1! Apiculture library Arris. Main Lib. c, Dept. THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE SHEEP. DESIGNED ESPECIALLY FOR AMERICAN SHEPHERDS. BY HENEY STEWAET. n ILLUSTRATED NEW EDITION. — REVISED AND ENLARGED. NEW YORK: ORANGE JFDD COMPANY, 1911 S F 3 7 5. ' 375 Main Lib. Agric. Dept, Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1884, by th| ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. PRINTED IN U. S. A, CONTENTS. PAOK. PREFACE V-VI CHAPTER I. THE SHEEP AS AN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCT 8-11 Antiquity of Sheep Husbandry— The Future of Sheep Husbandry— Its Effects upon Agriculture— Demand for Mutton Sheep— Value of the Wool Product— Extent of Pasturage in America. CHAPTER II. THE SUMMER MANAGEMENT OF A FLOCK 11-33 Selection of a Sheep Farm — Effects of Soils upon the Health of Sheep— What is a Good Pasture ?— Value of Certain Grasses— The Western Plains as Sheep Pasture- Pastures— Fodder Crops— Root Crops— Folding Sheep— Dog Guards. CHAPTER III. MANAGEMENT OF EWES AND LAMBS 33_ 49 Marking Sheep— Record for Breeders— Management of Rams— Care of Ewes— Care of Lambs— Selecting Lambs for Breeders— Prevention of Disease— Dipping Preven- tive of Parasites. CHAPTER IV. WINTER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 49-81 Barns and Sheds— Feed Racks— Feeding Value of Differ- ent Fodders, Roots and Grains— Experiments in Feeding- Profit of Feeding— Raising Early Lambs for Market- Feeding Sheep for Market— Value of Manure— Markets for Sheep. (3) 267540 iv THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. CHAPTER V. PAGE. BREEDING AND BREEDS OF SHEEP 81—143 How Breeds are Established — Improvement of Flocks — Cross Breeding — Breeding for Sex— Maxims for Breeders — Native Breeds — Improvement of the Merinos — The Me- rino Fleece — Long- Wool Breeds — Medium and Short-Wool Breeds — Foreign Breeds— Cross-bred Sheep — American Cross-breeds. CHAPTER VI. THE STRUCTURE AND USES OF WOOL 142-167 The Method of Growth of Wool— Its Peculiar Structure —Its Composition— The Yolk— Classification of Wools- Character of Merino Wool— Washing Wool— Shearing- Packing and Marketing the Fleeces — Production of Wool in the World — Comparative Values of Wool in Different Countries— Favorable Conditions for Producing Wool in the United States. CHAPTER VII. THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE SHEEP 168-349 Physiology of the Sheep— The Teeth— The Bones- The Vital Functions, Respiration, Circulation, and Digestion— The Causes and Prevention of Diseases of the Sheep — Dis- eases of the Respiratory Organs, of the Digestive Organs, of the Blood — Enzootic Diseases — Epizootic Diseases — Diseases of the Urinary and Reproductive Organs, of the Brain— Parasitical Diseases of the Intestines, of the Skin —Diseases of the Feet— Diseases incident to Lambing— Special Diseases— Diseases of Lambs. TABLE OF APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT MEASURES., CHAPTER VIII. LOCALITIES IN THE UNITED STATES SUITABLE FOR SHEEP-RAISING.. 250 PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. It is with a gratifying sense of the favor with which the two previous editions of this work have been received, that the au- thor submits to the public a third edition of " The Shepherd's Manual." The work is now in the hands of several thousands of persons engaged in sheep rearing, and the production of wool, both in America and foreign countries, and many com- plimentary acknowledgements of benefits received have been sent to the author by readers of this little book. The author would rather believe that these are due to the kindness and sympathy of readers who are engaged with him in a kindred pursuit, and the care and thoroughness with which the work has been prepared, than from any other special merit in it. It is pleasant, however, to the author, who prepared his work chiefly from a love for the gentle, useful animal, to know that it is received, as was recently stated by a practical writer in a leading agricultural journal, as " the highest authority in the United States," and that this favorable opinion of it was en- dorsed by a well known western breeder of sheep. Certainly after eight years' later experience, the author has found no ne- cessity for changing any views at first expressed, nor has he found any material addition to the matter requisite, excepting so far as regards the development of the sheep and wool indus- try in the more recently settled territory that has been opened to the enterprise of the Shepherd. The remarkable increase in this industry during the past twenty years, and especially in the few years since the first edi- tion of this work appeared, now eight years ago, should not be passed over without notice here. The following figures exhibit this growth in a conspicuous manner. No. of SJieep Produced in Lbs. of Wool the United States. Produced. In 1860, 22,471,275 60,264,913. 1870, 28,477,951 100,102,387. 1880, 35,192,074 355,681,751. 1884 (estimated), 45,000,000 250,000,000. This increase has been a healthy and permament one, and has not been stimulated by any speculative excitement at all. It is (5) VI PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. simply an example of the growth of an industry which is the most profitable branch of agriculture when wisely and skillfully cultivated. How wisely and skillfully this business has been conducted, may be perceived, when we see, that while the increase in the number of sheep in the decade from 1870 to 1880, was about twenty-five per cent, the increase in the product of wool amounted to no less than fifty -five per cent, indicating the very great improvement which had been made in the productive character of the various breeds of sheep. No doubt much of this increased product has been due to the betterment of the low grade sheep reared on the western plains, by the use of pure bred Merino rams, by which the average weight of fleece has been nearly doubled ; but a large portion of it has also been due to the extensive use of pure bred sheep of the larger breeds, specially known as the mutton breeds, whose culture has been stimulated by the enlarged demand for mutton in the home markets, and for shipping abroad. There can be no doubt that sheep culture, and the wool-pro- ducing industry, will still continue its present healthful growth, and before the next decade comes around, we may see these be- come adequate, not only to supply our home demands, but to furnish material for profitable foreign export of wool, as well as mutton. A million farms — only a bare fifth of the number in this country — upon which now the bleat of the sheep is not heard, can each support a flock with economy and profit. All that is requisite, is, that farmers will see how little it costs to keep a flock, and how profitably it may be kept upon fodder which, at the present, for the greater part, goes into the ma- nure heap and serves only in its least profitable purpose. The sheep's foot is truly golden, because it takes such fodder and turns its most valuable portion into mutton and wool, and still leaves the remainder greatly increased in effective usefulness, as a rich manure for the improvement of the land. HACKENSACK, N. J., 1884. The Shepherd's Manual CHAPTER I. THE SHEEP AS AN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCT. From the earliest ages the sheep has been a source of profit to mankind, and its keeping and rearing an important industry. Abel, the second son of Adam, chose sheep-herding as his employ- ment, and although his elder brother chose to cultivate the soil, the pastoral life became the favored occupation of the human race in its early periods, and the more toilsome tillage of the ground was followed from necessity rather than from choice. With a sparse population, a scarcity of labor, but at the same time an ample territory, the cultivation of flocks became in early times the readiest means of providing food and clothing, increasing the com- forts of man and of accumulating transferable wealth. Although at first sight it is a singular circumstance, yet on reflection it is seen to be a necessity of the case that the territory upon which the flocks of the ancient patriarchs were fed and tended, is still the home of shepherds, and that there, for forty centuries, flocks have wandered from pasture to pasture under the care of their nomadic proprietors. Where the physical features of the country were favorable to pasturage, there the first civilized occupation was that of keeping sheep, and so it remains to this day. In view of its bearing upon the future of sheep husbandry in the United States, it is important to remember this fact, that where peculiarly favorable physical features of the country were present, and the shepherd occupied the land, there the shepherd and his flock retain possession until this day. Thus, at the time of the conquest of Spain by the ancient Romans, that country was cele- brated for its flocks and the quality of its wool, and to-day the 8 t .THE SHEPHERD'S MAHUAL.* Spanish Merino is equally celebrated, although through adventi- tious circumstances, but chiefly political disturbances, its pre-emi- nence has been lost to Spain, and other countries enjoy its fruita. As civilization progressed stage by stage, and garments of man- ufactured wool displaced those of skins, careful breeding began to improve the fleece, and varieties among sheep became fixed in type. Before the Christian era the fine wools of Italy were noted, and the fineness of the fleece was cultivated to a degree unknown to us of the present day. The sheep of that period were housed and clothed, their skins were oiled and moistened with wine, and their fleeces were combed and washed repeatedly, in order that the quality of the wool might be refined as far as possible. Al- though this excessive refinement destroyed the vigor and impaired the constitution of the sheep, yet their descendants, inferior in form, as might be expected, are still fine-wooled sheep. Thus far the improvement in sheep operated only towards refining the fleece, and the carcass was a secondary object, only cared for so far as it could serve as a vehicle for carrying the wool. The lamb of the flock was considered a choice morsel, but the mature sheep was neglected as an article of food. It is only in recent times that the excellence of mutton has been made an object in the improve- ment of sheep. At the present it is only in sparsely populated countries that sheep are cultivated for wool alone, while in densely peopled localities the production of mutton is of greater consider- ation than that of wool, or at least is of equal value to it. At the present time, proximity to, or distance from market, decides the choice of breeds, and in fact this consideration alone has in some cases been the moving influence in the creation of new varieties or breeds specially adapted to certain localities. In a similar man- ner the necessities of sheep-breeders have led them to make some important modifications in their methods of agriculture, so that while the character of their flocks has been changed for the better, their agriculture has been improved, the product of the land in- creased, and its value advanced, until profitable sheep culture has become synonymous with the most profitable farming. In fact, the character of the farm has been indexed by the character of the flock reared upon it. This improvement has in greater part oc- curred only in connection with the rearing of mutton sheep. To feed these heavy bodied sheep profitably, it has been found neces- sary to raise large crops of cheap roots and luxuriant green crops ; and to raise these crops, the most skillful tillage, the cleanest cul- ture, and the most liberal manuring have been requisite. In this way the product of the soil has been vastly increased, and the PRODUCTION OF MUTTON. 9 sheep, directly and indirectly, has been both the gainer and the means of gain. The demand for mutton as an agreeable and cheap food is stead- ily increasing. The markets of the city of New York alone re- quire more than one million sheep per annum. Farmers formerly habituated to the daily use of pork are becoming mutton eaters, and the convenience of a few sheep upon the farm merely to sup- ply the family table is now appreciated to a much greater extent than ever before. This cultivation of sheep for mutton alone is a "branch of agriculture which is yearly becoming more important. As yet we possess no native variety of mutton sheep. The carcass of the "native" sheep, so called— but which is really a heterogeneous mixture of all those breeds which have been brought to this coun- try, and which having been permitted to increase promiscuously, have perpetuated only their poorest qualities — is unworthy the name of mutton ; and those flocks of imported sheep of better character, such as the Southdowns, Leicesters, or Cotswolds. are either allowed to deteriorate, or are kept for breeding purposes. It is very true that a really good carcass of mutton rarely finds its way to our markets, except from Canada, where almost the sole attention is given to breeding sheep for mutton. At the same time there is a demand for mutton, both of that substantial kind which is represented by legs of 16 to 20 Ibs. in weight, handsome saddles and good shoulders, and that more delicately flavored kind repre- sented by the small legs or quarters of the Welsh sheep. Unfortunately this fact is not generally known to farmers, and if it were, it is equally unfortunate that we as yet have not the kind of sheep to meet the demand. Before this excellent and wholesome food can become as popular as it ought to be, and sheep keeping can become as profitable as it may be, farmers must be better informed as to the character of the sheep needed, the manner in which they may be bred, and the methods by which they may be fitted for the market This necessary information must include a knowledge of the modern breeds which have usurped the place of the old kinds, and the peculiar management of the new races of sheep, as well as of the special crops needed for fodder, and the methods of cultivating them. Heretofore in place of this practical information, American farmers have been treated to long dissertations upon the origin and history of the sheep, and descriptions of foreign breeds which are of no possible value or interest to them. The sheep, in addition to its value as a food producer, yields to Its owner an annual tribute in the shape of its fleece, which in the 10 THE SHEFHERD'S MAKUAI. " aggregate is a most important contribution to the comfort and in- dustry of the people. In 1870 there were nearly 30 millions of sheep in the United States, and the wool production in that year amounted to 120 million pounds, estimating the average weight of the fleeces at 4 pounds each. The value of this wool in the farm- ers' hands would reach at the lowest estimate, $40,000,000. But so far from being anywhere equal to the demand for this staple, the supply was less than our yearly needs by a quantity equal to a value of more than $40,000,000, and wool to this amount is annu- ally imported from foreign countries. Besides this in wool, there is annually imported with it the value of $20,000,000 in foreign la- bor, which has been expended in manufacturing wool into cloth and other woolen goods. Our own necessities, therefore, demand an increase in the supply of wool equal to our present production. This wool, if produced here, would not only use up a large quan- tity of corn now thrown upon the markets of the world, and therefore enhance the value of that which would remain for dis- posal ; but its manufacture into cloths and goods would employ a large number of persons who are now engaged in raising agricul- tural products for sale, and are therefore in active competition with other farmers. The encouragement of sheep cultivation, therefore, has a national importance, and is a subject which bears directly upon the interests of farmers. To increase the wool pro- duct to a par with the necessities of the country at the present time, would alone involve the passage through their hands of $60,000,000 yearly — an immense sum, which now goes into the pockets of foreigners, instead of those of our own people. The scope for an increase in our wool product is comparatively boundless. A full third of the territory of the United States is a grand sheep pasture of the most favorable character. Vast plains bearing abundance of the most nutritious herbage, in the most healthful climate, and the very best conditions for the profitable breeding of fine and middle wool sheep, and which are valueless for any other than pastoral purposes, stretch from the 100th me- ridian for 500 miles west to the Rocky Mountains, and from north to south for 1,500 miles. In addition to this vast tract, upon which a hundred million sheep could feed and thrive with ease, there are immense mountain ranges, extensive valleys, and again beyond these, great plains, altogether covering a still larger area, of which a great portion is admirably fitted for the pasturing of sheep. With so great a scope for the cheap production of wool, it seems to be a strange thing, that instead of exporting largely of this staple, as we might and should do, the United States on the contrary is one PEODUCTION OF WOOL. 11 of the largest buyers in foreign markets. Again, on the Atlantic seaboard there are millions of acres of land now useless that would, if cleared and cultivated, make excellent sheep farms for the pro- duction of the choicest mutton sheep. There are numberless salt marshes upon which sheep, naturally fitted through long years of adaptation for just such pasturage, could be made to yield mutton of the most delicate flavor. There are also hills and rocky moun- tains upon whose sweet herbage, hardy races of sheep could be made to thrive with profit ; and further inland, highly cultivated farms, where heavy crops of green fodder and roots could be raised, that might carry flocks of large framed sheep, yielding combing wool — now so much used in clothing materials for both sexes, and the demand for which is always ahead of the supply. And further south, where it is possible to pasture sheep the year round, but where those which are now kept are so neglected that some of them are never shorn, there is also vast room to change the overdone cotton production for the equally easy but more profitable production of wool which in that climate, by the exercise of proper care, may be grown of the finest quality of staple. What a vast field opens upon our view when we consider the extent of the territory which we possess suitable for sheep cul- ture ; and what profit and increase of national wealth is there in this business to those who undertake it as the occupation of their lives — not only for a short period and intermittingly, and then to be abandoned for some other temporary speculative business — but with a desire and determination to succeed through the exercise of patience, perseverance, and skill. CHAPTER II. SUMMER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. The selection of a suitable farm should be the first care of a person who intends to devote his time and capital to the rearing of sheep. To become a successful shepherd, requires that a person should have a liking for the business, and possess tact, patience, and perseverance sufficient to resist the temptations which may arise at seasons of depression to abandon it for some other tempo- rarily more promising pursuit. Having a determination to stick 12 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. to his flock, he must have a farm suited to its special needs or it will not thrive. Sheep cannot bear damp ; and undrained pastures are fatal to their welfare. Luxuriance of herbage is not generally favorable unless the land is heavily stocked and the pasture kept short and closely cropped. Old permanent meadows, in which a variety of grasses are found, are better than artificial meadows which form part of a rotation with other crops. With a portion of such permanent meadow, there may be many cultivated crops grown upon the other portions of the farm upon which the sheep may be folded with benefit both to themselves and the land. The land most suitable for sheep is one that is naturally drained, with a sandy loam or gravelly soil and subsoil, and which bears spontaneously short, fine, herbage, largely mixed with white clover. It should be rolling, and may be hilly in character rather than flat and level. Any low spots or hollows in which aquatic or marsh plants grow, are very objectionable, and should be thoroughly drained. One such spot upon an otherwise admirable farm may infect a flock with deadly disease. No domestic animal is more readily affected by adverse circumstances than the sheep, and none has less spirit or power to resist them. Virgil, the ancient poet, a close observer of such matters, says of them, " Oves semper infelix pecua," (Sheep are always an unhappy flock), and many shepherds since his day have found reason to hold the same belief. But the experienced sheepmaster has no fear on this score. He knows that a reputation for success with sheep is " never gained without merit, nor lost without deserving," and that failure is not want of luck, as is so frequently declared, but the consequence of ignor- ance or bad management. The careful shepherd will not wait to cure, he is prompt to prevent ; and every defeat is made a new lesson for study and an example for future avoidance. It is by long experience that shepherds have learned that the first requi- site for success in their business is, the choice of a farm upon which their flocks will enjoy perfect health, and that dry ness of soil and of air is the first necessity for their well being. By a careful and judicious choice in this respect, most of the ills to which sheep are subject, with all their contingent losses to their owners, are avoided. The character of the soil upon which sheep are pastured has a great influence in modifying the character of the sheep. Upon the kind of soil of course depends the character of the herbage upon which the flock feeds. Certain soils, such as those consist- ing of decomposed granite or feldspar, and which are rich in pot- ash, are not generally favorable for sheep. ^Jvep turnips rai«ed on )N SOILS. £ such lands sometimes affect the sheep injuriously, producing dis- ease under which they waste away, become watery about the eyes, fall in about the flanks, and assume a generally unhealthy appear- ance. Upon removal to a limestone, or a dry sandstone soil, sheep thus affected, improve at once and rapidly recover. The lambs, as might be expected, are most easily affected, and many are yearly lost by early death upon lands of an unfavorable character. As a rule, lands upon which granite, feldspathic or micaceous rocks intrude, or whose soils are derived from the degradation of such rocks, should be avoided by the shepherd. Such soils are, however, not without their uses, and fortunately are excellently adapted to the dairy. The soils most to be preferred are sandstone and lime- stone lands, of a free, dry, porous character, upon which the finer grasses flourish. The soils which are derived from rocks called carboniferous, which accompany coal deposits, or are found in the regions in which coal is mined, are those upon which sheep have been bred with the most success. The original home of the Lei- cester sheep, as well as that of the famous Shropshires, is on the red sandstone ; the Lincoln is raised on the alluvial soils based on limestone ; the Cotswold has had its home for centuries on the limestone Cotswold hills ; the Southdown, Hampshiredown, and Oxforddowns, are native to the chalk hills and downs of southern England ; the Scotch Cheviot and the hardy black-faced Scotch sheep thrive on sandstone hills and mountains of trap rocks which rise amongst them ; the fine wools of Yorkshire are produced on magnesian limestone soils ; and to come to our own soils, we find the American Merino reaching perfection on the limestone hills of Vermont, beneath which fine marbles are quarried. Unfortu- nately this is the only instance we possess of having given a local habitation to a race of sheep in America ; but how soon we shall have produced or acclimated several breeds of sheep, which will take their peculiarities from the locality in which they are bred and raised, is only a question of time. Peat or marsh lands are unfavorable for sheep farms. Salt marshes near the coast, how- ever, may be excepted from this general condemnation, as the saline herbage acts as a specific against some of the parasitic dis- eases— the liver-rot mainly — to which sheep are subject upon marshy pastures. The Romney-marsh sheep of England are bred successfully upon the alluvial soils of reclaimed marshes, and pro- duce good wool and a heavy carcass. The gigantic Lincoln, the largest sheep bred, originated and thrives in perfection upon drained alluvial soils. The dry, friable nature and porous character of the soil has as 14 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. much to do with the health and growth of sheep as the geological character of the rocks upon which it is based, or from which it has been derived. The census returns of England show that the high- est percentage of sheep to the 100 acres, is found precisely where the soil is naturally drained and dry, and the lowest, where clay abounds, and damp, cold soils with rank, coarse herbage are gen- eral. In our own country, although the time has been far too short as yet for this condition to operate largely, we find the same fact curiously developed, and Ohio and western Pennsylvania, with their extensive coal bearing formations underlying dry roll- ing fields, possess more sheep than any other district, while New- York, Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan, which cover an extensive deposit of limestones and sandstones, with naturally dry soils, come next on the list. The vast stretch of prairies in the Mississippi Valley, and of plains west of the Missouri to the Rocky Moun- tains, chiefly underlaid with limestones and sandstones, and especi- ally remarkable for a dry, porous soil, which bears a rich carpet of the best sheep pastures in the world, have already proved them- selves to be well adapted to the successful growth of flocks bear- ing fine and medium wools. The rich alluvial valleys of the east- ern rivers where naturally or artificially drained, have been found to be fitted for the produrtion of large bodied sheep bearing the lustrous combing wools. All these localities with the hills and valleys of the Middle States will in course of time have their flocks suitable in character to the circumstances in which they are kept. But it will only be in consequence of persistence in careful breed- ing and culture, that the final type for each locality will be reached ; for while the effects of soil and locality are unavoidable and imperative, the shepherd must be able to discover these effects and aid in giving them their due development if early success is to be secured. Bat in whatever locality it may be, if the soil is not naturally drained, profitable sheep farms may be sought in vain. The profit from sheep raising as a special business will not permit of high-priced lands. Where sheep are kept only as a branch of general farming, it may pay to drain the soil artificially ; but without drainage, natural or artificial, sheep cannot thrive. The sheep must have a dry foot or disease follows. The character of the herbage depends upon that of the soil, and the character of the sheep is governed by that of the pasture. It is a very casual observer who thinks that all kinds of grass are the same, and are equally proper for sheep. The sheep itself knows better than this, and every shepherd has learned that his sheep will seek particular spots in preference to others in the ON PASTURES. 15 same field. It has been well said that " the dead earth and the living animal are but links of the same chain of natural existences, the plant being the connecting bond by which they are tied to- gether." The flesh and wool of the sheep, therefore, are but pro- ducts from the soil, and contain nothing but what has existed in the plants which the sheep have consumed. When wool is clean and dry, 100 pounds of it contain 17 pounds of nitrogen, and 5 pounds of sulphur. When the pasture is sufficiently nutritious and the sheep is in good health, a quantity of soapy, greasy matter, called yolk, adheres to the fleece. When this is abundant it is a proof that the food of the sheep is healthful and sufficient. When it is deficient, and the wool is harsh and dry to the touch, it is a sign that the sheep's health is suffering from defective nutriment. This yolk contains a large proportion of potash. To be properly nutritious, the food must contain this needed sulphur and pot- ash, along with nitrogen and other necessary matters. A fair test of the requisite quality of the food of the sheep may be taken from the composition of the flesh and blood of the animal, for there is nothing in the flesh, skin, bones, or wool that does not exist in the blood. The following are the inorganic or mineral materials contained in the ash of the blood and flesh of an animal : Blood. Flesh. Phosphate of Soda 16.77 45.10 Chloride of Sodium 59.34) AKQA Chloride of Potassium 6.12 J Sulphate of Soda 3.85 trace Phosphate of Magnesia 4.19 1 Oxide and Phosphate of Iron 8.28 >• 6.84 Sulphate of Lime 1.45) 100.00 97.88 The bones of the sheep contain from 60 to 70 per cent of phos- phate and carbonate of lime, with a little magnesia. The excre- ment, both solid and liquid, of the sheep contain a large variety of mineral elements, which are also necessary to the healthful animal economy. The urine contains two per cent of mineral matter, nnu the dung 13i per cent, the composition of which is as follows* ASH OF URINE. Sulphate of Potash - 2.98 Sulphate of Soda 7.72 Chloride of Sodium 32.01 Chloride of Potassium 12.00 Carbonate of Lime ... 82 Carbonate of Soda 42.25 Carbonate of Magnesia 46 Phosphate of Lime, Magnesia, and Iron 7C Silica^ ;....:......,.., J^06 100.00 16 ASH OF DUNG. Silica 50.11 Potash * 8.32 Soda 3.28 Chlorideof Sodium 14 Phosphate of Iron 3.98 Lime 18.15 Magnesia 5.45 Phosphoric Acid 7.52 Sulphuric Acid 2.69 99.64 When it is seen how much earthy matter is needed to build up a healthy organism, and supply the waste of the. sheep, it is evi- dent that the food must be of a character consistent with these demands, and if by reason of deficiency in the soil, these matters are not supplied, the animal suffers, or is not fully developed. The grasses or other herbage upon which the sheep subsist, must there- fore be such as will supply the peculiar needs of the animal, or they must be supplemented by additional food. When sheep feed upon grasses deficient in the required earthy matters, they become weak in constitution, and predisposed to disease. To prevent dis- ease and keep the flock in health, the pasture must be supple- mented by other feed which will supply the deficiency, and thus the cost of maintaining the flock is increased. A pasture that will supply all the necessary nutriment must contain those varieties of grasses that have been found by experience most suitable for sheep. Of the common grasses there are several varieties which have a high reputation for this purpose. The best of these are of a low growth and creeping habit, with fine, short herbage. The grasses known as PJileum pratense, (Timothy) ; Arrhenatherum ave- tiaceum, (Tall Oat Grass); Poa annua, (Annual Spear Grass); Poa pratensis, (Kentucky Blue Grass) ; Festuca omna, (Sheep's Fes- cue) ; Poa serotina, (False Red-Top) ; Agrostis vulgaris, (Red-Top) ; Dactylis glomerata, (Orchard Grass,) when closely pastured ; Alope- curus pratensis, (Meadow Foxtail,) with Trifolium repens, (White Clover) ; or Plantago lanceolata, (the Narrow-leaved Plantain or Rib Grass,) and some other common plants, form a desirable herbage for sheep. The Buffalo Grass and the species of Bouteloua, com- monly called mesquit grasses of the west, with the large variety of leguminous wild plants, make up a pasture that cannot be excelled. The occasional dressing of pastures with bone-dust, salt, and sul- phate of lime, is of great service, and furnishes a supply of those mineral matters which are indispensable. The value of the different pasture grasses are shown by the fol: VALUE OF VARIOUS GRASSES. 17 lowing table of analyses made by Professor Way. These are of the green, fresh plants as taken from the field when in full growth. COMPOSITION OF NATURAL GRASSES, (100 PARTS,) TAKEN FRESH FROM THE FIELD. *>g i a € . 1 ^ NAMES OF GRASS. K |J 1 I 1 1 1 |2 1 ns I V Sweet-Scented Vernal, (A nthoxanihum odoratuiri) .... 80.35 2.05 .67 8.54 7.15 1.24 Meadow Foxtail, (Alopecurus pratensis) . . . 80.20 2.44 .52 8.59 6.76 1.55 Tall Oat Grass, (ATrhenatheTum avencuMutri) 72.65 3.54 .87 11.21 9.37 2.36 Yellow Oat Grass, (Avena jlavescens) 60.40 2.96 1.04 18.66 14.22 2.72 Quaking Grass, (Briza media) 51.85 2.92 1.45 22.60 17.00 4.17 Orchard Grass, (Dactylis glomcTCttct) . 70.00 4.06 .94 13.30 10.11 1.59 Hard Fescue, (F&StllCCi ($1lT$fUSCltlCt) 69.33 3.70 1.02 12.46 11.83 1.66 Timothy, (Phlewm pratensc) 57.21 4.86 1.50 22.85 11.32 2.26 Blue Grass, 67.14 3.41 .86 14.15 12.49 1.95 White Clover, 79.71 3.80 .89 8.14 5.38 2.08 Narrow-leaved Plantain, Rib Grass, (Plantaao lanceolata) . . . 84.78 2.18 .56 6.06 5.10 1.32 Several of these grasses — the oat grasses, quaking grass, orchard grass, timothy, and blue grass, for instance — are seen to be of high nutritive value, but yet some of the other grasses and plants found in good pastures are not to be despised on account of their seem- ingly defective character as shown by these analyses. Some of the less nutritious kinds are greedily eaten by sheep, and in furnishing a change of diet, as well as by reason of their aromatic properties, help to stimulate the appetite and preserve the health. Besides the grasses and other plants mentioned, there are sev- eral having an aromatic or astringent character, which are pur- posely introduced into pastures for their medicinal effect upon the sheep. Parsley, Yarrow, and Wormwood are the plants chiefly so used. Parsley, (Carum Petroselinum, or Petroselinum sativum, of the older authors), is a biennial plant well known as a garden herb. It is greedily eaten by sheep, and acts upon the liver and kidneys, or is so supposed to act ; for this reason it has been con- sidered and recommended by shepherds as a preventive of those 18 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. diseases known as " rot," and red water. Hares and rabbits, which are also subject to the rot, and the presence of the accompanying parasite, the " liver fluke," will travel long distances in quest of this herb, and ground upon which it abounds will very soon be eaten bare by them. For these reasons it is usual in England to sow one pound of seed per acre in permanent pastures where it reproduces itself from seed. It is a biennial plant seeding the second year of its growth. Yarrow, (Achillea, Millefolium), a plant of the order to which chamomile belongs, is a perennial bitter astringent herb natural- ized in this country from Europe. Sheep are greedily fond of it, and it is not to be doubted that this instinctive desire is prompted by a natural need for it, not so much as a food, but as a medicine and a tonic. It is usually sown in out of the way places on the borders of pastures or lanes to which sheep have access, and where they can go when instinctively desirous of the plant without being driven, and so that it may not become troublesome as a weed by unduly spreading in the pasture. It thrives best on sandy banks or the hilly borders of woods upon sandy soil. The Ox Eye Daisy, (Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum), a plant of the same botan- ical order with the Yarrow, is also readily cropped by sheep, the blossoms being especially attractive to lambs. Another related plant, the well known Mugwort, (Artemisia tulgaris), sometimes, but improperly, called wormwood, also naturalized here from Europe, is greedily eaten by sheep. It is also bitter and aromatic and tonic rather than nutritive. But these aromatic plants must not be sup- posed to be worthless as food, for the analysis of yarrow shows it to be possessed of nutritive qualities ; 100 parts of the dry herb contain, according to Professor Way, as follows : ANALYSIS OF YARROW. Albuminoids or Flesh Formers .............. 10.34 per cent Fatty Matters ............................... 3-5l " Carbonaceous or Heat Producing Matters. . . .45.46 ' 100.00 " " Amongst other common plants readily eaten by sheep is goose- foot, or " Lamb's-quarters," (Chenopodium album), which grows plentifully all over our states and territories, being one of the most common weeds upon newly broken prairies west of the Missis- sippi, and which belongs to the same botanical order of plants as the beet and the mangel wurtzel. In addition there are several Varieties of sea weed and other maritime plants which grow upon GRASSES OF THE PLAINS. 19 the shores that are useful for the subsistence of sheep. These plants are rich in the mineral constituents of common salt, in starch and albumen, and in some localities, flocks of sheep upon the sea coasts and islands exist wholly upon this adventitious pas- turage. A notable case is stated in a recent publication, of a large flock of several hundred sheep which, for years, has subsisted and thrived wholly upon sea weed and wild herbage on an island oft the coast of Maine, and there are many others in which farmers adjacent to the sea coast in that state and other parts of New England, subsist their sheep chiefly during the winter upon the sea weed which is cast upon the shores. These cases, however, are only valuable as showing how these really hardy and easily accli- mated animals may be made to thrive and yield their valuable pro- ducts of food and clothing, under the poorest conditions as surely, if not with equal profit, as under the most favorable circumstances. The value of the herbage which covers the wide plains of the west cannot be predicated as yet from any chemical analysis or scientific examinations. In the light of practical experience we do not need these useful aids and helps. The fact that the grasses which cover those plains have supported and fattened countless millions of buffalo and antelope, and the experience already gained in keeping sheep on the plains, are amply sufficient to attest the nutritive value of those grasses. The Buffalo-grass, (Buchloe doc- tyloides], is one of the most nutritious of all grasses. Its creeping root stems are always green and of great sweetness. It is low in its habit as suits a pasture for sheep, and furnishes good feeding the year round. Stock that have fed upon it without any help from other feed have been found in spring fat and in condition for the butcher. Meat produced upon this pasture has a delicate flavor, is tender, and has solid fat. Milk from cows fed upon it bears a cream of the richest character and the highest color. It prefers dry, light soils, which are the very best soils for sheep pastures, and it forces its roots to a depth, or several feet beneath the surface, where it finds moisture even upon the dry plains where the annual rain-fall is scarcely equal to 10 inches. One of the several kinds called " Bunch-grass," (Featuea scabrella), is another valuable grass common in these regions. It is exceedingly nutritive and cures on the stalk, thus affording winter pasture. Other species of Fes- tuca are common, " Sheep' s-fescue " already noted, being abun- dant. For hay for winter use there are many varieties of highly nutritious grass. Indian or Wood-griss, (Sorghum nutans), is four to five feet in hight, and is full of a rich, sweet juice, which is very palatable and nutritious. There are several other grasses of almost 20 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. equal value which enable the flock-master to provide abundaat supplies of hay to carry his stock over those short periods when pasturing is prevented by snow storms. The variety of native grasses suitable for sheep pastures is thus seen to be ample, and no country in the world is better provided, while few countries are so well supplied with them, as are the United States and territories over the whole length and breadth of their vast surface. The stocking of the pasture must be closely looked to. Over- stocking causes scarcity of pasture, and a deficient supply of nu- triment. It also causes the sheep to take up much sand and earth into their stomachs with their food, which gives them an unthrifty appearance, and sometimes induces disease and death. Sheep pastured on overstocked fields may be recognized by the worn condition of their teeth, and cases have occurred in which this test has indicated a difference of two years in their age. Four-year- old sheep have exhibited the worn mouths of six-year-olds. Un- derstocking is an error on the other side. Unless the pasture is closely cropped, the herbage becomes hard, unpalatable, and indi- gestible, and the sheep do not thrive upon it. It is a well proved adage that " 24 hours' grass is best for a sheep, and 8 days' grass for an ox." This indicates that the close bite of a sheep should be accommodated by a very close herbage. Tne tender growth of a thick, short pasture is precisely what is wanted, and if the flock is not numerous enough to keep it short, the field should be divided into plots, and those not cropped closely should be pastured down by cattle or left to be mowed. For the better stocking of the pas- tures it would be well, if practicable, to divide the flock, sorting lambs and yearlings from wethers and aged ewes, and putting the former upon the best and tenderest pasture. This is a point of great importance in the management of a flock, and should be don2 whenever the welfare of the younger or less vigorous sheep requires it. Where the range is extensive, and ample pasture is provided, any supplementary provision further than an occasional feed of corn, oats, bran, or oil-meal, is unnecessary. These addi- tional foods should be supplied whenever the condition of the pas- ture requires it, and constant watchfulness should be exercised to discover the moment when the pastures fail. It is not that the growth of the sheep is arrested then, but the quality of the wool suffers from the moment that the condition of the sheep begins to deteriorate. The secretion which supplies the matter of which the wool is formed, is then lessened, and the fiber is weakened at that particular spot. If the adverse condition continues for some days or weeks, tlje weakened fiber fprms what is called a " SUPPLY OF WATER. 21 in the wool. When the wool comes to be carded or combed, the tension overcomes the resistance of the fiber which breaks at this weak spot, and the broken fibers go to waste. "Break" in the wool greatly reduces its value, and as it is wholly caused by defi- cient nourishment or excessive exposure, it is a loss readily avoided by proper care. The extra supply of food must be judiciously proportioned to the needs of the sheep, as over supply will result in an equal disadvantage by unduly stimulating the condition and leading to a reaction when the stimulus is withdrawn. Evenness in the fleece, although it may be of poor quality, is better than un- evenness, for even if there be only one short break in a fiber otherwise of general excellence, the whole is reduced by this single break to one-half its proper length. One neglect of a few days duration is really worse for the fleece than comparatively poor feeding, if it is only adhered to with regularity. Poor feeding and. general care, result hi a gradually diminished growth and weight of fleece, but yet may not affect the health, while irregular feed- ing affects the health and ruins the flock completely. The supply of water is of the greatest importance. A living spring or a clear flowing stream with dry gravelly banks is the best source of supply. Wells are better than ponds or pools. Stagnant water is exceedingly objectionable. Hard water is better than soft, and water containing much saline or other mineral matter, is a valuable help to the pasture as furnishing many neces- sary substances. When water is exposed to the atmosphere it deposits the greater part of any mineral matter it may contain, and becomes soft. It is then rendered of less value for stock pur- poses. There are some waters that contain potash, lime, soda, magnesia, iron, and sulphur in combination with oxygen, carbonic acid, and chlorine to the amount of 15 to 20 grains per gallon, and such water is a source of nourishment to sheep. Pond or marsh water is highly injurious, as is also running water in which aquatic plants are found. It is from drinking such water, as much as from pasturing on undrained soils, that the liver flukes, parasites always accompanying the disease termed the rot, gain access to the stom- ach and intestines of the sheep. A deficiency in the necessary mineral matters may be obviated by giving the sheep stated sup- plies of a mixture of common salt, sulphur, saltpeter, sulphate of magnesia, (epsom salts), phosphate of lime, bone-dust, or fine bone, with a small portion of sulphate of iron, (copperas). A small tea- spoonful of this mixture given once a week to each sheep will help greatly to a healthful condition, and resist the tendency to disease caused by inferior pasture or soft water. Tne study of the plants 22 THE SHEPHERD'S MAHUAL. suitable for a pasture, the character of soils, and the water, should be pait of the education of every shepherd. The exposure of the pasture is another important consideration. Long continued cold winds are productive of great discomfort and sickness, and often cause serious loss amongst the flock. On the sea coast, exposure to the moist sea breezes injures the quality of the wool, and renders it harsh and deficient in quantity. Of two adjoining flocks upon opposite sides of a hill facing north and south, the sheep exposed to the north winds will be several pounds less in weight, and their wool will be whiter, harsher, more uneven, and less healthy looking, than those of the flock upon the south side. This experience is very common. The lambs will also be less thrifty. Of this, many notable cases occur every season where sheep and lambs are pastured and fed for the markets. The smaK size of sheep raised upon mountain pastures is a case in point. Where the pasture is circumscribed or poor, it may be supple- mented by sowed green crops to be fed on the ground, or cut and fed in racks upon the pasture, or cut and carried to yards and fed there at night in racks. Of these, rye, clover, mustard, rape, tares, and oats and peas mixed, furnish an abundant supply. Rye is sown early in the fall for winter and early spring feeding. For this purpose it should be sown thickly, three bushels per acre being a fair allowance upon fairly good soil, early in August up to the middle of September. The sheep may be turned upon the crop in December, and at intervals as may be found proper, up to April, when it may be plowed down for a spring crop. Upon light lands, where the winters admit of it, as in some of the middle and southern states, this may be made an excellent means of im- proving the soil ; some additional feed, as bran, pea-meal, corn, or cotton-seed-meal, (freed from the hull which is indigestible and injurious), will much assist in this improvement of the soil as well as in bettering the condition of the sheep. After rye, clover sown the previous spring, but not pastured, will come in turn. This will furnish pasture through the summer if kept well stocked down, and a choice portion should be fenced off for the lambs. By changing from one part of the field to an- other,-as one portion is eaten down, the new growth will be tender and fresh. After June a part of the clover will run to seed, and when the field is plowed in August or September, the seed will help to re-sow the ground, which may then be sown to wheat or rye. This makes an excellent preparation for these crops on lands of a somewhat light character. White Mustard, (Sinapis alba), may be sown in May or June for FODDER CROPS. 23 feeding in August and until rye is ready. It is difficult to eradi- cate from the soil when it once becomes a weed and has been allowed to take possession. But a careful farmer will have no trouble if he manages the crop so as to prevent the seed being shed. When sown in August, mustard affords valuable feed dur- ing the winter, and although the ground may be covered with several niches of snow, the sheep will scrape off the covering and get at it. In this way a plot of mustard may furnish a green bite all the winter where the snow fall is light. In the spring it should be plowed down early and not allowed to blossom, and a spring crop taken so that the ground is plowed again in the fall. Treated thus, the plant cannot ripen and shed its seeds and become trouble- some. Mustard has a pungent flavor, and contains a large propor- tion of sulphur ; it is on this account a healthful fodder for sheep, and is very much relished by them. It belongs to the botanical order of Cruciferce, to which the cabbage, rape, and turnip, belong ; a family of plants rich in sulphur, lime, phosphoric acid, and other mineral matter demanded for the sustenance of sheep. Two pecks of mustard seed per acre are sown, and for a heavy crop of fodder rich soil is required. Rape, a variety of Brassica campestris, is a very hardy plant, and produces a heavy burden of fodder which is readily eaten by sheep. It is very similar in habit to mustard, and should be fed off in the fall and winter or early in spring. Two pecks of seed are required for an acre. For fall feed it should be sown in July or early in August. Both mustard and rape succeed very well in the north- ern, western, and middle states, and would thrive equally well hi most of the southern states if sown somewhat later and fed off during the whiter. These plants when sown late ripen their seed *arly in the second year. Turnips are a very frequent fodder crop in those parts of Eng- land where sheep are largely raised, but the practice of allowing tnem to be fed off from the ground is fast becoming obsolete, and the plan of taking up the crop and cutting and feeding the roots in troughs upon the fields or in yards is substituted in its place. But the English climate is excessively moist, and rain falls two days out of three on the average. It is for this reason, and the in- jurious effect upon the sheep of the exposure upon muddy fields to cold wintry rains, that the practice is falling into disuse. In parts of the United States we have every advantage for making use of so cheap and convenient a plan of feeding sheep upon these root crops that are not injured by moderate frosts. Where the fall of snow is light and soon melts away, as in Virginia, Tea- 24 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. nessee, Missouri, and the states south of these, this system of win- ter feeding has been practiced for many years by the better class of farmers with success. Mr. C. W. Howard, of Georgia, a highly trustworthy gentleman, a farmer and a frequent writer upon agricultural topics, and who has given much attention to the culture of fodder crops, communicated some time ago to the Rural Carolinian the following directions and facts in regard to the cul- ture of turnips for sheep feeding in the open field in the south : " Take a field, plow it deeply with a two-horse plow, subsoil if possible, harrow thoroughly and roll. Lay off the land in rows two-and-a-half feet apart, with a wide and deep furrow. If there be not stable manure, apply three to five hundred pounds of Am- moniated Superphosphate of Lime ; the addition of some potash would be useful ; throw the dirt back with two furrows, and level the ridge with a board. Use the Weathersfield drill, or some other, costing about nine dollars. Sow with it two pounds of seed to the acre. The Weathersfield drill opens the furrow, drops the seed, covers, and then rolls it by one and the same process. When the plants have formed the third leaf, which is rough, thin them out with the hoe and hand to about eight inches apart, give them a good plowing with a narrow scooter, and the cultivation is completed. The cultivation of an acre of turnips will cost as follows : Plowing $ 2 00 Harrowing 50 Rolling 50 Seed 100 Sowing 25 Hoeing and Thinning 2 00 Plowing 1 00 Fertilizer 1000 $1725 " The result will vary according to the soil, the season, and the cultivation. Five hundred bushels is a poor crop. One thousand bushels is a good crop. Fifteen hundred bushels is an extraordi- nary crop. This number of bushels, (1,550), was made last year by Dr. Lavender, of Pike County, Ga. That gentleman took the premium at the last Georgia State Fair. His statements deserve implicit reliance. They were made under oath. His process of obtaining this remarkable yield was as follows : " 4 The soil was a sandy loam. Turned over a heavy clover sod in June with a Dixie plow ; harrowed twice with a Nishwitz har- row on the 21st of August ; ran twice in the furrow, deposited in the bottom of the furrow 3,600 pounds of stable manure, com- EOtDTNG OK TURK1P& 25 pounded with 100 pounds of the Stono Phosphate ; let it stand six weeks, then applied as above stated. Cultivated with a cultivator by horse power — no hoeing; left about six plants to the yard; had only one rain on them after plowing, and that a light shower. Sowed two pounds of seed to the acre ; planted by hand through a guano bugle, and then rolled.' "What does it cost to raise a bushel of turnips? If we make 500 bushels to the acre, the cost will be about four cents per bushel ; if 1,000, the cost will be about two cents per bushel. This does not include gathering, storing, and marketing, because the use that it is proposed to make of the turnips involves none of these expenses. " What use, then, is to be made of the crop ? Feed them off on the land with sheep, the process ordinarily known as folding. For this purpose a portable fence is necessary. (These are de- scribed hereafter). " The fold should not include more turnips than the sheep will eat off clean in twenty-four, or, at the utmost, forty-eight hours. If it be larger, the turnips will be wasted. Sheep not accustomed to turnips, may at first refuse to eat them, But let them get quite hungry, and then sprinkle some salt upon the turnips. After they once get a taste of them the only difficulty will be to get enough of them. One thousand sheep will consume an acre of turnips in twenty-four hours ; one hundred in ten days and nights. With these data, the size of the pen can be graduated- One- tenth of an acre should be the size of the fold or pen per one hundred sheep. One acre of turnips will support one hundred sheep for ten days, three acres one month, nine acres three months. This is not the- ory, but the result of actual experiment. The enemy of the turnip is the fly. There are two means of presenting the ravages of this troublesome insect. One is very thick seeding, the other is dust- ing the young pla.its as soon as they are above ground, with un- leached ashes, or air-slacked lime. After they reach the rough leaf there is no further danger from this source. The thinning should take place as soon as the rough leaf is formed. If this thinning is delayed, the crop will be seriously injured." For the northern states the culture of the turnip, ruta-baga, su- gar beet, mangel, and cabbage, is as follows : the preparation of the ground being alike for all, the time of sowing alone being differ- ent. Sugar beets and mangels are sown from April to June, the early sown crop being invariably the heaviest. Ruta-bagas are sown June 15th to July 1st. Cabbage for late crop is sown in geed beds in June to be transplanted in July. Yellow Aberdeen THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. turnips are sown in July, and white turnips in July or August The soil is prepared by previous plowing and manuring, and made fine and mellow ; the seed is sown in drills 30 inches apart, and thinned out to 12 to 18 inches apart in the rows. A crop of roots grown 18 inches apart, each root weighing 6 Ibs. , will yield 34 tona* or 1,100 bushels to the acre. For beets or mangels, 4 Ibs. of seed per acre is required if sown with a drill; of ruta-bagas and tur- nips 2 Ibs. of seed is sown. The best beet is Lane's Improved Sugar Beet ; the best mangel, the Long Red ; the best ruta-baga, the Purple- top Swede ; the Aberdeen turnip is better than the white, and nearly as good as the ruta-baga ; the white turnip has the ad- Fig. 1. — PIT FOB ROOTS. Fig. 2. — ROOT-CUTTER. rantage that it can be sown late and follow an oat, barley, or rye crop. The harvesting is done by cutting off the tops with a sharp FEEDING ROOTS. 01 hoe and plowing a furrow on one side of the row of roots, when they may be pulled from the ground with the hoe or by drawing a dull harrow over the field. The crop is saved by keeping the roots in cellars or pits. Pits are simply conical heaps covered with straw and earth sufficient to keep out the frost, a foot of straw and a few inches of earth being sufficient protection, (see fig. 1). Roots should be sliced or pulped when fed, as they are more readily eaten, and there is no dan- ger of the sheep choking by swallow- ing too large pieces. A simple cutting ma- chine is shown in fig. 2. It consists of a wooden wheel fur- nished with long knives set at an angle similar to the irons in a plane, which cut the roots into thin slices. Fig. 3 is a pulper in which, in- stead of knives, there are 144 sharp chisel Fig. S.-ROOT PULPER. points made of quarter-inch steel, (see a), by which the roots are torn into shreds and reduced to pulp. When crops are fed upon the ground, a special arrangement of temporary fences is used. These are constructed of hurdles, of which there are several kinds. One of the most readily con- structed hurdles is made of light stakes pointed at the ends and fastened together with bars of split or sawed saplings or laths, such as are shown at fig. 4. These are made in panels about nine feet long, with stakes five and a half feet high. A line of these hurdles is set across the field, enclosing a plot in which the sheep are con- fined, until the crop on the ground is consumed. The shepherd takes a light pointed iron bar with which he makes holes in the ground to receive the pointed lower ends of the stakes, and drives them down firmly by striking the tops with a wooden mallet. As the crop is eaten, the line of hurdles is moved along the field until the whole is consumed. Much economy in labor of setting the hurdles may be exercised by laying out the plots in a certain man- ner. For instance, if a square field of ten acres is to be fed off, the THE SSEPHEED'S MAKTTAL. plan shown in fig. 5 will be found very convenient. The distance across the Held is 220 yards. This is the least length of hurdles that can be used. But if the field is divided off into strips across, the whole of the hurdles must be moved each time, and if the field a Fig. 4.— HUBBLE. is divided into eight strips, there will be seven removals of every hurdle, or the whole length of netting. In the plan here shown, only half this work is necessary, and a field may be divided into eight sections by moving half the hurdles seven times. For in- stance, plot 1 is fed by placing the hurdles from a to b, and from c to d. Plot number 2 is fed by moving the line from c, d to b, e. The next setting of the hurdles is from c to/, the next from b to g, the next from h to *, the next from b to &, the next, and last, from I to m. There will be eight settings of 110 yards each, instead of seven of 220 yards each, which would be necessary should the field be fed off in the usual manner of strips across it. In place of these hurdles, netting of cocoa-nut fiber or hempen cord is often used. This is supported by stakes driven into the ground and hooks, (see fig. 6). Netting of this kind is made in , 3 c 1 i \ ^ L 6 6 i t ? „ . 8 Fig. 5.— PLAN FOB SETTING HUBBLE 8. PORTABLE FENCES. England in lengths of 100 yards, and widths of 4 feet, at about $9 the 100 yards. At this price it could be imported with profit, and probably cheaper than it could be manufactured here. Another form of hurdles not quite so portable, but more easily moved and set is illustrated at fig. 7. They are 12 feet long, and are made of a stout pole bored with two series of holes 12 inches apart. Stakes six feet long are put into these holes, so that they project from them three feet on each side of the pole. One series of holes is bored in a direction at right angles to that of the other, and when the stakes are all pro- perly placed, they form a hurdle the end of which looks like the letter X. The engraving shows how these hurdles are made and the method of using them. A row is placed across the field. A strip of ten feet wide is set off upon which the sheep feed. They eat up all the herbage upon this strip and that which they can reach by putting their heads through the hurdles. The hurdles are then turned over, exposing another strip of forage. When this is fed off the hurdles are again turned over, and so on. The chevaux-de-frise presented by the hurdles prevents any trespassing upon the other side of them, and by using two rows the sheep are kept in the narrow strip between themc Their droppings are therefore very evenly spread over the field, and it is very richly fertilized by them. At night the sheep are taken off, and when the field has been fed over, they are brought back again to the starting point and commence once more to eat their way along. When the crop is cut and fed to the sheep, a somewhat different arrangement is made. This may be made a valuable means of improving land. A badly run-down field in- fested, with weeds, may be cleared of rubbish, fertilized, antf Fig. 6.— SHEEP NETTING. 30 THE SHEPHEKD'S MANUAL. PENNING SHEEP THE FIELD. 31 brought into grass or clover by judicious management in this way. Portions of such a field may be set dff with hurdles as before de- scribed, a rough shed erected in which the sheep may be secured at night, and in which an ample supply of bedding or dry earth, or other absorbent is placed beneath them, and here the crop grown upon another part of the farm, aided by purchased food, if such be available, is fed in portable troughs or racks. A very convenient rack is the one shown in fig. 8. This is extremely portable, and may be moved from one part of the field to another with great ease. Where sheep are permanently kept, and fixed arrangements are made for the flock, it is frequently found con- venient to provide a permanent and safe shed, in a central position, in which they may be confined at night, and from which they can be turned into different fields or portions of the farm. A shed that has been found very convenient in use is shown at fig. 9. It is built at the center of four fields, and has doors opening into each of them, and is so arranged that it may be entirely closed from all but the one which may be in use at the time. For the protection of the sheep at night, small paddocks may be fenced in around this shed, and safety from dogs secured by the use of dog guards. These consist of wires made to run above the fence or at right angles with the top of it, as shown at figures 10 and 11. The separation of the flock into parts consisting of ewes and lambs, weaned lambs and weaklings, and rams and wethers, is very necessary. Ewes and nursing lambs should be provided with the best and tenderest pastures; the weaned lambs and weak sheep should have a place where they can be furnished with some extra feed without interference from stronger neighbors, and rams and wethers may do well enough on the coarser herbage. A frequent change of pasture is very advantageous for the flock. $heep naturally love change, and after they have wandered over ft 32 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. field will become restless, and try to escape. The best method of keeping them contented anfl qniet, is to change their pasture as soon as they are observed to wander about restlessly. They are Fig. 9,— SHEEP SHED. then losing flesh. To restrict sheep to one kind of food for a period of more than thirty days, has been found to seriously im- pair their health. " Fresh fields and pastures new " are therefore necessary to their welfare, and their health cannot be maintained Fig. 10.— DOG GUARD. Fig. 11.— DOG GUARD. unless this peculiarity is recognized and accommodated. It is better to Divide fields into paddocks where small flocks are kept, EWES AtfD LAMBS. 33 and where the pastures are extensive, to reduce the size and in. crease the number of the fields. Where the pasture is an open, unfenced tract, the flock should be driven some distance to a new locality every month. The attention of the shepherd during the summer season will be constantly exercised in seeing that every portion of the flock re- ceives a proper share of the pasture, that the pasture is not over- stocked ; that proper shelter is provided from midday heats ; that failure in pasture is immediately remedied by a supply of fresh green fodder or extra food, such as wheat-bran, oil-cake-meal, or corn-meal ; that pure water is supplied at least twice a day ; that a certain portion of salt, or a mixture of salt and sulphur is pro- vided and given regularly ; that on the first symptom of indispo- sition, affected sheep are removed from the flock to some place where they may receive proper care and medicine; that the attacks of flies are warded off by proper preventives ; that para- sitic enemies are destroyed, and in short in caring in every possi- ble way for the welfare of his charge, watching closely for the most minute evidence of the first symptom of trouble that may occur, always remembering that " an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." To this end he should study closely the habits of his sheep in health, make himself thoroughly acquainted with the symptoms of disease and the habits and methods of at- tacks of those living enemies which trouble the flock, and be pre- pared by adequate and exact knowledge of the proper preventives and remedies, to apply them instantly, correctly, and effectively. CHAPTER III. MANAGEMENT OF EWES AND LAMBS. In the managem* nt of sheep, how to procure the most profit from the flock is the greatest consideration. It is not exactly how to increase the flock most rapidly, nor to produce the heaviest carcasses or fleeces, but to produce such animals as will return the most money for the expenditure and labor involved. In some lo- calities the sale of an early lamb will bring in more money than that of the mother with its fleece. Where there is a market for lambs, it is evidently the most profitable to keep such sheep, 34 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. and to keep them in such a way as will produce the highest priced lambs. Where mutton is the most profitable, there a different management must be adopted, and frequently a different breed of sheep must be kept. Where wool only is the object, still another different course will be chosen. Whichever end is to be gained, the care of the breeding ewes and the lambs will be a subject of much solicitude. But what would be a proper course in one case would not be at all proper in another. A few general principles are involved in the management of ewes and lambs, which will first be explained, after which the special management proper to be adopted for each special case will be considered. The period of gestation of the ewe is 150 to 153 days. Five months in round numbers may be taken as the period during which the ewe carries a lamb. The coupling of the ewes and rams should be so timed, that the lambs may be dropped at the most desirable season. It will be found a great convenience to mark the rams and ewes, or such of them as may be selected to breed stock animals from. Where a small flock only is kept, or where special care is given to the im- provement of the breed, every sheep should be marked by a number, that the time of its coup- ling may be noted, and the date of the expected birth of Fig. 12. — METALLIC EAR-MARKS. the lamb be known. The best method of marking is by means of metallic ear marks, (fig. 12), made by C. H. Dana, of West Lebanon, K. H., inserted in the ear in different ways, to distinguish the sexes easily. The method of keeping these records may be as fol- lows : A book is provided which is ruled with six columns. At the head of these columns are written the number of the ewe, that of the ram, the date of service, the expected time of the lamb's ap- pearance, the date when it is actually dropped, and any remarks worthy of note. The following diagram exhibits this clearly : No. of Ewe. No. of Ram. When served. To Lamb. Lambed. Remarks. 137 4 Sept. 26, '75 Peb.26, '76 Feb.28,'76| Twins. Under the head of remarks should be written anything that may be desirable to remember in regard to the character of the produce of the anim ils coupled. A ewe that produces a fine, large, activt CARE OF THE RAM. 35 Iamb, that is a good nurse, and that rears a profitable market lamb, or that rears twins successfully, is a valuable animal to re- tain in the flock so long as she remains productive. Such ewes have been kept until 10 or 12, or even 16 years old, and to be able to identify a ewe of this kind is very necessary when the greatest profit is the object sought, and more especially in those cases when the special business is to rear market lambs or increase the flock rapidly. No more than 30 ewes should be apportioned to one ram hi any season, unless he be a full grown one and in vigorous health, and it would be well to observe the rules laid down in a succeeding chapter especially devoted to breeding, for the man- agement of the ram at this season. If the ram is equal to the work, 50 ewes may be given to him, but it is better to err on the safe side in this matter, as overwork simply means barren ewes and loss of lambs. At the breeding season the ram should be smeared upon the brisket every day with a mixture of raw linseed oil and red ocher, so that he will leave a mark upon each ewe that may be served. As the ewes are served they are to be drafted from the flock and placed in a field or yard by themselves. Two rams should not be kept together in a small breeding flock, as quarreling and fighting are certain to result and great damage may occur. If two rams are necessary, each may be used on alternate days. Wethers are a nuisance in a flock of ewes at this season, disturbing them and keeping them and themselves from feeding. A plan followed with advantage where the flock consists of heavy bodied sheep, and where the necessary attention can be given, is to keep the rani in a yard or paddock by himself, out of sight of the ewes, and to allow a wether to run with them. As each ewe comes in season, the wether singles her out and keeps company with her. On the return of the flock from the pasture at night, the ewe or ewes in season are turned in -to the ram until they are served, when thdy may be removed at once, or left with him until the morning. In the morning, if any ewes have come into heat during the night, they may be served before the flock is turned into the pasture. This is continued until it is known that «11 the ewes are in lamb. By this method a ram may be made to serve double the number of ewes that he would if allowed indis- criminate access to them, and exhaust himself in useless ana need- less repeated exertions. As soon as the ewes have been served, the time of each is entered in the record as previously described. They are carefully pre- served from all worry by dogs and needless driving or handling. Peace and quietness at this season will tend to the production of 36 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. V quiet and docile lambs. The shepherd should make himself very familiar with them, and by giving salt or meal in the hand, or a small dish, reduce them to a condition of perfect docility. Any ewes that have either refused the ram or have failed to breed, should be dosed with two ounces of epsom salts and be stinted in their feed for a few days to reduce their condition. This will generally be effective in bringing them into season. Good fair condition is better than an excess of fat, but ewes in poor condi- tion cannot be expected to produce other than poor, weak lambs ; neither will an excessively fat ewe produce a strong lamb. Some extra food will now be needed by the ewes, and should be given at first in small quantities. Bran, crushed malt, and crushed oats and corn mixed, are the best kinds of food. Oil-cake, either of cotton-seed or linseed, unless used with great caution, is not always a healthful food for ewes in lamb. Any food that actively affects the bowels, either way, is to be avoided. Half a pint a day may be given of the first mentioned foods, and a change from one to an- other may be frequently made. So long as pasture is to be had, this allowance will be sufficient. When the winter feeding com- mences, the ration of grain should be gradually increased until, at the period when lambing time approaches, a pint daily is given. Cold watery food is highly dangerous at this time, and roots should not be given in large quantities, nor at all unless pulped and mixed with cut hay and the grain. Turnips or other roots that have been highly manured with superphosphate of lime has been said by several experienced English breeders to be pro- ductive of abortion. Water should be given in small and frequent quantities. It is best to have running water or water from a well always at hand for the ewes. If the ewes have not heretofore been kept apart from the rest of the flock, they should now be sepa- rated. The general treatment of the ewes up to this time should be such as will keep them free from all excitement, and in good, healthful condition. The record should now be consulted, and as the ewes near their time they should be removed into a part of the stables or sheep barn, where each one can have a small pen to herself. These pens should be made so that light can be shut out if desired. Here they are permitted to drop their lambs in perfect quiet ; by this means few ewes will disown their lambs, and no lambs will be lost by creeping into feed racks or out of the way places. The pens should not be larger than 5x4 feet. As soon as the lamb is dropped and the ewe has owned and licked it, and the lamb has once sucked, all danger, except from gross careless- ness, is passed. The owe will be greatly helped by a drink of CARE OP THE EWE. 37 slightly warm, thin oat-meal gruel well salted. The lamb will be beneiitted by a teaspoonful of castor oil, given in new milk, if the first evacuations do not pass away freely. These are apt to be very glutinous and sticky, and by adhering to the wool to close the bowel completely unless removed. Warm water should be used to soften and remove these accumulations. The anus and surrounding wool should then be smeared with pure castor oil. If the lamb is not sufficiently strong to reach the teats and suck, it should be assisted once or twice. Any locks of wool upon the ewe's udder, that may be in the way, should be clipped. If the lamb is scoured, a teaspoonful of a mixture of one pint of peppermint water and one ounce of prepared chalk should be given every three hours, until it is relieved. When the ewe refuses to own the lamb, she may be confined between two small hurdles, as shown in fig. 13. Two light stakes are driven in the ground close to- gether to confine Fig. 13. -HURDLES FOB EWE. the ewe's head and keep her from butting the lamb. If she is disposed to lie clown, as some obstinate ones will do a lio-ht pole is passed through the hurdles resting upon the lower barlbeneath her belly. Thus confined during the day, she is helpless, and if the lamb is lively, it will manage to get its supply of food. The ewe should be released at night. One day's confinement is often sufficient to bring an obstinate ewe to reason. A twin lamb, or one deprived of its dam, that may need to be reared by hand, may easily be fed upon cows' milk A fresh cow s milk is the best fitted for this purpose. Ewe's milk is richer in solid matter than that of the cow, and the addition of a tea^ spoonful of white refined sugar to the pint of cow's milk will make it more palatable to the lamb. At first not more than a 38 THE SHEPHERD'S MAOTAL, quarter of a pint of milk should be given at once. The milk should be freshly drawn from the cow, and warmed up to 100 degrees before it is fed. A convenient method of feeding milk to a lamb is to use a small tin can with a long spout, such as is used for oil. An air-hole is punched in the cover or cork and a piece of sponge covered with a cloth is tied upon the end of the spout. The flow is thus made easy and equal, and the lamb sucks in a natural man- ner. The accompanying illustration, (fig. 14), shows the method. A very short time is sufficient to familiarize the lamb with this kind of foster mother. To encourage the flow of milk in the ewe Fig. 14.— FEEDING LAMBS. and the corresponding growth of the lambs, the food of the ewes should be of the best character. Clover hay, bran, and crushed oats, with some pea-meal, are the most preferable foods, produc- ing a rich milk in abundance. The ewes must not be allowed to fall off in condition, or the lambs will fail. During mild weather sugar beets may be given in moderate quantity with advantage, but mangels or Swede turnips, (ruta-bagas), should be avoided as too watery and deficient in nutriment, and productive of scours in the lamb. In cold weather roots are apt to reduce the tempera- ture of the animal too suddenly if given in any but small quanti- ties, and consequently decrease the flow of milk. Pea straw is a favorite and nutritious food for sheeo, but it will be found profit- DOCKING AND CASTRATING LAMBS. 39 able to give only the very best at hand to nursing ewes. The after growth and condition of the lambs will greatly depend upon the maintenance of a thrifty and continuous growth during the first three months of their existence. At the age of a week the operations of docking and castrating the male lambs, may be safely performed. At this age the young animal suffers but little, there is no loss of blood, and the wounds heal by the first intention. The rough and ready method of clip- ping off the tail an inch from the rump, first drawing the skin upwards, and of clipping off the scrotum and testicles altogether with a pair of sharp sheep-shears, will be found perfectly safe if done before the lamb is two weeks old. The nerves being very slightly sensitive at this time, the painful, and when later per- formed, dangerous operation of emasculation is only slightly felt, and within an hour a lamb bereft of tail and generative organs will frequently be seen skipping playfully in the sunshine. To dock an older lamb is a more troublesome operation. To do this with facility, a block of wood about a foot high, a sharp, broad chisel, and a wooden mallet, are required. The operator stoops with bended knees, the block being in front of him, takes the lamb with its head between his knees and its tail in his left hand, hold- ing the chisel in his right hand. Backing the lamb's rump up close to the block, he lays the tail upon it, and drawing back the skin of the tail up to the rump, holds the chisel lightly upon the tail close to and below the fingers of the left hand. When all is ready he directs an assistant to strike the chisel smartly with the mallet, by which the tail is instantly severed about two inches from the root. A pinch of powdered bluestone (sulphate of copper), is placed on the wound, and the lamb is re- leased. To castrate an old lamb with safety, the scrotum should be opened by a long free incision with a sharp knife at the lower point, the animal being at the time turned upon its back and secured in that position. The scrotum should be held in the hand tightly enough to keep the skin tense. The cut should be made only through the skin and coats of the testicle, and not into the gland, by which a great deal of pain is spared to the animal. The gland will escape from the scrotum at once if the opening is made large enough. It may be taken in the left hand and the cord and vessels scraped apart, not cut, by which bleeding is prevented and healing made m ore certain and rapid. The opening being made at the bottom of the scrotum, allows the blood and any pus that forms hi the wound, to escape freely. It might probably be bene- ficial to insert a small plug of tow iu the wound, projecting out of 40 THE SHEPHEKD'S MANUAL. it a short distance to prevent the edges from healing until the in« flammation has subsided. This method of operation is a safe one, and if it is neatly done, the losses need not be one per cent, while frequently three lambs out of five may be lost by any other method. While the lambs are still with the ewes, and although the ewes may be well fed with a special view to the thriftiness of the lambs, yet a supply of additional food for the latter will be of great ad- vantage to them. To furnish a young animal with all the food that it can digest, and that of the choicest character, is to create a sturdy, thrifty, strong constitutioned animal that will be prolific in reproduction and long lived. To advance the maturity of an animal is also to lengthen its life, for it matters not at which part of its productive career we add a year, it certainly, so far as profit is concerned, lives a year longer for us. If a yearling ewe can be made to produce a healthful, strong lamb, or a lamb can be brought by care to maturity for the market at eighteen months in- stead of thirty months, this result is simply equal to a profit of 40 per cent. And feed is the agent by which this profit is secured, of course made available by proper care in selecting the breeding stock. To provide the means whereby the lambs may procure the extra feed needed for their rapid development, many contrivances have been brought into use. Generally these are modifications of the plan of providing a pen or yard adjoining that in which the ewes are kept, with " creep holes " in the fence through which the lambs can gain access to it. In this yard some feed, consisting of oats, rye, and wheat bran ground together very finely, is placed in troughs or boxes, and lightly salted. They will soon find this, and will resort to it several times a day. A very simple and conve nient " lamb creep " is figured at fig. 15, and has been illustrated and described in an English journal, the Agricultural Gazette. It is very frequently used by English farmers, and is worthy of being adopted by us. It consists of a small double gate or two half gates set at such a distance apart that the lamb can easily force itself through between them. An upright roller on each side of the opening assists the lamb in getting through the space, and prevents it from rubbing or tearing its wool. The gates are pivoted at top and bottom, so that they will open a little either way ; a wooden spring being fixed so as to keep them closed after the lamb has passed in or out. The lambs pass in or out at will. Creeps of this kind can be made so as to occupy a panel of fence or a gate- way, and of a portable character, so that they can be easily fixed to the fence-post on each side by a wire or withe, and removed WEANING LAMBS. 41 when no longer needed. But, by whatever means it maybe done, the lambs should be supplied with some additional concentrated and nutritious feed. As a gentle laxative in case of constipation, a few ounces of linseed oil-cake-meal will be found sufficient, and far better than physic. Linseed oil, (raw), or castor oil, a tea- spoonful of either at a dose, will be found safe and effective for either constipation or diarrhea, unless of a serious character. As lambs progress towards the period for weaning, the extra . 15.— LAMB CREEP. food should be gradually increased, unless they can be removed to a good pasture of short, tender grass. In this case even a small allowance at night on their return to the fold will be beneficial. The weaning should be very gradually done. The sudden remov- al of the lambs from their dams is injurious to both. It too ab- ruptly deprives the lambs of their most easily digested and most agreeable food. It forces them to load the stomach with food for which it is hardly yet prepared, and suddenly arrests their growth 42 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. both by a stinting of food and by the nervous irritation conse- quent upon their sudden deprivation. The dams in full flow of milk, thus at once deprived of the means of relief, are subjected to the engorgement of the udder, with the consequent congestion of all the organs connected therewith. This shock is very injuri- ous, and frequently produces inflammatory disorders of the blood or garget. To avoid these ill effects of the sudden change, it is well to remove the lambs to a distant pasture, along with some dry ewes or wethers for company. The novel experience of a fresh pasture will cause them to forget their dams, and they will utter no complaints nor manifest any uneasiness. At night they should be turned into the fold with the ewes, whose full udders they will speedily relieve. By withdrawing any extra feed hith- erto given to the ewes, somewhat gradually, (in no case is it wise to make a sudden change in the management of sheep), their sup- ply of milk will gradually decrease, and in two weeks the whole of the lambs may be weaned with perfect safety to themselves and the ewes. After having been weaned, the lambs should have the first choice of pasture and the best and tenderest cuttings of the fodder crops. Many farmers have found it advantageous in every way to turn newly weaned lambs into a field of corn in the month of August. The corn is too far grown to be injured, the suckers only will be nibbled by the lambs, and the weeds which grow up after the corn is laid by, will be eaten closely. The lambs also have the benefit of a cool shade, and where such a field can be conveniently applied to this purpose, there are several reasons why it might well be done. The condition of the ewes must not be neglected at this time. The chief danger is in regard to those that are heavy milkers. Such sheep should be closely watched, and the milk drawn by hand from those whose udders are not emptied by the lambs. The first approach to hardness or heat in the udder should be remedied by an immediate dose of an ounce of epsom salts dis- solved in water, and mixed with a teaspoonful of ground ginger. The next two days 20 grams of saltpeter should be given each morning and evening, to increase the action of the kidneys. These remedies will generally relieve the udder, and will tend to greatly reduce the secretion of milk. If hay is given in place of grass, and the ewe confined in a cool darkened pen, the drying up of the milk will be hastened. As the improvement of the flock can be better made from within &an by giving the sole attention to bringing new blood from SELECTION Ofl LAMB3 tfOR BREEDING. 43 without, it will be very important to select the best lambs, both of rams and ewes, for breeders. The selection should be made chiefly in reference to the purposes for which the flock is kept, and strength of constitution, rapidity of growth, size, tendency to fat ; fineness, length or quality of wool, and prolificness and cer- tainty of breeding, in the parents as well as, so far as can be judged of, in the lambs themselves, should be made the tests by which the selection is determined. If the production of early lambs for market is the object, the produce of those ewes which bring single lambs of large size and quick growth will be chosen to increase the flock ; if the production of mutton sheep, then those lambs from ewes which drop twins, and are good nurses, ought to be kept ; and if wool of any particular kind is desired,, then the selection should be made chiefly in reference to that. On no ac- count should weakly lambs, or those ewes which are poor nurses, or fail to breed, or which exhibit tenderness of constitution, or are wanderers, or of uneasy, restless dispositions, be retained ; but such unprofitable animals should be closely weeded out and fat- tened for sale or for slaughter. The choice of ram lambs is of chief importance, for the influence of the ram runs through the flock, while that of the ewe is confined to her produce alone. To select a lamb for a stock ram is a matter requiring a knowledge of the principles of breeding, and some tact and experience. The lat- ter qualifications cannot be acquired from books, but must be gained by practice ; nevertheless, much as to the selection of lambs may be learned from a caref'.il consideration of what will be found in the succeeding chapter, which is specially devoted in part to this important branch of the shepherd's knowledge. The proper age for breeding differs with the class of sheep bred. The Merino is not mature enough for breeding until fully two or three years old. Other breeds which mature more quickly are ripe for breeding as yearlings, but there is nothing gained by suf- fering any sheep less than a year old to reproduce. A young ram in its second year may be allowed to serve a few ewes, if he is vigorous and well grown. A ram at two years may serve 30 ewes in a season, and after that from 50 to 60 or 70, according to the manner in which he is kept, and if he is restricted to no more than one or two services of each ewe. The strength and vigor of the lamb certainly depends on that of the ram by which it is sired, as well as on the condition and character of the ewe. Ewe lambs of less than a year old should be kept in a separate flock by them- selves where they may not be disturbed by the rams. The secona year they are capable of breeding, and if they have been well 44 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. cared for, will produce as large lambs and as many twins as older Sheep. The young ewes having their first lambs are apt to be ner- vous, and need careful attention at yeaning time ; it is then that the great convenience resulting from having a docile and friendly flock, well acquainted with, and confiding in, their shepherd, is manifest. The young ewes should not be put to the ram until the older ones are served, so that they will not drop their lambs until the spring is well advanced, and the pressure upon the shepherd becomes lighter. As a rule they are poor nurses, and if the season is cold, will lose many lambs. If they are not allowed to have lambs until April or May, so much the better ; it will then be neces- sary to keep them from the ram until November and December. Difficulty in parturition is sometimes experienced with young ewes, and assistance is often needed. This should be given with the utmost gentleness and tenderness. When the presentation is all right and natural, and the fore feet appear, but difficulty occurs in ejecting the head, a very slight and slow drawing upon the feet may help the ewe in expelling the lamb. Sometimes in her ner- vous struggles the head may be turned backwards, and does not appear when the fore legs have protruded. In this case the lamb should be gently forced backwards, and the hand or fingers, well oiled with linseed oil, and the finger nails being closely pared, are inserted, and the head gently brought into position, when it will be expelled without further trouble. For more difficult and ab- normal presentations, the services of an experienced shepherd will be needed, but such cases are very rare, and will very seldom oc- cur if the flock has been carefully attended to, and has not been overdriven, or worried by dogs, or knocked about by horned cattle. When a ewe loses her lamb it is best to make her adopt one of another ewe's twins. This may be done by rubbing the skin of the live lamb with the dead one, removing the dead one and shut- ting up the ewe and live lamb together in a dark pen. When a lamb loses her dam, it may be given to a ewe that has lost her lamb, or from which her lamb has been taken, or with care it may be brought up by hand without difficulty. In every considerable flock it will pay to have a fresh cow on hand at the lambing sea- son, to fill the place of foster mother to disowned or abandoned lambs, or to assist those whose dams for any reason are short of milk. The question as to when a lamb becomes a sheep, although of no practical utility, has sometimes been of sufficient importance to require a decisive reply. A legal decision was given in an English court not long since, which is probably as reasonable aa PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 45 we may expect, and may be accepted as being authoritative. The question arose out of the killing of some sheep on a railroad by a passing train, and it was denied that the complaint was properly made, the animals being lambs, and not sheep. The judge decided that lambs ceased to be lambs, and became sheep as soon as they had acquired their first pair of permanent teeth. This change of teeth generally occurs when the lamb is a year old. At this period the middle pair of the first teeth drop out, and a pair of the per- manent incisors appear. At one year and nine months, two more of the first teeth are dropped and two more permanent incisors, one on each side of the former pair, appear. Nine months later, two more permanent incisors appear in a similar manner, and nine months later still, another pair are produced, so that at three years and a quarter the sheep has eight permanent incisors or nippers, and is then called a full-mouthed or perfect sheep. These periods of dentition are irregular, and in some of the early maturing breeds, the first pair of permanent teeth will appear before the end of the first year, and at 16 months, four permanent incisors may be found. The earlier maturity of the high bred and high fed races of sheep, such as the Leicester, Colswold and Shrop- shire, sometimes amounts to a gain over the common breeds of nearly a year in time, and full-mouthed sheep of no more than two years and a half old are not uncommonly met with. The diseases to which lambs are subject are but few, and those are mainly the result of carelessness in their management. The lamb, which appears so delicate and tender an animal, is really hardy, and resists much ill treatment, else with so little consider- ation as they usually receive, the race would soon become almost extinct. Damp and cold are especially to be guarded against in the spring, and filthy yards at all seasons. With clean pens and dry, clean bedding, they will resist the severe dry colds of a north- ern January, and thrive and grow while snow storms rage, if only well sheltered. Sunshine has a remarkable effect upon lambs, and the warmth of the sun will often revive and strengthen a weak lamb that appears past relief. Extremes of damp and im- pure air in close pens, and bad drinking water, will produce diar- rhea and paralysis, and these are the chiefly fatal disorders to which they are subject. Constipation is produced by want of proper laxative food, and permitting them to feed on dry, withered herbage that has lost its nutritive qualities beneath the storms of a winter. If the directions as to their treatment heretofore given, are followed, there will rarely be any need of remedial measures, and prevention will be found better than any amount of cure. It 46 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. notwithstanding all possible care, some weakly lambs are found to require treatment, the simple purgatives already mentioned in this chapter, viz : a teaspoonful of castor or raw linseed oil will be found effective, after two or three doses, in removing the trouble- some matter from their intestines, and restoring the bowels to healthful action. If in any case, a stimulant seems to be needed, as when great weakness and prostration are present, the safest is a teaspoonful of gin, given in a little warm water with sugar. A still more gentle stimulant and anodyne, but one very effective in prolonged diarrhea, is prepared by adding to a pint of peppermint water, one ounce of prepared chalk, a teaspoonful each of tinc- ture of opium and of tincture of rhubarb ; it is worthy of the name given to it by shepherds, viz : " lambs cordial," and at the lambing season no shepherd should be without a supply of it. The dose is a teaspoonful for a lamb of a few days old, up to a tablespoonful for one of a month. Exposure to cold rains should be specially guarded against, and if by inadvertence a lamb is found chilled and rigid from such exposure, it may generally be restored by means of a bath of warm water and a teaspoonful of warm sweet- ened gin and water. After the bath the lamb should be gently dried, wrapped in a warm flannel, and placed near a fire or in a wooden box in a gently heated oven of a common stove. Where the flock is large, and the kitchen is not within reach, the shepherd should have the conveniences of a shed and an old cooking-stove in which he can keep a fire sufficient to heat a water bath, and pro- vide a warm bed in the oven for any lamb that may need such attention ; if the flock numbers several hundred head in all, there will seldom be a day in our changeable spring seasons when there will not be one or more patients to be treated. The specific diseases to which lambs are subject will be found treated of at large in Chapter VII. As the season progresses, and shearing time for the ewes has passed, the lambs will be found covered with ticks, unless care has been exercised to free the flock from this tormenting pest. These ticks are wingless, broad, plump, dark red insects, about a quarter of an inch in length, and covered with a very tough and leathery integument. They are known scientifically as MelopJiagus ovinus, and produce a puparium which is nearly round in shape, red in color, and as large as a radish seed or duck shot. The legs of the tick are short and stout, and it adheres with great tenacity to the wool. By means of a proboscis as long as its head, it pierces the skin and sucks the blood of its victim to such an excess that when numerous, they have been known to almost entirely empty the REMEDY FOR TICKS. 47 reins and deprive a lamb of life. The draft upon the vitality of lambs infested with ticks is very great, and sufficient to arrest their growth altogether. To rid the flock of these pests is therefore a necessary labor hi the spring or early summer, and if need be, again in the autumn. The easiest remedy is to dip both sheep and lambs, as soon as the sheep are shorn, and again in August or September, in a decoction of tobacco mixed with sulphur. Coarse plug tobacco, or tobacco stems, which are cheaper than the leaves, and equally effective, are steeped in water at a boiling heat, but not boiling, at the rate of four pounds to twenty gallons of water. Fig. 16. — DIPPING SHEEP. One pound of flowers of sulphur is then stirred in the liquid, which is brought to a temperature of 120 degrees, and kept so during the dipping by the addition of fresh hot liquor. During the dipping, the mixture is kept stirred to prevent the sulphur from subsiding. The dip may be conveniently placed in a trough or a tub large enough to allow of the immersion of the sheep or the lamb, which is taken by the feet by two men and plunged into the bath at the temperature mentioned, where it is held for a minute or two until the wool is thoroughly saturated. The animal is then placed in a pen with a raised floor sloping on each side to a trough in the middle, along which the superabundant liquor escapes into a pail or tub placed to receive it. The method of dipping, (shown at 48 THE SHEPHEKD^S MANUAL. figures 16 and 17), is calculated for small flocks, or for a few nun ared lambs. For larger flocks, a larger tank is provided, 12 feet long, three feet wide, and lour feet deep. A fenced platform leads from a pen in which the sheep are gathered, up to the edge of the dipping tank, and the sheep are taken one by one from the pen, led up the platform, and pushed into the tank in which the dip is sufficiently deep to cover them. As the sheep plunge into the dip, they are seized, and kept beneath it, except the head, which alone is suffered to emerge above it. If hi their struggles a little of the dip should enter their nostrils, no harm results, but the hot tobacco water is, on the contrary, often beneficial to those sheep which are affected by catarrh or grub in the head, and the violent sneezings which follow may help to free them from these trouble- some parasites which often inhabit the nasal sinuses. The sheep are rapidly passed from hand to hand along the tank un- til they reach the «nd, where there is a sloping plank upon which they can walk up to another platform. Here they are al- lowed to remain while the excess of dip is squeezed from their wool. IT.-TROUGH FOR DIPPING LAMBS. From this the liquid drains into tubs, and is carried to the boiler to be re- heated, and then returned to the tank for use again. The cost of dipping a large flock, numbering several thousands, in this man- ner twice in the season is five cents a head, and the improvement in the quality of the wool, which results from the cleansing of the skin from dust, grease, and the accumulated refuse of its secre- tions, and its increase in quantity consequent upon the greater comfort of the sheep and their escape from the persecution of ticks and other parasites, is estimated at 20 cents per head, so that the cost is repaid more than three-fold. The comforting knowl- edge to the humane shepherd that his flock is freed from a most annoying torment, is also something, which, although it does not enter into a pecuniary calculation, and is not measured by dollars and cents, yet is not on that account unworthyof consideration. WINTER MANAGEMENT. 49 There is no greater satisfaction to the owner of a £ock, who cares for his sheep, and takes pleasure in their welfare, and in a measure loves the gentle kindly animals, and is interested in managing them so that they may enjoy all the comfort possible for them, than to know that, so far as any efforts of his are concerned, nothing is left undone that can add to their contentment, and that they are spared every discomfort and pain that it is possible to prevent.- CHAPTER IV. WINTER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. The change from green, succulent food, to that of a dry and concentrated character, is one that needs to be cautiously made. As the summer departs and the fall rains occur, succeeded in their turn by the more rigorous storms of winter, conditions arise which call for a complete change of management on the part of the shep- herd who looks for profit from his flock. It may be a question with some if quality of feed or shelter is the more important con- sideration in the best management of sheep. Certainly abun- dant experience has shown that with the most careful and judicious feeding, sheep, which when well tended are in reality hardier than are generally supposed, have passed safely and thriftily through a winter's storms with no more shelter than that afforded by an open shed; and that they have of their own free will refused the shelter, and have chosen to rest upon the bare snow, at times when the air has been dry and clear. But no case has as yet ever occurred in the experience of any shepherd in which sheep have thrived without well selected, proper, and abundant food, and cases are always occurring in which sheep are greatly injured by excessive carefulness in this matter of shelter. To feed well and judiciously, may therefore be regarded as the first duty and interest of the shepherd ; and to shelter the flock only so far as to maintain it in healthful con- dition, avoiding exposure to unusual rigors of heat or storm, will be not exactly a second duty, but one that attaches to this first interest as being intimately associated with it rather than separated from it. Nevertheless, as before a flock can b,e fed, it fc 3 50 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. necessary to have a store of food and a feeding prlace, it may be well to consider first the subjects of shelters or barns, feed racks, and facilities for watering. The first requisites for the comfort of sheep in their winter lodging are a dry clean floor, a tight roof, and abundant ventila- tion. The site of a sheep-house should therefore be well drained, and of such a character that it can be kept clean and free from 11th. It shoruld, if possible, be on high ground which slopes each Aray from it, but at any rate it should slope to the south or south- east. The house should be well roofed and provided with rain troughs and spouts to carry the water away from the yard into either a covered drain or a cistern. It should be open at the front, protected only by a projecting roof, and the walls, if of boards, need not be battened over the joints, as the air which will enter Fig. 18.— SHEEP BARN. through these cracks will be no more than will be needed to keep that within fresh and pure. Some more carefully protected shelter must be provided for the use of yeaning ewes and young lambs, in a part of the house or in another building, but until the appear- ance of the lambs is looked for, this warmer shelter will not be .needed. The loft over the lower apartment will be used for stor- ing hay or other fodder, and space for this purpose may be econ- omized by having the upper floor only so far above the ground floor as will allow the shepherd a comfortable passage beneath it. A building which is well arranged and convenient is shown in figures 18, 19, 20, and 21. The following description with the illustrations are taken from the American Agriculturist. It con- sists of a barn, shown at fig. 18, about 20 feet wide, 10 feet high BARNS AND SHEDS. 51 from basement to eaves, and as long as desirable. This is intended to store the hay or fodder. The posts, sills, and plates are all 8 inches square, the girts and braces are 4 inches square, the beams 2 x 10, are placed 16 inches apart, and are cross-bridged with strips, 3 inches wide. The hay is piled inside, so that the feed passage below, over which there are trap- doors, is left uncov- ered. The hay is thrown down through these doors, and falls upon a sloping shelf, which carries it into the feed racks below, (see fig. 19). The basement under the barn is 8 feet high, and is of stone on three sides ; the front is supported by posts 8 inches square, and 8 feet apart. Between each pair of posts a door is hung upon pins, (fig. 20), which fit into grooves in the posts, so that the door may be raised and Fig. IO.-SECTION OF BUILDING. fastened, hi such a manner, as to close the upper half of the space between the posts ; or be .held suspended half way, leaving the whole open; or be shut down and close the lower half; or be removed altogether. By this contrivance at least half the front of the basement must be left open, whether the sheep be shut in or out. The floor of the basement should be slightly sloping from rear to front, so that it will always be dry. Fig. 21 shows the plan of the basement. The feed- Fig. 30. — HANGING BOOK FOR BARN. passage is shown at c\ the stairway to the root-cellar at b, and the root-cellar at a. Fig. 19 gives a section of the whole barn. The hay-loft is above, and the passage-way and the doors, by which the hay is thrown down to the feed-racks below ; as well as the sloping Shelf by which the hay is carried into the feetf-racfcs are shown. THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. Below the feed-rack is the feed-trough for roots or meal. A door shuts off this trough from the sheep at the front, while the feed is being prepared, and when it is ready, the door is raised, and held up to the feed-rack by a strap or a hook. The feed-rack is closely llliiliiaMiiill Fig. 21. — GROUND PLAN OF BARN. boarded behind, and this back part, which is in the feed-passage, slopes forward to the front, so as to carry the hay forward to the bottom. The front of the rack is of upright slats, smoothly dressed, two inches wide, and placed three inches apart. The boards of the feed-trough are smoothly dressed and sand-papered, and all the edges are rounded, so that there is nothing by which the wool may be torn or rubbed off from the sheep's necks. It •will be seen by this arrangement, that there is no dangerous thing Fig. 22.— SHEEP SHED FOR A SMALL FARM. by which a sheep or a lamb might be hurt, nor a place where it can get into mischief. The root-cellar is at the rear of the base- ment, and is reached by the stairs already mentioned. The cost of the barn here described, if built of pine or hemlock lumber, in BARNS AND SHEDS. TEE SHEPHERD'S a plain manner, and of sufficient size to accommodate 100 sheep, would be from $300 to $500. Another sheep-house suitable for small farms, that is designed for small flocks, is shown at figure 22. It is altogether open in the front on the ground floor, and is intended to face to the south. This is a very cheap and convenient shed for a small flock ; it has an enclosed yard attached to it. A shelter in- tended for a large flock is shown at figure 23. This building was erected by Mr. George Grant, of Victoria, Kansas, for his flock of 7,000 sheep. The walls are of stone, and the roof of boards. The main structure is 570 feet in length, and the three wings are each of ecjual length. The width of each of the sheds is 24 feet, and the hight of the walls 10 feet. At one cor- ner of the " cor- Fig. 21— MR. SHAW'S SHEEP SHED. ral," which is the name given on the western plains to such sheds as this and other enclosures, is the shepherd's house, in which he resides, and is at all times near his flock, and able to render imme- diate attention. A shed of this character is rather costly in its construction, and a small capitalist would find it beyond the limit BARKS AKB SHEDS. 55 d of his resources. One of a cheaper construction and less perma- nent character, but nevertheless of equal value for shelter so long as it lasts, is shown in figure 24. This shed was built by Mr. Shaw, of Syracuse, Kansas, and was found to answer every pur- pose. It is made of posts set in the ground, which support a single sloping roof that is thatched with coarse hay from the river bot- toms adjacent to his location. The enclosure contains a windmill, watering trough, stack-yard, and feed-racks, and is intended to accommodate a flock of 200 to 300 sheep- The length of the en- closure is 200 feet, and the width 100 feet, making in all 600 feet of shed. Figure 25 represents the sheep-fold of Mr. Henry Nason, of Orange C. H., Virginia, in which his flock of 300 ewes is sheltered from the weather as well as from dogs and thieves by night. This flock is kept mainly for the pro- duction of early lambs for market. Especial attention is given to the com- fort and care of A f OF MB. NASON'S SHED. the ewes and the lambs, and warm separate pens are provided for them when they require them. The yard, «, is 100 feet square, divided by a hurdle fence, shown by the dotted lines, into as many portions as may be desired. The entrance is at b, where there is a gate hung upon a post, c, in such a way as to open or close each, half of the yard. The yard is enclosed on three sides by a shed 10 feet high, with a roof sloping both ways. The ground floor, 7 feet high, is appropriated for sheep pens, and the three feet above for a hay loft. TJC shed is 12 feet wide, and has a row of separate pens 6 feet wide, upon the north side. On the other sides there are narrow doors for the sheep, seen at to Starch. Fat-formers. Cora... 63.8 5.0 or 12.0 75.8 Cotton-seed-meal 17.5 16. or 38.4 55.9 If the quantities of flesh-forming elements of each are added to the above totals, ft will be seen that cotton-seed-cake having four times as much flesh- formers as corn, is the cheaper food of the two. Again, whole flax-seed contains 55 per cent of fat-form- ing elements, but as 37 per cent of these consists of oil, which is equivalent to 88.8 per cent of starch, the total fat-forming power of flax-seed is therefore equal relatively to 106.8 per cent in pure starch. Cotton-seed free from the husk, and flax-seed, are there- fore the most nutritive articles of feed for fattening. It is worth while here to call attention to the high value of the peanut after the oil is expressed, as food for stock animals we possess. As a' substitute for oil-cake-meal where it cannot be procured conve- niently, the following mixture has been suggested, viz : Ground Linseed 40 Ibs. Wheat Bran 60 " Flour ol Bone. 4 " —104 Ibs. The constituents of which per 100 Ibs. are : Flesh-formers, (albumen) 27 Ibs. Fat-formers, (fat 11 pei cent) 51 " Ash or Saline Matter 7 " Water 15 " —100 Ibs. This makes a most valuable combination of feeding substances for a young growing animal, or a ewe giving milk. The greater nu- tritive value of fat is explained by physiologists from the fact that it is directly digested and assimilated, and enters into the circula- tion and nutrition of the animal without change, except a very fine mechanical division of its particles. On the other hand, starch and sugar undergo a series of chemical transformations in the course of which much of their volume and effect are expended. In choosing a variety of food then, for a special object, as for instance the feeding of a young growing animal ; or the fattening pf a mature animal and the sustenance of a sheep that produces a 66 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. fleece rich in oil or yolk, as that of a pure-bred Merino, those foods which would furnish abundant flesh should be chosen for the one, and those rich in starch and oil for the others. By thus choosing judiciously and skillfully, there is an economy in the cost of the food, and the object sought is gained at the least expense. Much may be gained by varying or mixing the food of an ani- mal so as to stimulate the appetite ; for a healthy animal will in- crease in weight in proportion to the food consumed so long as di- gestion and assimilation are perfect. If a sheep only eat 3 Ibs. of hay per day, but will eat and digest in addition 6 Ibs. of sliced turnips or beets, with a pound of bran sprinkled upon them, a manifest advantage is gained. If changing the hay for straw, 10 Ibs. of turnips and 1 Ib. of bran or oil-cake-meal can be consumed, the money value of the food ma}r be reduced, and the sheep be equally well fed. In estimating the amount of a sheep's food, it is necessary to take into consideration the age and condition of the animal. Whether it be in a growing state or in a state of maturity, its weight, and also the drain upon its vitality, as in the case of a ram serving a number of ewes daily ; or a ewe in lamb, or suckling a lamb or a pair of them. On this account it is absolutely necessary to grade the flock and provide different quarters for those which need special feeding or care. As a guide for the estimation of a proper quantity of food, and for a judicious selection of the kinds which may be fed, it will be useful to consider the following instances. In an experiment recently made by Dr. Voelcker, the chemist of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, four sheep were fed for seven weeks upon 196 Ibs. of clover hay, 49 Ibs. of linseed-cake-meal, and 3,743 Ibs. of mangels ; equal to a daily ra- tion for each of 1 Ib. of clover hay, 4 ounces of linseed-cake-meal, and 19| Ibs. of mangels. The nutritive elements contained in this daily ration were equiva- lent to 4i ounces of flesh formers, 53£ ounces of fat formers, and 4f ounces of mineral matter. Upon this mixed diet the sheep thrived and gained weight as follows : Gain in weight. 17V4 Ibs. IT*/* " 17 " 20 " No 1 Weight at commencement 153 Ibs. Weight at end of 7 weeks. No 2 134 " 151 v! " ' No. 3....^.. No. 4 , 170 " 135 « 187 " 155 " EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 6? The gain on the average was equal to one pound in three days ; or an increase in weight of one pound for every 56 Ibs. of food fed ; or for every 62 ounces of dry matter contained in the food. This is a very good instance of a typical fattening food for an or- dinary sheep of this size. The results of a large number of exper- iments made in feeding roots to sheep, go to show that 150 Ibs. of ruta-bagas, or mangels, fed in open yards, or 100 Ibs. fed in yards with sheds for protection, may be expected to produce one pound of increase in live weight. When 1£ Ibs. of a mixed feed of oil- cake and peas were given daily, along with 18£ Ibs. of ruta-bagas, fed under shelter, the gain was equal to 2 Ibs. for every 100 Ibs. of roots, and 4£ Ibs. of mixed peas and oil-cake ; showing that 4£ Ibs. of peas and oil-cake produced an increase of one pound in the live weight. A number of experiments in feeding clover hay with linseecl-oil-cake-meal, have established the fact that, allowing 6 Ibs. of oil-cake-meal for one pound of increased live weight, it required 11 to 13 Ibs. of hay to make an equal gain. In feeding peas and beans with roots and hay, 8 Ibs. of the mixed grain was found to produce an increase in weight of one pound. When oats were fed with the roots, there was one pound of increased weight for 7 Ibs. of the grain. When barley was substituted, 6 Ibs. of the grain produced a gain of one pound. These interesting experiments are recorded in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, Vol. I, p. 169; Vol. VII, p. 295; Vol. VIII, pp. 27, 28, and 256; Vol. X, p. 358, and the Highland Society's Transactions ; and are sub- stantiated by experiments made by Messrs. Liwes anl Gilbert, of Rothanistoad, in which they found that 272J- Ibs. oil-cake, 252| Ibs. clover hay, and 3,753 Ibs. ruta-bagas, fed together, produced 100 Ibs. of increase. Thes3 results must of course be accepted as subject to variations in the quality of the various feeds, the kind and condition of the sheep, the state of comfort and repose in which they are kept, and the care and attention given to them. But making every allowance for contingencies, it may be safe to estimate from these results, that the relative quantities of the differ- ent feeds required to produce one pound of flesh, are as follows Ruta-bagas fed in open yards 150 Ibs Ruta-bagas fed under cover , . ".' \QQ u ' Good clover hay !..'!!! * 12 " Beans or peas ' «« Oats .'..\.'.'.'!.' ' ?« Barley [ ] ' ] ' g « Lin seed-oil-cake-meal »..*'! 6 " Linseed-oil-cake-rneal, and peas mixed .I..!!*'!!.*!!! 41" The last quantity mentioned, curiously enough corroborates tht 68 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. personal experience of many shepherds, and the remark heretofore made to the effect that much is often gained by varying or mixing the diet of sheep. In this instance the same effect is gained by the nse of three-fourths the quantity of the mixed feed, as by the whole quantity when given separately. The actual money cost of the feed may thus be estimated nearly enough for all practical purposes. In estimating the values of the kinds of food more commonly used in the United States and Canada, there are but few really trustworthy data to depend upon, as the careful experi- mental feeding of animals for scientific information, has rarely been attempted. We have nevertheless amongst the current agri- cultural literature of the day, many recorded results contributed by careful and eminently capable and trustworthy men. From amongst these the following have been selected as being practical and to the purpose. In an article communicated to the Country Gentleman, by the Hon. George Geddes, of Fairmount, N. Y., hi May, 1875, are given, the cost of feeding, and the gain in weight of 290 sheep fed by Mr. O. M. Watkins, of Onondaga County, during the previous winter, and particularly the cost, etc., during the month of January. The flock consisted of 100 grades, being half Merino and half Cotswold ; another 100 that were Merinos, and 90 were called full-blooded Cotswolds, (probably high grades). All these sheep were fed alike, each having one pound of corn daily — half of it fed early in the morning, the other half at sunset. Straw and chaff were fed during the day, and one feeding of hay at night. The corn was worth 80 cents for 60 pounds, the hay $10 a ton. The quantity of hay fed was reported as equal to 1.3 pounds to each sheep per day — making 40 pounds for the month, worth 20 cents. The corn for the same time was worth 41 cents, making the cost of corn and hay for each sheep for the month, 61 cents. The 100 Merino and Cotswold grades increased from 117i Ibs. each to 128J pounds, this being a gain for each sheep of 10$ pounds, and making the cost of each pound 5.67 cents. The 100 Merinos weighed Jan. 1, 94J pounds each, and Feb. 1, lOli pounds- gaining 7i pounds each, at a cost of 8.4 cents. The 100 so-called full-blooded Cots wolds weighed 118 pounds each Jan. 1, and Feb. 1, 123J— gaming only 5£ pounds each, at a cost of 11.6 cents per pound. Upon these facts, Mr. Geddes comments as follows : " The manure made during the time by these sheep, I consider worth more than the manure that would have been made by the same number of pounds of beef cattle. Thirty-two steers, each weighing 1,000 pounds, Would almost exactly equal the total number of pounds of these PROFIT IK FEEDIKG. 69 three flocks of sheep when they were weighed in the yards on the 1st day of January. All the labor involved in feeding and taking care of the sheep, would not equal that of cleaning the stables for the steers. Mr. Watkins purchased the 290 sheep well, and sold them well, and he reports his winter's doings with them as follows : Cost of 390 sheep, (nearly 4c. per lb.), $1,260 61 do. 435 bushels of corn, at 80c 34800 do. 13 tons of hay, $10 13000 $1,73861 Feb. 38th, sold 270 at $8 each 2 160 00 do. do. 18 culls, $4 each 72 00 Two sheep got cast ; sold pelts for $2 each. 4 00 "This pays over $1.71 for the trouble of buying and selling and risk on each sheep, if we call the manure pay for the labor of caring for the sheep. The price of hay is here very low this season, but corn is very high. Straw and chaff we consider as of but little value for manure, unless worked over by the feet of some animal, and used as an absorbent for their manure. For this reason we credit the sheep with the work of converting a large quantity of straw and chaff into available food for plants. " I do not give Mr. Watkins' experience as an average, for it is far better than any average that he can make for a series of years. Nor do I think it is by any means conclusive as between the breeds of sheep that he fed. The grade Merino and Cotswold I sold him the 21st day of last December. They were all ewes, 2 and 3 years old, and were a very even, and in all respects a desira- ble lot. The other flocks I did not see, but I suppose, from in- formation, that they were not so even or desirable ; and sheep here usually called full-blooded Cotswolds, come from Canada or the border, and are not very good, perhaps they are mostly the culls of the flocks they came from. After all reasonable allowances have been made, the lesson of this winter's work of Mr. Watkins is certainly that sheep are much more profitable makers of meat than steers, such as can be bought in Buffalo in the fall of the year, and they are still better manufacturers of straw and other coarse forage into manure." Both the facts here given, and the relator's comments, are very valuable. From the statement as to feed and gain in weight, the following deductions as to the value of the corn fed for producing increase of weight, may be made. Taking the three flocks, we have the following results for each, accepting the feeding value of hay as previously given, as a basis for a portion of the increase: 70 THE SHEPHERD'S MAKTTAL. GRADE MERINO AND COTSWOLD, AVERAGE GAIN, lOf LBS. Feed consumed. Gain in weight. Ibs. of feed for 1 76. of gain, 40 Ibs. of hay. 3'/4 Ibs. 12 Ibs. 30 Ibs. of corn. 7'/3 Ibs. 4 Ibs. MERINOS, AVERAGE GAIN, 7:/4 LBS. Feed consumed. Gain in weight. Ibs. of feed for 1 Ib. of gain. 40 Ibs. hay. 8»/4 Ibs. 12 Ibs. 30 Ibs. corn. 4 Ibs. T'/a Ibs. COTSWOLDS, AVERAGE GAIN, 5»/4 LBS. /feetf consumed. Gain in weight. Ibs. of feed for 1 Ib. of gain. 40 Ibs. hay. 3»/4 Ibs. 12 Ibs. 30 Ibs. corn. 2 Ibs. 15 Ibs. These different flocks were evidently uneven in quality, and as Mr. Geddes, who sold the first flock to Mr. Watkins, is an excellent and experienced farmer and stock feeder, it may easily be sup- posed that the sheep were in excellent condition and well pre- pared for fattening. The productive value of corn, in the case of this flock, may well be considered as exaggerated, as in the other instances it would be diminished by reason of the poorer quality of the sheep. A mean may therefore be taken, and the gain result- ing from feeding the corn estimated as between the two gains of 4 and 7£, thus giving an average of about 6 Ibs., and bringing corn to an equality of value with barley or linseed cake, if not showing it to be superior to either. If the result of feeding the first flock be taken as the basis for the estimate, it would certainly show corn to be a feed of the highest value for fattening sheep ; but one result can hardly serve as a basis upon which to found such a rule. Mr. R. J. Swan, of Geneva, .N". Y., in a communica- tion in the Third Vol. of Rural Affairs, stated his plan of winter feeding ; he gives to each hundred fattening sheep, two bushels, (126 Ibs.), of corn, or the same quantity of oil-cake-meal per day, with wheat straw in racks three times a day, up to the 1st day of March ; afterwards feeding hay instead of straw, and reducing the corn or oil-cake-meal one-half. The lambs are fed hay three times a day, with three pecks of oil-cake-meal, or corn-meal, per 100. It is to be presumed that hay is fed ad libitum, although this account would have been more satisfactory had the quantity fed been stated. In a prize essay by Mr. Jurian Winne, of Albany County, N. Y., the following hints for the winter feeding of sheep are given : " By feeding liberally with roots, and not too much grain, during the first week at least, the change from green feed to dry will be less apt to affect the sheep. In feeding, unless a person can do it himself, which is very seldom the case, tbe feeder should METHOD OF WINTER FEEDING. 71 be instructed with great care, how much grain is to go to each yard or stable according to the animals it contains. An over-feed at the commencement is almost sure to bring on the scours, and after the sheep are over it, it will take at least two weeks' good feeding to put them where they started from. My mode, to avoid mistakes, is to number my yards and stables, and count the sheep in each yard and stable— allowing to each sheep one-half pint of grain per day to start with, unless they have been fed grain pre- viously, when I allow a little more. I then make out a schedule thus : No. 1 — 60 sheep at one-half pint per day is 15 quarts, which divided into two feeds, is 7$- quarts to a feed ; so I write on the schedule, ' No. 1 — 60 sheep must have Tfc quarts at a feed morning and night,' — No. 2 at the same rate according to number, and so on until I get them all. This paper is tacked up in the place where the feed is kept, and by going with the feeder a few times to show him and see that he makes no mistakes, if he is a good man he can do it as well as the farmer himself. As soon as the feed is to be increased, a new schedule is made out accordingly, and so on, until the sheep are fed one quart each per day, when I consider them on full feed, especially if the feed is corn, beans, or oil-meal, or a mixture of either. If oats or buckwheat compose part of their feed, they should have a little more. Regularity of hours is very important. Sheep should not be fed one morning at five o'clock, the next at six, and the third at seven. Our rule is this : Grain and oil-meal are fed at half-past five A.M. As soon as the grain is finished, hay is given — no more than the sheep will eat clean. The different yards and stables are carefully fed each day in the same order, which is important to avoid confusion and mistakes — beginning with No. 1, and so on through the list. After breakfast, water is given, going around twice to see that all are well supplied. The roots are next cut, (ruta-bagas, which I consider best), and of these to my present stock of about 350 sheep, I am now feeding 10 bushels a day. At eleven o'clock straw is fed. Twelve is the dinner hour, and immediately after dinner the roots are fed. The troughs and tubs are now all examined, and replenished with water if necessary — also salt, salt and ashes, browse, litter, and anything else that may be needed, is supplied. The evening and next morning's feeds of grain and oil-meal are next prepared, and hay got ready for both night and morning. At 4 P.M. feeding the grain is again commenced, followed as before by hay, after which the water tubs and troughs are emptied and turned over, and the work ic finished for the night." The value of roots tor winter feeding is very inadequately esti« 72 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. mated in the United States, but it may be well questioned if a flock of sheep can be profitably or successfully kept without them. A certain portion of water must be taken with the food every day. The more intimately this is mixed with the food, the better for the digestive process. In feeding 12 Ibs. of roots to a sheep 80 to 90 per cent, or 4^ to 5 qts. of water are given in them. By the pro- cess of mastication the water is intimately mixed with the solid matter, and a semi-liquid pulp is formed exactly fitted for the ru- minative and digestive processes of the stomach. By cutting or pulping the roots, and sprinkling or mixing the ration of meal, bran, or grain, upon or with them, the whole food reaches the stomach in the most appropriate condition possible. Digestion proceeds uniformly, the stomach does not need to be supplied with a large quantity of water at any time, and its sol vent juices are not diluted and weakened. The bowels act regularly, and constipation, one of the most troublesome disorders of the flock when on dry food, is avoided and prevented. But the daily ration of roots must be apportioned with care and judgment. For lambs 5 to 6 Ibs. daily will be sufficient ; for two-year-olds and mature sheep, 10 to 15 Ibs. will be an ample allowance ; the smaller quan- tity being enough for a Southdown, and the larger for a full grown Cotswold, Leicester, or Lincoln. For a Merino a much less quantity should be apportioned, as this breed cannot produce a fleece of good quality, or great weight, without being supplied with enough oily matter to secrete the large amount of yolk which their fleece contains. Of all the roots usually grown, the sugar-beet is the best for sheep, being the most palatable, and containing the greatest pro- portion of solid nutritious matter. For every 100 sheep to be fed with roots at the rate of ten pounds per head per day, during the feeding season of 5 months, about 4 acres devoted to this crop will be required, yielding about 18 tons, or 550 to 600 bushels per acre. This is a small estimate, and only half the yield of a good or a possible crop, but is near that of our average crops. The amount of food necessary to keep a sheep in good thrifty condition has been determined to be 15 pounds of actually dry substance per week for each 100 Ibs. of live weight. As grain and hay contain about 14 per cent of water, this allowance will be equal to about 18 Ibs. of hay or grain, or nearly 3 Ibs. per day. But as for the perfect digestion of the food, a certain bulk is requisite, the mixed daily ration should be composed of such proportions of bulky and concentrated food, that 7 to 9 pounds are required to produce an increase of one pound in live weight. From the data previously RAISIKG LAMBS FOR MARKET. 7 given, it will not be difficult for the intelligent reader and shepherd to arrive at a correct judgment, and conform his plan of feeding to the peculiar circumstances of his flock, and with a view to the greatest profit. EARLY MARKET LAMBS. There are some special objects in the winter feeding of sheep which require particular methods of management to ensure suc- cess. In regard to feeding store sheep, and when the chief object is the increase of the flock, and the healthful growth of the fleece, nothing need be said beyond what has been given in the preced- ing pages. But special management is needed for the production of early market lambs, and for the fattening of sheep purchased to ensure profit both in money and manure ; in regard to these cases some special explanation may be pertinent. The production of market lambs, if rightly managed, may be made very profitable. This business may be followed on a suitable farm anywhere within 150 miles of a good market. The markets for lambs are found chiefly in the large cities, Washington, New York, Boston, Phila- delphia, Baltimore, and Albany being the chief eastern markets, and St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Chicago, the chief western ones. Some few of the southern cities offer good markets for lambs early in the spring. April, May, and June are the months when the prices are the most remunerative ; after June the prices per pound for lambs are but little more than those for sheep. In April and May, a lamb weighing 40 pounds will often sell for $10. Those farmers who make the raising of early lambs a special business, follow one of two methods. In one case they keep a permanent flock of ewes, selected for their good character as nurses and milkers, quiet in disposition, docile, and easily managed, and ready to act as foster mothers to other lambs whose mothers have been sent away. The other plan is to purchase, late in the sum- mer, a flock of ewes, as well selected as may be, from which to raise a crop of spring lambs ; the ewes are then shorn, and after- wards fattened and sent to market before the year is complete. Which of these two methods would be the best to adopt depends upon circumstances. The first plan needs for its successful opera- tion a farm suitable for pasturing sheep, or which has at least sufficient suitable summer pasture for the flock. For the second plan little or no pasture is required ; a rough field in which the ewes may run while being fed for market, or a run upon the clover sod to be plowed for corn in May, being all that is required. A 74 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. stock of ruta-bagas, which keep in excellent condition until June, if needed so long, is provided as a substitute for grass while the ewes are being fattened. This latter plan is well suited as an additional industry upon grain or dairy farms, in which some additional capital may be turned over with a prospect of its being returned in less than a year with a gain of 100 per cent in money, besides a valuable addition to the manure heap. The selection of ewes and a ram from which to raise market lambs, is the chief point for consideration, the wool being a sec- ondary object. The form of the sheep and their temperament are the first points to be regarded in their selection ; but if the flock is to be kept permanently, it is best to procure sheep which will yield a good fleece as well as a good lamb, as this will add to the profit. Single lambs of good size, are more profitable than twins, which will generally be of smaller growth. It matters little about the breed, as this is not a point with the marketmen, although a black-faced Southdown is most in favor with them, because of its usual plumpness and fatness. A lamb from a grade Merino ewe, and a Soutndown or Shropshire ram, is fat at any age, and is soon ripe for market, and will sell better than a larger lamb that is more bony and less plump. A cross from a grade Merino ewe and a Cotswold ram, is the next best lamb, if not altogether as good a one. A large bodied, short-legged, broad backed, native ewe, with some Merino and Southdown blood in her composition, is, perhaps, all things considered, the best sheep that can be chosen for a dam. A pure bred Southdown, Shropshire, or Cotswold ram, makes the best sire, the preference to be given in the order in which they are here named. Ewes that produce twins should be weeded out of the flock, and those which bring a large lamb, and have plenty of milk, and are gentle ana kind to their lambs, should be kept as long as they will breed. Ewes have been kept until 13 years old that have yearly brought and raised a lamb to maturity for market, without missing a season, or losing a lamb. One ewe of this kind may be made to pay the interest on $100 each year, and it would be well to raise the ewe lambs of such choice dams to replenish the flock. Some ewes will raise twins, and by skill- ful management, a ewe whose lamb has been sold may be made to foster another lamb, or at least be forced to help feed it. If the ewe shows any reluctance to adopt the strange lamb, she should be confined in a small pen, at stated times, and the hungry lamb turned in to her. The lamb will generally succeed in getting all the milk from her. If she is more than usually reluctant, she should be held while the lamb sucks, or be confined i» stanchions CHOOSING THE EWES. ?5 (tas described in a previous chapter), for a time, until she becomes reconciled. The ewes thus made to serve as foster mothers will, after two or three seasons, accept the situation, and readily adopt the second lamb. In some flocks a lamb has occasionally sucked three ewes, and in some cases, some enterprising lambs will forage around and get a meal from any ewe that will permit it to suck. It will be necessary to curb the enterprise of such lambs occasion- ally, lest they rob the others. When a flock of ewes is purchased each year, in August or early in September, they must necessarily be picked up in the most convenient manner, either from passing droves, or some well known drover may be engaged to procure them. Fairly good ewes may generally be procured by either of these methods for about $3 per head. In selecting ewes from a drove, care should be taken to examine the teeth to ascertain their age, and none less than tliree or four years old, or wrhat are called "full mouthed" ewes, should be chosen. The ram should be chosen in this case as in the previous one. Whatever breed may be selected, compactness of form and vigor should be looked for, rather than size ; a moderate sized ram, with a large roomy ewe, w;ill produce a better lamb than a pair of the opposite characters. High condition in the ram is not desirable ; a merely fair condition is more conducive to certainty in getting lambs; nor in this busi- ness is it best to confine the ram ; the exercise with the flock being better for the animal's health than confinement. If the flock is too large for the one ram, it should be divided and separated, or two rams used, each being shut up on alternate days ; no more than 50 ewes can be served by one ram in the time during which the service is required — or at most 40 to 60 days — for this is the time during which the season for selling lambs continues. The ram should not be less than three years of age. As ewes go five months, or about 150 days with young, thoso ewes that are served in the latter part of August will have lambs in January, and these lambs, •without any forcing, can be rnnde marketable in April. All of the lambs should be dropped before the middle of March, and it will be found advisable and convenient to so apportion the ewes to be served, that the dropping of the lambs may be spread over the whole of this period as regularly as poss'ble. The presence of dogs about a flock of this character should not be permitted. They are not only entirely useless, but are really an annoyance and an injury. After the lamb is a few days old, if thought necessary, it may be taught to suck some warmed, sweetened cow's milk, and any help to its growth, in the shape of extra food, will be useful. There is danger, however, of over-feeding a young lamb, which 76 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. may be worse than under-feeding it, and caution is to be exercised in this respect; no more should be attempted than to encourage a healthy, thrifty growth. After the lamb is four weeks old, it may be taught to lick some fine bran, with a little salt mixed with it, or a little sifted oatmeal. As a rule, it will be safer to depend on increasing and enriching the ewe's milk, rather than to force the lamb to swallow food which its stomach is not as yet able to com- pletely digest. It is highly important to prevent the lambs from being annoyed and depleted of their blood by ticks or other vermin. To this end the ewes should be dipped in the fall to rid them of ticks, and if a few should appear in the spring upon the lambs, they should be freed from the insect pests by careful hand-picking, Fig. 38. — PACKING BOX FOB LAMBS. repeated if necessary. In case the ticks should be too numerous for hand-picking, the lambs may be dipped. This will be abso- lutely necessary if they are to be kept until after the ewes are shorn, as then the ticks will leave the ewes on which they are unsheltered, and seek refuge hi the closer fleeces of the lambs. When this happens, the growth of the lambs is suddenly stopped, and it is often the case that some of them are tormented until they finally die. The marketing of the lambs is one of the most important parts of the business so far as profits are concerned. As has been said, the early lambs bring the highest prices, but it may be that the later lambs will be found the most profitable, as being less costly and troublesome to rear. When the proper market has been found, PROFIT IN RAISING LAMBS. 77 and a trustworthy commission agent to whom they can be sent for sale has been selected, the method of packing for shipment should be well considered. A roomy box, in which the lamb can stand or lie, but cannot turn round, should be procured for each lamb. Figure 28 represents a crate in which the author has shipped many lambs to market without a single case of accident from any cause. The size is 36 inches long, 24 inches high, and 18 inches wide. It is made of lath 2 inches wide by 3 quarters thick. The best fast- ening for the top was found to be four pieces of soft twisted tarred hempen cord of the kind known as lath twine, and used for tying bundles of laths, at the saw mills. This form of box is also suit- able for shipping stock lambs ; these have been safely sent in them from New York to Charleston, S. C., and also as far as Denver, Col. In case of shipping to a distance, a bag of feed is tied to one of the upper corners of the box, containing sufficient to last through the journey, and a feed trough is fixed at each end of the box, so that in case the lamb is carelessly put in wrong end foremost, or happens to turn around, a trough is ready for use where it is wanted. On the shipping card should be plainly printed directions to the express agent to give half a pint of feed and water twice a day to the lamb. Shipments for short distances should always be made by express, so that there may be no delays. The time of shipment should be so arranged that the commission agent may be on hand to attend to the lambs on their arrival. For distances of not over 100 miles, the time of travel is so short that no feed or water is needed on the way, but the lambs may be fed lightly and watered before they are placed in the boxes. In this way the lambs travel with so little inconvenience that no loss of weight occurs, a matter which, when the price is 25 cents a pound, is worth consideration. The business of marketing lambs is exten- sively carried on in the neighborhood of large cities in the east, and thousands of ewes are yearly purchased in Ohio and western parts of New York and Pennsylvania by drovers from New Jersey, and eastern New York, and Pennsylvania, in the early fall, for selling to farmers who keep them over winter, raise lambs the next spring, and sell lamb's fleeces, and the fattened sheep within twelve months, and repeat the operation yearly with great profit. As an illustration of what may be done in this way, the following may be cited : " Fifty-five ewes were purchased at $3 per head, and until winter were pastured in a rough field at the rear of the farm, where they more than earned their keep and care, by the service they performed in destroying weeds. The account for one year, opened and kept expressly for this flock, is as follows : 78 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. DR. Cost of 55 sheep $165.00 Value of hay, turnips, bran, meal, and oil-cake, fed. 305.84 Freight and charges on 34 lambs 7.93 Balance of profit and loss 145.64 $534.40 CR. 34 early lambs sold at from $7 @ $10 each $193.00 8 lambs, @ $4.50 36.00 13 lambs, @ $3.50 42.00 8 lambs kept, @ $4.00 33.00 9 IDS. pulled wool, (3) 30c ... 3.70 183 Ibs. of wool, @ 35c 63.70 53 sheep on hand ( 3 killed by dogs) 156.00 $534.40 This leaves a profit of nearly 100 per cent, on the original cost of the sheep, and in addition a large pile of valuable manure, of which no account was kept." FATTENING SHEEP FOR MARKET. Where the distance from market prevents profitable shipments, and the home market furnishes insufficient encouragement to breed early lambs, the purchase of sheep for fattening may be made a special business with great advantage. In this business the proper choice of sheep and shrewdness in purchasing are as necessary to success as are skill in feeding and choice of proper food. Where grades of Leicester or Cotswold sheep, such as are known in the American markets as Canada sheep, can be secured, those are the most profitabla to purchase. The next best sheep are grade Southdowns ; but littlo profit is to be made out of our native sheep in feeding them for mutto:i. They are poor feeders, and difficult to clothe with flesh or fat, and the farmer who would pur- chase sheep to feed for profit, should avoid them. He had better keep such sheep for breeding, crossing them with a thoroughbred Cotswold ram and feeding the produce. A statement given by Mr. Jurian Winne, of Albany Co., N, Y., in the Annual Register of Rural Affairs for 1867-8-9, will be found of interest. In this case two lots of sheep from a large flock were set apart for feeding; they consisted of 60 grade Leicesters from Canada, and 61 Merinos; they were weighed Feb. 10th, and a careful account was kept of the food consumed during 46 days, up to March 28th, when they were weighed and sent to market The selection was simply made as a test, and to avoid the trouble VALUE OF SHEEP MANURE. 79 of keeping an accurate account of the whole flock, which were treated in exactly the same manner as these. The following figures give the result : Feb. 20, CO £rade Leicesters weighed 8,870 Ibs. March 28, 60 grade Leicesters weighed 9,878 Ibs. Gain in weight , 1,008 Ibs. Feb. 20, 61 Merinos weighed . . . .' 6,909 Ibs. March 28, 61 Merinos weighed 7,389 Ibs. Gain in weight 480 Ibs. Cost of feed for the first lot , $174.43 Cost of feed for the second lot 144.78 Against the cost of feed there are the gain in weight at lOf and 10^ cents a pound respectively, the advance in price upon the whole weight, consequent upon the improved condition of the sheep, and the manure left. On the whole, there was a profit upon the first lot and a loss on the second one. Experience teaches that the proper selection of the breed of sheep is a very important con- sideration. It would be wise for such as have not had experience, and who do not understand how to choose sheep for feeding, as well as how to feed and market them judiciously, to avoid the business, until by small ventures, they have learned how to succeed with larger ones. To buy judiciously is the great point, for " a flock well bought is half sold." VALUE OF MANURE. — The manure of sheep is naturally rich ; their mastication and digestion are so perfect that seeds of weeds are utterly destroyed in the passage through their intestines, and additional value is readily given to the manure by feeding a por- tion of concentrated food, such as oil-cakes, corn-meal, or bran. The urine and dung of the sheep are both very rich in fertilizing elements. The urine contains 28 parts in 1,000 of urea, which is a highly nitrogenized substance, and 12 parts in 1,000 of salts, rich In phosphoric acid ; the remainder is water. The fresh dung con- tains : Of water 68.0 per cent. Animal and vegetable matter 19.3 per cent. Saline matter or ash 12.7 per cent. 100.00 per cent. The organic matter is rich in nitrogen, so much so, that 36 parts of the dung contains as much nitrogen as 54 parts of horse dung, 63 parts of pig's dung, 125 parts of cow's dung, and 100 parts of mixel barn-yard manure.. The manure yielded is dry, and con- tarns less water than that of other farm animals ; thus for 100 ibs. 80 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. of dry fodder, the horse or cow yields 216 Ibs. of fresh manure- equal to 46 Ibs. dry — while the sheep gives but 128 Ibs. of moist manure — equal to 43 Ibs. dry. It ferments very quickly, and needs therefore to be kept solidly packed under foot, and free from access of air, or to be turned frequently when heaped in the yard. When the manure, made in the ordinary course of feeding, pos- sesses this high relative value, it may readily be believed that when fattening sheep are highly fed with stimulating food rich in albu« men and phosphates, the starch and oil only being assimilated hi the production of fat, and the others being used only in part — their dung forms a very rich and valuable manure. This is thor- oughly well understood by English farmers, who practise the feeding of sheep more with a view to the value of their manure than for profit in other ways, and it is unfortunate for us that we do not so thoroughly appreciate this as to practise it ourselves. The following quotation from a paper upon this subject, read by an English farmer at a meeting of a farmers' club, and reported in an English agricultural journal, very clearly sets forth this view : " The manurial value of oil-cake, when used regularly on a farm, can scarcely be over-estimated, the dung made in the stalls being so vastly enriched as to enable it to be spread over an extended acreage, with better results than could possibly be obtained from the same bulk alone, whatever the area to which it might be ap- plied, and the effect is discernible on the color and quality of the pasture for a much longer period. The improvement effected on grass-land by cake-fed stock is an example of the utility and value of this excellent food which every one can understand, its action in this way being quicker, and so distinct as to be unmistakable. With sheep the improvement is peculiarly striking when netted [confined by nets or hurdles] over a pasture field and largely cake- fed, the droppings, both liquid and solid, being so regularly dis- tributed over the surface, that every rootlet is reached and nour- ished, and the herbage is accordingly forced into extraordinary luxuriance." Another special branch of sheep keeping, which offers advan- tages to farmers favorably situated for it, is the raising of a good class of sheep to meet the demands of those who purchase for the purpose of raising lambs, or for winter feeding and fattening. Where markets are too distant to enable these branches of sheep husbandry to be profitably followed, a good class of stockers or drover's sheep might be raised. Half-bred, long-wool mutton sheep could be raised in every western state and shipped to the great cen- tral markets of Kansas City, Chicago, St. Louis, Buffalo, and else- BKEEDS OF SHEEP. 81 where, to be disposed of to drovers, or to farmers themselves who are seeking a supply of store sheep. This would give an oppor- tunity of increasing the supply of long wool, so much needed, and of decreasing that of fine wool now too plentiful to maintain prices satisfactory to fine wool growers. The season for marketing these sheep would be hi August and September, the time in which they are most in demand, and one in which the western pastures gener- ally fail. It may be -that in a few years, at some or all of these points, and many others, there may yet be seen great sheep mar- kets at stated periods, something like those of Ireland, Scotland, or England, at which 40,000 to 80,000 sheep are offered for sale, and bought and paid for in a couple of days. When sheep breeding becomes fully developed in America, these markets will probably have been found needful, and have grown and developed from necessity, as has been the case elsewhere, and such an economical and convenient division of labor as this may become a regular and systematic part of the business of sheep farming. CHAPTER V. BREEDING AND BREEDS OF SHEEP. The strength and vigor that results from the fixity of type, which is so marked a characteristic of wild races of animals, come through what is called the natural selection of parents. It is the natural force and strength of the most vigorous in perpetuating their kind, together with the hardening influences of exposure, which give them their strong constitution and great power to resist misfortune. The race is perpetuated only by the strongest, because weaker members perish from the hardships necessarily borne by a wild race, or are driven off or destroyed in the desper- ate conflicts which occur between the males at the breeding season. To gain strength and vigor, the most skillful breeder could follow no more effective course than the one here indicated. The natural power possessed by the thoroughbred male animal to transmit his qualities, which power is recognized amongst breeders by the term " prepotency," fixes the type of the race which through this influence becomes homogeneous ; every member presenting exactly tfce same character in form an$ h,abit. But wlien a race of an;- 82 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. mals becomes domesticated, necessities arise which call for some- thing more than mere vigor of constitution, although this should always remain a vital point in the breeders estimation. The sole aim of the stock breeder is profit, and this lies not so much in a long life as in early maturity. The total result of six or ten years of the life of a wild animal is crowded into two or four years of a domesticated one. The capacity for consumption of food, and the ability to turn a larger quantity of food into flesh or wool in a shorter time are gained by the skill of the breeder, and in course of time the quality of the product is refined and improved until hardly a semblance of the original stock remains in the highly-bred, im- proved animal. The rapidity with which these effects have been produced by some of the most skillful sheep-breeders is wonderful, and the names of Bakewell and Webb will be remembered, and their successes perseveringly emulated for many years to come. No animal is more easily improved in character, and none yields more readily to the breeder's art, than the sheep. But the reverse is also true, for if on the one hand success rapidly rewards the successful breeder, failure as rapidly warns the unsuccessful one that he has made a mistake, and must immediately retrace his steps. The management and selection of any existing breed of sheep, or of the production of any new breed or variety, must be a question of profit. The point for the farmer to consider is, what kind of sheep will pay him best to keep, taking into consideration his locality, his soil, the crops he can conveniently raise with which to sustain them, and his markets for disposing of his wool and his animals, whether as lambs or as store sheep, or fat sheep fit for the butcher. For want of thorough acquaintance with the habits, characteristics, and peculiarities of the various breeds, many a farmer has made a fatal mistake, and failed, when otherwise he might easily have been successful. The results of these mistakes in selection, and errors of management, have led to much dis- appointment and disgust. One of the most serious errors of our breeders and farmers, is the endeavor to maintain up to a certain standard of excellence in this country, in spite of all the differences of climate and varieties of food, the highly bred races of English sheep, which have been imported from time to time. Nearly every flock of all the pure races has failed to keep up to the original standard, although new importations have been added to them. The farmer who has purchased a few sheep from such flocks, being without the requisite knowledge as to their manage- ment, or not possessing the fitting food for them, has found then) SELECTION OF BKEEDIKG ANIMALS. 83 to dwindle away from day to day until only a sorry remnant has been left which has been finally absorbed into a flock of hardier natives, or has disappeared altogether. Had these farmers judi- ciously purchased male animals only, and used them, under proper restrictions, for the improvement of their native sheep, they would in time have possessed flocks which they could have managed successfully and profitably, and have secured a perma- nent type suited to their locality and circumstances. But the improvement of a flock by breeding requires much patience and perseverance, and a fixed idea of some result to be gained. In breeding, good results rarely come by hap-hazard or accident. There must be a distinct end in view, and there must be appropri- ate and painstaking efforts made to reach that end. The breeder must have a clear idea, not only of what he wants to gain, but of what he wishes to get rid of, and he must know the character of his flock intimately. One who knows all* this can so accurately describe the kind of ram he needs to improve his flock, that a conscientious breeder from whom he may purchase the needed animal, can choose him as well, if not better, than he can himself. In breeding to improve a flock, the qualities of both parents must be considered, remembering that the male exercises the greater influence in determining the character of the offspring. A pure-bred Cotswold ram, crossed upon a Merino ewe, for instance, will produce an offspring that much more resembles himself than it does the dam. This principle is well recognized amongst breed- ers. Nevertheless, the very best of the females should be chosen, and the faulty lambs culled out each year, until the finest only remain. During this time it would be prudent for the farmer to retain no males of his own breeding, but to secure by purchase or hire from some capable professional breeder, such changes of males as may be necessary. Much good may be done by unselfish breeders in the way of letting pure-bred rams for a fair considers tion to neighboring farmers who may not have the means to purchase one outright. By changing rams occasionally, two farmers may very profitably help each other without expending a dollar for the necessary new blood. The points sought for in rams, with which to improve a flock, are those which directly add to the value of the sheep, or those which are evidence of the possession of valuable qualities. Thus the abundance of yolk, or the fineness of the wool, or its curl, or the depth or form of carcass, upon which depends the quality and the quantity of the fleece, are esteemed in the Merinos ; in the Southdown, the small head and leg, and small bones, with tfce 84 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. black muzzle and legs are highly regarded, as these denote quick fattening properties, and hardiness of constitution. The breadth of shoulder, the straightness and levelness of the back, the breadth of loin, and the spring of the ribs and rotundity of the frame of the Cotswold, Leicester, and other heavy-bodied sheep, indicate capacity for feeding and digestion, and laying on of flesh, and are therefore regarded as valuable points. Large bones are an unfavor- able point, as they denote an abstraction of nutriment which should otherwise go to the formation of flesh and the greater value of the carcass. The absence of horns, for the same reason, Is desirable in sheep bred for mutton. A soft, mellow feeling of skin and the tissue underneath, and a softness of the fleece, are indicative of a tendency to the rapid formation of fat. A round frame and broad loin indicate the existence of abundant flesh, where it is the most valuable, and a general squareness of the out- line of the figure proves the existence of large muscular develop- ment and consequently heavy quarters. In short, for sheep which are not kept solely for the production of wool, what is wanted is, all the flesh possible with no more bone than can carry it, and that the flesh should be where it will be the most valuable, viz : on those parts which bring the highest prices on the butchers' stalls— the loins and quarters. Where wool is the sole object, weight and fineness of fleece alone need to be considered. Where wool and mutton are each equally sought for, the matter becomes compli- cated by many considerations, each of which should be studied with a view to give the preponderance to those which have the greatest special or local importance. In crossing breeds, we seek to increase the size, improve the shape, or hasten the maturity of the sheep; or improve the length, quality, or closeness of the fleece. But it will not do to select at random any ram which may happen to possess the qualities desired, without regard to some affinity of character with the ewes, lest lambs should be produced that are weak in constitution, or shapeless mongrels, through too wide a disparity between the parents. . Experience has shown that the Leicester ram has made a greater improvement with long-wool sheep than with the short- wool breeds, and that the Southdown has made a more successful first cross upon the latter. The Cotswoid has been very success- fully crossed upon the Merino, the Hampshire-down, the South- down, and other races, and as the parent of cross-bred races, Ihis most valuable breed has gained the highest reputation. As a rule, the first cross between a superior and high-bred race, and an infe- rior one, produces the best sheep for breeding together ; further CHOICE OF A KAM. 85 crosses often produce animals which deteriorate in breeding, the progeny regaining more of the character of its inferior parentage, and losing that of the superior one. Judgment and caution are needed in selecting those results which have been successful, and in rejecting those which are unfavorable, also in continuing the inter- breeding for a sufficient length of time to eliminate all the defects which may reappear at times in the progeny. It is only after several generations that animals can be produced, which may be permitted safely to perpetuate their kind without further careful selection. During the intervening period, very close watchfulness is necessary ; the form of the animal, the preponderance of the desired points, as well as those that are not desirable, the charac- ter of the fleece, and the soundness of the animal's constitution, should all be patiently studied. Great contrasts between breeding animals should be avoided, as being dangerous to uniformity, and a gradual approach to a desired end by several steps will be found more certainly effective than to endeavor to attain it by one or two violent efforts. The selection of rams for breeding is a matter of the greatest importance. Not only the character of the flock, but the number of the lambs, to some extent, depend upon this. For general purposes, the ram should be chosen for his perfection of shape and fleece, rather than for his size or weight. For mutton sheep, whether long wool or medium wool, a round barrel, broad loin, fine bone, short legs, close wool, especially upon the back and loins, small head, full fore arms and thighs, and a mellowness of flesh within the fore legs upon the ribs, where a poor sheep never carries any fat, and in general an evenness of excellence, rather than any special single point of superiority, whether of size of body, or length, or weight of fleece, should be sought. A very heavy, large-bodied ram, will probably pro- duce very irregular lambs, which will disappoint the breeder; while a well knit, more even, smoother but smaller ram, will pro- duce lambs of great uniformity and resemblance to himself, and very frequently, and especially so if out of well selected ewes, greatly surpassing him in size of carcass at maturity. In breeding from a large ram upon small bodied ewes, unless there is some special reason against it, a ram with a small head should be chosen, and the ewes selected should be wide across the loins, with a broad rump and wide pelvis. From a disregard of this it is sometimes the case that severe labor or death in parturition occurs amongst the ewes. In the first coupling of the young ewes, the greatest care should be exercised in selecting the ram, for its influence may 86 THE SHEPHERD'S MAKUAL. and sometimes will extend beyond his own immediate progeny, and modify that of future sires upon the same dams. While this influence of the first male is not so general as to afford a basis for a rule, yet observation has shown it to be of sufficient force to entitle it to the consideration of careful breeders. The influence of the ram upon the sex of the progeny, is something equally worth considering, although it is as yet somewhat undetermined. In theory it is supposed to be exerted through a natural provision by which the fecundity of a race increases along with the better opportunities it enjoys for its subsistence. Thus it is reasoned, when animals are well fed and cared for, and are not allowed to breed early, their produce will be in greater part females, permit- ting a more rapid increase, in consistence with their more favor- able opportunities for development. On the contrary, when ani- mals are sparely fed or exhaustively used, and allowed to breed early, the tendency of nature is to restrict the production by the birth chiefly of males. This theory receives confirmation through the tendency of the early breeding and exhaustively producing Jersey cow to have male calves, and through some observed facts in sheep breeding. One of the facts directly pertinent to this matter is recorded in the Annales de V Agriculture Franpaise, as follows. It was proposed at a meeting of the Agricultural Society of Severac, to divide a flock of ewes into two parts, that an experiment might be made to test the question of breeding for sex. One flock of ewes was put into an abundant pasture, and was served by very young rams. The other flock was put into a poorer pasture, and was served by rams not less than four years old. The result is given in the tables which follow ; the flock from which the excess of female lambs was expected, being served by rams 15 months to 18 months old, produced three twin births, and the flock expected to yield the most male lambs, and which was served by rams over 4 years old, produced not one double birth. Flock for female lambs served by rams under 18 months old . Sex of the Lambs. Age of Ewes. Males. Females. Twoyearsold 14 26 Three years old 10 29 Four years old 5 21 Total &5 76 The excess of female lambs in this flock is very remarkable, ag is also the excess of male lambs shown in the next table. ESSEHTIALS TO SUCCESS. 87 Flock for male lambs served by raras over 4 yeara old : Sex of the Lambs. Age of Euoes. Males. Females. Two years old 7 3 Three years old 15 14 Four years old 32 14 Total f 55 31 The result certainly justified the expectation, but it can scarcely be held to be anything more than suggestive for further research or experiment, rather than conclusive for the founding of a rule. The following well considered remarks made by the Hon. A. M. Garland, editor in charge of the sheep and wool department of the National Live- Stock Journal, at a meeting of the Madison Co., (111.) Farmers' Club, May 8th, 1875, are sufficiently valuable and perti- nent to be recorded here : ' ' One essential to successful breeding is a persistent endeavor to attain the standard that has been fixed upon by the breeder as his idea of the perfect animal. While the sheep will be found to conform more readily than any other ani- mal, except perhaps the dog, to certain well understood physio- logical laws, the attainment of all the desired characteristics, and their incorporation into the life and constitution so as to insure transmission with the desired force and certainty, is a labor involv- ing not alone judgment and taste, but patience as well. Mythology tells us of the goddess who leaped full-armed from the head of Jove ; but the attainment of perfect ends without the employment of patient and laborious means, is not among the blessings that surround the business man in this material age. He who expects to accomplish in a year what others have only completed in a life- time of labor, is pretty surely doomed to gather the bitter fruit of disappointment, and the chances are largely in favor of pecuniary loss as well. It required over fifty years of labor, and care, and study, to bring the nine-pound fleece rams imported by Humphrey and others, up to the 25 and 30 pound shearers that head a number of the flocks of the present day. The highest types of the Cots- wold and Southdown are the result of an expenditure of time, and money, and study, equal to that bestowed upon the Merino in the United States hi the last half a century. Such facts as these afford small encouragement for those young men who see visions, and those older ones who dream dreams, of a speedy fortune and an assured fame by the establishment of an intermediate breed of sheep — one that will combine in a single animal the good qualities of all the breeds and the weak points of none. Any of the estab< 88 TflE SHEPHERD'S lished types will improve what is known as our common native sheep, sufficiently to justify the payment of a fair price for a choice ram. Grades from these flocks of common sheep, bred towards the long wools, the Downs or the Merinos, will be found profita- ble stock to the average farmer. Care should be had to breed all the time in the same direction— that is, always using the best rams of their kind within reach} having due regard to prudence in making the purchases. The first cross will usually show a greater change from the standard of the coarse-wooled mother than subse- quent ones, though an occasional cropping out of her less desira- ble characteristics may be expected, but should not discourage the effort at improvement as persistent crossing by pure-bred rams will bring its reward in a sightly flock of grades, that can be de- pended upon to reproduce their characteristics with reasonable certainty." " In and in " breeding, or breeding between near relatives, is a subject "yhich has given rise to much discussion, and to much diversity of opinion. The truth seems to be that close breeding up to a certain point is necessary to secure a fixed type, and when judiciously done, it may be the means of securing most valuable results. The English sheep breeders who have become most noted for their successes, have bred very closely, a most conspicuous example being Mr. Bakewell with his improved Leicesters. Proba- bly no race of animals were so closely interbred as this. But it is questioned by some breeders if the limit of safety in this respect has not been overstepped, for no race so strongly exhibits in their defects the evil results which follow from too close breeding for any considerable length of time. The small light bone, the bald- head, the prominent glassy eyes, the thin, delicate skin, the ten- dency to tuberculous diseases, and other scrofulous affections, all of which are characteristic of some classes of the Leicesters, are the very evils which are known to follow from too close sexual affini- ties. Safety certainly lies in the avoidance of this sort of breeding to any great extent, and as a general rule for ordinary breeders, it may perhaps be laid down, that to breed a ram to his own lambs may be permitted, but to breed to the second generation of off- spring should be avoided. To change the ram the second year would be to act on the side of safety, and except in rare instances, and for the attainment of clearly apprehended results, this should be the limit of close breeding. To breed a ram to his own ewe lambs is regarded as safer, and not so close breeding as breeding full brother and sister together, and yet to attain certain desired ends, this is and has been done, and will often be done by breeders, MAXIMS FOR BREEDERS. 89 It may be questionable, however, if the results sought might not be as certainly and more securely gained by using less closely re- lated animals. Mr. Edwin Hammond, a noted breeder of Ameri- can Merinos, who has done much to develop this breed, seldom used rams with which to make his crosses that were not of his own flock. His famous ram Sweepstakes, came from a closely in-and-in bred family ; but because the most skillful breeders have Succeeded in producing conspicuously favorable effects, it must not be concluded that other less capable breeders or farmers who know but little of the science of breeding, can hope to achieve any satisfactory measure of success. Besides, it should be considered that we only hear of the successes of these breeders. Their fail- ures are at once put out of the way, and no record is made of them ; in fact a portion of their skill, and not an inconsiderable portion either, consists in instantly recognizing their failures, and in summarily disposing of them. In summing up these few general remarks upon breeding, the following may be accepted as maxims for guidance to those as yet not familiar with the principles of the art. Breed for some well un- derstood object. Learn and know the character of every ewe and ram in the flock. Remember that the male gives his impress upon the progeny most strongly. Purity of blood in the male is an absolute necessity. It is cheaper to pay a fair price for good rams to a capable breeder, who makes the production of breeding ani- mals his business, than to attempt to raise one's own breeding stock. Animals that are not pure-bred, when coupled, tend toward reversion to the inferior stock rather than to progression towards the superior. Animals, as sheep, that are easily impressed favora- bly, as easily retrograde ; the rule works both ways. To feed well, is the co-efficient of, to breed well ; without good feeding good breed- ing is of no avail. Breeding lays the foundation, feeding builds on that. The first cross is the most effective, the next is but half as effective, and so on until, as in the increasing fraction V3, */4, 7/8, u/i s, 31/s3, M/64, etc., etc., unity is approached by diminishing quantities, and is thus never reached ; so the higher we breed the less advance is made in proportion. That a type so fixed that the breeders care in selection can ever be relaxed will never be reached. NATIVE BREEDS OF SHEEP. THE MEXICAN SHEEP.— Since the first discovery of America by Europeans, more than four centuries ago, there have been nu- merous importations of sheep into both South and North America. The first of these importations consisted doubtless of the commoo 90 THE SHEPHERD'S MAHUAL. native sheep of Spain, designated by Dr. L. T. Fitzinger, the author of a paper upon the races of domestic sheep of Europe, (presented to the Imperial Academy of Science in Vienna, in 1860), as the landschaf, or common rustic sheep, (Ovis aries). This sheep bore a very meager fleece of coarse wool. It is probable that all that part of the American continent which became subject to its Spanish discoverers, including the islands of the West Indies, was stocked with this common race. At that period the Spanish gov- ernment very jealously guarded the Merino sheep, and forbade their exportation, even to their own American colonies. It is known, however, that a few Merinos were occasionally smuggled into Peru, and that to these was due the superior character of the wool of that country, which exists up to the present century. Elsewhere, however, the character of the dominant race of sheep was very inferior, and it now so remains; the imports of wool from South America into the United States being coarse in quality, and rating only as among the third class. Of a similar character to this is the race of sheep known in our western territories as "Mexican." Their origin is clearly the same as that of the native South American sheep, and their appearance is identical with that of the sheep represented in ancient Spanish paintings as the ordi- nary race of the country, the property of the peasantry. It may be concluded as most probable, if not certain, that this race, one of the ten primitive or distinct original races which inhabited Eu- rope, as determined by Dr. Fitzinger, (whose classification is con- firmed by other scientific men), unaltered by more than three centuries of acclimatization, is now represented by the bulk of the flocks which roam over Mexico, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, parts of California, and more recently Colorado. These sheep are hardy, wiry animals, weighing about 40 pounds, and yielding when unmixed with any Merino blood, a fleece of about two pounds of coarse wool. Of late this inferior race has been improved to some extent by crossing with pure Merinos from Vermont and other eastern states, and is found to make an excellent basis •whereon to build up an improved and useful race. These sheep are of but little value, and in flocks are sold and bought at about $1.50 per head. The business of shipping rams westward to sup- ply this demand, from almost every state where Merinos are kept, has already re?ched respectable dimensions, and is rapidly increas- ing. The result cannot fail to build up, in course of time, a valua- ble class of native sheep well suited to these localities. These improved sheep produce a fleece weighing about 4 pounds of grade Merino wool, which will supply to a very great extent local manu- NATIVE BREEDS. 91 factories of such woolen goods as are in demand in the western country, and thus render the far western states independent, so far as regards their supply of woolen manufactures, of the eastern factories. THE VIRGINIA SHEEP.— A native race of greater pretensions, and far greater value than the preceding, sprung from the first importation of English sheep in Jamestown, Va., in 1609. The original settlers of this new Dominion were in part men of wealth and position. The stock they imported would naturally be of the best that could be obtained, and the favorable climate of the country for sheep-raising, would tend to preserve the sheep from degradation. Repeated importations of excellent sheep were made during the succeeding two centuries, by prominent Virgin- ians, amongst whom were the Washingtons, and various members of the Custis family. Thus was founded a class of more than usually good, heavy bodied, long-wool sheep, which still exists and is famed for producing excellent early market lambs. Of late years considerable Leicester, Cotswold, and Southdown blood has been mingled with the old stock. Although the Virginia sheep can hardly claim to be considered as a distinct breed, yet they certainly furnish a very good basis upon which, by careful selec- tion and interbreeding, to found a breed thoroughly well adapted to the locality, as they are already acclimated and possess estab- lished qualities. THE IMPROVED KENTUCKY SHEEP. — An account of the efforts which have been made to produce native varieties of sheep, would not be complete without the mention of what has been called the " Improved Kentucky Sheep." This breed or race originated with Mr. Robert Scott, of Frankfort, Kentucky, who crossed the com- mon native sheep of the locality, with Merino, Leicester, South- down, Cotswold, and Oxford-down rams. This was begun about 40 years ago, by selecting 30 native ewes, which were bred to a selected Merino ram. The yearling ewes of this cross were bred to an imported Leicester ram. The ewes of this cross were served by an imported rani of the Southdown breed. The pro- duce of this cross were then bred to a ram of mixed blood, three- fourths Cotswold and one-fourth Southdown. The next two crosses were made by Cotswold rams, and the next by an Oxford- down ram. The produce of the last cross were bred to Cotswold rams again. This brought the flock up to 1855, when a mixed Cotswold, Oxford, Leicester, and Southdown ram was brought into service. After this the rams produced by this very mixed 92 THE SHEPHERD^ MANUAL. breeding were used. In 1867 Mr. Scott furnished an account of his slieep for the annual report of the Department of Agriculture for 1866, in which he gave some very flattering testimonials which he had received from various parties, to whom he had sold his sheep, with pictures of rams and ewes of his flock. At that tune his flock consisted of about 200 ewes and 50 yearling rams. Since then the breed has been quietly working its way into favor in Ken- tucky and the Southern States, and has gained many friends. Ita character has been gradually fixed by careful breeding by Mr. Scott, and it is now a heavy-bodied long-wool sheep, which pro- duces a heavy fleece, good mutton, and a heavy market lamb. The fleece consists of a long lustrous combing wool, in quality midway between the Leicester and the Cotswold. Some skins, and rugs made from the cured skins, were exhibited at the Centennial, ,ncl received a prize for their excellence. In a private letter to Jie author, Mr. Scott states that his sheep have been received with so much favor, and have become so popular, that it is with diffi- culty that he can keep up the working numbers of his flock. This example of successful cross-breeding is an instance of what a careful and skilful breeder may accomplish, rather than a result to be confidently hoped for by any tyro in the art, or any person who may have an ambition to found a new or improved breed of sheep. THE AMERICAN MERINO.— One of the most successful instances of the fortuitous results of sheep breeding, exists in the establish- ment of the American Merino. In a Treatise upon the Australian Merino, by J. R. Graham, superintendent of an extensive sheep station on the Murray River, (published in Melbourne, in 1870), the following testimony is given : " Of all imported sheep, those of our first cousins, the Americans, are the best. The best rams imported into Melbourne of late years were some American rams." This coming from so capable a judge, and in competition with the best selections of Merino sheep to be procured elsewhere in the world, may be taken without question as proof that the American Merino is the best sheep of its class in the world. It is therefore interesting to trace the course through which this breed has been brought to its present excellence, which enables it to stand alone on its own merits, beyond any capability of further improvement by any variety of Merino sheep now existing hi any part of the world. The history of the American Merino commences with the present century, and with importations of choice sheep from Spain. The honor of the first importation seems to belong to Mr. William Foster, of Boston, who managed, ** with much difficult/ THE AMERICAN MERINO. 93 and risk," to bring with him from Cadiz, two ewes and one ram. Unfortunately his enterprise came to naught, for presenting these valuable and costly sheep to a friend, this friend made them into mutton and ate them. This same friend afterwards paid $1,000 for a Merino ram. One ram was imported in 1801, and was used on the farm of a French gentleman, Mr. Delessert, near Kingston, N. Y. This animal weighed 138 Ibs., and his fleece, well washed in cold water, weighed 8 Ibs. 8 ozs. He was a very fine ram, and finally founded a valuable flock on the farm of E. J. Dupont, near Wilmington, Del. Later in the same year, Mr. Seth Adams, of Zanesville, Ohio, imported a pair of Spanish Merinos, which re- ceived a premium at the fair of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society the next year. In 1802 Mr. Livingston, the American Minister to France, sent two pairs of French Merinos home to his farm on the Hudson River. In 1807, Mr. Livingston imported some choice Spanish ewes from France, and in 1808, his flock be- gan to acquire a wide reputation, his rams selling for $150 each, and half-blood ewes and rams for $12 each. In 1802, Colonel Humphreys, the American Minister to Spain, sent 25 rams and 75 ewes, selected from the choicest flocks in Spain, to Derby, Con- necticut. From what particular family of Merinos these sheep were jelected, does not appear, the evidence, however, seems to point to the fact that they were Infantados, or sheep from the flock of the Duke of Infantado, one of the chief grandees of Spain at that period. This flock was bred and improved by Col. Humphreys, with much success. At the death of this gentleman, in 1818, his flock was scattered, and only two or three then obscure farmers had the luck, or precaution, to preserve them pure and distinct. On the rise of the Merinos into their future high reputation, these for- tunate persons were brought into notice as the possessors of flocks of pure Merino sheep. But the most extensive and noteworthy importation, and that which gave form and character to the American Merinos, was that of the Hon. Wm. Jarvis, the Ameri- can Consul at Lisbon, in 1809 and 1810. This consisted of 3,850 sheep of the flocks of Paulars, Negrettis, Aqueirres, and Montarcos of Spain. These flocks, consisting of nearly 50,000 head, had been, for political reasons, confiscated and sold by the Spanish government, with other property of the four grandees who had owned them. Of the imported sheep, 1,500 came to New York, 1,000 to Bos- ton, and the remainder to Philadelphia, Baltimore, Alexandria, Norfolk, Richmond, Portland, Wiscasset, and Portsmouth. An- other shipment of 2,500 followed in 1310, and were Distributed 94 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. between New York and Boston. These sheep were of the prime flocks of Spain, and Spain's loss was our gain. Mr. Jarvis re- served 350 of the sheep for his own use. A few other minor im- portations of Spanish sheep were made by other parties in 1810 and 1811. The knowledge that we had thus obtained the very best sheep in the world, started a speculative fever, which was increased by the war with England in 1812, when Merino wool sold for $2.50 a pound. Imported rams were eagerly purchased for $1,000 to $1,500 each, and ewes sold for $1,000 a head. Many flocks of pure or grade sheep were started in all parts of the country, and much care was taken in the breeding of them. This lasted until the peace of 1815, when sheep that were valued at $1,000 a head, in 1809, sold for $1.00, and of course all interest in breeding then ceased. Afterwards, under the stimulus of various protective tar- iffs, the business revived, and fine wool-growing again attracted attention. In 1824, 77 Saxon Merino sheep were imported by G. & T. Searle, of Boston, and this was followed by several other importa- tions by the same parties. By bad management much loss resulted to the importers, and in consequence of the poor quality of the sheep, the whole business was a failure for all concerned, includ- ing the purchasers. The inferiority of the Saxon breed was mani- fest, and these sheep, which yielded a fleece of but 2£ to 3 Ibs. per head, could not compete with the Spanish sheep, which produced 4£ Ibs. of well washed wool per head, of nearly equal value, al- though not quite so fine as the Saxon wool. The Saxon sheep have all disappeared since 1846. Then the American Merino came intD general favor. This class of sheep, in 1840 to 1845, consisted of several families of distinctly marked varieties, due chiefly to the various courses of breeding followed by their several owners. The distinguishing peculiarities of these families consisted mainly in their size and bight of carcass, length and fineness of wool, the pendulous dewlaps and skinfolds of the rams, and the amount of yolk in the fleece, and its consequent greater weight and darker color. Up to the period in question, the choicest flocks were to be found in New England, on account of the greater care there taken in breeding. Some of the Connecticut and Vermont breed- ers had taken great pains to improve their flocks, and much emu- lation existed amongst them in this respect. Gradually, differ- ences became merged and blended by the continued purchase of rams by the owners of defective flocks, from the more careful breeders, and finally only the two families, the Paulars and the lnfantado§ continued to be bred as distinct in all parts of the INCREASE OF SIZE AND FLEECE. 95 country. Since then these separate families, their crosses, and those between them and other pure flocks, heve been greatly improved. The carcass has become larger and heavier, and the fleece has been increased in weight. This is shown by the following table, taken from a more extensive one published about 70 years ago by Petri, who visited Spain for the express purpose of examining the Spanish sheep, and from some measurements made by the Hon. H. S. Randall, of Cortland, N. Y., and published in his valuable work on " Fine Wool Sheep Husbandry,' as well as from number- less well authenticated weights of fleeces. The table is as follows : NAMES OF FLOCKS. Negretti Ram Ewe Infantado Ram " Ewe Guadeloupe Ram Ewe Estantes of Sierra de Somo Ram... " " " " " Ewe... Small Estantes Ram kt " Ewe American Merino Ram Ewe Ewe " " Ewe... Ibs. 97 67 100^ 70 97 V. 69 42 30 122 114 122 100 s^ &s II ill JjL. ^T! in. iflii w 17 18 vtx 18 14 18 9 i!4 7^15 7 13 9 10 9#;10 9 10 9 11 S5 r in. 25 27 '25 £o •24 in. >4X 50^ %* 47 51 Vi 48 38 47 ^ in. 50 47 53X 45 50X 46 34 48% in. 15 13 12 12 10# 12 11 10 8 11 11 9 VA 5* 4 6 5 These differences, it will be observed, occur in those respects which add greatly to the value of the animal, the heavier weights of carcass, the shorter neck, the shorter legs, and the very greatly increased width of loin. All these points of improvement tend to show an animal of excellent physical vigor and constitution. As to the fleece : in 1800 to 1813, the imported Merinos yielded 3£ to 4 Ibs. of brook-washed wool, in the ewe, and 6 to 7 Ibs. in the ram. The heaviest fleeced ram imported, that of Mr. Dupont, produced 8£ Ibs. of brook-washed wool. In 1845 the product had increased to 5 Ibs. for some small flocks, and 9 Ibs. for rams. Mr. Stephen At wood, of Vermont, reported in this year that his heavi- est ewe's fleece was 6 Ibs. 6 oz., and his heaviest ram's fleece, 12 Ibs. 4 oz. In 1849, a ram, belonging to Mr. Randall, produced 13 Ibs. 3 oz. of well washed wool. Up to this period the Merinos had been under a heavy cloud, and improvement had not occurred §o rapidly as it has done since then. The weights of the fleeces 54 c. i blood Merino 45c.@47sc. ILLINOIS, WISCONSIN, AND IOWA WOOLS. Super Saxony 45c.@50c. Full blood Merino 45c.@50c. * blood Merino 46c.@50c. The demand of manufacturers is clearly for medium wools, the produce of half-bloods or grade Merinos, or of crosses of Merinos with Southdowns. The chief difficulty in wool-growing is the tendency on the part of farmers to run in a crowd upon the same variety and quality ; at one period it will be fine wool, at anothei combing wool, and often they are led to breed without knowledge or judgment. A great variety of wools is needed to meet the de- mands of manufacturers, and when a farmer has become possessed of a flock of the right sort, his best course is to keep to it, and not change because a temporary decline in his cJass of wool discour- ages him for a season'. In addition to these grade Merino wools, there is a constant and increasing demand for combing wools for worsted and coarse fabrics. Combing wools are those fitted for a process known as combing, which consists in drawing out the fibers so that they are straight and parallel, the shorter portions of the wool called " noils " being removed by the operation. The fibers are then spun into worsted yarn* ; the ends of the fibers being covered in the spinning, these yarns are smooth and lustrous. In carding, the fibers are placed in every possible position with regard to each other ; the ends projecting from the yarn, form a nap in the woven fabric which covers and hides the threads. Carding wool must therefore be short and full of curls ; combing wool, on the contrary, needs to be long and free from curls and of a bright and lustrous surface. Long Merino wools, although they are combed for making fine cloths without nap, and for delaines, cashmeres, coburgs, and other dress goods, are not designated combing wools, but as delaine wools. Common flannels require in their manufacture the coarsest common native wools up to medium Merino wools. For fine flannels, fine to the finest wools are used; for blankets, the most ordinary native wools, " noils," medium Merino wools and South- down and grade Southdown wools are used. For shawls, all grades of Merino wools, up to picklock, are used ; some fleecy varieties are made of worsted combing wools ; felted cloth skirts and other goods are made of the lowest grades of wool, but the 150 THE SHEPHERD'S MAKUAL. finer kinds, as piano and table covers, are made of medium Merino wools. Knitted goods, such as undershirts, vests, drawers, hose, etc., require a great variety of wools from the lowest qualities up to the high grades of Merino ; certain fancy varieties requiring the finer kinds of combing wools. Fancy cassimeres, meltons,, beaver cloths, and overcoatings, require chiefly medium grades of Merino wool, a small quantity only of the finer grades being re- quired for the best qualities. For mixing with shoddy, which is an extensive manufacture, the finest and longest Merino wools are found the most profitable, as such wool carries the greatest quan- tity of the short fiber of the substitute. Ladies' cloths, cloakings, and thin dress goods require fine long Merino wool ; the finest and longest Merino wool is used for men's fine worsted coatings. Serges, moreens, alpacas, lastings, mohair lusters, furniture dam- ask, reps, bunting for flags, webbings of all kinds, sashes, picture cords, tassels, and soft goods, such as nubias and shawls, braids and bindings, are all made of the long combing wool of the Lincolns, Leicesters, and Cotswolds, or their grades. For various carpets, coarse Texan or Mexican and California wools are used, and similar grades of foreign wool known as Chili and Cordova carpet wools. This enumeration indicates as closely as need be, what kinds of wool the American farmer may grow with safety and without risk of wanting a market. Considering that the imports of wool of many of the grades mentioned, and of the recapitulated woolen goods, amount every year to fifty mil- lions of dollars or over, there would certainly seem to be no danger that the farmer will lack a profitable market for any kind of wool he may find it convenient to grow. PUKE AND GRADE MERINO WOOL. It will be noticed how large a proportion of the foregoing man- ufactures derive their material from the Merino, either directly in its pure state, or indirectly as grades or cross breeds. Some infor- mation as to the character of the Merino wool, and the tests by which superior breeding animals may be known and selected for the improvement of native sheep, will therefore not be out of place. The character of a Merino fleece may be judged by the following tests, viz : Strength of Fiber.— This is indicated by the amount of grease in the wool, abundance of oil or yolk indicating a healthy condition of the animal. The first sign of disease is a change in the charac- ter of the secretions, and the skin being the chief secreting organ Of the body, it is there that the change may be soonest noticed. SOW TO JITDGE WOOL. 151 The moment the health of the sheep fails, the growth of the wool is arrested, along with the secretion of the oil or yolk, and the continuity of the strength of the fiber is destroyed to the great reduction of its value. Fineness.— In a perfect fleece, the wool should be equally fine over the whole body ; coarser wool may be looked for, if any- where, on the top of the shoulders and the rump, and a weaker quality on the breast and belly. The finest wool is but y1Mo of an inch in thickness, ordinary wools VTSO to y85o of an inch in diameter. Curl.— The curl of the wool is very important. This is the waved or crimped character of the fiber which in the perfect wool consists of minute bends or crimps. There should be a perfect regularity in these waves, which ought not to be so abrupt as to appear as folds. In very fine wool there should be at least 30 of these waves to the inch in length. (See d, e, fig. 49.) Thickness. — This quality refers to the closeness of the fibers upon the skin. A pure Merino should have from 40,000 to 48,000 fibers upon every square inch of its skin. The weight of a fleece must necessarily depend on this characteristic. Closure of the Fleece.— The closure of the fleece on its outer surface is of great importance, for the reason that a well closed fleece is im- pervious to dust and dirt which would other wise find its way into the wool and injure its quality. The closure is ef- Fig. 50. footed by the abundance of yolk which gathers at the ends of the wool, and mats the fibers together. The viscid gum gathers dust, that coats the fleece with a black surface, which feels to the hand as a firm crust. When the crust is pressed the elasticity of the fleece is at once perceived. Upon parting the fleece to inspect the wool, the experience or ignorance of the operator is at once perceptible. He should grasp the fleece at the points of the fibers with the fingers and thumbs of both hands, and part the surface 152 THE SHEPHERD'S MAHUAL, gently, exposing the wool to the skin. The wool, ori opening the fleece, should appear beautifully white and gloss}', or rich yellow or orange colored, according to the style of the sheep. The fleece is then closed carefully without allowing any dust to fall down into the opening. The appearance of the open fleece should be banded with varying colors of light and darker yellow or orangep as in fig. 50, or when opened, as a cup in fig. 51. A well closed fleece will exhibit a surface as shown at fig. 52, and a badly closed one will appear as at fig. 53. The well closed fleece is di- vided into small sections, which are tabular or flat and smooth upon the surface ; when the fleece is uneven in length, it cannot close well, and a few fibers only are matted together ; the surface is then dotted and not smooth ; this forms the defect known as " toppiness" The defects in wool may be enumerated as follows: " Stripy " or Watery Wool, generally shows itself in inferior ani- mals on or near the shoulder, where the best wool ought to be. The wool subject to this defect is devoid of those beautiful natu- ral curves or waves which are characteristic of really good wool. When compressed in the hand, it has no elasticity, and handles in a dead and lifeless manner, more like flax than wool. Such wool is only fit for making inferior goods. This defect is a sure proof of impure blood, and no sheep exhibiting it should be bred from. Toppiness is not of much importance as affecting the quality of the wool, but it indicates a defect in the breeding of the sheep. It has already been described. When this defect, however, extends to a matting together of the wool at the ends of the points, a quantity of noils are made in working the wool, and there is a waste. When toppiness is found in the fleece of old sheep, it be- comes a more serious objection, as it is quite possible that a lamb's fleece may be toppy by reason of uneven growth in its early life, and after having once been shorn, the defect may not reappear. Broad-topped Wool is seriously defective, and very decidedly reduced in value ; no animal having this defect should be kept in a flock having any pretentious to character for excellence. It consists in an interlacing of the ends of the fibers which are split from the top downwards. The fleece appears in good condition superficially, with a good even top, but the surface is divided intQ DEFECTS OF WOOL. 153 broad masses or " tops," and when one endeavors to part these to examine the wool, the mass is found to be almost felted together, and must he torn apart. This matted wool is dead, and breaks off in the process of manufacture, causing very great loss of material. Felty Wool is that which has a tendency to felt together on the sheep's back. The defect is caused by an absence of yolk, and in highly yolked sheep, by a continued wet season, which washes the yolk from the fleece. It is a direct result of low condition from poor feed, or of chronic ill health. Some sheep are consti- tutionally subject to "felty wool," and should be weeded out of the flock. Cloudy Wool is that which adheres together from the bottom of the fleece upwards, but not in so great a degree as in felty wool. A flossy appearance is discovered at the bottom of the staple, which is removed by the comb. In clothing wools this is not so objectionable as in combing wools ; in the latter the floss is thrown out and becomes waste. This is also a constitutional defect, and sheep so affected should be weeded out of an otherwise good flock. Kemp is very easily detected, and although it may be found in but a few spots at first sight, it indicates that it exists all through the fleece. It consists of coarse, white hairs, projecting from the surface of the fleece, on the face, the forearm, the inside of the flank, and in rams on the scrotum also. Whenever it is apparent in these places, it will invariably be found through the greater part of the fleece, chiefly on the whole of the belly, half-way up the sides, on the rump, thighs, and shoulder. In these places, short white hairs will be found in the staple, at the roots of the wool ; and as these hairs will not take any dye, they injure the fleece for the manufacture of dress goods or fine cloths. Kemp lessens the value of the wool nearly or quite one-half, and should make a breeding animal worth no more than its weight as mutton. On some heavily wrinkled Merino sheep, these kempy hairs may be seen on the edges of the wrinkles, and on the back of the head, but nowhere else. But it is even then a fatal objection to such sheep as breeders, for this is kemp, and may appear in all the pro- duce of such sheep, and there can be no certainty but some of the produce may be badly affected. Break, in wool renders the fleece absolutely worthless for any combing purpose, and however fine the staple, or otherwise good in quality, it can only then be manufactured into a class of goods for which inferior wool is used. It is exactly what its name im- plies. When a breachy staple is taken and stretched, it parts with 154 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. great ease at the middle or some portion of its length. There is a weak spot, and if the fiber is examined with a microscope, it will be found very much attenuated at that spot, and of a dull, dead appearance. From what has been already said about the structure and growth of wool, it will be easily understood that when by bad management, neglect, starvation, overfeeding, irreg- ularity in feeding, want of water, or any other evil which affects the condition or health of the sheep, the growth of the wool is temporarily stopped, even for a day, this suspension of growth must inevitably be marked by a weakness in the fiber, which can never be remedied. As the wool grows, this weak spot is carried forward, and if the evil is soon removed and the sheep recovers quickly, it is still there and there it remains. No defect is so fre- quent as this ; to avoid it, the flock must be kept with perfect regularity, and must receive no check for however short a time it may be. This involves the most skillful and careful management, which is unfortunately too rare. Regular poor feed may make an inferior staple, but one worth more than a breachy staple, which may result from one single neglect in the course of a season. Want of water causes more break in wool than any other evil to whick sheep are subjected by careless owners or ignorant shepherds. Uniformity in the fleece covers many minor defects, and to de- termine the evenness or uniformity of the fleece, the shoulder is first examined. Here the finest and best wool should be found. Taking this as the standard, the wool from the ribs, thigh, rump, and breech, is compared with it ; the nearer the latter ap- proaches this in quality, the better. If it is all equal in fineness, the fleece will be " even " in regard to fineness. If the wool on all the parts mentioned is reasonably regular in length, and near to the standard in this respect, the fleece is " even" as regards length of staple. The density is then tested. The hand is closed upon a portion of the rump and on the loin, and if the fleece is found to be as dense and elastic or springy on those parts as it is at the shoulder, the fleece is " even " as regards density. A perfect fleece will be found of nearly equal fineness from the shoulder to the thigh; of nearly equal length at the shoulder, rib, thigh, and back; of equal density on the shoulder and across the loins, and free from any of the defects before mentioned. Most of the points here indicated, both as regards defects and good qualities, refer to other wools as well as to that of the Meri- no; those points which depend on the peculiar character of Merino wool and its excessive yolkiness will be readily understood as necessarily applying to that alone, and those which depend on WASHING WOOL. 155 the organic structure of wool and the condition of the sheep, to all sorts of wool alike. Wool in its natural condition contains many impurities, dirt of all kinds, sand, dung, and the usual secretions of the skin, and be- fore it can become fitted for the uses of the manufacturer, it must be freed from these impurities. The wool-buyer, who generally comes between the farmer and the manufacturer, does not demand that the wool should be thoroughly cleanse 1, but only freed from its grosser impurities. No washing that the farmer could give his fleeces would be sufficient for the purpose of the manufacturer, who scours the wool hi hot soapsuds before he can cleanse it suffi- ciently. But nevertheless, the buyer prefers the fleeces to be partly cleansed, and this partial cleansing is what is generally known as " brook washing." WASHING THE WOOL on the sheep's back is the usual practice. There are several methods of doing this. Where a brook or river can be used for the purpose, all that is needed is to choose a place where the water is waist deep, and the bottom is gravelly. A muddy or sandy bottom is to be avoided, as it will be impossible to prevent some of the bottom from being stirred up and mingling with the fleece. Cases have been known in which such a bottom has been chosen for this purpose with the special object of adding to the weight of the fleece by the admixture of sand. It is hardly necessary to say that this mode of cheating can never be profita- ble ; if one lot of fleeces thus adulterated be palmed off upon the buyer, his remedy may be a severe one, and at the best the cheat will not be forgotten. Generally, however, buyers are not to be imposed upon, but look sharply enough after their own interests to discover all attempts at dishonesty, and to make the perpetrator pay soundly for his error. In washing and making up wool, the most thorough honesty will be found to pay well in the long run, and a reputation for fair dealing will often be found to have a direct money value, especially when the market happens to be against the seller. Soft water is to be preferred for washing wool. Hard water leaves the wool harsh and dry to the hand, and detracts from its appearance in the market. Soft water leaves the wool soft and mellow, and it more rapidly recovers it^ tone and elasticity when washed in water free from lime. The giound having oeen chosen, the sheep should be closely penned upon the bank of the stream ; the side of the pen next the stream should be narrow, with a pas- sage-way leading to the water. A plank platform, projecting over the bank, from which the sheep can be plunged directly into the 156 THE SHEPHERD'S MAKUAL. water, is very convenient. The washers enter the stream and re* ceive the sheep from the hands of the drivers, plunging them bodily beneath the surface, two or three times. In catching the sheep and handling them in the water, the assistants should avoid pulling the wool. If a sheep is hauled around by the wool, the skin is bruised, and the wool is injured and weakened at the bruised spots. To catch a sheep it should be seized with the right hand by the hind leg above the hock, firmly with the whole hand, yet without unnecessary violence. The pressure upon the sinew above the hock joint paralyses the leg for a moment, and the sheep will rarely struggle. The left hand is then slipped around the breast, and the shepherd has perfect control of the heaviest sheep, without pulling in the least upon the wool. A crook, fig. 54, is a convenient implement with which to catch wild or unruly sheep. It is quietly passed in front of the leg, which is seized and held while the shepherd secures the sheep in the way described. After the sheep is thorough- ly soaked, the animal's head is held above water, while the fleece is shaken and squeezed, so as to free it from dirt. As many as pos- sible of the tags and matted locks around the breech should be opened and cleansed. When this has been done, the sheep is _ passed to another washer, who finishes the lg< *~~ CBOOK- washing, and directs the sheep to the bank, squeezing the water from its fleece as it emerges from the stream. A clean, grassy bank should be chosen. Some long wool sheep, with heavy fleeces, which hold a great quantity of water, may need some help to get upon their feet as they reach the bank. Ewes that have not lambed should be handled carefully in the washing, although it is rarely, in well managed flocks, that ewes are allowed to be in lamb at this time. This method of washing is often very disagreeable and injurious to those who practice it. Where ague is prevalent, or where rheumatism is feared, it is better to choose some other plan. A rough dam may be made in a small stream, and a spout placed in the dam, beneath which the sheep may be washed. A sparred roadway may be laid across the stream, through which the water will escape. , By wearing rubber thigh boots, and a rubber apron, the washers may be kept dry, and avoid the danger of long con- WASHING THE SHEEP. 157 tinued exposure to chilly water. In fig. 55 is an illustration of this method of washing. For a large flock, the spout may be made to extend across the whole dam, so that several sheep may be washed at the same time, each sheep being passed from hand Fig. 55. — ARRANGEMENT F£R WASHING SHEEP. to hand, until finished by the last one. With sufficient help, one sheep per minute may easily be washed by this method. After the sheep are washed, they should be kept in a clean field, and in a clean yard at night, for the week at least before shearing, to per- 158 THE SHEPHEBD'S MANUAL. mit the fleece to dry and to regain sufficient yolk to recover a soft and mellow handling. TAGGING AND TRIMMING THE FEET. — If the sheep are very- dirty, and have not been kept trimmed about the tail, it is advisa- ble that they should be tagged before they are washed. The coarse soiled tag-locks about the hinder parts, and the belly of the rams and wethers, may be clipped off in the spring and thrown into a basket or barrel to be soaked and washed by themselves The same time will be the most convenient to trim the feet, which is a more necessary thing to do than is generally supposed. The toes of old sheep, upon soit pastures, will grow long and turn up, and cause lameness, or the soles and edges of the hoof will become ragged and worn, the horn turning under at the edges. In this condition the feet gather filth or small stones and gravel, which work into the hoof and cause disease. Foot-rot is in many cases thus engendered. The feet should then be trimmed at washing time, if not oftener. A sharp knife may be used to pare the ragged edges of the hoof and the sole, and toe nippers to shorten the toes. A pair of common wire-workers' cutting nippers may be used for the latter purpose. The edge of the nippers should be filed sharp, with the bevel on the inside, and brought to a smooth edge with a piece of oil-stone. riHEAKiNG. — Sheep should not be shorn until the weather has become warm and settled. May is the usual time for shearing in the northern states. The tools of the shearer are a pair of shears, and" if desired, a shearing-bench upon which sheep may be placed to avoid the necessity of his stooping so much as is required when the sheep are laid upon the floor. The common shears with a thumb piece upon one side, and an easy spring no stronger than will be sufficient to make the shears open freely when released from pressure, is the best tool for the shearer. Several new and patented shears have been introduced, which the inventors claim may be used even by inexperienced persons without danger of cutting the sheep's skin. A trial of these shears does not support this claim, and the common shears are not yet superseded by any of these so-called improvements. The shears should be brought to a fine, sharp edge upon a fine oil-stone. The bevel of the cut- ting edge should be about 35 degrees, or somewhat more than that of a common, pair of scissors, and less than that of a plane iron. The floor of the shearing room should be kept perfectly free from straw, chaff, or litter, and if a boy is kept constantly at work a broom in his hand removing dirt, tags, and rubbish, big SHEARING. 159 time will be well employed. The shearer has better control over the sheep when en the floor than on the bench, and the handling is not the same under both circumstances. In shearing on a bench the shearer catches the sheep by ths left hind leg, backs it towards the bench, and rolls it over upon it. He then sets the sheep on its rump, and standing with his left foot upon the bench, lays the sheep's neck across his left knee, with its right side against his body. The two forelegs are then taken under the left arm, and the fleece is opened up and down along the center of the belly by small short clips with the shears. The left side of the belly and brisket arc then sheared. The tags are clipped from the inside of the hind legs and about the breech, and thrown upon the floor. They should be swept up at once and gathered into a basket, and by no means allowed to mingle with the fleece wool. The breech is then shorn as far as can be reached. The wool from the point of the shoulder is then clipped as far as the but of the ear. The wool is shorn around the carcass and reck to the foretop, pro- ceeding down the side, taking the foreleg and going as far over the back as possible, which will be two or three inches past the back bone. When the joint of the thigh, (the stifle), is reached, the shears are inserted at the inside of the hock and the wool shorn around the leg back to the thigh joint. The wool over the rump is then shorn past the tail. The sheep is now completely shorn on one side, and two or three inches over on the other side, along the back from neck to tail. It is then taken by the left hind leg, and swung around with the back to the shearer, leaving some wool beneath the left hip, which will ease the position of the animal, and keep it more quiet. The wool is then shorn from the head and neck down the right side, taking the legs and brisket on the way. The fleece is now separated. The job is completed by clipping the tags and loose locks from the legs. To shear on the floor, the sheep is set upon its rump, with the head thrown back beneath tl c left arm of the shearer, and its back toward him. The wool is then opened at the neck, and clipped downwards in regular lines on the right side from belly to back, and over the spine as far as possible on the other side in much the same manner as has already been described. The sheep is then laid on its shorn side, and the shearer, kneeling on the left knee, and straddling the sheep, with the left foot laid over the sheep's neck, removes the fleece from the left side, and finishes by removing tag locks from the legs and scrotum. In bad shear- ing, the greatest injury to the fleece takes place on the back, and is caused by the operator not raising his hand^ so as to keep the 160 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. points of the shears close down to the skin. This is known as " cutting through ; " it takes place when the sheep is being shorn on one side ; and, in shearing over the back, the points of the shears cut nearly or quite through the fleece, from the inside to the out ; then, when the animal is being shorn on the other, or " turning out " side, the shears are again pointed upwards, and the cuts on the first and last side overlap each other, causing the fleece to part in two halves all along the back. No good shearer makes second cuts ; the fact that wool has been left by the first cut proves that the shears have not been held properly ; and the wool removed by a second cut being perfectly useless, entails a severe loss on the manufacturer, and greatly lowers the repute of the brand in the markets. Cutting through, and a habit of continually making second cuts, are the most objectionable characteristics of the unskillful shearer. A sheep may be shorn so close as to satisfy the most exacting employer, and yet it may be shorn very badly ; and the only conclusive test of good shearing, or the reverse, is to be found not on the outside of the animal, but on the inside of the fleece. When the sheep's skin has been unavoidably cut in shearing, each cut should be smeared with tar, which will prevent flesh flies from depositing their eggs in the wound, and probably avoid after trouble. It is said to be a fact that newly shorn rams are incapable ol breeding until their fleeces have recovered considerable growth. Some evidence in support of this assertion is given in a pamphlet published in Australia, in which the author, Mr. J. R Graham, the superintendent of an extensive sheep "station" on the Murray River, states that in a flock of 4,000 ewes and 100 rams newly shorn, he had but 165 lambs, and on another occasion a flock of 100 ewes, which were drafted with 4 rams, newly shorn, produced only 9 lambs. On another station when the ewes were coupled with newly shorn rams, there were not 5 per cent of lambs. This, if a fact, is more curious than important in this country, where, except in California, sheep are not shorn near the breeding season. If wool WTC not shorn, it would be shed annually, or its growth would be rsndered uneven, and its fiber weakened at .the season when the coat of an animal covered with hair is usually shed. A fleece that is suffered to grow for two seasons, shows very dis- tinctly the division between the growth of each year. This, how- ever, occurs only in those countries where the winter and summer climates differ considerably, and where the transition from one to the otner is sudden. Where the climate is nearly even throughout TYING FLEECES. 161 the year, as ir. California or Australia, the fleece will continue to grow on, without change. At least this is the case with the Meri- no, whose fleece has been known to grow to a length of 22 inches in a continuous period of six years in Australia. In California a fleece was shorn in 1874, which weighed 52 pounds; this was doubtless the result of two or three years' growth. The retention of the fleece for an indefinite period is a peculiarity of the Merino, which is not known to appertain to any other variety of sheep. PACKING THE FLEECE. — The manner in which the fleeces are made up has no little influence upon the price at which the wool 'vill sell. Wool buyers prefer to have the fleece loose, light to Fig. 56. — TABLE FOR TYING WOOL. handle, and elastic ; and tied up so that it can be easily opened if need be. The method of packing in Ohio and Western Pennsyl- vania, is to lay the fleece upon a table, turn in the head and tail, then the flanks, and roll it up in a neat roll, tying it with a string at each end. This method is shown in figure 56. Sometimes the fleece is tied with one more string across the ends, but this is rarely necessary, excepting when the wool is very short. A fleece thus tied is light, easily handled, shows the quality of the wool, and can be felt all through. The effect of the manner of putting up the fleece is seen in the following quotations taken from the wool market report of Coates Bros., Philadelphia, of July 1st, 1875. 162 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. Ohio, Pennsylvania, and W. Va. fleece 50c.@52c. New York, Michigan, and Wisconsin fleece, XX..46c.@48c. Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri fleece, XX 45c.@47c. The difference of 4 to 5 cents per pound is the value of the extra care in making up the fleeces. The difference is even greater than this, for New York, Michigan, andWisconsin wools of better qual- ity than some Ohio wools, are bought at the regular rates quoted, simply De- cause the Ohio fleeces come to market in better m shape. This is no unreasonable dis- tinction, as will be seen when the man- ner of sorting wool is explained fur- ther on. There are various kinds of wool tables for packing the fleece other than that shown in figure 56. One in common Fig. 57. — PLAN OP WOOL TABLE. use in New York is thus described in the American Agriculturist of May, 1872, with the accompanying engravings, to which the letters refer. It is made of three boards one inch thick, and twelve inches wide. The renter one, fig. 57, is divided at equal distances at a, a, and connected •with hinges open- ing upwards. The two outside boards are joined to the center square by hinges at 6, ft, ft, ft, Fi* ^.-WOOL TABLE CLOSED. also opening upwards. At c, c, c, c, screw on the springs, cutting away the wood underneath so that they may lie flush with the boards when pressed down. At tf, rf, d, cf, make a cut one inch deep PACKIKG WOOL. 163 with a thin saw, to hold the ends of the strings. A hook is made, (e, fig. 58), of hard wood, one inch thick and fourteen inches be- tween the jaws, and the box is done. To use it, first fix the strings from the cuts tf, ied by the heart and lungs, is very marked in comparison with the large abdominal space which gives ample room for the diges- tive organs. The bones of the sheep number 226, including 32 teeth. These bones are disposed as follows : Vertebral column ...................................... 43 Head, (without teeth) ........................ , ' ." 28 Teeth, (in the adult) ................................... 32 Thorax or chest .............. . ........... . ............. 27 Shoulders ........... . ................................. 2 Arms and forearms .......................... 6 Fore feet, (20 in each) ..................... .] 40 Pelvis .............................................. 2 Thighs and legs ................ . . . " g Hind feet, (19 in each) .................. | ____ !'.!!!*.'. !'. 88 The structure of the head of the sheep is such as to secure great strength. In horned sheep, the upp»r portion of the skull is more strongly built than in the polled or hornless ones. This structure is necessary to protect the brain from the shocks consequent on the mode of warfare of the rams, which are pugnacious animals, o 170 THE SHEPHERD'S MAKUAL. and especially of those which are armed with heavy horns. The skull consists of two tables or pl-ites, half an inch or more apart, the outer thick and tough, the inner hard and brittle. These plates are connected by ridges of bone, which divide the space between them into compartments called sinuses. This structure gives the skull exceeding strength and ability to resist blows and punctures by sharp substances. The bones of the head are joined together by sutures or dove-tails, which are also conducive to ex- treme strength. In this manner the brain is protected, and the horns are provided with a solid and elastic foundation. The form of the head is shown in figure 61, in which 1 is the occipital bone ; 2, parietal bone ; 3, core of right frontal bone; 4, the left core covered by its horn ; 5, superciliary foramen ; 51, channel des- cending from it ; 6, lachrymal bones ; 7, zygoma ; 8, nasal bones ; 9, supermaxili- ary bones ; 10, premaxiliary bones ; 101, its internal process; 11, incisive opening. The cavity which contains the brain is less than a third the size of the rest of the skull, the larger portion being devoted to the functions of eating and smelling. The space devoted to mastication is large, an"! the space oicupied by the nostrils, which are the breathing passages, rela- tively small. Most of the bones of the face are hollow, and are divided into sev- eral sinuses and cells by which the head is rendered light and strong. The sinuses and cells are lined with membranes which secrete mucus, and are therefore called mucous membranes. The inner cavity of the skull is lined with several membranes which still further add to its strength, and to the security of the brain. The teeth of the sheep consist of incisors or cutters, and molars or grinders. There are 8 of the former, all being upon the lower jaw, and 24 of the latter. Upon the upper jaw, in place of cutting teeth, the sheep has, in common with most of the ruminants, a cartilaginous plate or cushion, upon which the teeth of the lower jaw impinge when the mouth is closed. The sheep has no canine teeth or tusks. There is a long space of the jaws on each side be- tween the incisors and molars, which is destitute of teeth. The milk teeth, or deciduous or temporary teeth of the sheep, are twenty in number; the eight incisors on the lower jaw, and three molar teeth on each side of both jaws or twelve in all. The two Fig. 61. — BONES OF A KAM'S HEAD. THE TEETH. 171 central front teeth appear either before or soon after birth, and in about three weeks after birth, the whole of the twenty temporary teeth appear. The first change in the teeth occurs at the age of three months, when the lamb cuts a permanent molar tooth. The next change also occurs at the back of the mouth, when at nine months old, another, the second permanent molar tooth appears. At one year old the lamb has but eight permanent teeth, or two at the back of each side of each jaw. The age of fourteen months is marked by the appearance of two permanent incisor teeth at the center of the front of the jaw. In judging of the age of a sheep, the condition of the molars may be studied with advantage. If a sheep is certified to be not exceeding one year old, and the fifth molar, (the second permanent one, and the last one on each jaw), is found to be sharp on the edges and but slightly worn, the age may be regarded to be properly stated, even though the central pair of front teeth have already appeared. But if these teeth are well up and the last molar is worn and smooth, and there is a space be- tween this tooth and the angle of the jaw, the sheep is certainly over a year old. The sixth molar tooth is in its place at the age of eighteen months, and this is the only test of this age of the sheep. The second pair of front teeth, one on each side of the first pair, appear at twenty-one months of age, and at two years are fully grown and stand well up from the gum and level with the first pair. After the sixth molar is cut, the three forward and temporary molars are replaced by permanent teeth, which are fully grown at the age of twenty-seven months. At two years and a half the third pair of front teeth have become fully grown, although in some forward sheep of the quickly maturing breeds, these teeth may appear at two years of age. Generally they indi- cate an age of two years and a half. At the age of three j^ears, in the Cots wolds and other forward breeds, the fourth and last pair of front teeth appear; but in other breeds they are not present until three and a quarter or three and a half years. The sheep is then what is known as " full mouthed." The following table of the periods of dentition will be found useful in determining the age of a sheep : At one month, 8 temporary front teeth and three temporary molars on each side of each jaw. At three months, a permanent molar is added to these three. At nine months, the second permanent molar appears. At fourteen months, two permanent incisors appear, (as a, a, fig. 62). At eighteen months, the third permanent molar appears. At twenty-one months, there are four permanent incisors, ( a,ot,fig. 63) THE SHEPHERD'S MAHUAL. At twenty-seven months, the temporary molars are changed, and per manent ones appear. At thirty months, there are six permanent incisors, (a, a, fig. 61). At thirty-six to forty-two months, there are eight permanent inci- sors, (a, a, fig. 65). It has been decided in an English court of law, that a lamb be- comes a sheep when the first pair of permanent incisors have ap- <* Fig. 63. peared. When the mouth is full toothed, the sheep is considered as mature, or full grown, when the teeth begin to show signs of wear, the sheep is " aged." The composition of the bones of the sheep and of the marrow contained in their cavities differs in no respect from that of the bones and marrow of other domestic animals. Bone consists of animal matter and earthy salts ; usually in the following propor- tion, viz : phosphate of lime, 55 per cent ; carbonate of lime, 4 per cent ; phosphate of magnesia, 3 per cent ; soda, potash, and corn- Fig. 64. Fig. 65. mon salt, (chloride of sodium), 3 per cent, and 35 per cent of gela- tine. These proportions differ to some extent with the kind of bone, its solidity, and the age and condition of the animal from •which it is taken. The bones of the skeleton are joined together by means of cartilages, or ligaments, which form what are known as articulations. Where the bones move one upon another, their ends, or the parts brought in contact, are covered with cartilage. Every bone is enveloped in a highly sensitive lining or membrane called the periosteum. Although the bones seem to be solid and insensible matter, chiefly composed of earthy salts, yet they are highly sensitive, and are formed of tissue which is penetrated by THE STRUCTURE OF BONE. 175 an infinite number of minute canals known as the Hawrsian canals which are from YJOO to '/asooth of an inch in diameter. These canals are parallel to the length of the bone, and frequently communicate together, forming an intricate net-work, which may be seen when a section of the bone made lengthwise is highly magnified, as shown in figure 66. In a cross-section of the bone these canals appear as at fig. 67, being surrounded by concentric layers, a, through which radiating tubes, £>, of the minutest size, penetrate. The periosteum is a highly vascular and nervous membrane which covers the entire bone, except the cartilagi- nous surfaces which move upon each other at the joints. It connects the outer surface of the bones with the tendons, ligaments, and muscles. The marrow is a fatty, pulpy sub- stance, which fills the central canals and the spongy tissue of the bones. It is pink in color, and contains merely a trace of fat in young animals, but as age ad- vances, it becomes yellow and less solid, and contains 96 per cent of fat. The bones are penetrated and lined within and without with numerous arteries, veins, and nerves. Some of these arteries penetrate the bones by appropriate openings, and divide into branches which form a net- work that lines the inner surface of the bones, and another that penetrates the substance of the marrow. Other arteries penetrate the spongy portions of the bones, and others form a net-work which belongs to the periosteum, and which Fig. 66. — THE HAVERSIAN CANALS. enter the substance of the bones by means of the Haversian canals. Veins accompany these Fig. 67.— CROSS-SECTION OF BONE. arteries, and are very numerous where the spongy tissue is abundant. Nerves are abundant in the marrow and the spongy tissue, but few in the compact tissue. Portions of the vertebra? are remarkable for the numerous nerves they contain. By means of the arteries and 174 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. veins, the bones receive nutriment and means of growth or repair, and by means of the nerves they become sensitive. The skeleton or frame work is clothed with flesh or muscular tissue. The muscles consist of bundles of fibers which possess the power of contraction when excited by sensations communicated by the nerves. The muscles are very diversified in shape, some being spread out in fan shape, some being thick and bulky, and some long and thin. The fibers are intermingled with fat or with cellular membrane. It is in the abundance of the cells which con- tain the fat, and in the power to assimilate food to supply the fat, that a sheep of a good breed or character is distinguished from one of a poor or bad character. The abundance of fat cells both within and upon the surface of the muscles gives the soft mellow hand- ling which distinguishes an excellent mutton sheep. The muscles are either directly connected by the ends of their fibers to the peri- osteum or covering membrane of the bone, as in the scapula or shoulder blade ; or the ends are gathered together closely and in- terlaced with the stronger fibers of the tendons or ligaments which are attached to the bones. By the contraction of the fibers of the muscles and tendons, the movements of the joints are made. In the muscular portions of the sheep consists the whole value of the carcass to the butcher, and the whole art of the breeder and feeder of those heavy-bodied breeds, known as mutton sheep, is concentrated in the effort to increase the muscular development in those parts of the carcass, as the loins and legs, the meat of which is most highly valued. The muscles are enclosed in the ekin which forms the covering of the animal. The protecting coat of the animal grows upon the skin. This is either hair or wool, both being of similar construction and composition, differing only in form or degree of fineness and texture. The brain occupies the cavity of the skull, and is the central seat of sensation and intelligence. From it proceeds the spinal marrow, •which is a continuation of the brain, and which occupies a cavity through the center of the spine or backbone, from the head to the tail. The brain is largely supplied with blood by means of the carotid arteries, and the jugular veins serve to return the blood fr m the brain to the heart and lungs. In the sheep the brain is very small as compared with the size of the body, its average weight being but 4£ ounces, while that of the dog is 6£ ounces. This difference in the development of brain reasonably accounts for the superior intelligence of the shepherd dog, one of which easily controls and guides the movements of a thousand sheep. , The nerves proceed from the brain and spinal cord, and pen ) THE VITAL FUNCTIONS. 175 trate in a net-work of the most astonishing fineness to the remot- est portion of the body, every portion of which, however minute, being endowed by the nerves with the faculty of sensation. In the sheep there are forty pairs of nerves, ten of which proceed from the brain, and thirty from the spinal cord. Each of these has its plexus, or system of branches and net-work. The nerves con- sist of bundles of white filaments or threads. The different senses, sight, smell, hearing, taste, and touch, are supplied by the nerves, which proceed directly from the brain. Another important brain nerve is the par vagum, or pneumo-gastric nerve, which proceeds to the heart, lungs, stomach, liver, and the bronchial or breathing apparatus. It is this nerve which gives the breathing, circulating, and digestive organs their power of motion independent of the will. Any injury or disease of this nerve affects these vital func- tions, and its division or destruction occasions instant death. The spinal nerves convey both sensation and motion. The spinal cord of the sheep weighs one ounce and three-quarters. The vital functions of an animal are respiration, circulation, and digestion or nutrition. By the first the system is supplied with oxygen, which is one of the sources of animal heat and is the agent by which the blood is purified. By the second, the tissues or living structure of the animal are supplied with nutriment and relieved from dead and used up matter, and by the last the blood is replenished with fresh supplies of nutritive elements. Respiration commences at the moment of birth and continues to the moment of death. It consists of an inspiration or in-drawing and an expiration or out-forcing of air. The motions necessary to these alternate actions are made by the diaphragm, a membrane which divides the chest from the abdomen. When this membrane is relaxed it is convex or rounded towards the chest. When its fibers contract, it is straightened or flattened, and of course en- larges the cavity of the chest and causes a rush of air to fill the enlarged space. This alternate contraction and relaxing of the muscles of the diaphragm cause the motion of the chest, which is observed in breathing. A corresponding movement is also made in the abdomen, as may be noticed in the flanks of hard driven animals. The lungs occupy the largest portion of the cavity of the chest, and enfold the heart. They are two in number, the left and the light ; the left lung is divided into two parts, called lobes ; the right is divided into four lobes, of which one is curved around the heart. Fig. 68 shows this peculiarity, 1, 1, being the right lung ; 2, 2, the left : 3, the trachea or windpipe ; 4, the heart ; 5, the carotid arteries ; and 6, the vena cava, or great vein which 176 THE SHEPHESD'S MANUAL. carries the blood which has circulated through the body to the heart, from which it is forced to the lungs for purification. The lungs are composed of a spongy, highly elastic mass of cells. "When the cavity of the chest is enlarged by the contraction of the diaphragm, this elastic mass swells and fills the cavity. The cells enlarge, and vacuums are formed in them to fill which a stream of air is immediately directed. The air rushes through the nostrils into the trachea or windpipe, and thence into the bronchial tubes, which penetrate the mass of the lungs in all direc- tions, as the branches and twigs of a tree. By these bronchial tubes, air is carried into every portion of the lungs, where it meets the blood brought thither from every extremity of the body by means of the vena cava through the heart. In this contact the blood, loaded with impurities, and deprive;! of the oxygen which is needed for the support of the "body, parts with its load of offensive matter, and takes up from the air whatever oxygen it requires to re- store it to a state of purity, and to enable it to fulfill the functions of circulation once more. The air having performed this office, is expelled from the lungs by the relaxing of the muscles of the diaphragm, and is expired. The expired air is highly charged with carbonic acid and vapor of water, nearly the whole of its oxygen having been absorbed by the blood. It is also charged with other products of the constant decomposition or waste of the tissues of the body, or of unnecessary matters which have entered the circulation through the digestive organs. Circulation consists in the constant motion of the blood from the heart through the arteries to the inner and outer surface of the body, and through every tissue of which the body is composed ; thence back by the veins to the heart ; thence to the lungs, where it is purified and fitted to again serve for the nutrition of the body ; it is then sent from the lungs to the ^eart to start again upon its round to the extremities. The blood is the most important part in the system of an animal. It consists of a white fluid colored red by very small globules, Fig. 68. — THE LUNGS EN- VELOPING THE HEART. THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 177 called the blood corpuscles. From the blood the tissues of the body derive materials for their nutrition, growth, or repair, and for their secretions. The blood is replenished with new matter from the digestive organs, which dissolve and prepare the food for this purpose. To carry on circulation, an apparatus is pro- vided which consists of the heart, the arteries, the capillaries which form the connecting link between the extremities of the smallest branches of the arteries and those of the veins ; the veins ; the ar- teries of the lungs ; the lungs with their capillaries, and the veins of the lungs. There is thus a double circulation as it were, which may be readily understood by a reference to tne diagram, fig. 69, in which C J) represents the left auricle of the heart, which forces the blood through the arteries IS, in the direction of the arrows to the tine net- work of the capillaries; then to the veins F, and Fig. 69.— DIAGRAM OF THE CIRCULATION, thence to the right auricle of the heart, A B. From this it is forced through the right ventricle which opens from the right auricle into the pulmonary artery G, still following the course indicated by the arrows, into the net-work of the capillaries of the lungs, from which it is conveyed by the pulmonary vein Ht into the left ventricle, whence it passes to the left auricle, on the saui6 course over again. The heart is a mass of very strong muscular fiber, having the four cavities just mentioned, and being supplied with valves which regulate the flow of the blood. The muscles of the heart contract and expand with regularity, performing what we usmlly term its u beats," four times or thereabouts for every inspiration of the lungs. In a young sheep the heart beats 80 to 90 times in a minute ; a full grown one, 70 to 80 times, and in a very old one, 55 to 60 times. At each contraction the blood is forced through the arteries and their branches to the capillaries. These capillaries are exceedingly small, being from Yaooo to Yssooth part of an inch in diameter, and inosculate or join together again and again, forming a net- work of the closest character, so close that the finest needle cannot penetrate the skin or membranes any- where without wounding one or more of them, and causing an escape of blood. "White circulating in this net- work of capillaries, the blood gives up to the tissues amongst which it circulates, the materials needed for their growth and increase, and also to sup- 178 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. ply the waste of matter caused by every mechanical movement of the animal; for every contraction of the libers of the muscles causes a decomposition and destruction of some portion of their substance. Hence is explained the waste of matter or loss of weight caused by excessive exertion or insufficient food. Here the blood also absorbs the dead, used up matter created by this de- composition and destruction of tissue, and carries it off from the system. This it does by means of the skin, the kidneys, and the lungs, through which the blood is filtered as it were of matters useless to the system by means of these capillaries ; and the excre- tions of perspiration both sensible and insensible, that of the urine, with some others, are thus thrown off. In this manner the blood becomes depleted of its nutritive properties, and absorbs the wastes of the system in its intricate course through these infinitely small capillaries. It enters them from the arteries a bright red, and leaves them a dark, blackish purple fluid. It courses onwards through the veins loaded with impurities, to the lungs, which it enters still a dark fluid ; here it passes through a second set of capillaries much finer than the former, in which it is exposed to pure air contained in the cells of the lungs ; the carbonaceous mat- ters it contains come in contact with the oxygen of the air, and are decomposed, burned in fact, giving forth the heat needed for the continuance of life ; when the blood thus rendered pure, leaves the lungs a bright red once more, again fitted to fulfill its func- tions. Before entering into the lungs, the blood receives a new supply of matter from the lymphatic vessels, called lymph, which is derived from the digested food. The vessel which conveys the lymph or chyle, is called the thoracic duct, and passes upwards into the cavity of the chest in close contact with the vertebrae or spine. The temperature of the blood of the healthy sheep is 100°. The blood is now believed to possess vitality ; while its circulation exists it is fluid, and when it is dead it coagulates. The cause of the coagulation of the blood is not known, and there is a difference between its coagulation in and out of the body. If a part of the body be wounded, the blood which escapes from the divided ves sels, coagulates between the edges of the wound, forms a clot of organized material, throws out new vessels, and gradually restores the wounded parts. It is this coagulating property which saves the life of a wounded animal and directly leads to recovery ; if the blood remained fluid, the least wound would cause a flow which would not stop until the vessels were empty and the animal dead. The constituents of the blood are exactly those of flesh. Digestion is the process by which fpoq! is taken into the body, DIGESTION. 179 masticated, dissolved by the stomach and intestines, and rendered fit for absorption by the lacteals and lymphatics, and assimilation by the blood. The parts concerned in digestion are the lips, teeth, and tongue, the salivary glands, the gullet, the stomach, the intes- tines, the liver, the lacteals, and the thoracic duct which connects the digestive process with the direct function of circulation and nutrition. The lips are used by the sheep in gathering its food, very much as they are used by the horse, and to a much greater ex- tent than by the ox. The sheep's lips are thin, and very active in their movement. The upper lip is divided by a groove, or fissure, so that each half can be moved independently of the other. The sheep possesses no muffle or broad space between the nostrils on the upper lip, which in health secretes a liquid which appears in small drops upon its surface, as in the ox. The teeth have been already described. Their office is well known. The tongue serves to convey the food to the teeth, and from the teeth to tb« gullet, and also the cud from the gullet to the teeth. The salivary glands secrete a fluid which moistens the food during mastication, and which also possesses some of the character of a solvent, or a pre- paratory digestive agent, in being able to convert starch into solu- ble dextrine and sugar, and thus prepare it for digestion by the stomach. The glands are three in number, and are named the parotid, the submaxillary, and the sublingual. The first is situated at the outside of the angle of the lower jaw ; the second is placed on the inside of the lower jaw, near the angle ; and the third is beneath the tongue. Ducts from these glands give out the saliva naturally whenever the membranes of the mouth are excited by the presence of food ; or unduly, as in some diseases which cause an excessive secretion of the fluid. The gullet conveys food or drink from the mouth to the stomach. The pharynx is the upper part of the gullet, by which it is connected with the mouth. It is separated from the larynx, the entrance into the windpipe or air passage, by a cartilaginous lid called the epiglottis, which, when food is swallowed, closes the larynx and allows the food to slide over it. The pharynx, gullet, stomach and intestines, together form what is termed the alimentary canal. The gullet, also called the oesophagus, is a very strong, muscular tube, lined with insensi- ble white membrane. The fibers of the muscles run spirally around the tube, in opposite directions, and thus cross each other. By the contraction of these muscles, gradually extending down- wards, food is carried into the stomach ; while by their contrac- tion in an upward direction, the food is brought back to the to t>e masticated the second time in the process, of rumina- 180 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. Fig. 70. — BIGHT SIDE OF THE STOMACH. tion. The food taken up by the lips and teeth is ground and mixed with saliva in the mouth, passed backwards by the action of the tongue to the gullet, and then forced into the stomach. The stomach of the sheep consists of a large irregular sac or pouch, divided into four compartments, generally referred to as distinct stomachs, or the first, second, third, and fourth stomachs, (see figs. 70, 71, and 72), or the rumen or paunch, seen at £; the reticulum or honey- comb, c ; the omasum or manyplies, d-, and the abomasum, or rennet, or true digestive stomach, e. The gul- let is seen at a, and the duodenum at /. The functions of the stomachs of the ruminating animals are known only somewhat obscurely. Anatomy only teaches their form and charac- ter, and leaves all the rest in doubt, or to be decided by experiment and observation. From the structure of the stomachs we are able to form a generally complete idea of the process of digestion which goes on within them ; of some of the details there is nothing certain as yet to offer. The first two stomachs are placed parallel to each other, and the gullet ends almost equally in each, as seen at a, in fig. 72, which shows the inside formation of the stomachs. The second stomach, c, communicates with the third by the oesophagean canal, g, which opens into the third stomach, (not seen in figs. 70 and 71), and ends there. The fourth stomach is connected with the third by a distinct opening. The paunch, b, is the largest compartment, being four times the capacity of the other three together. It is divided into four in- complete compartments by muscular walls, and is lined with a membrane covered by a multitude of soft pillars compressed closely together, which make an uneven surface. The second stomach, c, is lined with cells having five or six sides from which it takes the common name, the honeycomb. These two compartments, or stomachs, are in reality one, the latter being Fig. 71.— LEFT SIDE OF THE STOMACH. THE STOMACH. 181 limply an appendage of the former. The oesophagean canal which leads from the second stomach to the third, performs a very im- portant function in the act of rumi- nation, or it is supposed with reason so to do, as will be explained further on. The third stomach or "manyplies," in the sheep the smallest of the stom- achs, is lined with a number of leaves or folds, placed lengthwise, by which the surface is greatly increased. The fourth stomach joins the third, and communicates with it by an opening immediately opposite to the oesopha- gean orifice. The fourth stomach is lined with a membrane which secretes Fig. 72.— INTERIOR OP THB the gastric juice, the true digestive STOMACH. solvent. It opens directly into the duodenum or small intestine. Rumination, or chewing the cud, is a process which distinguishes a class of animals, known as ruminants, from all others. For the performance of this process the complicated stomach above de- scribed is provided. To understand this important alimentary process, it is necessary to ascertain first, into which of the stom- achs the food passes after its first mastication ; second, in what manner and by what process the food is rejected by these stom- achs and returned to the mouth for a second mastication ; third, to which of the stomachs is the food finally transmitted for com- plete digestion. Soms careful experiments, by the French physiologist, Flourens, have to a great extent determined these questions ; and the com- parative anatomist, Chauveau, has summed up the functions of the stomachs of ruminants as ascertained from every modern source of information as follows : 1st. The rumen is a sac in which the food swallowed during feeding time is held in reserve, and is softened, and whence it is carried to the mouth during rumination. 2nd. The reticulum partakes of the functions of the rumen, to •which it plays the part of an accessory or reservoir ; the food con- tamed in it being always diluted by a larger quantit}'- of water. 3rd. The wsopTiagean canal carries into the omasum the food swallowed the second time, or after rumination, or even those por- tions of food which the animal swallows in very small quantity and in a finely divided or softened condition the first time. 182 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL* 4th. The omasum completes the maceration or reduction of the food to a sufficiently fine condition for digestion, by pressing it between its leaves. 5th. The abomasum is the true digestive stomach, and finally dissolves the food by its gastric secretion. ,ln these processes the cesophagean canal performs a peculiar func- tion. The ordinary food of the ruminating animal is coarse in texture, and when swallowed is bulky. When it enters into the stomach and meets the opening of the cesophagean canal, it forces open, by its bulk, the muscular lips of which the opening is com- posed, and drops partly into the first, and partly into the second stomach. M. Flourens has satisfied himself, by careful experi- ments upon a living sheep, that when the animal ruminates, a por- tion of the food swallowed previously and now contained in the first and second stomachs — which are really one — is forced by a contraction of the stomach into the cesophagean canal, and this then contracting, closes all the other openings except that of the gullet, and at the same time compresses the morsel of food into a pellet or ball, which is immediately forced by the upward muscular con- traction of the gullet into the mouth. When it has been chewed and mingled with the copious secretion of saliva which takes place during rumination, it is again swallowed. Being now softened and in a semi-liquid condition, it passes over the lips of the open- ing of the canal, without forcing them apart, into the second stomach, and enters the third stomach ; a small portion of it only escaping into the first and second stomachs. When fine or semi- liquid food is first swallowed, it follows exactly the same course, the same being true of water when drank. From the third stom- ach the food passes on to the fourth stomach to be finally disposed of. It has been found that the pellets of food, returned to the mouth for rumination, are of the precise size, shape, and form of the portion of the cesophagean canal between the first and third stomachs. Sheep have been dissected with these pellets ready formed in the canal for transmission to the mouth. The intestines of the sheep are of great length, being twenty- eight times longer than its body. In the duodenum, which is the upper portion of the intestines that directly communicates with the lower orifice of the stomach, the partially digested mass of food undergoes still further changes. As it passes from the stom- ach it is termed chyme. In the duodenum the chyme is mingled with the bile, which comes from the liver, and the pancreatic juice, a secretion of the pancreas, or " sweet-bread," and becomes fitted THE LIVER, 183 for absorption by the lacteals which communicate with the intes- tines. It is now termed chyle, and is a white milky fluid which enters the thoracic duct and mingles with the blood as previously described. The refuse and insoluble portion of the food, with un- used portions of the bile pass on through the lower intestines, and is discharged by the rectum as dung. The liver is a large organ with the appearance of which almost every person is familiar. It is called a gland, because its office is to secrete a fluid which is peculiar to it, and it is the largest gland in the body. Its secretion is called the bile. Its position in the body is below the diaphragm and adjacent to the stomachs, with the third of which it is in direct contact. It is enveloped in the peritoneum or membrane which covers and also encloses the whole of the contents of the abdomen, and forms as it were a sac or bag, one-half of which is doubled into the other half. The liver in sub- stance is granular, consisting of grains, or lobules, from one-tenth to one-twentieth of an inch in diameter. Its color is reddish brown. The lobules of which it is composed are closely packed, and are held together by fine tissue and a net-work of minute veins and ducts. Each lobule is connected with a blood vessel at its base, and another vessel comes from the center of the lobule and joins the former one at its base. Between these two is an exceedingly fine net-work of capillary vessels similar to those pre- viously described. By means of arteries and veins called portal canals, which enter and ramify through the substance of the liver, the blood is carried into and through the substance of each lobule in streams of exceeding fineness. From the blood thus passing through the lobules, the gall or bile is secreted by small cells not ex- ceeding Yioooth of an inch in diameter, and is collected into minute vessels called biliary ducts, from which it is gathered into larger ducts, which pour their contents into the great bile ducts. There is a receptacle in the liver of the sheep known as the gall-bladder, to Which the gall is carried from the hepatic duct by another duct named the cystic duct. When the gall contained in the gall-blad- der is required for use, it returns by the same duct into the hepatic duct, and thence into the great bile duct which ends in the duo- denum, below the stomach. The gall is an alkaline fluid of composite character, containing soda, two peculiar acids, (glycocholic and taurocholic, the latter of which contains sulphur) ; mucus ; cholesterine ; stearic, oleic, and lactic acids, with potash and ammonia, and a peculiar coloring matter. It is in fact a sort of liquid soap. The bile is poured ipto the duodenum by the great bile duct. Near this duct is 184 THE SHEPHERD'S MAHTJAL. another from which flows the secretion of the pancreas of sweet-bread. This fluid is slightly alkaline and very similar to the saliva. Its office is supposed to be to change the undissolved starch in the chyme into sugar, and to form an emulsion with the oil or fat of the food, and prepare it for absorption directly into the blood or into the lacteals. The office of the gall is to neutral- ize the acidity of the chyme derived from the gastric juice, which is an acid fluid, to assist in the transformation of starch into su- gar, and the absorption of oil or fat. It is the chief agent in changing the chyme of the stomach into the chyle, which is the perfected source of nutrition of the blood. The perfect action of the liver is therefore absolutely necessary to the sustenance and the life of the animal. The quantity of gall secreted by the liver of the sheep every twenty-four hours is from 3 to 5 pounds. The whole of this, however, is not destroyed in the performance of its office, but a large portion is taken into the system in the circula- tion, the surplus being regained from the blood by the secreting cells of the liver and again returned for duty to the intestines. Another office of the liver is to prepare crude albuminous matter of the blood for final absorption into it. It is also able to form sugar from other carbonaceous matters conveyed to it in the chyle absorbed by the lacteal vessels. Thus the liver acts as a filter, in separating detrimental matters from the blood, besides supplying a necessary agent in digestion, as well as for respiration. Its im- portance in the animal functions cannot be over-estimated. The lacteals are a series of small absorbent vessels which form a net-work in connection with the coats of the intestines, and pro- ceed to the thoracic duct, where they terminate. They exist much more numerously in connection with the small intestines than with the lower ones. Their chief seat is the mesentery, which is the thin membrane which supports the small intestines. The lac- teals enter the numerous glands of the mesentery, and pass through them, uniting to form larger vessels and becoming fewer and fewer in number, being finally reduced to two or three ducts which end in the thoracic duct. The lacteals absorb the chyle, which is presented to them in the intestines, convey it to the glands in which it is enriched and perfected, and thence convey it to the vessels which terminate in the duct from which the new nutri- tive matter is poured into the large vein near its junction with the heart, to enter into the circulation. The chyle is very similar in its composition to the blood, differ- ing from it chiefly in the absence of coloring matter, or the red globules which give the color to the blood. It coagulates ou THE EXCRETORY ORGAKS. 185 being allowed to rest, although the clot is softer than that of the blood. The thoracic duct extends from the loins to the neck, and its course is along the spine. It is the principal trunk of the absorb- ent system, and, as has been explained, is the connecting link be- tween the digestive organs and the circulatory system, as the pul- monary artery and vein is the connecting link between the circu- latory and respiratory system. Ike spleenis another organ which is very important, as being the seat of a rather obscurely understood disease, known as splenic apoplexy. It consists of a spongy mass of tissue of a mottled blue or purplish gray color. It is suspended near the great curvature of the stomach, but of its functions nothing is precisely known. It is supposed to act as a reservoir of blood for the portal vein ; it is also supposed to destroy the red globules of the blood, as it has been discovered to contain blood globules in a state of decom- position. It is, however, known that, in the course of researches to discover the uses of this gland, animals from which it has been removed have recovered from the operation, and have continued to live in apparent good health. The fact of its engorgement with blood in the disease of ruminants known as splenic fever or apoplexy, and its increase of volume in certain bilious disorders, wrould tend to show that its functions are in some way closely connected with the circulation, and perhaps with the digestive processes and nutrition. The Urinary or Excretory Organs.— The urine is separated from the arterial blood by the kidneys. These organs, with the liver and the lungs, are employed in the purification of the blood. The liver separates compounds abounding in hydrogen, the lungs those which abound in carbon, and the kidneys those abounding hi ni- trogen. The nitrogen eliminated through the kidneys exists in tlie form of urea, a crystalline substance which readily decomposes and gives off its nitrogen in the form of ammonia. There are two kidneys, one each side of the spinal column. The kidneys are attached firmly to the loins ; in the sheep they are shaped like a bean, and are imbedded in fat. They perform a double office, or two separate functions, one being to discharge from the blood any excess of water that may accumulate in it ; the other being to rid the blood of excess of saline matter and the products that result from the waste of the tissues. The blood enters the kidneys by arteries, and the urine, separated as by a filter, through a very com- plex system of capillaries, flows into two white ducts termed ure- ters, which pass it onwards to the bladder. The urine oi th« 186 TEE SHEPHERD'S MAKITAL. sheep is not so copious as that of the cow in proportion to il but possesses a larger proportion of salts. The following is an analysis of sheep's urine : Water 96.0 per cent. Urea with some albuminoids and coloring matter 2.8 " " Salts of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, silica, iron, alumina, and manganese 1.2 " " 100.00 " In fig. 73 is shown a section of the substance of the kidney highly magnified, in which appear the urinif erous, (urine carrying) ducts or tubes, (a, «), surrounded by the secreting glandular sub- stance, (ft, ft), which is enclosed in the net-work of the arteries, (ct c), and the fibrous tissue, (d, d). The bladder is situated in the pelvic cavity, or the lower part of the abdomen. It is composed of two coats, the outer one being muscular, and capable of contracting so as to expel its contents. One half is enveloped in a third coat, and the other half in the tissue of the pelvic region, and masses of fatty matter. The mus- cular coat consists of fibers placed in various directions, lengthwise, crosswise, oblique, and spiral, so that in the act of contraction the blad- der is reduced in size Fig. 73.— STBTTCTUKE OP THE KIDNEY. evenly and in every direction. A strong muscle encircles the opening, from which the urine is discharged, and which is called the neck of the bladder. The contraction of this muscle closes the neck and retains the contents, its relaxation opens the orifice and allows the contents to be ex- pelled. From the neck of the bladder proceeds the urethra, by which the urine is discharged. In the ewe the urethra is very short, in the ram it is much longer, and passes down from the anus along the abdomen to the extremity of the penis. The func- tions of the bladder are very important. It serves as a reservoir for the urinal fluid which is constantly secreted by the kidneys and retains it until a considerable quantity has been accumulated, and thus spares the animal from otherwise continually dribbling away the urine as it is secreted. ; %he Reproductive Organs.— These are entirely different in the THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAKS. 187 Jnale and female. The female organs are more abundantly devel- oped than those of the male, and have more intricate functions to fulfill. They consist of two secreting organs called ovaries, which are charged with the elaboration of the ovum or egg ; the uterine tube through which the ovum passes on leaving the ovary; the uterus or womb in which it rests after its impregnation, and in which it remains until it is fully developed ; and the vagina or canal through which the foetus or young animal when perfected is discharged. In addition there are two mammae or milk-producing glands enclosed in the skin, and attached to the lower part of the abdomen and inner parts of the thighs, each of which has a set of secreting glands and milk ducts flowing into a tube which has its orifice in the teat. These milk glands are called the udder. The ovum is a cell about Viooth of an inch in di- ameter, which is contained in another cell or ovisac, of which the ovaries contain a certain number. At stated periods called the 03strum or condition of " heat," the ovaries become excited and distended, and discharge one (or more) of these ovisacs, which, par- taking of the condition of the ovaries, becomes distended and bursts, releasing the ovum, which, when it is brought into contact with the impregnating fluid of the male in the uterine tube, undergoes a change, enters into the uterus, and in course of time becomes a living animal. When the female is not brought into connection with the male at the season of heat, the ovum undergoes no change, but passes on to the uterus, where it is absorbed. The impregna- ted ovum, when it reaches the uterus, becomes grafted upon its lining membrane and draws directly from the mother's blood the materials for its development. In the male the reproductive organs consist of two glands, which in the ram are suspended in a sac between the thighs. This sac is called the scrotum. The glands, called the testicles or testes, are each enclosed in four envelopes, being separate and distinct from each other. One of these envelopes is a portion of the peritoneum or lining of the abdomen, which descends through an opening in the abdomen. This opening remains afterwards, and it is thus that in castrating the ram, the inflammation which often takes place, spreads into the abdomen and destroys the animal. The glands are oval in shape, and consist of a grayish pulp. They are attached to the spermatic cord and artery, and their function is to secrete the spermatic or impregnating fluid, which is alkaline, and contains minute filaments not larger than y6ooo to Ysoooth of an inch in length. These filaments possess the power of independent for some days after their expulsion from the organs of , 188 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. the male. A canal or duct called the vas deferens, leads from the testes to the outward and exposed male organ. In the ram this organ has at its extremity a small spiral appendage called the vermiform, (or worm-like), appendage. This has a very narrow orifice, and is often on this account the seat of obstructions which are difficult to remove. The testicles of the ram are very large in proportion to its size, and the whole reproductive powers are highly vigorous, enabling him, when well nourished, to serve effectively a hundred ewes hi a season. OBSERVATIONS ON THE DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. In judging of the symptoms of disease in the sheep, it is neces- sary to take into account the nature, constitution, and habits of this animal. The diseases of the sheep are numerous and more generally fatal than those of other domestic animals. The diges- tive organs of the sheep are largely and powerfully developed, and its capacity for the production of blood is very great. Yet its needs for this large supply of blood is not to support its nervous system, which is feebly developed, nor its muscular exertion, of which it is incapable to any great extent, nor its circulation, which is only of inferior amount, but the surplus must necessarily go to the production of flesh, fat, and wool. In the sheep, therefore, the production of flesh, fat, and wool, is the chief of its functions, and the greater part of its vitality is expended in this way, leaving but a small amount to sustain the comparatively weak vascular system. The sheep is unable to sustain severe muscular labor ; and slow movement, except for very limited periods, is all that it is capable of. -From the small brain development of the sheep, its weak nervous and circulating system, it is to a great extent free from diseases of an inflammatory character. From the large exercise of its digestive powers, it is to be expected that diseases of the di- gestive organs should be frequent and serious, and this we find to be the case. From the same causes that render it compara- tively free from diseases of an irritating character, it with more than usual readiness succumbs to those in which debility and the exhaustive effects of parasites are the chief features. Indeed it is to the attacks of parasites, both external and internal, that sheep owe their most troublesome and fatal disorders. Infectious or contagious diseases have greater scope for action amongst sheep than amongst other domestic animals, by reason of their gathering together in large flocks, and thus being more exposed to unwhole- THE DISEASES OF SHEEP. 189 »ome influences than those animals which are usually kept singly, or which when kept in large numbers, naturally break up into small separate herds. The structure of the foot, and the manner of the growtu of the crust and sole are such as to subject it to dis- ease in thai organ from which other animals are free. In the management ot a flock of sheep, it is necessary to bear in mind the peculiarities and habits, so that the watchful care of the shepherd may be given as far as possible to exercise precautions which may prevent disease, fortunately our climate is so well adapted to these peculiarities and habits, that our flocks suffer from far fewer diseases than those ot other less favorable climates, and at present many diseases prevalent in other countries are unknown to us ex- cept by report. Precautions to be effective must be intelligently exercised, and it is only by thoroughly understanding his flock that the shepherd can know what to avoid and what to do. The symptoms which indicate approaching disease should be instantly recognized, or the threatened danger cannot be averted. Then the timely remedy may be employed, which is rarely ineffective, while that which comes later is rarely serviceable or effective. The remedies to be administered must be consistent with the peculiar- ities of the sheep. Possessing but a weak vascular and nervous system, and a small supply of circulating blood, bleeding is rarely called for, and can be employed only with danger of doing harm in place of good. For the same reason tonic and stimulating med- icines are more frequently needed, and may be given in larger doses. Purgatives, especially saline ones, for the same reason, always demand an accompanying stimulant. Purgatives are frequently called for, as the digestive organs so abundantly developed and largely exercised, are readily dis- eased or disordered, and disturbance of the system rarely occurs without sympathetically or otherwise involving those organs. The veterinarian used to study the diseases of the horse, and to apply his reasoning to the peculiarities of that animal, is too apt to lose si^ht of the vast surface of the stomachs of the sheep, the in- sensibility of much of this surface, and the fact that medicine ad- ministered with the food or in solid form, will most probably fall into the rumen, where it will be ineffective. So too the shepherd, who consults veterinary works, will be misled to a great extent, and be induced to believe the too common idea that it is folly to physic a sheep, and the best treatment is to cut its throat at once. In treating sheep, purgatives are useful to reduce fever, to lower Inflammation, and to restore tone to the stoma'ch and liver. They Should always be given in a liquid, form. Of all the purgatives, 190 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. Spsom Salts and Linseed Oil (always raw) are the most suitable and effective. The action of stimulants given along with a purga- tive is always beneficial. Stimulants, of which Ginger, Gentian, Aniseed, and Pepper- mint-oil are the most usual and useful, restore the tone of the stomachs and excite them to action, thus aiding in the operation of the purgative, which might otherwise still further enfeeble them. Bleeding, when it is necessary in the outset of inflammatory dis- orders or local excitements, should be performed by operating on the veins under the eye (see fig. 76) or the ear ; the inside of the fore arm is a convenient place ; when a large quantity is to be taken, the jugular vein of the neck may be opened by first cut- ting off some of the wool, pressing the vein with the finger, and cutting it lengthwise — never crosswise — with a sharp lancet. Never less than two ounces or a wine-glassful should be taken, and rarely more than half a pint. In referring to the diseases hereinafter treated of, as far as possible, the causes to which they may generally be attributed, with the means of prevention, will be given. The remedies men- tioned will be those to be given to a full-grown animal, for lambs, one-half or less of the doses should be given, and for very young lambs, still less should be given. The most prolific causes of disease are over-feeding, under-feed- ing, irregularity of feeding, want of water, drinking impure water, impure air, damp, and over-driving. If these were avoided there would be but little complaint of the frequent troubles, difficulties, and losses in keeping sheep. While they exist, medicine, at the best, is but a temporary expedient, effective only during the time in which extra care is used. When this care is allowed to relapse the trouble will infallibly recur. CAUSES, PREVENTION, AND TREATMENT, OF DISEASES COMMON TO SHEEP. DISEASES OP THE RESPIRATORY ORWANB. Catarrh is very common during the fall, winter, and spring. It will be found on close observation to be rarely absent in any flock. In our diy climate, subject, however, to sudden changes of temper- ature, catarrh, or cold, is mostly due to exposure to damp in open yards, or to too hisrh a temperature in sheds or pens, rather than to exposure to the weather |n open fields. Flocks that are more care- DISEASES OF THE LTJHGS. 191 fully tended and housed than usual, are found to be more subject to it than others. Of two flocks equally well fed, but one of which is carefully shut up every night and protected (?) from every draft of fresh ah', and another whose bed is the snow in an open, airy, dry yard, it will be the first that will be troubled with cough and discharge from the nose, while the latter will be free from it. flTresh. air, ample ventilation in partly open sheds, dry yards and 'clean, dry bedding, and protection from chilling rain-storms in , winter, with whatever protection may be needed immediately after shearing, should the weather be cold and rainy, will generally be •#mply sufficient to prevent any trouble from this complaint. Chas- ing by dogs and consequent over-heating, and over-driving, are certain causes, and these should be carefully avoided. The judg- ment of the shepherd should be exercised in exceptional cases, act- ing always under the general rule that dry cold is rarely hurtful to sheep, while they suffer from wet or damp cold, and that moist, warm, steamy, close atmosphere, especially when confined in sta- bles, will inevitably produce cold or catarrh, which if not at once remedied will generally result in serious disorders of the lungs. This disease consists of inflammation of the lining membrane of the throat, windpipe, nostrils, and the sinuses of the head. It produces an increase of the secretion of mucus and consequent ir- ritation and coughing. When long continued, the cough becomes dry and deep seated, showing that the lungs are involved. The treatment consists in removal of the causes, good nursing, ad- ministering slightly warm mucilaginous drinks, as oat-meal gruel or linseed tea, along with a gentle stimulant, such as half a teaspoonful of ground ginger. The antiseptic effect of a small quantity of clean pine tar rubbed upon the sheep's nose, some of which the animal will lick off and swallow, will be beneficial. If there is fever, and the nose is dry and hot, the following may be given, viz : Epsom Salts Va ounce. Saltpeter 1 dram. Ground Ginger 1 dram. TUis should be mixed with molasses and placed on the back part of the tongue with a long, narrow bladed wooden knife or spatula. The animal's head should be held up until the whole is swallowed m repeated small quantities. Or the dose may be mixed with thin gruel and administered by means of a small horn. Bronchitis is simply a deep-seated catarrh which affects the bron- chial tubes or air passages in the body of the lungs. It is danger- ous, inasmuch as the inflammation readily spreads and affects the lungs. In bronchitis the cough is more severe than in catarrh, 192 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. the pulse and the respiration are both quickened, there is som« fever, and the appetite fails. The treatment is the same as that prescribed for catarrh, but to be continued longer, changing the dose to the following, to be administered for three or four days, rtducing the quantity of saltpeter gradually one-half. Linseed-oil 1 ounce. Saltpeter 1 dram. Powdered Gentian 1 dram. Bleeding must not be attempted in this disease. Quietness is in- dispensable, and a clean, airy, but solitary, pen should be provided, and a plenty of pure, fresh water supplied. Pneumonia or Inflammation of the Lv.ngs. — This is a more fre- quent disease than is generally suspected. Many sheep exhibit the peculiar symptoms of pneumonia, and are too far gone for re- covery before their too careless owners are aware that they are affected. High-bred imported sheep, the Leicester more particu- larly, are very liable to this disease, which is generally fatal to them. It consists of inflammation of the substance of the lungs, and frequently follows neglected attacks of bronchitis, the inflam- mation easily and quickly passing from the lining membrane of the air-passages to the cellular tissue of the lungs. Washing inl streams of cold spring water, or sudden chills from exposure to cold showers, quickly succeeding hot weather, or when heated with driving, or after shearing, or too close penning in warm stables inj cold weather, are the usual causes. It is rarely that this disease develops fully without previously passing through the earlier stages, or without some serious mistake in the management of the sheep; and it is only by instant attention and proper treatment that its usually rapid and fatal course can be arrested. The symptoms are a quick and labored breathing with painful heaving of the flanks ; a painful cough ; discharge of thick yellow mucus from the nostrils, high fever, and great thirst ; hard, quick pulse; constant grinding of the teeth, together with loss of appe- tite and rumination. On examination after death, the lungs are found to be hard and gorged with blood, and if thrown into water they sink to the bottom. The disease usually terminates in death in from twenty-four to thirty-six hours. Treatment is of no avail unless commenced immediately. Bleed- mg from the jugular vein, until the animal staggers, is the first and most effective remedy. If found necessary, this should be repeated in six hours. Two ounces of Epsom salts should be given imme- diately after the bleeding ; if this does not cause free purging, one ounce more may be given in three hours, Copious purging is not DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 193 to be dreaded in this disease with sheep as with the horse. Injec- tions of thin oat-meal gruel, strained, should be given every two hours. After the bowels have been well evacuated, the following may be given twice a day in oat-meal or linseed gruel : Powdered Digitalis 1 scruple. Nitrate of Potash 1 dram. Tartar emetic 1 scruple. to be continued several days. As soon as the sheep improves and begins to move about, a pint of gruel may be given every three hours with half a dram of powdered Gentian. Warm drinks of dissolved gum Arabic, or linseed-meal tea, in which a little honey is dissolved, will be useful. The nostrils should be freed from accumulated mucus by washing or sponging with a mixture of equal parts vinegar and water, or of one ounce of acetic acid with a quart of water. Some of the acidulated water should be squeezed into the nostrils to clear them as far as possible. One dram doses of tartar emetic alone have been given with benefit in this disease. As it is in nearly every case avoidable by proper care and precaution, and is rarely cured when once well seated, it will be by far the best policy to prevent its occurrence. Pleurisy, or inflammation of the membrane covering the lungs and the lining of the cavity of the chest, is produced by the same causes as pneumonia. It frequently accompanies this latter dis- ease. It most frequently follows the careless washing of sheep or their exposure to cold winds with wet fleeces, or from a severe chill after having been sheared. After an attack of this disease, and a seeming recovery, an adhesion of the lungs to the sides of the chest often takes place which prevents the sheep from thriving and keeps them in poor condition, from which they cannot be recovered. Wide-spread causes, chiefly those arising from the un- favorable condition of the weather, sometimes affect the flocks of extensive districts, and lead to the supposition that the disease is epizootic or contagious. This, however, is not the case. Prevention consists in watchful care to protect the sheep from sudden change of the weather at a time when they are more than usually exposed to its ill effects ; also from a too sudden change from housing to open pasturing in the spring. All sudden changes in the management of sheep should be made with caution, a change, even from poor to rich feed, may produce this or other in- flammatory diseases, and care must be exercised in this respect. The symptoms are similar to those of inflammation of the lungs ; more pain is experienced, and the sheep exhibits more distress, sometimes moaning in agony. After death, the cavity of the chest 194 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. is found filled with fluid; the surface of the lungs is hlgnly In- flamed, and covered with livid patches, but their substance is not affected. Generally no trace of disease is found elsewhere. The treatment consists in copious bleeding as for pneumonia, but more blood may be taken with benefit. The following may be given : Powdered Digitalis 1 scruple. Nitrate of Potash 1 dram. Nitrous Ether, (Spirits of Nitre) 2 drams. to be administered in linseed-meal or oat-meal gruel twice a day for four or five days. When recovery be- gins, the following tonic may be substituted : Sulphate of Iron 1/2 dram. Infusion of Quassia or Chamomile . . »/4 pint. Ground Ginger l/3 dram. If the animal is valuable, it may sometimes be saved after the effusion of serum in the chest has occurred to a considerable extent, by tapping the cavity with a trochar and canula, (fig. 74), and drawing off the fluid. When this effusion has taken place, it may be discovered by tapping the sides of the chest, when a dull dead sound only is heard ; also by a gurgling sound during expiration, which is painful and difficult. The trochar is inserted cautiously between the eighth and ninth ribs, and the canula left in the opening through which the fluid flows. Generous feed- ing and great care are needed after tapping. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. Choking. — Sheep are not often troubled with obstructions of the gullet, except when fed upon cut or sliced turnips, or permitted to consume the shells of turnips which have been scooped out by tnern in the field. When a sheep is thus choked, the head is held down, saliva flows from the mouth, breath- Fig. 74.— TROCHAR ing is difficult, and the stomach becomes dis- AND CANULA. tended with gas, or air swallowed in the ef- forts to dislodge the obstruction. When this occurs, the sheep's head should be raised and held firmly between one man's legs, COSTIVENESS. 195 while another pours a teaspoonful of linseed oil or melted lard down the throat and endeavors by gently manipulating the gullet to work the obstruction downwards. If this is ineffectual, a pro- bang should be used. This is a flexible thin rod, as the wash rod of a rifle, or a piece of light rattan or other tough elastic material. A soft ball of tow, or of strips of linen cloth is securely fastened to the end of the rod. This is well soaked with sweet oil or lard, and gently inserted into the gullet until it meets the obstruction, when it is to be forced downwards without violence, a few gentle, but smart taps on the upper end with a light stick being generally more effective than continuous pressure. If the lining of the gul- let is injured in the operation, and the sheep refuses to eat, gruel or other liquid food should be given until the soreness disappears. If the obstruction cannot be removed in this way, the sheep had better be slaughtered. If it is a valuable animal, an effort which is frequently successful, may be made to save it by cutting open the skin and the gullet upon the obstruction, and removing it. The opening in the gullet is then closed by a stitch made with a sur- geon's curved needle, and the wound in the skin closed separately in the same manner. The sheep should be securely held during this operation. Soft food should be given until the wound is healed. (See Treatment of Wounds). Costlveness — Stretches. — This complaint is more frequentty a symptom of disease than a disease itself. Yet it frequently occurs when changing the flock from pasture to dry food. The dung then becomes dry, hard, and scanty, and is discharged irregularly. The termination of the bowel is red and inflamed, and when void- ing dung, the sheep grunts or moans as with pain. Care in chang- ing the food is a preventive, and a few ounces of linseed-cake-meal daily will obviate the difficulty. Injections of warm soap and water, or of one ounce of linseed-oil, will relieve the bowels, and one ounce of linseed-oil given by the mouth will generally bring about a cure. When the costiveness is of long continuance, from neglect, the sheep may be perceived stretching itS3lf, spreading the feet apart, raising the head, curving the back, and extending the abdomen. This may also occur from obstruction of the bowels, which, how- ever, is rare with sheep, but is most frequently caused by costive- ness. A teaspoonful of Sublimed Sulphur, (Flowers of Sulphur), mixed with a small quantity of molasses or bird, may be placed on the tongue to be swallowed, once a day, for a week. A regular allowance of a mixture of four ounces of Sulphur with one pound 196 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. of salt, placed where the sheep can have access to it at will, is a sure preventive of costiveness. Diarrhea or Scours.— A looseness of the bowels, without pain, fever, or other complications, frequently occurs when sheep are turned to pasture in the spring, or turned on to rich succulent green food, as clover, rape, or turnips. It is sometimes perceived when they are exposed to the hot sun in early spring without shelter. It is not dangerous of itself, but as the disease very quickly interferes with the process of nutrition, the blood is soon affected, and the more serious blood disorder, dysentery, super- venes. Diarrhea may generally be prevented by careful regula- tion of the food, and avoiding sudden changes, and the regular supply of salt. It is quickly subject to proper treatment, which consists of the administration of astringents and cordial prepara- tions. The following mixture should always be kept on hand by the shepherd, ready for instant use : Prepared Chalk 1 ounce. " Catechu 4 drams. " Ginger 2 " " Opium Va ' to be mixed with half a pint of peppermint water and bottled for use. Two large tablespoonf uls of this is given night and morning to a sheep, and half as much to a lamb, always previously shaking the mixture well. Cotton-seed-cake-meal is both an excellent pre- ventive and remedy for this complaint, and a supply should be kept for use. Half a pound a day should be given to a sheep. If any mucus or glutinous substance appears in the dung it is a proof of the existence of irritating matter in the intestines, and a laxative should be given previously to the above. This may be Linseed-oil 2 ounces. Powdered Ginger 1 dram. OB Epsom Salts 1 ounce. Ginger i/a dram. Gentian »/a dram. «o be given in infusion of linseed-meal. Boven, or distension of the rumen, is not uncommon in sheep. It consists in the formation of gns in the first stomach, or rumen, by which it is so much distended as to press injuriously upon the diaphragm or membrane which encloses the chest. This prevent- ing the contraction of the diaphragm interferes with the respira- tion. It appears as an enlargement of the left side of the abdomen, by which the skin is tightly drawn until in apparent danger of BLOATING. 197 bursting. It is caused by the rapid fermentation in the stomach of very succulent green food, which has been greedily swallowed while wet with dew or rain. The stomach may at the time be disordered, and its digestive powers impaired ; or the distension may be produced by other diseases of which it is an attendant or a symptom. In such a case it indicates a decrease or chemical change of the alkaline secretions of the rumen. The treatment should be immediate, lest suffocation ensue. An alkaline fluid poured into the rumen, frequently alleviates the symptoms and removes the trouble. This may be Ammonia Water (Aqua Ammonice) 1 teaspoonful Water '/„ pint. to be administered through a horn. A hollow, flexible probang% which should be kept for this purpose may be inserted through the gullet into the rumen, by which a means of escape for tha gas may be made. The alkaline liquid mentioned may be poured into the stomach through the tube of the probang, or an opening may be made through the flank into the rumen with the trochar and canula, (fig. 74), or by a small bladed knife. This opening should be cautiously made at the spot where the greatest swelling is found. In the latter case a quill should be inserted into the hole to allow the gas to escape. If the passage be stopped by solid matter, a wire may be put through the quill to restore the opening. The ammoniacal liquid previously mentioned, or a solu- tion of a teaspoanful carbonate of soda in quarter of a pint of water may be injected through the quill with a common syringe. Afterwards the following may be given with the horn : Epsom Salts 2 ounces. Ginger 1 dram. Water 1 pint. If the production of gas still continues, a dram of chloride of lime dissolved in water will tend to remove the gases generated by the now decomposing food. Where none of these appliances are at hand, the following sub- stitutes may be used, viz: Flour, lard, and salt, to form a bolus mixed with one dram of carbonate of ammonia, at the early stage, or one dram of chloride of lime at the later stage. Small boluses of this mixture to be placed on the root of the tongue or into the gullet, so that they may be swallowed. Sulphuric ether is some- times given in doses of two drams each in cold water, it is a valu- able stimulant and antispasmodic when the animal becomes rigid or convulsed. 198 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. The after treatment should be tonic, and the food should be light and not bulky. Bran or oat-meal, scalded and well salted, and given with 1 dram of ginger would be useful. The return to copious green food should be gradual, until the stomach has re- gained its tone. Poisoning. — At certain seasons sheep are tempted to devour injurious herbs or plants. St. John's- wort, when frequent in pastures, produces sore mouth and irritation of the intestines, which quickly disappear when the sheep are removed to a more wholesome pasture. The Sheep-Laurel, Lamb- kill, or narrow-leaved Kal- mia, (Kalmia angustifolia)j (see fig. 75), is eaten by sheep which have access to it at certain seasons, chiefly during the winter and spring, and is often fatal to them. The symp- toms of poisoning are dis- inclination to move, froth- ing at the mouth and nose, lessened pulse, stagger- ing gait, and blood-shot eyes. Immediate attention should be given, as death generally occurs within twelve hours. To dilute the mass of poisonous food, and to expel it Fig. 75.— SHEEP-LAUBEL. from the system as soon Is possible, is the proper treatment. This may be done by DISEASES OP THE BOWELS. 199 giving two ounces of Epsorn salts in a pint of warm water, and re- peating the dose of water without the salts in an hour. Injections of warm soap suds will help to remove the injurious matter from the bowels. To prevent the danger of poisoning by carefully re- moving all injurious plants from the pastures or fences around them would be the obvious duty of the careful shepherd. The large leaved Laurel, (Kalmia latifolia], is also eaten occasionally by sheep. In England, the yew tree, which is common in hedges, causes the loss of hundreds of sheep every year. Sheep should not be allowed to feed on pastures which have been dressed with irypsum, lime, soot, or any chemical fertilizer until after one or two copious showers have washed the herbage clean. Inflammation of the Bowels.— This disease, (the braxy of the English shepherds), is not frequently met with in this country, except as an adjunct to some complicated inflammatory blood dis- ease. It, however, sometimes occurs as the result of continued in- digestion, or the consequence of feeding upon dry, innutritions pasture, combined with bad water in hot weather. The first symptoms are weeping and redness of the eyes, weakness and staggering, loss of appetite and rumination, inaction of the bowels, swelling of the flanks, high fever, and difficult breathing, a puck- ered up appearance of the mouth and nostrils, which gives a pecu- liar wo-begone and pained expression to the face ; a tight skin and rapid emaciation. After death, the stomach is found filled with putrid food, and distended with gas ; the bowels are gangre- nous and in a state of decomposition ; the liver is partly decom posed and filled with degenerated bile ; the spleen is gorged with blood, softened, enlarged, and not unfrequently ruptured, ulcer- ated, and exhibiting a seriously diseased condition. The latter ap- pearance seems to identify this complicated and fatal disease with the splenic apoplexy or Texan or Spanish fever of cattle. Death is often very sudden, many sheeep left in apparent health at night, being found dead in the morning ; at the most, two or three days is the usual course of this disease. To prevent it, when circumstances favor its appearance, an abund- ant supply of pure water and a change of pasture should be provid- ed. Low grounds should be avoided, and everything done that can ameliorate the circumstances of privation in which the flock may be temporarily placed. It is not epizootic, and the removal of the causes will prevent the spread of the disease. A supply of salt, mixed with one per cent each of sulphate of iron, ginger, and gen- tian, to be given every evening to the sheep on their return from pasture, will be a useful preventive. The treatment should con- 200 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. sist of bleeding from the jugular vein, at the first appearance of the disease. Bleeding from the vein on the abdomen has also been practiced with success. Mild aperients — an ounce of Linseed or Castor Oil or Epsom salts— are useful, and should be followed by twice daily doses of one dram of Sulphite, (not sulphate), of Soda. The food should be liquid and demulcent, such as oat-meal gruel, infusions of linseed or solutions of gum arable. Except the ani- mal is a very valuable one, it will be hardly worth while to at- tempt a cure in a case of serious character, as the recovery is slow, and the following debility is of itself often fatal, after a costly and protracted course of treatment. Concretions of Foreign Bodies in the Stomach. — Sheep are some- times observed to purposely swallow earth in small quantities. In pasturing green fodder crops or roots, much earth, and sometimes small stones, arc swallowed. In eating hay, or other dry fodder, foreign matters, such as nails, pieces of wire, or glass, will some- times find their way into the stomachs. All these matters cause much irritation, and sometimes death. The trouble is shown by a suspension of the appetite, the sheep lag behind the rest, stand for long periods without moving, grind their teeth, poking out the nose, and depressing the ears. When the flank is pressed a grunt of pain is heard, and there is violent purging. When these symp- toms are observed, and the sheep are known to have been in danger of swallowing any of these substances, this cause may be suspected. The only treatment that can be of use is to give daily doses of one ounce of Epsom Salts, and feed scalded bran or corn-meal in the shape of thick mush in order to remove the foreign matter with the food if possible. If this will not be taken, oat-meal or corn-meal gruel should be given copiously with the horn. Balls of wool and earthy matter are sometimes found after death in the stomachs. These are gathered by the sheep nibbling them- selves when irritated by lice, ticks, or scab. Generally they exist without suspicion of their presence until death occurs, and in many cases without known ill effect on the animal. It would be safe to avoid possible danger in this direction by keeping the flock, especially the lambs, free from parasitical and irritating insects. Congestion of the Liver. — When sheep are highly fed upon stim- ulating food, and have but little or no exercise, the liver is apt to become gorged with blood. This fullness of blood is termed con- gestion. It is occasioned by disordered digestion, and when it exists to a serious extent, occasions further complications of thig DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 201 important organ. It produces constipation, dullness, and a yellow- ish tinge of the eyes. As soon as this latter sign appears, there should be no delay, lest inflammation supervene. The treatment consists in giving an active purge, to be repeated every morning, until the bowels are in their usual healthy condi- tion, the yellowness of the eyes has disappeared, and the appetite has returned. The purge may be the following, given in molasses placed upon the tongue : Epsom Salts 1 ounce. Lalomel 3 grains. The patient should be supplied with slightly warm drink soon after swallowing the medicine. Inflammation of the Liver. — By neglect, the disease, last men- tioned, may result in inflammation of the liver. When this hap- pens the system becomes fevered ; the nose and mouth hot and dry ; the breath fetid ; the ears cold ; the eyes pale and glassy ; the pulse is irregular ; breathing is slow, and the expirations short and sudden ; the dung is dry, hard, black, and glazed with a greasy yellowish-green mucus ; the urine is highly colored, scanty, hot, and smells disagreeably. Pressure on the right side, near the •short ribs, produces pain, and the animal moans. The treatment consists of purgatives and injections. For a pur- gative, the following may be given twice a day in infusion of lin- seed or gum arabic or in molasses, well mixed together and placed on the tongue : Sulphate of Potash 2 drams. Calomel 5 grains. Powdered Opium 1 grain. Injections of warm water and castile soap may be given until the bowels act freely. When improvement occurs, and the appetite returns, great care in feeding should be observed, and only the most easily digested food should be given. Pulped sugar beet, scalded clover-hay chaff, linseed-meal, boiled malt, or sifted corn-meal, may be given with linseed tea for drink, or water acidulated with a few drops of aromatic sulphuric acid. DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. The blood being the very foundation of the*life of the animal, must exist in a state of purity, or the vital functions are at once disordered. Anything, therefore, that vitiates the blood or unfits it for the proper performance of those functions which have been S02 THE SHEPHERD'S MAHUAL. already explained, produces what is known as blood diseases, or diseases originating in and communicated to various organs by the blood. These may be classified as follows : 1. Diseases arising from an impaired, increased, or arrested function, or process, viz : rheumatism, plethora, anaemia, scrofula, dropsy. 2. Diseases called enzobiic because arising from animal poisons, originating either within the subject, or communicated by the same poisons originating in other animals, viz : influenza, dysentery, red-water, heaving or after pains, navel-ill in lambs, black-leg or quarter-ill or anthrax fever. 3. Diseases arising from animal poisons of unknown origin, and which are highly contagious, and freely communicated from one subject to another, hence called epizootic diseases, viz : Epizootic aphtha, small pox. Fortunately these diseases so fatal in their operation, and so un- controllable in their course, are easily prevented by proper precau- tion and ordinary hygienic or sanitary measures. Also L: the salt, sulphite of soda, we have a valuable remedy against those ferments which are the active agents in the majority of blood diseases. Rheumatism. — This disease is attended with considerable fever, constitutional disturbance, and the presence of acid matters in the blood. It affects the serous membrane, as the coverings of the joints, the substance of the tendons and ligaments, the enveloping membranes of the heart, lungs, spinal marrow, bones, muscles, and the brain. As it has a disposition to change its locality almost in- stantaneously, and to pass from one joint to another, or one part to another, (a process known as metastatis), and affects all these important parts of the body, the seriousness of the disease is evi- dent. It consists in a peculiar inflammation of the parts affected which causes acute pain when they are called into action. When it passes from the acute to the chronic state, it causes serious changes in the structure of the joints affected. Its symptoms are general uneasiness and stiffness, a diminished or capricious appe- tite, and sometimes, suspended rumination. The dung is hard and scanty, and the urine is high colored and deficient in quantity. One of the joints is found hot and swollen; in an hour or two this is relieved, and another is found affected. It generally attacks in spring those animals which have been half starved or exposed to cold or damp during the winter. Rams, which have been over- worked the previous season, are often affected. Young ewes are rarely troubled with it. If not remedied by proper treatment, the DISEASES 0£ THE BLOOD. 203 animal suffers from continued fever, general prostration, severe pain and emaciation, and eventually dies miserably. The treat- ment consists of a moderate purgative at first, such as : Epsom Salts 2 ounces Spirit of Nitrous Ether A drains Ginger 1 dram. to be followed by Sulphate of Potash 2 drama. Sulphuric Acid 2Q drops. Water V4 pint. to be given dissolved in water night and morning. Protection from cold and damp, and soft, laxative food are required. Lin- seed-meal, either solid or made into gruel, is a useful addition to the food. As this disease is apt to become chronic, the patient should be fitted for the butcher as soon as possible. A rheumatic ram will beget rheumatic lambs. Plethora consists in a too rapid production of blood, by which the system is engorged, and important organs become congested. It is caused by over-feeding with rich albuminous food, and is counteracted by a simple purgative, or bleeding from a vein on the face or the jugular. Its effects appear in a flushed condition of the visible membranes, labored breathing, staggering and sleepi- ness. It never occurs except in animals in high condition, such as those prepared for exhibition, and which in case of over fatigue, or excessively hot and damp weather, suffer greatly, and sometimes fatally, from engorgement of the vessels of the lungs or brain, or both. Anaemia or Pining. — This term, "the bloodless condition," in- dicates the nature of the disease. There is a condition to which sheep may be brought by the effects of dysentery, or by parasites in the lungs or intestines, which much resembles this disease. But there is an abnormal state of the blood caused by imperfect nutri- tion, which is in itself a disease, and not a symptom. When from continued wet weather the pasture becomes rank and watery, the flock appears at first in an excellent and thrifty state, but in a few days the animals are found lying listless, with drooping heads and ears, watery eyes, and the expression of the face miserable and painful. A few clays afterwards the skin is tightly drawn, the wool becomes of a peculiar bluish cast, the skin beneath of a pearly white color, the eyes are also of a pearly bloodless appear- ance, and death is busy in the flock. On dry, rich clover pastures the same effects are sometimes experienced. The disease never appears on steep, rocky hill sides, where the pasturage is short and 204 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. sweet, nor on those pastures which are scant, but yet nutritious, and intermixed with coarse herbage ; nor on lands that are abun- dantly supplied with lime. It is impossible to know beforehand whether the pasture will produce this effect or not, as it seems most prooable that the geological character of the soil has most to do with it. But when once a farm, a pasture, or a field, is found to induce this ailment, sheep keeping may be abandoned upon it, unless tae flock can be immediately changed to some other part of it where it will thrive. A change from a pasture field to a corn field, where the picking amongst the hills furnished but scanty feed, has been found to produce an immediate change for the bet- ter. No treatment, other than a change of locality, can be indi- cated, and if the farm does not supply this, the flock must be dis- posed of or removed. The disease unfortunately is not well un- derstood, for it is sometimes found very destructive to lambs and yearlings, which are chiefly affected by it. It is frequently confounded with a parasitical disease hereinafter referred to, but a post-mortem eximination of a subject will easily identify it as being different from it as shown by the absence of parasites in the stomach, lungs, or air-passages. An adequate supply of supple- mentary food would of course act as a remedy, but the cost of this would defeat its object and render the flock unprofitable. Scrofula — Tuberculosis. — This disease is almost surely fatal in course of time, although at first the sheep subject to it may be brought, by proper treatment, into condition for the butcher. It is a question, however, if the flesh of scrofulous animals can be safely consumed as food, but yet many such go yearly to the butchers to be thus disposed of. It would certainly seem that the use of such animals as food should be carefully avoided, and the sale of their flesh prevented as injurious to the public health, for no taint is more readily conveyed to the system than scrofula. It is supposed to consist of a diseased condition of the blood, by which the lymph, or white, serous, uncolored portion of it is unfit- ted to nourish properly the tissues of the body and to be built up into organized matter. Lest the accumulation of this imperfect blood should embarras the system, it is deposited in various parts where it is productive of least inconvenience, and the nutrition of the body goes on, as well as it may, with the remainder of the blood thus separated from the useless and injurious portion. But it is frequently the case that there is not sufficient left to supply the waste of the tissues, and a gradual falling off in condition oc- curs. The symptoms of "consumption," a very significant term, as the chief organs are slowly consumed, then appear. The pulsa- ENZOOTIC DISEASES. 205 tions of the heart are loud, so as to be heard on applying the ear to the ribs ; the pulse is feeble, the appetite irregular, and a slight cough exists, caused by the efforts to throw off the accumulating and offending matter from the lungs. In time, the glands of the body become loaded with the deposited matter ; those of the throat and neck, the parotid and submaxillary, being most commonly and extensively affected, and greatly swollen. The symptoms gradually increase in intensity, and there is much fever and ema- ciation, with discharge from the nose and eyes. The skin is tight and pale, and the body appears almost free from blood, as in anaemia. At this period there is no help for the animal, for death is only a question of time. The treatment in the earlier stages is to administer some of the preparations of iodine, such as the following : Iodide of Potassium 5 grains. OB Iodide of Iron 10 grains. to be finely powdered and mixed with molasses, and placed on the root of the tongue, so that it is swallowed. The above dose to be given daily. The latter preparation is to be preferred. The swellings may be rubbed daily with iodine ointment. No scrofu- lous animal should be used for breeding, as the disease is heredi- tary. High-bred sheep are the most subject to this disease, and "in-and-in breeding" tends greatly to produce it. In some localities an enlargement of the glands of the neck, similar to the disease known as goitre in mankind, is frequent amongst sheep. This is supposed, doubtless viA reason, to be caused by the water drank, as in such cases the "emoval of the flock to distant pastures has led to the disappearance of the dis- ease. The occurrence of the symptoms above described, however, will be sufficient to indicate the true character of scrofula as dis- tinguished from any accidental swelling of the glands. iJropsy consists in the effusion of a watery or serous fluid in the abdomen. It is accompanied with inflammation < f the lining membrane of the abdomen, the peritoneum, f roi '\ which the fluid is secreted. It is caused by feeding upon rank, succulent, watery herbage, by which the blood is insufT. .iently nourished. A change to dry food, or scanty but more nutritious pasture, allevi- ates the disease at once. A cure is jcnerally effected by the use of diuretics, aperients, and tonics. ^ le treatment will be the ad- ministering of the following, or such others as may produce the 4esired effect: 206 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. Nitrate of Potash 1 dram. Sulphate of Soda 1 ounce. Ginger 1 dram. If the animal is in low condition, the sulphate of soda may be re« placed by the following, viz. : Linseed-oil 2 ounces. ENZOOTIC DISEASES. v Influenza. — This disease being due to causes which occur over an extended locality, is liable to affect a large number of animals at the same time. It is erroneously supposed to be infectious. It consists of inflammation of the nasal and bronchial passages, con- siderable fever, and great prostration, with general disturbance of the system. There is redness and weeping of the eyes, running at the nose, cough, great weakness, loss of appetite, indigestion, with impaction and sometimes hoven, or distension of the rumen. It is prevalent after continued cold and damp weather, and is most severe where the ground is low and undrained, or in river bottoms or valleys, where morning and evening mists abound. When these conditions occur, the flock should be kept on high, dry ground, or in dry, sheltered yards, and carefully protected. Their food should be somewhat improved, linseed-oil-cake or corn-meal, buckwheat, oats, or rye, being added. A dose of the mixed salt and sulphur, (1 quart of salt wkh 4 oz. of sulphur), should be given, and any ailing sheep should be well nursed and treated to warm gruel. These precautions will generally prevent a serious attack. The treatment, when the disease becomes severe, is to give a light dose of some saline purgative, such as Epsom Salts 1/2 ounce. Ginger 1 dram. in a quarter of a pint of water, or mixed with molasses or honey. For a large flock the medicine may be mixed in bulk in proper proportions, and a quarter of a pint given to each sheep by means of a horn. Those more seriously affected should receive the fol- lowing, viz : Tincture of Aconite , 10 drops. Solution of Acetate of Ammonia 1 ounce. To be given every four to six hours, decreasing the aconite at each dose until five drops only are given, when it may be suspended, and only repeated in an emergency If the eyes are much inflamed, they should be washed with a ENZOOTIC DISEASES. 207 solution of one grain of sulphate of zinc, and 20 drops of lamda- num, in one ounce of water. After recovery, the feed should be laxative and nutritious ; bran mashes, and boiled oats, or corn- meal mush, with a little powdered ginger or gentian, and a pinch of powdered blue vitriol, (sulphate of copper), in each mess, would be useful. If not readily taken in the food, this tonic may be given for a few days in honey or molasses. Shelter is absolutely necessary during treatment and recovery. Dysentery may be distinguished from diarrhea by its more se- rere symptoms, there being much fever ; the dung is mixed with blood and mucus, has a fetid smell, is discharged frequently, and is generally in hard lumps and scanty ; it is also voided with pain, and the sheep arches its back and moans in its passages. The wool feels harsh, and after a short time may be pulled off in hand- fuls. Sudden changes of pasture, from poor to rich, or from rich to poor ; dry, indigestible food ; scanty or impure water ; severely hot and damp weather such as produces rust in grain, and neglect- ed diarrhea, are the chief causes. Where large flocks are kept on extensive ranges, the best course is to remove to some other pas- ture, where the water is good, the ground high and dry, and other favorable conditions abound. The treatment .proper for this dis- ease is to give a laxative in the first instance, as follows : Linseed-oil 2 ounces. Powdered Opium 2 grains. to be given in linseed tea or oat-meal gruel. The linseed or oat- meal should be continued several times during the next twenty four hours, both as nutriment and for its soothing qualities. The next day, and for several days, the opium should be repeated with one dram of ginger. An occasional dose of linseed-oil may be given if thought necessary. It can do no harm, in any event, if given every other day. The effect of a hot sun, in an unshaded pasture, is very aggravating to this disease. Sheep suffering from it should be kept, if possible, in a cool shed, and separated fro-ii the rest of the flock. A pasture that has been occupied by sivh sheep will certainly infect others that may feed upon it durin ; warm weather, the dung conveying the poison to the herbage. Red-Water. — When sheep are suffered to pasture upon snccule-t green crops, such as rape, mustard, or turnips, late in thf f II < r in the early winter, and the fodder is covered with hoar i'r. st or sleet, or when they are forced to scrape their food from beneath the snow, swallowing a large portion of snow with their food, or when the stock water is drawn from filthy ponds or sloughs, they 208 THE SHEPHERD'S MAHUAL. are subject to a peculiar disorder which often affects the majority of the flock quite suddenly, and is known as red-water. In thig country this disease is rare, being known chiefly hi the south-west and west, along with the last mentioned disease and some other disorders originating from exposure and unwholesome food or water, under the general name of murrain. The symptoms of this disease agree with those of a so-called " unknown and new disease" affecting sheep in the west, which has been described recently by correspondents of the Agricultural Department at Washington. The sheep affected appear dull and stupid, and stagger, carrying the head upon one side, the eyes are staring, and sometimes blind, and the bowels are obstinately costive. They die in a few hours. When opened the belly of the sheep is found filled with a red fluid wrongly supposed to be blood. There is also general congestion of the principal organs. As a preventive, the use of salt is recommended, and a table- spoonful of pine tar given to each sheep every ten days has been found useful. A pound of Epsom salts dissolved in water with two oz. of ground ginger, may be given to every ten sheep. The simple removal of the causes and a brisk purgative or diuretic would doubtless lead to a recovery if given in time. When inflammation occurs from neglect, the bowels become affected, and death is rapid. The peculiar nature of the sheep makes treatment at this stage almost hopeless, but if it is attempted, that prescribed for inflammation of the bowels would be proper. After-Pain* in Ewes, or parturient apoplexy, arises in conse- quence of a feverish condition at the time of lambing. It oc- curs about the second or third day, and its presence is shown by panting, straining, heaving of the flanks, a staring look, scanty and high colored and strong smelling urine, costiveness, and swell- ing and redness of the external hinder parts, which finally be^ come purple and black. After death the whole system is con gested, and the veins filled with black blood ; the uterus or womb is charged with pus, the absorption of which poisoning the blood, is the cause of death. This disease is easily prevented by reduc- ing the condition of the ewes when it can safely be done. The safe time is some weeks before lambing, when a gentle purgative should be given and the food gradually reduced. A bran mash with 15 grains of saltpeter may be given daily for a few days. A very gradual course of depletion only should be adopted. If, after lambing, trouble is anticipated, the appearance of the ewe should be closely watched. If the pains occur, the following sedative should be given at once: EtfZOOTIC DISEASES. 209 Camphor Va dram. Laudanum 60 drops. These are mixed with molasses and placed on the tongue ; the dose may be increased one-fourth for large ewes when the pains are excessive. One ounce of solution of acetate of ammonia may be given four hours afterwards, and repeated twice at equal inter- vals. If a fetid discharge takes place from the vagina, a solution of one dram of chloride of lime to a pint of warm water may be injected. The food of the ewe should consist principally of infu- sions of linseed or oat-meal gruel. Bleeding is injurious, as are also violent purgatives. Black Leg, Quarter HI, or Anthrax fever, is known as the "black spauld" of the English shepherds, the charbon of the French, and as one of the "murrains" of our western states, where it is most frequent in this country. It affects young and thrifty sheep, and is rarely found amongst old or poor stock. It appears in the spring or early summer, and also in the fall months ; and mostly in wet seasons, when the pasture, under the fervid heat of the sun and unusual moisture, grows luxuriantly. Then the sheep, with vigorous appetite, gorge themselves to repletion, the digestive organs are overtaxed, the blood is disorganized, and be- fore any trouble is suspected, the sheep drop and suddenly die. When the carcasses are examined, and the wool which leaves the skin at the least touch, is removed, the body is found to be swollen and blackened in large patches, chiefly on the forequarter, the flank, or the hindquarter. Air is gathered beneath the skin, and on opening the body, it is found decomposed and filled with black blood. If the flock is then observed, some will be found lame and limping, and on examination the sides or quarters will be found swollen, and when the hand is passed over these spots, the •wool readily comes off, and a crackling sound is heard from the motion of the air or gas collected beneath the skin. The mouth and tongue are found to be inflamed and blistered, and the eyes red. The urine is dark, the bowels constipated, and the dung when discharged is bloody. By and by the animals are unable to stand, and fall upon the side, stretch out the limbs, and protrude the tongue ; the belly is swollen, and in a few hours the sheep is dead. The disease is much worse in rich bottom lands, or moist, black soils, and rarely appears on hilly ground, or gravelly, dry soils. To prevent this disorder, it is only necessary to pre- ent the causes, to ensure regular feeding, and avoid sudden changes from poor to rich food or the reverse. The treatment 210 THE SHEIHEKD'S MANUAL. should be an immediate purgative. The following may be given in oat-meal gruel or any other thick mucilaginous liquid : Sulphate of Soda 2 ounces. Flowers of Sulphur 1 ounce. Powdered Myrrh 1 scruple. A teaspoonful of spirits of nitrous ether in a pint of water may be given in six hours afterwards. If taken at the commencement of the symptoms, this treatment will probably be effective, but if later, the uncertain remedial action of nature alone can be de- pended on. EPIZOOTIC DISEASES. AphtJia, or "foot and mouth disease," which has grievously affected the herds and flocks of Europe, is not unknown in Ameri- ca. Fortunately our drier climate, or some other preservative in- fluence, has very greatly circumscribed the course of this disease. It has appeared in various parts of the country, but only sporadi- cally, or in scattered cases, and never yet has it swept over an entire district. Nevertheless, no one can be sure that it never will BO appear, and as an isolated case requires the same treatment as any other, it is well that the disease should be described here. It is a true blood disease, belonging to a class of eruptive fevers aris- ing from a poisoning of the blood, and is highly contagious under favoring circumstances. It affects alike cattle, sheep, pigs, hares, and rabbits. It appears as an eruption of watery blisters upon the lips and tongus, and between and around the hoofs. The first symptoms are a fit of shivering, succeeded by fever, cough, and an increased pulse. This is succeeded by a failing of the appetite, tenderness over the loins, flow of saliva from the mouth, and grinding of the jaws. Blisters, small and large, appear on the mouth and tongue, which break and become raw, causing great pain. The feet are swollen and also covered with blisters, which break and become sore, causing the animal to walk with difficulty and shake its feet or kick or lie down persistently. In from ten to fifteen days the disease runs its course, in favorable circum- stances, and the animal recovers gradually, and is never affected afterwards. Otherwise the symptoms increase in severity, the sheep lose condition rapidly, from inability to eat or move about ; the hoofs are sloughed off, and sometimes even the bones of the feet are cast off, leaving only a stump. In-lamb ewes when affected, abort. It is considered, where this disease is virulent, that the cheapest and most effective plan is to stamp it out by the SHEEP POX. 211 slaughter and burial of every infected animal, and the removal of those that are well. In the simple form, a single brisk purgative, such as two ounces of Epsom salts, with a small quantity of gin- ger, generally results in a cure ; to repeat the dose is dangerous. The mouth should be washed in the following solution twice a day : Alum in powder 1 ounce. Tincture of Myrrh 1 fluid ounce. Water 1 quart. The feet, if affected, should be washed with soap and water, or with a weak solution of sulphate of copper, then dressed with car- bolic ointment ; and afterwards bound up in a cloth so as to keep sand or dirt from irritating the sensitive surfaces. Sulphur should be burned in the sheds as a disinfectant and purifier, and the drink- ing water should be acidulated with one dram of aromatic sul« phuric acid to a gallon of water. All sick animals should be isolated. Sheep Pox, or variola, is a formidable and fatal disease, which IB very frequent in the central and eastern parts of Europe, and has recently been introduced into England by means of importations of infected sheep. Although unknown in its severe type in this country, yet we have no security against its introduction at any day. It is recorded in a German publication that on one occasion every sheep in a whole district was swept off by this disorder, the sheep dying without any apparent reason, as though they had been poisoned. The only known preventive is artificial inocula- tion by means of lymph taken from one of the mildest cases. These communicated cases are exceedingly mild. The practice of housing sheep is very productive of this disease, and it is when sheep are kept in small flocks and well supplied with fresh air and general good care that the disease makes no headway. Whenever our flocks shall be overcrowded, and poorly cared for, this disease may be apprehended. Sheep-pox is not identical with the human small-pox, but is yet of the same type, produced by the same causes, has very similar characteristics, and is equally contagious. It cannot, like that of the cow, be communicated to mankind, nor to other animals than sheep, even by inoculation, and belongs ex- clusively to them. It is a true blood poison, caused originally by the absorption of impure matter into the blood, probably through the lungs, and the course of the disease is an effort of nature to throw off the poison by the eruptions which appear on the skin. There is a period of incubation of the disease, which lasts nine to eleven days after infection, and during which no symptoms whatever appear. After this the sheep sicken, refuse food, and 212 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. suffer from quickened breathing, a hot, dry skin, an unquenchable thirst, redness of the eyes, and a discharge from the nostrils. At this period the eruption occurs on the body just as in the hu- man small-pox. The bare skin under the arm-pits shows the first indications of the eruption. Pustules or pimples surrounded with a red ring, (the areola), appear, and gradually after three days, come to a head, and take on a white appearance. It is at this stage of the disease that the matter is collected and preserved for the purposes of inoculation. The symptoms decrease at this stage and the sheep improve. The pustules dry up and form scales or scabs which fall off and lea re in their places "pits" or marks. But it may be that these pimples run together or become " conflu- ent " and ulcerate. If this happens, the sheep almost invariably die. Otherwise the recovery is rapid. Treatment by medicine is entirely unavailing. Good nursing of the pattents, and the use of sustaining stimulants with laxative and demulcent food includes all that can be done. Linseed-meal, rice-meal, and oat-meal, made into drinks, and given warm, with a small quantity of sugar, or molasses and ginger, will be sufficient in the shape of food. Pure soft water made slightly warm, and acidulated with a few drops of aromatic sulphuric acid, should be given for drink. Hopeless cases should be ended at once. If at the last stage the symptoms become worse, and the pimples, instead of becoming brown and drying up, ulcerate, and run together in chains, the animal should be killed and buried in a deep pit with plenty of lime thrown on the carcass. Every portion of the dead animal will convey infection, and in no case should the wool be taken from it, unless it be at once tub-washed in boiling hot soap-suds. On the appearance of the disease in a neighborhood, the unaf- fected sheep should be inoculated. A quantity of the matter from the white pimples is kept in bottles and diluted with water to the consistency of cream. A needle mounted in a wooden handie- st shoemaker's curved awl will answer the purpose excellently — fe dipped into the fluid and is thrust beneath the skin of the fleshy part of the tail. This rarely fails to communicate the disease which is so slight as seldom to interfere with the feeding of the flock. In a paper published in the Journal of the Royal Agricul- tural Society of England, Vol. XXV, Part 2, 1864, written by a gentleman who had had charge of flocks of Merinos varying from a few thousand up to twenty-five thousand, in Russia, and who always practiced inoculation, the author states that although the sheep under his charge were constantly exposed to contagion DISEASES OF THE BLADDER. 213 from neighboring flocks, in which thousands died from neglect of this precaution, yet he never lost a single adult animal from the dis- ease. In those countries where the disease prevails, every shep- herd has an inoculating needle amongst the implements of his profession. As we are as yet exempt from this disease, and as it is readily communicated by contact with the skin or fleece of a diseased sheep, and with the present rapid communication between this country and Europe, an animal might easily reach here within its period of incubation, constant watchfulness should be exerted to prevent its importation. That we shall always be exempt, is too much to reasonably hope for. DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. The urine of a healthy sheep is alkaline. Under some circum- stances the urine becomes acid. This abnormal condition pro- duces a disordered condition of the highly sensitive urinary or- gans. If the flow of the urine is obstructed, it is absorbed into the circulation, and a variety of diseases are produced, all of which have one constant distinguishing symptom, viz : the strong smell of urine given out by the other secretions of the system, but especially by the secretions of the skin. The blood is poisoned by the absorption of the matters which the urine should have car- ried off, and a high condition of fever is consequently produced. Male animals are more frequently affected than females, by reason of the peculiar structure and length of the urinary canal, already described. Fattening animals are especially subject to urinary disorders, and such need close inspection and great care. Inflammation of the Bladder is the most frequent of the urinary diseases. Feeding upon second growth clover, which often con- tain lobelia, St. John's- wort, rag weed, and other irritating plants ; or upon excessive quantities of corn- meal, or drinking hard wa- ter, are the chief causes. The acid and consequently irritating character of the urine inflames the inner coats of the bladder. The inflammation spreads to the muscular substance around the neck of the bladder, and this is contracted, closing the opening. Retention of Urine is therefore the direct consequence, and this involves the serious complications already mentioned. The symp- toms are uneasiness, constant lifting the hind feet and stamping with them, spreading them out and straining in the endeavor to void urine. As the attempt is abandoned, the animal moans in pain. There is general disturbance of the system, fever, and costive- 214 THE SHEPHERD'S ness. The remedy is to bleed copiously from the neck and to give the following to a large animal. Linseed-oil 2 ounces. Laudanum. 2 drams. For smaller animals the dose should be reduced proportionately, If there is no improvement the second day, the bleeding should be repeated from the other side of the neck, and one ounce of linseed oil be-given daily until relief is procured. Diuretics and saline purgatives should be avoided. After improvement the food should be light, and infusions of linseed-meal or of gum arabic, would be useful. Sediment in the Urinary Canal. — Highly fed sheep, or those fed on dry pastures, which are deficient in water, or those care- lessly denied a full supply of water in winter, when they are fed grain in less or greater quantities — rams and wethers especially — are those which are subject to this disorder. Females, from the large capacity of the canal, are never, or very rarely, affected. But in male animals the peculiar appendage, called the vermiform, or •worm-like appendage, through which the canal finds its exit, be- ing very small, an easy obstruction is offered to the passage and discharge of any sandy or muddy deposit of the urine. Small stony concretions are often discovered attached to the wool or hairs around the vent on the belly of the sheep. When these are noticed, extra care should be exercised to give abundant water by which the deposit may be dissolved and carried away. When the deposits have been arrested in this narrow passage, the urine is seen to pass drop by drop and the animal exhibits great pain and uneasiness. All the symptoms of retention of urine then appear. The treatment is to place the animal on his rump and draw the penis out of the sheath. It will be found inflamed and tender. It should be fomented with warm water, and the urethra or canal below it gently pressed with the fingers to force out the urine and with it the sediment. If this is successful even in part, some flweet-oil should be applied to the parts, and a rather large dose of linseed-oil be administered along with an antispasmodic to act on the neek of the bladder, viz : Linseed-oil 3 ounces. Extract of Belladonna 10 grains. On the following day the urethra should be again examined, and the manipulation be again repeated. One dram of Carbonate of Potash should then be given, dissolved in water, three times a day. If fever is present, the belladonna may be repeated, but only in case of urgency. No saline purgatives are to b« DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGAHS. 215 giren in affections of the bladder. If the sediment cannot be passed, it will be necessary to remove it by an operation. A lengthwise in- cision is made, with a small sharp knife blade, at the junction of the vermiform appendage with the urethra, on the lower surface, and the stones or gravel are removed by pressure. It may be dis- covered in this manner, that the obstructions exist all along the urethra, in which case there is no hope of recovery, and the ani- inal may be slaughtered. In case of wethers the vermiform appendage of the penis may be cut off at once. In rams it may be saved if possible, although it is not absolutely necessary for suc- cessful stock getting. It may be well, however, to be on the safe side, and save the part out of respect to the generally accepted be- lief that it is needful. It is known, however, that many rams •which had lost the part by this operation, did not lose their useful- ness in consequence. Calculi , or stone in the bladder. For this disease there is no remedy, and if after the fact has been ascertained by the previously Described operation, or in any other way, the animal may be killed. Clap or Gonorrhea.— This disease affects the sheath and penis of the ram The first symptoms are very similar to those of sedi- ment in the urethra. There is great pain in urinating, and the urine comes by a few drops at a time. In course of time a white acrid discharge escapes, and this, in case of neglect causes ulceration, which may destroy the organ. Rams thus affected should not be used, as the disease is contagious, and the symptoms are aggrava- ted. The causes are excessive work and want of cleanliness. The treatment consists of turning the animal on its back, withdrawing the penis gently, holding it with a Gof t linen cloth wetted with the lotion mentioned below, until all the diseased parts are seen. The organ is then bathed and washed thoroughly with the follow- ing lotion, viz : Spirits of Camphor. 4 ounces. Sugar of Lead.* 1 ounce. Sulphate of Zinc 2 ounces. Water .. 1 quart. Mix and bottle for use. If any of the ewes have become diseased by contact with a diseased ram, a soft linen cloth may be wrapped around tho finger, dipped in the solution, and inserted in the parts until they are thoroughly washed. Or a portion may be injected •with a syringe. A daily dressing should be given until a cure commences, afterwards twice a week will be sufficient. One ounce of linseed oil should be given every other day until the urine passes freely. The food should be laxative, and nothing stimulate 216 THE SHEPHERD'S MAHITAL. ing should be given until a cure is effected. Copious demulcent drinks should be given, such as infusions of linseed, oat-meal, OP gum arable. DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. Water on the Brain, (Hydrocep7ialu8).—This is a constitutional fault which is present in the ewe, or the ram, used in breeding. It exists in the lamb at birth, and the head is generally so unnatur- ally enlarged that it is killed as not worth raising, or it dies before it has arrived at maturity. If there are many cases in a flock, the ram should be changed; if the ewes are at fault, they should be disposed of by feeding for the butcher. There is no cure, and an animal so deformed is a disagreeable object at the best, and it should be destroyed at birth. ' Apoplexy— Staggers.— Some of the high-bred sheep, the Leices- ters more especially, as well as some native sheep that have been poorly kept and fed, are subject to occasional attacks of giddiness and blindness, in which they stagger about and run against walls, fences, or other obstructions, evidently unable to see. The attack conies on suddenly, the sheep stops and stands staggering, or still moves on its former course with eyes dilated and prom- inent, but unconscious of impediments. The appear- ance of the eyes and mem- branes shows that the vessels of the head are full of blood, and post-mortem examina- tions have shown the brain to --^ _- be highly congested, and some- times the vessels ruptured. Fig. 76.-THE FACIAL VEIN. Pressure of blood on the brain is the cause of these symptoms. Plethora from continued high feeding, or from indigestion or other disturbance of the condition of the digestive organs, produces this determination of blood to the head. Kemoval of the causes, depletion of high conditioned animals, by saline purgatives, or the restoration of the tone of poor conditioned ones by good food and tonics, tend to a cure. Bleed- ing from the facial vein (a, fig. 76), is often useful in extreme cases. Inflammation of the Brain (Phrenitis). — The causes which pro- duce apoplexy, if long continued, result in inflammation of the brain, and this produces frenzy. The affected animals are very DISEASES 02 THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 217 violent, dashing hither and thither regardless of danger or damage to themselves. Lambs thus affected leap and throw themselves about as if in violent play, until they fall and die in convulsions. The only remedy is copious bleeding from the neck, and active purging with salts. In this case no accompanying stimulant is needed, and for a full-grown animal, the dose may be increased one-half above the usual quantity. There is always congestion of the brain accompanying this disease, and treatment must be in- stant, lest in the muscular excitement the vessels of the brain be ruptured and sudden death ensue. Paralysis— Trembles.— This disease is a different manifestation of the effects of pressure of blood upon the brain from the two diseases previously described. In this disease, in addition to the base of the brain, the spinal marrow and the nervous system con- nected therewith are affected, the congestion occupying a consid- erable portion of the vertebral canal. Its effects are varied. In some cases the animal loses the power over some of its limbs ; the hinder half of the bodies of some are rendered incapable of mo- tion ; in others, the sheep stands, trembles violently, with the head drawn back or to one side, the jaws are tightly closed, and froth is forced through the teeth and lips ; the breathing is hur- ried, and the fit which lasts for a short time, recurs at short inter- vals. At other times the animal, which may appear perfectly well, will suddenly spring from the ground, scream, and fall dead. Others will fall deprived of motion, and remain sprawling, with limbs stretched out, until they die of starvation. The power of swallowing is gone, and there is generally very great difficulty of breathing in consequence of the affection of the pneumo-gastric nerve and the resulting paralysis or spasmodic condition of the muscles of the throat and chest. Animals in poor condition sub- jected to cold and exposure, suffer mostly from this peculiar form of disease. The treatment proper to these varied cases, depends upon whether the patient is in the active or collapsed condition. On the first attack, bleeding from the facial vein is the proper remedy, and generally gives immediate relief. But after the animal has passed through this stage, a condition of collapse follows, and in- stead of depletion, the opposite course is necessary to be taken. Tonics and stimulants are then needed. Warm milk or gruel, sweetened and mixed with ginger, followed by a teaspoonful of aromatic spirits of ammonia, or one scruple of carbonate of ammo- nia, mixed with gum water of cold linseed tea, should be given. If the bowels are constipated, a dose of linseed-oil (but no salts), 10 218 TSE SSEPHEED'S should be given. The body may be swathed in a rag dipped in hot water, to which an ounce of ammonia water has been added. On recovery, the food should be generally improved in character, and a daily dose of one scruple of sulphate of copper may be given with some meal, or mixed with molasses and placed on the tongue. This disease is the most frequent one of the kind from which our flocks suffer. Epilepsy is a very similar disease to the preceding. It occurs chiefly in young or poor sheep which are turned out to feed early in the morning when the herbage is covered with hoar-frost or snow. The rumen being chilled, causes the blood to determine to the brain, and the animal becomes convulsed. No treatment can .avail anything, but prevention is everything. Lockjaw, which is a violent excitement of the nervous system, sometimes occurs in consequence of exposure to wet and cold, and sometimes in consequence of injury to the nerves through the vio- lent twisting of the spermatic cord and vessels in the operation of castration. The jaws are closed, but can be moved laterally, and there is grinding of the teeth ; the head is bent round, the neck twisted, and one or more of the limbs are rigid. In this condition the sheep may remain a day and then die, or if it remain longer it may recover. A warm bath, if the sheep is not too large, is use- ful ; and the animal should be kept warm and in a quiet place. A dose of two ounces of Epsom salts should be given, followed by two drams of laudanum after two hours. Warm gruel, with a quarter of an ounce of ginger, should be given two or three times a day. Quiet and warmth are indispensable to a cure. Palsy.— This disease consists in a total suspension of action in the nervous system, generally in consequence of exposure to se- vere cold and wet. Lambs that are thoroughly chilled by cold rain and winds, or newly shorn sheep similarly exposed, are the most frequent subjects. Ewes having been exhausted by pro- tracted labor, or by abortion ; or newly dropped winter lambs, that have been neglected, also suffer from it. Heavy feeding on man- gels or watery roots has been known to produce it, and it has been stated recently that roots grown upon land that has been heavily dressed with superphosphate of lime, have produced this complaint in several English flocks. It is very questionable if the phosphate has any direct agency in producing it. The sheep suf- fering from it lie totally helpless, the whole body being incapable of movement, the respiration is almost stopped, and the eye ig (lead looking and lifeless, the eyelids quivering occasionally. PABASITICAL DISEASES. £19 The treatment consists in the application of warmth, and a stimulant such as mustard or ammonia and sweet-oil rubbed on the brisket and the spine. The f ollowing dose may be given twice a day, viz : Spirits of Nitrous Ether 2 drams. Powdered Ginger 1 " " Gentian 1 " Warm drinks should be given at short intervals. If the animal is purged, the chalk mixture prescribed for diarrhea should be given. If the palsy is not relieved by this treatment, the following may be given : Tincture of Nux Vomica 4 drops. OB Strychnine , >/4 grain. diffused in a quarter of a pint of linseed gruel, and the dose slightly increased, afterwards repeated. In the case of a valuable animal, this potent medicine should be given with great care, or only by a veterinary surgeon. PARASITICAL DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES. Parasites which infest animals are divided into two classes, in- ternal parasites called entozoa, and externcJ ones which are called epizoa. Since the natural history of microscopic animals and those which undergo changes only to be discovered by the use of the microscope, has become better known, much in regard to some peculiar diseases of animals, is now understood. Formerly it was believed that spontaneous generation of minute animalcules could occur, and that parasites were " bred " by diseased matter. What was then supposed to be the consequence of certain diseased con- ditions is now known to be the cause of them, and the whole subject of parasitical disease is in course of satisfactory explanation. But as yet there is much to learn, and the investigation of the subject is surrounded with difficulties. The most important of all the in- ternal parasites which injuriously affect the sheep is undoubtedly that known as The Liver Fluke, the distoma hepaticwm of Rudolphi, or the fasciola hepatica of Linnaeus, which inhabits the gall bladder and ducts, and penetrates the substance of the liver. Its presence in this organ produces disorder of its functions and a diseased con- dition of the animal known as The Rot, or the Liver Hot. — This disease has been the most dreaded by the shepherd for centuries past. It has carried off 220 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. Fig. 77. — SHEEP AFFECTED WITH BOT. millions of sheep in a single year, in Australia and South America, and is very prevalent in Europe. In 1830 two million sheep died in England of this disease. It exists in America both in imported sheep and the native flocks, and thousands die every year of it without their owners having knowledge of the cause. The symp- toms of the disease are, however, very marked and significant. In the healthy sheep the conjunc- tiva, or the membrane which covers the eyeball in front, and lines the eyelid, is brilliantly red ; so much so, that those un- used to observe these thingg closely, would suppose tbe eye to be highly inflamed. When affected with the rot, the con- junctiva is pale and eyeball yellowish. When this sign ap- pears, and the sheep is found to be ailing, it is certainly infested with flukes. There are other symptoms which indicate less certainly this disease, because they are found present in other ailments also, but this symptom is pe» culiar to this parasite. As the disease progresses, dropsy is always present, and a wa- tery tumor or bag appears beneath the lower jaw. The skin is pale and bloodless, and the wool is dry, harsh, ragged, and readily parts from the skin. The skin is drawn tightly, and the spine is arched and prominent, as seen in figure 77. The ap- petite is irregular, and de- F^ ^--MATURE praved, and the thirst excessive. These symptoms increase until the sheep dies completely emaciated. The fluke is a member of a family of sucking worms (similar to the leeches), known as distomse. It is a flat, oval shaped animal more thickly conical in front, and has a sucker or mouth. Where the thicker part joins the flatter hinder part, there is a second sucker upon the underside. In figure 78 are shown the full grown flukes as taken from tbe gall ducts of a sheep, and in figure 79 are represented immature flukes from the same animal. The fluke is THE LIVER FLUKE. ft highly organized animal. It possesses a branched intestinal canal and digestive organs, seen at figure 80, and a fully devel- oped circulatory system seen at figure 81. These figures are life- size. The fluke possesses the power of self -impreg- nation should a second individual not be present for copulation. It propagates by means of eggs, which are produced in great numbers, and which pass with the bile in to, the intestinal canal, from whence they are voided with the dung of the sheep. Fig. 79. ,j,ne eggg nee(j to j^ wasne(j by rain or flood into stagnant water to become developed. The embryo, covered with cilise or arms — the locomotive organs — leaves the shell and swims in the water. It is then believed, from our present knowledge of its habits, to penetrate the bodies of snails or other amphibious molluscs, and thus pass a stage of its existence. These soft-bodied molluscs being swallowed by the sheep which graze in low, moist pastures, along with the herbage ; the parasites contained in then* are introduced into the stomach, from which they pass by the gall ducts, into the liver, and thus complete the round of their existence. They collect in masses, sometimes closely pack- ed in the gall ducts, obstruct the flow of the gall, and set up irritation, and thus produce jaundice, by which the mem- branes are colored yellow. At this first outset of the disease the sheep seems to thrive and make fat rapidly, but the fat is highly colored, especially that of the kidneys and brisket. Some English feeders have purposely exposed their sheep to the flukes to hasten the fattening. But this stage passed, the structure of the liver becomes changed from the irritation and pressure ; the gall ducts become enlarged into extensive cavities, which are filled with flukes and their eggs. The pain thus caused makes the ani- mal restless and thin. The partial destruction of the liver, and stoppage of its functions, causes diarrhea, dropsy, and the disor- ganization of the blood, which constitute the fatal rot. The course of this disease is rapid. At the latter end the whole system is deranged. The breath is offensive, a deep distressing cough with fever racks the animal, the skin is covered with yellowish and Fig. 80. Fig. 81. 222 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. black patches ; the abdomen enlarges from the accumulated fluid ; the animal is very weak, and lies with its head thrust out, solitary and separate from its fellows until it dies. On opening the sheep, the whole carcass is literally rotten. Yellow serum follows the knife everywhere, the abdomen being filled with it. The liver is found full of hard spots and ulcers, and the ducts filled with flukes. The treatment consists wholly in prevention or in attention at the first stages. When the rot has become developed, no medi- cine avails anything. It is wholly and surely prevented by keep- ing the sheep on dry pastures and away from stagnant water. The fluke there can find no development. Low pastures should be drained, ponds fenced off, and well water used for drinking pur- poses. Hay from low grounds may even communicate this dis- ease. When these preventive measures cannot be wholly carried out, the sheep should be abundantly supplied with salt, and on the first appearance of suspicious symptoms, the following mixture should be administered, viz : Saltpeter ii/, ounce. Powdered Ginger 1 " Carbonate of Iron (colcothar of vitriol) . . Va " Salt 1 potmd. Boiling water 3 quarts. The above to be mixed, and when nearly cool, 9 ounces of spirits of turpentine are to be added. The whole is bottled in quart bot- tles for use, and when administered should be well shaken to mix the ingredients thoroughly. Infected sheep should be kept from food all night, and on the following morning, before feeding, each should receive two ounces (a wine-glass full) of the mixture by means of a horn. No food should be given for three hours. The medicine is repeated every fourth day for two weeks. Sheep may live and thrive, and yet carry flukes. How many they can tolerate without serious injury, is a question that will probably never be satisfactorily answered. It is proper that the shepherd should be always on his guard against them, for the reason that this animal is now known to be native hi this country as well as in almost the whole world. Deer, antelopes, and hares have been found infested by them. A careful and trustworthy naturalist, Mr. Joseph Batty, a member of Prof. Hayden's explor- ing expeditions, has discovered over a hundred flukes in the liver of one hare in Minnesota. A fluke, of which figure 82 is a draw- ing from nature, reduced one-half, was taken by Mr. Batty from the liver of a tfeer in the winter of 1874-5- The liver in question THE LUNG THREAD-WORM. 223 Fig. 82. — FLUKE FROM A DEER. was filled with them, and a number of them are now preserved in the museum of the Smithsonian Institute cA Washington. The author found them (along with numerous specimens of strongylus jttaria in the lungs), in the flock of South- downs belonging to Royal Phelps, Esq., of Babylon, L. I., and also in his own Cotswold, Leicester, and native sheep, which had been allowed to pasture occasionally along the banks of a stream, and iv drnk for a whole summer at a running spring in which many watercresses and other aquatic plants grew. In these cases the medicine above prescribed brought about an entire cure. As the course of the disease is rapidly ex- haustive, sheep that are affected should be well fed with nutritious and easily digested food ; a pint per day, for each sheep, of linseed-oil- cake-meal mixed with bran, will be of the greatest service on their recovery, or as soon as the appetite returns. The Lung Strangle. — The " lung thread-worm," (strongylus filaria), lives in the wind-pipe, the bronchial tubes, and the tissues of the sheep's lungs. It is a white, thread-like worm, from one inch to three inches in length. Its natural history is supposed to be as follows. The worms present in the lungs breed and produce eggs, which contain fully developad young, wound up in a spiral form in a thin shell. These embryos soon leave the shell and move about in the tubes, causing great irritation and a secretion of mucus, upon which they feed and grow. It is not certainly known as yet if the sheep in the violent coughing caused by the irritation expels any of the eggs or young worms, and that they then pass a portion of their existence in the open air, finding their way into the lungs of fresh bearers by the trachea in the passage of the food through the mouth or gullet, 01 from the stomach in the act of rumination ; or if the worm completes its whole existence in the lungs of its bearer. It is most probable that the former sup- position is the true one, as it explains the fact that the worms are often found in young lambs in such quantities as to cause suffoca- tion. Besides, it is known that flocks which follow other sheep upon pastures, or which feed upon fields that have been manured with sheeps' dung, have been attacked with this disease. An in- teresting case in point is stated by a Pennsylvania correspondent of the Country Gentleman of March 25th, 1875. Some ram lambs were pastured m a field upon which their flaing bad been kept the 224 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. previous year, and which had been top-dressed with manure from the sheep sheds. Nineteen out of forty of the lambs died. The following year twenty-three lambs died, and the post-mortem of the physician showed the fact that the larynx and trachea were cov- ered on their inner surface " with a frothy mucus, generally white, but here and there of a yellowish hue," also in iis mucus were "several worm-like bodies about one-half a line in diameter, and from one to two inches in length." Under the microscope these proved to be articulates, some of which contained what seemed to be ova. A microscopic examination of the mucus showed these ova in various stages of development. The worm -like bodies were undoubtedly the lung thread-worms under consideration. For several years afterwards the lambs which pastured on the top- dressed meadows took the disease and died. The symptoms which indicate the presence of this worm are a loss of condition, a con- stant and severe cough, a dropsical condition, as shown by the watery tumor beneath the throat, and a pining and wasting away. The skin is pale, and the eyes pearly, and bloodless. After death there is no sign of disease, except the presence of the worms in the lungs and windpipe, and complete emaciation. The means of prevention are obvious. Pastures or meadows should not be top- dressed with sheeps' manure unless they are to be plowed and sown to grain crops, and if a pasture is found to be infected, it should be plowed up and re-sown. All sheep having the charac- teristic cough should be fattened and killed. The treatment proper in this case is the same as that recom- mended for the liver fluke, and the mixture mentioned on page 222, should be administered as there stated. Turpentine and salt are found to be almost sure remedies for internal parasites of all kinds, and extra feeding to resist the draft upon the system will be useful. Hydatids or Bladder -Worms. — The association of the dog with the sheep upon farms, is productive of much mischief in addition to the vast annual slaughter of the latter occasioned thereby. The great majority of dogs are infested with tape- worms. The eggs of the tape-worms discharged in the dung of the dog upon fields and pastures are swallowed by the sheep with the herbage, and the larval state of the worms is developed within their bodies, either in the lungs, the abdomen, or the brain, causing disease which is often fatal. The larvae of the tape-worm exist in the shape of watery bladders, or sacs, which contain the undeveloped worms. Tfcese peculiar creatures are known 43 Wander-worms or hydatidSi HYDATIDS OR TAPE-WORMS. 225 Fig. 83. One of these occupies the abdominal cavity of the sheep, and is called the Diving Bladder-worm, Cysticercus t^nuicollis or C. tania margina- ta. These bladders are often free in the abdomen, are sometimes enclosed in the fat, and sometimes are attached to the liver and intestines. They are pear- shaped, and in size from that of a walnut to that of a hen's or even a goose's egg. These bladders or cysts, when fed to a dog, have produced the mature tcenia marginata upwards of three feet in length in the course of three months. The eggs of this tape-worm have been fed to lambs, and have produced the hydatid, or bladder-worm, of which hundreds were found in the abdomen of some of the lambs, which died soon after receiving the eggs. Figure 83 is a representation of the Cysticercus tenuicottis, with the head turned out- wards, and with the head contained within the neck of the blad- der. Another of these hydatids is the Many-headed Blad- der-worm, or Cysticer- cus tania echinococcus. — This finds a home in the lungs and liver of the sheep and other ruminants, and also infests mankind. Fig- ure 84 is an illustra- tion of the liver and lungs of an infected sheep. As many as several hundred cysts have been taken from one sheep. This is a most dangerous para- Fi&- **— LUNGS INFECTED WITH HTDATIDS. site, for if taken into the human stomach, it may produce " bladders" in the brain, as it actually nas done in well authenticated cases, which are certainly fatal. The cysts reproduce themselves by a 226 THE SHEPHEBD'S MANUAL. species of budding, and thus rapidly increase and spread through the bodies of their bearers. The most common of these hydatids is The Brain Bladder-worm, or Ccenurus cerebraMs. — This produces the common disease known as turnside, or giddiness, in which the sheep turns its head to the left or right, and walks round and round in a circle in the direction in which the head is turned, until it falls giddy and exhausted. The presence of this parasite has been discovered in the liver of our gray squirrel, and in rab- bits, as well as in numerous sheep in this country. In the sheep it is generally found hi the brain, although it is not peculiar to that organ. It is only there, however, that it produces the usual disastrous effects upon the sheep. Figure 85 represents the Fig. 85.— HYDATID IN THE BRAIN. Fig. 86.— BRAIN WITH FOUR HYDATIDS brain infested with but one hydatid (a) ; in figure 86 it has four of them (a, 5, c} d). In size they are from that of a pea up to that of a hen's egg. The hydatid is a bladder filled with a viscid fluid, and covered on its outside surface with marks or oval slits. These slits are the spots to which flask-shaped appendages are affixed within, and are the openings which lead to the interior of these appendages. On examination with a common pocket lens, a por- tion of the bladder appears as in figure 87. The appendages are the necks and heads of the immature tape-worms, each head hav ing four suckers and a series of hooks which are characteristic of the mature creatures, and by which they afterwards attach them- HYDATIDS 1ST THE BRAIN. selves to the coats of the intestines, while they suck the juices therefrom. These heads increase by a process of budding, and often amount to dozens, and sometimes hundreds in number. The pressure exerted by these bladders upon the brain, produces the peculiar symptoms exhibited, and the act of turning to one side or the other, helps to determine the seat of the hydatid in the body of the brain, which is found to be on that side to which the sheep turns. The natural histo- ry of this parasite is as follows : When the head of a sheep, containing the bladder-worms M ST.-HTDATIDS MAGNIFIED. of this species, is devoured by a dog, the larvae are transformed within him into tape-worms. This worm (teenia canurus) at maturity, or its eggs, being voided by the dog upon the grass of a pasture, are swallowed by the sheep, are hatched in its stomach, and penetrate all parts of the body, perishing everywhere except in the brain, which is its usual habitation. There they develop, remaining dormant, until chance favors their round again. Old sheep are rarely affected by this parasite, the lambs suffer chiefly from them. One infested dog will void thousands of eggs which not only escape with the dung, but being attached to the anus, are carried about and dropped in a multitude of places. To prevent the spread of this parasite, it is necessary only to prevent the heads of affected sheep from being devoured by dogs or hogs, or to keep dogs from the pastures. The heads of sheep dying from the disease should therefore be burned, and not thrown out. The treatment of sheep subject to the parasite consists in an operation by which the skull is pierced and the bladder punctured, when the water in it escapes and is absorbed, leaving the worm to perish. The pressure and irritation upon the skull causes some absorption of its substance, and a soft spot is caused over the blad- der. This may be easily felt by pressure of the finger. A curved awl may then be inserted through the skull and the bladder pierced ; or by means of a tubular saw (or trephine), a round piece of bone is cut out of the skull, a flap of the skin first being laid back, and the bone being lifted, the bladder is laid bare and removed. The skin is relaid and held in place by a stitch or plaster, and th« 228 THE SHEPHEKD'S MANUAL. wound heals. No other remedy than these is safe or certain, and these frequently fail. This class of parasites possesses some importance to the shepherd, not only from the loss occasioned amongst his flock, but from the danger of the results to the consumers of mutton. The farmer's or shepherd's own dog may be the means of injury to his flock, and he should take means to free the dog from the tape- worms by means of proper medicines, of which the powdered areca nut is the most effective, as well as to prevent vagrant dogs from stocking his pastures. The areca nut is administered as follows. Previously, one scru- ple of jalap, for a dog of 20 to 30 pounds in weight, should be ad- ministered, and a brisk action of the bowels set up. This may also be procured by giving the dog a quantity of butter or any of the common purgatives. Immediately afterwards half an ounce of the powder of areca nut is to be given in pills or in some ac- ceptable food. Some locks of tangled wool dipped in grease or melted fat are given at the same time to be swallowed. The worm is killed or paralyzed by the areca nut, is entangled in the wool, and all together are expelled by the purge. The mass should be immediately burned or buried at a perfectly safe depth in the ground. Applied to every dog at intervals of three months, this treatment will free them from tape- worms, and prevent danger of the sheep becoming infested with them. Tape-worms, (tcenia plicata), in the intestines. The sheep them- selves are sometimes infested with mature tape- worms. This is easily explained by the possibility of the sheep swallowing along with their pasture some of the eggs which may have been voided by any of the numerous bearers of these worms, both domestica- ted and wild. It has been stated that the intestinal tape-worm is ver}r rare, if not unknown, in sheep in this country. This would seem to be erroneous. A correspondent of the National Live Stock Journal of September, 1875, from Missouri, reported his lambs all dying of a strange disease in which the first symptom was a falling off in condition, followed by a mild diarrhea. This occurred in June, and continued up to August, when 30 out of 60 were dead, and nearly all the remainder were ailing. On exami- nation after death, the small intestines were found " packed full of tape-worms." This can hardly be a unique case, and we may very well conclude that tape-worm in the intestines is one of the parasitical diseases that we have to combat. Generally the symptoms developed by the presence of tape- worms are voracity of appetite, alternating with a refusal of food ; loss of condition, desire to swallow earth, stones, sand, or ashes ; PAEASITES OF THE SKIK. 229 the passage of soft dung, mixed with mucus, which becomes attached to the vent and tail, causing a very filthy condition ; and the evidence of internal pain. The sheep finally dies greatly ema- ciated. There is no means of prevention, as the eggs may be dropped by rabbits, squirrels, skunks, and other wild animals which frequent the fields. The treatment most effective is to administer turpentine as follows : Linseed-oil 2 ounces. Spirits of Turpentine Va to 1 ounce. This should be repeated twice a week for two weeks. If this is not effective, 3 ounces of the Powdered root of Male Fern may be given. The dose to be repeated in one week. In six hours after this is administered, a purgative of linseed-oil should be given. The food should be of the best kind until the lost con- dition is restored!. Tape- worms in any of their forms of life, affect only young sheep and lambs. When sheep attain the age of two years they are safe from them, and it is very rare indeed that one older than this be- comes infested with them. Hair-worms in the Intestines. — A species of " hair-worm " called from its peculiar formation tricocephalus, is not uncommon in sheep. It infests the stomach and intestines, causing obstinate diarrhea, and rapid wasting of flesh. These worms burrow their heads into the membrane lining the organs, and suck out the juices. The irritation produces diarrhea, which submits to no treatment while they remain. A cough is often present along with the diarrhea. Other species of worms, of habits identical with these, and producing the same injurious effects, also infest the sheep, but more particularly lambs and yearlings. Salt in dosej of half an ounce, given on alternate days with one dram doses o' sulphate of iron, the salt being given on one day and the iron the next, is a very sure remedy for this class of parasites, and the dis- eases which result from their presence. To counteract the debili« tating effect of these parasites, the food should be of the most nu- tritive and digestible character, and linseed in some shape should not be omitted. PARASITES AND PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE SKIN. Of the epizoa or external parasites of the sheep, the most formid- able is the Scab insect, or Acarus scdbiei. This is a minute mite which attaches itself to the skin and penetrates the surface, lodg- ing itself in the tissues and causing intense irritation or itching, 230 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. and the secretion of a serous exudation which dries upon the sur- face and forms a scab. This disease was well known to ancient shepherds, and an exact description was given by the poet Virgil in his Georgics. It is mentioned by the historian Livy, as being very virulent in his time. But up to a very recent date the cause of the disease was not correctly known. Youatt's work on the sheep, published in 1840, by the English " Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge," states it to be caused by bad keep, starva- tion, over-driving, dogging, exposure to cold and wet, and other causes of a suppression of the perspiration. He mentions the acari as carriers of the disease, but not as the cause. In an attempt to account for the origin of the insect, he makes the following re- marks, which in the light of our present knowledge are a curious relic of the ignorance which existed 40 years ago, and which has not yet quite passed away. " Physiologists are beginning to ac- knowledge the working of a mysterious but noble principle — the springing up of life under new forms, when the com- ponent principles of previous beings are decaying, or have seemingly perished. Thus, if we mace- rate any vegetable substance, the fluid will teem with my- riads of living be- ings, called into existence by the process we are con- ducting, or rather by that power of Nature, or that prin- ciple which was bestowed by the author of Nature, that life ceasing in one form shall spring up in others, and this while the creation lasts. Thus we have probably the hydatid in the brain of the sheep, and the fluke in its liver ; parasitical beings, which we recognise in no other form and in no other place. They were the product of the disease of the part. In like manner the acarus of scab may be called into existence by the derangements which our neglect, or unavoidable accident, or disease, may have made in the skin of the sheep. Scab may be, and is, of spontaneous orh Fig. 88. — FEMALE SCAB INSECT. THE SCAB-MITE. gin, as well as the product of contagion ; and the acarus, having sprung into life within the pores of the skin, obeys the laws of all living beings as to its after existence and multiplication." It shows with what caution speculations should be indulged in, and how much safer it is to say " we do not know," than to haz- ard explanations which may be wide of the truth and misleading. It has long been known that the origin of the existence of all ani- mal life is an egg produced and fecundated by parents, and the scab-mite being no exception to this law, comes forth from an egg and springs into life just as a chicken does. In both cases the egg is deposited and hatched, and produces the mature animal. The female scab insect, seen at figure 88, is larger than the male, which is shown at figure 89, magnified 2,500 times. One male suffices for many females, and is longer lived than the female. The latter dies after producing her eggs, which she deposits in the pores of the skin, or in the furrows of the scab which she has helped to produce. Her eggs are numerous, and being hatched hi three days, her progeny increase rapidly. One female acarus can produce a million and a half of progeny in 90 days. This facility of increase explains the rapidity Fig- 89.— MALE SCAB with which the disease spreads through a flock, and proves the necessity for instant and energetic remedies or effective preventives. The symptoms first observed are restlessness and uneasiness, and the observant shepherd will have his suspicions aroused and search for the cause on the first appearance of these symptoms amongst his flock. As the disease progresses, the sheep are found rubbing or scratching themselves, or biting or nibbling amongst their wool. The attention should then be directed to the parts rubbed or bitten. If scab is present, the skin will be at first white in color and of a thicker texture than the rest, and moist or covered with a yellow exudation. Later these parts are covered with scab and the wool falls off or becomes loose. If a lock of this wool be laid upon a sheet of white paper, the mites will be seen with the unaided eye, as they crawl from it. If the disease is neglected, the scabby spots enlarge and increase in number, the wool appears ragged all over, and falls off in patches. Upon these bare spots dense brown or yellow scales are seen, and if the sheep can reach & fence or a post, the scabs are rubbed until they bleed and be- 232 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. come sores. The condition of the sheep falls off rapidly, «nd it becomes a wo-begone object, such as is shown in figure 90. The treatment is by dipping in a liquid which penetrates and softens the scab so that it can be removed, and which poisons the insect. There are many preparations used for this purpose, some of which are objectionable on account of their poisonous proper- ties, such as mercurial or arsenical compounds, and which are no more effective than the following perfectly safe one. Thia consists of tobacco and sulphur in the proportions of four ounces of the first, and one of the second, to the gallon of water. Tho water is brought to a boiling heat, and the tobacco, either coarsa cheap leaf or stems, which are equally good, is steeped, (but not boiled), in it until the strength is exhausted. The sulphur is then Fig. 90.— SHEEP AFFECTED WITH SCAB. Btirred in the liquid. When it has become reduced in tempera- ture to 120 degrees, it is ready for use. The sheep are entirely immersed in the liquid so that the wool is completely saturated. Hard crusts of scab are broken up and removed with care, and the raw surfaces are well washed with the decoction. The dip- ped animals should be kept in a yard until the wool no longer drips, lest the pasture should be fouled, and the sheep sickened by the tobacco juice. After ten days the dipping is repeated to de- stroy any newly hatched mites. With care the most badly in- fected locality may be completely freed from this pest, and it will never appear if the sheep are dipped twice each year as a preven- tive. The gain in the growth of wool and in its improved quality will more than repay the cost of the operation. (See page 48.) The Sheep Tick (Melophfigus ovinus), has been already referred to (page 48); if the process of dipping, just described, is regularly practiced, this parasite will be easily vanquished, and its annoying presence prevented. This insect propagates only by single eggs, or rather the perfect pupa is expelled singly from the female, THE SHEEP-TICK. which is therefore termed pupiparous ; it does not, therefore, in- crease very fast, and is easily kept under. It is too well know*, to need minute description, its dark red, tough, leathery-skinned body be- ing a most conspicuous object, when the wool of almost any sheep in the country is examined. The pupa and mature sheep-tick, greatly magnified, are shown at figure 91. The Sheep-louse (Trichodectes ovis), is known as the red sheep-louse. Its head is of a red color, and the body pale yellow, marked with dark bands. It is found on the side ^ ^--SHEEP-TICK A»D PUPA. of the neck of the sheep, and the inner parts of the thighs and arms. It causes much irritation, by which the sheep is impelled to thrust its head between the bars of gates or fences, or to kick and stamp with its legs. Oc- casionally sheep are found strangled by becoming fixed in their attempts to rub their necks, or with their legs broken in attempts to rub them upon rails. Lice are rarely found on the yolky wooled sheep, but on the drier fleeced breeds they often cause much unsuspected mischief. Those sheep which are regu- . 92. iariy dipped, are also free from this pest. To rub SHEEP LOUSE. tke parts mentioned with the following preparations is generally an easy remedy. Lard 1 pound. Flowers of Sulphur 2 ounces. Creasote 20 drops. one pint of sweet oil may be substituted for the lard. This louse is small, and the illustration, figure 92, is of one highly magnified. The Sheep Gad Fly ((Estrus ovis). — This is a most troublesome pest, causing much discomfort to the sheep. It is a fly with two wings spreading over one inch, and a stout body over half an inch in length. In the summer months they disturb the sheep in the pastures by the efforts they make to deposit their eggs upon the animal's nostrils. When they succeed in their efforts, the sheep often becomes half frantic, and races violently over the pasture, sometimes seriously injuring itself by becoming overheated. Where the fly abounds, the sheep crowd together and stop feed- ing, holding their noses to the ground, and stamping witb 234 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. k fore feet. The grub, when hatched from the egg, crawls up the nostril, and lodges in the sinuses of the head, where it remains feeding upon the mucus secreted by the membranes, until the fol- lowing spring. In entering the nostrils and in leaving them, they cause much irritation to the sheep. The remedy lies in prevent- ing the fly from laying its eggs, and this is done by smearing the nostrils of the sheep with tar, diluted with grease or butter. This is both distasteful to the fly and fatal to the egg. By preparing a pailful of the mixture, and smearing the noses of the sheep with a brush, as they pass one by one through a half opened gate, every morning during fly time (July and August), the sheep will be spared much annoyance. When grubs are crawling down the nostril early in spring, they may be quickly dislodged by blowing tobacco smoke into the nose through a pipe. The Maggot, so called, is a formidable enemy of the sheep. It is the larvae of the common flesh fly (Sarcophaga carnaria), the blue-bottle fly (musca CcBsar), and the meat fl»y (musca wmitoria\ all of which deposit their eggs or living larvae upon decay ing ani- mal matter. "When sheep are wounded by accident, or are allowed to become filthy when troubled with diarrhea, these eggs or larvae are deposited in vast numbers ; the ovaries of a single Sarcopha- gus having been found to contain 20,000 eggs. The maggots soon become active, and spreading from their quarters, attack the skin, which they irritate and cause to secrete a serous fluid. In time the skin is pierced, and the flesh suppurates and wastes away, being devoured by the multitude of maggots which crawl upon it. In wet seasons the mischief is greatly increased. To prevent them it is necessary to carefully remove the wool from about the tail so that filth may not gather ; to watch for any accidental wound ; and in warm wet weather, for any dirty tags of wool upon which the flies may deposit eggs. In case any maggots are found, there is no better application than common crude petroleum, or whale-oil, both of which are repulsive and fatal to fly and maggot. A sheep that is u struck " with maggots will remain separate from the flock, and may be lost sight of unless the flock is counted at least once a day, and the straggler found. Weaning time, when the ewes may suffer from caked udder, is an especially critical period, and then extra watchfulness is called for. DISEASES OF THE FEET. Sheep are subject to many disorders of the feet. The structure of the sheep's foot is different from that of the horse. It possesses COKTAGIOUS FOOT-ROT. 235 no *./« ounce. Spirits of Turpentine Va dram. Aseaf oetida 20 grains. TABLE OF MEASURES. 249 to be given early in the morning, for three successive days, before feeding or turning to pasture, and no feed to be given for three hours afterward. Afterwards the following to be given daily : Molasses or Honey 1 pound. Flowers of Sulphur 4 ounces. one tablespoon ful to be given every morning for ten days. The food should be of the most nutritious and digestible char- acter, and if the appetite fails, the food, until the appetite returns, should be given by means of a horn, in the shape of gruel or infu- sions of oatmeal, linseed, or corn-meal, sweetened with sugar. TABLE OF APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT MEASURES. For the more ready use of the prescriptions mentioned in the preceding chapter, the following table of approximate equivalent measures is here given : FLUID MEA.SUBES. One teaspoonful = One fluid dram. One tablespooiiful = Half a fluid ounce. One wine-glassful = Two fluid ounces. One tea (iiot coffee), cupful = A quarter of a pint One tumblerful = Half a pint. It will be more convenient, as well as more accurate, to have an apothecary's graduated glass, which is not very expensive, and will allow all the needed measurements to be made in a single utensil. This is a conical glass upon a foot, and provided with a lip to pour from ; they may be had of the capacity of one or two ounces up to a pint ; one of four ounces will be the most conve- nient ; the measures are marked on the glass, the sign f 3 standing for fluid dram, and f I for fluid ounce ; Ss is used for half of either. A set of apothecary scales and weights may be bought for a dollar or less. The grain weights are of thin sheet brass, with number of grains indicated by dots. 3 stands for scruples, and 3 for dram ; the number of each being indicated by numerals follow- ing the sign ; Ss is used for half of either. THE BHEPfi£fcD*S CHAPTER VIII. LOCALITIES IN THE UNITED STATES SUITABLE FOR SHEEP RAISING. It will be readily gathered from a perusal of the preceding {)ages of this work, that there are certain kinds of sheep specially adapted for certain localities, which have peculiar characteristics of climate, soil, moisture, or surface, and that some sheep will thrive where others would rapidly degenerate. Such has been the costly experience of many persons who have entered the business of rearing sheep with more enthusiasm than knowledge; and the not infrequent losses they havo met with have had the effect of divert- ing others from a profitable pursuit. It is, therefore, wise to study the character of the different sections of the country before choos- ing either a breed of sheep to keep, or a locality in which to keep them. The territory of the United States is so extensive, and present3 such a diversity of climate, that in considering its adaptability to sheep-raising, it becomes necessary to subdivide it into regions, and consider eacli of them with special reference to this industry. THE EAST. The States north of Virginia and Tennessee, from the Atlantic ocean to the Mississippi river, constitute the most thickly popu- lated portion of the country. Here are located all the great cities and most of the large towns. To supply the demands of the market created by this large and growing population, there is needed an increased number of lambs and choice varieties of mut- ton. Some of these markets demand a supply for which price is a secondary consideration if the quality is acceptable. The early lambs which, at some seasons, retail for $5 the quarter, are readily purchased, and it only needs that there should be a supply of the choicer varieties of mutton to greatly increase the demand. In this portion of the country indicated as the " East," there are several millions of consumers of lambs and superior mutton sheep. To supply this demand, varieties of sheep furnishing a superior quality of mutton are needed, the yield of wool being a secondary consideration. To feed these sheep, pastures of peculiar characters LOWLAND DISTKIOT. £51 must be furnished. In the coast lands and river meadows, the elevated ranges and sheltered valleys of the region now under consideration, every variety of pasture is furnished or may be provided by proper methods ; and if we do not already possess the breeds of sheep which are naturally fitted to occupy these pastures, and yield the highest quality of mutton, they may be procured by importation at a very moderate cost. The Eastern region may be subdivided into three districts ; the al- luvial coast lands ; the valley and bottom lands ; and the mountains. THE COAST LANDS include all that portion subject to the influences of salt water an«i the sea air. Salt marshes are not detrimental to the health of sheep, but fresh water marshes, if undrained, are utterly destruc- tive of them ; and when drained, are only fitted for the pasturage of one or two breeds which have been bred and raised for cen- turies upon such lands. The herbage of salt marshes gives a peculiar flavor to the flesh of sheep fed upon it, which renders the mutton very desirable in the markets. Along the Atlantic coast are millions of acres of pasture lands which could support at least three sheep to the acre. From Maine to Virginia, the Atlantic coast is indented with bays and inlets containing numerous islands and promontories that are excellently adapted for sbeep farms. By fencing across their bases, the promontories may be rendered safe, and the islands are naturally guarded against the depredation of dogs, the greatest pest of the shepherd in this por- tion of the country. From personal observation of these coast lands, the author is satisfied that no more healthful pastures exist anywhere, and nowhere is land cheaper or more easily brought into profitable condition to support flocks of sheep. The higher portions of these lands very much resemble the " downs " of Eng- land, and the traveller who has seen the numerous Southdown flocks of that country, pasturing upon the gently swelling shore lands, and inhaling the wholesome sea breezes, can not but be im- pressed with the favorable opportunities here offered for the same profitable and pleasing industry. The Southern portion of this coast district has a remarkably mild climate, which is very favorable, so far as cost is concerned, for the feeding of sheep through the winter. A specially well adapted locality is that comprising the eastern peninsula of Vir- ginia. A private letter to the author, from Mr. C. R. Moore, of Johnsontown, in this locality, states that sheep in that climate are Unaffected by any disease whatever, and that farms suitable foj 252 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. sheep keeping can be purchased for $10 per acre or less. Another excellent locality is found upon the eastern shores of Long Island. Here, good lands, suitable for sheep farms, may be purchased for $5 to $10 per acre. The sheep suitable for these localities, arc, the Southdown and its crosses upon our common sheep ; the English Dorset sheep ; the Colswold and its crosses, and the English Romney Marsh sheep. The last two of these varieties should be chosen for the richer meadow lands, and the first two for the lighter uplands. Either of these breeds is suitable for the production of market lambs, but the first three are to be preferred in the order named. THE VALLEY AND BOTTOM LANDS. These lands comprise the whole of those arable lands of the entire region in question, which are so prolific under ordinarily good cultivation of crops of grass, grain, clover, and roots. The rich vallies which have become renowned for their fertility, as the Mohawk and the Genessee vallies in New York; those of the Delaware and Susquehanna in Pennsylvania ; the Shenandoah in Virginia, the Miami in Ohio ; also the uplands of the blue-grass region of Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, and Missouri, with the rich fields of the prairie States east of the Mississippi, as well as of the formerly wooded regions of Michigan, Wisconsin, Canada, and New England, — all these offer a favorable field for the produc- tion of sheep valuable for both wool and mutton. This district, occupied by three-fourths of the whole population of the United States and Canada, and possessed of a rich soil, is wonderfully diversified as to surface and agricultural capacity, is well watered, and blessed with a healthful climate. Thousands ot vallies watered with clear streams and springs, and separated from each other by dry rolling table-lands, densely populated in com- parison with the rest of our territory, are occupied by the most industrious, intelligent, and enterprising farmers in the world, and are covered with their homesteads and cultivated fields. No soil in the world is more prolific in fodder and root crops, and no- where else can sheep be raised and kept with more profit than here. The shepherd who loves to see flocks dotting the landscape, as he passes through this immense territory, is surprised at th« comparatively small number of sheep. Here and there may be found considerable flocks, and in some few counties only, the production of mutton and wool is of con- siderable importance. The following table, which shows thoso Counties in the States mentioned which possess over 100,000 sheef MOUNTAIN DISTRICT. 253 prrh, gives a fair idea how inadequately this branch of agricul- ture is represented in this favored district. State. County. Number of Sheep in 1870. NEW YORK.— Whole number in the State 2,181,578. Livingston 113,933 I Steuben 145,645 Ontario 131,485 | Washington 102,045 OHIO.— Whole number in the State 4,928,635 Jefferson 154,668 ' Belmont 162,787 Carrol 131,069 Columbiana 131,527 Coshocton 132,173 Delaware 110,832 Guernsey 151,848 Knox 145,613 Licking 220,963 Morrow 118,291 Muskingum 145,954 Tuscarawas 128,301 Harrison 180,189 PENNSYLVANIA.— Whole number in the State 1,794,301 Green 121,135 | Washington 426,621 MICHIGAN.— Whole number in the State 1,985,906 Calhoun 102,010 Jackson 130,289 Lenawee 112,653 Livingston 103,527 Oakland 162,852 Washtenaw 187,059 No other county in any State east of the Rocky Mountains con- tains 100,000 sheep. Of these sheep a very small portion are of the long-wool breeds, or of a class the most desirable for mutton, yet these more valuable sheep may be kept here with the greatest eass. It is here that are to be found nearly all that there are in the country of the heavy- bodied sheep, yielding the valuable grades of combing wool. The beneficial effect of the rearing and feeding of these classes of sheep upon the system of agriculture is very great, and it is quite within the bounds of probability that the flocks of Cotswold, Lin- coln. Shropshire, Hampshire, Oxfordshire, Southdown, and Lei- cester sheep with their grades that are now kept, will very soon increase in number to a remarkable extent. The most favorable fields for their support are in this district; and it is these breeds of sheep that are best adapted to the higher culture which alone can render farming upon these lands the most profitable. THE MOUNTAIN DISTRICT. This includes the ^reat Appalachian chain, which extends from Alabama to New York, and there diverges to form the White Mountains and the highlands of New England. It includes a suc- cession of mountain ranges, table-lands, and elevated valleys, over a thousand miles in length, and averaging from two hundred to three hundred miles in width. Much of this district is still covered with the original forest, or a second growth of timber j but, 254 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. beneath the trees, and interspersed amongst the forests, there is an abundant growth of grass. In Western North Carolina, East Tennessee, West Virginia, and Southern Pennsylvania, blue grass and other valuable permanent pasture grasses are indigenous, and spring up spontaneously when the timber is " deadened," by gird- ling or removing the bark in a ring around the trees. Upon some of the open table-lands, especially in East Tennessee and North Carolina, there are open grassy tracts, free from timber, which furnish the finest pasturage the year round. The hillsides and the valleys, when cleared, bear luxuriant crops of clover and grass, while the geological character of the soil, which overlies the carboniferous formations of limestones, sandstones, and shales, is favorable to the health and vigor of flocks. The abundance of land and the sparseness of population in this portion of the region tend to very low values, and large tracts may be procured for one dollar an acre and upwards. Further north, the soil is less fertile, and the climate less genial ; but the sides and summits of the Alle- ghany ranges bear heavy crops of clover and grasses of various species so soon as freed from the rubbish and debris of the timber which has been removed by the lumberman. So the rougher lands of New England, culminating in the ridges of thu White Moun- tains, may be utilized as pastures for those breeds which are fitted by nature for such exposed situations. The still more bleak and less productive mountains of Scotland furnish homes for some millions of sheep, and it is around the storm-swept granite crags of the Scottish mountains that flocks of Black-faced sheep, num- bering from one or two thousand, up to forty thousand each, are reared and fed. The various mountain breeds of sheep are exactly fitted for such pastures, and the Scotch Black-faced, the Cheviot, and the Welsh sheep might be introduced upon the rougher portions, while our native sheep, improved by the lighter-bodied varieties of the several " Down " breeds, would be suitable to the better pastures of the southern portions of this district. It is in these localities that the choicer kinds of mutton, and the short but valuable wools, suitable for the manufacture of flannels and hoisery, would be cheaply and profitably produced. The great pest of the shepherd throughout the mountain region is the dog. Here game being plentiful, the hunter is abroad, and scours forest and open ground with his hounds. Contrary to common belief, the hound and other sporting dogs will pursue and destroy sheep with greater ferocity than the maligned and malignant cur. Cruel and costly experi- ence in a portion of this mountain district has proved this to tli« THE SOUTHEAST STATES. 255 author beyond a doubt. Where these dogs are kept in more than usual numbers, no flock is safe at night outside of a substantial enclosure, or in the daytime without an attendant. A method of protection, however, may be made available in traps and fence- guards, such as have been described in a previous chapter. THE REGION OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. Sheep-keeping in the Southern States has suffered greatly from competition with cotton-growing. Heretofore, the peculiar system of labor was better calculated for working in gangs in the cotton, tobacco, sugar-cane, and rice fields, than for the independent labors of ordinary farming. On the plantation, sheep were out of place, excepting where grain, grass, and live stock were produced, as in some notable cases in Virginia. On the farm, sheep are an ab- solute necessity to the most economical management, wherever they can possibly be accommodated. Now, under the changed system of labor, the farm is rapidly taking the place of the plantation ; and amongst the varied industries belonging to the farm, the rearing of sheep must undoubtedly take a foremost place. For the fine- wool sheep there are few better localities than are afforded by the Southern States. The climate is very similar to that of countries where the Merino has attained its highest excellence. Northern Africa, and Southern and Central Europe, have been the homes of this sheep for more than two thousand years, and our Southern States not only offer an equally favorable climate, but possess in their native grasses, equally good, if not a better pasturage. They have also immense tracts of land covered with the grasses which are useless for any other purpose, and are consequently to be purchased for very low prices. The grasses of the Southern States of the greatest value for sheep pasture, have hitherto been considered the greatest pest of the planter. " Bermuda-grass" (Cynodon Dactylori), " Wire-grass" (Aristida stricta), " Crab-grass " (Elem'ne Induct), and " Crow- foot" or "Barnyard-grass" (Panicum Crus-gall!), have been re- garded as not only worthless, but plantations have been abandoned on account of being overrun with some of these in spite of efforts to keep them down by cultivation. Fortunately it is now known that these abandoned fields will keep several sheep to the acre the year round. In addition to this native pasture, a wonderful vanety ef fodder crops are easily grown. In Dr. Howard's " Manual of the Cultivation of Grasses and Fodder Plants at the South," are mentioned Lucern, the 256 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. Pea, the Vetch or Tare, Oats, Red and White and other Clovers, Millet, Blue-grass, and most of the other cultivated grasses com- mon elsewhere. These, with such roots as turnips, beets, and mangels, and with cabbages and kohl-rubi, furnish an abundance of food which may be fed from the ground in rotation the entire year. Perhaps there is no portion of North America better fitted for profitable fine-wool husbandry, than would be the Southern States, under a system of skillful and enlightened agriculture. Tt would be difficult to point out localities in these States that are more specially adapted than others to the raising of sheep. The climate everywhere is genial, and if any one State seems to offer greater facilities than another for the shepherd, it is Georgia, and this more on account of the great quantities of land suitable for the keeping of sheep, which can be procured at almost nominal prices. For the production of the strictly wool sheep, cheap land is very desirable, if not necessary, in competition with the exten- sive ranges of free pasture found upon the great plains ; and the sheep owner therefore will be attracted to those localities where this need can be supplied. THE REGION OF THE WESTERN STATES AND TERRITORIES. That portion of the United States designated by the above title, viz., that west of the Missouri River, offers an almost unlimited field for the profitable rearing of sheep. While other localities may raise sheep, this in the greater part must raise them or lie unused and undeveloped, because the climate and the physical character of that portion, as a general thing, forbid the prosecution of agriculture and invite pastoral pursuits. Almost the whole ter- ritory west of the 100th meridian to the coast lands of the Pacific is a sheep pasture, which can never be furrowed by the plow ex- cept under a system of irrigation. Nature could scarcely have combined more favorable conditions, to meet the necessities of the shepherd than are found here. A dry soil, short, sweet, nutritious herbage, pure water, pure air, a long feeding season, good winter pasturage or abundance of grass for hay, which can be cheaply saved, are all here — in some cases to be had without money and without price, but anywhere for a very small expenditure cf capital. Within the past few years, since this part of the country has been made accessible by the Pacific and other railroads, and the mining industry has opened up markets for produce, and has brought in abundant supplies, some of the lands have been brought under irrigation and cultivation ; but these comprise but a very insignificant portion of the whole area, Probably not more thau THE WESTERN STATES. 25? one acre in a hundred thousand, if so much, can thus be used; and the remainder is being gradually covered with herds and flocks. The most accessible and valuable tracts are being rapidly appropriated by the owners of cattle and sheep as grazing grounds. The lands are not purchased by the occupants, nor can they be at present, for the reason, that under the preemption and homestead laws, they can only be purchased or acquired in single tracts of 160 acres each by any one person ; a limit which entirely defeats their sale. They are now simply held under the natural right of the first occupier, or by the physical right of the strongest ; a title without warrant of law, and which is not by any means undis- puted amongst the settlers themselves. There are thus sometimes disputes, quarrels, and even conflicts, in which, as is usual, the weaker gives way. It will undoubtedly be the case, that finally the strictly grazing lands will be offered for sale by the Govern- ment, at such prices as they may be worth ; when a legal title will give protection to the small stockman against the usurpations of the greater. But there are many tracts of land admirably suited for sheep pasturing, that may be purchased at low prices from the various railroad companies, or acquired from the U. S. Govern- ment under the Homestead, Preemption, or Timber Culture Acts, which, together, may be sufficient to form a respectable sheep farm, around which, for many years, abundant free pasturage may be pro- cured from the unsold railroad lands, or the unoccupied Govern- ment tracts. These facts, operating advantageously, or otherwise, make it proper to treat of this region under three subdivisions, viz., the Eastern District, the Central and Southern Districts, and the Pacific District. THE EASTERN DISTRICT, This includes the western part of the States of Texas, Kansas, Nebraska, the eastern part of Colorado, and the southern part of the territory of Dakotah. This district is one vast meadow which bears a variety of grasses admirably suited for sheep pasture and for hay. Mingled with the grasses, in many places, are species of leguminous plants popularly known as " wild pea," etc., which add much to the value of the pasture; there is an abundance of water, either in streams or springs, or attainable by wells at mod- erate depths. The rain fall is sufficient in nearly the whole of this district to allow crops of rye, millet, or lucern to be grown, which are valuable for winter feeding. But the chief attraction to the shepherd, in selected portions of this section, consists in the ease with which he can procure the legal and peacable possession 258 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. of bis land, free from question or incursion of stronger and richer neighbors, who, being in great part engaged in herding cattle, drive off the sheep from the range under the impression that they destroy the feed. Several railroads having immense land grants pass through the best parts of this district. These roads bring in needed supplies and carry wool and sheep to market ; they also bring the shepherd within reach of the comforts and influences of civilized life, so that he is not compelled to lead the life of an out- cast, as it were, or to deny himself the society of his family. Towns and villages are within reach of the pastures in many places, where the sheep farmer may enjoy every convenience of Eastern life. The method of managing a flock in these various localities, differs very little from that on an Eastern sheep farm. The princi- pal difference lies in the fact that the pasture is ready at hand, and no preparation or cultivation of the soil is needed. To secure the land ; purchase the flock ; select the rams of whatever breed may be chosen for improving it ; erect the shelter necessary during the winter months, and provide a certain amount of feed for the winter season, when pasture may fail for a time, are all that is needed for the shepherd to commence business. It is not to be supposed that a previous knowledge of the business is unnecessary. Those who have carefully read the preceding pages will not form so erroneous an opinion; but a capable person, desiring to enter the business in this district, may do so with greater facilities and fewer risks than elsewhere. The class of sheep that have so far been found most profit- able in this district, is the native or the Mexican ewe, crossed by Merino or Cots wold rams. The late Mr. George Grant, of Victoria, Kansas, whose flock numbered 7,000 ewes, used, in the way of ex- periment, Lincoln, Leicester, Cotswold, Oxford-Down, and other rams upon the native ewes, but the fleeces of the pure long wool breeds, when shipped to Boston for sale, actually sold for a lower price than the wool of the native sheep. As might also have been expected, the experiment failed witli the heavy-bodied Lincoln and tender Leicester, for reasons pointed out by the author in previous pages of this work. The experience of Mr. Grant has proved the correctness of the opinion given by the author in regard to the difficulties in keeping these breeds of sheep excepting under the most favorable circumstances, and with all the aids of the highest farming, and also that for general use, the Merino crosses will be found greatly the best in every way. This is the almost universal opinion of those who have had personal experience, and is consis- THE WESTERN PLAINS. 259 tent with what would be predicated of the existing conditions by an expert in sheep culture. But little feed is necessary for the winter season, one ton of hay for every 50 head being the usual allowance. When the winter is favorable, only a few days' feeding may be needed, and in the southern portion of the district, feed is never stored for the winter, pasturing being the entire dependence. Still, where the flock is of improved grades, it will certainly be profitable to pro- vide not only hay, but a moderate quantity of crushed grain (oats and corn), for the ewes. The profit actually made upon investments in sheep, when prop- erly managed, are here from 50 to 75 per cent per annum. When, labor is all hired, the wool will generally pay all expenses, leaving the increase of the flock, which is rarely less than 75 lambs to every 100 ewes, as clear profit. A common method is to let out the flock to a capable shepherd for one half the net increase and pro- duce ; the losses in the original flock being made up from the share of the shepherd. A personal inspection of these magnificent pastures, and a short acquaintance with some of those who are already successfully en- gaged there in sheep raising, can not fail to give a most favorable impression to the least sanguine seeker of information upon this interesting subject. A large portion of this favored territory is susceptible of the highest cultivation under ordinary farm crops. The various grains, flax, sorghum, roots and fruits of all kinds, yield abundantly. For those farmers who follow this mixed system of agriculture, and yet who would add sheep-keeping to their other resources, might adopt the plan of joining their flocks together after shearing time, and putting the whole under the care of a shepherd who should drive them to a distance and pasture them upon the unoc- cupied lands, until the farms were cleared of crops. This migra- tory system is very frequent amongst farmers in parts of Germany, and is found very convenient. The sheep and lambs are marked, so as to distinguish those of the different owners, and the expense of their care during their absence is borne proportionately to the number of sheep in each flock. In this way the profits of sheep- keeping could be securod with great advantage, where, without it, not a sheep could be kept. A number of small flocks of from fifty to a hundred sheep, gathered together into one large one of two or three thousand, might be kept at almost nominal expense for half the year, and be returned in time to glean the stubbies and consume much fodder that now goes entirely to waste, or 260 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. serves as a harbor for countless myriads of insect pests. The opportunities for such arrangements as this, now, and for many years to come, are very many, not only through the district referred to, but in many others far east of this. THE CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN DISTRICTS. This divsion comprises the Territories of Wyoming, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and Southern and Westen Colorado. The surface consists of broad, dry plains, covered with buffalo grass " sage bush " (Artemesia), or elevated vallies with broad grassy meadows alternating with elevated mountain ranges. The climate is dry, and in parts arid, and the sparseness or entire absence of population renders it far from desirable as a residence, except to adventurous people who may be content to sacrifice the comforts of civilization for a time in the pursuit of wealth. Only the pos- sessor of considerable capital can have any hope of success in pastoral pursuits here. But with sufficient means, and the requisite experience, sheep-keeping can be made very profitable. The chief drawback is the hostility of the cattle-men, who complain, with some justice, that sheep injure the range as a pasture for their herds, and these, being the stronger, drive the sheep and the shep- herds from the best grazing grounds. THE PACIFIC DISTRICT. The Pacific District includes the States of California and Oregon and Washington Territory. The physical features of a large por- tion of this extensive district are similiar to those of the locality last described. There are broad plains, covered with low brush and bunch grasses, rolling grassy uplands, mountains and elevated vallies, all furnishing abundant pasturage. There aro 85,000,000 acres in Eastern Oregon, which is for the greater part covered •with the bunch grasses (prominent among which is Festuc;i sci- brella), and other herbage which are nutritious and healthful for sheep. The climate gives a softness and fineness to the fleece, which adapts it to the production of fabrics of excellent quality; the blankets made in Oregon being probably the best produced anywhere. Washington Territory possesses a similar climate and other char- acteristics, and offers equal advantages to the shepherd, though it lacks a home market, because of the sparseness of the population. It is in California, however, that the industry and enterprise of the shepherd have been developed to a greater extent than else- THE PACIFIC DISTRICT. 261 where on the Pacific slope. The following table, giving the pro- duct of wool in the State, from 1854 to 1877, shows the adapta- bility of California to sheep-raising, in a striking manner : Pounds. Pounds. 1854 175,000 1855 300,000 1856 600,000 1857 1,100,000 1858 1,438,351 1859 2,378,250 1860 3,055,325 1861 3,721,998 1862 5.990,300 18o3 6;268,480 1364 7,923,670 1865 8,949,931 1866 8,532,047 1867 10,288600 1868 14,232,657 1869 15,413,970 1870 20,072,660 1871 22,187,188 1872 24,255,468 1873 30,155,169 1874 39,356,781 1875 43,532,223 1876 50,000,000 1877 47,946,688 The gradual but rapid increase here shown is very notable. The falling off in the last year was due to the loss of many sheep by an unusual drouth, which caused the pastures to fail through- out the State. The climate of California is so mild that sheep need no shelter; even in winter they can find subsistence in the pastures the year round. The wool, therefore, grows continously and is shorn twice in the year. One reason for this half yearly shearing is the pres- ence of a troublesome bur in the pastures, which, during the sea- son when the weed is in fruit, collects in the wool and renders it of less value. The burry wool is shorn and sold at a reduced price, while the next half-yearly shearing yields a clean fleece. The ewes are remarkably prolific in California ; 80 per cent increase of the flock is usual, and over 100 per cent is not uncommon. Dis- ease is rare, a mild form of scab being the most troublesome. The sheep are pastured chiefly upon vacant government lands, or upon mountain lands of low value. The average annual cost of feeding a sheep, is estimated at 35 to 50 cents, and the value of the wool is generally double the cost of keeping. Since 1877, California has experienced some disastrous years; unusual dry weather has prevailed, and the losses of sheep have been enormous. The production of wool has therefore fallen off proportionately, and from fifty million pounds in 1876 it de- creased to 16,798,036 pounds, the product of 4,152,349 sheep in 1880. Since then the flocks have increased in number, and the opening of Southern California with its neighboring territories, Arizona and New Mexico, by the railroads, has given a greater scope to the sheep industry, which is now gradually approach- ing its former extent. THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. THE NORTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. The vast territory of the North- West, comprising the rich region formally included in the Great Desert, but which is now overflowing with wheat, and teeming with herds and flocks ; and including the territories of Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho, furnish innumerable locations for profitable sheep herding. The completion of the railroad which now stretches across the great plains, and penetrates the gorges and valleys of the mountains, furnishes an inlet for the settlers who are crowding into the country, and an outlet for their products. Of this region, the mountain country and the broken foot-hills are the best adapted for sheep. Moreover these rougher lands are not so well suited for cattle, and the shepherd is not an- noyed by the persecutions of the herdsmen, who always man- age to drive the sheep off from the grazing grounds, upon which they cast an envious eye. But there is room enough here for all, and when the plains break into hills and canyons, and these rise into mountains and gorges, among which are in- numerable grassy tracts, well watered and sheltered, with abundant herbage on their flanks, the sheep are beyond the range of the cattlemen, and m.ay find locations where they may not be disturbed. The general features of the country after leaving the plains in all the three territories — Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana — may be described as a succession of mountain and valley, with high, dry table-lands. The mountains are generally timbered ; the valleys consist of arable land, with abundance of grass, and the table-lands are covered with sage brush, and a sparse vegetation of bunch grass, upon which, however, sheep subsist comfortably and thrive. The climate is exceedingly change- able, but remarkably healthful ; entirely free from malaria of all kinds ; the summer days are hot, and the nights frosty ; and occasional severe storms blow for two or three hours at a time, and carrying sand and gravel with great velocity, make things extremely uncomfortable for the time being. The miners and prospectors have penetrated all through the country, and their trails furnish the only roads. Streams are forded or crossed by ferries at the principal points, and already there is a large immigration of stock — mostly cattle — from Eastern Oregon and Washington Territory into this region. At one point, fourteen herds of cattle and seven flocks of sheep were ferried over the Snake River into Idaho from Oregon in one day, while THE NORTH-WESTERN" DISTRICT. 263 the arrivals from the East are even larger. The immigration into Montana is even larger, and from Helena, which is the gate of the mountain region as it were, a constant stream of stock or of expectant stock-owners, looking for locations, passes the whole season. The whole country is so vast, that for many years there will be no danger of crowding or hustling among the new comers ; but as wool can be easily grown all through this region for twelve or thirteen cents a pound, and thus give a respectable profit in addition to the increase of the flock, it is quite probable that the best locations near railroads will not be long vacant. As an instance of what has been done, and some of the diffi- culties that have to be met, the following statement of the owner of a ranche in Montana may be given. The flock was brought in from Eastern Oregon in 1882, and was driven across the mountains, occupying four months in the journey. The ewes dropped their lambs on the way, which, with the stoppage for shearing, required a resting spell of several weeks, notwith- standing the journey, the loss of lambs was trifling, and the increase was over seventy per cent. The principal loss was by accident in crossing the Snake River by ferry — the drowning of nearly fifty sheep. The location of the ranche is on the Mis- souri River above Bozeman. The owner of the ranche is an ex- perienced sheepman, or the losses would doubtless have been far greater. The statement is as follows : 1882. April 23. Cost of 3,222 sheep, at $2 per head $ 6,444.00 Horses, wagon and outfit 637.82 $ 7,081.82 Dec. 31 Expense of journey, shearing, carriage and shipping of wool and provisions, &c $1,447.22 .Cutting 2§0 tons of hay, at $2 440.00 Cost of corrals and sheds 823.76—$ 2,710.98 Total cost .$ 9,792.80 June 25. Proceeds of wool sold $ 3,044 79 Oct. 24. 926 wethers sold 2,315.00 80 pelts 100.00 $ 5,459.79 Dec. 81. 2,216 ewes and rams in stock .$ 5,540.00 1,566 lambs 4,698.00 Horses, etc. 600.00 Hay on hand 350.00 Value of improvements 1,000.00 Total $12,188.00 264 THE SHEPHERD'S The first year's business showed a profit of over $7,000, in spite of all the expenses of the first establishment of the ranche. The second year's business showed the following resulc : 1833. Jau. 1. Value of stock $12,188.00 Dec. 81. Expenses for the year 1,224.12 Total... .. $13,412.12 Dec. 31. Proceeds of wool $ 4,459.50 3,724 sheep on hand 11,172.00 Other stock 750.00 Value of ranche 1,500.00 2,011 lambs at 12.50 each 5,027.50 Total $22,909.00 The past winter has been a very favorable one, notwithstand- ing the large snow fall and the extreme cold at times, and this exemption from loss has been secured by the wise precaution of providing comfortable sheds, ample supplies of fodder, of which a large portion was millet and hay cut on the bottom lands, and above all other necessaries, an abundance of pure water procured from wells. This is especially needful on ac- count of the prevalence of alkali in the surface water and the streams, and the necessity of excluding the sheep from the bot- tom lands. This example is an instance of careful and wise management. The following is one of a contrary character. A ranche in sight of the one above referred to was in opera- tion at the time this was started ; it was then in a very poor condition, and the owners, who were two young men from New York City, quite inexperienced in sheep-keeping, and misled by the very common statement that sheep required no shelter or feeding during the winter, were about to abandon it and leave what few sheep they had as a gift to any one who would take them. The owners brought two thousand sheep on to the ranche in September, 1881. They were informed that the shel- ter of some timber near by would be sufficient for the sheep, and therefore provided no buildings excepting a shack (a rough log-house) for themselves, and a stable for their horses. A quantity of hay, however, was cut on some bottom land several miles up the river, more as a means for finding work than to provide feed for the sheep. Late in October a heavy fall of snow occurred and lasted four days ; a violent wind then arose, and drifted the snow into the gullies where the sheep sought refuge and shelter, and buried a large number several feet THE HORTH-WESTERH DISTRICT. 265 deep. A number perished in spite of hard work to dig them oat. Storm succeeded storm, and it was impossible to get the sheep to the timber ; to get poles to put up shelter, or to get to the hay. The sheep soon began to starve to death, and many more were smothered in the snow which filled the gullies as fast as they were cleared by shovelling. A few sheep were left alive in the spring, but being left to pasture on the low grounds, became diseased ; a number had foot-rot, and others died of liver-rot. In the fall, the young men found themselves with less than two hundred sickly sheep, and their funds exhausted in the costly efforts to save their flock during the preceding winter. The experience, however, was worth its cost. Raising money from their friends, they began anew in the right way, and taking advice of their experienced neighbor, they began again, persevered and succeeded, and are now doing well, with a flock of nearly three thousand, and every necessary convenience for future success ; including a large stock of experience. This is a common occurrence, and numerous failures have occurred from lack of foresight and common sense in persons who vainly think that to become rich in this business nothing more is required than a flock of sheep, and to sit down and watch them feed and rear their lambs. There is no scope in this region for the profitable keeping of very large flocks, as are kept in New Mexico, and Southern California, or in Western Kansas or Texas. Five thousand head is as many as it is wise to keep in a single flock ; but at the same time there is nothing to prevent a man who has suc- cessfully built up a flock of this number, to divide it, if he can find a suitable location within convenient distance, and where he can give his personal attendance and superintendence at proper and frequent times, and so manage two flocks of this size. Experience has proved the wisdom of making a sure thing of one manageable flock, rather than to try to keep two, and fail with both. The old proverb, " between two stools one comes to the ground," is applicable to this business. The general average of the flocks through this region is from two thousand to six thousand, and the lower limit is far more fre- quent than the higher one. A thousand sheep is the usual starting point, and is a safe one, both in case of disaster, when the loss is not ruinous, and can easily be retrieved by better and more experienced management, and also in case of success, 266 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. when the increased expenditure can be made out of the profits. To begin with such a flock, a capital of five thousand dollars should be in hand. If one has more, it would be better to loan the remainder at good interest (twelve to twenty per cent is readily paid for loans in this region), and risk only this amount. The expenditures will be as follows : * COST OP STABTING A BANCHE. 1,000 sheep, at $2 $2,000. 20 pure Merino rams 500. Sheds and buildings 500. Expenses for first year : 2 herders and their help 1,000. Horses, wagon, etc 500. Keserve fund 500. Probable income and increase : 3,500 pounds of wool $700. 700 lambs The fleeces of the improved lambs will be worth fifty per cent more than those of the ewes, including the increase in weight and the higher market value, and the second year, the wool wiJl at least pay all the expenses, as no more labor for herding will be required for two thousand than for one thou- sand sheep. The cost of herding and feeding a small flock will amount to about seventy cents per head per year ; for flocks of two thousand and over, the cost will be reduced to fifty cents, or even less, under favorable circumstances, and when the owner takes his share of the work. The Colorado and Oregon sheep require less feeding in the winter than Iowa sheep, as they are hardier and better "rustlers," that is, better able to with- stand the rigors of the winter and the storms. In Wyoming, the sheep are generally Mexicans, crossed with Merinos or Cotswolds, and brought from Colorado. In Idaho the flocks are usually brought across from Oregon, and are much like the Mexican, small and light, but strong and hardy. In Montana the sheep are of better quality, having more Merino blood in them, and many well bred grades from Michigan and Minnesota are brought out on the railroad. Pow- der River, the Judith basin on Graveyard Creek, the Gallatin Valley, around and south of Bozeman, and the Missouri Valley and its tributary valleys past Helena and down to Fort Benton, are especially desirable localities for sheep in Montana. Fur- ther west is the mountain region in which good locations may TEE HO&TH-WESTERtt t>ISTRICJT. 267 be found in abundance. The past winter snow first covered the ground about February 1, which remained until the 20th, when the warm south wind, known as the " chinook," melted it, and left the ground bare in a day. The losses of old sheep are scarcely worth counting ; among the young ones two per cent will cover all, and when the best care is exercised, the losses by death may not exceed five in a thousand, and those from acci- dents. The most frequent losses are caused by a native grass, which bears exceedingly sharp awns or beards, and called popularly " needle " grass. Botanically it is Stipa spartea. It has a seed much like an oat, to which is attached a crooked, sharp awn five inches long. These awns twist and intertwist as the weather is dry or wet. and is on this account called "weather grass." The awns catch in the wool and break off, the sharp point then penetrates the skin and works into the flesh, and even into the intestines. They also break in the mouth, or if swallowed, penetrate the stomach, and then cause death, otherwise it is necessary to examine the sheep frequently and extract the "needles" from the wool and skin. The remedy, or rather the method of prevention used by shepherds, is to make a fire-break, which is a strip of plowed land around a portion of the pasture, and not permitting the fire to run until June, when the needle grass having started into growth, the fire is started, and the dead grass burned off, along with which the young needle grass is killed for that year. Another frequent trouble through most of this region is from the dust, which is alkaline and irritates the lungs and nasal pas- sages, causing a cough and discharge from the nostrils. This of course is a natural consequence of the character of the soil, and cannot be overcome, excepting by avoiding pastures of this kind or providing other feed at the seasons when the trouble mostly prevails, which is in late fall and winter. The prevalent disease every where known as scab, is at times troublesome to sheepmen, whose flocks run on the range, and the universal tick is here, as elsewhere, a great annoyance. As a remedy for these pests, is is usual to dip the sheep, and some fuller description of the method of doing this for large flocks than has heretofore been given, will be useful. The nature of the scab disease has been explained elsewhere ; the manner of treating it is as follows : A system of yards and pens is laid out for the easy handling of the sheep, and these all lead to a point where a dipping vat is provided, to which are annexed 268 THE SHEPHERD'S boilers for heating the dipping fluid, and draining pens for collecting the dripping from the dipped sheep. Apian of the yards and pens is shown in figure 93, and another which may be more suitable in some cases, in figure 94. The former plan is laid out as follows : The large yard marked (1), tapers gradually to a lane (2), guarded by a gate (3), which swings either way, to turn the sheep into the pens 4 or 5, as may be desired. This plan is devised so as to be made availa- ble at shearing time, when the sheep are turned into the pen 5, which has a boarded floor, that it may be swept and keep the sheep clean, and from which they may be taken as they are required into the shearing yard or shed marked 6. This arrangement thus serves both purposes, and every ranche, where more than a thousand head are kept, should be provided with something of this kind. It is best always to dip the sheep immediately after shearing, as the dip then has more effect upon the skin, but a dipping should have been given two weeks previ- ously, to cleanse the wool from the mites, which would other- wise infest the yards and pens, and make them a constant source of infection. The yard 4 is intended for the lambs, which are thus spared a good THE NORTH-WESTEKK DISTRICT. 2G9 deal of injurious crowding among the sheep. From pen 5, pens 7 and 8 are filled, and as the sheep are crowded to the narrow part of the pen, a man takes one by one and drops them into the vat 9. The sheep is completely im- mersed in the dip, and is guided by a shepherd by means of a crook back and forth, so as to force it to remain until the wool is saturated with the medicated fluid. When the sheep has been guided up to the bar 10, it is pushed completely under the surface and under the bar, when it reaches a sloping barred floor, 11, up which it passes on to the draining floor 12. The work thus proceeds until this floor is filled, when the sheep are . 94. — A SECOND METHOD OP SHEEP DIPPING. passed into the next one, 13. The floors of these pens slope a little so as to carry the drip from the wool back into the vats and prevent waste. The temperature of the liquid in the vats is kept up by means of a supply in a boiler near by, from which hot liquor is dipped as it may be required. When pen 13 is filled, the sheep are then dry and are turned loose through the gate into the open ground. The pens on either side of the lane, 2, are intended for lambs, which are able to escape through the bars of the fence. The other plan (fig. 94) consists of two circular fences, the space enclosed between them being divided into pens by cross fences and gates. The entrance gate A, opens from a long ta- pering lane, into which the sheep can be easily driven from a large enclosure outside. It opens towards B. The gate C, being 270 IHE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. opened, the yards are filled in succession, the central one and the first one being last filled. At V are boilers and store vats filled with hot liquid to supply the vat D. All being in readi- ness, four sheep are put in the decoy pens p, p, which have wire fences, so that these sheep are plainly seen by the others. The first pen is then opened and the sheep run toward the decoys, where they stand on a drop or tilting stage made between the decoy pens. This stage holds ten or twelve sheep, and they are thus plunged into the dip and completely immersed. They are guided to the sloping floor at the other end of the vat, from which they are turned into the draining yards, each of which is filled alternately, thus giving ample time for the sheep to dry before they are turned out. This is necessary, as the sheep have lambs at this time, and the dip is not very agreeable to the lambs. When both yards are filled, the first one is emptied and immediately filled again, while the sheep in the other are draining. The dip consists of an infusion of tobacco mixed with sulphur. The following method is commonly used for preparing and using the dipping preparation : Two boilers and two store vats are used in this plan, which is a convenient one, as the supply of hot liquor can be kept up continuously by means of this ar- rangement. These boilers should not be less than one hundred gallons for a flock of two thousand to four thousand sheep. The store vats should hold each about four hundred gallons, and there should be two of them. These are for holding the infusion of tobacco as it is prepared for use. A water tank should be provided near the stream, and a pipe from it should run to each boiler and vat, and also to the dipping vat to supply cold water that may be required at times. A trough is made to carry the infusion into the vat, through the measure marked S near the vat, by which the quantity used may be known. If the quantity to be dipped in is two thousand gal- lons, and the infusing boilers are of the size mentioned, it will be necessary to begin to prepare the mixture two days at least before the dipping is to commence. The infusion of the tobacco is at the beginning of the process, to be carried out ex- actly in the same manner as with tea — boiling the tobacco in the first water being carefully avoided. Thus five hundred pounds of good leaf tobacco (that is, one pound to four gallons of wa- ter, and it ought never to be less) is to be weighed out, and the infusing boilers nearly filled with water, and brought to the THE NORTH-WESTERK DISTRICT. 2 boiling point, then, the fires are to be removed from under the boilers, and forty to fifty pounds of tobacco are to be put into each of them, and the covers carefully adjusted to prevent the escape of any steam, which, as already stated, would carry off with it some of the more active curative properties. In six or eight hours the infusion is drawn off and fresh water is added to the tobacco in the boilers, which is boiled gently for two hours, the steam being kept from escaping by covering the boilers with bags or some such material, and drawn off a second time, leaving the tobacco again in the boilers. To this add a third water, and boil for two hours more in the same manner, when the strength of the tobacco will be thoroughly exhausted. Carefully repeat the process of infusing and boiling, until the proper quantity to commence dipping with be made up. Where there is time to make the infusion, previous to com- mencing to dip, it is a good plan to infuse the whole, or nearly the whole of the tobacco required for the dressing, and to put the liquid away in casks after filling the vat. It can easily be seen how convenient it would be, supposing the tobacco had been infused in water at the rate of one pound of the best to- bacco to a gallon of water, in replenishing the dip, to do so by adding one bucketful of the infusion to three of hot water. In this case, as the infusion was made, the tobacco leaves would be put aside and afterwards boiled as directed in the boilers supplying the hot water. Although the second and third waters no doubt contain some nicotine, which is the in- gredient destructive to insect life, these boilings should in prac- tice be only reckoned as clear hot water. This plan of infusing the greater part of the tobacco previous to dipping must of course be always adopted when the requisite boilers cannot be obtained. When more tobacco is required to replenish the dip, it must be carefully weighed out according to the scale given above, and should be infused and boiled in exactly the same manner as detailed. Tobacco juice, of a good quality, may, where procurable, be used instead of tobacco, but it should never be used without an analysis, or a guarantee that it contains a certain amount of nicotine per gallon, as the natural tendency of all dip manufac- turers, more or less, after a good business is established, is to lower the quality of the article, many of the so-called scab cures proving perfectly worthless ; with first-class tobacco leaf you are never deceived. An excellent dipping preparation is made 272 THE SHEPHEBD'S MANUAL. in St. Louis, which consists of a concentrated infusion of tobac- co, and. saves much trouble in preparing the dip, but water only being required to dilute it to the proper strength. MIXING SULPHUR.— The quanty of sulphur used is four ounces to the gallon of dip, or a pound to four gallons of water, put a sufficient quantity of it into a tub or vat half filled either with the tobacco water from the infusion boilers, or with cold water, and stir and break the sulphur until it be thoroughly mixed, and of the consistency of thick gruel when it is poured into the dip. Repeat the process until the proper quantity of sulphur has been added, and when requisite, replenish in the same manner as the dipping process. It is said to improve the bath by rendering it more penetrating, especially when the water is hard, to add one pound of soda ash or two pounds of common soda, to forty gallons of the mixture. SPOTTING. — The best plan to spot, is to draft from the differ- ent flocks every sheep showing the least symptoms of the dis- ease into a " diseased " flock, and subject it to three or four dressings both extra strong and extra hot ; and it would be making the cure a certainty if the sheep in the diseased flock were handled after the first dressing, and the dead scurf or scab and the loose wool removed from, and around the parts affected. THE VAT.— The vat should be at least twenty feet in length, so that the sheep may have a good bath; and tongued, grooved and pitched. In order at all times to know the depth of the mixture in the vat, it should be gauged or marked, at every three inches, and the number of gallons corresponding to the different measurements should also be marked on the sides. The vat should be sufficiently deep so that the sheep cannot touch the bottom and will be completely immersed in the dip. DRAINING YARDS.— These yards are built to hold not exceed- ing one hundred sheep at a time each, and they should be at least two in number, so as that in turning out the sheep after dripping, those that are newly from the dip may not be turned out with those that are thoroughly dripped. The bottom of the draining yards (which should have an incline from the sides to the race) should be lined throughout, the same as those of the race and vat ; and over it should be placed a grating of battens with the supports so laid down as to allow the draining THE NORTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 273 from the sheep to flow from all parts of the draining yards into the race and thence into the vat. Corrugated iron laid down in sheets on sleepers, with the fluting running longitudinally towards the vat, makes a very good and economical flooring for the gangway and draining yards. With a piece of batten nailed across the end of the sheet next to the vat, and at each joint, the sheep can walk out steadily and without slipping ; and the mixture falling from the sheep is carried back without waste to the vat. A movable sluice-gate should be constructed at the junction of the drain- ing yards with a race from the vat, and a spout or pipe should be affixed to an opening from that to a point clear of the vat, to run off any rain-water that might gather in the draining yard, and prevent it from flowing into the dip. When in work the sluice-gate would of course be removed, and the opening to the spout or pipe closed. The effect of the tobacco is to destroy the small mites which cause the disease. The breaking up of the scabs to permit the dipping fluid to reach the insect is therefore of great use when the sheep are badly diseased. But the practice of dipping the sheep should be made use of regularly, once at least each year, as a preventive of danger of this disease, as well as to free the sheep from ticks. The dipping yards should, therefore, be a part of every well appointed ranche, as much as a shearing floor is, the expenses being small makes its neglect all the less exr disable. INDEX Abortion, Prevention of 241 After-pains in E wee 208 *American Merino, Description of the 92 Analysis of Ash of Urine 15 " Dung 16 " Fodder 60-61 " Grains.... .. 64 M Manure 79 " Roots 63 41 Wool 14fi Yolk 147 Anatomy of the Sheep IPS Anaemia, Treatment of 203 Anthrax Fever, Treatment of 209 Aphtha, Treatment of 210 Apoplexy, Treatment of 216 *Barn for Sheep. Description of... 50 " Small Farm 52 * " a Convenient 57 * Beacon-Down Sheep, Description oftke 138 Bile. Composition and Uses of 183 *Blackfaced Scotch Sheep, De- scription of the 122 Black-leg. Treatment of 209 Bleeding, how Performed 190 * Bone, Structure of 173 Brain of the Sheep 174 " Water on the, Treatment of.216 " Worms in the 81 Breeds and Breeding Sheep 81 " Crossing 84 •* Foreign 100 " Native 89 Breeders, Maxims for 89 Breeding for Sex 86 " In-and in 88 Bronchitis. Treatment of 192 Cabbage, Culture of 25 Canker of the Foot, Treatment of .238 Castration, Performance of 30-243 Catarrh, Treatment of 191 * Cheviot Sheep, Description of the 120 Choking, Treatment of 194 * Circulation of the Blood 177 Clap, Treatment of in Rams 215 Colic, Spasmodic Treatment of 247 Corn, Comparative Value of 65 Costiveness. Treatment of 195-247 Cotton-Seed-Cake-Meal. Value of.. 65 * Cotswold, Description of the 107 *' Improvement of other Breeds by the 84 274 * Cotswold-Leicester, Description of the 137 Cotswold-Merino, Description of the 134 Cotswold-Southdown, Description ofthe 138 * Crook 156 Cross-bred Sheep 133-142 Diarrhea, Treatment of l96-24tt Digestion, Process of 179 Digestive Organs, Diseases of the. 194 Dip for Lambs and Sheep 47 Diseases of Lambs 245 " •' the Sheep, Observa- tions on 188 " Causes and Prevention of. 190 " oftlieBlood 201 " " »• Bowels 199 it « « Brain 216 " " " Digestive Organs.. 194 " Enzo'.tic 206 " Epizootic 210 " Of the Feet 234 *• Parasitic 219 " of the Reproductive Or- gans., 214 " " ** Respiratory Or- gans... 190 " *• " Skin 229 M Special 249 " of the Urinary Organs... 243 Docking Lambs 243 * Dog-guards for Fences,. ... . . 32 * Dorset Sheep. Description of thellS Dropsy, Treatment of 205 Dnng, Analysis of Ash of 16 Dysentery, Treatment of 207 Ear Marks 34 Enzootic Diseases 206 Epilepsy, Treatment of 218 Epizootic Diseases 210 Ewes, Garget in, Treatment of 42 in Lamb, Care of 36 Number for One Ram. . .... 35 Period of Gestation of 34 Record of Service of — . 34 Selection • f for Breeding... 43 Yeaning, Treatment of... 36-45 and Lambs, Management of 33-37 Eyes. Disease of the 242 Fattening Sheep for Market 78 * Feed-Rack 31-59 Feeding, Experiments in . .66-68-70 41 Roots .. 37 INDEX. 275 Fences, Portable 27 Flax-Seed. Nutritive Value of 65 Flesh and Blood, Analysis of Ash of 15 '* Quantity Produced by Cer- tain Poods 67 Flesh-fly, the 234 * Fluke, the Liver, Description of. 220 Fodder Crops 22 " Analysis of 60 " Nutritive Value of 61 Foods for Winter Feeding 59 Composition of Various 60 *• Choice of 65 4k Proper Allowance of 72 " Quantity of. Needed 66 " ** for a Pound of Flesh 67 Foot, Description of the 235 " Eot, Treatment of 236 Foot-and Mouth-Disease 210-238 Fractures of the Bones 24 1 * French Merino. Description of.. .128 Gad-fly, the 233 Garget, Treatment of 241 Giddiness or Turnsick, Treatment for 2*5 Grains, Nutritive Value of Various 64 Grasses, Composition of Various.. 17 Suitable for Pasture .. .. 16 * Hampshire-Down Sheep. Descrip- tion of 116 Heart. Structure and Functions of. 177 Hoven, Treatment of 196 * Hurdles, Use of. 23 * " for Refractory Ewe 37 *Hydatids in the Brain 226 Inflammation of the Bladder 213 •• " Bowels 199 " u Brain 216 " " " Liver 201 Influenza, Treatment of 206 Intestines of the Sheep 182 Kentucky, Improved, Sheep 91 *Kidn"y, Structure of the 186 Lacteal V essels 184 Lambing, Diseases Connected with. 239 Lambs. Castrating 39-243 * " Dipping 48 " Diseases of 45-245 Docking 39-24'^ " Feeding 40 " Laxative tor 41 " Newly-born. Care of 37 . " Raising Early Market 73 " Twin. Feeding 37 * " Weaning 38 Lamb's Cordial 46 * Lamb-Creep 41 * Laurel. Poisoning by 198 Leicester, Improvement of Other Breeds by 84 * " Description of the 103 * Leicester-Merino, Description of the 135 * Lincoln. Description of the 100 Linseed-Oil-Cake-Meal. Value of... 64 ** ** '* " Substitute for....... 65 Litter for Sheds 88 Liver, Congestion of the 200 • k Descr i ption of the 183 " Inflammation of the 201 " Rot. the 219 Lockjaw, Treatment of 218 * Louse, the Sheep 233 * Lungs of the Sheep. 176 Lung,Worms in the, Treatment f or.223 Manure. Value of 79 Markets 8-73-81 Market Lambs, Methods of Raising 74 * " •» Box for Shipping.. 76 " Profit of 78 Measures. Explanation of 249 Merino. American 92 French 128 " Saxon 94-130 " Silesian 132 " Spanish 8-127 " Importation of. . . 93 " " Improvement of.. 95 " Maturityof 43 * " Ram. Portrait of 98 " Wool, Valueof 94 11 " Weights of Fleeces 96 Mexican Sheep 90 Mustard. Whit-, for Fodder 22 Nerves of the Sheep . . 174 * Nets for Folding Sheep 29 Oil-Cake, Feeding Value of 64 '• " Manurial Value of 80 Ophthalmia, Treatment of 242 * Oxford-Down Sheep, Description of the 110 Pale Disease of Lambs 248 Packing Fleeces 161 Palsy, Treatment of 218 Paralysis. Treatment of 217-247 Parasitical Diseases 219 Parsley, Value of in Pastures 17 Parturient Apoplexy and Fever.208-240 Pasture, Dry. Necessary for Health 14 Change of. Advantageous. 31 " Extent of, in the U. S 10 " Exposure of 22 " Grasses Suitable for 16 " Management of 20 " Suitable for Sheep 12 Pining, Treatment of 203 Plants, Poisonous 108 Plethora. Treatment of 203 Pleurisy, Treatment of 193 Pneumonia, Treatment of 192 Poisoning, Treatment of 198 Pox. Sheep, Treatment of 211 Prices of Wool in the World 166 Production of Wool in the World.. 165 Purgatives, Use of 189 Ram. Selection of the 43 Rape I'or Fall and Winter Feeding. 23 Red- water, Treatment of 207 Reproductive O reran s, the 187 Respiration. Process of 175 Respiratory Onrans. Diseases of... 190 Retention of Urine. Treatment of ..213 Rheumatism. Treatment of 202 *R.omn«y Marsh. Sheep, Descrip- 276 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. Won of the 104 *RootCutter 26 * '• Puiper 27 Boots, Culture of 26 " Cutting.^ 27 Feeding ... 27 " Nutritive Valu.: of 63 " Quantity Needed for a Flock 72 * " Storing in Pits 26 Rot of the Foot, Treatment of 2 6 * " in the Liver, Treatment of 2-2 Rumination, Process of 181 Salt Necessary for Sheep 33 Saxon Merino. Description of the. . 130 * Scab, Treatment for 232 Sea-Weed Eaten by Sheep 19 Scrofula, Treatment of 204 Shearing Sheep 158 * Sned for Pasture 32 * •» Mr. Geo. Grant's .53 * »• Mr. Shaw's 54 Sheep, Census of, in U.S.'50,'60,';0.167 >l When a Lamb Becomes a. . . 45 Shelter, Effect of, on Consumption of Food 67 * Shropshire Sheep. Description of. 112 Silesian Merino. Description of t!iel^2 * Skeleton of the Sheep 169 * Skin, Structure of the 143 Soils Suitable for Pastures 12 Sorting Wool 165 * Soutndown Sheep, Description of 114 " -Merino, Description of the 135 Spanish Merino, Description of the!27 Spleen, Functions of the 185 Sprains 245 Stimulants. Use of 190 * Stomach of the Sheep 1*0 "• Foreitrn Bodies in the.. 200 Stretches, Treatment of 195 Summer Management of Sheep. . . . 11 * Table for Tying Wool 162 * Tape-Worms ?28 Tagging and Trimming Sheep 158 * Teeth, Growth of the 45-171 * Tick, the Sheep 233 Ticks, Dip for... 47 * Trochar and Canula 194 Turnips, Cultivation of 24 u Folding Sheep Upon 25 " for Winter Feeding 24 Urinary Canal, Sediment in the 814 '• Organs, Functions of tLe. ]85 Uterus. Inversion of 242 Urine, Analysis of Ash of 15 Virginia Sheep 91 * Washing Sheep. 155 Water, Necessity of 21 " Quality of 21 * Welsh Mountain Sheeu, Descrip- tion of the 125 Western Plains, Value of. for Sheep Pastures 19 Winds, Effects of, oa Condition... 22 Winter Management of Sheep 49 Womb, Inversion of 242 Wool, Break in 21 " Classification of 148 *' Composition of 156 How to Judge of 150-153 Packing 161 Prices of 149 Quality of, a Test of Health 15-150 " *' Merino 99 Sorting .. . 165 Structure of 142 Value of Imports of 10 Washing of 155 " World's Production of 165 * Worms, the Bladder 224 * "in the Brain 226 " in the Bronchial Tubes. .223 * " in the Intestines 229 * " in the Lungs 223 Wounds 244 Yarrow, Description of . .... 18 Yolk in Wool 99 " Composition of . . 147 The items marked with a * are illustrated, STANDARD BOOKS PUBLISHED BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY NEW YORK CHICAGO ASHLAND BUILDING PEOPLE'S GAS BUILDING 315-321 Fourth Avenue 150 Michigan Avenue Any of these boofys will be sent by mail, postpaid, to any part of the world, on receipt of catalog price. We are always happy to correspond with our patrons, and cordially invite them to address us on any matter pertaining to rural books. Send for our large illustrated catalog, free on appli- cation. First Principles of Soil Fertility By ALFRED VIVIAN. There is no subject of more vital importance to the farmer than that of the best method of maintaining the fertility of the soil. The very evident decrease in the fertility of those soils which have been under cultivation for a number of years, combined with the increased competition and the advanced price of labor, have convinced the intelligent farmer that the agriculture of the future must be based upon more rational practices than those which have been followed in the past. We have felt for some time that there was a place for a brief, and at the same time comprehensive, treatise on this important subject of Soil Fertility. Professor Vivian's experience as a teacher in the short winter courses has admirably fitted him to present this matter in a popular style. In this little book he has given the gist of the subject in plain language, practically devoid of technical and scientific terms. It is pre-eminently a "First Book," and will be found especially valuable to those who desire an introduction to the subject, and who intend to do subse- quent reading. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 265 pages. Cloth. Net, $1.00 The Study of Corn By PROF. V. M. SHOESMITH. A most helpful book to all farmers and students interested in the selection and im- provement of corn. It is profusely illustrated from photo- graphs, all of which carry their own story and contribute their part in making pictures and text matter a clear, con- cise and interesting study of corn. Illustrated. 5x7 inches, loo pages. Cloth. Net, $0.50 The Management and Feeding of Cattle By PROF. THOMAS SHAW. The place for this book will be at once apparent when it is stated that it is the first book that has ever been written which discusses the man- agement and feeding of cattle, from the birth of the calf until it has fulfilled its mission in life, whether on the block or at the pail. The book is handsomely printed on fine paper, from large, clear type. Fully illustrated. 5^/2^8 inches. 496 pages. Cloth . Net, $2.00 The Farmer's Veterinarian By CHARLES WILLIAM BURKETT. This book abounds in helpful suggestions and valuable information for the most successful treatment of ills and accidents, and disease troubles. A practical treatise on the diseases of farm stock; containing brief and popular advice on the nature, cSiuse and treatment of disease, the common ailments and the care and management of stock when sick. It is profusely illustrated, containing a number of halftone illustrations, and a great many drawings picturing diseases, their symptoms and familiar attitudes assumed by farm animals when affected with disease, and presents, for the first time, a plain, practical and satisfactory guide for farmers who are interested in the common diseases of the farm. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 288 pages. Cloth. Net, $1.50. First Lessons in Dairying By HUBERT E. VAN NORMAN. This splendid little book has been written from a practical point of view, to fill a place in dairy literature long needed. It is designed primarily as a practical guide to successful dairying, an elementary text-book for colleges and for use especially in short-course classes. It embodies underlying principles involved in the handling of milk, delivery to factory, ship- ping station, and the manufacture of butter on the farm. It is written in a simple, popular way, being free from tech- nical terms, and is easily understood by the average farm boy. The book is just the thing for the every-day dairy- man, and should be in the hands of every farmer in the country. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 100 pages. Cloth. Net, $0.50. A Dairy Laboratory Guide By H. E. Ross. While the book is intended primarily for use in the laboratory, it should be of value to the practical dairyman. The time has come when the suc- cessful dairyman must study his business from a purely scientific point of view, and in this book the scientific principles, upon which dairy industry is based, are stated clearly and simply, and wherever it is possible, these prin- ciples are illustrated by practical problems and examples. 90 pages. .5x7 inches. Cloth Net, $0.50 Profitable Stock Raising By CLARENCE A. SHAMEL. This book covers fully the principles of breeding and feeding for both fat stock and dairying type. It tells of sheep and mutton raising, hot house lambs, the swine industry and the horse market. Finally, he tells of the preparation of stock for the market and how to prepare it so that it will bring a high market price. Live stock is the most important feature of farm life, and statistics show a production far short of the actual requirements. There are many problems to be faced in the profitable production of stock, and these are fully and comprehensively covered in Mr. Shamel's new book. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 288 pages. Cloth. Net, $1.50 The Business of Dairying By C. B. LANE. The author of this practical little book is to be congratulated on the successful manner in which he has treated so important a subject. It has been pre- pared for the use of dairy students, producers and handlers of milk, and all who make dairying a business. Its pur- pose is to present in a clear and concise manner various business methods and systems which will help the dairy- man to reap greater profits. This book meets the needs of the average dairy farmer, and if carefully followed will lead to successful dairying. It may also be used as an elementary textbook for colleges, and especially in short- course classes. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 300 pages. Cloth. Net, $1.25 Questions and Answers on Buttermaking By CHAS A. PUBLOW. This book is entirely different from the usual type of dairy books, and is undoubtedly in a class by itself. The entire subject of butter-making in all its branches has been most thoroughly treated, and many new and important features have been added. The tests for moisture, salt and acid have received special attention, as have also the questions on cream separa- tion, pasteurization, commercial starters, cream ripening, cream overrun, marketing of butter, and creamery man- agement. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 100 pages. Cloth. Net, $0.50 Questions and Answers on Milk and Milk Testing By CHAS. A. PUBLOW, and HUGH C. TROY. A book that no student in the dairy industry can afford to be without. No other treatise of its kind is available, and no book of its size gives so much practical and useful information in the study of milk and milk products. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 100 pages. Cloth Net, $0.50 (3) Soils By CHARLES WILLIAM BURKETT, Director Kansas Agri- cultural Experiment Station. The most complete and popular work of the kind ever published. As a rule, a book of this sort is dry and uninteresting, but in this case it reads like a novel. The author has put into it his in- dividuality. The story of the properties of the soils, their improvement and management, as well as a discussion of the problems of crop growing and crop feeding, make this book equally valuable to the farmer, student and teacher. Illustrated. 303 pages. 5^x8 inches. Cloth. . Net, $1.25 Weeds of the Farm Garden By L. H. PAMMEL. The enormous losses, amounting to several hundred million dollars annually in the United States, caused by weeds stimulate us to adopt a better system of agriculture. The weed question is, therefore a most important and vital one for American farmer* This treatise will enable the farmer to treat his field to remove weeds. The book is profusely illustrated by photo- graphs and drawings made expressly for this work, and will prove invaluable to every farmer, land owner, gar- dener and park superintendent. 5x7 inches. 300 pages. Cloth Net, $1.50 Farm Machinery and Farm Motors By J. B. DAVIDSON and L. W. CHASE. Farm Machinery and Farm Motors is the first American book published on the subject of Farm Machinery since that written by J. J. Thomas in 1867. This was before the development of many of the more important farm machines, and the general application of power to the work of the farm. 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Cloth Net, $2.00 The Cereals in America By THOMAS F. HUNT, M.S., D.Agri., Professor of Agron- omy, Cornell University. If you raise five acres of any kind of grain you cannot afford to be without this book. It is in every way the best book on the subject that has ever been written. It treats of the cultivation and improvement of every grain crop raised in America in a thoroughly practical and accurate manner. The subject-matter includes a comprehen- sive and succinct treatise of wheat, maize, oats, barley, rye, rice, sorghum (kafir corn) and buckwheat, as related particu- larly to American conditions. First-hand knowledge has been the policy of the author in his work, and every crop treated is presented in the light of individual study of the plant. If you have this book you have the latest and best that has been written upon the subject. Illustrated. 450 pages. 5^x8 inches. Cloth $1.75 The Forage and Fiber Crops in America By THOMAS F. HUNT. This book is exactly what its title indicates. It is indispensable to the farmer, student and teacher who wishes all the latest and most important informa- tion on the subject of forage and fiber crops. Like its famous companion, "The Cereals in America," by the same author, it treats of the cultivation and improvement of every one of the forage and fiber crops. With this book in hand, you have the latest and most up-to-date information available. Illus- trated. 428 pages. 5^x 8 inches. Cloth $1.75 The Book of Alfalfa History, Cultivation and Merits. Its Uses as a Forage and Fertilizer. The appearance of the Hon. F. D. COBURN'S little book on Alfalfa a few years ago has been a profit revela- tion to thousands of farmers throughout the country, and the increasing demand for still more information on the subject has induced the author to prepare the present volume, which is by far the most authoritative, complete and valuable work on this forage crop published anywhere. It is printed on fine paper and illustrated with many full-page photographs that were taken with the especial view of their relation to the text. 336 pages. 6V* x 9 inches. Bound in cloth, with gold stamp- ing. It is unquestionably the handsomest agricultural refer- ence book that has ever been issued. Price, postpaid, . $2.00 Clean Milk By S. D. BELCHER, M.D. In this book the author sets forth practical methods for the exclusion of bacteria from milk, and how to prevent contamination of milk from the stable to the consumer. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 146 pages. Cloth $1.00 Bean Culture By GLENN C. SEyEY, B.S. A practical treatise on the pro- duction and marketing of beans. It includes the manner of growth, soils and fertilizers adapted, best varieties, seed selec- tion and breeding, planting, harvesting, insects and fungous pests, composition and feeding value; with a special chapter on markets by Albert W. Fulton. A practical book for the grower and student alike. Illustrated. 144 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50 Celery Culture By W. R. BEATTIE. A practical guide for beginners and a standard reference of great interest to persons already en- gaged in celery growing. It contains many illustrations giving a clear conception of the practical side of celery culture. The work is complete in every detail, from sowing a few seeds in a window-box in the house for early plants, to the handling and marketing of celery in carload lots. Fully illustrated. 150 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50 Tomato Culture By WILL W. TRACY. The author has rounded up in this book the most complete account of tomato culture in all its phases that has ever been gotten together. It is no second- hand wvork of reference, but a complete story of the practice experiences of the best-posted expert on tomatoes in the world. No gardener or farmer can afford to be without the book. Whether grown for home use or commercial purposes, the reader has here suggestions and information nowhere else available. Illustrated. 150 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $0.50 The Potato By SAMUEL FRASER. This book is destined to rank as a standard work upon Potato Culture. While the practical side has been emphasized, the scientific part has not been neglected, and the information given is of value, both to the growej and to the student. Taken all in all, it is the most complete, reliable and authoritative book on the potato ever published in Amer- ica. Illustrated. 200 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . $0.75 Dwarf Fruit Trees By F. A. WAUGH. This interesting book describes in detail the several varieties of dwarf fruit trees, their propagation, planting, pruning, care and general management. Where there is a limited amount of ground to be devoted to orchard purposes, and where quick results are desired, this book will meet with a warm welcome. Illustrated. 112 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50 Cabbage, Cauliflower and Allied Vegetables By C. L. ALLEN. A practical treatise on the various types and varieties of cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, kale, collards and kohl-rabi. An explanation is given of the requirements, conditions, cultivation ahd general man- agement pertaining to the entire cabbage group. After this each class is treated separately and in detail. The chapter on seed raising is probably the most authoritative treatise on this subject ever published. Insects and fungi attacking this class of vegetables are given due attention. Illustrated. 126 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50 Asparagus By F. M. HEXAMER. This is the first book published in America which is exclusively devoted to the raising of aspara- gus for home use as well as for market. It is a practiqp' and reliable treatise on the saving of the seed, raising of the plants, selection and preparation of the soil, planting, cultiva- tion, manuring, cutting, bunching, packing, marketing, canning and drying, insect enemies, fungous diseases and every re- quirement to successful asparagus culture, special emphasis be- ing given to the importance of asparagus as a farm and money crop. Illustrated. 174 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . $0.50 The New Onion Culture By T. GREINER. Rewritten, greatly enlarged and brought up to date. A new method of growing onions of largest size and yield, on less land, than can be raised by the old plan. Thousands of farmers and gardeners and many experiment stations have given it practical trials which have proved a success. A complete guide in growing onions with the great- est profit, explaining the whys and wherefores. Illustrated 5x7 inches. 140 pages. Cloth . $0.50 The New Rhubarb Culture A complete guide to dark forcing and field culture. Part I — By J. E. MORSE, the well-known Michigan trucker and originator of the now famous and extremely profitable new methods of dark forcing and field culture. Part II — Com- piled by G. B. FISKE. Other methods- practiced by the most experienced market gardeners, greenhouse men and experi- menters in all parts of America. Illustrated. 130 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50 X7). Alfalfa By F. D. COBURN. Its growth, uses, and feeding value. The fact that alfalfa thrives in almost any soil; that without reseeding, it goes on yielding two, three, four, and sometimes five cuttings annually for five, ten, or perhaps 100 years; and that either green or cured it is one of the most nutritious forage plants known, makes reliable information upon its pro- duction and uses of unusual interest. Such information is given in this volume for every part of America, by the highest authority. Illustrated. 164 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $0.50 Ginseng, Its Cultivation, Harvesting, Marketing and Market Value By MAURICE G. KAINS, with a short account of its history and botany. It discusses in a practical way how to begin with either seeds or roots, soil, climate and location, preparation planting and maintenance of the beds, artificial propagation, manures, enemies, selection for market and for improvement, preparation for sale, and the profits that may be expected. This booklet is concisely written, well and profusely illus- trated, and should be in the hands of all who expect to grow this drug to supply the export trade, and to add a new and profitable industry to their farms and gardens, without inter- fering with the regular work. New edition. Revised and en- larged. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50 Landscape Gardening By F. A. WAUGH, professor of horticulture, university of Vermont. A treatise on the general principles governing outdoor art; with sundry suggestions for their application in the commoner problems of gardening. Every paragraph fs short, terse and to the point, giving perfect clearness to the discussions at all points. In spite of the natural difficulty of presenting abstract principles the whole matter is made entirely plain even to the inexperienced reader. Illustrated. 152 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50 Hedges, Windbreaks, Shelters and Live Fences By E. P. POWELL. A treatise on the planting, growth and management of hedge plants for country and suburban homes. It gives accurate directions concerning hedges; how to plant and how to treat them; and especially concerning windbreaks and shelters. It includes the whole art of making a delightful home, giving directions for nooks and balconies, for bird culture and for human comfort. Illustrated. 140 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50 Farm Grasses of the United States of America By WILLIAM JASPER SPILLMAN. A practical treatise on the grass crop, seeding and management of meadows and pastures, description of the best varieties, the seed and its impurities, grasses for special conditions, lawns and lawn grasses, etc., etc. In preparing this volume the author's object has been to present, in connected form, the main facts con- cerning the grasses grown on American farms. Every phase of the subject is viewed from the farmer's standpoint. Illus- trated. 248 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . . . $1.00 The Book of Corn By HERBERT MYRICK, assisted by A. D. SHAMBIA, E. A. BURNETT, ALBERT W. FULTON, B. W. SNOW, and other most capable specialists. A complete treatise on the culture, mar- keting and uses of maize in America and elsewhere for farmers, dealers and others. Illustrated. 372 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.50 The Hop — Its Culture and Care, Marketing and Manufacture By HERBERT MYRICK. A practical handbook on the most approved methods in growing, harvesting, curing and selling hops, and on the use and manufacture of hops. The result o£ years of research and observation, it is a volume destined to be an authority on this crop for many years to come. It takes up every detail from preparing the soil and laying out the yard, to curing and selling the crop. Every line represents the ripest judgment and experience of experts. Size, 5x8; pages, 300; illustrations, nearly 150; bound in cloth and gold; price, postpaid. $1-50 Tobacco Leaf By J. B. KILLEBREW and HERBERT MYRICK. Its Culture and Cure, Marketing and Manufacture. A practical handbook on the most approved methods in growing, harvesting, curing, packing and selling tobacco, with an account of the opera- tions in every department of tobacco manufacture. The contents of this book are based on actual experiments in field, curing barn, packing house, factory and laboratory. It is the only work of the kind in existence, and is destined to be the standard practical and scientific authority on the whole sub- ject of tobacco for many years. 506 pages and 150 original engravings. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . , $2.00 (9) Bulbs and Tuberous-Rooted Plants By C. L. ALLEN. A complete treatise on the history, description, methods of propagation and full directions for the successful culture of bulbs in the garden, dwelling and greenhouse. The author of this book has for many years made bulb growing a specialty, and is a recognized authority on their cultivation and management. The cultural direc- tions are plainly stated, practical and to the point. The illustrations which embellish this work have been drawn from nature and have been engraved especially for this book. 312 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.50 Fumigation Methods By WILLIS G. JOHNSON. A timely up-to-date book on the practical application of the new methods for destroying insects with hydrocyanic acid gas and carbon bisulphid, the most powerful insecticides ever discovered. It is an indis- pensable book for farmers, fruit growers, nurserymen, gardeners, florists, millers, grain dealers, transportation com- panies, college and experiment station workers, etc. Illus- trated. 313 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.00 Diseases of Swine By Dr. R. A. CRAIG, Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Purdue University. A concise, practical and popular guide to the prevention and treatment of the diseases of swine. With the discussions on each disease are given its causes, symptoms, treatment and means of prevention. Every part of the book impresses the reader with the fact that its writer is thor- oughly and practically familiar with all the details upon which he treats. All technical and strictly scientific terms are avoided, so far as feasible, thus making the work at once available to the practical stock raiser as well as to the teacher and student Illustrated. 5 x 7 inches. 190 pages. Cloth. $0.75 Spraying Crops — Why, When and How By CLARENCE M. WEED, D.Sc. The present fourth edition has been rewritten and set throughout to bring it thoroughly up to date, so that it embodies the latest p'ractical information gleaned by fruit growers and experiment station workers. So much new information has come to light since the third edi- tion was published that this is practically a new book, needed by those who have utilized the earlier editions, as well as by fruit growers and farmers generally. Illustrated. 136 pages. 5x7 inches. Goth. .,.,,,,,... $0.50 00) Successful Fruit Culture By SAMUEL T. MAYNARD. A practical guide to the culti- vation and propagation of Fruits, written from the standpoint of the practical fruit grower who is striving to make his business profitable by growing the best fruit possible and at the least cost. It is up-to-date in every particular, and covers the entire practice of fruit culture, harvesting, storing, mar- keting, forcing, best varieties, etc., etc. It deals with principles first and with the practice afterwards, as the foundation, prin- ciples of plant growth and nourishment must always remain the same, while practice will vary according to the fruit grower's immediate conditions and environments. Illustrated. 265 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.00 Plums and Plum Culture By F. A. WAUGH. A complete manual for fruit growers, nurserymen, farmers and gardeners, on all known varieties of plums and their successful management. This book marks an epoch in the horticultural literature of America. It is a complete monograph of the plums cultivated in and indigenous to North America. It will be found indispensable to the scientist seeking the most recent and authoritative informa- tion concerning this group, to the nurseryman who wishes to handle his varieties accurately and intelligently, and to the cultivator who would like to grow plums successfully. Illus- trated. 391 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.50 Fruit Harvesting, Storing, Marketing By F. A. WAUGH. A practical guide to the picking, stor- ing, shipping and marketing of fruit. The principal subjects covered are the fruit market, fruit picking, sorting and pack- ing, the fruit storage, evaporation, canning, statistics of the fruit trade, fruit package laws, commission dealers and deal- ing, cold storage, etc., etc. No progressive fruit grower can afford to be without this most valuable book. Illustrated. 232 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.00 Systematic Pomology By F. A. WAUGH, professor of horticulture and landscape gardening in the Massachusetts agricultural college, formerly of the university of Vermont. This is the first book in the English language which has ever made the attempt at a com- plete and comprehensive treatment of systematic pomology. It presents clearly and in detail the whole method by which fruits are studied. The book is suitably illustrated. 288 pages. 5x7 inches. Qoth. *,."*•', $1.00 Feeding Farm Animals By Professor THOMAS SHAW. This book is intended alike for the student and the farmer. The author has succeeded in giving in regular and orderly sequence, and in language so simple that a child can understand it, the principles that govern the science and practice of feeding farm animals. Professor Shaw is certainly to be congratulated on the successful man- ner in which he has accomplished a most difficult task. His book is unquestionably the most practical work which has ap- peared on the subject of feeding farm animals. Illustrated. Sl/2 x 8 inches. Upward of 500 pages. Cloth. . . . $2.00 Profitable Dairying By C. L. PECK. A practical guide to successful dairy man- agement. The treatment of the entire subject is thoroughly practical, being principally a description of the methods prac- ticed by the author. A specially valuable part of this book consists of a minute description of the far-famed model dairy farm of Rev. J. D. Detrich, near Philadelphia, Pa. On the farm of fifteen acres, which twenty years ago could not main- tain one horse and two cows, there are now kept twenty-seven dairy cattle, in addition to two horses. All the roughage, litter, bedding, etc., necessary for these animals are grown on these fifteen acres, more than most farmers could accomplish on one hundred acres. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 200 pages. Cloth. . '. .............. $0.75 Practical Dairy Bacteriology By Dr. H. W. CONN, of Wesleyan University. A complete exposition of important facts concerning the relation of bac- teria to various problems related to milk. A book for the classroom, laboratory, factory and farm. Equally useful to the teacher, student, factory man and practical dairyman. Fully illustrated with 83 original pictures. 340 pages. Cloth. Sy2 x 8 inches .............. $1.25 Modern Methods of Testing Milk and Milk Products By L. L. VANSLYKE. This is a clear and concise discussion of the approved methods of testing milk arid milk products. All the questions involved in the various methods of testing milk and cream are handled with rare skill and yet in so plain a manner that they can be fully understood by all. The book should be in the hands of every dairyman, teacher or student. Illustrated. 214 pages. 5x7 inches, ,.,,,. $0.75 (12) 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is doe on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewals only: Tel. No. 642-3405 Renewals may be made 4 days prior to date due. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. LD2lA-30m-10,'73 (R3728slO)476— A-30 General Library University of California Berkeley YB 16177 267540 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY