.

But a small proportion of the great peninsula of South America is in-
eluded between the 30th and 45th parallels of latitude, and admitting,
what seems probable, that the contiguity of two great oceans would so af-
fect the climate as to carry the northern line of the wool zone a little
nearer to the Equator, this zone would still embrace but, say, two-thirds
of Buenos Ayres, nearly all of Chili, the little State of Uraguay, a mere
point of Brazil, and the north of Patagonia.

The growing- of wool has already been commenced on the vast pampas*
of Buenos Ayres — though as yet to a but limited extent. In 1832, the ex-
port of wool to Great Britain was 32,052 arrobas ;f but the same yea?
the import of English woolens considerably exceeded it in value. The
United States Tariff on foreign wools costing 7 cents per pound or under
being then but 5 per cent, ad valorem, the importation of wool of that
quality from the Argentine Republic^ into our country in the fiscal yeat
ending June 30, 1846, was 4,295,659 Ibs., and of wool costing more than
7 cents (paying a duty of 30 per cent, ad valorem, and a specific duty of
3 cents per pound) the import was 43,831 lbs.||

The pampas resemble the North American prairies, being plains cov-
ered with wild grasses, and entirely destitute of timber. The land is di-
vided by the Government into estates a league square (5,760 acres,) and.
sold at 10 cents per acre. Until recently the pampas were depastured al-
most exclusively by horses and cattle, and so plenty and cheap were
they, that they were frequently killed for their hides alone. The herds-
men and shepherds live in miserable huts, and temporary folds are formed
of the trunks of peach-trees. Western or south-western winds called. pam-
peros often sweep the country with destructive fury, and there are ir
stances in which flocks of sheep have been forced by them into streams
and have perished.

The inhabitants of the pampas are, on the north, the Gauchos — descend
ants of Spaniards — who, living in the saddle, and content to subsist, on
jerked beef and cold water — having few wants, and none which the lass(>
will not supply — lead a life of wild and roving liberty. Tribes of mount-
ed Indians, wild, predatory, and constantly at war with the Gauchos, oc-
cupy the southern pampas.

The facilities for producing wool here closely resemble those of the
North American prairies, though wood is wanting over much more exten-
sive tracts. The price of land on the pampas is less, but they are moiv
remote from markets, as there is little or no manufacturing done in South
America. Besides the cost of transportation, wool must pay, before reach-
ing market, the duties levied by some foreign nation. The- duty in the
United States, by the Tariff of 1846, is 30 per centum ad valorem, with-
out regard to quality, thus discontinuing that great discrimination in iavoi
of the coarse article, which allowed a large proportion of the wools of

* This wold, like llanoi in the Northern States of South America, and prairies in die No.ili Westerr
fTnited States, is applied to extensive plains. Those in the North of Chili are caJled pampus del sacrament*
t McCulloch's Commercial Dictionary. An arroba-is 101^ Ibs. avoirdupois.
% Buenos Ayres is so known in all the official documents of the United States.
y Rejxjrt of the Register of the Treasury, Dec.. 1846.

106 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

Buenos Ayres, Africa, Turkey, &c., to enter our ports under a merely
nominal duty. The present Tariff raised the duty on these wools to six
times the former rate, i. e., on wools costing 7 cents, from 3-J mills to 2 cents
and 1 mill per pound. This will make an important difference to the for-
eign grower and exporter. If these wools continue, as hitherto, to be im
ported in the grease and dirt, from which state they lose about half weight
in being brought as clean as well washed United States wool, every pound
of them so imported will actually pay a double duty, or 4 cents and 2 mills,
half of this being paid for dirt. If, on the other hand, they are washed
prior to exportation, a reduction of 50 per cent, in their weight will call
for a corresponding advance in their price. Wool now costing 7 cents at
Buenos Ayres or Smyrna, will cost 14 cents ; and if this is exported into
the United States, it must pay a duty of 30 per cent., or 4 cents and 2
mills per pound. It will be seen, therefore, that the lowest priced foreign
wools cannot enter our country without paying about this duty (4 cents)
per pound, unless under fraudulent invoices ; and this, as has been already
shown, is kaJftlie cost of producing wool throughout a region of the United
States much greater in extent than all that portion of South America in-
cluded within the wool-growing zone.

The English duty on wools costing less than 24 cents is 1 cent per
pound ; over 24 cents, 2 cents per pound. The French duty is 22 per
cent, ad valorem, without regard to cost.

The security of life and property is far less in Buenos Ayres than in the
United States ; the character of the agricultural population less industri-
ous, less skillful, and less methodical. Capitalists from other countries
may, on account of the cheapness of the lands, make it profitable to pur-
chase large estancias, and raise vast flocks of sheep ; and this has already
been done by a few Europeans. But the pampas are subject to the same
general objections* with the North American prairies, and when the con-
tagious diseases, adverted to in speaking of the latter, once obtain a foot-
ing on them, it is not difficult to predict how those diseases will be en-
countered by the wild and, so far as agricultural labor is concerned, indo-
lent Gaucho. The difficulty of encountering them, with the best skill and
industry, under such circumstances — of preventing their unlimited spread,
constant return and frightful mortality, on plains without inclosures, where
flocks have access to each other, or straggling sheep from one flock are
liable, by every-day casualties, to be thrown among those of another flock
—has been stated.

It is not improbable that while land remains so low, and the sheep
healthy, the actual cost of production in Buenos Ayres will be somewhat
less than in the United States ; but taking all things into consideration, and
looking to the future, I would sooner advise any one, even in an exclu-
sively economical point of view, to purchase the cheap lands of our own
Southern States for the objects of Sheep Husbandry, than any part of
South America. With the present duty and the cost of transportation
against the latter, there is no fear that it can undersell, in our markets,
the produce of the former. The 7-cent South American wools, washed,
will cost 14 cents, and washing will add about 1 cent a pound to thecost.t
Add another cent for agent's commission, and also the U. S. duty, and the
wool is brought to 20 cents a pound, independent of freight and insurance,
which wi 1 carry it, I should think, to about two shillings. The United
States producer can furnish wool of much better quality than the coarse
South American article, at this price, and realize a high profit.

* Unless it be climatic ones. On this point I have no information,

» This will be attended with much trouble on largo porti jas of *.h J pampas, AS on our prairies.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 107

But is it said that the 7-cent South American wool sold in our markets
in 1845 and 1846, was not all coarse — that much of it was actually of a
superior quality 1 This is true. Many of the bales were partly made up
of an article ranging with American Merino and Saxony wools. But there
is little doubt that, to say the least of it, in very many such cases, if the in-
voice of the wool was not fraudulent, nominally, it was rendered so, in
reality, by a previous fraud. The modus operandi is said to have been as
follows : A sends his agent B to Buenos Ayres with instructions to pur-
chase the best lots of wool and pay their market price ; and he farther
gives him secret instructions to re-sell these wools to C (a second agent)
for 7 cents per pound, ostensibly in the ordinary course of business. The
second agent C is subsequently senfrout to buy, with no information of the
mission of his predecessor ; if he suspect the fraud, he has no direct knowl-
edge, of it, and having purchased wool for 7 cents which cost B 15 cents, he
can invoice it at the former rate and support the invoice by his oath.

I have no direct proof of an instance of this species of fraud. The
commonness of such transactions, however, was claimed to be a matter
of perfect notoriety, by individuals who had investigated the subject.
Allegations of this kind have appeared again and again in the most
public manner, and I have yet to listen to the first denial of them, public
or private. Fraudulent invoices are no new thing in our commercial his-
tory,* and the great discrimination made by the Tariff of 1842, in the du-
ties on wool, offered the strongest temptations to them. The same kind
of fraud may be still practiced, but the inducement to risk seizure for un-
dervaluation is less where the diminution of duty is merely pro rata with
the diminution of cost, and where getting the latter invoiced at as low a
rate as 7 cents, is not followed, as before, by escape from a specific duty
and a sudden descent of Jive-sixths in the ad valorem one.

I am free to confess, however, that it has always seemed to me that e
determination to vigorously and faithfully discharge their duty in tho
premises, with a competent practical knowledge of the quality of the arti-
cle, in the proper Custom-House officials, would always, in an unmanu-
factured staple, and one so readily classified and valued as wool, be a suf-
ficient safeguard against fraudulent undervaluation, to any extent, in the
invoice. They might perhaps be undervalued one or two cents on the
pound, without making a case strong and obvious enough to justify ap-
praisers in legalizing a seizui-e ; but it is not for gains like these that per-
juries would be ventured upon, or double agents and other expensive ar-
rangements for the perpetration of more roundabout frauds, be found
profitable.

Not having room, within the limits of this letter, to discuss the capa-
bilities of the Old World to compete with us in wool growing, I will
reserve that subject for my next.

If any one dreams they are, let him read a speech on the Tariff made by Mr. Buchanan in the U. 9
in lB<2—another by Mr. Webster on ad valorem duties, made in the same body July £5, 1846, &c.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

LETTER IX.

PROSPECTS OF THE WOOL MARKET—FUTURE DEMAND AND SUPPLY.

iports and Exports of Trans-Atlantic Nations... Means of ascertaining their Comparative Produo-
bio of the Imports of England... Amount of Wool grown in the United Kingdom, Consumption,

The Im
fion...Ta

of Asia Minor — Same of Persia — Same of Independent Tartary — Same of Afghanistan and Beloochistan—
Same of Thibet, Little Bucharia, and the remainder of China— fame of the Cape of Good Hope— Same of
Australia and Van Diemen's Land... Conclusions in regard to Comparative Facilities, etc., of above Na-
tions and the United States... The Northern States can compete with the most favored of them— and of
course the South can, to much greater advantage... The South might safely embark in Wool-Growing, re-
lying on the European Market alone. ..Rapid Extension of that Market Past and Future. ..But the Ameri-
can Wool-Grower is not compelled to seek a Foreign Market. . .Our Production does not meet the Demand
of our own Manufactories. . .Table of the Imports of Wool into the United States... Table showing
whence we Import Wool... Letter from Samuel Lawrence, Esq., showing the increasing call for Man
ufactories — The Stability of existing ones — andJtheir ability to compete with those of Foreign Countries..'
Extent of our Consumption of Woolens above the Supply made by our Manufactories... Table of Imports
of Woolens... Probable Increase of our Manufactories ... Reflections on the Tariff... Rapidly Increasing
Consumption of our Population — Amount Consumed per head. . -Table of Increase of our Population...
Future Increase. . .The Amount of Wool Necessary at various Future Periods.

Dear Sir : Probably there are few men who now dream of any danger
to the wool-grower of the United States, in the home market, from trans-At-
lantic competition. But there is another point of view, in which a glance
at the facilities of the eastern nations, for the production of this staple, may
not be uninteresting. May we not undersell them with the raw material, in
their own markets ! He who carefully and intelligently examines all the
fects involved in the solution of this question, will find, in spite of the vague
popular impressions which prevail on the subject, that so far at least as
those nations are concerned, which now produce the greatest amount of
the*wool which supplies the markets of the Old World, the United States
can, if satisfied with equal profits, easily undersell them.

As an importer of the raw and exporter of the manufactured article,
England occupies the first place. In these particulars, she probably ex-
ceeds, by fully one-half, all the other nations of the Old World. France
ranks next, and largely takes precedence of the remaining nations. Hol-
land, though shorn, by disastrous political revolutions, of much of her an-
cient importance in this class of manufactures, still maintains a trade of
some magnitude. Several of the German and Prussian States export par-
ticular descriptions of woolens ; Italy sends out some light cloths ; arid
Turkey the carpets of that name. A full exhibit of the exports of all tho
wool-producing nations, would not, of course, lead us to an accurate knowl-
edge of the amount of their production — for there is no one which does
not manufacture the raw material to some extent. But with what knowl-
edge we can obtain of their manufactures, the former information would
enable us to ascertain, approximately at least, the amount of their produc-
tion. This is all that is necessary for our present purpose, for we do not
now, in reality, so much seek their actual as their comparative production.

England, as I have before remarked, is the great importer and exporter.
Her duties on imported wool are, as has been seen,* exceedingly low, and
she makes no discrimination in this particular, in relation to bottoms, or
the places of export.t The vastness and variety of her demand giTe a

* See Letter VIII.

\ With the exception, of course, of her own Colonies, from which it is exported free.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY »N THE SOUTH. 109

greater certainty to the exporter of prompt and favorable sales, in hei
markets, than in those of any other nation. France possesses the advan-
tage of maritime contiguity, for securing the raw product of the nations
bordering on the Mediterranean; and therefore, in some instancds, as in
the case of Turkey, she receives more of that product, in proportion to her
manufacturing consumption, than England. But in one respect the latter
has the advantage in securing the trade of the Levant. Between the na-
tural products, and, of consequence, the exports of France and those of
the other nations bordering on the Mediterranean, there exists a great simi-
larity. She cannot send her wines to Hungary, nor these nor her silks to
Italy, in exchange for wool. Her fruits, and indeed all of her natural pro-
ducts are the same with those of the whole south of Europe. England,
the producer, and the great mart of the products of Northern Europe, can
offer these in the Mediterranean on better terms than France ; and in the
manufacture of cotton goods, the main article of dress, and consequently
one of the great ones of import throughout the whole Levant, the former
possesses a decided superiority. All these natural and artificial circumstances
have their weight, sometimes in favor of one, and sometimes the other of
these nations, in determining the course of trade — and habit, ancient com-
mercial associations, and even national predilections also throw their weight
into the scale. In looking at the subject as a whole, however, all these
facts, unless in a very few instances, so far offset each other, that in obtain-
ing a view of the wool trade of England — her imports — we obtain a suffi-
ciently accui ate picture or index of the proportionable exports of all the
nations of the Old World.

Before proceeding to ascertain the actual facilities of the several coun-
tries named in the Table, for the purposes of wool'growing, it may be well
to briefly glance at that of England herself.

Mr. Luccock* estimated the produce of wool in England and Wales, in
1800, to be 393,236 packs,t or 94,376,640 Ibs. ; and in 1828, Mr. Hwbbard J
placed it at 463,169 packs, or 111,160,560 Ibs. According to a Table
formed by order of a Committee of the House of Lords, the same year,
the quantity produced on an average of years, in England, is 111,160,560
Ibs. According to Mr. Luccock's estimate, (in 1800,) the number of sheep
in England and Wales was 26,148,463. It is not thought to have varied
much since. The Encyclopaedia Americana,) | (published 1835,) on the
authority of the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, sets down the then present
number of sheep in the United Kingdom as follows : in Scotland 3,500,000 ;
in Ireland probably under 2,000,000 ; in England and Wales the same
number as in the time of Mr. Luccock ; — so that the aggregate number
would be about 32,000,000. It will thus be seen that England and Wales,
with an area much less than that of Virginia,§ have almost 7,000,000
more sheep than the whole number in the United States in 1839 !

Large as is the amount of wool produced in the United Kingdom, it
does' not meet, in the number of pounds, the amount required for woolens
consumed in the United Kingdom alone.fi It is true that England has
exported some combing wool, of her own growth, to meet the wants of a
certain class of manufactories (of worsted) in France, which could not ob-
tain stock of equal quality in any other quarter ; arid she has also exported
considerable quantities of her own coarse short wools. Of the latter, I
am ashamed to say, the United States have been considerable purchasers.
The whole export of England, in 1824, amounted to but little over 18,000

* See Luccock on Wool, p. 341 and Table. t A pack of wool is 540 Ihs.

J Quoted by Mr. Bischott— See vol. ii., Appendix. j| Encyclopaedia Americana— art Sheep Raising

& The area of Virginia is 70.000 square milea, that of England and Wiis 60,000.

$ See B'.schoff, vol. ii., p. 171.

110

SHEEP HUSBAINDRYIN THE SOUTH.

Ibs. From that time it has gradually increased, and in 1838 it reached
5,851,340 Ibs. ; in 1839; 4,603,799 Ibs. ; in 1840, 4,810,387 Ibs.* Under the
last year of the late Tariff, we received from England, of wools not costing
to exceed 7 cents per pound, 1,188,800 Ibs., and of those exceeding 7
cents, 28,406 Ibs.; and from Scotland, of the cheaper class*, 21,132 Ibs.t
This, however, only shows a surplus in kind, not in quantity. The Eng-
lish short wools have, as has been abundantly shown by the testimony
of her most eminent manufacturers, \ a harshness and want of felting prop-
erties which render them unfit, unmixed with a better stamp of foreign
wools, for any but the very lowest description of cloths and stuffs, such as
blankets, baizes, army cloths, flushings or bearskins, &c. Nor will they
make prime articles, even of these low descriptions. England, therefore,
after consuming such portions of these wools as she can, in the manufac-
ture of the above-named and similar articles, and by mixing them, in the
nature of an alloy, with better foreign wools in a low class of fabrics, such
as flannels, livery and sergeant's cloth, etc., exports the balance to su-ch
nations as ^YQ foolish enough to purchase it.||

The following Table, compiled from official sources, from Bischoff's
" Comprehensive History of the Woolen and Worsted Manufactures,
&c.,"§ gives the imports of England every fifth year from 1810 to 1840,

TABLE No. 8.

| Countries fin,.v}hir.k Imp' ted

1810.

1815.

1820.

1825.

1830.

1835.

1840. I

3° 149

°97fill

75 614

1 99° 101

"0° 871

' 4 i )24 740

11 930

40 984

302

351 741

404 go-

13507

554 °13

379717

366 444

605 521

1 5 424

32 889

3 497

380

] 431

5 961

123 057

105073

107 101

131 100

713 246

256 147

Oij'g4p

778,835

3 137 438

5 113 442

28799661

26 073 88°

23 79J 1C6

21 81° 099

Holland

C 301 <«55

} -?,673

432,832

186,051

1,059,243

939,123

; 23L222

134 095

756,427

230,909

436 678

45093

104 535

48830

3018961

T 146 607

95 187

953 793

461 942

683 °31

374 91 r

5,952,407

j,929 579

3,536,229

8 206 427

1 643 515

1 602 752

1 266 905

349 053

12891

3,e51

19250

476 7'37

24° 734

Italy

21,554

97.679

2.815

227 453

9461

1 051 005

1 668 541

Malta ' ...

40040

55 804

5050

72 131

39913

2 209

25,983

121 110

81 6 6°5

4^*03

Turkey

12,513

189,584

513 414

1 281 839

655 964

Syria

34 049

Cape of Good Hope

29,717

23,363

13,869

27,619

33,407

191,624
5102

751,741
337 908

Ht Helena.

4 683

Cast Indies

701

8,056

295 848

2441 370

New South Wales ...

C 973,330

C 6 215 329

Van Diemen's Land
Port Philip ....

167

73,171

99,415

323,995

i 993,979

1 4,210,301

\ 2,626,178
785 348

4° 748

51,590

British America

1,217

139

70

14

15,793

British West Indies
United States of America.

2,894

53
8,533

760

578

80,468

1,725
7,313

2.0->9
237,306

3,286
115,095
3009

842

Brazil -...

43,014

4,311

4.277

37

1.148

18,760

9.182

Rio de la Plata

73,159

41,527

68,759

331,265

19,441

962 900

616721

14,792

2

586,796

14,313

5,741

Mexico

1,213,740

Guernsey and Man

41,407

6,264

19,015

22,266

7.745

246

11.830

Total Pounds weight.

10,914,137

13.640,375

9.789.020

43,795,281

32.313.059

42,174,5:32

46,221,781 1

* Bischoflf, Table 6th, Appendix. t Report of the Secretary of tiie Treasury, 1846.

; See Bischoff, vol. ii., pp. 107, 153, 154, 163, 173, 175, 176, &c. The testimon/here alluded to, or nn
abstract of it will be given in a subsequent Letter.

|[ If these sound like strong expressions, I have to say that I shall be prepared to prove them, and shall
to do, in a subsequent Letter, from the testimony of the fir«t manufacturers of England before a Committe*
of the House of Lords. Nor were the facts disputed by an interest represented before the same Committee.
who had every inducement to do so, if they could be sustained in it

§ See Appendix of the above work, vol. ii. Misled by the title on the rover, I have nowhere before
given the proper desisrnation to Mr. BischofTa work. Wherever the authority of this gentleman is gives
fou v£i *^derstand that it is derived from the work just named. Published Lcn'iou, 1842.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. Ill

•nd therefore indicates, as well as the case admits of — home manufactures
remaining the same — the rise or decline of wool-growing, in the several
nations, for the period indicated.

It will be seen from the above, that Spain, (and we may include the
whole Peninsula,) once so famous for her wools, has sunk to a fifth or
sixth rate wool-producing country, and that her exports are still constantly
vbcliriing; that Germany and Prussia have reached their climax, and are
on the wane ; that Russia, Italy, Australia and the East Indies are the
most rapid increasers.

The high prices of land and provisions — nearly double those on the Con-
tinent* (far more than double those on many portions of it) — the onerous gen
eral taxes and parochial assessments, will not allow wool to be grown in
England for its own sake. The sheep must be reared, as a matter of pure
necessity, to sustain her present system of convertible husbandry. A sheep
fitted for that object, and to make the most meat in the shortest time, is
the main desideratum. Wool is but a secondary consideration.. None
but the coarse, early maturing breeds will, therefore, ever be grown there.
Unless some great revolution should take place in her Agriculture, these
are not likely to ever materially increase or diminish from their present
number. If any effect is produced on this husbandry by the abolition of
the Corn-Laws, I think it will be to diminish rather than increase the num
ber of sheep.

France, especially in some of her Southern Provinces, is admirably
adapted to Sheep Husbandry. In 1825, the number of sheep in the King-
dom was estimated to exceed 30,000,000, but it is supposed to have mate-
rially diminished since that period, by reason of the division of landed
property, and other causes.t With a population variously estimated from
163-*- to 168 to the square mile,J a soil a fair portion of which is well
adapted to the growth of bread-stuffs, and the remainder to the vine, fruits,
the mulberry (for silk), etc., France finds it better economy to cultivate
these, and draw a considerable portion of her supplies of wool from other
countries — her fine wools from Germany and Spain, her coarse ones from
the regions bordering on the northern shores of the Mediterranean, the
Gulf of Venice, and the Black Sea. France exported 84,799 Ibs. of wool,
costing less than 7 cents a pound, to the United States in 1846.|| This
sma11 funouiu mrght have been of her own growth, or derived from her
transit '*ade, By the statistical Tables appended to his description of
France, oy Malte Brun, it appears that of the 51,777,000 hectares§ which
he estimates to comprise the surface, 22,818,000 are in arable land, while
the entire extent of meadows and pastures (which are divided about
evenly) but little exceeds 7,000,000 hectares.^

Spain, it appears from the Table, now exports less wool to England
than Italy or Russia ! and is still (as late as 1840) on the decrease. This
is not owing to the increase of her manufactures,** or by a diversion of her
exports into other channels. The export to France would, undoubtedly,
show a similar falling off. That to the United States is but nominal. In
1836 it was but 20,730 lbs.,tt and as this was wool costing less than 7 cents
per pound, and came from the Mediterranean side of Spain, it was prol>-
ably in her ports merely in transitu. The Gibraltar trade, given in the
Table, I take to be exclusively or mainly a transit one. From the Balan*

* See Circular of John Maitlnml and others, Committee of the Woolen Trade in London— Bischcff, vol
«., p. 3*. t Bischoff, Youatt.

J Mitchell assumes the former, and Morse the latter to be the population.

j| Report of Secretary of the Treasury, 1846. § A hectare is 2 acres 1 rood and about 35-4 roda,

IT Malte Bmn, Am. ed. vol. iij., p. 1029.

** Spain w not estimated to manufacture more than one-twentieth of the woolens consumed by nor Ifv
•yclopredia Amor., art. Spain. tt Report Secretary Treasury, I84f-.

112 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

za Mercantil,* published by the Government, it appears that the exports
of Spain of all kinds, in 1826, amounted to only c£l,587,507. The exports
of raw and manufactured silk and gut reached <£243,390 ; lead, .€215,360 ;
wines, 66189,340 ; wool, <£161,650 ; fruits, £ 152,075 ; brandy, 66107,715 ;
barilla, ^€79,200, etc. This exhibits not only the smallness of the entire
export of wool, but the diminished comparative importance of this once
great national staple.

The number of sheep in Spain is still placed by many writers as high aa
10,000,000 for the migratory flocks, and 8,000,000 for the stationary ones.
Even Mr. Youatt has fallen into this, as it strikes me, unquestionable error. t
If Spain possesses 18,000,000 of sheep, what does she do with the wool,
which should amount to at least 54,000,000 Ibs. 1 Admitting — which prob-
ably exceeds the fact — that her export to France and other nations equals
that to England, and that she manufactures a quantity equal to twice her
whole export, the aggregate amount would be less than 8,000,000 Ibs.
The author of the article on Sheep Raising in the Encyclopaedia Ameri-
cana, places the number of the whole fine-wool sheep in Spain at 4,000,000.
This 1 think high enough, and probably not far from the truth. This is a
million less sheep than those of the State of New-York in 1839 !

The actual facilities for growing wool in Spain have already been al-
luded to in my fifth Letter. I should not consider it necessary to bestow
farther examination on them, were it not for the fact that owing to various
associations connected with the early history of the Merino sheep, and the
lead once taken by Spain in the production of fine wool, her facilities have
been, popularly, prodigiously overrated, and even the difficulties under
which she has labored for this husbandry, magnified into advantages. Her
northern mountains are high, broken, cold, and exposed to peculiarly
piercing north winds,! and the winter on them lasts, as I infer from Mr.
Livingston, about six months. He says : (|

" When the severe weather commences on the mountains, the shepherds prepare to de-
part, which is generally about the end of September and throughout the month of October
to seek more temperate climates and fresher pasture In April or May, according as the
season is late or early, they return to the mountains.

It might be practicable to prepare hay for winter use, in favorable posi
tions, and particularly on the parameras, on these mountains, and thus tho
migratory sheep might become stationary on them. But the Spaniard is
too much wedded to ancient customs, too little in love with change of any
kind, and, most of all, a change bringing an addition of labor, to thus in-
novate on his own habits or those of his flocks.

The high basins of the Douro and Tagus (embracing the two Castiles
and Leon) are too valuable for the cultivation of grain, vineyards, fruits,
etc., to be profitably devoted to the pasturage of sheep. The wheat of
Spain is among the best in Europe,§ and it is stated in Mr. Jacob's Tracts
on the Corn Trade, that she frequently does not raise enough for her own
consumption.^! For the vine, olive, fig, mulberry, barilla, and various
other products of equal profit both for home consumption and for export,
ebe is not excelled probably by any country in Europe. A friend of mine
who traveled in Spain in 1845, describes the valleys above alluded to, as
almost exclusively devoted to tillage crops. In the Southern Provinces,

* Quoted by McCulloch— Com. Die., art Cadiz.

t See Youatt on the Sheep, Lond. ed.. p. 147 et supra. Mr. Livingston in his day estimated the migratory
•beep at 5,000,000, the stationary at 8,000,000. See Essay on Sheep, pp. 36, 39. Mr. L. was also undoubt-
edly in error. | Malte Brun. |j Livingston on Sheep, p. 36.

£Note by Percival to Am. ed. of Malte Brun ; art. Spain.

if Quoted by McCulloch — Com. Die. ; art. Odessa.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

where rain does not sometimes fall for months in the Bummer* the grass
becomes entirely dried up, so that flocks, to be made stationary there,
"vould require hay or other prepared food for several of the e- mmer months

The Transkumantes or migratory flocks must still continue, then, to
travel from the northern mountains to the warm basins of the Guadiana
and the Guadalqui^er for their winter quarters, and return to the moun-
tains* in the summer, or this branch of the husbandry would undoubtedly
become extinct. The effect on the health and condition of the sheep, and
the important item which it would form on the debit side of the account
in Sheep Husbandry, to thus drive flocks a six weeks' journey twice a year,
(consuming nearly a quarter of the year on the road,) can be estimated by
any one acquainted with such matters.! The losses and expenses thus in-
curred would absorb all the profits of the husbandry, were it not for the
extraordinary privileges conferred on the flockmasters (mainly consisting
of the King, nobles and clergy) by the absurd and tyrannical regulations
of the Consejo de la Mesta.\ The abolition of-the " Council of tjie Royal
Troop," there cannot be a reasonable doubt, would be immediately fol-
lowed by the downfall of the migratory Sheep Husbandry in Spain. That
the day has gone by when this unfortunate and distracted country catf
ever again enjoy the blessings of permanent peace and settled institutions,
under which this or any other branch of husbandry can increase or steadily
flourish, until she reaches a point of political civilization^tentirely incom
patible with the continuance of a relic of tyranny and barbarism so mon
strous as the Mesta, I consider equally certain. I see, therefore, no possible,
or at least probable contingency under which the migratory Sheep Hus-
bandry of Spain is likely to be extended, or even to permanently main-
tain its present footing. Nor is there any probability of her again rising
into importance as a wool-producing country, from her stationary flocks.

Italy, though too accessible to the dry, hot wind of Africa, (the Solano, .'
to exhibit the uniformity of deep-green verdure seen north of the Alps, ;$
nevertheless — much of it — a country of fine pasturage. The great plai^
between the Alps and Appenines, the basin of the Po — including Lom-
bardy, Sardinia, Parma, Modena, etc. — is one of the most productive in
Europe, and its extraordinary facilities for irrigation allow five or six
crops of hay to be mown in a single season. In Tuscany, the orange and
lemon begin to make their appearance — the soil is alluvial and rich, and
the mountainous districts are finely adapted to pasturage. The States of
the Church are also highly fertile, and abound in good herbage ; and on
the deadly Campagna di Roma, and even the Pontine Marshes, flocks and
herds find an abundant subsistence in winter, and are driven to the Appe-
rines in summer. The same remarks apply to the northern portions of
the Kingdom of Naples. The southern extremity of Italy is exposed to
a burning climate, and exhibits the vegetation of Africa.

The whole superficial area of Italy does not exceed 122,000 squar*?
miles, and her population is 172 to the square mile. Scarcely raising
bread-stuffs enough for her own consumption, taking one year with an-
other, || there is not the most remote prospect of her ever becoming an im-
portant wool-exporting country.

* %e Hon. Wm. Jarvis's Letter to me on the subject of Merino Sheep, when I acted as Corr. Sec'y of
ihe N. Y. State Agricultural Society— Transactions, 1841, p. 3:32.

t Since giving this as the distance from " the middle of Estremadura to the Cantabrinn Mountains" (Let
ter V.), I gee it stated in the Encyclopedia Americana that "the whole journey from the mountains to the
interior of Estremadura is reckoned at about 690 miles." Measurement on the map will show that it does
not exceed 4 degrees or 277 miles, but the difference may be made by the circuitousness of the route, or
the writer may refer to more eastern portions of the great Appenine Chain. I find it stated by several wr>
ters that each journey consumes six weeks.

t For a description of this odious tribunal see Livingston on Sheep, p. 35.

D tee McCulloch's Com. Die. ; art. Odessa,

P

114 MIEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

Turkey both in Europe and Asia, it would appear from Table 8, is
but a trifling exporter of wool. It should be remarked, howeve~, that the
wools of the Western Provinces, and of Greece, are generally exported
from Trieste to France.* Under the late American Tariff, (" Tariff of 1842,")
the export to the United States was becoming an important one — much
greater than that to England. In 1846, it amounted, of wools costing less
than 7 cents a pound, to 5,744,328 Ibs.t European Turkey has a colder
and less uniform climate than Italy, but still it is a fine one,J and being a
broken, mountainous country, w«ll adapted to pasturage, and but sparsely
populated, (55 to the square mile,) it is wonderful that so little attention
has been paid to the culture of wool. But the proud and indolent Turk
spurns all rural labor, or all interest in it, leaving it to his vassals — and
these, destitute of any security to person or property, taxed, oppressed,
liable to be compelled to make forced sales to bey or ayan — or, what, is
worse, their property seized outright — have little inducement to accumu-
late a species of property so easily pounced upon.||

Germany (including Prussia and Austria) is now the great producer of
fine wools, supplying not only her own manufactories — which are es-
timated to consume half the whole product — but exporting the large sur-
plus indicated in the Table. Nor is this all ; for to France, the Nether-
lands, Switzerland, &c., she is supposed to export half as much as toEng-
land.§ The wnole region thus included — leaving out the Austrian States
in Italy, which have already been considered — comprises a territory of
468,000 square miles, and a population of 58,800,000, or 130§to the square
mile. The country on the north is level, vast plains extending from the
declivities of the mountains which occupy the center of* Germany, to the
North Sea and the Baltic. The center is mountainous, and its plains are
ery elevated. The extreme South is covered with mountains. From the
Little Carpathian or Jablunka Mountains, and from the eastern termina-
tion of the Styrian and Julian Alps, stretch away the vast Hunprarian
and Transylvanian plains to the confines of Turkey.

The great northern plain of Germany is low, sandy, flat, often consist-
ing of naked silicious sands or those covered with lichens, interspersed
with frequent marshes, and terminating in many places on the Baltic in
vast morasses, or land redeemed from the sea by dikes. As a whole, the
land, particularly in the maritime Provinces, is of an inferior quality, but
some portions of it, as for example in Silesia and Saxony, is of a quality
ranging from medium to good. The soil of Central and Southern Ger-
many (including Austria) must, of course, exhibit many varieties. In gen
eral, however, it may be set down as productive in the valleys, and or-
dinary or poor on the high lands. The lower plains of Wirtemberg.
Baden, the South of Bavaria, etc., are exceedingly fertile. The plains of
Hungary on the south-east not uncommonly exhibit soils of remarkable
richness, but they alternate with inferior ones, and with vast and un-
healthy morasses. Taken together, the region which I have included un-
der the designation of Germany, though not a sterile country, is noi
favored with soils naturally as productive as those of Italy or Spain ; nor
would it at all compare with that portion of the United States west of the
Apalachians.

The climate of Germany is thus summed up by Malte Brun :fl

* Southey, quoted by Bischoff, vol. ii. p. 356. t Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1846.

J For a picture of this as well as the other natural features of Turkey, both in Europe and Asia, Gr. eco
and the Ionian Isles — as lielicately accurate, as eoft and rich as one of the scenes of Claude — see C^iilde
Harold, Canto II., the opening of the Giaour, the Bride of Abydos, etc. Though this may be deemed i. sin-
gular, it is the very best reference, which my reading enables me to make.

It See Urquhart on Tuikey and its Resources, p. 139. § Encyclopaedia Americana ; art. Woof

t Amu ed.f vol. ii., p. 594.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. US

" The climate of Germany is greatly modified by the elevation and declivities of the coun
try ; but independently of that cause, it does not admit, from its extent in latitude, of any
vague or general definition. It may be divided, however, into three great zones, and these
too, are susceptible of other subdivisions. The first is that of the northern plains, of which
the temperature is not so cold as it is humid and variable ; they are exposed to every wind.
while fogs and tempests are conveyed to this region from two seas. The north-west plaii is
subject, from its vicinity to the North Sea, to frequent rains and desolating hurricanes. 1 he
influence of the Baltic on the north-east plain is less powerful ; the climate, though colder,
is not so humid and variable.

The second general zone comprehends all the central part of Germany The moun-

tains in that extensive region form a barrier against the effects of the maritime climate. The
sky is not obscured by mists, and the regular ordei- of the seasons is not interrupted by
winds and tempests ; but the elevation of the soil renders the climate colder than in other

countries in the same latitude nearer theUevel of the sea The third general zone is

that of the Alps. The lofty hights and rapid declivities connect very different climates;
thus the cultqre of the vine ceases in Bavaria and Upper Austria, and appears anew with
fresh vigor iu the neighborhood of Vienna. The eternal glaciers of Tyrol and Salsburg are
contiguous to the valleys of Styria and Carniola, covered with fields of maize or vineyards,
and almost border on the olives of Trieste and the lemon-trees of Riva."

Contiguous mountains render the north of Hungary extremely cold.
Farther south, the climate rapidly becomes warmer, and on the lower
plains in the extreme south the heat is intense and the climate insalubrious

The- bauer or farmer in those States of Germany where the feudal ten-
ures have been abolished, and the land is held in fee simple, owns four or
five English acres of land. These men, says Mr. Jacob,

" although placed above the pressure of want, or possessing the bare necessaries of life,
have very little beyond them. Such as are industrious and frugal, by cultivating their small
portion of ground, may raise a sufficient quantity of potatoes for their own consumption, corn
for their bread, and provisions for two draught oxen. They all raise a small quantity of
flax, and some few contrive to keep Jive or six sheep. It is often no easy matter for those to
find occupation, who are desirous ot other employment in addition to the cultivation of then-
own laud, for no agricultural labor can be carried on during the long and severe winters. . .
It is rare indeed that they can afford to have meat of any kind, and those only who are
more prosperous than their neighbors can keep a cow to provide themselves with milk."

The wool raised by these owners of five or six sheep, is annually
bought up by Jews and other traveling agents, who go from house to
house to' collect it.

The following extracts from William Howitt's sprightly and interesting'
'" Rural and Domestic Life in Germany " will show under what circum-
stances a great portion of its wool is grown :

" Here you look in vain for anything like the green fields and hedge-rows of England. . . .
It is all one fenceless and plowed field. Long rows of trees on each side of the road are all
that divide them from the fields. .... The keeping up of the cattle presents you a new
feature of rural life. As the quantity of land left for grass is very small, the grass is proper-
tionably economized. The little patches of grass between woods and in the open parts of
the woods, the little strips along the river-banks and even in gardens and shrubberies, are-
carefully preserved for this purpose. You see women in these places cutting grass with a?
email hook or smooth-edged sickle, and carrying it away on their heads in baskets lor their
cows. You see the grass on the lawns of good houses, on grass-plats, and in shrubberies,
very long and wild ; and when you ask why it is not kept closer mown, the reply is that it'
is given to the milk-woman, often for a consideration, who cuts it as she wants it. You see
other women picking the long grass put of the forests, or under the bushes on the hill-sides-

where the slopes have been mown, for the same purpose The children may be seen*

•landing iu the stream in the villages carefully washing weeds before they are given to the

cattle Nettles, chervil, cow-parsnip, which in England are left to seed and rot, are

all here cut for the imprisoned cow. You go down to the river-side to fish, and a peasant is
BOOH with you, chattering and gesticulating, pointing to your feet and to the grass. It is to lei
you know that you are not to angle there, because it treads down the grass ; and accordingly,
in Germany, with rivers full offish, you seldom see an angler; if you, he is pretty sure to be an

Englishman Not a sheep, a horse, or a cow is to be seen. . . . The mountain tops are

covered with wood. The slopes are covered with vineyards. You ask where the cattle are 1
You are answered, in the stalls. Where are the sheep 1 Under the care of shepherds,
iomewhere.-— Heaven knows where ! you never come across them. It is only 011 the gren?

L16 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

plains of the North that you afterward find large flocks and herds, under the care of keeper*
kept close together ; for as they have no fences, they are under the momentary peril of uiak
ing ravages on their neighbor's crops."

Between Leipsic and Berlin, on the plains of Saxony, Mr. Howitt first
saw flocks of sheep in the field, and he says :

" Onn thing which surprises an Englishman is to see what wretched creatures are th«

iheep which produce the famous Saxony wool In fact, it is a prevailing idea thai

the leaner the sheep the finer the wool. It is the wool to which all the attention of the grow-
er is devoted, and therefore, generally speaking, a more miserable assemblage of animal*

than a flock of German sheep is not to be seen On the plains they wander under the

care of a shepherd, and for the most part on fallows and stubbles, to pick up odds and ends,
rather than to enjoy a regular pasture. You may see them penned on a blazing fallow, where
not a trace of vegetable matter is to be seen, for the greater part of a summer day, which in

this climate is pretty much like being roasted alive For what purpose they are here,

except to starve and melt them wito leanness, I never could discover The sheep, be-
sides being lean, are generally dreadfully lame with that pestilent complaint the foot-rot, and
their keepers, apparently, trouble themselves very little about it."

Mr. Howitt states that it is necessary to economize the land so closely, to
sustain the population, in some parts of Germany, that the peasants actuah
ly convey earth up steep hill-sides in baskets, and cover the rocks with it,
to thus add to the tillable soil !

In reviewing the preceding facts, you are struck with no one which
would indicate particular natural advantages for sheep rearing in the States
of Germany, Prussia, and — with an exception presently to be named-
Austria. The climate of the North is humid, fickle and tempestuous; that
of the middle cold with long winters. Neither possess any advantages
over our own Northern States— and in some respects are decidedly inferior
to them. This was the opinion of that eminent sheep-breeder and excel-
lent man, Henry D. Grove,, of this State, who wras a native of Prussian
Saxony, and who certainly would never be suspected by any one who
knew him personally, of any want of partiality for anything pertaining to
his Fatherland ! In his letter to Benton and Barry on wool-growing, &c..
he says :

"Ten years' experience has fully satisfied me on this point. In some respects, we posseai
natural advantages over Germany."

In what particulars he awarded the preference to the United States, his
letters and oral declarations to me, leave no uncertainty. It was both in
soil and climate, and in instituting the comparison, he had his eye not on the
most favored sections of our country, but on the hills of Rensselaer County
in this State, where he resided.

If in natural advantages we surpass Germany, how much more we do
In artificial ones, may be estimated from the preceding extracts from
Messrs, Jacob and Howitt. To these general remarks portions of Hunga-
ry form an exception. In these, the climate is fine, the soil rich, and, the
feudal tenures remaining unabolished, the land is yet held in those large
estates so favorable to Sheep Husbandry. Prince Esterhazy, the former
Austrian Ambassador to England, says Mr. Paget,* owns an estate of some-
thing more than 7,000 square miles, including 130 villages, 40 towns, and 34
^castles. His sheep are said to amount to 3,000,000.t Other nobles own flocka
•of from ten to thirty thousand. The demi-savage Magyar serf, whose
labor costs nothing, whose principal garment is a sheep-skin, and whose
miserable and scanty food is more than half stolen,! makes a most econom-
ical shepherd ! Hungary lacks facilities for internal communication, and
-her convenience to the Mediterranean markets — excepting Turkey— so aa

* Paget's Hungary and Transylvania, rol. i. p- 46. t Youatt

4; See Paget's Huugai y, &c., p. 13 to 19.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 117

to first throw her agricultural products into ports where the demand is good,
is decidedly inferior to that of Italy, France and Spain. The Danube
is the only natural outlet to her commerce — which, thanks to a liberality
of policy on the part of Turkey,* contrasting most favorably with that
of several enlightened nations! under similar ciicumstances, she enjoys
without limitation. To reach Trieste, a long land carriage is indispensa*
ble. Her exports too, are embarrassed by the imposts and narrow restric-
tions of the Imperial Government. She cannot, therefore, export cheap
heavy articles, such as provisions, to so great advantage as the Levantine
nations : but every circumstance points to her as a country which should
be one of the first on the Eastern Continent, for the production of wine, silk,
wool, &c.

Separated from Hungary and Transylvania only by the Carpathian Moun-
tains and Turkish Moldavia, lie the fertile provinces of South-eastern Rus-
sia, the basins of the Dniester, the Dnieper, and the Don. From the Car-
pathians to the Caspian, across the entire extent of the plains of ancient
Scythia, not a.n elevation which could be properly dignified with 'the ap-
pellation of a mountain, breaks the immense expanse ! The lower valley
of the Dniester or Borysthenes, formerly known as the Ukraine, has been*
celebrated for centuries for its pasturage — for its horses f and cattle : and re-
cently flocks of Merino sheep have been introduced there and successfully
crossed with the native variety. In 1839, Mr. Slade states that many of
the colonists on the Steppe and in Bessarabia had 20,000 sheep. Merinos
were introduced into Crimea or Taurida, by M. Rouvier, a French ad-
venturer, in about 1802. || In this favored peninsula, which the learned
Pallas describes as little less than an earthly Paradise, they have multiplied
exceedingly, and extended to Cherson, Ekatherinoslav, Bessarabia and
other provincial Governments.§ The export- of wool from Odessa in 1829
was 3,402 Ibs.; in 1830, 21,361 Ibs. ; in 1831, 35,058 Ibs. ; in 1832, 41,558
Ibs. ; in 1833, 66,457 Ibs.; in 1834, 66,901 lbs.fi

In one respect Southern Russia has the advantage over Hungary. It is
more sparsely populated, and land is perhaps in still lower estimation. As
in the latter, the land, much of it, is fertile and well adapted to pasturage,
and the price of labor is next to nothing. But for causes adverted to in the
opening part of my eighth Letter, there is a wide disparity in the climates of
the two countries, if we leave Crimea out of view. That of Russia, affect-
ed by the north and north-east winds — which the Carpathians exclude from
Hungary — has a winter which for length and intensity is entirely unequaled
in the latter, excepting in its northern mountainous regions. Sheep must be
housed, and fed for some months on dry food, in Southern Russia. Taking
into view the broad, level steppes** and their luxuriant natural verdure —
taking into view the climate, warm in summer, cold and exposed to winds
of great severity in winter, it strikes me that there must be no inconsider-
able resemblance between this portion of Russia and our own north-
western prairies in corresponding latitudes (45° to 46°). But when the
cost of land and labor is taken into consideration, wool can be produced
cheaper, in my judgment, in South-western Russia than in Spain, France,
G ermany, Italy or any other portion of Europe, excepting Hungary. Were

* This power is remarkable for its liberality in all its regulations which affect the trade and commerce ol
Other nations.

t e. g.t the policy of England in relation to the navigation of the St. Lawrence.

J This wild region and its horses have been rendered classic by Mazeppa. Who, that ever read, hat far-
got the description of the horse on which theHetman performed his fiery and perilous ride I

|| For an interesting account of the adventures of this fortunate French Jason, see Blade's " Travel* fin
Germany and Russia," published London, 1840.

* See Slade's Travels; also McCulloch's Com. Die.— «rt Odessa.
IT McCulloch's Com. Die.— art. Odessa.

"* This Russian word hag a similar signification to prairie, pampas, Hanoi, &c.

'(18 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

European Turkey differently populated, and under different institutions, it
might constitute another exception.

t Central and Northern Russia, like the States north of Germany,
'arc north of the wool zone. Their winters are too long and severe to
allow them to compete with regions lying farther south, in wool-growing.

Asia Minor, or Turkey in Asia, and Persia have heen alluded to — the
former, much of it, a fine country with a most delightful climate, but its
natural advantages all neutralized by its political systems and the charac-
ter of its population — the latter, except in occasional favored positions,
r*uch as the valleys of Shiraz and Ispahan, a land of mountain and desert,
of intense heat and inter.se cold.

Independent Tartary, lying immediately north of it, is less exposed to
the hot winds of Arabia, but more so to the freezing ones of Siberia. Its
vast dry plains are usually deserts, excepting on the borders of its exceed-
ly rare streams. Great Bucharia, however, in the south-east, on the head
'waters of the Amoo (Oxus) — from the Capital of which Timour (Tamer
lane) issued on his desolating path of conquest — is a country of great fer-
tility. Its natural beauties constitute a favorite theme with the poets and
geographers of Persia and Arabia. Since the opening of the navigation of
i;he Indus, it has annually sent some wool to Bombay, which constitutes a
part of that which is shipped thence to England, and is known in Tablo
8 as East Indian wool.

Afghanistan and Beloochistan, protected on the north from the Siberian
winds by the lofty Hindoo Koosh mountains, and less exposed on the south
•to those of Arabia, exhibits a milder and less variable climate than that of
•the conterminous regions of Persia. Among the Highlands of the north,
;and those skirting the Indus on the east, there is much good pasturage.
Sir Alexander Barnes states- that four-fifths of the whole surface of Cabul,
B Province of the former, is excellent pasture land. The wool of the broad-
tailed sheep of these countries also finds its way, by the Indus, to Bombay,
and is classed as East India wool in the Table.

From the high, cold, mountain regions of Thibet, Little Bucharia, &c.,
some wools are exported, through the same channels, which come under
the same classification. These countries also export shawl wool.* Most
of China north of the great Desert of Gobi is a cold, mountainous country.
The southern portion, or China Proper, is too densely populated and closely
cultivated to be devoted to pasturage.

The wool trade which followed the opening of the Indus (the raw ma-
terial being supplied by Afghanistan, Great Bucharia, Thibet and some
of the Hindostanese Provinces) might doubtless be swelled into one
of great importance, particularly by introducing finer breeds of sheep ;
'but we can scarcely expect this, from what we know of the habits, agri-
cultural and commercial, of the population. Among constant political
changes wrought by the only Asiatic argument — the sword — the personal
habits and occupations of the Asiatic remain ever the same, and are, per-
haps, the best type of persistency to be found in anything short of inv
mobile matter. Indeed, the stony features of the Sphinx have changed
scarcely less through revolving generations, than have the ethnic ones of
this great family of the human race !

Let us now pass to those regions of the Old "World, south of the Equa-
.tor, included in the wool-growing zone.

The southern extremity of Africa — the Cape of Good Hope — is included

* The table-land of Thibet Is elevated 15.000 feet above the level of the sea. Mr. Ti-ail remarks tbat every
animal here, including Carnivorn, produce that down under their hair which te known as shavl toool~
Ihough that manufactured comes mainly from a »pecies of goat.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 119

in the wool-growing zone. The following description of it is by Rev-
Robert Moflfat, for twenty-three years a resident of it as the agent of the
London Missionary Society :*

" The Colony extends from west to east about six hundred miles, its average breadth being

about two hundred Between the coast and the vast chain of mountains, beyond which

lie the Karoo, the country is well watered, fertile and temperate. The other portions of
the Colony, with few exceptions, and without a change in the seasons, appear to be doomed
to perpetual sterility and drouth. The Karoo country, which is in the background of the
Colony, is, as Lichstenstein correctly describes it, a parched and arid plain, stretching out to
such an extent that the vast hills by which it is terminated, or rather which divide it from
other plains, are lost in the distance. The beds of numberless little rivers, (in which
water is rarely to be found) cross, like veins, in a thousand directions, this enormous space.
The course of them might, in some places, be clearly distinguished by the dark green of the
mimosas spreading along their banks. Excepting these, aslar as the eye can reach, no tree

or shrub is visible But even on these hills and sunburnt plains thousands of sheep

pasture on a thin sprinkling of verdure and esculents The entire country, extending

in some places hundreds of miles on each side of the Orange River, and from where it empr
ties itself in the Atlantic, to beyond the 24th degree of east longitude, appears to have the
curse of Gilboa resting upon it. It is rare that rains to any extent or quantity fall in those
regions. Extreme drouth continues for years together. The fountains are exceedingly few,
precarious, and latterly many of these have been dried up altogether."

According to Barrow, nearly seven-tenths of the Colony are destitute
of vegetation during a greater part of the year. Sand drives before the
winds, exercising an unfavorable influence on sheep and wool. Lions,
tigers, wolves, hyenas, jackals, wild dogs, etc., are numerous on the very
skirts of the settlements, making much vigilance necessary for the protec-
tion of the sheep ; and they must be nightly driven into the settlements to
be folded. But the natives have proved a vastly more destructive enemy
than these.t The sheep introduced by the English colonists will probably
eventually considerably increase beyond their present number in a country
of so great extent, but we are scarcely authorized to believe that the Cape
will ever take a high rank among the wool-producing countries of the
world.

That great island, or continent, known as New South Wales, or Aus-f
tralia, has a superficial area equaling that of the United States. But a
limited portion of it, however, is included in the wool zone. All of Van
Diemen's Land, or Tasmania, is in that zone. The export of Wool from
these countries, as will be seen from the Table,J reached nearly ten million
pounds in 1840 — nearly half that of Germany, including Austria and
Prussia, and almost eight times that of Spain ! Here, as at the Cape of
Good Hope, there are no woolen manufactories, and being Colonies of
England, their export to that country exhibits their whole production.

The soil, products, &c. of Australia are thus spoken of by Mr. McCul-
loch:||

" The fertility of the soil in most parts of New-Holland that have been explored with any
care, is very far indeed from corresponding with the glowing descriptions of some of its casual
visitors, whose imaginations seem to have been dazzled by the magnificence of its botanical
productions and the clearness and beauty of the climate. The truth is that the bad land
bears a much greater proportion to the good in New-Holland than in almost any other coun-
try with which we are acnuainted Of course it is not to be supposed but that in a

country of such vast extent there must be some fertile districts ; but along the east coast, with
which we are best acquainted, these seem to be much more confined than might have been
expected ; and the little experience we have had on the west side, at Swan River and other
places, does not seem to lead to any more favorable conclusions."

After stating that if the Government price of lands " is not a great deal

* Missionary Labors and Scenes in Southern Africa, pp. 23—24. t See Letter V., and Note.

J Including Port Philip, Swan River, and Soutb Australia, the export* of which are carried out separatehr
61 Table 8.
|| McCulloch's Com. Die.— Art. Sydney.

120 SI.fiEP HUSBANDRY I1N THE SOUTH.

above the mark in New-Holland, it must be a great deal below it in Upper
Canada," Professor McCulloch continues :

"If the Americans exacted the same price for their public lands that we do, something
might be found in favor of extending the principle to Canada. They, however, do nothing

cf the sort, but sell much better land at a decidedly lower rate If slaves could be

imported into a Colony of this sort, there might be some chance of its succeeding. But while
laud of the very best quality may be had in the Valley of the Mississippi for about a dollar an
acre or less, we think better of the common sense of our countrymen than to suppose that
t»ny one able to carry himself across the Atlantic will resort to Australia."

Of the climate he says :

" The climate of such parts of New South Wales as have been explored by the English is
particularly mild and salubrious. .... On the other hand, however, it has the serious
defect of being too dry. It seems to be subject to the periodical recurrence of severe
drouths. These prevail sometimes for 2, 3, or even 4 years together. The last * great
drouth' began in 182G, and did not terminate until 1829. Very little rain fell during the
whole of this lengthened period, and for more than six months there was not a single shower.
In consequence, the whole surface of the ground was so parched and withered that all minor
vegetation ceased ; and even culinary vegetables were raised with much difficulty. There
was also a pretty severe drouth in 1835. This is the great drawback of the Colony ; and were
it more populous the drouths would expose it to still more serious difficulties."

Another drouth occurred in 1841, and Mr. Hood thus describes its ef-
fects on the sheep : *

" It will be scarcely believed in England that the estimated number of sheep which have
died within the last twelve months in the Colony from catarrh and drouth is 70,000 .' ! that
colonists are compelled in order to save the dam from starvation, to cut the throat of her
lamb ; that no means are adopted for securing a stock of lambs for next year ; or that a
stockholder would offer 8,000 sheep to any one that would remove them from his runs, and
finding that no one could be prevailed upon to taint his own flocks by accepting so danger-
ous a present, had recourse to consuming them by fire, and had actually killed and burnt
2,000." ....

Of the country Mr. Hood remarks :

" The first object on the arrival of every settler should be to procure a good country for
his flocks, and this, I have elsewhere said, ia his grand difficulty. Let him be wary on this
point. Almost every desirable or habitable spol in the old countries, as the early settled
districts are called, is already occupied."

Some diseases seem to be peculiar to the country, or, rather, peculiarly
inveterate in it. Mr. Youatt says :f

" The sheep frequently suffer from the wild and poachy nature of a considerable portion
of the pasture. The foot-rot seems to assume a character of its own. .... If neglected, it
speedily becomes inveterate and preys upon and destroys the animal. The losses occasioned
by it in the early existence of the Colony were frightful."

The astringency of the water and other causes have produced severe
epidemics. In some years, some of the flockmasters have lost half of their
ftheep4 The scab is a prevailing disease, and Doct. Lang says : ||

" When a convict shepherd has a pique against his master, or even against his overseer, it
is often in his power to subject the whole of his master's flock to this obnoxious disease,
merely by driving his own flock a few miles from their usual pasture, and bringing them
into contact with a diseased flock. The chief source of the wealth and prosperity of th«
Colony is thus, in a great measure, at the mercy of the most worthless of men."

The cost of both land and labor is comparatively (id est, compared with
the unoccupied lands of the United States) high. The Government mini-
mum is 5s. ($1 15) per acre, but very little if any good land is sold at that
price. Mr. Hood states that the portion of Capt. McArthur's immense
estate which was obtained by purchase, cost, on the average, 7s. 6d.
($1 72J) per acre. Shepherds receive from <£15 to <£20 ($69 to $92) with

* Quoted by Spooner in " History, Diseases, <fcc., of the Sheep." London, 1844, p. 67.
t Yountt on Sheep, p. 189. t See Spooaer, pp. 417-42L

ti Lang— Historical and Statistical Account, vol. i., p. 351.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 121

a house and rations, per annum ; overseers of a superior description <£50
to ^€60 ($230 to $276),* also with a house and rations.!

The sheep are exposed to the depredations of various animals, but the
wild dog is their most dangerous enemy, with the exception of the run-
away convict. The sheep are therefore folded nightly, guarded by a
watchman with his dogs, and with a fire to scare away the wild beasts.}
One shepherd usually takes care of about 300 sheep, and " in the more
sterile parts of the Colony, where three acres of 'the uncultivated ground art
scarcely sufficient for the support of one sheep, the labor is very severe." J|

Mr. Samuel Lawrence recently wrote me :

" I saw a gentleman from England a few months since who has an admirable flock in
New South Wales, of twenty-five thousand sheep, and he assured me he had not received »
penny of income from them since 1838."

Van Diemen's Land (containing 28,000 square miles) is claimed by Mr
Youatt§ to be superior in several respects to Australia as a wool-growino
country. Table 8 does not, however, show that its exports increase any
more rapidly.

Both of these Islands, as colonies of Great Britain, send their wool to
the latter duty free, and they save 1 cent per pound on wool costing less
than 24 cents, and 2 cents on that exceeding tha*t value. But this by no
means offsets against the additional cost of freight, over that exported from
the United States, Hungary, or the south of Russia. "While it is only
3,375 miles from New- York to London, it is not less than 13,000 miles
from Sydney or. Hobart's Town to the latter place. Professor McCulloch
states (art. Sydney) that the expense of conveying a passenger to Sydney
is about three times that of conveying one to Quebec. I see no reason
why a corresponding difference should not exist in the freights ; and in
that case, freights from the United States would be two-thirds less thau
from Australia.

I pretend, Sir, to no power of vaticination on this subject, but the con-
clusions which /draw from a review of all the foregoing facts are as follows :

1. That wool-growing is never likely to permanently and importantly^]
increase in any of the countries of Europe, unless it be in Hungary, Tur-
key, and the south of Russia.

2. That it is more likely to decrease than increase in Great Britain,
France, Portugal and Italy.

3. That such a decrease is next to certain in Spain and Germany, (in-
cluding Prussia and Austria in the latter,) excepting Hungary and Tran-
sylvania ; that the decrease will be much more considerable in Germany ;
that its rapidity and extent will be proportioned to the rapidity and extent
with which the market is supplied from countries which can grow wool
cheaper, such as North and South America, Hungary, Southern Russia,
and Australia.

4. That wool-growing will undoubtedly largely increase in Hungary and
Southern Russia — and that it ought to in European and Asiatic Turkey
but will not, extensively, until the character of the people and their po

itical institutions are changed,

5. That it will also increase at the Cape of Good Hope, Australia and
Van Diemen's Land ; but that its economical extension in either of these
countries is limited, especially if America becomes a competitor.

* Calling the English shillhlgSS cents, according to Report of Director of U. S. Mint, 1827.

t Report of a Committee, &c., quoted by Mr. SfcCulloch — Com. Die. ; art Sydney.

t Cunningham's Two Years in New South Wales, vol. i., p. 254.

[| Youatt on the Sheep, p. 188. § Quern vide, p. 190.

1[ I say "importantly," because Sweden, Norway, Denmark, <fec., in tffat spirit of rendering themselves hi
dependent of foreign supplies, which characterizes all nations, may, and probably will extend their wo*»i
culture ; but it will be too unprofitable a struggle against Nature, to be carried to a very great extent.

122 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

6. That no part of the Eastern Continent or its islands, all things con-
sidered, possess equal advantages for wool-growing with some parts of
the United States. 1. The climate of many portions of the latter (in the
South) is not excelled by that of the most favored situations in Hungary
or Australia ; and in this respect it is decidedly superior to the south of
Russia. 2. The soils of vast sections of the United States, with the above
climate, are more uniformly fertile and adapted to pasturage than those of
either Hungary or Southern Russia — and, as a whole, are entirely supe-
rior to those of Australia. 3. The regions alluded to in the United States,
are better watered with running streams than either of the other named
countries — have not the vast and unhealthy morasses of Hungary — and
are not subject to the destructive drouths of Australia. 4. The land is
cheaper in the United States than in Australia, and (my impression is)
than in Hungary or Southern Russia ; and, in the Southern States, labor
costs ho more than in the two latter, and far less than in the former. 5. In
accessibility arid nearness even to the great European wool market, the
United States stand on equal terms, at least, with Hungary and Southern
Russia, and the distance from Sydney (in Australia) to London is nearly
four times the distance from New- York to London. 6. In no respect do
either of these countries,' the most favored in the Old World, excel, in my
judgment, for the purposes of Sheep Husbandry, large portions of the
United States ; and I believe those portions of the United States can sell
wool in the English market at a better profit on all the capital invested
than either of the above countries, with the possible exception of the most
favored portions of Hungary.

Our surplus wools can, therefore, at any time, be exported to England
at a reasonable profit. This is true, even of wools grown in the Northern
States. In 1845, the United States exported wool, (mainly to England,) to
the value of $22,153 ; and in 1846, to the value of $203,996. This was a
commercial experiment, and although it is not understood to have resulted
in any profit to the exporters, the wool sold at an advance on the Ameri-
can prices current— —and would have sold so as to have realized a handsome
profit to the exporters,, had it been properly sorted and otherwise prepared
to meet the requisitions of the English market. Statements of this kind
have been published by one of the most prominent of the exporters. It
would seem, from Mr. Lawrence's statement, already quoted, that the
prices of Australian wools have not yielded a profit over all expenses,
during the same years. The quality and style of our wool have been
praised by the English press, and are understood to have given high satis-
faction to the English manufacturers. On the whole, then, we may regard
this experiment as a successful one. The American prices current of those
years were about 32 cents per pound. We have seen that the actual cost
of wool (including all expenses, and 7 per cent, on price of land and sheep)
in the Northern States may be eet down at about 27 cents per pound.*
These facts show that a remunerating price can be obtained for even North-
ern wool in England — if a profit on investment considerably exceeding
the highest legal rate of interest (7 per centum) is to be considered " re-
munerating." And if this is true of the Northern wools of the United
States, how much more so would it be of those of the South, the first cost
of which has been estimated at less than one-third that of the former ! t

I see not, therefore, a shadow of a reason why our Southern States
might not embark, at once, with perfect safety, in an extensive production
of wool, if they had only the foreign market to look to. I hesitate not to

* Bee Letter V. t Ib.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 123

assert that they could drive all the European nations from the market,
with the two or three exceptions heretofore specified ; and with these, as
well as the most favored Austro-Oriental regions, they could main-
tain a successful competition. The same remark is true of the Austro-
Occideiital regions of our own continent. And it is difficult to foresee
the ultimate extent of this trans-Atlantic demand for wool. Vast portions
of the Old World, in those zones where wool must eventually become the
principal article of clothing, are but just stepping within the verge of
civilization — just laying aside the. skins and peltry of the pastoral nomad
and the savage hunter, for garments of cloth. In 1771, England imported
1,829,772 Ibs. of wool ; in 1840, the import was 52,959,221 Ibs. ! In 1771,
the export of woolens was <£4,960,240. In 1840, the export of woolens
was, <£5, 652,917, and of woolen and worsted yarn ,£3,796,644. Making
all necessary allowance for the difference in prices, the increase in the ex-
port bears no comparison whatever to that in the import. What seems to
be the unavoidable conclusion] It is that the consumption of a population
of 27,000,000 (the population of Great Britain and Ireland) has thus enor-
mously swelled within the period of sixty-nine years ! This too in a coun-
try with a mild climate — which at the beginning of that period (1771) was
as far advanced in social and political civilization', and the mass of whose
people were as well clothed and better fed, than those of any nation
on the Eastern Continent ! It is not necessary to follow up this idea.
Progress is an inseparable condition of humanity,* and civilization -is its
fruit. With the latter, new wants — a demand for greater comforts and
luxuries — steadily keep pace ; and with these again keeps pace the increase
of population.! Both the latter causes conspire to swell the demand for
cloths ; and both causes are at work in this Nineteenth Century, in a ve-
locity of ratio which would fill aMalthus and Ricardo with consternation—
if, indeed, it did not convince them of the fallacy of their gloomy theories,
I dare to predict that the time will come when the present Russian Em-
pire will consume a greater amount of woolens than the whole Eastern
Continent now does ! This may not come to pass in a day or a century—-
but unless retarded by unnatural, not to say unusual causes, our posterity
in the third or fourth remove will be likely to witness it ! Away, then, with
those fallacious fears of over-production of cotton, bread-stuffs, etc. — the
opposite extreme of Malthusianism— - which have disturbed the repose of
producers who are riot content to let the great natural currents of demand
and supply regulate each other ; or rather, who are not content with those
fair and just profits which they would receive under such an order of
things. £

But the American wool-grower is not compelled to look to the European
market, unless he enormously increases his own production — and contin-
ues to increase it with the increase of the population. The Census of 1840
shows that the number of sheep in the United States, in 1839, was nearly
20,000,000. These have been steadily increasing, and probably now greatly
exceed that number. Yet these have never supplied the demand of out

* This may not be thought to accord with preceding statements in relation to the unehangenbility of
Asiatic character and customs. Particular families or races of mankind have always advanced slowly, but
the course of the world, as a whole, is onward. The circle of civilization widens, and races which coma
In contact with it, receive it, or are conquered and absorbed by the civilized races.

t When I epeak of luxuries promoting the increase of population, I do not use the word in its invidious
sense. 1 mean by it those things which, though not. strictly speaking;, necestarics, tend to promote human
comfort.

J I mean this remark in no ultra spirit Governments must be supported and resources raised. Inci-
dental protection may be justly afforded to the products of agricultural or mechanical skill, under certain
circumstances. But the fewer of these restrictions that are found necessary, the more rapidly, as a genera]
rule, the wealth and com fort of mankind and nations are advanced.

124

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

own manufactories alone. The following Table* will show th** value
the imports of wool into the U. S. from 1837 to 1847 :

of

TABLE No. 9.

Average im-
ports of 1837,
1838 & 1839.

Average im-
ports cf 1840,
1841 <fe 1842.

t Import of
1843.

Import of
1844.

Import of
1845.

Import of
18-16.

Wool not costing
to exceed 7 cts.
a Ib .

£ $558,458

$759,646

$190,352

$754,441

$1,553,789

$1,107,303

Exc'ding7cts.alb.

801.087

1.004.312

54.695

97,019

136,005

26,921

Total

$1,359,545

$1,763,958

$245,047

$851,460

$1,689,794

$1,134,226

It may be a matter of interest to know from what countries these wools
were imported. The following Table f will give this information for the
last fiscal year, (1846,) and will also give a general idea of our wool trade

TABLE No. 10.

WHENCE IMPORTED.

Wools not exceeding 7 cents
per pound.

Wools exceeding 7 cents
ptr pound.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Pounds.
955,163
6,966

10,774
7,177
1,188,800
21,132
207,006
83,662
8.694
168,589
84,799
20,730
81.156
111,981
5,744,328
72,816
425,148
45. 215
4,295,659

Dollars.
60.678
330

556
248
35,944
1,382
12,339
6,810
537
9,543
5,424
1,425
4,720
8,151
398,822
4,554
26,984
3,083
327,572
130,837
8,588
58,778

Pounds.

13,820
170

1.407

28,406

522
39,346
39B

43,831
2,397

Pounds.

8,433
93

775
6,668

70
4,562
40

eon

269

British "Wost Indies ..........

British American Colonies............

Italy

Brazil

Argentine Republic ...........

Chili

1,819,772
122,686
945,729

Peru .

Asia, generally

Total...

16,427,952

1,107,305

130.295

26.921

That the course of trade indicated by the above Table, will, as has been
already intimated, be materially affected by the New Tariff, I think there
can be but little doubt. That of several of the places enumerated, too,
has been, heretofore, merely a transit one.

To the following letter from the most extensive, and concededly leading
American woolen manufacturer, I would call your particular attention
Several of its declarations, placed in italics, by me, are highly significant

LOWELL, Mass., Feb. 10, 1847.
llE>mr S. RANDAM., Esq., Cortland Village, N. Y

My Dear Sir : Your very kind and interesting favor of the 27th ult. duly came to hand
and should, if praoticable, have received an earlier reply. The business of wool-growing in
this country is destined to be of immense importance, and I am firm in the belief that within
twenty-Jive years we shall produce a greater quantity than any other nation.

* Compiled by me from Reports of the Secretary of the Treasury.

t The fiscal year 1842 ended on the 30th of September. Since then, the returns of imports and export*
have been made up to the 30th of June. This year, therefore, embraces the imports of nine months only
ending on June 30, 1843; and subsequent years end 30th of June, 1844, 1845, and so on.

t Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1846.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

You ask, " Is the present home demand supplied ?" There is not enough annually raised
in the country by 10,000,000 Ibs. to meet the demand of the manufactories.

You ask, " What countries we can export wool to, &c. ?" This country will not export
wool reguLirly for fifteen years, for the reason that the consumption will increase as^rapidlif
as the production. I can point out articles made of wool now imported, which willrequirt
thirty millions of pounds of that of a medium and fine quality, to supply the consum^
tion

The business of manufacturing wool in this country is on a better basis than ever before,
inasmuch as the character, skill and capital engaged in it are such that FOREIGN COMPETI-
TION is DEFIED. A very few years and all articles of wool used here will be of home manu-
facture.

Now I beg of you to keep the wool-growers steady to the mark. Let them aim to excel
m the blood and condition of their flocks, and the day is not distant when they will be amply
remunerated. I shall always have great pleasure in hearing from you, and remain

Yours most truly, SAM. LAWRENCE.

Mr. Lawrence has certainly got the annual deficit of home wools low
enough. Table 10 shows that it was upward of 16,000,000 Ibs. during the
last fiscal year, 1846. This, of itself, is something of a margin for the
South, or some other new domestic producer, to fill !

Hitherto we have simply considered the amount of wool necessary to
supply our manufactories. But these establishments fall very far short of
working up all the wool consumed in the United States, even exclusive of
home-made fabrics. The following Table* will show the value of the
woolens imported for twenty-five years, up to and including 1845 :

TABLE No, 11.

1821. $7,437,737
1822. .12,185.904
1823. . 8,268,038
1824. . 8,386,597
1825. .11,392,264

1826.. $8,431,974
1827... 8,742,701
1828... 8,679,505
1829... 6,881,489
1830... 5,776,396

1831. $12,627,229
1832... 9.992,424
1833... 13.262,509
1834. ..11,879,328
1835. ..17.834,424

1836. $21,080,003
1837... 8,500,292
1838. ..11,512,920
1839. ..18,575,945
1840... 9,071,184

1841. $11,001,939
1842... 8,375,725
1843... 2,472,154
1844... 9,475,762
1845. ..10,666.176

Here is another and still broader "margin" for both the American
Wool- Grower and the American Manufacturer to fill !

With a country well adapted to the production of wool as any the sun
ehines on — which, all things considered, can produce it more cheaply than
any extended portion of any trans-Atlantic country — shall we continue to
import raw wool ]

Whether we should continue to import woolens is sufficiently answered
by the last paragraph but one of Mr. Lawrence's letter, fully sustained as
the facts therein set forth are by those infallible tests — the dividends of our
manufacturing establishments. The minimum of these, in well managed
establishments, has already been stated to be about ten per centum pei
annum,t and in Mr. Lawrence's own great establishment the dividend of
1846 was fifteen per cent. Does any one suppose that the manufacturers
of England, with all the advantage they can derive from cheaper labor | —
(but with vastly higher prices for suitable sites and buildings — land taxes,
parochial taxes, income taxes — freights and duties on imported wools,
etc. etc.) — do or can make dividends touching even the lowest rate above
stated ] They cannot. \\

* Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1845. f See Letter VII.

$ Though not directly advised on the point, I take it for granted that the cost of machinery, also, IB some-
what less in Englnnd.

|j It may be Said that the two last-named expenses fall on the consumer. They doubtless would, but the
English manufacturer has to compete with those of France and the United States, a much larger propor-
tion of whose stock is of home growth— the latter entirely, in fine fabrics. The abrogation of the Corn-Law*
Will be of immense advantage to the English manufacturer, and enable him to better compete with other
countries. But while the Bank of England ordinarily discounts paper at from 3 to 4 per cent., and while
this is the common rate of interest in that country, it could not be expected that manufacturing capital
would be allowed to draw 8 or 10, and much less 15 per cent. Such dividends, in a country whose
uninvested capital, or that drawing so low a rate of interest, is so superabundant, would at once invite a
competition which would speedily bring the profits of manufacturing capital down to a tevel with those of
•cicr commercial capita] We may, therefore conclude that uc such dividends are made.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE S. UTH.

Is it said that our manufacturing companies have often been com-
pelled to suspend, or break up, even under laws as favorable to them aa
those now in operation 1 The reason for this is too pointedly and perti-
nently* stated by Mr. Lawrence to require any addition at my hands, in
the following extract from a letter to me, bearing date April 13, 1847; and
it will be seen in the concluding sentence that the bold and man.y decla-
rations of his preceding letter were not the result of a casual or momentary
confidence, but are deliberately reasserted :

" The manufacture of wool has often been disastrous to parties who have embarked in it
for many reasons, two of which are sufficient — a want of capital and a want of skill. These
difficulties are being obviated. Capitalists are more ready to embark under certain auspices,
and the amount of skill is very fast increasing, so that this branch is on a footing not to be
moved.11

Undisturbed by those changes of vacillating legislation, or those move-
ments in the National Legislature pointing to such changes — at one time
enormously pampering the manufacturing interest, and leading to over-
action and rash adventure — at another, threatening it with disaster and
utter subversion — our manufacturers will steadily,, nay, rapidly advance.
If NOW LET ALONE, they will soon not only " defy foreign competition" in
the home market, but there is not a single good reason to prevent them
from defying it in the great and opening market of South America, and
even in the Old World. Some evils or errors in commercial legislation
are less to be deprecated than constant changes. The present Tariff, so
far as it affects wool and woolens, is the result of a compromise of inter-
ests. It may not be perfect in principle or detail. But it does not seem
to flagrantly favor or oppress any interest. I speak not in the spirit of a
politician, or of the representative of an interest or section, when I express
the hope that no change will be made or attempted in this portion of the
Tariff, until the lapse of years shall bring about other changes requiring
it, or until ample experience shall clearly call for a revision of the system.

I have spoken of two "margins" to be filled by the American wool-
grower — the present deficit in supplying our own manufactories, and sec-
ondly, the prospective one, as our manufactures. increase, so as to overtake
and then keep pace with the consumption of an increasing population.
The demands of our manufactories will advance pari passu with the pro
duction, Mr. Lawrence predicts, for at least fifteen years. Why not foi
fifty, or a hundred! Let us glance at the prospective consumption, and see
if, independent of exportations, it is likely to require any curbs or limits to
be placed on production or manufacture.

In the debates in Congress on the Tariff in 1828-9, Mr. Mallary esti
mated the consumption of woolens in our country at $72,000,000 per
ann. . — $10,000,000 imported ; $22,000,000 manufactured ; $40,000,000
home-made. The Committee of the " Friends of Domestic Industry,"
who met in New- York in 1831, reported that the proportion between the
amount of wool worked up in factories to that in families was as 3 to 2 ;
that the entire annual product of wool and its manufactures in the U. S.
was $40,000,000. These are the only accessible published estimates which
now occur to we*

The Census of J840 shows that the value of woolens made in our iranu-
factories in 1839, was $20,696,999. The import of foreign woolens the
same year v/as $18,57d,945, and of raw wool* $1,359,445. It should be
remarked fcov/ever, that the import of woolens is considerably higher than
thaX cf v,y year before or since. Taking the average of the same three

* C«k»»$ the average product of 1837-8-9, as in Table 9. The separate import of 1839 is not before ma. ,

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 127

years tor which the import of the raw wool is given,* (1837-8-9,) it would
reach but $12,863,051. If we suppose the consumption to equal the sup-
ply, this would give $33,560,050 as the value of 'the factory-made woolena
consumed in the United States in 1839. I confess I have no data other than
conjectural ones, to determine the amount of the home-made manufactures
for that or any other year ; nor do I know that any other person has, or can,
bave such information. The United States Census, singularly enough
does not include this as a separate item. It strikes me, however, that Mr
Mallary's estimate is too high, and that of the Report of the " Friends of
Domestic Industry " too low. T.he proportion of home-made to factory
woolens is, no doubt, annually decreasing, for reasons already stated ;t but
as far back as 1839, it would perhaps be a fair estimate to set them down
as even. This would give $67,120,100 as the value of the woolens con-
sumed by a population of 17,069,453, or nearly $4 per head. Allowing
that every dollar in the manufactured article would represent one pound
of stock, or raw wool — and taking slave-cloths, blankets, carpets, coarse
home-made fabrics, factory plains, etc., all into account, a dollar is an am
pie sum to offset against every pound of the raw material — it follows lha-t
our whole population annually consume four pounds of wool per head.
Judge Beatty of Kentucky, in an estimate published originally in the
American Agriculturist, which has been much quoted, sets down the con-
sumption as about 6 Ibs. per head. An ordinary Northern farmer or la-
borer, in comfortable circumstances, will consume about 20 Ibs. per an-
num ;| the poorer one not far from 15 Ibs. ; a" boy of 8 years old, full 4 Ibs. j
a girl of that age (in the country, where females are dressed in woolens,)
something more than half of that amount. In the cities and villages there is
a large class whose consumption for dress ranges from 30 to 40 and even 50
Ibs., and, including carpets, much more. A Southern slave 'consumes from
8 to 10 Ibs. Four pounds, therefore, would not seem to be a high es-
timate, per head, for our whole population.

Let us now take a glance at the increase of population in the United
States. The six different Censuses give the following results :

TABLE 12.

1790, Population 3,929,827

180.0, 5,305,941

1810, 7.239,814

1820, Population 9,638,191

1830 ....12,806,020

1840 17,069,453

It will thus be seen that our population increases at a compound ratio
of about three per cent, per annum, which would double it — assuming
three per cent, to be the precise rate of increase — in 23 years 164 days.

Cheap and abundant provisions — a supply of fertile lands for all who
choose to occupy them, &c. — the causes which have conspired to give so
Tapid an increase, hitherto, still operate to as great an extent as ever, and
will continue to, at all events, for half a century, after the Census of 1840.
Suppose the rate of increase, then, decreases to two per cent., which would
double the population, reckoning as before, once in about 38 years, and

* In Table 9. t Letter VII.

JHe will wear out, during a year, 1 coat, 4 yards ; 1 pair pants, 3 yards; 1 vest, 1 yard; 1 pair flannel
drawer?, 2 yards ; 1 flannel shirt, 2i yards ; 4 pair hose, mittens, &c , 1J fbs., which, calling a yard a pound
of wool, al! V-iind, would amount to 14 Ibs. His extra or holiday suit. 8 yards, will last 3 yearn, and hia
overcoat, '6 yards, 4 years— making the annual consumption of both, 3 1-6 yards. Two flannel shirts, 10
yards, will last two persons say 3 years, making the annual consumption of one, 1 1-9 ynrds. No account is
here made of coverlids, wool hats, carpets, still used by many, and the latter, more or less of it, to be found in
the houses of m-ar'y &11 farmers in •' comfortable circumstances." It will be seen that 20 Ihs. of wool per
head is * mnder*Uv estimate. The above enumeration would not equal to exceed two-thirds, and in some
cases tialf the clothing annually consumed by the smartly dressing young men who have labored, on mj
(arm!

128

SHEEP HUSBANDRY LN THE SOUTH.

that it doubles twice at this rate — and the following would be the result,
and the amount of wool required by the population at the periods indicated:

TABLE No. 13.

Year.

Population.

Amount of Wool.

Year.

Population.

Amount of Wool.

1863-4

34,138,906

136,555,624

1925

136,555,624

546,222,496

1886-7

68,277,812

273,111.248

1963

273.111.248

1,092,444,992

Thus in a little over one hundred years, our population is likely to ex-
ceed the present one of Europe, (which is 233,500;000,) and we have now a
sufficient territory to sustain it ! At 3 Ibs. of wool per head the number
of sheep requisite to supply the home demand in 1963, would be over
364,000,000 ! — far more than are now to be found on the whole globe !—
Such are some of the reasonable expectations which may be formed of the
future prospects of the Home

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH, 129

LETTER X.

BREEDS OF SHEEP IN THE UNITED STATES

Enumeration of Imported Breeds... No indigenous ones..." Native " Sheep — their Origin — Views of Mr
Youatt — Mr. Livingston — their true Origin— their Early Increase in New-England.. Vandf-rdonk's description
of the Sheep and their increase introduced from Holland into New-Netherland (New- York)... Character-
istica of the Native Sheep... Account of the Introduction of Merinos into the United States... Their valua-
tion at different periods... The Spanish sub-varieties — Merged in the United States... Purity of blood of th«
descendHnts of the Early Importations ... Spurious Merinos... Weight of Fleece of the Spanish and French
(Rambouillet) families. ..Description of the latter... American Fumilies — their Characte mics.. Doctor Em-
mons's Measurements of the Fineness of Wool of individuals of the American, Spanish, and French families
— also of other breedti.. The Characteristics of the Merino — its Crosses. ..The Saxon Sheep— its Origin —
Varieties — Treatment in Germany. ..Introduction into the United States... Purity of blood in our present
flocks— Weight of Fleece— Characteristics... The New Leicester or " Bakewell"— Origin— Character in
Kn&Iand — Introduction into the United States — Valuation in the latter — Characteristics... South-Down
Sheep — Origin — Characteristics — Introduction into the United States.. Mr Ellman's description of a perfect
animal. .Cotswold Sheep — Original Stock — Crossed— the improved variety— Characteristics of— Introduction
into the United States.. Cheviot Sheep — Importation into the United States — Original Stock— Crossed —
Improved variety — Characteristics... Broad-Tailed Sheep — Introduction into our Country— Characteristics,

Dear Sir : It is believed by those competent to judge, and who have
investigated the subject, that our country now possesses every known breed
of sheep which could be of particular benefit to its husbandry. In pro-
ceeding to give an account of the sheep of the United States, I do not
deem it necessary to take up your time with a detailed history of each
race. The zoologist or breeder anxious to obtain this information, will
find it given with great elaboration and accuracy, in the admirable work
on Sheep by the late Mr. Youatt.*

The principal breeds in the United States are the " Native," (so called) ;
the Spanish and Saxon Merinos, introduced from the countries whose
names they bear ; the New Leicester or Bakewell, the South-Down, the
Cotswold, the Cheviot, and the Lincoln from England. The common
sheep of Holland were early imported by the Dutch emigrants who origi-
nally colonized New-York, but have long since ceased to exist as a dis-
tinct variety. The Broad-Tailed Sheep of Asia and Africa have several
times been introduced from Persia, Tunis, Asia Minor, etc.

Chancellor Livingston also speaks of two " races as 'indigenous ' to this
country, which we have not enumerated, as it is not known to the Com-
mittee t that they are now bred in any portion of the United States,
viz., the Otter and Smith's Island Sheep, breeds said to have been discov-
ered on two islands on our Atlantic coast. An almost infinite variety of
crosses have taken place between the Spanish, English, and * native ' fami-
lies. To so great an extent, indeed, has this been carried, that there are,

* Also in Mr. Bischoffs, Spooner's, etc., (English) works, and Mr. Morrel'a "American Shepherd "—the
historical parts of all of which are compiled mainly from Mr. Youatt

t At the Annual Meeting of the New-York State Agricultural Society, 1837, a Committee was appointed to
report at the next Annual Meeting of the Society, on the '• Condition ajj-J Comparative Value of the Several
Breeds of Sheep in the United States." The Committee consisted ol Henry S. Randall of Cortland, Henry
I). Grove of Rensselaer, John B. Duane of Schenectady, Francis Rotch of Otsego. and C. N Bement of Alba-
ny. These gentlemen were at the time breeders of all or nearly all the most important varieties', and it was
expected that each would write that portion of the Report treating of the one or ones bred by himself The
Committee, however, desired — or rather required me to write the whc Je Report, which I did, with the
exception of quotations from authors. The Committee met in Albany, prior to the presentation of the Re-
port, and the late Thomas Dunn and several other breeders were present by invitation. The Report was
unanimously adopted by the Committee, and assented to by the breeders present I do not now quote or
adopt all the conclusions of that Report Experience has compelled me to modify some of my opinions,
and actual changes in the breeds have taken place But I have mentioned the above facts, to show the au-
thority on which the statements which I have quoted, rest ; and also because the Report ha* been often
quoted from, sometimes without any credit, and sometimes erroneously credited.

[To save constant reference, it will he understood that all the matter quoted in this Letter from the Re-
port will, unlike the cases where Mr. Randall quotes at any length from the writings of others, be printed
m the same type with the body of the Letter, and simply marked with quotation point*. Publisher.)

K

130 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

comparatively speaking, few flocks in the United States that preserve en-
tire the distinctive characteristics of any one breed, or that can lay claim tc
unmixed purity of blood."

NATIVE SHEEP. — " Although this name is popularly applied to the com-
mon coarse-wooled sheep of the country, which existed here previously
to the importation of the improved breeds, there is, properly speaking, no
race of sheep ' native ' to North America. Mr. Livingston, in speaking
of a race as ' indigenous,' only quoted the language of another,* and his
informant was either mistaken as to the fact, or misapprehended the term.
The only animal of the genus Ovis Aries, originally inhabiting this coun-
try, is the Argali,t known to our enterprising travelers and traders who
have penetrated to the Rocky Mountains, where the animal is found, as
the Big Horn.f Though the pelage of the Argali approximates but little
to the wool of the domestic sheep, they are, as is well known, considered
by naturalists to have belonged originally to the same species ; and the
changes which have taken place in the form, covering, and habits of the
latter, are attributed to his domestication, and the care and skill of Man
during a long succession of years.

" The common sheep of the United States were of foreign and mostly of
English origin. The writer of the volume on Sheep in the ' Farmer's Se-
ries,' [Mr. Youatt,] speaks of them as ' although somewhat differing in va-
rious districts, consisting chiefly of a coarse kind of Leicester, originally
of- British breed.'|| Others have seen, or fancied they saw, in some of
them, a strong resemblance to the South-Downs. Mr. Livingston was of
this number.§ But it is far more probable that they can claim a common
descent from no one stock. Our ancestors emigrated from different sec-
tions of the British Dominions, and some portion of them from other parts
of Europe. They brought their implements of husbandry, and their do-
mestic animals, to fertilize the wilderness. Each, it would be natural to
suppose, made choice of the favorite breed of his own immediate district
to transport to the New World, and the admixture of these various races
formed the mongrel family now under consideration. Amid the perils of
war, and the incursion of beasts of prey, they were preserved with sedu-
lous care. As early as 1676, Mr. Edward Randolph, in a * Narrative to
the Lords of the Privy Seal,' speaks of New-England as 'abounding with
sheep.' "U

Vanderdonk, writing in 1790, thus speaks of the sheep introduced from
Holland into New-Netherland (now New-York) by the Dutch emi-
grants : —

" Sheep are also kepi in the New-Netherlands, but not as many as in New-England, where
the weaving business is earned on, 'and where much more attention is paid to them than by
the New-Netherlauders. The sheep, however, thrive well, and become fat enough. I have
seen mutton there so exceedingly fat that it was too luscious and offensive. The sheep breed
well and are healthy ; they find good pasture in summer, and good hay in winter ; but the
flocks require to be guarded and tended on account of the wolves, for which purpose men
cannot be spared. There is also a more important hindrance to the keeping of sheep, which
are chiefly cultivated for their wool. New-Netherland is a woody country throughout, being
almost everywhere beset with trees, stumps and brushwood, wherein the sheep pasture,
and by which they lose most of their wool. This is not apparent until they are sheared,
wnen the fleeces turn out very light."

" The common sheep yielded a wool only suited to the coarsest fabrics,
averaging, in the hands of good farmers, from 3 to 3 J Ibs of wool to the

- Livingston's Essay on Sheep, pp. 50, GO. t Godmnn's American Natural History.

t The " wc>"ly sheep " of the Rocky Mountains, the description of which is quoted by Mr Morrel, (Ameri-
can Khepherd, p 131,) from C«pt. Bonneville, is & goat. It will be found described in Godman'a Natural
History vol ii. p. 326, et evpra.

i Vol'. on Sheep p. 134. § Essay on Sheep, p. 53. fl Colonial paj»er8 of Massachusetts

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

131

fleece. They were slow in arriving at maturity, compared with the im-
proved English breeds, and yielded when fully grown, 'from 10 to 14 Ibs
of a middling quality of mutton to the quarter. They were usually long-
legged, light in the fore-quarter, and narrow on the breast and back, al-
though some rare instances might be found of flocks with the short legs,
and some approximation to the general form of the improved breeds. The
common sheep were excellent breeders, often rearing, almost entirely des-
titute of care, and without shelter, one hundred per cent, of lambs, and it
small fl }cks a still larger proportion. These, too, were usually dropped ic
March 3r the earlier part of April. Restless in their disposition, their impa-
tience of restraint almost equaled that of the untamed Argali, from which
they were descended ; and in many sections of our country it was common
to see from twenty to fifty of them roving, with little regard to inclosurer*,
over the possessions of their owner and his neighbors, leaving a large por-
tion of their wool adhering to bushes and thorns, and the remainder placed
learly beyond the possibility of carding by the Tory weed ( Cynoglossum
vfficinale) and Burdock (Arctium lappa) so common on new lands.

" The old common stock of sheep, as a distinct family, have nearly disap-
peared, having been universally crossed, to a greater or less extent, with
the foreign breeds of later introduction. The first and second cross wi^h
the Merino, resulted in a decided improvement, and produced a variety
exceedingly valuable for the farmer who rears wool only for domestic pur-
poses. The fleeces are of uneven fineness, being hairy on the thighs, dew-
lap, &c. ; but the general quality is much improved ; the quantity is con-
siderably augmented ; the carcass is more compact and nearer the ground ;:
and they have lost their unquiet and roving propensities. The cross with the-
fcraxon, for reasons which we shall hereafter allude to, has not been generally?
so successful. With the Leicester and Downs the improvement, so far a»
form, size, and a propensity to take on fat are concerned, is manifest."

MERINO HAM.

{Defiance. I months old, bred bj- and the property of HVnry S. Randall.)

132 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

SPANISH MERINO. — " The history of this celebrated race of sheep, so far
as it is known, has so often been brought before the public that it is deemed
unnecessary here to recapitulate it. The first importation of them into
the United States took place in 1S01. Four were shipped by Mr.

Delessert, a banker of Paris, three of which perished on the passage.*
The fourth arrived in safety at Rosendale, a farm owned by that gentle-
man near Kingston, in this State. The same year Mr. Seth Adams, of
Massachusetts, imported a pair from France. In 1802, two pairs were
sent from France by Mr. Livingston, the American Minister, to his estate
on the Hudson ; and later the same year, Mr. Humphrys, our Spanish
Minister, shipped two hundred, on his departure from that country, for the
United States." Hon. William Jarvis, of Weathersfield, Vermont, then
American Consul at Lisbon, sent home large and valuable flocks in 1809,
1810, and 1811. The particularly favorable circumstances for obtaining
the choicest sheep of Spain, under which these were procured, you will
find detailed in a letter tome from Mr. Jarvis, dated December, 1841, pub-
lished in the Transactions of the New- York State Agricultural Society of
that year. Various subsequent importations took place, which it is not
important to particularize.

. The Merinos "attracted little nptice, until our difficulties with England led
to a cessation of commercial intercourse with that power, in 1808 and 1809.
The attention of the country being then directed toward manufacturing
and wool-growing, the Merino rose into importance. So great, indeed,
was the interest excited, that from a thousand to fourteen hundred dollars n
head was paid for them." Unfortunately some of the later importations " ar-
rived in the worst condition, bringing with them those scourges of tho
ovine race, the scab and foot-rot. These evils and the increased supply,
soon brought them down to less than a twentieth part of their former
price ; they could now be bought for $20 a head. When, however, it was
established, by actual experiment, that their wool did not deteriorate, as
had been feared by many, in this country, and that they became readily
acclimated, they again rose into favor. But the prostration of our manu-
factories, which soon after ensued, rendered the Merino comparatively of
little value, and brought ruin to numbers who had purchased them at their
previous high prices. The rise which has since taken place in the value
of fine wool, as well as the causes which led to it, are too recent and well
understood to require particular notice. With the rise of wool, the valua-
tion of the sheep which bear it, has of course kept pace.

" The Merino has been variously described. This arises from the fact
that it is but the general appellation of a breed, comprising several varie-
ties, presenting essential points of difference in size, form, quality and
quantity of wool." And writers of high authority differ even in their
descriptions of these families or varieties. M. Lasteyrie, so celebrated as
a writer on sheep, and particularly on the Merino, and Mr. Jarvis directly
contradict each other on several points.! It is scarcely necessary now
to quote their conflicting statements, or inquire which is right — as the ques-
tions involved possess no practical importance. These families have, gen-
erally, been merged, by interbreeding, in the United States and other
countries which have received the race from Spain. Purity of Merino
blood, and actual excellence in the individual and its ancestors, has long
since been the only standard which has guided sensible men in selecting
«heep of this breed. Families have indeed sprung up, in this country, ex-

* Archives of Useful Knowledge.— Cultiyator, vol. L p. 183.

f See Lnsteyrie on Sheep— or, if nit accessible— hia statements quoted by Mr. Youatt, p. loG. For Mr
farvie's statements, see his Letter t: L. D. Gregory, quoted in American Shepherd, pp. 73, 74.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 133

Mbiting wider points of difference than did those of Spain. In some casea
they doubtless owe it to particular courses of breeding — but more often,
probably, to concealed or forgotten infusions of other blood.

The point has, indeed, been occasionally mooted, whether there are
any Merinos in the United States, descendants of the early importation*,
of unquestionable purity of blood. That there are, has been recently deft
nitely settled by a connected chain of undisputable and undisputed testimo-
ny,* not necessary here to be repeated. That, on the other hand, in the
recent rush of speculation, a marvelous facility has been evinced, in some
instances, m suddenly recollecting lost links in the chain of pedigree — or
in forgetting others which it would not be expedient to remember, no one
would require any proof who has seen some of the animals which have
been hawked through the country as full-bloods.

" Taken collectively, the Spanish rams, according to Chancellor Living-
ston, yield about eight and a half pounds of wool, and the ewes five, which
loses half in washing — making four pounds and a quarter the average
weight of fleece of the rams, and two and a half the average of the ewes.t
Some varieties considerably exceed this estimate, and probably it would
fall short if applied to the prime sheep of any variety."

The fleeces of the Merinos at Rambouillet in France, it is stated in the
Report of M. Gilbert, to the National Institute, quoted by Mr. Living-
ston,! weigh, in the rams, from twelve to thirteen pounds (unwashed) wool
— taking rams and ewes together, it has "not quite attained to eight pounds,
after deducting the tags and the wool of the belly, which are sold sepa-
rately." Mr. Livingston remarks that the French pound is about one-
twelfth heavier than the English ; but on the other hand, that from the man-
ner of folding and housing sheep and feeding them on fallows in Franco,
they are very dirty, and lose 60 per cent, in washing.")] This would bring
the average of the Rambouillet flock to about four pounds, exclusive of
tag arid belly wool.

M. Lasteyrie gives the following annual averages per -head of the Ram
bouiilet flock : 1796, 6 Ibs. 9 oz. ; 1797, 8 Ibs. ; 1798, 7 Ibs. ; 1799, 8 Ibs. ,
1800, S Ibs. ; 1801, 9 Ibs. 1 oz. — This is unwashed wool, and will lose half
in washing. Mr. Livingston's imported ewes averaged 5 Ibs. 2 oz. ; his
rams 6 Ibs. 7 oz., of unwashed wool.§ The later importations will, judg-
ing from the specimens I have seen, average much higher than the latter.
They are a large sheep, with good, but not the best, quality of Merino
wool — some of the larger stocks being rather coarse — and not very uni-
form, one with another, either in their appearance or fleeces — and are
most remarkable for the loose pendulous skin which hangs about their
necks, and lies in folds about their bodies. They are free from hair—-
their wool, which is of good style, opens with a creamy color, and rich lus-
tre, on a fine rose-colored skin. Their wool is long on the back, shortish
on the belly — thick, but not so thick as that of many of the American Me-
rinos— very yolky, but destitute of concrete external gum.

The American Merino has, as already intimated, diverged into families
or varieties presenting wide points of difference. The minor distinctions
are numerous, but they may all, perhaps, be classed under three general
heads. Th&jftrst, is a large, short-legged, strong, exceedingly hardy sheep,
carrying a heavy fleece, ranging from medium to fine — free from hair in
properly bred flocks — somewhat inclined to tkroatincss, but not so much
so as the Rambouillets — bred to exhibit external concrete gum in some

* This testimony will be found in a Letter from roe to A. B. Allen, Esq., in the December No of
American Agriculturist, 1844, and in the Cultivator, I think, of the same date — if not, the succeeding No.
t Livingston's Essay on Sheep, p. 39. J Ibid., p. 49, et supra.

it Livingston's Essay on Sheep, p. 51. § Ibid., Appendix.

134

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

flocks, but not commonly so — their wool longish on both back and be'iiy
and exceedingly dense — wool whiter within than the Rambouillets— skin
the same rich rose-color. The ram on page 131 is a good specimen of thia
variety, though his age is not sufficient to give him the substance and com-
pactness of an older animal, and the apparent want in these particulars is
[lightened by recent shearing.* His first fleece of well-washed wool at
thirteen months old, was 8 Ibs. ; was of beautiful quality, and entirely-
destitute of hair. At three years old he would have sheared from 10 to 12
ibs. of well-washed wool.f

MERINO EWE.

The second general class of American Merinos are smaller than the pre-
ceding— less hardy — wool as a general thing finer — covered with a black
pitchy gum on its extremities — fleece about one-fourth lighter than in class
first.

The third class, which have been bred mostly South, are still smaller and
less hardy — and carry still finer and lighter fleeces. The fleece is desti-
tute of external gum. The sheep and wool bear a close resemblance to
the Saxon ; and if not actually mixed with that blood, J they have been
formed into a similar variety, by a similar course of breeding.

Class first are a larger and stronger sheep than those originally imported
from Spain, carry much heavier fleeces, and in well selected flocks, or in-
dividuals, the fleece is of a decidedly better quality. The ewe from my
flock — the portrait of which is given above — sheared 7 Ibs. 10 oz. of well-
washed wool. ||. The fibre numbered 1. in fig. 1, in the succeeding measure-
ments by Dr. Emmons, is from this fleece. The fleece is exceedingly ever
and entirely destitute of hair.

For the purpose of exhibiting the comparative quality of the wool of

* The portrait, on the whole, is strikingly accurate, but the skill of the artist does not compensate for hll
want of experience, in animal painting, in aiving the anatomical details and expression of the countenance
The fame remark applies to the portrait of the ewe

t This valuable anim«! died since the above portrait was painted, and prior to his second shearing.

* I am not aware what pedigree is claimed for them. They are usually spoken of as Moiinoa.
[} «. e. — washed as clean as practicable in a brook, under a heavy sheet of fulling water.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

135

ihe American, Rambouillet, and early imported Spanish Merinos, 1 copy
the following, from the pen of Ebenezer Emmons, M. D., State Geologist,
in the American Quarterly Journal of Agriculture and Science, of which
publication Dr. E. is the Editor.

" Having given you a pretty full report of the farm and stock of Mr. Randall, embracing
many details also in the several branches of husbandry, I now propose adding a few wordi
as an appendix to that report. I gave some intimation, when speaking of the fineness of
.he wool of Mr. R.'s sheep, that on my return home I would furnish something more exact
as a test for fineness than the naked eye. In fulfillment of this intimation, I have been efl*
gaged since I returned, in measuring the diameter of the different staples which I procured
while at Cortlandville, and which I have compared with others obtained of our mutual
friend, Luther Tucker, Esq., of the Cultivator.

" The different kinds are indicated by numbers. I have prepared a scale which is equal
to 100 millimeters ; a millimeter is equal to 0-039 of an inch. The hundredth of a millime-
ter,* and the fibres of wool, are all subjected to the same magnifying power of an excellent
Chevalier's compound microscope. The comparison is both absolute and relative ; but it it
highly interesting to see the perceptible difference between the different fibres of wool. The
microscope also reveals other differences ; some of the fibres appeared rather uneven or flat-
tened, and destitute of a clear and distinct pith or tube ; and, in fact, I may remark that the
microscope is really the best method of testing the real quality of wool." . . .

Fig. 1.

" No. 1, Mr. Randall's; No. la, fibre of Mr. Randall's prize Merino buck;t No. 16, fibre
from one of Mr. Randalls fleeces ; No. 2 and 2«, fibres from Mr. Reth Adams's wool ; No.
4, Remilles wool, Shoreham, Vt. ; No. 5, fibre of S. O. Burchard's fine wool, Shoreham ;
No. 3, fibre of Charles L. Smith's wool, Shoreham ; No. 6, fibre from Collins's Grandee. The
last five were taken from wool left at the Cultivator office. In all the fibres examined there
i* a great uniformity in the parcels ; only slight differences, in fact, could be detected in the
•everal diameters. No. 7 shows the structure of wool as seen under the microscope. In
the corner is the scale of measurement. The finest fibre as magnified in this cut is equal to
about eighteen-hundredths of an inch in diameter.

" Another inquiry equally important with the preceding came up in this place : What ic
the strength of a single fibre of wool, and is the coarser comparatively stronger than the finet
I set about answering those inquiries at once, and now give you the result below :

" Mr. Randall's No. Ib, cm three trials, supported on an average 62 grains ; or, rather,
broke when tried with the weight of 62 grains.

" Mr. R.'s No. la broke with 57-1 grains.

" The fibre from Collins's Grandee, on three trials, supported on an average 84-6 grains.

" Mr. Smith's specimen of Shoreham, Vt., on three trials, gave an average of 65-6 grains."

No. la is the wool of my ram " Premium," which received the first prize

About 1-2500 of an inch.

tTaken from the animal by Doct. Emmons.

136

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

at the State Fair at Poughkeepsie, 1844,* and his fleece weighed 10 Ibs.
of well washed wool.

No. 2 and 2a, (Mr. Seth Adams's wool,) were from the sheep imported
by that gentleman.

No. 6 was from Grandee, the best ram of Mr. Collins's Rambouillet im-
portation.

It will be observed, first, that the American wool is the finest, and
•econd, its strength is greatest in proportion to its diameter.

It will probably be as well to bring Doct. Emmons's subsequent meas-
urements of the wool of other individuals and varieties together at this
place, as to scatter them through the descriptions of the several breeds.
It will render a comparison between them more convenient. I would re-
mark that the cuts are copied from those of Doct. Emmons, with the
strictest fidelity.! Indeed they are perfect fac similes.

Fig 2.

" Figure 2 (scale of measurement same as in Fig. 1) exhibits the comparative diameters of
Ihe wool fibre of two premium Saxon sheep exhibited at the Slate Fair at Utica. 1845. A 1
iii a fibre of wool from the shoulder of the 2d premium sheep (Mr. Church's) ; 2 do. from the
flank. B 1, fibre from the shoulder of the first premium sheep (Mr. Crocker's) : 2 do.flank.

Fig. 3.

" Fig. 3, No. 1. fibre of Bake well — about the average fineness of this kind of wool. No. 9,
fibre from' Merino ewe belonging to Col. Sherwood, 3 years old (Blakesley sheep.1) No. 1
do. Mr. Bailey's ewe. No. 4 do. Mr. Atwood's.

Fig. 4.

,, 4.__ *$o. 5, fibre of Mr. Ellis's ewe, fleece weighing 6 Ibs. 13 oz. No. 6 do. Mr. Net-
s yearling Merino buck. No. 7 do. a sample from the imported 5 per cent. South
American wool, which is seen to be nearly as fine as the best of our flocks. No. 8 do. Col.

* This is the only time my sheep have ever been shown nt a State Fair, and I first made arrangement*
Ibr exhibitiPc, in the expectation of having the privilege of comparing my sheep with the imported Ram-
bouiilet8 of Mr. Collins. Mr. C., however, declined my invitation to show. I received the first pnze on
rams, and the first and second on ewes.

t Executed by William Rowland, of New York, whom I take pleasure in recommending to all wishing U
Obtain wood engravings, as an accurate and most obliging artist.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 137

Sherwood's three-year-old buck, sheared 8£ Ibs. of wool. No. 9 do. finest Saxon wool ia
market.

JTJ.T. 5. No. 10, fine Ohio wool. No. 12, do. Saxon l^?- •*

of the late Mr. Grove's excellent flock. No. 13, do. i\ \ V
original imported Spanish wool by Seth Adams. No.
l4,"Mr. L. A. Morrell's Saxon

The following cut, copied from Youatt,

exhibits a fibre of Merino wool viewed 10 1Z 13
both as ah opaque and transparent object, with a microscope manufac-
tured by Mr. Powell, of London.

The serrations or " beards," which constitute
the felting property of wool, are beautifully
distinct and sharp. It was a picklock from a
Negretti fleece, and Mr. Youatt says it is " very
line, being only the yj^th part of an inch in ;!
diameter." By consulting Doct. Emmons's
preceding statements, it will be seen that the wool of my prize ram " Pre-
mium" is only about j-gVo1^ °^ an *ncn *n diameter \ This forcibly shows
the improvement which has been made on the Merino wool of Spain in the
United States.

" The Merino, though the native of a warm climate, becomes readily iii
ured to the greatest extremes of cold, flourishing as far north as Sweden,
without degenerating in fleece or form. It is a patient, docile animal, bear-
ing much confinement without injury to health, and possesses none of that
peculiar ' voraciousness of appetite,' ascribed to it by English writers.* —
Accurately conducted experiments have shown that it consumes " a little
over '" two pounds of hay per diem, in winter ; the Leicester consumes from
three and a half to four ; and the common wooled American sheep woiild
not probably fall short of three. The mutton of the Merino, in spite of the
prejudice which exists on the subject, is short grained and of good flavor,
when killed at a proper age," and weighs from ten to fourteen pounds to
to the quarter. " It is remarkable for its longevity, retaining its teeth and
continuing to breed two or three years longer than the common sheep,"
and at least half a dozen years longer than the improved English Breeds ;
" but it should be remarked in connection with this fact, that it is corres-
pondingly slow in arriving at maturity. It does not attain its full growth
before three years old, and the ewes in the best managed flocks, are rarely
permitted to breed before they reach that age."

The Merino is a far better breeder than any other fine-wooled sheep,
and my experience goes to show that its lambs, when newly dropped, are
hardier than the Bakewell, and equally so with the high bred South-
Down. The ewe is not so good a nurse, however, as the latter, and will not
usually do full justice to more than one lamb. Eighty or ninety per
cent, is about the ordinary number of lambs usually reared, though il
often reaches one hundred per cent, in carefully managed or sinal'
flocks.

" We have already adverted to the cross between the Merino and the
native sheep. On the introduction of the Saxon family of the Merinos, they
were universally engrafted on the parent stock, and the cross was contin-
ued until the Spanish blood was nearly bred out." When the admixture
took place with judiciously selected Saxons, it resulted not unfavor-
ably for certain purposes. But unfortunately these instances of judicious
crossing were rare. Our country was flooded by eager speculators, with
the feeblest and least hardy Merinos of Germar.y. Fineness of wool during

* Youatt, p. 149.

138

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

the period of this strange excitement, was made the only test of excellence,
no matter how scanty its quantity, no matter how diminutive or miserable
the carcass. Governed by such views, the holders of most of our Merino
flocks purchased these over-delicate Saxons, and the consequence was as
might have been foreseen — their flocks were ruined."

SAXON RAM

SAXONS. — " In the year 1765, Augustus Frederick, Elector of Saxony, ob-
tained permission from the Spanish Court to import two hundred Merinos,
selected from the choicest flocks of Spain. They were chosen principally
from the Escurial flock, and on their arrival in Saxony, were placed on a
private estate belonging to the Elector, under the care of Spanish shepherds.
So much importance was attached to the experiment, as it was then con-
sidered, that a commission was appointed to superintend the affairs of the
establishment ; and it was made its duty to diffuse information in relation
to the management of the new breed ; to dispose of the surplus rams at
prices which would place them within the reach of all holders of sheep ;
•and finally, by explaining the superior value of the Merinos, to induce
the Saxon farmers to cross them with their native breeds. Popular preju-
dice, however, was strong against them, and this was hightened by the rava
ges of the scab, which had been introduced with them from Spain, and
which proved very destructive before it was finally eradicated. But when
it became apparent that the Merino, so far from degenerating, had im-
proved " in the quality of its wool, in Saxony, " the wise and patriotic efforts
of the Elector began to reap their merited success, and a revolution took
place in popular sentiment. The call for rams became so great that the
Government resolved on a new importation, to enable them more effec-
tually to meet it, and to improve still farther the stock already obtained.
For this purpose an individual, considered one of the best judges of sheep
in Saxony, was dispatched to Spain in 1777, with orders to select three hun-
dred. For some reason, probably because he experienced difficulty in obtain-
ing a greater number presenting all the qualifications he sought, he return-

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 139

ed with but one hundred and ten. They were from nearly all the different
flocks of Spain, but. principally the Escurial — and were considered decided-
ly superior to the first importation. In addition to the establishment at
Stolpen, already founded, others were now commenced at Rennersdorf,
Lohmen, &c. ; schools were established for the education of shepherds ;
publications were distributed by the commissioners to throw information
on the subject before the people ; and the Crown tenants, it is said, were
each required to purchase a certain number of the sheep."

Mr. Spooner* states that there are two distinct breeds of the Saxon Me-
rino sheep, the first " having stouter legs, stouter bodies, head and neck com-
paratively short and broad, body round. The wool grows most on the face
and legs — the grease in the wool is almost pitchy." The other breed call-
ed Escurial have longer legs, with a long, spare neck and head, with very
little wool on the latter, and a finer, shorter and softer character in its
fleece, but less in quantity. The fleece in the Escurial averages from one
and a half to two pounds in ewes, and two to three pounds in rams and
wethers, while in the others it is from two and a quarter to three and a
quarter in ewes, and from four to six pounds in ram and wethers. Those
varieties cannot be amalgamated successfully.

The preceding portrait is a favorable specimen of the Escurial Saxon,
copied from a cut, after a drawing by Harvey, in Mr. Spooner's work.

That the German shepherds have sacrificed the hardiness of the Merino,
and indeed almost everything else, for fineness of staple, there can be but
little doubt. Their method of managing the sheep and its effects are thus
described by Mr. Carr, a large sheep-owner of Germany :f

" They are always housed at night, even in summer, except in the very finest weather,
when they are sometimes folded in the distant fallows, but never taken to pasture until the
dew is off the grass. In the winter they are kept within doors altogether, and are fed with a
small quantity of sound hay, and every variety of straw, which has not suffered from wet,
and which is varied at each feed ; they pick it over carefully, eating the finer parts, and any
grain that may have been left by the threshers. Abundance of good water to drink, and rock-
salt in their cribs, are indispensables They cannot thrive in a damp climate, and it

is quite necessary that they should have a wide range of dry and hilly pasture of short and
not over-nutritious herbage. If allowed to feed on swampy or marshy ground, even once or
twice, in autumn, they are sure to die of liver complaint ia the following spring. If they
are permitted. to eat wet grass, or exposed frequently to rain, they disappear by hundreds
with consumption. In these countries it is found the higher bred the sheep is, especially the
Escurial, the more tender !"

Such are the common views of the sheep, and their treatment over
Germany, Prussia, and Austria. Various statements of the methods adopt-
ed by Baron Geisler, Graf Hunyadi, and other eminent flockmasters, will
be found in Dr. Bright's Travels in Lower Hungary, Paget's Travels in
Hungary and Transylvania, Jacob's Travels in Germany, &c.

The qualities of the Saxons as breeders and nurses, may be inferred
from the following regulations, for the management of his flock, by Baron
Geisler.f

" During the lambing period, a shepherd should be constantly day and night in the cote,
in order that he may place the lamb, a soon as it is cleaned, together with its mother, in a
separate pen, which has been before prepared. The ewes which have lambed should,
during a week, be driven neither to water or pasture ; but low troughs of water for this pur-
pose are to be introduced into each partition, in order that they may easily and at all times
quench their thirst. It is also very useful to put a small quantity of barley-meal into the water,
Tor by this means the quantity of the ewe's milk is much increased. When the lambs are so
strong that they can eat, they are to be separated by degrees from their mothers, and fed
with the best and finest oats, being suffered at first to go to them but three times a day.
early in the morning, at mid-day, and in the evening, and so to continue till they can travel t»
pasture, and fully satisfy themselves."

* Spooner, p. 51 t Quoted by Spooner, p. 58. I Ibid., p. 59.

1 10 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

The following history of the introduction of the Saxons into the United
States, was compiled by me from written memoranda, and the oral state-
nients of Mr. Grove, submitted to the Committee of New-York State Ag-
ricultural Society, already alluded to, of which I was Chairman, and was
published in my Report, credited, of course, to Mr. Grove individually, as
no other member of the Committee was conversant with the facts nar-
rated.*

" The first importation of Saxony sheep into the United States was made by Mr. Samuel
Hensliaw, a merchant of Boston, at the instance of Col. James Shepherd, of Northampton.
They were but six or seven in number. In 1824, Messrs. G. & T. Searle, of Boston, import-
ed 77 Saxon sheep. They were selected and purchased by a Mr. Kretchman, a correspond-
ent of the above firm, residing in Leipsic, and shipped at Bremen on board the American
schooner Velocity. I was engaged to take charge of the sheep on the passage, and I also
shipped six on my own account. I am sorry to say that as many as one-third of the sheep

Eurchased by Kretchman. (who shared profit and loss in the undertaking,) were not pure-
looded sheep. The cargo were sold at auction at Brooklyn, as 'pure-blooded electoral Sax-
ons,' and thus unfortunately in the very outset the pure and impure became irrevocably mix-
ed. But I feel the greatest certainty that the Messrs. Searle intended to import none but
the pure stock — the fault lay with Kretchman. In the fall of 1824, 1 entered into an arrange-
ment with the Messrs. Searle to return to Saxony, and purchase in connection with Kretch-
man, from 160 to 200 Electoral sheep. I was detained at sea seven weeks, which gave riso
to the belief that I was shipwrecked and lost. When I finally arrived, the sheep had been al-
ready bought by Kretchman. On being informed of what the purchase consisted, I protested
against taking them to America, and insisted on a better selection, but to no purpose. A
quarrel ensued between us, and Kretchman even went so far as to engage another to take
charge of the sheep on their passage. My friends interposing, I was finally induced to take
charge of them. The number shipped was 167, 15 of which perished on the passage. They
were sold at Brighton, some of them going as high as from $400 to $450. A portion of this
importation consisted of grade sheep, which sold as high as the pure-bloods, for the Ameri-
can purchasers could not know the difference. It may be readily imagined what an induce-
ment the Brighton sale held out to speculation, both in this country and Saxony. The Ger-
man newspapers teemed with advertisements of sheep for sale, headed ' Good for the Ameri-
can Market ;' and these sheep, in many instances, were actually bought up for the American
market at five, eight or ten dollars a head, when the pure-bloods could not be purchased at
from less than $30 to $40. In 1836, Messrs. Searle imported three cargoes, amounting in the ag-
gregate to 5 13 sheep. They were of about the same character with their prior importations, in
the main good, but mixed with some grade sheep. On the same year a cargo of 221 arrived, on
German account, Emil Bach, of Leipsic, supercargo. A few were good sheep and of pure blood ;
but taken as a lot they were miserable. The owners sunk about $3,000. Next came a cargo
of 210 on German account; Wasinuss and Multer, owners. The whole cost of these was
about $1,125, in Germany. With the exception of a small number, procured to make a
flourish on, in their advertisements of sale they were sheep having no pretensions to purity
of blood. In 1827. the same individuals brought out another cargo. These were selected
exclusively from grade flocks of low character. On the same year the Messrs. Searle made
their last importation, consisting of 182 sheep. Of these I know little. My friends in Ger-
many wrote me that they were like their other importations, a mixture of pure and impure
blooded sheep. It is due, however, to the Messrs. Scale to say that, as a whole, their im-
portations were much better than any other made into Boston.

" I will now turn your attention to the importations made into other ports. In 1825, 13
Saxons arrived in Portsmouth. They were miserable creatures. In 1826, 191 sheep arrived
in New- York, per brig William, on German account. A portion of these were well descend-
ed and valuable animals, the rest were grade sheep. In June the same year, the brig Lou-
isa brought out 173 on German account. Not more than one-third of them had the least pre-
tensions to purity of blood. Next we find 158, shipped at Bremen, on German account.—
Some were diseased before they left Bremen, and I am happy to state that twenty-two died
before their arrival in New-York. All I intend to say of them is, that they were a most cu
rious and motley mess of wretched animals. The next cargo imported arrived in ^he brig
Maria Elizabeth, under my own care. They were 165 in number, belonging to myself and
F. Gebhard, of New- York. These sheep cost me $65 a head when landed in New- York. —
They sold at an average of $50 a head, thus sinking about $2,400 ! I need not say that they
were exclusively of pure blood. A cargo of 81 arrived soon after, but I know nothing of
their quality. The next importation consisted of 184, on German account, per brig Warren.
With a few exceptions they were pure-blooded and good sheep. We next have an importa-
tion of 200 by the Bremen ship Louisa. They were commonly called the ' stop sale sheep.

* Mr. Morrel in his American Shepherd, quotes this as a " Report " drawn and read by Mr. Grove, (one U
ieft to infer,) before the New-York State Agricultural Society. This ia doubtless an inadvertance.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN i'HE SOUTH. 141

They were of the most miserable character, some of them being hardly half-grade sheep.—
The ship Phebe Ann brought 120 sheep, of which I know little ; and GO were landed a!
Philadelphia, with the character of which I am unacquainted. Having determined to settle
in America, I returned to Saxony, and spent the winter of 1826-7 in visiting aud examining
many flocks. I selected 115 from the celebrated flock of Machern, embarked on board the
ship 'Albion, and landed in New-York June 27, 1827. In 1828, I received 80 more from the
same flock, selected by a friend of mine, an excellent judge of sheep. I first drove them to
Shaftsbury, adjoining the town of Hosic, where I now reside. On their arrival they stood
me in $70 a head, and the lambs half that sum."

" It will be inferred from the facts above stated that there are few Sax-
on flocks in the United States that have not been reduced to the quality
of grade sheep, by the promiscuous admixture of the pure and the impure
which were imported together, and all sold to our breeders as pure stock."

And independent of this, there are but exceedingly few flocks which
'have not been again crossed with the Native or Merino sheep of our coun-
try, or both. Those who early purchased the Merino, crossed them with
the Native ; and, when the Saxons arrived, these mongrels were bred to
Saxon rams. This is the history of probably three-quarters of the " Sax-
on" flocks of the United States, and among them some, as I know, among
the most celebrated.

•As these sheep have now so long been bred toward the Saxon that their
wool equals that of the pure-bloods, it is exceedingly problematical in my
mind whether they are any worse for the admixture : when crossed only
with the Merino, it is undoubtedly to their advantage. Though I once
thought differently, experience has satisfied me that the American Saxon,
with these early crosses in its pedigree, is a hardier and more easily kept
animal than the pure Escurial or Electoral Saxon. As with the Merino,
climate, feed, and other causes, have doubtless conspired to add to their
size and vigor ; but, after all, I have not a doubt they usually owe more
sf it to those early crosses.

The fleeces of the American Saxons weigh, on the average, from 2 or
2J- to 3 Ibs. They are, comparatively speaking, a tender sheep, requiring
regular supplies of good food, good shelter in winter, and protection in
cool weather from storms of all kinds ; but they are evidently hardier than
the parent German stock. In docility and patience under confinement,
late maturity, and longevity, they resemble the Merinos, from which they
are descended ; though they do not mature so early as the Merino, nor
ordinarily live so long. They are poorer nurses ; their lambs smaller, fee-
bler, and far more likely to perish, unless sheltered and carefully watched.
They do not fatten so well, and, being considerably lighter, they consume
an amount of food correspondingly less.

Taken together, the American Saxons bear a much finer wool than the
American Merinos ; but Dr. Emmons's measurements show that this is
not always the case, and many breeders of Saxons are now crossing with
the Merino, in the expectation of increasing the weight of their fleeces
without deteriorating its quality.* Though I am in possession of wool
from Saxons in Connecticut and Ohio, which compares well with the
higher grades of German wool,t and though there are doubtless other
flocks of equal quality in the country ,J our Saxon wool, as a whole, falls
considerably below that of Germany ; and I never have seen a single lock
of the American equaling some samples, given me by a friend recently

* Mr. Lawrgnce believes this practicable, and Mr. Morrel and various other Saxon breeders hare for
•ome time bred in this way.

t Fully equaling, and, I think, better than some German wool I recently saw, which, all expenses in«
eluded, stood the^purchaser in $1 60 per pound I

J Dr. Emmons stated, subsequently to his measurements above, that he had received wool fcom tb*
iock «/ Dr. Beekman. considerably finer than the S*s jn wool figured.

J42

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

from Europe, which came from Styria, south of Vienna, in Austria. The
inferiority of the American to the German wool is not due to climate or
other natural causes, nor is it owing to a want of skill on the part of our
breeders. It is owing to the fact that but a very few of our manufactur-
ers have ever felt willing to make that discrimination in prices which would
render it profitable to breed those small and delicate animals which pro-
duce this exquisite quality of wool. No American breeder thinks of hous-
ing his sheep from the summer rains and dew, or observing any of the hot-
house regulations — at least in the summer — of Graf Hunyadi, or Baron
Geisler ! If he did, his wool would not probably pay half of its first cost.
When our manufacturers wish to find these wools in the home market,
they must learn to pay for them in the home market as liberally as they
are compelled to to obtain them in foreign ones !

THE NEW LEICESTER, OR BAKEWELL.

The portrait above is copied from one of a sheep of this variety, belong-
ing to the Duke of Bedford, given in Mr. Youatt's work on Sheep.

" The unimproved Leicester was a ' large, heavy, coarse-wooled breed '
of sheep, inhabiting the midland counties of England. It is described alsc
as having been ' a slow feeder, and its flesh coarse-grained, and with little
flavor.' The breeders of that period regarded only size and weight of
fleece. The celebrated Mr. Bakewell, of Dishley, was the first who adopt-
ed a system more in accordance with the true principles of breeding. He
•elected from the flocks about him those sheep ' whose shape possessed
the peculiarities which he considered would produce the largest propor-
tion of valuable meat, and offal,' and having observed that animals of me-
dium size possess a greater aptitude to take on flesh, and consume less
food than those which are larger, and that prime fattening qualities are
rarely found in sheep carrying a great weight of wool, he gave the prefer-
ence to those of smaller size, and was satisfied with lighter fleeces." To
reach the wonderful results obtained by Mr. Bakewell, it was supposed
that he resorted to a cross with some other varieties, but it is believed by
some that he owed his success only to a judicious principle of selectioni
ep«? teady adherence to certain principles of breeding.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 143

It is exceedingly unfortunate that this eminent breeder has left u.s sc
much in the dark in relation to those principles of breeding, adopted by
him, which led to such signal success in his efforts to improve both the
cattle and sheep of the region in England in which he resided. All of hia
measures were veiled in impenetrable secrecy even from his most intimate
friends, and he died without voluntarily throwing the least light on the
subject. The whole inception and management of his famous " Dishley
Society"* betrays selfishness the most intense, and, in plain English, mean-
ness the most unalloyed. Should a man claiming to be a gentleman, in
this country, make valuable discoveries in breeding, or in any other de-
partment of husbandry, and closely conceal them from the public, his con-
duct would meet with universal reprehension and contempt ;t yet the thing
seems to be considered a matter of course, or is at least passed over with-
out censure, in Youatt, Spooner, Bischoff, and a host of earlier writers,
all of whom laud Mr. Bakewell to the echo!

" The improved Leicester is of large size, but somewhat smaller thai,
the original stock, and in this respect falls considerably below the coarser
varieties of Cotswold, Lincoln,, &c. Where there is a sufficiency of feed,
the New Leicester is unrivaled for its fattening properties, but it will not
bear hard stocking, nor must it be compelled to travel far in search of its
food. It is, in fact, properly and exclusively a lowland sheep. In its ap-
propriate situation, on the luxuriant herbage of the highly cultivated lands
of England, it possesses unrivaled earliness of maturity ; and its mutton,
when not too fat, is of a good quality, but is usually coarse, and compara-
tively deficient in flavor, owing to that unnatural state of fatness which it
so readily assumes, and which the breeder, to gain weight, so generally
feeds for. The wethers, having reached their second year, are turned off
in the succeeding February or March, and weigh at that age from thirty
to thirty-five pounds to the quarter. The wool of the New Leicester is
long — averaging, after the first shearing, about six inches ; and the fleece
of the American animal weighs about six pounds. It is of coarse quality,
and little used in the manufacture of cloths, on account of its length, and
that deficiency of felting properties common, in a greater or less extent, to
all the English breeds. As a combing wool, however, it stands first, and
is used in the manufacture of the finest worsteds, &c.

" The high bred Leicesters of Mr. Bakewell's stock became shy breed-
ers and poor nurses, but crosses subsequently adopted " have, to some ex-
tent, obviated these defects. So far as my experience has extended in this
country, however, the lambs are not very hardy, and require considerable
attention at the time of yeaning, particularly if the weather is even moder-
ately cold or stormy. Neither can the grown sheep be considered, in my
opinion, very hardy. They are much affected by sudden changes in the
weather, and a sudden change to cold is pretty sure to be registered on
their noses by unmistakable indications of catarrh o-r * snuffles/

"In England, where mutton is generally eaten by*the laboring classes,
the meat of this variety is in very great demand ; and the 'consequent re-
turn which a sheep possessing such fine feeding qualities is enabled to
make, renders it a general favorite with the breeder. Instances are re-
corded of the most extraordinary prices having been paid for these am-

* For the Regulations of this Society, see Youatt, p. 317.

t Of course I do not include in this category those nameless venders of recipes for killing Canada This-
tles, ratn, &c. &-r. ; and men who spend their time and property in inventing improved implements, ere.,
nre entitled to the pay offered by the Patent laws. But, among our agriculturists of standing, who has evrt
known of a single instance of a valuable discovery in the operations of husbandry being concealed or with.
lurid from the public ? Who has known a breeder of rank wheedle a partner out of one-half of a valuable
bull, and then refuse the quondum partner the services of that bull at any price, lest he should prove
dangerous rival in breeding ? Yet, what English writer has expressed any contempt for such meanneM
These things would not " go down" among us

144 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

mals, and Mr. Bakewell's celebrated buck " Two Pounder" was let foi
the enormous price of four hundred guineas for a single season ! The
New Leicester has spread into all parts of the British Dominions, and
been imported into the other countries of Kurope and the United States.
They were first introduced into our own country by the late Christopher
Dunn, Esq., of Albany, about twenty-five years since.* Subsequent import-
ations have been made by Mr. Powel, of Philadelphia, and various other
gentlemen."

It is no more than justice to say that this breed has never proved a fa-
vorite with any large class of American farmers. Our long, cold winters,
but more especially our dry, scorching summers, when it is often difficult
to obtain the rich, green, tender feed in which the Leicester delights — the
general want of green feed in the winter, robs it of its early maturity, and
even of the ultimate size which it attains in England. Its mutton is too
fat, and the fat and lean are too little intermixed, to suit American taste.
Its wool is not very salable, from the much to be regretted dearth of
worsted manufactories in our country. Its early decay and loss of wool
constitute an objection to it, in a country. where it is often so difficult to
advantageously turn off sheep, particularly ewes. But, notwithstanding
all these disadvantages, on rich lowland farms, in the vicinities of consid-
erable markets, it will always probably make a profitable return.

The following description of what constitutes the desirable characterist-
ics of this breed, is from the pen of Mr. Youatt :t

" The head should be homless, long, small, tapering toward the muzzle, and projecting
horizontally forward. The eyes prominent, but with a quiet expression. The ears thin,
rather long, and directed backward. The neck full and broad at its base, where it proceeds
from the chest, so that there is, with the slightest possible deviation, one continued horizon-
tal line from the rump to the poll. The breast broad and full ; the shoulders also broad and
round, and no uneven or angular formation where the shoulders join either the neck or the
hack — particularly no rising of the withers, or hollow behind the situation of these bones. —
The arm fleshy through its whole extent, and even down to the knee. The bones of the
leg small, standing wide apart ; no looseness of skin about them, and comparatively bare of
wool. The chest and barrel at once deep and round ; the ribs forming a considerable arch
from the spine, so as in some cases, and especially when the animal is in good condition, to
make the apparent width of the chest even greater than the depth. The barrel ribbed well
home ; no irregularity of line on the back or belly, but on the sides ; the carcass very grad-
ually diminishing in width toward the rump. The quarters long and full, and, as with the
fore legs, the muscles extending down to the hock ; the thighs also wide and full. The legs
of a moderate length ; the pelt also moderately thin, but soft and elastic, and covered with
a good quantity of white wool — not so long as in some breeds, but considerably finer."

THE SOUTH DOWN. — " This breed of sheep has existed for several centu-
ries in England, on a range of chalky hills called the South Downs. They
were, as recently as 1776, small in size, and of a form not superior to the
common wooled sheep of the United States. Since that period, a course of
judicious breeding, pursued by one man (Mr. Ellman, of Glynde, in Sussex),
has mainly contributed to raise this variety to its present high degree of per-
fection, and that, too, without the admixture of the slightest degree of foreign
blood. In our remarks on this breed of sheep, it will be understood that
we speak of the pure improved family, as the original stock, presenting,
with trifling modifications, the same characteristics which they exhibited
sixty years since, are yet to be found in England — and as the middle
space is occupied by a variety of grades, rising or falling in value, as they
approximate to or recede from the improved blood.

" The South- Down is an upland sheep, of medium size, and its wool,
which in point of length belongs to the middle class," has been estimated
to rank with half-blood Merino, and was so estimated in my Report, quo-

* Now about 35 years eince. * YouaK c* %e*o, p. 110,

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

145

tations from which constitute so large a portion of this Letter. But both
subsequent experience, and information derived from other sources, have
convinced me of the err meousness of this opinion. South-Down wool is

SOUTH-DOWN RAM.

essentially different from Merino wool of any grade, though the fibre in
some of the finest fleeces may be of the same apparent fineness with half
or one-quarter blood Merino.

The following cut from Youatt,* gives the microscopic appearance,
says that gentleman, of a " prime specimen of picklock South-Down
wool," 1 being viewed as a transparent,
and 2 as an opaque object." The fibre
is -g-J^th part of an inch in diameter.

The cups or leaves of 2 " are roughened
irregular, and some of the leaves have ex- 2
ceedingly short angles," but they are far
sharper, more numerous and regular (the
points which give wool its felting property) than in ordinary South-Down
wool. In the latter, the cups are rounded and have a " rhomboidal " in-
stead of that sharp and "hooked" character which distinguishes the Me-
rino and Saxon.

South-Down wool is deficient in felting properties. It makes a " furzy,
hairy " cloth, and is no longer used in England, unless largely admixed
wifn foreign wool, even for the lowest class of cloths.

The following testimony was given by some of the most eminent manu
facturers, wool-factors, staplers, and merchants of England, before the
Committee of the Rouse of Lords in 1828, several times previously al-
luded tc : t

I See Biichoff, TO), ii. pp. 145 to 155.

T

146 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

Mr. CHART.ES BULL, wool agent, Lewes. — " Formerly it [South-Down wool ) was used for
clothing purposes ; now it is impossible to sell it lor that manufacture ; . . . it is used for
oaizes and flannels in a very large way."

Mr. WILLIAM CUNNINGTON, wool-stapler, Wiltshire. — " The public will not wear the
South-Down cloths, they are so very coarse."

Mr. JAMES FISON, wool dealer, Thetford. — "There has been deterioration in the quality
of (South-Down) wool ; the general weight of the fleece 20 years ago was 2 pounds to 2£,
and it is now 3 pounds to 3£, our wool used to be made into cloths, and returned into Nor-
folk, and used by myself and the agriculturists. WTe do not get the same cloth now ; neither
myself nor the farmer would wear it, because of the deterioration of quality."

Mr. JAMES HUBBARD, wool agent, Leeds. — South-Down wool is not "now employed for
the purpose of making cloth ; it has been forced down two or three steps in the scale of wool,
and is now used for flannels and baize. .... The wool gets more frothy and open, and in
manufacturing it does not felt and improve so well ; it works more flannely." ....

Mr. JOHN BROOKE, manufacturer, Howley. — " Manufacture principally blue cloths from 7s.

to 24s. and 25s. per yard, and also narrow cloths Had the Duke of Norfolk's wool, Mr.

Ellman, junior's, clip from 1817 and 1822, and Mr. Ellman, senior's, from 1817 to 1821

Kept to English wool longer than any house in the neighborhood Ceased to manufac-
ture it entirely in 1823 or 1824, .... found our neighbors were sending out better cloths
than we were, not only at the same price, but better manufactured cloths, and we lost our cus-
tomers."

Mr. BENJAMIN CIOTT, merchant and manufactivrer, Leeds. — " I formerly used 150 packs
of English wool weekly; the disuse of English wool was gradual, commencing about tne
year 1819, continuing to 1823 and 1824, about which time 1 began to manulacture exclu-
sively from foreign wool. The disuse of English wool arose from the quality and the ad-
vantage of using foreign wool compared with our own. I could not now make an article
which would be merchantable at all for the foreign market, (that remark applies equally to
the home trade,) in certain descriptions of cloth, except of foreign wool." . . . These wools
(the domestic and foreign,) " have different properties."

Mr. WILLIAM IRELAND, Blackwell Hall factor, London. — " We have been using English
wool for second and livery cloths, but recently they have been so very much lowered in
quality we have not been able to make use of them at all, and have been obliged to make
use of low German and low Spanish wools for that purpose."

Mr. J. SUTCLIFFE, wool-stapler, Huddersfield. — " South-Down wool was formerly ap-
plied for making cloth for home consumption regularly, for the clothing of servants, &c. ll
was also used for army clothing. It is now no longer used for those purposes. It makes a
furzy, soft, hairy piece ; it has not that fastness in it that foreign wool has."

Many other individuals testify to the same effect, and the extremely low
character of South-Down wool for carding purposes maybe regarded as
definitely settled. But as it has deteriorated it has increased in length of
staple in England, and to such an extent that improved machinery enables
it to be used as a combing wool — for the manufacture of worsteds. Where
this has taken place it is quite as profitable, in England, as when it was
finer and shorter. In the United States, where the demand for combiner-
wool is so small that it is easily met by a better article, perhaps thi
would not be the case. And it may be problematical whether the proper
combing length will be easily reached, or at least maintained in this coun-
try, in the absence of that high feeding system which has undoubtedly
given the wool its increased length in England.*

The average weight of fleece in the hill-fed sheep is 3 Ibs. ; on rich
lowlands a little more. Mr. John Ellman, Jr., testified before the Com-
mittee of the House of Lords that he was then " keeping his sheep better
than formerly — fattening them, which rendered the fleece heavier — that
they then averaged about 3 Ibs. of wool."t " But the Down is cultivated
more particularly for its mutton, which for quality takes precedence of all
other" (from sheep of good size) " in the English markets. Its early maturity
and extreme aptitude to lay on flesh, render it peculiarly valuable for thfs.
purpose. The Down is turned off at two years old, and its weight at that
c.ge is, in England, from 80 to 100 Ibs. High fed wethers have reached

* Nearly or quite every individual who testifies to the deterioration find increased length of the South
Down wool before the Lord'a Committee, assign this as the cause of the change.
Biechoff, vol. ii., v. lift

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

147

from 32 to even 40 Ibs. a quarter ! Notwithstanding its weight, the
Down has, in the language of Mr. Youatt, a patience of occasional short
keep, and an endurance of hard stocking, equal to any other sheep. This
gives it a decided advantage over the bulkier Leicester, Lincolns, &c., as
a mutton sheep, in hilly districts and those producing short and scanty
herbage. It is hardy and healthy, though in common with the other Eng-
lish varieties much subject to the catarrh or " snuffles," and no sheep bet-
ter withstands our American winters. The ewes are prolific breeders and
good nursers. The Down is quiet and docile in its habits, and though an
industrious feeder, exhibiting little disposition to rove." Like the Leices-
ter, it is comparatively a short-lived animal, and the fleece continues to
decrease in weight after it reaches maturity. It crosses better with short
and middle wooled breeds than the Leicester. " A sheep possessing such
qualities must of course be valuable in upland districts in the vicinity of
markets. They have been introduced into every part of the British Do-
minions, and imported into various other countries. The Emperor of
Russia paid Mr. Ellman three hundred guineas for two rams, and in 1800
4 a ram belonging to the Duke of Bedford, was let for one season at eighty
guineas, two others at forty guineas each, and four more at twenty-eight
guineas each/ These valuable sheep were introduced into the Uniten
States a few years since by Col. J. H. Powell, of Philadelphia, and a smal)
number was imported by one of the members of this Committee in 1834.
The last were from the flock of Mr. Ellman, at a cost of $60 ahead. Sev-
eral other importations have since taken place."

The ram and ewe, the portraits of which are given, are the descendants
of the importation of Francis Rotch, Esq., alluded to in the preceding-
paragraph. They are most spirited likenesses, and were kindly furnished
me by that gentleman, to accompany this Letter. They are exceedingly?

SOUTH-DOWN KWK.

characteristic of the Ellman stock. Not so large as the later importations'
of Mr. Rotch from the celebrated flock of Mr. Webb, they are, in t!>f

148

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

opinion of that gentleman, as well as in my own, a more beautifully
formed and not less profitable animal. For compactness — great weight iu
a small compass — they are perhaps unrivaled.

The following is the description of the perfect South-Down by Mr. Ell-
man, the founder of the improved breed :

" The head small and hornless ; the face speckled or gray and neither too long nor t«»n
short ; the lips tnm, and the space between the nose and the eyes narrow; the under jaw
or chap fine aha thin ; the ears tolerably wide and well covered with wool, and the fore-
bead also, and the whole space between the ears well protected by it, as a defence against

44 The eye full and bright but not prominent. The orbits of the eye, the eye-cap or boue
not too projecting, that if may not form a fatal obstacle in lambing.

44 The neck of a medium length, thin toward the head, but enlarging toward the shoul-
ders, where it should l>e broad and high and straight in its whole course above and below.
The breast should be wide, deep, and projecting forward between the fore-legs, indicating a
i(ood constitution and a disposition to thrive. Corresponding with this, the shoulders should
be on a level with the back, and not too wide above : they should bow outward from the
top to the breast, indicating a springing rib beneath, and leaving room for it.

44 The ribs coming out horizontally from the spine, and extending far backward, and the
L-ist rib projecting more than others, the back fiat from the shoulders to the setting on of
the tail ; the loin > broad and flat; the rump broad and the tail set on high, and nearly on
u level with the spine. The hips wide; the space between them* and the last rib on ei-
ther side" as narrow as possible, and the ribs generally presenting a circular form like u
barrel.

" The belly as straight as the back.

41 The legs neither too long nor too short ; the fore-legs straight from the breast to the foot
not bending inward at the knee, and standing far apart both before and behind ; the hock
having a direction rather outward, and the twist, or the meeting of the thighs behind, being
particularly full, the bones fine, yet having no appearance of weakness, and of a speckled or
dark color.

The belly well defended with wool, and the wool coming down before and behind to the
knee and to the hock ; the wool short, close, curled and fine, and free from spiry projecting
fibres "

THE COTS WOLD SHEEP.

The above cut is copied from one in Mr. Spooner's work on Sheep—
e original drawing being by Harvey.
The Ootswolds, until improved by modern crosses, were a very large,

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

coarse, long-legged, flat-ribbed variety, light in the fore-quarter — shearing
a long, heavy, coarse fleece of wool. They were hardy, prolific breeders
and capital nurses. They were deficient in early maturity, and did not
possess feeding properties equaling those of the Down or New Leicester;
To a cross with the latter variety we owe the modern or improved Cots-
wold. Having had no personal experience with the breed,* I prefer
quoting the descriptions of the later standard English writers, to the task
of compilation.

The following is from Spooner : t

" The Cotswold is a large breed of sheep, with a long and abundant fleece, and the ewes
are very prolific aud good nurses. Formerly they were bred only on the hills, and fatted
in the valleys, of the Severn and the Thames ; but with the inclosure of the Cotswold
Hills and the improvement of their cultivation they have been reared and fatted in the
same district. They have been extensively crossed with the Leicester sheep, by which
their size and fleece have been somewhat diminished, but their carcasses considerably im-
proved, and their maturity rendered earlier. The wethers are now sometimes fattened
at 14 months old, when they weigh from 15 Ibs. to 24 Ibs. per quarter, and at two yeanu
old increase to 20 Ibs. or 30 Ibs. The wool is strong, mellow, and of good color, though
rather coarse, G to 8 niches in length, and from 7 Ibs. to 8 Ibs. per fleece. The superior
hardihood of the improved Cotswold over the Leicester, and their adaptation to common
treatment, together with the prolific nature of the ewes and their abundance of milk, have
rendered them in many places rivals of the New Leicester, and have obtained for them,
of late years, more attention to their selection and general treatment, under which man-
agement still farther improvement appears very probable. They have also been used in
crossing other breeds, and, as before noticed, have been mixed with the Hampshire Downs.
It is, indeed, the improved Cotswold that, under the term New or Improved Oxfordshire
Sheep, are so frequently the successful candidates for prizes offered for the best long-wooled
sheep at some of the principal agricultural meetings or shows in the Kingdom. The quality
of the mutton is considered superior to that of the Leicester, the tallow being less abundant,
with a larger development, of muscle or flesh. We may, therefore, regard this breed as one
of established reputation, and extending itself throughout every .district of the Kingdom."

Of the method of crossing between the Cots wolds and Leicester, Mr.
Youatt remarks :J

" The degree to which the cross may be carried must depend upon the nature of the old
stock, aud on the situation and character of the farm. In exposed situations, and somewhat
scanty pasture, the old blood should decidedly prevail. On a more sheltered soil, and on
land that will bear closer stocking, a greater use may be made of the Leicester. Another
circumstance that will guide the fanner is the object that he principally has in view. If he
expects to derive his chief profits from the wool, he will look to the primitive Cotswolds ;
if he expects to gain more as a grazier, he will use the Leicester ram more freely."

Cotswold sheep of good quality have been imported into the United
States by Messrs. Corning & Sotham, of Albany, and are now bred by
the latter gentleman. I believe there were several earlier importations—-
but of their dates or particulars I am not advised.

THE CHEVIOT SHEEP. — Sheep of this breed have been imported into my
immediate neighborhood, and were subject to my frequent inspection for two
or three years. They had the appearance of small Leicesters, but were con-
siderably inferior in correctness of proportions to high-bred animals of that
variety. They perhaps more resemble a cross between the Leicester and
the old " native " or common breed of the United States. Their fleeces were
too coarse to furnish a good carding wool — too short for a good combing one.
Mixed with a smaller lot of better wool, their this year's clip sold for 29
cents per pound, while my heavier Merino fleeces sold for 42 cents per
pound. They attracted no notice, and might at any time have been
bought of their owner for the price of common sheep of the same weight.
I believe the flock was broken up and sold to butchers and others this
spring, after shearing. They were certainly inferior to the description of
the breed by Sir John Sinclair, even in 1792, quoted by Mr. Youatt, |j and

* With every breed previously described, I have had ample personal experience. I have merely seen
Cotewold flocks. t Q. *., p. 99. J Q. »., p. 340. || Q. t>., pp. 285, 28G.

.50

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

had all the defects attributed to the original stock by Cully.* They might
not, however, have been favorable specimens of the breed.

On the steep, storm-lashed Cheviot Hills, in the extreme North of Eng
»and, this breed first attracted notice for their great hardiness in resisting

CHEVIOT EWK.

cold and feeding on coarse heathery herbage. A cross with the Leices-
ter, pretty generally resorted to, constitutes the improved variety. The
characteristics of the Leicester are quite evident in the portrait of the
Cheviot Ewe, above, copied from1 Mr. Youatt.

Professor Low thus speaks of the result of this cross :

" The Cheviot breed amalgamates with the Leicester, and a system of breeding has been
extensively introduced for producing the first cross of this descent. The rams employed are
of the pure Leicester breed, and the progeny is superior in size, weight of wool, and tenden-
cy to fatten, to the native Cheviot. . . . The benefit, however, may be said to end with the
first cross, and the progeny of this mixed descent is greatly inferior to the pure Leicester
in form and fattening properties, and to the pure Cheviot in hardiness of constitution.

Of the improved Cheviot Mr. Spooner says :

" This breed has greatly extended itself throughout the mountains of Scotland, and in
many instances supplanted the Black-faced breed ; but the change, though in many cases ad-
vantageous, has in some instances been otherwise, the letter being somewhat, hardier, and
more capable of subsisting* on heathy pasturage. They are, however, a hardy nice, well
wilted for their native pastures, bearing with comparative impunity the storms of winter,
and thriving well on poor keep. Though less hardy than the black-faced sheep of Scotland,
they are more profitable as respects their feeding, making more flesh on an equal quantity
of food, and making it quicker. They have white faces and legs, open countenances, lively
eyes, without horns. The f»ars are large, and somewhat singular, and there is much space
between the ears and eyes. The carcass is long ; the back straight ; the shoulders rather
bght ; the ribs circular ; and the quarters good. The legs are small in the b&ne and cov-
ered wit\i wool, as well as the body, with the exception of the face. The Cheviot welher
is fit for the butcher at three years old, and averages from 12 Ibs. to 18 Ibs. per quarter — tho
mutton being of a good quality, though inferior to the South-Down, and of less flavor than
ihe Black-faced The Cheviot, though a mountain breed, is quiet and docile, and ea-
sily managed. The wool \»fme, (?) closely covers the body, assisting much in preserving it

* H«e Cully on Liva Stock, p. 150.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 151

from the effects of wet and cold ; the fleece averaging about 3£ Ibs. Formerly the wool was
extensively employed for making cloths, but having given place to the finer Saxony wools,
it has sunk in pr-ice, and been confined to combing purposes. It has thua become altogether
a secondary consideration." . . .

If Mr. Spooner is not made to say that the wool is " fine " by an omis-
sion of qualifying words, or some other misprint, his ideas of fineness must
be singular indeed ! The South-Down wool, rejected for carding pur-
poses, is several shades finer than the Cheviot! The latter is of aboutthe
quality of Leicester, the number of serrations about the same, and, saya
Mr. Youatt, speaking of the microscopic appearance of the wool, " the
derivation of the breed (from the Leicester) is well illustrated by the
formation of the fibre."

Mr. John Varley, manufacturer, of Stanningley, near Leeds, thus testi-
fied before the Lords' Committee :*

" I attribute the low pi-ice of Cheviot wool to deterioration ; it is deteriorated very much
in point of hair ; it was formerly the fashion of the day for Cheviot wool to be worn as cloth ;

it is not the fashion now. It is not fit to make fine cloths, as it was then The wool

is grown coarser and longer, and only fit to make low coatings and flushings."

This is confirmed by the testimony of other witnesses before the Com-
mittee; and Mr. Youatt on the same subject remarks,! ''that the wool is
inferior to the South-Down."

BROAD-TAILED ASIATIC AND AFRICAN SHEEP. — I allude to the Broad-
tailed race of sheep, not from any high estimate which I place upon their
value, but because they constitute one of the breeds now existing in a
state of purity in the United States.

Some " Tunisian Mountain Sheep " were received by Col. Pickering
when abroad, and were distributed by him in Pennsylvania.! They are
highly spoken of by Col. Powell as a cross with the Dishley and South-
Down. They have, I believe, long since become extinct.

It was Commodore Porter, I think, who, you informed me, sent home
some of the Broad-tailed sheep of Asia, obtained from Smyrna, pure-
blooded descendants of which yet exist in South Carolina.|| I have care-
fully examined the specimens of wool of the full blood and the grades of
this variety forwarded by you. No. 3, taken from the skin of a full-blood,
is 8 inches long, pure white, consisting of coarse hairs, uneven in their
length and diameter — the same hair of uneven diameter in different parts
of it, and the whole intermixed for about 4 inches from the roots, with a
fine, downy or cottony wool. No. 2, about 3J inches long from the side
of a three-fourths blood ram, is much everier in quality, with no hairs a«
coarse or wool as fine as in No. 3. It contains some jarr, or short, sharp-
pointed hairs, and is a dry, and, I should judge, rather unworkable wool,
not well adapted to either carding or combing. No. 1, from thigh of same
animal, is 8 inches long, resembles No. 3, but not so great a distinction
between the hair arid the wool. No. 4, from a three-fourths blood 4-year-
old ewe, is about 2 inches long, contains a few colored hairs, resembles
No. 2, but is somewhat coarser. All these samples are destitute of yolk,
and apparently come from loose, light, dry, open fleeces. Tht>y do not
strike me as wools which could be as profitably cultivated as many others,
for any objects or under any circumstances.

If the object is mutton instead of wool, it seems to me that a better se-
lection can be made, from some of the English breeds — which intermingle

* Bischoff, vol ii, p. 144. Mr. Youatt quotes the substance of the above, and fully sustains Mr. Varley'*
riews. t Q. »., p. 2*5.

t See Essay on Various Breeds of Sheep, by Col. John Hare Powell, published in the Memoirs of th*
Board of Agriculture of the State of New- York, vol. iii., p. 377, (1826.)

H In Letter Vth I inadvertently spoke of these as a large breed of eheep. They are not above medium
•ize, or rather, may be eaid to be a smallish race.

[52 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

their fat and muscle in such a manner as to render both palatable, instead
of depositing a greatly disproportioned share of the former in one luscious
mass, forming an impediment to breeding, and an unsightly appendage in
the eye of the breeder.

All the different varieties of the Broad-tailed and Fat-rumped sheep
will be found described in Youatt, and I will not now consume your time
with them.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 15?

LETTER XI.

THE MOST PROFITABLE BREED OF SHEEP FOR THE SOUTH.— PRINCIPLES

OF BREEDING.

Breeds should be adapted to the circumstances of a Country... Circumstances requiring a Mutton Sheep
. . .Comparison between Mutton Sheep — The South-Downs, Leicesters and Cotswolds. . -How far the Feed
Markets, &c., of the South demand such breeds... What breed of Sheep will give the greatest value of
Woo\ from the feed of an acre ?.. .Comparative Consumption and Wool Product'of the Mutton breeds and
the Merino— Other Expenses — Comparative Hardiness, &c... A pound of fine wool can be grown as cheaply-
as a pound of coarse — worth more for marketer for consumption.. .The Mutton of the Merino and it*
Crosses. . .What sub-variety of the Merino best adapted to the wants of the South ?.. .Review of the Hi*
rory of Wool-Growing and the Wool Markets since ] 824 . . . Tariff's and Prices.. -Injudicious course of the
Manufacturers — Have discouraged the growth of tine wool and encouraged that of medium and coarse. ..
A surplus of medium wools, and a bare or abort supply of fine. . Manufacturers now in the power of fine
wool growers.. Interest of the Manufacturers to encourage the growth of fine wools by paying; better
prices— are beginning to do so— will be compelled to continue this course... Will the North furnish th«
increasing demand ? — No — Reasons... Fine wool in every point of view more profitable than coarse for-
cultivation in the South... Comparison between Merinos and Saxons... Crosses between them... Point*
which constitute excellence in a Merino — proper size — per centage of wool to live- weight — shape and gen-
eral appearance — skin — wrinkles... The wool — what parts it should cover— itff gum — length and weight of
fleece — evenness — style— softness — serration — manner of opening, &c . . . Principles of breeding. . . In and-iti
breeding. ..Crossing. ..English Crosses with the Merino... Views of Mr. Livingston concerning the use of
cross-bred rams— of the French breeders— of the author... Great importance of starting a flock with choicw
rams — with different strains of blood.

Dear Sir : No one breed of sheep combines the highest perfection in all
those points which give value to this race of animals. One is remarkable
for the weight, or early maturity, or excellent quality of its carcass, white
it is deficient in quality or quantity of wool ; and another which is valu-
able for wool, is comparatively deficient in carcass. Some varieties will
flourish only under certain conditions of feed and climate, while others
are much less affected by those conditions, and will subsist under the;
greatest variations of temperature, and on the most opposite qualities of
verdure.

In selecting a breed for any given locality, we are to take into consid-
eration first, the feed and climate, or the surrounding natural circum-
stances ; and, second, the market facilities and demand. We should then
make choice of that breed which, with the advantages possessed, and un-
der all the circumstances, will yield the greatest net value of marketable
product.

Rich lowland herbage, in a climate which allows it to remain green
duiing a large portion of the yeai, is favorable to the production of large
carcasses. If convenient to markets where mutton finds a prompt sale
and good prices, then all the conditions are realized which call for a mut-
ton, as contradistinguished from a wool-producing sheep. Under such cir-
cumstances, the choice should undoubtedly, in my judgment, rest between
the improved English varieties — the South-Down, the New Leicester, and
the improved Cotswold or New Oxfordshire sheep. In deciding between
these, minor and more specific circumstances are to be taken into account.
If we wish to keep large numbers, the Down will herd* much better than
the two larger breeds ; if our feed, though generally plentiful, is liable to
be shortish during the drouths of summer, and we have not a certain sup-
ply of the most nutritious winter feed, the Down will better .enduie occa-
sional short keep : if the market calls for a choice and high-flavored mut
ton, the Down possesses a decided superiority. If, on the other hand, wt

* That is, remain thriving and healthy when kept together in large number*

154 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

wish to keep but few in the same inclosure, the large breeds will be as
healthy as the Downs ; if the pastures be wettish or marshy, the former
will better subsist on the rank herbage which usually grows in such situa-
tions ; if they do not afford so fine a quality of mutton, they, particularly
the Leicester, possess an earlier maturity, and both give more meat for
'.he amount of food consumed, and yield more tallow.

The next point of comparison between the Long and Middle wooled
families, is the value of their wool. Though not the first or principal ol>
ject aimed at in the culture of any of these breeds, it is, in this country,
an important item or incident in determining their relative profitableness.
The American Leicester* yields about 6 Ibs. of long, coarse, combing wool;
the Cotswold something more, but this perhaps counterbalanced by other
considerations ; the Down from 3 Ibs. to 4 Ibs. of a low quality of carding
wool. None of these wools are very salable, at remunerating prices, in
the American market. Both will become more so, as manufactures of
worsted, and of flannels and baizes, increase. The difference in the weight
of fleeces between the breeds is, per sc, a less important consideration than
would first appear, and for reasons which will be given when I speak of
the connection between the amount of wool produced and the food con-
sumed, by sheep.

Of the Cheviots I have taken no notice in this connection, as they are
obviously inferior to the preceding breeds, except in a capacity to endure
rigorous weather, and to subsist on heathy herbage. No part of the
South has a climate too severe for the more valuable races, and its grasses
and other esculents, wherever found, and as far as they go, are, making
the proper allowances for wet and dry lands, highly palatable and nutri-
tious to all the varieties which respectively feed in such situations.

Under the natural and artificial circumstances already alluded to, which
Burround Sheep Husbandry in many parts of England — where the fattest
and grossest quality of mutton is consumed as almost the only animal food
of the laboring classes — the heavy, early maturing New Leicester, and the
still heavier New Oxfordshire sheep, seem exactly adapted to the wants
of producer and consumer, and are of unrivaled value. To depasture
poorer soils — sustain a folding system — and furnish the mutton which sup-
plies the tables of the wealthy — the South-Down is an equal desideratum.

Have we any region in our Southern States, where analogous circum-
stances demand the introduction of similar breeds 1 The climate, so far as
its effect on the health is concerned, is adapted to any, even the least
hardy varieties ; but not so its effects on the verdure on which they are to
subsist. The long, scorching summers, so utterly unlike those of England,
leave the grass on lands stocked heavily enough for profit, entirely too
dry and short for the heavy, sluggish Long Wools. This is particularly
true in the tide-water zone. Mutton, too, sheeted over externally with
three or four inches of solid fat,t even if it could be made acceptable to
the slave, in lieu of his ration of bacon — a thing more than doubtful —
would never find any considerable market off from the plantation. So far
as the supply of feed is concerned, the above remarks apply, though not
equally, to the South-Down. It will live and thrive where the Long Wools
would dwindle away, but it is a mistake to suppose that the heavy im-

* I use the word " American " Leicester, because it is notorious that this, as well as the Cotawold — and
*}.llhe other heavy' Knglish varieties, soon lose in the weight of their fleeces when subjected to the clirnnto
and the (best ordinary) system of feeding in the United States. I should except, perhaps, a few highly
pampered animals.

t Five and even six inches of solid fat. on the rib, is not uncommon in England. In the Cotswolds the
fet and lean are more intermixed, and the mutton ie cf a better quality ; but it would be considered ez*
wrcly too luscious and tallowy by Americans.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

proved South-Down will subsist, and attain its proper weight and fatness,
on very poor or very scant herbage. The old unimproved variety would,
like some other smallish and hardy races, obtain a living on keep as. poor
as that which grew on the lightest and thinnest soils of Sussex. Moulded
by the hand of Ellman, and other breeders, to better fulfill the conditions
of a mutton sheep, in size and other particulars, they demand that in-
creased supply of food which the formation of additional fat and muscle
require. Retaining some of the properties of the parent stock, they are
less sluggish, and bear travel better than the Long Wools ; but with them
as with the latter, and all other animals, much or prolonged exercise in
pursuit of food or otherwise, is unfavorable to obesity. Men, and par-
ticularly owners, in advocating the claims of this breed and that, seem not
unfrequently to forget that the general physical laws which control in the
development of all the animal tissues as well as functions, are uniform.
Better organs will doubtless make a better appropriation of animal food ;
and they may be taught, so to speak, to appropriate it in particular direc-
tions — in one breed, more especially to the production of fat — in another,
of muscle or lean meat — in another, wool. But, cccteris paribus, largo
animals will always require more food than small ones. Animals which
are to be carried to a high state of fatness must have plentiful and nutri-
tious food, and they must exercise but little in order to prevent the unne-
cessary " combustion v in the lungs, of that carbon which forms more than
seven-tenths of their fat. No art of breeding can countervail these estab-
lished laws of Nature.

Again, there are no facilities in the South for marketing large quantities
of mutton — of a tithe of that which would be annually fitted for the sham-
bles, were Sheep Husbandry introduced to anything like the extent I have
recommended, and with the mutton breeds of sheep. With few cities and
large villages — with a sparse population — with an agricultural population
the greatest drawback on whose pecuniary prosperity is their inability to
market their own surplus edibles — not a particle of rational doubt can ex-
ist on this point. True, I have expressed the opinion that, both as a mat-
ter of healthfulness and economy, mutton should be substituted for a moi-
ety of the bacon used on the plantation; but with such a change, in a
country so exclusive1 y agricultural, each landholder would raise his own
supply, and thus no market be created. It may then be regarded as a set-
tled point that the production of wool is the primary, the great* object of
Southern Sheep Husbandry.

In instituting a comparison between breeds of sheep for wool-growing
purposes, I will, in the outset, lay down the obviously incontrovertible
proposition that the question is not what variety will shear the heaviest or
even the most valuable fleeces, irrespective of the cost of production. —
Cost of feed and care, and every other expense, must be deducted, to fairly
test the profits of an animal. If a large sheep consume twice as much food
as a small one, and give but once and a half as much wool, it is obviously
more profitable, other things being equal, to keep two of the smaller sheep.
The true question then is, with the same expense in other particulars, From
wliat breed will the verdure of an acre of land produce the greatest value of
wool ?

Let us first proceed to ascertain the comparative amount of food con-
sumed by the several breeds. There are no satisfactory experiments
which show that breed, in itself considered, has any particular influence on
the quantity of food consumed. It is found, with all varieties, that the con-
sumption is in proportion to the live weight of the (grown) animal. Of
course, this rule is not invariable in its individual application, but its gen-

L56 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

eral soundness has been satisfactorily established. Spooner states that
grown sheep take up 3J per cent, of their weight in what is equivalent to
dry hay per day, to keep in store condition. Veit places the consumption
at 2J per cent. My experience would incline me to place it about midway
between the two. But whatever the precise amount of the consumption,
if it is proportioned to the weight, it follows that if an acre is capable of
sustaining three Merinds weighing 100 Ibs. each, it will sustain but two
Leicesters weighing 150 Ibs. each, and two and two fifths South-Downs
weighing 125 Ibs. each. Merinos of this weight often shear 5 Ibs. per
fleece, taking flocks through. The herbage of an acre, then, would give
15 Ibs. of Merino wool, and but 12 Ibs. of Leicester, and but 9f Ibs. of
South-Down (estimating the latter as high as 4 Ibs. to the fleece) ! Even
the finest and lightest fleeced sheep ordinarily known as Merinos, average
about 4 Ibs. to the fleece, so that the feed of an acre would produce as
much of the highest quality of wool sold under the name of Merino, as it
would of New Leicester, and more than it would of South-Down ! The
former would be worth from fifty to one hundred per cent, more per pound
than either of the latter ! Nor does this indicate all the actual difference,
*as I have, in the preceding estimate, placed the live-weight of the English
breeds low, and that of the Merino high. The live-weight of the four-
pound fine-fleeced Merino does not exceed 90 Ibs. It ranges from 80 to
90 Ibs., so that 300 Ibs. of live-weight would give a still greater product
of wool to the acre.* I consider it perfectly safe to say that the herbage
of an acre will uniformly give nearly double the value of Merino, that it will
of any of the English Long or Middle wools.

The important question now remains, What are the other relative ex-
penses of these breeds 1 I speak from experience when I say that the
Leicester! is in no respect a hardier sheep than the Merino — indeed, it is
my firm conviction that it is less hardy, under the most favorable circum-
stances. It is more subject to colds, and I think its constitution breaks up
more readily under disease. The lambs are more liable to perish from ex-
posure to cold, when newly dropped. Under unfavorable circumstances-
herded in large flocks, pinched for feed, or subjected to long journeys —
its capacity to endure, and its ability to rally from the effects of such draw-
backs, do not compare with those of the Merino. The high-bred South-
Down, though considerably less hardy than the unimproved parent stock,
is still fairly entitled to the appellation of a hardy animal. In this respect
I consider it just about on a par with the Merino. I do not think, how-
ever, it will bear as hard stocking as the latter, without a rapid diminution
in size and quality. If the peculiar merits of the animal are to be taken
into account in determining the expenses — and I think they should be —
the superior fecundity of the South-Down is a point in its favor, as well
for a wool-producing as a mutton sheep. The South-Down ewe not only
frequently yeans twin lambs, as do both the Merino and Leicester, but she
possesses, unlike the latter, nursing properties to do justice by them. But
this advantage is fully counterbalanced by the superior longevity of the
Merino. All the English mutton breeds begin to rapidly deteriorate in
am unt of wool, capacity to fatten, and in general vigor, at about 5 years
old and their early maturity is no offset to this, in a sheep kept for wool-
growing purposes. This early decay would require earlier and more -rapid
slaughter or sale than would always be economically convenient, or even
possible, in a region situated in all respects like the South. It is well, on

* It is understood that all of these live-weights refer to eves in fair ordinary, or what is called Btor*
condition,
t I apeak of fuil-blood I,ci;ester8. Some of its crosses are much hardier than the pure bred sheep.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

properly stocked farms, to slaughter or turn ofFthe Merino wether 'at four
or live years old, to make room for the breeding stock ; but he will not
particularly deteriorate, and he will richly pay the way with his fleece, for
several years longer. Breeding ewes are rarely turned off before eight,
and are frequently kept until ten years old, at which period they exhibit
no greater marks of age than do the Down and Leicester at jive or six.-—
I have known instances of Merino ewes breeding uniformly until 15 years
old ! Tbe Improved Cotswold is said to be hardier than the Leicester;
but I have said less of this variety, throughout this entire Letter, as from
their great size* and the consequent amount of food consumed by them,
and the other necessary incidents connected with the breeding of so large
animals, the idea of their being introduced as a wool-growing sheep any-
where, and particularly on lands grassed like those of the South, is, in my
judgment, utterly preposterous. There is one advantage which all the
coarse races of sheep have over the Merino. Either because their hoofs
do not grow long and turn under from the sides, as do those of the Meri-
no, and thus hold dirt and filth in constant contact with the foot, the coarse
races are less subject to the visitations of the hoof-ail, and, when contract-
ed, it spreads with less violence and malignity among them. Taking all
the circumstances connected v/ith the peculiar management of each race,
and all the incidents, exigencies, and risks of the husbandry of each fairly
into account, I am fully convinced that the expenses, other than those of
feed, are not smaller per capita, or even in the number required to stock
an acre, in either of the English breeds above referred to, than in the Me-
rino. Nor should I be disposed to concede even equality, in these respects,
to either of those English breeds, excepting the South-Down.

You write me, Sir, that many of the South Carolina planters are under
the impression that coarse wools will be most profitably grown by them,
first, because there is a greater deficit in the supply, and they are better
protected from foreign competition; and, secondly, because they furnish
the raw material for so great a portion of the woolens consumed in the
South. Each of these premises is true, but are the conclusions legitimate ]
Notwithstanding the greater deficit and better protection, do the coarse
wools bear as high a price as the fine ones ? If not, they are not as profit-
able, for I have already shown that, it costs no more to raise a pound of
coarse than a pound of fine wool. Nay, a pound of medium Merino wool
can be raised more cheaply than a pound of the South-Down, Leicester,
or Cotswold ! This I consider clearly established.

Grant that the South requires a much greater proportion of coarse than
of fine wool, for her own consumption. If a man needing iron for his own
consumption, wrought a mine to obtain it, in which he should happen to
find gold equally accessible and plentiful, would it be economical in him
to neglect the more precious metal because he wanted to use the iron ? or
should he dig the gold, obtain the iron by exchange, and pocket the differ-
ence in vakie ] Would it be economical to grow surplus wool, wool for
market, worth from 25 to 30 cents per pound, when it costs no more per
pound to grow that worth from 40 to 45 cents 1 And even for the home
want, for the uses of the plantation — for slave-cloths, &c. — -fine wool is
worth more per pound than coarse for actual wear or use ! Is this propo-
sition new and incredible to you 1 I challenge the fullest investigation of
its truth, through the testimony of those familiar with the subject, or through
the direct ordeal of experiment. It is true that a piece of fine broadcloth
is not so strong, nor will it wear like a Chelmsford plain of treble thick*

• I »w two at the late N. Y. State Fair, at Saratoga, which weighed over 300 lb«. each 1

158 SHEEP HUSBA1VDRY IN THE SOUTH.

ness. -The threads of the former are spun to extreme fineness to
mize the costly raw material. To give it that finish which is demanded
by fashion — to give it its beautiful nap — these threads are still farther re-
duced by "gigging" and "shearing." But spin fine wool into yarn as
coarse as that used in Chelmsfords, awd manufacture it in the same way,
and it would make a far stronger and more durable cloth. The reasons
are obvious. Merino wool is decidedly stronger than the English coarse
Long aTid Middle wools — or any other coarse wools — in proportion to its
diameter or bulk. It felts far better, and there is therefore a greater co-
hesion between the different fibres of the same thread, and between the
different threads. It is also more pliable and elastic, and consequently less
subject to " breaking" and abrasion.

Unless the views I have advanced are singularly erroneous, it will be
seen that, for wool-growing purposes, the Merino possesses a marked and
decided superiority over the best breeds and families of coarse-wooled
sheep. As a mutton sheep, it is inferior to some of those breeds, but not
so much so as it is generally reputed to be. If required to consume the
fat and lean together, many who have never tasted Merino mutton, and
who have an unfavorable impression of it, would, I suspect, find it more
palatable than the luscious and over-fat New Leicester. The mutton of
the cross between the Merino and " Native " sheep would certainly be
preferred to the Leicester, by anybody but an English laborer used to the
latter. It is short-grained, tender, and of good flavor. The same is true
of the crosses with the English varieties. These will be, hereafter, more
particularly alluded to. Grade Merino wethers (say half-bloods) are favor-
ites with the Northern drover and butcher. They are of good size — ex-
traordinarily heavy for their apparent bulk* — make good mutton — tallow
well — and their pelts, from the greater weight of wool on them, command
an extra price. They would, in my opinion, furnish a mutton every way
suitable for plantation consumption, and one which would be well accept-
ed in the Southern markets.

In speaking of the Merino in this connection, I have in all cases, unless
it is distinctly specified to the contrary, had no reference to the Saxons —
though they are, as it is well known, pure-blooded descendants of the
former.

Assuming it now as a settled point, that it is to the Merino race that the
wool-grower must look for the most profitable sheep, let us now proceed
to inquire which of the widely varying sub-varieties of this race are best
adapted to the wants and circumstances of the South. A brief glance at
the history of wool-growing, and of the wool markets, for the last few
years, will form an useful preliminary inquiry, and will assist us materially
in arriving at a correct conclusion.

On the introduction of the Saxons, about twenty-four years since, they
were sought with avidity by the holders of the fine-wooled flocks of the
country, consisting at that time of pure or grade Merinos. The Tariff of
1824 imposed a duty of 20 per cent, on wools costing above 10 cents per
pound, gradually rising to 30 per cent., and 15 per cent, on those costing
less than 10 cents. Foreign woolen cloths t were subject to an ad valorem
duty of 30 per cent, until June 30th, 1825, and after that it was raised to 33J
per cent. The Tariff of 1828 immediately raised the duty on all wools to 40
per cent, ad valorem and 4 cents per pound specific duty, and 5 per cent,
was to be annually added to the ad valorem duty, until it should reach 5C

» On account of the shortness of their wool, compared with the coarse breeds.

t Where I use the word " cloths " here snd in the statements of the different Tariffs which follow, yo»
•HI understand that I do not include carpetings, t'aaketa, worsted stuff goods. &c.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

159

per cent, (in 1831.) The duty on woolen cloths was also raised (after June,
1829) to 45 per cent., and that exceeding $4 the square yard to 50 per
cent. Under the decisive encouragement offered to both the wool-
grower and manufacturer by this Act, a great impetus was given to the
production of the finest wools, and the Saxons everywhere rapidly su-
perseded, or bred out by crossing, the Spanish Merinos. The latter dis-
appeared almost entirely from New-York and New-England. In the
fine-wool mania which ensued, weight of fleece, constitution, and every-
thing else, were sacrificed to the quality of the wool. The Tariff of 1832
imposed a 40 per cent, ad valorem and 4 cents per pound specific duty on
wools costing over 8 cents ; and.it raised the duty on all broadcloths to 50
per cent. It made wools costing less than 8 cents per pound free of duty.
The " Compromise " Tariff of 1S$3 commenced a system of progressive
reductions until the maximum rate of duties should not exceed 20 per
cent. The following Table will give the duties of each year, on wool
and cloths, under this Act, estimating the ad valorem and specific duties
on wools exceeding 8 cents, together in an average per centage :*

TABLE 14.

Perct
ad val.

1833.

1835.

1837.

1839.

1841.

1842.

Wool costing less than 8 cents per pound )

free.

free.

free.

free.

free.

free.

20

54

50-60

47-20

43-80

40-40

30-20

20

Woolen cloths

50

47

44

41

38

29

20

The Tariff of 1841 struck out the 20 per cent, duty on the 8 cent wools.
The Tariff of 1842 again imposed an ad valorem duty of 5 per cent, or
wools costing seven cents or under, and raised it on the higher wools to 30
pel1 cent, ad valorem and 3 cents per pound specific duty, and on cloths to
40 per cent, ad valorem. The Tariff of 1846 established an ad valorem
duty of 30 per cent, on all wools, and on cloths. By referring to Table
7, Letter V., it will be seen that the prices of wool have not been controlled
by *V.3 amount of the protection, They reached their maximum in 1836,
and then fell off, not again to rally, (except during the single year 1839) —
not again to reach 40 cents — until 1844. Why was this 1 What pro-
duced the sudden depreciation of 1837 ] The Tariffs of 1828 arid 1832
gave too muck protection to both wool-grower and manufacturer. Their
pursuits became the El Dorado of agricultural and mercantile speculators.
Skill without capital, and capital without skill, and in some cases probably
thirst of gain without either, rushed into these favored avocations. The
bank inflations of the period fanned the fires of speculation, and taught
some of the wisest commercial heads of the country to forget the provi-
dence that had hitherto distinguished them. The natural result followed.
In the financial crisis of 1837, manufacturing, and all other monetary en-
terprises which had not been conducted with skill and providence, and
which were not based on adequate and real capital, were involved in a
common destruction, and even the solidest and best conducted institutions
of the country were shaken by the fury of the explosion. Wool suddenly
fell almost 50 per cent, (from 54 to 30 cents per pound.) t In 1838 it ral-
lied a little, and in 1839 it again reached 50 cents, but it went down nearly
to the minimum point in 1840. The grower began to be discouraged.
He who bred the delicate Saxons, (and, as I have already said, they now
comprised the flocks of nearly all the large wool-growers in the country,)

* The reduction of one-tenth of the excess over 2^ per cent, took place Dec. 31st. each year, to 1841 ; then
one-half of the residue of the excess ; and on the 30lh of June, 1842, the other half of eaid residue was de-
ducted.

t The quality of the wools here alluded to will be found ppecified in a note on the second page of
Letter V.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

r/as iiot obtaining the actual first cost per pound of his wool. He clam
ored loudly for an increase of duties on the foreign article, as the reduc-
tions of the " Compromise " Act were now approaching their ultimate
standard — 20 per cent. — and he attributed the low prices to this cause:
Saxon wool continued low, and did not pay its first cost in 1841 and 1842.
Was this due solely to the reduction of the Tariff"? A reference to Table
11 (Letter IX.) will show that the import of foreign woolens was less from
1836 up to and including 1842, than for the six preceding years ! Where
then was the foreign competition which was driving the manufacturer to
keep down the price of wools 1 The Tariff of 1842 raised the duty on
wool 10 per cent, and added a specific duty of 3 cents per pound ; and it
raised the duty on cloths from 20 to 40 per cent. The import of foreign
woolens sunk, the succeeding year, to a lower point than it had touched
since 1821, and in 1844 and 1845 it did not reach the average of the six
years preceding the enactment of the Tariff of 1842. A reference to
Table 9 (Letter IX.) will show that the import of foreign fine wools also
largely fell off. This coincided with the expectations of the advocates of
a higher Tariff, but another and equally legitimate expectation entertained
by the great body of Northern wool-growers — that they were to share in
the benefits arising from the exclusion of foreign competition — was sig-
nally disappointed. The Tariff of 1842 was enacted on the 30th day of
August, and part of the clip of that year was sold under its operation.
Wool sold that year loicer than it had for the five preceding years, viz., for
30 cents. The next year it advanced one penny ! General discourage-
jnent now seized upon the growers of fine wool The market was not
overstocked — foreign competition was light, but still they could not sell
their wool for its first cost ! To add to their mortification, the manufac-
turer, by a most short-sighted policy, would scarcely make a discrimina-
tion of 6d. per pound between Saxon wool and medium Merino and grade
wools weighing nearly twice as much to the fleece. If the grower of me-
dium wool got 25 cents per pound for fleeces weighing 4 Ibs. — thus real-
izing $1 per fleece — the ordinary Saxon grower would get but 30 cents
per pound for fleeces weighing 2^ Ibs., and thus realize but 75 cents ! *
When the Saxon growers found that the Tariff of '42 brought them no
relief, they began to give up their costly and carefully nursed flocks. The
example, once set, became conlagious, and there was a period when it
hoemed as if all the Saxon sheep of the country would be sacrificed to
this reaction. Many abandoned wool-growing altogether, at a heavy sacri-
fice of their fixtures for rearing sheep. Others crossed with coarse-wooled
breeds, and rushing from one extreme to the other, some even crossed
with the English mutton breeds ! Some more judiciously went back to
the parent Merino stock, but usually they selected the heaviest and
coarsest wooled Merinos, and thus materially deteriorated the character of
their wool. As the preceding period had been distinguished by its mania
(or fine wool, this was, by its mania for heavy fleeces /f The English
crosses, however, were speedily abandoned.^ The Merino regained his

* And though the larger, stronger sheep, bearing the medium wool, would ent more, it was far hardier,
required less protection and care of every kind, and would increase more rapidly — circumstances which
would far more than counterbalance its excess of consumption

t I make no claim of having possessed greater sagacity or foresight in these particulars than the mass of
breeders. I b^gan with the Merino. These I crossed with the Saxon, and I also bred the pure-blood Sax-
ens for several years. Unsatisfied with these, I made some experiments with the English mutton breeds,
tioth as pure bloods and crosses. Finding none of them equal to the Merino as a wool-producing sheep, I
returned to the latter, and I bred for heavy fleeces until the manufacturers saw fit to make a juster discrim-
ination in the prices paid by them for the different qualities of wool.

tl mean by those who sought to improve their fine-wooled flocks by an English croes. English and all
other t oaree-wooled sheep are immensely and rapidly improved, for wool-growing purposes, by a propel
fine w«. )led cross, as 1 have already and shall again have occasion to mention.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 16l

supremacy, lost for nearly twenty years, and again became the populai
favorite. It was generally adopted by those who were commencing flocks
in the new Western States, and gives its type to the sheep of those re-
gions.

It will be seen from the preceding facts that the supply of fine wool*
has proportionably decreased, and that of medium and coarse increased.
This has driven the manufacturers to make a juster discrimination in
prices. They now realize that their own short-sighted economy has been
all but fatal to fine wool-growing in the United States. And they cannot
but feel that in destroying this interest, they destroy themselves. Our
manufacturers are not so miserably blind as to dream of drawing their raw
material from foreign countries — of paying an import duty of 30 per cent,
and then competing with the English manufacturer who pays an import duty
not exceeding two pence per pound ! It is doubtful, in my mind, whether
the home supply will not fall considerably short of the home demand for
fine \voo\for this year !\ The point has been already reached where but
a little more discouragement, or a little longer continued discouragement,
would have banished these wools from the country ! So far, the manufac-
tories have not felt this evil, for they have not been compelled to import.
Neither pampered nor persecuted by the Tariff of 1846 — called for by the
consumption of the country — with solid capital and greater experience
and skill at their command — they are rapidly increasing, and rising on a
solider basis than ever before. So, to sustain our manufacturing interest,
(that engaged in the manufacture of fine cloths,) it is absolutely necessary
that the diminution of fine wools be not only immediately arrested, but
that the growth of them be immediately and largely increased. These
facts now first beginning to be clearly appreciated by the manufacturer —
will deter him from resorting to his former suicidal policy. Instances have
recently come to my knowledge of manufacturers offering to contract
with fine-wool growers for their entire clips, for a term of years, at an ad-
vance on present prices — prices, be it remembered, higher than they have
been except for two years (1839 and 1844) since the overthrow of 1837.
Should the manufacturer, however, again forget his own interest, the fine-
wool grower has it in his power to teach it to him most effectually. In-
stead of being discouraged and driven from the business, he has but to
withhold his wools for a season — say for a few months, to compel the for-
mer to import wools at a ruinous cost — stop his machinery, or pay fail-
prices at home ! I believe in no combinations to control prices. Some-
thing far better than vague report, however, says that several of the large
manufacturing establishments of New-England employed the same agents,
last season, to buy much, if not all of their wools — and that these wools
were subsequently divided by bidding or otherwise, among the parties to
the transaction ! Is this denied ? I think it will not be denied. If
this was so, what was it but a combination to control prices 1 1 But whether

* To make myself clearly understood, I will, in the remarks which follow, classify wools as follows : fit-
ptrjine., the choicest quality of wool grown in the United States, and never grown here excepting in com.
paratively small quantities ; fine, good ordinary Saxon ; good medium, the highest quality of wool usually
known in the market as Merino; medium, ordinary Merino; ordinary, crade Merino and perhaps selected
South-Down fleeces ; coarse, the English long wools. &c. This subdivision is not minute enough, by any
means, to express fully the number of well-defined classes which exist in wool. A farther multiplication
of them here, however, I have thought would only tend to confusion.

t The position has been all alonj: taken that the general supply was under the demand, but the deficit
hitherto has been principally in medium and coarse wools. See Table 9, Letter JX

J And before leaving this point, I will ask another question : Why were most of the wools of New- York
and New-Encland untouched and unlooked at by the agents of the manufacturers this year, contrary to
•11 preceding customs for two or three months subsequently to shearing? These same agents flocked in
droves to the Western States and bought up their entire clip immediately after sr earing, while «-eporta
vrere constantly coming back that this manufactory and that had purchased its entire supply for a year, or
perhaps two years ? Was this because the Eastern growers demanded exorbitant prices t Wts it because
anything like an approach to a supply of fine wools could be found in the West 1 Or wa« it ttd result of a

X

162 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

so or not, when we compare the profits which have inured to the growers
and manufacturers of fine wool for the last few years, it behooves the for-
mer both to speak and act decidedly. Their interests have been sacrificed
long enough ! But it is to be hoped that the grower of these wools will
not be hereafter driven to the alternative of either suffering himself, or of
defending himself by retaliatory measures. Some few of the manufac-
turers have always, I believe, taken a high and liberal course. Enough
others, as already remarked, now see the necessity of such liberality to
prevent any combined or general effort to depress prices.

Will the North again turn its attention to the growth of superfine and
fine wools — again supply the demand, and keep up with it as it increases '\
Not unless stimulated by the inducement of extraordinary profits — not,
certainly, against the competition of the South. The climate north of 41°,
or, beyond all dispute, north of 42°, is too severe for any variety of sheep
commonly knoivn, which bear either of these classes of wools. In fact, the
only such variety, in anything like general use, is the Saxon ; and this is
a delicate sheep, entirely incapable of safely withstanding our Northern
winters, without good shelter, good and regularly administered food, and
careful and skillful management in all other particulars. "When the season
is a little more than usually backward, so that grass does not start prior to
the lambing season, it is difficult to raise the lambs of the mature ewes —
the young ewes will in many instances disown their lambs, or, if they own
them, not have a drop of milk for them ; and if in such a crisis, as it often
happens, a north-east or north-west storm comes driving down, bearing
snow or sleet on its wings, or there is a sudden depression of the temper-
ature from any cause, no care will save multitudes of lambs from perish-
ing.* And it will not do to defer the time of having them dropped to es-
cape these evils, or they will not attain size and strength enough to pass
safely through their first winter.t A few large sheepholders, whose farms,
buildings, etc., have been arranged with exclusive reference to the rearing
of these sheep, may continue to grow fine wool until driven from it ly the
competition of the South ; but many of these have recently adopted a
Merino cross. The ordinary farmers, the small sheepholders, who, in the
aggregate, grow by far the largest portion of our Northern wools, have im-
bibed a deep-seated aversion — nay, a positive disgust — against the Saxon
sheep. They have not the necessary fixtures for their winter protection,
and they are entirely unwilling to bestow the necessary amount of care on
them. Besides, mutton and wool being about an equal consideration with
this class of farmers, they want larger and earlier maturing breeds. But,
above all, they want a strong, hardy sheep, which demands no more care
than their cattle. The strong, compact, medium-wooled Merino — or, per-
haps still more generally, its crosses with coarse varieties, producing the
wool which I have classified as ordinary — will be the general favorites. —
The same reasons will weigh still more strongly in the North-west, where,
as I have shown, the climate is a still worse one for delicate sheep. All
these causes will tend to swell the amount of medium, ordinary and coarse

concerted movement to bring the Eastern grower into tnking last year's prices ? It Actually did so, in ?»
multitude of instances — or, he .was contented to receive the slightest advance on them ! This will be found
true of nearly all who sold goon after the market opened in the East. If not the result of a concerted and
combined movement, tine pemral desertion of the Eastern find resort to the Western market by the mauu
facturers was a most singular coincidence ! These manufacturers are now fain to purchase Eastern wools
at a considerable advance from the prices of 1846 — and. as already hinted, it is highly problematical, in my
mind, whether they will not be compelled to import at a still higher advance, to eke out » deficiency ! It u
to be hoped that this will be the last Act in the drama of folly and suicide plajed by our manufacturers.

* Not even in close barns, and with constant attendance.

t North of latitude 42°, it is necessary, as a general rule, that lambs be dropped in the first half of May. to
give them this requisite size and strength Occasional cold storms come nearly every season up to that
period, and not unfrequently up to the first of June. Mr. Grove was a decided advocate of early lamb*.—
Be used to say that " it was better to lose two of them in the spring ib<ui one in the full "

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 163

wools. Though the reaction has been but recent, the market demand for
medium and ordinary wools is now better supplied — nearer being glutted,
so far as I am enabled to judge — than that for fine and superfine. And
should the market become glutted w-»th either or both, it is important to
remember that the latter will be far n-iure profitable for export than the
former/

Every consideration, then, in my judgment, points to wools ranging from
good medium upward, instead of the lower classes, as the most profitable
staples for cultivation in the South. The only question which now arises
on this point is, from which variety, the Saxon or Merino, shall the South
attempt to cultivate these wools ]

It is generally supposed, and as a general thing it is true, that the Me-
rino bears no better wool than that which I have classified as good medi-
um. But the measurements of Dr. Emmons (given in Letter X.) show,
by the infallible testimony of the microscope, that heavy-fleeced Merinos
sometimes equal — nay, surpass Saxons, in fineness. The fact is more de-
cisive, as the Saxon fibres there measured came not only from the most
celebrated flocks — from the prize sheep at State Fairs — but it also came
from samples, in most instances, given by the owners for public exhibition.
I do not claim that Merinos like these are common. They are rather to
be regarded in the light of those prodigies of excellence which occasion-
ally appear, but which it is difficult to reproduce with anything like uni-
formity. Nor are lesser fleeced Merinos, bearing wool equal to ordinary
Saxon, very common. During the Jine wool mania, all, who sought fine
wool, bred the Saxon sheep, or crossed with it ; and the few who stood'
out, and clung to the Merino, generally aimed to distinguish it as widely
as possible from the former, by increasing the weight of its fleece, to the1
disregard of its fineness. This, too, was the general disposition during the
heavy-fleeced mania. Of consequence, but very few of our breeders have
ever, or until recently, sought a high degree of fineness in fleece in breed-
ing the Merino. Recent experience has satisfied me that this is rapidly
attainable. Mr. Lawrence, in a quotation already made by me (in Letter
I.), says : " I believe a breed may be reared which will give four pounds-
of exquisitely fine wool to the fleece." I know by multiplied experiments^
that once interbreeding between an ewe bearing good medium wool (the
fleece weighing, say, from 4^ Ibs. to 5 Ibs.), with a Merino ram of suffi-
ciently high quality, will produce wool in the offspring equaling ordinary
Saxon, and a fleece averaging 4 Ibs., with none of its weight made up of
gum. The result of two such interbreedings will bring the progeny of a
heavy-fleeced medium ewe (provided her fleece is properly even) to the
same point. The four-pound fine-fleeced Merino would be a far more-
profitable animal than the Saxon, other things being equal. But other
things are not equal. The former is every way a hardier animal, and a
better nurse. It is about 20 Ibs. heavier, and therefore consumes more
feed ; but I consider this additional expense more than counterbalanced
by the additional care and risk attending the husbandry of the Saxon. If
required to keep the number good, and give the proper attention to the
rearing of lambs, I would sooner engage to keep, at the same price,,
one thousand such Merinos for a year, than to keep the same number of
Saxons.

It would be practicable, doubtless, to increase the Saxon's fleece to 4
Ibs. ; but any one, familiar with such experiments, knows that it is far easio*
to increase fineness of wool, by diminishing weight of fleece and carcass K
little, than it is to increase weight of fleece and carcass without lowering
the quality of the wool. And there is this additional cbjection to the latter

164 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

byatero of breeding, so far as the Saxon is concerned. The breeder is no»
only called upoy to increase the weight of its fleece and carcass, but to en-
graft on it hardiness of constitution, nursing properties, etc., which by no
meant! follow, aa a matter of course, its improvement in the former partic*
uiars. These, and particularly the latter, could only be attained, so as to
be transmissible wjtli a proper degree of certainty from parents to offspring,
by years of bxeeuiiig, accompanied by a rigorous course of selection. *If,
therefore, you were cabled upon to form a variety just suited to your wants,
the Merino would present the most ductile and the safest materials. But
the Southern agriculturist, just entering upon sheep-rearing, would not be
prepared to conduct nice experiments in breeding. He wants a breed or
variety already prepared to his' hand. And for the same reasons, notwith-
standing the fineness of hio climate, he wants a hardy breed — one that de-
mands no extra skill, no gieat experience, for its management. Merinos
reaching or closely approacLiug the standard above specified are now to
be found, while there is no corresponding variety of Saxons ; and to incur
the risks arising from inexpeiience, want of preparation, &c., the superior
hardiness of ihe former would, of course, render them entirely prefer-
able.

Some have recommended a cross between the Saxons and Merinos, as a
cheap and ready method of obtaining a four-pound fine-fleeced sheep. A
properly selected Saxon ram, crosbed with good medium and medium-
wooled Merino ewes, catting from i> Ibs. to 5^ Ibs. of wool, will almost uni-
formly produce this lesalt. And it is easier now to get the Saxon than the
Merino, fine enough foe this purpose. Or a flock may be bred up from
Saxon ewes and a Merino ram. The? objection to both courses is the same,
though not equal to that which exisls against breeding the full-blood Sax-
ons— viz., the production of a feeble and a poor nursing sheep. The latter
evil, especially, clings for generations to these cross-bred animals, so far as
my experience and observation have extended. And unless Saxons are
selected which do not possess the characteristic faults of the variety, the
cross-breda- are inferior to pure-blood Merinos in many other and essential
particulars, notwithstanding the fleece may be all that we desire.

There is another important point where the pure-blood Merino possesses
ti marked advantage. Few Southern wool-growers will commence their
flocks exclusively with high-bred animate of any kind. With a few of them
to breed rams from, and to gradually grow up a full-blood flock, they will
mainly depend upon grading up the common sheep of the country. With
the long-legged, bare-bellied, open-wooled sheep common in the South (as
it once was in the North\ the Saxon makca an indifferent cross. Their
faults run too much in the same direction, in all save the fineness of wool,
for, however good its shape, the wool of the Saxon is comparatively short
and open. It therefore shortens the wool of the common sheep, without
adding much or any to its thickness, and thus the fleece remains a light
one. Precisely all this is the reverse of what results from a cross between
the Merino and the common sheep. The wool is but little shortened, un-
less the staple of the common sheep was very 1ongj.it is essentially thick-
ened ; it is made to extend over the belly ; the fleece is, therefore, greatly
increased in weight ; the sheep is rendered more compact and " stocky,"
and it is brought nearer to the ground. Even the first cross, though its
fleece is somewhat uneven, is a prime sheep for the wants of ordinary farm-
ers, and among these it is, accordingly, a decided favorite, over the whole
Northern States. A majority of them would, I think, give it preference
over any other kind or variety of sheep. Two or three more proper Me-
rino crosses raise it to the rank of a Jirst-rate wool-growing shf<"p — scarcely

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 165

inferior to the full-blood Merino in anything, save that it docs not transmit
its good qualities icith quite so much certainty to its offspring*

Let us now proceed to inquire what are the points which constitute ex-
cellence, or mark a departure from it, in the class of Merino sheep which
I have attempted to show form, in every point of view, the most suitable
variety to commence wool-growing with in the South. What should be its
size, weight of fleece, shape, general appearance, style of wool, &c. &c. 1

Size, within extremes, is not, per sc, a matter of much consequence. —
There should, however, be uniformity in this particular, at least through
the same Hock, not only for their good appearance, but larger sheep are
apt, by their superior strength, to crowd away small ones from the rack or
trough. A sheep very small of its breed and family, is commonly less hardy.
If very large, it must travel farther to Jill itself ; and, therefore, this would
be an objection to it in a breed designed to graze on short and scant pas*
turage — for the extra exercise thus made necessary would cause it to waste
(in the form of carbon, in the lungs) a considerable portion of the food,
which would, under other circumstances, be converted into animal tissues.
Very large, like very small animals, of the same species — and, I am in-
clined to think, the former more frequently — lack the robustness, vigor of
muscle, capacity to endure unusual and protracted exercise, or privation
of food, or any other unfavorable deviation from ordinary habits, possessed
by compact medium-sized animals. This rule will be found to apply among
all domestic animals. Lastly, I am not prepared to prove, but I believe
that, with the same breeding, the woolly, like the osseous and muscular tis-
sues of a large Merino sheep, will not be as fine as those of a smaller one.
I do not found this opinion, so far as wool is concerned, upon, nor do 1
claim that it is supported by, any analogies. I state it as solely the result
of individual observation. If it is a tendency which can be successfully re-
sisted, I never have been fortunate enough to have a sufficient number of
instances brought under my eye, in any one flock, to have them constitute
anything more than sparse exceptions to what I deem a well established
rule. I have never known a family of very large Merinos bearing anything
better than medium wool ; and the first step to any decided improvement
in them immediately reduces their weight, for it can only be effected by
interbreeding with finer and smaller families. Ewes weighing from 80 Ibs.
to 90 Ibs. alive, in good fair store condition, are of about the proper size,
in my judgment, where fine wool is the object.t Rams should weigh 40
Ibs. or 50 Ibs. more. Ewes of the large Merino families weigh fiom 100
Ibs. to 110 Ibs. — the rams 50 Ibs. more ; nor do even these equal the size
of some of the late imported French Merinos.

A relation analogous to the preceding one, exists between the weight of
the fleece and its quality. This point has already been sufficiently set
forth on another page. The opinion is there expressed that the Merino may
be easily bred, by judicious selection of sire and dam, to bear 4 Ibs. of fine
wool, or wool equaling ordinary Saxon. I would now add that, as a gen-
eral rule, and in large flocks, I do not believe more, than this can be ob-
tained, without a depreciation in the quality, among ewes. The ram's
fleece should in all cases, in a very superior animal, be about double that
of the ewe. Five per cent, of the live-weight of the carcass, with ewes, is
the maximum weight of fine wool, which we can, in the present state of
breeding, look for with any uniform certainty. This would give a fleece
of 4 Ibs. to 80 Ibs. of live-weight. As the fine-wool Merinos increase, and
thus give a wider range and better selection of materials for nice exper>

* The latter point will be more particularly adverted to in a subsequent part of this Letter
I Haxorw weigh about 20 Iba. leaf.

166 SHEEP HUSBANDRY N THE SOUTH.

mnnts, it is very possible that the per centage of the fleece may be increased.
Mr. Lawrence, in speaking of attaining a four-pound fleece of " exquisite*
quality, undoubtedly alluded to the wool which I have classed as superfine,
The four-pound fleeced fine Merino can undoubtedly be made superfine,
by diminishing t^ie weight of its fleece 10 or 12 ounces or a pound ;
and even then it will be a hardier 'and better animal than the liner
class of Saxons which now produce this wrool. But whether Mr. Law-
rence's standard can be fully attained, neither experience nor obser-
vation enable me to decide. If it could, and the sheep be equal to the
four-pound ^e-fleeced Merino in other respects, we should have a perfect
keep. Such wool has sold this year at upward of 60 cents per pound,
which would bring the fleeces to $2 40 a piece ! It may be well here to
glance at the comparative worth of fleeces in the several Merino families,
taking this year's prices, and taking the weights which are usually found
accompanying the several qualities, in prime ordinary flocks. A fine fleece
of 4 Ibs., at 50 cents,* would be worth $2 ; good medium, weighing 4J
Ibs., at 40 cents, $1 80 ; medium, weighing 5 Ibs., at 32 cents, $1 60. And
the consumption of feed rises with the diminution of quality. Admitting
the daily consumption of hay for 150 days to be 3 per cent, to the live-
weight, 100 fine Merinos, averaging 85 Ibs. each, would consume about 19
tons of hay ; and 100 medium Merinos, averaging 105 Ibs. each, would
consume about 23^ tons — an important difference in their relative ex
penses ! The fine-wooled Merino does not, like the Saxon, lose his ad
vantage in this particular by his inferior hardiness.

The shape and general appearance of the Merino should be as follows:
The head should be well carried up, and in the ewe hornless. It would
be better on many accounts to have the ram also hornless, but, being usu-
ally characteristic of the Merino, many prefer to see them. The face
should be shortish, broad between the eyes, the nose pointed, and in the
ewe fine and free from wrinkles. The eye should bo bright, moderately
prominent, and gentle in its expression. The neck should be straight (not
curving downward), short, round, stout — particularly so at its junction with
the shoulder, forward of the upper point of which it should not sink below
the level of the back. The points of the shoulder should not rise to any
perceptible extent above the level of the back. The back, to the hips,
should be straight; the crops (that portion of the body immediately back
of the shoulder-blades) full ; the ribs well arched ; the body large and ca-
pacious ; the flank well let down ; the hind-quarters full and round — the
flesh meeting well down between the thighs, (or in the " twist.") The
bosom should be broad and full ; the legs short, well apart, and perpendic-
ular, (*.*., not drawn under the body toward each other when the sheep is
standing.) Viewed as a whole, the Merino should present the appearance
of a low, st«mt, plump, and— though differing essentially from the English
mutton-sheep model — a highly symmetrical sheep.

The skin is an important point. It should be loose, singularly mellow,
of a rich, delicate pink color. A colorless skin, or one of a tawny, ap-
proaching to a butternut hue, indicates bad breeding. On the subject of
wrinkles, there is a difference of opinion. Being rather characteristic of
the Merino — like the black color in a Berkshire hog, or the absence of all
color in Durham cattle — these wrinkles have been more egarcled, by nov-
ices, than those points which give actual value to the animal ; and shrewd
breeders have not been slow to act upon this hint ! Many have contended
that more wool can be obtained from a .vrinkled skin ; and this is the vicn»

This is not high for fine Merino wool. Tbotiuh I fold ray lot for 42 cents, I *as offered 50 ccnta for thf
of nearly all my later-bred sheep, if I would sell them separately.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH 167

of the case which has induced both the Spanish and Frerch breeders to
cultivate them — the latter to a monstrosity. I confess that t agree, to a
considerable extent, with Mr. Joshua Kirby Trimmer,* that " this idea is
as wild as that which some of our theorists have entertained, that, by lay-
ing lands in high ridges and low furrows, the surface of the earth and its
produce is increased." Though I once entertained a different opinion, thfc
steel-yards have satisfied me that an exceedingly wrinkled neck does not
add but a little to the weight of the fleece — not enough to compensate for
the deformity, and the great impediment which it places in the way of the
shearer. I have owned rams, the labor of shearing six of which, in a nice
and workmanlike manner — cutting the wool off" short and smooth, on anti
among the multitude of folds and wrinkles — was fully equivalent to shear-
ing fifteen ordinary Merino rams, or twenty-five ewes — that is to say, a
day's work for one man. And none but a skillful shearer could, with any
time given him, clip the wool short and smooth among the wrinkles, with-
out frequently and severely cutting the skin. A smoothly drawn skin, and
absence of all dewlap, on the other hand, would not, perhaps, be desirable,

The wool of the Merino should densely cover the whole body, where it
can possibly grow, from a point between and a little below the eyes, ami
well up on the cheeks, to the knees and hocks. Short wool may show,
particularly in young animals, on the legs, even below the knees and
hocks — but long wool covering the legs, and on the nose below the
eyes, is unsightly — without value — and on the faces it frequently impedes
the sight of the animal, causing it to be in a state of perpetual alarm,
and disqualifying it to escape real danger. Neither is this useless wool,
as seems to be thought by some, the slightest indication of a heavy fleece.
I have as often seen it on Saxons scarcely shearing 2 Ibs. of wool, and on
the very lightest fleeced Merinos.

The amount of gum which the wool should exhibit, is another of the
mooted points. Here, as in many other particulars, experience has
changed my earlier impressions. Merino wool should be yolky or " oily,"
prior to washing — though not to that extreme extent, giving it the ap-
pearance of being saturated with grease, occasionally witnessed. The
extreme tips of the wool may exhibit a sufficient trace of gum to give the
fleece a darkish cast — particularly in the ram — but a black, pitchy gum,
resembling semi-hardened tar, extending an eighth or a quarter of an inch
into the fleece, and which cannot be removed in ordinary washing, is, in my
opinion, decidedly objectionable. There is a white or yellowish concrete
gurn, not removable by common washing, which appears in the interior of
some fleeces, which is equally objectionable.

The weight of fleece remaining the same, medium length of staple, with
compactness, is preferable to long, open wool, inasmuch as it constitutes
a better safeguard from inclemencies of weather, and better protects the
sheep from ttie bad effects of cold and drenching rains in spring and fall.
The wool should be as nearly as possible of even length and thicknesi
over the whole body. Shortness on the flank, and shortness or thinness
on the belly, are serious defects.

" Evenness of fleece " is a point of the first importance. Many sheen
exhibit good wool on the shoulder and side, while it is far coarser ana
even hairy on the thighs, dewlap, &c. Rams of this stamp should not be
bred from by any one aiming to establish a superior fine-wooled flock, and
all such ewes should be gradually excluded from those selected for
breeding.

The "style of the wool" is a point of as much consequence as mere

* * Practical Observations on the Improvement of British Fine Wools, &c." by the above, 1828.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

fineness. Some very fine wool is stiff and the fibres almost straight, like
hair. It has a dry, cottony look. This is a poor, unsalable article, how-
ever fine the fibre. Softness of wool — a delicate, silky, highly elastic feel,
between the fingers or on the lips, is the first thing to look after. This is
usually an index, or inseparable attendant, of the other good qualities, so
that an experienced judge can decide, with little difficulty, between the
quality of two fleeces, in the dark ! Wool should be finely serrated or
crimped from one extremity to the other — i. e., it should present a regular
series of minute curves, and, generally, the greater the number of these
curves in a given length, the higher the quality of wool in all other
particulars. The wool should open on the back of the sheep in connected
masses, instead of breaking up into little round spiral ringlets of the size
of a pipe-stem, which indicate thinness of fleece ; and when the wool is
pressed open each way with the hands, it should be dense enough to con-
ceal all but a delicate rose-colored line of skin. The interior of the wool
should be a pure, glittering white, with a lustre and "liveliness " of look
not surpassed in the best silk.

The points in the form of the Merino which the breeder is called upon
particularly to eschew, are — a long, thin head, narrow between the eyes — •
a thin, long neck, arching downward before the shoulders — bad crops —
back falling behind the shoulders — narrow loin — flat ribs — steep, narrow
hind quarters — long legs — thighs scarcely meeting at all — legs drawn far
under the body at the least approach of cold. All these points were sep-
arately or conjointly illustrated in many of the Saxon flocks which have
been recently swept from the country. The points to be avoided in the
fleece have been sufficiently adverted to.

Having thus attempted to establish a standard for the Merino-breeder,
it, remains that we examine some of the most important principles, in
breeding, by which that standard is to be reached or maintained.

The first great starting-point, among pure-blood animals, is that *' like
will beget like." If the sire and dam are perfect in any given point, the
offspring will generally be ; if either is defective, the offspring will (sub-
ject to a law presently to be adverted to) be half way between the two;
if both are defective in the same point, the progeny will be more so than
either of its parents — it will inherit the amount of the defect in both pa-
rents added together. There are exceedingly few perfect animals. Breed-
ing, then, is a system of counterbalancing — breeding out — in the offspring,
the defects of one parent, by the marked excellence of the other parent.
in the same points. The highest blood confers on the parent possessing it
the greatest power of stamping its own characteristics on its progeny ; but
blood being the same, the male sheep possesses this power in a greater
degree than the female. We may, therefore, in the beginning, breed
from ewes possessing any defects short of cardinal ones, without impro-

Sriety, provided we possess the proper ram for that purpose ; but the
ockmaster, aiming at a high standard of quality, should gradually throw
out from breeding all ewes possessing even considerable defects. Every
year should make him more rigorous in his selection. But from the be-
ginning— and in the beginning more than at any other time — the greatest
care should be evinced in the selection of the ram. If he has a defect,
that defect is to be inherited by the whole future flock. If it is a material
one, as, for example, a hollow back, bad crops, a thin fleece, or a highly
uneven fleece, the flock will be one of low quality and little value. If, on
the other hand, he is perfect, the defects in the females will be lessened,
and gradually bred out. But it being difficult to find perfect rams, we are
to take those which have the fewest and lightest defects, anu none of

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 169

these material ones, like those just enumerated. And these defects are U
be met and counterbalanced by the decided excellence (sometimes running
to a fault) of the ewe, in the same points. If the ram is a little too long
togged, the shortest-legged ewes should be selected for him ; if gummy
the dryest-wooled ewes ; if his fleece is a trifle below the proper standard'
of fineness, (but he has been retained, as it often happens, for weight of
fleece and general excellence,) he is to be put to the finest and lightes/
fleeced ewes, and so on. Having a selection of rams, this system of coun
terbalancing would require little skill, if each parent possessed but oru
fault. If the ewe was a trifle too thin fleeced, and good in all other par
ticulars, it would require no nice judgment to decide that she needed to b*
bred to an uncommonly thick-fleeced ram. But most animals possess, tc
a greater or less degree, several defects. To select so that every one 01
these in the dam shall meet its opposite in the male, and vice versa, re.
quires not only plentiful materials to select from, but the keenest dis
crimination. The time and the convenient method of selecting the cwci
for the several rams, and the subsequent management, will be hereaftei
pointed out.

We will now suppose that the breeder has established his flock — that
he has done so successfully, and given them an excellent character. He
is soon met with a serious evil. He must " breed in-and-in," as it is called
— that is, interbreed between animals more or less nearly related in blood
—or he must seek rams from other flocks, to the risk of losing or changing
the distinctive character of his flock, hitherto sought so sedulously, and
built up with so much care. It is contended by the opponents of in-and-in
breeding that it renders diseases and all other defects hereditary, and that
t tends to decrease of size, to debility, and a general breaking up of the
constitution. Its apologists, on the other hand, insist that, if the parents
are perfectly healthy, incestuous connexion does not, per se, tend to any
diminution of healthiness in the offspring ; arid they also claim, what must
be conceded, that it enables the skillful breeder much more rapidly to
bring his flock to a particular standard or model — and much more easily
to keep it there — unless it be true that, in course of time; they will dwin-
dle and grow feeble. So far as the effect on the constitution is concerned,
Loth positions may be, to a certain extent, true. But it is, perhaps, diffi-
cult to always decide with certainty when ah animal is not only free from
disease, but from all tendency or predisposition toward it. A brother and
taster may be apparently healthy — may be actually so — but may possess
an idiosyncrasy which, under certain circumstances, will manifest itself. —
If these circumstances do not chance to occur, they may live, apparently
possessing a robust constitution, until old age. If bred together, their off-
spring, by a rule already laid down, will possess the idiosyncrasy in a
double degree. Suppose the ram be interbred with sisters, half-sisters,
daughters, grand-daughters, &c., for several generations, the predisposition
toward a particular disease — in the first place slight, now strong, and con-
stantly growing stronger — will pervade, and become radically incorporated
into, the constitution of the whole flock. The first time the requisite ex-
citing causes are brought to bear, the disease breaks out, and, under such
circumstances, with peculiar severity and malignancy. If it be of a fatal
character, the flock is rapidly swept away ; if not, it becomes chronic, 01
periodical at frequently recurring intervals. The same remarks apply, in
part, to those defects of the outward form which do not at first, fr< m their
slightness, attract the notice of the ordinary breeder. They are rapidly
increased until, aim <st before thought of by the owner, they destroy th<*
value of the sis 3ep. That such are the common effects of in-and-in breed

170 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

ing, with such skill as it is ordinarily conducted, all know who have given
attention to the subject; arid for these reasons the system is looked upon
with decided disapprobation and repugnance, as among all kinds of domes-
tic animals, by nine out of ten of the best practical farmers of the Northern
States.

How, then, shall the sheep-breeder avoid the effects of in-and-in breed-
ing, and at the same time preserve the character of his flock] He should
do so by seeking rams of the same breed, and possessing, as nearly as pos-
sible, the characteristics whicli he wishes to preserve in his own flock. If the
latter rule is neglected — if he draws indiscriminately from all the different
families or varieties of a breed — some large and some small — some long
and some shoft-wooled — some medium and some superfine in quality —
some tall and some squabby — some crusted over with black gum, some
entirely free from it, &c. &c. — breeding will become a mere hotch-potch,
and no certain or uniform results can be looked for. So many varieties
cannot be fused into one, for a number of generations ;* and it not unfre-
quently happens, as between the different classes of Saxons alluded to by
Mr. Spooner,f that certain families can never be successfully amalgamated.

But suppose the breeder has reached no satisfactory standard — that his
sheep are deficient in the requisites he desires 1 If the desired requisites
are characteristic of the breed he possesses, he is to adhere to the breed, and
select better animals to improve his own inferior ones. If he has an infe-
rior flock of South-Downs, and wishes to obtain the qualities of the best
South Dams, he should seek for the best rams of that breed. But if he
wishes to obtain qualities not characteristic of the breed he possesses, he
must cross with a breed which docs possess them. If the possessor of South-
Downs wishes to convert them into a fine-wooled sheep similar to the Me-
rino, he should cross his flock steadily with Merino rams — constantly in-
creasing the amount of Merino and diminishing the amount of South -Down
blood. To effect the same result, he would take the same course with the
common sheep of the country, or any other coarse race. There are
those who, forgetful that some of the finest varieties now in existence, of
several kinds of 'domestic animals, are the result of crosses, bitterly inveigh
against the practice of crossing, under any and all circumstances. As fre-
quently conducted, where objects incompatible with each other are sought
to be attained — as, for example, an attempt to unite the fleece of a Merino
and the carcass of a Leicester, by crosses between those breeds — it is an
unqualified absurdity. But under the limitations already laid down, and
with the objects specified as legitimate ones, objection to crossing savors,
in my judgment, of prejudice the most profound, or quackery the most
unvarnished. The cry, " buy full-bloods," with such men, generally means,
" buy our full-bloods ! " It is neither convenient, nor within the means of
every man wishing to start a flock of sheep, to start exclusively with full-
bloods. With a few full-bloods to breed rams from, and to begin a full-
blood flock, the Southern breeder will find it his best policy to purchase
the best common sheep of his country, and gradually grade them up with
Merino rams. In selecting the ewes, fair size, good shape, and a robust
constitution, are the main points — the little difference that exists between
the quality of the common sheep's wool is of no consequence. For their
wool they are to look to the Merino ; but good form and constitution they
can and ought to possess, so as not to entail deep-rooted and entirely «»•
necessary evils on their progeny.

* This occasions the want of uniformity in the Rambooillet flock in France, which was begun by t pro-
mlicuous admixture of all the Spanish families.
+ U'totcd in Letter X.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 171

I have already spoken, in this Letter, incidentally, of the effect on the
fleece of the common sheep, by crossing with the Merino and breeding
steadily toward the latter ; and also of the mutton of this cross, as
well as that of the Merino and the English breeds. The result of
the cross with the common sheep has been sufficiently described. I would
add a few remarks in relation to that with the South-Down and Leicester
— both of which I have tried until sufficiently satisfied with the result,
.Resolved on making an experiment with a Down and Merino cross, a few
years since, and finding it difficult to obtain Down ewes* of the proper
quality, I obtained a small, compact, exceedingly beautiful, fine and even-
fleeced Down ram,t and crossed him with a few large-sized Merino ewes.
The half-blood ewes were bred to a Merino ram, and also their female
progeny, and so on. The South-Down form and disposition to take on
fat manifested itself, to a perceptible extent, in every generation which I
bred,! and the wool of many of the sheep in the third generation (|--blood
Merino and l-blood Down) was very even, and equal to medium, and
some of them to good medium Merino. Their fleeces were lighter than
the full-blond Merino, but increased in weight with each succeeding cross
back toward the latter. Their mutton of the first, and even the second
cross, was of a beautiful flavor — and it retained some of the superiority of
South-Down mutton to the last.

1 at the same time purchased a few Leicester ewes,]| and, as in the
preceding case, taking one cross of the blood, I bred toward the Merino.
The mongrels, to the second generation (beyond which I did not breed
them) were about midway between the size of the two parent stocks —
with wool shorter, but far finer and more compact than the Leicester—
their fleeces about the same in weight as in the present stocks§ — and alto-
gether they were a showy and profitable sheep, and well calculated to
please the mass of farmers. Their fleeces lacked evenness — their thighs
remaining disproportionately coarse and hairy ; and making up my mind
that this would always be a tendency of the sheep of this cross, I aban-
doned them without farther experiment.

In relation to the number of crosses necessary before it is proper to
breed from a mongrel ram, there is a difference of opinion. Mr. Livings-
ton says :fl

" It is now so well established as not even to admit of the smallest doubt that a Merino in
the fourth generation, from even the worst-wooled ewes, is in every respect equal to the
stock of the sire. No difference is now made in Europe in the choice of a ram, whether he
is a full-blood or a fifteen-sixteenths." .... " The French agriculturists say that however
coarse the fleece of the parent ewe may have been, the progeny in the fourth generation
will not show it."

I am constrained to differ with even this high authority. I admit that
the only value of blood or pedigree, in breeding, is to* insure the hereditary
transmission of the properties of the parent to the offspring. As soon as
a mongrel reaches the point where he stamps his characteristics on his
progeny, with the same certainty that a full-blood does, he is equally
valuable, provided he is, individually, as perfect an animal. But I do not

* To carry out the commonly received principle in breeding, that in crossing between different races, the
ram of the smaller should be nut to ewe of the larger one.

t This ram. obtained from Francis Rotch, Esq., was got by a prize ram of Mr. Ellman'e, and from one of
bis choicest breeding-ewes, and showed infinitely more style, as well as fineness and evenness of wool,
than the common Downs of our country. He was not larger than a large-sized Merino ram.

J These I finally put off to save myself the trouble of breeding several kinds of sheep on the same farm.

|| Descended from the flock of the late Robert Adcock. of Otsego County, N. Y. — considered at the time
equal to any flock in the State.

§ That is, about 5 Ibs. I have put down the Leicester fleece, in my description of the breed, at 6 Ibs., aa
ihis is the amount generally claimed for them ; but in the few cases brought within my direct knowledge,
they have never averaged it. My ewes above alluded to did not, I think, average quite 5 Ibs.

\r Essay on Sheep, pp. 181. 183.

172 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH,

believe that this can be depended upon, with any certainty, in rams of the
fourth Merino cross. My only experience in this particular is in the ob-
servation of other men's flocks who have bred with high-grade rams.*
These have invariably lacked the style and perfection of thorough-bred
flocks. The sixth, seventh, or eighth cross might be generally, and the
last perhaps almost invariably, as good as pure-blood rams, but I confess
I should still prefer to adhere to the latter. Pure blood is a fixed stand-
ard, and were every breeder to think himself at liberty to depart from it,
in his rams, each one more or less, according to his own judgment or
caprice, the whole blood of the country would become adulterated. No
man would be authorized to sell a ram of any cross, be it the tenth, or
even the twentieth, as a full-blood.

It is all-important for those commencing flocks either of full-bloods, or
by crossing, to select the choicest rams. A grown ram may be made to
serve || from 100 to 150 ewes in a season. A good Merino ram will,
speaking within bounds, add more than a pound of wool to the fleece of
the dam, on every lamb got by it, from a common-wooled ewe.§ Here is
one hundred or one hundred and fifty pounds of wool for the use of a
ram for a single season ! And every lamb subsequently got by him adds a
pound to this amount. Many a ram gets, during his life, 800 or 1,000
lambs ! Nor is the extra amount of wool all. He gets from 800 to 1,000
half-blooded sheep, worth double their dams, -and ready to be made the
basis of another and higher stride in improvement. A good ram, then, is
as important, and, it seems to me, quite as valuable an animal as a good
farm-horse stallion ! When the number of a ram's progeny are taken into
consideration, and when it is seen over what an immense extent, even in
his own direct offspring, his good or bad qualities are to be petpetuated,
the folly of that economy which would select an inferior one is sufficiently
obvious.

Every one desirous of sta'rting a flock will find it his best economy,
where the proper flocks to draw rams from are not near him, to purchase
several of the same breed, of course, but of different strains of blood. Thus,
ram No. 2 can be put on the offspring of No. 1, and vice versa; No. 3 can
be put upon the offspring of both, and both upon the offspring of No. 3.
The changes which can be rung on three distinct strains of blood, without
in-and-in breeding close enough to be attended with any considerable dan-
ger, are innumerable.^ But if these rams of different strains are bought
promiscuously, without reference to similarity of characteristics, there
may, and probably will be differences between them, and it might require
time and skill to give a flock descended from them, a proper uniformity of
character. Those who breed rams for sale should be prepared to furnish
different strains of blood with the necessary individual and family uni
formity.

* I have never knowingly bred with any other ram than a pure-blood, of any stock, or for any purpose.

|| By methods hereafter to be described.

§ That is, if the ewe at 3 years old sheared 3 Ibs. of wool, the lamb at the same age will shear 4 Ibs. of
wool.

If The brother and sister are of the game blood; the father and daughter, half; the father nnd grand-
daughter, one-fourth ; tfw father and great grand-daughter, one-eighth, and so on. Breeding between an-
imals possessing one-eighth of the same blood, would not be considered very close breeding ; and it is not
uncustomary, in rugged, well-formed families, to breed between those possessing one-fourth of the saint
blood.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 173

LETTER XII.

SUMMED MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.

Tagging- necessity of— method of doing it. ..Burs — how avoided... Lambing — time of— Inclosurei for-*
Mechanical Assistance — when rendered — assisting the Lamb — Feeding — necessary care in— Warming—
Foster Ewes. ..Pens..." Pinning "...Numbering and Registering — advantages of— Von Timer's System of
Numbering — manner of doing it conveniently — Mr. Grove's form of a Register... Castration and Docking
— proper tune and method... Washing— time— necessary apparatus — "wetting1' — manner of washing —
ordinary wiiete in subsequent cleansing.. Cutting the Hoofs — best time — implements— method... Time
between Washing and Shearing... shearing — proper conveniences for — catcher's business — directions to
shearer — general directions... Shearing Lambs — shearing Sheep semi-annuhlly — objectionable practices...
Doing up Wool— Wool Table and Trough — handling fleece — arrangement on table — folding — rolling— ty-
ing— pi oper twine . . . Storing Wool — Wool-Room . . . Sacking W ool — methods . . . Sorting the Flock at shear.
iriiC— Iiow done... Marking Sheep— the proper way. ..Cold Storms after Shearing. ..Sun-scald... Ticks —
how destroyed.. .Maggots — preventives... Cutting the Horns... Division of Flocks for Summer.. .Hop-
pling— Clogging, «fcc. ..Dangerous Rama. ..Fences. ..Salt. ..Tar. ..Water... Shade. ..Weaniug Lambs...
Fall Feeding... Shepherd's Crook.

Dear Sir : Agreeably to your request, and that of various other South-
ern friends, I proceed to give directions for the practical management of
sheep " plain and minute enough for the guidance of those entirely unac-
quainted with the subject." I will begin with their Summer Management.*

TAGGING. — If sheep are kept on dry feed through the winter, they will
usually purge more or less, when let out to green feed in the spring. The
wool around and below the anus becomes saturated with dung, which
forms into hard pellets, if the purging ceases. But whether this takes
place or not, the adhering dung cannot be removed from the wool in the
ordinary process of washing. It forms a great impediment in shearing,
dulling and straining the shears to cut through it when in a dry state, and
it is often impracticable so to do. It is difficult to force the shears be-
tween it and the skin, without frequently and severely wounding the latter.
Occasionally, too, fiies deposit their eggs under this mass of filth prior to
shearing, and the ensuing swarm of maggots, unless speedily discovered
and removed, will lead the sheep to a miserable death.

Before sheep are let out to grass, each one should have the wool sheared
from the roots of the tail down the inside of the thighs,
over the surface included between the dotted lines in Fis-

the cut. The wool should be sheared from off the en-
tire bag of the ewe, that the newly dropped lamb may
more readily find the teat, and from the scrotum, and
so much space round the point of the sheath of the ram,
as is usually kept wet. If the latter place is neglected,
soreness and ulceration sometimes ensue from the con-
stant maceration of the urine.

Sometimes each tagger catches and holds his own

sheep, but it is, on the whole, better, I think, to have an assistant catch the
sheep and hold them while they are tagged. The latter process requires
a good shearer, as the wool must be cut off closely and smoothly, or the
object is but half accomplished, an<J the sheep will have an unsightly and
ridiculous appearance, when the remainder of their fleeces is taken off ;

• I have not thought it necessary to mark with quotation points, various extracts in this Letter, from •
•eriea of Letters written by me a number of years since, and published in the " Valley Farmer "

174 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

and, on the other hand, it is not only improper to cut the skin of a sheep
at any time, but it is peculiarly so to cut that on the bag of an ewe near
lambing. The wool saved by tagging will far more than pay the ex-
penses of the operation. It answers well for stockings and other ordinary
domestic purposes, or it will sell for something like half the price of fleece
wool.

Humanity and economy both dictate that care should be taken in han
dling sheep at all times, and it is especially important with ewes heavy
with lamb. It is highly injurious and unsafe lo chase them about and han-
dle them roughly, for even if abortion, the worst consequence of such
treatment, is avoided, they become timid and shy of being touched, render-
ing it difficult, to catch or render them assistance at the lambing period—-
and even a matter of difficulty to enter the cotes where it is sometimes
necessary to confine tl **m at that time, without having them driving about
pell-mell, running ovei their lambs, &c. It may not be known to every
one, that if a sheep is .suddenly caught by the wool when running, or is
lifted by its wool, the skin is to a certain extent loosened from the body
at the points where it is thus seized, and if killed a day or two afterward,
blood will be found settled about those parts. A man knowing this, and
subsequently guilty of such gratuitous brutality, richly deserves to be
kicked out of the sheep-yard. When sheep are to be handled, they should
be inclosed in a yard, just large enough to hold them without their being
crowded — so they shall have no chance to run and dash about. The'
catcher should stop them by seizing them by the hind leg close above the
hock, or by clapping one hand before the neck and the other behind the
buttocks. Then, not waiting for the sheep to make a violent struggle, he
should throw his light arm over and about it immediately back of the
shoulders, place his hand under the brisket, and lift the animal on his hip.
If the sheep is very heavy, he can throw both arms around it, clasp his
fingers under the brisket, and lift it up against the front part of his body.
He then should set it carefully on its rump on the lagging-table, (which
should be 18 or 20 inches high,) support its back with his legs, and hold
it gently and conveniently until the tagger has performed his duty. Two
men should not be permitted to lift the same sheep together, as it will be
pretty sure to receive some strain between them. A good shearer and
assistant will tag 200 sheep per day.

Where sheep receive green feed all the year round, as they will do in
many parts of the South, and no purging ensues from eating the newly-
startirig grasses in the spring, tagging will not be necessary.

BURS, &c. — If sheep are let out in the spring into pastures where the
dry stalks of the Burdock (Arttium lappa), or the Hound's Tongue, or
Tory-weed ( Cynoglossum ojficinalcj, have remained standing over the win-
ter, the burs are caught in their now long wool, and, if numerous, the wool
is rendered entirely unmarketable, and almost valueless. Even the dry
prickles of the common and Canada thistles, where they are very numer-
ous, get into the neck-wool of sheep, as they thrust their heads under and
among them to crop the first scarce feed of the Northern spring ; and, in-
dependently of injuring the wool, they make it difficult to wash and other-
wise handle the sheep. The Burdock being a large and not very frequent
plant, there is no excuse for its being found on the farm. The Hound's
Tongue is very prevalent in forests and partly wooded pastures in the
North, and it is not conspicuous enough to be easily eradicated, though
careful sheep-farmers often do so. If sheep are let into pastures contain
ing it, it must be only in the summer and fall, after shearing. The burs,

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 175

not sunk so deeply in the short wool, will wear cut during our winters—-
but no man thinks of letting his sheep into pastures containing it, before
shearing in the spring. Indeed, sheep should be kept on the cleanest pas-
tures— tlusefree from these and all similar plants — during this period ;
and, in a region where they are pastured the year round, if such pests are
not eradicated — which /should consider indispensable — the sheep should
oe kept from contact with them for some months prior to shearing.

LAMBING. — Lambs are usually dropped, in the North, from the first to
the fifteenth of May. In the South, they might safely come earlier. It is
not expedient to have them dropped when the weather is cold and boister-
ous, as they require too much care ; but the sooner the better, after the
weather has become mild, and the herbage has started sufficiently to give
the ewes that green food which is required to produce a plentiful secretion
of milk. It is customary in the North to have fields of clover, or the earli
est grasses, reserved for the early spring feed of the breeding ewes; and,
if these can be contiguous to their shelters, it is a great convenience — for
the ewes should be confined in the latter, on cold and stormy nights, during
the lambing season.

If warm and pleasant, and the nights are warmish, I prefer to have the
lambing take place in the pastures. I think sheep are more disposed to
own and take kindly to their lambs thus, than in the confusion of a small
irtclosure. Unless particularly docile, sheep in a small inclosure crowd
from one side to another when any one enters, running over young lambs,
pressing them severely, &c. Ewes get separated from their lambs, and
then run violently round from one to another, jostling and knocking them
about. Young and timid ewes get separated from their lambs, and fre
quently will neglect them for an hour or more before they will again ap-
proach them. If the weather is severely cold, the lamb, if it has nevei
sucked, stands a chance to perish. Lambs, too, when just dropped, in a
dirty inclosure, in their first efforts to rise, tumble about, and the mem-
brane which adheres to them becomes smeared with dirt and dung — and
the ewe refuses to lick them dry, which much increases the hazard of
freezing.

Nevertheless, all this must be incurred in cold storms, and in sudden
and severe weather ; and, therefore, it should be the effort of every shep-
herd to teach his sheep docility. I have seen the late Mr. Grove walk
about a barn filled with his Saxons, not only without their crowding from
side to side, but many of them absolutely lying still while he stepped over
them ! I say it " must be incurred." I mean by this that it is the safest
course with all breeds, and a matter of necessity with others. It takes but
a very moderately cold night to destroy the new-born Saxon lamb, which
(the pure blood) is yeaned nearly as naked as a child ! During a severely
cold period, of several days' continuance, it is almost impossible to reat
them, even in the best shelter. The Merino, South-Down, and some other
breeds, will endure a greater degree of cold with impunity.

Inclosures, when used for yeaning, should be kept clean by frequent lit-
terings of straw — not enough, however, thrown on at one time, to embar-
rass the lamb about rising.

The ewe does not often require mechanical assistance in parturition.-—
Her labors will sometimes be prolonged for three or four hours, and her
loud moanings will evince the extent of her pain. Sometimes she will go
about several hours, and even resume her grazing, with the fore-feet and
nose of the lamb showing at the mouth of the vagina. But, if let alone,
Nature will generally finally relieve her. This might not do with the

176 SH£e.P HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

heavy English breeds. I should infer not, from the elaborate directions
in the premises, by Youatt, Blacklock, and other English wiiters on Sheep j
though with the comparatively small number of these varieties which 1
have bred, I hive had no difficulty in this particular. Among the thou-
sands and thousands of fine-wooled sheep which I have bred, I never have
known a single instance of a false presentation of the foetus, and never
have had mechanical assistance rendered in to exceed half a dozen in-
stances. The objection to interfering, except as a last resort, is that the
ewe is frightened when caught, and her efforts to expel the larnb cease.—
When aided, the gentlest force should be applied, and only in conjunction
with the efforts of the ewe.

While the lamb is tumbling about and attempting to rise, and the ewe
is licking it dry, it is better to be in no haste to interfere. A lamb that
gets at the teat without help, and gets even a small quantity of milk, knows
how to help itself afterward, and rarely perishes. If helped, it sometimes
continues to expect it, and will do little for itself for two or three days. —
The same; is true when lambs are fed from a spoon or bottle.

But if the lamb ceases to make efforts to rise, particularly if the ewe has
left off licking it while it is wet and chilly, it is time for the shepherd to
render his assistance. It is better not to throw the ewe down, as is fre-
quently practiced, to suckle the lamb, because instinct teaches the latter to
point its nose upward in search of the teat. It is doubly difficult, there-
fore, to induce it to suck from the bag of the prostrate ewe ; and when
taught to do this, by being suckled so several times, I have invariably no-
ticed that it renders it awkward about finding the teat in the natural posi-
tion, when it begins to stand and help itself. Nothing is stupider than a
weakly lamb ! * Carefully disengaging the ewe from her companions, with
his crook, the assistant should place one hand before the neck and the other
behind the buttocks of the ewe, and, then pressing her against his knees,
he should -hold her firmly and stilly, so that she shall not be constantly
crowding away from the shepherd. The shepherd should set the lamb on
its feet, inducing it to stand, if possible ; if not, supporting it on its feet by
placing one hand under its body — -place its mouth to the teat, and encour-
age it to suck by tickling it about the roots of the tail, flanks, &c., with a
finger. The lamb, mistaking this last for the caresses of its dam, will re-
double its efforts to suck. Sometimes it will evince great dullness, and
even apparent obstinacy, in refusing for a long time to attempt to assist
tself, crowding backward, &c. ; but the kind and gentle shepherd, who
will not sink himself to the level of a brute by resenting the stupidity of a
brute, will generally carry the point by perseverance. Sometimes milking
a little into the lamb's mouth, holding the latter close to the teat, will in-
duce it to take hold.

If the ewe has no milk, the lamb should be fed until the natural supply
commences, with small quantities of the milk of a new^nilch cow. This
ehould be mixed, say half and half, with water — with enough molasses to
give it the purgative effect of biestings, or the first milk — gently warmed
to the natural heat (not scalded and suffered to cool), and then fed through
a bottle with a sponge in the opening of it, which the lamb should suck,
if it can be induced so to do. If the milk is poured in its mouth from a
spoon or bottle, as already remarked, it is frequently difficult afterward to
induce it to suck. And, moreover, unless milk is poured in the mouth
slowly and with care — no faster than the lamb can swallow — a speedy
wheezing, the infallible precursor of death, will show that a portion of the
fluid has been forced into the lungs. I have known lambs frequently
killed in this way.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 177

If a lamb becomes chilled, it sbould be wrapped up in a woolen blanket,
and placed in a warm room — giving a little milk as soon as it will swal-
low. A trifle of pepper is sometimes placed in the milk, and 1 think with
good effect, to rouse the cold and torpid stomach into action. Some of the
Yankee old ladies, under such circumstances, " bake " the lamb, as it is
called — i. e.t put it in a blanket in a moderately heated oven, until
warmth and animation are restored. Others immerse it in tepid water,
and subsequently rub it dry. This is said to be an excellent method
where the lamb is nearly frozen. I never have tried it. A good blanket,
a warm room, and sometimes, perhaps, a little gentle friction, have always
sufficed.

If a strong ewe, with a good bag of milk, chances to lose her lamb, she
should be required to bring up one of some other ewe's pair of twins — or
the lamb of some feeble or young ewe, having an inadequate supply of
milk. Her own lamb should be skinned, as soon as possible after death,
and the skin sowed over the lamb which she is required to foster. She
will sometimes be a little suspicious for a day or two, and if so, she should
be kept in a small pen with the lamb, being occasionally looked to. After
taking well to it, the false skin may be removed in three or four days. If
no lamb is placed on a ewe which has lost her lamb, and which has a
full bag of milk, the milk should be drawn from the bag once or twice, or
garget may ensue. If it does not, permanent indurations, or other re-
sults of inflammatory action will often take place, injuring the subsequent
nursing properties of the animal. When milked, it is well to wash the
bag for some time in cold water. It checks the subsequent secretions of
milk, as well as abates inflammation. Garget will be treated under the
nead of Diseases of Sheep.

Sometimes a young^ ewe, though exhibiting sufficient fondness for he!
lamb, will not stand for it to suck ; and in this case, if the lamb is not very
strong and persevering, and especially if the weather is cold, it soon grows
weak and perishes. The conduct of the dam in such cases is occasioned
by inflammatory action abo^t the bag or teats — and, perhaps somewhat by
the novelty of her position ! In this case the sheep should be caught and
held until the lamb has exhausted the bag, and there will not often be any
trouble afterward, though it may be well enough to keep them in a pen
together until the fact is determined.

I have several times spoken of pens. They are necessary in the cases 1
have mentioned, and in a variety of others. It is therefore well for the
flock-master to be always provided with a few of them for emergencies.
They need not be to exceed eight or ten feet square, and should be built
of light materials, and fastened together at the corners, so they can be
readily moved by one, or, at the most, two men, from place to place,
where they are wanted. Their position should be daily shifted when
sheep are in them, for cleanliness and fresh feed. Light pine poles, laid
up fence fashion, and each nailed or pegged to the lower ones, at the cor-
ners, as laid on, would make excellent ones. Two or three sides of a few
of them should be wattled with twigs, and the tops partly covered to shel-
ter feeble lambs from cold rains, piercing winds, &c.

Young lambs are subject to what is technically called " pinning," — that
is, their first excrements are so adhesive and tenacious that the orifice of
the anus is closed, and subsequent evacuations prevented. The adhering
matter should be entirely removed, and the part rubbed with a little dry
clay to prevent subsequent adhesion. Lambs will frequently perish from
this cause if not looked to for the first few days.

Z

178 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

NUMBERING AND REGISTERING. — This is not absolutely necessary for the
wool-grower, though it is, in many points of view, a vast convenience to
nim, and leads to a degree of system in his efforts after improvement, and
gives a definiteness and precision to the execution of his plans, otherwise
unattainable. But the breeder — he who makes it his business move par-
ticularly to raise choice animals to sell for breeding purposes — is unwoi-
thy of the name, if he does not regularly number and register his sheep,
80 that he can trace the descent of any ram or ewe, through any number
of generations. This is not merely to gratify an idle curiosity, or to fur-
nish a purchaser with a sounding pedigree. Every breeder is under the ne
cessity of directly breeding in-and-in, or of occasionally employing new
strains of blood. If the latter step is often resorted to, the hazard is in-
creased of changing the character of the flock.* If he numbers and regis-
ters his sheep, he can breed " closer,"! and consequently longer, without a
change, without the hazard of confusion or mistake. Where half a dozen,
or even three or four rams are used in the flock the same year, it would be
beyond the power of any breeder, relying on his memory alone, to decide,
six or eight or ten years subsequently, which were the daughters, grand-
daughters, and great-grand-daughters of each. If the rams A and B be un-
related, A may be put to the daughters of B, and then B be put to the
produce, (i. c., his own grand-daughter, got by A,) without "close" breed-
ing— because they possess but one-quarter of the same blood. Then the
great-grand-daughter may be again put to A, because she possesses but one-
quarter of his blood. As I remarked in my last Letter, with three strains
of blood to start with, the breeder may ring innumerable changes, without
ever trenching on that line which marks the boundaries of close breeding.
He who pretends that he can preserve such multiplied classifications in
his memory alone, is unworthy of the least confidence.

There is another very important consideration. Numbering and regis-
tering enables the breeder to trace breeding effects definitely to their causes.
Suppose that he finds that an unusual number of his young ewes are
poor nurses — or exhibit some imperfection of form or wool. He can re-
move the present effect by throwing out the defective ones. But the undis-
covered cause may still remain in operation. It may be a particular ram
or the result of interbreeding between such ram, and ewes of a certair.
strain of blood. If this ram, or perhaps others got by him, be permitted to
breed, or breed with a particular class of ewes, the evil creeps along in the
flock, its cause remaining undiscovered. But if the breeder could fix the
precise pedigree of every sheep, from an accurately kept register, he
would soon ascertain what strains of blood, or the conjunction of what
strains, produced the evil. By the same means, he could as readily trace
the sources of particular excellence.

The system of numbering invented by the celebrated Von Thaer is far
preferable to any other which I have seen.f It is as follows : ||

* A ram of a new strain of blood, though of prime quality, and apparently possessing the same charac-
teristics with the flock, does not always interbreed well with the nock in all those minute particulars which
the breeder is bound to -notice, though" they might escape the eye of the ordinary nock-master. Every
breeder, therefore, who has a flock that suits him, is exceedingly averse to an infusion of new blood, and
resorts to it only as a matter of necessity.

t That is, he can breed in-and-in somewhat. " Close" breeding is breeding between war affinities, auth
RS between brother and sister, whicharfi of the game hiood, or between a father and a grand-daughter be-
gotten on a daughter, which would be three-fourths of the same blood. &c.

J It will not cause half the mutilation of the system given in the American Shepherd — is simple, and
pives the age. which the former does not Neither can this system of giving the age be ingrafted oa
that system of numbering.

|| As furnished me by Mr. Grove, a number of years since, with this exception, that the point of th«
ri"ht ear cut square off, he made to stand for 700 instead of 500, as I have placed it. I nride this change
fcs the notch and clip standing for 100 and 400, coming on the point of the same ear, there was no co»
• inalion to express 500.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH,

179

No. 44-1841.

Fig. 18.

No 375—1843.

Fig. 19.

One notch over the left ear, (that which is on your left when the
face of the sheep is from you,) stands for 1 ; two notches over the
same, for 2. One notch under the left ear stands
for 3. Three such notches carry up the number —
to 9. One notch over the right ear stands for 10 ;
two such for 20. One notch under the same stands
for 30 ; and three such for 90. Combinations of the
above (three notches under each ear) would carry
up the number to 99. These four classes of notches
which express all parts of a hundred, are shown in
the first of the annexed cuts. A sheep marked
like fig. 17 would be No. 44.

A notch in the end of left ear, as in fig. 18,
stands for 100 ; in right do. 200. In addition to'
these there are on the same cut two 1 notches, one
3 notch, one 10 do., and two 30 do. Adding the
whole together, the sheep would therefore be No.
375.

As the 100 and 200 notches, together, make 300,
no separate notch is required fpr the latter number.
The point of the left ear cut square off) as in fig. 19,
cut, stands for 400 ; the point of the right cut square600
off, for 500. The latter and the 100 notch would
make 600, and so on.

The lambs of each year and each sex are num-
bered from 1.

The age is expressed by round holes through
the ears, standing for the year in which the sheep
is born. As there is no possibility of making a
mistake of ten years in the age of a sheep, these marks are the same be-
tween each tenth year of the century. Between 1840 and 1850, no hole
would express 1840 ; one hole in the left ear, 1841 ; two holes in the left
ear, 1842 ; one hole in the right ear, 1843 ; one hole in the right and one iit
the left, 1844 ; one hole in the right and two in the left, 1845 ; two in the-
right, 1846 ; two in the right and one in the left, 1847 ; two in each, 1848 ;
three in the right, 1849 ; none in either, 1850 — and the same for the next
ten years. Examples are given in the preceding cuts. In other words,
one hole in the left ear signifies 1, and one in the right 3, as applied to
the years between each tenth of a century — and the combinations of these
holes are made to express all the intermediate years, with the exception
of the tenth.

Every ewe, when turned in with the ram, should be given a mark (en-
tirely distinct from the mark of ownership) which will continue visible un-
til the next shearing. Nothing is better for this purpose than Venetian.
Red and hog's lard, well incorporated, and marked on with a cob. The
ewes for each ram require a differently shaped mark, and the mark should
also be made on the ram, or a minute of it in the sheep-book. Thus it
can be determined at a glance by what ram the ewe was tupped, any time
before the next shearing.

The holes in the ears, indicating the year, being the same on the. whole
annual crop of lambs, may be made at any convenient time. The holes
are most conveniently made by a saddler's spring-punch, the cutting cyl-
inder of which is about ^ of an inch in diameter. If too small, the holes-
will grow up in healing.

Jn numbering, it is difficult to prevent mistakes, if it is deferred unti)

No. 909-1848.

ISO

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

the lamb attains much size. If penned with the clams wher» a month ot
two old, hours will sometimes elapse before each lamb will suck — the only
certain indication to which ewe it belongs. It being perfectly safe to per-
form this process when the lamb is only about a day old (or as soon -as the
lamb can walk, if it is a strong one), the shepherd carries the notclier in
his pocket, and a little book, each page being ruled into six columns, and
headed as in the register presently given. This constitutes the day-book,
which is subsequently drawn off on the Register.

The notcher which I use is of my own invention, and I have found it far
preferable to any I have seen elsewhere. It consists of a saddler's spring-
punch — the cutting cylinder being taken out, and a little sharp chisel of
the same length being screwed in its place. The edge of the chisel de-
scribes a semi-ellipsis, cutting a notch out of the ear ^ of an inch deep, and
a little over T3g- wide at the base. A triangular cut in the ear, with so nar-
row a base, will grow together for some distance from the apex. This
instrument is far more convenient than a chisel and block.

The shepherd, on finding a lamb of the right age to mark, goes quietly-
up to it, stopping it by the neck with his crook if it attempts to run away.
The ewe will come near enough, in a moment or two, to be secured by
the crook, and then the shepherd notes her number and age, and enters it
in his pocket-book, and also by what ram tupped. The lamb then is num-
bered with the notcher, and this and its general appearance is noted down
in the appropriate columns. If the ewe is too wild to be caught, the lamb
may be notched — the number of the sire, &c., entered — and the number
of the ewe subsequently ascertained in the pen.

I have two forms of Breeding Registers, originally furnished me by my
lamented friend, the late Mr. Grove. One contains ten columns, the other
eight. I have adopted the simplest one, omitting two of the columns,
which leaves the Register in the following form :

BREEDING REGISTER— 1845.

No. of
Dam.

Tnpi/d ly
Ram No.

Date of
Lambing.

No. of
Rams.

Lamb.
Ewes.

Classification and Remarks.

22—40

16—39

May 4.

1

Coarsish — wrinkly — thick, short-legged, and stout —
bad crops — ewe plentv of milk, and kind.

50— 41

25—42

May 4.

1

Fine — thin — long-legged — wool short — will lack
constitution — ewe kind — little milk.

f Small, but of good shape and fine wool — No. 3

6—42

7—43

May 5.

2&3

) wrinkly and like sire — No. 2 more like dam. —

^ Ewe plenty of milk, but careless.

?The lamb was born dead, very small. Same last

11—41

7—43

May 5.

} year. This ewe had better be thrown out of

£ breeding.

The first entry above records the following facts : " The ewe No. 22,
born in 1840, tupped by the ram No. 16 of 1839, dropped on the 4th of
May a ram lamb, which was marked No. 1, its character being as described
under the head of ' Classification and Remarks.' '

The column of " Remarks" is a very important one, if the minutes are
made with accuracy and judgment. It should include an enumeration of
all the prominent characteristics of the lamb, and of the appearances of
the ewe as a breeder and nurse. These records will, in a single season,
decide the character of a ram as a stock-getter, and that of the ewe, in a
year or two, as a breeder and nurse.

EMASCULATION AND DOCKING. — These should usually precede washing,
as at that period the oldest lambs will be about a month old, and it is safer
10 perform the operations when they are a couple of weeks younger.—
Dry, pleasant weather should be selected. Castration is a simple and safe

(644,

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

181

process. Let a man hold the lamb with its back pressed finely against
his breast and stomach, and all four legs gathered in front in his hands. —
Cut off the bottom of the pouch, free the testicle from the inclosing mem-
brane, and then draw it steadily out, or clip the cord with a knife, if it
does not snap off at a proper distance from the testicle. Some shepherds
draw both testicles at once with their teeth. It is common to drop a little
salt into the pouch. Where the weather is very warm, some touch tho
end of the pouch (and that of the tail, after that is cut off) with an oint-
ment, consisting of tar, lard, and turpentine. In ninety-nine cases out of.
a hundred, however, they will do just as well, here, without any application.

The tail should be cut off, say one and a half inches from the body, with
a chisel on the head of a block, the skin being slid up toward the body
with a finger and thumb, so that it will afterward cover the end of the
stump. Severed with a knife, the end of the tail being grasped with one
of the hands in the ordinary way, a naked stump is left which it takes
some time to heal.

It may occur to some unused to keeping sheep, that it is unnecessary to
cut off the tail. If left on, it is apt to collect filth, and, if the sheep purges,
it becomes an intolerable nuisance.

WASHING. — This is usually done here about the first of June. The cli-
mate of the Southern States would admit of its being done earlier. The
rule should be to wait until the water has acquired sufficient warmth for
bathing, and until cold rains and storms, and cold nights, are no longer to
be expected.

Sheep are usually washed by our best flock-masters in vats. A small
stream is dammed up, and the water taken from it in an aqueduct (formed
by nailing boards together), and carried until sufficient fall is obtained to
have it pour down a couple of feet or more into the vat. The body of
water, to do- the work fast and well, should be considerable — say 24 inches
wide, and five or six deep — and the swifter the current the better. The
vat should be say 3^- feet deep, and large enough for four sheep to swim
in it. A yard is built near the vat, and a platform from the gate of the
yard extends to and encircles the vat on three sides. This keeps the washer

Fig. 20.

WASHING APPARATUS.

from standing in the water, and makes it much easier to lift the sheep ip
and out. The cut here given exhibits all the necessary appendages. The

182 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

yard is built opposite the corners of two fields (1 and 2), to take advantage of
the angle of one of them (1), to drive the sheep more readily into the yard
(3). This yard should be large enough to hold the whole flock, if it does nc t
exceed 200 ; and the bottom of it, as well as of the smaller yard (5), un-
less well sodded over, should be covered with coarse gravel, to avoid be-
coming muddy. If the same establishment is used by a number of flock-
masters, graveling will be always necessary. As soon as the flock are
confined in yard 3, the lambs are all immediately caught out from among
them, and set over the fence into yard 4. This is to prevent their being
trampled down, as it often happens, by the old sheep, or straying off if let
loose. As many sheep are then driven out of yard 3 into the smaller yard
5 as it will conveniently hold. A boy stands by the gate next to the vat,
to open and shut it (or the gate is drawn shut with a chain and weight), and
two men, catching the sheep as directed under the head of tagging, com-
mence placing them in the water for the preparatory process of "wetting."
As soon as the water strikes through the wool, which occupies but an In-
stant, the sheep is lifted out and let loose.* The vat should, of course, be
in an inclosed field, to prevent their escape. The whole flock should thus
be passed over, and again driven round through field 1 into yard 3, where
they should stand, say, an hour, before washing commences. There is
a large per centage of potasht in the wool oil, which acts upon the dirt,
independently of the favorable effect which would result from thus
soaking it for some time with water alone. If washed soon after a good
shower, previous wetting might be dispensed with ; and it is not absolutely
necessary, perhaps, in any case. If the water is warm enough to keep the
sheep in it for the requisite period, they may be got clean by washing
without any previous wetting— -though the snowy whiteness of fleece which
tells so on the purchaser, is not so often nor BO perfectly attained in the
latter way. Little time is saved by omitting " wetting," as it takes propor-
tionably longer to wash, and it is not so well for the sheep to be kept such
a length of time in the water at once.

When the washing commences, two and sometimes four sheep are
plunged into the vat. When four are put in, two soak while two are
washed. But this should not be done, unless the water is very warm, and
the washers are uncommonly quick and expert. On the whole, it is rather
an objectionable practice, for few animals suffer as much from the effects
of a chill as sheep. If they have been previously wetted, it is wholly un-
necessary. When the sheep are in the water, the two washers commence
kneading the wool with their hands about the breech, belly, &c., (the
dirtier parts,) and they then continue to turn the sheep so that the descend-
ing current of water can strike into all parts of the fleece. As soon as
the sheep are clean, which may be known by the water running entirely
clear, each washer seizes his own by the fore parts, plunges it deep in the
vat, and taking advantage of the rebound, lifts it out, setting it gently
down on its breech on the platform. He then, if the sheep is old or
weak, (and it is well in all cases,) presses out some of the water from the
wool, and after submitting the sheep to a process presently to be adverted
to, lets it go. There should be no mud about the vat, the earth not cov-
ered with sod, being graveled. Sheep should be kept on clean pastures
from washing to shearing — not where they can come in contact with

* Where there are conveniences for BO doing, this process may be more easily performed by driving tha
•beep through a stream deep enough to compel them to swim. But swimming the compact-fleeced, fine-
wcoled sheep for any length of time, as is practiced with the Long- Wools in England, will not properly
cleanse the wool for shearing

t Vauquelin, quoted by Youatt, says that it consists mostly of soapy matter with a basis of potash; %
Carb. of potash ; 3. Acetate of potash; 4. Lime ; 5. Muriate of potash

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOLTH. 183

the ground, burnt logs, &c. — and they should not be driven over dusty
roads.

The washers should be strong and careful men, and protected as they
are from anything but the water running over the sides of the vat, they
can labor several hours without inconvenience, and without drinking
whisky until they cease to know whether a sheep is well washed or well
treated, as was the bad old fashion. Two hundred sheep will employ two
expert men not over half a day, and I have known this rate much ex-
ceeded.

It is a great object, not only as a matter of propriety and honesty, but
even as a matter of profit, to get the wool clean and of a snowy whiteness.
It will always sell for more than enough extra, in this condition, to offset
against the increased labor and the diminution in weight.

Mr. Lawrence wrote me, a few years since, that the average loss in
American Saxon wool, in scouring, (after being washed on the back,) was
36 per cent., and in American Merino 42J per cent. !

CUTTING THE HOOFS. — The hoofs of fine-wooled sheep grow rapidly,
turn up in front and under at the sides, and must be clipped as often as
once a year, or they become unsightly, give an awkward, hobbling gait to
the sheep, and the part of the horn which turns under at the sides holds
dirt or dung in constant contact with the soles, and even prevents it from
being readily shaken or washed out of the cleft of the foot in the natural
movements of the sheep about the pastures, as would take place were the
hoof in its proper shape. This greatly aggravates the hoof-ail, and the
difficulty of curing it — and in England it is thought to originate the
disease.

It is customary to clip the hoofs at tagging, or. at or soon after the time
of shearing. Some employ a chisel and mallet to shorten the hoofs, but
then the sheep must be subsequently turned on its back to pare off the
projecting and curling-under side crust. If the weather be dry, or the
sheep have stood for some time on dry straw, (as at shearing,) the hoofs
are as tough as horn, and are cut with great difficulty — and this is in-
creased by the grit and dirt which adheres to the sole, and immediately
takes the edge off'from the knife.

The above periods are ill chosen, arid the methods slow and bungling.
It is particularly improper to submit heavily pregnant ewes to all this un
necessary handling at the time of tagging.

When the sheep is washed and lifted out of the vat, and placed on its
rump on the platform, the gate-keeper

advances with a pair of toe-nippers, and Fis- 21-

the washer presents each foot sepa-
rately, pressing the toes together so
they can be severed at a single clip.

The nippers shown in the cut, can be TOE-NIPPERS.

made by any blacksmith who can tem-
per an ax or chisel. They must be made strong, with handles a little
more than a foot- long, the rivet being of half-inch iron and confined with
a nut, so that they may be taken apart for sharpening. The cutting edge
should descend upon a strip of copper inserted in the iron, to prevent it
from being dulled. With this powerful instrument, the largest hoofs are
severed with a moderate compression of the hand. Two well-sharpened
knives, which should be kept in a stand or box within reach, are then
grasped by the washer and assistant, and with two dexterous strokes to
each foot, the side crust (being free from- dirt, and soaked almost as soft as

L84

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

a cucumber,) is reduced to the level of the solea. Two expert men will
go through these processes in less time than it will take to read this de-
scription of them !

The closer the paring and clipping, the better, if blood is not drawn
An occasional sheep may require clipping again in the fall.

TIME BETWEEN WASHING AND SHEARING. — This depends altogether 01
circumstances. From four to six days of bright warm weather is suffi
cient. If cold and rainy, or cloudy, more time must elapse. I have known
the wool to remain in an unfit condition to shear a fortnight after washing.
The rule is, the water should be thoroughly dried out, and the natural oil
of the wool should so far exude as to give the wool an unctuous feel and
a lively, glittering look. If you shear it when dry, like cotton, before the
oil has exuded, you cheat yourself, and the wool will not keep so well for
long periods.* If you leave it until it gets too oily, you cheat the manu-
facturer, or what more often happens, you lose on the price.

SHEARING — Is always done, in this country, on the threshing-floors of
our barns, sometimes on low platforms, but more commonly on the floor
itself. The following cut represents a common Northern barn properly
arranged for this purpose.

Fig. 22.

SHEARING ARRANGEMENTS.

On the threshing-floor, three men are seen shearing — two of them using
a low table or platform, say 18 or 20 inches high. The "bay "t (1, 2)
nearest the eye is divided by a temporary fence, one part (1) being used
for the yarding of the sheep, and the other (2) for doing up the wool, &c.
The inclosure 1 should communicate by a door with another and larger
yard outside of the barn. Both of these should be well littered down with

* It is also very difficult to thrust the shears through this dry wool in shearing.

t The room for storing hay, grain. &c., which is always found on one. and sometimes on each side of the
threshing-flocr in a Northern barn, is provincially termed a " bay "—and the low division between this and
the threshing floor a " breastwork."

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 185

straw, and fresh straw thrown on occasionally, to keep the sheep clean
while shearing. No chaff, or other substances which will stick in the wool,
should be used for this purpose. When the dew has dried off from the;
sheep, on the morning chosen for shearing, a portion of the flock sufficient
to last the shearers half a day, is driven into the outside yard, and a con-
venient number into the bay (1). An assistant catches the sheep, lifts
them off from the floor as already directed, and delivers them at the door
through the " breastwork " (3) to each shearer. The shearer before taking
the sheep, picks off any loose straws sticking to its wool, and if dung ad-
heres to any of the feet, brushes it off with a little besom formed of twigs,
hung up near the door for that purpose. The shearer then takes the sheep
to his stand, and commences shearing.

The floor or tables used for shearing should be planed or worn perfectly
smooth, so that they will not hold dirt or catch the wool. They all should
'"6 thoroughly cleaned, and^ if necessary, washed, preparatory to shearing.
It is the catcher's business to keep the floor constantly swept, dung re-
moved, &c. Having a new stand or place swept for the shearer who has
iust finished his sheep, he catches him another, and then clears up the
stand previously occupied. He first lifts the fleece, gathers it up so that
It shall not be torn or drawn asunder, and turning his arms so as to invert
it, (i. e.y bring the roots of the wool downward,) deposits it on \he folding-
table (4). ] le then picks up the "fribs" (small loose locks) left on the
floor, which are deposited in a basket or on a corner of the table. Lastly,
he sweeps the spot clean, to be again occupied by the shearer. An active
fellow will tend four shearers, and do up the fleeces. But he should not
be hurried too much, or he cannot give sufficient time to doing up. A
small boy or two are handy to pick up fribs, sweep, &c.

If there are any sheep in the pen dirty from purging or other causes,
they should first be caught out, to prevent them from dirtying the others.

It is difficult, if not impossible, to give intelligible practical instructions
which would guide an entire novice in skillfully shearing a sheep. Prac-
tice is requisite. The following directions from the American Shepherd,*
are correct, and are as plain, perhaps, as they can be made :

" The shearer may place the sheep on that part of the floor assigned to him, resting on its
rump, and himselt in a posture with one (his right) knee on a cushion, and the back of the ani-
mal resting against his left thigh. He grasps the shears about half-way from the^oint to the
how, resting his thumb along the blade, which affords him better command of the points.
He may then commence cutting the wool at the brisket, and proceeding downward, all upon
the sides of the belly to the extremity of the rib.s, the external sides of both thighs to the
edges of the flanks ; then back to the brisket, and thence upward, shearing the wool from tho
oreast, front, and both sides of the neck — but not yet the back of it — and also the poll or
Tore part, and top of the head. Now the 'jacket is opened ' of the sheep, and its position
and that of the shearer is changed, by being turned flat upon its side, one knee of the shearer
resting on the cushion, and the other gently pressing the fore quarter of the animal, to pn>
vent any struggling. He then resumes cutting upon the flank and rump, and thence on-
ward to the head. Thus one side is complete. The sheep is then turned on to the other
side, in doing which great care is requisite to prevent the fleece from being torn, and the
shearer acts as upon the other, which finishes. He must then take his sheep near to the
door through which it is to pass out, and neatly trim the legs, and leave not a solitary loci'
anywhere as a harbor for ticks. It is absolutely necessary for him to remove from his stand
to trim, otherwise the useless stuff from the legs becomes intermingled with the fleece-wool.
In the use of the shears, let the blades be laid as flat to the skin as possible, not lower the
points too much, nor cut more than from one to two inches at a clip, frequently not so much,
depending on the part and compactness of the wool."

•In addition to the above, I would remark that the wool should be cut
off as close as conveniently practicable, and even. It maybe cut too close,
BO that the sheep can scarcely avoid " sun-scaH," but this is very unusual

- Pages 179, 180.

2 A

]S6 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

If the wool is left ridgy and uneven, it betrays that want of workmanship
which is so distasteful to every good farmer.* Great care should be taken
not to cut the wool twice in two, as inexperienced shearers are apt to do.
It is a great damage to the wool. It is done by cutting too far from the
point of the shears, and suffering the points to get too elevated. Every
time the shears are pushed forward, the wool before cut off by the points,
say a quarter or three-ieighths of an inch from the hide, is again severed.
To keep the fleece entire, so important to its good appearance when done
up, (and therefore to its salableness,) it is very essential that the sheep be
held easilyybr itself, so that it will not struggle violently. To hold it still
by main strength, no man can do, and shear it well. The posture of the
shearer should be such that the sheep is actually confined to its position,
so that it is unable to start up suddenly and tear its fleece, but it should
not be confined there by severe pressure or force, or it will be constantly
'kicking and struggling. Heavy-handed, careless men, therefore, always
complain of getting the most troublesome sheep. The neck, for example,
may be confined to the floor by placing it between the toe and knee of the
leg on which the shearer kneels, but the lazy or brutal shearer who lets
his leg rest directly on the neck, soon provokes that struggle which the
animal is obliged to make to free itself from severe pain, and even perhaps
to draw its breath !

Good shearers will shear, on the average, twenty-five Merinos per day,
and a new beginner should not attempt to exceed from one-third to one-
half that number. It is the last process in the world which should be hur-
ried, as the shearer will soon leave more than enough wool on his sheep to
pay for his day's wages.

It has been mentioned that but enough sheep should be yarded at once
for half a day's shearing. The reason for this is that they shear much
more easily, and there is less liability of cutting the skin, when they are
distended with food, than when their bellies become flabby and collapsed
for the want of it. This precaution, however, is often necessarily omitted
in showery weather. It is very convenient to have the outside pen which
communicates with the " bay," covered. On my farm, it is one of the
regular sheep-houses. If it is showery over night, or showers come up on
the day of shearing, a couple of hundred sheep may be run in and kept
dry. And they can be let out to feed occasionally during the day on
short grass. If let out in long wet grass, their bellies will become wetted.
Wool ought not to be sheared, and must not be done up, with any water
in it.

SHEARING LAMBS, AND SHEARING SHEEP SEMI-ANNUALLY. — Shearing
lambs is, in my judgment, every way an abominable and unprofitable prac-
tice— in this climate, at least. The lamb will give you the same wool at a
year old, and you strip it of its natural protection from cold when it is
young and tender, for the paltry gain of the interest on a pound or a pound
and a half of wool for six months — not more than two or three cents— and
this all covered by the expense of shearing.

I am aware that it is customary, in many parts of the South, to shear
grown sheep twice a year; and there may be a reason for it where they
receive so little care that a portion are expected to disappear every half-
year, and the wool to be torn from the backs of the remainder by bushes,
thorns, &c., if left for a longer period. But when sheep are inclosed, and

* I hold that man is not half* farmer who has not a dash of the aesthetic mixed up with his utilitarianism
Profit should not often be sacrificed to appearances, but where they are strictly compatible, he who
sards the latter betrays a sordid and uncultivated mind.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH

187

FOLDING-TABLE.

treated as domestic animals, there may be less barbarity in fall-shearing
them than in the case of tender larnbs, but I cannot conceive of any better
reason for it than in the former case, on the score of utility. Any gaip
resulting from it cannot pay the additional expense it occasions.

DOING-UP WOOL. — The fleece has been deposited on the " foldmg table,"
and he whose business it is to do it up, first proceeds to spread it out, the
outer ends upward, bringing every part to its natural relative position.—
The table, with a

fleece spread out on FlS- 23-

it, is represented in
fig. 23. The table
should be large —
say five feet wide
and eight long — that,
if necessary, several
unsprcad fleeces may
be put upon it at the
same time, and still
give room for spread-
ing one. It should
be about three feet
high. After the fleece
is spread, dung, burs, and all other extraneous substances are carefully re-
moved from it with a pair of shears. It is then pressed together with the
hands, so that it will cover but little if any more space than it would oc-
cupy on the skin of the animal, if that was placed unstretched on the table,
About a quarter of the fleece, lengthwise, or from head to tail, (represented
by 1 in the above cut,) is then turned or folded in (inverting it,) toward
the middle. The opposite side (2) is next folded inward in the same way,
leaving the fleece in a long strip, say 18 inches wide. The forward end
(3) is then folded toward the breech, to a point (represented by dotted
line) corresponding with the point of the shoulder. The breech (4) is next
folded toward the head. The fleece now presents an oblong square rep-
resented by 5 and 6. On the breech, in a small, compact bunch — so they
can be, subsequently, readily sepa-
rated from the fleece-1- the clean fribs
are placed. They do not include
"trimmings," (the wool from the
shanks,) which should not be done up
in the fleeces. The fribs may be laid
in at some earlier stage of the folding
— but if thrown on top of the fleece,
as is very customary, before it is fold-
ed at all, they show through, if the
latter gets strained apart, as it fre-
quently happens in the process of roll-
ing— and being coarser and perhaps
less white than the fine shoulder wool,
they injure the appearance of the
fleece. The fleece is now folded to-
gether by turning 5 over on to 6, and
the tyer carefully sliding it around on the table with his arms, so that
the shoulder shall be toward him, it appears as in fig. 24, ready to
go into the wool-trough. The wool-trough, which is above represented

Fig. 24.

KMtAMD

WOOL-TROUGH.

18S SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

with one of its sides off, to exhibit the interior arrangement, should form
a part of the table, and should be about 91 inches wide and 9 deep, and
its length corresponding with the width of the table, would be five feet,
Near its back end, and about one-third of its width from each side, gimlet
holes are bored just large enough for the passage of ordinary wool-twine.
Two balls of twine are placed in a vessel beneath, the ends passed through
the holes, and the whole length of the trough, and are fastened in front by
being drawn into two slits formed by sawing a couple of inches into the
bottom of the trough. The holes and slits should be small enough, so that
the twine will be kept drawn straight between them.

The tyer placing his hands and arms (to the elbow) on each side of the
fleece folded as above, now slides it into the trough. There are two
methods of having it lie in the trough, represented by the following cuts.
That on the left is the more ordinary, but not
the best method. It will bring to the two ends ; Fis- 25-

of the done-up fleece (the parts most seen in the
wool-room) the ridge of the back and two lines
half way down each side of the sheep. The for-
mer is sometimes a little weather-beaten, and if
any hay-seeds have fastened in the fleece, they
show most on the back.* And the two lower
lines are a little below the choicest wool. —
Placing it in the trough as in the right-hand figure, rolling would bring
both ends of the fleece from the wool between four and five inches from
the ridge of the back, the choicest part of the fleece. Besides, the edges
of the breech fold, which is not so fine as the shoulder, which sometimes
show by the first method of rolling, are always concealed by the last.

The wool being in the trough, the tyer steps round to the back end of
it, and commences rolling the fleece from the breech to the shoulder. He
rolls it as tightly as possible, pressing it down and exerting all the strength
of his hands — minding, however, not to tear the outside fold — or strain it
so apart as to ex*hibit the outer ends of the next inside layer or fold.
When the rolling is completed, he keeps it tight by resting the lower part
of his left arm across it, reaches over with the right, and withdrawing one
of the ends of the twine from the slit, places it in the left hand. Then
seizing the twine on the other side of the fleece with his right hand, he
draws the twine once about the fleece with his whole strength, and ties it
in a hard or square knot. The fleece will then keep its position, and the
other twine is tied in the same way. The twines should be drawn with a
force that would cut through the skin of a tender hand in a few moments.!
The twines are then cut within an inch of the knots, with a
pair of shears. The fleece is slid out of the end of the
trough, when it will be a solid, glittering mass of snowy
wool, in the shape shown in the cut on the right. If well
and tightly done up, however, the divisions given on the
end of the fleece, in the cut, to exhibit the foldings, will
not be perceptible — and nothing but an unbroken mass of
the choicest wool of the fleece.

The twine should be of flax or hemp, and of the diameter of ordinary
sized hardware twine. Cotton might do, if smooth and hard enough so
that no particles of it could become incorporated with the wool — in which
event it does not separate from the wool in any of the subsequent processes,
and receiving a different color from the dyes, spots the surface of the cloth,

* Hay-Beed, or rather its chaff, will not wash entirely out of wool.

t It is customary with some tyers to wear a glove on the right hand—or cote on the two fore-fingers.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 189

It is scarcely necessary to remark that it is considered perfectly fair by
the purchaser, to take all the pains above recommended, to " put the best
side out " in doing up wool, provided every fleece is done up by itself. He
expects it, and graduates his prices accordingly. He who neglects it,
therefore, cheats himself. But to do up coarser fleeces, or any parts of
them, in finer ones — put in " trimmings " — leave in dung — or use unne-
cessary twine — are all base frauds. Sometimes the careless sheep-owner
will have his wool filled with burs, which he cannot or will not remove.
In that case he is bound to unequivocally apprise the buyer of the fact,
and allow him to open fleeces until satisfied of the precise extent of the
evil.

STORING WOOL. — Wool should be stored in a clean, tight, dry room. It
is better that it should be an upper room, for reasons presently to be given,
and it should be plastered, to exclude dust, vermin, insects, &c. Rats and
mice love to build their nests in it, to which they will carry grain chaff and
other substances, injuring much wool — and it is singular that if accessible
to the common bumble-bee, numbers of their nests will be found in it. A
north and pretty strong light is preferable for a wool-room.

When the wool-tyer removes each fleece from the trough, he places it
in a long, high basket, capable of holding a dozen fleeces, and it is imme-
diately carried to the wool-room — or he piles it on the clean floor in the
inclosure in which his table stands, to be subsequently carried away. In
oither case, the fleeces are not thrown down promiscuously, which injures
their shape, but are laid regularly one above another, on their sides. In
the wool-room it is laid in the same way in smooth, straight north and
south rows (supposing the light to be let in from the north) with alleys
between, in which a man can pass to inspect the wool. The rows ought
not, perhaps, to b^ more than two deep, so that the end of every fleece can
be examined, but as it cannot be piled up more than about four fleeces
high in this way, without liability of falling, it is customary to make the
rows three, or four fleeces deep — laying the lower ones a little wide, so
that the pile may slightly recede as it goes up. In this way they may be
piled six fleeces high. Where the character of the flock is known, or that
of the seller relied on, it makes little difference. It is considered fairest
to pile the fleeces without any discrimination as to quality, in the wool-
room.

SACKING WOOL. — When the wool is sold, or when it must be sent away
to find a market, it is put up in bales nine feet long, formed of 40-inch •
" burlaps." The mouth of the sack is sowed, with twine, round a strono-
hoop (riveted together with iron, and kept for the purpose,) and the body
of it is let down through a circular aperture in the floor of the wool-room.*
The hoop rests on the edge of the aperture, and the sack swings clear of
the floor beneath. A man enters the sack, and another passes the fleeces
down to him. After covering the bottom with a layer, he places a fleece
in the center and forces down others around it, and so on to the,top, which
is then sowed up. Each fleece should be placed regularly with tlie Jiands,
and then stamped down as compactly as possible, so that the bale when
completed shall be hard and well filled in every part. The bulk of a given
weight of wool will be greatly affected by the care with which this pro-
cess is performed.

Those who do not expect buyers to come and look at their wool, sack
it immediately after shearing. A temporary scaffolding is erected near

* It is to secure this convenience that the wool-room is best placed on the second floor.

190

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

the wool as deposited by the tyer, and one man tosses up fleeces to a sec-
ond, who catches them and passes them down to the man in the sack. A
light frame, to suspend the sack, and part way up it a standing-place for
the catcher, would be a convenient appendage to the establishment of a
wool-grower who does not store his wool in a wool-room. With a set of
stairs up to his midway standing-place, an active fellow would keep the
treader supplied, without any assistance.

In the absence of any agreement, the price of wool, delivered at the
residence of the purchaser, does not include the cost of sacks and sacking.
It is customary, however, for growers of small parcels, and those who
keep no conveniences for sacking, to carry their wool tied up in sheets,
&c., and deliver it to the purchaser at the nearest village or other point,
where he has made arrangements for sacking.

SELECTION. — The necessity of annually weeding the flock, by excluding
all its members falling below a certain standard of quality, and what the
points are to which reference should be had in establishing that standard,
have already been sufficiently adverted to in discussing the principles of
breeding. The time of shearing is by far the most favorable one for the
flockmaster to make his selection. He should be present on the shearing-
floor, and inspect the fleece of every sheep as it is gradually taken off. If
there is a fault about it, he will then discover it better than at any other
time. A glance, too, reveals to him every fault of form, previously con-
cealed wholly or in part, by the wool, as soon as the newly shorn sheep
is permitted to stand on its feet. He takes down the number and age of
the sheep on his tablet, and if not sufficiently defective in form or quality
of fleece to call for its condemnation, in a pair of scales suspended near the
wool-tyer's table, he determines the weight of the fleece. If this, too, is
satisfactory, he marks " retained " opposite the sheep's number on his tab-
let. If more or less defective in any point, he weighs this against the
other points — taking also into consideration the age of the sheep, its char-
acter as a breeder, its nui'sing properties, quietness of disposition, &c. —
and then, in view of all these points, the question of retention or exclusion
is settled. A remarkably choice ewe is frequently kept until she dies of
old age. A poorish nurse or breeder would be excluded for the lightest
fault, and so on. I have been in the habit, for a number of years, of using
a book kept for this purpose, each page being ruled and headed thus :

Niimber.

Qua.l. of Fleece.

Form.

Wt. of Fleece.

Conclusion.

27, '42
30, '44

P-
0.

f.
b.

<i

I:

The figures in the first column signify No. 27 of the year 1842, and No.
30 of the year 1844. The letters in the succeeding columns stand for the
words " prime," " fair," " ordinary," and " bad " — marking the gradations
of quality. The letters in the last column signify " retained," or " ex-
cluded." -Such a record will lead to far greater accuracy than by any
other method, and it is extremely valuable for purposes hereafter to bo
stated.

If the sheep are not numbered, the flock-master should note each appear-
ance, as above directed, have the sheep held by the neck by an assistant,
or discharged by the shearer into a small pen at the door for that purpose,
until the fleece is weighed, and then if he decides to exclude it, he gives
it a small mark on the shoulder, consisting of Venetian Red and hog's lard,
(conveniently applied with a brush or cob.)

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

MARKING SHEEP. — The sheep should be marked soon after shearing, or
mistakes may occur. Every owner of sheep should be provided with a
marking instrument, which will stamp his initials, or some other distinctive
mark, such as a small circle, oval, triangle, square, &c., at a single stroke,
and with uniformity, on the sheep. It has been customary here, to have
the mark cut out of a plate of thin iron, with an iron handle terminated by
wood. But one made by cutting a type or raised letter (or character) on
the end of a stick of light wood, such as pine or basswood, is found to be
better. If the pigment used be thin, and the marker be thrust into it a
little too deeply, as often happens, the surplus will not run off from the
wood, as from a thin sheet of iron, to daub the sides of the sheep, and
spoil the appearance of the mark ; and if the pigment be applied hot, the
former will not, like the latter, get heated, and increase the danger .of
burning the hide. Various pigments are used. Many boil tar until it
will assume a glazed, hard consistency, when cold, and give it a brilliant
black color by stirring in a little lamp-black when boiling. It is applied
when just cold enough not to burn the sheep's hide, and it forms a bright,
conspicuous mark the year round. I have always used this, though the
manufacturer would prefer the substitution of oil and turpentine for tar,
as the latter is cleansed out of the wool with some difficulty. I boil it in
a high-sided iron vessel (to prevent it from taking fire) on a small furnace
or chafing-dish near where it is to be used. When cool enough, forty or
fifty sheep can be marked before it gets too stiff. It is then warmed from
time to time, as necessary, on the chafing-dish. The rump is a better place
to mark than the side. The mark is about as conspicuous on the former,
under any circumstances, and it is more so when the sheep are huddled in
a pen, or when they are running away from you. And should any wool
lie injured by the mark, that on the rump is less valuable than that on the
side, It is customary to distinguish ewes from wethers by marking them
on different sides of the rump.

Many mark each sheep as it is discharged from the barn by the shearer.
It consumes much less time to do it at one job, after the shearing is com-
pleted ; and it is necessary to take the latter course, if a hot pigment is
used. _

COLD STORMS AFTER SHEARING. — These sometimes destroy sheep, in
this latitude, soon after shearing — particularly the delicate Saxons. I have
known forty or fifty perish out of a single flock, from one night's expo-
sure. The remedy, or rather the preventive, is to house them, or in de-
fault of the necessary fixtures to effect this, to drive them into-dense for-
ests. I presume, however, this would be a calamity of rare occurrence in
the " sunny South."

SUN-SCALD — Might be more common. "When sheep are sheared close
in very hot weather — have no shade in their pastures — and particularly
where they are driven immediately considerable distances, or rapidly, over
burning and dusty roads, their backs are so scorched by the sun that the
wool comes off. It is not common, however, here. You may see one
Buch in a flock of a hundred. Let alone, the matter is not a, serious one,
. but the application of refuse lard to the back will accelerate the cure, and ,
the starting of the wool.

TICKS. — These, when very numerous, greatly annoy and enfeeble sheep
in the winter, ami should be kept entirely out of the flock. After shear-
ng, the heat and sold, the rubbing and biting of the sheep soon drive off

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

DIPPING-BOX.

fcbe tick, and it takes refuge in the long wool of the lamb. Wait a fort-
night after shearing, to allow all to make this transfer of residence. Then
boil refuse tobacco leaves until the decoction is strong enough to kill ticks
beyond a peradventure. This may be readily tested by experiment.
Five or six pounds of cheap plug tobacco, or an equivalent in stems, &c.,
may be made to answer for 100 lambs. The decoction is poured into a
deep, narrow box, kept for

this purpose, and which has !Fis- ~1-

an inclined shelf one one side,
covered with a wooden grate,
as shown in the cut. One
man holds the lamb by the
hi rid legs, another clasps the
fore-legs in one hand, and
shuts the other about the
nostrils to prevent the liquid
entering them, and then the
lamb is entirely immersed.
It is immediately lifted out,
laid on one side on the grate,
and the water squeezed out
of its wool. It is then turned
over and squeezed on the
other side. The grate con-
ducts the fluid back into the
box. If the lambs are regu-
larly dipped every year, ticks will never trouble a flock.

The effect of tobacco water in scab, will be hereafter adverted to.

MAGGOTS. — Rams with horns growing closely to their heads, are very
liable to have maggots generated under them, particularly if the skin on
the surrounding parts gets broken in fighting, and these, if not removed,
soon destroy the sheep. Both remedy and preventive is boiled tar — or the
marking substance heretofore described. Put it under the horns, at the
time of marking, and no trouble will ever arise from this cause. Some-
times when a sheep scours in warm weather, and clotted dung adheres
about the anus, maggots are generated under it, and the sheep perishes
miserably. Preventive : remove the dung. Remedy : remove the dung
and maggots, the latter by touching them with a little turpentine, and
then apply sulphur and grease to the excoriated surface.

Maggot flies, says Blacklock, sometimes deposit their eggs on the backs
of the long, open-wooled English sheep, and the maggots during the few
days before they assume the pupa state, so tease and irritate the animal,
that fever and death are the consequence. Tar and turpentine, or butter
and sulphur, smeared over the parts are given as the preventives. The
Merino and Saxon are exempt from these attacks.

SHORTENING THE HORNS. — A convolution of the horn of a ram sometimes
so presses in upon the side of the head or neck, that it is necessary to shave
or rasp it away on the under side, to prevent ultimately fatal effects. The
point of the horn of the ram and ewe both not unfrequently turn in so
that they will grow into the flesh and sometimes into the eye, unless
shortened. The toe-nippers will often suffice on the thin extremity of a
horn, but if not, a fine saw must be used. The marking time is the best
one to attend to this.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 19?

DIVISION OF FLOCKS. — It is customary at, or soon after shearing, to make
those divisions in large flocks, which utility demands. It is better to have
not to exceed two hundred sheep run together in the pastures, though the
number might perhaps be safely increased to three hundred, if the i ango
is extensive. Wethers and dry ewes to be turned off, should be kept sep-
arate from the nursing-ewes, and if the flock is sufficiently numerous to
require a third division, it is customary to put the yearling and two-year-
old ewes and wethers and the old, feeble sheep together. It is better in
all cases to separate the rams from all the other sheep, at the time of
shearing, and to inclose them in a particularly well-fenced field. If put
even with wethers, they are more quarrelsome, and when cool nights ar-
rive, will worry themselves arid waste their flesh in constant efforts to ride
the wethers. The Merino ram is a quiet animal compared with the com-
mon-wooled one, but poor fences, or fences half the time down, will tempt
him to jump, and if once taught this trick, he becomes very troublesome
as the rutting period approaches, unless hoppling, yoking, clogging, or
" poking " is resorted to — either of which causes the animal to waste his
flesh and strength, and are the causes of frequent accidents.

HOPPLING, CLOGGING, &c. — Hoppling is done by sowing the ends of a
leathern strap (broad at the extremities so that it will not cut into the
flesh) to a fore and hind leg, just above the pastern joints — leaving the legs
at about the natural distance apart. Clogging is fastening a billet of wood
to the fore leg by a leather strap. Yoking is fastening two rams two or
three feet apart, by bows around their necks, inserted in a light piece of
timber, say two by three inches in size. Poking is done by inserting a
bow in a short bit of light timber, into which bit (worn on the under side
of the neck) a rod is inserted which projects a couple of feet in front of
the sheep. These, and similar devices, to prevent rams scaling fences, may
be employed as a last resort, by those improvident farmers who prefer by
such troublesome, injurious, and at best, insecure means, to guard against
that viciousness which they might, so much more easily, have prevented
from being acquired.

DANGEROUS RAMS. — From being teased and annoyed by boys, or petted
and played with when young — and sometimes without any other stimulant
than a naturally vicious temper — rams occasionally become very trouble-
some by their propensity to attack men or cattle. I know of one for
which his owner has refused $250, which will permit no man to enter the
field with him without making an immediate onset on him. I have known
several that would knock down the ox or horse which presumed to dis-
pute the possession of a lock of hay with them. A ram which is known
to have acquired this propensity should at once be hooded, and, if not
valuable, at the proper season converted into a wether by " cording." But
the courage thus manifested, is usually the concomitant of great strength
and vigor of constitution — and of a powerfully developed frame. If good
in other particulars; it is a pity to lose the services of such an animal. I
na\e in several such instances hooded them, by covering their faces with
leather in such a manner that they could only see a little backwaid and
downward. They mus* then, however, be kept apart from the flock of
rams, or they will soon be killed or injured by blows, which they cannot
see to escape,

It sometimes happens that a usually quiet tempered ram will suddenly
exhibit some pugnacity when you are salting or feeding the flock. If you
turn to run, you are immediately knocked down, and the rain learns, at

194 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

that single lesson, the secret of his mastery, and the propensity to exercise
it. The ram giving his blow from the summit of the parietal and the pos-
terior portion of the frontal hones on the top of the head, (and not from the
forehead,) couches his head so low when he makes his onset, that he does
not see forward well enough to swerve suddenly from his right line, and a
few quick motions to the right and left enable you to escape him. Run in
upon him, as he dashes by you, with pitchfork, club, or boot-heel — punish-
ing him severely by blows, (about the head if the club is used,) and giving
him no time to rally until he is thoroughly cowed.*

FENCES. — Poor fences will teach ewes and wethers to jump, as well EUJ
rams, and for a jumping flock there is no remedy but immoderately high
fences, or extirpation. One jumper will soon teach the trick to a whole
flock, and if one by chance is bought in, it should be immediately hoppled
or killed. The last is by far the surest and safest remedy.

SALT. — Salt, in my judgment, is indispensable to the health of sheep,
particularly in the summer — and I know not a flock-master among the hun-
dreds, nay, thousands with whom I am acquainted, who differs with me in
this opinion. It is common to give it once a week while the sheeo are at
grass.

It is still better to give them free access to salt at all times, by
it in a covered box, open on one side, like the following:

A large hollow log,
with holes cut along the
side, for the insertion
of the heads of the sheep
will make a respectable
substitute. A sheep hav-
ing free access to salt at
all times, will never eat
too much, and it will take
its supply when and in
what quantities Nature

demands, instead of eat- SALTING-BOX.

ing voraciously at stated

periods, as intermediate abstinence will stimulate it do. When fed but
once a week, it is better to have a stated day, so that it will not be forgot-
ten, and it is well to lay the salt on flat stones, though if laid in little
handsfull on the grass, very little will be lost.

TAR. — This is supposed by many to form a very healthful condiment for
sheep. The nose of the sheep is smeared with it, and it is licked and
swallowed as the natural heat of the flesh, or that of the weather, causes it
to trickle down over the nostrils and lips. Others, suffering the flock to
get unusually salt hungry, place tar upon flat stones, or in troughs, and
then scatter salt on it, so that both shall be consumed together. ^ Applied
to the nose, in the nature of a cataplasm, I have no doubt that it is advan-
tageous in catarrhs — and put on the same place, at the proper periods, it
may perhaps, by its odor, repel the visitations of the fly ((Estris ovisj, the
eggs of which produce the " grub in the head." As a medicine it may be
valuable, and evqn as a detergent in the case specified, but as a condiment

* This may be pronounced harsh " measure for measure," and some may think it would tend1 to increase
the viciousness of the animal. Repeated instances have proved the contrary to me. And if their mastery
is onca acknowledged, it is never forgotten by them.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 195

simply, for a perfectly healthy animal, I confess I have no confidence in it*
utility.

WATER.— Water is not indispensable in the summer pastures, the dews
and the succulence of the feed answering as a substitute. But my impres-
sion is decided that free access to water is advantageous to sheep, particu-
larly to those having lambs ; and I should consider it a matter of import-
ance on a sheep farm, to arrange the pastures, if practicable, so as to
bring water into each of them.

SHADE. — No one who has observed with what eagerness sheep seek
shade in hot weather, and how they pant and apparently suffer when a hot
sun is pouring down on their nearly naked bodies, will doubt that, both as
a matter of humanity and utility, they should be provided, during the hot
summer months, with a better shelter than that afforded by a common rail
fence. Forest-trees are the most natural and best shades, and it is as con-
trary to utility as it is to good taste to strip them entirely from the sheep-
walks. A strip of stone-wall or close board fence on the south and west
sides of the pasture, will form a passable substitute for trees. But in the
absence of all these, and of buildings of any kind, a shade can be cheaply
constructed of poles and brush, in the same manner as the sheds of the
same materials for winter shelter, which will be described in my next Letter.

WEANING LAMBS. — Lambs should be weaned at four months old. It is
better for them, and much better for their dams. The lambs when taken
away should be put for several days in a field distant from the ewes, that
they may not hear each other's bleatings. The lambs when in hearing of
their dams, continue restless much longer, and they make constant and
frequently successful efforts to crawl through the fences which separate
them. One or two tame old ewes are turned into the field with them to
teach them to come at the call, find salt when thrown to them, and eat
grain, &c., out of troughs when winter approaches.

The lambs when weaned should be put on the freshest and tenderest
feed. I have usually reserved for mine the grass and clover sown, the pre-
ceding spring, on the grain fields which were seeded down.

The dams, on the contrary, should be put for a fortnight on short, dry
feed, to stop the flow of milk. They should be looked to, once or twice,
and should the bags of any be found much distended, the milk should be-
drawn and the bag washed for a little time in cold water. But on short,
feed, they rarely give much trouble in this particular. When properly
dried off, they should be put on good feed to recruit, and get in condition*
for winter.

FALL FEEDING. — In the North, the grass often gets very short by the
10th or 15th of November, and it has lost much of its nutritiousness from;
repeated freezing and thawing. At this time, though no snow has ye*
fallen, it is best to give the sheep a light daily foddering of bright hay —
or a few oats in the bundle. Given thus for the ten or twelve days which,
precede the covering of the ground by snow, fodder pays for itself as well'
as at any other time during the year. I have usually fed oats in the bun-
dle, or threshed oats, (about a gill to the head,) in the feeding-troughs,
carried to the fields for that purpose.

THE CROOK. — This implement has been several times alluded to as a
convenient one for catching sheep. It is made in the form exhibited iu

196

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

\ the cut, of -f-inch round iron, drawn smaller toward the point — and the
point made safe by a knob. The other end is furnished
with a socket, which receives a handle six or eight feet
long. The manner of using it is thus described in Mr. Ste-
phens's admirable "Book of the Farm":

" The hind-leg is hooked in at a, from behind the sheep, and it fills up
the narrow part beyond <z, while passing along it until it reaches the loop,
when the animal is caught by the hock, and when secured, its foot ea-
lily slips through the loop. Some caution is required in using the crook,
'or should the sheep give a sudden start forward to get away, the mo-
ment it feels the crook the leg will be drawn forcibly through the narrow
part, and strike the bone with such violence against the bend of the loop
<s to cause the animal considerable pain, and even occasion lameness for
*ome days. On first embracing the leg, the crook should be drawn
Tjuickly toward you, so as to bring the bend of the loop against the leg as
high up as the hock, before the sheep has time even to break off, and be-
ing secure, its struggles will cease the moment your hand seizes the leg."

No flock-master should be without this implement, as it
eaves a vast deal of yarding, running, &c., and leads to
a prompt examination of every improper or suspicious ap-
pearance, and a timely application of remedy or preven-
tive— which would often be deferred if the whole flock had
to be driven to a distant yard, to enable the shepherd to
catch a particular sheep.

Dexterity in the use of the crook is speedily acquired by any one ; and
if a flock are properly tame, any one of its number can be readily caught
by it, at salting-time — or, generally, at other times, by a person with whom
the flock are familiar. But it is at the lambing-time, when sheep and lambs
require to be £O repeatedly caught, that the crook is more particularly ser-
viceable. For this purpose, at this time alone, it will pay for itself ten
times over in a single season, in saving time, to say nothing of the advan
tage of the sheep.

SHEPHKRD S
CROOK.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 197

LETTER XIII.

WINTER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.

Use of Rams — proper age, number, <fcc. — selecting ewes for — different methods of coupling — way to treal
rams... Division of Flocks for Winter.. .The Hospital... Yards— when necessary... Feeding-Racks— vari-
ous plans of— the Box Rack — the Hole Rack— the Sparred Rack — the Hopper Rack — their i-espective ad-
vantages— improvements suggested... Troughs... Grain-Boxes... Barns and Sheds — necessity of shelter at

the North the common Northern Sheep-Barn.. .Stells — the Outside Stell — Ancient Stells — Inside Circular

S tell— Circular Stell fitted up with racks... Tree-Coverts... Cheap Sheds— fitted between stacks, barracks,
&c.. .Value of Barracks for the Preservation of Fodder.. .The Main Sheep-Barn of the Farm or Plantation,
with Shearing-Floor, &c. — arrangements for breeding-ewes... Feeding sheep in yards with other stock —

improper reasons... Hay-Holders... Winter Dry Feed for Sheep — Variations in Feed — German views on

this subject — proper kinds of fodder — Boussingault's Table of the Nutritive Equivalents of different kinds
of Fodders. . -Effect of- Food in the Production of Wool — De Reaumur's Table showing the Effects of Food
in this particular... Effect of Food in producing Fat and Muscle... Fattening Wethers in the North... Feed-
ing Grain to Store-Sheep in Winter — when practiced at the North — economy of so doing — kinds of grain
preferred — necessity of regularity in quantity — difficulty of raising the condition of poor sheep in the win-
ter.. .Feeding Roots, Browse, &c — Roots a Substitute for Grain — to what sheep they may be fed — Hetn-
lock Browse — when and in what manner useful — substitutes for. ..Winter Feed of Breeding-Ewes... Ne
cessity of regularity in the times of feeding sheep... Salt... Water.

Dear Sir: As the turning out of the rams usually takes place, here, on
the first day of winter, I will describe the proper accompanying arrange-
ments, as the first step in winter management.

USE OF RAMS. — The period of gestation in the ewe averages five months.
Merino rams are frequently used from the first to the tenth year, and even
longer. The lambs of very old rams are not supposed to be as vigorous
as those of youngish or middle-aged ones, but where rams have not been
overtasked, and have been properly fed, I confess I have been able to dis-
cover very little difference in their progeny on account of age. A ram
lamb should not be used, as it retards his growth, injures his form, and, I
think, permanently impairs his vigor and courage. A yearling may run
with 30 ewes, a two-year-old with from 40 to 50, and a three-year-old
with from 50 to 60. Some very powerful, mature rams will serve 70 or
80 ewes ; but 50 is enough, where they run with the ewes. I am satisfied
that an impoverished and overtasked animal does not transmit his indi-
vidual properties so decidedly to his offspring as one in full vigor.

Several rams running in the same flock excite each other to an unnat-
ural and unnecessary activity, besides injuring each other by constant
blows. It is, in every point of view, bad husbandly, where it can be
avoided, and, as usually managed, is destructive to everything like careful
and judicious breeding. The nice adaptation which the male should pos-
sess to the female, already discussed under the head of Principles of
Breeding — counterbalancing her defects with his own marked excellence
in the same points, and, in turn, having his defects counterbalanced by
her excellencies- — how shall this be accomplished, where half a dozen or
more rams are running promiscuously with two or three hundred ewes ?

Before the rams are let out, the flock-master should have all the breed-
ing-ewes brought together in one yard. He has carefully inspected his
stock rams and noted every defect and peculiarity of their fleeces and
forms. The breeding register is before him to settle every pedigree, pro-
vided his stock rams are nearly enough connected with some portions of
thb flock to render it necessary to guard against in-and-in breeding. The
shepherd catches a ewe and places her before him. The pedigree being

198 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

determined, he first notes her form, and then opening the wool on the
'•shoulder, thigh and belly, notes the length, thickness, quality, and style of
the staple. If he kept, the minutes at shearing recommended by me (un-
der the head of " Selection ") it will save much time and lead to far more
accurate classification. When every point in the ewe is determined, he
decides which ram, on the whole, is best calculated to perpetuate her ex-
cellencies both of fleece and carcass, and best counterbalance her defects
in their mutual offspring. With a pigment composed of Venitian red and
nog's lard, he then, as has been already mentioned under the head of
Registering, gives the ewe a mark which will last until the next shearing,
which will show by what ram she was tupped. Those selected for each
ram are placed in different inclosures, and the chosen ram placed with
them. In four weeks' time, the rams are withdrawn, and the flocks
doubled or otherwise rearranged for winter, as may be necessary. This
looks like taking considerable trouble, but having practiced it for years
on my farm, arid having always made these selections myself, I know
that in reality the treuble is very slight — nothing, when the beneficial le-
sults are taken into consideration. With a couple assistants, to catch, a
day would suffice for effecting the proper classification and division of sev-
eral hundred ewes.

Where choice rams are scarce, so that it is an object to make the ser-
vices of one go a great way — or where it is impossible to have separate
inclosures, (as on farms where there there are a

great number of breeding-ewes, or where the shep- Fig- 30.

herd system is adopted to the exclusion of fences,)
the following method may be resorted to. Build a
hut containing as many apartments as you wish to
use rams, with an alley between them. That part
of fig. 30 which is surrounded by* black lines repre-
sents the hut divided into four apartments, each fur-
nished with a feeding-box and trough in one corner.
Gates or bars open from each apartment into the
alley, and at cadi end of the alley. The dotted
lines inclose a yard just sufficient to hold the flock
of breeding-ewes.

A couple of strong rams (of any quality) for about
every hundred ewes, are then aproned, their brisk-
ets rubbed with Venitian red and hog's lard, and they are let loose among
the ewes. Aproning is performed by sewing a belt of coarse sacking
broad enough to extend from the fore to the hind legs, loosely but strongly
round the body. To prevent its slipping forward or back, straps are car-
rie4 round the breast and back of the breech. It is indispensable that it
be made perfectly secure, or all the labor of this method of coupling will
be far worse than thrown away. The pigment on the brisket should be
renewed every two or three days — and it will be necessary, usually, to
change the " teasers," as these aproned rams are called, about once a
week, as they do not long retain their courage under such unnatural cir-
cumstances. Twice a day the ewes are brought into the yard in front of
the hut. Those marked on their rumps by the teasers are taken into the
alley. Each is admitted to the ram for which she is marked once, and
then goes out at the opposite end of the alley from whicJi she entered, into a
separate field from that containing the flock from which she was taken.
A powerful and vigorous ram from three to seven years old, and properly
fed, can thus be made to serve from 150 to even 200 ewes, with no greatei
injury than from running loose with 50 or 60.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 199

This, too, looks like a great amount of labor to attain the result sought,
but having had it formerly practiced for two years on my farm, I know
that when conducted with system, and by a prompt and handy shepherd,
it consumes no great amount of time.

Rams will do better, accomplish more, and last two or three years long-
er, if daily fed with grain, when on service, and it is well to continue it,'
gradually decreasing the quantity, for a few days after they are withdrawn
from the flock of ewes. A ram should receive the equivalent of from half
a pint to a pint of oats, daily, when worked hard. They are much more
conveniently fed when kept in huts. If suffered to run at large, they
should be so thoroughly tamed that they will eat from a measure held by
the shepherd. Careful breeders thus train their stock-rams from the time
they are lambs. It is very convenient, also, to have them halter-broke, so
that they can be led about without dragging or lifting them. An iron ring
attached to one of the horns, near the point, to which a cord can be at-
tached for leading, confining, &c., is very useful and handy. If rams are
wild, it is a matter of considerable difficulty to feed them separately, and
it can only be effected by yarding the flock and catching them out. Some
breeders, in addition to extra feeding, take the rams out of the flocks
nights, shutting them up in a barn or stable by themselves. There is no
objection to this practice, and it is a great saving of their strength.

Rams should not be suffered to run with the ewes over a month, at
least in the North. It is much better that a ewe go dry than that she
have a lamb later than the first of June. And after the rutting season is
aver, the rams grow cross, frequently striking the pregnant ewes danger-
ous blows with their heavy horns, at the racks and troughs.

DIVISION OF FLOCKS. — If flocks are shut up in small inclosures during
winter, according to the Northern custom, it is necessary to divide them
into flocks of about 100 each, to consist of sheep of about the same size
and strength. Otherwise the stronger rob the weaker, and the latter rap-
idly decline. This would not be so important where the sheep roam at
large, but even in that case some division and classification are necessary,
— or, at all events lest. It is best, indeed, as already stated, even in sum-
mer. The poorer and feebler can by this means receive better pasture, or
a little more grain and better shelter in winter.

By those who grow wool to any extent, breeding ewes, lambs, and weth-
ers are invariably kept in separate flocks in winter ; and it is best to keep
yearling sheep by themselves with a few of the smallest two-year-olds, and
any old crones which are kept for their excellence as breeders, but which
cannot maintain themselves in the flock of breeding-ewes.

THE HOSPITAL. — Old and feeble, or wounded shiep, late-born lambs, etc.,
should be placed by themselves, if the number doee not even exceed a score.
They require better feed, warmer shelter, and more attention. But after
all, unless the sheep are of a peculiarly valuable variety, it is better to sell
them off in the fall at any price, — or to give them to some poor neighbor
who has time to nurse them, and who may thus commence a flock.

YARDS. — Experience has amply demonstrated, that in the climate of the
Northern and Eastern States — where no grass grows from four to four and
a half months in the winter — and where, therefore, all that can be obtain-
ed from the ground is the repeatedly frozen, innutritions herbage, left in
the fall — it is better to keep sheep confined in yards, excepting where tho
ground is covered with snow. If suffered to roam over the fields at other

200

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

times, they get enough grass to take away their appetite for dry hay, but
not enough to sustain them ; they fall away, and towards spring they be-
come weak, and a large proportion of them frequently perish. I speak,
of course, of flocks of some size, and on properly stocked farms. A few
sheep, with a boundless range, would do better.

Some of our flock-masters let out their sheep occasionally for a single
day, during a thaw ; others keep them entirely from the ground until let
out to grass in the spring. I prefer the former course, where the sheej.
ordinarily get nothing but dry fodder. It affords a healthy laxative, and
a single day's grazing will not take off their appetite from more than one
Bucceeding dry feed. It is necessary, here, to keep the sheep in the yards
until the feed has got a good start in the spring, or they, particularly
breeding-ewes, will get off from their feed, and get weak at the most crit-
ical time for them in the year.

Yards should be firm -bottomed, dry, — and they should, (in this climate,)
be kept well littered with straw.

My impression is that the yarding system will never be practiced to any
extent in the South. It certainly should not be, where sheep can get their
living from the fields. How far, and under what circumstances, they will
do this, has already been sufficiently discussed in my preceding Letters.

FEEDING-RACKS. — When the ground is frozen, and especially when
covered with snow, the sheep eats hay better on the ground than anywhere
6lse. When the land is soft, muddy, or foul with manure, they will scarce-
ly touch hay placed on it. It should then be fed in racks.

These are of various forms.-
Figure 31 gives the common box
rack, in the most general use in
the North. It is ten feet long,
two and a half wide, the lower
boards a foot wide, the upper
ones about ten inches, the two
about nine inches apart, and the
corner posts three by three, or

three and a half by two and a half inches. The boards are spiked on these
posts by large flat headed nails wrought for the purpose, and the lower
edges of the upper boards and the upper edges of the lower ones are
rounded so they shall not wear the wool off from the sheep's necks. The
lower boards and the opening for the heads, should be two or three inches
narrower for lambs. If made of light wood, as they should be, a man
standing in the inside and middle of one of these racks, can easily carry it
about — an important desideratum. Unless overfed, sheep waste very lit-
tle hay in them.

A capital shed or barn rack is represented in the following cut. The

Fig. 31.

Tig. 32.

HOLE RACK.

iioles are eight inches wide, nine inches high, and eighteen inches from
center to center. Sheep do not crowd and take advantage of each other

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 201

ac much with these as with box racks. But they would be too heavy and
unnecessarily expensive for a common out-door rack. Fig. 32 represents
a box, the front formed of a board nailed on horizontally, but they are
usually formed by nailing the boards perpendicularly, the bottoms on the
eill of a barn, and the tops to horizontal pieces of timber.

In the South, as in England, racks will not be so necessary for that
constant use to which they are put in colder countries, as for depositories
of dry food, for the occasional visitation of the sheep. In soft warm
weather, when the ground is unfrozen, and any kind of green herbage is
to be obtained, sheep will scarcely touch dry fodder — though the little tlicy
will then eat will be highly serviceable to them. But in a sudden freeze, or
on the occurrence of cold storms, they will resort to the racks, and fill
themselves with dry food. By an instinct beautifully illustrative of the
providence of the Creator, sheep anticipate the coming storm, and eat an
extra quantity of food to sustain the animal heat, during the succeeding
depression of temperature. They should always have racks of dry fod-
der to resort to in such emergencies.

These occasionally used racks should have covers or roofs to protect
their contents from rain, as otherwise the feed would be often spoiled be-
fore but a small portion of it was consumed. Hay or straw saturated with
water, or soaked and dried, is only eaten by the sheep as a matter of ab-
solute necessity. The common box rack (fig. 31) would answer the pur-
pose very well by placing on the top a triangular cover or roof formed of
a couple of boards, (one hung at the upper edge with iron or leather hin-
ges so that it could be lifted up like a lid ;) making the ends tight ; draw-
ing in the lower edges of the sides so that it shall not be more than a foot
wide on the bottom ; inserting a floor ; and then mounting it on and mak-
ing it fast to two cross sills four or five inches square to keep the floor off
from the ground, and long enough to prevent it from being easily overturn-
ed. The lower side board should be narrower than in fig. 31, on account
of the increased hight given its upper edge by the sills.

Still better, but somewhat more expensive, would be a rack of the same
construction, with the sides like those of fig. 32.

Or, the sides might consist of rundles as in fig. 33. In either of the
preceding, the top might be nailed down, and the fodder inserted by little
d:>ors in the ends.

The following form and description of an English rack is from the
" Book of the Farm."*

Fig. 33.

SPARRED RACK.

" I have found," says Mr. Stephens, " this form convenient, containing as much straw a*
time as should be given, admitting the straw easily into it, being easily moved abo*-*. ^

* It will be found iu the reprint of this splendid work, in The Farmers' Library, vol. ii., p. 449

2 G

202 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

easy access to the sheep, and being so near the ground as to form an excellent shelter. It
is made of wood, is 9 feet in length, 4^ feet in hight, and 3 feet in width, having a sparred
rack with a double face below, which is covered with an angled roof of boards to throw off
the rain. The rack is supported on two triangular-shaped tressels b, shod with iron at the
points, which are pushed into the ground, and act as stays against the effects of the wind
from either side. The billet c, fixed on the under or acute edge of the rack, rests upon the
ground, and in common with the feet, supports it from bending down in the middle. The

lid a is opened on hinges when the fodder is put into the rack Such a rack is easily

moved about by two persons, and their position should be changed according to a change
of wind indicative of a storm.'

I used racks formed of rounds (or " sparred ") for several years, and
found them decidedly objectionable. The sheep grasping a lock of hay in
its mouth, brings the head to its natural position, and then draws in the
adhering fibres in the process of mastication. But when eating from a
rack, it will not pick up the liay which it drops under foot. In the box or
hole racks (figs. 31 and 32) most sheep will not withdraw their heads
from the openings, as they can there hold them in the ordinary position
for mastication, and as, if they step back to do so, they are very liable to
be crowded out of their places. The hay, therefore, is not drawn out of
the rack, and if any is dropped, it falls within it and is saved. At a sparred
rack, the sheep will not keep its nose between the randies (in a horizon-
tal or upward position) until it detaches a mere mouthfull of hay. It will,
particularly when partly sated, twitch out its fodder prior to mastication,
and all which scatters off and drops to the ground, is trampled under foot
and wasted, except for the mere purpose of manure. A considerable loss
will always result from this cause.

And there is another objection to this form of rack, particularly where
it runs down to an acute edge on the bottom, as in fig. 33. The sheep
frequently drawing the hay from the lower part, will shake down from
above hay-seeds and chaff into the wool on their head and necks ; and the
wind will sometimes carry these as far as their shoulders and even their
backs. As heretofore remarked, these cannot be washed out, and they
materially lower the market value of the wool.

The following rack has been used and is highly approved by my friend
George Geddes, Esq., of Fairmount, N. Y., to whom I am indebted for
the drawing and description of the cut. It serves both for a rack anc
feeding-trough.

Fig. 34.

THE HOPPER-RACK.

The above is intended to represent a section of what I think the best sheep-rack

1 A piece of durable wood about 4£ feet long, 6 or 8 inches deep, and 4 inches thick
two notches, a, a, cut into it, and two troughs, made of inch boards, b, b, b, b, placed ii

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

203

these notches, and nailed fast, constitutes the foundation. If the rack it to be 14 feet Ions:,
three sills will be required. The ends of the rack are made by nailing against the side of
the sill-boards that reach up as high as it is desired to have the rack, and nails driven
through these end-boards into the ends of the side-boards/,/, secure them. The sides
may he farther strengthened by pieces of board on the outside of them, and fitted into the
trough. A roof may be put over all if desired. With n roof, the fodder is kept entirely
from the weather, and no seeds or chaff can get into the wool."

TROUGRS. — Threshed grain, chopped roots, &c., when fed to sheep
should be laid in troughs. With any of the preceding forms of racks, ex
jepting fig. 34, a separate trough would be required. For a number of
years I have used those of the following form, and have found them every
way satisfactory.

J Fig. 35.

SHKEP-TRODGH.

One of the side-boards is ui aally about ten and the other eleven inches
wide. The feet are commonly of two-inch plank, rising high enough on
the sides to keep the sides of the trough firm in their places.

In our snowy climate they are turned over after feeding, and when falls
of snow are anticipated, one end is laid on the yard fence.*

The following elaborately ingenious contrivance for keeping grain where
sheep can feed on it at will, is from the " Book of the Farm," and I ap-
pend the author's description of it.t

Fig. 36.

Fig. 37.

VERTICAL SECTION OF INTERIOR
OF GRAIN BOX.

GRAIN BOX FOR SHEEP.

" There is a mode of preserving corn (grain) for sheep on turnips which has been tried
with success in Fife. It consists of a box like a hay-rack, in which the grain is at all
times kept closely shut up, except when sheep wish to eat it, and then they get it by
a simple contrivance. The box a b contains the grain, into which it is poured through the
small hinged lid y. The cover c d concealing the grain, is also hinged, and when elevated the
eheep have access to the grain. Its elevation is effected by the pressure of the sheep's fore-
feet upon the platform e f, which, moving as a lever, acts upon the lower ends of the up-
right rods g and k, raises them up, and elevates the cover c d, under which their heads
then find admittance into the box. A similar apparatus gives them access to the other side
of the box. The whole machine can be moved about to convenient places by means of

* To you, Sir, living on the ocean shore of South Carolina, and who, I think, have not visited the North,
in the depth of winter, the idea of a farmer's finding the racks used by him the day before, buried under
from eighteen inches to three feet of snow, and having to dig them out, may be rather an odd one J But,
nevertheless, it ia a matter of no very rare occurrence, at least at the lowest depth mentioned

i See Farmers' Library, voL it., No. 10, p. 476.

204 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

four wheels. The construction of the interior of the box being somewhat peculiar, another
fig. 37, is given as a vortical section of it, where b is the hinged lid by which the graip.
is put into the box, whence it is at once received into the hopper d, the bottom of which
being open, and brought near that of the box, a small space only is left for the grain tc
pass into the box, the hopper forming the grain-store , a is the cover of the box raised
on its hinges by the rod /, acted upon by the platform ef, fig. 35 ; and, when in this po-
sition, the sheep put their heads below a at c, and eat the grain at d. Machines of simi-
lar construction to this have also been devised to serve poultry with grain at will."

I never have thought it best in feeding or fattening any animals, or, at
all events, any quadrupeds, to allow them grain at will — preferring stated
feeds ; and the same remark is applicable to fodder. If this system is de-
parted from in using depository racks, as heretofore recommended, it is
because it is rendered necessary by the circumstances of the case. A Me-
rino store-sheep, allowed grain ad libitum, would stand a chance to inflict
an injury on itself, and I cannot but believe that grain so fed would gen-
erally be productive of more injury than benefit.

BARNS AND SHEDS, &c. — Sheep barns and sheds, at the North, .are fre-
quently made very elaborate contrivances — particularly on paper. But
expensive barns, with feeding-cellars and other arrangements for keeping
sheep within doors during a greater portion of the winter, would, it strikes
me, be entirely out of place in the South. Even in our rigorous climate
none but the breeders of Saxons pretend to make a regular practice or
feeding under cover.

Humanity and economy both dictate, here, that sheep be provided with
shelters to lie under nights, and to which they can resort at will. In our
severe winter storms, it is sometimes necessary, or at least by far the best,
to feed under shelter for a day or two. It is not an uncommon circum-
stance in New- York and New-England, for snow to fall to the depth of
20 or 30 inches within 24 or 48 hours, and then to be succeeded by a
strong and intensely cold west or north-west wind of two or three days'
continuance,* which lifts the snow, blocking up the roads, and piling huge
drifts to the leeward of fences, barns, &c. A flock without shelter will
huddle closely together, turning their backs to the storm, constantly step-
ping and thus treading down the snow as it rises about them. Strong, close-
coated sheep do not seem to suffer as much from the cold, for a period, as
would be expected. But it is next to impossible to feed them enough or
half enough, under such circumstances, without an immense waste of hay
— entirely impossible, without racks. The hay is whirled away in an in-
stant by the wind, and even if racks are used, the sheep leaving their hud-
dle where they were kept warm and even moist by the melting of the snow
in their wool, soon get chilled and are disposed to return to their huddle.
Imperfectly filled with food, the supply of animal heat is lowered, and at
the end of the second or third day, the feeble ones have sunk down hope
lessly, the yearlings and oldish ones have received a shock which nothing
but careful nursing will recover them from, and even the strongest have
Buffered an injurious loss in condition.

Few holders of more than 40 or 50 sheep now attempt to get along
here without some kind of shelters. The following (fig. 38) is a very
common form of a Northern sheep-barn with sheds. The sheds front the
south, or, what is a better arrangement, one fronts the east, and the other,
being turned to a right angle to the direction of this, fronts the south. 1
have represented hole racks, as in fig. 32, running round the sheds, as,
although not yet in general use, they are undoubtedly the best in such sit*

* Thoae terriblj wind-storms are of much longer continuance in many parts of New-England.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

20,5

nations. The sheds are not usually framed or silled, — but are supported
by posts of some durable timber set in the ground. The roofs are formed
of boards "battened " with slabs. The barn has no partitions within, and
is entirely filled with hay.

Fig. 38.

SHEEP-BARN.

There are many situations where these open sheds are very liable to ha\e
snow drifted under them by certain winds, and they are subject in all cases
in severe gales, to have the snow carried over them to fall down in large
drifts in front, which gradually encroach on the sheltered space, and are
very inconvenient — particularly when they thaw. I therefore much prefer
sheep-houses covered on all sides, with the exception of a wide door-way
for ingress and egress, and one or two windows for ventilation when it is
necessary. They are convenient for yarding sheep, for the various process-
es where this is required, as for shearing, marking, sorting, "doctoring,"

Fig. 39.

THE OUTSIDE STELL.

&c., and especially so, for lambing places or the confinement of newly
shorn sheep in cold storms. They should be spacious enough, so that in

205

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

addition to the outside racks, others can be placed temporarily through
the middle when required.

In many parts of Scotland, " Stells," as they are called, are made use
of to shelter sheep. Ficr. 39 on the preceding page is the form of one given

md the author's descrii

in " The Book of the Farm," and

lescription of it :

" In a storm, their provender cannot be given to the sheep upon snow, safely and conven-
iently, as ground-drift may blow and cover both ; and no place is so suitable for the purpose
ss a ste.ll It may be formed of planting or high stone-wall. Either will afford shel-
ter ; but the former most, though most costly, as it should be fenced by a stone-wall. Of
this class I conceive the form represented (fig. 38) a good one, and which may be char-
acterized as an outside stell The circumscribing strong black line is a stone-wall six

feet high ; the dark ground within is covered with trees. Its four rounded projections shel-
ter a corresponding number of recesses embraced between them, so that let the wind blow
from what quarter it may, two of the recesses will be always sheltered from the storm. The
eize of this stell is regulated by the number of sheep kept ; but this rule may be remem-
bered in regard to its accommodation for stock, that each recess occupies about J part of the
space comprehended between the extremities of the 4 projections ; so that in a stell covering
4 acres — which is perhaps the least size they should be, every recess will contain £ an acre."

The two following are forms of stells, composed of stone-wall, without
planting,

Fig. 40.

ANCIENT STELLS.

Figures 42 and 43, on the following page, are forms of circular stells,
the first made by stone-walls and planting, as in fig. 39. The open space
a is occupied by the sheep, and b is a funnel-shaped opening to it.

On the whole I should consider fig. 42 preferable to any of the preceding
forms. Figure 43 represents one of the same form, but without the
planting, with a stack in the middle, &c. Either of the stells which are
formed in part of trees, would be convenient in severe winds, would form
excellent shades in summer, and would constitute highly ornamental ob-
jects on the farm, and in the landscape. On the most northerly of the
Southern mountains, where considerable snow falls, they might even be
good contrivances for winter shelter. They might also be convenient on
the lowlands farther south, provided the shelter of evergreens could be
made dense enough to protect the sheep from the winter rains. In this
case, the stell or covert might be of any shape, and ought to have no cen

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

207

tral opening. It would be merely a dense clump of evergreen trees, foi
the sheep to take refuge under in storms of rain, and it might be surround-
ed on the outside with a tight board fence or stone-wall, if much exposed

Fia. 42.

THE INSIDE CIRCULAR STELL.

to the sweep of cold winds. As the sheep would lie among the trees, a
clump 50 or 60 feet in diameter — though 100 feet would be better — would
suffice for 100 sheep.

Fig. 43.

THE CIRCULAR STELL FITTED UP WITH HAT-RACKS.

But in determining upon the best winter shelters, for the various re
gions in the South, the fact must not be lost sight of that cold rains, 01
rains of any temperature, wlien immediately succeeded by cold or freezing
weather, or cold, piercing winds, are more hurtful to sheep than even snow-
storms— and that consequently sheep must be adequately guarded against
them. There must also be suitable shelter from any storms to which the
country is subject, in the lambing season. Any person with the least ex-
perience can determine whether an inclosed clump of trees will answer
ihese purposes, in his own immediate region.

I think it very probable that in the Gulf States, and some of the lower
Atlantic ones — particularly in regions near the ocean — these tree coverts,

233 SHEEP HUSHANDIlf IN THE SOUTH

surrounded by fences to break the winds, would be found sufficient. In
sections infested with wolves, they might also be made to answer for folds,
by carrying the fence to the requisite hight, to bar the ingress of the wolf.
But farther north, and on the high lands and mountains, better shelters
would, I am inclined to think, in the end, be found more economical.

The simplest and cheapest kind of shed is represented in the following
cut (fig. 44). It is formed by poles or rails, the upper ends resting on a
strong horizontal pole supported by crotched posts set in the ground. It
may be rendered rain-proof by pea-haulm, straw, or pine boughs.

Fig. 44.

SHED OF RAILS.

In a region where lumber is very cheap, planks or boards (of sufficient
thickness not to spring downward and thus open the roof) battened with
slabs, may take the place of the poles and boughs ; and they would make
a tighter and more durable roof. If the lower ends of the boards or poles
are raised a couple of feet from the ground, by placing a log under them,
the shed will shelter more sheep.

These movable sheds may be connected with hay-barns, " hay-barracks,"
stacks, or they may surround an inclosed space with a stack in the middle
like fig. 43. In the latter case, however, the yard should be square, in-
stead of round, on account of the divergence in the lower ends of the
boards or poles, which the round form would render necessaiy.

Sheds of this description are frequently made, in the North, between
two stacks. The end of the horizontal supporting pole is placed on the
stack-pens, when the stacks are built, a'nd the middle is propped by
crotched posts. The supporting-pole may rest, in the same way, on the
upper girts of two hay-barracks ; or two such sheds (at angles with each
other) might form wings to this structure. The " barrack," as it is pro
vincially termed in the North, would, it strikes me, afford a most econom-
ical and a most convenient way of storing fodder in the South. It is ea-
sily movable, so that it possesses the same advantage that stacks do, in
manuring different parts of the field or farm. On the other hand, the fod-
der cannot be drenched by a winter rain, as in a partly fed out stack
Hay can be more rapidly stored in it than on a stack at any time, and you
can pitch into it to the last moment, when threatened with rain, without
stopping to round up the top as is necessary in a stack. The outside i?
not weather-beaten and damaged, as is the case with the sides, and fre
quently with a considerable of the top of a stack. Fig. 45 (on the nex*
page) represents the form of a barrack. It is 12 feet square on the bot-
tom, and the frame is formed by girting together four strong poles, 16 feet
long, at the bottom, and 6 feet from the bottom. Boards 6 feet long are
nailed perpendicularly on the girts. Two-inch holes are bored at con-
venient distances through the corner poles, so that the roof, which rests

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE .SOUTH.

203

It seems to me that this structure

Fig. 45.

on pins thrust through these holes, can be raised or lowered, at pleasure. It

is occasionally lowered as the fodder gets lower in the barrack, so that

rain or snow shall not drive under it.

would be remarkably well adapted

to the storing and feeding out of un-

threshed peas, which, as has been

remarked in a former Letter, are so

advantageously raised at the South,

and constitute so admirable a feed

for sheep.

On all large sheep-farms con-
venience requires that there be one
barn of considerable size, to con-
tain the shearing-floor, and the ne-
cessary conveniences about it for
yarding the sheep, &c. This should
also, for economy, be a hay-barn,
(where hay is used,) and from its
necessary size (for the shearing-
floor), it should hold hay for 400 sheep.

BARRACK.

It may be constructed in the

corner of four fields, so that four hundred sheep can be fed from it, with-
out making improperly sized flocks. At this barn it would be expedient
to make the best shelters, and to bring together all the breeding-ewes on
the farm, if their number did not exceed 400. Thus the shepherd would
be saved much travel at all times, and particularly at the lambing-time,
and each flock would be under his almost constant supervision.

I offer the following ground-plan of a barn with fixtures, &c., as one
which I think will be found well adapted to the purpose above specified.
The upper is the north part of the plan.

fig. 46.

The dotted lines a, a, a, a, are the fences dividing four fields, which would
corner at the south-east corner of the barn. The barn is surrounded by double
lines, and the sheds by double lines on the backs and ends — the dots in
front of them, representing the crotched posts supporting their front- The
single black lines round the yards, represent tight board fences, which
screen the four yards b, c, d, e, from every wind. There are two pumps and
troughs at k, k, which accommodate the whole four fields, if a want of
springs or streams in them render these necessary. The sheds are so ai>

3D

210 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

ranged that even without the screens they entirely shut out the north and
west winds — the prevailing and severe winter ones of this region—and if
other ones are more prevalent in other regions, the sheds can be changed
accordingly. Each of the sheds is 50 feet long and 12 feet wide — six
square feet being the smallest proper allowance of sheltered area for eacr
sheep. The barn is 48 feet square, a floor 13 feet wide running east ace
west through the center, for shearing and for the drawing in of hay. An
alley 4 feet wide and 8 feet high (boaided up on the side toward the
mow, and covered at the top) cuts off the lower part of each bay from the
east wall of the barn. This is for carrying hay into the yards b, c. It is
carried into the yards d, e,from the large doors at each end of the shearing-
floor (or from smaller ones cut through them.) The south bay is repre-
sented as divided by a temporary fence, cutting it into two pensj^ g. The
outside inclosure c, for yarding the sheep, communicating by a door with
ft and g being used as a room to tie up wool in, presents precisely the
same arrangement which is exhibited in the cut of the shearing-barn
(fig. 22) in Letter XII.

The barn here given (fig. 46) is probably larger than would be neces-
sary for 400 sheep, in most parts of the South. Its necessary size is a
question to be entirely determined by the climate. For large flocks of
sheep, I should regard the storage of some hay or other fodder for winter
as an indispensable precautionary measure, at least, in any part of the
United States ; and, other things being equal, the farther north, or the more
elevated the land, the greater would be the necessary amount to be stored.

The shearing-floor shortened to 30 or 35 feet, would still, perhaps, be
sufficiently commodious, and this would reduce the dimensions of the barn
east and west 13 or 18 feet ; and one of the bays might be dispensed with.
But having constructed so large, so smooth, and so tight a barn-floor as
the shearing one ought to be, it would be good economy to use it for the
threshing of grain. One of the bays, therefore, might be used for the
storage of grain in the sheaf. I have always considered this an excellent
arrangement in a Northern barn of this description, as in our cold climate
the sheep require much straw litter in their sheds, yards, &c. Thrown
out to them daily, as threshed, much bright straw and chaff will be con-
sumed by them — particularly of greenish cut oats.

The yards c, e, in fig. 46 are represented but the width of the barn, 48
feet. If these were reduced too much, by diminishing the size of the barn,
the shed of c could be carried farther west at^', and that of e farther north
at i, being connected with the bam by wind-breakers, composed of a tight
board fence, as high as the summit of the sheds. Or, what would perhaps
be better, the fences thrown forward in a straight line from the ends of
these two sheds might be continued until they intersected each other, and
a fence from their point of intersection to the south-east corner of the barn
would divide the two yards.

FEEDING SHEEP WITH OTHER STOCK. — Sheep should not run or be fed,
in yards, with any other stock. Cattle hook them, often mortally. Colts
tease and frequently injure them. It is often said that " colts will pick up
what sheep leave." Well-managed sheep rarely^ leave anything — and if
they chance to, it is better to rake it up and throw it into the colts'yard,
chan to feed them together. If sheep are not required to eat their feeds
pretty clean, they will soon learn to waste large quantities. But if sheep
are overfed with either hay or grain, it is not proper to compel them by
starvation to come back and eat it. They will not unless sorely pinchei
fUean out the troughs, — or rake up the hay, and the next time feed less.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

HAY-HOLDERS. — Where hay or other fodder is thrown out of the upper
doors of a barn into the sheep-yard, as it always must necessarily be in a
barn constructed like fig. 38, or any mere A#2/-barn, or where it is thrown
from a barrack or stack, the sheep immediately rush on it, trampling it and
soiling it, and the succeeding forkfulls fall on their backs, filling their wool
with dust, seed and chaff. This is avoided by hay-holders — yards 10 feet
square — either portable 'by being made of posts and boards, or simply a
pen of rails, placed under the doors of the barns, and by the sides of each
stack or barrack. The hay is pitched into the holder, in fair weather
enough for a day's foddering at a time, and is taken from this by forkfulls
and placed in the racks. I would here offer a necessary caution in rela-
tion to the use of rails or poles, for stack-pens or 'hay -holders. The poles
should be so small as to entirely prevent the sheep from inserting their heads
between them after hay. A sheep will often insert its head where the
opening is wide enough for that purpose, shove it along or get crowded
along, to where the opening is not wide enough to withdraw the head, and
it will hang there until observed and extricated by the shepherd. If, as it
often happens, it is thus caught when its fore parts are elevated by climb-
ing up the side of the pen, it will continue to lose its fore footing in its
struggles, and will soon choke to death.

WINTER DRY FEED FOR SHEEP. — The proper dry winter fodder for. sheep
has already been repeatedly alluded to, in general terms. Volumes have
been expended on this subject, particularly in Germany — and curious and
elaborate systems of feeding given. In Germany great stress is laid on
variety in the winter fodder. In the German Farmer's Encyclopaedia, the
following table of the proper variations and amounts of feed is given by
FETRI.

TABLE 15.

Day.

Lbe.

Loth,
equal
% oz.

Morning.

Lb3.

Loth,
equal
>6°*-

Noon.

Lbs.

Loth,
equal
MOX.

Evening.

1

21

hay

21

hay

21

hay

2

1

1

rye straw-

1

22

hay

1

1

rye straw

3

23

bean straw

26

Vetch-hay

23

bean straw

4

1

wheat straw

1

sainfoin

1

wheat straw

5

1

6

oat straw

21

hay

1

6

oat straw

6

1

6

artichoke stalk

1

19

red clover

1

6

artichoke stalk

7

1

8

turkey wheat

1

12

lucern

1

8

turkey- wheat str'w

8

1

8

buckwheat straw

1

16

hay

1

8

buckwheat straw

9

1

6

oat straw

7

horse-beans

1

6

oat straw

10

19

red clover

19

red clover

19

red clover

11

18

sainfoin

18

sainfoin

18

sainfoin

12

1

6

millet straw

1

6

millet straw

1

6

millet straw

13

30

lentil straw

•

21

hay

30

lentil straw

14

30

pea straw

21

hay

30

pea straw

15
16

1

30
10

barley straw
horse-bean straw

1
1

10

artichoke stalk
horse-bean straw

1

30
10

aarley straw
horse-bean straw

17

1

1

rye straw

1

11

oat straw

1

1

rye straw

18

1

3

wheat straw

1

9

oat straw

1

3

wheat straw

19

1

6

rye straw

1

turkey-wheat

1

3

wheat straw

20

1

6

oat straw

1

turkey-wheat

1

6

oat straw

21

1

3

wheat straw

22

artichoke stalk

1

6

oat straw

22

30

lentil straw

1

30

vetch straw

30

lentil straw

23

1

6

oat straw

1

6

wheat straw

1

6

oat straw

The same writer gives the following as the proper winter feed of a
ewe, the month preceding lambing :

•212 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

TABLE 16.

In the morning, $ Ib. of good oat straw.

noon £ .. of good hay of clover. *

evening.. | .. of good barley straw.
morning, f... of millet straw.

noon 2 .. of potatoes with 4 oz. of chopped straw, and 4 oz. of oata.

evening. ,J .. of barley straw,
morning . $ .. of hay.

noon | . . of hay,

evening.. 1 .. of wheat, oat, barley or buckwheat straw,
morning . | .. of summer straw.

noon £ .. of chopped straw, with 3 oz. oats and 3 oz. bran, moistened

with water.

evening. -| .. of winter straw,
morning.^ .. of hay.

noon 2 .. of potatoes -with % Ib. of chopped straw.

evening. .§ .. of winter straw,
morning .% .. of hay.

noon as in 4th day,

evening..! Ib. of straw.

6th day

All this would be infinitely " more nice than wise," in any part of the
United States. Variations of dry fodder are well enough, but hundreds-
and thousands of Northern flocks receive nothing but ordinary hay, con-
sisting mainly of Timothy, (Phleum pratcnsej some Red and White Clo-
ver, ( Tnfolium pratense et rcpens,) and frequently a sprinkling of June 01
Spear grass, (Poa pratensis,) during the entire winter. Others receive an
occasional fodder of corn-stalks and straw — and some farmers give a daily
feed of grain through the winter. Where hay is the principal feed, it may
oe well, where it is convenient, to give corn-stalks (or "blades") every
fifth or sixth feed, or even once a day. Or the daily feed, not ofJiay, might
alternate between blades, pea-straw, straw of the cereal grains. &c. Should
any other fodder besides hay be the principal one, as, for example, corn
blades or pea-haulm, each of the other fodders might be alternated in the
same way. It is mainly, in my judgment, a question of convenience with
the flock-master, provided a proper supply of palatable nutriment within a
proper compass, is given. Hay, clover, properly cured pea-haulm, and corn-
blades are palatable to the sheep, and each contain the necessary supply
of nutriment in the quantity which the> sheep can readily take into its stom •
ach. Consequently, from either of these, the sheep can derive its entire
subsistence. The same remarks may, possibly, apply to greenish cut oat
and barley straw; but it would not, I apprehend, be economical or alto-
gether safe to confine any kind of sheep to the straw of the cereal grains
unless some of those little hardy varieties of sheep which would be of no
-value in this country. Experiment will readily show the flock-master
what kinds of food are palatable and agree, with the health of his flock.
The following exceedingly valuable Table, prepared by Boussirigault, will
give the value of various kinds of feed in comparison with ordinary natu-
ral meadow hay, as ascertained by himself, Von Thaer, Block, and other
distinguished Agricultural Chemists. The results are obtained by chemi-
cal analysis, and by actual experiments in feeding. The amount of nitro-
gen in 100 parts is made the chemical test of value, as it shows the quan-
tity of fibrin, albumen, and casein, (by multiplying by 6.3.) The experi-
mental result is obtained by weighing the animal and the feed, and giving
him enough of each to maintain him in good condition.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SO/TH.

215

TABLE 17.

FODDERS.

TABLE OF THE NUTRITIVE EQUIVALENTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FODDERS.

Kinds of Food.

f|

||
£

I

f!

£

&

ys

S-Sg
«s

1

I

'£

y

CH

S3
1"

:1

«j

i

Remarks.

Ordinary natural meadow hay
Do. of fine quality

11.0
14.0
18.8
14.0
16.6
10.1
76.0
26.0
8.5
5.3
9.4
18.7
12.6
21.0
11.0
8.5
19.0
11.6
9.2

11.0

76.0

88.9
70.9

1.34
1.50
2.40
2.44
1.66
1.70

0.36
0.53
0.43
1.42
0.30
0.50
0.36
0.30
1.95
0.96
0.54
1.18
1.16

2.30
4.50
2.94

1.15
1.30
2.00
2.10
1.38
1.54
0.64
0.27
0.49
0.41
1.33
0.24
0.42
0.30
0.25
1.79
0.78
0.48
1.01

1.14

055

0.50
0.85
0.37
1.45
0.86
0.92
0.72
0.28
0.17
0.13
0.21
0.18
0.30
0.33
0.4-2
0.3fi
0.37
0.30
0.59
0.38
4.37
5.11
3.84
4.58
4.00
1.64
2.10
1.76
2.14
1.74
1.92
2.00
2.09
2.65

1.36

0.85
1.20
3.67
5.06
5.20
4.92
5.51
4.21
5.36
5.24
3.31
8.33
0.80
1.71

100
98
58
55
83
75
311
426
235
280
86
479
i.50
383
460
64
147
240
114

101

209
230
135
311
79
134
125
160
411
676
885
548
669
382
348
274
319
311
383
195
303
26
23
27
25
29
70
55
65
54
68
60
58
55
43

85

135
96
3!
23
22
23
21
27
21
22
35
14
143
68

100

100
430
200

200

200
193
165

160

•600

73

67
83

556

533

366
366
205

216
400

30
30
30

33

27

105
160

42

100

90
90

360

500

200
180
200
250
200
200

125
300

500
300
COO
,400

250

200

54
54
54
39

52
64
61

71
52

180
62

100

150

150

150
150
150

250

290
250

225
150

50
48

53
46

100

90
90
450
450

666

190

150
130

130

429
300
526
460

300

200

66
73
66

78
86

64

IOC

100
100
425
300

200
200
150

150
100

600
325

600
250
•450
250

250
200

40
40

40

50
60

40
75

90, 90 Dombasle,
[Ciud.

500 Rieder.

400 Schwertz.
400 do.
90 Pohl.

80 Boussingault.
280 do.

280 Boussingault

59 Boussingault.

C Some specimens
I are twice as rich.

Do select

Do. freed from woody stems

lied clover hay, 2d year's growth.
Red clover cut in flower, green, do.

Do. do. lower parts of the stalk...
Do. do. upper part of do. and ear. .

Old do

Barley do.

Millet do.

Buckwheat do

Vetches cut in flower and dried ?

Field-beet leaves..

Jerusalem artichoke stems

86.4
55.0
62.5
57.4
53.6
92.3
91.0
92.5
87.8
R->6

2.70
3.25

2.2!)
2.16
1 .5!!
3.70
1.83
1.70
1.70
1 43

Lime-trees, young shoots
Canada Poplar do

Oak do

Drum cabbage

Turnip

Field-beet (1838)

Do white Silesian

Carrots

87.6
79.2

2.40
1.60
220

Jerusalem artichokes (1839)

Do. (1836).. ..

75 5

Potatoes (1838)

65.9
79.4
76.8
6.4
70.0
14.6
7.9
8.6
5.0
9.0
18.0
12.5
132

1.50
1.80
1.18
0.63

5.13
-5.50
4.20
4.30
4.40
2.00
2.40
2.02
2.46
2.20
2.22
2.27
2.33
3.18
2.18

0.94
1.39
4.00
5.70
6.00
5.50
5.93
4.78
5.70
5.59
3.53
8.89

3.31

Do. (1836).

Do. after keepin" in the pit

Cider apple pulp'dried in the air..
Beet-root from the sugar mill
Vetches in seed

Field-beans ....

White peas (dry)

White haricots

New Indian Corn

Buckwheat

Barley (1836)

Barley-meal

13.0
20.8
12,4

Oats (1838)

Do. (1836)

live (J838)

11.5
10.5
16.6

37.1

7.6
13.4
8.0
11.2
13.4
10.5
6.5
5.0
6.8
6.0
6.2
6.6

Wheat (1836, Alsace)

Do. from highly manured soil

Wheat husks or chaff .....

Rice (Piedmont)

Gold of Pleasure seed (Madia)

Colza do

Arachis (Pindars) do

Refuse of the wine-press, air-dried j 48.2

214:

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

The great value of pea-haul m, as shown in the above Table, is worthy ot
the particular notice of the Southern flock-master. Also that of millet
straw, another crop peculiarly congenial to the Southern States, provided
it can be cured so that sheep will eat it. Corn-stalks are not, unfortunate-
ly, included in the Table. According to Petri, 100 pounds of corn " straw,"
(including stalks and leaves, I suppose,) contains but £ as much nutriment
*s the same weight of " aromatic meadow hay," and not so much by ^ as
an equal weight of oat or pea straw, which he makes equivalent to each
other! My opinion is that this by no means indicates the comparative
value of well cured corn-stalks. No analysis of them now occurs to me,
in any authority which I have on hand. Mr. Ellsworth, of the Patent Of-
fice, stated in the Cultivator in 1842, that the juice of corn-stalks, on
Beaume's Saccharometer, is equal in saccharine matter with that of the
cane in this country, five times greater than that of the Northern sugar-
maple, (Acer saccharinum,) and three times that of beet! The daily ex-
periments of our farmers demonstrate the absurdity of placing corn-stalks
below the value of the cereal straws. Cured green and bright they are a
highly valuable fodder, and are relished by all herbivorous animals. My
friend, James M. Ellis, Esq. of Onondaga, N. Y., one of the best managing
flock- masters of this State, has fed corn-stalks largely to his sheep for sev-
eral years and with decided succes.

EFFECT OF FOOD IN THE PRODUCTION OF WOOL. — The fact has been be-
fore alluded to that well fed sheep produce more wool than poorly fed
ones. The question now arises — if the effect on the condition (flesh) of the
sheep is the same, will one kind of food produce more wool than another 1
No doctrine is more clearly recognized in Agricultural Chemistry, than
that animal tissues derive their chemical components from the same com-
ponents existing in their food.* The analyses of Liebig, Johnston, Scherer,
Flayfair, Boeckmann, Mulder, &c., show that the chemical composition of
wool, hair, hoofs, nails, horns* feathers, lean meat, blood, cellular tissue,
nerves, &c. are nearly identical. The organic part of wool, according to
Johnston,t consists of carbon 50.65, hydrogen 7.03, nitrogen 17.71, oxy
gen and sulphur 24.61. The inorganic constituents are small. When
burned, it leaves but 2'0 per cent of ash. The large quantity of nitro
gen (17.71) contained in wool, shows that its production is increased by
highly azotized food. This is fully verified by the experiments made on
Saxon sheep, in Silesia, by Reaumur, whose Table I append. A striking
correspondence will be found to exist between the amount of wool and the
amount of nitrogen in the food.

TABLE 18.

Kinds of food.

Increase of
weight in
live animal.

Produced
wool.

Produced
tallow.

Nitrogen
per cent,
in food.

Ibs. oz.

Ibs. oz.

46£
44
38
134
155
90
83
146
136
120
58

31
35

6 8J
6 8
5 3J
14 11
13 13J
13 14$
12 10|
9 12
11 6|
10 4|
7 10$

15 8
6 1

12 51
10 14|
6 5\
41 6
59 9
35 111
33 8|
40 8
60 1
33 8
12 14

6 11

4 0

0.36
0.36
0.21
3.83
2.09
2.00
2.00
1.70
1.90
2.10
1.15

1000 4* " without salt

1000 . wheat

1000 rye with salt..... ............

1000 oats

1000 barley

1000 buckwheat ...

' 1000 good hay

1000 . hay, with straw, without other
fodder

HW9 .. whisky, still-grains or wash

* For full information on this whole subject, see Liebig's Animal Chemistry, Part I and II.
t See Johnston's Agricultural Chemistry— Lecture XVIII. Analyses of the horny tissue*, by Scheror wil)
be found in the Appendix to Liebig's Animal Chemistry.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHN

The singular difference stated in the'Table, between the amount of wool
produced by " good hay," and " hay with straw without other fodder," J
confess is scarcely credible to me. It may be a misprint in the Table from
which I copy.

The peculiar value of pease not only in increasing the wool, where they
rank j£rs£,* but in the average comparative increase which they produce in
all the tissues, is again worthy of notice.

EFFECT OF FOOD IN PRODUCING FAT AND MUSCLE. — The increase of fat
and muscle, as of wool, depends upon the nature of the food. It would
be foreign from my purpose to enter into an elaborate theoretical exam-
ination of this subject. Liebig, in Parts I. and II. of his Animal Chemis-
try, has covered the whole ground, and to him I take the liberty to refei
you. Mr. Spooner, writing for England, wrhere the production of flesh
and fat is the primary object of Sheep Husbandry, has given a synopsis
of Liebig's positions, analyses, &c., in his chapter (XXI.) on Feeding and
Fattening — and the substance of this is again repeated by Mr. Morrell in
his chapters on the same subjects, in The American Shepherd. To either
of the latter I would refer you for sufficient details for practical purposes,
or fovfull information, to Liebig.

The Tables of Boussingault and Reaumur, already given, (Tables 17 and
18,) sufficiently indicate the value of the various grains, straw, roots, &c.,
in fattening.

It is not very common, in the North, for wool-growers to fatten their
wethers, for market, by extra winter feeding. Some give them a little
more generous keep the winter before they are to be turned off, and then
sell them when they have attained their maximum fatness the succeeding
fall. When winter fattening is attempted, sheep require warm, dry shel-
ters, and should receive, in addition to all the hay they will eat, meal twice
a day in troughs — or meal once and chopped roots once. The equivalent
of from half a pint to a pint of (yellow) corn meal per head per diem is
about as much as ordinary flocks of Merino wethers will profitably con-
sume, though in selected flocks consisting of large animals, this amount is
frequently exceeded.

FEEDING GRAIN TO STORE-SHEEP IN WINTER. — The expediency of feed-
ing grain to store-sheep in winter depends much upon circumstances. If
in a climate where they can obtain a proper supply of grass or other green
esculents, it would, of course, be unnecessary. Neither is it a matter of
necessity where the ground is frozen or covered with snow for weeks or
months, provided the sheep be supplied plentifully with good dry fodder.
Near markets where the coarse grains find a good and ready sale, it is not
usual in the North, to feed grain. Remote from markets, it is generally
frd by the holders of large flocks. Oats are commonly preferred, and
they are fed at the rate of a gill a head per day. Some feed half the
same amount of (yellow) corn. Fewer sheep — particularly lambs, year-
lings, and crones — get thin and perish, where they receive a daily feed of
grain; they consume less hay ; and their fleeces are increased in weigJit.
On the whole, therefore, it is considered good economy. Where no grain
is fed, three daily feeds of hay are given. It is a common and very good
practice to feed greenish cut oats in ike bundle, at noon, and give but two
feeds of hay — one at morning and one at night. A few feed greenish
cut peas in the same way. In warm, thawing weather when sheep get

* With the exception of " hay and straw " — the given product of which, in wool, I have already slate4
must undoubtedly be misprinted.

2J6 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

to the ground, and refuse dry hay, a little grain assists materially in
keeping up their strength and condition. This may furnish a useful
hint for many parts of the South. When the feed is shortest in winter,
in the South, there are many localities where sheep would get enough
grass to take off their appetite for dry hay, but not quite enough to keep
them in prime condition. A moderate daily feed of oats or pease placed
in the depository racks, would keep them strong, in good plight for the
lambing season, and increase their weight of wool.

Few Northern farmers feed Indian corn to store-sheep. It is consid-
ered " too hot and stimulating," and sheep are thought to be more liable
to become " cloyed " on it than on oats, pease, &c. I never have fed it to
sheep sufficiently to speak advisedly on this point. A neighboring flock-
master whose admirable arrangements for keeping sheep are only equaled
by his usual success, lost most of a large flock of lambs a few winters
since. They received all they would eat of the best hay, and, as the
owner supposed, a half gill of corn a head per day. They were in fine
order in the beginning, and for some time into the winter. During a thaw,
when they got a little off from their feed, and looked " hollow," the shep-
herd, without the knowledge of the owner, increased the feed of corn.
This caused them to eat still less hay, and the shepherd not only continued
but increased the allowance of the corn as their appetite for hay dimin-
ished. In a short time they ate scarcely any hay, and soon after began to
eat their corn very irregularly. Their stomachs were now so completely
deranged, that they would not eat anything, in quantities sufficient for
their subsistence, and they perished rapidly and miserably. The same
consequences might doubtless have ensued from feeding other grains, in
the same improper manner. But I am inclined to think that the evil
would have been less rapid and remediless with some other grains. I do
not consider yellow corn a very safe feed, at least for lambs and yearlings.
From the obviously different character of the larger Southern varieties,
I presume they would be less, and very probably not at all, objectionable
for sheep feed. Half a gill of yellow corn, or a gill of oats per head, is a
sufficient daily allowance of grain. While there can be nothing more ab-
surd than the German starving system to increase the fineness of the wool,
excessive fatness is not to be aimed at, especially in breeding-ewes. Store
sheep should be kept in good, fair, plump condition. Lambs and yearlings
may be as fat as they will become on proper feeding.

It will not do to suffer sheep to get thin in the winter, with the idea
that their condition can at any time be readily raised by better feed, as
with the horse or ox. It is always difficult, and unless properly managed,
expensive and hazardous, to attempt to raise the condition of a poor flock
in the winter — especially if they have reached that point where they mani-
fest weakness. If the feeding of a liberal allowance of grain be suddenly
commenced, fatal diarrhea will frequently supervene. All extra feeding,
ih eie fore, must be begun very gradually, and it does not seem, in any case,
to produce proportionable results.

I have seen it stated that sheep will eat cotton-seed and thrive on it.
[f this be true, this must, of course, be a far more remunerating applica-
tion of that product, than as a mere manure to soils.

FEEDING ROOTS, BROWSE, £c., IN WINTER. — Ruta-bagas, Irish potatoes,
&c., make a good substitute for grain, as an extra feed for grown sheep,
I prefer the ruta-baga to the potato in equivalents of nutriment. I do not
consider either of them, or any other root, as good for lambs and yearlings
as an eqvmalent in grain. Sheep may be tauglii to eat nearly all the cul

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 2J7

tivated roots. This is done by withholding salt from them, and then feed-
ing the chopped root a few times rubbed with just sufficient salt to induce
them to eat the root to obtain it ; but not enough to satisfy their appetite
for salt before they have acquired a taste for the roots.

It is customary with some of our flock-masters to cut down from time
to time, in the winter, and draw into the sheep-yards, young trees of the
hsmlock (Abies canadensis). The foliage is greedily eaten by sheep, af
ter being confined for some time to dry feed. I have known sheep, un-
doubtedly, I think, killed by overeating it. This browse is commonly used
for some supposed medicinal virtues. It is pronounced " healthy for
sheep." The popular supposition is that it is a tonic and stimulant. If
this be true, which I will not pause to inquire, of what good use are tonics
and stimulants to healthy animals 1 With sheep, as with horses, and even
with men, preventive medicines are productive of injury in a thousand
cases, where they are of benefit in one. There could be no objection, cer-
tainly, to sheep's eating the foliage of the hemlock, if it was constantly
accessible to them. Their instincts, in that case, would teach them
whether, and in what quantities, to devour it. But when entirely confined
to dry feed for a protracted period, sheep will consume hurtful and even
poisonous succulents — and of the most wholesome ones, hurtful quantities.
As a mere laxative, an occasional feed of hemlock may be beneficial ; but
in this point of view, a day's run at grass in a thaw, or a feed of roots,
would produce the same result. In a climate where grass is obtained
most of the time, I should consider browse for medicinal purposes entirety
unnecessary.

WINTER FEED OP BREEDING-EWES. — Until two or three weeks pre-
ceding lambing, it is only necessary that breeding-ewes, like other store-
sheep, be kept in good plump ordinary condition. Nor are any separate
arrangements necessary for them, after that period, in a climate wher?*
they obtain sufficient succulent food to provide for a proper secretion of
milk. In backward seasons in the North, where the grass does not start
prior to the lambing time, careful flock-masters feed their ewes chopped
roots, or roots mixed with oat or pea meal. This is, in my judgment,
excellent economy.*

REGULARITY IN FEEDING. — If there is one rule which may be consider
ed more imperative than any other in Sheep Husbandry, it is that the ut-
most regularity be preserved in feeding. First, there should be regularity
as to the times of feeding. However abundantly provided for, when a
fljck are foddered sometimes at one hour and sometimes at another—
sometimes three times a day and sometimes twice — some days grain and
some days none—tkey cannot be made to thrive. They will .do far better
on inferior keep, if fed with strict regularity. In a climate where they re-
quire hay three times a day, the best times for feeding are about sunrise in
the morning, at noon, and an hour before dark at night. Unlike cattle and
horses, sheep do not eat well in the dark, and therefore they should have
time to consume their feed before night sets in. Noon is the common time
for feeding grain or roots, and is the best time if but two fodderings of hay
are given. If the sheep receive hay three times, it is not a. matter of
much consequence with which feeding the grain is given, only that the
practice be uniform.

It is also highly essentid that there be regularity preserved in the amount
fed. The consumption of hay will, it is true, depend much upon the

* For the effect of the various esculents on the quantity and quality of the milk, see Liebig's Animal Chem

2E

218 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

weather. The keener the cold, the more sheep will eat. In the South
much would also depend upon the amount of grass obtained. In manj
places a light daily foddering would suffice — in others, a light foddering
placed in the depository racks once in two days would answer the purpose.
In the steady cold weather of the North, the shepherd readily learns to de-
termine about how much hay will be consumed before the next foddering
time. And this is the amount which should, as near as may be, be regu-
larly fed. In feeding grain or roots there is no difficulty in preserving en-
tire regularity, and it is vastly more important than in feeding hay. Of
the latter a sheep will not overeat and surfeit itself. Of the former it wilL,
And if not fed grain to the point of surfeiting, but still over-plenteously,
it will expect a like amount at the next feeding, and failing to receive it,
will pine for it and manifest uneasiness. The effect of such irregularity
on the stomach and system of any animal is bad — and the sheep suffers
more from it than any other animal. I would much rather that my flock
receive no grain at all, than that they receive it without regard to regular-
ity in the amount. The shepherd should be required to measure out the
grain to sheep in alHnstances — instead of guessing it out — and to measure
it to each separate flock.

SALT. — Sheep undoubtedly require salt in winter. Some salt their hay
when it is stored in the barn or stack. This is objectionable, as you thus
constitute yourself the judge, or controller in a matter, where the appetite
of the sheep is a much safer guide. It may be left accessible to them in
the salt-box (fig. 28) as in summer, or it is an excellent plan to give them an
occasional feed of brined hay or straw. This last is done in warm thaw-
ing weather, when their appetite is poor, and thus serves a double purpose.
With a wisp of straw sprinkle a thin layer of straw with brine — then an-
other layer of straw and another sprinkling, and so on. Let this lie until
the next day, for the brine to be absorbed by the straw, and then feed it to
all the grazing animals on the farm which need salting.

WATER. — Unless sheep have access to succulent food or clean snow,
water is indispensable. Constant access to a brook or spring is best, but
in default of this, they should be watered, at least once a day, in some other
way.

THE BEST THINGS TO IMPORT ARE BIPEDS,

OH two-legged animals, for they not only consume largely of the products of the cotton-grower, the wool-
grower, and the iron-master, (and always in proportion to their wages,) hut by their labour, they produce
and add largely to the elements of the best sort of commerce and free-trade — commerce and free-trade
among ourselves. We therefore rejoice much more when we see amounts of the importation of men and
women, than of cattle and sheep. There is no better sign of tLe prosperity of a country than when you
see men flocking into it from all parts of the world; and it the labour of the country had been steadily
protected, as it was some years since, we should by this tim3 bar<> imported annually, more by a million,
than we now do. Talk of military glory! — the glory of success in the work of " blood and slaughter I"
—there is no glory to be compared with that administration of the affairs of a country, which wins for it
the regard and admiration of the world, and makes of it a great magnet, attracting the talents, the
eapital, and the labour of men of all nations. One year of such bloodless and beneficent glory is worth
•n eternity of fame, won by arms and by conquest.

Immigration, says a New York paper, for the last month has been quite large, yet we see that, as com-
pared with the same seven months of last year, instead of going on rapidly augmenting, as it weuld do
under a common-sense (not party) system, it had actually fallen off. The Journal of Commerce gives
it as 34,810 souls. Of the whole number 16,169 were from Ireland, 8449 from Germany, 4788 from Eng-
land, and 1386 from Scotland. The following table will show the immigration at New York for the yean
1849 and 1850, up to the 1st of August :—

Year 1848. Year 1S5C

January 3,258 . 13,154

February 8.8 '9 . 3,206

March ' 9,630 . 5,569

April 19,934 14,627

Immigration leu tk t rear

Year 18 18. Year 185C.

May 37,406 '. 42,840

Jun« 28,985 . 11.763

July 31,634 . 34.810

Total . . 144,656 . 125,975

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 219

LETTER XIV.

ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF SHEEP.

Cfearacte/ of American ovine veterinary works— of the English. ..Anatomical details of the latter valuable
— necessity of cutting clear from their systems of pathology and therapeutics — reasons. ..Exciting causes
uf disease even in adjacent localities in England not the same— popular superstitions on the subject. ..Ne-
cessarily greater differences as between remote countries possessing different climates, etc Ravages of

rot in Europe — scarcely known in most parts of America... Exciting causes apparently the same in both...
Hoof-ail, though retained here by contagion, not primarily produced by the same causes as in England. ..
Various European diseases not known here. . .Difference in the pathology of the same diseases in this coun-
try and in England... The English ones accompanied with more inflammatory action — the American of an
asthenia or sinking character. .-.Pathological differences require a corresponding difference in therapeutics
English system of therapeutics objectionable for the above reason — on account of its expensiveness—
and, for popular purposes, by the extent of its pharmacopise. . .The proper ovine veterinary system to be
adopted— manner of classifying diseases. ..Anatomy of the Sheep — how far to be studied — directions to be-
ginners.. .The Omentum. . .The Rumen. . .The Reticulum. ..The Maniplus. . .The Abomasum. . .The func-
tions of the different Stomachs... The Duodenum. ..The Jejunum... The Ileum...The Coecum...The
Colon... The Rectum... The Mesentary.-.The process of digestion... The Spleen... The Pancreas... The
Liver. ..The Kidneys. ..The Bladder.. .The Uterus and Vagina,

Dear Sir : Most of the. veterinary works which have appeared in this
country in relation to the Sheep, Horse, and other domestic animals, have
been made up simply of medical recipes ; or, if they have given systems
of veterinary nosology and pathology, these systems have been mere tran-
scripts of those of European, and particularly of English writers.

I have examined all, 1 believe, of the most celebrated late English au-
thors, scientific and empirical,* on the diseases of the Sheep and their
cures. For anatomical and general pathological details, the works of some
of the former possess great value, and compare favorably with the treatises
on the same topics by the most eminent physicians and surgeons. This is
particularly true of the work on Sheep by the late Mr. Youatt — the fount-
ain-head from which most of the later English writers on the same subject
have so liberally drawn, and will probably continue so to do for a century
to come. For minute accuracy of description, particularly in the depart-
ment of pathology — for elaborate research into both facts and authorities
— for clearness and sparkling vivacity of style, this gentleman, it seems to
me, is entirely without a competitor among the English veterinarians, and
his works will bear reading alongside those of a Cooper, a Louis, and a
Chapman.

I have hesitated whether to transcribe entire Mr. Youatt's treatise on
the Anatomy of the Sheep. It would be the sheerest affectation — not to
say plagiarism — to publish a mere abridgment of his remarks, or their sub-
stance dressed up in other words, as some late English writers have done,
for the purpose of setting up pretensions to that originality which Mr. You-
att has left so little room for in this department. But as these Letters, Sir
are published for the benefit of the many, rather than to instruct those al-
ready versed to any considerable extent in Veterinary Science, I have been
led to doubt whether any systematic treatise on Anatomy is necessary. On
the whole, I have come to the conclusion that farther than to exhibit the

* I do not use the word "empirical" here in its invidious sense. I mean to describe by it a class of
writers verted in experiments merely, as contradistinguished from thc«e who possess a scientific knowledge
»f physiology, pathology, therapeutics, &c.

220 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

localities of disease, explain certain operations in the animal economy, anj
render terms intelligible, it would be time thrown away.

In pathology somewhat, and to a much greater extent in the systems oi
therapeutics adopted, [ have found it necessary to cut clear from all Eng
lish ovine veterinarians. If this is regarded as presumptuous, I have only
to say that the testimony or opinions of that man are worth little who sc
far pins his faith on another's views, as to disregard the plain evidence of
his own senses. The salutary rule of the law is, each witness testifies tc
what lie has seen, and to what, crediting the assertions of his own senses,
lie knows. It is for the investigating tribunal to decide what weight shall
be attached to the testimony. That tribunal, in the present case, is the
public.

But in reality, a discrepancy of views on the above subjects, does not ne-
cessarily imply an error on either side. The pathology of diseases fre-
quently does not coincide, as between different climates and countries, and
sometimes, singularly enough, between contiguous localities in the same
country. This is especially true as regards the origin or exciting cause
of disease. "Where the atmospheric, alimentary, and all other observable
conditions are nearly identical, occult causes which baffle the closest and
most scientific scrutiny, not unfrequently either periodically or regularly,
scourge man or beast with disease in one locality, while another one is al-
most uniformly exempt from these attacks. What English pathologist, for
example, has ever assigned a physical cause which would answer, quanti-
tatively, as a criterion to decide on the proportionable prevalence of the
same malady in other regions — or the existence of which would even prove
that the disease existed at all — for the frequent appearance of goitre (bron-
chocele) among the inhabitants of Derbyshire, and the comparative exemp-"
tion from it of the inhabitants of contiguous counties ?* The theatres of
its especial visitation, in other parts of the world, seem to be equally de-
termined by chance — though undoubtedly dependent upon physical causes
which have as yet eluded observation.

It is not astonishing, therefore, that the ignorant down to our own times,
and even the enlightened, until a period comparatively recent, should have
sought the incomprehensible causes of many diseases, in the regions of the
preternatural. Among brutes especially, which were supposed to be more
given up to such influences, these phenomena were conveniently assigned,
by our English and Scotch ancestors, to

" some dev'lish cantrip slight"

of " warlocks and witches " — the malevolence of an offended fairy or spite-
ful gnome.t

* I understand that the inhabitants o£ the adjoining counties of Stafford, Nottingham and Leicester are
comparatively exempt from the attack of goitre.

* In Burns'a inimitable Tarn O'Shanter, some of the singular powers once exercised

"by withered beldams auld and droll

******
Lowping and flinging on a crummock"—

and sometimes, thouch far more rarely, by " ae winsome wench and walie," to turn aside the established
'aivB of Nature and God's providence, are thus enumerated in describing one of the diabolical sisterhood :
" Mony a beast to dead she shot,
And perished mony a bonny boat.
And shook baith meikle corn and bear,
And kept the country-side in fear."

No one will understand that the witch, in full league with the Devi!, had any occasion for mortal fire-
«rins, in " shooting" the beasts of her victims. Murrain, and in some cases death, followed a glance of her
" evil eye." And even the witches of Burns are tame every-day bodies, compared with those which swell
the infernal dramatis persona of Faust, or mingle in the gloomy horrors of Macbeth.

Two centuries ago, and even lees, there was not a parish in England, a hill or dell in Scotland, or even p
colonized nook in the wild woods of America, where witchcraft was not rife ; and multitudes in every rank
la life were consigned to the ga.lows, the faggot, strangling. &c.f for thia crime, by the highest judicial trt

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 221

Equally unphilosophical, and not less mischievous in its effects on the
progress of medical science, are those religious views, widely prevalent
even at the present day, which in every epizootic as well as epidemic
scourge, recognize only a direct Theocratic infliction, operating without
ihe intervention of physical causes. If these doctrines do not, as when
carried to their full extent among the Mussulmans — who yield a passive
non-resistance to plague and conflagration as the direct expression of God's
will — lead to an entire abandonment of remedial measures, they at least
deter scrutiny into the inducing natural causes, and thus occasion a neglect
* of all preventive, and a much less perfect understanding of appropriate
•remedial action.

Between countries widely separated — where their climates and other
circumstances exhibit considerable differences — it would naturally be ex-
pected that still greater discrepancies would appear in their local nosology.
England and the United States are subject to several corresponding ovine
diseases, yet it is notorious that some of the most destructive ones of the
former are unknown, or next to unknown, in the latter. The rot, accord-
ing to Mr. Youatt, destroys a million of sheep annually in the British Isl-

bunals of England and Scotland — the former presided over by such men as Sir Matthew Hale 1 One ap-
proved method of detecting witches was to wrap the suspected persons in a sheet, the great toes and thumbs
being tied together, and then dragging them through a pond or river. If they sank they were guiltless— if
not, their fate is thus alluded to by Hudibras in his description of the monster Hopkins, the " Witch-finder
General" of England:

" And has he not within a year

Hanged threescore of them in one shire ?

Some only for not being drowned .' "

That miserable driveler and pedant, James VI. of Scotland, defended this "trial by water," inasmuch aa
witches having renounced their baptism, so it is just that the element through which the holy rite is enforced,
should reject them i This pusillanimous monarch, who shook at the sight of a drawn sicord, was the keenest
instigator in his kingdom of tortures and prosecutions for suspected witchcraft, and he continued so after
his accession to the English throne. He was often present at the examination of accused persons, and the
Scotch juries did not dare to acquit their victims, fearing the severest punishment on themselves for " will
ful error upon an assize," a proceeding which left them at the mercy of the Crown, and which was in some
instances actually resorted to !

The elves or fairies, the dwarfs, etc., have sorely afflicted the shepherd, as well as all other husbandmen,
in bygone days. Their caprices were innumerable. Even in this, as Mr. Carlyle would say, 19lh century
of God's world, the ugly and monster-headed Phaam is sometimes seen on the lonely Kells of Galloway,
and the declivities of the eastern Grampians. He not unfrequently shows himself in the dawn of the morn-
ing on the mountains around Cairn Gorm and Lochavin, and if man or beast even goes near the place where
he has been before the sun shines upon it, straightway their heads swell enormously and they often die.—
This is the origin of that frequent disease, the "swelled head" in sheep ! At least, so the inhabitants of
those regions informed the Ettrick Shepherd. (See Hogg's Shepherd's Guide.) But alas I for the gay and
courtly Fairies — the very aristocracy of goblin-dom ! Who would not have his flocks, yea, and his herds
too, annually decimated to restore them to our utilitarianized world ! Oberon, Titania, Mab, Puck and Ariel
are gone ! They no longer

" on the sands with printless foot

Do chase the ebbing Neptune, and do fly him

When he comes back"

no longer

" in the spiced Indian air, by night,

* * * * *

They dance then* ringlets to the whistling wind."

The elves of the colder regions north of the Alps, who erst danced their " roundel rites" on the banks of
the Rhine and the green hillocks of Britain — who with their splendid appointments, coursers whose feet
•purned the limber air, saddles of '• rewel bone "

"Bryht with mony a precious stone
And compasyd all with crapste,"

outshone the splendors of Chivalry — who fought manful under shield, wounding and discomfiting even hu-
man antagonists, as related by Gervase of Tilbury, and by Heinrich von Ofterdingen in the Heldenbuch —
who loved, wooed and were won much after the human fashion, and sometimes exchanged such favor*
with humanity, as is proved by the adventure of Thomas the Rymer under the " Elden tree " — all are gone!
The trands of Scott and of Bulwer could not stay their departure ! Naked, rugged-featured, unpoetical
Utility has it all her own way now-a-days f

In the language of Rt. Rev. Dr. Corbett, Bishop of Oxford and Norwich ia the beginning of the 17ft
•fntury,

" Lament, lament, old abbeys,

The Fairies' lost command ;
They did but change priests' babies.
But some have changed your land ;
And all your children sprung from hence

Are now grown Puritans,
Who live as changelings ever since
For love of your domains."

222 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

ands — and in 1830-1, the number swept off much exceeded two millions.*
Its ravages are equally fatal in Germany, and more so in Egypt. It is
also common in France, Spain, Australia, &c. There is nothing sufficient-
ly marked in its diagnosis to effectually distinguish it from some other dis-
eases, to a person possessing no previous practical acquaintance with it,
or no more veterinary knowledge than is common among farmers ; and
when a slow train of wasting symptoms have occurred, and the structure
of the liver is found disorganized, after death, it is not uncommon in this
country to pronounce it a case of the rot. The same mistake, according
to Dr. Coventry (late Professor of Agriculture in the University of Edin-
burgh), is often made by even the shepherds and flock-masters of Europe.t
There are other diseases besides the rot which specifically attack the in-
tegrity of the liver. Even fasciola or flukes in the liver, the most infalli-
ble diagnostic, to the common eye, of the rot, also, according to Dr. Cov-
entry, accompany hepatitis chronica. I will not take upon me to deny that
;he rot ever exists in the Northern States, but I have yet to see, or hear
of, adequately authenticated, the first undoubted instance ; and this would
go to show that if isolated cases of it do sometimes occur, it has dwindled
from the wholesale destroyer of Europe to an obscure and occasional dis-
ease. The same remarks apply to existence of the disease in the Southern
Atlantic and Gulf States, judging from the statements of my correspond-
ents, and from the agricultural newspapers. I cannot learn from either
of these sources that anything analogous to this malady is common in those
States. According to Mr. Cockerel, of Tennessee, and Mr. Flower, of Illi-
nois, the rot docs prevail in our Western States ; and the latter gentleman,
who has, I presume, seen the disease in Europe, and who ought therefore
to be familiar with its pr<z-mortcm and post-mortem appearances, states
that it occurs in Southern Illinois " from suffering sheep to pasture on land
that is overflowed with water ;" and he adds, " even a crop of green oats,
early in the fall before a frost comes, has been known to rot young sheep.'*

It is worthy of remark that Mr. Livingston — equally distinguished for
research and observation — does not include the rot in his list of American
ovine diseases. This affords a strong corroboration of the position I have
assumed in relation to the existence of this disease in the North-eastern
States, and those of the Southern ones lying east of the Apalachians.J

The Hoof-ail, though introduced here by contagion, and kept in constant
existence by the same means, does not appear, in the common phrase, to
originate spontaneously, as in Europe ; or, in other words, to be excited by
any other causes than contagion. I have never known an instance going,
eren colorably, to prove the contrary of this proposition.

Acute dropsy or Red-water, I judge to be an exceedingly rare disease in
the Northern States, though the author of the American Shepherd thinks
differently.||

Enteretis, or inflammation of the coats of the intestines ; blain, or in-
flammation of the cellular tissue of the tongue ; and a whole train of other
diseases — including most of the frightful list of infectious or contagious
European epizootics — seem to be unknown in this country.

Why there should be so wide a difference between the ovine nosology
of Europe and the United States, is a matter of curious and interesting
speculation. Whether it will always remain so, or whether the advent of

* Youatt on Sheep, p. 445.

t See remarks of Dr. Coventry, quoted at some length in Mountain Shepherd's Manual, p. 20.

{ I limit the remark to the States lying (mostly) east of these mountains, because they would probably
oe the only ones, at the time at which Mr. Livingston wrote, with the Sheep Husbandry of which he would
DC supposed to be familiar.

U American Shepherd, p. 359.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUT I.

the European diseases is only delayed here for more artificial systems of
feeding, breeding, or perhaps more artificial systems of Agriculture af-
fecting the aliment of the sheep, or other and unexplainable causes, time
alone must determine.

If we look for these differences in the observable differences of climate,
we find no satisfactory solution of the problem. The climate of England
is essentially different from our own — but that it is a favorable one for the
aealthy development of all the animal tissues, her large, strong, long-
lived population, as well as her well-developed animal kingdom, abun-
dantly attest. The atmosphere of England is a moist and humid one, and
moisture is thought to be one of the necessary predisposing causes of both
rot and hoof-ail. Of the origin of the former disease, Mr. Youatt
remarks : *

" The rot in sheep is evidently connected with the soil or state of the pasture. It is con-
fined to wet seasons, or to the feeding on ground moist and marshy at all seasons. It has
reference to the evaporation of water, and to the presence and decomposition of moist veget-
able matter. It is rarely, or almost never, on dry and sandy soils and in dry seasons ; it is
rarely wanting on boggy or poachy ground, except when that ground is dried by the heat of
the summer sun, or completely covered by the winter rain. In the same farm there are cer-
tain fields on which no sheep can be turned with impunity. There are others that seldom
or never give the rot."

Mr. Youatt continues his descriptions of these predisposing conditions
at great length, and his final conclusion is, in substance, that the miasmata,
or gases exhaling from the decomposition of vegetable substances, are the
causes of the rot. Mr. Spooner adopts the same views ; indeed, they are
universally received among scientific veterinarians.

If these views are correct, the evil lies not in a generally humid atmo-
sphere, but in a generally or temporarily humid soil ; and that they are
true quo ad hoc, is proved by the fearful ravages of the disease in the
driest atmosphere of Germany, in the clear, dry atmosphere of the South
?f France, and under the torrid skies of southern Spain,^where rain does
not fall for months.

Boggy or fenny soils, where decaying vegetable substances are con
stantly exhaling their gases, are to be found in all parts of the United
States — more or less, in every township, and almost every school district
of New-York and New-England. Sheep pasture on such lands, promis-
cuously with other stock, in every county — and, in the latter States, at
least, with entire impunity from the rot.

Humidity of soil is also supposed to be the most prominent cause in
originating hoof-ail, or producing it otherwise than by contagion. Mr.
Youatt and Professor Dick attribute the disease most often to the effect
of sand and dirt forced into the pores of the hoof, when macerated by
moisture. The following is the language of Professor Dick:

" The finest and richest old pastures and lawns are particularly liable to give this disease,
and so are soft, marshy and luxuriant meadows. It exists to a greater or less extent in every
situation that has a tendency to increase the growth of the hoofs without wearing them

away The different parts of the hoof, deprived of their natural wear, grow out of

their proper proportions. The crust, especially, grows too long ; and the overgrown parts
either break off in irregular rents, or by overshooting the sole allow small particles of sand
and dirt to enter into the pores of the hoof. These particles soon reach the quick, and set
up the inflammation already described and followed by all its destructive effects." t

The same writer assigns another cause for it — inflammation induced by
an -improper bearing of the foot, caused by the unnatural growth of the horn
on wet pastures.

Mr. Spooner attributes the disease to decaying vegetables — " roots and

* Youatt on Sheep, p. 451. f See Dick, quoted by Youatt, p. 527, 52a

224,

*- *

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

leaves of the grasses in a state of rottenness " — brought in contact with the
sheep's foot when " blanched and weakened by continual moisture ! " *

There is another point of difference in the pathology of ovine diseases
in this and the old world, judging from the details furnished by the Eng-
lish veterinarians. Most of the pyrexial diseases, in England, are accom-
panied, at least in their initiatory stages, with active inflammatory symp-
toms. Fever runs high, and decidedly antiphlogistic treatment is called
for. On the other hand, so far. as my observation and inquiries have ex-
tended, the ovine diseases of the United States are usually of an asthenic
nature — characterized by debility from the outset. The difference in the
physical character, feeding, and ordinary state of fatness of the sheep of
the two countries, offers, perhaps, a sufficient explanation of these facts.
The gross, high-fed English sheep, forced forward by bountiful feeding to
an unnaturally precocious maturity, is always in a high state of plethora,
and predisposed, therefore, to inflammatory action. A slight derangement
of any function, produced by a cold, by an error in feeding, or by any other
causes, is sufficient to make the organs exercising those functions the seat of
such action. On the other hand, the sheep of the United States, kept mainly
for wool-growing purposes, is rarely raised above a moderately fleshy or
medium condition. And, unexcited by an unnaturally plethoric habit, the
weak vascular and muscular system of the animal little predisposes it to
inflammatory disease.

A difference in the pathological character of disease requires a corre-
sponding difference in the system of therapeutics adopted. The English
system of therapeutics is decidedly objectionable, here, first, on the ac-
count just named ; secondly, from its expensiveness ; and, thirdly, (for
popular purposes,) by the extent and complexity of its pharmacology.

1. As has been already remarked, most of the English ovine diseases
commence with pyrexiee — and the fever is synochal or inflammatory in its
type. The subject is strong, plethoric, and full of blood. Antiphlogistic
treatment is clearly called for. Accordingly, depletion, by bleeding or
purgatives, or both, is first and promptly resorted to by the English veteri-
narian. In the United States, also, most important constitutional diseases
commence with pyrexiae, but the fever in its first discovered stage is almost
uniformly of a low, sinking, typhoid type, accompanied with great pros-
tration of muscular energy. The animal is in a leanish or only moder
ately fleshy condition. It has been confined to dry, and perhaps rathei
unnutritious food — for most of the list of constitutional maladies, here,
make their attacks in the winter, and old, lean, and feeble sheep are usu-
ally the first victims. A sheep is observed drooping, and indifferent to
food. It is caught aiid examined. Whatever organ or portion of the sys-
tem is laboring under attack, bleed so as to produce a constitutional im-
pression, (which the English veterinarians almost invariably recommend,
where they recommend bleeding at all,) and follow this with an active
purgative, and in four cases out of five the sheep will, in the expressive
phrase of the English shepherds, " take the ground " ; it will never rise
from the ground more without assistance, and will soon become unable to
stand when set upon its feet. Growing weaker and weaker, it soon re-
fuses to eat, and death supervenes. These remarks are not designed to
apply to stall-fed wethers, or other very high-conditioned sheep.

2. The English, and indeed the European method of treating diseases
is too expensive for this country. In curing hoof-ail, c. g., Mr. Youatt, after
recommending washing in chloride of lime, and cauterizing, says :

* This seems to ««; a most unphilosophical cause to be assigned by a veterinarian of the standing of Mr
Spooner.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

" If the foot has been in a manner stripped of its horn, and especially if a considerable por-
tion of the sole has been removed, it may be expedient to wrap a little clean tow round
the foot, and to bind it tightly down with a tape, the sheep being removed to a straw-yard,
or some inclosed space, or to a drier pasture ..... The foot should be dressed every day,
each new separation of horn removed, and every portion of the fungus submitted to the
caustic.'' *

Mr. Spooner recommends daily, and not less troublesome treatment.!
The Mountain Shepherd's Manual recommends daily treatment,! and this
is the case, I believe, with nearly all, if not all, of the foreign veterinarians.
Professor Pictet, of Switzerland, in addition to daily applications, fumiga-
tions, etc., innumerable, goes a step beyond " tow pledgets and tape band-
ages." He says :

" In order to prevent any dirt, &c., from getting into the wound, the diseased foot should
be placed in a little boot, the sole of which is of leather or felt, and the upper part of cloth,
in order to fasten it round the leg of the sheep."

This disease rages most when haying and harvesting are at their highl,
in the Northern States — in July and August — and when the labor of day
hands costs from seventy-five cents to a dollar per head per diem. Half
the flocks in the country can then be bought for $1 25 per head. How
soon daily parings, cauterizings, embrocations, fumigations, etc., including
the expense of drugs and Professor Pictet's gaiter-boots, would reach an
expense equivalent to the price of a sound sheep, it requires not the exer*
cise of much arithmetic to determine ! It would certainly be more eco-
nomical to kill sheep of any ordinary grade in the first instance !

The same remark will apply to the English system of treating nearly
all important diseases. The labor bestowed on it would be worth more,
here, than the value of the sheep.

3. The English ovine veterinary pharmacopoeia is too extensive and
complex for popular use. The prescribed formulae are so compound in
their character — so minute oftentimes in their quantitative proportions — re-
quire so much skill for their chemical and mechanical admixture — and,
lastly, and more important than all the rest, they demand so much med-
ical knowledge for their proper and timely administration — that they can
be generally used with safety and advantage only by professional veteri-
narians, a class entirely wanting, unless occasionally in cities, in the United
States. Besides, our ordinary country drug-stores are usually lacking in
many of the articles included in the European prescriptions || — and no one,
without possessing considerable medical knowledge, could decide what
effect it would have on the prescription to subtract this or that ingredient.
It might neutralize its effects, or even render it pernicious.

A veterinary system for anything like popular use, in this country, must
be exceedingly simple in its remedies, and in its rules for their administra-
tion. As it is impossible to describe the various symptoms which may
exhibit themselves in a disease, so as to be understood by all, it is unsafe
to prescribe a constant change of medicines, applicable to the several
states which have caused those symptoms to appear. Indeed, changes in
medicine should only be made consequent on those distinct crises of dis-
ease which can be detected and understood by the most ordinary observer.
Prescriptions, therefore, inapplicable, or at least unsafe, in any stage from
one distinct crisis of disease to another, should, as far as practicable, be
avoided. True, such a system of therapeutics will be very imperfect, par-
ticularly in the treatment of serious constitutional maladies. But it will go

* Ybuatt, p. 529. f Spooner, (endorsing the views of Mr. Read,) p. 438 to 442.

I Quern vide, p. 27.

\j Not unfrequently the most important ones, as I know from repeated experience.

2F

226 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

as far as the knowledge of the uninstracted practitioner will safely admit
of — and if, even in cases of constitutional disease, it should simply cause
him to do no hurt by Ms interference, and prevent him from resorting tc
some miserably ignorant empiric* — the most important object, perhaps,
would be attained. It is infinitely safer in such diseases to rely on unaided
Nature to effect the cure, than to submit a sheep, or any other animal, to
the drugging and dosing of a person ignorant of the true nature of the
disease, and of the remedies which he employs. It is better to do too lit-
tle than to do too muck; and in all cases where it is not known what to do,
it is better to do nothing.

Lord Western, in a letter to Mr. Bischoff, says :t

" I have little to say on the medical treatment of sheep ; my study is prevention by suffi-
cient wholesome food, with a constant and abundant supply of salt in every yard and every

field When sheep are taken ill, there is little hope for them, and rarely any use in

administering medicines."

If the latter portion of this remark is true among the educated, intelli
gent and experienced veterinarians of England, how much more must it
be so among those destitute of even the first rudiments of veterinary sci-
ence ! In relation to some of the more serious constitutional maladies, af-
ter considerable experience and observation, I feel constrained to express
the opinion that the remark is, to a considerable extent, true. The sheep
is almost as unsatisfactory a patient to deal with, in some such cases,
as the hog, of which it is frequently said, with no great exaggeration,
" that if he is seriously sick he is sure to die, and the more you do
for him the sooner he will die ! " " Then why give a therapeutic system
at all in a class of diseases where it will do so little good 1" In the first
place, the cases are perhaps few where judicious prescriptions will not
somewhat diminish the tendency to a fatal result ; but the great reason,
after all, is, that every man having a sick animal will dose and physic it,
or will permit some officious neighbor to do so, or will call in that most
dangerous of all epizootics, the cattle-doctor. It is therefore better in the
most hopeless cases, to give a few simple directions, based on sound med-
ical principles, which will not, at all events, aggravate the disease, and
which will tend to alleviate or suppress it, rather than to surrender the
helpless animal over to the additional tortures inflicted by ignorance and
quackery. Fortunate it is that well-managed sheep, in this country, are
so little subject to such diseases !

In classifying diseases, I shall depart from the system adopted by You-
att, Spooner, etc., who arrange them with reference to the parts of the sys-
tem they more especially attack, as, for example, " diseases of the brain,"

* The self-matriculated " cattle doctor " is a decidedly interesting personage. His qualifications are nu-
merous, and it is somewhat difficult to find them all brilliantly combined in the same person. He should
be the most ignorant man in the town, particularly in everything relating to the anatomy and physiology
of man or beast. He should be equally ignorant of the chemical and medicinal properties of nearly all the
drugs used by him. His prescriptions, to give them due potency, should consist of a great number of in-
gredients—a large portion of them bearing very "hard names." He should flank and fortify these, at least
in all difficult cases, with substances possessing rare occult virtues, entirely unknown to "human physi-
cians," such as the " blood of black cats," the " entrails of fowls," " human faeces," simples culled under pe-
culiar circumstances—

"Root of hemlock, digged i' the dark,

* * * » *

* * * slips of yew,
Slivered in the moon's eclipse."

He should decidedly affect the mysterious, and should always repel the attempted intrusions of ordinary
humanity— the profane vulgar— into the arcana of his high art. He should have half a dozen maladies, such
as"bakedinthemanyfolds," " overflow of the gall," " kidney disease," "rising of the lights, 'strained
across the loin," etc., to which he can promptly assign all the ills which beasts are heir to. He should
never ndstake a disease or a remedy. If the patient dies, it should invariably be in consequence of a
deviation from his directions J
» Bischoff. vol. ii.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH, 227

" diseases of the digestive organs," &c. This method of classification,
though not without its advantages, and though it would seem, at first view,
to present an arrangement most convenient for reference, examination and
comparison, in the end, leads, I think, to confusion and misunderstanding

ANATOMY OF THE SHEEP.

He who breeds sheep to any considerable extent, should make himself
familiar with the anatomical structure of some of the parts of the animal—-
particularly with the arrangement, size, natural appearance, consistency
and contents of the several viscera ; to some extent with the circulatory
system ; with the alimentary and respiratory organs ; with the brain, and
the whole osseous structure of the head. He should be in the constant
habit of making more or less extended examinations of all these structures,
as opportunity occurs by the slaughter of sheep for economic purposes ;
and when- the animal dies from disease, such examination should be in no
ordinary case omitted by the flock-master who is desirous of making him-
self thoroughly acquainted ivith his business. He will require some instruc-
tion, in the outset, to enable him to make such dissections understandingly
and properly ; but he can readily obtain this from any educated physician1
or surgeon. There are no sufficiently wide differences in the anatomical
structure of the sheep and of the human being, to give the surgeon the-
least difficulty in pointing out the arrangement, uses, &c., of the several
parts of the former, unless it be in the conformation of the stomachs. —
jrlere, the structure of the sheep, like that of other ruminating animals, dif-
fers widely from man, but that physician or surgeon must have been singu-
larly limited in his physiological investigations, who has not made himself"
acquainted with it. At all events, a glance at a veterinary work, while,
conducting a dissection, will enable him to understand, and explain it to-
the learner. The learner while making his examinations in company with,
and under the direction of the surgeon, should perform every manipulation :
his own hand should handle, remove, test the consistency, &c. of the parts,
— alone wield the saw and guide the scalpel. This is an important rule if
he would understand and remember.

The subjects of a portion of the examinations should be sheep killed ini
full health. It is necessary to be familiar with the healthy appearance of"
all the parts, so as to distinctly recognize all departures from it — the effect
of any diseased or abnormal action.

The sides of a lean sheep are more translucent, after being skinned, than;
those of a fat one, and therefore the former makes a better subject, if the
circulatory system is to be examined. On the sides of the thorax and ab-
domen, at a little distance from the spine, the veins and arteries of those*
parts can often be traced with beautiful distinctness, without any dissection:
of the intercostal muscles.

Subjects should be examined which have had their blood drawn (by hav-
ing their throats cut), and also those which have died with all their blood'
in them. Some of the viscera — e. g. the lungs, veins and arteries — will:
present very different appearances under these different circumstances ;.
and this fact not understood might frequently lead to very erroneous con-
clusions in post mortem examinations.

I will give a very general description of the parts I have mentioned as
necessary to be studied — designed merely for those who have no previous
krowledge of the subject.

After the animal has been neatly skinned, place it on a low table, an as-
tistant grasping its fore-legs, and folding it firmly on its back. Then slit

228

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

open the belly from the middle of the sternum, or cartilaginous connectior
between the ribs, to the anus. In making this and all similar incisions,
hold the edge of the knife upward, guarding its point with the fore-finger,
so that the viscera shall not be wounded. The abdomen — the whole cav-
ity of the trunk back of the diaphragm or " midriff" — is now laid open.
It is usually necessary for a better examination of the parts to make cross
incisions part way between the diaphragm and anus, extending down on
each side several inches toward the backbone.

I shall describe the viscera in the order in which I have usually exam-
ined them.

On opening the abdomen the omentum or caul is found covering the in-
testines. It is a thin, and, in a normal state, colorless and transparent
structure, formed of two membranes, between which extend streaks of fat
iii the form of a net.

The external appearance of the stomachs is given in the following cut
of those of a young sheep which died of disease. Their arrangement ia
slightly different in the animal.

Fie. 47.

THE STOMACHS.

•a. The oesophagus or gullet, entering the rumen or paunch.

b. b. The rumen, or paunch, occupying three-fourths of the abdomen.

e. The reticulum, or honey-comb — the Od stomach.
d. The maniplus, or many folds— the 3d etomach.

f. The abomasum, or 4th stomach.

/. The commencement of the duodenum or first intestine.

g. The place of the pylorus, a valve which separates the contents of the abomasum and duodenum.

The walls of the rumen or paunch consist of four coats or tunics — 1st,
the peritoneal or outer coat ; 2d, the muscular ; 3d, the mucous, covered
with papillee, or little protuberances, from which (or glands under which)
is secreted a peculiar fluid to soften and prepare the food for re-mastica-
lion ; and, 4th, the inner or cuticular coat, a thin, entirely insensible mem-
brane, which defends the mucous coat from abrasion or erosion.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 229

The reticulum or honey-comb is composed of the same number of coats
fulfilling similar functions. But the mucous coat, in addition to minute
papillae, is covered with elevations arranged in pentagons and sexagona
of different sizes, somewhat resembling a honey-comb, except that the
cells are larger and shallower.

The maniplus has the same four coats. Its floor is a continuation of
the cesophagean canal. From its roof depend many parallel folds of the
cuticular coat — here thicker and stronger than in the other stomachs-
reaching nearly to its floor. The cuticle is covered toward the edges of
the folds, with hard, bony processes, shaped like fangs, or cones bent in a
curvelinear form, and pointing toward the entrance of the stomach. The
interior of each fold or leaf contains muscles which impart to it the power
of a peculiar and forcible motion. There are forty-two of these folds in
the maniplus of the sheep— occasionally forty-eight. They do not all
equally nearly approach the cesophagean canal, but are disposed in groups
Of six — one of the central ones of each nearly reaching the canal or floor
o/ the stomach — the others on each side growing shorter and shorter, so
as to form a series of irregular reentering angles.

The abomasum is the digesting stomach, where the gastric juices are
secreted, and where the pultaceous food is converted into chyme. It is
funnel-shaped, and its lower extremity connects with the intestines, as
shown in the cut. The cuticular lining of the three preceding stomachs
is wanting in this. The mucous coat is disposed in the form of ruga or
shallow folds, arranged longitudinally with the direction of the stomach,
and from this membrane the gastric juices are secreted.

The comparative size of the four stomachs will be sufficiently seen in
fig. 47.

Where the oesophagus enters the rumen, it terminates in what is called
the cesophagean canal, a continuation of the former constituting the roof
of the latter. The bottom or floor of this canal is formed of divided por-
tions or folds of the upper parts of the rumen and reticulum — muscular
" pillars" or "lips," as they are sometimes denominated — which may re-
main closed so that the food will pass over them into the third and fourth
stomachs — or they may open, permitting the food to fall between them,
as through a trap-door, into the first and second stomachs. It is probable
that the opening of these lips, as food passes over them, depends, some-
what upon a mechanical effect, and somewhat upon the will of the animal.
Fluid and soft pultaceous food fit for immediate digestion glide over them.
But most of the food of the sheep, like that of other ruminating animals,
is swallowed with little preparatory mastication ; and these untriturated
solids drop down through the first opening above described inti the ru-
men. It is certain, however, that the animal can, at will, also cause water
to pass through the opening into the first stomach. This would be neces-
sary in the animal economy, and the water is always found there.

When the food has entered the rumen, the muscular action of that vis-
cus compels it to make the circuit of its different compartments, and, in
time, the food later swallowed forces it on and up to near the opening
where it originally entered. In ils passage it is macerated by a solvent
alkaline fluid secreted by the mucous coat. The papillae of that coat are
supposed to influence the mechanical action of the contents of the stomach,
and perhaps, to a certain extent, to aid in triturating them. The food
performs the circuit of the stomach, and is ready for re-mastication^ ac-
cording to Spallanzani, in from sixteen to eighteen hours. By a muscular
effort of the stomach, a portion of it is then thrown over the membraneous
valve or fold which guards the opening from this into the second stomach

-30 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

The reticulum contracts upon it, forming it into a suitable pellet to be re-
turned to the mouth, and also covers it with a mucus secreted in this
stomach. By a spasmodic effort (always perceptible externally when the
sheep or cow commences rumination) the pellet is forced through the roof
of the reticulum, by the opening before described, and returned to the
mouth by the contractions of the spiral muscle of the oesophagus or gullet,
for mastication.

This explanation of the functions of the second stomach is not accepted
by all the physiologists who have examined this subject. Some contend
that all the solider portions of the food are returned directly from the ru-
men for re-mastication ; that when raised to the floor of the cesophagean
canal, the hard parts are carried up to the mouth — the more pultaceous
ones (but still not sufficiently pultaceous for the fourth stomach) passing
into the reticulum, where they are again macerated — the fluid squeezed
out of them by a contraction of the stomach and allowed to pass on to
the fourth stomach — and then the drier parts raised, like those from the
paunch, for re-mastication. More solid and indigestible substances " may
be submitted two or more times to the process of rumination." Such ap-
pear to be the views of Mr. Spooner.*

According to this theory, both stomachs are created substantially for
one and the same purpose, and one would seem to be unnecessary. And
where would be the use of the opening from one stomach into the other ]
And if the second stomach, like the first, is simply for the maceration and
return of food, why the superior thickness and strength of the coatings of
the former 1 Being of a volume greatly inferior to that of the latter, it cer-
tainly would require less strength, if the functions of both were the same

The main support for this, as it seems to me, erroneous theory, is found
in the fact that the contents of the reticulum, after death, are usually found
considerably more fluid than those of the rumen. I conceive that but
small portions of solid food are introduced at one time from the rumen
into the reticulum — not enough to give to the liquid contents of the latter
viscus the consistency of those of the former — proceeding on the supposi-
tion that the reticulum of the living animal is filled with fluid, as usually
found after death. But why may not a portion of this fluid have escaped
by the valve — been decanted, as it were, from the paunch to the reticulum,
after death ? I see no violence in this supposition. If this is not so, the
uniform fluidity of the contents of the reticulum would be, it seems to me,
fatal to the theory based on it — for, according to Spooner and others who
adopt it, after the reticulum has " become moderately full," it contracts on
its contents, expressing the liquid from the solid parts, which said liquid
is forced into the oesophagean canal, and escapes into the fourth stomach.
The solid parts would be thus left comparatively dry. Sheep penned up for
butchery often do, as every one has observed, ruminate until within a few
seconds of the time that all their natural visceral functions are suddenly
suspended by death — and when, therefore, this suspension would, at times,
as a matter of course, take place at all the different stages of rumination and
preparation for rumination — how happens it that the reticulum is not often
found with its liquid parts expressed — containing nothing but the solids, just
prepared for re-mastication ? Or if it be supposed that the act of forcing out
the li juid, and forcing up the solids into the oesophagus, are coincident or
simultaneous, why is not this stomach sometimes found entirely empty ? Can
it be supposed that this fluid (I have uniformly found the fluid mixed with
considerable quantities of the solid food) is so instantaneously re-supplied 1

• Spooner, p. 162-3,

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 231

If so, by what process t I think there are other reasons which support
the view I have taken, but I will not push the discussion, there not being,
so far as I am aware, any questions to be solved by it which directly and
practically affect the interests or the practices of the sheep-breeder.

Let us now observe the course pursued by the food, and the process to
which it is submitted, after rumination. It now glides oxer the trap-doors
which open into the first and second stomachs. As it passes over the
floor of the third, or the maniplus, the pendant leaves of this viscus. armed
with their beak-like protuberances, seize the advancing mass, and squeezing
out the fluid and the more finely comminuted portions of the food which
escape with it, commence triturating the bulkier fibrous portions between
their folds. Their bony papillae give to these folds something of the me-
chanical action of rasps, in grinding down the vegetable fibre. The food
being now reduced to an entirely pultaceous state, passes into the fourth'
stomach, or abomasum, where it is acted upon by the gastric juice, and
converted into chyme. The amount of food found between the folds of
the maniplus, after death, depends upon the time that has elapsed since
rumination. It is dry and hard, compared with the contents of the other
stomachs..

The entrance to the fourth stomach — the cardiac opening — is closed
against re gurgitation or vomiting, by a sort of valve, composed of a portion
of one of the rugce, before alluded to, which line the interior of this
stomach.^ The pylorus is also closed by a valve, which prevents a prema-
ture passage of the contents of the stomach into the intestines.

The intestines are exhibited in fig. 48, copied from Mr. Youatt's work.

Before the duodenum enters into (or changes its name to) the jejunum,
and about 18 inches from the pylorus, it is perforated by the biliary duct —
ductus clwledoclius — which brings the bile eliminated by the liver, from the
gall-bladder, and also the fluid which is secreted by the pancreas, or sweet-
bread, which last is introduced into the biliary duct two inches from its
entrance into the duodenum, by another duct or small tube. The com-
pound fluid thus introduced into the duodenum exercises various important
offices in the digestive and assimilating processes. The bile is supposed
to aid in the separation of the chyme into chyle and fecal matter — or the
nutritive parts of the food which are assimilated into blood, from the in-
nutritious parts which are discharged as excrement. It also prevents a
putrid decomposition of the vegetable contents of the intestines, and serves
various other useful purposes.

The chyle — a white albuminous fluid, with a composition differing but
little from that of blood — is taken from the intestines by a multitude of
minute ducts called lacteals, which traverse the mesentary, constantly
uniting as they advance, so as to form larger ducts. These enter the
mesenteric glands — small glandular bodies attached to the mesentary — after
the passage of which the chyle begins to change its color. The lacteals
still continue to unite and enlarge, and finally terminate in the thoracic
duct. In this the.chyle is mingled with the lymph secreted from a portion
of the lymphatics — another exceedingly minute system of absorbent ducts,
which open on the internal and external surfaces of the whole system.
From the thoracic duct, the chyle is conveyed to the heart, and enters into
the circulation as blood.

THE SPLEEN. — With the appearance of the spleen or milt — in the sneep
a dark, firm, spongy viscus, attached to the rumen, and lying on the left
Bide of the belly — all are sufficiently familiar. Its uses and functions in

SHEEP HUSBANWJY LN THE SOUTH.

the animal oconomy are not well understood, and i, has in some instances
boon removed from the living animal without the apparent derangement

Fig. 48.

THE INTESTINES AND MESENTARY.

1 The duodenum. 2. The jejunum. 3. The ileum.

& The ceecum, being the anterior prolongation of the colon, or first large intestine. The ileum opena
into this (on the back side as presented in the cut), about twelve Inches from its extremity — the
opening being defended by a valve.
5 The large anterior portion of the colon, retaining its size (about three times that of the smaller irtett-

tines) for about two feet.
R6. The colon tending toward the center.
7. ?. The returning convolutions of the colon.

8. The rectum or straight gut, communicating with the anus.

3. 9. The mesentary, or that portion of the peritoneum which retains the intestines in their places.
10. The portion of the mesentary supporting the colon, &.c.
The united length of these intestines is upward of sixty feet !

of any function. Mr. Youatt conjectures that its main office is to supply
the coloring matter of the blood.

THE PANCREAS. — The pancreas or sweet-bread, with the appearance of
which all who have noticed the entrails of a sheep, are also familiar, is a
glandular body found on the left side of the belly. It has a series of
.ducts which unite into a larger one, and, as before stated, this discharges
a transparent, albuminous, and somewhat acid fluid into the biliary duct
near the point where it enters the duodenum. This fluid acts some un-
known, but probably necessary part in preparing the chyme for the offices
it is to perform in the animal economy.

THE LIVER. — The liver is much larger in proportion, in the sheep, than
«i the horse and ox . and it ia twice the proportionate size of that of Man

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 233

It is situated mostly on the right side, between the maniplus and dia-
phragm. It is supplied with arterial blood, and receives the venous blood
which is conveyed from the intestines, from which it separates the bile,
and conveys it to the gall-bladder. The bile having undergone certain
changes in this bladder, is conveyed, as already stated, by the biliary duct,
to the duodenum. The venous blood, after the gall is separated from it,
is returned to the lungs, to undergo the process which fits it again to en
ter into the circulation.

THE URINARY AND GENERATIVE ORGANS.

Though it might seem the more natural order to complete the examina-
jion of the circulatory and respiratory organs, before taking up those
named at the head of this paragraph, I shall, adhering to my first arrange-
ment to follow the order which I have uniformly pursued in making dis-
sections, first complete the description of those of the abdominal cavity.

THE KIDNEYS. — The kidneys are two bean-shaped glands firmly attached
to the roof of the abdomen, and usually imbedded in fat. They are sup-
plied with blood by large arteries, and, having filtered out the urine from
it, they discharge the latter through two ducts, termed ureters, into the
bladder. The passage of these ducts through the walls of the latter is in
an oblique course, so that it is closed by pressure from within, and thus
the urine cannot return.

THE BLADDER.— -The bladder joins the urethra, in the pelvis, and its pos-
terior part is attached to the floor of that cavity. The anterior part, where
the diameter is larger, floats free in the abdomen. A circular muscle or
sphincter closes the entrance into the urethra, to prevent the continuous
escape of the urine, and this relaxes when the muscular coat of the bladder
contracts for the periodical expulsion of that fluid. The urethra is but a
few inches long in the ewe, and opens into the vagina. It is much longer
:ri the ram, as it extends the whole length of the penis.

THE UTERUS AND VAGINA, — The vagina is several inches in length and
opens into the uterus or womb by a circular opening which becomes closed
after impregnation. They are situated between the rectum above, and the
bladder below. They are mostly within the pelvis in the unpregnant ani-
mal, but the womb rises into the abdomen when it encloses a foetus. The
womb is a cylindrical body with two " horns " or branches. At the interioi
extremity of each horn are protuberances, of a red color, called ovarict
which are supposed to contain the germs of the offspring.

234 JHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

LETTER XV.

ANAT0MY OF TiliS 3HEEP (Continued)— DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT.

The Thoracic Viscera... Thd Diaphragm... The Thorax ... The Heart, Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins...
The Lungs... The Windpipe, Larynx and Pharynx... The Thyroid and Parotid Glands... The Head and
its structures... The Brain. ..The Nerves. ..The Teeth. ..The Lower Extremities. ..The Biflex Canal...
Febrile diseases — those of Europe which are not common here... Ophthalmia — popular remedies — proper
treatment... Pneumonia — oymptoms — Mr. Spooner's prescription for. ..Bronchitis— symptoms — treatment
...Catarrh — ordinarily not dangerous — preventives. ..Malignant Epizootic Catarrh — prevalence in the
Nqrthern States — character of the disease has not been understood — prevalence in author's flock — how
produced— symptoms — post-mortem appearances— character of the disease ascertained — Nosology —
Ireatment, &c. ..The Rot — its diagnosis — post-mortem appearances — description of the Fluke — causes of
the Rot — treatment. . .Diarrhea — cause — diagnosis — treatment. . . Dysentery — cause — difference between
it and diarrhea — treatment... Garget — seat and origin of the disease — treatment.. .Nervous Diseases...
Apop'exy — unrecognized cases of it — several cases detailed — symptoms— treatment... Phrenitis. ..Tet-
anus. ..Epilepsy. ..Rabies. ..Neither of them common in this country... Paralysis — symptoms — treat-
ment- .Colic — symptoms — attributed to intussusception — true cause — treatment.

THE THORACIC VISCERA.

Among these, for convenience, I will include the diaphragm.

THE DIAPHRAGM. — The diaphragm or midriff is a muscle extending en-
tirely across the inner cavity of the body, separating the abdomen from
the thorax or chest. Its structure is unique, and beautifully adapted to the
functions it has to perform. Its outer margin is muscular, giving it the ne-
cessary power of contraction, while toward the middle it changes into a
transparent tendonous substance. Through this tendonous substance pass
the cesophagus, the aorta, and the vena cava.

If the parts of the diaphragm which immediately surround these vessels
had been muscular, every contraction of the former in the act of respira-
tion, would have compressed the latter, and therefore interfered with the
passage of the food to the stomach, and the circulation of the blood. In a
state of rest the diaphragm is convex toward the thorax. When contract-
ed and flattened, therefore, it enlarges the cavity of the thorax, and air
rushes into the lungs. Its alternate contractions and relaxations mainly
produce the act of respiration or breathing.

THE THORAX. — "Without injuring the diaphragm, divide the sternum and
brisket of the sheep longitudinally through the center, with a fine saw, and
on pulling the lower extremity of the ribs slightly apart, the thorax will be
disclosed in its natural arrangement. It consists of three cavities, formed by
the doublings of the pleura, a thin serous membrane, which lines the whole
interior of the chest. Two outer and larger cavities (the right one being
the largest), contain the lungs — a third and smaller one, lying between the
posterior portions of the former, contains the heart. The cesophagus pass-
es through the upper portion of the thorax, over the lungs and heart, and
between them and the spine, to the lower portion of the neck.

THE HEART, ARTERIES, CAPILLARIES, AND VEINS. — With the size and
general appearance of the heart, all are familiar. Enclosed in a mem-
braneous sac — the pericardium — it hangs suspended by its superior attach-
ments to the roof of the thorax, its lower extremity nearly reaching to its
floor, and pointing toward the left side. The heart has two cavities on
each side, termed auricles and ventricles, The chvle and venous blood are

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 235

discharged into the right auricle, and thence into the right ventricle. By
the contraction of the latter, its contents are forced through the pulmona-
ry artery into the lungs. The blood having been purified in the lungs, is
returned to the left auricle ; thence into the left ventricle ; and it is then
forced into the aorta, or large artery which supplies, by its different
branches, all parts of the system with blood. Each compartment of the
heart is furnished with appropriate valves to cause the blood to be forced
forward in its regular course, by the muscular contractions of this viscus.
These contractions are the result of an inherent and independent power.

The contractions of the heart force the blood into and along the arteries.
When this force begins to be spent as the distance from the heart in-
creases, it receives aid from the action of the muscular coat of the arteries
themselves, which forces along the blood to their utmost extremities.

The arteries continue to branch off into more and more minute divisions
as they recede from the heart, until the tubes are much less in diameter
than the finest hair. These, capillaries as they are called, open by exceed-
ingly minute mouths in every part of the frame, for the deposition of those
secretions from the blood which maintain the vitality and healthy action
of the parts, supply the animal waste, &c.

The capillaries, commencing their return toward the heart, constantly
reunite, forming larger tubes which are called veins, which bring back
such portions of the blood carried out by the arteries, as has not been ex-
pended in nourishing the system. The blood now deprived of its oxygen,
and loaded with carbon, is unfit for farther circulation until re-purified in
the lungs. It is of a darker color than the arterial blood. It is no longer
urged on by the contractile power of the tubes through which it flows, but
by the partial vacuum formed in the right auricle (as at each contraction
it forces its contents into the right ventricle,) and by atmospheric
pressure.

THE LUNGS. — The lungs are bodies composed of separate minute air-
cells, communicating with the bronchial tubes, or subdivisions of the wind-
pipe. They also contain many arteries, and veins. On the delicate mem-
braneous walls of the air-cells the venous blood is carried by innumerable
tubes so thin as to permit their contents to be acted upon by the atmos-
pheric air which fills the cells at every inspiration. Here the blood gives
off its carbon, and receives oxygen from the air, and thus is prepared for
its return to the heart, and to be again sent through the system.

The right lung is somewhat larger than the left, and both fill their re-
spective cavities when inflated. They are entirely free from any attach-
ment to the pleura — the membrane which lines the ribs — when in their
natural state. "When the animal has been bled to death, the lungs are of
a light color ; but if the animal has died with all its blood in it, their color
resembles that of the liver. This can, however, be readily distinguished
from hepatization — the result of certain diseases — as will be hereafter
shown.

THE WINDPIPE, LARYNX, PHARYNX, &c. — The bronchial tubes constant-
ly uniting as they approach the anterior portion or root of each lung, final-
ly form a single large tube, as they make their exit from each lobe, and
these, uniting into one, form the windpipe. This is a well known cartila-
ginous tube which passes out of the chest between the first two ribs, and
ascends on the front part of the neck. It unites with the larynx, which
continues the air passage from the lungs to the mouth. The (Esophagus
leaves the chest close beside the windpipe, and ascends the neck on the

236

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

left side of the latter. It communicates with the pharynx which comniu-
cates with the mouth. The food on being swallowed enters the pharynx
or food bag, which is directly above the larynx — so that the food traverses
the entrance to the latter. It is deterred from entering the windpipe by
the epiglottis, a triangular lid or valve which projects upward from v,he
floor of the passage, and which closes upon and covers the glottis, or en-
trance into the windpipe, when any substance more dense than air comes
in contact with it in its downward passage.

THE THYROID .IND PAROTID GLANDS. — The Thyroid glands are located
on each side of the trachea. The parotid glands are situated immediately
below the ear, behind the angle of the lower jaw. There are certain
other glands situated beneath the lower jaw, not necessary here to be re-
ferred to.

THE HEAD AND ITS CONTENTS.

Fig. 49.

4

>

4

BONES OF THE HEAD.

1. The nasal bone.

2. The upper jaw bone.

3. The intermaxillary hone, which supports the

pad which supplies the place of upper front
teeth.
1.4. The frontal sinus.

5. Cavity or sinus of the horn, communicating

with the frontHl sinus. It is here shown by
the removal of a section of the base of the
horn.

6. The parietal bone.

7. The frontal bone.

8. Vertical section of the brain.

9. Vertical section of the cerebellum.

a. The cineritious portion of the brain.

b. The medullary portion.

10. The ethmoid bone.

1 1. The cribriform or perforated plate of the ethmoid

bone. " It separates the nasal cavity from the
brain ; it is thin almost as a wafer, and pierced
by numerous holes, through which the olfacto-
ry nerve penetrates, in order to spread itself
over the inner part of the nose."

12. The lower cell of the ethmoid bone.

13. The superior turbinated bone.

14. The inferior turbinated bone.

17. The sphenoid bone.

The above cut, copied from Youatt, gives, with the subjoined explana-
tions, a sufficient description of most of the structures of the head.. Some,
however, demand a little more particular description.

THE BRAIN. — The brain of the sheep is smaller in proportion than that
of Man, but is shaped so nearly like the latter, and so closely resembles
it in its general structure and conformation, that it furnishes the medical
student with a good substitute for the brain of the human subject ! The
brain is invested in a membrane called the pia mater. The cranium or
skull is lined by the dura mater, and between this and the former there is
a delicate membrane called the tunica arachnoides.

THE NERVES. — Ten pair of nerves arise from the brain, and thirty pair
from the spinal cord. These supply the sense of seeing, hearing, tasting^
gmelling, feeling, &c. &c. ; and a portion of them, termed neives of me

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

lion, communicate that volition of the brain to the different parts of the
system, which produces motion. A description of these various nerves, OT
sven an enumeration of them, would be of no 'practical benefit in a mere
popular veterinary treatise.

THE TEETH. — The sheep has 24 molar teeth, and eight incisors. The
latter are confined to the lower jaw, being opposed to a firm, hard, elastic
pad or cushion on the upper jaw. The incisors are gow^e-shaped — i. e.,
concave without and convex within — which enables the sheep to crop tho
herbage closer to the ground than our other domestic ruminant, the ox.

The lamb is born without incisor teeth, or it has but two. In three or
four weeks, it has eight small, shortish ones, as represented

Fig. 51. Fig. 52.

n fig. 50.—

Fig. 50.

Fig. 54

Fig. 55.

Whan not far from a year old — though sometimes not until fourteen, fif-
teen, or even sixteen months old — the two central incisors are shed, and
their place is supplied by two longer and broader teeth, as in fig. 51. The
sheep is then termed, in this country, a yearling, or yearling jxzst. Two
of the " lamb teeth" continue to be annually shed and their places supplied
with the permanent ones until the sheep becomes "full-mouthed" Fig.
52 presents the teeth of a two-year-old-past — fig. 53 of a three-year-old-
past — fig. 55 of a four-year-old-past. The four-year-old-past is, in reality,
nearly or quite five years old, before it obtains its whole number of full--
grown permanent teeth. The two-year-old and three-year-old also about
reach their next year before their additional incisors are fully grown. —
Hence, the English writers all speak of two broad teeth (meaning fully-
grown ones) as indicating the age of two years ; four broad teeth, three
years ; six broad teeth, four years ; and eight broad teeth, or full-mouthed,
five years. I prefer the English arrangement, as more accurate, but the
other is the common one in the Northern and Eastern States; and, as it
is a matter of little practical consequence, it will here be adhered to.

Fig. 54 gives an inside view of the incisors of a three-year-old-past — an
outside view of which is given in fig. 53. The two remaining lamb teeth
are here shown, which in the outside view are concealed by the last pair
of permanent teeth. From their being thus concealed, the three is often
mistaken for the four-year-old-past, by those who do not count the perma-
nent teeth.

At six years old, the incisors begin, to diminish in breadth. At seven
they have lost their fan-like shape, being equilateral, long, and narrow.—
At eight, they are still narrower ; and this year or the next, reversing the
flaring or divergent position in which they are shown in fig. 55, they begip

238 SHEEF HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

to point in toward the two central ones. Their narrowness and inward
direction increases for a year or two more, when they begin to drop out.
Sheep fed on turnips or other roots, lose their teeth earlier than those
which only receive grain, hay, &c. in winter. At twelve years old, the in-
cisors are usually gone with the exception of one or two loose ones. And
here let me remark that when the incisors are reduced to one or two, they
should always be twitched out with a pair of nippers. They are useless
for the purpose for which they were formed, and they prevent that contact
of the lower gum with the pad above, which is now the only substitute for
teeth in cropping grass. When all the incisors are gone, the gums of the
lower jaw rapidly harden, and I have known ewes to live for years, keep
in fair condition and rear lambs, without an incisor tooth in their heads !

The above remarks are more particularly applicable to the Merino
breed. The other breeds, so far as my acquaintance extends, lose their
teeth, or become " broken-mouthed " somewhat earlier ; and they dwin-
dle away and die soon after they begin to lose their teeth.

THE LOWER EXTREMITIES.

THE BIFLEX CANAL. — The lower extremities of the sheep, including the
legs, feet, &c., require no anatomical description. I will simply call atten-
tion to the biflex or interdigital canal, the nature and diseases of which
have been the subjects of so many errors. It is a small orifice openin^
externally on the front of each pastern immediately above the cleft be-
tween the toes. It bifurcates within, a tube passing down on each side
of the inner face of the pastern, winding round and ending in a cul de sac.

The use of this canal is a matter of doubt. Mr. Spooner thinks the hair
always found in it is " excreted from the internal surface," and " from the
oraallness of the opening it cannot escape, or rather is detained for a use-
ful purpose." He continues :

" The use of this canal, thus stuffed with hair, is self-evident. We have mentioned the
great motion possessed by this pastern joint, which is so great as to threaten to chafe the
skin by the friction of one side against the other. It is to prevent or ward off this friction
that these biflex canals, or rather hair-stuffed cushions, are provided."

In my judgment, this is a very far-fetched conclusion, and Mr. Youatt's
is little more satisfactory. Diseases originating in this canal are some-
times confounded with hoof-ail ; and the canal, or a portion of it, is often
dissected, or rather mangled out by ignorant charlatans in pursuit of an
imaginary ivorm, which, they induce the credulous farmer to believe, ori-
ginates the hoof-ail ! The hoof-ail proper has nothing to do with, nor do
its characteristic lesions extend to this canal.

FEBRILE DISEASES.

Simple inflammatory, malignant inflammatory, and typhus fevers often
devastate the flocks of Europe ; but they seem scarcely to be known in
the United States, and are. included in no American work on the diseases
of sheep which has fallen under my eye.

The same remark applies to phrenitis (inflammation of the brain), pleu-
ritis (inflammation of the membrane which lines the thorax), gastritis (in-
flammation of the stomach), enteretis (inflammation of the intestines), cys-
titis (inflammation of the bladder), laryngitis (inflammation of the larynx),
and several other inflammatory diseases.

OPHTHALMIA. — Ophthalmia, or inflammation of the eye, is not uncommon

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 239

in our country, but is little noticed, as in most cases it disappears in a few
day*, or, at worst, is only followed by cataract. The cataract being usu-
ally confined to one eye does not appreciably affect the value of the ani-
mal, and therefore has no influence on its market price. As a remedy for this
disease, Mr. Grove recommended blowing pulverized red chalk into the
inflamed eye ! Others squirt into it tobacco juice, from that ever ready
reservoir of this nauseous fluid, their mouths ! I apprehend that all such
prescriptions are far worse than nothing.

Conceiving it a matter of humanity to do fometlling, I have in some in-
stances drawn blood from under the eye, bathed the eye in tepid water,
and occasionally with a weak solution of the sulphate of zinc combined
with tincture of opium. These applications diminish pain and accelerate
the cure.

PNEUMONIA. — Pneumonia, or inflammation of the lungs, is not a com-
mon disease, in the Northern States, but undoubted cases of it sometimes
occur, after sheep have been exposed to sudden cold — particularly when
recently shorn. The adhesions occasionally witnessed between the lungs
and pleura of slaughtered sheep, betray the former existence of this dis-
ease— though in many instances it was so slight as to be mistaken, in the
time of it, for a hard cold. The sheep laboring under pneumonia is dull,
ceases to ruminate, neglects its food, drinks frequently and largely, and its
breathing is rapid and laborious. The eye is clouded — the nose discharges
a tenacious, fetid matter — the teeth are ground frequently, so that the
sound is audible to some distance. The pulse is at first hard and rapid—
sometimes intermittent ; but before death it becomes weak. During the
hight of the fever, the flanks heave violently. There is a hard, painful
eough during the first stages of the disease. This becomes weaker, and
£&ems to be accompanied with more pain as death approaches.

After death, the lungs are found more or less hepatized, i. e. permanently
condensed, and engorged with blood, so that their structure resembles
that of the hepar, or liver — and they have so far lost their integrity that
they are torn asunder by the slightest force.

It may be well in this place to remark that when sheep die from any
cause with their Hood in them, the lungs have a dark hepatized appear-
ance. But whether actually hepatized or not, can be readily decided by
compressing the windpipe, so that air cannot escape through it, and then
between such compression and the body of the lungs, in a closely fitting
orifice, insert a goose-quill or other tube, and continue to blow until the
lungs are inflated so far as they can be. As they inflate, they will become
lighter colored, and t>lainly manifest their cellular structure. If any por-
tions of them cannot be inflated, and retain their dark, liver-like consistency
and color, they exhibit hepatization — the result of high inflammatory ac-
tion— and a state utterly incompatible, in the living animal, with the dis-
charge of the natural functions of the viscus.

With the treatment of pneumonia, I have but little personal experience.
In the first or inflammatory stages of the disease, bleeding and aperients
are clearly called for. Mr. Spooner recommends " early and copious
bleeding, repeated, if necessary, in a few hours . . . this followed by aperi-
ent medicines, such as 2 oz. of Epsom salts, which may be repeated in
smaller doses if the bowels are not sufficiently relaxed. . . . The following
sedative may also be given with gruel twice a day :

Nitrate of potash 1 drachm.

Digitalis, powdered 1 scruple.

Tartarized antimony 1 do.

240 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

The few cases I have seen have been of a sub-acute character, and would
not bear treatment so decidedly and /think dangerously antiphlogistic.

Mr. Youatt remarks :

•

" Depletion may be of inestimable value during the continuance — the short continuance—
of the febrile state ; but excitation like this will soon be followed by corresponding ex-
haustion, and then the bleeding and the purging would be murderous expedients, and gentian,
ginger, and the spirit of nitrous ether will afford the only hope of cure."

BRONCHITIS. — It would be difficult to suppose that where sheep are sub-
ject to pneumonia they would not also be subject to bronchitis — which is
an inflammation of the mucous membrane which lines the bronchial tubes
— the air-passes of the lungs. I have seen no cases, however, which 1
have been able to identify as bronchitis, and have examined no subjects,
after death, which exhibited its characteristic lesions. Its symptoms are
those of an ordinary cold, but attended with more fever and a tenderness
of the throat and belly when pressed upon.

Treatment. — Administer salt in doses from li to 2 oz., with 6 or 8 oz.
of lime-water, given in some other part of the day. This is Mr. Youatt'a
prescription.

CATARRH. — Catarrh is an inflammation of the mucous membrane which
lines the nasal passages — and it sometimes extends to the larynx and pha-
rynx. In the first instance — where the lining1 of the nasal passages is
alone and not very violently affected — it is merely accompanied by an in-
creased discharge of mucus, and is rarely attended with much danger. In
this form it is usually termed snuffles, and high-bred English mutton sheep,
in this country, are apt to manifest more or less of it, after every sudden
change of weather. When the inflammation extends to the mucous lining
of the larynx and pharynx, some degree of fever usually supervenes, ac-
companied by cough, and some loss of appetite. At this point the Eng-
lish veterinarians usually recommend bleeding and purging. Catarrh rarely
attacks the American fine-wooled sheep with sufficient violence in summer,
to require the exhibition of remedies. I early found that depletion, in
catarrh, in our severe winter months, rapidly produced that fatal prostra-
tion, from which it is next to impossible to recover the sheep — entirely im-
possible, without bestowing an amount of time and care on it, costing far
more than the price of any ordinary sheep.

The best course is to prevent the disease, by judicious precautions. With
,hat amount of attention which every prudent flock-master should bestow
on his sheep, the hardy American Merino is little subject to it. Good,
comfortable, but well-ventilated shelters, constantly accessible to the sheep
in winter, with a sufficiency of food regularly administered, is usually a
sufficient safeguard; and after some years of experience, during which I
have tried a variety of experiments on this disease, I resort to no other
remedies — in other words, I do nothing for those occasional cases of ordina-
ry catarrh which arise in my flock, and they never prove fatal.

MALIGNANT EPIZOOTIC CATARRH. — Essentially differing from the pre-
ceding in type and virulence is an epidemic, or, more properly speaking,
an epizootic, malady, which as often as once in eight or ten years sweeps
over extended sections of the Northern States, destroying more sheep than
all the other diseases put together. It usually makes its appearance in win-
ters characterized 'by rapid and violent changes of temperature. The
Northern farmers speak of these as the " bad winters " for sheep — fre-
quently without assigning any name to the malady. Others term the lat

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

ter " The Distemper" and others again call it the " Grub in the Head" at-
tributing the evil exclusively to the presence of these parasites. The
latter, as I shall hereafter show, is an entirely erroneous hypothesis.

The winter of 1846-7 was one of these " bad winters," and the d^
struction of sheep in New-York, and some adjoining States, was very ex
tensive. Some flock-masters lost half, others three-quarters, and a few
seven-eighths of their flocks. One individual within a few miles of me lost
five hundred out of eight hundred — another nine hundred out of one
thousand ! But these severe losses fell mainly on the holders of the deli-
cate Saxon sheep, and perhaps, generally, on those possessing not the best
accommodations, or the greatest degree of energy and skill.

I lost about fifty sheep during this winter, and never having seen any de-
scription of the pathology of this disease, its diagnosis, its lesions — or, in
short, any attempt to ascertain its specific character or proper classifica-
tion in our ovine nosology — I shall attempt to supply some of these omis-
sions. Not dreaming then of a publication of this kind, my notes were
only taken for private reference, and were not as full as they should be for
a veterinary treatise. I might supply some of these omissions accurately
from recollection, but do not consider it proper thus to endanger the accu-
racy of records, which as far as they go, I think may now be implicitly re-
lied on. My post-mortem examinations were made at intervals snatched
from other pressing engagements. This fact, and certain preconceived
views — which I subsequently found erroneous — prevented me from making
those examinations, and more particularly the records of them, as minute
and extended as could be wished. I then sought only to convince myself
of the true nature and character of the disease.

In detailing the results of my experience in the premises, I conceive it a
duty to frankly state the whole facts. The records of mismanagement and
error, are often as useful, nay, more so, than those of successful manage-
ment, and it is a pitiful pride which prevents any man, who pretends to
communicate information to the public, from giving that public the bene-
fit of his examples which are to be avoided, as well as those which are to
hv followed.

Up to February, my sheep remained apparently perfectly sound, and
they were in good flesh. Each flock had excellent shelters, were fed re-
gularly, etc., and although sheep were beginning to perish about the coun-
try, my uniform previous impunity in these " bad winters " led me to en-
tertain no apprehensions of the prevailing epizootic. About the first of
February, my sheep went into the charge of a new man, hired upon the
highest recommendations. A few days after, I was called away from home
for a week. The weather during my absence was, a part of the time, very-
severe. The sheep-house occupied by one flock containing one hundred
sheep, was, with the exception of two doors, as close a room as can be
made by nailing on the wall-boards vertically and without lapping, as is
common on our Northern barns.* One of the doors was always left open,
to permit the free ingress and egress of the sheep, and for necessary ventila-
tion. A half dozen ewes which had been untimely impregnated by a
neighbor's ram, were on the point of lambing, and it being safer to confine
the ewes in a warm room over night, the shepherd, instead of removing
them to such a room, confined the whole flock in the sheep-house every
night, and rendered it warm by closing loth doors ! After two or three
hours, the air must have become excessively impure. On entering the
sheep-house, on my return, I was at once struck with the fetid, highly of-
fensive smell. A change, too, slight but ominous, had taken place in the

* Boards in these cases shrink so as tc leave slight cracks between them.

2H

242 SHEEP HUSBANDRY N THE SOUTH.

appearance of a part of the flock. They showed no signs of violent colds, ]
heard no coughing, sneezing, or labored respiration — and the only indica-
tion of catarrh which I noticed, was a nasal discharge, by a few sheep,
13«t those having this nasal discharge, and some others, looked dull and
drooping ; their eyes ran a little — were partially closed, the caruncle and
lids looked pale — their movements were languid — and the shepherd com-
plained that they did not eat quite so well as the others. The pulse was
nearly natural — though 1 thought a trifle too languid.

Not knowing what the disease was — and fully believing that depletion
by bleeding or physic was not called for, let the disease be what it would.
I contented myself with thoroughly purifying the sheep house — seeingthat
the feeding, etc.,* was managed with the greatest regularity — and closely
watching the farther symptoms of disease in the flock. In about a week,
the above described symptoms were evidently aggravated, and there had
been a rapid emaciation, accompanied with debility, in the sheep first at-
tacked. The countenance was exceeding dull and drooping — the eye
kept more than half closed — the caruncle, lids, &c. almost bloodless — a
gummy yellow secretion below the eye — thick glutinous mucus adhering
in and about the nostrils — appetite feeble — pulse languid — and the muscu-
lar energy greatly prostrated. Nothing unusual was yet noticed about
their stools or urine.

I now had all the diseased sheep removed from the flock, and placed in
rooms the temperature of which could be easily regulated.

I commenced giving slight tonics and stimulants, such as gentian, gin-
ger, etc., but apparently with no material effect. They rapidly grew weak-
er, stumbled and fell as they walked, and soon became unable to rise. The
appetite grew feebler — the mucus at the nose, in some instances, tinged
with dark grumous blood — the respiration oppressed, and they died with-
in a day or two after they became unable to rise.

I proceeded to make some post-mortem examinations, which I shall
here detail, although, as I have before remarked, they are extremely im-
perfect. I was at first inclined to suspect that the primary disease was one
of some of the abdominal or thoracic viscera, and this impression was con-
firmed by the abnormal condition of these viscera in the first subjects exam-
ined. I therefore improperly confined my attention to these, and some of
the external tissues, without any examination of the interior organs of the
head and neck. I shall give my notes verbatim as they were taken down
at the time, whether the appearances detailed have, as I now believe, any
connection with the fatal disease or not.

Case 1st. Old sheep. Much emaciated — mouth and lips covered with
yellow froth — yellow waxy matter under eyes — adhesive mucus in and
about nostrils. On opening, external tissues appear healthy— two hyda-
tids on omentum of the size of a walnut — gall-bladder enlarged and enor-
mously distended with pale, and apparently not properly eliminated bile
•—gall-bladder slightly adhering to omentum — mesenteric glands enlarged
— other abdominal viscera believed to be normal- — fasces in rectum thought
to indicate a constipated habit — stomachs rather empty. Thoracic viscera
healthy.

Case 2d. Two years old. External appearances as in Case 1st, with
the exception of the yellow froth about the mouth. External tissues
healthy. Gall-bladder very small and nearly empty — bile pale and un«
eliminated — mesenteric glands enlarged — schirrous tumor at the junction

* They had been fed with bright hay three times a day, and turnips. As those affected as above did n»l
eat their turnips well, I commenced feeding some oats, in addition to the turnips. I believed that a gener
out feed was called for, and I gave it

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IiN THE SOUTH. 243

of the coecum and colon of the size of a butternut. Superior lobe of left
lung adherent to pleura costalis — three lobes of right lung ditto, with slight
traces of recent inflammation. Hydro-pericarditis — the pericardium slight-
ly inflamed and containing something more than a gill of serum. •

Case 3d. Old, and in lamb. External appearances and tissues as in
Case 2d. Omentum dark-yellowish, or yellowish-brown by deposition of
lymph, the result of inflammatory action — gall-bladder precisely as in Caso
2d — tabes mesentrica or enlargement of the mesenteric glands, as in the
preceding cases. Middle lobe of right lung slightly hepatized, and adher-
ent to pleura costalis — hydro-pericarditis, (a gill of serum in pericar-
dium.)

Case 4th. Yearling ram. External appearances and tissues as in pre
ceding cases. Two small hydatids on omenturn — gall-bladder as in two
preceding cases — mesenteric glands as in preceding cases. Traces of diar-
rhea. Thoracic viscera healthy.

Case 5th. Lamb. External appearance as in preceding cases — omen-
turn as in Case 3d, and small hydatid on it — gall-bladder as in three pre-
ceding cases — ditto of mesenteric glands. Thoracic viscera healthy.

Case 6th. Four-year-old ram, killed for examination, in the first stage-
of the disease. Yet strong, appetite good, in fair condition, and exhibited
no particular external indications of disease except running at the eyes, a
slight gummy deposition below them — and some mucus about the nostrils..
Oall-bladder but little better filled than in preceding cases — mesenteric'
glands same as in preceding cases. Thoracic viscera healthy.

Remarks on Preceding Cases. — I had started on the supposition that
the fatal disease would be found one of the lungs, consequent on ca-
tarrh. I" thought it might prove a species of pneumonia, though some of
the characteristic symptoms of that disease seemed to be wanting ; but I
believed it would rather prove to be phthisis pulmonalis, or pulmonary
consumption. To the last disease, when it assumes the form of what is.
popularly called " quick consumption," it seemed to me to bear several
striking analogies. But the post-mortem examinations above detailed, en-
tirely overthrow these suppositions. Except in Case 2d, there were no>
manifestations of recent inflammation of the lungs. The adhesions in Case-
3d, were evidently referable to a past date. In the other four cases, the
lungs were in a healthy condition — exhibiting not a trace of hepatization,..
tubercles, ulcers, or other abnormal action ! In Case 6th, where the dis-
ease was in its first observable and therefore inflammatory stage, none of
the thoracic viscera presented a particle of inflammation !

Then what was the disease ? It was evidently the same in the several'
cases, yet the lesions disclosed by post-mortem examination were very va-
rious. Hence, I was led to conclude that these lesions were the results
of symptomatic disease, and that \he primary one was not yet discovered.,

The malady continued to spread. New cases occurred daily — it began
to exhibit itself in my other flocks. It had manifestly put on the charac-
ter of an epizootic — or, if I may be permitted to coin a word, an en-zo-
otic. I now gave orders to have every sheep removed from the several flocks,,
its soon as it should be attacked with disease. I also resolved on more ex-
tended post-mortem examinations. The following are the notes taken in.
the immediately succeeding cases.

Case 7th. Yearling. External appearance as in the preceding cases —
external tissues normal — mesenteiic glands slightly enlarged — gall-blad-
der of natural size, with good bile, and with the natural discolorations
about it. Thoracic viscera healthy, with exception of pericardium, which
exhibited traces of recent inflammation and contained a gill of serum

244 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

The thorax also contained considerable fluid, which escaped without ad-
measurement.

I now examined the bronchial tubes, the lower portions of the windpipe,
oesophagus, &c., and found them all in an apparently healthy condition.
Before tracing these passages to the throat, I removed the upper portion
of the skull and carefully examined the brain and its investing mem-
branes. All seemed in a perfectly normal state. I then made a longitu-
dinal section down through the middle part of the whole head, as is shown
in fig. 49, and the seat and character of the fatal malady stood at once
revealed !

The mucous membrane lining the whole nasal cavity, highly congested
and thickened throughout its whole extent, betrayed the most intense in-
flammation. At the junction of the cellular ethmoid bones with the cribri-
form plate, (in the ethmoidal cells,) slight ulcers were forming on the mem-
braneous lining! The inflammation also extended to the mucous mem-
brane of the pharynx, and say three inches of the upper portion of the oeso-
phagus. Here it rather abruptly terminated.

Case 8th. Old, in lamb. External appearances as in preceding cases —
abdominal parietes healthy-;— all the viscera apparently healthy. The in-
flammation of the mucous membrane lining the nasal cavity, pharynx, and
upper portion of oesophagus, as in Case 7th, only not quite so acute — no
ulcers on the membrane.

Cases 5th and 6th reviewed. The heads of these two subjects having
neen accidentally preserved, I examined them, and found the inflammatory
action of the mucous membrane same as in cases 7th and 8th. Nor have I
a particle of doubt that the same would have been found the case in all
the preceding subjects, had they been examined.

Nosology and Treatment. — I had little difficulty in coming to the conclu-
sion that the primary and main disease was a species of catarrh. It evidently,
however, differed from ordinary catarrh in its diagnosis, and in the extent
of the lesions accompanying both the primary and symptomatic dis-
eases.

In no case, even in the first attack, did I notice anything — the fever—
the accelerated pulse — the redness about the eyes and nostrils — the cough-
ing, etc., accompanying an ordinary severe attack of catarrh. And it was
•for this reason that I was misled as to the seat of the malady. From the
very outset, according to my observations, the type of the disease was
typhoid — sinking — rapidly tending to fatal prostration.

How to reduce the local inflammation of the membrane lining the nasal
cavities, I was at a loss to determine. I was satisfied that there was too
much debility to admit of an antiphlogistic course of treatment. Still, to
make myself sure, I bled in vhree or four cases, and, as I anticipated, it
•evidently accelerated th§ fatal catastrophe. Blistering could not be brought
•near to the seat of the inflammation, excepting on the nose, and independ-
ent of the extreme difficulty of treating a blister on a spot so constantly
exposed to dirt, the rubbing of hay, etc., in winter feeding, I believed it
•could have little effect, on an account of the thick nasal bone intervening
between it and any portion of the inflamed membrane. And, moreover,
the greater portion of the inflamed membrane rested on bones detached,
except at one extremity, from all connection with the nasal bone. I blew
Scotch snuff (through paper tubes) up the nostrils of some of the sheep,
for two objects — 1, to remove, by sneezing, the mucus, which mechanical-
ly, and evidently injuriously, obstructed respiration ; and 2, to produce a
new action, by which an increased mucous secretion would be excited,
and thus the congested membrane relieved. But, farther than this, I TO-

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 245

sotted to no local or other treatment designed specifically to reach the local
inflammation.

The next step was to fix nn the constitutional treatment. The liver was
evidently in a torpid state. There was a functional derangement in the
mesenteric and probably other glands, and a want of activity in the general
secretory system. What medicine would stimulate the liver, cause it to
secrete the proper quantity as well as quality of bile, change the morbid
action of the glands and secretory system, and restore activity and health
to the vital functions generally? In my judgment, nothing promised so
well as mercury ; and by its well known effect on the entire secretory sys-
tem, it would powerfully tend to relieve the congested membranes of the
head. In this opinion I was joined by a learned and experienced physi-
cian, who, both as a matter of taste and humanity, has given no little at-
tention to veterinary science and practice. The proto-chloride of mercury
(calomel) was supposed to possess too much specific gravity to reach the
fourth stomach, with any certainty, administered in a liquid ; and if ad-
ministered as a ball or pill, it would be almost sure not to reach that stom-
ach.* The dissolved bi-chloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) was
therefore hit upon. One grain was dissolved in two ounces of water, and
one-half ounce of the water (or one-eighth of a grain of corrosive sublimate)
was exhibited in a day, in two doses.

As constipation existed in most of the cases, it was thought that the
bowels required to be stimulated into action, and slightly evacuated with
a mild laxative. Having noticed in similar cases of debility and torpor of
the intestinal cana.1, that purgation is often followed by a serous diarrhea,
difficult lo correct, and leading to rapid prostration, and there being no in-
testinal irritation to suffer exacerbation, I thought that rhubarb — from its
well known tendency to give tone to the bowels, and its secondary effect
as a mild astringent — was particularly indicated. It was given in a decoc-
tion— the equivalent of ten or fifteen grains at a dose — accompanied with
the ordinary carminative and stomachic adjuvants, ginger and gentian, in
infusion.

To a portion of the sheep I administered the rhubarb and its adjuvants
alone ; to others I gave the bi-chloride of mercury in addition to the prece-
ding. I employed these courses of treatment in a number .of cases, the
records of all which have been accidentally destroyed with the exception
of the following three.

Case 9th. Ram, three years old. Has been drooping and weak, with
feeble appetite, for some time — has been separated from flock. Has eaten
his oats irregularly for several days, and refused turnips, bran, etc., alto-
gether— much emaciated — eyes partly closed, with a yellowish deposit
below them — caruncle and lids bloodless — nostrils impeded with adhesive
yellowish mucus.

March 17th. Weaker than before — would not rise to feed — not seen to
eat or ruminate — gait, when helped up, weak and staggering ; eyes near-
ly closed-^-stooled dry, hard faeces — urine dark and reddish. Exhibited
rhubarb with ginger and gentian in gruel — blew snuff into nostrils. March
18th, morning — Weaker; refused to eat anything. Exhibited rhubarb,
ginger and gentian in gruel. Noon — Urine seemingly bloody : breathing
labored : exhibited corrosive sublimate in gruel. Night — Dying. March
19th, morning — Dead.

Post-mortem appearances. Inner edges of both lobes of liver softened
about two inches from horizontal fissure : hypropericarditis and hydro-

* For reasons vrhdch will be hereafter given under the head of " The Proper Way of Administeripf
Kedicinoa."

246 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

thorax — nearly half pint of serum in latter. Other viscera apparently
normal. Lining of superior portion of oesophagus and nasal ca.vity as in
Case 8th.

Case 10th. Three-year-old ewe. Drooping for several days : sleepy —
emaciated and weak : cannot rise without help : appearances about nos-
trils and eyes as in Case 9th : appetite considerable — rumination not ob-
served. March 17th. Exhibited ginger and gentian in gruel : blew
enuff in nostrils. Latter produced sneezing and a discharge of mucus.
18th : Morning. Weaker and would not eat. Noon. A little live-
lier : ate hay and grain ; exhibited ginger and gentian. Night. Evac-
uations thin: urine of a natural color. 1 9th. Morning: same. Noon.
Exhibited same remedies as before. The same course was pursued for
three days : the sheep appearing rather to gain, when one morning it was
found dead. No post-mortem examination made.

Case llth. Old ewe. Symptoms precisely as in Case 10th, except an
occasional grinding of the teeth. March 17th. Treated exactly as in Case
9th. Lived three days and appeared to rally a little, then brought forth a
Iamb and died. Post-mortem examination. Abdominal parietes healthy
— gall-bladder filled with pale bile : liver normal in size but softened
throughout its entire extent, and pale : portions of it paler and more disor-
ganized than others : no parasites in its ducts. Thoracic viscera normal.
Sub-acute inflammation of the mucous lining of the nasal cavity, and of the
superior portion of the oesophagus. Slight ulcer in the ethmoidal cells.

I made various other post-mortem examinations. Some of the viscera
in every case were in a more or less abnormal state ; but there was the
same variety in the locality of the diseased action as in the preceding
cases. But so far as the seat and character of the catarrhal affection was
concerned, it was uniform in every case. The only difference was in in-
tensity, as exhibited by the extent of the lesions.

Not a single sheep recovered after the emaciation and debility had pro-
ceeded to any great extent ! One such only lingered along until shearing.
Its wool gradually dropped off: it seemed to rally a little once or twice,
and then relapse ; and it perished one night in a rain-storm. In the gen-
erality of instances the time from the first observed symptoms until death,
varied from fen to fifteen days. A few died in a shorter time.

In the three cases last detailed, the disease had evidently proceeded too
far to be arrested by any treatment. I much regret the loss of the records
of the other cases, which would throw farther light on the subject. I
thought that the treatment produced favorable effects in some instances—-
particularly when resorted to at the commencement of the disease. At all
events, some of the sheep recovered under the treatment — particularly un-
der that including the exhibition of the bi-chloride of mercury — and very
few, if any, recovered without any treatment. Candor compels me to say,
however, that the results of the treatment were far from being highly sat-
isfactory— that the cases of recovery were much fewer than the deaths. I
•have merely stated what I believe to be the facts in the premises; I do not
feel prepared to make any recommendations.

The epizootic gradually abated toward spring, and my flock have since
been in perfect health.

Near spring, many farmers found what seemed to them an unusual num-
ber of grubs in .the head (frontal sinuses) of the sheep which died of the
prevailing epizootic, and therefore they attributed the disease to this cause,
and this seems to be the prevailing popular opinion. In some of the latest
cases in my flock, I discovered more or less grubs ; and, in two or three
'nstances an unusual number. In other cases where the external symj>

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 247

toms and the post-mortem appearances were almost identical, no grubs
were to be seen. For this reason, and others which I shall assign when
treating of grub in the head, I conclude that the popular opinion is erro-
neous.

THE RDT.— The existence and prevalence of the Rot in the United
States have been sufficiently alluded to in Letter XIV. Notwithstanding
its comparative rareness here, so far as is known, at present, I think it
expedient to give a full description of it. It may be more prevalent
hereafter, or it may be found peculiar to localities where sheep have not
yet been introduced. And whether so or not, as its existence will often
be feared and suspected in diseased flocks, it is proper that the flock-
master always have it in his power to clearly identify this terrible des-
troyer.

The diagnosis of the disease is thus given by Mr. Spoon er.*

" The first symptoms attending this disease are by no means strongly marked ; there is
no loss of condition, but rather apparently the contrary ; indeed, sheep intended for the
butcher have been purposely colhed or rotted in order to increase their fattening propertiea
for a few weeks, a practice which was adopted by the celebrated Bakewell. A want of
liveliness and paleness of the membranes generally may be considered as the first symptoms
of the disease, to which may be added a yellowness of the caruncle at the corner of the
eye. Dr. Harrison observes, ' when in warm, sultry or rainy weather, sheep that are grazing
on low and moist lands feed rapidly, and some of them die suddenly, there is fear that they
have contracted the rot.' This suspicion will be farther increased if, a few weeks afterward,
the sheep begin to shrink and become flaccid about the loins. By pressure about the hips at
this time a crackling is perceptible now or soon afterward, the countenance looks pale, and
upon parting the fleece the skin is found to have changed its vermilion tint for a pale red,
and the wool is easily separated from the pelt; and as the disorder advances the skin be-
comes dappled with yellow or black spots. To these symptoms succeed increased dullness,
loss of condition, greater paleness of the mucous membranes, the eyelids becoming almost
white and afterward yellow. This yellowness extends to other parts of the body, and a
watery fluid appears tinder the skin, which becomes loose and flabby, the wool coming off
readily. The' symptoms of dropsy often extend over the body, and sometimes the sheep
becomes checkered, as it is termed — a large swelling forms under the jaw, which, from the
appearances of the fluid it contains, is in some places called the watery poke. The duration
of the disease is uncertain ; the animal occasionally dies shortly after becoming affected, but
more frequently it extends to from -three to six months, the sheep gradually losing flesh and
pining away, particularly if, as is frequently the case, an obstinate purging supervenes."

Mr. Youatt thus describes the post-mortem appearances : t

" When a rotted sheep is examined after death, the whole cellular tissue is found to be
mfiltrated, and a yellow serous fluid everywhere follows the knife. The muscles are soft
and flabby : they have the appearance of being macerated. The kidneys are pale, flaccid,
and infiltrated. . The mesenteric glands enlarged, and engorged with yellow serous fluid.
The belly is frequently filled with water or purulent matter; the peritoneum is everywhere
thickened, and the bowels adhere together by means of an unnatural growth. The heart
is enlarged and softened, and the lungs are filled with tubercles. The principal alterations
of structure .are in the liver. It is pale, livid, and broken down with the slightest pressure ;
and on being boiled it will almost dissolve away. When the liver is not pale, it is often
curiously spotted. In some cases it is speckled like the back of a toad. Nevertheless, some
parts of it are hard and schirrous ; others are ulcerated, and the biliary ducts are filled with
flukes. Here is the decided seat of disease, and it is here that the nature of the malady is
to be learned. It is inflammation of the liver. . . . The liver attracts the principal alien-
tion of the examiner : it displays the evident effects of acute and destructive inflammation ;
and still more plainly the ravages of the parasite with which its ducts are crowded. Here
is plainly the original seat of the disease — the center whence a destructive influence spreads
on every side. . . . The Fluke — the Fasciola of Linnajus — the Distoma hepaticum ut
Rhodolphi — the Planaria of Goese — is found in the biliary ducts of the sheep, the goat, the
deer, the ox, the horse, the ass, the hog, the dog, the rabbit, the guinea-pig, and various
other animals, and even in the human being. It is from three quarters of an inch n an inch
and a quarter in length, and from one-third to half an inch in greatest breadth.

* Spooner, p. 391, et supra.
t Youatt, p. 447, et supra.

248 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

Figs. 56 and 58 represent this parasite of its usual size and appearance, and its resem-
blance to a minute sole, divested of its fins, is very striking. The head is of a pointed
form, round above and flat beuftath ; and the mouth opens laterally instead of vertically.

Fig. 56. Fig. 57. Fig. 68.

Fig. 59.

THE FLUKE.

There are no barbs or tentaculso, as described by some authors. The eyes are placed on th«
most prominent part of the head, and are very singularly constructed (fig. 57). They have
the bony ring of the bird. . . . The anastomoses of the blood-vessels which ramify over
the head are plainly seen through a tolerable microscope. The circulating and digestive
organs are also evident, and are seated almost immediately below the head. The situation
of the heart is seen in fig. 56, and the two main vessels evidently springing from it, and
extending through almost the whole length of the fluke. Smaller blood-vessels, if so they
may be called, ramify from them on either side. The convolutions of the bowels appear in
fig. 59, and the vent, both for the faeces and the ova, and probably for the connection be-
tween the sexes, is on the under part, and almost close to the neck

In the belly, if so it may be called, are almost invariably a very great number of oval
particles, hundreds of which, taken together, are not equal in bulk to a grain of sand. They
are of a pale red color, and are supposed to be the spawn or eggs of the parasite

There can be no doubt that the eggs are frequently received in the food. Having been
discharged with the dung, they remain on the grass or damp spot on which they may fall,
retaining their vital principle for an indefinite period of time. . . . They find not always, or
they find not at all, a proper nidus in the places in which they are deposited ; but taken up
with the food, escaping the perils of rumination, and threading every vessel and duct until
they arrive at the biliary canal, they burst from their shells, and grow, and probably multi-
ply

Leeuwenhoek says that he has taken 870 flukes out of one liver, exclusive of those
that were cut to pieces or destroyed in opening the various ducts. In other cases, and
where the sheep have died of the rot, there were not found more than ten or twelve. . . .

Then, is the fluke worm the cause or the effect of rot ? To a certain degree both. They
aggravate the disease ; they perpetuate a state of irritability and disorganization, which

must necessarily undermine the strength of any animal Notwithstanding all thi&,

however, if the fluke follow the analogy of other entoza and parasites, it is the effect and
not the cause of rot

The rot in sheep is evidently connected with the soil or state of the pasture. It is con-
fined to wet seasons, or to the feeding on ground moist and marshy at all seasons. It ha»
reference to the evaporation of water, and to the presence and decomposition of moist vege-
table matter. It is rarely or almost never seen on dry or sandy soils and in dry seasons ;
it is rarely wanting on boggy or poachy ground, except when that ground is dried by the
heat of the summer's eun, or completely covered by the winter's rain. On the same farm
there are certain fields on which no sheep can be turned with impunity. There are other*
that seldom or never give the rot. The soil of the first is found to be of a pervious nature,
on which wet cannot long remain — the second takes a long time to dry, or is rarely or
never so

Some seasons are far more favorable to the development of the rot than others, and there
u> no manner of doubt as to the character of those seasons. After a rainy summer or a
moist autumn, or during a wet winter, the rot destroys like a pestilence. A return and a
continuance of dry weather materially arrests its murderous progress. Most of the sheep

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 249

that had been already infected die ; but the number of those that are lost soon begins to b«
materially diminished. It is, therefore sufficiently plain that the rot depends upon, or is
caused by, the existence of moisture. A rainy season and a tenacious soil are fruitful or
inevitable sources of it The mischief is effected with almost incredible rapidity."

Mr. Youatt here gives various instances to prove that rot is engendered
in a few hours and even minutes. * He farther says :

" It is an old observation that all pasture that is suspected to be unsound, the sheep should
be folded early in the evening, before the first dews begin to fall, and should not be released
from the fold until the dew is partly evaporated

Then the mode of prevention— that with which the farmer will have most to do, for the
sheep having become once decidedly rotten, neither medicine nor management will havn
much power in arresting the evil — consists in altering the character of as much of the dan
gerous ground as he can, and keeping his sheep from those pastures which defy all hia

attempts to improve them If all unnecessary moisture is removed from the soil, or

if the access of air is cut off by the flooding of the pasture, no poisonous gas has existence,

and the sheep continue sound

. The account of the treatment of rot must, to a considerable extent, be very unsatis-
factory. "

Mr. Youatt proceeds to recommend the sale of sheep to the butcfiw
when they are found to be rotted ! Rot hastens for a short period the
accumulation of fat. Bakewell — a man whose name is associated with
the exhibition of prodigious abilities in the improvement of stock, but, in
my mind tarnished also by an equal exhibition of selfishness and absolute
meanness — displayed a characteristic sagacity in purposely rotting his
sheep to avail himself of the above circumstance ! t It is with pain f
make the following quotation from Youatt — the only thing of such a char-
acter I remember to have noticed in his voluminous works :

• It is one of the characters of the rot to hasten, and that to a strange degree, the accu-
mulation of flesh and fat. Let not the farmer, however, push this experiment too far. I.ol
him carefully overlook every sheep daily, and dispose of those which cease to make pro
press, or which seem beginning to retrograde. It has already been stated that the meat of
the rotted sheep, in the early stage of the disease, is not like thai of the sound one; it is
pale and not so firm; but it is not un wholesome (!) and it is coveted by certain epicures,
«ofa, perhaps, are not altogether aware of the real state of the animal (! !) All this ie
matter of calculation, and must be left to the owner of the sheep ; except that, if the breed
is not of very considerable value, and the disease has not proceeded to emaciation or other
fearful symptoms, the first loss will probably be the least ; and if the owner can get any-
thing like a tolerable price for them, the sooner they are sent to the butcher, or consumed
at home, the better. Supposing, however, that their appearance is beginning to tell tale*
about them, and they are too far gone to be disposed of in the market or consumed at home,
are they to be abandoned to their fate ? No : far from it. "

Conceding to Mr. Youatt the whole benefit of that .saving clause ab.mi
" consumption at home," the above sentence is one which I could well
wish stricken from his valuable work. The sale of the meat of diseased
animals, for human consumption, is abhorrent to decency and propriety,
and there is not a respectable American family which would not revolt at
the idea of either selling or consuming such meat.

Of the treatment of rot, Mr. Youatt continues :

" If it is suited to the convenience of the farmer, and such ground were at all within his
roach, the sheep should be sent to a salt-marsh in preference to the best pasture on the best
farm. There it will feed on the salt incrusted on the herbage, and pervading the pores of
every blade of grass. A healthy salt-marsh permits not the sheep to become rotten which
graze upon it ; and if the disease is not considerably advanced, it cures those which are sent
upon it with the rot. . . . Are there any indications of fever — heated mouth, heaving
flanks, or failing appetite ? Is the general inflammation beginning to have a determination
to that part on which the disease usually expends its chiefest virulence ? Is there yellow

* Youatt, p. 453.

t So e»y both Spooner and YouaSL

250 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

ness of the lips and of the mouth, of the eyes, and of the skin ? At the same tine, a1"*
there no indications of weakness and decay ? Nothing to show that the constitution is
latally undermined ? Bleed — abstract, according to the circumstances of the case, eight,
ten, or twelve ounces of blood. There is no disease of au inflammatory character at its
commencement which is not benefited by early bleeding. To this let a dose of physic
succeed — two or three ounces of Epsom salts, administered in the cautious manner so fre-
quently recommended ; and to these means let a change of diet be immediately added —
good hay in the field, and hay, straw, or chaff, in the straw-yard.

The physic having operated, or an additional dose, perchance, having been administered
in order to quicken the action of the first, the farmer will look out for farther means and

appliances Two or three grains of calomel may be given daily, but mixed with

talf the quantity of opium, in order to secure its beneficial, and ward off its injurious effects
on the ruminant. To this should be added — a simple and cheap medicine, but that which

is the sheet-anchor of the practitioner here — common salt In the first place, it i» a

purgative inferior to few, when given in a full dose ; and it is a tonic as well as a purgative.
... A mild tonic, as well as an aperient, is plainly indicated soon after the commencement
of rot. The doses should be from two to three drachms, repeated morning and night. When
the inflammatory stage is clearly passed, stronger tonics may be added to the salt, and there
are none superior to the gentian and ginger roots ; from one to two drachms of each, finely
powdered, may be added to each dose of the salt. .... The sheep having a little recov
ered from the disease, should still continue on the best and driest pasture on the farm, and
should always have salt within their reach The rot is not infectious."

DIARRHEA. — This disease is often more properly a nervous than a febrile
one — in the former case, a morbid increase of the peristaltic motion of the
bowels — in the latter, an inflammation of the mucous coat of the smallex
intestines. But for the purpose of viewing it in connection with dysen-
tery, to which it is sometimes closely allied, and into which it often runs
— and which is clearly a febrile disease — it will be described here.

Conimon diarrhea, purging, or scours, manifests itself simply by tho
copiousness and fluidity of the alvine evacuations. It is brought on by a
sudden change from dry feed to green, or by the introduction of im-
proper substances into the stomach. It is important to clearly distinguish
this disease from dysentery. In diarrhea there is no apparent general
fever ; the appetite remains good ; the stools are thin and watery, but
unaccompanied with slime (mucus) and blood ; the odor of the fasces is
far less offensive than in dysentery ; the general condition of the animal is
but little changed.

Treatment. — Confinement to dry food for a day or two, and a gradual re-
turn to it, oftentimes suffice. I have rarely administered anything to grown
sheep, and never have lost one from this disease. To lambs, especially if
attacked in the fall, the disease is more serious. If the purging is severe,
and especially if any mucus is observed with the faeces, the feculent mat-
ter should be removed from the bowels by a gentle cathartic — as half a
drachm of rhubarb, or an ounce of linseed-oil, or half an ounce of Epsom
salts to a lamb. This should always be followed by an astringent, and in
nine cases out of ten, the latter will serve in the first instance. I gener-
ally administer, say, J oz. of prepared chalk in half a pint of tepid milk,
once a day for two or three days, at the end of which, and frequently after
the first dose, the purging will have ordinarily abated or entirely ceased.

The following is the formula of the English " sheep's cordial " usually
prescribed in cases of diarrhea by the English veterinarians, and there can
be no doubt it is a safe and excellent remedy — better probably than sim-
ple chalk and milk, in severe cases : Take of prepared chalk one ounce,
powdered catechu half an ounce, powdered ginger two drachms, and pow-
dered opium half a drachm ; mix them with half a pint of peppermint wa-
ter— give two or three table-spoonsfull morning and night to a grown
thaep, and half that quantity to a lamb

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 251

DYSENTERY. — Dysentery is caused by an inflammation of the mucous 01
inner coat of the larger intestines, causing a preternatural increase in their
secretions, arid a morbid alteration in the character of those secretions. It
is frequently consequent on that form of diarrhea which is caused by an
inflammation of the mucous coat of the smaller intestines. The inflam-
mation extends throughout the whole alimentary canal, increases in viru-
lence, and it becomes dysentery — a disease frequently dangerous and ob-
stinate in its character, but fortunately not common among sheep in this
part of the United States. Its diagnosis differs from that of diarrhea in
several readily observed particulars. There is evident fever ; the appe-
tite is capricious, ordinarily very feeble ; the stools are as thin or even thin-
ner than in diarrhea, but much more adhesive in consequence of the pres-
ence of large quantities of mucus. As the erosion of the intestines ad-
vances, the faeces are tinged with blood ; their odor is intolerably offensive ;
and the animal rapidly wastes away. The .course of the disease extends
from a few days to several weeks.

Treatment. — I have seen but a few well-defined cases of dysentery,
and in the half-dozen instances which have occurred in my own flock,
T have usually administered a couple of purges of linseed-oil, followed by
chalk and milk as in diarrhea (only doubling the dose of chalk), and a few
drops of laudanum, say twenty or thirty — with ginger and gentian. Ac-
cording to my recollection, about one-third of the cases have proved fatal,
but they have usually been old and feeble sheep.

Farther inquiry satisfies me that moderate bleeding should be resorted
to in the first or inflammatory stage of the disease, or whenever decided
febrile symptoms are found to be present.

Mr. Youatt prescribes bleeding, cathartics, mashes, gruel, &c. He
says :

" Two doses of physic having been administered, the practitioner will probably have re-
course to astringents. The sheep's cordial will probably supply him with the best ; and to
this, tonics may soon begin to be added — an additional quantity of ginger may enter into the
composition of the cordial, and gentian powder will be a useful auxiliary. With this — as
an excellent stimulus to cause the sphincter of the anus to contract, and also the mouths of
the innumerable secretory and exhalent vessels which open on the inner surface of the in-
testine— a half grain of strychnine may be combined Smaller doses should be given

for three or four days."

GARGET — Is an inflammation of the udder, with or without gene-
ral inflammation. Where simply an inflammation of the udder, it is usual-
ly caused by a too great accumulation of milk in the latter prior to lamb-
ing, or in consequence of the death of the lamb. It is not the serious mala-
dy, here, described by the English veterinarians.

Treatment. — Drawing the milk partly from the bag so that the hungry
lamb will butt and work at it an unusual time in pursuit of its food, arid
bathing it a few times in cold* water, usually suffices. If the lamb is dead,
the milk should be drawn a few times, at increasing intervals, washing the
udder for some time in cold water at each milking. In cases of obdurate
induration, the udder should be anointed with iodine ointment. If there
is general fever in the system, an ounce of Epsom salts may be given.

NEK-VOUS DISEASES.

APOPLEXY. — Soon after the sheep are turned to grass in the spring, one of
3lie best conditioned sheep in the flock is sometimes suddenly found dead.

• The English veterinarians recommended worn fomentations.

252 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

The symptoms which precede the catastrophe are occasionally noted
The sheep leaps frantically into the air two or three times, dashes itself
on tiie ground and suddenly rises, arid dies in a few moments. Such
cases occur but now and then, and none have ever occurred in my flock
to my knowledge. I have therefore had no opportunity of observing the
diagnosis, or making dissections. There can be little doubt, however,
that the disease is apoplexy.

Desirous to raise the condition of a poorisli flock (the poorest sheep
culled from my other flocks) somewhat too rapidly, perhaps, some winters
since, in addition to good hay three times a day, I ordered them fed a gill
of oats per head ; and as rapidly as it could be done without bringing on
scours, I had them fed a liberal allowance of Swedish turnips — about as
much as they would eat up clean. They gained perceptibly. One day a
sheep was reported to me as having become suddenly blind and motion-
less. I immediately examined it. It was in good fair condition. It stood
with its head a little down — its eyes were glassy and staring — it was stone
blind ! The evening before nothing unusual had been perceived about it.
I bled it at the inner angle of each eye, and the blood had scarcely started
before its sight began to return. In less than a minute it walked off
among its companions. It had no relapse. Another case was soon re-
ported; I treated it in the same way, and with the same apparent effect.
The symptoms soon returned, however, and I bled again. This appeared
to produce but a partial restoration of the sight. The sheep would not
follow its companions into and out of the sheep-house. When approach-
ed, it would run about knocking its head against fences, &c. It lost con-
dition, finally became unable to rise, and died. Another one, after being
bled, fed regularly, but its sight was never restored. It lived along thus
for three or four weeks, and then fell into a hole containing water, and
perished. Another apparently recovered, all but sight, and continued in
my flock for more than a year afterward. The eye was bright and clear,
as in gutta serena, and the blindness would not be suspected, unless the
sheep was cornered up. Then, if the catchers remained momentarily
still, it would as soon run into their arms or against the fence, as in any
other direction. Perhaps fifteen cases occurred. In three or four instan-
ces the blind sheep, when they moved, constantly traveled round in a
circle. In about as many cases, they twisted themselves about without
progressing, the head was drawn round toward one side, they fell, ground
their teeth, and their mouths were covered with a frothy mucus. In
neither of the latter description of cases did bleeding at the inner angles
of tne *yes afford anything more than temporary relief. They all proved
fatal.

At the time these things occurred, I regret to say that I had paid but
very little attention to veterinary science, and had never made a dissec-
tion. I did nothing but bleed at the inner angles of the eyes, and mado
no post-mortem examinations.

Taking into consideration the feed and the symptoms, there can be but
little doubt, I think, that all these cases were referable to a determination
of Hood to the brain. The sheep were not fat, but the secretions of
blood were rapidly and powerfully increased by rich and abundant food.

Treatment. — If the eyes are prominent and fixed, the membranes of the
mouth and nose highly florid, the nostrils highly dilated, and the respira-
tion labored and stertorous, the veins of the head turgid, the pulse strong
and rather slow, and these symptoms attended by a partial or entire IOSH
of sight and hearing, it is one of those decided cases of apoplexy which
require immediate and decided treatment. As the good effects of vene-

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 253

Bection, in all cases, and especially in this, depend not only upon the amourii
of blood abstracted, but also upon the rapidity with which it is drawr
from the veins, the eye-veins are not the proper ones to op^n. They are
so small that the blood flows slowly, and if cut directly across, as is usually
done, they soon contract, and the flow of blood is arrested before a suffi-
cient quantity has been abstracted. It is better to have recourse at onco
to the jugular vein. The animal should be bled until an obvious constitu
tional effect is produced — the pulse lowered and the rigidity of the muscles
relaxed. An aperient should at once follow bleeding, and if the animal is
strong and plethoric, a sheep of the size of the Merino would require at
least two ounces of Epsom salts, and one of the large mutton sheep more.
tf this should fail to open the bowels, half an ounce of the salts should bs
DC given, say, twice a day.

In the milder cases which I have mentioned as occurring in my own
fiock, I think had I bled more thoroughly, in the very first attack, and
given a mild aperient of Epsom salts, most of the sheep would have re-
covered.

PHRENITIS, TETANUS, EPILEPSY, PALSY, RABIES. — I never have seen a
well-defined case of either of these maladies among our sheep, though,
in a few instances, something which struck me at the time as somewhat
analogous to paralysis or palsy. Palsy is a diminution or entire loss of
the powers of motion in some part of the body. I have occasionally
seen, in the winter, poor lambs, or poor pregnant ewes, or poor feeble
ewes immediately after yeaning in the spring, lose the power of walking
or standing rather too suddenly to have it satisfactorily referable to in-
creasing debility. The animal seems to have lost all strength in its loins,
and the hind-quarters are powerless. It makes ineffectual attempts to
rise, and cannot stand if placed upon its feet.

Treatment. — Warmth, gentle stimulants, and good nursing, might raise
the patient, but in nineteen cases out of twenty it would be more econo-
mical and equally humane, to at once deprive it of life.

COLIC. — Sheep are occasionally seen, particularly in the winter, lying
clown and rising every moment or two, and constantly stretching their fore
and hind legs so far apart that their bellies almost touch the ground.
They appear to be in much pain, refuse all food, and not unfrequently
die, unless relieved. This disease is popularly known as the " stretches"
and is erroneously attributed to int.rosusception of an intestine. Some
farmers worry the sheep with a dog, and others hold it up by the hind
re i I consider it a sort of flatulent colic induced by

to effect a cure ! I consider it a sort of flatulent colic induced by
costiveness.

Treatment. — ftalf an ounce of Epsom Falts, a drachm of ginger, and
sixty drops of essence of peppermint. The salts alone, however, will
effect the cure, as will an equivalent dose of linseed-oil, or even hog's lard.

254 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

LETTER XVI.

DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT— (Continued )

Cachectic Diseases... Hydatid on the Brain — diagnosis — common methods of treating it — treatment of
French and English veterinarians... The Pelt Hot. ..Local diseases... Grub in the head— the nature at
the disease, if one — erroneous popular opinions — location of the grub — description of the fly (CEstrua
ovis) — method of attacking the sheep— conduct of the sheep — appearance of the larva — its habits — the
chrysalis— the larva found in the heads of healthy sheep — not believed to be the cause or source of fatal
disease — Mr. Bracy Clark's and Mr. Youatt's opinion — method of preventing and of expelling the grub...
Scab — nature of it — habits of the acari — description of them— contagiousness of the disease— post-mor-
tem appearances — treatment... Erysipelatous scab — treatment. ..Disease of Biflex Canal — nature and
treatment. ..Hoof-ail — first indications— erroneous statements of foreign veterinarians — of Mr. Youatt—
author's experience with it— diagnosis — chronic hoof-ail—can it be cured ? — difficulties — preparation of
the foot — ordinary treatment — proper treatment — cost of curing a flock — cheap partial remedies — sug-
gestions—contagiousness of the disease — how communicated... Fouls— cause and treatment... Broncho-
cele or goitre— diagnosis— treatment... Miscellaneous diseases... Poison from eating Laurel — symptoms-
treatment... fiore Face — cause and treatment... Loss of cud — not a disease... Hoove — cause — symptoms-
cure... Obstruction of Gullet, or choking — treatment... Fractures — treatment, &c... Method of adminis-
tering medicine into the stomach... Method of bleeding... The place of feeling the pulse... List of medi-
cines employed in treating the diseases of Eheep... Ale. ..Aloes.. .Alum. ..Antimony. ..Arsenic. ..Blue
Vitriol.. .Camphor... .Carraway seeds... .Catechu.. . .Chalk. . .Corrosive Sublimate. . .Digitalis. . .Epsom
Salta... Gentian. ..Ginger. ..Iodine. ..Lard. ..Lime, carbonate of.. .Lime, chloride of.... Linseed Oil...
Mercury... Muriatic Acid... Nitrate of Potash... Nitrate of Silver... Nitric Acid. ..Opium... Pepper. ..

Pimento. ..Rhubarb. ..Salt. ..Sulphate of Iron... Sulphur.... Sulphuric Acid.... Spirit of Tar Tar...

Tobacco. . . Turpentine . . .Verdigris . . . Zinc.

CACHECTIC DISEASES.

HYDATID ON THE BRAIN. — This disease, known as turnsick, sturdy,
staggers, etc., is spoken of by Chancellor Livingston, and other writers
of reputation, as having occurred in this country within their own obser-
vation. 1 have never seen a case of it, and shall be obliged, therefore, to
make use of the descriptions of others. Mr. Spooner says :

" The .symptoms are a dull, moping appearance, the sheep separating from the flock, a
wandering and blue appearance to the eje, and sometimes partial or total blindness ; tho
sheep appears unsteady in its walk, will sometimes stop suddenly and fall down, at others
gallop across the field, and after the disease has existed for some time will almost constantly
move round in a circle — there seems, indeed, to be an aberration of the intellect of the
nnimal. These symptoms, though rarely all present iu the same subject, are yet sufficiently
marked to prevent the disease being mistaken for any other. On examining the brain of
sturdied sheep, we find what appears to be a watery bladder, termed a hydatid, which may
be either small or of the size of a hen's egg. This hydatid, one of the class of entozoSns
has been termed by naturalists the hydatis polycephalus cerebralis, which signifies the
many-headed hydatid of the brain ; these heads being irregularly distributed on the sur-
face of the bladder, and on the front part of each head there is a mouth surrounded by
minute sharp hooks within a ring of sucking disks. These disks serve as the means of
attachment by forming a vacuum, and bring the mouth in contact with the surface, and thus
by the aid of the hooks the parasite is nourished. The coats of the hydatid are disposed
in several layers, one of which appears to possess a muscular power. These facts are
developed by the microscope, which also discovers numerous little bodies adhering to the
internal membrane. The fluid in the bladder is usually clear, but occasionally turbid, and
Ihen it has been found to contain a number of minute worms. "

According to Mr. Youatt, this disease attacks many of the weakly
lambs in the English flocks. It usually appears, he remarks, " during
the first year of the animal's life, and when he is about or under sis
months old." It succeeds a " a severe winter and a cold, wet spring."—
He says :

" If there is only one parasite inhabiting the brain of a sturdied sheep, its situation is very
uncertain. It is mostly found beneath the pia-mater, lying upon the brain, and in or upon
the scissure betwewn the two hemispheres. If it is within the brain, it is generally in one
of the ventricles, but occasionally iu the substance of the brain, and, in a few instances, in
&af of the cerebellum ....

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 255

This is a singular disease ; but it is a sadly prevalent and fatal one in wet and moorish

districts It is much more fatal in France than in Great Britain. It is supposed

that nearly a million of sheep are destroyed in France every year by this pest of the ovin*
race. . . . '.

The means of cure are exceedingly limited. They are confined to the removal or de<»
truction of the vesicle. Medicine is altogether out of the question here."

Many barbarous methods have been adopted to rupture the hydatid,
which I will not disgust you by repeating. Mr. James Hogg thrust a
wire up the nostrils of the sheep, and through the plate of the ethmoid
bone into the brain, and thus, as he assures us, punctured the hydatid and
"cured many a sheep !"* This practice, which I cannot characterize
otherwise than as atrocious, is justly condemned by Mr. Youatt. The
dotted lines d, e, and d, d, in fig. 49, show how limited a portion of the
brain could be reached with a wire or trochar by piercing the plate of the
ethmoid bone — the only portion of the walls of the skull thin enough to
be so pierced by a trochar introduced at the nostrils.

Mr. Parkinson " pulled the ears very hard for some time," and then cut
them off close to the head ! t

Where the hydatid is not imbedded in the brain, its constant pressure,
singularly enough, causes a portion of the cranium to be absorbed, and
finally the part immediately over the hydatid becomes thin and soft
enough to yield under the pressure of the finger. When such a spot is
discovered, the English veterinarians usually dissect back the muscular
integuments, remove 'a portion of the bone, carefully divide the investing
membranes of the brain, and then, if possible, remove the hydatid whole
— or, failing to do this, remove its fluid contents. The membranes and
integuments "are then restored to their position, and an adhesive plaster1
placed over the whole. The French veterinarians usually simply punc-
ture the cranium and the cist with a trochar, and laying the sheep on its
back, permit the fluid to run out through the orifice thus made. A com-
mon awl would answer every purpose for such a puncture. The puncture
would be the preferable method for the unskilled practitioner. But when
we take into consideration the hazard and cruelty attending the operation
at best, and the conceded liability of a return of the malady — the growth
of new hydatids — it becomes apparent that, in this country, it would not
be worth while, unless in the case of uncommonly valuable sheep, to resort
to any other remedy than depriving the miserable animal of life.

PELT ROT — Is classified as a disease by Mr. Livingston, and various
other American writers. Mr. Livingston says :

" This is often mistaken for the scab, but it is in fact a different and less dangerout
disease ; in this the wool will fall off, and leave the sheep nearly naked ; but it is attended
with no soreness, though a white crust will cover the skin from the wool which has
dropped. It generally arises from hard keeping and much exposure to cold and wet. ard,
in Fact, the animal often dies in severe weather from the cold it suffers by the loss of its
coat. The remedy is full feeding, and a warm stall, and anointing the hard part of the skin
with tar, oil, and butter," t

I have seen frequent cases of the pelt rot, but never have done any
thing for it, scarcely considering it a disease. If the condition of a poor
sheep is raised as suddenly as practicable, by generous keep in the winter,
the wool is very apt to drop off, and if yet cold, the sheep will require
warm shelter.

* Hogg on Sheep, p. 59.

1 Parkuuson on Sheep, vol. 1, p. 412.

I Livingston on Sheep, Appendix, p. 179.

256 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

LOCAL DISEASES.

•* GRUB IN THE HEAD." — If the " grubs " found in the frontal and max-
illary sinuses of the sheep actually, in any case, produce disease, it must be,
in my judgment, by the irritation and inflammation which they induce in
the mucous membrane which lines those cavities. The popular theory
that the grub causes death by boring through the bony walls which sur-
round the brain, and attacking the substance of the brain itself, is, it seems
to me, utterly absurd. The only part of the skull where it could even be
fancied that such a perforation would be practicable, is the cribriform plate
of the ethmoid bone (11 of fig. 49,) which is very thin and is pierced with
numerous small holes for the passage of nerves. But an inspection of the
same figure will show that the sinus where the parasite is generally found
lodged, is not in immediate juxtaposition with the cribriform plate, and
that a passage from the former to the brain, would lead directly through
the frontal bono — the thickest one of the whole cranium. I never saw but
one grub in the cells of the ethmoid bone near the cribriform plate, and
that, I judged at the time, was thrown there accidentally by the violence
attending the opening of the head.* But if the grub actually penetrates
to the brain, the fact would readily be disclosed after death. The full-
grown grub would necessarily leave an orifice of considerable diameter
through the skull. Who has seen any such orifice in the cribriform plate
or elsewhere 1 Who has seen any orifice but the natural ones of the crib-
riform plate, filled with the nerves which pass through them ? The farmer
splits open the head of a sheep with an ax, cutting, mangling and scatter-
ing its contents, by the repeated blows necessary to effect his purpose. —
Under such circumstances grubs are sometimes found scattered through
all the nasal cavities— over and among the brains — and on the ground.—*
The proof is just as strong, here, that prior to opening the head, some of
the grubs were on the ground, as that they were in the brain !

The " grub " of popular parlance is the larva of the (Estrus ovis, or gad-fly
of the sheep. The latter is represented of the nat-
ural size in figures 60 and 61. It is composed of
five rings. It is tiger-colored on the back and
belly, sprinkled with spots and patches of 'brown.
The wings are striped. The comparative propor-
tions of the head, corslet, wings, etc. are sufficient-
ly seen in the cuts. He who desires a full, scien-
tific description of these insects, or who would SHEEP GAD-FLY.
fully investigate their habits and economy, will do

well to consult the excellent monograph of them by Mr. Bracy ClarK
the celebrated veterinarian.

The sheep gad-fly is led by instinct to deposit its eggs within the nos
trils of the sheep. Its attempts to do this, most common in July and Au-
gust, are always indicated by the sheep, which collect in close clumps
with their heads inward and their noses thrust close to the ground, and in-.
to it, if any loose dirt or sand is within their reach. If the fly succeeds in
depositing its egg, it is immediately hatched by the warmth and moisture
of the part, and the young grubs, or larvae, crawl up the nose, finding their
devious way to the sinuses, where, by means of their tentaculse, they at-
tach themselves to the mucous membrane lining those cavities. During
the ascent of the larvae, the sheep stamps, tosses its head violently, and ofr
ten dashes away from its companions wildly over the field. The larvae re-

* The head was cloven with an ax ! It is proper to pay, however, that various writers epeak of having
fenukl the grubs in the ethmoid cells, and indeed in all the nasal cavitiea.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

257

main in the sinuses feeding on the mucus secreted by the membrane, and
apparently creating no farther annoyance, until ready to assume their pu-
pa form in the succeeding spring. Figures 62 and 63 give the shape an^
an upper and under view of the full-grown larva.

Fig. 62.

Fig. C3.

THE "GRUB" OR LARVA OF THE SHKEP GAD-FLY.

The body consists of eleven rings, colorless in the young grub, but tne
elevated portions growing darker with age, and becoming a dark brown
when the full size is attained. There are round spots of a still darker
color on each of these bands. At the edges of the rings are a few short
hairs, and lower down some round darkish spots, as shown in fig. 62. —
Small red spines, as shown in fig. 63, cover the space between the rings
on the belly. The remainder of the body (with the exception of the poste-
rior stigmata.) is white. The tentaculae, as well as certain appendages on
each side of the anus, the purposes of which have not been discovered, are
seen in fig. 63.

The larva having remained in the sinuses through the fall arid winter,
abandons them as the warm weather advances in the latter part of spring.
It crawls down the nose, creating even greater irritation and excitement
than when it originally ascended, drops on the ground, and rapidly bur-
rows into it. In a few hours its skin has contracted, become of a dark
brown color, and it has assumed the form of a chrysalis, as seen in fig. 64.
Or rather, this figure exhibits the shell of the chrysalis, af-
ter the escape of the fly ; and fig. 65 shows the upper ex- Fig'-4'
tremity or head of the pupa, detached by the fly in its es-
cape.

The experiments of Valisnieri go to show that the CEs-
trus ovis never eats — :and this is the received opinion. —
The male, after impregnating two or three females, dies,
and the latter having deposited their ova in the nostrils
of the sheep, also soon perish.

The larva in the heads of sheep may, and probably do
add to the irritation of those inflammatory diseases, such as catarrh, which
attack the membraneous lining of the nasal cavities ; and they are, as we
have seen, a powerful source of momentary irritation in the first instance,
when ascending to and descending from their lodging-place in the head.
But in the interval between these events — extending over a period of
several months — not a movement of the sheep indicates the least annoy-
ance at their presence, or reveals to the veterinarian whether they exist in
the sinuses or not. It would be very difficult to believe that all the local
irritation which these parasites could cause, would be sufficient to termi-
nate life, and, so far as my observation has extended, post-mortem exam-
ination discloses no lesions which would in anywise sanction such belief.
The larvse, moreover, are found, at the proper season, in the heads of near-
ly all sheep — the healthy as well as the diseased — and I never have been
able to ascertain that the number of them is greater, on the average, in the
heads of those sheep which were supposed to have fallen victims to their
attacks, than in the hea'ds of perfectly healthy sheep slaughtered for the
table. And to prove that the popular ideas on the subject are but vague

2K

SHELL
OF CHRYSALIS.

•258 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

and crude — not the result of that long and close comparison of symptoms,
results, and post-mortem appearances, which would give weight to the
opinions of the most unerudite — we have but to notice a few of the cases
popularly referred to the " grub in the head." A sheep in the highest
condition and apparent health leaps into the air two or three times, and
suddenly dies, and if a grub can be found in the cavities of the head, that
is the undoubted destroyer. Another wastes away for months and dies
lingeringly, a mere skeleton, and 'the same proof establishes the same fact.
Whether there has been fever or no fever — whether there has been obsti-
nate constipation, or equally obstinate dysentery — whether one viscus or
another exhibit traces of abnormal action — whether the disease has been
acute or chronic — in a word, whatever the form or character of the mal-
ady— however diametrically different the diagnosis and the lesions, it is a
clear case of 4t grub in the head," if two or three of those parasites are
found there !

Mr. Bracy Clark and Mr. Youatt, so far from regarding the larva of the
(Estrus ovis as the cause of a fatal disease, suggest that they may even
promote the health of the sheep by diminishing the tendency to cerebral
disease — especially determinations of blood — by establishing counter irri-
tation ! Mr. Spooner does not speak of their producing fatal effects in
any instances, nor am I aware that any late scientific veterinarians do.

Treatment. — Though the presence of the grub constitutes no disease,
some think it well to diminish their number by all convenient means. —
One simple way of effecting this is by turning up with a plow a furrow of
earth in the sheep pasture. Into this the sheep will thrust their noses on
the approach of the (Estrus, and thus many of them escape its attacks. —
Some farmers smear the noses of their sheep with tar occasionally, during
the proper season — the odor of which is believed to repel the fly. Others
compel the sheep to smear their own noses every week or two, by feed-
ing them their salt sprinkled over tar. Blacklock says that the larvae may
be dislodged even from the sinuses, by blowing tobacco smoke for some
moments through the tail of a pipe into each nostril. I have never tried
the experiment.

THE SCAB. — The scab is a cutaneous disease, analogous to the mange
in horses and the itch in men. It is caused and propagated by a minute
insect, the acarus. M. Walz, a German veterinarian, who has thrown
great light on the habits of these parasites, says :

little swelling may be detected with the finger, and the skin changes its color, and has a
greenish blue tint. The pustule is now rapidly formed, and about the sixteenth day breaks,
and the mothers again appear, with their little ones attached to their feet, and covered by
a portion of the shell of the egg from which they have just escaped. These little ones im-
mediately set to work, and penetrate the neighboring skin, and bury themselves beneath it,
and find their proper nourishment, and grow and propagate, until the poor animal has myri-
ads of them to prey on him, and it is not wonderful that he should speedily sink. Some of
the male acari were placed on the sound skin of a sheep, and they too burrowed their way
and disappeared for a while, and the pustule in due time arose ; but the itching and the
scab soon disappeared without the employment of any remedy.

The figures on the next page are copied from M. Walz's work :
The female acarus brings forth from eight to fifteen young at a litter.
The scab is often produced spontaneously in England by mismanage-
ment of various Junds, such as " bad keep, starvation, hasty driving,
dogging, and exposure afterward Lo cold and wet ;" and it spreads rapidly

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 259

by contagion. It is very prevalent there, and annually causes an immense
loss in the wool and flesh of the British flocks. In the United States it is
comparatively little known, and so far as I am able to learn, never origin-
ates spontaneously. It is a singular fact that short-wooled sheep, like the

Fig. 66. Fig. 67. Fig. 68.

THE ACARUS WHICH CAUSES SCAB.

Fig. 67. — The acarl of their natural size on a dark ground.

Fig. 66.— The female of 366 times the natural size, larger than the male, of an oval form, and provide*
»Uh eight feet, four before and four behind.
a. — The sucker.

b. b. b. b. — The four anterior feet, with their trumpet-like appendices.

c. e. — The two interior hind feet.

d. d.— The two outward feet, the extremities of which are provided with some long hairs, and on thar
other parts of the legs are shorter hairs. To these hairs the young ones adhere, when they first escapee
from the pustule.

e. — The tail, containing the anus and vulva, garnished with some short hairs.

Fig. 68. — The male on ita back, and eeen by the same magnifying power.

a.— The sucker.

6. b. b. b. — The fore-legs with their trumpet-like appendices, as seen in the female.

e. c.— The two hind-legs, with the same appendices and hairs.
d. — The rudiments of the abdominal feet.

e.— The tail.

Merino, are much less subject to its attacks, and this is probably one
reason for its little comparative prevalence in the United States. Mr.;
Youatt observes :

" The old and unhealthy sheep are first attacked, and long-wooled sheep in preference to
the short ; a healthy short-wooled sheep will long bid defiance to the contagion, or probably
escape it altogether."

It spreads from individual to individual and from flock to flock, not only
by means of direct contact, but by the acari left on posts, stones, and other
substances against which diseased sheep have rubbeid themselves. Healthy
sheep are therefore liable to contract the malady if turned on pastures pre-
viously occupied by scabby sheep, though some considerable time may
have elapsed since the departure of the latter.

The sheep laboring under the scab is exceedingly restless. It rubs it-
self with violence against trees, stones, fences, &c. It scratches itself
with its feet, and bites its sores and tears off its wool with its teeth. A*
the pustules are broken, their matter escapes, and forms scabs covering'
red, inflamed sores. The sores constantly extend, increasing the misery
of the tortured animal. If unrelieved, he pines away and soon perishes.

I have never had an opportunity to observe the post-mortem appear*
ances. Mr. Youatt says :

" The post-mortem appearances are very uncertain and inconclusive. There is generally,
chronic inflammation of the intestines, with the presence of a great number of worms. The
liver is occas'.onally schirrous. and the spleen enlarged ; and there are frequently serous efib

260 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

«ions in the belly, and sometimes in the chest. There has bt en evident sympathy belweei
the digestive and the cutaneous systems."

Treatment. — About twelve years since, I purchased 150 fme-woolcd
sheep just driven into the county from a considerable distance. I placed
them on a farm then owned by me, in another town, and did not see them
for about three weeks. One of my men then reported to me that the sheep
were amiss — that they were shedding off their wool — sore spots were be-
ginning to show on them — and that they rubbed themselves against the
fence-corners, &c. Though I had never seen the scab, I took it for granted
that this was the disease. No time was to be lost, as I had 700 other
sheep on the farm — though fortunately, thus far, the new comers had been
kept entirely separate from them. Barely looking into Mr. Livingston's
work for a remedy, I provided myself with an ample supply of tobacco
and set out. The sheep had been shorn, and their backs were covered
with scabs and sores. They evidently had the scab. I had a large potash
Kettle sunk partly in the ground as an extempore vat, and an uriweighed
quantity of tobacco put to boiling in several other kettles. The only caro
was to have enough of the decoction, as it was rapidly wasted, and to have
it strong enough. A little spirits of turpentine was occasionally thrown on
the decoction, say to every third or fourth sheep dipped. It was neces-
sary to use it sparingly, as, not mixing with the fluid and floating on the
surface, too much of it otherwise came in contact with the sheep. Not at-
tending to this at first, two or tbree of the sheep are thrown into great ag-
ony, arid appeared to be on the point of dying. I had each sheep caught
and its scabs scoured off", by two men who rubbed them with stiff shoe-
brushes, dipped in a suds of .tobacco- water and soft soap. The two men
then dipped the sheep all over in the large kettle of tobacco- water, rub-
bing and kneading the sore spots with their hands while immersed in the
fluid. The decoction was so strong that many of the sheep appeared to be
sickened either by immersion or by its fumes ; and one of the men who
dipped, though a tobacco-chewer, vomited, and became so sick that his
.place had to be supplied by another.

The effect on the sheep was almost magical ! The sores rapidly healed,
the sheep gained in condition, the new wool immediately started, and i
never had a more perfectly healthy flock on my farm. Though adminr:
ttered with little reference to economy, the remedy was a decisive one. —
With a vat like fig. 27, (Letter XII,) this would not necessarily be a very
'expensive method, with sheep recently sheared. But the assaults of the
scab usually come on in the spring before shearing time, and it would re-
rquire an immense quantity of the tobacco decoction to dip sheep with their
'fleeces on, however carefully it might be pressed out.

The following is the remedy recommended by Chancellor Livingston :

" First, I separate the sheep (for it is very infectious) ; I then cut off the wool as fir .as the
tskin feels hard to the finger ; the scab is then washed with soap-suds, and rubbed hard" with
a shoe-brush, so as to cleanse and break the scab. I always keep for this use a decoction
cf tobacco, to which I add one-third by measure of the lye of wood ashes, as much hog's-lard
as will be dissolved by the lye, a small quantity of tar from the tar-bucket, which contains
.grease, and ab^nt one-eighth of the whole by measure of spirits of turpentine. This liquor
is rubbed upon the part infected, and spread to a little disutnce round it, in three washings,
with an interval of three days each. I have never failed in this way to eftect a cure when
the disorder was only partial. ... 1 cannot say whether it would cure a sheep infected
«o as to lose half its fleece."*

The following remedies are much used in Great Britain :

No. 1. — Dip the sheep in an infusion of arsenic, in the proportion of

»l.iTmg8ton'8 Essay. Appendix p. 177.

S1IEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE StUTII.. 261

half a pound of arsenic to twelve gallons of water. The sheep should pre-
viously be washed in soap and water. The infusion must not be per-
mitted to enter the mouth or nostrils.

No. 2. — Take common mercurial ointment, for bad cases, rub it own
with three times its weight of lard — for ordinary cases, five times its weight
of lard. Rub a little of this ointment into the head of the sheep. Part the
wool so as to expose the skin in a line from the head to the tail, and then
apply a little of the ointment with the finger the whole way. Make a sim-
ilar furrow and application, on each side, four inches from the first, and so
on over the whole body. The quantity of ointment (after being com-
pounded with the lard) should not exceed two ounces, and considerably
less will generally suffice. A lamb requires but one-third as much as a
grown sheep. This will generally cure, but if the sheep should continue
to rub itself, a lighter application of the same should be made in ten days.

No. 3. — Take of lard or palm oil 2 Ibs., oil of tar J lb., sulphur 1 Ib. —
Gradually mix the last two, then rub down the compound with the first. —
Apply in the same way as No. 2.

No 4. — Take of corrosive sublimate \ lb., white hellebore, powdered, J
11)., whale or other oil 6 gallons, rosin 2 Ibs., tallow 2 Ibs. " The first two
to be mixed with a little of the oil, and the rest being melted together, the
whole to be gradually mixed." This is a powerful preparation and must
not be applied too freely.

Mr. Spooner gives the preference to No. 1, as least troublesome ; Mr.
Youatt to No. 2 ; and the author of the Mountain Shepherd's Manual to
No. 4. I should certainly prefer No. 3, if it is, as it is asserted to be,
equally effectual, for the reason that it contains no poisonous or dangerous
ingredients.

An erysipelatous scab,. or erysipelas, attended with considerable itch-
ing, sometimes attacks the English flocks, but I have heard of no cases of
it here. This would be classified as a febrile disease. ]t is treated with
a cooling purgative, venesection, and oil or lard applied to the sores.

DISEASE OF THE BIFLEX CANAL. — From the introduction of foreign bod
ies into the biflex canal, or from other causes, it occasionally becomes the
seat of inflammation. This is sometimes confounded with the hoof-ail,
but the diseases are entirely distinct and different from each other. In-
flammation of the biflex canal causes an enlargement and redness of the
pastern, particularly about the external orifice of the canal. The toes are
thrown wide apart by the tumor. I never have known it to attack more
than one foot, and never have allowed it to go to the point of ulceration,
which it is said to do if neglected. There is none of that soreness and
disorganization between the back part of the toes — and none of that pecu-
liar fetor which distinguishes the hoof-ail. I never have found it anything
like so serious a disease as it is described tc be by the English veterina-
rians.

Treatment. — I have always scarified the coronet, making one or two
deeper incisions in the principal swelling around the mouth of the canal
— covered the foot with tar — and paid no more attention to it.

HOOF- AIL. — The first symptom of this troublesome malady, which is or-
dinarily noticed, is a lameness of one or both of the fore feet. But on daily
examining the feeS of a flock which have the disease among them, it will be
readily seen that the lesions manifest themselves for several days before
they are followed with lameness. Scarcely any English writer* whom I

262 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOI TH.

have read, describes with respectable accuracy the first appearances of
the hoof-ail as it exhibits itself in this country, and among the Jine-icooled
sheep* Mr. Youatt says :

" The foot will be found hot and tender, the horn softer than usual, and there will be en-
largement about the coronet, and a slight separation of the hoof from it, with portions of the
horn worn away, and ulcers formed below, and a discharge of their fetid matter. The ul-
cers, if neglected, continue to increase ; they throw out fungous granulations, they separate
the hoof more and more from the parts beneath, until at length it drops off.''

The above is not a description of the consecutive symptoms of the hoof-
ail as I have seen them. The hoof, instead of being softened, is percepti-
bly hardened, I think, by the presence of the disease. There is occasion-
ally an enlargement about the coronet, but this is not common in the out-
'set; and so far from the horn first separating from the foot at that point, it
is the last place where it usually adheres when the soles are eaten away
by the ulcerous matter, and the mere outside shell remains. I never have
known a hoof to drop off, entire, in the sense in which I understand the
closing part of Mr. Youatt's remark.

My~first introduction to this disease was by its breaking out in its most
malignant form in a flock of eight hundred sheep, with which I had placed,
early in the preceding spring, a few valuable sheep received from abroad
which were infected with the hoof-ail, without my having the slightest sus-
picion of the fact. The disease, when of long standing, and well kept un-
der, shows itself but very little during the winter and spring, unless the
foot is directly examined. Every sheep in that eight hundred took the
disease, sometimes first in one foot, then in another, then in a third, and
when the fourth one was attacked, perhaps it W7as again bursting out in
one of the cured feet ! I considered the sheep valuable, had much of the
esprit du corps of a young flock-master, and was determined to conquer the
malady at any cost and at all hazards. I have little doubt that every sheep
in the flock was " doctored " on the average ten times each, and it was
very rarely that I permitted any other person than myself to cut away the
horn and prepare the foot of a single sheep for the application of the reme-
dies ! When I look back to that period — the sheep on some remote pas-
tures— not a shed on them to shelter myself or assistants from the burning
August sun as we bent ten or twelve hours a day over our task — our only
" operating room" a yard in the corner of two fields — blood and pus en-
crusting hands and garments, and occasionally by an unlucky stroke of the
knife showered over face and bosom — the crawling maggots — the intolera-
ble fetor : — I hardly know whether to take credit to myself for or to laugh
at the stanchness of my zeal. But, worst of all, with all my labor, I had

" scotch'd the snake, not killed it ! "

The disease appeared in my flock, though in a much mitigated form,
the next summer. I think I then cured it — but I was not allowed to es-
cape thus. In the succeeding summer, accident again brought it among
my sheep. In a word, I have first and last served a five years' appren-
ticeship to combating the hoof-ail. Having seen it in every possible phase
— having experimented with almost every recommended remedy not obvi-
ously empirical — I shall be excased if I speak my own opinions with ade-

* As 1 have before stated, when discussing " the most profitable breed for the South," the hoof of the Me-
rino and that of the English Long-Wooled ». res, is essentially different. The latter usually retains its natu-
ral ehape and thickness, and although the side-crust sometimes turns under, it is but a comparatively thin
•lip of horn, which is subsequently worn or broken off— or it is easily removed by the knife. The hoof of
the Merino grows rapidly, especially when the animal has the. hoof-ail. The horny soles will sometimes be-
come nearly an inch thick, and the toes will elongate and turn up in front like horns, to the length of three
»nd even four inches. The weight of the Merino is much less than that of the Long- Wool. Take these
facts into consideration, together with some of the other circumstances detailed in the introductory remark*
to Letter XIV, and perhaps it sufficiently accounts for some differences in the diagnosis of the disease be-
•vreen the two countries.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 263

gree of confidence, even if they chance to conflict with those of professed
and eminent veterinarians.

As all are aware, the horny covering of the sheep's foot extends up,
gradually thinning out, some way between the toes or divisions of the hoof,
and above these horny walls the " cleft " ie lined with skin. When the
points of the toes are spread apart, this skin is shown in front, covered
with short, soft hair. The back part of the toes, or the " heels," can be sep-
arated only to a little distance, and the skin in the cleft above them is
naked. In a healthy foot, the skin throughout the whole cleft is as firm,
sound, dry and uneroded, as on any other part of the animal.

The first symptom of hoof-ail is a slight erosion, accompanied with in-
flammation and heat of the naked skin in the back part of the cleft, imme-
diately above the heels. The skin assumes a macerated appearance, and
is kept moist by the presence of a sanious discharge from the ulcerated sur-
face. As the inflammation extends, the friction of the parts causes pain
and the sheep limps. At this stage the foot externally, in a great ma-
jority of cases, exhibits not the least trace of disease, with the exception
of a slight redness, and sometimes the appearance of a small sore at the
upper edge of the cleft, when viewed from behind.

The ulceration of the surface rapidly extends. The thin upper edges
of the inner walls of the hoof are disorganized, and an ulceration is estab-
lished between the hoof and the fleshy sole. A purulent fetid matter is
exuded from the cavity. The extent of the separation daily increases, and
the ulcers also form sinuses deep into the fleshy sole. The bottom of the
hoof disappears, eaten away by the acrid matter, and the outer walls, en-
tirely separated from the flesh, hang only by their attachments at the coro-
net. The whole fleshy sole is now entirely disorganized, and the entire
foot is a mass of black, putrid ulceration ; or, as it more commonly hap-
pens, the fly has struck it, and a dense mass of writhing maggots cover the
surface, and burrow in every cavity. The fore-feet are generally first at-
tacked, and most usually but one of them. The animal at first manifests
but little constitutional disturbance. It eats as usual. By the time that
any considerable disorganization of the structures has taken place in the
first foot — sometimes sooner — the other fore-foot is attacked. That be-
coming as lame as the first, the miserable animal seeks its food on its
knees, and if forced to rise, its strange, hobbling gait betrays the intense
agony occasioned by bringing its feet in contact with the ground. There
is a bare spot under the brisket of the size of the palm of a man's hand,
which looks red and inflamed. There is a degree of general fever — and
the appetite is dull. The animal rapidly loses condition. The appearance
of the maggot soon closes the scene. Where the rotten foot is brought in
contact with the side in lying down, the filthy ulcerous matter adheres to and
saturates the short wool, (it being but a month and a half or two months af-
ter shearing,) and maggots are either carried there by the foot, or they
are soon generated there. A black crust is soon formed round the spot.
It is the decomposition of the surrounding structures, and innumerable
maggots are at work below, burrowing into the integuments and mus-
cles and eating np the miserable animal alive. The black festering mass
rapidly spreads, and the poor sufferer perishes, we cannot suppose other-
wise than in tortures the most excruciating.

Sometimes but one fore-foot is attacked, and subsequently one or both
hind ones. There is no uniformity in this particular, and it is a singular
fact that when two or even three of the feet are dreadfully diseased, the
fourth may be entirely sound. So also one foot may be cured, while ev
«ry other one is laboring under the malady.

264 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

The highly offensive odor of the ulcerated feet is so peculiar that it u
strictly pathognomonic of the disease — and would reveal its character tu
one familiar with it, in the darkest night.

When the disease has been well kept under during the first season of
its attack, but not entirely eradicated, it will almost or entirely disappear
us cold weather approaches, and does not manifest itself until the warm
weather of the succeeding summer. It then assumes a mitigated form—-
the sheep are not rapidly and simultaneously attacked — there seems to be
loss inflammatory action, constitutionally, and in the diseased parts — the
course of the disease is less malignant and more tardy, and it more readi-
ly yields to treatment. If well kept under the second summer, it is still
milder the third. A sheep will occasionally be seen to limp, but its con-
dition will scarcely be affected, and dangerous symptoms will rarely su-
pervene. One or two applications made during the summer, in such a
way, as I shall presently describe, that one thousand sheep can be sub-
mitted to the treatment in half a day — with but a trifle of labor and ex-
pense— will now suffice to keep the disease under. At this point a little
vigor in the treatment will entirely extinguish the disease.

With all its fearful array of symptoms, can the hoof-ail be cured in ita
first attack on a flock ] The worst case can be promptly cured, as I know
by repeated experiments. Take a single sheep, put it by itself, and ad-
minister the remedies daily after the English fashion, or as I shall
presently prescribe, and there is not an ovine disease which more surely
yields to treatment. But as already remarked, in a preceding Letter, in
this country, where sheep are so cheap, and labor in the summer months
so dear, it would out of the question for an extensive flock-master to at-
tempt to keep each sheep by itself, or to make a daily application of rem-
edies. There is not a flock-master within my knowledge who has evet
pretended to apply his remedies oftener than once a week, or regularly as
often as that, and not one in ten makes any separation between the dis-
eased and healthy sheep of a flock into which the malady has been once in-
introduced. The consequence necessarily is that though you may cure the
sheep now diseased, it has infected or inoculated others — and these in turn
scatter the contagion, before they are cured. There is not a particle of
doubt — nay, I know, by repeated observation, that a sheep once entirely
cured may again contract the disease, and thus the malady performs a per-
petual circle in the flock. Fortunately, however, the susceptibility to con-
tract the disease diminishes, according to my observation, with every suc-
ceeding attack ; and fortunately also, as already stated, succeeding attacks,
ccetcris paribus, became less and less virulent.

What course shall then be pursued 1 Shall the flock-master sacrifice
his sheep — shall he take the ordinary half-way course — or shall he! expend
more on the sheep than they are worth in attempting to cure them *? Nei-
ther. The course I would advise him to pursue, will appear as I detail
the experiments, I have made.

Treatment. — The preparation of the foot, where any separate individual
treatment is resolved upon — and this is always necessary, at least in bad
cases — is a subject of no dispute. But the labor can be prodigiously
economized by attention to a few not very commonly observed particulars.
Sheep should be yarded for the operation immediately after a rain, if prac-
ticable, as then the hoofs can be readily cut. In a dry time, and after a
night which has left no dew on the grass, their hoofs are almost as tough
as horn. They must be driven through no mud, or soft dung, on their
way to the yard, which would double the labor of cleaning their feet. —
The yard m v* be small, so they can be easily caught, and it must be kept

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 265

well littered down, so they shall not fill their feet with their own excre-
ment. If the straw is wetted, their hoofs will not of course dry and harden
us rapidly as in dry straw. Could the yard be built over a shallow, grav-
elly-bottomed brook,* it would be an admirable arrangement. The hoofa
would be k3pt so soft that the greatest and most unpleasant part of the la
bor, as ordinarily performed, would be in a great measure saved, and they
would be kept free from that dung which by any other arrangement will,
more or less, get into their clefts.

The principal operator or foreman seats himself in a chair — a couple of
good knives, a whetstone, the powerful toe-nippers (fig. 21, Letter XII,)
a bucket of water with a couple of linen rags in it, and such medicines as
he chooses to employ, within his reach. The assistant catches a sheep and
lays it partly on its back and rump, between the legs of the foreman, the
head coming up about to his middle. The assistant then kneels on some
straw or seats himself on a low stool at the hinder extremity of the sheep.
If the hoofs are long, and especially if they are dry and tough, the assist-
ant presents each foot to the foreman, who shortens the hoof with the toe-
nippers. If there is any filth between the toes, each -man takes his rag
from the bucket of water, and draws it between the toes and rinses it, un-
til the filth is removed. Each then seize their knives, and the process of
paring away the horn commences. And on tlie effectual performance of
this, all else depends. A glance at the foot will show whether it is the seat
of the diseased action. The least experience cannot fail in properly set-
tling this question. An experienced jinger, placed on the back of the
pastern close above the heel, would at once detect the local inflammation
(by its heat) in the dark.

If the disease is in the first stage — i.e. there is merely an erosion and ul-
ceration of the cuticle and flesh in the cleft above the walls of the hoof, no
paring is necessary. But if ulceration has established itself between the
hoof and the fleshy sole, the ulcerated parts, be they more or less exten-
sive, MUST BE ENTIRELY DENUDED OF THEia HORNY COVERING, COSt what it

may of time and care. It is better not to wound the sole so as to cause it
to bleed freely, as the running blood will wash off the subsequent applica-
tion, but no fear of wounding the sole must prevent a full compliance with
the rule above laid down. At the worst, the blood will stop flowing after
a little while, during which time no application need be made to the foot.

If the foot is in the third stage — a mass of rottenness and filled with
maggots — in the first, place pour a little spirits of turpentine (a bottle of it,
with a quili tbi'Ougn tne cork, should be always ready,) on the maggots
and most of tnem will immediately decamp, and the others can be re-
moved with a probe or small stick. Then remove every particle of loose
horn, though it should, take the entire hoof- — and it will generally take the
whole hoof in such cases. The foot should be now cleansed with a solu-
tion of chloride of lime, in the proportion of one pound of chloride to one
gallon of water. If this is not at hand, plunging the foot repeatedly in
water, just short of scalding hot, will answer every purpose. The great
object is to clean the foot thoroughly. If there are any considerable fun-
gous granulations, (" proud-flesh,") they should be excised with a pair of
scissors, or the actual cautery (hot iron.)

And now comes the important question what constitutes the lest remedy ?
The recommended prescriptions are innumerable. The following arc
some of the most popular ones.t 1. 4 oz. blue vitriol, 2 oz. of verdigris.

* A portion of any little brook might be prepared by planking the bottom, and widening it if desirable
\ Ihe first three are given io the American Shepherd, pp. 379-80.

266 SHtEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

to a junk-bottle of wine. 2L Spirits turpentine, tar and veidigris in equal
parts. 3. 3 quarts of alcohol. 1 pint spirits of turpentine, i pint of strong
vinegar, 1 Ib. blue vitriol, 1 Ib. copperas, 1-J- Ibs. verdigris, 1 Ib. alum, 1 Ib.
of saltpetre, pounded fine: mix in a close bottle, shake every day, and let it
stand six or eight days before using : also mix 2 pounds of honey and 2
quarts of tar, which must be applied after the previous compound. " Two
applications will entirely r6move the disease," says this recipe, which
was once, I believe, hawked about the country as a patent cure — being
sold at five dollars to each purchaser, he giving a promise of inviolable se-
crecy ! 4. Apply diluted aquafortis (nitric acid) with a feather to the ul-
cerated surface. 5. Apply diluted oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) in the
same way. 6. Same of muriatic acid. 7. Dip the foot in tar nearly at
the boiling point, &c.

After a thorough trial of the above and a multitude of other prescrip
tions,* I have come to the conclusion that in the first and second stages of
the disease — before the ulcers have formed sinuses into the sole, and
wholly or partly destroyed its structure — that no application, simple 01
compound, is preferable to a saturated solution of blue vitriol, (sulphate of
copper.) In my judgment, no beneficial addition can be made to it as a
remedy. Of the manner of applying it I shall speak presently.

In the third stage, when the foot is a festering mass of corruption, after
it has been cleansed as already directed, it requires some strong caustic to
remove the unhealthy granulations — the dead muscular structures — and
to restore healthy action. Lunar caustic I think preferable to any other
application, but it is too expensive. Mr. Youatt gives a decided prefer-
ence to chloride of antimony, and I think him correct. This is frequently
not attainable in the country drug-stores, and muriatic acid may be re-
sorted to, or even nitric or sulphuric acid. The diseased surface is touched
with the caustic (applied with a swab formed by fastening a little tow on
the end of a stick,) until the objects above pointed out are obtained. I
have then usually treated the foot with the solution of blue vitriol, and sub-
sequently coated it over with tar which, has been boiled, and is properly
cooled. The last protects the raw wound from dirt, flies, &c. Sheep in
this stage of the disease should certainly be separated from the main flock,
and looked to as often as once in three days. With this degree of atten-
tion, their cure will be rapid, and it is astonishing with what celerity the
obliterated structures of the foot will be restored.

The ordinary method of using the solution of blue vitriol is to pour it
from a bottle with a quill in the cork, into the foot, when the animal lies
on its back between the operators, as already described. In this way a
few cents* worth of vitriol will serve for a large number of sheep. But
the method is imperfect, because, without remarkable care, there will al
most always be some slight ulcerations not uncovered by the knife — the
passages to them will be devious, and perhaps nearly or quite closed—
and the solution will not reach them. Thus the disease will only be tem-
porarily suppressed, not cured.

I had a flock of sheep a few years since which were in the second sea-
son of the disease. They had been but little looked to during the sum-
mer, and as cold weather was setting in, many of them were consid-
erably lame — -some of them quite so. The snow fell and they were brought
into the yards, limping and hobbling about deplorably. This sight, so dis-
graceful to me as a farmer, roused me into activity. I bought a quantity

*Many of them resorted to " against the stomach of my sense," to give .nyeelf nnd others indispuU:W«
ocular proof of their inutility— or that they were no Wter than cheaper, simpler, and more easijy rttain-
•bie medicines

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 2o7

of blue vitriol — made the necessary arrangements — and once more took
the chair as principal operator ! Never were the feet of a flock more
thoroughly pared. Into a large washing tub, in which two sheep could
stand conveniently, I poured a saturated solution of blue vitriol and water,
as hot as could be endured by the hand even for a moment. The liquid was
about four inches deep on the bottom of the tub, and was kept at about
that depth by frequent additions of hot solution. As soon as a sheep's feet
were pared, it was placed in the tub and held there by the neck; by an as-
sistant. A second one was prepared and placed beside it. When the
third one was ready, the^ri^ was taken out, and so on. Two sheep were
thus constantly in the tub, and each remained in it about five minutes. —
The cure was perfect ! There was not a lame sheep in the flock during
the winter or the next summer! The hot liquid penetrated to every
cavity of the foot, and doubtless had a far more decisive effect even on the
uncovered ulcers, than would have been produced by merely wetting them,
Perhaps the lateness of the season was also favorable, as in cold weather
the ulcers of ordinary virulence discharge no matter to inoculate the healthy
feet, and thus, at the time of applying the remedy, there are no cases where
there has been inoculation not yet followed by those lesions which admit
of cure. Whether so thorough a soaking would destroy the virus in the in-
oc.ulated foot, I cannot pretend to decide.

I think that the vitriol required for the above one hundred sheep was
about twelve pounds, and that it cost me fifteen cents per pound. The ac-
count then would stand thus :

12 Ibs. of vitriol at 15 cents $1,80

Labor of 3 men one day each 2,25

Total $4,05

or about four cents per sheep. I have not a doubt that three such appli-
cations at intervals of a week, would effectually cure the disease, as every
new case would be arrested and cured before it had time to inoculate
others. I have no doubt that it would do this at any time of year, and
even during the first and most malignant prevalence of the contagion, PRO-
VIDING THE PARING WAS SUFFICIENTLY THOROUGH. The second and third
parings would be a mere trifle, and the liquid left at the first and second
applications could again be used. Thus sheep could be cured at about
twelve cents per head. This is vastly cheaper in the long run than the
ordinary temporizing method — where people count the cost of a few
pounds of blue vitriol, but not their time, and who thus keep the disease
lingering in their flocks for years. Indeed, if partial and temporizing
treatment is all that is aimed at, — if the flockmaster is content to simply
keep the disease under — I can point out methods quite as efficacious aa
the common one by paring and applying washes from a bottle — as ordina»
rily performed — and not costing a tithe as much.

Between the corners of two sheep-pastures (1, 2, of fig. 69,) construct
the dividing fence as represented in the cut. 'A

narrow passage is thus left from one field to an- -^-^ .

other. This passage should be about 2 or 2J feet
wide and 12 feet long. The fence on each side
of the passage should be an upright board fence,
so that the space can be entirely filled on the bot-
tom with a flat trough, (the bottom formed of a {
plank) with side and end boards about five inches
high. In this trough place say a bushel and a half or two bushels ot un.

:

268 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

slacked lime,* slack it, and then fill the trough nearly full of water.—*
Through this drive the flock several times from one field to the other — un-
til the lame ones manifest much suffering. Repeat this once a week the
first summer that the disease appears, putting in fresh lime each time.—-
This does not appear to cure the hoof- ail, but it keeps it under ; the sheep
keep their condition, and show little lameness. The second or third sum-
mer of the disease, three or four such applications usually answer for the
entire season. Some use dry slacked lime, as the same trough-full will
then answer for several applications. The trough in this case must have
a roof over it. I never have tried the last method. If the dry lime will
get sufficiently between the toes — and it is said to — it will answer the
purpose where it touches more effectually than even the liquid, but it
would not be so likely to penetrate into cavities. Some who use the lime
remedy, pare the feet once pretty thoroughly prior to the first application,
but afterward neglect them. Others neglect paring entirely, i. e. beyond,
shortening the toes once a year, as is practiced with all fine-wooled flocks.

Fig. 70 is an improvement on the
more common arrangement exhib-
ited in fig. 69. The dotted lines
enclose good-sized yards in the cor-
ners of two adjoining pastures. —
Two drivers can yard the sheep in
one of these, and drive the sheep
from one to the other any number
of times, without chasing them
about a large field. The labor can

therefore be performed much more rapidly, and it requires less force. A
couple of active fellows would yard and submit a flock of two or three
hundred sheep to the process in less than an hour. When the sheep are
first yarded, if there are any very lame ones, draw them out and place
them in one of the small pens (a, b.) Their feet can be examined, arid if
necessary a little extra pains taken with them, by paring, cauterizing, etc.
Each sheep as treated is put into the other small pen, where it can be re-
tained until the flock is discharged, and then removed to a separate pas-
ture from the others, if considered desirable.

Where two yards are constructed, as in fig. 70, it is obvious that the- ar-
rangement can be made elsewhere as well as in the corner of two fields,
though if the sheep are wild, it may require a few rods of wing fence (in
the place of the dividing one between the fields, as seen in figures 69 and
70,) for the more convenient cornering of the sheep to yard them. Thus
one euch apparatus might be made to conveniently answer for a whole
farm, though thousands of diseased sheep were scattered in different flocks
over it, and may be placed at a spot where water, etc. are convenient.

Where lime and water are used, the sheep must be driven through the
trough slowly and quietly — as otherwise the lime will be scattered over
their wool, into their eyes, &c. If the lime is fresh. burned and highly
caustic, it would be likely to destroy their eyes. Indeed, pure fresh-burned
lime sometimes will take the hair off from their pasterns and shanks. It is
better, therefore, to use it when somewhat re-carbonized by exposure to
the air.

Wood ashes are said to produce the same effect with lime. It is claimed
that sheep kept on lands where the timber has been recently burned,
(" new clearings,") will recover from the hoof-ail. Query : If this be true

* To be added to, from time to time, if the number of sheep run through is largo enough to waste it mata
riafiy, before they ore sufficiently treated.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

might not. the lye of ashes, of the proper strength, make au adequate sub
stitute for lime and water '[

Some Northern farmers drive their sheep over dusty roads as a remedy
for hoof-ail ! Opposed as it would seem to be to sound theory — sadly aa
it is at variance with the practice of foreign veterinarians who employ
" tow-pledgets," " gaiter boots," etc., to exclude all dirt from the diseased
surface, it does actually seem in cases of ordinary virulence — especially
where the disease is chronic — to dry up the. ulcers and keep the malady under!

There is an important point to be regarded in exhibiting remedies for
the hoof-ail, the mention of which I have reserved until now, as it concerns
all remedies equally. Many farmers select rainy weather to " doctor" the
sheep. Their feet are then soft, and it is therefore on all accounts good
economy, when the feet are to be pared, and each separately treated, pro-
vided, they can be kept in sheep-houses, or under shelters of any kind,
until the rain is over and the grass again dry. If immediately let out in
wet grass of any length, the vitriol or other application is measurably
washed away. This is avoided by many, by dipping the feet in warm tar
— an excellent plan under such circumstances. The tar is probably a good
application at any time, "but I do not consider it necessary, in ordinary
cases, unless the sheep must be turned out into wet grass.

A flock of sheep which have been cured of the hoof-ail, are considered
more valuable than one which has never had it. They are far less liable
to contract the disease from any casual exposure — and its ravages are fai
less violent and general among them.

I am strongly disposed to believe that hoof-ail is propagated in this
country only by inoculation — the contact of the matter of a diseased foot
with the integuments, lining the bifurcation of a healthy foot. That it is
propagated in some of those ways classed under the ordinary designation
of contagion is certain. I could indisputably authenticate more than a
hundred cases, where the sheep on a farm, indeed through a neighbor-
hood, had been notoriously exempt from hoof-ail from the first settlement
of the country — so that the inhabitants did not even know what the disease
was — until some diseased flock was introduced from abroad. It was so in
the region where I live, and I well recollect when a flock of Saxons, driven
from a neighboring county, first introduced it among our sheep. There
has not been a diseased flock in the county which could not trace it back
to that flock. And the contagion was spread by them as readily on our
dry hill-farms as on low and moist ones.

That it may be propagated by inoculation I "know by direct experiment
I have placed the matter of diseased feet on the skin lining the cleft of a
healthy foot under a variety of circumstances — sometimes when that skin
was in its ordinary and natural state — sometimes after a very slight scari-
fication— sometimes when macerated by moisture. The disease has been
communicated, under each of these circumstances, and in a majority of all
the instances, amounting to sixteen or seventeen.

That tfiere is not even a supposed or pretended case, to my knowledge,
on record where the disease has originated spontaneously, in the Northern
States, I have already asserted.* I regard Professor Dick's statements
of the manner in which the disease originates, which I have quoted,! as
wholly inapplicable to our country with its present breeds of taeept and I
cannot sufficiently express my surprise that this eminent veterinarian
should nave adopted — what I deem so unqualified an absurdity — the non«
contagion theory.

I have been disposed to trace the propagatioi }f the disease exclusive*

*Io the beginning af Letter XIV. tlb.

270 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

ly to inoculation, from having observed on my own farm arid elsewhere,
that healthy flocks have occupied with impunity fields adjoining those oc-
cupied by diseased ones-; — an open board or rail fence only separating
them. I have drawn the same inference also from the manner in which
the disease attacks flocks. The whole, or any considerable number, though
sometimes rapidly, are never simultaneously attacked, as we should expect
among animals so gregarious, if the disease could be communicated by
simple contact, inhaling the breath or other effluvium. But not having pos-
itive and demonstrative proof of the correctness of the proposition, I would
advise no man to incur any risks, unnecessarily, founded on this assump-
tion, without first satisfying himself on the point.

The matter of diseased feet is left on grass, straw, and other substances,
and thus is brought in contact with the inner surfaces of healthy feet. —
Sheep therefore contract the disease from being driven over the pastures,
yarded on the straw, &c., where diseased sheep have been, perhaps even
days before. The matter would probably continue to inoculate until dried
up by the air and heat, or washed away by the rains. The stiff upright
stems of closely mown grass (as on meadows,)_are almost as well calcu-
lated to receive the matter of diseased feet, and deposit it in the clefts of
healthy ones, as any means which could be" devised artificially. I do not
consider it entirely safe to drive healthy sheep over roads, and especially
into washing-yards or sheep-houses, where diseased sheep have been, until
rain has fallen, or time has elapsed for the matter to dry up. On the
moist bottom of a washing-yard, and particularly in houses or sheds, kept
from sun and wind, and rain; this matter might be preserved for some tirce
in a condition to inoculate.

FOULS. — Sheep are much loss subject to this disease than cattle, but are
subject to it if kept in wet, filthy yards, or on moist, poachy ground. Jt is
an irritation of the integument in the cleft of the foot, slightly resembles
incipient hoof-ail, and produces lameness. But it produces no serious
structural disorganization — disappeai's without treatment — is not con-
tagious— and appears in the wet weather of spring and fall, instead of the
dry, hot period of summer when the hoof-ail rages most. A little solutior
of blue vitriol, or a little spirits of turpentine, either followed by a coat
ing of warm tar, promptly cures it.

GOITRE OR BRONCHOCELE. — I never have seen this classed among the
diseases of sheep, but the "swelled neck" in lambs is, like the goitre, an
enlargement of the thyroid glands, and it is strikingly analogous to, if not
identical with, that disease. It is congenital. The glands at birth are from
the size of a pigeon's to that of a hen's egg — though more elongated and
flattened than an egg in their form. ' The lamb is exceedingly feeble,
and often perishes almost without an effort to suck. Many even make no
effort to rise, and die as soon as they are dropped. It is rare that one lives
— though three or four years since, a lamb in my flock having one of the
thyroid glands enlarged, grew up a large, healthy sheep. At a year old,
when disposed of, the enlarged gland was of the size of a goose-egg.

No inconsiderable number of lambs annually perish from this disease. —
It does not appear to be an epizootic, though I think it more prevalent
some seasons than others. It does not seem to depend upon the water, 01
any other natural circumstances of a region, (as goitre is usually supposed
to,) as it may not prevail in the same flock or on the same farm once in
ten years. I never have been able to trace it to any particular kind of
food. That when it does appear, it is induced by some common local or

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 271

alimentary cause, I am induced to infer from the fact that its attacks aro
rarely isolated. When there are any instances of it in a flock, there are
usually a number of them. I have lost lambs by it two seasons —
from six to ten per cent, of the whole -number. Francis Rotch, Esq. of
Louisville, Otsego county, lost a much heavier per centage than this (my
impression would now be nearly fifty per cent.) of his choice South-Down
lambs, a few years since. I am acquainted with various other instances
where the loss has ranged from ten to twenty per centum.

When congenital goitre has thus appeared among my lambs, the ewes
have been in unusually high condition. The same was true of Mr. Rotch's
ewes, as he wrote me at the time. WThether this coexistence implies caus-
ality, I do not pretend to decide. High condition in the ewe may be one
of the inducipg causes.

Treatment. — I know of no treatment which will reach the case^ Indeed,
the lamb is dying, almost, when born — and remedies are out of the ques-
tion. Should one having the disease chance to live, it would scarcely be
worth while to attempt reducing the enlargements of the glands. Perhaps
keeping the breeding ewes uniformly in fair, plump, but not high condi-
tion, would be as effectual a preventive as any.

MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES.

POISON FROM EATING LAUREL. — I often hear of this from our drovers,
who take sheep in the spring to the Philadelphia and New-Jersey mar-
kets, through Northern Pennsylvania, on the Old Red Sandstone formation
of which the beautiful Kalmia angustifolia is abundant. The following
description of the effects on the sheep of eating this plant, and the proper
remedial treatment, though, I confess, not very satisfactory to me, I ex-
tract entire from the " American Shepherd,"* as I have no experience
whatever in the premises, and no better account within my reach :

** Sheep and calves will often, in the winter or spring of the year, eat greedily of the
low Laurel (Kalmia angustifolia). The animal appears to be dull and stupid, swells a
little, and is constantly gulping up a greenish fluid which it swallows down ; a part of it
will trickle out of its mouth, and discolor its lips. The plant probably brings on a fermenta-
tion in the stomach, and Nature endeavors to throw off the poison herb by retchin°r or
vomiting.

Treatment. — In the early stages, if the greenish fluid be suffered to escape from the
stomach, the animal most generally recovers. To effect this, gag the sheep, which may be
done in this manner : Take a stick of the size of your wrist and six inches long — place it in
the animal's mouth — tie a string to one end of it, pass it over the head and down to the other
end, and there make it fast. The fluid will then run from the mouth as fast as thrown up
from the stomach. In addition to this, give roasted onions and sweetened milk freely."

I have somewhere, I think, seen drenches of milk and castor-oil pre-
scribed for sheep poisoned with laurel ; and I should, without farther
knowledge of the subject, consider .it treatment promising oetter results
than the preceding.

SORE FACE. — Sheep feeding on pastures infested with John's wort
(Hypericum perforatum) not unfrequently exhibit an irritation of the skin
about the nose and face, which causes the hair to drop off from the parts.
The irritation sometimes extends over the whole body, though no such
case has fallen under my observation. Mr. Morrel says : t "If eaten in
too large quantities, it produces violent inflammation of the bowels, and is
frequently fatal to lambs, and sometimes to adults. "

Treatment — Rub a little sulphur and lard on the irritated surface. If
there are symptoms of inflammation of the bowels, Mr. Morrell prescribes

* American Shepherd, p. 3G1. t Ib. 374.

272 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

tar — " putting it into the mouth of the sheep with a flattened stick."
Abundance of salt is considered, and probably truly, a preventive. 1
have a sheep pasture considerably infested with this difficultly extermi*
nated weed, and I do not recollect an instance of a sheep exhibiting the
effects of eating it, in several years. It is certain that my sheep have
plenty of salt, whether this is the preventive or not.

SORE MOUTH. — The lips of sheep sometimes become suddenly sore it
the winter, and swell to the thickness of a man's hand. The malady
occasionally attacks whole flocks, and becomes quite fatal. No cases of
it having been bn-ught under my observation, I am unable to state
whether, in accordance with the popular description, the lesions are con-
fined to the lips. I should presume not. It is usually attributed to
noxious weeds cut with the hay.

Treatment. — Mr. Morrell states that he has had the d'.sease in his flock,
and has cured it immediately by smearing the diseased lips with tar.*

Loss OF CUD. — The " loss of the cud" ranks as an important disease in
the nosology of the " Cattle Doctor," and frequently calls forth all the skill
of that functionary to manufacture a new cud, which is placed in the
mouth of the animal as a substitute for the one which was lost!. That
person must be little versed in the physiology of ruminants who needs to
be told that the accidental loss of one of the cuds, in the process of re-
mastication, would be a matter of no sort of consequence. The sheep,
as well as the cow, not unfrequently nearly or entirely ceases to ruminate
but this is the result, not the cause, of disease. It is diagnostic of all
important diseases, and when observed, its warning should never go un-
heeded.

HOOVE. — This is not common, to any dangerous degree, among sheep,
but if turned upon clover when their stomachs are empty, it will some-
times ensue. It is a distention of the paunch by gas extricated from
the fermentation of its vegetable contents, and evolved more rapidly, or in
larger quantities, than can be neutralized by the natural alkaline secretions
of the stomach. When the distention is great, the blood is prevented
from circulating in the vessels of the rumen, and is determined to the
head. The diaphragm is mechanically obstructed from making its ordi-
nary contractions, and respiration, therefore, becomes difficult and imper-
fect. Death soon supervenes. In ordinary cases, gentle but prolonged
driving will effect a cure. Where the animal appears swelled almost to
bursting, and is disinclined to move, it is better to at once open tho
paunch. At the most protuberant point of the swelling, on the left side,
a little below the hip bone, plunge a trochar or knife, sharp at the point
and dull on the edge, into the stomach. The gas will rapidly escape, car-
rying with it some of the liquid and solid contents of the stomach. If no
measures are taken to prevent it, the peristaltic motion, as well as the
collapse of the stomach, will soon cause the orifices through the abdomen
and paunch not to coincide, and thus portions of the contents of the former
will escape into the cavity of the latter. However perfect the cure of
hoove, these substances in the belly will ultimately produce fatal irritation.
To prevent this, a canula or little tube should be inserted through both
orifices as soon as the puncture is made. Where the case is not imminent,
alkalies have been sometirres successfully administered, which combine

* American Shepherd, p. 373.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 273

with the carbonic acid gas, and thus at once reduce its volume. A flexi-
ble probang — or, in default of it, a rattan or grape-vine — with a knob on
the end, may be gently forced down the gullet, and thus the gas permitted
*o escape.

OBSTRUCTION OF THE GULLET OR " CHOKING." — After pouring a Httle
oil in the throat, the obstructing substance can be frequently moved up or
down by external manipulation. If not, it may usually be forced down
with a flexible rod, the head of which is guarded by a knob or a little bag
of flax-seed. The latter having been dipped in hot water for a minute or
two, is partly converted into mucilage, which constantly exudes through
the cloth, and protects the oesophagus from laceration. But little force
must be used, and the whole operation conducted with the utmost care
and gentleness, or the oesophagus will be so far lacerated as to produce
death, although the obstruction is removed.

FRACTURES. — Of these Mr. Blacklock concisely says :

'• If there be no wound of the soft parts, the bone being simply broken, the treatment 73
extremely easy. Apply a piece of wet leather, taking care to ease the limb when swelling
supervenes. When the swelling is considerable, and fever present, you can do no better
than open a vein of the head or neck, allowing a quantity of blood to escape, proportioned
to the size and condition of the animal, and the urgency of the symptoms. Purgatives in
such cases should never be neglected. Epsom salts, in ounce doses, given either as a gruel
or a drench, will be found to answer the purpose well. If the broken bones are kept
steady, the cure will be complete in from three to four weeks, the process of reunion always
proceeding faster in a young than in an old sheep. Should the soft parts be injured to any
extent, or the ends of the bone protruding, recovery is very uncertain, and it will become a
question whether it would not be better at once to convert the animal into mutton. "

TREATMENT.

METHOD OP ADMINISTERING MEDICINE INTO THE STOMACH. — The
8tomach into which we wish to administer medicines, is the fourth, or
digesting stomach. The comparatively insensible walls of the rumen are
but slightly acted upon, excepting by doses of very improper magnitude.
For the reasons given when the course of the food through the stomachs
was described, medicine to reach the fourth stomach should be given in a
state as near approaching fluidity as may be. And even then it may be
given in such a manner as to defeat our object. Mr. Youatt says :

" If the animal forcibly gulps fluids down, or if they are given hastily and bodily by the
medical attendant, they will fall on the canal at the base of the gullet with considerable
momentum, and force asunder the pillars and enter the rumen ; if they ai-e drank more
slowly, or administered gently, they will trickle down the throat and glide over these
pillars, and pass on through the maniplus to the true stomach. "

METHOD OP BLEEDING. — Bleeding from the ears or tail, as is commonly
practised, rarely extracts a quantity of blood sufficient to do any good
where bleeding is indicated. To bleed from the eye-vein, the point of a
knife is usually inserted near the lower extremity of the pouch below the
eye, pressed down, and then a cut made inward toward the middle of
the face. Daubenton recommends bleeding from the angular or cheek
vein,

" in the lower part of the cheek, at the spot where the root of the fourth tooth is

placed, which is the thickest part of the cheek, and is marked on the external surface of the
bone of the upper jaw by a tubercle, sufficiently prominent to be very sensible to the
finger when the skin of. the cheek is touched. This tutercle is a certain index to the

angular vein which is placed below The shepherd takes the sheep between his

legs ; bis left hand more advanced than his right, which he places under the head, and grasp*

2 M

274 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

the under jaw near to the hinder extremity, in order to press the angular vein, which
in that place, to make it swell ; he touches the right cheek at the spot nearly equidistant
t'rorn the eye and mouth, and there finds the tubercle which is to guide him. and also feels
the angular vein swelled below this tubercle ; lie then makes the incision from below
upward, half a linger' s breadth below the middle of the tubercle."

When the vein is no longer pressed upon, the bleeding ,will ordinarily
cease. If not, a pin may be passed through the lips of the orifice, and a
lock of wool tied round them.

For thorough bleeding, the jugular vein is generally to be preferred.
The sheep should be firmly held by the head by an assistant, and the body
confined between his knees, with its rump against a wall. Some of the
wool is then cut away from the middle of the neck over the jugular vein,
and a ligature, brought in contact with the neck by opening the wool, is
tied around it below the shorn spot near the shoulder. The vein will soon
rise. The orifice may be secured, after bleeding, as described in the pre-
ceding method.

As once before remarked, the good effects of bleeding depend almost
as much on the rapidity with which the blood is abstracted, as on the
amount taken. This is especially true in acute disorders. Elacklock
tersely remarks : " Either bleed rapidly or bleed not at all" The orifice
in the vein, therefore, should be of some length, and I need not inform
the least experienced practitioner that it should be made lengthwise with
the vein. A lancet is by far the best implement, and even a short-pointed
penknife is preferable to the bungling fleam.

Another important rule in venesection is that, where indicated at all, it
should always be resorted to as nearly as possible to the commencement of
the malady.

The amount of blood drawn should never be determined by admeasure-
ment, but by constitutional effect — the lowering of the pulse, and indica-
tions of weakness. In urgent cases as, for example, apoplexy or cerebral
inflammation, it would be proper to bleed until the sheep staggers or
falls.

The amount of blood in the sheep is less, in comparison, than that in
the horse or ox. The blood of the horse constitutes about one-eighteenth
part of his weight, that of the ox at least one-twentieth, while the sheep,
hi ordinary condition, is one-twe-nty-second. For this reason, we should
be more cautious in bleeding the latter, especially in frequently resorting
to it. Otherwise, the vital powers will be rapidly and fatally prostrated.
Many a sheep is destroyed by bleeding freely in disorders not requiring
it, and in disorders which did require it at the commencement, but of
which the inflammatory stage has passed.

THE PLACE OF FEELING THE PULSE. — The number of pulsations can bo
determined by feeling the heart beat on the left side. The femoral
artery passes in an oblique direction across the inside of the thigh, and
about the middle of the thigh its pulsations and the character of the pulse
can be most readily noted. The pulsations per minute in a healthy adult
sheep are set down by Gasparin at 65, by Youatt at 70, and by Huitrel
d'Arboval at 75. My own observations accord most nearly with those of
(jrasparin.

LIST OF MEDICINES EMPLOYED IN TREATING THE DISEASES OJT SHEEP

ALE. — In cases of debility, unaccompanied with fever, a small amoun«
of ale is sometimes found a good stimulant. It may be given to feeblf

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 275

sheep which have become unable to stand from having been too long cast
— especially if they have laid on the snow, or on damp cold ground. It
is sometimes given in addition to other medicine, in the place of the ordi-
nary stimulants.

ALOES — Are occasionally used as a purgative in sheep medicine by
farmers, but thdir use is justly condemned by all veterinarians.

ALUM — Used as an astringent, but is inferior to many others.

ANTIMONY ( The chloride or butyr of) — the best caustic to remove fun-
gous granulations, dead muscular structures, etc., in the last and worst
stage of hoof-ail — applied with a swab or feather.

ARSENIC — Employed in the proportion of half a pound to twelve gal-
lons of water, to cure scab. An infusion of it is also used to kill ticks, &c.
From its liability to adhere to vessels, or to come in contact with sub-
stances which may be subsequently eaten, it is a dangerous remedy, and
one which I would never have employed on my farm.

BLUE-VITRIOL (Sulphate of Copper) — Used internally as a strong tonic,
but inferior to others. Dissolved in hot water, and applied to morbid
sores, an astringent, alterative, and mild caustic, of the most admirable
character. It is superior to all other applications in ordinary cases of
hoof-ail.

CAMPHOR — Used with oil as an external stimulant on swellings, &c.

CARRAWAY-SEEDS — Given favorably in doses of two or three drachms,.
as a stomachic with other medicines.

CATECHU — A valuable astringent, in doses of half a drachm. It is one
of the ingredients of the celebrated " sheep's cordial," spoken of under
the head of " diarrhea. "

CHALK, Prepared, by its alkaline properties, neutralizes the acidity of
the stomach, and thus checks diarrhea. It is a very valuable remedy i»
doses from half an ounce to an ounce, exhibited as directed under the,
head of " diarrhea. "

CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE (Bi-chloride of Mercury J — The most convenient,
form in which mercury can be exhibited internally. The proto-chloride, or
calomel, from its great gravity, could not, with any certainty, be made to-
reach the fourth stomach. It would seem that mercury should be a use-
ful remedy in several of the diseases of sheep. I have administered it
only in the cases specified under the head of " malignant epizootic-
catarrh," and then apparently with some benefit. It would be well if &
series of careful experiments could be instituted of its value in the appro-
priate ovine diseases. It is very little used by veterinariaus, in this coun-
try or Europe. A solution of corrosive sublimate, is used for the destruc-
tion of ticks, &c., and sometimes as a wash in the scab, but its use for
these purposes is liable to the same objections with that of arsenic.

DIGITALIS (Foxglove) — A sedative employed in most of the feverr
medicines of the English veterinarians. Dose, one scruple.

EPSOM SALTS (Sulphate of Magnesia) — In doses from half an ounce*
to one, and in some few cases two ounces, the best purgative which can,
in almost every disease, be administered to sheep.

GENTIAN — Decidedly the best vegetable tonic in use. Dose, from one
to two drachms.

GINGER — A stomachic am *onic, given with almost every aperient, in
doses of from half a drachm tc a drachm. It prevents griping.

IODINE. — The hydriodate of potash in the proportion of one part to

'276 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

seven or eight parts, by weight, of lard, constitutes an ointment which ia
a powerful stimulant to the absorbent vessels, and therefore is an excellen
application to glandular swellings, or to indurated tumors. It is a goo
application to the swelled udder (q. v.J in garget.

LARD — A mild and gentle purgative in doses of two ounces. The basis
of most ointments, arid applied externally in almost every case as an
emollient arid lubricant in the place of oils.

LIME, Carbonate of- — Used as a caustic to run flocks of sheep through,
in the " hoof-ail," quern vide.

LIME, Clilorldc of- — An excellent antiseptic and disinfectant, and a good
application to foul ulcers.

LINSEED-OIL — A good purgative in two ounce doses. Preferable to
Epsom salts in cases of great intestinal irritation, but not otherwise.

MERCURY. — The common mercurial ointment, rubbed down with five
parts of lard, for severe cases, and seven parts for ordinary cases, of scab,
is an effectual cure,

MURIATIC ACID (Spirit of Salt) — Next to chloride of antimony, the best
<-a.ustic in the worst stage of hoof-ail.

NITRATE OP POTASH (Nitre or Saltpetre) — In doses one drachm, a
cooling diuretic.

NITRATE OF SILVER (Lunar Caustic) — Superior to all other caustics, but
too expensive for general use. For poisonous wounds, and particularly
for the bite of a mad dog, it has no substitute.

NITRIC ACID (Aquafortis) — Sometimes used as a substitute for chloride
of antimony, or muriatic acid, as a caustic in hoof-ail. Used by drovers,
also, to harden the soles of feet which have become thin and tender by
driving. It is touched over the sole with a feather.

OPIUM-— An invaluable sedative, and anti-spasmodic, and is employed in
nearly all prescriptions for diarrhea 'and dysentary, and also in colic drinks.
It is an important part of the " sheeps cordial." It is commonly used in
the form of a tincture, or laudanum. Dose, one drachm.

PEPPER, Black — Given in small quantities in milk, to new-born lambs,
-when chilled.

PIMENTO (Allspice) — A substitute for ginger, in the same doses, but not
«o valuable.

RHUBARB — Unites the properties of a cathartic and subsequent astrin-
gent. In small doses it is a tonic and stomachic, invigorating the diges-
tion. When the bowels are relaxed and torpid, and the stomach in a
feeble state, it would seem the most appropriate purgative, when a purga-
tive is indicated.

SALT (Muriate of Soda) — An ounce constitutes a purgative ; in small
•quantities a tonic and stomachic. The necessity of keeping sheep freely
supplied with salt has been referred to under Summer and Winter Man-
agement.

SULPHATE OF IRON (Copperas, or Green Vitriol) — Used in washes for
•the hoof-ail, but superseded by sulphate of copper. Internally, a tonic.

SULPHUR, Flower of- — In doses of from one to two ounces, a gooc
aperient. It is the basis of various ointments.

SULPHURIC ACID (Oil of Vitriol) — A powerful caustic used as a sub«
ctitute for the acids already alluded to, in the worst stage «>f hoof-aiL

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 277

SPIRIT OF TAR — Destroys maggots, and repels the attack of flies. Fliea
will not approach a part over which it has been smeared.

TAR — Is a valuable application to the feet, nose, back of the horns, &c.,
under the various circumstances detailed in Summer Management, and in
the treatment of grub in the head, hoof-ail, &c.

TOBACCO — An infusion of it destroys vermin, and also is a cure for
scab, qucm vide.

TURPENTINE, Spirits of— Prevents the attack of flies, and drives away
maggots. It is a useful application to old sores, wounds, &c.

VERDI-SRIS (Acetate of Copper) — Used in hoof-ail ; but adds nothing, 1
think, to the good effects of the sulphate of copper.

ZINC, Carbonate of- — Mixed with lard, constitutes a valuable emollient
and healing ointment. It is mixed in the proportion of one part of the
carbonate, by weight, to eight of the lard.

278 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

LETTER XVII.

SHEEP-DOGS, WOOL DEPOTS, &c.

:imation in which dogs have been held by different nations, &c...The Sheep-Dog — Button «
ion of him. ..The Spanish Sheep-Dog — Origin — Introduction into the United States — Value—
te — his history... The Hungarian Sheep-Dog — Mr. I'aget's description of— probable origin— '] ha

The

description

Arrogante — his history... The Hungarian" Sheep-Dog — Mr. 1'aget's description of— probable origii

Depots— Mr. Blanchard's account of their oridn — Letter from Mr. Peters, describing their object, methods
of doing business, and advantages — Utility of these depots— their especial utility to the South. ..A correc-
tion—Mr. Ruffin.-.Note in relation to Australia— Statistics of its Wool Trade brought down to 1846.

Dear Sir : — In all ages of the world, and among nearly all nations,
savage and civilized,* the dog has been the friend and cherished com-
panion of man. The Egyptians placed him among their gods. The
Greeks held him in the highest estimation. His figure mingles with that
of warriors and demi-gods on their friezes ; and Argus, the dog of
Ulysses, lives as immortal in the Odyssey, (vide Book XVII., j>. 344^400)
as his sagacious master, or the faithful Penelope. Alexander the Great
founded a city in honor of a dog ! The Romans treated him with similar
respect. His skin covered the statues of the sacred Lares ; his figure, as
the emblem of care and vigilance, stood at the feet of these household
gods— venerated and loved as the tutelary manes of departed ancestors.
Horace in his Ode to Cassius Severus (Book F"., Ode VI.,) compares him-
self to the Molossian, or the tawny Spartan d ig, which defends the flocks,
and with ears erect, pursues the wild beast through the deep snows. Virgil,
in the delightful Georgics, admonishes the Roman shepherds not to neglect
the care of their dogs :

•' Nee tibi cura canum fuerit postrema : sed un&
Veloces Spartaj catulos, acremque Molossum,
Pasce. aero pingui : nunquam, custodibus illis,
Nocturnum stabulis furem, incursusque Inporum,
Aut impacatos & tergo horrebis Iberos."

[Georg. Liber III., commencing at line 404.

Thus translated by Sotheby :

Nor slight thy dogs ; on whey the mastiffs feed,

Moloesixn race, and hounds of Spartan breed ;
Beneath their care, nor wolves, nor thieves by night,
Nor wild Iberian shall thy fear excite.

These " Spartan hounds, " I may remark, par parenthesis, are the ones
spoken of by Shakspeare, in that glorious description of the music of a
pack in full cry, and of the points of a hound, in Midsummer-Night* i
Dream :

Hippolita.—l was with Hercules, and Cadmus, once,

When in a wood of Crete they bayed the bear
With hounds of Sparta : never did I hear
Such gallant chiding ; for, besides the groves,
The fckies, the fountains, every region near
Seemed all one mutual cry : I never heard
So musical a discord, such sweet thunder.

Tfieteu*. — My hounds are bred out of the Spartan kind,

So flowed, so sanded; and their heads are hung
With ears that sweep away the morning dew :
Crook-kneed, and dew-lapped, like Thessalian bulla ;
Slow in pursuit, but matched in mouth like bells,
Each under each. A cry more tunable
Was never hallo'd to, nor cheered with horn,
In Crete, in Sparta, nor in Thessaly.

* The only exceptions which now occur to me are the Jews, the Hindoos, and the Mahommedan nadaw
and tribet .

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOOTH. 279

Arrian, Pliny, Oppian, ^Elian, and a host of othei writers of the Empire,
descant on the praises oi' the dog, or give anecdotes of his courage,
strength, and fidelity.

In the chivalric ages, he was the companion of knights and princes— tie
eoul of the manly field-sports of those times. Even prelates followed him
to the chase. The abbots of St. Hubert bred a celebrated race of hounds
St. Hubert himself, St. Eustace, and many others on the canonized calen
dar, were keen hunters. " Whereupon, " says the author of the " Noble
Art of Venerie," &c., published in 1611, "we may conceive that (by the
grace of God) all good huntsmen shall follow them into Paradise ! " Truly,
a consoling religious sequitur !

Scott, in his beautifully descriptive poetry, and still more poetical prose,
has given us a whole picture gallery of dogs, from the Middle Ages down.
The few which start up first in memory, (in my memory,) because, proba-
bly, linked with the most interesting associations, are Fangs — a genuine
Saxon — gaunt and unkempt, but stanch as his master, Gurth, the son of
Beowulph ; the noble hound of Sir Kenneth ; the " two dogs of black
Saint Hubert's breed," that with Fitz-James pursued their quarry into the
wild pass of the Trosachs ; the faithful little terrier, which,

" on the dark brow of the mighty Hellvellyn,

The much-loved remains of her master defended,
And chased the hill fox and the raven away ; "

and last, not least, Hector Mclntyre's bitch Juno, which stole the butter,
and broke the " lachr amatory from Clochmaben," of the glorious old
Antiquary. They stand out on the canvas like Landseer's pictures. We
pause to hear them bark ! It has often occurred to me that Scott omitted
a fine opportunity, indeed, made a hiatus vale dcflendus, in not introducing
one or more of the 'Alpine spaniels — or dogs of Mount St. Bernard — into
his Anne of Geierstein, providing it could be done, (on which point I am
uninstructed,) without a violent anachronism. When Arthur clung dizzy
and stupefied to the trunk of the tree which hung over the beetling vergd
of the precipice — when the cry of the Swiss maiden announced approach-
ing succor, should it not have had for its accompaniment the baying of
one of those great dogs of the Alps — the deep and far-heard rever Dera-
tions of which so often calls help to the perishing traveler, for miles,
through the howling storm 1 Should not the dog of Donnerhugel, on the
night-watch of Graffs-lust, have been of the same breed — huge, shaggy, and
daring as himself? The portrait of Barry, a Bernardine dog which saved
the lives of forty persons, and finally perished in an avalanche in guid-
ing some travelers to St. Pierre, is to be found in every print-shop. It
represents him carrying a child on his shoulders — clinging by his shaggy
hair, — which he found in the Glacier of Balsore, and rescued from
approaching death.

Scott is not the only modern poet who has admired and sung the praises
of the dog. And I do not recollect the instance of one, who has mentioned
him, that is, the tvcll-bred dog, who has not praised him, except Byron
in these moody lines :

"Perchance my dog will whine in vain.

Till fed by stranger hands ;
But long ere I come back again

Would tear me where he stands."

In his epitaph on his Newfoundland dog, the noble poet retracted this
ungenerous libel, and pays one of the warmest tributes to the fidelity of
the aog, on record.

Volumes of anecdotes of canine sagacity might te easily compiled

280 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

Reasoning powers the dog undoubtedly possesses, quite on a par with
ordinary humanity, if we may believe scores of these writers. But it ii
probable that the grandsires of some of them " drew good long-lows at
Hastings," and they, like Hubert, may lay claim to a hereditary knowledge
of the weapon. It is to be feared that dog-stories will soon be sunk to a
par \v\\hfis7i-stories ! The truth is, the dog knows enough, and there aie
authenticated cases enough of his wonderful sagacity, without having an
air of discredit thrown over the whole of them, by fanciful exaggera-
tions.

The comparative intelligence, and the comparative value to man, of the
different species of the dog, would be very differently estimated by those
who have been placed in situations to be particularly benefited by the
peculiar instincts of this race or that. Nearly every species has some
traits, some uses, where it is unequaled by the others ; and each in its
place is valuable. I do not, however, mean these remarks, or any others
which I have made in favor of the dog, to apply to the mongrel tribe of
curs. That there have been valuable individuals from this disreputable
stock, all must admit; but the miserable, cowardly and thievish character
of the mass of them has been proverbial in all time. Far too many of
them are kept by our farmers in the place of noble and serviceable animals
and multitudes of them, owned by idlers and vagabonds, infest the country
and do ten times more mischief to our flocks than diseases and beasts of
prey.

THE SHEEP-DOG. — Buffbn thus eloquently describes the sheep-dog,* and
compares his sagacity and value to man, with other racest :

" This animal, faithful to Man, will always preserve a portion of his empire and a degree
of superiority over other beings. He reigus at the head of his flock, and makes himself bettci
understood than the voice of the shepherd. Safety, order, and discipline are the fruits ol
his vigilance and animal. They are a people submitted to his management, whom he con-
ducts and protects, and against whom he never applies force but for the preservation of good
order. ... If we consider that this animal, notwithstanding his ugliness, and his wild
and melancholy look, is superior in instinct to all others ; that he has a decided character v\
which education has comparatively little share ; that he is the only animal born perfectly
trained for the service of others ; that, guided by natural powers alone, he applies himself to
the cai'e of our flocks, a duty which he executes with singular assiduity, vigilance, and fidel-
ity ; that he conducts them with an admirable intelligence, which is a part and portion 01
himself ; that his sagacity astonishes at the same time that it gives repo«e to his master,
while it requires great time and trouble to instruct other dogs for the purposes to which they
are destined ; if we reflect on these facts, we shall be confirmed in the opinion that the
shepherd's dog is the true dog of Nature, the stock and model of the whole species."

I shall call attention to but a few of the most distinguished varieties of
the sheep-dog.

THE SPANISH SHEEP-!)OG. — Of the origin of this celebrated race, I do
not recollect to have seen anything. I have observed them several times
spoken of, latterly, in newspapers and agricultural publications, as the
same variety with the Alpine Spaniel, or Bernardino dog. This, I think,
must be an error, though there may be a general resemblance between
the two species. Arrogante, on the next page, though a dog of pro-
iigious power, decidedly lacks the massive proportions, both in body
and limbs, of several Bernardino dogs, which I have seen, of un question a-

* I stated near the close of Letter V. thnt there are no shepherd dogs large and powerful enough to en-
counter and kill wolves and vagrant dogs, except the great Sheep-dog of Spain, and that he is so ferocioiu
thet he might frequently bring his owner into difficulty, and even endanger human life. — I was mistaken.
Crosses between this and other species seems to have mitigated the ferocity of the Spanish dog, and BtUI
left it within the power of two to overcome a wolf, as will appear from what follows.

* Buffon'a Natural History, vol. v., pp. 306, 318.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

281

hie lineage. The temper and disposition of the two species, too, seems tc
me to be essentially different.

Mr. Trimmer, and various other foreign writers, speak in warm terms
of the value of the Spanish sheep-dog, for guarding the migratory flocks
of that country from the attacks of wolves — staying behind to protect fee-
ble and lagging sheep, &c. In the Memoirs of the Pennsylvania Agricul-
tural Society, there is a communication from the well-known John Haie
Powell, Esq., of Philadelphia, from which the following are extracts : —

" The first importations of Merino sheep were accompanied by some of the large ar.d
powerful dogs of Spain, possessing all the valuable characteristics of the English shepherd"*

dog, with sagacity, fidelity and strength peculiar to themselves Their ferocity, when

aroused by any intruder, their attachment to their own flock, and devotion to their master
would, in the uncultivated parts of America, make them an acquisition of infinite value, by
affording a defence against wolves, which they readily kill, and vagrant cur dogs, by which
our flocks are often destroyed. The force of their instinctive attachment to sheep, and then
resolution in attacking every dog which passes near to their charge, have been forcibly
evinced upon my farm. '

Fia 71.

AKROGANTK — A SPANISH SHEEP-DOO

Arrogante, whose portrait is above given with admirable fidelity, was
imported from Spain with a flock of Merinos, a number of years since, by
a gentleman residing near Bristol, England. His subsequent owner,
Francis Rotch, Esq., of this State, thus describes him in a letter to me,
which, though not intended for publication, I will venture to make a few
extracts from :

" I have, as you desired, made you a sketch of the Spanish sheep-dog Arrogante, and a
villainous looking rascal he is. A worse countenance I hardly ever saw on a dog . His
small blood-shot eyes, set close together, give him that sinister, wolfish look, which is most
unattractive ; but his countenance is indicative of his character. There was nothing affec-
tionate or joyous about him. He never forgaye an injury or an insult: offend him. and it
was for life. I have often been struck with his resemblance to his nation. He was proud
and reserved in the extreme, but not quarrelsome. Every little cur would fly out at him,
as at some strange animal; and I have seen them fasten for a moment on his heavy, bushy tail,
and yet he would stride on; never breaking his long, ' loping,' shambling trot. Once I saw him

2 N

282 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

turn, and the retribution was awful ! It was upon a large, powerful mastiff' we kept as «
night-guard in the Bank. He then put forth his strength, which proved tremendous ! H.t
coat hung about him in thick, loose, matted folds, dirty and uncared-for, — so that I presume
a dog never got hold of anything about him deeper than his thick, tough skin, which was
twice too large to fit him anywhere, and especially around the neck and shoulders. Tho
only other evidence of his uncommon strength which T had observed, was the perfect eas<»
with which he threw himself over a high wall or paling, which often drew my attention,
because he seemed to me wanting in that particular physical development which wo are
accustomed to consider as necessary to muscular power. He was flat-chested, and flat-
Hided, with a somewhat long back and narrow loin. (My drawing foreshortens his length.)
Flis neck, forearm and thigh certainly indicated strength. If the Spanish wolf and the dog
ever cohabit, he most assuredly had in him such a cross ; the very effluvia of the animal be-
trayed it. In all in which he differed from the beautiful Spanish shepherd-dog, he waa
wolfish both in form and habits.* But, though no parlor beauty, Arrogante was unquestion-
ably a dog of immense value to the mountain-shepherd. Several times, he had met the
large wolf of the Appenines, and without aid slain his antagonist. The shepherds who bred
him said it was an affair of no doubtful issue, when he encountered a wolf single-handed.
Mis history, after reaching England, you know."

Some portions of that history I cannot resist the temptation of narrating,
as illustrative of the character of this interesting breed, and commemora-
tive of the virtues of the stern, but honest and dauntless Arrogante. If
his courage was tinctured with ferocity, and sometimes instigated by a
revenge, going a little beyond the canon which permits bad debts to be
paid in kind, he did everything openly ! He made no sneakish, cur:lik"e
attacks, on the heels of his foe. By him, as by Robin Hood and his merry
men — commemorated by Drayton —

" Who struck below the kme [was] not counted then a man ;"

and his spring was always at the tliroat of his quarry. But he made not
that deadly spring until he gave " warning fair and true," and never with-
out provocation.!

Soon after Arrogante's arrival in England, a ewe under his charge
chanced to get cast in a ditch, during the temporary absence of the Span-
ish shepherd who had accompanied the flock and dog at their importation.
An English shepherd, in a spirit of vaunting, insisted on relieving the fal-
len sheep, in preference to having the absent shepherd called, though
warned by his companions to desist. The stern stranger dog met him at
the gate and also warned him with sullen growls, growing more menacing
as he approached the sheep. The shepherd was a powerful and bold man,
and felt that it was too late now to retract with credit. On reaching the
sheep, he bent carefully forward, with his eyes on the dog, which instantly
made a spring at his throat. A quick forward movement of his arm saved
his throat, but the arm was so dreadfully lacerated that immediate am-
putation became necessary. To save the dog, which had but done his
duty, as he 7tad been tauglit it, from the popular excitement, he was ship-
ped in a vessel which sailed that very afternoon, from Bristol for America.
He was sent to Francis Rotch, Esq., then a resident of New-Bedford.

For a long time Arrogante would not pay the least attention to his new
master ; the voice of the latter would scarcely arrest him for a moment.
After attempting in vain, for several weeks, to obtain some recognition of
mastership from him, Mr. Rotch chained him securely to a tree, punished
him severely, and then, with not a few misgivings, released him. But he
submitted, for he well knew that the punishment came from his master,
and afterward gave a cold, haughty obedience to all required of him.

* I never have supposed, from the several conversations which I have had with Mr. Rotch on the sub
ject, that Arrogante was anything less than a thorough-bred Spanish shepherd-dop. Mr. Rotch here means
that he was an ill-favored individual of the family — and he thinks that this may be owing lo a bar-sinistrt
s»n his escutcheon, left there by eome wolfish gallant. His temper was even less ferocious than Mr. Powel'
ijewibes that of At* Spanish dogs.

• Was there anything wolf-like in all of this K

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 283

Stupid ami apparently sleeping much of the day, nothing, however,
es -aped his observation, or was subsequently erased from his memory. li
led round a building, or enclosure, or even an open space, at night-fall, in
a manner to evince particular design, during the entire night like a senti-
nel he traversed some part of the guarded ring, permitting neither man nor
beast to pass in or out from it.

Arroguiite was a " temperance man," of the straightest sect — an out-arid
out teetotaler — and if tolerant of deviations from his creed, he could bear
none, from the sobriety of his practice. Never would he confess acquain-
tance with a drunken man — though the hand of that man fed him. The
bailiff, who usually fed Arrogante, used occasionally to come home late in
the evening a little "J&tt/'and never could he in this condition get his foot
on the premises ! The old man has plead guilty to more than one night's
lodgings on the ground, in consequence of Arrogante's temperance scru-
ples.

On one occasion a couple of sailors, to take advantage of the tide, came
unexpectedly, and without giving any notice, on the farm, at 3 A. M., to
take away some potatoes they had purchased. Arrogante thought it
was not so " nominated in the bond ;" he forced them to clamber into an
empty cart, and there he kept them until morning. They tried the expe-
riment of putting a leg over the side once or twice, but were admonished
in too unequivocal a manner to keep quiet, to need any farther hints.
They lost the tide, and were in great tribulation, but, like honest fellows,,
confessed the fault was their own.

I might, did limits allow, recount many more anecdotes displaying the
iron determination and fixed precision with which this noble dog obeyed
his instructions in guarding sheep or other property committed to his
charge. He was a decided " strict constructionist," swerving not from the
letter of his commission, and woe to him who attempted to countervail the
tenor of that commission !

Drunkenness was destined to prove as fatal as it was detestable, to Arro-
gante. A gentleman occupied a cottage orne by the sea-side, the lane to
which ran along the farm, and near the stable which Arrogante made his
head-quarters, when not on particular duty. The gentleman wan reg-
ularly introduced to him, and warned against ever provoking him. Re-
turning him home late one Saturday evening on horseback, from a conviv-
ial meeting, as he galloped through the lane, he met the dog, and wan-
tonly struck him or struck at him with a hunting-whip. He was a large
man, and rode a tall, powerful horse, and being under speed, he escaped
before the astonished dog recovered from his surprise. But the insulted
blood of Castile rushed in boiling currents through the veins of the mad-
dened Arrogante. He felt, like his countryman De Lerma, in Epes Sar-
gent's tragedy of Velasco —

" Struck like a menitil ! buffeted ! degraded !
Spare not my life, if mercy thou would show,
Thou givest me back only what thou hast made
A burden, a disgrace, a misery !"

But AiTOgante frit both the power and will to avenge himself, and he
resolved on a bloody retribution.

The next mcrning the gentleman was on his way to church, mounted as
oefore. The dog heard and knew the tread of his horse, rose from his laii
in the stable, walked to the road-side, and stood grimly awaiting his in-
Bulter. When the latter had approached within a few yards, Arrogante,
like a missile projected from a catapult, met him in the air, in a deadly
spring at his throat. The sudden jump and swerve of the frightened and

284 SHEEP HLSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

very active horse, saved the rider's throat and his life — but so narrowly
nad he escaped, that he felt the gnashing teeth of the frenzied brute
scrape down his dress, where they came in contact with and closed upon
his watch, tearing it away with the adjacent clothing. The horseman fled
for his life, while the baffled dog vented his rage on the gold watch
which he had captured, by chewing it into atoms ! The cause of this ter
rible onset not being disclosed at the time, Mr. R., though convinced from
the character of the dog that he had not been the aggressor, felt constrain-
ed to give orders to have him shot.

THE HUNGARIAN SHEEP-DOG. — The following description of the Hunga-
rian Sheep-Dog, occurs in Paget's " Hungary and Transylvania :"*

" It would be unjust to quit the subject of the Puszta Shepherd without making due and
honorable mention of his constant companion and friend, the juhfisz-hulya — the Hungarian
shepherd dog. The shepherd dog is comnjonly white, sometimes inclined to a reddish
brown, and about the size of our Newfoundland dog. His sharp nose, short erect ears,
shaggy coat, and bushy tail give him much the appearance of a wolf ; indeed, so great is the
resemblance, that I have known a Hungarian gentleman mistake a wolf for one of his own
dogs. Except to their masters, they are so savage that it is unsafe for a stranger to enter the
court-yard of a Hungarian cottage, withoulanns. I speak from experience ; for as I was walk-
ing through the yard of a post-house, where some of these dogs were lying about, apparently
asleep, one of them crept after me, and inflicted a severe wound on my leg, of which I stiil
bear the marks. Before I could turn round, the dog was already far off ; for. like the wolf,
they bite by snapping, but never hang to the object like the bull-dog or mastiff. Their saga-
city in driving and guarding the sheep and cattle, and their courage in protecting them from
wolves and robbers, are highly praised ; and the shepherd is so well aware of the value of a
good one, that it is difficult to induce him to part with it."

I have little doubt that the Hungarian dogs above described are the
descendants of the Spanish ones, introduced into Hungary with the Meri-
no sheep, though possibly they maybe somewhat crossed by interbreeding
with the dogs of the country.

THE MEXICAN SHEEP-DOG. — The following acccount of these noble dog8
appears as a communication from Mr. J. H. Lyman, in the third volume of
the American Agriculturist :t

;< Although Mr. Kendall and some other writers have described this wonderful animal as
a cross of the Newfoundland dog, such, I think, cannot be the fact; on the contrary, I have
no doubt he is a genuine descendant of the Alphie mastiff, or more properly, Spanish shep-
herd dog introduced by them at the time of the Conquest. He is only to be found in the
sheep-raising districts of New Mexico. The other Mexican dogs, which number more than
a thousand to one of these noble animals, are the results of a cross of everything under the
sun having any affinity to the canine race, and even of a still nobler class of animals if Mexi-
can stories are to be credited. It is believed in Mexico, that the countless mongrels of that
country owe their origin to the assistance of the various kinds of wolves, mountain cats,
lynxes, and to almost if not every class of four-footed carnivorous animals. Be this as it may,
those who have not seen them can believe as much as they like ; but eye-witnesses can assert,
that there never was a country blessed with a greater and more abundant variety of misera-
rable, snarling, cowardly packs, than the mongrel dogs of Mexico. That country of a surety
would be the plague-spot of this beautiful world, were it not for the redeeming character ol
the truly noble shepherd dog, endowed as it is with almost human intellect. I have often
thought, when observing the sagacity of this animal, that if very many of the human race
possessed one half of the power of inductive reasoning which seems to be the gift of this
animal, that it would be far better for themselves and for their fellow-creatures.

The peculiar education of these dogs is one of the most important and interesting steps
pursued by the shepherd. His method is to select from a multitude of pups a few of tho
healthiest and finest-looking, and to put them to a sucking ewe, first depriving her of her
own lamb. By force, as well as from a natural desire she has to be relieved of the con-
tents of her udder, she soon learns to look upon the little interlopers with all the affection
she would manifest for her own natural offspring. For the first £ »w days the pups are kept
In the hut, the ewe suckling them morning and evening only ; but gradually, as she be-

• Hungary and Transylvania, by John Paget. Esq., vol. ii., p. 12, et supra* f P««e 94L

SHEEP HUSBANDR\ IJN THE SOUTH. 285

comes accustomed to their sight, she is allowed to run in a small enclosure with them until
she becomes so perfectly familiar with their appearance as to take the entire charge of
them. After this they are folded with the whole flock for a fortnight or so, they then run
about during the day with the flock, which after a while becomes so accustomed to them, na
to be able to distinguish them from other clogs — even from those of the same litter which
have not been nursed among them. The shepherds usually allow the slut to keep one of
a litter for her own particular benefit ; the balance are generally destroyed.

After the pups are weaned, they never leave the particular drove among which they have
been reared. Not even the voice of their master can entice them beyond sight of the ftock;
neither hunger or thirst can do it. I have been credibly informed of an instance where a
single dog having charge of a small flock of sheep, was allowed to wander with them about
the mountains, while the shepherd returned to his village for a few days, having perfect
confidence in the ability of his dog to look after the flock during his absence, but with a
Rtrange want of foresight as to the provision of the dog for his food. Upon his return to tho
flock^he found it several miles from where left, but on the road leading to the village, and
the poor faithful animal in the agonies of death, dying of starvation, even in the midst oj
plenty ; yet the flock had not been harmed by him. A reciprocal affection exists between
them which may put to blush many of the human family. The poor dog recognized
them only as brothers and dearly loved friends ; he was ready at all times to lay down
his life for them ; to attack not only wolves and mountain cats, with the confidence of vic-
tory, but even the bear, when there could be no hope. Of late years, when the shepherds
of New Mexico have suffered so much from Indian marauders, instances have frequently
occurred where the dog has not hesitated to attack his human foes, and although transfix-
ed with arrows, his indomitable courage and faithfulness have been such as to compel his
assailants to pin him to the earth with spears, and hold him there until dispatched with
stones.

In the above instance the starving dog could have helped himself to one of his little bro-
ther lambs, or could have deserted the sheep, and very soon have reached the settlements
where there was food for him. But faithful even unto death, he would neither leave nor
molest them, but followed the promptings of his instinct to lead into the settlement; their
unconsciousness of his wants and slow motions in traveling were too much for his exhaust-
ing strength.

These shepherds are very nomadic in character. They are constantly moving about
their camp equipage consisting merely of a kettle and a bag of meal ; their lodges are made
in a few minutes, of branches, &c., thrown against cross-sticks. They very seldom go out
in the day-time with their flocks, intrusting them entirely^with their dogs, which faithfully
return them at night, never permitting any stragglers behind or lost. Sometimes different
flocks are brought into the same neighborhood owing to scarcity of grass, when the wonder-
ful instincts of the shepherds' dogs are most beautifully displayed ; and to my astonishment,
who have been an eye-witness of such scenes, if two flocks approach 'within a few yards of

kindly

happens, if many make a rush and succeed in joining the other flock, the dogs under whose
charge they are, go over and bring them all out, but, strange to say, under such circumstances
they are never opposed by the other do<*s. They approach the strange sheep only to prevent
their own from leaving the flock, though they offer no assistance in expelling the other sheep
But they never permit sheep not under canine protection, nor dogs not in charge of sheep,
to approach them. Even the same dogs which are so freely permitted to enteiM.heir flocks
in search of their own, are driven away with ignominy if they presume to approach them
without that laudable object in view.

Many anecdotes could be related of the wonderful instinct of these dogs. I very much
doubt if there are shepherd dogs in any other part of the world except Spain, equal to those
of New-Mexico in value. The famed Scotch and English dogs sink into insignificance by
the side of them. Their superiority may be owing to the peculiar mode of rearing them,
but they are certainly very noble animals, naturally of large size, and highly deserving to be
introduced into the United States. A pair of them will easily kill a wolf, and flocks under
their care need not fear any common enemy to be found in our country.

J. H. LYMAN."

Mr. Kendall* speaks of meeting, on the Grand Prairie,

—a flock numbering seventeen thousand, which immense herd was guarded by a very few
men, assisted by a large number of noble dogs, which appeared gifted with the faculty of
keeping them together. There was no running about, no bai'king or biting in their system
of tactics ; or the contrary, they were continually walking up and down, like faithful senti
nels, on the outer side of the flock, and should any sheep chance to stray from its fellows,
the dog on duty at that particular post, would walk gently up, take him carefully by the ear

* Vcl I., p. 268.

286 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

and lead him back to the flock. Not the .east fear did the sheep manifest a* the approach
:»f these dogs, and there was no occasion for it.

These noble animals seem, according to these and various otjier corre-
sponding accounts I have seen of them, to leave nothing to desire in the wcy
of a sheep-dog, either for guarding or managing flocks. They would be in-
valuable in our Southern States, to protect the flocks from the cur-dogs
which so often attack them, and from the occasional wolves. I hope
efforts will be made to introduce them into our country, and then they
should be bred in the utmost purity.

SOUTH AMERICAN SHEEP-DOG. — Similar to the preceding in character
and habits, are the sheep-dogs to be found in various parts of South Amer-
ica. They, too, are undoubtedly an offshoot from the Spanish stem.
The following interesting account of them is from Darwin's Journal :

." While staying at this estancia (in Banda Oriental), I was amused with 'what I saw and
heard of the shepherd dogs of the country. When riding, it is a common thing to meet a
large flock of sheep guarded by one or two dogs, at the distance of sdme miles from any
house or man. I often wondered how so firm a friendship had been established. The
method of education consists in separating the puppy, when very young, from the bitch,
and in accustoming it to its future companions. A ewe is held three or four times a day
for the little thing to suck, and a nest of wool ig made for it in the sheep-pen. — At no time
is it allowed to associate with other dogs, or with the children of the family. The puppy,
moreover, is generally castrated ; so that when grown up, it can scarcely have any feelinga
in common with the rest of its kind. From this education it has no wish to leave the flock,
and just as another dog will defend its master, man, so will these the sheep. It is amusing
to observe, when approaching a flock, how the dog immediately advances barking — and the
sheep all close in his rear as if round the oldest ram. These dogs are also easily taught to
bring home the flock at a certain time in the evening. Their most troublesome fault "when
young is their desire of playing with the sheep, tor in their play, they sometimes gallop their
jioor subjects most unmercifully. The shepherd dog comes to the house every day for
some meat, and immediately it is given to him he skulks away as if ashamed of himself.
On these occasions the house dogs are very tyrannical, and the least of them will attack
and pursue the stranger. The minute, however, the latter has reached the flock, he turns
round and begins to bark, and then all the house dogs take very quickly to their
heels. In a similar manner a whole pack of hungry wild dogs will scarcely ever (and I was
told by some, never), venture to attack a flock guarded even by one of these faithful shepherds.
The whole account appears to me a curious instance of the pliability of the affections of the
dog race ; and yet, whether wild, or however educated, with a mutual feeling of respect and
fear for those that are fulfilling their instinct of association. For we can understand on no
principle the wild dogs being driven away by the single one with its flock, except that they
consider, from some confused notion, that the one thus associated gains power, as if in com-
pany with its own kind. F. Cuvier has observed that all animals which enter into domes-
tication consider Man as a member of their society, and thus they fulfil their instinct of asso-
ciation. In the above case the shepherd dogs rank the sheep as their brethren; and the
wild dogs, though knowing that the individual sheep are not dogs, but are good to eat, yet
partly consent to this view, when seeing them in a flock, with a shepherd dog at their
head!"

OTHER LARGE RACES OF SHEEP-DOGS. — There are one or two fine species
in France, as those of Brie, and Auvergne. In a letter from G. W.
Lafayette, to John S. Skinner, Esq., the latter are pronounced equal to
the Spanish dogs.* Large powerful races, everywhere possessing the
same general characteristics, are to be found in almost every country
excepting our own, where the fine-wooled breeds of sheep have been ex
J,ensively introduced. With a commerce extending to all the maritime
nations of the world, singular it is that so little pains have been taken to
introduce them.

THE ENGLISH SHEEP-DOG. — The following are portraits of a Diovei's dog,

* See Fanners' Library, Vol. i., p. 465.

SHEEP HUSBANDIU IN THE SOUTH.

287

and a Scotch Colley slut, imported by B. Gates, of Gap Grove, Lee Co
Illinois. They are taken from The Farmers* Libiary.*

Fig. 72.

DROVER'S DOG, AND COLLET SLUT.

The Drover's dog, or English sheep-dog, or Butcher's dog — for by an
of these names is he known — is considerably smaller than the specieo CT
families heretofore described, but he is a larger and more powerful dog
than the Colley. Mr. Gates, in the communication accompanying the
portraits, remarks :

" Much has already been written on the intelligence of the Scotch Colley. My opinion is
that the English " Butcher's dog" is no way lacking on that point. Any reader who has
visited Smithfield market in London, on Monday or Friday, will, no doubt, have formed the
same opinion. There you have an opportunity of seeing a number of these useful animals
at their work. It would, in fact, be almost impossible to conduct this market without their
aid. There a vast number of different animals are brought for sale from all parts of the
country, to supply this great metropolis, and are collected in the smallest possible space.

-the dog always holding them by
head, so as not to bruise the body. By a Word or motion of the hand, they will run over
the backs of the sheep, to stop them or turn them in a different direction. I have often
admired, with astonishment, their quick and intelligent actions. They appear to read the
thoughts of their master by his countenance, for their eye is continually on his, or the flock.
Nothing else can attract his attention when he has work to perform, and at times I have
thought he acted with more judgment than the owner. . . . The breed of " Boxer," (whose
portrait is above given,) is sometimes called the Drover's or Tailless breed."

Mr. Colman, in one of his Reports, says:

" For a week or more before the tryst, the roads leading to Falkink will be found crowded
with successive droves of cattle and sheep, proceeding to this central point ; and it is ex
Uemely curious on the field to see with what skill and care the different parties and herdt
We kept together by themselves. In this matter the shepherds are generally assisted by

* Vcl. i. p. 575.

288

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

their dogs, which appear endowed with a sagacity almost human, and almost to know every
Individual belonging to their charge. They are sure,, with an inflexible pertinacity, to bricg
back a deserter to the flock."

Mr T. C. Peters, (now of Buffalo, N. Y.,) on his return from Europe, a
few years since, brought over a Drover and a Colley. His testimony to
their extraordinary value will be found in the American Agriculturist, vol.
iii., page 76.

Fig. 73

THE COLLEY.

THE SCOTCH SHEEP-DOG OR COLLEY. — The light, active, sagacious Colley
admits of no superior — scarcely of an .equal — where it is his business
merely to. manage his flock, and not to defend them from beasts larger
than himself. Mr. Hogg says that " a single shepherd and his dog will
accomplish more in gathering a flock of sheep from a Highland farm than
twenty shepherds could do without dogs. Neither hunger, fatigue, nor
the worst treatment will drive him from his master's side, and he will
follow him through every hardship without murmur or repining."

The same well-known writer, in a letter in Blackwood's Magazine, gives
a most glowing description of the qualities of his Colley, " Sirrah." One
night a flock of lambs, under his care, frightened at something, made
what we call in America a regular stampede, scattering over the hills in
several different bodies, . " Sirrah, " exclaimed Hogg in despair, " they're
a' awa ! " The dog dashed off through the darkness. After spending
with his assistants, the whole night in a fruitless search after the fugitives,
Mr. Hogg commenced his return to his master's house. Coming to a
deep ravine, they found Sirrah in charge, as they at first supposed, of one
of the scattered divisions, but what was their joyful surprise to find that
not a lamb of the whole flock was missing !

Of the stanch devotedness of the Colley, under any and all circuni

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. f 289

stances, Mr. Peters gives, in the American Agriculturist, the following
characteristic illustration, copied from a Scotch paper:

" The master of the bitch purchased at a fair some eighty sheep, and having occasion to
tay a day longer, sent them forward and directed his faithful Colley to drive them home, a,
distance of about 17 miles. The poor bitch, when a few miles on the road, dropped two
whelps; but faithful to her charge, she drove the sheep on a mile or two farther — then
allowing them to stop, she returned for her pups, which she carried some two miles in
advance of the sheep, and thus she continued to do, alternately carrying her own young ones,
and taking charge of the flock, till she reached home. The manner of her acting on this
occasion was gathered by the shepherd from various persons who had observed her on the
roud. "

The Colleyo aie not no\r uncommon in the Northern States, and I have
often seen proofs of their singular sagacity in collecting, driving, and
gliding sheep, and in catching out one from the flock when directed by
their masteis. I have often seen one drive a flock of fifty or sixty sheep
through a crowed street, encountering teams, pedestrians, and other dogs
at every r»tep — without the slightest assistance.

THE GHEE? TO THE DOG. — It is a mistake to suppose that a
trained sheep-dog will manage any strange flock, however wild and unac-
customed to such company. The sheep must be gradually made acquainted
with, and accustomed to the dog. They must know — and they will
readily learn it — that he is their friend, their guardian and protector,
instead of that hereditary enemy which their instinct teaches them to fly
from. A vy.int of knowledge of this fact has frequently led to disappoint-
ment and disgust, to a giving up of the valuable dog which it has cost
pains and money to procure. Mr. Skinner relates a ludicrous incident of
Mr. Jefferson, arising from his not being apprized of this fact. A thoroughly
broken sheep-dog had been sent him from abroad, and the great Sage of
Monticello, after having held forth ore rotundo to some visitors, on the
value of these dogs, and their immense convenience — nay, their indispens-
ability in managing flocks, led forth his guests to give a practical exempli-
fication of the qualities of his dog. At the word, the latter made for the
sheep. The terrified animals fled in all directions, some of them dashing
themselves over precipices and breaking their necks. The dog either
shared the same fate, or, mortified at his failure, felt his pride too deeply
wounded to return. Mr. Jefferson never recovered him !

WOOL DEPOTS.

Commission merchants who confine their operations exclusively to th*
sale of Wool, have opened large stores or " Depots," at three or four points
in the Northern States. Of the origin of this system, Mr. H. Blanchard,
of Kinderhook, N. Y., thus spoke at the Agricultural meeting at the
Assembly Chamber, Albany, Feb. 3, 1848 :

" From* facts that were ascertained by Hon. J. P. Beekman, (then President of the N. \
State Agricultural Society,) at the State Fair held in Poughkeepsie, in 1844, he became con
vinced that the growers of Dutchess county, by reason of the superior facilities afforded
them for the sale of their fine wools, were procuring from six to eight cents per pound more
than many wool-growers in other sections of the State who produced the same quality of
wool. The large quantity of fine wool grown in that county, offered great inducements foi
manufacturers ana purchasers of fine wool to make that a place of resort to obtain their sup
plies, and thus a fair competition was awakened, which resulted in a just appreciation of the
relative value of their wools, and remunerating prices to the fine wool grower. Soon after
Or. B.'s return, the evils consequent upon the system of selling wools in our county, as weL
es elsewhere, became a matter of discussion between him and other wool-growers in our
•":cinity and myself, the result of which was a request from them that I would open what
we now term a " Wool Depot." The principles involved in the depot system are not new
u oeing conducted upon those of a commission business ; but it is only the details and annli

2O

290 SHEEP HUSBANDRY TN THE SOUTH.

cation of these principles to wool when received direct from the grower, that had never be-
fore in this country been applied in the same discriminating manner, and with as little
expense as by this system."

The objects and advantages of the system, and the method of conduct-
ing these establishments are clearly set forth in the following letter from
my friend Mr. Peters, to whom, as a keeper of one of these Depots, and &
gentleman of conceded ability — as well as skill, energy and su;cesa
\n this and in his other business operations — I thought it appropriate to
apply for this information.

H. S. RANDALL, Esq. BUFFALO. N. Y., Dec. 16, 1847.

My Dear Sir: Your kind favor of the 12th inst., making inquiries relative to the Wool
D£pot system, is before me.

It will give me pleasure to answer your queries, not that by so doing I can add anything
to the exceeding great value of your Letters to the whole country, ajid especially to the
South and West — yet from my own experience as a wool-grower, and in the management
of a Wool Depot which I established at this place last spring, I may give some information
that will be useful to your readers, and may they be millions. In so doing, I will give you
1st, An account of the object; 2d, The method of doing business ; and 3d, The advantages
of the Wool Depot system.

THE OBJECT. — Upon no sheep is the wool exactly alike over the whole body ; nor is the
wool exactly alike upon any single flock. In most flocks there is a great diversity — greater
than there should be for the farmer's profit. There is, then, a variety of grades of wool in
every flock, and in every section of the country where wool is grown.

Manufacturers first grade the wool ; that is, sort the fleeces, making from five to eight or
nine different grades. Bach fleece is then opened, and stapled, or sorted into the various
grades of the factoiy. Some manufactories use only the finest, others only the coarsest, and
others again use only one kind of the intermediate sorts, so that from' a single flock, I
sold this year wool to five different manufacturers, no one wanting or working the kind that
the other wanted.

The object of the Wool Depot .is to sort and arrange the wool, that the manufacturer can
readily obtain the particular kind adapted to his machinery, and to obtain for each sort its
fair market value.

METHOD OF DOING BUSINESS. — The system originated with Mr. H. Blanchard, at Kinder-
hook, some three years ago. Last year, we sent our wool to Mr. Blanchard, and during the
winter I visited his establishment, and was so well satisfied with the operation of it, and
of the vital importance of the system to the wool-growers everywhere, that I at once made
arrangements to open one at this point. I accordingly commenced operalions in the spring,
and have been successful beyond my most sanguine expectations.

I have a competent and experienced sorter, and when wool is sent in, it is at once sorted
in the fleece, each sort weighed, and entered in a book under the name of the person send-
ing it.

I have adopted Mr. Blanchard's method of sorting, as experience has shown that to be the
best, under all circumstances. I make, then, five sorts, taking full-blooded Merino for No.
1, and grading down to coarse common wool, which is No. 5. Saxony I grade into Extra,
Prime 1, and Prime 2. Then there is a kind of wool which is admirable for combing, and
another kind that is wanted for De Lairies ; — these form five more sorts, making thus ten
sorts. But as there is such a difference in the condition of wool when brought into the
Depot, I usually make two 'sorts of each number. Thus I have No. 2, and No. 2 A. No. 2
is usually good, but No. 2 A is of the same grade, but is in bet.ver coalition, every way *
choice article, but still not fine enough to go into a higher grade. The wool is actually
worth two or three cents per Ib. more than the other number to which it belongs, and but
fc>r making this distinction, would not bring its full value. When the wool is properly sorted,
it is piled up in a manner that will enable the-purchaser to see it at a good advantage ; — in-
sured, an:l held until the market requires it. I make all my sales here, and for cash
When the sales are closed, an account is made out and sent to those who have sent me their
wool; usually, an account is rendered as fast as any part of a man's wool is sold. I have
often been asked, how I could tell whether any man's wool was sold, unless the whole of a
eort was sold at a time. It is very easy. Suppose A. has 100 Ibs. of No. 1, and I have sold
20,000 Ibs. out of 40,000 Ibs. — that being the whole amount in the Depot. I have sold one-
aalf of each man's No. 1, and I turn to A.'s account and give him credit for 50 Ibs. sold, and
su go through and credit each man with his proportion of that number sold.

The charges are, for receiving, sorting, and selling, one cent per Ib. , and the insurance—
which is usually about 30 cts. on $100, for three months. Cartage from the dock is usually
tlr'ee cents per bale. The sacks are returned or sold at the option of the owner. They are

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 291

worth about fifty cents, more or less, according to their condition- Each
is carefully examined ; if put up in bad order, it is so noted, and a deduction made by
!he sorter, to make it as it should be. So that it is no object for a man to send to the Depot
wool in a bad condition.

THE ADVANTAGES. — The foregoing facts would seem to be so plain that it cannot be
necessary to refer to the advantages. No man, however, is more at the mercy of the specu-
lator, than the wool-grower. The very fact that he has so many kinds of wool in his clip,
prevents him from ascertaining the market value of the whole, for being in comparatively
small quantities, he has not enough, if ever so well sorted, to make it an object for the differ-
ent manufacturers to visit him. He is therefore compelled to sell his whole clip at the
price of his present quality, and at prices from five to fifteen cents per Ib. under the real
market value of his wool. Allow me to illustrate by an example. A farmer has his wheat,
corn, oats, and barley, all mixed, and carries it to market in this condition. Will anybody
give him the value of each kind of grain? On the contrary, they_ would not be willing to
pay even the value of the cheapest kind. And yet each kind by itself has a market value/
Precisely in the same situation is the wool-grower, except that he has no means of knowing
the value of the various sorts of wool, except from the speculator.

The advantage of the Depot system, then, is, that there his wool is properly sorted. The
wheat is separated from the corn, the corn from the oats, and the oats from the barley, and
each is- made to bring its fair mai-ket value. By having an extensive correspondence among
the manufacturers throughout the country, I am kept constantly advised of the market ; and
knowing the price of cloth in the cities, I am enabled to know to a certainty what the price
of the various grades of wool should be.

When th« manufacturer can get the kind of wool he wants, and in large quantities, he is
willing to pay, and does pay a better price than when he has to buy that which he does not
want, to get the right sort. It also equalizes the market, and brings the producer and the
manufacturer together, without being compelled to pay agents or speculators, and prevents
that fluctuation of the market which is always produced by speculation.

But there is another very great advantage growing out of the system. It enables the wool-
growers in the various sections of the country to compare wool, and to know who has really
the best and most profitable kinds of sheep. It has been strikingly manifest with me thir
season. For I have been enabled to point out to people in different States West, where
they could find the most profitable sheep, by the wool which had been sent me. And in-
one instance men had been over five hundred miles after sh'eep, and paid high prices, when
there were sheep in their own town worth double the money.

There is no difficulty in sending wool here from any part of the country bordering upon
the Ohio, or its tributaiies. The expense of transportation will range from one to one and
a half cents per Ib. — depending much upon the bargain made with the clipper. I have re-
ceived wool this year from all the Western States, in some instances as far West as the Mis*
sissippi River, and the average cost for freight has been about one cent per Ib.

It was urged by many last spring that this city was not a good point, inasmuch as it wa».
not sufficiently central in its location. For nothing is more certain, than that a wool Depot,,
to be successful, must be so located as to command a large amount of wool. The larger
amount you can concentrate at a point, the more rapid and sure will be your sales. To this
city the products of the West naturally tend, and to this point the producer can calculate with
great certainty when, and at what expense it will arrive. But after its trans-shipment here,
expenses accumulate, without any corresponding benefit. And it is peculiarly so, in regard
to wool, coming as it often does in bad order, sacks torn, broken, and wet.

But I have made my letter already longer than I intended, and in speaking of my own.
Depot have perhaps gone more into detail than is necessary.

This much I must be permitted to say to every wool-grower, that the Wool Depot system,,
properly conducted and patronized, is indispensable to ultimate and profitable success.

I remain, my dear sir,

Very sincerely yours,

T. C. PETERS

*

Messrs. Perkins and Brown have a Depot at Springfield, Mass. ; and'
I believe the establishment of two or three others is in contemplation, by
companies or individuals.

Conducted with skill and fidelity, there can be but little doubt that these
establishments are alike beneficial to the wool-grower and manufacturer,
That Mr. Blanchard's and Mr. Peters's have thus far been so conducted, there
is not the least doubt. Of the other I know nothing, though report speaks
well of it. The design was not regarded with much favor, in the out
set, by many of our most extensive wool-growers. They preferred to " dr

29%; SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

theifcown business," and not "pay the wages of an intermediate agent.'
But the advantages derived from selling the wool in sorted lots, have been
found to far more than overbalance the one cent per pound paid to the
" agent" or Depot keeper, and the system is rapidly gaining favor. Many
of our most experienced wool growers in this State — men the most com-
petent to favorably dispose of their wool — have sent their wool to Messrs.
Blanchard and Peters, and I have yet to see or hear of the first person
who has been disappointed in the result.

If wool Depots are beneficial in the North, where the agents of different
manufacturers, and " speculators," visit every man's barn to bid on his
wool — and among a class of growers, too, who, from long experience, are
familiar with the qualities and comparative values of the staple — how
much more beneficial would they be to regions in which the growers are
so scattered that they are rarely visited by traveling agents — or if so, not
in numbers sufficient to produce that competition which would compel them
to offer the fair market value of the article : and where, perhaps, in many
cases, the growers themselves have not sufficient experience to determine
the exact grade of their own clips, even supposing them correctly notified
from time to time from abroad, of the market value of the several grades
The Depot system, in my judgment, removes the great and only serious obsta-
cle to successful wool-growing in the Souths

It is not necessary that Depots be established in the Southern States, tc
have those States reap the full benefit of the system. For the present, and
for some time to come, at least, the North will furnish the best home mar-
ket for fine wools. The wool therefore must, until some changes take
place, come to the North before it is sold ; and the transportation must be
equally subtracted from the avails, whether the sale is effected at home or
at a Northern wool Depot. Indeed, it would be better to store it in a De-
pot at Kinderhook or Buffalo, than at Charleston or Nashville. And
this is for the reason that the two former are much nearer to, and can be
more speedily visited by the principal woolen manufacturers of the Uni-
ted States, than the latter. The New- York -or New-England manufac-
turer would be little likely to send an agent to Charleston or Nashville, if
he could supply his wants equally cheaply (with the addition of cost of
transportation), from Buffalo, Kinderhook, or Springfield. And if supplied
any more cheaply at the former places (price of transportation excepted),
be it remembered, it would be so much unnecessarily taken out of the pocket
of the grower.

Should the South at any future day find it more for her interest to ship
her wools to Europe, the above considerations will cease to be valid. She
would then want Depots as much as now, for far more gain, proportiona-
bly, is made by sorting wool for the foreign, than the American markets.
But in that event, the Depots would assume a different character, and
they would be most appropriately located at the port whence the wools
were shipped.

A CORRECTION.— MR. RUFFIN.

In the beginning of Letter VI., 1 made the following remark in relation
to Hon. Edmund Ruffin — " He seems to think lime, of itself, adequate to
the full and permanent amelioration of the tertiary soils." — This remark
was made on a somewhat too hasty inspection of some of Mr. Ruflin's po-
sitions in the Agricultural Survey of South Carolina. Since writing it, I
nave had the pleasure of reading for the first time Mr. R.'s highly valua-
ble work on Calcareous Manures, and find that I was in error in the state-
ment above made.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

NOTE IN RELATION TO AUSTRALIA.

Since the preceding Letters were completed, the exceedingly interesting
article from the (English) Farmers' Magazine, which is published below.
has met my eye. It will be seen from it that the conclusions arrived at
by me (see page 123,) in relation to the vast increase in the trans-Atlantic
demand for wool and woolens, are in a rapid course of verification. 1
wrote from statistics extending down to 1840. In that year the English
import of wool was forty-six millions of pounds. In 1845, according to
the subjoined authority, it was seventy-six millions of pounds. And this
rapid increase took place, notwithstanding the vast extension in the woolen
manufactures in other nations, particularly in Germany, France, Spain and
Belgium. The extract given from Waterton's " Cyclopeedia of Com-
merce," asserting the improbability of a much greater extension of the
English woolen manufactures, "unless new markets shall be opened," may
be true. But new markets are yet to spring up in Central and Northern
Asia, and even in Northern Europe, which will, in the aggregate, require
an increase of woolen manufactures which the boldest calculator now
scarcely dreams of. For the reasons for this opinion, see page 123. —
Whether England is to supply a greater or less portion of this increasing
demand remains to be seen. If she continues as well prepared as sho
now is to compete with other manufacturing nations, doubtless she will
contribute her full share to that supply.

It will also be seen, from the annexed paper, that what I predicted (see
page 121) in relation to the prospective competition (from the year 1840)
in wool-growing, between the densely populated countries of Western
Europe and those in newer settled regions, where land is cheap and popu-
lation comparatively sparse, has already come to pass. Spain, arid even
Germany, which in 1840 supplied England with nearly twenty-two million
pounds of wool — nearly half of the whole import of the latter — have now
been driven almost entirely out of the English market ! But, says the
Sydney Herald, Germany, Spain, etc., have renewed the contest in another
form : they have extended their manufacturing operations, and now manu-
facture their own wool. Admit this : but if German wools cannot com-
pete with others in the English market, which are brought from fifty times
the distance, they cannot compete with them even in the German market,
unless the latter are kept out by duties. The German manufacturer, then,
in working up home wools, pays more for his raw mateiial than the Eng-
lish manufacturer, and he cannot, therefore, compete with him in foreign
markets, nor even in the home one, without a protective Tariff which
would raise the price of the English to that of the German article. —
Tariffs materially enhancing the cost of the necessaries of life will not long
be tolerated by the consuming millions, in regions where civilization has
penetrated.

It seems that Australia and Van Diemen's Land are the successful com
petitors which have driven Germany and Spain from the English wool
market. The views set forth by me in Letter IX. in relation to the ad-
vantages of the former for woe 1-gro wing compared with those of Hungary,
Southern Russia, North and South America, remain the same ; indeed a
careful review of my positions has served to farther convince me of their
correctness. The character of the population, and the better commercial
regulations of Australia, have given her a present advantage over new ri-
vals in the Old World ; and America has not yet entered the field of com-
petition. When the Anglo-Saxon of North America enters the lists with
the Anglo-Saxon of Australia, natural advantages will not, as now, be

294 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTif.

overbalanced by superior energy and enterprise. The Anglo-Australian
will, to say the least of it, meet his full equal in these particulars. And,
on the other hand, there is not a rational doubt that the natural and otlier
present advantages of all kinds are on the side of the Anglo- American. The
pirtion of North America included in the proper wool-gcowing zone is
immensely greater than in Australia ; our climate, all things considered-
considering the occasional terrible drouths of Australia — is the best; OUT
lands are cheaper, and will certainly average as good, including our whole
Atlantic coast, and including only our territory between the Apalachians
and the Rocky Mountains, our land will average by far the best ; labor is
not dearer among us ; we are not a quarter as distant from the English
markets ; the wool from all parts of our immense interior, instead of be-
ing dragged long and expensive journeys in "bullock drays," is already
whirled along by steam, or boated on canals or rivers to the seaboard, at
a comparatively trifling expense. It would be difficult to name a particu-
lar, excepting in the two-cent duty, in which large portions of the United
States have not the advantage over Australia for supplying the English
wool market, and in other European markets we have perhaps every ad-
vantage over that Colony.

THE AUSTRALIAN WOOL TRADE* — [By Wm. Westgarth, Esq.] — The importance at
present assumed by the Australian wool trade in the lists of British Commerce, demands
some degree of attention in the history of an Australian settlement. I shall, therefore^ de-
vote the "present chapter to a short account of this branch of Commerce, in its capacity both
of an export from the Australian Colonies and an import into the British market.

In the year 1836, the quantity of wool exported from Sydney amounted to 3,700,000 Ibs.
weight. The proportion for the Port Philip district, included in this amount, could not, at
so early a period of her existence, have exceeded 60,000 Ibs. weight. Five years afterwai'd
the annual produce had attained to 1,578,000 Ibs. ; and the lapse of a similar period, bring-
ing us down to the year 1846, exhibits the astonishing quantity of 7,400,000 Ibs.t During
this interval of ten years the quantity of wool exported from Sydney, exclusive of any from
Australia Felix, had increased from three and a half millions to nearly twelve millions of
pounds weight.

The importation of wool into the British market appears, indeed — like the rise of the Aus-
tralian Colonies — to be but a business' of yesterday, and one, among numerous other in-
stances, of the wonderful extension of Modern Commerce. In 1820, the quantity imported
was under ten millions of pounds weight; in 1845, it had risen to seventy-six millions. The
proportion from the Australian Colonies in the former year was the one-hundredth part ; it
now forms nearly one-half of the whole importationt , and at the steady and rapid ratio of
the present increase of Australian wool, the lapse of a few years will exhibit a quantity far
greater than the .united total of the wool at present imported into Britain from every quar
ter of the world. The following Table exhibits the respective averages, in round numbers,
for each period of five years from 1826 to 1845 ; the numbers representing millions of
pounds weight :

Average of years. Foreign Wool. Colonial Wool. Total

1826-30 25 2 27

1831-35 34 4 33

1836-40 44 10

1841-45 36 22 58

1846 34 30 64

This Table illustrates the extraordinary progress of the colonial production, three-fourth*
of which are derived from Australia and Van Diemen's Land.

The periodical public sales of colonial wool, which now occupy so important a position
amon" the commercial occurrences of the British Capital, date their origin only so lately as
the year 1817. The prices at that time, and for some subsequent period, were only from
2d. to 3d. per Ib. ; and it was not until twelve or fourteen years afterward that any important
advance took place in the value of this commodity. The fine quality of the Australian wool

* From n new work in the press, on Port Philip.

tThe wools occasionally sent from Port Philip by way of Sydney, and appearing in the Customs' return*
as Sydney exports, are here allowed for. The season or year is taken as ending on the 10th October, aa
the usual date of 31st December falls in the midst of the wool shipments, and cannot fairly represent tha
quantities and ratio of progress of each year.

* t Jii 1846, the relative quantities imported into Britain were, in round numbers, thirty-four millions o»
pounds of foreign wool and thirty millions of colonial. For the present year the colonial may be fiafelj
assumed at some what more than half the importation.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TH^ SOUTH. 295

began soon after to attract notice, and. in 1835 and 1836 to excite tie attention even of foreign
manufacturers. From very small beginnings the extent of ihe periodical auction sales
gradually increased. An unprecedented number of 750 bales was announced for one seriea
of sales in 1825 ; and for some years afterward 400 bales were considered to form a very ex-
tensive sale. But in July, 1835, 8,746 bales were brought forward, realizing for the better
qualities the considerable rates of from 2s. 6d. to 3s. 8d. per pound ; and at the sales of the
same month in 1844, there were exposed no less than 31,358 bales.*

The celebrated wools of Australia are derived from two principal breeds of sheep, thd
Merino and the Saxon. The former is the finest in quality, but it may be doubted if an
adequate price has been hitherto derived to compensate for the lighter weight of the fleece.
In the Sydney district, attention was chiefly bestowed on the Merino ; in Van Diemen's
Land, on the Saxon ; and the Port Philip district received a share of both, as the colonists
from either locality transported their flocks to her pastures. This mixture of breeds wan
still farther increased by Dccasional crosses with the Leicester and South-Down. In fact,
from the numbers of inexperienced persons who entered on the occupation of sheep farming
in this new settlement, and, without any fixed principles, carried on a mere random system
of breeding, the greater portion of the wool consists of every shade of quality that natural
accidents could produce. The abundant pasturage of Port Philip appears also to affect the
pure Merino wool of the Sydney district, which in the former locality acquires a more open
appearance, loses somewhat of its fineness, and increases about a quarter or half a pound in
the weight of the fleece. The average weight of the good qualities of Port Philip fleeces,
after washing, is from 2£ to 2| Ibs. ; of the Sydney fleeces about 2£ Ibs. There has been
for several years a desire to introduce a greater uniformity of quality in the fleeces of each
particular grower, and on the whole an inclination to adhere to the production of the finer
qualities of wool.

[ Here follow details of the Australian method of washing and other preparations for shearing, which are'
omitted, as they conform in every important particular to the directions laid down in these Letters for
those processes.]

The wool is now ready to be packed and dispatched to the port of shipment. Each fleece
is cleared of the locks and clippings or other unseemly portions, and is usually tied with a
piece of string, and tightly squeezed into bags containing about one hundred each, or from two
hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds weight. The ponderous bullock dray is now yoked
to its team of eight or a dozen oxen, and charged with an ample load of the golden fleece, is
dispatched from the station on its annual and protracted mission to the port of shipment.

The wool on its arrival in town is now generally classed and re-packed at, an establishment
for that purpose, unless this process has already been competently performed at the station.—
The classification distinguishes only the entire fleece ; it is not attempted to proceed to a
minuter distinction of qualities by breaking the fleeces. When intended for sale, the wool,
on its arrival in town, is conveniently exhibited in the various bins of the sorting establish
ment, and its quality and condition are fairly ascertained. At the establishment of the Messrs.
Bake well, in Melbourne, the wool is assorted first into the two leading divisions of clothing
and combing, and each of these descriptions is run out into five qualities, the fifth or lowest
being the coarse Leicester breeds. Extra fine lots- are classed by themselves ; ««/?er-greasy,
or kempy, or other defective fleeces, are also classed apart. The charge for sorting is j.I. per
pound. The usual charge for hand-washing is Id. per pflund on the weight returned, and for
scouring Id. to l^d. per pound. The system of re-packing is also of use in exposing any wet
or damp that the wool may have acquired on the way from the interior, in which condition it
is in danger of heating and even of originating fire in the hold of a vessel during a lengthened
voyage.

The shipping season for the Australian staple commences toward the end of October ; but
only a few solitary drays have succeeded in reaching town during that month. Considera-
ble quantities have arrived by the end of November ; and during the two succeeding months
there is a continuous succession of vehicles pouring with their voluminous loads into the various
ports of the district.t These arrivals begin to fall oft' in February ; but during that and the
two succeeding months considerable quantities continue to be shipped, including the later short*
fleeces of the young lambs. The shipment of other exports, which are comparatively of un-
important amount, terminates with that of the wool. A solitary vessel may linger till July or
August, when the transactions of the season are finally closed.

The following from a late number of the Sydney Herald may be well appended to the
above :

* This included a small quantity of foreign wool. The proportion from Australia and Van Diemen'a
Lurxl on this occasion was 26,134 bales. The early sales were held at Garraway's, and continued ther»
from 1817 to 1843. when the locality was transferred to the Kail of Commerce, where they still continue
The first bale at the first sale, from the novelty of the circumstance, realized 10s. 6d. per pound.

[Mark-Lune Express, 7th, ] Ith, and 21st Oct. 7344.

f There are five shipping ports in Ausup'aa Felix ; miner*, Melbourne, or its port of W illiamstow-j, Gee
lone, Portland, Belfast, tad fort Albert, <jr Alberton, In Oipps's Land. The quantity for the present year
(1847) may be estimated at about 26,000 bales, of which five-sixths are shipped at Williaeustown and
Upcteftf.

296 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH.

'• Our two time-honored competitors in the production of fine wool, Spain and Germany,

V r • 1 1 . „ P .1 J^__1J rt'1_ - „! * J r.l T i m ,r '

kets. We have been enabled to supply a good article — in vast and ever-increasing quanti-
ties— and at prices which, notwithstanding the cost of carriage, have, through our facilities 01
production, left us a remunerating profit, but which our ancient rivals have found to be i»-
sufficient to replace prime cost.

" But although Spain and Germany have ceased to vie with us as sellers of the raw mato
rial in England, they have done so only to renew the contest in another form. They have
enlarged their manufacturing operations. Since they can no longer sell their fleece at a profit,
they have resolved on working it up in their own looms. To that extent, therefore, they will
cease to import wrought woolen fabrics ; and in so far as their imports were from Great
Britain, there will be a corresponding decrease in the British consumption of our wools. Tho
woolen cloths imported into those two countries from Great Britain, in the year 1841, amounted,
in declared value, to £1,026.481 sterling ; and if we add the quantities imported in the samo
year into Holland and Belgium, the amount would have been about a million and a half. We
must therefore be cautious, as prudent men, not to allow our spirits to be too much exhilarated
by the apparent victory we have gained over ' our hereditary enemies,' seeing that, though
seemingly vanquished, they have but shifted their position and varied their tactics.

" A judicious writer says, in 1844 : ' Of late years cottons have, from their cheapness, in a
great degree superseded the lower qualities of cloths — a circumstance which, joined to the
increasing rivalry of France, Germany and Belgium, renders it improbable, unless new mar-
kets shall be opened in China or elsewhere, that much extension will in future be given tc
•our manufacture of woolen cloths.1*

" While, however, the Spanish and the German wool-growers have thus ceased (or are
expected veiy shortly to cease) to compete with us as exporters to England, another com
petitor has sprung up in a new and quite unexpected quarter. In addition to corn, bread-
stuffs, rice, tobacco, cotton, sugar, and an endless catalogue of ' notions,' in which Brother
Jonathan has hitherto prided himself as a mighty producer, he has now taken it into hia
head that he can breed sheep and export wool on a large scale. And it would seem that in
England his whim has by no means been thought whimsical. For, say certain Liverpool
brokers to him, under date of 3d September, 1846 : ' The arrivals of wool from the United
States last year, for the first time to any extent, made quite a sensation in this country, as it
was generally considered that you required to import these qualities, and there was no
knowledge that your growth of wool was of such importance. We have seen it estimated
at sixty-Jive million pounds ;t and from your vast (and to us almost incredible) means of
production, we believe it will cause a kind of revolution in the wool trade.'

" Jonathan's own opinion of the matter is thus expressed through the medium of the New-
Orleans Commercial Times : ' Wool can be grown as cheaply, and to as great advantage, in
the cotton-growing States as in any part of the world. There is nothing in the climate to
prevent it. If it may be found desirable to grow that of the finest grades, it can be done
without fear of the animals becoming covered with hair in a few years.' He has evidently
some misgivings, however, as to the policy of his attempting the finest grades, for he imme-
diately subjoins, ' However, we are inclined to think that wool of a coarser quality will be
found most profitable, mutton being also an object with us.'

" If the United States already produce four times the quantity of wool that we do, and if
there is a reasonable chance of their producing it of a quality equal to ours, and at no greater
cost, then have we indeed much to fear from their formidable rivalry. The vast extent of
their territory, the almost illimitable resources of their soil and climate, the indomitable spirit
of their citizens, combined with their proximity to the British market, will render their com
petition, if successful at all, successful in no ordinary degree.

" ' Wool,' says another Liverpool correspondent, addressing an American, ' requires in it«
production great attention in crossing the breed, otherwise the quality degenerates verv
quickly. The maintenance of its fineness depends also very much on the nature of the pat
turage on which the sheep graze. And we may remark that your own samples are of a par
ticularly good kind.' "

Hero is a word of encouragement for the Americans, with a word of caution for the An»
Iralians. Of the two requisites for the production and preservation of a superior staple, one.
writable pasturage, s bountifully suppKed to the Australian grower by Nature, while the
other depends upon his own industry and skill. In this, it is to be feared, he has scarcely
been just to himself. He has possibly presumed too much upon the natural advantages of
the fine sheep-sustaining country in which his capital is staked. It will be well if this note
of waniing from the land of Stars and Stripes shall rouse him to a more vigilant attention.

[Simmonds's Colonial Magazine

* Watcrton's Cyclopaedia of Commerce, p. 672.

f The quantity of wool exported from New South Wales, including the district of Port Philip, in the yeai
1843. was 17,5&i,7d4 Ibs.

APPENDIX,

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

Report on the Value cf Sheep Husbandry. Read to the Agricultural Society, Pendleton,

South Carolina.

' IN obedience to your resolution, requiring your committee to " report on
Sheep Husbandry in the South," they beg leave to say that the resolution
would seem to require a more extended examination than could be embraced
in a report of an ordinary length.

They will therefore confine themselves to that part of the subject which,
in their estimation, will best show the applicability and value of sheep hus-
bandry to our neighborhood and section.

Although but little attention is given by any of us, to raising sheep, and
by none to preparing wool for a foreign market, yet it will be admitted, that
cur native stock are healthy, growing to a fair size and produce a fair fleece,
from two to five pounds, even under the great neglect with which they ara
treated.

There is, however, one question necessary to examine, and that is,
whether the quality and quantity of the fleece deteriorate in our climate. The
question has been very fully examined by Mr. H. S. Randall, a very intel-
ligent and experienced wool grower in Cortland, New York. From his
excellent letters, published in the Farmers' Library, (the perusal of which
I take pleasure in recommending to the members of this society,) I draw the
following statement :

" It is known that from Spain (north latitude 36 to 44 degrees) all the,
fine wooled flocks have sprung. And that in Saxony (north latitude 50 tc
51 degrees 30 minutes) the Spanish Merino wool has been improved ir
fineness of fibre but lessened in quantity. In New York (north latitude 4%
to 44 degrees) the fineness of the Spanish Merino is preserved and quantity
increased. In Vermont (north latitude 43 to 45 degrees) the fineness and
quantity of the Saxony wool are preserved."

South of us, in Madison county, Mississippi, (north latitude 32 degrees,
41 minutes,) the wool of the Saxony sheep has been found 'to maintain its
original fineness, and increased in quantity. - Recent experiments in Aus-
tralia (south latitude 33 degrees 55 minutes) show that fine wooled sheep
(the Merino) preserve the quantity and improve in quality of fleece.

The exports of wool from there in 1810 was only 167 Ibs

in 1833 « .... 3,516,569 *

" " in 1843 " .... 16/228,400 "

til 1834, London price for best Spanish Merino, was - - - - 67 cts

* Australian Merino, - . 100"

* English wool, ... 48 "

2P aw

298 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IX SOUTH CAKOLINA.

In England, (north latitude 50 to 56 degrees,) from some cause not yel
settled, fine wool cannot be grown.

Near the Cape of Good Hope, (south latitude 34 minutes,) Merino Sheer
do well, maintaining both quality and quantity of fleece with Spain.

The latitude of Pendleton is 34 degrees 40 minutes, but counting a de-
gree for every 200 feet altitude, would throw us some twelve degrees farther
north, and between the latitudes of Spain and Saxony.

So far then as latitude is concerned, experiments have been made both
north and south of us, which show, that here, Spanish Merino wooi neither
degenerates in quality nor quantity of fleece.

It is also known that rich succulent green fooc generally adds length to
fibre, but does not always make fine wool coarser, at least between latitude
28 and 50 degrees north, nor does it make coarse wool finer. Humidity
and dryness of atmosphere seem to have, as well as climate, some influence
on the fibre. But as yet, the laws which govern the fleece have not been
satisfactorily ascertained. It is sufficient for the present inquiry that experi-
ments verify the operation, that in this latitude Merino wool will not become
coarser, nor the coarse long wool become finer, if each stock be kept pure;
And as tjie climate is well adapted to both, the choice of stocks may very
well be left to the fancy of those who try either.

We* come now to test the value of sheep husbandry to this section of
country. There are many methods by which this can be done. I shall,
however, take the simple one of comparing the profits of this with the other
pursuits of the country.

It is acknowledged in the Northern States that growing wool is a good
business there, and I will first give a table from Mr. Randall's letter, snow-
ing the profits of growing wool in New York :

A. buys 100 ewes at $2, $20000

" 33 1 acres of land at $20, - - - - - - - COG 66

Cutting and curing 11 acres of the above for hay, - - - - 13 65

Pay for shearing, 4 00

For salt, tar, and summer care, --------

For labor of winter feeding, 5 00

Loss by death 2 per cent, above pulled wool from those that die, - 4 00

§837 31

HECEIPTS.

300 Ibs. wool at 394, $11871

80 lambs at $1, ... 80 00

Summer manure equal to winter care, .... 5 00

$203 71

This is equal to 24 per cent, on the amount invested, and makes the cost
of the wool to the farmer 27 cents per pound. A calculation founded* on
the same data for Pendleton makes the result more favorable :

A. buys 100 ewes at $1, - . - $100 00

Pays for shearing, 4 00

For'salt,tar,

Loss 2 per cent, above skins and wool of those that die, 2 00

t make no charge for summer pasture, because it costs nothing, nor should
rye or barley pastures for winter be charged; the crop is reaped after-
wards. But charge it at 20 cents per head, - - - - 20 00
One hand's attention an hour in the morning to turn tc pasture, s.nd.an hour
in the evening to pen ; this is one-sixth part of hh time. Say his whole
time is worth $72 ; one-sixth is - - - 12 00

Total outlay and expense for feeding one year, - • $140 00

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 299

RECEIPTS.

2 ibs. wool per head is 200 Ibs., at 20 cents, - - - $40 00

80 lambs at $1 when one year old, ...... 80 00

- $120 00

This is 85 per cent. In this instance the wool costs the farmer nothing,
Deduct $90, the value of the original stock of ewes at the commencement
nf the next year, from $140, the total outlay, and you have $50, which th«
value of the lambs more than equal.

Compare it with farming or planting :

A. buys a negro for - - $700 00

Furnishes him with fifteen acres of land at $5, - - - - - 75 00

Half the expenses of a horse and plough, ------ 50 00

For his board and clothing, - - - - - - - ' - - 20 00

$845 00

RECEIPTS.

His labor, 160 barrels corn at 40 cents, - - ' - - $04 00

5 bags cotton at $30 a bag, ....... 1 50 00

- §214 00

This is equal to 25 per cent., certainly as much as any man in thia
neighborhood makes. I have purposely made this large estimate that no
one can say it is under the truth.

B. buys 500 ewes and 20 bucks, common stock, at $1, - - - $520 00

Employs a shepherd, .......... 175 00

Pays 20 cents for winter feed per head, .----- 104 00

Pays for tar and salt, .......... 20 00

* B has $ 7/3 less than A. in the oiftlay, - - - - - - $819 00

RECEIPTS.

3 Ibs. wool per head is 1560 Ibs. at 20 cents, - $312 00

80 lambs to the 100 ewes is 400 lambs at §1, - - 400 00

- 712 00
Dnduct for loss over skins and wool of those that die, 2 per cent., 18 40

60

The outlay of A. ($890) brings him $210, equal to 25 per cent. The
outlay of B. ($819) brings him $693 60, equal to 85 per cent.

This calculation will do for the neighborhood of Pendleton or lower down,
where sheep have to be fed during the winter. But for all that part of
Pickens and Greenville district, extending south for twenty-six or thirty
miles from the foot of the mountains, the profits would be larger. For in
that belt of country, I am informed by many residents — General Garvin
among them — that the range affords sufficient food for sheep the entire year.
Even when snow is on the ground, they paw the snow away and get sus-
tenance from the winter grass.

For that section I would alter the calculation thus :

B. buys 500 ewes and 20 bucks, ..... '- - $52000

Pays for a shepherd, .......... 175 00

Pays for salt and tar, - - ....... 20 00

$715 00

RECEIPTS.

1560 Ibs. wool at 20 cents. ----- $312 00
90 lambs to the 100 ewes is 450 at $1, - - - 450 00

- 762 00

Deduct for loss 2 per cent, over skins and wool of those that di>, 3 fJ 00
Making $28 more than 100 per cent - $743 °0

300 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

But try it on a scale that every one ca/i compare with his own expo*
rience,

B. buys 3 ewes and 1 buck for $4 OC

He shears 12 Ibs. of wool at 20 cents, 2 40.

2 lambs at $1, - - - '2 00

Over 100 per cent. 4 40

These are suppositions. Take what has actually occurred in Pickens
district. Mr. Striblirig, as I am informed by himself, bought one ewe
for $1 :

In 1846 she had 3 lambs, $3 00

Sheared 2 Ibs. wool at 20 cents, 40

$3 40

In 1847, same ewe had 2 lambs, - - - -- - 2 00

Sheared again 2 Ibs. wool at 20 cents. ..... 40

Each one of the last year's lambs had a lamb apiece, - - 3 00

And sheared from the 3, 6 Ibs. wool at 20 cents, - - 1 20

This is an increase of eight in two years from one ewe, and Mr. Stribling
says at this time the whole are alive. I admit this is an extraordinary case,
and it is only mentioned to show there are cases of actual increase far
above any of those calculations made above.

If, then, the climate be not only adapted to fine wool, but also 10 the
coarse — if the range, which is abundant and sufficient to feed a flock tne
entire year; and if the above calculations are founded on data anywhere
near correct, what more can be desired to show the applicability and value
of sheep husbandry to this section. ^

From three very respectable wool growers, one from each of the states of
Pennsylvania, New York, and Ohio, I was told the way to make a calcu-
lation on the profits of sheep husbandry in a reasonably safe way, was to
put down every year one-ninth less of lambs than you have ewes, and then
deduct one-tenth from the whole for deaths in that year.

Thus, say you have • 100 ewes.

From 100 deduct one-ninth, and you have - - - 89 lambs.

189
Then deduct one-tenth for deaths, - - - - 18

And you have

To start with the next year. On this basis I have taken one hundred ewes
and run the calculation on for eight years. The result was :

Wool sheared in eight years, ........ 17,190 Ibs.

The gentlemen above alluded to, say that half the wool wia pay all ex-
penses, even when the winters require five months' fp',d :

Deduct, then, one-half, 8,595, at 20 cents, ...... $171900

The increase amounted to 2067 sheep, at $ 1, ....

Total, .... $3786 00

This result, if attained, would exceed fifty per cent, compounded. They
say, too, ii is a safe estimate to say that the lambs of each year will pay the
expenses of the whole flock for that year in Pennsylvania. They more than

SHEEP HUSBANDRY" Itf SOUTH CAKOLIXA. 301

do it here. Allow eighty lambs to one hundred ewes, and you have from
five hundred ewes, four hundred lambs ; deduct one-tenth for deaths, and

You have 360 at §1, - - - - $360 00

Charge 20 cents per head for 900 sheep, makes - - - 180 00

Charge for shepherd, 150 00 — 330 00

Lambs over-pay expenses by - - - $30 00

All these calculations are made on the supposition that sheep get a par*
of that regular attention which all farmers give to their other domestic ani
mals. And to make sheep husbandry successful, it is not only necessary
that this attention should be given, but every one who attempts it shoulu
know something of their diseases and the cures, and also the summer and
\vinter management. This can he acquired only by their own, or the ex-
perience of others. Easy access can be had to the experience of northern
wool growers, who are proverbial for being close observers. They say the
disease called the " scours" is the principal one to which sheep are liable,
produced by excess of rich green food, and cured easily by a change to
dry, but if allowed to continue, is fatal.

From the introduction into the United States, in 1608, of Merino sheep
from Spain, owners of this stock have considered it of the first importance
to preserve the quality and quantity of their fleece, and if possible, to im
prove both. They ascertained that lambs from young and healthy sirea
improved, while those from old ewes fell back both in quality and quantity
of fleece.

Among them it is now a settled practice not to breed from ewes over
seven or eight, nor from bucks over six years old. It is very important to
resort to the evidence of age the teeth afford. Their books have been par
ticular in describing these evidences, which I will copy: "During the first
year, lambs have eight small teeth in front, in the upper jaw, called nippers ;
at a year old, the centre two shed, and two larger teeth take their place.
At two years old, the next two are lost, and supplied by two larger ones.
Thus losing and being supplied by two larger ones annually, till five — then
they have a full set. At eight or nine they begin to lose their nippers — two
every year — and by thirteen or fourteen years old,' they have lost their
entire set."

It is evident that during the time ewes are losing their teeth, they become
less and less able to supply themselves with food, consequently afford less
and less milk for their young. Thus the degeneracy is accounte-d for. In
Vermont, where wool is as much their staple as cotton in South Carolina,
so important do they consider it not to breed from ewes after they begin to
lose teeth, that although mutton is not used by the inhabitants for the table,
they sell their old stock to be fed to hogs.

In most of the other northern states, their ewes at that age are kept from
the bucKs, and fattened for market. From their known skill in managing
well what they undertake, we may safely take their usage as a guide, when
it is applicable to our situation. With them grass is the entire food of then
flocks — green meadows for summer pasture and hay for winter. Their Avin«
ters require five months' constant feeding, during which they estimate each
sheep to consume fifty cents worth of hay. All stock is then kept enclosed,
and the attention to turning sheep to pasture in summer, and feeding sheep
in winter, requires but little labor in addition to their other stock.

Flocks require close attention but at three times in the year — the tupping,
the lambing, and shearing seasons. Ewes go with lamb one hundred and
twenty-five days, or five months, and they so manage as to have the lambs.

302 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

brought in April and May ; (here February is esteemed by many a better
month.) To do this, the bucks must be kept impounded, except at the
time desired. From, the great superiority of early lambs, this part of sheep
husbandry is esteemed very important. .

During lambing season, close attention is required to guard both ewe and
lamb from storms and cold winds — to see that the ewe acknowledges her
lamb, and to keep up the marking and altering as the lambs get between
five and ten days old.

Ten days previous to shearing time they prepare for it by washing the
wool on the sheep'%s back, that the natural oil of the wool, which is destroyed
by the washing, may have time to be renewed, without which the wool feels
and works harsh. The washing is done at spouts or pools, prepared for the
purpose, and the other flocks are kept on clean pastures till sheared. As
the proper preparation of an article for market is justly considered of the
next importance to a good article, I will describe this process minutely, ac
practised for the northern market. The shearing is done on a clean floor,
and each fleece is kept unbroken. When sheared, it is roiled outside in,
until it is reduced to a lump about ten inches each way, and then tied with
strings in two places. For packing the wool, a bag is used nearly as large
as our cotton bags, which, after sewing to a hoop at top, they hang through
a hole in an upper floor, a little less in diameter than the hoop ; here the
fleeces are packed down by the foot, the weight of an ordinary sized man
being a sufficient pressure. Thus finished, the wool is ready for a northern
or European market. Manufacturers will not give full price for wool unless
the fleeces are unbroken ; because, before manufacturing, they consider it
necessary to have each fleece divided into five qualities, which they cannot
do if the wool of different fleeces is emptied together.

Different modes of summer management are followed in different coun-
tries. The one followed in Australia, as described by Mr. Randall, is not
only less troublesome, but would be better suited to our mountain region
There they roam over the plains, under charge of a shepherd, in flocks of
three hundred to one thousand. Every night, some two or more of these
flocks are penned together, during the entire year. Breeding promiscuously
from the bucks that run with the flocks, allowing three or four to the hun-
dred ewes. At the Cape of Good Hope, he says the same practice pre-
vails ; and from both of these places the wool exported is equal, and in some
instances superior in quality to the Merino.

The statements here given, Mr. President, we have carefully considered,
and believe to be true — and we submit them under the belief that if the im-
portance of sheep husbandry was duly considered, especially by the districts
lying north and contiguous to the mountains, much additional comfort and
wealth might be added to that already delightful region.

All which is respectfully submitted.

R. F. SIMPSON.

Note . — Since this report was read, I have been informed by Mr. Thomas
]Vi. Sloan, that his wool does not cost him more than five cents a pound—
and by Mr. Morris, at Pickens C. H., that for care, shearing, &c., of a
small flock of eight ewes, worth eight dollars, kept on Ocone mountain, he
paid one-half of the spring clipping, equal to three-quarters of a pound per
head, and that from them he had, after paying all expenses, $3 60, arid eight
bmbs worth eight dollars — $11 60. And bir Mr. Shepherd a tenant oii

ANCRUM OX WOOL MATTRESSES. 305

Mr. J, O.' Lewis's Tamosa estate, that in 1840 he took with him from Green-
ville a few sheep,

Among which were 4 ewes, worth $4 DO

They had 4 lambs, worth ....... 4 00

Thinks he sheared 3 Ibs. per head, but say 2, which is 8 Ibs. at 20 cts. 1 GO — 5 GO

In 1848, from 8 sheared 14 Ibs. woo* at 20 cents, - - 2 SO

And had 8 lambs, worth - - - - 7 00 — 9 SO

$15 40

Salt and shearing was the only expense. He had only offered to feed
them once in the two years, and then they refused to taste corn shelled to
them.

H. ANCRUM ON WOOL MATTRESSES.

ASHLEY, Pike county, Mo.

A sound man in one night of seven hours' sleep, generally perspires fifty
ounces avoirdupois or four pounds troy weight ; we cannot wonder at that,
since there are above three hundred thousand millions of pores in the body
of a middle-sized man, and that in the last hours of sleep one perspires
most ; hence the impropriety and the weakness of lying too long in a soft
bed, and the necessity of lying on a comparatively hard elastic bed, such as a
wool mattress. In France, wool mattresses are generally adopted, conse-
quently you never meet with a bad bed there. I have travelled all over
France, and never met with a bad bed, and a very recent intelligent Ameri-
can traveller of great observation, mentions, on his removal from England
to France, that he found the French beds delicious, because the beds are
wool mattresses.

Mode of Making a Wool Mattress, — The first thing to constitute a good
healthy bed is, that it must be absolutely flat, therefore all bedsteads should
have wooden laths instead of sacking, which always gives and forms a hol-
low ; the wool is carded by hand, and all knots and extraneous matter taken
out ; the great point is to make it thick enough. The best bed I slept in,
in my life, had sixty pounds of wool in it, but the bed was a very large extra
size ; half that quantity will make a small bed, but if you wish to lie
luxuriously, yet hard, do not stint the wool, that makes all this difference ;
it lasts for ever — the covering is washed once a year ; the wool is carded,
and a few pounds of wool added, and the bed is sweet and new. However
luxuriously he may be, let any gentleman have a good wool mattress made,
and let him ride forty or fifty miles and thoroughly fatigue himself, he will
then know the value of such a bed. My object is also to increase the home
consumption of our wool. There are twenty odd millions in the United
States ; say five to each family, four millions ; say three beds to each
family, taking the whole population, twelve millions ; say thirty pounds oi
wool to each bed, three hundred and sixty millions of pounds of wool ; sa"
thirly-four millions of sheep in the United States, say eighty million pounds
of wool ; this will consume more than four years' clip of our wool. This
ought to be promulgated to increase the consumption of our wool, and such
wool as cannot be sold abroad. Independent of the benefit to all in theii
health, who adopt wool mattresses on account of their cleanliness and dura-
bility, in the end, they are cheaper than any other bedding.

Every thing that increases the home consumption of our wool is of na- ,
tional importance, as is every thing that will promote the general health ol

394. ANCRUM ON WOOL MATTRESSES.

our people. In this changeable and rigorous climate in winter, i'f all wert

to wear flannel, particularly narrow-chested and delicate females, it would

be of the greatest benefit to their health, and save them many a fit of sick-

,t<ess. Wjien we consider how cheap the English sell their Welsh flan-

[uel, it ought to stimulate our manufacturers; I must, however, observe, that

; I never purchased any flannel in the United States equal to the real Welsh

flannel, or that did not shrink, or that wore near so long as the English

flannel. The English flannel has a nap on both sides, which renders it

warm and soft, and it washes soft to the last. The United States flannel

that I have used washes harsh, and the wear is not near so agreeable as

real Welsh flannel, but surely all these difficulties can be overcome by our

people, and they can make as good flannel as the best Welsh flannel.

It is well known that woollen clothes, such as flannels, worn next the skin,
promote insensible perspiration. May not this arise principally from the
strong attraction which subsists between wool and the watery vapcr which is
continually issuing from the human body ? That it does net depend entirely
on the warmth of that covering is clear, because one degree of warmth produced
by wearing more clothing of a different kind does not produce the same effect,.
The perspiration of the human body being absorbed by a covering of flannel,
it is immediately distributed through the whole thickness of that substance,
and by this means exposed by a very large surface to be carried ofF by the
atmosphere, and the loss of the watery vapor which the flannel sustains on
the one side by evaporation, being immediately restored from the other in
consequence of the strong attraction between the flannel and this vapor, the
pores of the skin are disencumbered, and they are continually surrounded
with a dry and salubrious atmosphere. It is astonishing that the custom
of wearing flannel next the skin should not have prevailed more universally ;
it is certain it would prevent a number of diseases, and there certainly is na
greater luxury than the comfortable sensation which arises from wearing it,
after one is accustomed to it. It is a mistaken notion that it is too warm
clothing for summer ; it may be worn in the hottest climates, at all seasons
of the year, without the least inconvenience arising from wearing it.* It is
the warm-bath of a perspiration confined by a linen shirt, wet with sweat,
which renders the summer heats of southern climates so insupportable ; but
flannel promotes perspiration and favors its evaporation, and evaporation,
as it is well known, produces positive cold. I can vouch for the truth of
every word of this. I wear the same kind of flannel all summer as I do in
winter with sleeves ;* when I take extra exercise and perspire freely, my
body and flesh is always cool and comfortable, and in part I owe it to wear-
ing "flannel that I have never had either fever or ague in this western coun-
try, which is full of it. All this may appear trivial, and sanitary rules are
disregarded, but it is all of the utmost importance and to all. Say fifteen
millions of our people wear flannel next their skin, and three flannel waist-
coats to each, that is forty-five millions of waistcoats, at two yards each,
(not enough with sleeves as they ought to be made,) ninety millions of yards
of flannels in waistcoats only. Old people, delicate women and children,
and above all, consumptive people, ought all to wear flannel drawers as well
as a flannel waistcoat ; if this was adopted, the great sickness that prevails
in the United States would be much diminished. Men drink spirituoua
liquors to increase the animal heat, and feel that glow that is called com-
fortable. Let them wear flannel next their skin instead, and keep the body
ivrmn and the head cool,

* Tho firemen in steamboats could not exist if they worn linen instead of flannel shirts. The pleasant
wt of ail mattresses is one made of a mixture of wool and hair. |E°8 I^OUGII, LOOM, ANJ> ANVIL.]

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. 305

SHEEP HUSBANDKY IN TEXAS.

BY H. S. KANDALL, LL.D.,

Author of" Life of Thomas Jefferson;" Editor of Randall's " Youatl on the Horse," etc., etc.

EDITORS OF TEXAS ALMANAC : In pursuance of your request, I proceed
to give you some of the results of my experience and investigations in re-
gard to wool-growing, and my views of the adaptation of this husbandry
to the climate, soil, and other existing conditions of Texas.

CLIMATE. — The best climate for the cheap production of wool, other
things being equal, obviously is that which furnishes the most abundant
and suitable pasturage during the greatest portion of the year. This,
speaking generally, is to be found in the Northern hemisphere, between
latitudes 30° and 40° on the eastern margin of each continent, and be-
tween about 3.8° and 48° on the western. The south half of this wool-
growing zone, where the other conditions besides climate are favorable,
.excels the northern.

North of the wool-growing zone, the growth of vegetation is suspend-
ed, and the nutritiveness of grasses destroyed by cold, during considera-
ble portions of the year ; and then sheep require more expensive dry
feed, suitable winter shelter, etc. South of the wool-growing zone, veg-
etation, where it flourishes, is too rank and tropical for the smaller rumin-
ating animals, and the heat too intense for those carrying so dense a
pelage as the fine-woolled sheep.

Local exceptions exist to the above classification, owing to a variety of
causes; most prominent of which are altitude, the shelter of mountains
from northern and southern winds, the contiguity of large bodies of
water, etc.

I have said, " other things being equal," the question will be immedi-
ately asked whether wool of the same variety of sheep grown in latitude
30° is as fine as that grown in latitude 40° or 45° I doubt whether it is.
Sheep transported from a climate of long winters to one of perennial, or
nearly perennial, pasturage, increase visibly in size, and their descendants
permanently become a larger variety. The constant supply of succulent
food produces more copious and uniform animal secretions than an inter-
rupted supply, or than an alternating supply of green and dry food. In
theory, we should expect the same causes to affect the fleece as well as
the carcass. They do visibly increase the length of the staple. The in-
crease of its diameter (admitting that it does increase) during over twenty
years of breeding — about as far as my personal observations have extend-
on that point — is not, I think, perceptible to the naked eye. But be it,
greater or smaller, it is more than compensated for by the increased soft-
ness and evenness of wools grown in warm and more uniform climates,
and on more uniformly succulent nutriment. I must be content to state
this as a well-established practical fact. I have not room to array author-
ities on every point.

SOIL. — It would present a very tangible, and by no means a bad test
of the proper soils for wool-growing, to say that they are those which
produce, or which can be made to produce, the most continuous supply
of fine sweet grasses. A marshy soil, a soil containing so great an excess
of clay as to poach into mud, and remain long wet after rains, a low,
lankly, rich river bottom alluvion, and especially such an alluvion, if annu-
ally replenished by slimy deposits of decaying vegetable matter, all inju-

306 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IX TEXAS.

riously affect the health of sheep. None of these soils produce the
grasses I have mentioned. The best lands for sheep are those which are
dry and " sound ;" which admit of the rapid percolation or drainage of
water ; and an admixture of sand or gravel in them, is a favorable,
though by no means an indispensable condition. Enormous flocks of
sheep flourish, in perfect health, on the plains of Illinois, which are
" sticky " after every shower. But water does not stand on them as on
a stiff clay, nor does it constantly saturate them as it does boggy lands.

It is sometimes claimed — particularly by that class of tyros who are
ready to jump at conclusions on a very limited experience — that sheep ow
their farms, or in their localities, defy all the preceding conditions. They
flourish, if we may believe these gentlemen, in stagnant fens, in " hog-
wallows," and on river bottoms, where the malaria is almost yisible, as it
steams up from the decomposing mass. It is true that fifty sheep, like a
small family of human beings, will occasionally, and for "a limited, period,
appear unaffected by such unpropitious circumstances. But, by and by
comes the destroyer — the pestilence that walketh by noon-day — and the
increase of years is suddenly swept away. Cholera, yellow fever, or biL
ions fever depopulates the human settlement — rot, or some other epidemic,'
passes, like a tornado, ovei\ the sheep-ranch/ The causes of disease do
not bear fruit every year, but the laws of nature are never abrogated.

Sheep tolerate almost all chemical varieties of soil. With the proper
conditions in other respects, they are seemingly equally healthy on the
sterile, pulverized granite of New England, and the rich, calcareous wheat
lands of Ohio, or the Valley of Virginia — on the tertiary sands of our
Atlantic border, and among the rocky cliffs of the Alleghanies. No ani-
mal is so necessary to man, and therefore none has been adapted to tin
circumstances of so large a portion of the earth's surface.

ELEVATION-.— Elevation is, I rather think, a pleasing condition to ar
animal, which, like the goat, the ibex, etc., zoologists consider the natural
denizen of mountain regions ; and mountains and hills often present the
other condition which are specially adapted to sheep — firm dry soils, short
sweet grasses, pure air, and clear water. But elevation is of no conse-
quence per se / and if the same favorable conditions are found on plains,
they are as healthy localities for sheep as mountains.

GRASSES. — Sheep will thrive on almost all varieties of gaass, Avhen they
are first springing up tender and succulent from the earth. No grass is
suitable for them, when its stems have become dry and woody. Tough,
aquatic grasses are always unfavorable. We are to .give the preference,
then, to those varieties which do not send up coarse seed stems — those
which are constantly supplying a fine verdure from the root. No variety
is preferable to the small, spontaneous, white clover of the north, or the
finest spontaneous musquite grasses of Texas. Red clover, Timothy,
June, or Blue grass ;* indeed, all the grasses cultivated in the north, will
do very well if kept fed down, and this might be the case with many of
the coarser varieties in Texas. Some small flock-masters have fancied
that sheep would thrive on the dry steins of tall, coarse grasses — because
they thrive among them. But a few sheep will find tender, nutritious
plants, which are screened from casual observation among these taller
ones. When the former are gone, sheep will promptly and visibly fall of!
in condition.

The fact that the natural grass is too coarse for sheep, by no means

* I am not sure that the pure«?rass of New York and the Blue grass of Kentucky arc the same, nevei
kavmg specially investigated the subject : but the late Mr. Clay wrote me that they were the earne.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. 307

proves that proper " artificial " varieties would not flourish on the same
soil, particularly if the first flush of its virgin fertility was a little reduced
by cropping.

WATER. — Water is not indispensable for sheep, when at pasture. Tho
juices of the grass and the dew and rains supply their wants. Thousands
and thousands of good sheep-pastures in the north are wholly without
other sources of supply. But, of choice, I would prefer water in sheep-
pastures — clear springs, or rapidly running brooks. Sheep will visit
these as regularly as cows or horses.

ADAPTATION OF TEXAS. — As I remarked in my answers to your inter-
rogatories on this same subject, last fall, (published by you in the Graioes-
ton jVeios,) I have never set my foot in your State. But, after the expe-
rience of many years in sheep-breeding, and after a close and diligent
investigation, extending to all available sources of information — many of
these the minute and careful statements of your own most intelligent and
candid citizens — I do not entertain a particle of doubt, first, that you
have vast regions in Texas admirably adapted to sheep husbandry; and
secondly, that wool can now be raised more cheaply in those regions than
m any other portion of the globe, where sufficiently good government
prevails to make life tolerable and secure, and such property as sheep
safe from frequent and extensive depredations. In no such portion of the
earth, are lands, furnishing perennial pasturage, (or the use of such lands,)
so cheap. In none are the general circumstances more favorable, the ac-
cidental and occasional disadvantages fewer. In nearly every particular,,
Texas possesses decided advantages over our other Southern States, and}
enormous ones over the Northern and Eastern States.

As between it and the latter, a brief statement disposes of all contro-
versy. The sheep-lands of the Northern and Eastern States cost, on ani
average, thirty dollars an acre ; and sheep are frequently kept on those-
worth from forty to sixty dollars an acre. On these high-priced lands,,
sheep must be fed on dry feed — hay and grain — about five months of each
year. Expensive shelters must be erected, or the sheep-farmer will lose-
the cost of them in the loss of life and condition in his flocks.

In Texas, prime and desirable pasture-lands can be bought at two dol-
lars an acre — frequently for considerably less. He who owns a home-
stead of a few acres, can pasture thousands of acres of unoccupied land.
The pasturage of much of Texas is perennial. Large and small flock-
masters have proved this to be a practical fact. Mr. Kendall has wintered
a large and constantly increasing number of sheep, for three years, with-
out, ho writes rue, giving u an ounce " of dry feed, or providing any arti-
ficial shelter, though he agrees with me that a little of both would be
desirable for emergencies. (Pe has encountered wet winters and dry
winters with equal success. His sheep are perfectly healthy. His testi-
mony is fully confirmed by that of some twenty other candid and intelli-
gent gentlemen, scattered over various parts of the State, who have'
favored me with minute accounts of their experience in sheep-raising.
.Theory would anticipate these facts when the natural conditions of Texas
are known ; but it is always satisfactory to have the suggestions of theory
established and made certain by actual experiment.

Your country cannot always enjoy this entire priority in the conditions,
for cheap wool production. The success of this husbandry of itself will
aid in reducing its profits. Your sheep-lands skirt noble and navigable
rivers, Unlike our rough sheep-ranges of the North, they are topograph-
ically adapted to the construction of those railroads which the busiu.es*

308 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS.

of your State will soon demand. An enterprising population is pouring
in upon you from the other States of the Union, and from Europe. The
boy is now born who will see, not only the good soils in all the counties
at present organized in Texas, but in its regions where now roves the
wild Camanche, worth twenty or thirty dollars an acre. Then the sunny
but unarable slopes of the Alleghanies, in Virginia, the Carolinas, etc.,
may successfully compete with you in wool-growing, owing to their
greater cheapness.

PROFITS OF TVOOL-GEOWIXG. — Northern flock-masters usually estimate
the consumption of eight American Merino sheep equivalent to that of a
cow. All prime American Merino flocks should average as high as about
five pounds of washed wool per head, or seven and a-half pounds of un-
washed wool. Choice breeding flocks should do better still. To show
you that I speak from actual knowledge instead of conjecture, let me say
that I have two flocks of pure Spanish (American Merino) yearling ewes,
which averaged, this year, five pounds and six ounces of well-washed
wool per head — equivalent to eight pounds and one ounce unwashed;
and the yearling never produces as much wool as the adult sheep. A
choice small flock of my grown ewes averaged six pounds and a fraction
of washed wool per head, equivalent to nine pounds unwashed. In none
of these docks were there any rams or wethers to increase the yield of
wool: None of them received any pampering, or were sheared at an
unusual time. I have cross-breeds between the Drench and Spanish
which averaged still higher ; but they are larger, and will consume more.
For many years my entire, number of full-blood sheep of all ages, exceed-
ed five pounds of washed wool per head.

The price of American Merino wool (washed) has been as follows, on
the first day of August, in the ye. \rs indicated : —

1851 42 to 44 cents.

1852 40 to 43 "
185P 49 to 53 "

1854 38 to 40 "

1855 37 to 3S c;

1856 44 to 4fi "
185? 45 to 48 '•

1858 37 to 41 "

1859 44 to 46 "

Assuming five pounds to oe the weight of fleece, and eight ewe sheep
to be the equivalent of a cow in consumption, it follows that the feed of
•a cow would have returned this year eiglffeen dollars in wool, and as
many lambs as eight ewes would raise, which would be at least seven.
What these seven'lambs would additionally be worth to the Texas grower,
I leave you to estimate. Even among common sheep, the lamb is always
considered to be worth as much as its dam's fleece. If rams And wethers
raise no lambs, they produce greatly more wool than ewes. Now say
what are the profits of a cow in Texas, and deduct the difference in the
^rouble of looking after her ard the eight sheep, and you have a compar-
ative view of the profits between the animals, which will prove instruc-
tive ! po you obtain five dollars per head of net annual profits on cows,
en the average ? And yet you raise cattle on a scale which conveys the
idea that you find it as profitable as any other of your branches of hus-
bandry on the pasture-lands of Texas. In my former letters to you I

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. 309

placed tho entire cost of keeping sheep, including interest on land, at
fifty cents a head per annum. In this estimate, I included the cost ot
shelters, of a month's winter feed, and some other contingencies, all of
whicl I am assured by intelligent Texians are unnecessary. I also proceed-
ed on the supposition that no lands were to be pastured but those which had
been bought and paid for by the flock-master. If these items be struck
out, the cost of keeping large flocks ought not to exceed one half of my
former estimate. I confess, however, that this sounds almost too favora-
ble to be true. Mr. Jefferson deeply lamented the dismemberment of
that Texas from the United States which he had bought with Louisiana
— considering it the very garden of our Southern country. But the
"Sage of Monticello " hardly expected to find El Dorado in your sheep-
pastures, or Aladdin's lamp on the bank of the Colorado ! I repeat it,
the story must be too good to be all true.

The first cost of embarking in breeding full-blood sheep is considerable.
But the sale of surplus ones at extra prices to newer breeders will soon
offset this ; and, at all events, it is so soon repaid by the enormous profits
of the husbandry, that it is not to be kept in view as an annual part of
the account. Interest ceases to run after the principal is paid !

Another important fact in favor of sheep is always to be taken into
view. If the steer or colt dies before it is sold or used — if the cow dies
before she has produced young — the loss is nearly a total one. At best,
the colt keeps you waiting on him, say three years, and the steer and
heifer, at least two, before they commence making returns. The sheep is
a prompter paymaster. He pays you annually. And he never dies iu
your debt. If he dies before he is six months old, he has cost you noth-
ing that is appreciable. If he dies afterwards, before his first shearing,
liia wool will more than pay for what he has consumed ; and this is true
of him at whatever age his death occurs, taking the aggregate of his life
together.

BEST BKEE^D OF SHEEP. — "When wool is the main object, and mutton
is only an incidental one — as always must be the case in a large and
thinly inhabited country like Texas, not yet containing populous cities —
there is but one breed of sheep worth consideration, so far as comparative
intrinsic value is concerned. I can declare on a pretty extensive experi-
ence— but it really needs no experience to arrive at that conclusion — that
no other breed makes a remote approach to the value of the Merino for
the production of wool ; and its mutton is good and palatable. Half and
three-quarter breed Merino mutton is especially so, and five Americans
out of six would prefer it, on the table, to the tallowy meat of the large
long-woolled English mutton varieties.

Well-bred Merinos yield about as much wool per head as the largest
English long-woolled breeds — yield farmore than English middle-woolled
breeds — yield about twice as much value of wool for the amount of feed
consumed as. any English breed — and are hardier, and herd (that is,
thrive when kept together in large numbers) better than any of the more
valuable English varieties. Their length of life is much greater. A
Merino is not, to use a common expression, " older at eight" than a Bake-
well or Southdown shwp is at five. And, what may not be quite as well
understood by those who have not experimented with both races, (as I
have,) the Merino is decidedly hardier than the high-bred English sheep.
It is less addicted to colds or snuffles, bears extremes of weather better,
is capable of travelling farther for its food, and will endure a scarcity oi
food with far greater impunity. The English sheep has the advantage of

310 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS.

arriving earlier at maturity — a matter of much importance in a mutton
breed, but of comparatively little in a wool-growing one.

Of the unimproved English and Scotch varieties, it is unnecessary to
speak. Several of them are much superior to the improved varieties of
thos-3 countries in hardiness and herding properties ; but they all produce
coarse, and, compared with the Merino, light fleeces. None of them are,
in my opinion, really essentially superior for wool-growing to what is
termed the " native stock" in New- York and New-England.

SPANISH MERINOS. — I shall not here consume space with the past his-
tory of any breed. The ancient Spanish sheep, as imported into this
country by Humphreys, Jarvis, and other breeders, whose character gave
full warrant of supposed purity of blood, produced of washed wool less
than four pounds in the ewes, and seven in the rams. The flocks of
Spain, taken as a whole, are declared by that most intelligent observer
and investigator, Chancellor Livingston, to have averaged of washed
wool, only two pounds and a half in the ewe, and four and a quarter in
the ram. (See Livingston's Essay on Sheep, p. 39.) They resembled the
present American Merino in form, but were smaller.

SAXON MERINOS. — The Saxon was the first great offshoot from the
parent Merino stem. Partly from the principle of selection first adopted,
and partly from the system of management, and the special objects pur-
sued in breeding, this variety materially dwindled from the size, consti-
tution, and Aveight of fleece of the Spanish sheep, but improved in the
quality of the wool. The first considerable importation into the United
{States took place in 1824, and the mania for these feeble little things
raged to such an extent, for the three succeeding years, that the most
miserable mongrels and grade sheep were introduced and sold under
their name. (See the authoritative and undenied statements of the dis-
tinguished German importer and shepherd, Henry D. Grove, on this sub-
ject, made to me as the chairman of a Committee appointed by the N. Y.
State Agricultural Society, in 1837, to report on " The condition and
Comparative Value of the several Breeds of Sheep in the United States."
Society's Transactions, 1841, p. 313.)

The American Saxon of the present day is a much larger and stronger
sheep than its imported ancestor, with, I think, about the same quality
and a greater quantity of wool. Some pure- flocks now produce an
average 'of nearly three and a half pounds of washed wool, and others
dashed with a strain of fine American Merino blood, not materially
changing the quality of the fleece, average very near four pounds. It
continues, however, to require considerably more care than the American
Merino, and does not rear so large a per centage of lambs.

SILESIAN MERINOS. — These appear to be something between the Saxon
and American Merino-^- heavier fleece than the former, finer fleece than
the latter — and between the two in size. Some specimens I have seen
had fine plump forms, and their wool the oil and external black gum of
the gummiest family of Merinos. They might, I should say, prove a
desirable variety under certain circumstances, and I think a cross with
them would improve the Saxon type of sheep. They are the only Merino
family which I have not bred.

FREXCII MERINOS. — The selection and management of the Spanish
Merinos in France, first carried into that country a little more than
seventy years ago, produced precisely the contrary effects in several im-
portant particulars from those produced by the German system. The
carcass was made larger, the fleece heavier and coarser. But a portion

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. 311

Df those introduced from France into the United States, within a few
years, have not been characteristic specimens of the variet y in either of
these particulars. They have been exaggerated specimens or caricatures
of the breed. They were those exceptional animals to be found in all
flocks, larger and heavier-fleeced than the great body of those flocks, j
apprehend also that some of them were exceptional in certain other
particulars, as for example, in that enormous " throatiness" which renders
them such a marvel to the multitude.

There is no doubt, however, that as a variety, the French Merinos are
larger and heavier-fleeced than any other Merino family. But in respect
to fleece, the best of them do not excel the best American Merino as
much as in weight of carcass ; in other words, they do not produce as
much wool in proportion to size, and, accordingly, to consumption.
There are two causes for this. The first is, their wool has, for reasons
which I can not explain, been bred proportionably short. As some very
remarkable misconceptions appear to prevail on this particular point, let
me state a positive and tangible fact for which I am willing to be held
responsible. I recently (to test the accuracy of previous impressions and
experiences) carefully measured, lying unstretched on a table, fifteen
specimens of French Merino wool, taken indiscriminately (with the aid
of the owner) from the sheared fleeces of one year's growth of a pure
blood flock, descended from prime sheep of Mr. Taintor's importation,
and considered by French breeders prime sheep of the variety. The
fifteen specimens averaged a little less than two inches in length. I have
owned French sheep from the best imported flocks, have seen hundreds,
if not thousands, of others, and they have been almost uniformly rather
short-woolled sheep — shorter woolled than the longest stapled American
Merino flocks.

The second reason for the comparative lightness of French fleeces, is
their dryness — their freedom from oil and gum. Though there are ex-
ceptions, there is a constant tendency in this direction among them, and
unless care be taken in breeding to prevent it, the wool becomes almost as
dry as cotton, aud then the fleece has no proportionate weight for its bulk.
The difference in appearance and handling between such and good
American wool is very analogous to that between American and choice
Italian sewing-silk. The first, in both cases, even when the actual fine-
ness (diameter) is the same, is comparatively light, unelastic, unglossy,
and " cheap looking." I have sometimes fancied that the pile or fibre of
the American Merino wool is actually denser and heavier of its size than
the French, independently of all extraneous substances. This, however,
may be but a fancy. ^

French wool washes much cleaner than the oily and gummy American
Merino wools ; and I think more slowly recovers its maximum of oiliness,
after being washed on the back.

The overgrown animals of a variety, are rarely of good form. Hence
not a few of the imported French sheep, atd their immediate descen-
dants, when denuded of their fleeces, were most unsightly, scraggy,
" lathy ' animals, excessively bony, crooked in the back, bad in the cross,
(that is, hollow behind the shoulders,) and so thin in the chest, that both
forelegs seemed, in horseman's phrase, to " come out at the same hole."
The last defect is perhaps rather characteristic of the variety ; but I have
seen not only individuals, but flocks of French sheep, of moderate size, aa
well formed in every other particular, and perhaps even in that, as any
other family cf Merinos.

312 SHEEP HUSBANDS Y IN TEXAS.

Another difficulty followed the selection of these huge sheep. Over-
grown parents do not always produce overgrown offspring ; but the
marcel must be kept up, and to do this, a concealed, or at least an un-
avowed course of pampering was resorted to in some cases. The lambs
were dropped two months before the usual time of having lambs dropped
in the North — the ewes were stuffed with unusual and succulent food
during the winter, regardless of cost ; they were kept in close, warm
stables at yeaning time ; the lamb was often given the aid of a " sucking-
bottle," or a foster-dam, in addition to its natural parent ; it was taught
as soon as possible to eat roots and grain ; it was kept housed from every
storm, and even from the dews of the night, during the entire year.
This added greatly to the beauty and weight of the wool — to its weight,
Cwhen sheared unwashed,) because none of its natural oft was washed out
by rains. When at length it was exhibited, without any explanations of
the preceding facts, at some State fair, in autumn, it presented about
.twice the size of carcass, and twice the length of wool, that it would
Lave done if dropped at the common time, and treated in the common
way. If not sold at a year old, it was not sheared, and the entire fleece
was left growing to increase the marvellous product at two years old ; or
if it was feared that this fraud would be too apparent, (beyond the gulli
bility of the particular market in view,) the yearling was " stubble-
sheared," that is, shared a half-inch or inch from the skin, leaving three
or four months' growth of wool thereon, to go into the next fleece. I do
not say, that the breeder is not authorized to conduct his business to suit
himself — men clearly have the right to pamper, and to manufacture
" marvels." But he who does so, is bound to give warning, " fair and
true," to the buyer, whether questioned or unquestioned.

Helas ! what was so soon the matter with those gigantic French rams,
which first scattered like wild-fire over the North? There came a chilly
rain-storm, and they sneezed and coughed. Soon they began to mope,
and fall off from their feed. They grew thin, and then weak. Their
heads drooped ; yellow waxy matter collected about their dim, half-closed
eyes; a sticky discharge clung about their nostrils; at length the faint
but rapid heaving of the flanks began to indicate a low fever. Then an-
other heavy cold shower, and the farmer's boys presently ran into the
house, crying : " Father, father, the great ram is dead !" The farmer
had not known that he had set a hothouse plant out of doors! Thus
" departed this life," a majority — ay, a majority — of the first inundation
of great French rams — many of them without getting a lamb. When
they lived, it often proved a greater disaster to their owners. They
spoiled the carcass and constitution of his flock, lowered the quality of
his wool, and not unfrequently actually diminished its quantity.

These circumstances created a violent reaction against French sheep,
and I should say, between eighty and ninety per cent, of our best North-
ern and Eastern wool-growers now thoroughly detest them. I believe
they have jumped off the bridge " on the other side !" Circumstances
led me into an extensive course of fresh investigations on this subject last
winter. I found French, like other sheep-raisers, divided in about the
usual proportion, between quacks and legitimate breeders. I found
French Merino flocks, and especially very high-bred grade French flocks,
based on an American Merino foundation on the maternal side, which
exhibited fine forms, sufficiently rugged constitution,0, a good quality and
large quantity of wool. If the wool lacked a little of the gloss and style
of the choi< e American Merinos, it nevertheless r?as a desirable article.

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. 31e

and especially so for the manufacturer, on account of its cleanness. Per-
haps, after my preceding remarks, justice requires me to add that I found
breeders raising the very largest French sheep with undeniably legitimate
objects. They considered that great size desirable, and were therefore
(erroneously and unavailingly, in my opinion) attempting to perpetuate
lit without perpetuating its usual accompanying defects.

The careful and certainly disinterested examination of many flocks,
which had been judiciously bred for a number of yetirs, and down to the
present epoch, somewhat modified, I confess, my own previous views. I
believe indeed, I found hardier and every way better sheep than the
French stock first brought into our country. I made up my mind, that
the prejudice against them was violent and excessive, and that by and by
another reaction will set in their favor, and that they will be extensively
used for an object which I shall treat under another head.

THE AMERICAN MEEINO. — About the same amount of fraud and de-
ception attended the introduction of the Spanish Merino into the United
States, (after Livingston, Humphreys, Jarvis, and a few other elevated
men had done their part,) that heralded the advent of the Saxon and
French varieties. Like the French, the former sunk into contempv.
before it received the general approbation of the country. And it en-
countered a far more dangerous foe than contempt, in an almost universal
admixture with the puny Saxons. But a remnant was fortunately kept
pure, and many flock-masters, after a Saxon cross, bred back to their pre-
vious Merino standard.

The American Merino of the present day is a considerably heavier and
stronger animal than his Spanish progenitor. He has been kept in
smaller flocks than in Spain, better fed, (or more uniformly fed,) and
subjected to a more careful and intelligent system of breeding. As long
ago as 1841, the celebrated early importer and subsequent breeder, Hon.
William Jarvis, of Vermont, wrote me that " twenty-five years' experi-
ence satisfied him that the wool of the Spanish Merino had rather im-
proved " in this country ; that his own wool was better than the samples
received from Spain, when he purchased his imported flock. (The whole
of this admirable letter will be found in the N. Y. Agricultural Society's
Transactions, 1841, pages 320-328.) The same kind of improvement has
continued down to the present time, in many flocks.

The different Spanish varieties were, as a general thin^, soon inter-
mingled with each other in this country, as they had been in France, so
that the names of Paular, Negretti, Gaudeloupe, etc., now have no mean-
ing, unless in a very few instances, when applied to American sheep. But
in point of fact, the same varieties, or somewhat analogous ones, have
been reproduced in our country by the systems of breeding pursued by
particular persons. Some men, for example, have carefully shunned
u oil " and "gum," and made fineness of wool the primary consideration.
These have substantially reproduced the Spanish Escurial, a sheep closely
resembling the Saxon, except in its larger size. Others have made
weight of fleece the primary consideration, at some sacrifice of fineness ;
and to this end they have bred as much oil into, and external gum upon
the fleece, as practicable. The extreme of these sheep become coated
over a few months after shearing, with a natural covering of gum of the
color of tar, extending about an eighth of an inch into the wool, which
in warm weather sticks to the hand, and in cold becomes a hard rigid
crust. The interior of the fleeco looks as if oil had been poured into it,
as it exists there not merely as a coating of each filament of wool, but

314 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS.

rather wears the appearance of a mass of oil, with filaments of wool
growing out through it.

Some breeders take a middle course, cultivating the oil, but avoiding
;he gum. Some cultivate a medium share of both ; and so on.

The well-bred American Merino is probably now the densest and
heaviest-fleeced sheep of its size in the world, without the help of any
extraneous circumstances ; but when you read of the enormous fleeces
you sometimes do, (whether they belong to H. S. K. or A. B. C.,) it is
time that you, and all other intelligent men, understand that this enor-
mous extra weight is made up of oil and gum. In the first place, wool
of this character can not, at best, be well washed on the back of the
sheep. In the second, many breeders do not desire to so wash it ; they
choose to leave these heavy animal excretions in the wool, and they le*t
their flocks run long enough between washing and shearing, to restore all
that has been washed away. In fact, washing with them, is little better
than a name, a pretence, to prevent the buyer from deducting the usual
one-third from the gross weight, as on unwashed wool. Then, further to
mislead the purchaser, they do up each fleece in two parts — claiming that
if that personage sees fit to judge the wool solely by weight of fleece,
instead of quality and condition, (as he often does,) it is but a fair retalia-
tion, a warrantable " spoiling of the Philistines," to take a course which
will compel him to judge the article by legitimate tests, or to suifer the con-
sequences. (That is to say, they assume that if the buyer is a blockhead,
or screw, it is right to cheat him, if it can be done by silence.)

These excessively oily and gummy sheep are rather " the rage " at
present in the North. There are two reasons for it. The wool-buyer
has obstinately refused to make any proportionate difference in the price-
paid for their wool and that paid for cleaner wools. He will usually pay
within three or four cents per pound, as much for the first as for the last,
when the "greasy" wool weighs two pounds most to the fleece, when it
costs no more to raise it, and when it will lose twenty-five per cent, more in
cleansing. The manufacturers could have corrected this evil, if they had
chosen to do so ; and a class of sham-hating men have continued to breed
clean wools, expecting them ultimately to do justice in the matter. But
indifference, or the temptation to force these breeders to sell (or sacrifice)
their beautiful clips at two or three pennies above the price of " greasy "
wool, has generally triumphed over all more manly considerations, though
in regions where clean wools are extensively grown, and where the breed-
ers can and will stand by each other, they have fared better.

The other reason for the popularity of excessively oily and gummy
sheep, exists in the fact that they generally sell better to those beginners
who are willing to pay breeders' prices. The first thing in a variety or
breed, which attracts the eye of a novice, is its salient peculiarities —
whether they involve valuable characteristics or the contrary; and they
are very apt to become his standards of purity of blood arid individual
excellence, until experience has taught him better. The Merino, com-
pared with others, is an oily and gummy sheep, and " argal," the more
oil and gum he possesses, the " more Merino " is he to the novice. The
same remarks apply to " throatiness " — large corrugations or folds of pen-
dulous skin about the neck or throat, and similar folds on other parts of
the body.

Breeders defer more or less to the tastes of buyers, and thus more
" grease and wrinkles " are prbduced than would otherwise be. A pet*
tier personage — your nomadic ram peddler — carries his complaisance still

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. 115

further. He 'manufactures traits or peculiarities to please purchasers!
He buys up half or three-quarter bred Merinos, which chanc.e to have
abundance of " wrinkles," (the mongrel get of a very "wrinkly" ram
often show this peculiarity quite as strongly as Ins full-blood descend-
ants,) and if the natural gum is wanting, he puts it on by daubing them
over, immediately after shearing, with a pigment of linseed oil and burnt
amber — a composition known in the North as the "Cornwall finish,"
from the fact that it was first used (as a winter protection to sheep I pre-
sume) in Cornwall, Vermont. It soon makes a nearly black external
coating, so similar to the natural gum as to be entirely undistinguishable
from it, except to a very practised eye. I should say, however, that it
was usually a little more evenly put on, and a shade handsomer, than the
natural article ! A second good oiling, with clear oil, towards fall, helps
along. Armed with these painted mongrels, a demure face, and a cer-
tificate of pedigree, purporting to be signed by a "Deacon," and a " Judge
of Probate," your ram-peddler sallies forth, Macedonian-like, conquering
and to conquer — greenhorns !

THE BEST BREED FOE TEXAS. — In the views I shall express under this
head, I desire neither to advance nor to injure the interests of any indi-
vidual— certainly to wound no man's feelings. But if I speak at all, of
course I am called upon to express those candid convictions, for which I
am willing to be held responsible.

I am free to say, on the start, that I believe there is altogether too
much one-sidedness in the views entertained by individuals, and the pub-
lic, in regard to this and other analogous questions. The current sets in
some particular direction, and then all influenced by conviction, or the
desire to take advantage of other people's convictions, jump into it irre-
spective of circumstances.

I have no doubt that every variety of the true wool-growing sheep,
the Merino, has an appropriate and profitable place. As long as costly
woollen fabrics are demanded by the wealthy and luxurious, the delicate
Saxon sheep is a want in agriculture. The Silesian supplies the next
want, and so on down. If the production is accurately proportioned to
the consumption, the laws of trade declare that all these breeds must be
profitable, (and something like equally profitable,) under the best circum-
stances, for their respective cultivation.

I desire to make another statement. In spite of all the pretences and
quackeries of rival breeders, I have no doubt that the best animals of each
of these varieties, produce about the same value (not amount) of wool
for the amount of food consumed. Some, however, require more human
labor and supervision than others, some demand milder climate than
others, and so on.

The time may very probably come when each of the Merino families
will be profitably grown almost side by side, in Texas. Your climate is
as mild as the feeblest-constitutioned' ones can elsewhere find. The extra
labor demanded for the supervision of such, ought to be as cheap with
you as in other portions of the United States. You have abundant suste-
nance for the strongest fine-wool breeds. And who can say that when
YOU have railroads covered with cattle and sheep-cars, that you can not
supply the mutton eaten in our Atlantic cities, more cheaply than it can
be grown nearer to them, and that it may not thus be made profitable to
you to grow coai-se as well as fine wools ?

At present, fine wools pay best in the United States ; and among these
m Bdium qualities find the most extensive demand and the most remuner

316 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS.

ating prices. This class of wool is borne both by the American and
French Merino.

As a pioneer and experimental sheep, you want the hardiest variety —
one capable of resisting a change of climate and circumstances, general or
local difficulties in the way of acclimation, and the effects of inexperienced
management. As a distinct variety, there can be no reasonable doubt,
I think, that the pure American Merino is better able to **• rough it " in a
new country than the pure French Merino, though I appr.ehend the latter
will ultimately do well enough in your mild climate. ~No person ac-
quainted with both breeds will hesitate to believe, that in a summer
drouth, or during a severe winter scarcity, the former will suffer less
than the latter — as much less as black cattle would suffer, under like cir
cumstances, than the larger Shorthorns. The impression is also univer-
sal, and certainly every appearance and analogy would seem to favor it,
that the American Merino will herd best in very large numbers.

But it is not necessary that you limit yourselves exclusively to one
variety. He who wants to grow very large wethers for plantation use,
or for sale, or he who wishes to grow a larger fine-woolled sheep as a
matter of taste, and is prepared to take care of them, wifl find his wishes
met by the French sheep ; or if wethers weighing from 150 Ibs. to 200 Ibs.,
and ewes weighing from 120 Ibs. to 140 Ibs., are large enough for him, he
can get them by a cross between the French and American varieties.

These last, if well bred, compose a beautiful and hardy sub-variety. I
bought a flock of them, last winter, mostly French, which were dropped
in May, 1858. They were kept in the common way, without pampering.
They were thoroughly washed and sheared at the common time, about
the close of June, 1859. Their wool was destitute of gum, about as white
at the outer as inner end, and seemingly almost as free from oil as cot-
ton. They averaged six pounds and four ounces of wool per head. I be-
lieve that a cross between such ewes and a very heavy and " greasy "
fleeced American Merino ram, would carry the average a pound higher
in the produce. I am so confident of this, that I am availing myself of
the results of such a cross on a comprehensive scale. The ewes are un-
commonly fine-woolled of their kind. The ram used weighs but 150 Ibs.
in full fleece, -and his washed fleece (as well as it could be washed)
weighed 14 Ibs. Of course he was excessively oily and gummy, and it
was for that very reason he was selected for the experiment. His lambs,
two months after birth, began to be colored very perceptibly by the oil
inherited from their sire.

It is legitimate in breeding, to counteract one defect with another. I
have noticed for twenty-five years that the oiliest and gummiest Merino
ranis cross best with the dry coarse-woolled varieties. I have recently
noticed that the cross between the French ram and such varieties rarely
results very satisfactorily. There is another reason for this. Where the
size of the male is greatly disproportioned to that of the female, the un-
born lamb has not room to expand in the womb, and it is born crooked
and unshapely — generally thin-chested and flat-ribbed. Hence" I entirely
prefer the cross between the French ewe and American Merino ram to
the one made conversely.

Am I asked at this point, if it is legitimate to breed extraneous sub-
stances, like oil and gum, and sell them for wool ? Certainly not. On
the other hand, is it legitimate for the wool buyer and manufacturer to
make no fair distinction between clean and dirty wool ? He who sells
"greasy" woals in broad daylight, without splitting his fleeces or resort-

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. 317

ing to any other trick, at leasts commits no fraud ! On the whole, 1
would push towards neither extreme. In your climate, I think you will
have to obtain pretty dark-colored and oily rams to keep up the proper
medium in that particular in your full-blood American Merino flocks, and
still oilier and darker ones, to produce that medium in a cross with coarse
8heep.

The wool of the French crosses I 'have described was a shade coarser
and a shade lest " stylish" than fair American Merino wool. But the
difference in cleanness was in its favor, and the difference in fineness was
so little against it, that every lot I mentioned sold, or could have been
sold separately, in July, for forty-four or forty-five cents -a pound. An
intelligent breeder of these, and of French full-bloods, candidily admitted
to me last winter, that he considered the former worth quite as much as
the latter for wool-growing. Under common care, and exposed to any
disadvantages, I think they would prove most profitable. And such a
cross would promptly give additional weight of fleece, and especially
size, to American Merino flocks deficient in either particular. But the
cross must always be well made not to result in failure.

SELECTION OF SHEEP — The points of a good Merino's carcass are,
good but not extraordinary size for the variety, the barrel well rounded,
the chest deep, the cross full, the back level forward of the hips, the loin
and buttocks comparatively wide, the flank and twist well let down, the
neck round and set on level with the shoulders, the head fine but broad
between the cars, the eye lively and mild, the legs straight and moderate-
ly long, the whole figure wearing a marked appearance of compactness
and solidity.

The degree of throatiness is rather a matter of taste. It is a great im-
pediment to smooth and rapid shearing ; but as a badge of blood, and as
an indication of that loose, large skin which is a characteristic mark and
valuable property of the highbred Merino, (and which is often found
without throatiness,) it is liked to a reasonable extent by most breeders.
The skin should be of SL fresh pink color — not dead white, and especially
not tawny.

The wool of the Merino should be compact at all hazards, and of as
great length as can be found united with compactness. It should open
with some appreciable resistance to the hand, not drop apart at the touch,
like the fur of furbearing animals. The pile, in addition to its fineness,
should be finely and regularly crimped from one extremity to the other.
This is an important indication of quality, and in the case of the American
Merino, of blood. The pure French sheep does not so perfectly or so
uniformly exhibit it. The interior of the wool (after it has gained length
subsequently to shearing) should be brilliantly glossy, and when properly
opened by the hand, every spire of its crimped filaments should seem to
be moving, as if instinct with life. This last appearance (of which I can
give no definite idea on paper) is the highest possible indication of good
breeding. A dry, lustreless appearance, especially a dead appearance, ia
very objectionable. If, in addition to this, the wool is destitute of crimp,
it is wholly inferior. Except near the outer end, wool should be white,
or of a faint golden tinge. If saffron-colored near the skin, it is " yellow-
ed," (by some abnormal secretion,) and injured for sale. Slightly brown-
ish or nankeen-colored wools, unless so stained by earths, indicate defec-
tive breeding. French wools are oftener of this color than those of any
Other family of the Merino.

The gum whhh is permitted to exist, should be on the outer extremity

318 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS.

of the fleece, not scattered through it in small yellow particles resem-
bling bee-bread, or in occasional white waxy concretions. The former
defect is commonest in the American, the latter in the French Merino.
Neither of them appertain to the Saxon. The oil of the fleece should
appear like a delicate white perfectly transparent varnish, or some thinner
fluid, barely coating over every fibre to give it lustre. As already said,
it is objectionable to have it fill up the interstices of the wool, as if it
had been poured in, and doubly so if its color is yellowish. If quite yel-
low and viscid, it is called " yolk."

The wool of the Merino should closely cover every wool-bearing part.
It should be thick and long on the belly as well as on the back, and the
bare spots for the movements of the legs, etc., should occupy only the
surface absolutely necessary for that purpose. It should look, when its
pelage is out at full length, like a bundle of wool on legs. But wool
below the knees and hocks, and on the point of the nose, is like throati-
ness, one of those " fancy points" which is highly valued by some, and
objected to by others. The wool on these parts is inferior, and trifling
in weight. It does not, as novices often imagine, specially indicate a
heavy fleece. That on the legs gets foul with mud or dug, when it comes
in contact with it, and that on the nose often so impedes the sight, that
unless it is sheared away two or three times a year, the animal can see
neither forward nor backward, nor scarcely sideways, without awkwardly
twisting about its head. I confess I rather like the peculiarity ; but there
can be no doubt it would be undesirable in sheep which must travel and
".look out for themselves" on extensive plains, and particularly so, if
there was any chance of their being attacked by dogs or beasts of prey.

PRICE OF MERINOS. — I shall recur to this subject, because the inciden-
tal discussion which has taken place on it, in your paper, renders me
desirous to submit some definite and tangible statements. I therefore
eay, definitely and tangibly, that pure-blood American Merino flocks ot
good quality, including the usual admixture of all ages and sexes, up to
four years old, can be bought for eight dollars a head, where one hundred
are taken ; for ten dollars a head, where fifty taken ; for twelve dollars
a head, where twenty-five are taken ; for twenty-five dollars a head, where
a half-dozen are taken. The pure-bred French sheep are comparatively
few, and though unpopular with the mass of wool-growers, are highly
prized by their breeders on account of their salableness in new regions.
I can give no approach to a uniform price on them. Good high-bred
French, grades, (a cross with the American Merino) resembling full-blood
French can be bought at from fifteen to twenty-five per cent, advance on
the price of American Merinos.

Mongrel American Merinos — not unfrequently denominated " full-
bloods," by sheep-growers who have no record of pedigree, oftentimes
no distinct conception of what constitutes a pedigree— can be purchased
in nearly all the Northern and Middle States, at .from two to four dollars
a head, according to the prevailing market prices of sheep at the time.
Most of them are a cross between the Saxon and " Native" sheep, with a
later infusion of Merino blood. Where the Saxon admixture was strong,
these sheep are often as fine as pure-blood Merinos. But their fleeces are
lighter; their constitutions much less vigorous; and like all mongrels
made up between distinct races, they are lacking in uniformity.

COST OF IMPORTATION. — There are three ways of getting sheep from
the Northern States to Texas — by the Ocean and Mississppi River routes,
and bytb? land route. Where time is no object, and the number of

SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS. 319

sheep to be faken large, the latter is by far the cheapest. Freights from
New- York City to Galveston, in ship-houses, (water found,) will average
about three dollars per head at proper seasons of the year. When
enough are sent to fill a ship-house, the usual cost is two dollars a head.
The cost of arranging ship-house, keep, and attendance on the passage is
then to be added. It should not exceed two dollars per head. Under
proper arrangements, the passage is as safe as that of the human passen-
ger of the vessel.

CROSSING WITH COARSE SHEEP. — It may be laid down as a settled
rule, that the Merino can be improved, as wool-producing sheep by a
cross with no other breed whatever. All legitimate crossing, for that
object, is confined to the several varieties of its owrn breed. Secondly,
there is no other breed the quality and quantity of whose wool is not im-
proved by a Merino cross. It is a matter of economy first to stock an
extensive wool estancia with coarse, cheap breeds of sheep. Any thing,
from English long-\vools down to the puny, miserable Mexican sheep, can
be used ; and with well-selected rams, (medium-sized, compact, oily,
gummy, and heavy-fleeced American Merinos,) the rapidity of the im-
provement will appear almost miraculous to inexperienced persons. In
selecting the coarse sheep, the carcass is of vastly more importance than
the fleece, and hence the Mexicans are the least valuable. But even they
are preferable to nothing.

Kone but the full-blood Merino ram should be used under any circum-
stances. A different course would, at best, lead to a retardation of the
desired improvement, of more amount than many times the cost of tho
necessary full-blood rams ; and the degree and kind of improvement
would become wholly a matter of uncertainty.

Every breeder whose means admit of it, will do well also to start with
a more limited flock of full-blood ewes. They constitute the foundation
of a future pure flock, and are the nursery to draw rams from, without
the expense of resorting to new purchases every two or three years. To
meet this latter object, the ewes and rams originally imported should be
of different strains of blood, and so marked as to be readily distinguish-
able from each other. All extensive breeders should keep two or three
separate strains of blood, for the convenience of purchasers.

MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. — Every new breeder should start with
an established system of marks which will at once point out to him the
blood of the particular animal. The brands may be cut out of wood, or
constructed of iron, and they are dipped in some pigment and applied to
the sheep (to prevent mistakes) as soon as it is sheared. On one side
stamp the owner's initials, on the other a cross, a circle, a triangle, or the
like, ( or a combination of these marks,) to indicate the precise family.

Every sheep of inferior carcass of fleece, should receive a mark at
shearing, which indicates that it is to be killed or sold.

On the subject of winter shelter and keep, I shall here offer nothing.
In this particular, experience is the only guide.

But I repeat my former adjuration, to keep down the dogs — that curse
of sheep-raising in Virginia, the Carolinas, etc., which is more fatal than
all others, and which it is next to impossible to get rid of, where it has
once got a firm footing.

Yours truly and sincerely, HENRY S. RANDALL.

Cortland Village, New- York, Aug. 12, 1859.

S20 SHEEP RAISING IN TEXAS.

SHEEP RAISING IN TEXAS.

BY GEORGE W. KENDALL, ESQ.

On commencing a third article on " Sheep Raising in Texas,"
my experience for another year, or since September, 1858, I find that I
have but a repetition of the same old story to offer the many readers of
your valuable almanac ; my good fortune has continued without an inter
ruption, and my losses amount to next to nothing. My flocks have all
been extremely healthy, and in the best possible condition, while the few
losses I have sustained, (not one per cent, probably,) have mostly resulted
from casualty or accident of some kind ; no disease has visited my folds.
You may recollect, that I last year said that I could not hope for a con-
tinuance of such good luck or fortune as had followed me through the
years '56-7 and a part of '58 ; it has continued up to this 1st of August,
1859, and my sheep are now in finer order than I have ever before seen
them.

In the fall and early winter of 1858, or during the months of October,
November, and December, I felt not a little uneasy about the effect of
the acorns, of which we had a most abundant crop in the mountains. I
had read in one book that they were hurtful to sheep ; I had been told,
by those who pretended to know, that their effect would certainly be
injurious. To keep my flocks away from them was entirely out of the
question ; within a hundred yards of the pens where they were nightly
kept, and in almost every direction, they must enter an oak range when
turned out in the morning, every tree loaded heavily with acorns. The
sheep devoured them with avidity, would run from tree to tree in the
morning searching for such as had dropped fresh during the night, and
this continued until the heaviest mast we have had in many years was
exhausted. What with the grass they cropped meanwhile, (and it was
noticed that each day the sheep would graze for hours,) they would come
home to their pens at night well filled. And all this time the flocks were
bright, healthy, and never in better condition, thus proving past all doubt,
that acorns, instead of being injurious to sheep, are a positive benefit,
and hereafter the heavier the mast may be at my place, the better I shall
like it.

In April last, at shearing time, I smeared the noses of my sheep, and
especially the lambs, bountifully with tar, and so far they have not been
troubled at all with grub in the head. Last year, it may be remembered,
I lost a few lambs from this cause ; the tar certainly can do no harm,
costs but a trifle, and I believe is beneficial during the spring and early
summer months.

About the 15th of August, 1858, 1 weaned my lambs, over eleven hun-
dred in number, all on the same morning : as nearly all were dropped in
the month of April preceding, they were then about four months old.
The Merino buck lambs I turned into my regular wether flock, where I keep
all my bucks save during the short tupping season in the fall ; the ewe and
wether lambs I have kept in a flock by themselves up to this time, and
all have grown and thriven remarkably well — far better than when the
old ewes with their lambs ran together, and from one end of the year to
the other.

Every one who knows anything about sheep must be well aware that

SHEEP RAISING IN TEXAS. 321

long after a ewe has nearly dried up — when she gives but a drop of
milk — the lamb will hang on and worry her, forty times a day, for that
drop. It does the latter no good-— -it pulls down and pesters the old
ewes — in short, injures both. For a day or two after they are separated,
of course there will be a terrible outcry and clamor, lambs bleating for
their mothers, and mothers calling for their lambs. But this is soon over ;
both soon set to work in earnest cropping their food, they have the entire
day to fill themselves, and my experience has proved that both commence
fattening within a week after the weaning is over. The old ewes have a
chance to recruit and strengthen themselves before frost sets in, are in
finer condition for the bucks in November, and pass through the winter
in far better order.

I know that where a person has but a single flock of sheep, and that
flock small, it creates an additional expense to separate and wean the
/ambs. But I hold that anything that is worth doing at all is worth doing
well, and the additional expense will be more than repaid by the increased
size, strength, condition, and constitution of the flock.

My last year's ewe-lambs, (those dropped in the spring of 1858,) I
shall put to buck on the 1st of the coming November, or when they are
some nineteen months old. They will then be two years of age when
they have lambs ; and I am confident this plan is much better than the
one so often practised in Texas, of allowing yearling ewes to run with
bucks and have lambs before they have attained their growth, and before
they are well able to sustain their offspring. I do not increase my stock
so fast by following this system ; but I materially improve it, both in size
and constitution, and that is what I am constantly striving after. We
can all afford to be patient in Texas.

I shall have some two thousand ewes to put to buck this foil. Of these,
about one hundred and thirty are full-blood Merinoes, which I shall turn
into a pasture with two of the best bucks I can find, on 20th of October.
On the 25th of the same month I shall put half of my grade ewes to
buck, and on the 1st of November the balance. For six weeks only will
the bucks be allowed to run with the ewes ; I never wish to see a lamb
come in one of my flocks later than the 15th of May. I have proved to
my own satisfaction, that a lamb dropped on 1st of April, when the grass
is young and fresh and the days comparatively cool, will be larger and
better formed the day it is three months old, than will a lamb dropped on
the 1st of July, when the grass is apt to be coarse and dry, and the days
scorching hot, when it is six months old ; and the former will turn out the
best sheep in every respect. Many persons, anxious to increase the num-
ber of their flocks, may be loath to believe all this, but let them try both
or all systems. The custom of allowing bucks to run with the ewes the
year round, and having lambs come twice a year, or during every month
in the year, I cannot but believe ruinous. It would worry me 'more to
see a buck among my ewes in July, August, or September, or in Febru-
ary, March, or April, than a wolf: the latter might kill half a dozen,
and there end ; the former would cost me more real loss in the long run.

I am induced to give this statement in relation to my system because I
am continually receiving letters from persons just starting in the sheep
business, making inquiries on the subject. I do not say that I am right ;
I ask no one to follow my general plan of management. I shall change it
the moment I hear of any one who has had better success than has
befallen me, but not until then.

Tn the Texas almanac for 1859, 1 see that Thos. Decrow, Esq., after an

322 SHEEP RAISING IN TEXAS.

interesting account of his own great .success in sheep-raising on Mata-
gorda Bay, sees fit to disagree with me in my estimate of the necessity
of breeding from no other than pure Merino bucks. Now, Mr. Decrow
may be right, and I altogether in the wrong ; yet his argument does not
convince me that a grade buck, which is perhaps just as apt to breed
back as ahead, is as useful in a flock of Mexican ewes as a square-built,
compact, stout, vigorous, well-woolled, thorough-bred Merino, an animal
perfect in all those parts where the Mexican is naturally defective. I this
year sheared many grade sheep, three and four removes from common
Mexican ewes, which yielded 8, 8-J, and some of them 9 pounds of wool,
and wool so fine that it would require a sharp sampler to distinguish it
from pure Merino, while the animals were perfect in form, lusty, and of
most vigorous constitution. I could not have got along so fast with grade
bucks, and I think Mr. Decrow was wrong when he says that he had
made up his mind to " sell or exchange his thirteen pure Merino bucks,
even at half-price, and furnish his newly purchased Mexican ewes (600 in
number) with rams of his own raising, from his own flock in preference."
The flock master who breeds altogether from pure Merino bucks, knows
always where he is, and where he will come out at the expiration of a
certain time ; but if he uses no other than grade rams, he is ever living
in uncertainty, and will never reach any particular end. My great object
is to breed up until every sheep I may own, may be safely marked a
thorough, full-blood Merino ; and in the course of a few years, should I
live, I shall achieve this result. But not in a century could I attain an
end I neem so desirable, were I to breed continually from grade rams.

I do not wash my sheep at all, and for what I deem good reasons.
About the middle of April, or at the time when one half my ewes have
young lambs at their sides, and the balance are about to drop, would bo
the only time I could wash in this region. At this period I would not
race or worry my ewes at all on any account ; they should be pestered as
little as possible, and any advantage to the fleece from washing cannot
make up for the injury to the animal. I might wash my bucks and
wethers without injury, and my yearling lamb flock, made up of ewes and
wethers, and I may possibly try the experiment ; but my old ewes never.
Could my lambs come the latter part of February, as Mr. Decrow deems
best, I might then wash all ; but in this high mountain region yeaning
time cannot prudently come before the latter part of March or April, the
the very period when we must commence washing and shearing. We
are apt to have bad weather in February in this section, and even up to
the loth or 20th of March. Now, as my lambs come at the outset at the
rate of over one hundred a day, a single cold, rainy or nicety norther
would carry off one half of those dropped during its continuance ; and
hence I sa^r that in this parallel of latitude, and north of it, our yeaning
time cannot commence before the latter part of March, without running
great risk of loss.

I will not trespass farther upon your valuable space at this time ;
another year, should you wish it, I will give you a fourth article upon my
experience in sheep raising in Texas.

Respectfully, your friend,

GEO. WILKINS KENDALL.
NEW BBAUXFELS, August 1, 1859,

INDEX.

A.

Abdomen, the. Page 228.

contents of the, 228—233.
Abomasum, cut of the, 228.

structure and functions of the, 229.
Acarus of scab, cut of the, 259.

description and habits of the, 258—259.

how produced, 258.
Acetate of copper. See Verdigris.
Afghanistan, advantages of, for sheep hus-
bandry, 118.

Africa, (exclusive of Cape of Good Hope,)
sheep of, 151.

exports of wool to England from, 110.

exports of wool to U. S. in 1846, 124.

quality of wool exported from, 90.
Age, determined by the teeth, 237, 238.

names indicative of the, 237.

length of, in different breeds, 156, 157.
Agrostis (stricta) yulgaris. See Herds-grass.
Air-cells, description of the, 235.
Alabama, population of, 17.

number of sheep in, 17.

pounds of wool grown in, 17.

average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21.

woollen factories in, 17.

value of woollen goods manufactured in,
17.

price of land in, 60.

adaptation of mountain lands of, to sheep

husbandry, 47.

Al«, the use of, in sheep medicine, 274.
Allegheny mountains. See Apalachian moun-
tains.

Allspice, use of, in sheep medicine, 276.
Aloes, use of, in sheep medicine, 275.
Alum, use of, in sheep medicine, 275.
Anatomy of the sheep, 227, 238.

how far necessary to be studied, 227.

proper subjects for the study of, 227.

directions for studying, 227, 228.
Animals which destroy sheep in the South,
64.

in Australia, 65.

at the Cape of Good Hope, 65.

how guarded against, 65.
Antimony, the use of, in sheep medicine, 275.
Aorta, the, 234.

Apalachian mountains of U. S., where
situated, 30.

area occupied by, 30.

geology and soils of, 30, 31, 43,44, 46,49.

altitude of, 43.

grasses which flourish on, 43, 44, 47, 59,
62.

adaptation of, to pasturage, 44, 46, 47,
59, 62.

Climate on, 44—51, 59.

price of lands on, 44, 46 — 48, 59.
Apoplexy, confounded with grub in the head,
258.

and treatment of, 251 — 253.

2

Arachis. See Pindar*.

Arctium lappa, injurious to wool, 131.

Argentine Republic. See Buenos Ayres.

Arsenic, the use of, in sheep practice, 275.

Arteries, the, 234.

Artichokes, value of, as a fodder, 213.

straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211
Ashes, as a fertilizer in the South, 67.

leached, 67.

analysis of, 67.
Asia. See names of countries of.

exports of wpol from to U. S. in 1846

124.

Asiatic sheep. See Broad-tailed sheep.
Asia Minor, adaptation of, to sheep hua

bandry, 118.

Auricles of the heart, the, 234.
Australia, introduction of sheep into, 25.

introduction of Merinos into, 25.

effect of climate of, on quality of wool,,
25—29.

wools of, compared with Spanish, 26.

wools of, compared with Saxon, 26.

exports of wool from, 25.

exports of wool brought down tol 546, 294'-

how sheep are managed in, 26.

sheep husbandry of, compared wit In
Saxon, 26.

general adaptation of, to sheep hus^
bandry, 25, 119—121.

soils and products of, 119.

price of land and labor in, 119—121.

climate of, 120.

remarkable droutns of, 120.

wild beasts in, destructive to sheep, 121.

vast distance of, from European markets,
121.

prospect of the increase of wool in, 121..

note giving statistics of wool trade of

brought aown to 1846, 294.
Austria, advantages of, for sheep husbandry ,.
1 14, 116. See Germany and Hungary.

soils of, 114.

climate of, 115.

management of sheep in, 1 39.

exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846r

124.
Aquafortis, use of, in sheep practice, 276

B.

Baden, advantages of, for sheep husbandry

114.

Bakeweil, Mr., the former of the New Lei-
cester bteed, 142.
the conduct of, as a feeder, censured,

143, 249.
Barley, value of, in producing live weight,.

wool and tallow, 214.
per cent, of nitrogen in, 214.
value of straw of, as a fodder, 213.
I straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 311

:24

INDEX.

Barns for sheep, cut of. Page 205.

ground-plan of, with sheds and yards,

209.

Barrack for hay, description and cut of, 209.
Bavaria, advantages of, for sheep husbandry,

114, 115.
Beans, value of, as a fodder, 213.

straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, .61 _
Beet field, value of, as a fodder, 213.

white Silesian, value of, as a fodder, 213.
Belgium, exports of wool from, 110.

exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846, 124.

late increase of manufactures in, 294.
Beloochistan, advantages of, for sheep hus-
bandry, 118.
Bermuda grass in the South, 38.

its enormous product, 38.

its adaptation to meadow or pasture, 38.

its adaptation to barren sands, 38.
Bichloride of mercury, use of, in sheep me-
dicine, 275.
Biflex canal, description of, 238.

disease of, 261.
Bile, account of the, 231.
Biliary duct, description of the, 231.
Bladder, the, 233.
Blain, unusual in U. S., 222.
-Blankets for slaves, description of, 87, 90.

cost of manufacturing, 87, 90—92.
Bleeding, place for, 273, 274.

rules for, 274.

the quantity of blood to be abstracted in,

274.
Blood, the circulation of the, 235.

the importance of purity of, in breeding,

168, 171, 172.
Bide grass, as the food ot sheep, 212.

in the North, 33.

in the South, 37.

on the Southern mountains, 44, 47, 48.
'Blue Ridge of mountains, location of, 30.
Also, see Apalachians.

geology of, 30.

soils and products of, 31, 44—47, 59.

advantages of, for sheep husbandry,

44—47, 59.

'•Bone dust, as a manure in the South, 67.
;Bot. See Grub in the Head.
Box for feeding grain to sheep, cut of, 203.

for dipping lambs, cut of, 192.
•Brain, description of the, 236.
Brazil, a portion of, in wool zone, 105.

exports of wool from, 110.

exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846,

124.
breeding, principles of, 168-—172.

importance of selection in, 168, 190.

in and in, effects of, 169.

in and in, how avoided, 170, 172.

crossing, when admissible in, 170.

crossing, how conducted, 172.

crossing, method of starting flocks in the
South by, 170.

crossing, importance of selecting good
rams for, 172.

register, how kept, 180.
British America, exports of wool from, 110.

to U. S. in 1846, 124.

firitish West Indies, exports ot wool from,
110.

to U. S. in 1846, 124.

Broad-tailed sheep introduced into the U. S..
151.

•wool and mutton of the, 151.

Bronchial tubes, the, 235.

Bronchitis, description and treatment of, 240.

Bronchocele. See Goitre.

Browse, feeding of, in winter, 217.

Buckwheat, value of, in producing lire

weight, wool and tallow, 214.
per cent, of nitrogen in, 214.
-aioe of straw ofT as a fodder, 213.
straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 21 J.
Buenos Ayres, advantages of, for sheep hus-
bandry, 105, 106.
advantages of, for sheep husbandry, com

pared with U. S., 106.
exports of wool from, 105.
exports of wool from, to U. S., in 1846

124.

pampas of, 105.
inhabitants of, 105.
Burdock, injurious to wool, 131.

c.

Cabbage, value of, as a fodder, 213.

Cabul, advantages of, for sheep husbandry.

118.

Cachectic diseases, 254, 255.
Camphor, use of, in sheep medicine, 275.
Cape of Good Hope, 65, 119.

Merinos introduced in, 26.

Merinos, their increase in, 26.

exports of wool from, 110.

exports of, to U. S. in 1846, 124.

wool of, compared with Australia, 2<>.

advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 65,

climate of, 26, 119.

climate of, effect of, on quality of wool, 26.
face of the country in, 119.
remarkable drouths in, 11!).
prevalence of wild beasts in, 119.
Capillaries, functions of the, 234.
Caraway seeds, the use of, in sheep medi

cine, 275.

Cardiac opening, the, 231.
Carrots, value of, as a fodder, 213.
Castration of rams, 180.
Cataract, the, 239.'
Catarrh, common, description and treatment

of, 240.
malignant epizootic, description of, 240 —

247.
malignant epizootic, ravages of, in U. S.,

240.
malignant epizootic, treatment of, 245,

246.

Catechu, use of, in sheep medicine, 275.
Cattle doctor, the most dangerous of mala-
dies, 226.

Caul. See Omentum.
Census of U. S., inaccurate in its wool re

turns, 18.

Cerebellum, the, 236.
Chalk, the use of, in sheep medicine, 275.
Chelmsford plains, for slave cloths, 86, 90.

quality and cost of manufacturing, 90 — 93
Cheviot sheep, introduction of, into U. S,

149.

description of, 149, 150, 154.
low quality of their wool, 151.
Chili, portion of, in the wool zone, 105.
exports of wool from, 110.
exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846
124.

INDEX.

325

China advantages of, for sheep husbandry,

Page 118.

Choking, treatment of, 273.
Chyle, account of the, 231.
Climate, not controlled by latitude, 104.
of various countries compared, 104.
range of, in which fine sheep are bred,

17, 18.

range of, in which wool can be most eco-
nomically grown, 103, 104.
of U. S., favorable to sheep, 18, 103, 104.
effect of, on health of sheep, 18, 103.
effect of, on the amount of wool, 22.
effect of, on the quality of wool, 23,

27—29.

Clogging sheep, how done, 193.
Clover, red, as the food of sheep, 212.

value of, cut in different states, as a fod-
der, 213.

acclimation of, in Virginia, 36.
acclimation of, on the mountains of Vir-
ginia, 44, 47.

acclimation of, south of Virginia, 44, 47.
not indispensable, 44, 47.
substitute for, as a fodder, and manuring

crop, 39, 41.

white, as the food of sheep, 212.
flourishes on the southern mountains,

45, 47.

Coecum, cut of the, 232.
Colic, symptoms and treatment of, 253.
Cold storms, dangerous effects of, after shear-
ing, 191.

Colombia, exports of wool from, 110.
Colon, cut of the, 232.
Cobza, value of, as a fodder, 213.
Copperas, sulphate of, use of, in sheep medi-
cine, 275.

CJcrn, Indian, as food for sheep, 216.
value of, as a fodder, 213.
blades of, as sheep fodder, 41, 212, 214.
stalks of. as a sheep fodder, 41, 212, 214.
Corrosive sublimate, use of, in sheep medi-
cine, 275.
Cotswold sheep, origin of, 149.

introduction of, into the U. S., 149.
description of_ 149.
crosses of, with other breeds, 149.
cut of, 148.

Cotton, statistics of the crop of, 79.
cost of growing, 79, 85.
cost of growing, compared with that of

growing wool, 85.

should alternate with other crops, 78 — 83.
alternating of, with wool growing pro-
posed, 81.
rotations for such alternation proposed,

83, 84.
more should be grown on less land, 80,

85.

seed of, as a food for sheep, 216.
Crab grass, account of the, 37.
Creeping panic grass. See Bermuda grass.
Crimea, advantages of, for wool growing,

Merinos introduced in, 117.
Crook, uses of the, described, 196.

cut of the, 196.
Crossing breeds and varieties, object of, 170.

effects of, 170—172.

advantages of, under some circumstances,

162, 164, 170.

Cud, loss of the, not a disease, 272.
Cumberland grass. See Bermuda gnu*

Cumberland mountains described, 43. Also,

see Apalachians.
the adaptation of, to sheep husoandry,

48.
Curled kale, as food for sheep, 62.

flourishes on southern mountains, 62
Cynodon dactylon. See Bermuda giass.
Cynoglossum officinale, injurious "to

174. See Hound' s-tonyue.
Cystisis, unusual in U. S., 238.

D.

Dactylis glomerala. See Orchard grass.
Dangerous rams, how managed, 193.
Denmark, exports of wool from, 110.
Depots for wool. See Wool Depots.
Diaphragm, structure and functions of, 234.
Diarrhoea, description and treatment of, 250.
Digestion, the process of, 229 — 231.
Digitalis, use of, in sheep medicine, 275.
Digitaria sanguinalis, account of the, 37.
Diseases, the classification of, adopted, 226.
same causes do not produce the same, in

different countries, 220.
popular superstitions concerning causes

of, 220, 221.
many of those of England not found in

U. S., 221— 223, 238.
difference in the type of, in England and

U. S., 224.

treatment of, in England and U. S. dif-
ferent, 224.
English treatment of, too expensive

224, 225.
English treatment requires too much

skill for popular use, 225.
English treatment, its pharmacopeia loo

extensive, 225.

treatment of, by "cattle doctors" dan-
gerous, 226.
better do too little for, than too much,

226.
Dissection indispensable to learn nature and

treatment of diseases, 227.
amount of instruction necessary to per-
form, 227.

directions for, 227, 228.
proper subjects for, 227.
Division of flocks proper in summer, 193.

necessary in winter, 199.
Docking sheep, necessity for, 181.

how performed, 181.
Dogs, sheep. See Sheep dogs.

destruction of sheep in the South by, 64
legal enactments in relation to killing

sheep by, in New York, 64.
methods of protecting sheep from, 65.
Down sheep. See Southdowns.
Dropsy, acute, unusual in U. S., 222.
Drouths, the severe, which prevail in Aus-
tralia and the Cape of Good Hope,
119, 120.

Ductus choledochus, functions of the, 231.
Duodenum, cut of the, 232.
Dura mater, the, 236.
Dutch West Indies, exports of wool from, io

U. S. in 1846, 124.
Duties on wool in different nations. See

Tariffs.
Dysentery, difference between, and diarrhera,

251.
^<ture and treatment of, 261.

32G

INDEX.

E.

Ear, numbering sheep by notching. Page 179.
Von Thaer's system of, 178, 179.
cuts illustrating, 179.
•when done, 180.
noteher, described, 180.
holes in, to record age, 179.
holes in, how made, &c., 179.
East Indies, increasing exports of wool from,

110,111.
in what countries of the, wool is grown,

118.
Ellman, Mr. the great imp over of the South-

downs, 144.

Emasculation of rams, how performed, 181.
England, duties of, on imported wool, 106.
table of imports of wool of, and from

whence imported, every fifth year for

thirty years, 110.
imports of wool of, compared with other

nations, 108.

imports of, brought down to 1846, 294.
vast increase of imports of wool of, in

sixty-nine years, 123.
subsequent increase in imports of, 294.
exports of woollens from, 108.
exports of wool from, 109.
exports of wool from, to U. S., 110.
exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846,

124.

numoer of sheep in, 109.
produce of wool in, 109.
production of wool in, does not meet the

home consumption, 109.
general advantages of, for wool growing,

sheep necessary to sustain tillage of, 71.

sheep dogs of, 286.
Enteritis, little known in U. S., 238.
Epiglottis, description of the, 236.
Epilepsy, little known in U. S., 253.
Epsom salts, the use of, in sheep medicine,

275.

Erysipelatous scab, 261.
Ethmoid bone, cut of the, 236.
Ewes, proper age of, to begin breeding, 137.

proper number to be put to one ram, 197.

different methods of putting to ram, 198.

feed and management of, during preg-
nancy, 217.

pregnant, should be watered separately,

199.
Eye, inflammation of the, how treated, 239.

F.

Fall feeding, a good preparation for winter,

195.

Febrile diseases, account of the, 238 — 251.
Feeding sheep in yards with other stock im-

proper, 210.

Felting property in wool accounted for, 137.
Fences, poor ones teach sheep to jump, 194.
Fever, inflammatory, little known in U. S.,
238.

malignant, little known in U. S., 238.

typhus, little known in U. S., 238.
Flaxseed. See Linseed.
Fleece, evenness of, important, 167.

how prepared for folding, 187.

how folded, 187, 188.

Fleece, cuts of table and trough for folding
the, 187, 188.

proper twine for tying, 188.

cut of, properly done up, 188.
Florida, population of, 17.

number of sheep in, 17.

pounds of wool grown in, 17.

average weight of fleeces in, 13. 21.

woollen factories in, 17.

woollen goods manufactured in, 17.
Fluke worm, cuts of the, 248.

account of the, 247, 248.
Fly, its attacks and their effects, 173, 192.

how avoided, 173, 192.
Fodders, table of nutritious equivalents of
213.

increase in weight, wool and tallow, frorrt
using different kinds of, 214, 215.

table of winter variations in, for sheep.
211.

table of, for ewes, a month prior to
lambing, 212.

for winter feed of breeding ewes, 217.

amount consumed influenced by tempe-
rature, 217, 218.

cereal grains for store sheep, 215, 216.

ruta bagas for store sheop, 215, 216.

Indian corn to be fed with care, 216.

regularity in giving, very important, 217.
Folding, how done in England, 72.

objects of, in England, 72.

inexpedient in U. S., 73.
Folding of fleeces. See Fleece.
Food. See Grasses and Fodders.
Foot rot. See Hoof -ail.
Fouls, cause and treatment of, 270.
Foxglove. See Digitalis.
Fractures, treatment of, 273.
France, area of, 111.

population of, 111.

number of sheep in, 111.

exports of wool from, 110.

exports of, to U. S. in 1846, 124.

exports of woollens from, 108.

late increase in manufactures of, 111,296

imports of wool of, 108.

duties of, on imported wool, 106.

advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 111.

soil and products of, 111.
French Merinos, account of, 133.

cut of wool of, 135.

quality of wool of, compared with Spa-
nish and American families, 135, 136.

weight of fleeces of, 133.
French sheep dogs, 285.
Frontal bone, cut of section of, 236.
Frontal sinuses, cut of, 236.

locality of the hot or grub in the head,
256.

G.

Gad-fly of the sheep. See CEstrus ovit.
Gall bladder, account of the, 233.
Garget, description and treatment of, 251.
Gastritis, little known in U. S., 238.
Generative organs, the, 233.
Gentian, the use of, in sheep medicine, 873»
Georgia, population of, 17.

number of sheep in, 17.

pounds of wool grown in, 17.

average weight of fleeces in, 18,21.

woollen factories in, 17.

INDEX

327

Georgia, woollen goods manufactured in.
Page 17.

advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 42,

59, 60.

price of land in, 60.
adaptation of mountain lands of, to sheep

husbandry, 47.
Germany, area of, 114.
population of, 114.
lace of the country in, 114.
soils of, 114.
climate of, 115.
land tenures in, 115.

system of sheep husbandry in, 115, 139.
method of managing sheep in, 139.
circumstances under which the wool of,

is grown in, 115, 116.
export of wool from, 110, 114.
export of woollens from, 108.
late increase in woollen manufactures of,

296.
general advantages of, for wool growing,

114—116.
general advantages of, compared with

U. S., 116.
general advantages of, Mr. Grove's

opinion, 116.

Gestation, period of. 197.
Gibraltar, exports of wool from, 110.
exports of, to U. S. in 1846, 124.
Ginger, the use of, in sheep medicine, 275.
Glands, the parotid, 236.
the thyroid, 236.
the thyroid, diseases of, 270.
the salivary, 236.
Glottis, account of the, 236.
Goggles. See Hydatid in the brain.
Goitre, account of the, 270, 271.
Grain, policy of feeding to store sheep in

winter, 215.

best kinds of, for winter feed, 216.
equivalents of, in nutriment, 213.
effects of different kinds of, in producing

wool, tallow and muscle, 214.
G'rain box for sheep, cut and description of,

203..
Grasses, natural ones of the South, 36 — 39,

44, 45, 47—49, 58, 59.
varieties of, which should be tried in the

South, 33, 35—38. .
best acclimated ones of the South, 33,

36—38.
manner of forming swards of, in the

South, 73—75.

Great Bucharia, wool trade of, 118.
Greece, exports of wool from, 110, 114. (In

Table on page 110 it is called Morea.)
advantages of, for sheep husbandry. See

Remarks on Turkey, 104, 114.
Grub in the head, description of the, 256,

257.

the larva of the CEstrus ovis, 257.
cuts and description of the CEstrus, 256.
time CEstrus deposits its eggs, 256.
locality and habits of the larva, 256,

257.

cuts and description of the larva, 257.
cut and description of the chrysalis, 257.
do the larva produce disease in the sheep ?

257, 258.

opinions of eminent veterinarians in rela-
tion to, 258.
method of preventing and expelling the

larva, 258.

Guano, as a manure in ths South, 67.
Guatemala, exports of wool from, 110.
Guernsey and Man, exports of wool from

110.

Gullet, obstructions of, how treated, 273.
Gypsum as a fertilizer in the South, 67.

H.

Handling sheep, directions for, 174.

Hay, different value of different qualities ol,

as fodder, 213.
comparative value of, in producing live

weight, wool, and tallow, 214.
nitrogen in, 214.
Hay holders for winter foddering described,

211.
Hanse Towns, exports of wool from, to U. S.

in 1846, 124.

Head, for proper form of, see the descrip'
tions of the several breeds, and prin
ciples of breeding.
cut of the bones of the, 236.
Heart, structure and functions of the, 234,

235.

Hedysarum onibrichis. See Sainfoin.
Hepatization of the lungs, description of,

239.
Herds grass, character of, 33, 37.

flourishes in South Carolina, 36, 59.
flourishes on the mountains of North

Carolina, 44.
the soils adapted to, 37.
Hindostan, wools exported from, 108.
Holland, exports of wool from, 110.

exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1815,

124.

exports of woollens from, 108.
Honeycomb, or second stomach. See Rct\-

culum.

Hooding dangerous rams, how done, 193.
Hoof, periodical shortening of the, necessary,

183.
best time and method for cutting the,

183.

cut of toe-nippers for shortening the, 183.
Hoof-ail, erroneous statements of English

writers concerning, 262.
author's experience with the, 262.
consecutive symptoms of, 263.
treatment of, 264 — 269.
preparation of the foot for treatment HI

the different stages of, 265.
common remedies for, 265, 266.
common method of treating, ineffectual

264.

effectual method of treating, 266, 267.
effectual mqthod of treating, expense of.

267.
cheap method of keeping under, 267,

268,
cheap method of keeping under, cuts of

arrangements for, 267, 268.
evident contagiousness of, 269, 270.
propagated by inoculation, 269, 270.
is it propagated otherwise than by ino-
culation? 270. .
does not originate spontaneously in U. S.,

222, 223, 269.
originates spontaneously in England

223.

Hoof-rot. See Hoof -ail.
Hoove, cause and treatment of, 272, ?73.

828

INDEX.

Horns, objectionable. Page 166.

method of shortening, 192.

cause and treatment of maggots under

the, 192.

Hoppling sheep, how performed, 193.
Hospital for feeble sheep, in winter, 199.
Hound's-tongue, the burr of, injurious to

wool, 174.

Hungary, advantages of, for sheep husbandry,
115—117.

advantages of, compared with those of
other countries, 117.

climate of, 115, 116.

soils of, 116.

land tenures in, 116.

want of market facilities in, 116, 117.

Prince Esterhazy's flock in, 116.

sheep dogs of, 284.
Hydatid in the brain, 254, 255.

causes of, 254.

prevalence in England of, 254.

not very common in U. S., 254.

barbarous popular method of treating,
255.

proper treatment of, 255.

I.

Ileum, cut of the, 232.

Illinois, advantages on prairies of, for wool

growing, 96—103.

Saxon sheep introduced into south of, 27.
rot prevails in south of, 222.
In-and-in breeding, effects of, 169.
Independent Tartary, advantages of, -for

sheep husbandry, 118.
Indiana, advantages of, for wool growing,

96—103.

Inflammation of the bladder. See Cystitis.
of the brain. See Phrenilis.
of the eye. See Opthalmia.
of the intestines. See Enteritis,
of the larynx. .See Laryngitis.
of the lungs. See Pneumonia.
of the liver. See Rot.
of the stomach. See Gastritis.
of the udder. See Garget.
of the membrane lining the thorax. See

Pleuritis.
of the mucous membrane lining the

bronchial tubes. See Bronchitis.
of the mucous coat of the smaller intes-
tines. See Diarrhoea.
of the mucous coat of the larger intes-
tines. See Dysentery.
of the mucous membrane lining the nasal

passages. See Catarrh.
of the cellular tissue of the tongue. See

Blain.

Intermaxillary bone, cut of the, 236.
Intestines, cut of the, 232.
Iodine, use of, in sheep medicine, 275, 276.
Iowa, advantages of, for sheep husbandry,

96—103.
Italy, advantages of, for sheep husbandry,

113.

exports of wool from, 110.
exports of woollens from, 108.
area of, 113.
population of, 111.
soil and climate of, 113.
^aeturage of, 113.

.1.

Jejunum, cut of the, 232.

J^hn's-wort, bad effects of, on sheep, 271.

bad effects of, how treated, 271, 2^2.
Jjgular vein, the best place for bleediEA

274.
»une grass. See Blue grast.

K.

Kalmia angustiflora. poisonous to sheep, 271

antidotes for, 271.
Kentucky, population of, 17.

number of sheep in, 17.

pounds of wool grown in, 17.

average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21.

woollen factories in, 17.

woollen goods manufactured in, 17.

fine wooled sheep bred in, 27.

advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 27
47, 48.

adaptation of mountain lands of, foi

sheep husbandry, 47, 48.
Kidneys, structure and functions of the, 233,

L.

Lacteala, the, 231.

Lambs, how fed in winter, 215, 216.

should be wintered separately, 199.
Lambing, proper time for, 175.

shelters necessary for, 175.

assistance when to be rendered ewe in
175.

care of the newly dropped lamb, 176.

changing dams, how done, 177.

irritation of the bag, how managed, 177

the convenience of pens in, 177.

pinning of young lambs after, 177.
Lard, use of, in sheep medicine, 276.
Larynx described, 235.
Laryngitis, little known in U. S:, 238.
Laurel, low, poisonous to sheep, 271.
Leg, treatment of, when fractured, 273.
Leicester sheep, origin of the, 142.

cut of the/142.

cut of the microscopic appearance tt
wool of, 136.

general description of, 143, 154.

characters of as breeders, 143.

degree of hardiness of, 143.

points aimed at by breeders of, 144.

introduction of, into U. S., 144.
Lentils, value of, as a fodder, 218.

straw off value of, as a fodder, £13.

straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211
Lice, method of destroying, 192.
Lime, chloride of, use of, in sheep medicint
276.

carbonate of, use of, in sheep practice,
276.

as a fertilizer in the South, 67—70.

as a fertilizer, when valuable, 68.

as a fertilizer, Johnson's opinions con-
cerning, 68.

as a fertilizer, Von Thaer's opinion con-
cerning, 68.

as a fertilizer, Fety.holut's opinion con
cerning, 69.

INDEX.

Lime, as a fertilizer, Chaptal's opinion con-
cerning. Page 69.

Linseed, use of, to guard the end of a pro-
bang. See Choking.

caked, value of, as a fodder, 213.

oil, use of, in sheep medicine, 276.
Little Bucharia, exports of wool from, 118.
Liver, structure and functions of the, 232
233.

diseases of the. See Rot.
Lolium perenne. See Eye grass.
Lombardy, advantages of, for eheep hus-
bandry, 113.

Long wool, the goods in which it is em-
ployed, 143, 151.

the sheep which produce it, 143. 149,
151.

market for, in U. S., 154.
Loss of cud, not a disease, 272.
Louisiana, population of, 17.

number of sheep in, 17.

pounds of wool grown in, 17.

average weight of ileeces in, 18, 21.

woollen factories in, 17.

woollen goods manufactured in, 17.

price of land in, 60.
Lucern, unsuccessful in the North, 33.

succeeds on the southern mountains, 47.

value of, as a fodder, 213.

fed to sheep in Germany, 211.
Lunar caustic, use of, in sheep practice, 276.
Lungs, structure and functions of the, 235.

nepatization of the, described, 239.

diseases of the, 239, 240.
Lupins, white, as a green manuring crop in

the South, 74.

Lupinus albus. See Lupi?is.
Lymph, the, 231.
Lymphatics, the, 231.

M.

Madia, value of, as a fodder, 213.

Maggots on sheep, cause and treatment of,

192.

Malta, exports of wool from, 110.
Man, Isle of. See Guernsey and Man.
Mangel wurzel, value of, in producing live

weight, wool, and tallow, 214.
per cent, of nitrogen in, 214.
Maniplus, structure and functions of the, 229.

cut of the, 228.

Manufactures of wool. SeeWoollen Manu-
factures.

Manufactories. See Woollen Factories.
Manufacturers of wool, American, their suc-
cess identified with that of the wool
growers, 161.

have not properly discriminated in the
prices of different qualities of wool.
160.
combinations of, to lower prices of wool,

161.

Manures, table of comparative values of, 40.
the available ones in the South, 67 — 76.
green, use and economy of, 70, 72, 74,75,
the cheapest, for the South, 73 — 75.
where applied in a proper rotation of

crops, 84.

Many folds. See Maniplus.
Marking sheep, the brand for, 191.
suitable pigment for, 191.
hou tnd when done, 19i.

Marking sheep, on the ears, how done, 171'.
Marl, as a fertilizer, South, 67 — 70.

as a fertilizer, when valuable, 68, 70.

as a fertilizer, expensiveness of, 70.

Meadow fox-tail grass, flourishes on tfe*

southern mountains, 47.
Medicago sativa. See Lucern.
Medicines, list of, for sheep, 274 — 277.

directions for administering into the sto-
mach, 273.
Mercury, preparations of, in sheep medicine,

275, 276.

Merinos, introduction into the U. S., 132.
their gradual spread in the U. S., 132.
causes of their subsequent decrease in

U. S., 158, 159.
their rapid restoration to public favor in

U. S., 160, 161.
Spanish families of, 132.
Spanish, amount and quality of wool

yielded by, 133, 135.
Spanish, cut of wool of, 135, 137.
French family of, described, 133.
French, amount and quality of woo!

yielded by, 133, 135.
French, cut of wool of, 135.
American families of, described, 133,

134.
American, amount and quality of wool

yielded by, 55, 134—137.
American, cuts of wool of, 135, 136.
American, cut of ram of, 131.
American, cut of ewe of, 134.
American, hardness of, 137.
American, profits of a premium flock of.

55.

• American, prices of wool of, 55.
range of climate endured by, 137.
countries successfully introduced in, 17

18.
consumption of food by, compared with

other breeds, 137.
as breeders and nurses, compared with

other breeds, 137.

proportion of wool to amount of food
consumed, compared with the English
breeds, 156.
as mutton sheep, compared with English

breeds, 158.
for production of fine wool, compared

with Saxons, 163, 1<">4.
crosses with Saxons, 134, 138, 141, 164.
crosses with native sheep, 164.
crosses with Southdowns, 170, 171.
crosses with Leicesters, 171.
the best variety of sheep for the South>

163, 165—168.
proper size of, 165.
proper form of, 166.
proper weight of fleece of, 165.
proper length and density of wool of,

167.

proper evenness of wool of, 167.
proper style of wool of, 168.
proper amount of gum on wool of, 167.
proper quality of skin of, 166.
points to be avoided in, 168.
Mesentery, cut of the, 232.
Mesenteric glands, the, 231.
Mexico, adaptation of, to sheep husbandry,

105.

exports of wool from, 110.
exports of wool from, to IT. S. in 1846,
124.

330

INDEX.

Mexico, sheep dogs of. Page 284 — 28v>.
Microscopic views of wool, 135 — 137, 145.
Middle wools. See Southdown wool.
Midriff. See Diaphragm.
Millet, productiveness of, South, 37, 38.

straw ef. fed to sheep in Germany, 211,

212.

value of, as a fodder, 213.
Milt. See Spleen.
Miscellaneous diseases, 271 — 273.
Mississippi, population of, 17.
number of sheep in, 17.
pounds of wool grown in, 17.
average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21
woollen factories in, 17.
woollen goods manufactured in, 17.
fine wooled sheep bred in, 27.
latitude, &c., of, compared with Aus-
tralian, 27.
Missouri Territory, advantages of, for sheep

husbandry, 96—103.
Modena, advantages of, for sheep husbandry,

113.

Mogadore wool, 90.
Morea, exports of wool from, 110. See

Greece.

Morocco. See Africa.
Mountains of the South. See Mountain

zone, under head of Southern States.
Mud, as a fertilizer. See Swamp mud.
Muriate of soda. See Salt.
Muriatic acid, use of, in sheep medicine, 276.
Mutton, economical food for slaves, 56, 57.
its effects on the system compared with

other meats, 56.

the quality of, in cufferent breeds of
sheep, 153, 154, 158. Also, see .the
different breeds,
sheep, the English. See Southdowns,

Leicesters, and Colswolds.
sheep, where they constitute the most

profitable variety, 153, 154.
sheep, comparison between varieties of,

153, 154.
sheep, unadapted to most parts of the

South, 154, 155.

sheep, less profitable in the South than
Merinos, 158.

N.

Naples, advantages of, for sheep husbandry,

113.

Nasal bones, cut of the, 236.
Native sheep (so called) of the U. S., origin

of, 130.

general characteristics of, 131.
crosses with other breeds, 131, 164.
policy of grading up with the Merino in

the South, 164, 170.
selection of, to cross with Merinos, 170.
do not cross successfully with Saxons,

164.

Nerves, the, 236.
Nervous diseases, the, 251.
New England, advantages of, for wool

growing, 95.

New Jersey, advantages of, for wool grow-
ing, 95.

New Leicester sheep. See Leicester.
New Oxfordshire sheep. See Colswolds.
New South Wales. See Australia.
York population of, 17.

New York, sheep introduced in by the Datdk
colonists, 130.

number of sheep in, 17.

pounds of wool grown in, 17.

average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21.

woollen factories in, 17.

woollen goods manufactured in, 17.

grass lands of, how managed, 32.

price of grazing lands in, 53.

price of sheep in, 53.

cost of producing wool per pound in, 61.

profits of wool growing in, 53 — 55.
Nitrate of silver. See Lunar caustic.
Nitrate of potash, use of, in sheep medicine

276.

Nitre. See Nitrate of potash.
Nitric acid, use of, in sheep medicine, 276.
North Carolina, population of, 17.

number of sheep in, 17.

amount of wool grown in, 17.

average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21.

woollen factories in, 17.

woollen goods manufactured in, 17.

price of land in, 44, 60.

adaptation of mountain lands of, to

sheep husbandry, 44—46.
Norway, exports of wool from, 110.

climate and flora of, 104, 105.
Numbering sheep, advantages of, 178. Se«
Registering.

Von Thaer's system of, 179

cuts illustrating, 179.

o.

Oats, value of, in producing live weight,

wool, and tallow, 214.
per cent, of nitrogen in, 214.
value of straw of, as a fodder, 213.
straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211.
Odessa, exports of wool from, 117.
CEsophagus, course of the, 234 — 236.
entrance of, into stomach, 228, 229.
obstructions of the, how treated, 273.
CEsophagean canal, structure and functions ol

the, 229.

OEstrus ovis, description of, 256.
natural history of, 256, 257.
cuts of, 256.

Ohio, advantages of, for wool growing, 90.
Omentum, description of the, 228.
One crop system of the South, 81.

exhaustion of land consequent on the,

81, 82.

exhaustion of land consequent on the,
De Candolle's, Macaire's, Mirbel's,
Braconnet's and Gyde's theories and
experiments on, 81.

Opium, use of, in sheep medicine, 276.
Opthalmia, treatment of the, 239.
Orchard grass, unsuccessful in New York,

33.

flourishes on the southern mountains, 62.
Orkney, wool of, 90.
Otter sheep of the U. S., 129.
Ovaries, the, 233.

P.

Palsy, nature and treatment of, 253.
Pancreas, structure and functions of the, SSI.
Panicum milliaceum.

INDEX.

Panicuin sanguinale. See Crab grass.
Papal States, advantages of, for sheep bus-

bandryl Page 113.

Parietal bone, cut of a section of, 23<f.
Parma, advantages of, for sheep husbandry,

113.

Parotid glands, the, 236.
Parturition. See Lambing.
Pastures, the natural ones of the South, 33,

34, 36, 44—48, 59, 60.
how formed on sterile lands, 73—75.
Patagonia, portior. of, in wool zone, 105.
Paunch. See Rumen.
Peas of the South, 39.

substitute for clover in the South, 39,41.
value of, as a fodder, 39, 41, 213, 214.
value of, in the production of live weight,

wool, and tallow, 214.
per cent, of nitrogen in, 214.
value of, as a green manuring crop, 74,

75.

what time plowed under for green ma-
nure, 75.
haulm of, valuable as a fodder, 39, 213,

214.

haulm of, valuable as a manure, 40.
chemical analysis of, 39.
Pedigree, only, value of. 171.
Pelt-rot, description and treatment of, 255.
Pens for the lambing season, how con-
structed, 177.

Pennsylvania, adaptation of, to sheep hus-
bandry, 95.
Pepper, black, use of, in sheep medicine,

276.

Pericardium, the, 234.
Persia, advantages of, for sheep husbandry,

104, 118.
Peru, exports of wool from, 110.

exports of wool to U. S. in 1846, 124.
Pharynx, the, 235, 236.
Phleum pratense. See Timothy.
Phrenitis, rare in U. S., 253.
Pia mater, the, 236.

Pimento, use of, in sheep medicine, 276.
Pindars, value of, as a fodder, 213.
Pinning, fatal to lambs, how managed, 177.
Pleura, the, 234.

Pleuritis, little known in U. S., 238.
Pleurisy. See Pleuritis.
Pneumonia, nature and treatment of, 239,

240.

Poa pratensis. See Blue grass.
Poisonous plants to sheep, 271.
Portugal, exports of wool from, 110.
Potatoes, Irish, as a winter feed for sheep,

41,213.
value of, in the production of live weight,

wool, and tallow, 214.
per cent, of nitrogen in, 214.
sweet, winter feed of sheep, 41.
Poudrette, as a manure, South, 67.
Prairies of the Western States described,

95—107.
advantages on the, for wool growing,

95—107.

natural grasses of the, 96—99.
natural grasses, succulent during but a

short season, 96, 97.
natural grasses, rapidly exterminated, 96.
natural grasses, will not alone support

sheep, 96.

natural grasses, make poor hay for
efc.eep, 98.

2R

Prairies of the Western States will not pro

duce winter pasturage, 98.
time of winter foddering necessary on,

97.
cost of sheep husbandry on, compared

with Eastern States, 99.
cost of fuel, fences and buildings on, 99,

100.
difficulties in the way of the shepherd

system on, 100, 101.
scarcity of water on, 101.
climate of, variable and excess.ve, 102,

103.
climate of, compared with Eastern

States, 102.
climate of, compared with Southern

States, 102, 103.
climate of, unfavorable to fine wooled

sheep, 103.

Pregnant ewes, how managed. See Ewes.
Prussia, for general description of, see Ger-
many, 114 — 116.
exports of wool from, 110.
exports of woollens from, 108.
advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 116,
climate of, 104, 115.
management of sheep in, 139.
Pulse, place for feeling the, 274.

natural rapidity of, 274.
Purging. See Diarrhoea,
Pylorus, the, 228, 231.

R.

Rabies, uncommon in U. S., 253.
Racks, for feeding sheep, 200—203.
box, cut and description of, 200.
hole, cut and description of, 200.
sparred, cut and description of, 201.
hopper, cut and description of, 202.
Rams, method of castrating, 180, 181.
dangerous ones, how managed, 193.
importance of careful selection in, 172.
objections to several running in the sar;i€

flock of ewes, 197.
necessity of selecting ewes in reference

to quality of, 197.
proper age of, to put to ewes, 197.
different methods of putting to ewes,

198.

how fed when running with ewes, 199.
time allowed to run with ewes, 199.
number of ewes those of different ages

will serve, 197.

not allowed to run with ewes in sum-
mer, 193.
Rambouillet Merino. See French family of,

under head of Merinos.
Rape, as food for sheep, 62.

flourishes on southern mountains, 62.
Rectum, the, 232.
Red-top. See Herds grass.
Red water. See Dropsy, acute.
Registering sheep, Mr. Grove's and author's

method, 180.
importance of, 178.
Respiratory passages, the, 235.
Respiration, how produced, 234.
Resting lands, meaning of the term 'u agn

culture, 82.
theory of, 82.
inexpediency of, 82.
Reticulum, description of the, 226

332

INDEX.

Reticulum, functions of the. Page 230.

Rice, value of, as a fodder, 213.

Roots, for winter feed of sheep, 213, 214,

216.

Root troughs, cut of, 203.
Rol, not known in most parts of U. S., 222.
other diseases mistaken for, 222.
kas appeared in Tennessee and Illinois,

222.

prevalence af, in Europe, 221, 222.
causes assigned for the, 223, 248, 249.
symptoms of the, 247.
post-mortem appearances of, 247.
cuts of the fluke-worm of, 248.
suddenness with which it is engendered,

249.
English custom of selling rotted sheep

to the butcher, 249.
treatment of the, 249, 250.
Rotation in crops, necessity of, 81, 82.
necessity of, in the South, 78—83.
a system of, recommended for the South,

83—85.

Rumen, structure of the, 228.
cut of the, 228.
functions of the, 229.
unnatural distension of the. See Hoove.
Rumination, the process of, 230.
Russia, climate of, 104, 117, 118.
soil and products of, 117.
face of the country in, 117.
the south of, advantages of, for sheep

husbandry, 117.
the south of, compared with Hungary,

117.
the south of, compared with prairies of

the U. S., 117.

Merinos introduced in, in 1802, 117.
Merinos, rapid increase of, in, 117.
exports of wool from, 110, 117.
exports of wool to U. S. in 1826, 124.
Ruti bagas, as sheep feed, 213, 216.
Rye, for winter pasturage in the South, 40,

58.
value of grain of, in producing live

weight, wool, and tallow, 214.
per cent, of nitrogen in, 214.
dry straw of, value of, in different states,

as a fodder, 213.
fed to sheep in Germany, 211.
R/e grass, unsuccessful in New York, 33.
flourishes on southern mountains, 47,62.

S.

Sacking wool, how performed, 189.

proper sacks for, 189.
Salt, necessary for sheep in summer, 194.

necessary for sheep in winter, 218.

effect, in conjunction with fodders, in in-
creasing live weight, wool, and tallow,
214.

as a medicine, 276.

box, for salting sheep, cut of, 194.
Saltpetre, use of, in sheep medicine, 276.
Sainfoin, 33.

fed to sheep in Germany, 211.
Sardinia, advantages of, for sheep husbandry,

Saxon sheep, origin of, 138.
cut of ram, 138.
varieties rf, 139.
microscopic appearance of wool of, 136.

Saxon sheep, German management of, 11$

139.

introduction of, into U. S., 140, 141.
deterioration of blood of, in U. S., 141.
quantity and quality of wool of, in U. S.,

wool of, in U. S., compared with parent

stock, 141, 142.
general description of, 141.
defects of, as breeders and nurses 139,

141.

defects of, in hardiness, 139, 141.
how far adapted to climate in northern

states, 162.
superseded the Merinos for a time in.

U. S., 159.

rapid decrease of, in the U. S., 160.
dislike to, among northern farmers, 162.
compared with Merinos for growing fine

wool, 163.
improved by a cross with Merinos, 136,

137, 141.

crosses of, with native sheep, 141, 164.
Saxony, soils of, 114.
climate of, 104, 115.
face of the country in, 114.
management of sheep in, 116.
Scab, description of, 258.

cuts of the acarus producing it, 259. .
habits of the acarus, 258.
circumstances under which the acarus

makes its attacks, 258.
short-wooled sheep comparatively ex-
empt from, 259.
contagiousness of, 259.
prevalence of, in England, 259.
treatment of, 260, 261.
Scotland, (included, in most respects, in da

scription of England.)
exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846,

124.
mountains of, only kept in pasture by

sheep, 71.

Scours. See Diarrhoea.
Sedge grass, eaten by sheep, 49.
Selection, annual necessity of, in flocks, 190.
rules for, 190.

form of a register to expedite, 190.
Shade, necessity of, in sheep pasture, 195.
Shearing, proper time of, 184.

time between, and washing, 184.

cut of arrangements for, 184.

rules and regulations for, 185, 186.

of lambs, objected to, 186.

of sheep, serni-annually, objected to,

186. '
Sheds for sheep, cuts of, 205, 208

the cheapest, 208.
Shelter for sheep in winter. See Shedt,

Stills, &c.
Sheep, bred in all climates, 17.

number of, in the southern states and in

New York, 17.
indispensable for support of poor lands,

71.

indispensable to support tillage in Eng-
land, 71, 72.
system of sustaining tillage lands by, in

England, 71, 72.
poor lands improved by, in northtrrr

states, 72.
system of improving poor lands by, i'r

the South, 73—76.
better manurers than other stock, 71, 72

INDEX.

333

Sheep, improve the character of the vegeta-
tion. Page 57.

extirpators of briers and shrubs, 57.

small risk by death, in breeding, 57.

impropriety of feeding, in yards with
other stock, in winter, 210.

comparison of breeds of, 153, 154, 163,
164.

comparison in respect to weight of fleece,

154, 156, 157.

comparison in quality of wool, 154.
comparison in consumption of food, 154,

156.
comparison in proportion of wool to

food consumed, 156.
comparison in hardiness, 156, 157.
comparison in longevity, 156, 157.
comparison in mutton, 153, 154, 158.
comparison in bearing hard stocking, 154,

155, 156.

comparison in profitableness in the South,

156, 157.

how they should be caught and other-
wise handled, 174.

washing of. See Washing sheep.

shearing of. See Shearing.

(for other particulars of the management
of, see the different heads.)

cordial, how compounded, 250.

dogs, of the ancients, 278, 279

dogs, of Spain, 280—284.

dogs, of Spain, cut of, 281.

dogs, of France, 286.

dogs, of Hungary, 284.

dogs, of England, 287.

dogs, of England, cut of, 287.

dogs, of Scotland, 288.

dogs, of Scotland, cut of, 288.

dogs, of Mexico, 284—286.

dogs, of South America, 285.

dogs, sheep must be familiarized with,

288.
Silesia, climate of, 104, 115.

face of the country, 114.

character of the soil, 114.
Slave cloths, description, 85,. 86, 89, 90.

expense of imported, 85, 86, 89.

actual first cost of, 90, 91.

great profits of manufacturers of, 90, 91.

should be manufactured in the southern
states, 87.

offers of northern manufacturers to fur-
nish below present prices, 90, 91.

cost of manufacturing as good or better
plains in the north, 86.

cost of manufacturing " at the halves,"
87.

cost of manufacturing by hand on plan-
tations, 89.

Smith's Island sheep, 129.
Smyrna wools, quality of, 90.
Snuffles. See Catarrh.
South America, portion of, in the wool zone,
105.

climate of, 104, 105.

exports of wool from, 105.

sheep husbandry in, 105.

advantages of, for wool growing, 105,
106.

advantages of, compared with U. S.,*
105, 106.

pampas of, compared with prairies of

thcep dogs of, 285.

I South America, for other particular of, see

Buenos Ayres, &c.
Southdown sheep, origin of, 144.
cut of ram, 145.
cut of ewe, 146.
cut of wool viewed through microscope ,

145.

general description of, 144, 145, 148, 154
value of, as a mutton sheep, 146, 147.
weight and quality of fleeces of, 146.
wool of, deficient in felting properties,

145, 146.

introduction into U. S., 147.
South Carolina, population of, IT.
number of sheep in, 17.
pounds of wool grown in, v».
average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21«
woollen factories in, 17.
woollen goods manufactured in, 17.
price of land in, 59, 60.
neglect of grass culture in, 31.
hay imported into, 31.
adaptation of soils of, to grass culture,

31, 32, 34? 59, 80.
adaptation of climate of, to grass culture.

36.

system of cropping in, 32, 79.
system of cropping compared with New

York, 32, 33.

system of cropping, change in, recom-
" mended by legislature, 79, 80.
system of cropping, utility of sheep

husbandry in effecting such change in,

85.

cost of keeping sheep in, 59, 60.
winter pasturage for sheep in, 58 — 60.
adaptation of mountains of, to sheep

pasture, 47, 59.
present method of managing sheep in,

59, 60.

wolves in, 64.
Southern States, what states included under

this designation, 30.
area of, 30, 94.

natural features and geology of, 30, 31.
quality of soils of, 30, 35, 42, 69.
profits of sheep husbandry in, 58—62.
profits of, compared with other hus-
bandry in, 76, 77.

advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 77.
advantages of, compared with othei

states and countries. See Wool grow

' *no'

advantages of, for migratory sheep hus-
bandry, 62.
advantages of, for migratory sheep hua

bandry, compared with Spain, 62—64.
expense of keeping sheep in, 59, 60.
expense per pound, of growing wool in,

61.
expense per pound, of growing wool in,

compared with New York, 61.
prejudice in, against sheep husbandry,

and causes of, 72, 81.
sheep exposed to dogs and wolves in, 64,
compared with other countries in above

particular, 65.

prices of land in, 44, 46, 47, 60.
amelioration of sterile and worn-out

soils of, by sheep husbandry, 52,

70—72.
amelioration of stprile and worn-out soili

of, by sheep husbandry, more cheaply

than by the available manures, 67.

334

INDEX.

Southern Slates, amelioration of sterile and
worn-out soils of, by sheep husbandry,
more cheaply than by marl. Page
68—70.

amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils
by sheep husbandry, considered cheap-
est in England, 71, 72.

amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils
by sheep husbandry, considered cheap-
est in the Northern States, 73.

amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils
by sheep husbandry, why preferable
to cattle husbandry, 71, 72.

amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils
by sheep husbandry, other means
available in conjunction with, 74, 75.

method of forming pastures on sterile
soils of, 73, 74.

effect of present one-crop husbandry in,
78—81.

sheep husbandry, basis of convertible
husbandry in, 52, 78.

convertible husbandry in, the strong ne-
cessity for, 82.

convertible husbandry in, recommended
by a committee of the legislature of
South Carolina, 79, 80.

convertible husbandry in, recommended
in Judge Seabrook's Report, 80.

rotation of crops for, proposed, 83—85.

should rear their own products for con-
sumption, 76.

should manufacture their own coarse
woollens. 85—89.

cost of manufacturing and importing
these in, compared, 86 — 87, 89 — 93.

cost of manufacturing slave cloths in, by
hand, 88.

divided into three zones, 30.

the territorial limits of these zones, 30,

31.
tide- water zone of, 30.

natural features and geology of, 30.

quality of the soil of, 30, 35, 69.

compared with portions of New York,

' 34.

compared with Flanders, 35.

how ameliorated, 35, 68.

adaptation of, to the grasses, 31 — 38.

adaptation of, to clover, 32, 36.

adaptation of, to other fodders, 38—41.

causes of failure in acclimating grasses
in, 31, 32.

proper grasses to introduce in, 37 — 40.

natural grasses of, 36, 37.

natural pastures of, 33, 34.

number of sheep per acre which could
find subsistence in, 58, 94.

winter pasturage of, 31, 40, 58, 59.

prices of la'id in, 60, 61.

present system of cropping in, 32.

climate of, adapted to growing fine wool,

23—29.
hi&y zone of, 30.

face of the country and geology of, 42.

qualify of the soil, 42.

method of enriching soils of, 72.

adaptation of, to grasses and grains, 27,
42, 59.

method of forming pastures in, 74.

adaptation to sheep husbandry, 43, 59.

price of lands in, 59, 61.

climate of 42, 59.

ouality of, west of the mountains, 51.

Southern States, mountain ?one of, 30.

altitude of the Blue Ridge, AHegh&ny,

and Cumberland chains, 43, 63.
altitude of, compared with the moon

tains of Spain, 63.
shape of the mountains of, 43.
geology of, 43.

character of the soil of, 44, 46, 49.
large portions of, arable, 43.
table lands on, 43.
grasses of, 43, 44, 47, 59, 62.
white and red clover, lucern, and rye

grass flourish on, 47.
timothy and orchard grass flourish on.

44, 62.
adaptation of, to pasturage, 44 — 47, 59,

62.
adaptation of, to sheep husbandry ,44 — 51,

adaptation of, to Hon. T. L. Clingman's
statements concerning, 44, 45.

adaptation of, to Mr. H. M. Earle's state-
ments concerning, 46.

adaptation of, to Col. E. Colston's state-
ments concerning, 47.

adaptation of, to Hon. W. L. Goggins's
statements concerning, 47.

adaptation of, to Hon. A. Stevenson's
statements concerning, 47.

adaptation of, to Hon. A. Beatty's state-
ments concerning, 47.

adaptation of, to Mr. C. F. Kramer's
statements concerning, 48.

adaptation of, to Hon. R. F. Simpson's
statements concerning, 59.

adaptation of, to Mr. N. Murdoch a
statements concerning, 62,

.winter pasturage on, 47 — 49, 59.

adaptation of, to turnips and other >x>d-
ders, 62.

climate of, 44—51, 59.

climate of, shown by vegetation of, 50,
51.

climate of, compared with that of New
York, 49, 50.

price of lands in, 44. 46, 47, 48, 59.

wolves in, 64.
Spain, sheep husbandry of, 62, 63.

great decrease in wool growing in, 111.

migratory sheep husbandry of, and its
disadvantages, 113.

advantages ot, for migratory sheep hus-
bandry, compared with those of south-
ern states, 62, 63.

evil effects of the Mesta in, 113.

height, climate, and vegetation of moun
tains 0^ 62, 112.

general advantages of, for sheep hus-
bandry, 62, 63, 112.

soil and products of, 112.

number of sheep in, 112.

decreased exports of wool from, 110,111.

exports of wool to U. S. in 1836 and
1846, 111, 124.

other exports from, 112.

sheep dogs of, 280—284.
Speaf4' grass. See Slue grass.
Spergula arvensis. See Spurry.
Sphenoid bone, cut of, 236.
Spirit of salt. See Muriatic acid.

of tar, use of, in sheep practice, 277.
Spleen, structure and functions cf the, 231

232.
Spurry, as a green manuring crop, South, 74.

INDEX

335

Staggers. See Hydalid in the brain.
Stefl, description of the. Pago 206, 207.

cut of outside one, 205.

cut of ancient ones, 206.

cut of inside circular ones, 207.

cut of circular one, with racks, &c., 207.
Sternum, the, 228.

St. Helena, exports of wool from, 110.
Stomachs of the sheep, description of, 228 —
231.

cuts of the, 228.

structure and functions of each of the,
228, 229.

course of the food through the, 229, 230.

conflicting theories concerning, 230.
•Storing wool, 189. Also see Wool depots.
Storms, bad effects of cold ones after shear-
ing, 191.

Sturdy. See Ilydatid in the brain.
Sulphate of copper, use of, in sheep prac-
tice, 275.

Sulphate of magnesia, use of, in sheep prac-
tice, 275.

Sulphur, use of, in sheep medicine, 276.
Sun-scald, cause and treatment of, 191.
Swamp mud, its value as a fertilizer, 70.
Sweden, exports of wool from, 110.
Sweet-bread. See Pancreas.
Syria, climate of, 104.

adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 117,
118.

T.

Table 1. Of population, number of sheep,
pounds of wool, woollen factories, and
value of manufactured goods in south-
ern states and in New York, 17.

2. Of average weight of fleeces in
southern states and New York, 18, 20,
21.

3. Of average weight of fleeces in four
counties of each of the above states,
20.

4. Of comparative value of manures, 40.

5. Of the flowering of plants, &c., in
New York, 49.

6. Of thermometrical observations in
New York, 50.

7. Of the average prices of wool in New
York, 53.

8. Of importations of wool into Eng-
land every fifth year, from 1810 to
1840, 110.

9. Of importations of wool into U. S.
annually, from 1837 to 1846, 124.

10. Of importations of wool into U. S.
in 1846, with countries from which
imported, 124.

11. Of woollens annually imported into
U. S., during twenty-five years, 125.

12. Of increase of population in U. S.,
from 1790 to 1840, 127.

13. Of increase of population and amount
of wool required in U. S., at different
periods, for one hundred and fifteen
years, 128.

14. Of the progressive reductions in du-
ties on wool and woollen, under the
" Compromise Tariff" of 1833, 159.

Tagging, necessity of, 173.
how performed, 173, 174.
cut explanatory of, 173.

Tar, propriety of feeding of, to sheep, 194.

uses of, in sheep practice, 277.
Tariffs on wool, of France, 106.
of England, 106.

of U. S., on wools and woollens, enacted
in the years 1824, 1828, 1832, 1833,
1841, 1842, and 1846, 158, 159.
effect of those of U. S. on the prices of

wool, 159, 160.
effect of those of U. S. on importation!

of wool, 159, 160.
effect of those of U. S. on importation*

of woollens, 160.

effect of those of U. S. on domestic pro-
duction of wool, 159.
effect of those of U. S. .on *he quality

of domestic wool, 159, 160.
frauds practised in invoicing coarse
wools imported into U. S., under that
of 1842, 107.
effect of that of 1846 on manufactures

of U. S., 106, 125, 126, 161.
effect of fluctuations in, on manufac-
tures, 126.

Tasmania. See Australia.
Taurida. See Crimea.
Taylor, Col. John, of Virginia, his erroneous
views in relation to sheep husbandry,
72, 81.

Teeth, number and description of, 237.
indicative of the age, 237.
cuts of, at different ages, 237.
difference in the retention of, by different

breeds, 238.

causes of premature loss of, 238.
should be removed in some cases, 238.
Temperature, influence of, on quality of

wool. See Climate.
Tennessee, population of, 17.
number of sheep in, 17.
pounds of wool grown in, 17.
average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21.
woollen factories in, 17.
woollen manufactured in, 17.
fine wooled sheep introduced in; 27.
fine wooled sheep, wool of, not deterio-
rated in, 27.
adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 27,

48.
adaptation, of mountains of, to sheep

husbandry, 48.
price of lands in, 47, 48.
Tetanus, unusual in U. S., 253.
Thibet, advantages of, for sheep husbandry,

118.

wool exported from, 118.
Thoracic duct, the, 231.
Thoracic viscera, the, 234.
Thorax, the, 234.
Thyroid glands, the, 236.

diseases of the, 270, 271.
Ticks, mode of destroying, and keeping out

of flock, 192.
Tobacco, use of, in sheep practice, 277.
Timothy, the favorite meadow grass, North

33.

as the food of sheep, 212.
success on southern low.ands question*

able, 37.

succeeds on southern mountains, 44, 62
Toe-nippers, description and use of, 103

cut of, 183.

Tory weed. See Hound" s-tongue.
Trees, clumps of, for winter stielter, 207.

INDEX.

Trifolium repens. See Clover, while.
Trifolium pratense. See Clover, red.
Troughs, for feeding roots or grain. Page 203,

for feeding roots or grain, cuts of, 203.

for folding wool, 187.

for folding wool, cut of, 187.
Tunica arachnoides, the, 236.
Tunisian sheep, introduced into U. S., 151

character of, 151, 152.
Turbinated bones, cut of the, 236.
Turnips, succeed on the southern mountains,
62.

how fed off by sheep in England, 72.

value of, as a fodder, 213, 216.

Swedish. See Ruta laga.
Turnsick. See Hydalid in the brain.
Turpentine, spirits of, use of, in sheep prac-
tice, 277.
Turkey, soils and climate of, 118.

soils and climate of, in Europe, 114.

face of the country in, 114.

population of, 114.

institutions of, unfavorable to sheep hus-
bandry, 114.

exports of wool from, 109, 110.

exports of carpets, 108.
Tuscany, advantages of, for sheep hus-
bandry, 113.
Typhus fever, not common in U. S., 238.

U.

tkraine, Merinos introduced in, 117.

advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 117.
States, number of sheep and pounds
of wool in, in 1839, 123.

breeds of sheep in, 129.

exports of wool to England for thirty

years from, 110.
' exports of wool in 1845, 1846, 122.

anrma^ imports of wool of, from 1837 to
1843, 124.

annua. imports, from what countries, in
1846, 124.

annual imports of woollens, from 1821
to 1845, 125.

annual consumption of woollens in, 126,
127.

annual consumption of woollens in, per
head of population, 127.

proportion of woollens consumed in, do-
mestic, 126.

proportion of woollens consumed in, im-
ported, 126.

proportion of domestic made in manufac-
tories, 126.

proportion of domestic made in families,
126.

increase of population in, 127.

amount of wool which will be requisite
for population of, at different periods,
for one hundred and fifteen years,
128.

adaptation of, to sheep husbandry. See
Southern States, New England, Prai-
ries, and the states by name.

adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, com-
pared with Germany, 116.

adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, Mr.
Grove's opinion concerning, 116.

adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, com-
pared with other countries See Wool
grousing.

United States, woollen manufactories of. Sef

Woollen factories.
tariffs of, on wool. See Tariffs.
(for all other particulars concerning, «ee
names of the things in relation .0
which information is sought.)
Uraguay, in the wool zone, 105.
Ureters, the, 233.
Urethra, the, 233.

Urinary organs, description of the, 233.
Uterus, description of the, 233.

V.

Vagina, description of (he, 233.

Van Diemen's Land. See Australia.

Veins, description of the, 234.

Vena cava, the, 234.

Ventricles, the, 234.

Verdigris, use of, in sheep practice, 277.

Vetches, dried into hay, value of, as a fodder,

213.
Veterinary works, character of American,

219.

character of English, 219.
how far English ones are applicable in

U. S., 220?

Virginia, population of, 17.
number of sheep in, 17.
wool grown in, 17.
average weight cf fleeces in, 18, 21
woollen factories in, 17.
woollen goods manufactured in, 17.
adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 42,

47, 60.
adaptation of mountains of, to sheep

husbandry, 47.
adaptation of north-western, to sheep

husbandry, 60.

winter herbage on mountains of, 62.
winter pasturage in other parts of, 60.
cost of keeping sheep in, 60, 61.
price of lands in, 60.
Vitriol, blue, value of, in sheep practice.

275.

green, use of, in sheep practice, 9,75.
oil of, as a caustic in sheep orac^ce, 27G.

w.

Washing sheep, cut of apparatus, for, 181.

vats and yards for, 181.

directions for, 182.

time to elapse after, before shearing, 184.
Water necessary for drink of sheep, 195, 218.
Weaning lambs, proper time for, 19'».

how managed, 195.
Welsh plains, for slave cloths. See Slave

cloths.

Wheat, value of, in producing live weight,
wool, and tallow, 214.

per cent, of nitrogen in, 214.

straw of, value ot, in different strtes, c*
a fodder, 213.

fed to sheep in Germany, 211.

chaff of, value of, as a fodder, 213.

bran of, value of, as a fodder, 213.
Wind-pipe, the, 235.
Winter feed. See Fodders.
Wire grass. See Bermuda grass.
Wirtemberg, advantages of, for sheep hn»
bandry, 114.

INDEX.

337

Wisconsin, advantages of, for sheep hus-
bandry. Page 95—103.
Wolves, in the Southern States, 64.

how guarded against, 65. See Sheep

dogs.

Wool, zone in which it can be profitably
grown, 103, 104.

fabrics of. See Woollens.

chemical analysis of, 214.

quality of that of different breeds com-
pared, 154.

growth of, influenced by quantity of
feed, 28.

growth of, influenced by kind of feed,
214.

quality of, influenced by climate, 23 — 29.

quality of, influenced by climate, opinions
of eminent judges on this point, 23 —
29.

grows softer and longer in warm cli-
mates, 28, 29.

quality of, made coarser by abundant
feed, 23.

can this tendency of abundant feed to
coarsen, be counteracted ? 24, 28.

felting property of, accounted for, 137.

terms used to express different qualities
of, 161.

fine, proper characteristics of, 167, 168.

fine, proper amount of yolk and gum
of, 167.

fine, proper length of, 167.

fine, proper evenness of, 167.

fine, proper softness and elasticity of,
168.

fine, proper serrations of, 168.

fine, proper color and brilliancy of, 168.

Merino and Saxon compared, 163.

cuts of Merino and Saxon, 135—137.

middle character and uses of, 110, 145,
146.

middle character of, the sheep which pro-
dace it, 145.

cut of the Southdown, 145.

long, character and uses of, 143, 151.

long, character of the sheep which pro-
duce it, 143, 149, 151.

cut of Leicester, 136.

comparative profit of growing fine and
coarse in U. S., 154—163.

comparative value of fine and coarse for
strength and wear, 157, 158.

not a fair discrimination in prices of,
made by manufacturers of U. S., 160.

promised improvement in above parti-
cular, 161.

shrinkage of, in manufacturing, 86, 88,
91.

prices of, in New York, for fourteen
years, 53.

prices of, in England, 25.

amount of, grown in U. S., 123.

amount of, grown in Southern States, 17.

amount of, grown in New, York, 17.

average weight of, per fleece, in Southern
States, 18, 20.

average weight of, per fleece, in New
York, 18, 21, 53.

amount of, grown in U. S., does not
meet home consumption, 123—126.

amount of, annually grown in U. S., 123.

•mount of, consumed in U. S., 123 — 127.

amount of, consumed per head ir U S.,
127.

Wool, amount of, imported into U. S., front

1821 to 1846, 124, 125.
amount of, exported from U. S., 122.
amount of, manufactured in U. S., 126

127.
amount of, required to supply demand 'n

U. S., at different future periods. 128
table of imports of, into England, 110,
table, brought down to 1846, 294.
increase in amount of, imported into

England, from 1771 to 1840, 123.
increase in amount of, imported into

England, from 1840 to 1846, 294,
increasing demand for, throughout tn«

world, 123.
one of the most marketable agricultural

products, 77.
amount of, grown in different countries.

See names of countries,
comparative profits of growing m differ-
ent countries. See Wool growing.
can be more profitably grown in southern

than northern U. S., 163.
will northern compete with Southern

States in growing ? 162.
method of washing, 181.
method of washing, cut of arrangements

for, 181.

method of shearing, 184.
method of shearing, cuts of arrange-

ments for, 184.

method of doing up, 187 — 189.
method of doing up, cut of arrangements

for, 187, 188.

method of storing in wool room, 189.
method of sacking, 189.
room for storing, how arranged, 189.
depots, origin and objects pC 289. 290.
depots, plan and regulations of, 290.
depots, advantages of, 291.
depots, peculiarly advantageous to the

southern wool grower, 292.
Woollens, some processes and facts in manu-
facturing of, described, 87, 88.
amount of, made in factories of U. S.,

126, 127.
amount of, made in families in U. S.,

126, 127.
amount of, made in Southern States in

1839, 17.
amount of, made in New York, in 1839,

amount made in families decreasing, and

causes, 89.
amount imported into U. S., from 1821

to 1845, 125.

amount consumed in U. S., 126, 127.
amount consumed per head in U. S.,

127.
amount required for future consumption

in U. S., 128.

for slaves. See SJave cloths.
Woollen factories, table o*>, in Southern

States, and in New York, in 1839,40,
rapid increase of, in the North, 86.
further increase of, called for, 125, 126.

128.
great profits of, in the North, 86 — 93,

125, 161.
would be equally profitable in the South,

86.

stability of, inU. S., 125, 126, 161.
foreign competition defied by,

oresent tariff, 125.

B38

INDEX.

Woollen factories, injured by vacillating

legislation. Page 126.
Wool growing, probable increase or decrease

of, in various countries, 121, 122.
in U. S., advantages for. See names of

states and regions.
in Alabama, 42", 47, 60.
in Florida, 42, 60.
in Georgia, 42, 47, 60.
in Illinois, 27, 95—103.
in Indiana, 95—103.
in Iowa, 95—103.
in Kentucky, 27, 47, 48.
in Louisiana, 18, 30, 38.
in Mississippi, 27, 38.
in Missouri Territory, 95—103.
in New England, 95.
in New Jersey, 95.
in North Carolina, 43 — 46.
in Ohio, 95.
in Pennsylvania, 95.
on prairies, 95 — 103.
in South Carolina, 47, 58—60.
in Tennessee, 27, 48.
in Virginia, 42, 47, 60.
in Wisconsin, 95—103.
Wool growing in. foreign countries. See

names of countries,
in Afghanistan, 118.
in Asia Minor, 118.
in Australia, 25, 119—121, 294.
in Austria, 114—116.
in Baden, 114.
in Bavaria, 114.
in Beloochistan, 118.
in Buenos Ayres, 105, 106.
in Cabul, 118.

in Cape of Good Hope, 65, 119.
in China, 118.
in Crimea, 117.
in England, 111.
in France, 111.
in Germany, 114 — 116.
in Great Bucharia, 118.
in Greece, 114.
in Hungary, 116, 117.
in Independent Tartary, 118.
in Italy, 113.
in Loin barely, 113.

Wool growing, in Mexico, 105.
in Modena, 113..
in Naples, 113.
in Papal States, 113.
in Parma, 113.
in Persia, 104, 118.
in Prussia, 114, 116.
in Russia, 117.
in Sardinia, 113.
in Saxony, 116,
in Silesia, 104, 114, 115.
in South America, 105, 106.
in Spain, 62, 112.
in Turkey, 114, 118.
in Tuscany, 113.
in Ukraine, 117.
in Van Diemen's Land, 121.
in Wirtemberg, 114.

Wool market, of the world, 108, 109, 123.
of England, 108, 110, 294.
of France, 108, 109.
of German States, 114, 295, 296.
of United States, 123—128.
foreign producers cannot compete with

us in that of U. S., 108, 122, 123.
U. S. producers can compete in foreign

with foreign producer, 108, 122, 296.
prospect of increase in, universally, 123

296.
Wool oil. See Yolk.

Y.

Yards for sheep in winter, 199.

necessary in the North, 200.
Yoking rams, how done, 193.
Yolk of wools, chemical analysis of, 182.

proper amount of, in fleece, 167.
Youatt, his character as a veterinary writer,
219.

z.

Zinc, carbonate of, use of, in sheep practice,

27.

sulphate of, use of, in sheep practice,
239.

APPENDIX.

SUKEP HUSBANDRY IN SOUTH CAROLINA 201

BSEE? HUSBANDRY IN TEXAS , $06

>HESP RAISING IN TEXAS .,„... . €80

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
BERKELEY

Return to desk from which borrowed.
This jtjpok is DUE on the last date stamped below.

DEC 24 1947

LD 21-100m-9,'47(A5702sl6)476

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