THE SILVICULTURE OF INDIAN TREES VOLUME II Leguminosae (Caesalpiiiieae) to Yerbenaceae OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE CAPE TOWN BOMBAY HUMPHREY MILFORD I'UBLISHER TO THE TTNTVERSITY THE SILVICULTURE OF INDIAN TREES BY R. S. TROUP, M.A., CLE. INDIAN FOREST SERVICE ; FELLOW OF ST. JOHN's COLLEGE, OXFORD, AND PROFESSOR OF FORESTRY IN THE UNIVERSITY VOLUME II Leguminosae (Caesalpiiiieae) to Verbenaceae PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF HIS MAJESTY'S SECRETARY OF STATE FOR INDIA IN COUNCIL OXFORD AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 1921 7961J74 CONTENTS OF VOLUME II PAGE LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS vii ORDER XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE (contd.) 337 SUB-ORDER II. CAESALPINIEAE 337 1. Caesalpinia, p. 337 ; 2. Poinciana, p. 337 ; 3. Acrocarpus, p. 338 ; 4. Hardwickia, p. 340 ; 5. Saraca, p. 362 ; 6. Amherstia, p. 362 ; 7. Tamarindus, p. 362 ; 8. Cassia, p. 366 ; 9. Bauhinia, p. 375. SUB-ORDER III. MIMOSEAE 389 1. Prosopis, p. 389 ; 2. Xylia, p. 402 ; 3. Acacia, p. 418 ; 4. Albiz- zia, p. 466 ; 5. Dichrostacbys, p. 484 ; 6. Adenanthera, p. 485 ; 7. Pithecolobiiim, p. 485 ; 8. Leiicaena, p. 486. ORDER XXIV. ROSACEAE 487 1. Primus, p. 487 ; 2. Pyrus, p. 490. ORDER XXV. HAMAMELIDACEAE 491 1. Bucldandia, p. 491 ; 2. Parrotia, p. 496. ORDER XXVI. RHIZOPHORACEAE 496 1. Ehizophora, p. 500 ; 2. Ceriops, p. 501; 3. Kandeba, p. 503; 4. Bruguiera, p. 503 ; 5. CaralKa, p. 504. ORDER XXVII. COMBRETACEAE 506 1, Terminaba, p. 507 ; 2. Anogeissus, p. 538 ; 3. Lumnitzera, p. 548. ORDER XXVIII. MYRTACEAE 548 1. Eugenia, p. 548 ; 2. Eucalyptus, p. 556 ; 3. Barringtonia, p. 590 ; 4. Careya, p. 591 ; 5. Plancbonia, p. 592. ORDER XXIX. LYTHRACEAE 593 1. Lagerstroemia, p. 593; 2. Duabanga, p. 605; 3. Sonneratia, p. 608 ; 4. Woodfordia, p. 609 ; 5. Punica, p. 610. ORDER XXX. SAMYDACEAE .610 1. Casearia, p. 610 ; 2. HomaKum, p. 611. ORDER XXXI. DATISCACEAE .612 Tetrameles, p. 612. ORDER XXXII. CACTACEAE 612 Opuntia, p. 612. ORDER XXXIII. RUBIACEAE 613 1. Anthocephalus, p. 614 ; 2. Adina, p. 616 ; 3. Stepbegyne, p. 621 ; 4. Nauclea, p. 624 ; 5. Hymenodictyon, p. 625 ; 6, Wendlandia, p. 628; 7. Gardenia, p. 628 ; 8. Randia, p. 632. vi CONTENTS PAGE OEDEE XXXIV. ERICACEAE ...... 633 1. Rhododendron, p. 633 ; 2. Pieris, p. 635. ORDER XXXV. MYRSINACEAE ...... 636 Aegiceras, p. 636. ORDER XXXVI. SAPOTACEAE ... ... 636 1, Mimusops, i>. 637 ; 2. Bassia, p. 640. ORDER XXXVII. EBENACEAE ... ^ . 646 Diospyros, p. 646, ORDER XXXVIII. OLEACEAE 656 1. Fraxinus, p. 656 ; 2. Olea, p, 658 ; 3. Nyctanthes, p. 661 ; 4. Schrebera, p. 662. ORDER XXXIX. SALVADORACEAE 662 Salvadora, p. 662. ORDER XL. APOCYNACEAE 663 1. Holarrhena, p. 664 ; 2. Alstonia, p. 668 ; 3. Wrightia, p. 668 ; 4. Carissa, p. 672. ORDER XLI. ASCLEPIADACEAE 672 1. Cryptostegia, p. 673 ; 2. Calotropis, p. 673. ORDER XLII. LOGANIACEAE 673 1. Strychnos, p. 673 ; 2. Eagraea, p. 676. ORDER XLIII. BORAGINACEAE . . . ... 677 1. Cordia, p. 677 ; 2. Ehretia, p. 682. ORDER XLIV. BIGNONIACEAE 684 1. Stereospermum, p. 684 ; 2. Oroxylum, p. 691 ; 3. Millingtonia, p. 692 ; 4. Tecoma, p. 693. ORDER XLV. ACANTHACEAE 693 1. Acanthus, p. 693 ; 2. Adhatoda, p. 694 ; 3. Phlogacanthus, p. 694 ; 4. Strobilanthes, p. 694. ORDER XLVI. VERBENACEAE 697 1. Tectona, p. 697; 2. Gmelina, p. 769; 3. Vitex, p. 776; 4. Premna, p. 778 ; 5. Callicarpa, p. 778 ; 6. Avicennia, p. 779 ; 7. Lantana, p. 780. INDEX TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES, VOLUME II. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, VOLUME II PAGE 137. Acrocarpusfraxiuifolius, seedling .......... 339 138. Hardwichia hinata, sapling crop on trap, Nimar, Central Provinces. (D. 0. Witt photo.) .............. 342 139. Hardwickia hinata, bushy young growth on a heavily grazed area, Nimar, Central Provinces. (D. 0. Witt photo.) . . ^ 342 140. Hardwickia bhiaia, old pollarded tree on sandstone, Nimar, Central Provinces. (D.O.Witt photo.) 343 141. Hardwickia binaia, seedlmg . .......... 344 142. Hardwickia pinnata, seedling .......... 363 143. Tamarindus indica, seedling . . . . . . . . . - 365 144. Cassia i^'iS^wZa, Dehra Dun, United Provinces. (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) . . . 366 145. Cassia Fistida, seedling ........... 368 146. Cassia auriculata, seedling ........... 374 147. Bauhinia racemosa, seedling .......... 377 148. Bauhinia malaharica, seedling .......... 381 149. Bauhinia purpurea, seedling .......... 384 150. Bauhinia variegata, seedling .:........ 388 151. Prosopis spicigera, seedling ........... 393 152. Prosopis spicigera, plantation about forty years old, Changa Manga, Punjab. (E.Marsden photo.) 396 153. Xylia dolahriformis,'R\ivm.a.. (J, H. Lace photo.) ....... 397 154. Xylia dolahriformis, seedling .......... 406 155. X^/Zm fZofofer^/o/wn's in upper mixed forest; Burma. (J, W. Oliver photo.) . . . 408 156. Xylia dolahriformis, seedling towards end of second season, regularly weeded and watered. (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) 409 157. Xylia dolahriformis, seedlings fifteen months old, showing effect of weeding, Dehra Dun. (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) 409 158. Xylia dolahriformis, dense natural reproduction in fire-protected forest, establishment assisted by gradual opening of the overhead canopy combined with repeated cleanings, Minhla reserve, Tharrawaddy, Burma. (A. Rodger photo.) ..... 410 159. Xylia dolahriformis, dense natural sapling crop in fire-protected forest, assisted by gradual opening of overhead canopy combined with repeated cleanings, Konbilin reserve, Tharrawaddy, Burma. (A. Rodger photo.) . . . . .411 160. Xylia xylocarpa, seedling . . . . . . . . . .415 161. Acacia arahica, seedling ........... 428 162. Acacia arahica, weeded ridge sowings, end of first season, Hamirpur district, United Provinces. (Author photo.) .......... 438 163. Acacia arahica, ridge sowings in bed of stream, end of second year, Fisher forest, Etawah, United Provinces. (E. Marsden photo.) ........ 438 164. Ravine lands being afforested with Acacia arahica, Kalpi, United Provinces. (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) 439 165. Acacia arahica^ so\vings on ravine lands, Kalpi, United Provinces. (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) . 439 166. Acacia leucophloea, seeiHing ........... 446 167. Acacia leucophloea, JjTpjieT ^nxma. (A. Rodger photo.) ...... 448 168. Acacia Catechuiree, 10 ft. 6 in. in girth, in riverain tract, Siwaliks, Ignited Province.s. (Author photo.) 448 169. Riverain forest of ^cacmC'a^ecte, Siwaliks, United Provinces ..... 449 Vlll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE 170. Acacia Catechu, seedling .... ..... 450 171. Line sowings of Acacia CatecMt three and a half months old in conjunction with field crops, Dehra Dun (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) 454 172. Acacia Catechu on very jioor eroded ground, Gonda district, United Provinces. (Author photo.) ............ 454 173. Acacia Catechu, unirrigated line sowings, weeded and thinned, end of third season, Delua Dun. (T.B.Cliitrakar photo.) 455 174. Coppice of Eucalyptus Globulus and Acacia dealbata, six years old, the latter forming an underwood to the former, Coonoor Peak plantation, Nilgiris. (Author photo.) . . 464 175. Coppice of Acacia dealbata. with younger coppice intermingled, and numerous root- suckers in foreground, Nilgiris. (Author photo.) . ...... 465 176. Mixed plantation of Eucalyptus Globulus and Acacia Melanoxylon, forty years old, Rallia plantation, Nllgiris. (Author photo.) . . . . . . . 466 177. Albizzia Lebbek in evergreen forest, Andamans ....... 467 178. Albizzia Lebbel; seedling . . . . . . . . . . . 468 179. Albizzia stipulata, Vnited 'Provinces. (Basti Ram photo.) . . . . . 472 180. Albizzia procera growing gregariously on low-level savannah, Goalpara, .Assam. (Author photo.) 473 181. Albizzia stipulata, seedling . . . . . . . . . 475 182. Albizzia procera, seedling ........... 476 183. Albizzia lucida, seedling ........... 482 184. Prunus Padus, seedling ........... 489 185. Prunus Padus growing gregariously, with an underwood of Taxus baccata, Hazara. (Author photo.) 490 186. Bucliandia, populnea, mature tree, girth 22 ft. 6 in., height 140 ft., bole 85 ft., Darjeeling hihs. (H. S. Gibson photo.) 491 187. Buclclandia populnea, j)ole grown in sufficiently close crop to produce a clean bole, Dar- jeeling hills. (H. S. Gibson photo.) ......... 491 188. Buckiandia populnea, plantation between twenty and thirty years old, Darjeeling liills. (H. S. Gibson photo.) .491 189. Buckiandia populnea, seedlmg .......... 493 190. Buckiandia populnea, plantation five years old, Surial, Darjeeling hills, 4,300 ft. elevation. (E. Marsden photo.) ......... 494 191. Buckiandia populnea, interior of plantation thirtj'-eight years old, below Rangirum, Darjeeling hills. (E. Marsden photo.) ........ 495 192. Rhizophoraceae, germination .......... 502 193. Terminalia belerica, seedling ........ . 508 194. Terminalia Chebula, seedling ......... 512 195. Terminalia belerica, United Provinces. (Basti Ram photo.) ..... 514 196. Terminalia tomentosa, tree 12 ft. 4 in. in girth and 115 ft. in height on alluvial gromid, Gonda district. United Provinces. (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) . .... 515 197-200. Terminalia tomentosa, establishment of pure crops on alluvial ground, Gonda district, United Provinces. (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) 516-17 201. Terminalia tomentosa, seedling .......... 518 202. Terminalia Arjuna, seedling .......... 630 203. Terminalia myriocarpa, seedling .......... 532 204. Terminalia Arjuna, Bombay. (E. M. Hodgson photo.) ...... 536 205. Anogeissus latifolia, Dehra Dun, United Provinces. (T. B. Chitrakar photo, j . . 537 206. Anogeissus latifolia, seedling .......... 540 207. Anogeissus pendula, seedling .......... 544 208. Eugenia Jambolana on bank of stream, United Provinces. (Basti Ram photo.) . . 548 209. Eugenia Jambolana §y owing gregariously along bank of stream and worked as coppice, Gorakhpur district, United Provinces. (T. B. -Chitrakar photo.) .... 549 210. Eugenia Jamholana, seedling .......... 550 211. Eugenia Jamholana, co\^\)iqq 30 ft. liigh in process of being felled on swampy ground, Gorakhpur distiiet, United Provinces. (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) .... 552 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ix PAGE 212. Eugenia Jamholana, line sowings in second year, showing beneficial effect of side shade, Dehra Dun. (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) 553 213. Eugenia Jambolana, plants thirteen months old from broadcast sowings, showing beneficial effect of weeding, Dehra Dmi, (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) . . . . 554 214. Eunenia Jamholana. natural reproduction on soft sandy soil, Tirsal forest, Dehra Dun, United Provinces. (T. B. Cliitrakar photo.) ....... 554 215. Eugenia Jamholana, coppice four years old, 15 ft. high, on alluvial ground along the bank of a stream, Gorakhpur district, United Provinces. (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) . . 555 216. J5Jta,vA, Assum. (Author photo.) . .... 596 225. Lagerstroemia lanceolata, Bombay. (R. S. Pearson photo.) ..... 597 226. Lagerstroemia Flos-Iieginae, seedling ...... . . 598 227. Lagerstroemia tomentosa, seedling ...... ... 600 228. Duahanga sonneratioides, seedling .......... 604 229. Duahanga sonneratioides. (B. S. Gupta photo.) ....... 606 230. Duahanga sonneratioides, crop six years old, Darjeeling hills. (E. Marsden photo.) . 607 231. Homalium tomentosum, girth 12 ft., height 120 ft., Minhla reserve, Tharrawaddy, Burma, (A. Rodger photo.) 612 232. Homalium tomentosum in upper mixed forest, Prome, Burma. (J. W. Oliver photo.) . 613 233. Anthocephalus Cadamha, seedling .......... 614 234. Anthocephalus Cadamha, natural reproduction on an area formerly grazed, but free from grazing in recent years, Buxa division, Bengal. (Author photo.) .... 616 235. Adina cordifolia, vigorous seedling in third season. (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) . . 617 236. ^rfiwj corc^i/oZm, Siwalik hills, United Provinces. (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) . . . 617 237. Adina cordifolia, seedling . . . . . . . . . . .618 238. Stephegyne parvifolia, height 78 ft., girth 27 ft. 6 in., Siwalik hills, United Provinces. (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) 621 239. Stephegyne parvifolia, seedling .......... 622 240. Hymenodictyon excelsum. seedling ...... ... 626 241. Gardenia turgida, seedling . . . . . . . .631 242. Rhododendron arhoreum, seedling .......... 635 243. Mimusops Elengi, seedling ........... 638 244. Bassia latifolia on former forest land cleared for cultivation, Singhbhum, Chota Kagpur. (Author photo.) ............ 641 245. Diospyros hurmanica, regrowth from root-suckers and coppice -slioots on fields left un worked for four years, Burma. (A. Rodger photo.) . . ... 641 246. Bassia latifolia, seedling ........... 643 247. Bassia longifolia, seedling ........... 644 248. Diospyros Melanoxylon, seedling .......... 648 249. Diospyros Emhryopteris, seedling . . . . . " . . . . . 652 250. i^raxmwsexceZswr, girth 8ft. 1 in., upper Siran valley, Hazara. (Author photo.) . . 658 251. Fraxinus xa7ithoxyloides, K&ga.n xaMey, HAzara. (Author photo.) . . . . 658 252. Olea c^ispidatajHazsivai. (Author photo.) ........ 659 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE 253. Holarrheiiaantidi/sentenca in ivmt,'Dehva. Dun. (T. B. Chitrakar photo. ) . . . 664 254^. Alstonia scholar is, Behva, Bun. (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) 665 255. Holarrhena antidysenterica, seedling ......... 666 256. Wrtghtia tomentosa., seedling . . 670 257. Strychnos Nux-Umida, seedling . 674 258. Cordia Myxa, seedling 679 259. Cordia vestita, seedling ........... 680 260. Stereos per mum suaveolens, seedling ......... 686 261. Oroxylumindicum, seedling ........... 690 262. Tectona grandis, girth 11 ft. 7 in., Minye, Toungoo, Burma. (J. H. Lace photo.) . 698 263. Teak tree, height 152 ft., girth 10 ft. 3 in., Mohnyin reserve, Katha, Upper Burma. (Author photo.) 699 264. Pure teak forest, Mohnyin, Katha, Upper Burma. (Author photo.) . . . . 699 265. Teak in evergreen forest, Mogaung, Upper Burma. (J. W. Oliver photo.) . . . 702 266. Teak in upper mixed forest, Bhamo, Upper Burma. (J. H. Lace photo.) . . . 703 267. Teak in lower mixed forest, Pyinmana, Upper Burma. (J. H. Lace photo.) . . 708 268. Tectona gra7idis,inQ.ovesGenee. (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) 709 269. Tectona gra7idis, ivuiting -psinicle. (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) 709 270. TectoJia grandis, seedling 710 271. Tectotut grandis, seedlings in different stages up to two months old. (T. B. C!hitrakar photo.) .............. 712 272. yecto?^? g'ra/ic^is, vigorous seedling in first season. (T. B Chitrakar photo.) . . . 712 273. Tectona grandis, line sowings in second year, Dehra Dun, showing effect of weeding. (T. B. Chitrakar phQto.) 713 274. Natural reproduction of teak along old dragging-path, Pyinmana, Upper Burma. (J. H. Lace photo.) 724 275. Forest of Bamhnsa polymorpka, never fire-protected, with natural reproduction of teak on the ground, Tharrawaddy, Burma. (F. Beadon Bryant photo.) . . . . 725 276. Dense young growth of Cephalostachyum pergracile under Bamhusa polymorpka in forest Avhich has been fire-protected for fourteen years, Tharrawaddy, Burma. (F. Beadon Bryant photo.) ............ 725 277. Dense natural reproduction of teak, chiefly 2 to 3 ft. high, in a teak and sissoo plantation forty years old, Ramgarh. Gorakhpur, United Provinces. (T. B. Chitrakar photo. ) . 728 278. Dense natural reproduction of teak in a teak plantation forty years old, Ramgarh, Gorakhpur, United Provinces. (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) 729 279. Teak plantation fourteen years old, Ramalur block, Nilambur, South Malabar. (Author photo.) ............ 732 280. Teak plantation twenty years old, Edacode block, Nilambur. (Author photo.) . . 733 281. Teak plantation fifty-four years old, Elanjeri block, Nilambur. (Author photo ) . . 734 282. Teak plantation fifty-seven years old, Panengode block, Nilambur. (Author photo.) . 735 283. Teak plantation sixty-five years old, Moolathamanoo block, Nilambur. (Author photo.) 736 284. Young teak tomgrj/a plantation in second year, Burma. (J. W. Oliver photo.) . . 737 285. Young teak taungya plantation in third year, Tharrawaddy, Burma. (J. W. Oliver photo.) 740 286. Teak taungya plantation nine years old, ready for first thinning, Tharrawaddy, Burma. (J. H. Lace photo.) ............ 741 287. Natural reproduction of teak induced by clearing overhead canopy, cutting and burning undergrowth and weeding young plants, Molmyin, Upper Burma : plants of two rains' growth. (J. H. Lace photo.) ......... 752 288. Natural reproduction of teak induced by clearing overhead canopy, cutting and burning undergrowth and weedmg young plants, Mohnyin, Upper Burma : plants of three rains' growth. (J. H.Xace photo.) ......... 752 289. Natural reproduction of teak induced by clearing overhead canopy and undergrowth, Mohnyin, Upper Burma : area not burnt but weeded regularly : plants of four rains' growth. (J. H. Lace photo.) . . . . . . . . . . 753 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi PAGE 290. Regeneration fellings in Mohnyin forest, Katha, Upper Burma : a regenerated area after the second rainy season, with teak seedlings plentiful : girdled trees not yet removed. (G. S. Hart photo.) .......... 753 291. Natural reproduction of teak one year old in upper mixed forest, induced by clearing overhead cover, cutting bamboos, thoroughly burning, and weeding the resulting teak seedlings, North Toungoo, Burma. (G. S. Hart photo.) . .... 753 292. Natural reproduction of teak in area where bamboo {Cephalostachijuni pergracile) has flowered, Myitkyina, Upper Burma. (J. H. Lace photo.) . .... 760 293. Sowing of teak and cutch {Acacia Catechu) in flowered bamboo area, Bwet forest, Prome, Burma. (J. W. Oliver photo.) ........ 761 294. Omelina arborea, seedling ........... 770 295. Gmelina arborea, irrigated line sowings five months old, Dehra Dun. (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) 772 296. Gmelina arborea, irrigated line sowings, end of third season, Dehra Dun. (T. B. Chit- rakar photo.) ............ 772 297. Gmelina arborea, unirrigated weeded line sowings, end of third season, Dehra Dun. (T. B. Chitrakar photo.) 773 ORDER XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE {continued) Sub Order II. CAESALPINIEAE Genera 1. Caesalpinia, Linn.; 2. Poinciana, Linn.; 3. Acrocarpus, W. and A. ; 4. Hardwickia, Roxb. ; 5. Saraca, Linn. ; 6. Amherstia, Wall. ; 7. Tamarindus, Linn.; 8. Cassia, Linn.; 9. Bauhinia, Linn. 1. CAESALPINIA, Linn. Species 1. C. Sappan, Linn.; 2. C.digyna, Rottl. ; 3. C. Coriarid, Willd. 1. Caesalpinia Sappan, Linn. Sappan wood. A small tree or shrub, the wood of which yields a red dye. It is believed to be wild in the Shan hills, and is cultivated in India and Burma. 2. Caesalpinia digyna, Rottl. Vern. Sunletthe, Burm. A thorny scandent shrub whose pods, commercially known as tari pods, are very rich in tannin. It is found wild in many parts of Burma and Assam as well as in Bengal, occurring on waste lands and in hedgerows, chiefly near villages ; it prefers well-drained ground with sandy soil and avoids badly- drained localities. The seeds are very hard and germination is difficult. Mr. I. H. BurkilP found that prolonged soaking had no effect, but by cutting through the outer impervious layer of the seed-coat with a minute cut germination was readily induced : Mr. W. A. Robertson informs me that in Burma germination is induced by filing through the testa. At Dehra Dun it was found that germination took place almost at once, without any harm to the seed, by soaking the seed in hot water and then removing the softened testa. 3. Caesalpinia Coriaria, Willd. Divi-divi, American sumach. A small tree of the West Indies, cultivated, chiefly in southern India, for the sake of its pods, which give a valuable tanning material. It grows well in Lower Burma, bearing pods in quantity ; some years ago there was a small experimental plantation at Tharrawaddy, in which the trees bore pods in abundance. It prefers well-drained ground, becoming stunted on stiff soil ; in the Tharrawaddy plantation there was a marked difference where the soil became clayey. 2. POINCIANA, Linn. Species 1. P. regia, Bojer; 2. P. elata, Linn. 1. Poinciana regia, Bojer. Gold mohur. A native of Madagascar ; largely grown for ornament in the warmer and moister parts of India and Burma. It is almost evergreen, and has a broad spreading crown of feathery foliage, large flaming red flowers which appear chiefly in April and May, and broad flat pods 1 to 2 ft. long, which ripen in the rainy season and remain long on the tree. It is usually grown from seed, but can also be raised from cuttings. It is fast growing, and has spreading superficial roots which kill out other plants. Its shallow root-system renders it liable lo be blown down during storms. 1 Gardens Bulletin, Fed. Malay States, vol. i,. No. G, 1913, p. 193. 2307.2 g 338 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE 2. Poinciana elata, Linn. White gold mohur. A small practically evergreen tree with feathery foliage and handsome yellowish white flowers which turn orange as they fade ; the flowers appear in the hot season or early rains. Wild, possibly indigenous, in the Barde hills in Porbunder state, Kathiawar ; probably not wild elsewhere in India. The tree is capable of growing on poor dry soil, and in the Barde hills it grows in the crevices of trap and basalt rocks, where however it is stunted. It is often cultivated for ornament. It grows fast and is easily raised from seed. 3. ACROCARPUS, W. and A. Acroearpus fraxinifolius, Wight. Vern. Mandania, Nep. ; Handige, havalige, Kan. ; Malaikonnai, Tam. ; Balanji, Coorg ; Yetama, ^nayahnin, Burm. A very large deciduous tree, usually with large buttresses at the base. Leaves bipinnate, with three or four pairs of pinnae each about a foot long : the young leaves are bright red. Bark thin, light grey. Heartwood light red, moderately hard, used for shingles, tea-boxes, furniture, and building. The tree is one of the largest in India. Colonel Beddome mentions that in southern India he has seen trees fully 200 ft. high and 150 ft. to the first branch ; ^ he records a tree 27 ft. in girth above buttresses. Mr. Gamble states that Sir D. Brandis in his company measured a tree at Dalingkot in the Sikkim Himalaya 181 ft. high and 110 ft. to the first branch. Distribution and habitat. The natural habitat of the tree is in the evergreen forests of the Western Ghats, chiefly on hill slopes up to 4.000 ft., Sikkim, ascending to 4,000 ft., Duars, Assam, Chittagong, and Burma. It is a tree of the regions of heavy rainfall, but Mr. Tireman mentions that in Coorg it has been cultivated for shade over coffee as far east as the 70 in. rainfall zone. Flowering, fruiting, and silvicultural characters. In southern India the flowers appear from November to January, when the tree is leafless. The fruits ripen from April to June. The tree is easily raised from seed, some of which germinates within a week, while some may lie dormant for as long as a year before germinating. Bourdillon notes that it reproduces well and the growth is fast. It is sensitive to frost. It is somewhat light-demanding, though capable of standing some shade in j^^outh. Germination (Fig. 137, 6-/). Epigeous. The radicle emerges from one end of the seed ; the hypocotyl elongates and carries above ground the coty- ledons enclosed in the testa, which soon falls off with the expansion of the cotyledons. The seedling (Fig. 137). Roots : primary root moderately long, terete, tapering, wiry, flexuose : lateral roots moderate in number and length, fibrous. Hypocotyl distinct from root, 1-1-1 -8 in. long, terete or slightly compressed, glabrous or minutely pubescent in the upper part. Cotyledons sessile, foliaceous, somewhat fleshy, 0-4-0-7 in. by 0-3-0-4 in., elliptical or oblong, entire, glabrous, apex and base rounded. Stem erect, woody, yellow to rusty tomentose, particularly in the younger parts ; internodes 0-2-1 in. long.'^ Leaves alternate, compound, paripinnate, first 1-3 leaves with 3 pairs of leaflets, the number increasing to 1 Ind. Forester, ii (1876), p. 196. a Fig. 137. AcrocarpusfraxinifoUus. Seedling x|, a, seed ; b-f, germination stages ; g, seedling six months old. B 2 340 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE 6 pairs by the end of the first season. Stipules minute, yellow tomentose. Rachis 1 in. (in the earliest leaves) to 5 in. long, yellow or rusty tomentose, terminating in a fine bristle. Leaflets opposite, with petioles up to 0-05 in. long, larger towards apex than at base of leaf, those of earlier leaves 0-2-1 in. by 0-1-0-5 in., those of later leaves 0-4-2 in. by 0-2-0-8 in., ovate, acute or acuminate, base rounded or acute, entire, finely pubescent to glabrescent, lateral veins up to eight pairs. Rate of growth. Mr, Tireman recorded in 1916 the measurements of thirty-seven young trees in an abandoned coffee estate at Mercara, Coorg. These trees were raised from seedlings about a foot high collected in the forest and planted in 1908, and at the time of measurement were therefore about eight or possibly nine years old from seed. The plants had received practically no attention since they were planted. In 1916 their height varied from 7 to 24 ft. and averaged 15 ft., while their girth varied from 4-5 to 31 in. and averaged 10-9 in. 4. HARDWICKIA, Roxb. Species 1. H. hinata, Roxb.; 2. H. pinnata, Roxb. 1. Hardwickia binata, Roxb. V em. Arijan, Hind., Mar. ; Kamra, karachi, Kan. ; Acha, Tam. ; Yepi, naryepi, yapa, Tel. A moderate-sized to large tree, leafless for a short time or nearly evergreen, with graceful drooping slender branchlets and greyish green coriaceous bi- foliate leaves, the leaflets 1-2-5 in. by 0-5-1-2 in. ; crown conical in early life, becoming broader afterwards. Bark of saplings almost silvery white and smooth, gradually changing as the tree gets older to dark grey and rough with irregular vertical cracks, 0-5-1 in. thick, exfoliating in narrow flakes. In isolated situations or on poor shallow soils the tree tends to branch low down and produce a short bole, but when grown in a fairly crowded crop on favour- able soil it produces a long straight cylindrical bole with an elevated crown. The dimensions vary greatly according to locality. On trap formations, characterized by a shallow and somewhat stiff soil, the tree rarely attains a height of 60 ft. and often does not reach a height of more than 30-40 ft. with a maximum girth of 3 ft. On deeper sandy soil overlying sandstone, granite, and other formations it may attain a height of 80-100 ft. and a girth of 6-10 ft., with a clean cylindrical bole 40-50 ft. in length. Haines says that in the Kymore hills near the Sone river it reaches a height of 120 ft. Mr. E. D. M. Hooper records a tree with a large gnarled trunk 15 ft. in girth in the Raja's garden at Sandur, Bellary district, Madras. Almost everywhere the trees have been much mutilated by pollarding for the sake of fodder, manure, or bast fibre, and in most localities the larger trees are old pollards. LaT-ge trees are very frequently hollow, owing, it is generally held, to former damage by fire and mutilation, and possibly also to the repeated dying back in the seedling stage producing a centre of infection for subsequent decay. The wood is perhaps the hardest and heaviest in India, the weight averaging 82 lb. per cubic foot. The sapwood is small and white, the heart- wood dark reddish brown streaked with purple, close grained, very durable, used for bridge and house construction, agricultural implements, carts, wheel- work, &c. The bast yields a strong fibre largely employed for ropes, and the branches are much lopped for manure and cattle-fodder. HARDWICKIA 341 Distribution and habitat. The tree is distributed in isolated blocks and patches varying in extent in the drier parts of the Indian Peninsula, extending as far north as the Banda district, United Provinces. In Madras it occupies well-defined areas in the Godavari, Kistna, Kurnool, Bellary, North Arcot, Anantapur, Cuddapah, Nellore, and Salem districts. In Bombay it is fairly common in parts of Khandesh and Nasik, and is found scattered in the dry scrub forests of eastern Belgaum ; Talbot says there is a small isolated patch in the Ranebennur subdivision of the Dharwar district. In the Central Provinces and Berar it occurs in parts of Buldana, Nimar, Hoshang- abad, and South Chanda. In Buldana it is found in the Amdari, Geru-Matergaon, and Ghatbori reserves and intervening forests over an area of about 182 square miles. It is fairly plentiful in Nimar, and occupies restricted areas in Hoshang- abad and South Chanda (south of Allapalli and in Sironcha), while it has been introduced artificially in Nagpur and elsewhere. In Chota Nagpur it is found only in Palamau, especially towards the Sone, on the other side of which, in the Kymore hills, it is frequent (Haines). It occurs locally in Mysore and in some of the Central India states, for example in Indore and Gwalior. The remarkably local distribution of the species, which is not altogether accounted for by soil and climate, is somewhat puzzling, and has not yet been satisfactorily explained. The rock and soil on which the tree grows have a marked influence on its growth. In many localities, for example in parts of Nimar and Buldana, in Khandesh and Nasik, the underlying rock is trap and the soil is usually very shallow, soon merging into hard murram and thence into solid rock. On this formation it is often remarkably gregarious, forming pure crops of greater or less extent where the trees, which are frequently in the pole or sapling stage, may grow thi,ckly together. On such ground, however, it never attains the large dimensions which it reaches on more porous soils overlying rocks which disintegrate more readily than trap. Thus the best growth is attained on sandstone, conglomerate, quartzite, granite, and schist, with an overlying soil of sandy loam or, what is a very characteristic soil for Hardwickia, a quartzose reddish gravelly sand. On such formations the tree frequently attains a large size, even though the overlying soil may not be deep, since the taproot has a wonderful capacity for making its way through fissures in solid rock. Here, however, it is not so characteristically gregarious as it is on trap, for although it may form pure crops it is also commonly found scattered among a miscel- laneous growth of other species. Some examples may be quoted of the occurrence of Hardivickia hinata on shallow soil overlying trap rock. In East Khandesh, Bombay, the tree is almost pure over considerable areas, particularly on the higher ground with poor shallow soil ; in places it is mixed with teak, Anogeissus latifolia, Bos- wellia serrata, and Acacia Catechu. The trees are of comparatively small size, attaining their maximum girth, about 4 ft., in the Jamner reserve : most of the trees are hollow, owing, it is believed, to former fires. In the adjoining Nasik district it occurs pure towards the Khandesh border, becoming scarcer on proceeding west until it disappears and gives place to scrub : the soil is poor and shallow and the trees are of small size. In the Nimar district of the Central Provinces Hardivickia hinata occupies a considerable portion of the 342 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE trap areas along the branch of the Satpuras forming the watershed between the Nerbudda and the Tapti. Regarding these trap areas Mr. D. O. Witt states : ^ ' On the extreme west we find the Anjan scattered and fairly plenti- ful, but proceeding east it becomes less so, until we reach the railway at Mandwa, where it practically vanishes, hardly a single tree being found throughout the whole of the ridge east of the railway. Isolated Anjan are found on Samardes, and it is fairly common at the western extremity of the ridge separating Nimar from the Berar plain. It does not grow to any great size in these areas. Proceeding to the areas north of the main central ridge, we find the low and undulating hills of the Khandwa range fairly stocked with Anjan, and to the extreme west of this range, and extending almost up to the Nerbudda, we find a peculiar type of Anjan growth, viz. isolated blocks of practically pure Anjan in the pole stage, growing closely and thickly together. Old mature trees are few and far between, and where found are of small dimensions, and have invariably at some time or other in their life been pollarded. That the present pole growth is the natural regeneration of a pre- viously existing Anjan forest goes without saying, but the manner of its forma- tion is a subject of much speculation. . . . The average height of a mature Anjan tree throughout these areas may be put at 40 ft. and its girth at 3 ft.' Fig. 138 shows a sapling crop on trap in the Nimar district. In the Buldana district of Berar Hardwickia binata predominates over the greater part of the trap areas, Bosivellia serrata being its chief companion. The forest is of poor quality, the trees having been much hacked and pollarded ; the maximum height and girth of. the existing trees are 25 ft. and 2 ft. respectively on the hill slopes, and 30 ft. and 3 ft. respectively on the better soil of the valleys. Examples of the other geological formations on which Hardivickia binata is typically found, consisting for the most part of sandstone or metamorphic rock, occur in numerous localities. The overlying soil, as already mentioned, consists chiefly of a reddish gravelly sand or sandy loam, and although the tree is often scattered among other species, as a rule it attains much larger dimensions than it does on the stiffer soil of the trap areas. In the Kurnool district of Madras it occurs in greater or less abundance on the quartzites, sandstones, and shales of the Yerramalai hills, chiefly on reddish gravelly sand or on sandy loam, either in gregarious patches of varying extent or mixed with Soytnida febrifuga, Terminalia tomentosa, Anogeissus lafifoUa, Albizzia amara, and teak. In some of the forests of the Cumbum range of Kurnool old trees may be found scattered amongst a thick growth of bamboos. Mr. E. M. Crothers - states that the only species with which it forms a good mixed crop is Anogeissus latifolia. In the Bellary district it is found on rocky quartz soils, and in the forests of the Harpanahalli range it is probably the most numerously represented species, occurring chiefly on the more level ground at the bases of the several hill ranges ; it is most abundant on the southern slopes of the Sogi reserve and at the base of the Hyarada hills, where it forms nearly pure forests.'^ 1 The Sylviculture of Hardwickia binata, Ind. For. Records, vol. ii, pt. iii, pp. 78. 79. - Ind. Forester, xxxi (1905), p. 380. ' Working Plan for the Forests of the Harpanahalli Range, Bellary District, Madras, H. Tireman, 1911. Fig. 138. Hardwichia binata, sapling crop on trap, Nimar, Central Provinces. Fig. 139. Hardwickia binata, bushy young growth on a heavily grazed area, Niniar, Central Provinces. Fig. 140. Hardwickia binata, old pollarded trees on sandstone, Nimar, Central Provinces. HARDWICKIA 343 Here the trees consist almost entirely of pollards. In the North Arcot district it occurs on the Tirpati and other hills on gneissic rock overlain by masses of quartzite and conglomerate ; the soil is usually a red loam with much sand. Here Hardwickia is associated with Pterocarpus santalinus, P. Marstipium, Ghloroxylon Swietenia, Terminalia Chebula, T. tomentosa, Albizzia Lehbek, A. odoratissi'ma, Dalbergia latifolia, and other species. In the Salem district it is found in the Shevaroy and Aranuttu hills on gneiss, the soil being a red ferruginous sandy loam. It occurs on rocky quartz soil in Anantapur and on the sandstones and shales of the Palnad in Kistna. In Bombay it is found on sandstone in the eastern part of the Belgaum district. In the South Chanda district of the Central Provinces Hardwickia hinata is prevalent on sandy and gravelly soil overlying sandstones and quartzites in the Sironcha range. Here it is essentially a tree of the sandy soils^ and attains a girth of 8 ft. It avoids clay unless covered with a depth of sandy debris. In the Nimar district, apart from the trap areas already described, in which, though often remarkably gregarious, it does not attain large dimen- sions, there is a strip of broken and hilly ground along the Nerbudda occupied by Vindhyan sandstone, conglomerate, granite, schist, and limestone. The overlying soil is sandy or gravelly, and though as a rule by no means deep, it is porous, while the underlying rock is much fissured. On this tract, com- prising the Punasa and Chandgarh ranges, Hardwickia is never pure, but is always mixed with other species, seldom forming more than 5 per cent, of the growing stock. The development of the individual trees, however, is here excellent, mature trees with a height of 80-100 ft., a girth of 6-10 ft., and a clean cylindrical bole of 40-50 ft. b^ing by no means uncommon. As regards natural reproduction, a distinction has to be drawn between the forest on the hard crystalline Vindhyan sandstones, which disintegrate with difficulty and have a shallow covering of soil, and the more loose-structured conglomerates and shales, which disintegrate readily and produce a fair depth of porous soil, in that the tree regenerates as a rule more freely on the latter. Hardwickia hinata thrives in a dry climate characterized by a long period of drought, scanty to moderate rainfall, and intense heat during the hot season. In the cold season frosts occur only in certain portions of its area of distribution, particularly in low-lying places ; these frosts are as a rule slight. It may be said that within its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 110° to 117° P., and the absolute minimum from 34° to 50° P., while the normal rainfall varies from 10 to 60 in. ; it appears to thrive best with a rainfall of 20 to 40 in. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The tree is leafless or nearly so for a short time towards the end of the cold season, the new leaves, which are tinged with red, appearing in April ; in the hot weather the trees are in leaf, and their feathery foliage is conspicuous when most other species are leafless. Mr. Witt ^ draws attention to their habit of shedding branchlets : 'Towards the end of the season of growth, about March, a portion of the year's growth is shed, much in the same way as leaves are shed. ... In April and May the ground under Anjan trees will be found to be littered with small twigs and branches, which at first sight appear to have been broken off, but ' loc. cit., p. 101. 344 XXIII. LEGUIHINOSAE a closer inspection shows that thej^ have literally been shed like leaves.' This characteristic, which is also seen in Tamarix articulata, Phyllanthus Emblica, and Casuarina equisetifolia, is obviously a xerophytic adaptation, and the probable explanation of the phenomenon is that the tree endeavours to protect itself from the rigours of the dry season by shedding the less completely lignified and therefore more sensitive portions of its branch-system. The small pale yellowish green flowers, in axillary and terminal lax panicled racemes, appear from July to September, and the pods develop rapidly, reaching full size early in the cold season and "ripening the following April or May. The pod (Fig. 141, a) is flat and samaroid, 2-3 in. by 0-4-0-6 in., oblong lanceolate, coriaceous, narrowed at both ends, with parallel longitudinal veins, containing one seed near the apex. The pod dehisces at the apex after it reaches the ground, when germination takes place. The light winged pods commence falling early in May and are often carried to some distance from the parent tree by the strong winds which are prevalent at that season : in full seed-years the ground to the leeward of the seed-bearers is often thickly strewn with pods. The seed is exalbuminous, flat, averaging 0-8 by 0-3 in., sub-reniform, pointed at one end and rounded at the other, with a fairly hard testa. Fresh ripe seed has a high percentage of fertility, and germinates readily with moderate moisture. It is sometimes said that the seed will not retain its vitality for a year, but instances are recorded in which it has remained fertile to some extent for one or even two years. Thus, ' Yepi seed kept over from 1908 was tried in 1909 with some success ', but only 20 per cent, germinated.^ Again, Shyam Sunder Lai, Assistant Conservator of Forests, Indore state, writes : - ' We have sown one-year-old seed in the arboricultural nursery, which germinated fairly well, and the young plants were later transplanted to roadsides in Indore and are quite healthy.' Finally, in patch sowings carried out in' 1912-13 in the Saugor division. Central Provinces, seed two years old and not very good germinated satisfactorily in 338 patches out of 1,200.^ The tree seeds sporadically to some extent every year, but gregarious seeding takes place on an average every three to five years according to locality. The local extent as well as the periodicity of general seedings varies, and a good seed-year in one locality need not necessarily be a good one in another. When a general seeding takes place the crop of seed is often profuse, the trees being laden with pods. The precise cause of gregarious seeding of this kind is not entirely clear, but there is a presumption, borne out to some extent by meteorological statistics, that it is induced by a season of drought the year before the seeding. The following records of seed-years are available : Nimar, 1874, 1879, 1884, 1889, 1893, 1899, 1905, 1911 ; Kurnool, 1902, 1905, 1908, 1912; Khandesh, 1908, 1911. Germination (Fig. 141, h-g). Epigeous. The apex of the pod dehisces slightly and the radicle emerges, developing rapidly into a taproot. The cotyledons expand and turn green, extricating themselves from the testa and the pod ; they remain only just above ground-level. The pod and the testa are left on the ground. ^ Working Plan for the Yerramalais, W. Kurnool, 1913. - Ind. Forester, xxxvii (1911), p. 65. ^ Forest Administration Report, 1912-13. Fig. 141. Hcu'dwickia hinata — Seedling x -J- a — Fruit b-g — Germination stages h, i — Development of seedling during first season (Note. On poor dry soil the taproot may attain a considerably greater length.) HARDWICKIA 345 The seedling (Fig. 141). Roots : primary root long, thin, terete, tapering, wiry : lateral roots moderate in number, short to moderately long, thin, fibrous, distributed down main root. Hypocotyl distinct from the root, 0-2-0-3 in. long, thick, fleshy, tapering downwards, glabrous, subterranean or at ground-level. Cotyledons on short thick petioles less than 0-1 in. long : lamina 1-1-1 -5 in. by 0-5-0 -9 in., thin, somewhat fleshy, elliptical oblong or obovate, apex broad rounded truncate or retuse, base sagittate, entire, glabrous, yellow turning green, surface irregularly depressed. Stem erect, terete, zigzag at the nodes, slender, wiry, glabrous, green, young parts red ; internodes 0-2-0-7 in. long. Leaves alternate, bifoliate, at first small, the size increasing with successive leaves. Stipules up to 0-25 in. long, ovate falcate, apex acute acuminate or rounded, pale green turning brown. Common petiole 0-2-0-6 in. long, terete, wiry, glabrous, green, that of young leaves red. Leaflets sub-sessile, 0-5-2-5 in. by 0-3-1-5 in., obliquely ovate or obscurely trapezoidal, apex rounded, base obtuse, entire, coriaceous, glabrous, darker above than below, young leaves red, arcuately 4- or 5-veined from the base. Mr. Witt ^ has recorded the results of observations on the development of natural seedlings on a plot of ground at Khandwa in Nimar, where the normal rainfall is 30 in., and the seedlings grew on dry sandy soil 6 to 18 in. deep overlying hard murram soon passing into solid trap rock. These observa- tions show that the seedlings, like those of the sal and of certain other species in dry localities, die back annually for a series of years, the taproot gradually developing until it reaches the moist layers of the subsoil and establishes itself sufficiently to produce a permanent vigorous shoot which does not die back. These observations indicate the following to be the stages of development of a normal seedling in its natural habitat : First season. After germination, which takes place with the first heavy downpour of the monsoon proper towards the end of June, the taproot develops rapidly, attaining a length of about 5 to 6 in. within a week, the stem having two leaves almost fully formed. One month from germination the taproots of seven seedlings were dug up and found to vary from 8-38 to 16-1 in. in length : an eighth seedling had a damaged taproot 6-5 in. long. A typical seedling had four leaves fully developed and a fifth commencing to appear. There is little or no development above ground after August, the normal seedling by the end of the first season attaining a height of 5 to 6 in. with about nine leaves, while the taproot ordinarily reaches a length of 12-20 in., or even as much as 3 ft. or more if the depth of the soil permits. In this connexion ' Old Ranger ' "^ writes : ' I have found young seedlings, of 6-9 months growth and only 3-4 in. high, the possessors of taproots 22-28 in. long (actual measurements), the almost complete absence of side shoots being very noticeable.' The taproot shows wonderful power of penetrating hard ground and piercing what appears to be almost solid rock ; on shallow soil it twists and turns in search of fissures. By the middle of October the seedlings commence to die back, and by the middle of March, or February in dry seasons, not a single green seedling is to be found, the stems all having died back partially or completely though the taproots remain alive. Second season. With the following rainy season the seedlings come into 1 loc. cit., pp. 89-100. - Ind. Forester, xxxi (1905), p. 698. 346 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE ;ife again, sending up new shoots from dormant buds at the points marking the axils of the cotyledons or from buds on the main stem if the latter has not been completely killed. The second year's shoot is even smaller or more weakly than that of the first year, the plant's energies being concentrated on developing its root-system. On shallow soil the taproot does not develop greatly in length, but thickens somewhat, and there is a marked diminution in the number of lateral roots. Dying back occurs again at the end of the second season. Third and subsequent seasons. In the third season a new shoot is produced from the root-collum, neither larger nor more vigorous than that of the second season. Meanwhile the taproot develops slowly in length and thickens con- siderably. The annual dying back of the stem and gradual development of the taproot continues year after year for an unknown period, which Mr. Witt estimates at not less than ten years, the portion above ground gradually developing into a many-branched bush 12-18 in. high. A marked change then takes place : dying back ceases, and a leading shoot forms and grows up at the rate of about 1 ft. or more annually. By this time the seedling may be said to have reached the sapling stage, and the taproot has now become much thickened, with a length up to about 8 ft., ^the length varying with the depth of the soil : in shallow rocky soil the taproot is much twisted. At the commencement of the sapling stage a natiu-al plant, especially in areas subject to grazing, usually consists of a bushy and many-branched base, from the centre of which rises the leading shoot. As the sapling increases in height the bushy growth at its base gradually dies off, and by the time the plant is 10 ft. high it has disappeared altogether. Each year's growth in the sapling is marked by slightly raised annular marks. These are due to the fact, already noted, that a portion of each year's shoot is shed at the end of each season ; a scar is thus formed, on the surface of which develops a bud which produces the following year's shoot. The annular marks represent the scars formed in this way. The phenomenon of dying back on the part of natural seedlings has been recorded by previous observers in other localities. Thus Mr. E. D. M. Hooper, writing in 1903, mentions its habitual occurrence in the dry districts of Madras where the tree grows, and attributes it partly to fire and partly to the excessive heat of the dry season, and he mentions also the bushy form of growth which this dying back produces until a definite leading shoot is formed.^ Mr. L. S. Osmaston - estimates the period of dying back at four to seven years in West Khandesh. The phenomenon of dying back, however, is not necessarily universal, for under favourable conditions the seedling may shoot up without any check. Thus Mr. Hooper observes that occasionally under favourable circumstances a patch of young seedlings from its earliest life grows without hindrance, and notes having seen a plant grown on prepared soil at Nagpur on a trap ridge which in one season was over 5 ft. in height. Again, in patch sowings of 1911 in the Saugor district, Central Provinces, some of the seedlings are reported to have reached a height of 3 ft. in three years. Nursery plants at Dehra Dun, kept weeded and watered, reached a height of 6 to 14 in. by the end of 1 Ind. Forester, xxxi (1905), p. 104. 2 75 /^^ xxxv (1909), p. 381. HARDWICKIA 347 the first season and a maximum height of 2 ft. 6 in. by the end of the second season, no dying back having taken place. It follows, therefore, that the habit of dying back is not innate in the species, any more than it is in the sal, teak, and many other species which die back under conditions sufficiently far removed from the optimum. In other respects also it will be interesting to compare the habits and requirements of the seedling in its natural habitat, as observed by Mr. Witt in Nimar, with those which have been observed in twenty-one experimental plots at Dehra Dun, where, however, the climatic conditions are very different from those prevailing in the natural habitat of the tree, the normal rainfall being 85 in. and frost being at times severe. It goes without saying that for practical purposes a study of the habits and requirements of the seedling in its natural home is of infinitely greater importance than if these are observed under very different conditions, but the results obtained in the latter case are certainly interesting, for though in some respects they differ from Mr. Witt's observations, as might be expected, in others they corroborate them. The conclusions regarding the habits and requirements of the seedling, based on observations made under various conditions, may be summarized as follows : Root-system. The development of the taproot under natural conditions has already been described. At Dehra Dun the root-system showed a tendency to strong development, even where regular watering was carried out ; this development extended to the lateral roots and was not confined to the taproot as in the case of natural seedlings. By the middle of the second season nursery plants had taproots up to 2 ft. 6 in. in length and 0-7 in. in diameter, with lateral roots up to 1 ft. 7 in. in length. Drought. In the natural habitat of the species the seedlings are very sensitive to drought, as has already been explained in describing the pheno- menon of dying back. This fact has been corroborated again and again by different observers, and it may be said without question that the great mortality noticeable among the numerous seedlings which appear after a good seed-year is due to drought, the excessive heat combined with desiccating winds pro- ducing a degree of transpiration which the root-system in the parched soil cannot make good. Even at Dehra Dun many seedlings were found to die down partially or wholly in sunny situations from April onwards. Frost. In the natural habitat of the tree frosts are not severe enough to do the seedlings any harm, and Mr. Witt notes that he has never observed a single case of a seedling having been damaged in the slightest degree by this agency. At Dehra Dun the frost was found to be severe enough to kill back seedlings of the first year either partially or down to ground-level ; they had good power of recovery, however, and invariably produced new shoots. From the second year onwards they proved to be immune from injury by ordinary frosts. Shape and development. The shape and development of the seedling under natural conditions has already been described. At Dehra Dun some of the seedlings commenced branching in the first year, while those which had been affected by frost or drought assumed a bushy growth in the second season, with long and rather straggling branches. Growth continued until December, all the leaves had dropped by the end of February, and the new shoots appeared 348 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE in March. The young leaves were reddish in sunny situations, and usually green in shady situations. Damp. At Dehra Dun seedlings proved to be very sensitive to damp, numbers rotting off during the first season even in open nursery beds where watering was done too freely ; in the shade hardly a single seedling survived the damp of the rainy season. This corroborates the statement of 'Old Ranger V who writes : ' So sensitive are the very young seedlings to excessive moisture that, if seed be sown in a, pot containing leaf mould or rich soil, and this be allowed to get a little too damp, the thick fleshy cotyledons of the young seedlings are immediately attacked by rot, which extends downwards to the roots, and a whole pot of young seedlings may thus be destroyed in a single night.' Effect of grass and iveeds. Various opinions have been recorded from time to time as to the effect of a soil-covering of grass on the development of the seedling. According to one theory, the extensive mortality among natural seedlings is due to the inability of the taproots to penetrate the matted roots of the grass. This explanation can hardly be accepted universally, as the degree of obstruction caused by the grass roots must vary, while the roots of Hardwickia seedlings have considerable power of penetrating obstructions. The effect of a matted growth of grass roots in preventing soil-aeration, how- ever, may be of importance, and will be considered below under ' natural reproduction '. There is little reason to doubt that the development of the seedlings may be hindered or even entirely prevented from this cause, but on the other hand Mr. Witt - has proved by means of experimental plots that the very existence of the seedlings in their natural habitat may depend largely on the protection from the heat of the sun which is afforded them by a soil- covering of grass. His conclusions are summarized as follows : (1) Grass, as such, does not hinder germination ; (2) seedlings may fail to survive on soil quite free of grass ; (3) the taproot is quite capable of penetrating through any obstruction of grass roots ; (4) the first season of growth is the crucial one in the life-history of the seedling, the mortality being then heaviest ; (5) seedlings on soil clothed with grass retain their leaves for a longer period than those on soil not so clothed ; (6) the shoots of seedlings protected by a long growth of grass do not dry up so early as' those from around which (though on precisely similar soil) the protecting grass covering has been cut away ; (7) seedlings up to an age of 3| years are not smothered and killed by a dense growth of grass weighing down on them ; (8) the removal of a covering of grass, from seedlings which have developed under its protection, may be distinctly harmful. In the damper climate of Dehra Dun, on richer soil with a more luxuriant covering of grass and weeds, experimental plots demonstrated that such a soil-covering not only has a very deleterious effect on the development of the seedling, but is the cause of much mortality through suppression and through the damping off of the seedlings in the rains. These plots also showed clearly that regular weeding has a most beneficial effect on the development and survival of seedlings provided the weeding is carried out from the com- mencement ; on the other hand, the sudden removal of grass and weeds from ' Ind. Forester, xxxi (1905), p. 697. " Iqc, cit., pp. 121-6. HARDWICKIA 349 around seedlings which have grown under them is very liable to cause the death of the seedlings through desiccation. The following particulars of seedlings grown under different conditions in experimental plots at Dehra Dun demonstrate clearly the beneficial effects of regular weeding : Hardivickia hinata measurements of seedlings in experimental plots, Dehra Dun. No. 1 Condition under which grown. In nursery beds, watered and weeded Height of seedlings at end of season. 1st season. 0 ft. 6 in.- 1 ft. 2 in. 2nd season. Maximum 2 ft. 6 in. 2 Broadcast sowing, Maximum Oft. 11 in. - irrigated, weeded 0 ft. 10 in.i 2 ft. 4 in.^ 3 Broadcast sowing. Maximum 0 ft. 3 in. and irrigated, unweeded 0 ft. 4 in.^ 0 ft. 4 in.* Remarks. ^ 42 survivors, vigorous. ^ 36 survivors, vigorous. ^ 8 survivors. * 2 survivors ; rest killed by suppression of grass and weeds li ft. high. 4 Broadcast sowing, un- irrigated, weeded. 5 Broadcast sowing, un- irrigated, unweeded 0 ft. 7 in.- 2 ft. 0 in.5 0 ft. 3 in.- 0 ft. 4 in.6 20 survivors, vigorous. ^ 4 survivors in poor condition ; rest killed by suppression of grass and weeds. The observations recorded in Nimar and at Dehra Dun lead to the general conclusion that if moisture conditions are such as to prevent mortality by drought, freedom from grass and weeds, with the attendant loosening of the soil during weeding, is of great benefit as regards the development and survival of the seedling ; but where, as is probably the case in most if not all parts of the natural region of the tree, such moisture conditions do not exist, a soil- covering of grass is of benefit and may be essential for the survival of the seedling, in that it protects it from desiccation. In the latter case, however, it may be presumed, on general principles as well as from the results of the Dehra Dun experiments and of sowings in the Central Provinces and Berar, that the soil-covering of grass must have an adverse effect on the development of the seedling, and that on soil which is loosened and thus aerated better development may be expected, provided the seedling and the soil can be afforded protection by trees, bushes, or otherwise, from the desiccating effects of the sun and dry winds. This question closely concerns the natural repro- duction of the species, and will be further alluded to below. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. The physical conditions under which Hard- wickia hinata grows in its natural habitat have been dealt with in some detail under distribution and habitat. It may be said in general that the tree thrives in a dry climate and is capable of establishing itself and growing on dry shallow soil and rocky ground where most other species would succumb. This is due partly to the great development of the taproot during youth and its power of penetrating hard soil and fissures in solid rock, the stem usually dying back annually during the development of the taproot, and partly to the fact that the tree stands mutilation better than the majority of species. These facts 350 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE no doubt account in large measure for its gregariousness under adverse physical conditions and its survival in spite of continuous maltreatment. The best development is secured as a rule on geological formations such as sandstone, gneiss, conglomerate, &c., which disintegrate into a porous sandy loam, rather than on the stiff and usually shallow soil overlying trap ; on the latter forma- tion, however, although development is poorer than on the former, gregarious- ness is more pronounced. The great development of the taproot is maintained throughout the life of the tree, as may be observed where the root-system is exposed by scouring along the high banks of streams or the sides of ravines. On shallow soil witli compact underlying rock the taproot may assume a gnarled and twisted form, running for some distance horizontally not far below the surface ; in such cases the trees are liable to be blown over in high winds. The tree is capable of standing a certain amount of shade in youth, and even requires shelter in its young stages ; later it may be classed as a moderate light-demander or partial shade-bearer, though Mr. Witt states : ^ ' Even the moderate shade afforded by a mature tree of Bosivellia serrata is too dense for an Anjan sapling to penetrate through, if once dominated. The very flexible yielding shoot of an Anjan sapling may also account to some extent for its inability to pierce overhead cover.' Mr. L. S. Osmaston - classes the tree as a partial shade-bearer. In its natural habitat it is frost-hardy in all stages, being quite unaffected by all ordinary frosts. Except in the seedling stage it is capable of standing great heat and drought. ' This ', says Mr. Witt,^ ' was very noticeable in Nimar during the droughts of 1901 and 1904. Whereas following these droughts such species as Tectona grandis, Terminalia tomentosa, Lagerstroemia parvi flora, Mangifera indica, and Buchanania latifolia suffered severely all over the division, not only coppice being affected but also mature trees, in the case of Anjan no damage whatever was done, even on the driest soils." The young shoots are sensitive to fire, but the power of recovery is good ; ordinarily, seedlings when burnt back send up new shoots from the root-coUum, but in severe fires they may be killed outright. Young plants and coppice-shoots ■ suffer much from grazing, the leaves being browsed by deer as well as by cattle and goats ; buffaloes especially are partial to them. A grazing incidence which hardly affects a teak forest will prevent young Hardwickia plants from making any headway. In heavily grazed areas the plants assume a charac- teristic bushy form (see Fig. 139). The tree pollards well even up to a comparatively advanced age, and old po'Jards when re-pollarded almost invariably produce abundant new shoots : indeed, a special feature of the existing Hardwickia forests is the large number of pollarded trees, the result of lopping for fodder and manure (see Fig. 140). On the other hand, the tree coppices indifferently. Old trees which send out vigorous pollard-shoots if cut a few feet above the ground produce no coppice-shoots if cut flush with the ground : old pollards when felled at ground-level never coppice. In some localities a moderate amount of success has been attained by felling at 12 to 18 in. from ground-level. J loc. cit., p. 85. - Ind. Forester, xxxv (1909), p. 380, ^ /^f ^.,7^ p gi HARDWICKIA 351 Shyam Sunder Lai/ writing of coppice coupes in Indore state, notes that stumps of trees felled about 1 ft. from ground-level delayed sending out shoots for several months, a second inspection revealing a larger percentage of success than one made shortly after the felling. As regards actual statistics, experiments in North Khandesh in 1903 showed that 47 per cent, of felled trees yielded coppice-shoots, the number being two to six shoots per stool and the average height in the first season being 4 ft. The most complete statistics so far recorded, however, are those published by Mr. L. S. Osmaston - giving measurements of 877 stumps in fourteen coupes in West Khandesh. The measurements included stumps of varying dimensions from under 2 ft. to over 6 ft. in girth, and of varying heights from under 2 in. to over 12 in. from ground-level : they also embraced coupes felled in years of deficient as well as of ample rainfall. These measurements gave the following results, which are somewhat surprising : (1) The height of the stump had no relation to its vitality : actually the percentage of live stumps of each girth class varied from 39 to 50 and averaged 47. (2) Similarly the girth of the stump had no relation to its vitality : the percentage of live stumps of each girth class varied from 41 to 49 and averaged 47. (3) The rainfall had no effect on the vitality of the stump, the percentage of live stumps being 53 in the case of years of most deficient rainfall and 54 in the case of years of most ample rainfallv These results confirm the opinion generally held that coppice reproduction cannot be relied on to a sufficient extent. Mr. H. W. Starte has recorded the result of an experiment in coppicing 10 acres of pure Hardwickia forest in North Khandesh. Out of 886 stumps varying in girth from 12 to 70 in., cut flush with the ground, the number which failed to coppice was 201, or 22-4 per cent. ; there was no relation between girth and coppicing power. The tree reproduces from root- suckers. Natural reproduction. As already mentioned, the light winged pods ripen in April and May and fall in the latter month, being often carried to some distance from the trees ; in good seed-years they are plentifully scattered over the ground. Germination takes place soon after, with the first heavy .downpour of the monsoon, and seedlings may be found in quantity during the rainy season. From October onwards, however, the seedlings die off in large numbers, this mortality being due to drought : under favourable con- ditions it may consist of dying back with subsequent recovery, but where the seedlings have not had the advantage of protection from the hot sun they may be permanently killed off in large quantities and the seed-crop may result in complete failure. Assuming, however, that a certain number survive, their establishment and further progress until they reach the sapling stage is a matter of time owing to the annual process of dying back described above. A good deal of evidence is available regarding the factors which assist or retard natural 1 Ind. Forester, xxxvii (1911), p. 63. ^ iUfi^ xxxvi (1910), p. 356. 352 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE . reproduction, but in some respects this evidence is very conflicting, and it will be well therefore to examine it under the following heads : (1) Effect of grass and weeds; (2) Fire and grazing; (3) Soil conditions; (4) Protective shade; (5) Climatic factors. 1 . The effect of grass and weeds on the development of the seedling has already been discussed at some length, and it may be concluded that whereas in dry regions a soil-covering of grass assists materially in and may be essential for the establishment of natural reproduction, on the other hand where the grass is too luxuriant it may cause the death of the seedlings through suppres- sion or through rotting off. The beneficial effects of a covering of grass in dry localities have been proved conclusively by Mr. Witt's experiments in Nimar, while Mr. L. S. Osmaston ^ says of seedlings in Khandesh that they do not mind grass even if it be 2 or 3 ft. high. Again, in Anantapur natural reproduction is reported to be good in open grassy areas.'- Mr. H. F. Arbuthnot,^ writing of the Malahanagadi block, Bellary, says : ' This block is an interesting one, as it has been under special protection from grazing, cutting, and fires for the last twenty-five years. The result has been that most of the area, which was then presumably blank, has been stocked with Hardivickia hinata, which is the principal species of the block.' Other instances might be quoted of the beneficial effects of a protective soil-covering of grass, but these will suffice. On the other hand, there is much evidence regarding the adverse effects of such a soil-covering. Thus Mr. J. Dodgson ^ writes : ' On account of the seed of the Anjan being so light it iias great difficulty in reaching the soil through the matted growth of grass, &c., and in this way much of the seed- crop is wasted.' This accords entirely with my own observations in the case of other winged fruits (e.g. Pterocarpus spp.). As regards the suppression of those seedlings which do succeed in passing the germinating stage, Mr. S. ►Srinivasulu Naidu ^ remarks that the heavy grass undergrowth which is common on the trap areas in Buldana probably accounts for the failure of seedlings to establish themselves owing to the smothering action of this growth. A very definite opinion on this point is expressed in the following extract from a report by Mr. L. K. Martin, quoted in the Berar Forest Report for 1903-4 : ^ ' The Anjan seeded very fairly profusely in the spring of 1902, and the seed germinated freely during the following monsoon along the Ajanta Hills, especially in the Geru-Matargaon Range around Botha and Matargaon. A very noticeable feature was the complete absence of seedlings from the midst of dense grass, that is, from areas entirely closed to grazing. They appeared wherever the grass was light, and increased in numbers with decrease in density of the grass, till over areas free of grass the seedlings were quite dense. ' The above was most noticeable round Matargaon. There in one and the same ravine the climatic factors are presumably everywhere identical, and the fertility of the soil can hardly vary much over localities only a mile apart 1 Ind. Forester, xxxv (1909), p. 380. ^ Mcadras Forest Reix)rt, 1913-14. 3 Ind. Forester, xxx (1904), p. 123. * Working Plan for the Anjan and Scrub Jungles of the Malegaon, Baglan, Kalvan, and Chandwad Ranges of the Nasik District, Bombay, 1906. '' Working Plan of the Buldana Forest Division, Berar. « Cf. Ind. Forester, xxxi (190.5), j). 105. HARDWICKIA 353 (at any rate they appear to me to be similar). In the portions of the reserve closed to grazing, and consequently covered with a dense crop of grass, anjan seedlings were completely absent, except just along roadsides, whereas in Survey Numbers 1, 2, 3, and 6 of Chinchkher, which were open to heavy grazing and, being situated close to a public road, were much resorted to by cattle and as a result absolutely clean grazed, thousands of seedlings have sprung up and stand out uninjured and perfectly healthy. The above appears to prove conclusively that a dense growth of grass is inimical to the successful reproduction of anjan. The seedlings observed in those Survey Numbers have survived the past two hot weathers and escaped injury from cattle during the same period, when in the absence of other fodder cattle might have been expected to browse them off ; grazing throughout the year must obviously be looked upon as a distinct advantage, in fact a real necessity.' » In addition the Dehra Dun experiments described under ' the seedling ' above afford conclusive proof that where the rankness of the grass is sufficient heavy mortality may be caused through the damping off of seedlings during the rains : it should be remembered, however, that these possibly represent an extreme case of moisture seldom, if ever, met with in the natural habitat of the tree. So far as the evidence goes, it may thus be concluded that whereas a soil-covering of grass as a protection against the heat of the sun may be an invaluable factor in the establishment of natural reproduction, under certain conditions it may become noxious, preventing the germination of seed and the establishment of seedlings owing to its rank growth ; the precise con- ditions under which its influence is beneficial or the reverse have not yet been determined. 2. Fire and grazing. The direct effects of fire and grazing are, with good reason, generally held to be highly prejudicial to natural reproduction, for although the power of recovery of the seedling from injury from these causes is higher than that of many other species, great damage is suffered in unpro- tected areas, and reproduction is much retarded. Much evidence has been recorded in proof of this, and it will suffice to quote only a few instances. Mr. G. S. Hart ^ notes regarding Nimar : ' At present the number of Anjan seed-bearers in these forests is often small, but the natural regeneration oi this species in all closed areas is excellent and is not confined, as in the Buldana district, to small seedlings, the majority of which cannot be considered as established.' Of the same forests Mr. C. F. BeU ^ writes : ' The hot weather kills out a large percentage of seedlings and over-grazing in the open coupes and grazing blocks completes the destruction, fn coupes worked over and then closed to grazing for ten years, however, a fair number of seedlings have established themselves, and the future prospects of the crop are promising.' Again, Talbot^ states: 'Owing to sheep and cattle grazing, reproduction by seedlings over large areas in Khandesh and Nasik is much impeded. Multi- plication of the species by root-suckers is, however, general and there appears little danger of the valuable Anjan disappearing from any of the areas of its distribution.' Finally, Mr. J. Tapp ^ writes regarding West Kurnool : ' Natural ^ Inspection Kote on the Nimar Forest Division, 1911. ^ Working Plan for the Reserved Forests of the Xiniar District, Central Provinces, 1913. ^ Forest Flora of the Bombay Presidency and Sind, i. 457. ■^ Working Plan for the Yerramalais, West Kurnool, 1913. 2307.2 Q 354 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE reproduction has hitherto been very poor, but since lopping of Yepi trees for fibre has been put a stop to and fire protection introduced natural seedlings of Yepi are beginning to come up in many of the reserves.' On the other hand, instances may be quoted where fire and grazing have not had the adverse effects which they might be expected to have. Mr. Martin's report, just quoted in connexion with the effects of grass, would indicate that where there is a sufficient supply of palatable grass the seedlings may escape injury, and even benefit by the partial removal of the grassy covering ; without further evidence of a similar nature, however, it would be unsafe to generalize on the results of this particular case. The same may be said of the results attained by Mr. H. L. Newman in experimental plots in East Khandesh in 1908, though these results, which are quoted in the Bombay Forest Report for 1908-9, are interesting so far as they go. The object of these experiments was to ascertain the percentage of mortality among natural seedlings in thirty-one different patches. Several of these patches were accidentally burnt and others were purposely burnt in the dry season following the seeding ; the results showed a larger percentage of survivals in the burnt than in the unburnt plots. Protection from fire and grazing may have an adverse effect under certain conditions in inducing a rank growth of grass. 3. Soil conditions. Under natural conditions the degree of soil moisture necessary for the normal development of the sapling is not ordinarily attained until the taproot has penetrated some distance into the subsoil, and hence the annual dying back of the stem, which has already been described. It. is generally agreed that the shallower the soil and the harder and more imperme- able the subsoil the more difficult it is for the seedling to establish itself, the progress of the taproot being slower and the period during which the plant is exposed to the risks of desiccation being longer. Conversely, it might be expected that anything which will tend to increase the porosity of the soil or prevent desiccation will materially assist in the establishment of the seedling ; and there is ample evidence to prove that this is the case. To begin with, the Dehra Dun experiments described above clearly demonstrate the beneficial effect of regular weeding in stimulating the development of the seedling, this "stimulus being due, in the earlier stages at all events, at least as much to the loosening of the soil as to the actual removal of weeds. Soil-aeration of this kind is now an accepted factor in the case of plant growth, not only providing a supply of air to the roots, but also furnishing an air-cushion which conserves the soil-moisture and preft^ents desiccation. In the dry regions in which Hardwickia binata grows it is of special importance, and there is no lack of evidence to show that loosening the soil has assisted in establishing reproduc- tion. Thus the abundance of natural reproduction on abandoned cultivation has been commented on on more than one occasion, while there are numerous instances of seedlings establishing themselves readily on hoed ground on which seed has been sown. Mr. E. E. Fernandez has recorded some interesting observations bearing on this subject in an article entitled The Treatment of Hardwickia hinata,^ from which the following quotations, relating to the Nimar district, are taken : ' Up to the reservation of Punasa . . . every attempt . . . had been made to get rid of the forest and replace it by field crops, but the 1 [lul. Forester, xxix (1903), p. 517. HARDWICKIA 355 forest reappeared almost as fast as it was destroyed. . . . The ground was never completely cleared of forest ; numerous trees of seed-bearing age were left scattered all round and over the fields. The seed fell from these trees on the newly broken land, now at last also freed to a great extent of grass, and the resulting seedlings came up under the most favourable condition for survival. The subsequent cultivation of the soil, limited to a mere scratching of the soil, left an appreciable proportion of the seedlings uninjured to continue their development, and as the field was abandoned as soon as the soil showed the first signs of exhaustion, the young plants were left in complete possession of the ground. . . . During the seven years that I was able to continue my observations before I was transferred to the United Provinces the seedlings of pre-reservation days continued to strengthen themselves and develop, but no new contingent of seedlings survived to swell their numbers. . . . The seedlings are as usual produced in countless numbers after every periodic gregarious seeding, but, being unable to push their taproots down deep enough, they all perish in their very first year.' Again : ' There is no doubt whatsoever that the death of the seedlings is due to their inability to force their long slender taproot down deep enough through the matting of grass roots occupying the soil everywhere to a depth of 1-2 ft.' We have already seen that Mr. Witt's experiments appear to disprove the theory that the taproots of the seedlings are unable to force their way through the roots of the grass, and to show that the mortality among the seedlings is due to drought. At the same time, the observations of Mr, Fernandez indicate that seedlings appearing on land which has been broken up for cultivation and subsequently ' scratched ' for a few years have succeeded in establishing themselves, whereas in the same locality seedhngs appearing on land which has reverted to grass have failed to do so. This affords room for a strong presumption that success in the former case was due to soil-aeration, and that Mr. Fernandez was not very far v/rong in attributing failure in the latter case to the grass roots, though the failure was probably due not so much to their direct obstructive action as to the introduction of an unfavourable factor possibly connected with deficient soil-aeration, caused, in part at least, by the binding action of the roots. To quote further examples of establishment of reproduction on broken soil, Shyam Sunder Lai ^ writes of conditions in Indore state : ' The natural seed regeneration in the seeding year (which is generally every third year) is so profuse, that many thousands of small seedlings per acre can be counted in the forests. A large proportion of these, however, die from several causes, but this kind of regeneration, on old sites of cultivation, has always been noticed to thrive extraordinarily, and it is an object lesson to be remembered that breaking up of land in the vicinity of anjan seed-bearers, either by means of ploughs or otherwise, helps the young seedlings considerably and gives much better results. . . . This has been tried in our forests with good results.' Mr. P. M. Lushington,2 referring to a remarkable plot of natural repro- duction in the Malappakonda reserve, Anantapur district, which is known to have come up within recent years near old seed-bearers on cultivated land acquired at settlement, remarks : ' A lesson can I think be learned from this 1 Ind. Forester, xxxvii (1911), p. 65. 2 inspection Note, 1913. C2 356 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE area, that we can aid the regeneration of this valuable species in places where there is a reasonable amount of soil by merely ploughing it up in the vicinity of existing trees.' Mr. S. Srinivasulu Naidu^ writes of experiments in Buldana : 'In the Moegaon felling series of the Amdari Reserve the experiment consisted in closing the area to grazing and breaking up the soil for a radius of fifty feet round a number of marked seed-bearers in a forest which had been subjected to heavy grazing and in which natural regeneration was practically absent at the time the experiments were started. The sample plots are situated close to the Buldana-Malkapur road and the grass in the locality is cut over once or twice in the year. Some of the sample plots have been specially'' kept clear of heavy grass by weeding, while others have been left without treatment, but in both cases the results are generally satisfactory and often excellent.' Mr. L. S. Osmaston '^ notes with regard to Khandesh : ' Although anjan often reproduces itself well by seed naturally, still such reproduction is considerably helped and better ensured by breaking up the soil under a seeding tree ; on such broken up soil the seedhngs are not only more numerous but better grown, more vigorous and more likely to withstand the first hot weather than those on unbroken ground.' 4. Protective shade. The value of protective shade has already been indicated in connexion with the dying of seedlings through drought and the beneficial effect of the protection afforded by grass in dry localities. We have, however, already seen that there is a strong presumption that in certain cases a growth of grass may produce adverse soil conditions sufficient to counterbalance the beneficial effects of the grass, and it remains to be seen if any other form of protection is likely to secure the establishment of natural reproduction. As far as is known there are no records of definite experiments to ascertain the effect of the protective shade of trees and bushes and how this shade should be applied. There are, however, suggestions and observa- tions which may be quoted. Thus, in 1903, Mr. T. B. Fry ^ suggested the open condition of the forests in Bombay as one possible cause of mortality among seedlings, and thought something might be gained by introducing nurses to protect the young plants from the fierce heat of the sun. Mr. Witt * states : ' From observations made, we are strongly of opinion that shade as a protec- tion to seedlings during the first three or four years' growth, against the heat and the dry winds of the hot season, is a sine qim non in the successful regenera- tion of anjan forests.' And again : ^ ' The more the seedlings are exposed to the direct rays of the sun and the scorching hot winds of the dry season the more will they transpire, and the more moisture will they require. Con- sequently, if in addition to the protecting growth of grass the seedlings also have overhead cover, we might expect it to act in a similar manner. And this is exactly what we have observed. Wherever the seedlings have been protected by a growth of grass and overhead shade, they have survived in far greater numbers than those in free and exposed positions.' Mr. L. S. Osmaston ^ also records the following observations : ' Bushes 1 Working Plan for the Buldana Forest Division. 2 Ind. Forester, xxxv (1909), p. 380. » Ihicl, xxix (1903), p. 527. • loc. cit., p. .85. 5 Iqc, cit., p. 126. Ind. Forester, xxxv (1909), p. 380. HARDWICKIA 357 of Cassia auriculata, Gymnosporia montana, and Rhus parvi folia are of great use in regeneration : it is surprising how many healthy Hardwickia seedlings one finds right under the shade of such bushes : this is apparently due to the shelter afforded from the heat of the direct sun's rays and to the fact that under such bushes there is an accumulation of soil and humus ; also where cattle grazing is allowed such bushes protect the seedlings from being eaten. I have not yet come to a conclusion as to whether such bushes should be cut level with the ground when the Hardwickia seedlings in their shade have attained a certain age.' 5. Climatic factors. We have already considered at some length the adverse effects of drought on the development of the seedling and the establish- ment of natural reproduction. The factor of rainfall is one which seems to require further study, and in this connexion the following quotation from the Yerramalais working plan ^ is of interest : ' Most of the seedlings die out in the prolonged drought which follows the rains and continues for about nine months. It is only when this drought is interrupted by rainfall that some of them survive. Therefore it is usual to come across a group of youilg seedlings in one place and a patch several years older at another. For successful regeneration rainfall should be regular or the seedling sh6uld be able to pass the strata affected by drought before it is killed.' The extent and distribution of the seasonal rainfall may very well be presumed to have an effect on the establishment of natural reproduction ; in the absence of direct evidence, however, it seems unsafe definitely to ascribe the establishment of reproduction in patches to favourable years of rainfall, though it is by no means an improbable explanation of the phenomenon. Conclusions. From the details just given it may be concluded that, given the necessary seed-bearers, factors ordinarily beneficial to the establishment of natural reproduction are porosity and depth of soil, protection in early youth from the heat of the sun, protection from fire and grazing, and probably also favourable rainfall conditions. Adverse factors are stiffness and shallow- ness of soil, exposure of the seedlings to a hot sun, fire, grazing, and probably adverse rainfall conditions. Under certain conditions a soil-covering of grass may be decidedly beneficial in affording protection from the sun, while under other conditions it may, if sufficiently rank, be a highly noxious factor in preventing the seed from reaching the ground and in suppressing seedlings or causing them to damp off. There may possibly be other factors affecting the question, but those under consideration give some indication of how natural reproduction may be induced, namely, by ploughing or hoeing up the ground to the leeward of seed-bearers in good seed-years and protecting the resulting seedlings from the heat of the sun. In Nimar, and no doubt in other localities, this protection can be secured, according to Mr. Witt's observations, by allowing the grass to grow up ; under some conditions, however, it may be necessary to keep the soil loose and to clear the grass. In either case the shade afforded by trees and bushes will be beneficial and may even be essential. This last con- sideration gives a possible clue to the origin of some of the existing crops 1 Working Plan for the Yerramalais, West Kurnool, J. Tapp, 1913. 358 XXIII. LEGIBIINOSAE of Hardwichia in localities where natural reproduction does not appear now ; these crops may have come up under the shelter of previously existing trees. On the other hand, it is not improbable that some of them are the result of natural reproduction which appeared on land at one time under cultivation. Artificial reproduction. Hardwickia Imiata has been propagated artificially to some extent both within and without its natural habitat, partly by direct sowing and partly by transplanting, though it is generally agreed that the former is the more successful. Haines says it has been extensively planted in Nagpur, where it grows well on the trap hills ; also that it is best sown in situ, and remains very small for the first two or three years. It has been transplanted with success on the Talankheri (Seminary) hill, Nagpur, after pruning the stem and root. In Saugor patch sowings have been carried out with varying success ; in some cases the seedlings have attained a height of 3 ft. in three years. Mr. Fernandez ^ says it bears transplanting well, and recommends transplanting superfluous seedlings from patches from the third year onwards, younger plants not being robust enough. This does not agree with my experience at Dehra Dun, where direct sowings w^ere found to be much more successful than transplanting, whether with pruned or intact stem and roots. The difficulty of transplanting is corroborated by Mr. L. S. Osmaston,- who writes : ' It is hopeless to try and transplant the seedling, however young the seedling may be : artificial regeneration can therefore only be sviccessful if sowing takes place where the tree is to be permanently. When sowing it is best not to cover the seed with soil at all, or at any rate to only partially cover it.' I have found it advantageous to cover the seed lightly, as this not only prevents it from being blown away but also protects the radicle from the attacks of birds during germination. The experience of Shyam Sunder Lai regarding transplanting in Indore is, on the other hand, favourable. He writes as follows : ^ ' As regards its suitability for transplanting, I can say with confidence that it transplants as well as any other tree. I have transplanted several hundred small seedlings to fill blanks in the forests and always with good results. In the year 1908 I sent more than a dozen trees, 9 ft. in height, from our forests to the Residency compound at Indore, and every one of these plants is fully established, and out of the two 18-inch girth trees which I had sent to Indore from a distance of 20 miles, one died, the other is perfecth^ healthy. In the Rajputana-Malwa Railway Executive Engineer's compound at Mhow, several hundred seedlings were transplanted six or seven years back, and these are at present 10 to 12 ft. high and look quite promising.' In the Yerramalais working plan it is stated that broadcast sowing on ploughed land as well as dibbling have been tried without success, for although germination was good nearly all the seedlings were killed off by drought. The system found most successful is to sow in contour trenches 6 ft. by 2 ft. by 1| ft., in which the soil at the bottom has been loosened, and on mounds of earth thrown up alongside. The seedlings in the trenches are shaded from December or January until the following rainy season by laying sticks across the trenches and covering them with a thick layer of grass weighted with stones, 1 Ind. Forester, xxix (1903), p. 527. - Ibid, xxxv (1909), p. 380. 3 /6/rf.,xxxvii(]9]l), ]). 64. HARDWICKIA 359 a length of 1 ft. being left uncovered at the end of each trench to admit light and air. Various methods of experimental sowing on trap formation in the dry climate of Nasik (rainfall about 24 in.) have been described by Mr. L. 8. Osmaston.^ Dibbling the pods proved a failure. Broadcast and line sowings without preparation of the ground, as w^ell as sowing in pits, were only moderately successful. Mound sowings gave more success, especially in the case of fairly large mounds 2^ ft. high, and 2 ft. and 7 ft. in diameter at the top and base respectively, while broadcast sowings on ploughed ground were decidedly successful, particularly where the ploughing was followed by harrow- ing to remove the tufts of grass. The greatest success, however, was attained by means of line sowings in combination with the raising of agricultural crops, a method which has generally been found to be the most successful in raising forest plantations in dry regions. These sowings are described in the Indian Forester, vol. xxxiii (1907), p. 266. The field crops employed were sesamum, cotton, and the lesser hemp, the sowing being preferably carried out by lessees under a two years' lease. Two separate methods were tried as follows : (1) In, the first year the lessee cultivated field crops only, while in the second the tree seeds as well as field crops were sown, the area being weeded twice in the first rains. One line of tree seeds was sown to three lines of field crops, and the lines being about 1 ft. apart the distance between the lines of tree seeds was about 4 ft. (2) The tree seed was sown in the first year of the lease, four adjacent lines of tree seeds (forming a strip 3 ft. wide) alternating with strips of field crops 8 ft. wide ; in the second year the lessee cultivated field crops between the strips of tree seedlings and weeded and sowed up blanks in the latter. In departmental sowings of this kind the cost of formation for the first three years amounted to Rs. 28-11-0 per acre and the receipts from the produce of the field crops Rs. 32 per acre, showing a profit of Rs. 3-5-0 per acre. Similar sowings with field crops in Berar, which have also proved success- ful, have been described by Mr. C. G. Rogers.- The field crops employed were sesamum, cotton, and arliar ; the Harchvickia seedlings reached a height of 1| to 2 ft. in two years and four months. SiLVicuLTURAL TREATMENT. At present Havdwickia binata is treated under a variety of methods of working. In various localities the system employed is coppice-with-standards, in which Hardivickia constitutes the standards and miscellaneous species the coppice. In the Dhulia and Pimpalner ranges of West Khandesh the treatment prescribed is improvement fellings with artificial reproduction of Hardivickia by broadcast and by agri-silvicultural sowings.^ Similar treatment is prescribed for the Yerramalais, West Kurnool, regeneration being effected by means of trench and mound sowings already described. In Buldana a somewhat similar method of working is in operation experimentally.^ The treatment consists of the removal, mider a felling cycle 1 Ind. Forester, xxxiii (1907), p. 177. - Ibid., xxxvii (1911), p. 8. 3 Working Plan for the Anjan and Scrub Jungles of Dhulia and Pimpalner Ranges, West Khandesh, J. Hamilton, 1914. « Working Plan for the Buldana Forest Division, Berar Circle, Central Provinces, S. Srinivasulu Naidu, 191.3. 360 XXIII. LEGLMINOSAE of twenty years, of over-mature and deteriorating stems subject to the reten- tion of a minimum of 20 seed-bearers per acre, combined with regeneration by breaking up the soil and sowing broadcast : Hardwickia is felled at a height of 18 in. from the ground. Under 'natural reproduction' (conclusions) and 'artificial reproduction', pp. 357-9, methods are suggested for obtaining regeneration naturally and arti- ficially, and it will generally happen that even if the former is secured it will require to be supplemented by the latter. Important points are the retention of sufficient siiade until the young crop is established, protection from fire, and closure to grazing until the saplings are out of reach of animals, that is, usually for ten years or even more. Rate of growth. The annual rings are not very distinct, but according to Mr. Witt they can frequently be made out with a good lens by the numerous pores filled with resin at the inner edge of the ring. Gamble says the rate of growth is usually about 10 rings per inch of radius, which gives a mean annual girth increment of 0-63 in. In dry localities on poor shallow soil the growth under natural conditions may be extremely slow. Mr. E. D. M. Hooper writes : ' The natural growth of the young tree in the dry Deccan is undoubtedly very slow, and I have watched the species in the Malpangudi and Sherbi reserves of Bellary for the past twenty years and the stems have scarcely progressed.' Trees raised* artificially and tended grow much more rapidly. Mr. Ananda Rao 1 says : ' Some planted in the Nandyal compound about twelve years ago are about 25-30 ft. high and about 6 in. in diameter at breast height.' Allusion has already been made, under ' the seedling ', to the fact that the rate of growth of saplings can be traced by the annular marks on the stem, which denote each year's growth. Mr. Witt "^ estimates in this way that the average rate of height-growth of a normal sapling in Nimar, from a height of 3 ft. upwards, is 9-12 in. a year, and that allowing for the period of dying back in the early stages a natural sapling 10 ft. high would be about twenty years old. He also quotes some interesting figures showing the estimated rate of growth of trees on trap and on sandstone respectively. Thus forty-five trees, planted along roads in the civil station of Khandwa on shallow soil overlying trap rock, were thirty-seven years old. Measurements gave the following results : Average height . . . . . . . ... . . .35 ft. Mean annual height increment .......... 9-3 in. Average diameter (at breast height) . . . . . . . . .10-1 in. Corresponding girth . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 ft. 8 in. Mean annual girth increment (including bark) ....... 0-86 in. Number of rings per inch radius (after deducting 1 in. thickness of bark) . . .9 rings As regards growth on sandstone, ring-countings made by him in respect of ten trees of various ages showed an average of between 13 and 14 rings per inch of radius, representing a mean annual girth increment of 0-46 in. Mr. A. W. Lushington, quoted by Gamble,^ says that planted trees of known age on the Kistna canals gave 204, 3-23, 4-54, 6-10, 7-35, 8-43, 9-43, 10-39, 11-33, 12-26. and 1318 in. diameter for 5, 10. 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, ^ Working Plan for the Yerramalais Hill Reserves, West Kurnool, 1906. 2 loc. cil.. pp. 101-2. 3 Man. Tnd. Timbers, 1902, p. 277. HARDWICKIA 361 45, 50, and 55 years respectively. The last corresponds to about 8 rings per inch of radius. As regards coppice growth, Mr. L. S. Osmaston records the following measurements made in coppice coupes of different ages on trap formation in West Khandesh (rainfall about 20 in.) : Hardwkkia biriata : number of shoots per stool and growth of coppice. Mean girth at No. of shoots breast height of Mean height of Age. per live stump. largest shoot. largest shoot. ('ears. inches. feet. 1 2-8 — 1-4 2 30 — 1-6 3 2-6 20 60 4 2-9 2-7 6-7 5 2-6 60 11-7 6 3-5 .6-8 12-5 7 2-7 B-3 111 8 3-3 4-3 9-6 9 2-5 80 13-6 10 2-8 8-8 150 11 3-2 110 170 12 34 6-9 11-7 13 2-2 9-8 14-5 14 3-4 110 13-9 The average number of shoots per live stump in all the coupes is 2-9. 2. Hardwickia pinnata, Roxb. Vern. Madeyan sampirani, koda palei, Tarn. ; Shurali, kiyavu, Mai. ; Chon paini, Coorg. A large handsome evergreen tree attaining a height of 100 ft. and a girth of 14 ft., with dark green shining foliage. Leaves with four to seven leaflets 2-4 in. long. Bark dark brown and green, rather rough. Wood moderately hard, dark red or reddish brown, ornamental, used for building and furniture. Distribution and habitat. The tree occurs in the Western Ghats from South Canara to Travancore. It is abundant in the forests of Travancore up to 3,000 ft. In Coorg it is common in the evergreen forests : enumerations by Mr. N. E. Shrigley in 1914-15 gave an average per 100 acres of 58 trees above 7 ft. 6 in. in girth, and 22 trees 6 ft. 9 in. to 7 ft. 6 in. in girth. In the Coorg evergreen forests its chief companions are Hopea spp., Dipterocarpus indicus, Vateria indica, Dysoxylum malaharicmn, Artocarpus hirsuta, A. infegri- folia, Calophyllum spp., Dichopsis elliptica, and Mesua ferrea. Flowering and fruiting. The small white flowers, in dense panicled racemes, appear in February, and the pods ripen in May-June. The pod (Fig. 142, a) is 1-2-2 in. long by 0-8-1 -2 in. broad, turgid, woody, compressed, with a single seed in the apical part, indehiscent until germination, when it dehisces slightly at the apex. Germination (Fig. 142, h-d). Hypogeous. The pod dehisces slightly at the apex, enabling the radicle and plumule to emerge ; these elongate rapidly, while the cotyledons remain within the pod. The seedling (Fig. 142). Roots : primary root long, moderately thick, terete, tapering, flexuose : lateral roots few to moderate in number, short, fibrous, distributed down main root. Hypocotyl scarcely distinguishable. Cotyledons 0-8-1 -2 in. by 0-4-0-7 in., fleshy, remaining within pod. Stem erect, glabrous or young 362 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE parts minutely puberulous. Leaves alternate, compound, earlier leaves with one pair, later leaves with two or three pairs of leaflets, fost few leaves abortive and scale-like. Stipules up to 0-15 in. long, falcate acuminate. Common petiole (earlier leaves) 0-4-1 -5 in. long. Leaflets with thick petiolules 0-1- 0-15 in. long, lamina 1-5-3-5 in. by 0-6-1 -2 in., obliquely ovate acuminate, entire, coriaceous, gland-dotted, glabrous or lower surface minutely puberulous in young leaves, lateral veins numerous. The seedling ordinarily attains a height of about 8 in. in the first season, with a taproot 1 ft. or more in length. The growth of the seedling appears to be somewhat slow. Mr. H. Tireman informs me that young plants raised from seed sown in 1914 under moderate shade in an abandoned kumri in Coorg had an average and maximum height in January 1918 of 0 ft. 11 in. and 2 ft. 9 in. respectively. Rate of gro"\vth. Bourdillon says that the annual rings are marked by dark lines, and that the rate of growth is about 12 rings per inch of radius, giving a mean annual girth increment of 0-52 in. 5. SARACA, Linn. Saraca indiea, Linn. Asoka tree. Vern. Asok, ashok, Hind. Though not an important forest tree, this tree is often planted for orna- ment or for religious purposes ; it is one of the most sacred trees of the Hindus and Buddhists, the flowers being much used for religious ceremonies and temple decoration. It is found wild along streams, or in the shade of the evergreen forests, in the Khasi hills, Chittagong, Arakan, Tenasserim, Upper Bm-ma, the Northern Circars, and the west coast of Bombay. The clusters of fragrant orange or red flowers appear from January to April or May. The tree is interesting as furnishing an example of drooping young leaves without chloro- phyll, like those of certain other evergreen trees, for example Amherstia nobilis, Mesiui ferrea, Mangifera indiea, PolyaUhia fragrans, and others. The leaflets of the young leaves are red in colour, thin 'and flaccid, and hang vertically downwards for some time after attaining full size. 6. AMHERSTIA, Wall. Amherstia nobilis, Wall. Vern. Thaivka, Burm. This, one of the most beautiful flowering trees in the world, is an evergreen tree indigenous in Tenasserim and cultivated in the moister parts of Burma and southern India. The flowers are crimson to yellow or salmon pink, in large candelabrum-like pendulous racemes hanging amongst the handsome foliage. The young leaves are of a rich red or purplish colour and hang flaccid (see under Saraca indiea above). The tree is somewhat difficult to cultivate, being delicate when young and requiring a rich soil and a warm moist equable climate. It may be raised from seed in pots or baskets, but can best be propagated by layering in the hot season and planting out during the rains. It is cultivated successfully in Ceylon, but seldom ripens its seeds there ; it flowers during the greater part of the year, but chiefly from January to March. 7. TAMARINDUS, Linn! Taniarindus indiea, Linn. Tamarind. Vern. Imli, amli. Hind. ; Himase, Kan. ; Chinch, Mar. : Pidi, Tam. ; Chiiifa, Tel. ; Pulinje, Coorg ; Magyi, Burm. Fig. 142. Hardwichia pinnaia . Seedling x |. a, fruit ; h-d, germination stages ; e, seedling one month old ; /, seedling six months old. 364 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE A large usually evergreen tree attaining a height of 100 ft. and a girth of 15 ft. or more, with a spreading rounded crown and pinnate leaves with ten to twenty pairs of leaflets about 0-5 in. long. Bark dark grey, moderately thick, deeply cracked. Wood hard and close grained, used for rice-pounders, oil and sugar mills, tools, furniture, and turnery. The tamarind is not a forest tree, but is largely planted for shade and ornament and for the sake of its pods, which are used as an astringent and aperient and for making condiments. It is an excellent avenue tree, being always in leaf and having a spreading crown. Mr. A. E. Wild records a tree 25 ft. 6 in. in girth at Kara, Gaya. Distribution and habitat. Said to be indigenous in Abj^ssinia and central Africa. Largely planted in India along roads and avenues, and in and around villages ; frequently run wild. Tamarind groves in the forest often mark the sites of deserted villages. It thrives only in the warmer parts of India, and though planted as far north as the Punjab it does not ripen its fruits, nor does it flourish. In Burma it is one of the commonest of village trees in the dry zone. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The tree is never leafless except in very dry localities, where it is sometimes leafless for a short time in the hot season. The new leaves appear in March-April. The small yellow and red variegated flowers appear from April to June (also in October, Haines), and the pods ripen from February to April. The pods are brown, 3-6 in. long, 0-5 in. thick, with a brittle epicarp, filled with a dark brown fibrous acid pulp containing three to ten brown smooth compressed seeds (Eig. 143, a). The pods are readily eaten by monkeys, which are instrumental in scattering the seeds. The germinative power of the seed is fairly high (average 66 per cent, in tests at Dehra Dun, where conditions are not favourable). Germination (Fig. 143, b-e). Epigeous. The radicle emerges from one end of the seed and descends rapidly. The hypocotyl elongates, arching slightly, and raises above ground the cotyledons enclosed in the testa. The latter falls to the ground when the cotyledons expand. The seedling (Fig. 143), Roots : primary root long, wiry, flexuose : lateral roots numerous, moderately long, fibrous, distributed down main root. Hypocotyl distinct from and thicker than root, 1 •5-3-5 in. long, slightly compressed, finely tomen- tose. Cotyledons sessile, 0-5-0-7 in. by 0-35-0-5 in., plano-convex, thick, fleshy, unequally ovate, orbicular or obovate, apex rounded, base projecting about 0-1 in. behind point of insertion. Stem erect, terete or slightly com- pressed, wiry, tomentose ; internodes 0-3-1 in. long. Leaves paripinnate, first pair opposite, subsequent leaves alternate. Stipules 0-2-0-3 in. long, falcate acuminate, pubescent. Rachis 1-1-3 in. long, pubescent, terminating in a bristle. Leaflets 6-10 pairs, opposite, sub-sessile, 0-4-0-9 in. by 0-15- 0-3 in., linear oblong or rhomboidal, obtuse or slightly emarginate, entire, pubescent, glaucous beneath, darker above. The early development of the seedling is fairly rapid under favourable conditions, a height of 2 ft. or more in the first season and 4 ft. or more in the second season being attainable with regular weeding and watering. A long taproot is developed early ; this may attain a length of over 1 ft. within two months of germination. Weeds greatly hinder the growth of the seedling, which responds in a marked degree to weeding. The young plant grows best Fig. 143. Tamarindus indica. Seedling x |. a, seed ; b-e, germination stages : f-h, development of seedling to end of first season. 366 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE in a porous soil and if sheltered from the sun in the earlier stages ; it is very sensitive to frost. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. The tree is not exacting as regards soil, though it thrives best on deep alluvium : Haines says it has become naturalized among granite rocks near Kuru, Chota Nagpur. It is sensitive to frost, but withstands drought, having remained unaffected in the severe drought of 1899-1900 in the Deccan. The tree produces root-suckers. Owing to the fact that under its shade the ground is usually bare it is one of the most suitable trees for planting along fire-lines, for which piu-pose it has been employed in Mysore.^ Its growth is somewhat slow. Artificial reproduction. The tree is not difficult to propagate, whether by direct sowing along ploughed or hoed lines or by transplanting : in either case regular weeding and loosening of the soil stimulate growth. The seed should be sown about April in raised nursery beds composed of light porous soil, the beds being kept regularly watered and weeded : germination ordinarily commences in about five to ten days. Experiments at Dehra Dun showed that transplanting can be most successfully carried out during the first rains before the taproot reaches too great a length. Transplanting with entire root and stem in the second rains is more difficult and is liable to failure unless watering can be carried out for some time after. A fair amount of success has been attained at Dehra Dun by transplanting during the second rains after pruning the stem and taproot down to a length of about 2 in. and 9 in. respectively. Successful planting along fire-lines in Mysore has been carried out by raising seedlings in tile pots and planting them out 9 ft. by 9 ft. in pits 3 ft. cube, no subsequent watering or attention being required except to hoe up the soil round the plants once a year. 8. CASSIA, Linn. Species 1. C. Fistula, Linn.; 2. C. renigera, Wall.; 3. C. siamea, Lam.; 4. C. auriculata, Linn. 1. Cassia Fistula, Linn. Indian laburnum. Vern. Amalfas, Hind. ; Bahaiva, Mar. : Kakke, Kan. : Konnai, Tam. ; Rela, Tel. ; Sonaru, Assam ; Ngu, Burm. (Fig. 144.) A moderate-sized deciduous tree with a rather open crown ; leaves pari- pinnate with four to eight leaflets 2-6 in. long. Bark about 0-25 in. thick, in younger trees smooth, light grey, reddish brown inside, in older trees reddish brown, exfoliating in hard scales. This is one of the most beautiful of Indian flowering trees. Wood hard and durable, in demand for house-posts, carts, and agricultural implements. The pulp of the pods is a strong purgative (ihe Cassia Pulpa of the British Pharmacopoeia), while the bark is much in demand for tanning. Distribution and habitat. Common in deciduous forests throughout the greater part of India and Burma, ascending to 4,000 ft. in the Himalaya ; also in Ceylon. The tree is not gregarious, but is scattered in mixed deciduous forests, often of a somewhat open type : it occurs fairly frequently in sal forest. Sometimes it approaches gregariousness in localities frequented by monkeys 1 Ind. Forester, ix (1883), p. 143. Fig. 144. Cassia Fistula in fruit. Dehra Dun, United Provinces. CASSIA 367 (see under 'natural reproduction ', p. 368). It is found on a variety of geo- logical formations and will grow on poor shallow soil, as on the dry outer slopes of the Himalaya. In climatic requirements it shows a wide range. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 100° to 120° F., the absolute minimum from 25° to 65° F., and the normal rainfall from 20 to 120 in. or more. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The tree is leafless for a very short time, or hardly at all, between March and May, the new leaves appearing in April-May ; these are bright green or sometimes a beautiful rich copper colour. The long pendulous racemes of large bright yellow flowers appear chiefly with the new leaves from April to June, but it is no uncommon thing to find the tree in flower even as late as September, particularly in dry years. The long cylindrical pods develop rapidly, reaching almost full length but not full thickness by October, when they are still soft and green. By November they are full-sized but still green and unripe ; they commence ripening in December and continue ripening from January till March or April. The ripe pods are 1-2 ft. long or sometimes more, 0-75-1 in. in diameter, pendu- lous, cylindrical, dark brown, smooth, hard, indehiscent, septate into numerous one-seeded cells, the seeds being embedded in a dark brown sweetish pulp which is a strong purgative. The ripe pods hang for some time on the tree, commencing to fall about April-May, and continuing to fall in the following months : old pods may often be found on the trees in September or later along with the new half-grown green pods. The seeds (Fig. 145, a) are 0-3-0-4 in. by 0-2-0-3 in., ovate, compressed, light brown, hard, smooth, shiny, with a moderately hard testa and a horny albumen. About 2,500 weigh 1 lb. Like many other hard leguminous seeds, those of Cassia Fistula take some time to germinate, some lying a whole year in the ground before doing so, even if regularly watered. Boiling the seeds for about five minutes before sowing has been found to give very good results in stimulating germination. ^ Tests carried out at Dehra Dun showed that the seeds retain their vitality unimpaired for at least two years. It was found that seed from pods one year old germinated more quickly than that from fresh pods, though the percentage of sound seeds in the former may be low owing to insect attacks. As regards the identity of the insects which do much damage by attacking the seeds within the pods, specimens of infected pods collected in the Siwaliks in December 1910 were kept under observation ; from these were bred out (1) from May 4 to June 5, 1911, moths identified as Trachylepiclia fructicassiella, Rag., and (2) from May 4 to 13, 1911, beetles identified as Caryoborus gonagra, Fabr.- Germination (Fig. 145, b-e). Epigeous. The radicle issues and the hypocotyl arches slightly, raising above ground the cotyledons enclosed in the testa, which soon falls, along with the albumen, when the cotyledons expand. The seedling (Fig. 145). Roots : primary root long, terete, tapering, wiry, yellow turning brown, glabrous : lateral roots numerous, fibrous, distributed down main root : 1 Forest Report of Bihar and Orissa, 1917-18. 2 Lefroy, Indian Insect Life, pp. 351 and 509. See also Ind. Mus. Notes, iv. 106, for damage by the tortricid moth Cryptophebia carpophaga, Wlsm. 368 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE nodules present. Hypocotyl distinct from root, 1-2-3 in. long, terete, tapering upwards, tender and green at fii'st, becoming brown and wiry, minutely pubescent. Cotyledons sessile or very shortly petiolate, thin, plano-convex, somewhat fleshy, 0-7-0-8 in. by 0-4-0-5 in., elliptical oblong, apex rounded, base obtuse, entire, green, glabrous, 5- veined from the base, the three central veins more distinct than the lateral two. Stem erect, terete, wirj^ pubescent ; internodes 0-2-0-5 in. long in young stages. Leaves alternate or first pair opposite or ^ub-opposite, compound, paripinnate, earlier leaves with two pairs of leaflets, followed by leaves with three, then four pairs. Stipules minute, linear. Rachis 0-3-1 -5 in. long in first season, pubescent. Leaflets opposite, very shortly petiolate, 0-5-1-7 in. by 0-2-0-5 in. in first season, unequally ovate lanceolate, acute, entire, pubescent, venation reticulate. Earh'' leaves small, successive leaves becoming larger. The effect of weeding arid watering on the development of the seedling is most marked. Various plots of seedlings, some weeded and watered and others left unweeded and unwatered under purely natural conditions, were kept under observation at Dehra Dun, and the following measurements of the plants were recorded : Cassia Fistula : measurements of seedlings. Treatment. Height at end of season. 1st. 2nd. 3rd. 4th. Plants regularly weeded and 0 ft. 6 in.- 2 ft. 0 in.- Maximum watered 2 ft. 0 in. 12 ft. 10 in. 15 ft. — Plants not weeded or watered Maximum Maximum 9 in.- , 0 ft. 9 in. 1 ft. 10 in. 2ft. 8 in. 5 ft.-8 ft. This indicates that under natural conditions the seedling develops slowly for the first few years, after which more rapid growth takes place. A fairly long taproot is produced at an early stage. Seedlings are somewhat frost-tender, but have good power of recovery. If exposed to the sun during germination they are sensitive to drought, and the protection afforded by a covering of earth or a moderate growth of grass is useful ; during the rains, however, much mortality occurs owing to the damping off of the seedlings where there is a heavy growth of weeds. In northern India the old leaves of natural seedlings drop about February-, and new growth commences in March or early April. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. Cttssia Fistula stands a moderate amount of shade. It is not frost-hardy, and suffered severely in the great frost of 1905 in northern India. In the abnormal drought of 1907 and 1908, which seriously affected the forests of Oudh, it proved to be decidedly hardy. It is not readily browsed, even by goats. It coppices vigorously and produces root-suckers freely from a root-system which is partly superficial. As already stated, it is not exacting as regards soil, and may be found on poor shallow soils. Natural reproduction. As the natural reproduction of this tree was something of a mystery, I made a special study of it in 1910 and following years, with interesting results, for it appears to furnish an instance where animal assistance is necessary in obtaining natural reproduction, and so far no case has yet been observed of reproduction having been effected without the agency of animals. a c ^ cr k. Fig. 145. Cassia Fistula — Seedling x f a — Seed b - e — Germination stages f - h— Development of seedling during first season CASSIA 369 As already mentioned, the pods ripen from December- January onwards, hanging on the tree often for many months : they commence falling about April-May, continuing to fall until September or even later. After falling they lie on the ground, where they may be found in quantity during the succeeding cold and hot seasons. If pods are collected from the ground during these seasons and broken open each seed will be found loose in its own cell, the pulp having dried up : many of the seeds will as a rule be found to be eaten by grubs, while those which are not attacked will be quite sound, and in fact tests have shown that they retain their vitality for at least two years. Later in the season, and throughout the rains, pods lying untouched on the ground continue in much the same state, their hard outer shells often becoming partially eaten by white ants, but no sign of the germination of the seed being apparent. In order to determine if possible what happens to the pods on the ground and how reproduction is effected, ripe pods were collected in March 1911 and laid on the ground on a marked plot at Dehra Dun with the view of periodical observations being made. Within a week the plot was discovered by jackals, which broke the pods up with their teeth in order to eat the pulp, scattering the seeds about the plot. This plot was left in the condition in which it was, with the remnants of the pods and seeds lying about as the jackals had left them. A second plot, however, was laid out alongside the , original one, and in it another lot of ripe pods was laid on the ground ; this plot, how- ever, was covered with a strong cage of wire netting to keep animals off, and both plots were subsequently kept under observation, with the following results : A. Unprotected plot (seeds scattered by jackals). (1) First season, germina- tion commenced in July, after heavy rain, and continued throughout August ; 24 seedlings came up, of which 15 damped off during the rains owing to heavy weed-growth, leaving 9 at the end of the season with a maximum height of 8 in. (2) Second season, 10 new seedlings appeared in July from seed which had lain dormant for a year ; of these new seedlings 6, and of the old ones 2, damped off during the rains owing to heavy weed-growth, leaving at the end of the season 1 1 survivors up to 1 ft. 6 in. in height, of which 7 were old and 4 new seedlings. (3) Third season, the 11 survivors of last year remained alive and in good condition, attaining a maximum height of 2 ft. 8 in. by the end of the season ; more dormant seeds germinated in July, but only 2 seedlings escaped damping off luider a growth of weeds, and the total number of seedlings in the plot at the end of the season was 13. B. Protected plot (covered with cage of wire netting to keep off animals). During the first rains the pulp within the pods became mouldy and rotten, but the seeds not attacked by grubs remained quite sound and fertile ; many, however, were destroyed by grubs. The pods were kept under observation for four seasons. The seeds never escaped from them, and no germination took place. The shells of the pods became partly eaten by white ants, and the seeds were also to some extent attacked, though some remained sound until the end of the period of observation. The fact remained that no germination took place from the pods in this plot. In addition to the observations just recorded many others have been 2307.2 jy 370 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE made in the forest with the view of ascertaining the extent to which animals assist in the natural reproduction of this tree, and no case has yet been met with in which the seed was found to germinate without having been extracted from the pods by animal agency ; on the other hand, the remnants of pods broken up by animals have frequently been met with, and in many cases young seedlings have been found during the rains in the neighbourhood of these remnants. The animals which are known to eat the pulp of the pods, and are therefore useful agents in the spread of the tree, are monkeys, jackals, bears, and pigs ; there are possibly other animals also. Although many of the seeds are scattered near the trees where the pods are eaten, without being swallowed by the animals, some are swallowed, as the seeds have been noticed in their excreta ; in this way not only are the seeds disseminated, but germina- tion is probably accelerated, an important point in the case of hard leguminous seeds of this kind. Some curious instances of natural reproduction traceable to the presence of animals have been observed. In certain localities along the base of the outer Himalaya the tree is so plentiful as to approach gregarious- ness, and although reproduction is partly from suckers, yet seedlings of various ages are also met with ; such places have always been noticed to be frequented by numbers of monkeys, and there can be little doubt that they are the agents directly responsible for the spread of the tree. As regards the time taken by the seeds to germinate under natural conditions, the observations already recorded have been confirmed by other observations in similar plots in which the seed has been extracted from the pods and scattered on the surface of the ground, namely, that the seed germinates chiefly during the rainy season after thorough soaking ; only a portion of it may germinate during the first year, some lying dormant until the second or even the third year before germinating. In the case of seed lying on the surface of the ground much mortality is caused during germination by the destruction of the radicle by birds and insects, or through drying up in places exposed to the sun. Where the seed is buried by rain or otherwise, which frequently occurs under natural conditions, germination is more suc- cessful. A growth of grass, if not too rank, also protects the germinating seed. High mortality among the seedlings is caused subsequently by damping off where weed-growth is heavy. Much of the natural reproduction met with in the forest consists of root- suckers ; this is particularly the case on hill-sides, in cuttings, and other places where the surface roots are liable to be exposed. To summarize, the following facts have been established regarding the natural reproduction of this tree from seed : 1. Reproduction is effected mainly, and perhaps entirely, through the agency of animals (monkeys, jackals, bears, pigs, and possibly others), which break open the pods to eat the pulp and thus scatter the seeds or swallow and disseminate them. 2. The seed germinates during the rainy season, some lying dormant until the second or even the third rains. 3. Germination is favoured if the seed becoriies buried, and to some extent if it is protected by a moderate growth of grass ; if the seed lies on the surface of the ground much mortality takes place during germination CASSIA 371 owing to the destruction of the radicle by birds and insects, or to its drying up if exposed to the sun. 4. Many seedlings perish in heavy weed-growth owing to damping ofE during the rains. Artificial reproduction. The seed germinates tardily, that kept for a year germinating more readily than fresh seed. Certain methods of hastening the germination of hard leguminous seeds have been suggested in the intro- duction to this order, and these may prove effective. The seed should be sown in seed-beds in drills about 10 in. apart in March or April, and regularly watered ; germination ordinarily takes place early in the rains, though some of the seed may lie dormant until the second year, germinating at different times from March onwards. Transplanting requires some care, but it can be carried out satisfactorily while the plants are still comparatively small during the first rains : basket planting is the most satisfactory method, the seedlings being transferred to the baskets in the first rains and planted out in the second rains. It is doubtful if direct sowings can be relied on for forest purposes unless this species is mixed with other species, owing to its uncertain germina- tion : nevertheless, plants which do come up from direct sowings and are kept regularly weeded have been found to develop better than transplants. SiLVicuLTURAL TREATMENT. The ouly Satisfactory treatment for this species appears to be coppice, since natural reproduction by seed cannot be depended on over definite areas ; the tree is not of sufficient value to raise in regular plantations except as an accessory species in mixture with other trees. Rate of growth. The following records of periodical girth measurements in sample plots in the United Provinces show that the growth of trees (as distinct from coppice-shoots) is moderate only : Cassia Fistula : rate of growth in high forest sample plots, United Provinces. Number of Number of Mean annual Number of Forest years under trees under Girth girth increment sample plots.' division. observation. observation. class. ft. 1-2 2-3 for period. 2 Siwalik 7 and 12 {I in. 016 0-63 3 Lansdowiie 12 and 17 3 11-3 0-54 These plots were laid out primarily for the measurement of sal, and it is probable that the Cassia trees were dominated or even suppressed, so that the rate of growth exhibited here is probably slower than would be obtained under more favourable conditions. Gamble's specimens gave about 9 rings per inch of radius, equivalent to a mean annual girth increment of 0-7 in. A cross -section 2 ft. 8 in. in girth in the silvicultural museum at Dehra Dun had 55 rings ; this represents a mean annual girth increment of 0-58 in. The rate of growth of coppice-shoots is fairly rapid while it lasts, but in a small-sized tree of this kind the growth slows down early. Measurements of coppice-shoots one year old in Bhandara, Central Provinces, in 1912-13, showed an average height of 6 ft. 1 in. as against 7 ft. 1 in. for teak. Measure- ments'recorded by Mr. A. F. Broun in 1886 in a coppice coupe nine years old D2 372 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE at Bullawala, Dehra Dun, showed a mean girth of 7-7 in. and a mean height of 11 ft. 8 in. for Cassia as compared with 8-6 in. and 16 ft. respectively for sal. The following figures give the results of measurements made in coppice coupes by Mr. C. M. McCrie in 1910 in Gorakhpur, United Provinces, together with measurements of sal coppice in the same coupes : Cassia Fistula : rate of growth o if coppice, Gorakhpur. Mean height. Mean girth. Age. Cassia. Sal. Cassia. Sal. years. ft. ft. in. in. 2 40 30 — - — 4 7-6 70 2-2 20 6 110 10-3 3-3 2-9 8 140 130 4-2 3-8 10 16-4 15-3 51 4-8 12 18-5 17-5 5-9 5-8 14 20-3 19-2 6-7 6-7 16 221 20-9 7-3 7-5 Measurements made in 1911 in coppice coupes two years old in Gonda, United Provinces, gave the following results : Cassia. Sal. Mean height 9 ft. 9 ft. Average number of shoots per stool . • . . 1-5 1-7 2. Cassia renigera, Wall. Vern. Ngushwe, ngusat, Burm. A small deciduous tree of the dry zone of Upper Burma, chiefly in dry open scrub forests. It is often cultivated for ornament, and grows and flowers well even in moist climates like that of Rangoon, .although in its natural habitat it is accustomed to a dry climate and is capable of growing on com- paratively poor soils. The tree has large pink flowers (Prain notes that the Shan hills specimens have yellow flowers) ; these appear in April and May in short racemes along the bare branches together with the young leaves, and the trees at this time are strikingly handsome. The pods are about 15-18 in. long, cylindrical and pendulous, resembling those of C. Fistula. The tree is leafless for- some time in the hot season. 3. Cassia siamea, Lam. Syn. C. florida, Vahl. Vern. Mezali, Burm. A moderate-sized evergreen tree with a dense crown, probably indigenous in Burma and the southernmost part of Madras ; largely planted for ornament. The yellow flowers, in large pyramidal terminal panicles, appear mainly in the hot season, but the flowering period is comparatively long, and flowers may often be found at various seasons. The pods are 4-10 in. long, and ripen towards the end of the hot season ; they hang in clusters and give the tree a somewhat untidy appearance. The tree grows fairly rapidly and is easy to cultivate ; it grows well on moist soils provided tlie drainage is good. 4. Cassia auriculata, Linn. Tanners' cassia. Vern. Tarwar, tanvad, taroda, Mar. ; Avararn, Tam. ; Tangedu, Tel. ; Peikthingat, Burm. An evergreen often gregarious shrub ; leaves paripinnate with eight to twelve pairs of leaflets. It yields the most important tan-bark in India, and on this account is worth cultivation on a larger scale than at present. It is also a useful plant for clothing dry bare rocky ground and poor soil. In Madras it is sown as a green manure crop. CASSIA 373 Distribution and habitat. Common in the drier parts of the Indian Peninsula from Ajmer and the Jumna river southwards, covering large areas in the Deccan ; also found in the dry zone of Upper Burma. It is common on dry stony hills in open places and in scrub forest ; it occurs also on black cotton soil and on laterite near the sea-coast. It is naturally a species of hot dry regions, where the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 100° to nearly 120° F., the absolute minimum from 33° to 55° F., and the normal rainfall from 20 to 50 in. Flowering and fruiting. The yellow flowers appear at various seasons, chiefly from October to May. The flowering and fruiting seasons overlap, and ripe fruit may be found for a considerable period of the year. The pod is flat, 3-4 in. long by about 0-6 in. broad. The seeds (Fig. 146, a) are 0-3 in. long ; about 1,100 weigh 1 oz. Good seeds have no difficulty in germinating, and the percentage of fertility is fairly high. The plant begins to flower and fruit at an early age, usually when about a year old. Germination (Fig. 146, b-d). Epigeous. The radicle emerges and descends ; the hypocotyl elongates, raising above ground the cotyledons usually enclosed in the testa, which falls to the ground with the expansion of the cotyledons. The seedling (Fig. 146). Roots : primary root very long, terete, tapering, woody : lateral roots moderate in number, short to moderately long, distributed down main root. Hypocotyl distinct from root, 1-2 in. long, terete, tapering upwards, minutely pubescent when young. Cotyledons very shortly petiolate, foliaceous, some- what fleshy, 0-6-0-8 in. by 0-5-0-7 in., sub-orbicular or broadly obovate, entire, green, glabrous. Stem erect, woody, glabrous, young parts green. Leaves alternate, compound, paripinnate, first 2-6 usually with 2 pairs of leaflets, subsequent leaves with 3-6 pairs or more. Stipules in young seedlings up to 0-25 in. long, linear or triangular acuminate, auriculate, green, pubescent. Rachis channelled above, sparsely pubescent. Leaflets shortly petioluled, with a filiform reddish gland at the base of each pair, 0-3-1 in. by 0-2-0 -5 in., elliptical oblong, obtuse, mucronate, entire, terminal pair larger than remaining leaflets. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. This shrub does not stand shade or drip from overhead trees, and grows best in open places with an abundance of light. It is sensitive to frost, but stands drought well, growing readily on dry shallow soil. It prefers light porous soil ; on water-logged ground or in soil containing an excess of moisture seedlings are apt to rot. The plant is avoided by goats an^ cattle, but plants cultivated near Dehra Dun were browsed by deer. It coppices well. Cultivation. The plant has been frequently cultivated in various parts of India, and for the production of tan-bark it is worked as coppice. For tanning cow and buflalo hides the bark from shoots three to five years old gives the best results, whereas for tanning goat and sheep skins that of young shoots two years old is preferred : this refers to unirrigated plants. The rota- tion has thus to be fixed according to requirements. For the formation of plantations stiff, water -logged, or alkaline soil and frosty localities should be avoided, care being taken to select places with soil which is light, porous, and not too moist. The site for the plantation should Fig. 146. Cassia auriculata. Seedling x ^. a, seed ; h-d, germination stages ; e-g, early development of seedling. CASSIA 375 be an open one, trees and bushes being removed if they are present. Direct sowing has given much better results than transplanting, and it has been found advantageous to plough up the land before sowing. The sowing may be done either broadcast or in lines : the latter method is considered preferable as it facilitates weeding, thinning out the seedlings, and loosening the soil. Lines 3 to 4 ft. apart produce a dense crop. In southern India June has been found to be the best month for sowing, except where the monsoon rains are heavy, in which case October is preferable. The seedlings should be thinned out during the first season where necessary ; weeding and cultivation of the soil, though not always essential, stimulate growth. Irrigation is not necessary except in an arid climate like that of Sind, where irrigated sowings are said to have produced a height-growth of 20 ft. in two years. Nevertheless^ irrigation is sometimes carried out during the first two years in the normal climatic region of the plant, and this hastens growth. With suitable tending, but without irrigation, the plants should reach a height of about 4 or 5 ft. in the second year, or under favourable conditions more. 9. BAUHINIA, Linn. This genus contains over thirty Indian species, of which the majority are climbers, more than a third being trees and shrubs. They are easily recognized from the two leaflets being united for a portion of their length, forming a bilobed palmately veined leaf. Although none of the trees are of great importance as producers of timber, the bauhinias are of special interest as being widely represented throughout the forests of India and being charac- teristic members of many different forest types. Some are useful indirectly, for example B. purpurea for stocking frosty blanks, B. racemosa for afforesting open places, B. retusa for clothing hill slopes. Among the better known species five are described below in some detail, and these contain certain characters in common. They require care in transplanting, the roots being somewhat sensitive. The fruit forms rapidly and ripens soon after flowering, except in B. racetnosa, which takes several months to ripen its pods. The pods dehisce as a rule on the tree, scattering the seeds : this is particularly marked in the climber B. Vahlii, whose hard woody pods open with a crack in sunny weather and shoot the seeds to some distance. B. mala- harica is an exception to the rule, the pods usually^eaching the ground before dehiscing. The seed germinates readily, but in certain species (e. g. B. mala- barica and B. racemosa) so le of the seed may lie dormant for a year before germinating. It is of great advantage to successful reproduction if the seed becomes covered before germination, since the radicles of seeds germinating on the surface of the ground are liable to be eaten by birds or insects or to dry up before gaining a footing in the soil. Germination of the species studied is epigeous, but two species {B. purpurea and B. variegata) are interesting as showing a transition between hypogeous and epigeous germination. The genus contains several climbers which are noxious to tree growth and require to be cut periodically in the forest. The best known is B. Vahlii, W. and A., a gigantic climber sometimes reaching a girth of 4 or 5 ft. or even more ; its eradication is difflcult, since when cut down it at once sends out from the base new shoots which grow at a very rapid rate. 376 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE Species 1. B. racemosa, Lam.; 2. B. malabarica, Roxb.; 3. B. retusa, Ham. ; 4. B. purpurea, Linn. ; 5. B. variegata, Linn. 1. Bauhiiiia racemosa, Linn. Vern. Jhinjeri, jhanjhora, inakuna, Hind. ; Apta, Mar. ; Banne, Kan. ; Vattdtthi, Tarn. ; Ari, Tel. ; Palan, Burm. A small to moderate-sized deciduous (or evergreen ?) tree with a somewhat crooked bole, drooping branchlets, and small leaves broader than long, cleft nearly half-way down. Bark bluish black, rough with numerous deep vertical cracks, pinkish red inside, turning brown on exposure. The tree is of no importance for timber, but the bast yields a strong cordage fibre. Silvi- culturally it is of some importance as a common constituent of the drier types of forest and as a useful species for filling blanks. Distribution and habitat. Throughout the greater part of India in deciduous forests of a dry type, ascending to 5,000 ft. in the western Himalaya; frequent in grassy blanks and open spaces, and common also on dry hills. In Burma it occurs on savannah lands and is fairly common in the dry zone associated with Acacia Catechu, A. leucophloea, Pentacme suavis, Shorea obtusa, Terminalia Oliveri, T. tomentosa, Bridelia retusa, Diospyros hurmanica, Buchan- ania latijolia, Zizyphus Jujuba, Odina Wodier, Cassia renigera, Pliyllanthus Emhlica, and other trees. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 100° to 118° F., the absolute minimum from 30° to 55° F., and the normal rainfall from 30 to 85 in. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The old leaves are shed in the cold or early hot season and the new foliage appears in the hot season, sometimes before the old leaves have all fallen. The racemes of small creamy white flowers appear from March to June. The pods ripen in November- December and remain some months on the tree, falling towards the end of the hot season or early in the rains : they are indehiscent, 5-8 in. long, dark brown when ripe, thick, rigid, falcate, containing twelve to twenty seeds which rattle in the septate pods. The seeds (Fig. 147, a) are dark reddish brown, hard, smooth, shining, 0-3-0-4 in. by 0T8-0-25 in., with a hard fairly thick testa : about 220-250 weigh 1 oz. The seeds have a fairly high germinative power (58 to 95 per cent, in tests at Dehra Dun) and retain their vitality to some extent for at least one year. In order to collect the seed the pods should be plucked off the trees when thoroughly ripe, from January to March ; they should then be hammered open and the seeds separated out. Germination (Fig. 147, 6-e). Epigeous. The radicle emerges from one end o,f the seed and descends ; the hypocotyl elongates by arching, and the cotyledons, enclosed in the testa, are carried up above ground, the testa falling with their expansion. The seedling (Fig. 147). Roots : primary root moderately long, wiry, flexuose : lateral roots moderate in number, fibrous : nodules present. Hypocotyl distinct from and thicker than root, 0-3-0-5 in. long, slightly compressed and more or less grooved down two sides, tapering downwards, green, glabrous. Cotyledons sub-sessile or very shortly petiolate, 0-9-1 -2 in. by 0-5-0-6 in., foliaceous, somewhat fleshy, obliquely ovate elliptical, entire, green, glabrous. Stern erect, terete or slightly compressed, wiry, zigzag at the nodes, green, young parts minutely i^ubescent, soon becoming glabrous. Leaves simple, alternate. 'a Fig. 147. Bauhinia racemosa. Seedling x |. a, seed ; b-e, germination stages ; f-h, early development of seedling. 378 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE Stipules minute, subulate. Petiole 0-4-1 in. long. Lamina 0-6-1 -5 in. by 1-2 in., broader than long, cleft nearly half-way down, mucronate, entire, sub- coriaceous, glaucous beneath, darker above, glabrous, apices of lobes rounded, each lobe palmately 7- or 9- veined, with a straight midrib between the lobes. The development of the seedling is rapid under favourable conditions, that is, particularly if weeding and watering are carried out. The young plant is of straggling habit, commencing to form strong side branches from the base at an early age ; these side branches succeed each other in alternate succession up the stem and grow rapidly, those near the base attaining a length of over 3 ft. by the end of the first season in the case of vigorous plants. The stem and branches droop, their extremities often touching the ground. A long taproot is developed at an early age, and may attain a length of over 2 ft. in three months from germination. Growth ceases in November-December, and new growth commences in March ; in the second season the growth usually starts with the elongation of the lower side branches, the main stem showing little or no growth until May or later (Dehra Dun). The leaves commence to fall in December and continue falling till May. Seedlings have good power of pushing their way through grass and low weeds, but their development suffers until the weeds are overtopped ; regular weeding has a marked effect on their growth. Drought is to be feared chiefly in the germinating stages in the case of seed lying on hard bare ground exposed to the sun. In frosty localities the seedlings are sometimes killed back, especially in grass, but have good power of recovery. The following measurements of seedlings in experimental plots at Dehra Dun will give soine idea of the rate of growth under different conditions : Bauhinia racemosa : rate of growth of seedlings, Dehra Dun. Condition under which grown. Weeded irrigated sow- ings Height and other particulars at end of season. 1st season. Maximum 4 ft. 2 in. (side branches up to 3 ft. 3 in. long) Unweeded sowings irrigated Maximum 2 ft. 0 in. 2nd season. Maximum 9 ft. 0 in. (dense crop, very vigorous) Maximum 3 ft. 6 in. (chiefly under 1 ft. 6 in. among weeds) Maximum 3 ft. 2 in. Weeded unirrigated Maximum 3 ft. 0 in. sowings Unweeded unirrigated ^(1) Maximum 2ft. 7 in. Maximum 3 ft. 6 in. sowings (i.e. natural conditions) Nursery-raised plants, transplanted with entire roots and stem Nursery- raised plants, transplanted with pruned roots and stem ^(2) Maximum Oft. 61 in. Maximum 1 ft. 2 in. Maximum 0 ft. 9 in. Maximum 1 ft. 3 in. Maximum 3 ft. 6 in. 3rd season. Maximum 15 ft. 0 in. (maximum diameter 21 in. at 2^ ft. from the ground) 0 ft. 21 in. -3 ft. 9 in. (chiefly under 1 ft. Sin.) Maximum 7 ft. 7 in. 0 ft. 5 in. -4 ft. 8 in. (chiefly under 2 ft. except w^here weeds scanty) 0 ft. 4i in. -3 ft. 0 in. 2 ft. 9 in.-4 ft. 2 in. 4th seas Maxim 7 ft. 0 Maximum 1 ft. 9 in. 0 ft. 10 in. -3 ft. 8 in. Weeded unirrigated line sowings with field crops r(l) Maximum 1ft. 9 in. 1(2) — Maximum 2 ft. 4 in. 3 in. -3 ft. 10 in. These figures demonstrate the great value of weeding, whether irrigation be carried out or not. BAUHINIA 379 SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. The tree is a light-demander, though some- imes found in slight shade. It is affected to some extent by frost, but has 5ood power of recovery. In the abnormal drought of 1907 and 1908 in the orests of Oudh it proved to be decidedly hardy. The tree produces root- ;uckers and coppices well. Natural reproduction. The pods fall towards the end of the hot season )r early in the rains. If the seed be extracted from the pods germination ;ommences with the early showers of May and continues for some time during he rains, some seed lying even until the second rains before it germinates. Che pods being indehiscent the seeds do not escape for some time after the )ods fall ; this they do ordinarily through the pods rotting or becoming eaten )y white ants, but in any case it is probable that under natural conditions nost if not all of the seed fails to germinate until the rains of the following T'ear. An important aid to successful germination is the covering of the seed )y earth and debris, which often takes place under natural conditions during he period in which the seed lies on the ground before germinating. When germination takes place on the surface of the ground there is much mortality hrough the drying up of the radicle or its destruction by birds and insects. sTatural seedlings are capable of struggling successfully through low weeds bnd grass, but their growth is kept back until the weeds are overtopped. In Iry hot situations the seedlings tend to die back for a few years, finally tarting upward growth when the root-system has established itself. Artificial reproduction. Experiments at Dehra Dun have shown that he best results are obtained by direct sowings in lines, the young plants being :ept weeded and the soil being loosened from time to time. Line sowings vith field crops, the crop employed being the lesser millet or mandwa {Eleusine oracana), gave good results provided the lines were kept clear of crops to I width of 2 ft. Transplanting can be carried cut successfully with small nursery plants, he seed being sown in nursery drills not less than 9 in. apart in April or klay and the seedlings transplanted during the first rains ; the long taproot )revents successful transplanting later unless regular watering can be carried )ut, and experiments in pruning down the stem and taproot were only partially uccessful. This is one of the species which have been raised by sowings in conjunction vith field crops (sesamum, tur or arlmr, and cotton) in the Amraoti forest livision, Berar.^ SiLVicuLTURAL TREATMENT. The tree is only of secondary importance, bnd is treated as an accessory species. Where a regular system is applied to ,he mixed forests in which it occurs the treatment usually followed is that )f coppice or coppice-with-standards. Rate of growth. So fa^r as available statistics show, the rate of growth n high forest is slow. Sample plot measurements in the Siwaliks, extending )ver a period of twelve years, showed the following mean annual girth incre- nents for the period : Trees 12-24 in. in girth — 0-21 in. (four measurements). Trees 24-36 in. in girth— 0-33 in. (four measurements). ^ Ind. Forester, xxxvii (1911), p. 8. 380 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE As regards coppice, the following figures resulting from measurements made in 1910 by Mr. C. M. McCrie in the Ramgarh coppice coupes, Gorakhpur, United Provinces, indicate that the rate of growth for a time is fairly fast : Bauhinia racemosa : rate of growth of coppice, Gorakhpur. Age. Mean height. Mean girth years. ft. in. 2 4-5 — 4 90 3-3 6 12-5 4-5 8 160 5-7 10 19-5 6-8 12 230 7-5 2. Bauhinia maIabarica,Roxb. Y em. Amli,imli,amlosa, Hind. ; Karmai, Beng. ; Shadlu, Kan. ; Atthi, Tarn. ; Aram puli, Mai. ; Bwechln, Burm. A moderate-sized tree, evergreen or nearly so, with a bushy crown of dark green foliage ; leaves 2-3 in. long, broader than long, cleft about one-third of the length, acid to the taste, unlike those of B. racemosa, which they resemble somewhat otherwise. Bark rough, dark brown, exfoliating in long strips, pink to red inside. The wood is used only for fuel. Distribution and habitat. Throughout the greater part of India and Burma, but not in the driest tracts, in deciduous forests usually of a moister type than those in which B. racemosa is found. It is a common accessory species in the sal forests of India, in the teak and lower mixed forests of Burma, and in the moist forests of western and southern India. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 95° to 110° F., the absolute minimum from 32° to 62° F., and the normal rainfall from 40 to 120 in. or more. Flowering and fruiting. The dull whitish flowers, in small axillary racemes, appear from August to October, and the pods develop rapidly, ripen- ing from January to March, and often hanging in large quantities on the trees. The pods are 7-12 in. long by about 0-75 in. broad, fiat, flexible, many seeded, tapering gradually to a point. The pods either dehisce on the trees towards the end of the hot season or fall before dehiscing. The seeds (Fig. 148, a), of which about 320 weigh 1 oz., retain their vitality to some extent for one year. Germination (Fig. 148, b-e). Epigeous. The radicle emerges and descends, and the hypocotyl elongates by arching ; the cotyledons, enclosed in the testa, are raised above the ground, and the testa falls with their expan- sion. The seedling (Fig. 148). Roots : primary root moderately long, terete, tapering : lateral roots moderate in number and length, fibrous. Hypocotyl distinct from and thicker than the root, 0-3-0-8 in. long, terete or slightly compressed, fusiform or taper- ing slightly upwards, sparsely covered with minute stiff hairs. Cotyledons : petioles 0-06 in. long, flattened above ; lamina 0-8-1-1 in. by 0-6-0-7 in., foliaceous, somewhat fleshy, oblong or elliptical, entire, sparsely covered with minute stiff hairs, 5-vcined from the base. Stem erect, terete or slightly com- pressed, somewhat zigzag at the nodes, pubescent. Leaves simple, alternate, acid. Stipules 0-15 in. long, linear falcate, pubescent. Petiole 0-4-0-6 in. long, pubescent. Lamina 0-5-1 in. by 1-2 in., broader than long, cleft to BAUHINIA 381 ibout one-third of the length, mucronate, base cordate, entire, glabrous, )almately 7-veined with a straight midrib between the lobes. Under natural conditions the development of the seedling is slow, but if b d Fig. 148. Bauhinia malabarica. Seedling x f . a, seed ; b-e, germination stages ; /-/;., development of seedling during first season. iveeded and watered it grows more rapidly. Seedlings grown under natural conditions in grass at Dehra Dun had maximum heights of 0 ft. 4 in., 1 ft. 8 in., md 5 ft. 7 in. at the end of the first, second, and third seasons respectively, rhe seedling has good power of struggling through grass and low weeds, but 382 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE its growth suffers in the process and increases rapidly when the weeds are overtopped. The leaves fall about December-February, and new growth starts in March (Dehra Dun). The seedling is somewhat frost-tender in early youth. Natural reproduction. The seeds are sometimes scattered through the pods dehiscing on the tree in dry hot weather, but perhaps more commonly they escape either through the dehiscence of the pod after reaching the ground or through the pod valves becoming eaten by white ants or rotting off. Ger- mination commences early in the rains and continues for a time during the rainy season ; many seeds lie ungerminated until the second rainy season. Germination is most successful on loose soil where the seed becomes buried ; if it takes place on the surface of the ground the radicle is apt to dry up or to become eaten by insects or birds before it can penetrate the soil. Rate of growth. Little is known regarding the rate of growth of this species. Two trees measured for seven years in a sample plot in the Siwaliks showed the following growth : 1. Girth class 12 to 24 in. — ^mean annual girth increment for the period, Oil in. 2. Girth class 24 to 36 in. — mean annual girth increment for the period, 0-6 in. 3. Bauhiuia retiisa, Ham. Vern. Kayidla, semla, kurdl, Hind. ; Nirpa, Tel. A moderate-sized tree, never quite leafless, with entire or emarginate coriaceous leaves 4-6 in. broad, somewhat broader than long. Bark 0-3- 0-5 in. thick, dark brown, longitudinally cracked, pale pink inside. The bast yields a fibre and the cortex a clear gum, for which the trees are extensively tapped in some localities. Gamble says the wood is the best of those of the bauhinias, but is not much used. Silviculturally the tree is important in the outer Himalaya, as it covers the hill-sides at elevations intermediate between those at which many of the low-level species disappear and Quercus incmia and its associates commence. Distribution and habitat. Sub-Himalayan tract and outer Himalaya from the Beas to Nepal, Chota Nagpur, Orissa, Central Provinces (Raipur, Bilaspur, South Chanda, Bhandara, Balaghat), and the Circars. In the outer Himalaya it is gregarious at elevations chiefly between 3,000 and 4,500 ft., but on southern slopes it occasionally ascends to 6,000 ft., as below Naini Tal, where it is associated with Quercus incana and Pmus longifolia ; it is also found in the Siwalik hills. According to Parker it occurs in the Jowlian reserve, Khanpur range, Hazara, but has not been collected between this and the Beas. It is always found on well-drained ground, on hill slopes or the sides of ravines. In the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan region it occurs mainly on shale, sandstone, and conglomerate. In Chota Nagpur it is common on the hills, especially on northern slopes, in Singhbum and elsewhere. Haines says it is very common on quartzite along the Konar nadi, Hazaribagh, and that it is found on quartzite rocks near Deori, Bhandara, Central Provinces. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 95° to 115° F., the absolute minimum from 28° to 42° F., and the normal rainfall from 40 to 90 in. BAUHINIA 383 Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The tree is never leafless : he old leaves fall during the hot season and the new bright green foliage ippears in May and June, at which time the trees are conspicuous. The lowers appear from September to November, and the trees are then covered dth masses of yellowish white blossom. The pods form rapidly, becoming b rich crimson colour before ripening ; the masses of crimson pods hanging imongst the rich green foliage give the trees a particularly handsome appear- ance from January onwards. The pods are 4-7 in. by 1-2-1 -7 in., flat and lard ; they dehisce on the tree in June (outer Himalaya), the valves curling pirally and scattering the seeds. The seeds are dark brown, smooth, flat, ibout 0-5 in. in diameter. ' * SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. The silviculture of this tree has not yet )een studied in detail. One particular requirement is a demand for perfect Irainage. Otherwise its demands do not appear to be exacting, as it can frow on poor stony ground where many species could not survive. Natural reproduction. The seeds, scattered towards the end of the lot season, germinate early in the rains, and, as in the case of other bauhinias, he establishment of the seedling appears to depend largely on the seed becom- ng covered with earth and debris, while new soil formed by landslips and ;rosion is very favourable to germination, and germinating seeds are some- imes found in quantity on such ground during the rains. These conditions jommonly obtain on the hilly ground frequented by the tree, the flat seed ending itself to being covered with the loose earth washed down in the rains ; ;his may to some extent account for the gregariousness of the species in the Duter Himalaya. Rate of growth. Reliable statistics are wanting as regards the rate of growth of seedling trees. A cross-section 3 ft. 3 in. in girth in the silvicultural nuseum at Dehra Dun had 47 rings, giving a mean annual girth increment Df 0-83 in. Measurements made in 1916 in the Saitba coppice coupes, Kolhan, Chota S[agpur, show the following average rate of growth of coppice of Bauhinia 'etusa and sal respectively in a somewhat poor locality : Bauhinia retusa : rate of growth of coppice, Saitba. Mean girth at 4J ft. from ground. Bauhinia retusa. Sal. in. in. 2-5 40 4-3 6-5 5-7 8-6 70 10-3 80 11-5 90 12-6 100 13-6 * 4. Bauhinia purpurea, Linn. Vern. Khairwdl, kardr, kolidr, kanidr, Hind. ; Atmatti, Mar. ; Sarul, haswaimpacla, kanchivdla, Kan. ; Kanclmn, Pel. ; MaJmhlegani, Burm. A moderate-sized evergreen tree with a bushy crown ; leaves 3-6 in. long, somewhat longer than broad, cleft about half-way down. Bark dark grey or Mean height. Age. Bauhinia retusa. Sal. years. ft. ft. 2 5-5 90 , 4 110 160 6 150 200 8 19-5 22-5 10 23-5 24-5 12 27-5 26-5 14 310 28-5 a -,v WAV • • ■. \'i\ >v'' ■■/.',% Fig. 149. Bauhinia purpurea. Seedling x |. a, fruit ; fe, seed ; c-f, germination stages ; g-h, development of seedling during first season. BAUHINIA 385 brown, pink to pale yellow inside. The wood is used for agricultural imple- ments and the bark for tanning. Distribution and habitat. Common in the mixed and sal forests of the sub-Himalayan tract, ascending the outer hills and valleys to 4,000 ft., Assam and the Indian Peninsula ; not indigenous in Burma. In its region the tree is characteristic of mixed deciduous forests, often of a dry type, occurring on hill slopes, in valleys, and along streams. Frequently cultivated for the sake of its handsome flowers. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 100° to 115° F., the absolute mini- mum from 30° to 50° F., and the normal rainfall from 40 to 85 in. Flowering and fruiting. The terminal panicled racemes of large purple, deep rose to lilac flowers appear amongst the foliage from September to December. The flowers are very fragrant, and are visited by numerous bees, by whose agency pollination is effected. The pods (Fig. 149, a) form rapidly, some attaining a fair length while the tree is still in flower : they ripen from January to March, and are then greenish purple, 6-12 in. by 0-7-1 in., flat, fairly thick, pointed, slightly falcate, with coriaceous valves, containing 10-15 seeds. The seeds (Fig. 149, h) are brown, compressed, 0-6 by 0-5 in. They germinate readily and have a high percentage of fertility, which they retain unimpaired for at least one year ; tests at Dehra Dun with seed kept for 14 months showed a fertility of 100 per cent. The pods dehisce on the tree during the hot season, scattering the seeds. Germination (Fig. 149, c-f). Strictly speaking epigeous, but shows a transition between the hypogeous and epigeous form. The radicle emerges, while the plumule commences to grow and the young shoot to develop before emerging from between the cotyledons : the latter separate very slightly and the young shoot extricates itself by arching or bending as in hypogeous germ- ination, but after its emergence the cotyledons, which become green, separate and are carried above ground on a short hypocotyl. The seedling (Fig. 149). Roots : primary root moderately long and thick, terete, tapering : lateral roots moderate in number, fibrous. Hypocotyl distinct from the root, 0-2- 0-5 in. long, moderately thick, white or pale green, glabrous, subterranean or at ground-level. Cotyledons sub-sessile, 0-6-0-8 in. by 0-4-0-5 in., plano- convex, somewhat fleshy, oblong, apex rounded, base sagittate, green, glabrous. Stern erect, terete or slightly compressed, somewhat zigzag at the nodes, glabrous or young parts minutely pubescent ; internodes 0-4-1 -5 in. long. Leaves simple, alternate, at first small, becoming consecutively larger. Stipules 0-05 in. long, falcate. Petiole 0-3-1-3 in. long, finely pubescent. Lamina 0-3-1-5 in. by 0-3-1-5 in., about as broad as long, cleft to nearly half-way down, mucronate, apices of lobes acute, base cordate or truncate, entire, young leaves finely pubescent, palmately 7-veined with a straight midrib between the lobes. The growth of the seedling is very rapid under favourable conditions. Nursery-raised plants at Dehra Dun, regularly weeded and watered, attained a maximum height of 3 ft. 9 in. in two months from germination. In one plot 17 nursery plants varied from 3 ft. 7 in. to 10 ft. 5 in. by the end of the first season ; by the end of the second season they had a maximum height of 15 ft. 6 in., and were in flower. Under less favourable conditions the growth 2307.2 J, 386 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE is much slower. The season's growth ends about November, and new growth begins in February (Dehra Dun). SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. The tree is a moderate light- demander. It is decidedly frost-hardy, as is proved by the fact that it may be found surviv- ing on grass-lands subject to bad frosts, where all but the most frost-hardy trees fail. Natural reproduction. The seeds germinate readily at the beginning of the rains, when numerous young seedlings may be found in the neighbour- hood of seed-bearers. Where germination takes place on the surface of the ground, however, much mortality takes place owing to the drying up of the radicle if exposed to the sun. The survival of the seedlings is greatly' facilitated if the seed becomes buried in loose earth before germination and the roots of the young plant are not exposed. Artificial reproduction. Experiments at Dehra Dun have shown that the best results are attained by line sowings kept regularly weeded : irrigation also has a marked effect on the growth. The seedlings are somewhat sensitive to transplanting, which has to be done with care. The seed should be sown in the nursery in April or May in drills 9-10 in. apart, and covered to a depth of about a quarter of an inch, regular watering and weeding being carried out. The seedlings appear in about 4-10 days, and can be transplanted while still of small size during the first rains. Transplanting with unpruned stem and roots should not be attempted during the second rains unless regular watering is possible for some time. A certain amount of success has been attained by transplanting after pruning the stem and taproot down to 2 and 9 in. respec- tively, but this checks the growth severely for a time. 5. Bauhinia variegata, Linn. Vern. Kachndr, Hind. ; Kanchan, thaur, Mar. A moderate-sized deciduous tree with leaves 3-6 in. long, as broad as or broader than long, cleft about one-quarter to one-third down. Bark grey, with longitudinal cracks, pale pink inside. The wood is used for agricultural implements and the bark for tanning. The tree is extremely handsome when in flower, and is largely planted for ornament. Distribution and habitat. The sub-Himalayan tract and outer hills and valleys from the Indus eastward, ascending to 5,000 ft., Assam, Burma, Chota Nagpur, Central Provinces, and other parts of the Indian Peninsula. Frequently cultivated for ornament. It is essentially a tree of the mixed deciduous forests, often of a somewhat dry type, and occurs frequently on hilly ground. It ascends some distance into the Himalayan valleys, and occurs gregariously on some of the outer hills up to 5,000 ft. on southerly aspects. In the Indian Peninsula it occurs chiefly on hilly ground, and in Burma it affects the drier types of mixed forest, entering the dry zone and ascending the lulls to over 3,000 ft. In its natural habitat the absolute maxi- mum shade temperature varies from 97° to 115° F., the absolute minimum from 28° to 45° F., and the normal rainfall from 40 to 100 in. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The leaves commence falling in November-December, and the tree is leafless or nearly so by March ; the new leaves appear in April and May. The large pink to purple or white flowers appear from February to April, chiefly on the upper leafless branches. BAUHINIA 387 the lower branches often being still in leaf. The flowers are fragrant and are visited by bees, by whose agency pollination is effected. The pods (Fig. 150, a) form rapidly, ripening in May and June (northern India) : they are 6-12 in. by 0-7-1 in., hard and flat, with 10 to 15 seeds, and dehisce for the most part on the tree, scattering the seeds. The seeds (Fig. 150, b) are 0-5-0-75 in. by 0-5-0-7 in., nearly circular, flat, brown, with a somewhat coriaceous testa, 70-100 weighing 1 oz. ; they germinate readily and show a high percentage of fertility, which is retained to some extent for at least a year. Germination (Fig. 150, c-g) as in B. purpurea. The seedling (Fig. 150). Boots : primary root moderately long and thick, terete, tapering, whitish or light brown : lateral roots moderate in number, fibrous. Hypocotyl distinct from the root, 0- 1-0- 15 in. long, thick, tapering downwards, minutely pubescent or glabrescent, subterranean or at ground-level. Cotyledons sessile or sub- sessile, 0-8-1 in. by 0-6-0-8 in., plano-convex, somewhat fleshy, broadly elliptical or sub-orbicular, usually oblique, apex rounded, base slightly auricu- late or sub-sagittate, entire, yellow or greenish, glabrous. Stem often arched during germination, soon becoming erect, grooved and angular, pubescent ; internodes 0-3-1 -5 in. long. Leaves simple, alternate, the first one or two often small and abortive. Stipules minute. Petiole 0-3-1 in. long, pubescent. Lamina 0-4-0-9 in. by 0-8-1-6 in., broader than long, cleft to about one-quarter to one-third of the length, mucronate, apices of lobes often acute, entu'e, sub-coriaceous, glabrous above, slightly pubescent beneath, palmately 7- or 9- veined with a straight midrib between the lobes. If weeded and watered the seedling develops rapidly. Nursery-raised plants at Dehra Dun attained a height up to 3 ft. 4 in. in two months from germination, with taproots up to 1 ft. 7 in. long and 0-5 in. thick. Eight nursery-raised seedlings in one plot varied from 3 ft. 7 in. to 7 ft. 10 in. in height by the end of the first season. Under less favourable conditions the growth is considerably less, natural seedlings usually attaining a maximum height of 1 ft. by the end of the first season. The season's growth ceases about November, and new growth commences in February (Dehra Dun). * Natural reproduction. The seeds, which are scattered before the beginning of the monsoon, germinate readily when the rains begin, and germ- inating seeds may be found in quantity round the trees. But unless the seed happens to become buried in earth and debris, or is sheltered from the sun, most if not all of the young plants may die off owing to the drying up of the radicle if exposed to the sun, while birds and insects also cause a good deal of mortality by eating off the radicles. The most favourable condition for the establishment of reproduction appears to be the presence of loose porous well-drained soil, in which in the first place the seed has a chance of becoming covered with earth, and in the second place the seedling develops sufficiently rapidly to overcome weed-growth. Artificial reproduction. The most successful means of raising the tree artificially is by sowing in lines in which the soil has been well loosened, followed by regular weeding and loosening of the soil. Unless regular watering can be carried out, transplanting is difficult except in the case of small plants during the first rains. The seed should'be sown in May in drills 9-10 in. apart : the young plants usually appear in 4 to 10 days, and may be transplanted E 2 Fig. 150. Baiiliinia variegata. Seedling x f . a, fruit ; b, seed ; c-g, germination stages ; h, i, development of seedling to end of first season. BAUHINIA 389 while still comparatively small dm-ing the first rains. Trees planted for ornament may be kept a second year in the nursery, but regular watering is necessary in the dry season following transplanting ; in this case either the seedlings should be pricked out in the nursery during the first rains or the drills should be at least 12 in. apart, and the seedlings should be thinned out where necessary. Rate of grow^th. The only authentic statistics relate to coppice coupes at Ramgarh near Dehra Dun, the following measurements having been recorded by Mr. A. F. Broun in 1886 (sal coppice measurements in the same coupes entered for comparison) : BauUnia variegata : coppice measurements, Ramgarh, Dehra Dun. Mean height. Mean girth. Age. Bauhinia variegata. Sal. Bauhinia variegata. Sal. years. 8 8 9 10 ft. 18 20 13 10 ft. 16-3 13-2 160 11-9 in. 7-5 60 70 4-0 in. 8-3 71 8-6 5-9 Sub-Order III. MIMOSEAE Genera 1. Prosopis, Linn. ; 2. Xylia, Benth. ; 3. Acacia, Willd. ; 4. Albizzia, Durazzini ; 5. Dichrostachys, DC. ; 6. Adenanthera, Linn. ; 7. PiTHECOLOBiUM, Martius ; 8. Leucaena, Benth. 1. PROSOPIS, Linn. Species 1. P. spicigera, Linn. ; 2. P. juliflora, DC. 1. Prosopis spicigera, Linn. Vern. Jand, Punjab ; Kandi, Sind ; Khejra, Rajputana ; Semru, su7nri, Guz. ; Shema, saunder, Mar. ; Baiini, Kan. ; Jamhu, parambe, Tam. ; Jamhi, Tel. A moderate-sized thorny tree, evergreen or nearly so, with light foliage and straggling rather slender branches armed with conical prickles. It does not ordinarily exceed a height of 40 ft. and a girth of 4 ft., the maximum attained being 50 ft. and 6 ft. respectively. The bole is usually short and is rarely straight ; spines persist on the bole until it reaches a girth of about 1| ft. Bark up to 1 in. thick, grey, rough with longitudinal furrows and transverse cracks. Wood very hard, heartwood dark brown ; it makes excellent fuel and charcoal, and is used locally for various purposes. The pods contain a dry sweetish pulp, and are used as food for cattle. Distribution and habitat. This tree occurs in the dry and arid regions of India, namely in Sind, the Punjab plains, Baluchistan, Rajputana, Guzerat, the Deccan, and the drier parts of southern India ; it extends into Persia. In Sind Prosopis spicigera is one of the principal species on the higher and older alluvium in the region of the Indus. Although found to a greater or less extent both in upper and in lower Sind, it may be considered to be the most characteristic species in the former just as babul {Acacia arahica) is in the latter : this is probably due partly to the greater intensity of frost in upper Sind, which is more harmful to Acacia arahica than to Prosopis, and partly to the fact that the duration of river inundations is longer and their 390 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE extent greater in lower than in upper Sind, the babul being favoured bj' these moister conditions. The occurrence of Prosopis spicigera marks one of the successive stages between that in which new alluvial ground is formed in the river-bed and the time when, owing to the receding of the river, this land is left high and dry above the reach of even abnormal river floods. The flood season of the Indus commences about the beginning of May, with the melting of the Himalayan snows, and the river continues to rise, with occasional interrup- tions, until July or sometimes later ; thereafter it subsides gradually and reaches its winter level as a rule about the end of October. In the course of the annual floods much land is lost by erosion, while corresponding new land is won by accretion. The newest so-called kacha, alluvium thrown up by deposits of silt becomes quickly covered with Tamarix dioica and T. Troupii, and a growth of Jcanh grass {Saccharum spontaneum) : as the ground becomes more elevated Populus euphratica and Acacia arahica make their appearance, while later, when the land becomes elevated above the reach of all but abnormal floods, Prosopis spicigera becomes the prevailing species, having already gained a footing with the aid of the river floods and having survived after the preceding species have gradually disappeared. This, however, is not the final stage, for although its long taproot and its power of reproduction by root-suckers enable it to outlive its predecessors it is not strictly a desert species, and though it lingers for a long time on the older higher and drier alluvium it eventually gives place in the driest tracts to more typical desert species such as Capparis aphylla, Salvadora oleoides, and S. persicu. While often gregarious, particularly in upper Sind, Prosopis is frequently associated by single trees or small groups with the various species which precede it on the one hand and succeed it on the other. Thus, before it meets the desert species it may be found with Tarnarix dioica and Troupii (some- times in the form of moribund remnants). Acacia arabica, Populus euphratica, and Tamarix articulata, the largest species of Tamarix, which is characteristic of drier ground than the other two : again, on the older and drier alluvium Prosopis is commonly associated with the desert species already mentioned, with or without surviving individuals of the other species. The soil on these alluvial tracts consists of varying mixtures of sand and clay. A special feature, indicative of deterioration of the soil through lack of surface drainage, is the presence of tracts of varying extent in which the soil is charged with an excess of sodium salts, these salts appearing as a white efflorescence on the surface of the ground. Where the soil becomes very saline Prosopis, in common with most other species, quickly dies out ; on pure sand, also, it does not survive long. In the Punjab Prosopis spicigera occurs throughout the alluvial plains from the Salt Range to the Sutlej river, but does not extend into the hills. By far the largest tracts are situated in the arid regions in the south-west of the province in the Mult an and Montgomery districts. According to Mr. B. O. Coventry,! the area of these forests under the Forest Department in 1915 was about 3,500 square miles, of which about 2,700 square miles were in Multan, and about 700 square miles in Montgomery, the remainder being in the Lahore, Gujranwala, and Shahpur districts. There is little doubt that 1 Ind. Forester, xli (1915), p. 307. PROSOPIS ^ 391 the area of forest was at one time far greater, and that it has been gradually curtailed by the extension of cultivation, a process hastened in recent times by the development of irrigation. This curtailment is still proceeding rapidly, and will continue to do so with the extension of irrigation, the natural dry forests giving place to cultivation and irrigated plantations, chiefly of Dalbergia Sissoo. The five great rivers of the Punjab, of which the Indus is the chief, play an important part in the origin and the distribution of the Prosopis forests. These rivers, which are snow-fed, are liable to high floods when the Himalayan snows melt in the hot weather, and the process of annual flooding with attendant erosion and accretion proceeds in the manner already described for the Indus. The topography of the plains thus exhibits four main stages in the alluvial formation : (1) new alluvium in the river-beds ; (2) low land subject to inunda- tion ; (3) higher ground beyond the reach of ordinary floods ; and (4) high so-called bar land forming the watershed between the rivers. The subsoU water-level varies from a few feet below ground surface in the low land near the rivers to as much as 100 ft. on the high bar land. The soil is a deep fertile loam with occasional hard pans of kankar, that is, concretionary calcareous deposits, a few feet below the surface, and with occasional unfertile tracts of saline soil locally known as reh or kallar. Prosopis regenerates on the low ground subject to floods, but not on the high bar land, and it owes its existence on the latter to the remarkable powers of survival due to its long taproot, which responds to the lowering of the water-level, and to its capacity for reproducing by root-suckers. Thus the conditions under which it is able to persist when once established are entirely unsuitable for its reproduction by seed, and it is further evident that this persistence may be of very long dura- tion, perhaps, as Mr. Coventry remarks, for hundreds if not thousands ol years. On the high bar land Prosopis trees are as a rule somewhat scattered, and are usually associated with Salvador a qleoides and Capparis aphylla, while the two latter species often occur without Prosopis, which has gradually dis- appeared in course of time ; there are also frequently large blanks due to deposits of kankar or the presence of saline soil. Except for the tree growth the ground is bare of vegetation for several months in the year, though a fair crop of grass is produced during the rainy season. On the lower ground nearer the rivers the tree occurs gregariously in well-stocked crops ; here it is sometimes associated with Tamarix and with Acacia arabica. In the Indian Peninsula the tree is not gregarious, but is scattered in open dry types of forest in association with Acacia Catechu, A. arabica, A. leucophloea, A. eburnea, Chloroxylon Swietenia, Anogeissus latifolia, Zizyphus Jujuba, Z. Xylopyrus, and other species. In some localities it occurs on black cotton soil with Acacia arahica and a few other kinds of trees. In the most important areas of its distribution the climate is dry to arid, and is characterized by extremes of temperature, intense heat being a featiu-e of the hot weather, while in the winter the thermometer may register a few degrees of frost. Within its region in Sind and the Pimjab the absolute maxi- mum shade temperature varies from 118° to 125° F., the absolute minimum from 25° to 40° F., and the normal rainfall from under 3 in. to about 25 in. or slightly over. In the Punjab plains it occurs most plentifully in the drier 392 ^ XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE regions where the normal rainfall is from 5 to 10 in. In Baluchistan it experi- ences lower temperatures than it does in Sind and the Punjab. In the Indian Peninsula it occurs in regions where the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 105° to 115° F., the absolute minimum from 40° to 60° F., and the normal rainfall from 20 to 35 in. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The foliage becomes some- what thin towards the end of the cold season. The spikes of small yellow flowers appear from March to May, after the new leaves. The pods ripen from June to August ; they are indehiscent, 4-8 in. long, slender, contracted between the seeds, filled with a dry sweetish pulp, and contain 10-15 seeds. The seeds (Fig. 151, a) are 0-2-0-3 in. by 0-15-0-2 in., compressed, ovate oblong or rhomboidal, brown, smooth, hard, with a moderately hard testa. The seed retains its vitality for at least a year. Recent experiments in the Montgomery district with seed from coppice- shoots 5-11 years old showed that such seed was sufficiently fertile and that seed from the younger shoots was as fertile as that from the older ones. Ordinarily the seed, if watered, germinates from one to two weeks after sowing. The seed is distributed partly by water, partly by birds, and partly by cattle and other animals, which eat the sweetish pulp of the pods and void the seeds. Germination (Fig. 151, b-e). Epigeous. The radicle emerges and the hypocotyl elongated by arching, carrying the cotyledons above ground when it straightens ; as a rule the testa is carried up over the cotyledons, falling with their expansion. The seedling (Fig. 151). Roots : primary root long, thin, terete, tapering, wiry, yellow turning brown : lateral roots few, short, fibrous, distributed down main root : nodules present. Hypocotyl distinct from root, 0-8-1 -4 in. long, terete, expanded in a ring at the base, white turning green, glabrous, smooth at first, soon becom- ing striate by cracks in the epidermis. Cotyledons very shortly petiolate, 0-5 by 0-4 in., elliptical ovate, apex rounded, base sagittate, foliaceous, some- what fleshy, upper surface convex, lower concave, green, glabrous, 5-veined from the base, the two lateral veins very indistinct. Stetn erect at first, soon branching and becoming straggling, zigzag at the nodes, wiry, glabrous, green or reddish, covered with prickles which are at fu\st minute, later 0-1 in. long ; internodes 0-2-0-3 in. long. Leaves alternate. Stipules 0-2 by 0-1 in., falcate, mucronate, green. First leaf pinnate, rachis 0-5 in. long, with occasional^ rudimentary or minute prickles, leaflets usually in five pairs, opposite, with very short petiolules, 0-2 by 0-1 in., obliquely oblong, mucronate, entire. Subsequent leaves bipinnate with one pair of opposite pinnae ; common rachis 0-1-0-2 in. long, pinnae 0-3-0-6 in. with 4-6, later 7-8, pairs of leaflets similar to those of first leaf. Under ordinary conditions the growth of the seedhng is slow, though by irrigation and weeding more rapid development can be secured. In Sind, even in the case of irrigated sowings, the seedlings normally attain a height of only 6 in. to 1 ft. by the end of the first season. The seedling tends to assume a straggling growth, developing long side branches at the expense of height-growth. It forms a long wiry taproot, which by the end of the second season may attain a length of as much as 2^ ft. or more : this helps it to establish itself in the dry regions in which it grows. Young plants are somewhat sensitive to frost, and small weakly plants are liable to die back to ground-level owing to f^ / Fig. 151. Prosopis spicigera. Seedling x |. a, seed ; b-e, germination stages ; f-j, development of seedling during first season. 394 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE drought ; such plants, if they survive, are apt to assume for a time a bushy form owing to the development of new shoots from the lower portion of the stem. In the natural home of the tree, rats are often very destructive to young plants, gnawing them just below the ground-level ; in seasons of low inunda- tion, when the rats become numerous, their ravages are worst. The leaves of seedlings fall dm"ing the cold season, the young plants being leafless for a time towards the end of that season. The following measurements of seedlings grown in experimental plots at Dehra Dun (which, however, is outside the natural habitat of the tree) compare to some extent the growth under varying treatment : Growth of Prosopis spicigera seedlings under varying treatment, Dehra Dun. O < Condition under which grown. (1) In nursery, weed- ed and watered (2) In nursery, weed- ed and watered (3) Broadcast sowing, irrigated, weeded (4) Broadcast sowing, irrigated, unweeded Height at end of season. 1st season. 2nd season. 3rd season. 0 ft. I in.-0 ft. 3 in. Maximum 0 ft. 5 in. 0 ft. 3 in.-O ft. 8 in. (side branches up to 1 ft. 7 in. long) (5) Broadcast sowing, imirrigated, weeded Maximum 1 ft. 2 in. (with several strag- gling branches) 0 ft. 3 in.-l ft. 9 in. 1 ft. 1 in.-l ft. 4 in. (only a few sur- vived the weeds, but now over them and in good condi- tion) Maximum 0 ft. 4 in. Maximum 1 ft. 0 in. Maximum 0 ft. 6 in. Maximum 0 ft. 8 in. (vigorous and numerous) Maximum 0 ft. 5 in. (few, weakly) 0 ft. 2 in.-0 ft. 9 in. (decrease due to damage by frost and drought). (6) Broadcast sowing. Maximum 0 ft. 7 in. 0 ft. 2 in.-l ft. 4 in. unirrigated, weeded (seedlings numerous) (seedlings numerous) (7) Broadcast sowing, unirrigated, un- weeded Maximum 0 ft. 7 in. (seedlings few) (all killed by frost or suppression) SiLvicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. The tree is a decided light-demander. Although the seedlings are sensitive to frost and drought, older plants are very drought-resistant and stand frost better than Acacia arahica. Although it resists ordinary frosts within its habitat, it suffered somewhat in the Punjab plains during the abnormal frost of 1905. A most important characteristic of the tree is the extremely long taproot which it develops ; this enables it to retain possession of the ground, in the dry regions which it inhabits, by obtain- ing its water-supply deep down in the subsoil. Gamble ^ mentions a specimen of a taproot, exhibited at Paris in 1878, which was 86 ft. in length, and had penetrated vertically for 64 ft. Mr. Navani '^ mentions a taproot which was dug up in Sind and found to measure 117 ft. in length. 1 Man. Ind. Timbers, 1902, p. 288. 2 Revised Working Plan for the Jerruck Forest Division, Sind, 1915. PROSOPIS 395 The tree coppices well up to a moderate age, but old trees usually coppice badly or fail to coppice. Prolonged inundation is harmful to coppice, and it is therefore advisable to cut the stools high in places liable to be flooded for long ; otherwise the coppice grows vigorously on irrigated forest land. In dry localities the stools sometimes become covered with the mounds of white ants, but although the growth of the coppice is thus checked, growth is carried on by root-suckers produced around the stump. The tree reproduces freely by root-suckers, a form of reproduction which is of great importance in enabling it to survive long after its original associates have disappeared, and to reproduce itself freely after conditions have become impossible for reproduction by seed. Although the production of root-suckers is apparent everywhere, it seems to be most active where the water-level is comparatively near the surface ; on high ground where the water-level is deep root-suckers appear for the most part close round the parent stem, and develop slowly. Felling, particularly if the stumps are grubbed out, appears to stimu- late the production of suckers : on land cleared for cultivation the roots left in the ground reclothe the area with a flourishing crop of suckers which require to be dug out again. Fires in the grassy areas of riverain tracts also stimulate the production of suckers. In some localities the tree is pollarded for camel and goat fodder : this induces rot, which spreads down into the bole, and it also frequently causes the appearance of numerous epicormic branches. The tree is readily browsed by camels and goats, and in areas open to goat browsing young plants assume a bushy growth, while a similar bushy growth often surrounds the bases of the trees owing to the browsing down of the root-suckers around them. Natural reproduction. Experiments at Dehra Dun showed that under natural conditions the seed germinates at different times during the rainy season after heavy rain, some lying ungerminated until the second season. Germination and the establishment of the seedling are greatly assisted if the seed becomes slightly covered with soil ; seeds washed into heaps in loose alluvial sand were found to germinate in quantity. If the seed germinates on the surface of the ground the radicle is apt to be eaten by insects or to dry up if there is insufficient moisture. In the dry weather following the rainy season there is much mortality among seedlings which have not succeeded in establishing themselves thoroughly. In Sind and the Punjab natural reproduction by seed is confined almost exclusively to moist depressions and other places not far from the rivers, where the seedlings obtain occasional surface water and where the proximity of the subsoil water-level to the siu-face ensures soil moisture sufficient to enable the seedlings to establish themselves. This question of soil moisture appears to be all-important, for whereas on the lower ground near the rivers promising crops of Prosopis establish themselves from seed, on the high and dry ground away from rivers seedling reproduction is almost entirely absent, and the species has to depend on its remarkable power of reproduction by root- suckers to maintain its existence in these dry tracts. Here, although the seed may germinate successfully, the seedlings are unable to survive the drought. 396 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE In the riverain areas the young plants appear to resist suppression better than Acacia arahica, and are often found making their way through a fairly dense growth of grass where the latter species fails to establish itself. Artificial reproduction. Various experiments carried out at Dehra Dun have shown that transplanting cannot be relied upon, but that direct sowings are successful if the seedlings are kept free from weeds and the soil is periodically loosened. Transplanting was tried both in the first and in the second rainy season, with entire as well as with pruned roots and stem, but failure resulted in each case. In the dry parts of the Punjab plains, attempts have repeatedly been made to raise plantations by direct sowing without irrigation, but failure has resulted in every case, since the plants, just as in the case of natural seedlings, are unable to resist the drought. On the other hand, sowings artificially irrigated have proved quite successful, as in the case of the portion of the Changa Manga plantation known as the ' Jand extension ', formed about the year 1885, and now a flourishing plantation of Prosopis several hundred acres in extent (see Fig. 152). In Sind the tree has been successfully raised by sowings in conjunction with cereal crops on irrigated land. It has also been raised successfully by sowings on land which is subject to occasional floods but is too dry to support Acacia arahica permanently : these sowings require to be watered thoroughly during the first year, after which occasional watering is usually sufficient until the plants are established. Sowings of Prosopis in conjunction with field crops are carried out as a rule on the higher land above the reach of river floods, the lower land being devoted to the raising of the more valuable Acacia arahica. On these higher lands the system usually followed is to saw strips of Prosopis 4 ft. wide, with intervening strips 20 ft. wide sown with field crops. Irrigation is carried out by means of Persian wheels. Cultivation along with irrigation continues for two years ; during the third year there is no cultivation of field crops, but irrigation is continued under agreement with the cultivator. • After the third year the seedlings require no attention, but have to be protected against browsing animals. The field crops are the irrigated klmrij crops sown in June together with the tree seeds and reaped in November ; the crops commonly cultivated are the two millets hajri {Pennisetum typhoideum) and jowari {Sorghum vulgare), and sometimes sesamum, chillies, or other crops. The crops are irrigated from June to October. The field crops are assessed to revenue, and the cultivation is carried out under a regular agreement by which the cultivator is bound to protect the young plants from browsing and other injury during the three years in which they are under his care. An experiment, which appears to have been successful, in planting up saline land with Prosopis spicigera and Acacia arahica, is described under the latter (p. 440). SiLVicuLTURAL TREATMENT. It will be apparent from what has been said above that seedling reproduction is not obtainable in the plains of Sind and the Punjab except in riverain areas subject to occasional floods : hence throughout the higher tracts any system involving the retention of seed- bearers is out of the question. In the Punjab the system in operation is simple coppice, and the rotation bJO OS o =0^ o 'M o Fig. 153. Xylia dolabrifonnis, IJurma. PROSOPIS . 397 commonly adopted is thirty years. In Sind the treatment followed, which is based primarily on the requirements of the principal species, Acacia arahica, is that of clear-felling with natural reproduction on the riverain alluvium, supplemented where necessary by artificial sowing, often with the aid of field crops ; these sowings, as applied to Prosopis spicigera, have been described above. At one time a rotation of fifteen years was adopted, but as this was found to be too short it was raised subsequently to thirty years, which is the rotation prescribed in the more recent working plans. In the Sind coupes, reproduction of Prosopis is secured also by root-suckers and coppice- shoots. It is many years since the stimulation of reproduction by root-suckers became the subject of observation and experiment in the Punjab. In 1881 ' Punjabi ' } recording his observations in the case of land cleared for cultiva- tion where the stumps were respectively left in the ground and grubbed out, notes that in the latter case the resulting root-suckers were stronger and more numerous than in the former, and ascribes this in part to the fact that water lodges in the holes left after grubbing out the stumps and tends to keep the surrounding soil moist : these observations were subsequently confirmed by experiments made on forest land. The grubbing out of the stump and upper portion of the taproot, apart from its effect in stimulating the production of root-suckers, has the advantage of providing a considerable quantity of fuel and thus increasing the yield. The question of sucker reproduction is again alluded to in 1892 by Mr. C. F. Elliot,- who writes : ' It is some years since in the Punjab we recognized that the regeneration of Prosopis spicigera in the bar forests depends chiefly on root-suckers ; at all events, that any improvement in the way of filling up blanks will be accomplished in this way and not by seed. ... It is well known that these shoots from the roots of trees of which the stumps and main roots even have been dug out on the compartment lines are almost impossible to kill : year after year they have to be cleared away to keep the lines open.' Rate of growth. Seedling trees. The growth of the seedling for the first few years is slow, but subsequent growth up to an age of about forty to fifty years is fairly rapid, particularly on land which is subject to periodical floods. In the original working plan of the Jerruck division, Sind, it is estimated that an average diameter oi 10 in. is attained in 30 years. ^ In the Naushahro division, Sind,^ countings of annual rings on stumps of seedling stems in fiverain forest gave 3-1 in. diameter in six years, 5-1 in. diameter in eleven years, and 6-6 in. diameter in fourteen years. In partially inundated areas the growth was faster, namely 6 in. diameter in nine years, and 7-5 in. diameter in fourteen years. Coppice-shoots. Mr. B. 0. Coventry ^ estimates that coppice-shoots in the Punjab attain a height of about 30 ft. in fifteen years, with a girth of 2 to 3 ft. in good localities, and that the out-turn of fuel per acre varies from 100 to 1,000 cubic ft. and averages 300 cubic ft. stacked. The following measure- 1 Ind. Forester, vi (1880-1), p. 327. ^ /jj^^,^ xviii (1892), p. 305. 3 Working Plan for the Jerruck Division, Sind, A. C. Robinson, 1899. * Working Plan for the Forests of the Naushahro Division, Sind, A. C. Robinson, 1900. s Ind. Forester, xli (1915), pp. 310-11. 398 XXIII. LEGIBIINOSAE ments of vigorous and fairly vigorous coppice-shoots in Multan are recorded by Mr. A. L. Mclntire : ^ Prosopis spicigera : coppice measurements, Multan. Out-turn of thick wood over 2 in. in diameter Age. Diameter. j)er stool. years. in. cubic ft. stacked. 5 1 to 2-5 10 3 to 5 1 to 10, av. 4 15 5 to 7 or 8 6 to 18, av. 10 20 6 to 9 or 10 10 to 30, av. 20 Experimental coppice fellings in the Montgomery district were carried out in 1912 in different months from April to November ; measurements made on January 10, 1915, showed that shoots obtained from trees felled from April to August (i.e. aged two years five months to two years nine months) varied in height from 6 ft. to 12 ft. 6 in., whilst those from trees felled from September to November (i. e. aged two years two months to two years four months) varied in height from 4 ft. to 7 ft. 8 in.- Measurements made in 1899-1900 in annually inundated riverain coppice coupes in the Naushahro forest division, Sind, gave the following results : ^ Prosopis spicigera : measurements of riverain coppice, Naushahro, Sind. Forest. Mohbat Dero Bhour Bhorti In the Jerruck division of Sind it is estimated that coppice-shoots 4-8 in. in diameter are produced in fifteen years.'* The following measurements, made in 1901-2, of 2,073 coppice-shoots in the Sukkur division of Sind, show the average rate of growth in riverain and dry forests respectively : ^ Prosopis spicigera : coppice measurements, Sukkur, Sind. Age 3 years. Age 4 years. No. of stems measured. Mean girth at 1 ft. from ground-level. No. of stems measured. Mean girth at 1 ft. from ground-level. 29 60 25 in. 5-9 6-2 5-9 39 81 34 in. 95 9-5 9-5 Mean diameter. Age. Riverain forests. Dry forests, years. in. in. 2 1-77 1-20 3 2-48 1-72 4 3-65 2-43 5 4-25 2-89 6 517 3-51 ^ Wjorking Plan for the South Kabirwala and Mailsi Forests, Multan, 1899. 2 Punjab Forest Conference Proceedings, 1915, p. 17. ' Working Plan for the Forests of the Naushahro Division, Sind, A, C. Robinson, 1900. ^ Working Plan for the Forests of the Jerruck Division, Sind, A. C. Robinson, 1899. ^ Working Plan for the Forests of the Sukkur Division, Sind, A. C. Robinson, 1903. PROSOPIS 399 The following coppice measurements in Baluchistan are recorded in the Forest Report of that province for 1915-16 : Prosopis spicigera : coppice measurements, Baluchistan, Age. Maximum height. Forest. years. ft. in. 4 5 8 Gullushahr 8 20 1 AbdullaKheli 9 22 2 — 10 22 0 — 11 22 10 — 2. Prosopis Juliflora, DC. Var. glandulosa, Sarg. Syn. P. glandulosa, Torr. ; P. pallida, H. B. and K. Mesquit bean. This species is very variable : the variety velutina, Sarg., is said to be the more useful timber variety, the tree reaching a height of 50 ft. and a diameter of 2 ft. (cf. R. S. Hole in Ind. For. Records, vol. iv, pt. iii). P. juli- flora, DC, the typical variety (or species) is a small evergreen tree, usually unarmed ; it is cultivated in nprthern India, but not extensively. Var. glandulosa, Sarg. (P. glandulosa, Torr.), is a small or moderate-sized deciduous tree armed with stout scattered axillary thorns : it appears to have been first introduced into India in 1877 from seed obtained through Kew, and in some of the drier parts of India has proved of great importance for afforestation work, for which purpose it deserves further attention. It is recommended for plant- ing shifting sands in dry localities. It is also a useful source of supply of fuel, of faimine fodder, and of food for man in times of scarcity, the pods being sweet and edible. Its natural distribution, according to Bentham,^ is ' west tropical and sub-tropical North and South America ; very abundant from Buenos Ayres and Chile, along the Andes, to Mexico and Texas, and frequently planted '. In North America it is ' one of the characteristic trees of the lower Sonoran Zone, an area where the conditions as to rainfall and climate range from arid to semi-arid, that is, the rainfall varies from less than 10 to about 25 in. per aimum '.'^ In Jamaica the tree is known as ' cashaw ', and is described as ' an admirable tree (often attaining a height of 40 to 60 ft.) to grow in dry gravelly soil, and in situations where rain does not fall for months together. It is fast growing : the ti^iber is excessively hard and of a remarkably durable character. It is used for making knees of boats and all work requiring strength and tenacity. Posts of cashaw in wire fences last longer than any other, and are in great request for that purpose. . . . The pods are of a sweetish succulent character eagerly sought for by cattle : indeed in some parts of this island during droughts they subsist largely on them.' ^ In India it has succeeded admirably in dry regions, reproducing some- times in profusion by seed and by root-suckers : in damp localities, however, the seedlings are apt to die off in the first rains, being susceptible to an excess of moisture. In Sind it has proved a most useful sand-binder, and has been grown there since 1878. It may be seen growing in profusion about Miani * Mimoseae in Trans. Linn. Soc, vol. xxx, 1874. 2 U. S. Dept. Agric. Bull. 16, J. G. Smith, 1899, p. 18. 3 Ind. Forester, x (1884), p. 293. 400 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE near Hyderabad. For many years inroads of drifting sand gave much trouble in this place, but it has reproduced naturally over the Miani plain through seed distributed by goats, which eat the pods ; as a result it has fixed the sand and has formed an efficient screen against further inroads of drifting sand. It has also done well in Baluchistan, where it has been found to resist drought admirably. In northern India the seed ripens in May and June. Seedlings can best be raised in flower-pots, several seeds being sown in each pot. When about 4 in. high they are transferred singly to small pots, and planted out in the monsoon, about August, after a good fall of rain. Direct sowings are also successful. Mr. R. N. Parker has published the following interesting note on the tree in the Punjab : ^ ' One striking peculiarity about the plant is that wherever large specimens are seen in dry and arid districts, natural seedlings are almost sure to be found in abundance in the immediate neighbourhood. The tendency of P. juliflora to spread naturally may be seen on the unil-rigated strip of land between the canal and the plantation at Changa-Manga. Here the rainfall averages 15 inches and the strip of land referred to carries a sparse growth of the trees which were found in this district before the plantation was made, i. e. Prosopis ■spicigera, Capparis aphylla and Salvadora oleoides. A few trees of P. juliflora were planted some years ago in this strip and they are spreading rapidly, the seedlings being in places so dense that it is difficult to walk through them. Cattle graze here daily, but plants within easy reach show no signs of having been browsed. Seedlings of the indigenous trees it may be remarked are conspicuous by their absence. P. juliflora keeps to the unirrigated ground and shows no inclination to spread into the plantation. ' In Khushalgarh, in what once was the compound of a P.W.D, build- ing but which now is the most accessible portion of the village grazing ground, there are two P. juliflora trees about 2 ft. in girth and 25 ft. high, A few root-suckers of Capparis aphylla badly browsed by goats and a soft sandstone rock describes the growing stock and soil of the surrounding waste. The rainfall is, I believe, about 18 inches. In spite of these unfavourable conditions, seed- lings of P. juliflora are plentiful around the large trees and extend some distance away into the village waste. ' In the Pabbi reserve P. juliflora has been successfully used in reboise- ment works and has made considerably faster growth than Acacia modesta, with which it has as a rule been mixed. Regeneration of P. juliflora is frequent in the Pabbi reboisement area, whereas natural seedlings of the indigenous trees are difficult to find. P. juliflora was tried many years ago at Gujranwala. I have not seen the original trees, but along the railway line all the way from Gujranwala to the Pabbi Hills natural seedlings of P. juliflora may be seen at frequent intervals, P. j^diflora has certainly come to stay in the Punjab and it is likely to be a common tree in all the drier districts in time, ' I have grown P. juliflora on a small scale almost every year since 190G, mainly without much success, but as failures often teach us more than success, I mention some of them. In 1906-07 I tried P. juliflora at Nurpur, district Kangra, The plants grew well as long as they were in pots, but on being planted out they did badly and none were left when I visited Nurpur in October 1912, In Nurpur the rainfall is 67 inches, but the plants were tried in a dry well-drained place. In the winter of 1907-08 I planted some plants in a hedge of Agaves at Phillaur. The plants were not watered at all, but I saw them on the 30th June, 1908 (the rains broke next day), and found them all doing 1 Tnd. Forester, xxxix (1913), ]). 320. PROSOPIS 401 well. I looked for these plants when I next visited Phillaur in July 1912, but found very few left, and these had made poor growth. A few hundred yards off there was a natural seedling of P. juliflora growing in a jfield, and the growth made by this plant in the four years 1908-12 was very marked. The rainfall in Phillaur is about 30 inches. In 1909 I tried P. juliflora in a grassy blank in one of the scrub forests in Hazara. I saw the sowings about a year later and found that the plants had made very poor growth and gave little promise of surviving. In this case the rainfall was 30-40 inches. ' The spread of P. juliflora over grass-lands in parts of America has been attributed to the stocking of the country with cattle, which graze down the grass and weaken it, and thus enable the tree to compete successfully against it. In the cases of failure with P. juliflora mentioned above there was a fairly heavy grass growth and protection from grazing, and it seems that this may have been responsible for the bad results. The rainfall could not have been responsible except perhaps indirectly by favoring the growth of other plants, as the natural seedling in Phillaur showed. This seedling was in a place where grass and jungle were kept down by cattle. Cattle and even goats seem to do little harm to P. juliflora, and I have often been surprised to see the leaves untouched, although within easy reach of cattle and at a time when there is little green fodder available. ' As regards frost-hardiness, I have seen seedlings pass through a winter at Abbottabad (4,000 ft.) uninjured, so that it may be regarded as quite hardy anywhere in the plains of India. ' The habit of P. juliflora is peculiar : most of the trees and all the natural seedlings I have seen branch at ground level, giving several crooked branches. . . . There is, however, an erect form, and the two big specimens in Khushalgarh had an upright habit not unlike that of Acacia arabica. This form, however, is not constant, as the seedlings from the Khushalgarh trees all showed the usual crooked habit. ' As regards the rate of growth of P. juliflora, G. B. Sudworth says in " Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope " : "The tree is unquestionably long lived, though of exceedingly slow growth. Trunks 10-12 inches in diameter are from 100 to 125 years old, while the larger trunks occasionally found are likely to be very much older." This does not apply to the tree in India, as it has only been introduced some 35 years, and specimens 6-8 inches in diameter are not infrequent. . . . ' As a drought-resister I know of no tree to equal P. juliflora. It has been used with success to clothe some old brick-kiln mounds in the Govern- ment Agri-Horticultural Gardens, Lahore. The average rainfall in Lahore is 19 inches, and of this a large portion usually falls in heavy showers on one or two days in the year and runs off the steep slopes of the mounds so that the trees have to manage with considerably less than 19 inches of effective rain. Two years in succession of deficient rain has caused some of the plants on the top of the mounds to lose the tips of their shoots, but although there must be fully 100 specimens I have not seen a single one that has died of drought. On the very top of one of these mounds a sowing was made in 1911. The seedlings were not watered, and the rainfall in 1911 and 1912 was 13 and 14 inches respectively. When I last saw the place about a month ago, a good many plants were left. The place is much frequented, and the survivors all showed signs of having been trodden on, so that it is quite likely that those which died, died from having been trodden on and not from deficient moisture. Mr. Brown, Superintendent of Farms, N.-W. F. Province, tells me he has P. juliflora growing luxuriantly on the crest of a dry bank near Peshawar. The plants were planted in February 1911, and were not watered; the rainfall in 1911 amounted to 13 inches, and to 8 inches in 1912. The ability of this plant to withstand drought is astonishing, especially as it comes into leaf early in April and remains green right through the hot weather. 2307.2 -c. 402 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE ' . . . Any one who has collected seeds of Indian Acacias or Albizzias must have noticed the large proportion attacked by insects. With Acacia modesta in the Punjab it is not uncommon to find fully half the seed crop destroyed by weevils. In the case of P. jiUiflora seed collected in India, I have never seen a single seed attacked. To this is perhaps largely due the profuse reproduction of P.julifiora in suitable localities as compared with the indigenous trees. During the past 18 months I have received several consignments of P. juliflora seed from Mexico, and in each case found a very large proportion of the seed destroyed by weevils. It is evident that P. juliflora on being brought to India has left its natural enemies behind. The publicity given to the merits of this tree may perhaps lead to fresh consignments of seed being imported from America, and if this is done, care should be taken to see that the weevils are not introduced too. As seed is produced in abundance in India there is no need to import it from America, unless the object be to obtain other varieties than var. glandulosa. Last year over 60 maunds of seed was collected in the Pabbi Reserve, and several maunds could be collected annually in Lahore or Changa-Manga.' 2. XYLIA, Benth. Species 1. X. dolahriformis , Benth.; 2. X. xylocarpa, Roxb. L Xylia dolabriformis, Benth. Iron wood of Burma, pyinkado. Vern. Pyinkado, pyin, Burm. (Fig. 153.) A very large deciduous tree. Leaves bipinnate with one pair of pinnae, each pinna with two to six pairs of leaflets. Bark thin, yellowish or reddish grey, fairly smooth, exfoliating in irregular rounded plates. Wood reddish brown, very hard, heavy and durable, extensively used for house and bridge construction and for railway sleepers ; it is one of the most important timbers in Burma. Under favourable conditions the tree reaches a height of 120 ft. and a girth of 12 ft. or more, but on poor ground it is stunted. Distribution and habitat. Throughout the greater part of Burma and Arakan, ascending to 3,000 ft. In the Irrawaddy valley it extends as far north as 24° N. lat., being locally common in some of the forests of the Shweli river drainage : in the Chindwin valley it extends somewhat farther north, though its northernmost limit has not yet been accurately determined. It extends southward into Tenasserim, eastward into the Shan States, and westward into Arakan. It is probably most abundant, as well as most accessible, in the extensive forests of the Pegu Yoma, the low range of hills running up the centre of Burma and forming the watershed between the Irrawaddy and Sittang rivers. It is foiuid in parts of the dry zone of Upper Burma, but here it does not attain large dimensions. In Arakan it occurs in many localities, often in belts or patches of varying extent. The quality is best in the Sando- way district, where the percentage of pyinkado in the crop is usually higher than it is in most parts of Burma ; on the islands, and in the eastern part of the Akyab district, the trees are often stunted and badly shaped. Pyinkado is found both on hilly and on flat ground, but particularly on the former, attaining its best development on the lower slopes of hills and in well-drained valleys. It thrives best on d(?ep moist porous loam and requires good drainage, for which reason its occurrence on flat ground is decidedly local, being confined to well-drained areas, preferably with a slightly undulating XYLIA 403 mrface ; it avoids low-lying flat ground subject to inundation. The tree is 'ound on a variety of geological formations. On the sandstones and shales )f the Pegu Yoma, producing a deep sometimes sandy loam, it thrives extremely ^ell. In the Chindwin valley it is found, often of large size, on sandstone md conglomerate with occasional shale, clay, or limestone. In the Ruby ilines district it occurs to some extent on limestone, sandstone, slate, and ihale. Mr. G. R. Jeffery ^ attributes its local occurrence in this district to he fact that it avoids saline and ferruginous soils : thus, although it is present i,nd abundant in the Hintha and Ondok blocks, it is wholly absent from the leighbouring Kyauktaung block, where the soil is largely saline and ferru- jinous. In the Madaya drainage of the Mandalay district it occurs on gneiss .nd occasional limestone, while east of the Sittang river it is found on gneiss bUd granitic schist. In the Thaungyin valley of Tenasserim it occurs on argil- aceous sandstones and shales, on igneous or metamorphic rocks and on Lmestone. In various localities it grows on recent alluvium, provided the Irainage is good. In the dry zone of Upper Burma it is found to a very imited extent and of small size on sandstone with alternating thin bands of hale. Throughout its distribution it occurs locally and in stunted form on j/terite in the dry dipterocarp forest known as ifidaing. In the natural habitat of the tree the absolute maximum shade temperature aries from 100° to 113° F., and the absolute minimum from 40° to 55° F. ^s regards rainfall requirements, it is actually found in limited quantity in he dry zone of Upper Burma in places where the normal rainfall is as low as 0 in., though here it reaches only a small size. It may be said in general hat where the rainfall is less than 45 in. it does not attain large dimensions, r'hile it grows best with a rainfall of 60 in. and over ; actually it is known 0 grow extremely well with a rainfall of 120 in., and no doubt it thrives in ven wetter localities. The tree occurs in five broad types of forest : (1) upper mixed deciduous Drest; (2) lower mixed deciduous forest; (3) evergreen forest; (4) indaing Drest ; and (5) scrub forest of the dry zone. 1. Upper mixed deciduous forest. This is by far the most important ype, and the one in which the trees are found in the greatest abmidance nd attain the largest dimensions. This type is characteristic of hilly country, lie hills being often little more than comparatively low spurs, as on the outer :inges of the Pegu Yoma (see Fig. 155) : it is the type which comprises the reat bulk of the more important teak forests of Burma, and is in the great lajority of cases characterized by the presence of bamboos. There are many ab-types of this type ; these can be classified to a large extent according 0 the moistness or dryness of the forest, the bamboos being the best indicators, 'he moistest sub-type is that which verges on evergreen, and often contains ttle or no teak ; in this sub-type, which is well developed in the moister 3gions of the Pegu Yoma, pyinkado is sometimes so abundant as to become ractically gregarious. This sub-type merges into the typical moist mixed eciduous sub-type and thence through various stages into the driest sub-type f mixed deciduous forest. The typical bamboo of the driest sub-type is ^ Working Plan for the Hintha, Ondok, and Kyauktaung Reserves, Ruby Mines Division, 308. F 2 404 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE Dendrocalamus strictus, while Batnbusa Tulda is also found in dry forest, though it extends also into the moister sub-types. Other typical bamboos of the upper mixed deciduous forests are Banibusa polymorpM, Cephalostachyum pergracile, Oxyteimiithera alhociliata, Dendrocalamus lo7igis2)atJms (moist valleys in the Pegu Yoma), and Thyrsostachys Oliveri (Upper Burma). The pj'inkado probably reaches its finest development in upper mixed forest of the moister sub-type, in which Bambusa polymorpJm grows in greatest luxuriance. In the Pegu Yoma some of its more important associates in the upper mixed type are Tectona grandis, Lagerstroemia Flos-Reginae, L. tomeiitosa, L. villosa, Homalium tomentosum, TermijiaUa tomentosa, T. Chebula, T. pyrifolia, Sterculia spp., Adina cordifolia, A. sessilifolia, Stephegyne diversifolia, Bomhax insigne, Spondias majigifera, Odina Wodier, Dalbergia cultrata, D. ovata, Pterocarpus macrocarpus (in dry forest), Cassia Fistula, Alhizzia odoratissima, Acacia Catechu (in drier types), ScJdeichera trijuga, Berrya Ammonilla, Eugenia Jam- holanu, Gmelina arhorea, Vitex pubesceris, V. glabrata, Premna tomentosa, and Ajiogeissus acumiiiata. In moist types verging on evergreen forest Diptero- carpus alatus makes its appearance, while in the drier types approaching indaing in character the most important trees are Pentacme suavis and Shorea obtusa. There is a further variety of dry forest without bamboos, exemplified in parts of the Pegu Yoma, locally known as thitkyin forest, which is charac- terized by an extremely plentiful advance growth of pyinkado, and in which the most characteristic species, apart from Xylia, are Tectona grandis, Ter- minalia tomentosa, Homalium tomentosum, and Lagerstroemia Flos-Reginae. In the Chindwin drainage most of the above-mentioned species are also found. In the southern part of this drainage Acacia Catechu and Pterocarpus macrocarpus are fairly common. The chief bamboos are Ceplialostachyum pergracile, Dendrocalamus strictus, Bambusa Tulda, and Dendrocalamus Bran- disii. Bambusa polymorpha is very rare and local. In the Ruby Mines district pyinkado, though somewhat local, is plentiful in some localities. It is found in three main types of forest : (i) on fertile sometimes rather dry slopes with Tectona grandis, Terminalia tomentosa, T. Chebida, Vitex pubescens, V. alata, Pterocarpus nmcrocarpus , Anogeissus acuminata, Adina cordifolia, Pentacme suavis, Odina Wodier, Sterculia versi- color, 8. villosa, &c., the chief bamboos being Dendrocalamus strictus, Thyrso- stachys Oliveri, and Ceplialostachyum pergracile ; (ii) on flats in bends of streams with Tectona grandis, Lagerstroemia Flos-Reginae, Tetrarneles nudiflora, Adina cordifolia, Anogeissus acuminata, Terminalia tomentosa, and Pterocarpus macro- carpus, the chief bamboos being Bambusa Tulda and Oxytenanthera albociliata, and there is often a dense undergrowth of thorny climbers ; (iii) in poor open bamboo forest, chiefly of Dendrocalamus strictus, and occasionally Thyrsostachys Oliveri and Ceplialostachyum pergracile, on dry shallow soil, where the trees attain small dimensions ; here the principal associate species are Terminalia tomentosa, T. Oliveri (in drier parts), Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Diospyros burmanica, Acacia Catechu, Adina cordifolia, Odina Wodier, and others, and there is often a dense thorny undergrowth of such shrubs as Harrisonia Bennettii and Cratoxylon prunifolium. In the Madaya drainage of the Mandalay district pyinkado is associated with numerous deciduous species, such as Tectona grandis, Pterocarpus macro- XYLIA 405 carpus, Terminalia tomentosa, GmeliTia arborea, &c., with Pentacme suavis and Shorea obtusa in the drier parts ; the chief bamboo is Thyrsostachys Oliven, with Dendrocalamus strictus. on dry areas. In the Thaungyin drainage of Tenasserim the most important pyinkado tracts are the semi-moist and dry mixed teak-bearing forests, which are found partly on hill slopes and ridges and partly on flat alluvial ground with sandy soil along the Thaungyin river ; in the former areas Dendrocalamus strictus is the prevailing bamboo. Pyinkado of large size is plentiful in all the semi- moist forests, especially along the Thaungyin river, its chief associates being Tectona grandis, Terminalia tomentosa, Lagerstroemia Flos-Reginae, L. tomen- tosa, Adina cordifolia, Ginelina arborea, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Homalium tomeiitosmn, and Odina Wodier ; the principal bamboos, besides Dendrocalamus strictus, are Oxytenanthera albociliata, Dendrocalamus Brandisii, CepJmlo- stacJiyum pergracile, Bambusa Tulda, and B. arundinacea. Pyinkado is also found to a limited extent in moist forest containing no teak, which occurs chiefly on the higher moist slopes on the east of the Meple-Thaungyin water- shed ; this forest is characterized by a dense undergrowth of bamboo, chiefly Oxytenanthera albociliata. 2. Lower mixed deciduous forest. So far as pyinkado is concerned this type is of less importance than the upper mixed forest. It occurs on the flat usually alluvial ground of the plains, and merges, to some extent into the upper mixed type or into evergreen forest or, where laterite occurs, into indaing forest. Pyinkado is not found on the low-lying portions of the alluvial plains, where the forest merges into savannah types, but occurs only where the drainage is good. Its chief companions are Tectona grandis, Lagerstroemia Flos-Reginae, L. onacrocarpa, L. toinentosa, Terminalia tomentosa, T. belerica, T. Chebula, T. pyrifolia, Homalium tomentosum, Adina cordifolia, A. sessili- folia, Stephegyne parvifolia, S. diversifolia, Careya arborea, Odina Wodier, Bridelia retusa, Eugenia Jambolana, Berrya Ammonilla, Eriolaena Candollei, Schleichera trijuga, Dalbergia cultrata, Anogeissus acuminata, Diospyros ehre- tioides, Vitex glabrata, and Dillenia pentagyna. Bamboos are usually absent, though in some localities Bambusa Tulda occurs along watercourses. 3. Evergreen forest. Although tropical evergreen forest is very frequently found without pyinkado, the tree nevertheless occurs in this type, in common with other large deciduous trees such as Tetrameles nudiflora, Sterculia alata, Artocarpus Chaplasha, and A. Lakoocha, as well as lofty evergreen species such as Dip)terocarpus alatus, Hopea odorata, Anisoptera glabra, and others, all these forming an upper story over a dense growth of evergreens of many species, with palms and canes. It is probable that this type represents in many cases a progressive succession from deciduous to evergreen forest, and this is borne out by the fact that pyinkado-bearing types intermediate between the deciduous and the tropical evergreen forest are met with, and that in the latter the pyinkado may be represented only by large trees which have survived from the former moist deciduous forest. Mr. A. E. Ross ^ notes an interesting fact regarding the encroachment of evergreen forest and its effect on teak and pyinkado in the forest of the lower Thaungyin drainage in Tenasserim. It was noted that on the edges of evergreen forest within the ^ Working Plan for the Lower Thaungyin Working Circle, 1909. 406 XXIII. LEGUIVIINOSAE fire-protected area the evergreen species appeared to be spreading. Several pyinkado, teak, and other moist forest species were found standing dead in the evergreen near its edge. Many of these trees still had their bark on and had evidently been choked for want of light. Farther in, dry stag- headed trees and fallen trees of these species were occasionally met with. 4. Indaing forest. This type of dry dipterocarp forest occm's on laterite or gravel, among its most characteristic species being Dipterocarpus tiiber- culatus, Pentacme suavis, Shorea obtusa, Melanorrhoea usitata, Buclw.iiania latifolia, Dillenia pulcherrirna , and Diospyros hurmanica. Pyinkado is some- times fairly plentiful in this type, but the trees are always stmited, and this forest cannot be regarded as an important pyinkado-bearing type. 5. Scrub forest of the dry zone. Pyinkado is not a typical tree of the dry zone of Burma, but is met with to a very limited extent in the better types of dry zone scrub forests on sandstone with alternating thin bands of shale, though it attains only small dimensions ; its chief companions are Pentacme suavis, Shorea obtusa, Terminalia tomentosa, T. Oliveri, Tectona Hamiltoniana , Acacia Catechu, A. leucophloea, Cassia renigera, Buclmnania latifolia, Odina Wodier, Diospyros burmajiicu, and Schleichera trijuga. Some figures may now be quoted showing the prevalence of pyinkado in different forest tracts. The proportion of this species in the lower mixed forests is comparatively small, the highest percentage recorded being 9-4 for the Kangyi reserve of the Zigon forest division. Some of the plains forests, however, owing to their accessibility, have been heavily worked in the past, and figures regarding these forests may be misleading : thus the Satpok reserve in Tharrawaddy, with only 3 per cent, of pyinkado, contains numerous stumps of that species. The case of the upper mixed forests is different, for working plan enumerations have been carried out over extensive areas where pyinkado had not previously been worked, and the figures obtained indicate that in many cases, particularly in the moister types of mixed forest, pyinkado is more numerous than any other species, often approaching gregariousness. The following instances may be quoted of sample plots specially rich in pyinkado : Forest division. Pjdnmana . Xyaunglebin Toungoo Tharrawaddy Average number of pyinkado trees 3 ft. Area of and over in girth Forest. sample plot. acres. per acre. Yeni 133-4 11-4 Aingdon Kun 118-0 10-7 99 89-0 ll-o ?9 100-0 111 West Kun 124-0 14-3 Yenwe 104-0 10-9 Gwethe 68-8 110 Konbilin 41 0 11-51 ^ Trees 1 ft. in diameter and over. Outside the Pegu Yoma the richest pyinkado tract hitherto examined is the Nwa working circle of the Myittha forest division in the Chindwin drainage, where enumerations showed an average for the whole tract of 490 pyinkado trees 3 ft. and over in girth per 100 acres, this species forming no less than 24 per cent, of the total growing stock. Fig. 154. Xylia dolabvifovmis — Seedling x f a — Seed b- e — Germination stages f - j— Development of seedling to end of first season 408 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE Prevalence of Xylia dolabriformis in the Pegu Yoma forests proceeding from north to south. Western side of watershed. Eastern side of watershed. Sound trees 3 ft. Sound trees 3 and over in girth. and over in gi Percent- Percent- No. age of Forest or For- For- Forest or age of ]^ per total working circle. Approxi- est est Approxi- working circle. total p 100 growing mate divi- divi- mate growing 1 acres. stock. rainfall, in. sion. sion. c rainfall, in. 40 45 50 55 Sinthe Taungnyo Pozamigdaung Ngalaik Yanaungmjan stock. 9-5 12-7 12-2 16-6 ao 2( 2- 2{ „■ c3 60 Kaing Palwe j 14-9 22 B . , , .i-t 65 Yonbin 21-5 3{ P-i 70 Minbyin 15-5 3: Satsuwa 0 75 Yeni Saing Yane 141 171 3( 0 3 228 13 Tindaw ,E. Yoma 45 0 80 Kyaukmasin W. Swa 1 16-7 3 17-9 N. Nawin 1—' 0 85 Sabyin Lonyan . 23-6 3^ 280 324 18-6 Middle Nawin 50 53 in . . Kabaung 23-3 3: 248 17-3 S. Nawin . . S 0 . . Bondaung 22-0 4 300 17-5 Chaungzauk . . rt 90-100 Pyuchaung and (1581 9-11) 18-2 Shwele Taungnyo 55 ^ Pyukun 21-9 3 2842 : 230 2 Minhla ' 70 ^3 iz;' 270 2 Mokka , , t 2112 2502 Kadinbilin Konbilin 75 80 bC 120 S. Zamayi 20-0 3 2192 Thonze 248 15-6 Rangoon hills 95 ill m ^ These figures do not afford a fair comparison, as they are calculated on a total containing a considerabh of unproductive forest. 2 The working plans give numbers of trees 1 ft. in diameter and over ; the number 3 ft. in girth and over ' be slightly greater. o CO c« ^ -+-J c^ _- r-* g :3 S o ^ ■+-i ?s © Si) 03 r e :p o 4^ GO ^J -»J o =+H '+^ ® r— ( T3 o r-l © ,~^ 0) ""^ u !h -P n3 :3 s r-< r^ fl .^H © •4J 03 -l-i ;-l • ^H +s ^ C» _C0 . CD f>i ;-i i^ -jn O K 5^ •-0 o ^' cS s o • -.ii f*c. (D 5ri < id lO be cc ^ 2 o CO o s ^ I = v; a; II O V c • i c .5 ^ "t: O E XYLIA 409 The growth of the seedling during the first season is only moderate, a height of 5-12 in. being ordinarily attained. In the second and subsequent years, however, the development under favourable conditions is rapid, as the measurements in the statement below will show. Growth is greatly stimulated by regular weeding and loosening of the soil, as well as by moderate watering : it is much impeded by weeds and by stiff soil, as the seedling requires good drainage and soil- aeration. Fig. 156 shows a plant towards the end of the second season, vigorous growth having been stimulated by regular weeding and watering. A long taproot is developed at an early age ; it may reach a length of 1 ft. in two months from germination and a length of 1-5 ft. or more by the end of the first season. In the middle of the second season a plant was dug up with a taproot 3 ft. 2 in. long and 0-6 in. in diameter. The seedling stands comparatively heavy shade in its early stages. It is sensitive to drought as well as to frost. The table below gives a summary of measurements in experimental plots at Dehra Dun, in which the beneficial effects of weeding are clearly demon- strated. The rate of growth for a locality far outside the natural habitat of the species is remarkable. Xylia dolabriformis : rate of growth of young plants, Dehra Dun. dition under which grown. nursery, weeded and watered nursery, weeded and watered nursery, weeded and watered Dadcast sowing (seed lightly vered), irrigated, weeded aadcast sowing (seed lightly vered), irrigated, not weeded aadcast sowing (seed lightly vered), unirrigated, weeded Dadcast sowing (seed lightly vered), unirrigated, not weeded tural conditions (seed scat- red on surface of ground), not ;eded after sowing — in open tural conditions (seed scat- red on surface of ground), not jeded after sowing — in open atural conditions (seed scat- red on surface of ground), not 3eded after sowing — in slight >ade atural conditions (seed scat- red on surface of ground), not eeded after sowing — in heavy lade Height at end of season. 1st season. Oft. 3 in. -Oft. 6 in. Oft. 4in.-0ft. 11 in. Maximum 0 ft. 1 1 in. Maximum 0 ft. 7 in. Maximum 0 ft. 6 in. Maximum 0 ft. 9 in. Maximum 0 ft. 6 in. Maximum 0 ft. 5 in. Oft. 2 in. -Oft. 5 in. (impeded by weeds) Oft. 3 in. -Oft. 5 in. Oft. 3 in. -Oft. 7 in. 2nd season. Maximum 3 ft. 9 in. 6 ft. 3 in. (one plant) 0 ft. 8i in.-4 ft. 0 in. Oft. 4 in. -1ft. Sin. (impeded by weeds) Oft. 9 in. -5 ft. lin. Oft. 3 in. -Oft. 11 in. (impeded by weeds) All killed by drought 3rd season. lift. 4 in. (girth 6 in ) 4th season. 17 ft. 4 in. (girth 10 in.) 12 ft. 6 in. (girth 6 in. at 4 ft. from ground) Fig. 157 shows in a striking manner the effect of regular weeding. A plot was sown broadcast : no watering was done, but the portion to the left of the staff was regularly weeded, the soil being kept loose, while the portion to the right of it was left unweeded. The effect of the weeding after fifteen months is very marked. 410 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. The tree is a shade-bearer, particularly in youth, although in this respect it cannot compete with the more shade-bearing evergreens. It is sensitive to drought in youth. For its best development it requires a moist, deep, well-drained soil ; it is sometimes found on dry shallow soils, where, however, it never reaches large dimensions. Owing to its thin bark it is readily injured by fire, large wounds due to this cause being frequently found at the base of the tree, as shown in Fig. 155. The tree is attacked by a parasitic fungus, Fomes fulvus, Fries, the spores of which probably gain admission through wounds (see Indian Forester, xxvi. 19 and 160). The tree coppices well up to a moderate size : it is not known if it produces root-suckers like the Indian species. Natural reproduction. Experiments at Dehra Dun gave the following results : (1) Germination takes place very readily at the commencement of the rainy season. (2) Bare ground favours germination, but if the ground is hard the germinating seedling is liable to dry up before the radicle penetrates the soil ; loosening the soil greatly helps matters. (3) Mortality also takes place during germination owing to (a) the rotting of the radicle or the seed in heavy wet weed-growth or on badly-drained ground, (b) the destruction of the radicle by birds and insects, (c) the drying up of the radicle or the swollen seed if exposed to the sun after germination has started ; this is a very fruitful cause of death. (4) Under shade (other than that of heavy wet weed-growth) germination takes place readily, and the seedling can establish itself without difficulty ; in shady places the radicle may creep along the ground for some distance before it gains admission to the soil, and even roots and leaves may form before the seedling gains a footing, which would be impossible in the sun. These results appear to indicate that natural reproduction is favoured by loose bare ground under shade where the drainage is good. The question of light necessary for its establishment is considered below. In the forest young pyinkado seedlings are often found in large quantities under these conditions. On the surface of a new road under construction through the Konbilin forest in Tharrawaddy, where the soil had recently been dug up and levelled, in June 1904 I observed seedlings in countless numbers ; these were so numerous that it was impossible to walk without treading on them at every step. In the same forest pyinkado seedlings have frequently been observed in quantity under the shade of teak plantations of different ages. The effect of fire-protection on the natural reproduction of pyinkado is often most pronounced, and annual reports frequently contain references to the quantity of seedlings appearing in fire-protected forests. It is an undoubted fact that in the moister types of deciduous teak-bearing forest in the Pegu Yoma teak is to a large extent being replaced by pyinkado mider the influence of fire-protection, which, while greatly assisting the reproduction of pyinkado, has a correspondingly adverse effect on that of teak. The stimulus given by fire-protection to pyinkado reproduction has been observed in moist and dry upper mixed forest, both with and without bamboos, as well as in lower mixed forest. On the other hand, cases of good reproduction in areas annually burnt may also be observed, though such cases occur only where the state of the soil-covering is such as to preclude severe fires. The effect of ^''^sIL,*^. ;^* ^'^^- ■" IS t/2 03 02 o 03 o 02 o ->^ o 2 !=! o > o bD o Cl, „ 4J o p . OS 0) 1^ o > o p^ -2 o ^ CO o 'S O O > O o > o Qi India in addition to most of these it is commonly associated with Acacia Latronum, A. eburnea, Albizzia ainara, Canthiurn parviflorum, and Dolichandrone crispa. In the dry zone of Burma it is one of the most characteristic trees, forming somewhat open forests, often on poor shallow soil, in association with Acacia Catechu, Terminalia Oliveri, Tectona Hamiltoniana, Zizyphus Jujuba, Limonia acidissima, and other dry zone species. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 105° to 120° F., the absolute minimum from 30° to 55° F., and the normal rainfall from 18 to 60 in. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The tree is leafless towards the end of the cold season and in the earlier part of the hot season, the new leaves appearing about April. The yellowish white flowers, in small globose 1 Ind. Forester, xxi (1895), p. 2.55. 2 Preliminary Working .Scheme for the Guntur Babul Workmg Circle, Kistna District, 1893. ACACIA 445 heads 0-25 in. in diameter, arranged in large terminal panicles, appear from August to November (sometimes May, according to Brandis) ; the tree is a conspicuous sight when in blossom. The pods, 4-8 in. long by 0-2-0-35 in. broad, flat, shghtly curved, ripen from April to June (or earlier?). The pods are 10- to 20-seeded, and are scarcely dehiscent. The seeds (Fig. 166, a) are irregularly elliptical or rhomboidal, 0-2-0-25 in. by 0-15-0-2 in., dark brown, smooth, shining, compressed, with a hard testa : about 200 weigh 1 oz. The seed germinates readily with moisture and warmth, and does not require any special preparation. Germination (Fig. 166, h-e). Epigeous. The radicle emerges, the hypocotyl elongating with slight arching and carrying the cotyledons above ground ; the testa usually remains partially enclosing the cotyledons until they expand, when it falls to the ground. The seedling (Fig. 166). Roots : primary root long, terete, tapering, wiry, white turning yellowish brown : lateral roots fairly numerous, fine, fibrous : nodules present. Hypo- cotyl distinct from root, 0-4-1 -5 in. long, terete, tapering slightly upwards, expanded in a ring at the base, white turning green, glabrous. Cotyledons : petiole 0-1 in. long or less, glabrous : lamina 0-3-0-4 in. by 0-25-0-35 in., plano-convex, somewhat fleshy, ovate obovate or oblong, apex rounded, base broadly sagittate, entire, glabrous, bright green above, paler beneath. Stem erect, somewhat zigzag at the nodes, wiry, glabrous, green turning brown ; internodes 0-3-1-2 in. long. Leaves alternate. Stipular spines 0-1-0-2 in. long. First leaf once paripinnate, rachis 0-5-0-7 in. long, terminating in a fine bristle, leaflets 4-8, usually six pairs, sub-sessile, 0-1-0-25 in. by 0-1 in. or less, obliquely oblong, entire, glabrous, mucronate ; next six or more leaves bipinnate with one pair of pinnae and 5-15 leaflets on each pinna ; subsequent leaves with two pairs, followed in the second season by leaves with three or four pairs of pinnae. In loose fertile soil the growth of the seedling is fairly rapid, a height of 2 ft. or more being attained by the end of the first season. Under usual natural conditions in poor dry soil, however, the young plant grows slowly. A long taproot is developed early, and may reach a length of 1 ft. in the first month. Loose deep soil is very favourable to its development, and stiff clay is prejudicial. The seedling is sensitive to suppression by weeds : it is also very tender to frost, but has good power of recovery when killed back. SeedHngs raised at Dehra Dun ceased growing by November-December, and new growth commenced in February-March. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. Acttcia hucopMoea is a decided light- demander. It stands drought well, and was not affected by the abnormal drought of 1899-1900 in the Indian Peninsula. Though young seedlings are sensitive to frost the tree itself is frost-hardy within its habitat : in the severe frost of 1910-11 in the Central Provinces it proved to be one of the hardiest of the indigenous trees. It suffers from browsing, goats in particular being very partial to it. It coppices well and produces root-suckers. Artificial reproduction. Experiments at Dehra Dun showed that direct sowing is more successful than transplanting. Young seedlings were found to transplant fairly well early in the first rainy season, but the trans- planting checked their growth. Line sowings were found to be the most successful, as it is necessary to weed regularly, and this can be done most "b d Fig. 166. Acacia leucopJiloea. Seedling x |. a, seed ; b-e, germination stages ; /-/", development of seedling during first season. ACACIA 447 effectively along lines. Sowings have given good results in Ajmer-Merwara in places where the soil was not too dry. Line sowings in conjunction with the raising of field crops have been tried experimentally in Berar, and this system would appear to be the most satisfactory one to adopt : the details of this form of sowing are given on p. 435, under Acacia arahica. Rate of growth. Reliable statistics of rate of growth are wanting. The tree is generally considered to be slow growing. A section 2 ft. 5 in. in girth, including bark, in the silvicultural museum at Dehra Dun had 31 rings,, giving a mean annual girth increment of 0-94 in. 3. Acacia Catechu, Willd. Cutch tree. Syn. A. Sundra, DC. ; Mimosa Catechu, Linn. Vern. Khair, Hind., Mar. ; Kagli, shemi, Kan. ; Karangalli, Tam. ; Sundra, tella tumma, Tel. ; Sha, Burm. A moderate-sized deciduous tree with a light feathery crown, the branch- lets armed with twin hooked prickles. Bark 0-4-0 -5 in. thick, dark grey or greyish brown, rough, exfoliating in long narrow strips, brown and red inside. Sapwood yellowish white ; heartwood dark or light red, very hard and durable. The wood is largely used for house-posts, agricultural implements, wheels, tool-handles, and other purposes : it also gives excellent fuel and charcoal. The substances cutch and kath are obtained by boiling down chips of the heartwood : the former is largely exported for dyeing and tanning, and the latter is used for chewing with betel-nut. The tree sometimes reaches a fair size : Fig. 168 shows one 10 ft. 6 in. in girth. Prain ^ distinguishes three varieties : (1) Var. Catechu proper. Calyx, petals, and rachis covered with spreading hairs. Chiefly in the Punjab, Garhwal and Kumaun, Bihar, Ganjam, and in the Irrawaddy valley : also in North Kanara and the Konkan (Talbot). (2) Var. catechuoides. Calyx and petals glabrous, radhis puberulous. Chiefly in the Sikkim tarai and Assam, also in Upper Burma, Mysore, and the Nilgiris. (3) Var. Sundra. Calyx, petals, and rachis all glabrous. Chiefly in the Indian Peninsula and Upper Burma. Distribution and habitat. Throughout the greater part of India and Burma, except in the most humid regions. The tree is most typically found in one of two main classes of forest : (1) in the shingly or sandy alluvial beds of rivers and streams which may or may not be dry for a considerable portion of the year ; here it is markedly gregarious, often forming entirely pure forests : (2) in dry types of forest on high land away from watercourses, where it is frequently more or less gregarious, though commonly mixed with other species characteristic of dry regions. Examples of forest types in different localities are given below, and it will be seen that although the tree is capable of growing on the poorest soil in dry localities, it occurs also in mixed forest of good quality — as in the drier types of teak forest in Burma — where it may attain considerable dimensions. Rock and soil. Acacia Catechu occurs on a variety of geological formations and soils, though it undoubtedly thrives best on porous alluvium composed of sand and shingle and on well-drained sandstone, as in the Pegu Yoma. It is known to occur on granite, gneiss, schist, quartzite, shale, basalt, trap, 1 Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, LXVI, ii (1898), p. 508. 448 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE limestone, conglomerate, and laterite, while as regards soil it is common on sandy and gravelly alluvium, and on loam or gravel with varying proportions of sand and clay ; it grows also on black cotton soil. It is frequent on arid shallow stony soil and grows even on sheet rock. In the poor shallow soils composed of murrain or kankar, which are frequent in parts of the Indian Peninsula, it grows where few other species are able to survive ; this adapta- bility is seen also in parts of the sub-Himalayan tract, where it grows pure, though in stunted form, on poor hard soil composed largely of calcareous nodules, where hardly any other tree can exist. On stiff clay where the drainage is bad it becomes stunted and tends to die off early. Climate. Acacia Catechu is essentially a tree of comparatively dry regions, though in its alluvial form it extends into regions of heavy rainfall, as in the eastern sub-Himalayan tract, where it is found in places where the rainfall is as much as 150 in. In gravelly riverain tracts, however, it has few com- petitors and is no doubt enabled to establish itself for that reason. Away from riverain tracts it occurs ordinarily in localities where the normal rainfall varies from 20 to 85 in. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 105° to 120° F., and the absolute minimum from 30° to 55° F. Local occurrence. Suh-Hiinalayan tract. Acacia Catechu is common throughout the sub-Himalayan tract from the Indus to Assam, ascending the Himalayan valleys to 3,000 ft. and sometimes to 4,000 ft. From the Jumna eastwards it occurs either gregariously in the beds of rivers and streams or in various types of dry mixed forest, where it may be either more or less gregarious or scattered. The riverain khair forests of northern India are very characteristic. They spring up on new alluvium along the banks or in the beds of the rivers and streams in the valleys of the outer Himalaya and the Siwalik range, on deposits of sand, shingle, and boulders, extending some distance out into the plains provided the alluvium remains sandy or shingly and does not reach the consistency of soft mud. In these alluvial forests the khair is either pure or mixed with Dalbergia Sissoo, and occasionally with Acacia eburnea, Bombax malabaricum, Albizzia procera, and a few other species. It is also associated with characteristic grasses, the chief of which are Saccharum Munja, S. spontaneum (xerophilous form), Aristida cyananiha, Triraphis mada- gascariensis, and Andropogon monticola. There is often a dense undergrowth of Adhatoda Vasica in these riverain forests. The gregarious habit of the tree in this type of forest is shown in Fig. 169. At the higher elevations it meets the hill species ; for example, above Ratighat in the Naini Tal hills, at 4,000 ft., it grows in a river-bed with Quercus incana and Pinus longifolia growing on the slopes down to the edge of the river : in the same locality it is found mixed with Celtis australis on old riverain boulder beds. In non-riverain tracts the tree occurs either in scattered savannah lands or in various types of dry mixed forest, sometimes as a survival from former riverain forest which has become elevated at no very distant date above the river-bed owing to changes in the course of the river, but frequently on land, both flat and hilly, which shows no such recent transition, or on which it has sprung up naturally after the land has ceased to be new alluvium. In such Fig. 167. Acacia leucophloea, Upper Burma. Fig. 168. Acacia Catechu tree, 10 ft. 6 in. in girth, in riverain tract, yiwaliks. United Provinces. '•I Si !k8 ACACIA 449 tracts the kliair is frequently mixed with a variety of deciduous species, such as Dalbergia Sissoo, Bornbax malabaricum, Garuga pinnata, Odina Wodier, Ehretia laevis, Phyllanthus Emhlica, Zizyphus Jujuba, Bauhinia racemosa, Holarrhena antidyseiiterica, and others. On drier and poorer ground it is stunted, but survives under conditions which are unfavourable to the existence of almost every other species. Striking examples of its hardiness occur in certain parts of the submontane mixed forests of the Gonda district in the United Provinces, on undulating ground intersected by ravines ; the soil, besides being very poor, is subject to erosion, which is hastened by grazing, and the roots of the trees are in consequence much exposed, as shown in Fig. 172. In the poorest parts of these tracts Acacia Catechu occurs pure, nothing else being capable of growing, but where the soil is somewhat more favourable it is associated with stunted specimens of Diospyros tomentosa, Anogeissus latifolia, Buchanania latijolia, and Nyctanthes Arbor-tristis. The soil, which is excessively poor, is a reddish clay with calcareous nodular pebbles. West of the Jumna the riverain type of khair forest is scarce, being confined to a few localities, for example in parts of the Kangra valley, but the tree is common on the dry foot-hills, often associated with A, modesta, and extends in some places into the region of Pinus longifolia. In the sub-Himalayan tract Acacia Catechu occurs in localities where the normal rainfall varies from 25 to 180 in. hidian Peninsula. The tree is common throughout the greater part of the Indian Peninsula in dry types of mixed forest on a variety of geological formations and soils. In the Central Provinces and elsewhere it occurs in open grass-lands, and in teak forest of a dry type as well as in forest devoid of teak, its commoner associates being Terminalia toinentosa, T. Chebula, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Anogeissus latifolia, Diospyros Melanoxylon, Ougeinia dalbergioides, Buchanania latifolia, Zizyphus Jujuba, Z. Xylopyrus, Aegle Marmelos, Odina Wodier, Butea frondosa, Acacia leucophloea, Cochlospermum Gossypium, Holarrhena anti- dysenterica, Phyllanthus Emblica, Chloroxylon Sivietenia, Soymida febrifuga, Cleistanthus collinus, Gardenia latifolia, G. lucida, and other trees, as well as the bamboo Dendrocalamus strictus. On dry hills it is found with Boswellia serrata and Sterculia urens, in places where the soil is poor and shallow, with sheet rock cropping out. It is also found associated with Hardwickia binata on trap or on gravelly soil. In the Central Provinces it is one of the commonest species in a poor stunted type of forest where the soil has an excess of calcareous nodules on the surface, its chief associates here being Chloroxylon Swietenia, Soymida febrifuga, Diospyros Melanoxylon, Buchanania latifolia, and Ter- minalia tomentosa. In Bombay it occurs in Guzerat, the Deccan, and the South Mahratta country in dry open thorn forests. It is associated with many of the species already named as well as with Prosopis spicigera and sometimes Acacia arabica ; here also it forms poor stunted types of forest on dry calcareous or murra7v soil. Talbot says that it ascends to 3,700 ft. in the Khandesh Akrani, and that it occurs nearly pure in larger or smaller patches on the low level laterite near the sea-coast in North Kanara and the Konkan. In the Dangs of Surat 2307.2 T 450 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE it is common, but not so plentiful as it once was, having been heavily worked at one time for catechu boiling. In Chota Nagpur it is found not only in dry mixed deciduous forest but also frequently in association with sal. It occurs in the dry forests of Central India and Rajputana, often growing on mere sheet rock in the hilly tracts. It is common in Merwara associated with Anogeissus pendula, Albizzia odora- tissima, Boswellia serrata, Acacia leucopJdoea, and other species. In Madras it is common in dry mixed forests, often on dry stony soil, associated with Acacia leucophloea, Albizzia amara, A. odoratissima, Chloroxylon Swietenia, Prosopis spicigera, Cassia Fistula, Anogeissus latifolia, Zizyphus Jujuba, Z. Xylopyrus, Santalum album, Hardwickia binata, and others. Burma. Acacia Catechu is one of the commonest trees in the dry zone of Upper Burma, where it occurs partly in the form of pure crops in the sand}^ beds of streams and partly on dry ground away from rivers and streams. The riverain cutch attains fairly large dimensions, but the trees on the higher ground are often stunted, forming scrub forests in association with Acacia leucophloea, Terminalia Oliveri, T. tomeniosa, Tectona Hamiltonia7ia, Capparis burmanica, C. flavicans, Cassia renigera, Bauhinia racemosa, Zizyphus Jujuba, Azadirachta indica, Diospyros burmanica, Limonia acidissima, Flacourtia cata- phracta, Gardenia turgida, Phyllanthus Emblica, Pentacme suavis, and occa- sionally Dipterocarpus tuberculatus. In this dry region, where the rainfall varies from about 23 to 40 in. and the soil is often poor and shallow, the trees are for the most part of small size and the crop is open. Cutch trees were formerly more plentiful than they are now, but have been extensively cut out for cutch boiling, not only the stems but also the stumps and main roots having been utilized for this purpose. In Burma the tree extends well outside the dry zone proper, occurring both in Upper and in Lower Burma and in the Shan States in mixed deciduous forests with or without teak, in association with Terminalia tomentosa, T. Che- bula, Xylio. dolabriformis, Homalium tomentosum, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Dalbergia cuUrata, Pentacme suavis, Shorea obtusa, and many other species characteristic of the drier types of the- upper mixed forest. Bamboos are also common, the chief being Dendrocalamus strictus, Bambusa Tulda, and Cephalostachywn pergracile. In the Pegu Yoma the tree extends southward to the northern part of the Tharrawaddy district, where on the well-drained sandstones and shales of this range it attains large dimensions, the minimum feUing diameter under the Taungnyo working plan being fixed at 1 ft. 6 in. In the Thayetmyo forest division (East Yoma and other reserves) the exploit- able girth is fixed at 4|^ ft. In Burma it does not extend into regions with a rainfall higher than 65 in. Leaf-shedding, elowering, and fruiting. The tree is leafless for a time during the hot season. In northern India the leaves are shed about Februarj', the new leaves appearing towards the end of April or during May. When leafless the khair forests have a grey and dreary appearance, in strong contrast to the fresh green of the sissoo crops, which by that time have come into new leaf. By June, however, the khair forests have acquired their new delicate green feathery foliage, and are a beautiful sight. The whitish flowering spikes, 2-3-5 in. long, which are axillary on the young shoots, appear with the new ex t7 4 A t a — Fruit b — Seed Fig. 170. Acacia Catechu — Seedling x \ c - g — Germination stages h - j — Early development of seedling, first season k — Seedling towards end of second season • ACACIA 451 leaves, and add to the beauty of the trees. The trees continue in flower until July or August, sometimes later. The pods develop rapidly, becoming full- sized by September or October, and turning from green to reddish green and then to brown : they begin to ripen by the end of November and continue ripening during December and early January. The pods (Fig. 170, a) are 2-4 in. long by 0-4-0-6 in. broad, straight, flat, dark brown, shining, dehiscent, usually three- to six-seeded. The seeds (Fig. 170, b) are 0-25-0-35 in. by 0-2-0-3 in., broadly ovate or orbicular, dark greenish brown, smooth, shining, moderately hard, with a hard testa which becomes soft and pliant on soaking. About 900-1,100 seeds weigh 1 oz. The pods dehisce not long after ripening, and commence falling in January, continuing to fall in the succeeding months : the seeds adhere to the pod valves, and the latter being light are often blown to a considerable distance from the trees, dissemination of the seed being effected in this way. In alluvial tracts the dissemination of the seed is further effected by water. Some pods remain on the tree until the following October, by which time, however, the seed has become so damaged by insects as to be useless. As a rule the tree seeds well every year. The seed can best be collected by stripping the pods off the trees in December or early January and spreading them in the sun for a few days. The seeds cling tenaciously to the pod valves, and in order to detach them it is necessary to heap the pods on a large cloth and beat them well with sticks, after which the seeds can be separated by shaking and winnowing in a flat basket. The seed is badly subject to insect attacks, even when carefully stored. Seed kept for one year was tested at Dehra Dun and found to be quite unfertile : it is not certain how far this was due to insect attacks. It is advisable, there- fore, to sow the seed the year in which it is collected. The fertility of fresh undamaged seed is high. The seed germinates readily with moderate rain, and requires no special preparation to stimulate germination. ^ Germination (Fig. 170, c-g). Epigeous. The radicle emerges first and curves downwards ; the hypocotyl then elongates, with or without arching, and raises above ground the cotyledons enveloped by the testa. The cotyledons expand, turning from yellow to pale green, and the testa falls to the ground. The seedling (Fig. 170). Roots : primary root long, wiry, thickening considerably after a few months, terete, tapering, whitish or pale brown becoming darker brown : lateral roots few to numerous, short, fibrous or wiry, distributed down main root : nodules present. Hypocotyl distinct from root, 0-5-0-8 in. long, terete, expanded in a ring at the base, white becoming green, glabrous or sparsely pubescent in upper part. Cotyledons very shortly petiolate, plano-convex, somewhat fleshy, 0-3-0-4 in. in diameter, orbicular, entire, base sagittate, glabrous, yellow becoming green, obscurely 3-veined. Stem erect, somewhat zigzag at the nodes, thin, delicate at first, becoming wiry, green or reddish, young parts pubescent, elsewhere glabrous or nearly so. Leaves alternate. Stipules minute, subulate, caducous. First leaf once paripinnate with three to four pairs of opposite leaflets 0-2-0-25 in. by 0-1 in., rachis pubescent ; subsequent leaves bipinnate, at flrst with one pair, then with two pairs of pinnae, each pinna at first with 3-5 pairs of leaflets, the number increasing with succeeding leaves, leaflets 0-2-0-4 in. by 0- 1-0-2 in. ; the number of pinnae increases in subsequent leaves. 12 Maximum height of seedUngs. ft. in. 0 6 1 0 0 11 0 10 452 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE Under favourable conditions the growth of the seedling is rapid from the commencement, plants regularly weeded and watered attaining a height ol 3 ft. or more in three months from germination. Branching takes place at an early age, and the general habit is more or less straggling. The seedling develops a long taproot, which may attain a length of 2 ft. or more in three months. Under natural conditions the growth of the seedlings may be extremely slow, particularly if they are hampered by weeds or subject to damage by grazing. Thus a plot of natural seedhngs 200 sq. ft. in area on sand and shingle among scattered tufts of grass about 3 ft. high in a dry river-bed in the Siwaliks was kept under observation for about 4| years : the following shows the number of seedlings counted and their maximum height at different stages : No. of seedlings Date of observation. present. December 11, 1910 (end of 1st season) . . . 201 December 28, 1911 (end of 2nd season) . . — December 19, 1913 (end of 4th season) ... 74 April 14, 1915 (beginning of 6th season) . . 24 These results show a steady diminution in the number of seedlings and no progress in their growth, this being due mainly to damage by grazing ; nearly all the survivors were found in the clumps of grass, where they received a certain amount of protection. The beneficial results of irrigation and weeding, of which the latter is of even more importance than the former, are well demonstrated by the following figures showing the development of seedlings in various experimental plots at Dehra Dun : Acacia Catechu : development of seedlings under varying treatment. Time of ob- Irrigated. Unirrigated. ^ servation. j^pg^^jarfy weeded. Not weeded. Regularly weeded. Not weeded. ft. in. ft. End of 1st Maximum height Maximum height (1) Maximum height 0 8 (1) Maximum height 0 season ry ft. 2 in. 5 in. (fairly vigorous) (very weakly) (very vigorous) (weakly) ^ (2) ,. „ 3 8 (2) „ „ 0 (3) „ „ 2 3 (3) „ „ 0 End of 2nd Maximum height Maximum height (1) ,, ,, 4 0 (1) ,, „ 0 season 10 ft. 3 in. 1 ft. 0 in. (2) „ „ 6 3 (2) „ „ 1 (very vigorous) (3) ,, ,, 12 9(3) ,, ,, 1 (4) „ „ 12 0 (4) „ „ 1 (5) „ „ 10 0 (5) „ „ 2 Endof 3rd Maximum height Maximum height (1) „ „ 9 6 (1) Height 2 ft. 6 in. to 7 season 14 ft. 0 in. 1 ft. 1 in. (2) Maximum height 18 8 thin lanky stems am (very vigorous) Mean height 8 4 growth of weeds Maximum girth 0 7 (3) Maximum height 14 10 (4) Maximum height 17 9 Mean height 6 0 Maximum girth 0 7J In most of the unweeded plots the seedlings were all killed out by suppression or had damped off before the end of the third season. One of the commonest forms of mortality in the case of seedlings in a heavy growth of weeds is the ACACIA * 453 damping off to which they are subject during the rains : in tall open grass, however, where they are not subjected to such a degree of damp, they are capable of making their way up successfully, though their development is comparatively slow during the process. The effect of light on the development of the seedling has been studied at Dehra Dun in the case of plants grown in plots under varying degrees of shade : these tests proved the seedlings to be strongly light-demanding, and liable to be killed out in one season where the shade is at all dense. The seedlings are frost-tender during the first few years, and are also apt to suffer from drought during long periods of dry weather. In dry regions they some- times die back for a few years in succession, eventually shooting up after the root has established itself. Rats do much injury to the seedlings by gnawing through the taproots. The power of recovery of the plants, however, is good, numerous cases having been observed of new shoots being sent up from the portions of the taproots left in the ground after this form of damage. Similar new shoots were found to be sent up from the roots in the case of plants thinned out in unirrigated line sowings at Dehra Dun, in which the taproots were severed a few inches below ground-level. Young plants are very subject to browsing by deer. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. Acacta Catechu is a strong light-demander. Within its habitat it is decidedly frost-hardy, though young seedlings are somewhat tender : in the abnormal frost of 1905 in northern India it stood the frost better than most species, though young coppice growth was killed back. It is often found thriving in frosty grass-lands where tender species succumb. Although decidedly xerophilous in character, and capable of growing in dry situations where almost every other species fails to survive, it may suffer severely in years of abnormal drought, as in 1899-1900 and subsequently in the Indian Peninsula, and in 1914-15 in Palamau, Chota Nagpur. In the abnormal drought of 1907 and 1908 in Oudh it was unaffected on the low alluvial lands where it grows. The tree coppices well up to a moderate size and produces root-suckers, particularly where the roots have been exposed : coppice-shoots, however, require complete light for their development, and under shade they are frequently not produced at all, the stools dying off. It is very subject to damage by browsing, and responds readily to closure to grazing. Porcupines are particularly destructive to the trees, gnawing the bark off round their bases and often killing them. Ranger Basti Ram ^ reports that he has found a smearing of lime efficacious in keeping them off. An American plan for dealing with porcupines is to soak small boards in brine and strychnine and nail them to the bases of the trees ; the porcupines have a partiality for salt and gnaw the boards, dying of strychnine poisoning. In the mixed forests Acacia Catechu is subject to the usual damage from climbers. In the sub-Himalayan alluvial forests a very characteristic climber is Dregea volubilis, which does great damage ; other common climbers in these forests are Cryptolepis BucJianafii and Vallaris Heynei. Natural reproduction. Under natural conditions the seed is dis- seminated by wind, the seeds adhering to the light pod-valves ; in alluvial 1 Ind. Forester, xli (1915), p. 383. 454 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE tracts water is also an important agency. Germination takes place early in the rainy season, and the early development of the seedling is greatly favoured on loose soil free from weeds. Thus on alluvial sand or gravel countless numbers of small seedlings may be found in the early part of the rainy season, not only in the open, but also under comparatively dense cover. In the latter case they die rapidly owing mainly to shade and to damping off, and by the end of the season hardly a seedling is to be found. In the open a fair proportion survive provided they are protected from grazing : frequently, however, there is high mortality from drought, particularly if the soil is stiff or shallow and the roots have difficulty in penetrating it. The seed germinates readily with heavy rain, and although germination takes place ordinarily at the commencement of the monsoon it may begin earlier in the season if abnormal falls of rain occur ; when this happens the seedlings almost invariably die off or the germinating seed perishes in the ensuing spell of dry weather. Such mortality is particularly marked in the case of seeds germinating on the surface of the ground. Experiments at Dehra Dun showed that this early germination takes place more readily on ground exposed to the sun than in shady places, owing to the greater warmth in the former case. In alluvial riverain situations the tufts of grass which frequently appear on new ground, provided they are not too dense, act as a useful protection from drought in the early stages. In wet and sodden grass, however, the seedlings damp off. The adverse effects of grazing have been alluded to above, under ' the seed- ling ', in the case of a riverain plot in the Siwaliks. A striking example of the benefits of closure to grazing came under my notice in the submontane mixed forests of the Gonda district. United Provinces, along a central fireline which separated a block of forest permanently closed to grazing from an adjoining block open to grazing. The forest on either side of the line was similar, except that on the side closed to grazing khair trees of all sizes filled up every gap, while on the side open to grazing this species was represented by only a few old trees. In one part the grazed forest consisted of a rather open growth of nearly pure hael {Aegle Marmelos), while on the opposite side of the line the forest closed to grazing consisted of a dense crop of kJiair with bael trees scattered through it. Numerous other instances might be quoted of the adverse effects of grazing on the natural reproduction of Acacia CatecJm, but the above will suffice. Forest Ranger A. K. Desai ^ remarks on the large quantity of khair reproduction which appeared in gaps formed by the heavy exploitation of trees killed by the abnormal drought of 1899-1900 in the Godhra range of the Panch Mahals, Bombay, this reproduction being stimulated by the admission of light and warmth, and no doubt also by the breaking up of the soil during the extraction of the timber. The freedom with which natural reproduction springs up in alluvial riverain tracts is remarkable. The chief factors favouring it in such localities are the new loose soil free from heavy weeds and the abundance of light, while the soil moisture obtained by percolation no doubt also assists the development of the seedlings. As the crops become older and elevated above the river-bed through changes in the course of the river, the conditions for natural repro- 1 1ml. Forester, xxxiv (1908), p. 15. Fig. 171. Line sowings of Acacia Catechu 3^ months old in conjunction with field crops, Dehra Dun. Fig. 172. Acacia Catechu on very poor eroded ground, Gonda district, United Provinces, o O) a* CD o ACACIA 455 duction change. The ground becomes harder and a dense undergrowth of Adhatoda Vasica or other plants frequently makes its appearance. Under such conditions natural reproduction is no longer possible, and although it continues to take place where new alluvium is thrown up it ceases under the old crops. Artificial reproduction. Numerous experiments in the artificial repro- duction of Acacia Catechu have been carried out at Dehra Dun. These have shown that transplanting cannot be relied on, but that direct sowing, if carried out properly, is highly successful. Transplanting was tried under different conditions, both in the first and in the^ second season, and moderate success was attained only by transplantiiig young plants early in the first rainy season, care being taken to avoid any injury to the root-sj'-stem. This, however, does not appear to be the experience everywhere, for Mr. Pearson ^ says regarding this species in Bombay : ' The only results at all favourable with kfiair are those when carried out with large plants.' In the Dehra Dun experiments pruning of the roots and stem invariably resulted in the death of the seedling. The success of direct sowings depends on : (1) the degree to which the soil is kept loose for the first two years or so after sowing; (2) thorough weeding; (3) abundance of light from the commencement. In addition the thinning out of the young plants has a marked effect on their development. Irrigation undoubtedly stimulates the growth of the plants, but is not essential provided regular loosening of the soil is carried out. In the Dehra Dun experiments the greatest success was attained by line sowings, particularly in combination with the raising of field crops. A distance of 8 to 10 ft. between the lines should be sufficient. It was found necessary to sow the khair seed along the lines in clear strips 2 to 3 ft. wide, the field crops being sown in the intervening spaces (see Fig. 171). Where the crops were sown continuously over the area many of the seedlings were killed by suppression, the development of the survivors was poor and the stocking was incomplete, while the sudden exposure when the crops were reaped caused the leaves of the seedlings to fall prematurely and many of the seedlings to die down partially. The field crop employed was the lesser millet or mandwa {Eleusine coracana), which was sown in May or June and reaped in October : the land was cleared forest land, and the millet crop was dense and heavy and up to 3J ft. in height. The khair seed was sown at the same time as the millet, and the lines were kept weeded both when the crops were on the ground and after they were reaped. The results along the weeded lines were admirable, the seedlings being plentiful and vigorous and attaining a maximum height of 2 ft. 3 in. by the end of the first season and 6 ft. 3 in., with an average of 4 ft. 3 in., by the end of the second season. Regular thinning of plants, com- mencing from the end of the first season, stimulated their development greatly. The necessity for regular weeding may be realized from the fact that one line was left unweeded after the reaping of the crop, with the result that by the end of the next season every seedling had been killed by weeds. In the Dehra Dun experiments, weeded line sowings without field crops also proved highlj'- successful where the soil was thoroughly loosened before ^ Ind. Forester, xxxi (1905), p. 638. 456 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE sowing, and regular weeding, thinning, and loosening of the soil were carried out subsequently : 1 lb. of seed was found sufficient for about 350 ft. length of line. Fig. 173 shows line sowings at the end of the third season. Sowings of Acacia Catechu have been carried out in many parts of India and Burma in a variety of ways. In the grassy savannahs of Oudh line sowings have proved successful in spite of a fairly tall growth of grass in the rains. In Berar line sowings in conjunction with field crops have also done well : the system employed has been described under Acacia arahica (p. 435). Mound and ridge sowings have been carried out with varying success. Owing to their high cost, however, they are hardly justified except on very stiff soil where the drainage is bad. Broadcast sowing has also been frequently tried, often with success : where suppression from weeds is to be feared, how- ever, it cannot compare with line sowings. In Burma numerous cutch plantations have been formed on the taungya. system, the seed being dibbled 6 ft. by 6 ft. or 12 ft. by 3 ft. or 9 ft. by 4 ft. on temporary forest clearings in which field crops, usually hill rice, are raised. In many cases mixed plantations of teak and cutch have been formed in this way. The two species, however, do not mix well, their requirements being dissimilar ; not only does the cutch damage the teak by contact with it, but one of the species in time usually ousts the other, the cutch or the teak gaining the upper hand according to the nature of the locality. These mixed plantations are not as a rule formed now. A description of these taungya plantations is given under Tectona grandis. SiLVicuLTURAL TREATMENT. Under existing working plans the tree is frequently worked under coppice or coppice-with-standards, both in alluvial tracts and in mixed forests. The khair and sissoo forests of the Ganges islands, for example, are worked as simple coppice on a rotation of twenty years, a protective belt at least 100 ft. wide being left uncut round the edges of the islands. Provided the trees coppiced are not too old, and provided the standards are not numerous enough to suppress the coppice, this system has usually answered satisfactorily for the production of poles. The treatment under high forest is a more difficult matter. Several working plans, both in India and in Burma, prescribe selection fellings, the object of which is to remove mature trees. This, however, does not ensure reproduction, which cannot be obtained under any system which does not involve removal of the overwood and of weed-growth. This being so, as far as experience goes the only system under which complete regeneration can be ensured on a given area appears to be that of clear felling with artificial reproduction. The question of regenerating riverain crops of Dalbergia Sissoo has been discussed in some detail on p. 314. The system proposed is to divide these crops into two classes, stable and unstable, the former to be regenerated artificially, while in the latter the fellings would consist of utihzing marketable material, regeneration being left to the vagaries of the river. For riverain crops of Acacta Catechu exactly the same procedure is indicated. In crops of Acacia Catechu which tend to become very dense, regular thinnings are of great importance. Rate of growth. Coppice. Statistics relating to coppice growth are ACACIA 457 scanty. Measurements in Bhandara, Central Provinces, in 1912-13 showed the average height of coppice-shoots one }ear old to be 6 ft. 4 in. as against 7 ft. 1 in. for teak and 6 ft. 6 in. for Terminalia tomentosa. Measurements recorded by Mr. A. F. Broun at Bulla wala near Dehra Dun in 1886 showed an average girth of 8 in. and an average height of 11 ft. 4 in. for coppice nine years old. High forest. The annual rings are usually, but not always, quite distinct, and the rate of growth can thus as a rule be deduced from ring-countings. Measurements show the growth to be extremely variable. Gamble says Himalayan specimens show 5 rings per inch of radius, giving a mean annual girth increment of 1-26 in. ; a specimen from the bed of the Mahanadi, Dar- jeehng tarai, showed 3-8 rings per inch of radius, giving a mean annual girth increment of about 1-7 in., which is fast. Extremely slow growth is shown in an unthinned riverain sample plot of kJiair mixed with Dalbergia Sissoo in the Saharanpur Siwaliks in a somewhat dry locality with a soil of sand and boulders. The measurements, which applied to forty-five trees and extended over five years only (1910-11 to 1915-16), gave the following results : Acacia Catechu : girth increment in unthinned sample plots, Siwaliks, United Provinces. Age. Mean girth. Age. Mean girth years. ft. in. years. ft. in. 10 0 Oi 70 I of 20 0 2 80 1 10 30 0 H' 90 2 21 40 0 7 100 2 61 50 0 n 110 2 10 60 1 n Although these results can hardly be regarded as very accurate owing to the short period over which the measurements extended and to the fact that dominated and suppressed trees were included, they emphasize the importance of carrying out regular thinnings to promote more rapid growth. A somewhat faster rate of growth is shown in an unthinned sample plot in the Sathiana block of the North Kheri forests. Measurements, which extended over eight years and related to seventy-five trees, gave the following results : girth increment in unthinned sample plot, Sathiana block, Acacia Catechu : girth incremen North Kh Age. Mean girth, years. ft. in. 20 0 8 30 1 21 40 1 8J 50 2 2 60 2 7i 70 3 1 80 3 6J Age. Mean girth. years. ft. in. 90 4 0 100 4 5 no 4 10 120 5 21 130 5 7 140 5 11 This plot was situated within the limits of the sal forests, not on recent alluvium. 458 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE Measurements of 100 trees by Mr. Beadon Bryant in the Kumaim sub- Himalayan tract gave the following results : ^ Girth. Over 4 ft. 6 in. 3 ft. -4 ft. 6 ill. 1 ft. 6 in. -3 ft. 1 ft.-l ft. 6 in. ?rage age. Average volume, years. cub. ft. solid. ' 53 350 36 165 20 40 15 1-3 Periodical measurements of 117 trees in three unthinned sample plots in the Palamau district of Bihar and Orissa gave the following results : ^ Acacia Catechu : girth increment in unthinned sample plots, Palamau, Bihar and Orissa. Age. Mean girth. Age. Mean girth, i^ears. ft. in. years. ft. in. 30 0 4i 90 1 10^ 40 0 7i 100 2 2| 50 0 101 110 2 7| 60 1 Of 120 3 Of 70 1 3i 130 3 7 80 1 7 Mr. W. R. Fisher ^ records very rapid growth in a plantation at Kuch Behar where the seed was sown in 1873 and 1874 : measurements made in 1881, the plantation being then seven to eight years old, showed an average and maximum girth of 1 ft. 6 in. and 2 ft. 1 in. respectively. Measurements recorded by Mr. J. Nisbet ^ from the dry, intermediate, and moist zones in Upper Burma showed rapid growth, particularly in the moist zone. The following is a summary : Acacia Catechu : girth measurements, Upper Burma. District. Yamethin and Meiktila Yamethin and Meiktila Yamethin (Pjdnmana sub- division) and Minbu Character of forest. Dry zone : dry open forest and scrub jungle Intermediate zone : mixed forest and scrub jungle Moist zone : mixed and savannah forest Number of measure- ments. 8 3 10 Mean annual girth increment. in. 2-2 2-2 3-54 Ring-countings which I carried out in 1902 in the Meiktila district of Upper Burma on twenty stumps in pure riverain cutch forest on sandy soil gave the following results : Acacia Catechu : girth increment, riverain forest, Meiktila district, Upper Burma. Girth including Mean annual Age. bark. girth increment. years. ft. in. in. 5 0 6 1-2 10 1 8 20 15 3 0 2-4 17 3 6 2-47 1 Working Plan for the Kumaun Forest Division, 1893. 2 Ind. For. Records, vol. vi, pt. v. * Ibid.. xix(l893), p. 11. 3 Ind. Forester, vii (1881), p. 41. ACACIA 459 This shows rapid growth, and as the rings were perfectly distinct the figures may be regarded as accurate. The diameter of heartwood averaged 0-67 of the whole diameter including bark. Proportion of heartwood. The following measurements by Mr. A. Rodger of about 100 sections of cutch trees in the Thayetmyo and Prome districts of Burma show that the percentage of heartwood increases with size : Acacia Catechu : measurements of heartwood in trees of different sizes. Diameter Percentage of total including Corres ponding Diameter of area of section oc- bark. girth. heartwood. cupied by heartwood in. ft. in. in. 6 1 7 3-6 35 7 1 10 4-7 45 8 2 1 5-6 49 9 2 4 70 61 10 2 7 8-0 64 11 2 11 90 67 12 3 2 90 56 13 3 5 10-3 65 14 3 8 10-7 59 15 3 11 12-5 64 16 4 2 12-5 61 17 4 5 13-6 63 18 4 9 15-2 68 19 5 0 160 70 20 5 3 170 73 21 5 7 18-2 75 22 5 9 18-7 72 24 6 3 21-2 80 4. Acacia modesta, Wail. Syn. Mimosa dumosa, Roxb. Vern. Phtdai, Punjab. A moderate-sized thorny tree with a bushy rounded crown and drooping branchlets. Bark rough, with numerous irregular cracks. Sap wood large, white : heartwood very hard, dark brown with black streaks, not durable, used for cane-crushers, Persian wheels, and agricultural implements, and largely for fuel. The tree is useful for afforestation purposes on poor stony soil in the dry lower hills and plains : it also makes a good hedge plant if trimmed. This tree occurs more or less gregariously in the dry outer hills and valleys of the Suliman Range, ascending to 4,000 ft. in the Salt Range, the sub- Himalayan tract from the Jumna westwards, ascending to 4,000 ft., the northern part of the Punjab plains, and Baluchistan. In Hazara it is common on limestone in the scrub forests of Khanpur, and occurs in the Kagan valley on hot shaly hill-sides up to 5,500 ft. Within its natural habitat the rainfall varies from 15 to 50 in., the absolute maximum shade temperature may rise to over 120° F., and the absolute minimum may sink to well under freezing- point. It is found on various geological formations, including limestone, sand- stone, conglomerate, and shale, and is capable of growing in poor dry shallow- soil where few other species can survive. It may occur pure or in mixture with other trees. Among its commoner associates are Oka cuspidata, Acacia Catechu, Flacourtia Eamontchi, Tecotna undulata, Prosopis spicigera, Bauhinia variegata, Odina Wodier, Zizyphus Jujuba, Ehretia laevis, and other miscel- 460 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE laneous species, often with an undergrowth of Dodonaea viscosa, Carissa spinarum, Adlmtoda Vasica, Woodfordia floribunda, and other shrubs. It extends into the lower limits of Pinus longifolia in some parts of the outer Punjab hiUs. On poor dry localities at low elevations it is sometimes associated with Salvadora oleoides and Capparis aphylla. The new leaves appear in March : they are of a delicate green colour, but turn later to an ashy grey. The spikes of fragrant white flowers appear from March to May, when the trees are conspicuous with their masses of white tasselled blossoms. The pods ripen in the autumn and hang long on the tree ; they are 2-3 in. long by 0-5 in. broad, flat, indehiscent, three- to five-seeded. The seeds, like those of A. arabica, are subject to the attacks of weevils. The tree seeds freely at frequent intervals, but occasional bad seed-years occur. The tree is a drought-resistant species. It coppices well, and is usually worked as coppice-with-standards. The coppice-shoots as well as seedling plants require protection from browsing, as they suffer much damage from goats, sheep, and camels. Seedling reproduction is somewhat disappointing, and in many localities grazing is largely the cause of this. The tree has been raised artificially by direct sowings in afforestation operations in the outer hills. An attempt was made by Mr. A. M. Reuther during the preparation of the Kalachitta working plan ^ to deduce the rate of growth by ring-countings on stumps of trees selected and felled for the purpose. As the rings are not always easy to distinguish he was unable to place absolute reUance on the results, which must be taken as approximate only. From the recorded measurements the following statement showing the approximate rate of growth has been prepared : Acacia tnodesta : rate of growth in Kalachitta forest. Age. Mean height. Mean girth, years. ft. ft. in. 10 6-0 0 5-7 20 12-0 0 11-4 30 15-0 1 5-0 40 17-5 1 108 50 19-7 2 4-6 Parker says the growth is very slow, plantations made in the sub- Himalayan tract having reached a height of 18-20 ft. in as many years, though the girth was only about 1 ft. at the base. 5. Acacia Senegal, Willd. Syn. A. rupestris, Stocks. Vern. Khor, Sind ; Kumta, Kajputana. A small thorny deciduous tree, usually gnarled, ordinarily reaching a height of 10-15 ft. and a girth of 1-2 ft. Bark smooth, pale greenish grey, peeling off in flakes and exposing the yellowish new bark underneath ; branches smooth, grey, shining, flexuose. The wood, which is hard with a nearly black heartwood, is used for weavers' shuttles and for fuel, and the true gum-arabic of commerce is obtained from wounds in the bark. In habit and appearance the tree resembles A. modesta, but is readily distinguished by its smooth pale bark, its infra-stipular spines in threes, and its larger pods. This is a tree of the arid regions of India, occurring on the dry rocky hills of Sind, the south-east Punjab, the Aravalli, and the other hills of Raj- 1 Working Plan for the Kalachitta Forest, Rawalpindi Forest Division, 1897. ACACIA 461 putana, where it is abundant, and Ajmer ; it is also found in Arabia and Africa. In its Indian region the absohite maximum shade temperature may rise to over 120'" F., and the absolute minimum may sink to well under freezing- point, while the normal rainfall varies from about 10 to 25 in. The tree occurs on the poorest soil on rocky hills and sandy tracts. In Ajmer it is associated with Anogeissus pendula, Acacia Catechu, and Boswellia serrata : here it pro- duces abundant seed every year, and is said to regenerate freely under con- ditions adverse enough to prevent the regeneration of A. Catechu. Parker says it regenerates much more freely than A. modesta, and that it has been employed successfully for afforesting bare rocky hills and shifting sand in the Jaipur state. Raj putana. Mr. E. Mc Arthur Moir,-*^ writing of sowings of this and other species in the dry regions of Ajmer-Merwara, notes that the seedlings died back for two or three years before finally establishing themselves and 'becoming capable of resisting drought and frost, developing in the meantime taproots of great length and thickness. The tree is readily browsed by camels and goats. It is a hardy species, surviving under most adverse conditions. The fragrant white flowers, in lax spikes 2-4 in. long, appear from August to December ; the pods, which ripen the following spring, are 3 in. long by 0-7 in. broad, thin, flexible, brown when ripe, five- or six-seeded, tardily dehiscent. 6. Acacia planifrons, W. and A. Umbrella thorn. Vern. Kodaivelam, odai (which is also a name given to A. Latronum), Tarn. ; Godugu thumma, Tel. A small to moderate-sized tree with a flat spreading dense umbrella-like crown, common and often gregarious in the southern parts of the Indian Peninsula, in the south Deccan, Salem, Madura, Tinnevelly, and Travancore, in dry forests, often occurring along with A. Latronum, and sometimes also with A. arabica, Albizzia amara, Dichrostachys ciiierea, Chloroxylon Swietenia, and a few others. Mixed with A. Latronum it forms at times a dense and impenetrable growth, but often it occurs in stunted form in open crops. In shape it exhibits the umbrella form characteristic of tropical open xerophilous woodland. The tree reproduces from root-suckers when felled ; in the Tin- nevelly district it is worked for the production of fuel as simple coppice on a rotation of fifteen years, reproduction being largely from root-suckers. Seedling reproduction is also said to be good in open places. 7. Acacia Latronum, Willd. Vern. Odai (also a name given to A. plaiii- frons), odai usal, Tam. ; Jala, Tel. A gregarious very thorny shrub or small tree resembling A. planifrons in its spreading umbrella-like crown, but smaller than that species. It is common in the dry parts of the Deccan and southern India, covering con- siderable stretches of country with a dense impenetrable thorny scrub, and often growing on bare hard gravelly soil, both on flat ground and on the lower hill slopes, where it may perform a useful function in preventing erosion and in protecting young plants of other species from injury by browsing. It is readily browsed by goats itself, though its thorns afford a formidable protec- tion. The thorns are of two kinds, one large, white, conical and hollow, often tenanted by large black ants, and the other shorter and slender. Among its more common associates are Acacia planifrons, A. leucophloea, A. arabica, 1 Ind. Forester, iv (1879), p. 387. 462 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE Albizzia aTnara, Randia dwnetorum, Azadirachta indica, Dichrostachys cinerea, and Chloroxylon Swietenia. On poor soils it is sometimes associated with Acacia eburnea, Balanites Roxburghii, and Capparis aphylla. 8. Acacia Farnesiana, Willd. Syn. VachelUa Farnesiana, W. and A. Cassie flower. Vern. Wilayati babul, wilayati kiTcar, gukiJcar, Hind. ; Jalli, Kan. ; Kankri, Mar. ; Nanlongyaing , Burm. A thorny shrub or small tree reaching a height of 15 ft. or sometimes more, with fragrant flowers from which a perfume is extracted ; it yields a gum. Indigenous in tropical America ; cultivated and self-sown throughout the greater part of India and Burma. In northern India it is sometimes found gregariously in river-beds on loose sandy soil, a condition which appears to favour its establishment. On the plains of the Punjab it grows well on pure sand in fairly dry places, and would probably do well for sowing up shifting sands. The flowering season is somewhat irregular, but lasts chiefly from Novem- ber to March ; the bright yellow globose flower-heads are powerfully scented. The pods form rapidly, and are usually full-sized but still green by May. They commence ripening about July (Dehra Dun), but hang long on the tree, and may be collected almost any time. The pods are 2-3-5 in. long by 0-5 in. thick, nearly cylindrical, pointed at both ends, turgid, dark brown when ripe, with a double row of numerous seeds embedded in dry spongy tissue ; they are hardly dehiscent. About 300-340 seeds weigh 1 oz. The pods usually fall without dehiscing, and the valves become eaten by insects or decay or are beaten open by heavy rain, the seeds being washed out. The seeds often germinate within the pod, a dense clump of seedlings resulting. Germination takes place during the rains, but many seeds remain on or in the ground for a whole year, germinating in the second rains. At Dehra Dun the season's growth ends about December ; the leaves commence falling in November- December and the plants are leafless or nearly so in* January-February, the new leaves appearing in February-March. Under favourable conditions the growth of the seedling is rapid. Seed sown at Dehra Dun in May in a nursery-bed regularly watered and weeded produced plants up to 7 ft. high by the end of the first season, and these flowered early the next year. In another plot seedlings regularly weeded but not watered reached maximum heights of 2 ft. 1 in. and 7 ft. 10 in. by the end of the first and second seasons respectively, and by the end of the third season the dominant plants varied from 7 ft. to 14 ft. 4 in. in height ; they commenced flowering in the end of the second season and the pods ripened successfully in the third season, the plants being then about two years old. The plants require free growing space, and the smaller ones are quickly sup- pressed and outgrown by the more vigorous ones. They stand frost fairly well. 9. Acacia eburnea, Willd. Syn. Mimosa eburnea, Roxb. Vern. Palmri kikar. Hind. ; Marmati, Mar. ; Odai vel, kal odai, Tam. A large shrub or small tree with rough dark grey bark, sparse greyish foliage and straight spines, the larger ones white and up to 2 in. long. Though nowhere abundant, it is widely distributed in the drier parts of India, extending westward into Arabia. In the sub-Himalayan tract it occurs in dry river-beds along with A. Catechu. In the Indian Peninsula it is found in open thorn ACACIA 463 forests on dry stony soil, associated with A. Catechu, A. Latronum, A. leuco- pJiloea, Prosopis spicigera, and other species, and on the poorest ground with Balanites Roxhurghii and Gapparis aphylla. It is associated with Acacia arahica on black cotton soil, but where this gives place to shallow murram or calcareous soil with rock or a clay stratum near the surface it replaces that species. The yellow flower-heads, which have a somewhat unpleasant odour, appear from November to March, and the pods ripen from April to June. 10. Australian acacias. Three important Australian acacias, A. decurrens, Willd., A. dealbata, Link, and A. Melanoxylon, R.Br., have been introduced into India, chiefly in the Nilgiris, but to some extent also in the Himalaya and other hill tracts. In the Nilgiris they have become such a feature in the landscape that a brief account of their introduction and propagation in these hills will not be out of place. A general description of the topography and climate of the Nilgiris will be found under Eucalyptus Globulus, the exotic tree par excellence in that region. Australian acacias appear to have been introduced first in the early forties of last century, mainly with the object of providing fuel, of which there was a great shortage at that time. Although as plantation trees they have been outclassed by Eucalyptus Globidus, still the acacias — chiefly A. dealbata and A. Melanoxylon, and to a smaller extent A. decurrens — were extensively planted, partly in mixture with eucalyptus and partly alone. The actual area of pure acacia plantations owned by Government in 1912 amounted to 322 acres ; in addition there are considerable areas of eucalyptus and acacias mixed, at elevations varying from 5,000 to 8,300 ft. These acacias are also to be found along roadsides, on waste land, in private plantations, and in gardens. A. dealbata has spread by root-suckers to such an extent as to become in many cases a nuisance. The acacias appear to have been propagated from transplants and not by direct sowings, and this system has answered well. Spacings of 6 ft. by 6 ft. to 9 ft. by 9 ft. have been the general rule in plantations. The Government plantations, whether pure or mixed with eucalyptus, are worked for the pro- duction of fuel under the system of simple coppice. The rotation adopted until recently was one of ten years, but in 1913 it was raised to fifteen years. Under the coppice system, A. Melanoxylo?i is gradually dying out, and in a few unimportant cases it is being maintained, where pure, as high forest. Where acacia is mixpd with eucalyptus the resulting crop becomes a two-storied coppice, owing to the more rapid growth of the eucalyptus. The following particulars regarding the three acacias in question may be of interest : (1) Acacia decurrens, Willd. Green wattle. An evergreen tree ; bark olive green when young, dark grey on older trees. Branchlets and foliage nearly glabrous and not hoary ; decurrence of leaf-stalks very marked. Flowers paler yellow and less plentiful and less strongly scented than in A. dealbata ; pods narrow and constricted between the seeds. Maiden describes six varieties, but admits that the gradations from one to another are slight. Var. mollis, Lindl., has tomentose foliage, but the pubescence on the branchlets is golden yellow ; this variety is regarded in Australia as the best tannin producer 464 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE among the acacias, and Maiden quotes yields of 32 to 36 per cent, of tannic acid in bark samples. Analyses of Nilgiri bark samples of the typical variety made at the Indian Institute of Science in 1912 gave 24-42 per cent, of tannin. In India it is nowhere plentiful enough to yield regular supplies of bark in quantity. This species (or variety) is a native of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania. It is far less plentiful in the Nilgiris than A. dealhata ; it has been planted in fair abundance along roads in Coonoor, but is not so common at Ootacamund, and is comparatively rare in the plantations. Its general habits in the Nilgiris are somewhat similar to those of A. dealhato described below ; it reproduces well by coppice-shoots and root-suckers, but not so freely as that species. Its growth is more erect than that of A. dealhata. (2) Acacia dealhata, Link. (^. fZecwrrens,Willd., var. f/ea76a/a, Von Mueller ex Maiden.) Silver wattle. An evergreen tree with grey, sometimes silvery bark. Young branchlets angled, hoary, covered with minute pubescence ; foliage also hoary. Flower-heads in profuse axillary and terminal panicled racemes, globose, about 0-15-0-2 in. in diameter, deep saffron yellow, strongly scented. Pods straight or curved, flattened, 2-3 in. long by 0-25-0-5 in. broad, broader and less constricted between the seeds than in A. deciirrens ; decurrence of leaf -stalks less marked than in the latter. Maiden regards A. dealhata as merely a variety of A. decurrens. In Australia it ordinarily attains a height of 50 ft. and a girth of 3-6 ft. ; in Tasmania a tree has been recorded about 100 ft. in height and 11 ft. 2 in. in girth. In the Nilgiris it seldom attains a height of over 40 ft. or a girth of over 4 ft. In Australia the timber is considered of little value, and is used chiefly for making cheap cask-staves. In the Nilgiris it is used as fuel, for which purpose it is considered good. The bark is not so rich in tannin as that of A. decurreyis. Maiden says that in Australia the best samples of bark contain about 25 per cent, of tannic acid. Analyses of Nilgiri bark made at the Indian Institute of Science in 1912 showed 9-56 per cent, of tannin. The tree is a native of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, and Tasmania. It has been extensively planted in the Mediterranean Riviera and elsewhere. In India it has become thoroughly naturalized in the Nilgiri and Palni hills, and has been planted in the Himalaya. In the Nilgiris this tree, together with the blue gum, is one of the most characteristic features of the vegetation from 5,000 ft. upwards. One of its most striking peculiarities is its extraordinary power of reproduction by root- suckers, which come up in dense masses of thin whippy shoots, and spread with great facility. For this reason it is almost unrivalled as a means of clothing unstable hill slopes ; in the neighbourhood of gardens, however, it is an intolerable nuisance owing to its powers of spreading and the diflficulty of eradicating it, which is possible only by deep hoeing and extraction of all the roots. Another peculiarity of this tree in the Nilgiris is its stragghng and sometimes almost recumbent habit of growth, erect trees being quite excep- tional. It is very liable to breakage from wind. In the Nilgiris it has proved an excellent under-story to the eucalyptus in the grass-land type of plantations, where a soil-protective undergrowth is desirable : it appears to stand the light shade of the eucalyptus well, and reproduces freely by coppice. Fig. 174 IG. 174. Coppice of Eucalyptus Globulus and Acacia dealbata, 6 years old, the latter forming an underwood to the former, Coonoor Peak plantation, Nilgiris. ACACIA 465 5hows a crop of Eucalyptus Globulus coppice with Acacia dealbata coppice as Mi under-story, and Fig. 175 shows pure coppice of acacia, in which numerous 'oot-suckers are intermingled. The tree has been found to have a powerful litrogenizing action on the soil, and is thus a good natural fertilizer. In France it is said not to thrive on soil containing lime ; the soil of the Nilgiris s particularly free from lime, and this may possibly favour its extraordinary vegetative activity on those hills. As regards the yield of plantations, Mr. S. Cox ^ points out that it is lardly possible to give accurate figures for A. dealbata by itself, as it has been miversally planted with A. Melanoxylon, and although in the plantations 'egularly coppiced for fuel the latter has largely died out there is always I small proportion left. Allowing for error caused by the mixture of the two >pecies, the general average yield of coppice from ten to fifteen years old in the second rotation may be said to be from 2,000 to 3,000 cub. ft. stacked per acre. The tree has been commonly planted in the Himalaya, for example at 5imla and in the Naini Tal and Almora hills, chiefly between 6,000 and 8,000 ft. elevation. It sufl^ers considerably from snow-break, but where its value lies n its adaptability for afforestation purposes this is not a serious drawback, ^n the abnormal frost of 1905 it suftered to a considerable extent, particularly it the higher elevations, but the check to the growth resulted in the production )f numerous root-suckers. In the Naini Tal hills it stood the abnormal drought )f 1907 and 1908 well where most other exotic species were badly damaged. ■n the Himalaya the tree flowers from January to March, and the seed ripens n June : in cold situations the fruit fails to ripen. When in flower the trees, aden with yellow blossom, are a striking sight. (3) Acacia Melanoxylon, R.Br. Australian blackwood. An evergreen tree, in its natural home ordinarily reaching a height of 60 to ^0 ft. and a girth of 6 ft. Exceptionally it is said to reach a height of 120 ft. ind a girth of 10 ft. In the Nilgiris it often reaches a height of 80 ft., but seldom attains a girth of over 5 ft. On rich soil it grows luxuriantly : thus n the Rallia plantation near Coonoor, where it is mixed with Eucalyptus llobidus, occasional trees reach a height of 110 ft. at an age of forty years, ;hough the girth averages less than 3 ft., the trees having been drawn up to leight by close planting (see Fig. 176). The largest recorded measurements n the Nilgiris are those made by Mr. Cowley-Brown in the case of a tree forty- line years old in Bleak House plantation ; these are : (1) height 127 ft., (2) girth it breast height 6 ft. 4 in., (3) estimated volume 212-5 cub. ft. (timber only), rhis tree has since been killed by Lorafithus. Trees fifty-two years old in the Marlimund block on deep moist soil measured up to 100 ft. in height and 5 ft. in girth. Acacia Mela^ioxylon is a larger tree, with more erect habit, straighter bole, and denser crown, than A. decurrens or A. dealbata. The dense olive-green foliage, consisting mainly of phyllodes and not of true leaves, forming a sym- metrical tapering crown reaching low down, makes it one of the handsomest of the exotic trees in the Nilgiris ; its general appearance is unlike that of a typical acacia. The young branchlets are angled, minutely grey tomentose, rarely glabrous. Phyllodes coriaceous, glabrous, lanceolate or oblong, usuall^^ ^ Working Plan for the Nilgiri Plantations, 1913. 2307.2 jj 466 XXIII. LEGUMINO.SAE falcate, variable in size, usually 2-5-4 in. long by 0-3-0-8 in. broad. True bipin- nate leaves often present, especially on young trees. Flower-heads 3 to 4 in axillary racemes, globose, yellow, about 0-2 in. in diameter. Pods linear, flat, often curved in a circle, 2-4 in. long by 0-3-0-4 in. broad. Seed small, with a long pale red funicle which encircles it. The timber is of very good quality, dark brown, beautifully mottled, and is used in Australia for furniture, gunstocks, railway carriages, and other purposes. In the Nilgiris there is little demand for it for such uses. Analyses of Nilgiri bark at the Indian Institute of Science in 1912 gave 704 per cent, of tannin. The tree is a native of Tasmania, Victoria, and New South Wales, and extends into South Australia and Queensland : it grows typically on rich soil. It has been fairly extensively planted in the Nilgiris, where it does well on fertile soil, but it is slowly dying out, partly owing to its susceptibility to the attacks of a Loranthus, which kills off numbers of trees, and partly to the fact that its coppicing powers are feeble. It reproduces by root -suckers, but not to the same prolific extent as A. dealbata. On deep moist fertile soil its growth is fairly rapid, as the figures quoted above show. Mr. D. E. Hutching found in 1883 that trees in the Nilgiris gave about four rings per inch of radius and an annual increment of about 5 to 6 tons of wood per acre. 4. ALBIZZIA, Durazzini. This genus contains fourteen Indian species, all trees, some of which are of importance in Indian silviculture. Perhaps the most characteristic feature of the genus, as affecting the distribution of the seed, is the pod, which is thin, flat, and dry, developing rapidly after the flowering, but taking some time to ripen fully ; in most cases dehiscence does not take place fully until after the pods fall, and as they fall chiefly in the hot season when dry winds are pre- valent, they may be blown to some distance from the tree. In some cases, especially in A. Lebbek, the seeds are very liable to destruction by insects, and this probably explains to a considerable extent the absence of reproduction where such damage is prevalent. Germination is epigeous. Some species produce root-suckers freely, e. g. A. lucida, A. mollis, and A. odoratissima. The growth of some is extremely rapid, e. g. A. moluccana. (not indigenous) and A. stipulata. The species vary in soil moisture requirements from A. procera, which thrives on moist and even swampy ground, to ^4. amara, which grows on poor dry soils in the Indian Peninsula. Species 1. ^. Lebbek, Benth. ; 2. A. sfipnlafa, Boivin ; S. A. procera, Benth. ; 4. A. odoratissima, Benth.; 5. A. lucida, Benth.; 6. A. amara, Boivin; 7. A. mollis, Boivin; 8. A. moluccana, Miq. 1. Albizzia Lebbek, Benth. Siris, East Indian walnut. Vern. Siris, Hind. ; Chichola, Mar. ; Sirsul, Kan. ; Dirasanam, Tel. ; Vagai. Tarn. ; Kokko, Burm. A moderate-sized or large deciduous tree ; bark dark grey, rather rough with irregular cracks, red or crimson inside. In the open the tree forms a short bole, branching low down, with a broad crown, but in the forest Fig. 176. Mixed ijlantation of Eucalyptus Globulus and Acacia Melanoxylon, 40 years old, Rallia plantation, Nilgiris. Fig. 177. Albizzia Lebbek in evergreen forest, Andamans. ALBIZZIA 467 when drawn up by other trees it produces a long straight bole. In the Anda- mans it is said to yield squares up to ^0 ft. long with 3 ft. siding. The sap wood is whitish and large, the heart wood dark brown with lighter or darker streaks, ornamental, used for building, furniture, agricultural and other implements, carving, turning, &c. The burrs are particularly valuable. Distribution and habitat. The tree has been so extensively planted in gardens, along roadsides and in other places, from which it has probably run wild, that its natural habitat is difficult to determine. It is believed to be wild in the sub-Himalayan tract, Bengal, Chota Nagpur, the Indian Peninsula, Burma, and the Andaman and Cocos islands. In the Himalayan valleys it occurs up to 4,000 ft. or sometimes more, usually along the banks of streams. Haines has come to the conclusion that it is nowhere wild in the southern forest circle of the Central Provinces, though very commonly planted, but the tree often called A. Lebbek is A. odoratissima, Benth., var. lebbekifoJ"''^ Haines. Talbot says it is scattered throughout the Bombay Presidency in dry and moist monsoon forests. It is undoubtedly wild in some of the Madras forests, and Bourdillon says it is wild in the deciduous forests of Travancore at low elevations. It is a tree of the mixed deciduous forests, in both dry and moist types, or of moist semi-evergreen or even evergreen forest, usually occurring scattered and not gregariously. In the Andamans it is a regular forest tree, and occurs not only in the semi-deciduous or padauk-bearing forest but also in the evergreen forest : in the former it is associated with Pterocarpus dalbergioides, Lagerstroemia hypoleuca, Terminalia bialata, Bombax insigne, Sterculia alata, 8. villosa, Myristica Irya, Artocarpus Chaplasha, and other species, while in the evergreen forest its chief companions are Diptero- carpus turbitiatus and other species of Dipferocarpus , Planchonia andamanica, Artocarpus Chaplaslia, A. Lakoocha, Myristica Irya, Calophyllum spectabile, Mesua ferrea, Hopea odorata, Mimusops Elengi, Baccaurea sapida, and Podo- carpus neriifolia. Fig. 177 shows a tree in evergreen forest. Mr. F. H. Todd^ notes that in the North Andaman its northern limit, except for occasional specimens, is the Balmi creek, and that it is particularly abundant in Interview and Bennett Islands, in which from valuation surveys he estimated the stock to be : (1) trees 6 ft. in girth and over, 7,820 ; (2) trees 41-6 ft. in girth, 3,275 ; (3) trees 3-4i ft. in girth, 3,275. He also mentions that in the North Andaman the tree grows best in the moist semi-evergreen forests, and though fairly numerous in the deciduous forests, it is usually somewhat stunted. More recent estimates from enumerations by Mr. Bonig, in which Mr. Todd's figures are incorporated, give the following figures : - Trees over 6 ft. ill girth. Trees under 6 ft, in girth. 10,725 18.133 1,220 21,624 4,990 Northi Andaman felling series .... Middle Andaman felling series .... Southern Andaman felling series .... [n Burma it grows in tropical forests as well as in mixed deciduous forests. ^ Draft Working Plan for the Forests of the North Andaman, 1900. ^ Working Plan Report of the Andamans Forest Division, 1916. K 2 468 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE In the former Brandis ^ mentions it as one of the lofty deciduous trees towering above the evergreen trees, other large deciduous trees growing with it being Xylia dolabrijorrnis, Alhizzia stipulata, Teframeles nudiflora, Penface burmanica, StercuUa spp., &c. It is found both in the moist upper mixed forests and in the dry mixed forests. In the former it is associated with teak, Xylia, Lager- stroemia Flos-Reginae, DijpterocarpiLS alatus, and many other trees, the chief bamboos being Bambusa polymorpJia and Cephalostachyurri pergracile. In the dry mixed forests its chief companions are Pentacme suavis, Shorea ohtiisa, Buchanania latifoUa, Dalbergia cultrata, Terminalia tomeniosa, Phyllanifius Emblica, Dillenia pulcherrima, Cassia Fistula, and others, sometimes with teak of comparatively small size ; the chief bamboo is Dendrocalamus str ictus. In the dry forests of the Madras Presidency it is found chiefly along streams and in moist places. It is frequently planted in dry regions, and on a variety of soils ; it grows successfully when planted on black cotton soil. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. In northern India the leaves commence falling in October and November, and some trees are almost leafless by the end of November. Some are still in full leaf during December. In some cases the leaves continue falling from December to the end of February or even into March. The new leaves appear in April or sometimes as early as March. Trees or branches which yield fruits in plenty become leafless earlier and remain leafless longer than those which do not. The flowers, of a somewhat heavy fragrance, appear chiefly in April and May, sometimes earlier or later, and the masses of yellowish white blossom are conspicuous against the new foliage. The fruits develop rapidly, and by August some are nearly full-sized. In northern India they approach maturity by October, though still green, and begin to turn yellow in November, ripening soonest on trees which have lost their leaves ; by December or January the pods are all ripe. Farther south they ripen sooner. They hang on the tree as a rule until March, when they commence to be blown down, but many continue hanging through April and May, some exceptionally remaining on the trees as late as October, so that from July onwards old yellow pods may be seen hanging along with young green ones. Heavy rain from March onwards brings down the pods in quantity. The ripe pods are straw coloured, 8-12 in. long by 1-2-2 in. broad, flat, thin, firm, linear-oblong, 6- to 12-seeded, the outlines of the seeds prominent on the outside. They rustle in the breeze with a characteristic sound which has been described as that of the frying of meat. On leafless trees they are often produced in great abundance, the trees having the appearance of being covered with dry light yellow foliage. The pods are dehiscent, but dehiscence does not as a rule take place until the pods have reached the ground, and may be tardy or only partial, the seeds remaining within the pod for a con- siderable time. The seeds (Fig. 178, a) are 0-3-0-45 in. by 0-25-0-35 in., obovate or oblong, compressed, light brown, smooth, with a hard testa. Their weight varies considerably, from 140 to 350 (average 230) weighing 1 oz. Tests carried out ^ Report on the Attaran Forests. d c a — Seed Fig. 178. Albizzia Lebbek — Seedling x | b - d - Germination stages e - g - Development of seedling during first season ALBIZZIA 469 at Dehra Dun showed that the seed retains its vitality well for at least one year, though fresh seed has a higher percentage of fertility than seed which has been kept for a time ; seed kept for a year germinated more rapidly than fresh seed. The seeds are very subject to the attacks of insects, particularly of a small whitish caterpillar, and many are destroyed both on the tree and on the ground. Rain sometimes causes much of the seed to rot in the pods, particularly after they have fallen, and it is therefore advisable to collect the seed as soon after it ripens as possible. This can best be done by men ascending the trees and picking the pods off, or by knocking them off with the aid of a long stick ; in the latter case it is advisable to spread sheets under the trees, as much of the seed may fall out during the process. The seeds are extracted from the pods either by opening the latter or by crushing them in the hands and separating the seeds by winnowing. Germination (Fig. 178, b-d). Epigeous. The radicle emerges first, and the hypocotyl elongates by arching, soon straightening and carrying the cotyledons above ground ; as a rule the testa is carried up over the cotyledons, falling with their expansion, but sometimes it remains underground. The seedling (Fig. 178). Roots : primary root long, terete, tapering, wiry, brown : lateral roots moderate in number, short, fibrous, distributed down main root : nodules present. Hypocotyl distinct from root, 1-5-2 in. long, terete, tapering upwards, minutely pubescent. Cotyledons sessile, 0-6 by 0-4 in., elliptical ovate, apex rounded, base sagittate, flat or slightly plano-convex, fleshy, entire, green, glabrous. Stetn erect, terete, wiry, green, pubescent ; internodes 0- 1-0-5 in. long. Leaves alternate. Stipules minute, lanceolate. First leaf once pari- pinnate, rachis 0-6-1-3 in. long, leaflets opposite, five or six pairs, 0-4-0-7 in. by 0-15-0-17 in., obliquely oblong, subsequent leaves bipinnate, at first with one pair of pinnae 0-7-1-5 in. long, common rachis 0-5-1 in. long, the number of pairs of pinnae increasing subsequently. The development of the seedling varies greatly among individual plants even under identical conditions, but there are certain factors which stimulate development, and which induce remarkably rapid growth from the com- mencement ; the most important factors are absence of weeds, loose soil, sufficient soil moisture, and full sunlight. Numerous experimental plots at Dehra Dun have demonstrated the marked effect of regular weeding and loosening of the soil on the growth of the seedling, and although watering has a beneficial effect it is of comparatively little avail unless weeding is carried out. As regards light requirements, experimental plots of seedlings grown under shade of varying intensity have shown that dense shade greatly retards germination, some seed failing to germinate until the second year ; seedlings which do appear are capable of standing heavy shade for one season but not longer, and development is very slow, a maximum height of only 4 in: having been recorded at the end of the season. The seedlings develop satisfactorily with moderate side shade, but at Dehra Dun their growth was found to be inferior to that of plants grown in full sunlight. The following measurements recorded in various experimental plots at Dehra Dun exhibit the marked effects of regular weeding, whether accompanied by irrigation or not : Unirrig ated plots. Unweeded. . 9 in.i (1) Maximum 1 ft. (2) „ Oft. (3) „ Oft. (4) „ Oft. 1 in. Tin. Sin. 10 in. 11 in.i (1) Maximum 2 ft. (2) „ 1 ft. (3) „ 2 ft. (4) „ 2 ft. 9 in.i 9 in. 9 in. 10 in. 470 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE Albizzia Lebbek : rate of growth of seedlings in experimental plots. Irrigated plots. Weeded. Unweeded. Weeded. Height at end of first season. (1) 1 ft. 2 in.-8 ft. 4 in. Maximum 1 ft. 5 in.^^ Maximum 2 ft, (nursery plants ; seed sown Feb. and early start obtained) (2) Maximum 2 ft. 0 in.i Height at end of 2nd season. (1) Maximum 14 ft, 4 in. Maximum 4 ft. 5 in.^ Maximum 6 ft. (2) „ 6 ft. 8 in.i Height at end of 3rd season. (1) Abandoned Maximum 11 ft. 0 in. Maximum 14 ft. 9 in. (1) Maximum 4 ft. 10 in. (2) Maximum 13 ft. 0 in. (dominant plants (2) „ 4 ft. Sin. (dominant plants vigorous) vigorous) ^ Growth of seedlings retarded by attacks of Oxyrhachis taratidus, Fabr., a hemipterous insect of the family Membracidae which infests seedlings and saplings of this and other species of Albizzia as well as certain other leguminous species (to some extent Acacia Catechu), doing much damage by sucking the young shoots and causing them to wither ; the leading shoots are often destroyed in this way and the growth of the plants is seriously interfered with. All the plots noted in the above statement were in fuU sunlight : the unirri gated unweeded plots may be taken to represent the development under natural conditions. Nursery-raised plants, regularly weeded and watered, show rapid growth from the commencement, and may attain a height of nearly 4 ft. in four months from germination. A long stout taproot is pro- duced at an early stage ; this may reach a length of 2 ft. in three to four months. The lateral rootlets are often covered with rather large nodules. In northern India the leaves of seedlings fall from about December to March, and growth ceases during the cold season ; new growth commences about February. The seedlings are not very frost-tender, though the leaves are apt to shrivel up in frosty localities before falling, and the leading shoots are some- times killed back where frost is severe. Young plants are somewhat sensitive to drought, especially in the first season. If early rain stimulates germination and prolonged dry weather ensues, the young seedlings are killed off in quantity. Under naturtv^ conditions light weed-growth and grass, though it impedes development, acts as a protective against drought. The sudden removal of weeds from over young seedlings is fatal ; weeding requires to be carried out from the commencement. Seedlings do not stand suppression weU, and where they are at all crowded the more vigorous individuals quickly suppress the more weakly ones. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. Youug plants are capable of standing a moderate amoimt of shade, though their growth is interfered with if the shade is at aU heavy. For its best development the tree requires full over- head light. It is not exacting as to soil, and will grow fairly well even on laterite or black cotton soil. The root-system is largely superficial, and though as a rule the tree does not produce root-suckers regularly, it may do so if the roots are exposed. Mr. G. M. Ryan writes : ^ " Albizzia Lebbek is not a tree 1 Ind. Forester, xxx (1904), p. 454. ALBIZZIA 471 which has been noticed to throw up root-suckers habitually, but a very interest- ing instance of such reproduction occurring on the exposure of the root-system came to my knowledge recently in the Wada Range (Thana district, Bombay), where 21 Alhizzia Lebbek suckers were observed in some excavated pits arising from roots which were embedded to the depth of 1| ft. in the soil. A close examination proved that these suckers arose from a network of subterranean roots which spread out from an Alhizzia Lebbek 100 ft. away.' Its shallow root- system renders it liable to be thrown by wind. The tree is browsed by camels and lopped for camel fodder. It is sometimes badly attacked by Loranthus. Natural reproduction. Under natural conditions germination ordinarily commences early in the rainy season and may continue until late in the rains. If the seeds are exposed to full sunlight germination is usually prompt and complete, but under shade it is delayed, and seed may lie ungerminated until the following year. In full sunlight, however, there may be high mortality if dry weather occurs after rain during or shortly after germination, and the survival of the seedlings is surer in a moderate growth of grass and weeds than if they are fully exposed to the sun, though their development is impeded. The ideal conditions for natural reproduction appear to be loose fairly moist soil, free from weeds, under light shade preferably from the side, the shade being removed when the seedlings have established themselves. The sporadic nature and uncertainty of natural reproduction in most localities is noticeable. Seedlings in various stages are occasionally met with, but considering the large quantities of pods produced natural reproduction is decidedly scanty. It is probable that insect attacks account for this to a large extent, and an experiment carried out at Dehra Dun appears to support this view. Pods which were knocked off the trees by heavy rain in March were placed on a plot of ground which had been previously dug up, germination being thus favoiu-ed. The pods, which were left uncovered as under natural conditions, gradually dehisced and the seed began to fall out in May, but by July every seed had become badly attacked by insects, and not a single one germinated, although the plot was kept under observation until the end of the year. Drought is no doubt also a fruitful cause of failure, in dry localities and on stiff or shallow soils, particularly during germination and in the early seedling stages. Heavy shade, in retarding germination and thus prolonging the period during which the seed is exposed to insect attacks, is another adverse factor. Artificial reproduction. Albizzia Lebbek can be grown by direct sowings and by transplanting from the nursery, but experiments at Dehra Dun showed the former to be the more successful, as transplanting checks the growth to some extent. It was found that transplanting could be carried out successfully either by pruning the root and stem or by leaving them intact ; in the latter case it is advisable to use small plants during the first rainy season, owing to the length of taproot. If pruning is carried out the stem should be cut down to about 2 in. from ground-level and the taproot pruned to a length of about 9 in. The seed may be sown in the nursery in March- April in drills not less than 9 in. apart, the beds being watered regularly but moderately and kept well weeded ; the young plants will be ready to transplant early in the rainy season. 472 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE For direct sowings the Dehra Dun experiments showed that line sowings on well-loosened soil, the lines being kept weeded from the commencement, gave the best results. Irrigation stimulates the growth, the seed being sown along the base of the ridge of loose earth thrown up alongside an irrigation channel 1| ft. by 1| ft. in section. In line sowings the seedlings require, to be thinned out regularly. Mr. L. S. Osmaston ^ has described some experiments carried out in 1905 and 1906, in raising Alhizzia Lehbek artificially on shallow soil overlying trap in the Nasik district of Bombay, where the rainfall is about 24 in. The experi- ments and their results were briefly as follows : 1. Broadcasting without previous preparation of the soil. Seedlings of 1905 died ; those which failed to germinate in 1905 germinated in 1906, but the results in the latter case have not been recorded. 2. Dibbling : results similar. 3. Sowing on circular moimds : (a) Large mounds 2| ft. high, 2 ft. diameter at top, and 7 ft. at base ; percentage of successful mounds, 100. (b) Medium mounds 1 ft. to IJ ft. high, 2 ft. at top and 4 ft. at base ; percentage of successful mounds, 89-4. (c) Small mounds 9 in. high, 3 ft. diameter at base ; percentage of success- ful mounds, 100. 4. Sowings in pits : (a) All soil returned to pit ; percentage of successful pits, 37. (6) Pits half filled with soil ; percentage of successful pits, 68. (c) No soil returned to pit ; percentage of successful pits, 43. 5. Planting one-year-old transplants ; only 300 survived out of 7,000, or 4-3 per cent. Mr. Osmaston further describes the conduct of line sowings in conjunction with the raising of field crops in the same locality : - this system, wliich is explained under Acacia arabica (p. 437), proved quite successful, the plants in 3| years reaching a maximum height and girth of 18 ft. and 1 ft. 5| in. re- spectively. The Berar system, described under Acacia arabica (p. 435), should also prove suitable for the raising of Albizzia Lebbek. Mound sowings have proved successful in the Bellary district, Madras. The tree grows readily from cuttings. SiLVicuLTURAL TREATMENT. As the tree occurs scattered in mixed forests it is in actual practice treated along with other species, usually either as coppice- with-standards or under selection fellings. In the Andaman forests it is regarded as one of the more valuable species ; under the existing working plan these forests are worked by selection fellings, the minimum girth limit for the felling of sound Albizzia Lebbek being fixed at 6 ft. As a general rule natural reproduction is so scanty that the only means of ensuring a plentiful and regular supply of this timber would appear to be by artificial cultivation. Rate of growth. The growth is fast. The rapid development of young plants under favourable conditions has already been alluded to under ' the 1 Ind. Forester, xxxiii (1!H>7), ]>. 177. ^ /^jVf^ p 265. Fig. 179. Albizzia stipulata, United Provinces. ALBIZZIA 473 seedling '. Brandis says that trees in the Punjab reach a girth of 2 ft. 9 in. in twelve years and 4 ft. 6 in. in thirty years, and that trees seventeen years old at Sukkur in Sind reached a girth of 5 to 6 ft. These figures probably refer to trees grown in more or less open positions ; in the forest the growth in girth would probably be slower. 2. Albizzia stipulata, Boivin. Vern. Ohi, Pb. ; Siran, Hind. ; Chakua, Beng. ; Sau, Ass. ; Kalbage, Kan. ; Laeli, Mar. ; Konda chigara, Tel. ; Pili vagai, Tarn. ; Bonmeza, Burm. (Fig. 179.) A large deciduous tree with feathery foliage and large stipules. The crown is often spreading and flat-topped. Bark dark grey, fairly smooth, with occasional prominent horizontal wrinkles and furrows and numerous small vertical wrinkles. Sapwood large, white ; heartwood brown, soft, not very durable, used for building, furniture, domestic utensils, &c. It is used as a shade tree in tea plantations in Assam and the Bengal Duars. Distribution and habitat. Throughout the sub-Himalayan tract and Himalayan valleys up to 4,000 ft.. Bengal, Assam, Chota Nagpur, the moist er parts of the Indian Peninsula, Andamans, Nicobars, Burma, Ceylon, and the Malay Peninsula. The tree occurs chiefly in moist localities. It is common in the Kangra valley. In the sub-Himalayan tract and outer valleys it often occurs in swampy ground and moist low-lying savannahs. In the Peninsula it is found only in the moister regions, both on the west coast and in southern India. Bourdillon says it is very common in the lower open and deciduous forests of Travancore, ascending the hills to 3,000 ft. It occurs in the evergreen sholas of North Coimbatore (C. E. C. Fischer). Mr. F. H. Todd mentions it as one of the species in the semi-evergreen and deciduous forests of the North Andaman.^ In Burma it is common in the tropical forests, in mixed forests both of moist and of dry types, and extends into the hill forests. Kurz ^ mentions it as one of the lofty deciduous trees towering above the stratum of evergreen trees in closed tropical forests. He also gives it as one of the trees of the pine {Pinus Klmsya) forests of the hills, with Daphnidiuni, Aperula, Helicia, Engelhardtia , Dillenia aurea, Ternstroemia japonica, &c., and of the lower drier hill forests, of a rather stunted type, occupying exposed ridges at 3,000 to 4,000 ft. and upwards, associated with Ternstroemia japonica, Schima Noronhae, Turpinia nepalensis, Bucklandia populnea, Dillenia. aurea, Symplocos, laurels, &c. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 95° to 110° F., the absolute minimum from 30° to 65° F., and the normal rainfall from 45 to 200 in. or more. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. Kurz ^ and Haines * say the tree is evergreen. In northern India it is deciduous, the leaves commencing to fall about January, shrivelling up and falling by single leaflets or by whole pinnae. The trees are usually leafless in February-March, the new leaves appearing in March or early April. The masses of fragrant feathery yellowish white flowers appear from April to June amongst the rich green of the new foliage, and the tree is then '^ Draft Working Plan for the Forests of the North Andaman, 1906. 2 PreUminary Forest Report of Pegu, 1875. " For. Flora Br. Burma. * For. Flora Chota Nagpur. 474 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE particularly handsome. The pods while developing are pale reddish green : they comraence ripening about November-December, and continue hanging in quantity through the leafless season, when they resemble small siris pods on the trees. They commence falling in quantity about March, and continue falling during the hot weather months, being blown to some distance from the trees by the dry winds : a few old empty pods may sometimes be found on the trees as late as September. The pods (Fig. 181, a) are 3-5-6 in. long by 0-5-0-8 in. broad, flat, glabrous, light brown, often wrinkled over the seeds, 8- to 12-seeded. The majority of the pods dehisce after falling to the ground, the seed thus being distributed by the wind ; only those which remain late on the tree dehisce before falling. The seeds (Fig. 181, 6) are 0-15-0-3 in. long, flat, ovate or elliptical, greenish brown, smooth ; about 900 weigh 1 oz. Tests at Dehra Dun have sho■w^l that the seed retains its vitality to some extent for at least a year, though the percentage of fertility of seed so kept is less than that of fresh seed. Germination (Fig. 181, c-e). Epigeous. After the emergence of the radicle the hypocotyl arches slightly, soon straightening and raising the cotyledons above ground. The testa is usually carried up over the cotyledons, falling with their expansion. The seedling (Fig. 181). Roots : primary root moderately long and thick, terete, taperuig, ^^ iry, white turning brown : lateral roots numerous, moderately long, fibrous, dis- tributed down main root : nodules present. Hypocotyl distinct from root, 0-6-1 -5 in. long, cylindrical or tapering upwards, expanded in a ring at the base, green or pinkish when young, minutely pubescent. Cotyledons sessile or very shortly petiolate, 0-3-0-4 in. by 0-15-0-2 in., elliptical or ovate, plano- convex, or slightly concave beneath, thin, somewhat fleshy, apex rounded, base sagittate, entire, glabrous. Stem erect, slightly zigzag at the nodes, green, minutely pubescent ; internodes 0-2-0-5 in. long. Leaves, first two sub-opposite or alternate, subsequent leaves alternate. Stipules 0-1-0-15 in. by 0-1 in. or less, falcate acuminate, caducous. First leaf usually once pinnate, sometimes bipinnate ; if once pinnate rachis 0-4-0-6 in. long, with about five pairs of leaflets 0-1-0-2 in. by less than 0-1 in., obliquely oblong or falcate, acute, entire, pubescent, glaucous beneath, midrib close to and parallel to one edge ; subsequent leaves bipinnate, first few with one pair*, then a few with two pairs, then three pairs of pinnae, leaflets 4-20 pairs, up to 0-4 by 0-15 in., rachis with a gland on the upper side. . During the first season the seedling does not show that rapid growtli which is such a marked feature later on. Seedlings raised under natural conditions on unweeded and unwatered ground at Dehra Dun showed the following growth in the first two seasons : Under moderate shade. In full sunlight. Height at end of 1st season . . . Chiefly 5-7 in. Chiefly 5-8 in. Height at end of 2nd season . . . Maximum 4 ft. 1 ft. 3 in.-4 ft. 9 in. The seedlings stand moderate shade, but are killed by dense shade. Tliey are capable of struggling well through a moderate growth of weeds and grass, though their development is stimulated by regular weeding as well as watering : seedlings regularly weeded and watered reached a height of 3 ft. by the end of the first season. Weeding, however, has to be carried out from the com- mencement, since if weeds are suddenly removed from over young seedlings Fig. 181. AMzzia stipulata. Seedling x |. a, fruit ; b, seed ; c-e, germination stages ; f-j, development of seedling during first season. they are apt to die of drought. The seedlings are very sensitive to drought ; they are also somewhat sensitive to frost, though they have good power of recovery if killed back. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. Little is kiiown of the silvicultural characters of this tree. It may be classed as a moderate light-demander ; that it is able to stand some shade is evident from the fact that it sometimes grows up in teak plantations in Burma and makes its way through the teak. Natural reproduction. Germination starts early in the rainy season, and in warm sunny places is completed early. Under shade germination may continue throughout the rains and on till October or November, while some of the seed may lie dormant through the ensuing dry season, and may germ- inate in the second rainy season. The most favourable conditions for natural reproduction appear to be loose soil, in which the seed becomes covered dm-ing the early showers, and a fair degree of moisture. A moderate growth of grass and weeds is not harmful, though it may hinder the development of the seed- lings to some extent ; in dry localities it is even useful in protecting them from drought. Artificial reproduction. Experiments at Dehra Dun have shown that direct sowing is more successful than transplanting, and regular weeding from the commencement stimulates growth ; in this respect line sowings give the best promise of success. Transplanting can be carried out without much difficulty in the rains. The seed should be sown in the nursery about March or April in drills 9 in. apart, the beds being well watered and weeded thi'ough the dry season. The seedlings should be planted out during the rainy season ; they can be trans- planted successfully after pruning down the stem to near ground-level and cutting the root doAvn to a length of about 9 in. If unpruned plants are used they should be small, otherwise the taproot gives trouble. Rate op growth. The growth is very rapid. In teak plantations in Burma the tree grows quickly through the fast growing teak and has to be cut out periodically in thinnings. Two cross-sections in the silvicultural museum at Dehra Dun, from trees in the United Provinces, showed the follow- ing rates of growth : (1) Age 28 years : girth 4 ft. 11 in. : mean annual girth increment 2-1 in. (2) Age 43 years : girth 4 ft. 6 in. : mean annual girth increment 1-25 in. Gamble's specimens gave three to four rings per inch of radius, or a mean annual girth increment of 1-57 to 21 in. He also quotes the following measure- ments : ^ ' Roxburgh says that a tree he planted in the Botanic Garden at Calcutta measured 48-5 in. in girth at 4 ft. above ground when 7 years old; this would give a rate of growth of slightly less than 1 ring per inch of radius. Stewart, in " Punjab Plants '\ p. 56, says that a tree in the Saharanpm* Gardens was 7 ft. in girth at about 17 years of age, which gives rather over 1 ring per inch of radius. ... A round in the Bengal Forest Museum from a young tree shows 11 rings on a mean radius of 6 in., or 1-8 rings per inch of radius.' 3. Albizzia procera, Benth. Syn. Mimosa elata, Roxb. White siris. Vern. Safed siris, gurar, Hind. ; Koroi, Beng., Ass. ; Bellati, Kan. ; Kinlmi, Mar. ; Konda vagai, Tarn. ; Chigara, Tel. ; Sit, Burm. 1 Man. Ind. Timb. (1902). j). .307. i a ^ 1 b A r-v. Fig. 182. Alhizzia pvoceva — Seedling X f a — Seed b - e — Germination stages f - h — Development of seedling during first season ALBIZZIA 477 A large tree with a long clean bole, often branching at a considerable height and forming a somewhat light crown. Bark smooth, light yellowish or greenish grey, exfoliating in thin flakes, red inside. The sapwood is large, whitish, the heartwood brown with streaks of darker or lighter colour, used for house-posts, agricultural implements, &c. Distribution and habitat. Throughout the sub-Himalayan tract, common from the Jumna eastwards, Assam, Bengal, Chota Nagpur, the Indian Peninsula, Burma, and the Andamans. The tree is found most commonly on alluvial ground along streams and in moist, even swampy places ; it is par- ticularly common in low-lying moist savannahs, as in the Duars of Bengal and Assam, in Burma and elsewhere ; in such places it is often gregarious, the clean light-coloured boles being very conspicuous (see Fig. 180). It is in many localities also a common species in mixed forests, generally on moist alluvial ground. In the Dehra Dun valley it is one of the constituents of the swamp forests, along with Trewia nudi flora, Ficus glomemta, Pterospermum, aceri folium, Cedrela Toona, and other swamp species. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 98° to 115° F., the absolute minimum from 30° to 65° F., and the normal rainfall from 40 to 200 in. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The tree becomes almost leafless for a short time during the hot season, from April to June, according to locality : Haines ^ says there may be a second flush of new leaves in August growing through the flowering panicles. The large panicles of yellowish white flowers appear from June to September. The pods soon commence forming, and in the cold season, especially from October to January, they have a rich red colour, the trees at this time being particularly handsome with the masses of red pods against the green foliage. The pods ripen from February to May, and are then dark reddish brown, 4-8 in. long by 0-5-0-9 in. broad, thin, strap-shaped, 6- to 12-seeded, dehiscent. The seeds (Fig. 182, a) are 0-2-0-3 in. by 0-15-0-25 in., flat, elliptical to nearly orbicular, hard, smooth, greenish brown, with a leathery testa ; about 500-850 weigh 1 oz. The pods fall from the trees for the most part during the hot season, dehiscing before or about the time of falling. The seed germinates readily, and is less subject to insect attacks than that of A. Lebbek. It retains its vitality for at least a year ; two tests of seed one year old at Dehra Dun showed 23 and 80 per cent, of fertility respectively. Germination (Fig. 182, b-e). Epigeous. After the emergence of the radicle the hypocotyl arches slightly, carrying the cotyledons above ground; the testa is either left on or in the ground, or, less commonly, carried up over the cotyledons, falling with their expansion. The seedling (Fig. 182). Roots : primary root long, at first thin, becoming fairly thick in vigorous plants, terete, tapering, wiry, whitish at fii^st, becoming yellow or light brown : lateral roots few, somewhat short, fibrous, distributed down main root : nodules present. Hypocotyl distinct from root, 1-2-2 in. long, cylindrical, green or pinkish. Cotyledons sessile or sub-sessile, 0-35-0-4 in. by 0-2 in., elliptical, flat, somewhat fleshy, base sagittate, entire, green, glabrous. Stem erect, terete, wiry ; internodes 0-2-1 -5 in. long. Leaves alternate, compound. ^ For. Flora Chota Nagpur. 478 XXIII. LEGUMIN08AE Stipules minute, linear. First leaf compound, paripinnate, with racliis 0-6-1 in, long, terminating in a bristle, leaflets normally three pairs, opposite, shortly petioled, 0-4-0-6 in. by 0- 15-0-25 in., obliquely ovate or obovate oblong, acute or obtuse, glabrous. Subsequent leaves bipinnate, leaves of the first season with one pair of pinnae, the number of pairs increasing later ; common rachis and pinnae each 0-5-2 in. long ; leaflets at first two or three pairs on each pinna, the number increasing to about ten pairs during the first season, opposite or sub-opposite, up to 1 in. by 0-3 in. Under natural conditions the seedling usually attains a height of 4-8 in. by the end of the first season, but if regularly weeded and watered it grows rapidly, nursery -raised seedlings at Dehra Dun having attained a height of 1 ft. to 1 ft. 8 in. in three months from germination. The seedling is capable of struggHng during the first season through low weeds and grass, its growth being slow during the process but increasing considerably after the weeds have been surmounted. The sudden removal of weeds from around seedlings previously unweeded, however, is liable to cause their death through sudden exposure to the sun. Vigorous seedlings produce long stout taproots which may reach a length of nearly 2 ft. in three months from germination : the lateral rootlets are usually covered with nodules. The following measurements of seedlings in various plots at Dehra Dun will give some idea of the rate of growth under different conditions : Albizzia procera : development of seedlings. Conditions under Height at end of season, wliich grown. 1st season. 2nd season. 3rd season. 4th sc Nursery -raised trans- (1) Maximum 0 ft. 6 in. (1) 1 ft. 2 in. -3 ft. 4 in. (1) 1 ft. 9 in. -7 ft. 5 in. plants, entire stem (2) „ 1 ft. 4 in. (2) Maximum 3 ft. 1 in. and roots Nvirsery-raised trans- Maximum 1 ft. 0 in. Maximum 4 ft. 2 in. 2 ft. 10 in.-8 ft. 5 in. plants, pruned stem and roots Natural conditions, (1) Maximum 0 ft. 6 in. (I) Maximum 2 ft. 1 in. unweeded, in full (2) 4 in.-T^ in. (2) 1 ft. 6 in.-2 ft. 5 in. (2) 2 ft. 4 in.-8 ft. 2 in. (2) Mf sunlight 11 ft Natural conditions, (1) Maximum 0 ft. 6 in. (1) 5J in.-l ft. 10 in. unweeded, in mode- (2) „ 0 ft. 7i in. (2) 9 in.-l ft. 8 in. rate side shade The growth would in most cases have been greater except for the damage caused by the hemipterous insect Oxyrhachis tarandus, Fabr., which causes much injury to this species, as in the case of Albizzia Lebbek. The seedlings are somewhat frost-tender, and are liable to be killed back in frosty localities. Growth ceases about November, and recommences about February- March. The leaves drop from December to February and the seedling is leafless for a short time. SiiiVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. Although it stands moderate but not heavy shade in youth the tree may be classed as a light-demander, as it cannot stand suppression. In the abnormal drought of 1907 and 1908 in Oudli it proved fairly drought resistant, though in the moist localities in which it grows it was probably not as severely tested as species growing in drier tracts. In the great frost of 1905 in northern India it suffered severely. The tree is much subject to cankerous wounds, as a rule where branches have been broken ALBIZZIA 479 off. Mr. G. M. Ryan,^ writing of conditions in Bombay, says the tree throws up root-suckers when the aerial portion of the stem has been mutilated or when an advanced age has been reached. Natural reproduction. The natural reproduction of this tree is far more satisfactory than that of A. Lehbek. Germination takes place readily provided there is sufficient moisture, and in the forest seedlings may be found in quantity in the neighbourhood of seed-bearers during the rainy season, from seed which germinated early in the rains. Although the seed germinates more readily than that of A. Lebbek, in densely shaded localities the seedhngs quickly die off, while in such places some of the seed may lie ungerminated until the second rains. The factors most favourable to natural reproduction are plentiful moisture and bare loose soil where the seed becomes buried with the early showers. Thus on new soft alluvial ground near rivers seedlings in all stages may often be found in abmidance. Natural seedlings may also be found in some quantity in moist grassy tracts. Artificial reproduction. Experiments carried out at Dehra Dun have shown that transplanting can be carried out successfully in the rainy season, preferably during wet weather, with stem and root either pruned or left intact ^ but in the latter case transplanting is troublesome unless small plants of the first season are used. The seeds should be sown in nursery beds about March to May in drills about 9 in. apart, the seeds being placed a few inches apart in the drills and lightly covered. Direct sowing has proved more successful than transplanting, provided regular weeding and loosening of the soil is carried out ; line sowings have given greater success than any other form of sowing owing to the facility with which weeding can be carried out. This is a suitable species for growing in irrigated plantations or in line sowings in conjunction with the raising of field crops. The tree grows readily from cuttings. 81LVICULTURAL TREATMENT. The tree is a useful one for afforesting low-lying savannahs and moist alluvial tracts. Although natural reproduction is often good near seed-bearers artificial reproduction would have to be relied on for complete stocking. Rate of growth. The rate of growth is rapid. A cross-section in the silvicultural museum at Dehra Dun showed 26 rings for a girth, including bark, of 3 ft., giving a mean annual girth increment of 1-38 in. Brandis says that in northern India it attains a girth of 3-4 ft. in twelve years and 4-6 ft. in thirty years, giving a mean annual girth increment of 1-6 to 4 in. Gamble's specimens gave 6 rings per inch of radius, representing a mean annual girtli increment of about 1 in. 4. Albizzia odoratissima, Benth. Syn. Mimosa odoratissima , Roxb. Black siris. Vern. Kartnaru, Pb. ; Kali siris, bansa (C. P.), Hind. ; Bilkumbi, bilwara, Kan. ; Karu vagai, Tarn. ; Thitmagyi, Burm. A large tree with graceful drooping dark green foliage. Bark grey to yellowish grey, dark crimson inside. The dark brown heartwood is used for building, carts, wheels, furniture, &c. Haines "^ recognizes a variety A. lebbeki- folia in the Central Provinces, with foliage very like A. Lebbek but distinguish- able by the short peduncles, sessile flowers, and colour of the pods. 1 Ind. Forester, xxx (1904), p. 454. - Ibid., xl (1914), p. 227. 480 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE Distribution and habitat. Sub-Himalayan tract and slopes and valleys of the Himalaya up to 5,000 ft., Bengal, Chota Nagpur, the Indian Peninsula, and Burma ; also in the low country of Ceylon. The tree is widely distributed, being a common constituent of many types of mixed deciduous forest, where it grows sporadically. It is frequently found on hill slopes, and sometimes in valleys. In northern India it is common in the outer Himalaya and in the Siwalik hills : it extends throughout the greater part of the Indian Peninsula in dry as well as in moist deciduous forests. In Ajmer-Merwara it is one of the most important species, growing in dry forests on hill slopes with Anogeissiis pendula, Acacia Catechu, BoswelUa serrata, and other trees. In Burma it is common in the upper mixed forests with teak and its associates, extending into the drier types where the teak is associated with Pentacme suavis, Shorea obtusa, Dalbergia cuUrata, Phyllanihus Emblica, &c. In Bombay it is common in the moist monsoon forests of North Kanara *nd the Konkan and also in the dry Deccan, ascending to 3,700 ft. in the Khandesh Akrani (Talbot). Bourdillon says it is common on grass-lands and in open forest tln-oughout Travancore up to 3,000 ft. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 100° to 120° F., the absolute minimum from 30° to 60° F., and the normal rainfall from 25 to 120 in. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The leaves commence falling about December (northern India), and the new leaves appear in March- April. The tree sometimes becomes quite leafless for some little time, but more commonly the new leaves appear before the old ones have all fallen. The pale yellowish white fragrant flower-heads in large terminal panicles appear from April to June, and by October the pods are full-sized but still green : they commence ripening in December (northern India), or earlier farther south, falling during the hot season and dehiscing as a rule after falling, though some may hang for a long time on the tree, dehiscing before falling. When ripe the pods are 5-12 in. long by 1-1-3 in. broad, reddish brown or purplish green with darker markings over the seeds, flat and flexible, eight- to twelve- seeded. Silvicultural characters. The tree stands a certain amount of shade in youth, but may be classed as a moderate light-demander. It is not exacting as regards soil, though on poor soil it is somewhat stunted. Its roots are largely superficial, and numerous root-suckers are produced. The young plants are susceptible to frost, and plantations formed in Ajmer-Merwara are reported to have failed for this reason. The tree coppices well, and in Ajmer-Merwara the shoots are said to reach a height of 10 ft. in two years, but are liable to be killed by frost : natural seedlings are reported to be plentiful in sheltered places where the soil is good.^ Rate of growth. The only measurements available are those recorded by Mr. Gamble from wood specimens examined by him, the average of which showed 4 rings per inch of radius or a mean annual girth increment of 1-57 in. 5. Albizzia lucida, Benth. Burmese siris. Vern. TJiantJia.t, Burm. A large tree with thin greyish bark and a full crown of handsome dark green foliage, the leaflets fewer and larger tlian in other species of this genus. ^ Working Plan for the State Forests of Ajmer-Merwara. 1896. ALBIZZIA 481 Distribution and uabitat. The sub-Himalayan tract from Nepal east- wards, eastern Himalayan valleys up to 2,000 ft., Assam, Chittagong, and Burma. The tree is often planted along avenues and in gardens outside its natural region, and grows well in Dehra Dun and other stations of northern India. It is found wild as a rule along the banks of streams and in moist places. In Burma it occurs in tropical forests where many of the species are evergreen, in lower mixed forests of the alluvial plains, and also in upper mixed deciduous forests. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 98° to 108° F., the absolute minimum from 35° to 55° F., and the normal rainfall from 45 to 200 in. or more. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The tree is leafless or nearly so for a short time in the early part of the hot season, about March ; the leaves usually turn yellow before falling. The yellowish white flow^ers appear in April-May. The pods become full-sized about October-November, but are then unripe and green or reddish green ; they ripen from February to April (observed ripening February in Bengal Duars, April in Dehra Dun). When ripe (Fig. 183, a) they are 4-8 in. long by 0-7-1 in. broad, light brown, fiat, the seeds prominent. Most of the pods fall during the hot season, and dehisce as a rule after falling : they are carried by wind, with the seeds enclosed, to some distance from the tree. Some dehisce on the tree and a few of the open pod-valves may remain hanging as late as the following November. The seeds (Fig. 183, b) are 0-3-0-4 in. long, broadly elliptical or orbicular, light brown, flat, smooth, with a leathery testa : about 550-600 weigh 1 oz. The seeds germinate readily, but so far as tests at Dehra Dun go thej'' appear to lose their vitality more quickly than those of other species of Albizzia. Germination (Fig. 183, c-g). Epigeous. After the emergence of the radicle the hypocotyl arches, soon straightening and carrying the cotyledons above ground : as a rule the testa is carried up over the cotyledons, falling off with their expansion. The seedling (Fig. 183). Roots : primary root moderately long, terete, tapering, flexuose : lateral roots moderate in number, fibrous, distributed down main root. Hypocotyl distinct from and thicker than young root, 1-2-1 -8 in. long, terete, tapering slightly upwards, green, minutely pubescent. Cotyledons sub-sessile, 3-5-5 in. by 3-4 in., plano-convex, fleshy, elliptical orbicular, base sagittate, entii'e, glabrous, greenish yellow. Stem erect, wiry to woody. Leaves, first pair opposite, produced after a very short internode, thus emerging from between the cotyledons, subsequent leaves alternate. First pair simple or paripinnate with two or three pairs of leaflets or imparipinnate with five leaflets or bipinnate, one of the leaves often differing in form from the other. Simple leaves with petiole 0-1 in. long, lamina 0-8-1-2 in. by 0-3-0-4 in., ovate or elliptical lanceolate, acuminate, entire, giabrescent or minutely pubescent. Earliest compound leaves with rachis 0-5-0-8 in. long, leaflets opposite, verj- shortly petiolate, 0-5-0-8 in. by 0-2-0-4 in., ovate lanceolate, acuminate. Seedlings raised at Dehra Dun showed only moderate growth during the first two years, nursery-raised transplants having a maximum height of 5| in. and 14 in. by the end of the first and second seasons respectively. The seedlings proved very sensitive to drought, and grew best if well watered and kept shaded from the sun. 2307.2 T fmM c g i^' m If I Fig. 183. Alhizzia lucida. Seedling x |, a, fiuit ; b, seed ; c-g, germination stages ; h-7i, early seedling stages showing variations in leaves. I ALBIZZIA 483 SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. The silvicultural characters of this tree have not been studied in detail. It appears to be somewhat shade-bearing, and requires a moist situation for its best development. It has long spreading lateral roots near the surface of the ground, which produce a prolific crop of root-suckers to a considerable distance from the tree. Artificial reproduction. Experiments at Dehra Dun have shown that transplanting can be done without much difficulty both in the first and in the second rainy season, though this should be carried out as far as possible in wet weather. Fresh seed should be sown in the nursery-beds about March or April, the beds being kept well watered and weeded and shaded from the sun during the heat of the day. The transplanting of root-suckers is also recommended. 6. Albizzia amara, Boivin. Syn. Mirnosa amara, Roxb. Vern. Tugli, tugal, Kan. ; Lallei, Deccan ; Chikreni, Tel. ; Thuringi, imjai, usil, Tam. A small or moderate-sized much-branched deciduous tree with thin smooth dark greenish scaly bark. The leaves have numerous small leaflets. Heart- wood purplish brown, very hard, used for small building material, agricultural implements, &c., but chiefly for fuel. A tree of the Indian Peninsula from Khandesh and Vizagapatam south- wards, on dry often hilly country. Dry regions of Ceylon. On the Laun sandstone plateau in Raipur, Central Provinces (Haines). It is a common tree in the dry mixed deciduous and thorn forests of the Deccan. It is one of the most characteristic trees in the dry regions of the Madras Presidency, often growing on very poor soil ; among its chief companions are Acacia Latronuni, A. Catechu, A. planifrons, A. leucophloea, Cldoroxylon Swietenia, Dichrostachys cinerea, Azadirachta indica, Anogeissus latifolia, Prosopis spici- gera, Cassia Fistula, Strychnos Nux-vomica, S. potatorum, PhyllantJms Emhlica, Cleistanfhus collinus, Terrninalia Chebula, Zizyphus Xylopyrus, and Wrightia tinctoria. The tree reproduces freely from coppice-shoots and also produces root- suckers ; the coppice-shoots are often produced in such numbers that their size suffers and thinning is necessary. Natural reproduction by seed is usually good in areas protected from fire and grazing : goats are very partial to it, and it suffers much in grazed areas. The tree is usually worked as coppice or coppice-with-standards. It has been roughly estimated that coppice-shoots attain a girth of 2| ft. in thirty years. ^ The yellow fragrant flower-heads appear from April to June and the pods ripen in the cold season, chiefly from November to January. The pods are 5-8 in. by 0-7-1 in., thin, flat, greyish brown, pubescent, veined, with undulate edges. 7. Albizzia mollis, Boivin. Syn. A. Julihrissin, Durazzini. Pink siris, hill siris. Vern. Sirin, lal siris, kurmura. Hind. A moderate-sized tree of the western Himalaya, ascending to 7,000 ft. The tree reproduces freely from root-suckers, and is useful for afforesting unstable hill-sides. The large pink tassels of flowers appear from April to June, at which time the tree is very handsome. The pods ripen from September to November, and remain some time on the tree : they are 3-5 in. by 0-6-0-9 in., ^ Tiruvannamalai Working Plan, vSouth Arcot, 1902. L2 484 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE thin, yellow or light brown, eight- to twelve-seeded. The growth is fast ; Gamble's specimens showed 3-4 rings per inch of radius, which gives a mean annual girth increment of 1-57 to 2-1 in. 8. Albizzia moluccaiia. Miq. A very large fast -growing Malayan tree with light foliage and a straight clean smooth grey bole, branching high up. It is largely grown in Ceylon and Java as a shade to coffee, and is worth cultivating as a quick-growing shade tree for other crops requiring light shade, as it is said to possess soil- improving properties. It has recently been grown on land cleared for tea in Assam, where in the Towkok garden, Sonari, Sibsagar district, trees four years from seed were reported in 1913 to have grown 46 ft. in height with a girth of 2 ft. 9 in. at 3 ft. from ground-level. Plantations of this tree have recently been formed in the Andamans, where it grows well even in exposed situations and is not affected by wind. Plants from seed sown in December 1912 attained by 1916 a height of 30 to 35 ft. and a girth of fi to 2 ft. ; those on the soil of cleared evergreen forest attained in the same time a height of 40 to 45 ft. and a girth of 2-3 ft. at 3 ft. from ground-level. A tree in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, Ceylon, eleven years old, was 125 ft. high and nearly 11 ft. in girth at 2 ft. from the ground.^ In Ceylon the pods ripen in May- June ; the seeds are small, about 1,200 weighing 1 oz. The wood is soft and light, and suitable for tea-boxes and planking. Owing to its rapid growth it should be worth planting for this purpose in suitable localities. 5. DICHPvOyTACHY.S, DC. Dichrostachys ciuerea, W. and A. A thorny shrub or small tree with brown or grey longitudinally furrowed bark, found on dry stony ground in central and southern India, Rajputana, the Deccan and the dry zone of Upper Burma. It occurs also in Timievell^^ along with Acacia planifro7is, on land regularly inundated by sea-water during the north-east monsoon, forming a dense impenetrable growth. In the dry regions in which it is commonly found the forest is usually of an open scrubby nature, situated both on hilly and on flat ground. In the Central Provinces it is frequent on black cotton soil. Silviculturally its chief importance in dry regions lies in the fact that it is very drought -resisting and reproduces freely by root-suckers, which are often produced at a considerable distance from the main stem owing to the long spreading lateral roots : thickets many yards in diameter are formed in this way. It is also comparatively immune from damage by grazing. The plant resembles an acacia, having bipinnate leaves with minute leaflets. The inflorescences are striking, consisting of cylindrical spikes of flowers, the upper ones yellow and bisexual and the lower ones rose-coloured and sterile with long staminodes. The pods are 2-3 in. long, curled and twisted. The flowers appear and the fruit ripens at various times according to locality, during the hot season, the rains, or the cold season. 1 Cir. and Agf. Journ. Roy. Bot. Gardens, Ceylon, Ser. I, No. 18, July 1900. 485 6. ADENANTHERA, Linn. Adeiiauthera pavoiiina, Linn. Vern. Mu7ijuti, Kan. ; Anei, kundumani. Tarn. ; Ywegyi, Burm. A handsome deciduous tree of the eastern sub-Himalayan tract, Burma, the Andamans, and the Western Ghats, often planted for ornament, especially in southern India. It attains a height of about 60 ft. The red wood is used for cabinet work and the scarlet seeds are used for jewellers' weights and necklaces. The tree requires a moist climate to thrive well, and can be grown easily from large cuttings put down early in the rains. The seeds are hard, and germinate with some difficulty unless kept moist for some days prior to sowing. The tree is leafless for a short time during the cold season. The small yellow fragrant flowers appear in the hot season. The pods are linear, narrow, about 6-8 in. long, twisting while opening and exposing the red seeds. 7. PITHECOLOBIUM, Martins. Species 1. P. didce, Benth. ; 2. P. Soman, Benth. L Pithecolobium dulce, Benth. 8yn. Inga dulcis, Willd. ; Mimosa dulcis, Roxb. A moderate-sized evergreen tree with stipular spines in pairs, a native of Mexico but commonly cultivated in India and Lower Burma as a hedge plant, and in southern India also as a fuel tree. On the coast of the Nellore district of Madras it has been planted on pure sand in the casuarina plantations as a safeguard against fungus disease in the casuarina. For hedges it is usual to sow the seed at site, and to trim the plants. The small globular heads of white flowers appear in January-February and the pods ripen from April to June ; the latter are 4-5 in. long by 0-3-0-4 in. broad, twisted, with black seeds embedded in a spongy edible pulp. The growth is fast. The tree coppices vigorously, and stands a good deal of shade. Parker ^ gives the following note regarding its susceptibility to frost in the Punjab : ' In Lahore it suffers considerably from frost. Seedlings planted in the Changa Manga Rest House Garden grown from seed received in 1912 from Sonora, Mexico, were uninjured by three nights' frost when the shade tempera- ture sank to 27°, 27°, 26° F., although they were only a foot or so high and were quite unprotected. In 1914-15 plants from Indian seed were killed by frost in Lahore, but plants from Sonoran seed were uninjured, though they were not protected in any way. Hence it appears that the Sonora plant is a more frost-hardy variety than the one hitherto grown, which has not got beyond the South and Eastern portions of the Province owing to frost.' 2. Pithecolobium Saman, Benth. Rain tree. A large tree with a broad spreading crown, branching low down and forming a short bole. A native of tropical South America, it has been largely planted along roadsides in some of the warmer parts of India, and particularly in Lower Burma, where it is one of the commonest roadside trees. It will not stand the colder parts of northern India, but elsewhere it is not particular as to soil, and will thrive even in comparatively dry climates, as at Mandalay, though it grows best in a moist climate. In the delta districts of Burma it 1 For. Flora Punjab, p. 201. 486 XXIII. LEGUMINOSAE is capable of growing in some of the wettest places, rapidty killing out grasses with its broad crown ; it has therefore been suggested as a suitable tree for planting up grassy blanks in the fuel reserves in swampy localities, with the view of killing out grass and enabling other species of trees to be introduced afterwards. The pods contain a sweet edible pulp, and are readily eaten by cattle ; the wood, however, is of little value. In Burma the flowers with their pink tufts of stamens appear in the hot season, chiefly in April and May, and the pods ripen from March to May. The growth is very rapid, and the tree is easily raised from seed ; it can also be grown from cuttings. 8. LEUCAENA, Benth. Leucaena giauca, Benth. Lead tree. An unarmed evergreen large shrub or small tree, a native of tropical America and naturalized in other tropical regions of the world. It is planted in the plains of India, often as a hedge plant, and regenerates freely from self-sown seed. It occurs in the Phillaur plantation on the Punjab plains, where natural seedlings appear readily and stand a fair amount of shade. In the Philippines, where it is known as ipil-ipil, its growth in youth, according to Mr. D. M. Matthews,^ is extremely rapid, seedling plants twenty-six months old varying from 3 to 5 cm. (1-2 to 2 in.) in diameter at breast height. It coppices vigorously and the growth of coppice-shoots is much more rapid than that of seedling plants, the shoots reaching a height of 5 m. (16-4: ft.) and a breast-height diameter of 5 cm. (2 in.) in one year. Coppice coupes one year old on well-drained soil were found to yield more than 90 stacked cubic metres per hectare (1,287 cub. ft. per acre), including brushwood of all sizes, while coupes two years old yielded up to 114 stacked cubic metres per hectare of material large enough for fuel, giving an annual production of 57 cubic metres per hectare or 815 cub. ft. per acre. The utility of this species for afforesting grass-lands with the view of preparing the w^ay for the introduction of timber trees has been proved in the Philippines. The dominant grass is Imperafa exaltata, with which few species are able to compete owing to its dense mass of rhizomes and roots. The usual custom is to burn the grass immediately before the rainy season and to sow the Leucaena seed broadcast at the beginning of the rains : plough- ing up the ground before sowing the seed is considered likely to give better results. Where seed is not sufficiently plentiful sowing in ploughed lines or transplanting from the nursery is suggested. The plant flowers and fruits at a very early age, good seed being produced by vigorous plants in the first or second year. In the Philippines the plant grows at comparatively low eleva- tions in regions where the rainfall varies from 40 to IGO in. It is not particular as to soil, though it flourishes best on deep moist soil. ' Bureau of Forestry, Philippines, Bull. No. l.'i, 1914. 487 ORDER XXIV. ROSACEAE This order is of little importance from a forest point of view, except that many of the species reproduce freely by means of root-suckers and are thus useful in clothing unstable hill-sides. This characteristic may, however, in some cases render them noxious weeds, as in the case of certain species of Riibus and Rosa, which form dense thickets in moist places, impeding the reproduction of forest trees. Ruhiis lasiocarpus, Sm., a scrambling shrub of the outer Himalaya, has an effective means of spreading by long flexible whip-like pendulous shoots which are produced in the rainy season and grow rapidly. The ends of these shoots are soft, and as soon as they come in contact with the ground they produce roots which quickly take a firm hold of the ground and in their turn produce new plants, a dense gregarious mass of interlacing brambles being formed in time. Of climbers, Rosa 7nosc7iata, Mill., and R. Leschenaultiana, W. and A., deserve mention. The former is a common Himalayan species, often attaining considerable thickness and climbing to some height ; although extremely handsome when in flower in the spring, it is often noxious to tree growth, causing suppression with its mass of scrambling branches and foliage. The latter is a large climber of the hills of southern India, very common in the Nilgiri sholas. This order contains several important fruit trees grown in India, chiefly in the hills, namely Prunus armeniaca, Linn., the apricot ; P. persica, Benth. and Hook, f., the peach ; P. communis, Huds., the plum ; P. Amygdalus, Baill., the almond ; P. Cerasus, Linn., the cherry ; Pyrus Malus, Linn., the apple ; P. communis, Linn., the pear; and Eriobotrya japonica, Lindl., the loquat. The Rosaceae are with few exceptions hill species, the majority Hima- layan, several in the hills of southern India and some in Baluchistan and the hills of Assam and Burma. Genera 1. Prunus, Linn.; 2. Pyrus, Linn. 1. PRUNUS, Linn. Species 1. P. Puddum, Roxb ; 2. P. Padus, Linn; 3. P. nepalensis. Hook. f. 1. Prunus Puddum, Roxb. Vern. Padam, Hind. Indian wild cherry. A tree of the Himalaya, at 2,500-8,000 ft., Khasi hills and hills of Upper Burma, often cultivated. Bark greyish brown, smooth, shining, peeling off in thin horizontal strips like that of the common cherry. Gamble notes that there are two varieties of the tree in the Darjeeling hills : (1) a very large tree with crimson flowers wliich appear in March, and (2) a small or medium-sized tree with pink flowers which appear in October-November. The latter is the common one in the western Himalaya, both wild and cultivated. It is small or moderate-sized, producing clusters of pink flowers in the autumn or early winter, chiefly from October to December, though it occasionally flowers partially out of season, e.g. in July. The old leaves turn yellow and fall from October to December, the new flush appearing before the old ones have all fallen, and remaining fresh and green through the winter. The fruit, a yellow and red ovoid drupe 0-4— 0-6 in. long, ripens chiefly from April to June. The 488 XXIV. ROSACEAE seeds are spread by birds. In Burma the tree is evergreen or nearly so, and this is also the case in the western Himalaya. When in flower it is very handsome. In the western Himalaya it is common in open village lands as well as in the forest. It stands a fair amount of shade, and may be found flourishing under the moderate shade of other trees, though it flowers best in the open. It reproduces fairly freely from root-suckers, and can be grown from cuttings ; it forms a good stock plant for the common cherry. 2. Prunus Padus, Linn. Syn. Padus cornuta, Carr. ; Cerasus corniita, Wall. Bird cherry. Vern. Paras, kalakat, zam, Pb. ; Jamana, jamoi, Jaunsar. A moderate-sized or large deciduous tree with brown scaly bark. Wood with a handsome silver grain, suitable for furniture and deserving to be better known. In Europe it is usually a rather small tree, but in the Himalaya it attains a height of 60 ft. or sometimes more, and a girth of 6 ft. or over. Distribution and habitat. This is the most widely distributed of all the species of Prunus, and is found throughout the greater part of Europe, in Siberia, Manchuria, North China, Japan, Persia, the Caucasus, and the Himalaya. In the Himalaya it is common chiefly at 6,000-10,000 ft., often occurring more or less gregariously on rather moist pasture grounds and in forest glades, associated with Acer caesium, Aesculus indica, Ulmiis Wallichiana, and other broad-leaved species, as well as with conifers, particularly with yew (Taxus haccafa), which in Hazara is often in the form of an underwood to it (see Fig. 185). It is particularly common in Hazara, where it attains very fair dimensions : on the higher ridges and grazing grounds at 9,000-10,000 ft., where it is plentiful, it is often associated with Pyrus lanata. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The leaves turn red and fall in the autumn, the tree remaining leafless during the winter and the new- leaves appearing in the spring. The racemes of small white flowers appear from April to June, and the fruits, red to nearly black drupes about 0-4 in. in diameter, ripen from August to October. Fig. 184, a, shows the fruit-stone. The seed is disseminated by birds, which eat the fruits. Germination (Fig. 184, h, c). Epigeous. The fruit-stone splits in two, enabling the radicle to emerge. The hypocotyl elongates, carrying the coty- ledons above ground, while the two halves of the fruit-stone are left on the ground. The seedling (Fig. 184). Roots : primary root moderately long, wiry, flexuose : lateral roots moderate in number and length, fibrous, distributed down main root. Hypo- cotyl distinct from root, 1-2 in. long, terete, fusiform or tajDermg upwards, red, minutely pubescent and tender when young, brown, glabrous and woody in second year. Cotyledons : petiole very short, flattened : lamina 0-25-0-3 in. by 0-15-0-2 in., plano-convex, fleshy, elliptical or obovate, entii'e, glabrous. Stem erect, slightly compressed, minutely pubescent ; first internode, above cotyledons, 0-6-1 -5 in. long, subsequent internodes of first season very short, leaves being crowded together. Leaves simple, first pair opposite, subsequent leaves alternate or sub-opposite, approximate. Stipules 0-2-0-3 in. long, linear acuminate, fimbriate. Petiole 0-2-0-4 in. long. Lamina 1-2-5 in. by 0-5-1 in., ovate lanceolate, acute or acuminate, base acute or tapering, serrate, glabrous, venation arched, veins prominent, depressed above, raised beneath, lateral veins 7-10 pairs. Fig. 184. Prunus Padus. Seedling x |. a, fruit-stone ; 6, c, germination stages ; d, e, development of seedling during first season ; /, seedling in second season. 490 XXIV. ROSACEAE The growth of the seedling is somewhat slow, natural seedlings attaining a height of about 3-5 in. during the first season and 9 in. to 1 ft. in three years. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. The tree is a moderate light-demander. It coppices well and produces root-suckers freely, especially when trees are felled or when the superficial roots are exposed and wounded. The branches are somewhat liable to be broken by snow. Natural reproduction. Under natural conditions the seed germinates about April. Seedlings spring up in abundance on newly exposed ground, and particularly on deep loose rubble ; natural reproduction may often be found in quantity on landslips and places recently eroded by snow. 3. Primus nepalensis, Hook. f. Vern. Arupatti, Nep. A large tree of the central and eastern Himalaya at 6,000-10,000 ft., Khasi hills, Upper Burma in evergreen forest in the Ruby JVIines district at 6,000 ft. Bark greyish black, thin, smooth ; branches verticillate. Mr. F. B. Manson ^ says the seeds, which are distributed by birds, germinate very easily in the end of February and the beginning of March, even when hoar-frost is frequent, and that the seedlings seem to thrive almost as well under cover as in the open, and are very common and useful for restocking blanks. He adds that the tree has an extensive range, but in the Darjeeling hills it thrives best between 6,000 and 6,500 ft. ; here it grows quickly, and sound trees of 8 to 10 ft. in girth with fine straight boles are met with. In this locality the new leaves appear in March, the flowers in May, and the fruit ripens in October-November. - 2. PYRUS, Linn. Pyrus Pashia, Ham. Syn. P. variolosa, Wall. Vern, Patangi, Hazara ; Kdint, mehdl, W. Him. A moderate-sized deciduous tree of the Himalaya at 2,000-8,000 ft., Khasi hills and hills of Upper Burma. In the outer Himalaya it is very common on open sunny slopes, often with Quercus incana, JRhododendron arhoreum, Berheris aristata, B. Lyciutn, and Pieris ovalifolia, and lower down with Pinus longifoUa, while at the base of the hills it is associated with low- level species, for example at Dehra Dun. It has spreading superficial roots and reproduces with great freedom from root-suckers, especially on hill-sides where the roots have become exposed ; in this respect it is useful in preventing landslips. It can be grown from cuttings, and forms a useful stock for the apple. The leaves fall in November or early December, turning nearly black before falling, and the trees are leafless until the following March or April, when the new leaves appear ; at low elevations they may appear as early as February. The white flowers appear with the new leaves, but occasionally trees may be seen flowering out of season, as late as July. The fruit is a globose five-celled pome 0-6-1 -2 in. in diameter, greenish brown, covered with raised light grey dots, resembling a miniature apple, with brownish black shining seeds like small apple seeds. The fruits become full-sized by about July or August, but remain hard, with a firm whitish very astringent flesh until November-December, when the flesh begins to rot and turn black and sweetish ; J Working Plan for the Darjeeling Forests, 1893. - Gamble, Darjeeling List. Fig. 185. Prunus Pad us growing gregariously, with an underwood of Taxus baccata, Hazara. J3 CI s ■XI ^ a 3 3 c O O 2^ § ^ ^ sc i c X ;; X O si — r ■r ti^ 3b ^ flf bC o C 0) (D *t ?^^ '"^"•'4^ > o CO •1—3 c6 1^ o 05 ■■ ^^^ BUCKLANDIA 495 from heavy rain, from frost in the winter, and from a hot sun in the summer. The seedHngs are usually kept in the nursery until four years old, by which time they are about 3 ft. high and are large enough to plant out into the forest ; they can be transplanted when three years old, but they are usually somewhat small and the extra cost of cleaning makes it preferable to keep them a year longer in the nursery. Transplanting is usually carried out in the rainy season from June till early August. A break in the rains is considered the best time, as plants pitted out in rainy weather are apt to become water-logged and to die owing to an accumulation of water in the pit. Nursery plants often have too much foliage, and this should be reduced at the time of planting to prevent excessive transpiration. Winter planting is possible, but the risk of frost damage makes rains planting preferable. In places subject to severe frost it is customary to protect the plants during the first year after transplanting, usually by means of a leafy branch stuck in the ground beside the plant and broken over it. The plantations require to be fenced against deer. In the Mongpoo plantations of the Cinchona Department a different method is adopted. The seed is sown in March and April in well-manured seed-beds under the shelter of double bamboo mats. When about 3 in. high the seedlings are pricked out about 3 in. apart : they are kept well weeded and watered, and by the end of June in the second year are about 8 or 9 in. high. The shelter of bamboo mats is then gradually removed and the seedlings are transplanted with balls of earth, the planting holes being dug to a depth of 18 in. at least a fortnight in advance. The plants are tended carefully for the first year or so after they are put out, and when there is danger of drought the ground around their roots is covered with grass. When the ground becomes hard it is forked up all round the plants. Under this treatment the growth is fast, the plants attaining a height of 20 ft. in seven or eight years on good soil. Fig. 190 shows a young plantation, and Figs. 188 and 191 show older plantations. SiLVicuLTURAL TREATMENT. Tile best treatment for Bucklandia is to grow it in dense pure crops with sufficient side shade to prevent the formation of side branches but with abundant overhead light to promote height-growth. The tending of natural plants or crops as well as of plantations requires to be carried out with this object in view. Rate of growth. Young plants ordinarily reach a height of 3 ft. in five years and 8 to 15 ft. in ten years. At fifteen years the height is about 15 to 25 ft., and at twenty years about 30 to 40 ft., with a girth of \\ to 2 ft. According to Gamble the radial growth is 6 to 7 rings per inch of radius, repre- senting a mean annual girth increment of 0-9 to 1 in., which is fairly fast. A plantation below Rangirum in the Darjeeling hills, shown in Fig. 191, was measured in 1917 with the following results : No. of stems Mean Mean Solid volume Age. j)er acre. girth. height. per acre. years. in. ft. cub. ft. 38 220 36-2 79 4,517 (timber 2,889 cub. ft.) A thinning carried out that year gave a total of 1,632 cub. ft., of which timber amounted to 878 cub. ft. 496 XXV. HAMAMELIDACEAE 2. PARROTIA, C. A. Meyer. Parrotia Jacquemontiana, Dene. Himalayan witch-hazel. Vern. Pdser, kildr, shtar, Punjab. A large gregarious deciduous shrub or small tree, strongty resembling a hazel, occurring between 3,000 and 8,500 ft. in the Himalaya from the Jumna westward. It is used chiefly for wicker-work for the walls of houses and for rope-bridges, the twigs being flexible and very tough : it is also used for walking-sticks and other purposes. Silviculturally it is of importance owing to the abundance with which it springs up as an underwood in certain localities. It coppices very vigorously, stands a certain amoujit of shade, and forms dense masses which impede the reproduction of deodar, blue pine, and other trees. It is a good soil-improver, and if it can be kept down sufficiently to allow young deodar and pine to penetrate its cover they grow well : the only means of ensm-ing this seems to be to cut back the Parrotia repeatedly, a costly operation owing to its vigorous power of coppicing. ORDER XXVI. RHIZOPHORACEAE This order comprises for the most part a number of littoral species collec- tively known as mangroves, which, together with certain species belonging to other natural orders, make up the curious littoral forest formation known as mangrove swamp. Of non-littoral species the most important is CaraUia lucida, Roxb. Mangrove swamp. Mangrove forest is found in littoral regions through- out the tropics, not along sandy beaches or rocky shores which are exposed to the full force of the wind and the waves, but in the estuaries of rivers, in creeks and lagoons, and on low islands where the force of these agencies is not so strong. In such places the mangrove belt occupies a strip of low-lying muddy ground, subject to inundation by ordinary tides, the strip varjdng in width from less than a hundred yards to several miles. Distribution and species. In a classification of the mangrove forma- tions of the world two broad but well-defined areas are distinguishable — an eastern area embracing East Africa, Asia, and the Polynesian Islands do\\ai to Australia, and a western area comprising the coasts of America and West Africa. The species in the respective areas are distinct, but the eastern area is far richer in species than the western. The most extensive and highly developed mangrove forests are found in the Malayan region, and particularly in the island of Borneo, where the configuration of the country favours the formation of mangrove swamps over large areas in the coastal regions.^ In the Indo-Burman region the mangrove forests are distributed to a greater or less extent in suitable localities throughout the coastal regions, from the delta of the Indus in Sind southwards along the west coast of the Peninsula down to Travancore, from the Sundarbans southwards along the east coast of the Peninsula and down the coast of Chittagong, Arakan, and Burma ; also along the coast of the Andamans and adjacent islands. The mangrove forests of Arakan are estimated to cover 948 square miles, while 1 Distribution and Utilization of the Mangrove Swamps of Malaya, F. W. Foxworthy, 1909 (Ann. Jarcl. Bot. Buitenzorg, 2" s6r., Suppl. HE). RHIZOPHORACEAE 497 there are further large stretches of mangrove both north and south of Mergui along the coast and round the islands. The natural orders and the principal species which make up the mangrove formations of the Indo-Burman region, and the localities in which they are known to occur, are given in the following tentative table : Distribution of mangrove swamp species in the Indo-Burman region. CD Natural order. Specis. 3 -a 11' 1— 1 0 a ndian west c ndian east c( 3 3 3 4, a 3 a cS a 'J2 1— 1 hH xa. 'O PQ <1 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora mucronata. Lam. X X X X X X X R. conjugata, Linn. X X ? ? X X X Ceriops Cmidollmna, Am. X X ? X ^ , X C. Roxburghiana, Am. X X ? X X X Kandelia Rheedii, W. and A. , , X X X X X X Bruguiera gymnorhiza. Lam. X X X X X X X B. eriopetala, W. and A. xi B. caryophylloides, Bl. X2 , ^ • • x3 , , B. parvi flora, W. and A. , ^ X X3 X Meliaceae Carapa obovata, Bl. X ? X X X X C. moluccensis, Lam. X X Leguminosae Cynometra ramiflora, Linn. X X X X X X Combretaceae Lumnitzera racemosa, Willd. X ? X X X X L. coccinea, W. and A. • • • • x« X5 Lythraceae Somieratia acida, Linn. f. X X X X X X X S. apetala. Ham. X ? X X X , , 8. alba. Smith X x4 X S. Griffithii, Kurz • • X E/ubiaceae Scyphiphora kydrophyllacea, Gaertn. X X Myrsinaceae Aegiceras majus, Gaertn. X X X X X X X Acanthaceae Acanthus ilk if alius, Linn. X ? X X X Verbenaceae Avicennia officinalis, Linn. X X X X X X Euphorbiaceae Excaecaria Agallocha, Linn. X X X X X X Palmeae Nipafruticans, Wurmb. X X X X Phoenix paludosa, Roxb. . . . . X X X X ^ Malabar and Travancore. 2 Travancore. 3 Tenasserim * Mereui. ^ Nicobars. Although the species mentioned in this table occur in the mangrove swamps, some of them are by no means confined to them, and may extend to the drier ground farther inland. Characteristics of mangrove swamps. Mangrove swamps are formed on the silt which is washed down by rivers and creeks, and which, subject to occasional erosion, gradually spreads seawards, the mangrove spreading with it and helping, by means of its dense growth and mass of roots, to hold up the silt and form new land. As the silt accumulates the ground graduallj'^ rises and becomes drier, and an entirely new formation replaces the mangrove ; this formation occurs on land which is inundated only by spring tides, and is commonly known as tidal forest. The most important Indian species of the tidal forest is the sundri (Heritiera Fomes). Although some of the species of the mangrove swamp extend into this forest many new species appear. The mangrove formation extends up rivers sometimes for miles, and is usually intersected by numerous creeks, Avhich are often dry at low tide but can be 2307.2 jj 498 XXVI. RHIZOPHORACEAE ascended by boats at high tide. The ground is a soft mud which is often knee-deep, but can be traversed on foot, with some difhcidty and discomfort, at low tide. On the seaward side there is usually a stretch of shallow water into which the mangrove is spreading, and approach by boat from that side is often difficult or impossible ; the mangrove swamp can, however, be penetrated by boat and often by launch, along the creeks. Root-system. The root-system of the mangroves is highly specialized. In the case of Bhizophora the lower part of the stem dies early, and the stem is supported by numerous stilt-like roots which raise it above the mud, while aerial roots are sent down from the stem and branches and anchor themselves in the ground. These stilt -roots are covered by water at high tide and exposed at low tide. Bhizophora is usually characteristic of the outer edge of the mangrove swamp, and the mass of stilt-roots is a conspicuous sight on approach- ing the shore. These peculiar stilt -roots are not conspicuously developed in other species of the mangrove formation except in Acanthus ilicifolius, a thistle- like herbaceous or shrubby plant with pricldy leaves, which sometimes forms a dense undergrowth. In other species the roots are superficial, twisting about on the surface of the mud, sometimes ribbon-shaped as in Carapa ohovata, sometimes bending out of the mud in the form of knees (i. e. knee- rooted), as in Bruguiera, Kandelia, and Lumnitzera. Some species produce pneumatophores which rise out of the mud from the superficial roots and resemble inverted tent-pegs. The ribbon-roots, knee-roots, and vertical pneumatophores, some mere knobs or finger-like outgrowths and others, as in Sonneratia apetala and Avicennia officinalis, of considerable size, are all adaptations for supplying the roots with oxygen, and are covered with lenticels or exhibit other devices for breathing purposes, such as the shedding of cortex. Leaf-structure. The habitat of the mangroves, namely swamp^^ ground impregnated with salt, is a physiologically dry one, and the leaves of the trees therefore possess a marked xerophilous structure, ' with a thick cuticle, large mucilage-cells, protected stomata, and especially a large-celled thin-walled, aqueous tissue, the dimensions of which increase with the age of the leaf and v/ith the corresponding rise in the amount of salt contained. Old leaves serve essentially as water-reservoirs for the younger leaves ' (Schimper). Germination. One of the most interesting characteristics of the Rhizo- phoraceae is that they exhibit vivipary. The fruit is indehiscent, and there is no resting stage for the embryo as in the case of normal seeds. As soon as the fruit is fully developed the embryo commences to grow inside it ; the radicle soon pierces its apex, and the hypocotyl elongates and protrudes, hanging vertically from the fruit. After it has reached a length varying from a few inches in some species to 1^-2 ft. or more in the case of Bhizophora mucronata , the embryo plant falls, leaving the cotyledons inside the fruit, which remains on the tree. The lower part of the hypocotyl is tliicker than the upper part, and in some cases the lower extremity (radicle) comes to a sharp point ; when the embryo falls into the mud, therefore, it becomes firmly planted in a more or less vertical position. Within a short time of falling the young seedling- produces rootlets from its lower extremity, thus fin-ther establishing itself, and before long the first pair of foliage leaves are produced at its apex. Tlie embryos are buoj'ant. and if they do not obtain an immediate footing under RHIZOPHORACEAE 499 the parent tree, or are uprooted, they are carried by water and find a resting- place in the mud, eventually establishing themselves in an upright position through the positively geotropic nature of the lower extremity and the negatively geotrophic nature of the upper extremity (shoot). It will thus be seen that the term sowing or dibbling of mangrove seed is strictly speaking incorrect ; it is the embryo or young seedling which is planted in the ground. In the other species of the mangrove formation vivipary is also exhibited by Aegiceras majus and Avicennia officinalis, and although it does not occur in other species, the embryos of some, particularly those of Acanthus ilicifolius, are always further developed than is usual in inland plants. Local occurrence of species. The requirements of the various species of the mangrove swamp differ to some extent, particularly as regards water, and their local distribution is influenced accordingly. The species of Rhizo- phora grow typically on the outer and seaward fringe of the swamp, wher'^ the water is most salty and exposure to wind and wave is greatest. R. mucro- nata can apparently live in pure salt water, for Schimper notes that he has seen it thriving on the rocky ground of the coral islands of the Java Sea, where there is no fresh water. ^ Geriops spp. grow well out in the swamp. Bruguiera gymnorhiza and B. parviflora require a greater admixture of fresh water, and grow farther inland behind the RhizopJiora, the first named, the largest of the mangroves, overtopping the surrounding vegetation. Sonneratia spp. and Avicennia, officinalis not only grow in deep mud in the mangrove swamp, but also extend some distance inland into the tidal forest, and are found in the upper stretches of the tidal streams. Carapa spp. occur mainly in the drier parts of the swamp, often near or just beyond high- water mark, and extend into the tidal forest in areas remote from the mangrove swamp. Avicennia officinalis may occur near the outer edge of the swamp or at some distance up tidal streams on wet ground : it sometimes comes up in abundance on cleared areas. Acanthus ilicifolius sometimes forms a rather dense prickly undergrowth, growing near the sea. The palm Nipa fruiicans is at times very abundant, not only in the mangrove swamp but also in the drier tidal forest beyond high tide, forming fringes along the banks of creeks. Interference with the free flow of tidal water and of fresh water from the landward side may alter the character of or destroy the normal vegetation of the mangrove swamp. Thus at Port Blair in the Andamans attempted reclamation by means of embankments has rendered large areas unfit for the growth of mangroves, and marshy blanks have resulted. Method of working mangrove forest. The working of mangrove forest is carried out under difterent methods. The coppicing and pollarding capacity of the different species have not been studied in detail. In unregulated fellings rough pollarding is often carried out. Working plans for mangrove areas in the Madras Presidency prescribe coppice fellings under a rotation of five years in one case and ten years in another. Larger trees which have been pollarded are said to have thrown out vigorous pollard-shoots. In the Anda- mans a considerable area has been clear-felled and replanted. In the Federated Malay States the selection system is in operation, the felling cycle being twenty 1 Plant Geography, p. 396. .; M 2 500 XXVI. RHIZOPHORACEAE years, and the minimum felling limit being a girth of 1 ft. at 4| ft. from ground- level. The system is said to be difficult to control, and when, as sometimes happens, the crop consists mainly of stems 1 ft. in girth and over, clearings may result, and artificial reproduction has to be resorted to.^ The retention of seed-bearers in such places should help to regenerate the blanks naturally. Artificial reproduction. Artificial reproduction is a simple matte/;, the embryos being collected off the ground after falling and stuck vertically in the mud. In the Andamans mangrove plantations were commenced in 1897, the species employed being Rhizophora mucronata, R. conjugafa, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, B. parvifiora, Kandelia Rheedii, and Ceriops Candolleana. These plantations were extended until 1908, when the total area amounted to 685 acres, the cost of creation being Rs. 5,368 or slightly under Rs. 8 per acre. The original spacing is said to have been 3 ft. by 3 ft., which proved to be excessively close, and some years later alternate rows were cut out, as well as alternate saplings in each row, leaving a spacing of 6 ft. by 6 ft. These planta- tions have suffered much from the erection of bunds already referred to, whereby the flow of fresh and tidal water was interfered with. In Burma in 1908 five acres in the Zapathwe fuel reserve in the Hantha- waddy district were cleared of all undergrowth and species of little value and planted 4 ft. by 4 ft. at the end of October with Rhizophora mucronata (2 acres), R. conjugata (1 acre), and Kandelia Rheedii (2 acres). The overhead clearance caused early drying of the mud, while hog-deer ate off the main shoots, with the result that only about 30 per cent, of the seedlings survived until the following May, and these were in poor condition. Similar experiments with Rhizophora mucronata and R. conjugatu in the Mingalun fuel reserve in the same district gave better results, about 30 per cent, of the former species and 40 per cent, of the latter being in good condition, with a height of about 2| ft., by the following May. In the Federated Malay States the embryos are usually dibbled in 4 ft. by 4 ft. or 6 ft. by 4 ft., and the percentage of sur- vivals is high, almost the only danger being from crabs, wliich eat through the stem at its base. Rate of growth and out-turn. The rate of growth of mangroves is said to be slow, but actual statistics are not available except in the case of the Andamans plantations, where Rhizophora mucronata and Bruguiera gym- norhiza attained a height of 30-35 ft. and a girth of 9-12 in. in fifteen years. ♦Sample plots in Arakan gave an average yield per acre of 3 tons of bark and 25 tons of wood in clear-felled coupes. Genera 1. Rhizophora, Linn. ; 2. Ceriops, Am.; 3. Kandelia, W. and A. ; 4. Bruguiera, Lam. ; 5. Carallia, Roxb. L RHIZOPHORA, Linn. Species 1. R. mucronata. Lam. ; 2. R. conjugata,, Linn. 1. Rhizophora mucronata, Lam. Vern. Bfutra, Beng. ; Randal, Mar. ; Kamo, Sind ; Uppu pottm, Tel. ; Pyu, Burm. A small to moderate-sized evergreen tree with elliptical mucronate leaves 4-7 in. long, the young branches thick and prominently marked with the scars of fallen leaves and stipules. Bark fairly smooth, brown. This tree produces 1 The Mangrove Forests of the West Coast, F.M.S., J. P. Mead, 1912. RHIZOPHORA 501 characteristic stilt-roots, the lower portion of the stem dying early and the tree remaining propped up on numerous roots which are submerged at high tide and stand out of the mud at low tide. Aerial roots are also produced from the branches, these fixing themselves in the mud. This tree is the one most commonly found on the outer fringes of the mangrove swamp where the water is decidedly salty and the action of the tides and waves is most strongly felt : its peculiar root-system therefore is of special advantage in forming an anchorage to withstand this action. The conspicuous white flowers appear in the hot season and rainy season, and the fruits ripen in the rainy season. The fruit (Fig. 192, a) is 1-5-2 in, long, conical-ovoid, pendulous, coriaceous, rough, dark brown. The hypo- cotyl (Fig. 192, b-d), which emerges through the apex of the fruit, is sharp pointed and rough with lenticels. Before dropping it attains a considerable length, ordinarily up to 1|— 2 ft., but sometimes longer, and the seedling ie thus able to establish itself in water of some little depth, the sharp point of the hypocotyl penetrating the mud and the young plant being kept upright while the roots are rapidly developed and the first pair of foliage leaves appear at the apex of the shoot. >Seedlings which have established themselves in this way may often be found in quantity in the mud and shallow water round the parent trees. The tree commences to produce fruits at an early age. The sapwood is light red and the heartwood dark red, hard, but splits in seasoning. It is a good fuel. The bark is used for tanning. 2. Rhizophora conjugata, Linn, Vern. Pyu-tna, Burm. A tree somewhat smaller than, but with habits similar to those of the last species, with which it is commonly associated. The leaves are narrower and darker than in R. mucronata ; it can be most easily distinguished by the calyx-lobes, which are pale yellow within. The fruit is about 1 in. long ; the hypocotyl is smaller than in B. mucronata, up to about 1 ft. long. 2. CERIOPS. Arnott. > ►Species I. C. Candolleana, Arn. ; 2. C. Roxhurgliiana, Arn. 1. Ceriops Candolleana, Arn. Vern. Goran, Beng. ; Gimuri, Sind. 2, Ceriops Roxburghiana, Arn. Vern. Goran, Beng. ; Guttia, Chittagong ; Kahaing, Burm. Small evergreen trees resembling each other in appearance and habit, and distinguished mainly by the inflorescence, which is more compact in the latter than in the former. The bark of both species contains a great deal of red colouring matter. The stem is not supported by stilt-roots as in Rhizophora, but aerial roots are sent down from the branches, and small or inconspicuous pneumatophores are produced. The fruit, which is about 1 in. long, ripens in August-September, and the hypocotyl when it falls is 4-6 in. long by 0-25-- 0-35 in. in diameter, longitudinally grooved and ribbed, tapering upwards : about 120-150 of the embryos weigh 1 lb. Fig. 192, e-g, shows germination and the development of the young seedling. Brandis gives the respective distribution of the two species as follows : C. Gandolleana. Tidal forests of Sind, the Indian Peninsula, Bengal, and the Andamans. Sea-coast of tropical Asia, Africa, and Australia. T .a ^i 4 ! •>? V'-,:i| Fig. 192. Hhizophoraceae. Germination. Rhizophora mucronata x} ; a, fruit ; b, fruit with radicle protruding ; c, fruit with embrjo (hypo- cotyl) half grown ; d, embryo after falling from fruit. Ceriops Candolleana x^; e, fruit with protruding hypocotyl fully developed ; /, embryo detached from fruit ; g, h. development of j'^oung seedling. CERIOPS 503 C. Moxburghiana. Simdarbans, coast of Burma, Malay Peninsula and Archipelago. Both are indiscriminately known in the >Sundarbans as goran, and are in great demand for fuel and house-posts. The goran is often gregarious, forming nearly pure forests in many places ; it is also found in mixture with various other species. In Chittagong, Ceriops is worked as coppice on a rotation of eight years for the production of small fuel and of bark, the latter being sold to fishermen for tanning their nets. In the Malay region the bark is considered superior to that of any other mangrove for cutch making : it is also used for dyeing a red colour. 3. KANDELIA, Wight and Arn. Kaudelia Rheedii, W. and A. Vern. Goria, Beng. ; Madama, Burm. An evergreen shrub or small tree with spongy reddish brown flaky bark, eUiptical oblong leaves 3-5 in. long, and white flowers. Fruits ovoid, 0-5-1 in. long, encircled by the calyx lobes ; hypocotyl up to 15 in. long. This man- grove is not as a rule so common as most of the others ; it occurs usually on the banks of tidal rivers some little distance inland, and not so much near the sea-face. The wood is soft, and is used only for fuel and charcoal. 4. BRUGUIERA, Lam. Species 1. B. gymrwrhiza, Lam. ; 2. B. eriopetaJa, W. and A. ; 3. B. caryo- phylloides, Bl. ; 4. B. parviflora, W. and A. 1. Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Lam. Vern. Kankra, Beng. ; Kandal, Mai. This, the largest of the mangroves, is an evergreen tree attaining under favoiu-able conditions a height of 80 ft., though in India a height of 30-40 ft. is more usual. In Malaya it is said to reach a height up to 100 ft. and a girth up to 5 or 6 ft. Bark rough, dark, with large corky lenticular patches. Flowers large, solitary, orange or red. Fruit 0-7-1 in. long, enclosed in the calyx tube and crowned by the 12-14 red calyx lobes. The hypocotyl usually grows to 6-12 in. in length before di'opping, but may attain a length of 2 ft. The flowers and fruits are produced from June to October. This tree is a common one in the mangrove forests of the Indian region, being associated with the two species of Ehizophora and occurring as a rule immediately behind them. Unlike these, however, it is not supported on stilt- roots, but produces knee-roots along the surface of the ground. Bourdillon says it is very common on the backwaters about Quilon, form- ing with the two species of Rhizophora the majority of the mangroves seen there. Talbot says it is equally common with Rhizophora in the North Kanara mangrove formations, and Prain says it is the chief constituent of the mangrove jimgles in the Cocos Islands. The wood is reddish brown, very hard, used for beams, posts, planks, and firewood ; it is said to be difficult to split. The bark is sometimes used for tanning. 2. Bruguiera eriopetala, W. and A. A tree strongly resembling the last species, but smaller, with large, solitar}^ yellow flowers. 504 XXVI. RHIZOPHORACEAE 3. Briiguiera caryophylloides, Bl., including B. tnalabarica, Arn. This is the smallest and probably the rarest species of the genus. The bark is thin, brown, the foliage light green, the leaves thinly coriaceous, and the flowers small, white, in 2- to 3-flowered cymes. The fruit is yellow, about 0-5 in. long, and the hypocotyl reaches a length of about 6-8 in. before falling. Flowering and fruiting take place in the rainy season. 4. Bruguiera parviflora, W. and A. A small tree, widely distributed in the mangrove formations of the Eastern Hemisphere, and often very common, sometimes forming pure crops in the middle of the mangrove swamp. In some localities it attains a fair height, but it is always of small girth : in the Indian region it is a small tree or a mere shrub. The foliage is yellowish green, paler than in the previous species. The fruit is about 1 in. long, enclosed in the enlarged calyx : the flowers and fruits appear in the rainy season. The hypocotyl is furrowed, truncate, and reaches a length of only 4-5 in. before falling. The tree grows on drier ground than RhizopJiora, chiefly away from the banks of streams, and often reproduces in great profusion. 5. CARALLIA, Roxb. Carallia lucida, Roxb. Syn. C. integerrima, DC. Vern. Sliengali, panasi. Mar. ; Andi, andamuria, Kan. ; Karalli, Tel. ; Thekera-7ndM, Ass. ; Maniaivga, Burm. A moderate-sized to large handsome evergreen tree with a dense crown of shining opposite leathery elliptical leaves, and pronounced opposite branch- ing. Bark moderately thick, the outer dead bark corky, furrowed, dark grey outside, pink when cut, the inner living cortex pale greenish yellow or pinkish when newly cut, turning orange brown on exposure. There are numerous small corky excrescences on comparatively small-sized twigs of the previous year's growth ; the new twigs are green. The numerous broad meduUary rays are conspicuous as vertical streaks on the outer surface of the sapwood and on the inner surface of the cortex when the latter is stripped off. Sometimes the tree produces aerial roots, showing its relationship to the mangroves. The tree is at times mistaken for a Garcinia, and vice versa, but the pink corky bark is a distinctive feature, while the cut cortex of Garcinia spp. exudes a yellow gum-resin which is not present in that of Carallia. In Burma the tree reaches a height of 50-80 ft., with a girth of 6 or 7 ft. In the Indian Peninsula it is smaller. The wood is hard and very ornamental if cut radialty, the large medullary rays giving it the appearance of good oak ; the heartwood is red to chestnut- brown. The wood is suitable for panelling, furniture, picture -frames, and similar purposes. Distribution and habitat. The tree is found in limited quantity in damp evergreen and swamp forests in the sub-Himalaj^an tract as far west as Dehra Dun ; it is very scarce in the west but commoner in the east. It occurs in Bengal, ascending to 4,000 ft. in Sikkim, Assam, Chittagong, Chota Nagpur along streams and ravines in Singhbhum (Haines), Orissa and the Circars, the Central Provinces in South Clianda along Howhig .streams in Ahiri and CARALLIA 505 yironcha ranges (Haines), Western Ghats, Burma, chiefly in the moister parts of Pegu and Tenasserim : also in Ceylon, China, the Malay Peninsula and islands south to Australia. It is nowhere abundant, and is typical of moist localities, occurring in evergreen and semi-evergreen forests and along streams and moist shady ravines. In the Dehra Dun valley it is a constituent of true swamp forest, where it is associated with Diospyros Efnbryopteris , Putranjiva Roxburghii, Eugenia Jambolana, Ficus glomerata, Pterospermum acerifolium, Cedrela Toona, Bischoffia javanica, Alhizzia procera, Trewia nudiflora, and Calamus tenuis. In the Bengal Duars it occurs in moist evergreen and semi- evergreen forest associated withDillenia indica, Michelia, Amoora, Dysoxylum, Meliosma, Turpinia, Eugenia spp., Elaeocarpus spp., Garcinia spp., and several Lauraceae. Bourdillon says it is common in all the evergreen forests of Travancore up to 4,000 ft. Talbot says it is found throughout the tropical rain forests of the Konkan and North Kanara. In Burma Kurz, in his Preliminary Report, mentions that it is frequent in Pegu and Tenasserim up to 4,000 ft. on meta- morphic rocks, sandstones, and permeable laterite, in evergreen tropical and upper mixed forest ; it occurs also in the lower mixed forest where it verges on evergreen forest. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 95° to 110°F., the absolute minimum from 33° to 65° F., and the normal rainfall from 50 to 200 in. or more. Flowering and fruiting. The small flowers with white petals, in trichotomous cymes, appear from December to March, and the fruits ripen about May-June. The fruit is globose, fleshy, 1-seeded, coriaceous. The seed is 0-2-0-3 in. in diameter, compressed, shaped like a crescent in which the horns are curled round to form an almost complete circle, reddish brown, somewhat rough, with a fairly thick hard testa and a copious white albumen : 840-980 seeds weigh 1 oz. (samples from Burma). The seed is perishable, and while on the ground is verj' liable to rot and to be attacked by insects. It is difficult to explain the scattered distribution of the tree otherwise than by the dissemination of the seeds by bird agency. Germination. Epigeous. The testa splits round the edge, the radicle emerging through the opening so caused. The hypocotyl elongates by arching, raising the cotyledons above ground ; the ends of the cotyledons remain enclosed in the albumen of the seed for some little time before falling. The seedling. Seedlings cultivated at Dehra Dun showed slow develop- ment during the first two seasons, reaching a height of l|-2 in. by the end of the first season and 5-14 in. by the end of the second. In the earlier stages the young plants suffered much from the attacks of crickets. During the third and subsequent seasons growth was more vigorous, the height being 3 ft. 11 in. at the end of the third season, and 7 ft. 8 in., with a basal girth of lO-gin., at the end of the fifth season. The young plants were found to grow best under slight shade on ground kept well watered but loose. They proved sensitive to drought, but were not so frost-tender as might be expected from a tropical evergreen species. Seedlings at Dehra Dun had two to three pairs of leaves by the end of the first season, the cotyledons persisting until the end of the season. Side 506 XXVI. RHIZOPHORACEAE branches commenced to form in the second season, and from the third season onwards the branching was vigorous, with copious foHage. The following characters apply to the young plant : Young stems bright green, somewhat flattened, with a longitudinal ridge up the centre of each flat side ; nodes swollen. Leaves opposite, lanceolate, finely serrulate, coriaceous, glabrous, shining, darker above than below, up to 5-5 in. by 1-5 in, by the end of the second season ; petiole 0-2-0-4 in. long. Young leaves very shiny, lighter green than the older ones, involute in the bud, with small acuminate interpetiolar stipules between them which quickly enlarge to 0'5-0-6 in. in length and fall, leaving well-marked brown scars extending across the shoot from base to base of the petioles. The serrulate leaves of young plants are interesting. In the older plants they are entire, or serrulate above the middle ; in the forest young trees up to 6 or 7 ft. high or more have been noticed with all the leaves serrulate throughout. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. The tree is a shade-bearer. It coppices well and reproduces freely from root-suckers, which are sometimes produced in quantity on swampy ground. Frost does not ordinarily occur within its habitat except in the extreme north ; in the abnormal frost of 1905 it suffered severely in the Dehra Dun valley, where one tree was noticed to have been killed right down, but next year it shot up vigorously from the base. It is exacting as to soil, being found only on rich deep moist soil. Artificial reproduction. Experiments at Dehra Dun have shown that owing to the large percentage of failure in the seed direct sowings cannot be relied on. Transplanting, however, is easy. The seed should be so"mi quite fresh in drills in fairly rich but porous soil about May-June, the beds being kept well weeded and watered, and sheltered from the sun in hot weather. The plants are ready for transplanting in the rainy season when two years old. This tree can also be grown successfully from cuttings, which should be kept in the nursery and watered and shaded until well rooted. ORDER XXVII. COMBRETACEAE This order is one of great importance in Indian forestry, containing as it does several trees of considerable economic as well as silvicultural importance belonging to the genera Terminalia and Aiiogeissus. It also contains several climbers or scrambling shrubs of the genera Coinhretum, Quisqvalis, and Calycopteris. Of these Combretum decandrum, Roxb., conspicuous by the large white bracts of the inflorescence, is a particularly noxious climber. It is common in parts of the sub-Himalayan tract, for example on the hill slopes round Kalsi on the Jumna, in Assam, Chittagong, Burma, Chota Nagpur, and in parts of the Indian Peninsula. It forms dense masses, suppressing young seedling and coppice growth and climbing into the crowns of trees. It is very diflficult to deal with, as it grows rapidly and luxuriantly after cutting, and reproduces freely from seed, quantities of young seedlings appearing in the rainy season. Genera 1. Terminalia, Linn. ; 2. Anogeissus, Wall. ; 3. Lumnitzera, Willd. 507 . 1. TERMINALIA, Linn. This genus is of great importance both silviculturally and economically ; it comprises ten Indian species, all trees, some of which reach large dimensions. The climatic and other requirements of the species vary considerably, T. Oliveri being confined to the driest parts of Burma, while others such as T. myriocarpa, T. paniculata, T. bialata, and T. Catappa are characteristic of the moister regions, the last named being essentially a littoral species. T. tomentosa, T. Chehula, and T. helerica are very widely distributed, while T. Arjuna is pecidiarly restricted to the banks of streams, where, however, it is often abmidant within its region. The fruits vary. They are drupaceous in T. helerica, T. Chebula, and T. Catappa, ordinarily 5-winged in T. tomentosa, T. Arjuna, and T. Oliveri, unequally 3- winged in T. paniculata and T. myriocarpa, and broadly 2- winged in T. bialata. The germinative power of the seed is variable. In T. Chebula- it is poor, in T. belerica usually good, while in the other important species it is more variable but often indifferent. Germination is hypogeous in T. belerica and epigeous in T. tomentosa, T. Arjuna, T. Chebula, and T. myriocarpa. The straggling habit of the young plant is a peculiar feature in certain species, notably T. tomentosa, T. Arjuna, and T. inyriocarpa ; young plants of T. belerica are erect. Species I. T. belerica, Roxb. ; 2. T. Chebula, Retz. ; 3. T. tomentosa, W. and A. ; 4. T. Arjuna, Bedd. ; 5. T. myriocarpa, Heurck and Muell. Arg. ; 6. T. Catappa, Linn.; 7. T. paniculata, Roth; 8. T. bialata, Steud. ; 9. T. Oliveri, Brandis. 1. Terminalia belerica, Roxb. Vern. Bahera, Hind. ; Tare, Kan. ; Goting, bherda. Mar. ; Tani, Tam. ; Tandi, Tel. ; Thitsein, Burm. (Fig. 195.) A large deciduous tree, attaining a height of 120 ft. and a girth of 10 ft. or more, usually with a straight tall bole ; large trees are often buttressed at the base. Bark bluish or ashy grey, with numerous fine longitudinal cracks, yellow inside. Leaves broadly elliptical, 4-8 in. long, clustered at the ends of the branchlets. Wood yellowish grey, hard, not durable, but lasts fairly well under water, used for planking, packing-cases, boats, and other purposes. The fruits are used for tanning, but are inferior to those of T. Chebula. Distribution and habitat. The tree is found in deciduous forests throughout the greater part of India and Burma, but not in arid regions. It is a common associate of the sal, the teak, and other important trees, occurring more or less scattered and not gregariously. In the Indian Peninsula it occurs most frequently in moist valleys. In Burma it is fairly common in deciduous forests both of the upper and of the lower mixed types, with or without teak. In its natiu?al habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 97° to 115° F., the absolute minimum from 30° to 60° F., and the normal rainfall from 40 to 120 in. or more. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. In northern India the leaves commence falling in some cases as early as November, some trees being almost leafless by the end of that month, while others may be in full leaf till the end of January. The trees remain leafless until March to May, when the new foliage appears. The spikes of small greenish white flowers appear in 508 XXVII. COMBRETACEAE April-May with the young leaves ; they have a strong honey-like smell, which is almost overpowering at times. The fruits (Fig. 193, a) ripen from November to February and fall during the cold and hot seasons. The fruit is a somewhat dry fleshy drupe 1-1-5 in. long, ovoid, pyriform, ellipsoidal or globose, grey velvety tomentose, with a hard thick-walled woody light yellow putamen 0-7-11 in. long (Fig. 193. b). The fruits are greedily eaten by monkeys, squirrels, pigs, deer, goats, and other animals, and are never allowed to lie long on the ground before being stripped of their fleshy covering : during the cold and hot seasons small clusters of the light yellowish fruit-stones may be foimd lying about the forest disgorged by deer in rumination. During the cold season the trees may often be seen with numerous withering branchlets, broken by monkeys in picking the fruits. The partiality of animals for the flesh of the ripe fruits is an assistance to the spread of the seed. On the other hand, much of the fruit crop is rendered ineffective by insects and animals. The immature fruits are attacked by insects during the rainy season, and may fall to the ground. The hard nuts of the fruits are very largely bored into by insects while lying on the ground, and the whole crop may be destroyed in this way. The nuts are also frequently broken open, for the sake of the kernel inside, by squirrels, pigs, and other animals, and in some localities it is rare to find a single sound nut on the ground by the beginning of the rainy season. The germinative power of the seed is better than that of most species of this genus, and much better than that of T. Chebula. Tests carried out at Dehra Dun showed a fertility of 86-100 per cent, for fresh seed and 5-40 per cent, for seed kept one year. Germination (Fig. 193, c-e). Hypogeous, thus differing from that of the other species under consideration. The hard putamen splits into two halves, and the radicle emerges, a strong taproot soon establishing itself. Meanwhile the cotyledonary petioles elongate, curving in the process and separating sufficiently to enable the young shoot to issue from between them. The cotyledons and the remnants of the putamen remain in or on the ground. The seedling (Fig. 193). Roots : primary root long, thick, terete, tapering, light brown : lateral roots moderate in number and length, fibrous, distributed down main root. Hypocotyl not very distinct, 0-2-0-3 in. long, subterranean. Cotyledons : petiole 0-4 in. long, thick, fleshy, flattened, curved to side of stem : lamina 0-6-0-8 in. by 0-5-0-6 in., thick, fleshj', broadly ovate or nearly orbicular, auricled by a basal prolongation, convolute and remaining some time within the nut. Stem erect, terete, green, pubescent ; internodes 0-4-1 -2 in. long. Leaves simple, exstipulate, first pair opposite, sub-opposite or alternate, subsequent leaves alternate, earlier leaves small, subsequeiit leaves increasing rapidly in size. Petiole 0-1-0-3 in. long. Lamina 0-9-5 in. by 0-5-3 in., elliptical or obovate, acute, base acute or tapering, entire, glabrous above, sparsely pubescent on veins beneath, venation arched reticulate. The growth of the seedling during the first season is only moderate, a height of about 5-8 in. being ordinarily attained. Subsequently the develop- ment is more rapid, particularly if the plants are regularly weeded, for although they are capable of making their way through weeds their development is considerably impeded in the process. The young plants do not assume the A \ Fig. 193. Terniinalia belerica — Seedling x -g- a — Fruit b — Endocarp c-e — Germination stages f, g — Development of seedling during first season TERMINALIA 509 straggling habit of some Terminalia species, but grow erect, producing strong dde branches from the second year. A long stout taproot is formed, and develops considerably in the second year ; plants only one year old, that is n the second season, have been dug up and found to have thick taproots as much as 3-|- ft. long. The seedlings stand fairly dense shade during the first year or two, but very heavy shade suppresses and kills them afterwards. Frost often affects the leaves, but ordinary frosts do not kill back the seedlings, particularly in grass. Hail tears the large leaves to pieces, as was observed in a severe hail- storm at Dehra Dun in February 1913. In northern India the season's growth stops in November-December, and new growth starts in March. The leaves turn yellow about November-December, and commence falling in December- January ; by March they have usually all fallen. The following measurements in experimental plots at Dehra Dun give some indication of the rate of growth of young plants under different con- ditions, and exhibit the marked effect of weeding : Terminalia belerica : rate of growth of young plants, Dehra Dun. .ditioii under which grown. :sery, weeded and watered plants of 1st rains, not weeded red subsequent to transplanting scattered on ground as under conditions ; subsequently . Sunny locality scattered on ground as under conditions ; not subsequently . Sunny locality scattered on ground as under conditions ; not subsequently . Siuuiy locality scattered on ground as under conditions ; not subsequently . Moderate side shade scattered on ground as under conditions ; not subsequently . Heavy shade 1st season. Oft. 6 in. -Oft. Sin. Maximum 0 ft. 6 in. Maximum 0 ft. 5 in. Oft. 4 in. -Oft. 7 in. (heavy grass and weeds) Maximum 0 ft. 5 in. Height at end of season. 2nd season. 3rd season. 4th season. 5th season. Maximum 1 ft. 2 in. - 1 ft. 6 in. 2 ft. 0 in. 2 ft. 6 in.- 4 ft. 5 in. 3 ft. 2 in. 10 ft. 0 ft. 7 in.- 0 ft. 9 in. 2 ft. 6 in.- 3 ft. 7 in. Maximum 12 ft. 9 in. (girth Oft. 7 in.) Maximum Maximum Maximum 1ft. 3 in. 2ft. 7 in. 5 ft. 10 in. Maximum 0 ft. 8 in. Maximum (heavy growth of Oft. 11 in. weeds) Maximum 0 ft. 6 in. 0 ft. 3 in.- 0 ft. 10 in. 4ft. 11 in. 5ft. 8 in. SiLVicuLTURAL, CHARACTERS. The tree is a light-demander, though it can stand slight shade in youth. It is decidedly sensitive to frost, all records of severe frosts agreeing in this respect ; the leaves are usually found to be touched by frost more readily than those of almost any of its associates. As regards drought it is somewhat more hardy, though it does not occur in very dry localities. In the abnormal drought of 1907 and 1908 in the sal forests of Oudh it proved to be fairly hardy, while it was not affected in the severe drought of 1899 and 1900 in the Indian Peninsula. It coppices fairly well. Measurements made by Mr. C. M. McCrie at Ramgarh in the Goraklipur district, United Provinces, showed an average varying from 1 to 2-5 shoots per stool in coppice coupes of different ages up to fifteen years old. Measurements made by me in 1911 in the Tikri forest, Gonda, United Provinces, gave for coppice one year old an average height of 5 ft., and an average of two shoots per stool, as against 4-7 ft. and 2-2 shoots 510 XX VII. COMBRETACEAE respectively for sal. Experiments in 1909 in North Chanda, Central Provinces, showed a poor pollarding capacity, while tlie results of coppice fellings were on the whole good ; the percentage of stools which coppiced successfully in different months being : (1) April, nil ; (2) May, 100 ; (3) June, 100 ; (4) July, 100 ; (5) September, 50. Natural reproduction. The consumption of the fleshy portion of the fruit and the dissemination of the hard nuts by animals has already been alluded to. Where the flesh is not so consumed it rots off or is eaten off b}- white ants, the nuts often being wholly or partially buried in the process. Germination takes place at different times during the rainj^ season. Successful germination is greatly assisted if the nuts are buried by rain, by white ants, or otherwise, since the radicle of the germinating seedling is liable to be eaten by birds and insects or to dry up if exposed to the sun. A considerable degree of moisture is necessary to stimulate germination, and it has been found by experiment that germination takes place more readily in moist places under shade, particularly if the nuts are buried, than in places exposed to the sun. The high germinative power of sound seed and the comparative ease with which the seedling establishes itself would indicate that the tree should be more gregarious than it is. There can be little doubt that its sporadic character is due to the fact that the seed is so much subject to the attacks of animals and insects that a comparatively small proportion reaches the germinating stage. Artificial reproduction. Experiments in direct sowing have not been tried, but transplanting during the first rainy season, before the taproot has become too long, has proved quite successful. The nuts or the whole fruits should be sown in the nursery in March or April, covered with earth and watered regularly. Germination visually takes place about one to two months after sowing. Transplanting should be done in wet weather, and may be carried out either after pruning the stem and roots or with stem and roots intact ; the latter gives the better results, the former checking the growth considerably. Rate of growth. The rate of growth is moderate, or under favourable conditions rapid. The following records are available of girth measurements of trees in sal forest sample plots in the United Provinces : Terminalia helerica girth measurements in sample plots, United Provinces. No. of years No. of trees MC! m annual Forest under under (lirth girth incronien divasion. Locality. observation. observation. classes. for the period. ft. in. Saharanpur Dholkhand and 7 and 12 {? O-I 0-30 Malowala 3-4 0-86 kSouth Khori Bhira range 8 and 9 {i 1-2 2-3 0-38 0-.54 Laiisdowne Chauklianil) 17 6 li-4 0 34 Jogicbaur — I 3-4 0-80 Kauria 4 1 6-8 0-49 (Towairi 12 2 l.J-3 010 Hiildwii.iii Khonaui 6 2 3^ 0-46 TERMINALIA 511 A tree raised from seed sown in 1901 by Mr. Haines in the forest garden at Chaibassa, Chota Nagpur, attained in sixteen years a height of 36 ft. and a girth of 2 ft. li in. Gamble's specimens gave three to seven rings per inch of radius, repre- senting a mean annual girth increment of 0-9 to 2-1 in., which is rapid. As regards coppice, measurements by Mr. C. M. McCrie in 1910 in the Ramgarh coppice coupes, Gorakhpur, gave the following results : Terminalia belerica : rate of growth of coppice, Ramgarh, Gorakhpur, United Provinces. Age. Mean girth. Mean height, years. in. ft. 2 4 4 2 8 6 3 11 8 3-8 14 10 4-6 16-5 12 5-5 19 14 6-3 21 2. Terminalia Chebula, Retz. Syn. T. tomentella, Kurz. Myrabolan tree. Vern. Harra, Hind. ; Hirda, Mar. ; Aiiale, Kan. ; Kadakai, Tam. ; Karaka, Tel. ; Panga, Burm. A moderate-sized to large deciduous tree with a rounded crown, spreading branches, and usually a short trunk, though in Burma it often grows taU and straight. Bark dark brown, often longitudinally cracked, exfoliating in woody scales. Wood very hard, fairly durable, used for building, agricultural imple- ments, and other purposes. The tree is important mainly on account of its fruits, which are the best of the commercial myrabolans used for tanning. Distribution and habitat. Throughout the greater part of India and Burma in mixed deciduous forests, extending into forest of comparatively dry types. It ascends to considerable elevations, up to 5,000 ft. in the outer Himalaya, and according to Bourdillon, up to 6,000 ft. in Travancore in localities where the rainfall is light. In Burma it occurs in deciduous forests both of the upper and of the lower mixed types, along with teak, Terminalia tomentosa, and their associates : it occurs also in indaing forest on laterite, along with DipterocarpKS tuberculatus and its companions. It extends to the borders of the dry zone of Burma, but is not a characteristic tree of the drier parts of that zone. It is found on a variety of geological formations, and on clayey as well as on sandy soil. In the Central Provinces it is particularly common on metamorphic rocks in open forest or village lands, but also occurs on other geological formations. In Bombay it is common on Deccan trap, and Talbot notes that on the laterite of the Mahableshwar plateau at 4,500 ft. it is one of the principal constituents of the low elfin- wood forest . It is also a characteristic tree of other special types of dry forest. Thus in the Goalpara district of Assam it is common in the bhahar tract fringing the base of the outer hills on deep boulder formation in mixture with sal and Lagerstroemia parvifiora in a dry stunted type of forest of a pronounced deciduous character : again, in the Kangra valley it grows gregariously in rather stunted form on poor rocky ground at about 3,500 ft. elevation, either pure or mixed with Pinus longi- folia. 512 XXVII. COMBRETACEAE In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade' temperature varies from 98° to 118° F., the absolute minimum from 30° to 60° F., and the normal rainfall from 30 to 130 in. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. In some localities the leaves commence falling in November, and by Februarj^ or March the trees are usually leafless. The new leaves appear from March to May ; they are light green or sometimes copper coloured. The spikes of greenish white flowers appear with the new^ leaves. In the Himalayan valleys flowering may take place as late as June. In the Central Provinces, Haines says flowering takes place to a small extent in Juh^-August, in addition to the usual flowering in April-May. The fruits ripen from November to March, according to locality, and fall soon after ripening. The fruit (Fig. 194, a) is a somewhat hard drupe 1-2 in. long, obovoid, ellipsoidal or ovoid, yellow to orange brown, sometimes tinged with red or black, 5-ribbed when drj' ; the nut (putamen) is 0-7-0-8 in. by 0o-0-6 in., ovoid, pale yellow, rough, hard, sub-angular. For commercial purposes the fruits are collected when quite ripe and spread out in the sun until thoroughly dry. The fruit crop varies from year to year. About 35 to 45 fresh fruits, or 60 to 75 dry fruits, weigh 1 lb. The germinative power of the seed is poor. The precise cause of this has not been ascertained ; Mr. J. E. C. Turner,^ writing of conditions in Bombay, says that germination is generally backward with regard to the ridged fruits, but that those known locally as bhonga, in which the fleshy portion has been transformed into a black powder, presumably by a fungus, germinate readily. Tests at Dehra Dun with whole fruits as well as with nuts from which the outer fleshy covering was removed, invariably gave poor results. The results were better in the shade than in the sun. It was also found that the seed retained its fertility to a small extent for one year. Germination (Fig. 194, b-f). Epigeous. The hard putamen splits in two and the radicle emerges from one end ; the cotyledonary petioles elongate, arching slightly and raising above ground the cotyledons, ^hich are convolute in the seed and unroll on emerging. The young stem then issues from between the cotyledons, and the discarded pieces of the putamen remain in or on the ground. The seedling (Fig. 194). Roots : primary root moderately long, somewhat thin, terete, tapering, wiry, yellow turning brown : lateral roots moderate in number and length, fibrous, distributed down main root. Hypocotyl distinct from and much thicker than root, 0-3-0-6 in. long, somewhat compressed and quadrangula]', yellow turning green, pubescent, scarcely emerging from the soil. Cotyledons : petiole 1-1-5 in. long, flattened above, yellow or pinkish turning green, tomen- tose : lamina 0-9-1 in. by 1-5-1-7 in., foliaceous, somewhat flesh\% reniform or broadly orbicular, apex truncate or retuse, base acute, entire, yellow at first, becoming green on expanding, pubescent near base on both surfaces, glabrous elsewhere, with three prominent and two less conspicuous veins from the base, veins prominently branched. Stem erect, zigzag at the nodes, terete, green, rusty pubescent; internodes 0-5-1-2 in. long. Leaves simple. ^ hul. Forester, xxxiii (1007). ]>. 362. a ^'^ Fig. 194. Tci'miualia Chchula — Seedling x S a — Fruit b - f — Germination stages g, h— Development of seedling dnring first season TERMINALIA 513 alternate, exstipulate. First leaf sometimes under 0-3 in. long, ovate lanceo- late, acute or acuminate, pubescent. Subsequent leaves with petiole 0-1-0-2 in. long, tomentose ; lamina 0-8-4-5 in. by 0-5 -2 in., ovate, acute, entire, pubescent, bright green above, somewhat paler beneath, venation arched reticulate, lateral veins 4-10 pairs. The young seedling of this species can be distinguished from those of T. tomentosa and T. Arjuna by the length of the hypocotyl and the cotyle- donary petioles (see p. 519). The growth of the seedling is comparatively slow, a height of about 4-8 in. being ordinarily attained by the end of the first season, increasing to 1-2 ft. by the end of the second season. The year's growth ceases about November ; the leaves commence falhng that month, and the seedling is leafless in January-February, new growth commencing about March (Dehra Dun). Young plants are fairly frost-hardy. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. The tree is a light-demander, though in youth it stands slight shade and even benefits by side protection from the sun. It is fairly hardy against frost as well as drought. It withstands fire well, and has good powers of recovery from burning. It coppices fairly well. Natural reproduction. The fallen fruits often become partially buried by rain, the soil round them being blackened with the tannin they contain. The fleshy portion becomes partly eaten by white ants or disintegrates, leaving the hard nut exposed. Germination takes place in the rainy season, some- times not until the end of that season, or in some cases not until the following year. The scarcity of natural reproduction in some localities is very noticeable, and is a matter which requires further study. Where the collection of myra- bolans is carried out extensively, the removal of the fruits would be sufficient to account for it. On the other hand, the lack of reproduction may be attribut- able to some extent to the poor germinative power of the seed and to the fact that it is much subject to the attacks of insects, rats, and squirrels. Numerous fruit-stones found lying ungerminated after the end of the rainy season have been split open, and almost invariably the seed has been found to be destroyed by insects. The seed germinates better if it has become covered with earth or debris than if it is lying in the open. Artificial reproduction. Sowings on mounds, in patches or trenches, and otherwise have been carried out for years, but with very indifferent success, owing in part at least to the poor germinative power of the seed and to its liability to the attacks of insects, squirrels, and rats. Experiments at Dehra Dun showed that transplanting from the nursery can be carried out successfully in the first or second rainy season. The most successful method of raising plants in the nursery was found to be by drying the fruits thoroughly, removing the hardened fleshy covering, and sowing the fruit-stones in boxes before the rainy season, covering them with earth and watering them regularly. Even with this treatment a success of only 20 per cent, was attained. Soaking the fruits in moist manure for some days was found to have no effect in stimulating germination. For artificial reproduc- tion the fruits should be collected from the ground as soon as they fall, and not off the tree. 2307.2 N 514 XXVII. COMBRETACEAE Rate of growth. The rate of growth is slow. The following measure- ments of trees in sal forest sample plots have been recorded : Terminalia Chehula : records of girth measurements in sample plots. Province. Forest division. Locality. No. of years under observation. Xo. of trees under observation. Girth classes. ft Mean annual girth increment for the period. in United Provinces •J Pehra Dun Lansdowne »> J5 Nagsidh and Thano Chaukhamb Jogichaur Barswar 17 and 20 17 4 4 f 6 h 11 1 15 Lit, 1-2 2-3 4-5 11-6 1-1-3 11-3 ILL. 0-25 0-29 0-37 0-56 0-38 0-27 Bihar and Orissa South Kheri Singhbhum Bhira (Kishanpur) Tirilposi 9 18 [ 1 1 2 1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 0-22 0-12 0-70 0-67 Central Provinces Balaghat 30 2-3 016 Gamble's specimens showed six to ten rings per inch of radius, representing a mean annual girth increment of 0-63 to 1-05 in. Coppice measurements showed an average height of 8 ft. and 8-5 ft. in five years in Dehra Dun and Gorakhpur respectively. 3. Terminalia tomentosa, W. and A. Vern. Sain, ain, saj, asna, asan, Hind. ; Matti, Kan. ; Sadada, Guz. ; Maddi, naUamaddi, Tel. ; Karra marda, Tam. ; Taukkyan, Burm. A large deciduous tree with a long clean bole and a full crown. Bark grey to black, with deep longitudinal fissures and transverse cracks dividing it into oblong scales, red inside. Wood dark brown with darker streaks, hard, strong, of variable durability, used for building, carts, railway wagons, mine props, bedsteads, and other purposes : it lasts well under water. The thickness of the bark varies with size and other conditions : the following figures give the average of a number of measurements made in the Dehra Dun district : Girth of tree. 0-6 in. 6in.-l 1-2 ft. 2-3 ft. ft. Bark thickness. in. 0-2 0-35 0-5 0-8 Girth of tree, ft. 3^ 4-5 5-6 6-7 Bark thickness, in. 10 11 11 1-2 Apart from its economic value the tree is important silviculturally as being one of the commonest of Indian forest trees and being suitable for afforesting clayey ground. In favourable localities it attains a girth of 12 ft. or more and a height of over 100 ft., but on dry rocky ground and other unfavom-able situations it is stunted. It is somewhat variable, particularly as regards its leaves, which as a rule are large and tomentose in less favourable localities and smaller and more glabrous in localities in which it grows best. Distribution and habitat. General distribution. Terminalia tomentosa ■M^-^ '''^-Jfe'' ^.^'^ '■-■-, ^ -- Fig. 195. Terminalia belerica, United Provinces. 5U Fk;. I9(). Terminalia tomentosa, troo 12 ft. 4 in. in liirtli and ll') ft. in lieiglit on alluvial ground. Oonda district, Tnitcd I'l'ovinces. TERMINALIA 515 is one of the commonest and most widely distributed of Indian forest trees. It extends throughout the sub-Himalayan tract from the Ravi eastwards, ascending the outer hills to 4,000 ft. : it is not common east of the Jalpaiguri district of Bengal, and is rare in most parts of Assam. It is not found in Sind and Rajputana, but is common throughout the greater part of the Indian Peninsula, extending into comparatively dry regions. It is plentiful throughout the greater part of Burma, extending into the dry zone and ascending to 4,000 ft. in the Southern Shan States. Climate. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperatm-e varies from 95° to nearly 120° F., the absolute minimum from 30° to nearly 60° F., and the normal rainfall from 30 to 150 in. Soil. The tree attains its largest dimensions on deep rich alluvial soil. On poor shallow soil, particularly on hilly ground, though often plentiful it remains stunted. It favours stiff clayey soil, where it often becomes gregarious in depressions and round the edges of swamps. It grows freely on black cotton soil, though it remains stunted. It is abundant on laterite in some localities, though here also it is stunted. Local distribution and forest types. Sub-Himalayan tract. In the sub- Himalayan tract Terminalia tomentosa is abundant in the sal forests, becoming gregarious on flat clayey ground and in grass-covered depressions which usually mark the sites of former ponds or watercourses and which have gradually filled up. In such places it is probable that the tree acts as a useful draining agent, for it is noticeable that sal reproduction eventually makes its way into these areas underneath it. That it is not specially partial to badly drained clayey ground, though it is capable of growing there, is shown by the fact that it occurs in quantity and shows its best development on well- drained ground. In the sal forests, besides the sal {Shorea robusta) its principal associates are Lagerstroemia parvijiora, Terminalia belerica, Adina cordifolia, Ougeinia dalbergioides, Anogeissus latifolia, Stereospermum suaveolens, Eugenia Jambolana, E. operculata, and Buchanania latifolia. A special type of forest, in which Terminalia tomentosa occurs pure or mixed with Anogeissus latifolia on rich alluvial groimd beside rivers, is a feature of some of the submontane forests and is well exemplified in the Gonda district of the United Provinces. The evolution of this type is explained on p, 523 under 'natural reproduction' and is shown in Figs. 197-200. Fig. 200 gives a good idea of the appearance of a crop of this type approaching maturity. On rich alluvial ground of this kind it reaches magnificent proportions, as may be judged from Fig. 196, showing a tree 12 ft. 4 in. in girth and 115 ft. high. In the Siwalik hills and outer Himalaya it is common and sometimes gregarious, often on somewhat poor soil, but here it reaches only a small size. In the Himalaya it ascends to about 4,000 ft. It extends westward to the Kangra hiUs, and possibly to a small extent farther west. In the eastern part of the sub-Himalayan tract it reaches very large dimensions, for instance in the Tista forests, where it occui's both in sal forest and in low-level mixed forest without sal. In Jalpaiguri it is not plentiful, though there are some well-grown trees in the Upper Tondu forest : east of this district it is not common, and is more often absent altogether. In the N2 516 XXVII. COMBRETACEAE Benc^al Duars it mixes with T. inyriocarpa, but farther east the latter replaces it largely if not entirely. Chota Nagpur. In Chota Nagpur the tree is common, particularly in valleys and moist localities. On village lands it is very common, and is extensively pollarded for the cultivation of the tasar silkworm. It is a common constituent of the sal forests, while in some valleys it occurs along with Bombax malaharicum and other species without sal, probably owing to insufficient drainage. Central Provinces and Berar. Terminalia tomentosa is common in deciduous forests throughout the greater part of the Central Provinces and Berar ; it is a common companion of the sal as well as of the teak. It is plentiful on black cotton soil, which many species avoid, but here it is usually small. It reaches its best development on moist fertile alluvium, near rivers, where it sometimes tends to be gregarious. In the usual mixed deciduous type, in which teak may or may not be present, its chief companions are Pterocarpus Marsupium, Terminalia helerica, T. Chehula, T. Arjuna (along streams), Anogeissus latifolia, Ougeinia dal- bergioides, Bassia latifolia, Lagerstroemia parvi flora, Diospyros Melanoxylon, Buclmnania latifolia, Soymida febrifuga, Adina cor di folia, Dalbergia latifolia, Cleisanthus Collinus, Chloroxylon Sivietenia, Butea frondosa, as well as many other species of less importance. Sometimes a special type is found in moist valleys on flat ground where the soil is fair to good and often clayey, the chief associates being Cleistanthus Collinus, Bassia latifolia, Anogeissus latifolia, Ougeinia dalbergioides, Biiclmnania latifolia, and a few other species. Bombay. Terminalia tomentosa is plentiful in most of the forest tracts of the Bombay Presidency, being perhaps nowhere more abundant than in Kanara and in the Dangs forests of Surat ; in parts of the latter forests there are sometimes as many as 30 mature trees per acre, while in the Mungod high forest of the I^ast Kanara division it forms 23 per cent, of the crop. In Kanara it grows better on granite and schist than on laterite. In the Deccan it prefers black cotton soil to the shallow soils of the quartzite hiUs so frequent in that region. It occurs in nearly all types of mixed deciduous forest, ascending to between 3,500 and 4,000 ft. on the Nasik ghats and the Khandesh Akrani, but is absent from the laterite of the Mahableshwar plateau. It thrives best in the moister localities, particularly in valleys on alluvial ground, becoming gregarious on clayey soil. At the higher elevations, in exposed situations and on poor soil, it becomes stunted. In the Kanara forests, where the number of species is considerable, its most important com- panions are teak, Dalbergia latifolia, Lagerstroe^nia lanceolata, L. parviflora, Xylia xylocarpa, Pterocarpus Marsupium, Anogeissus latifolia, Terminalia pani- culata, and Adina cordifolia. It shows a marked tendency to occupy the more level ground where the soil is deep and moist. In the mixed forests of some- what drier localities it is found with teak, Anogeissus latifolia, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Bassia latifolia, Ougeinia dalbergioides, BucJianania latifolia, Dios- pyros Melanoxylon, Dalbergia latifolia. Cassia Fistula, PhyUanfhus Emblica, and many other species. Southern India. Although not so common as in Bombay, the tree is fairly Fig. 197. Terminalia tomentosa, establishment of jnire crops on alluvial ground, Gonda dis- trict, United Provinces : (1) natural seedlings up to 20 ft. high appearing on comparatively recent alluvium. Fig. 198. Terminalia tomentosa, establishment of pure crops on alluvial ground, Conda district, United Provinces : (2) natural reproduction up to 8 ft. high ; older forest of Terminalia tomentosa on older alluvium behind. Fig. 199. Terminalia tomentosa, establishment of piire crops on alluvial ground, Gonda district, United Provinces : (3) young crop about 15 ft. high : older alluvial crop on left behind. Fio. 200. Tcrnihmlia tomcniosn, cstabHslunent of ])urc crops on alluvial ground, (Jonda district, United Provinces : (4) forest approaching nuiturity. TERMINALIA 517 well distributed in Madras, and in some localities it is plentiful. It is charac- teristic of various types of mixed deciduous forest, and in Ganjam is a common companion of the sal. It is fairly plentiful in the Wynaad, and ascends to 4,200 ft. in the Nilgiris. In Goorg it is one of the commonest species in the deciduous forests, and attains very fair dimensions. It is common in many parts of Hyderabad and Mysore, and is very common in Travancore up to 2,000 ft. Burma. Terminalia tomentosa is common in most of the mixed deciduous forests throughout Burma, both in the upper and in the lower mixed types, as well as in indaing (dry dipterocarp) forest. It is sometimes found in dense evergreen forest, for example on alluvial flats along streams in some parts of the Upper Ghindwin, but here the evergreen has probably encroached on a former deciduous type of forest. In the upper mixed forests, which are found on hilly or undulating ground, it is characteristic more of the dry than of the moist types, its chief companions being teak, Xylia dolabrijormis , Acacia Catechu, Sterculia spp., Homalium tomentosum, Dalhergia cultrata, Termiyialia Chebula, Vitex glabrata, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Odina Wodier, Adina cordifolia, Anogeissus acuminata, and others, and in the drier parts Pentacme suavis and Shorea obtusa. The chief bamboos are Dendrocala^nus strictus in the driest types, Bambusa polymorpJia in the moister types, and in intermediate types CepTialostachymn pergracile, and in Upper Burma Thyrsostachys Oliveri ; Bambusa Tulda often occurs with it on alluvial flats. It is very plentiful in certain types of lower mixed forest on flat alluvial land tending towards dry rather than moist conditions. A case in point is the Satpok forest of the Tharrawaddy district, where after teak it is the commonest tree, these two species being far more plentiful than any other. Although flat, the locality is fairly well drained ; the chief associate species are Xylia dolabrijormis, Lagerstroemia Flos-Reginae, Berrya Ammonilla, Adina cordifolia, A. sessilifolia, Stephegyne diversifolia, Terminalia Chebula, T. belerica, Odina Wodier, Eugenia Jambolana, and Eriolaena Candollei. The rainfall in this tract is about 80 in. The following figures based on complete enumerations in the Satpok forest give some idea of the prevalence of this tree in some of the compart- ments : ^ Stock of Terminalia tomentosa trees in certain compartments in the Satpok forest, Tharrawaddy district, Burma. Number of trees. I II III IV Compartment Area in 7 ft. girth 6 to 7 ft. 4J to 6 ft. 3 to 4i ft. No. acres. and over. girth. girth. girth. 2 178 192 250 470 508 4 178 235 283 383 437 8 178 176 173 357 717 9 178 128 141 214 487 24 178 122 114 295 524 25 178 177 193 310 372 1 Working Plan for the Satpok, Sitkwin, and Thindawyo Reserves, Tharrawaddy, R, S. Troup, 1906. 518 XXVII. COMBRETACEAE The tree extends into the open scrub forests of the diy zone of Upper Burma, but even outside that zone it is characteristic of certain dry types of poor open bamboo forest on shallow soil, where the trees attain small dimen- sions. This type is exemplified in parts of the Ruby Mines district, where the chief associate species are ,Xylia dolahriformis , Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Diospyros burmanica, Acacia Catechu, Adina cordifolia, Odina Wodier, and others, with Terminalia Oliveri in the drier parts ; the chief bamboo is Dendro- calamus strictus. In the dry zone proper the rainfall varies from 22 in. to about 50 in., but it is doubtful if the tree occurs in tracts where it is less than 30 in. The geological formation consists mainly of soft sedimentary imaltered sandstones and shales. Terminalia tomentosa is common, but its gTOwth is stunted : its chief associates are Terminalia Oliveri, Tectona Hamiltoniana , Acacia Catechu, A. leucophloea, Buchanania latifoUa, Diospyros hiirmanica, Odina Wodier, Schleichera trijuga, and sometimes Xylia dolahriformis of small size. A variety with larger leaves and fruits (var. macrocarpa, Kurz) is charac- teristic of indaing forest, chiefly on laterite, in association with Dipterocarpus tuherculatus, Pentacme suavis, Shorea ohttisa, Melanorrhoea usitata, Buclmnania latifoUa, Diospyros hurmanica, and other species. Where the soil becomes stiff and clayey Terminalia tomentosa becomes the predominating species and may form entirely pure crops, often of an open description with a soil-covering mainly of grass. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. In northern India the leaves usually commence falling in January or February, and by March or April, and in dry places as early as February, the trees are leafless, though the dead leaves sometimes hang on the trees for some time. This is one of the latest forest trees to acquire its new foliage, and in northern India the new leaves only begin to appear about the end of June. Farther south they appear about April-May. The panicled spikes of small whitish flowers appear about July in northern India and about May-June farther south. In the early part of the rainy season a forest of Terminalia tomentosa is a beautiful sight with the masses of whitish blossom against the deUcate green of the yomig foUage. The fruits form rapidly, becoming full-sized by about October, though still green ; they remain pale yellowish green from November to January, ripening about February-March. The fruit (Fig. 201, a) has a hard bony axis with five coriaceous wings, and is brown when ripe. The ripe fruit falls chiefly from March to May, but many unripe fruits, usually fomid to be bitten off by insects or possibly birds, fall during January-February, and turning brown after falling give the false impression of being ripe. Parrots often destroy much of the fruit crop prematurely. The ovary is often attacked by a Cynips, wliich prevents the formation of the fruit and produces bunches of galls which may be mistaken for fruits, though they have no resemblance to the charac- teristic winged fruits. So far as tests show, the percentage of fertility of the seed is comparatively low. In a number of tests carried out at Dehra Dmi the maximum percentage obtained was only 45, except in one case in which 78 per cent, was obtained. Possibly these poor results are due partly to the difficulty in discriminating between good and bad (i. e. prematurely fallen) seed when the fruits are ■■ ■- -■■TTT/- .:.'rr-2-J._. C g Sx ^ Fig. 20 1. Tevminalia tomentosa — Seedling x f a Fruit b - e— Germination stages f - h — Development of seedling to end of first season TERMINALIA 519 collected from the ground, but in any case this would represent the actual conditions so far as natural reproduction is concerned. In seven different samples of fruits from northern India the number weighing 1 lb. varied from 150 to 250. Records of seed-years extending over a series of years in various localities show that fair to good seed-years are the rule, though occasional bad seed- years occur at varying intervals. Germination (Fig. 201, h-e). Epigeous. The hard endocarp of the fruit opens slightly and the radicle emerges. The cotyledonary petioles elongate by arching and the large foliaceous cotyledons, which are convolute in the seed, extricate themselves and miroll. The cotyledons are raised above ground by the further elongation of their petioles, from between which the young shoot emerges. The seedling (Fig. 201). Boots : primary root moderately long and thick, terete, tapermg, brown, upper part, immediately below ground-level, swollen, with a characteristic bend due to the efforts of the seedling to escape from the hard endocarp of the fruit during germination ; lateral roots moderate in number and length, fibrous, distributed down main root. Hypocotyl distinct from root, 0-2 in. long, green, immediately below or on surface of ground. Cotyledons : petiole 0-8-1-5 in. long, flattened above, green, pubescent : lamina 1-2-1-4 in. by 1-1-5 in,, foliaceous, somewhat fleshy, broadly and often obliquely obovate orbicular, apex truncate or retuse, base tapering and slightly decurrent, bright green, glabrous, with five prominent veins from the base. Stem erect, terete, green, tomentose ; first internode, above cotyledons, 1-8-2-5 in., subsequent internodes 0-1-0-7 in. long. Leaves simple, exstipulate, alternate, rarely sub- opposite, first pair not opposite. Petiole 0-1-0-2 in. long, tomentose. Lamina 1-3-4 in. by 0-8-1-6 in., elliptical ovate or obovate, apex and base acute, entire, pubescent or glabrescent above, pubescent beneath, tomentose round margin and on principal veins beneath, lateral veins 6-8 pairs in young seed- lings ; two small glands present, one on either side of midrib near base of lamina on under surface. The cotyledons of T. tomentosa, T. Arjuna, and T. Ghehula are somewhat similar, but in the germinating stages the seedlings can be readily distinguished by the lengths of the hypocotyls and cotyledonary petioles, thus : Cotyledonary petioles short (0-3-0-6 in.) ; hypocotyl long (2-2-3 in.) — T. Arjuna. Cotyledonary petioles long (0-8-1-5 in.) ; hypocotyl moderately long (0-3-0-6 in.)— T. ChebuU. Cotyledonary petioles long (0-8-1-5 in.) ; hypocotyl very short (0-2 in.) — T. tomentosa. During the first season the growth of the seedling is only moderate, a height of 4-7 in. being ordinarily attained under natural conditions, while even with regular watering and weeding a height of more than 1 ft. is seldom reached, though occasionally a height of 18 in. or more may be attained. The taproot reaches a length of about 6-10 in. within two months of germina- tion. In the subsequent growth of the young plant height is sacrificed to a branching or stragghng growth, long branches being produced which bend over towards the ground, and no definite upward leader being formed for 520 XX\^I. COMBRETACEAE some time ; this form of straggling or bushy growth is characteristic of certain other species of Terminalia, e. g. T. Arjuna and T. myriocarpa. The seedlings are fairly hardy against drought, but are more sensitive to frost. They stand moderate side shade, but are intolerant of heavy overhead shade ; in experimental plots at Dehra Dun it was found that few seedHngs survived heavy shade more than one season, while all succumbed before the end of the second season. The cotyledons are subject to the attacks of birds, and the seedlings are browsed by deer and cattle and are uprooted by pigs. In the forest, seedlings of Terminalia tomentosa often pass unrecognized, since the leaves of young seedlings are very different from those of older plants, the leaves being much smaller, more pointed, and more conspicuously hairy. A characteristic featiu-e of seedlings of the first year is a swelling and decided bend where the taproot joins the stem immediately below ground- level, at the point where the seedling escaped from the hard fruit during germination. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. Terminalia tomentosa is a light-demander, and is rapidly suppressed under shade. It cannot be called exacting as regards soil, being found on a variety of soils, and sometimes on dry hills with poor shallow soil. Although capable of existing on stiff clay better than most species it does not follow that this type of soil suits it best, for its development on deep well-drained soil is better. In years of severe drought the tree has proved decidedly tender. In the abnormal droughts of 1899 and 1900 in the Indian Peninsula and 1907 and 1908 in Oudh it was badly affected, but in the latter case the sal suffered more severely than it did. As regards frost, the leaves are readily killed, but the damage is often more apparent than real, since the stems frequently remain untouched when all the foliage is withered. Young plants are, how- ever, often killed back in frosty localities. Young plants suffer less than sal from grazing, probably because they lose their leaves in the hot season, at which time the sal plants send up succulent young shoots. Mr. J. Best ^ describes a curious form of growth due to excessive grazing in the Bhandara district of the Central Provinces. Considerable areas are covered with plants up to 18 in. in height, much branched and stunted in growth. On being dug up they are found to have a thick and distorted stem at or just beneath ground surface. This stunted growth is attributed more to trampling and hardening of the soil than to actual browsing, and it is pointed out that on steep hills where cattle do not graze this stunted groAvth is absent. The tree has a deep root-system. It sometimes produces root-suckers where the roots are exposed, but as a rule sparingly. Trees up to medium size generally coppice and pollard well, but the coppicing power of trees more than about 4 ft. in girth is usually poor : stools of this size sometimes make a dying effort by producing an immense mass of small coppice-shoots and then succumb. In some districts, particularlj^ in parts of Chota Nagpm-, the Central Provinces, and elsewhere the tree is regularlj^ pollarded for the growing of tasar silk : in parts of Bombay it is extensively'- lopped for ash manure 1 Ind. Forester, xxxv (1909), p. 612. TERMINALIA 521 for crops, while in some localities it is lopped for cattle fodder. The coppicing and pollarding power appears to vary. Experiments carried out in the Chanda district of the Central Provinces in 1909 showed that of eleven different species coppiced and pollarded Terminalia tomentosa showed the poorest results under either method. As regards coppice, the percentage of stools which produced shoots when cut in different months from April to September was : April, 66 ; May, 66 ; July, 40 ; August, nil ; September, nil. Coppicing experiments in North Khandesh, Bombay, in 1903 showed that 70 per cent, of the trees yielded coppice-shoots, 1-9 shoots per stool. Measurements which I made in 1911 in three coppice coupes one and two years old in the Gonda district, United Provinces, showed that out of 17 species Terminalia tomentosa showed the largest average number of shoots per stool in each of the coupes, namely 4-7 in the one-year-old coupe, and 4-7 and 2-9 in two coupes two years old. A curious form of injury very prevalent among trees on the western side of the Indian Peninsula from North Kanara southwards to Malabar is that known as water-blister. This so-called blister is a ridge-like swelling on the side of the tree, apparently resulting from the healing over of a longitudinal crack in which sap or water has accumulated, so that when the blister is cut into a quantity of yellowish fluid is forced out under considerable pressure. There may be one or more blisters on a tree. Natural reproduction. The natural reproduction of this important tree is not yet fully understood. Considering the comparatively low germinative power of the seed, the wide distribution and relative abundance of the species is remarkable, and points to some compensating advantage in its power of establishing itself under varying conditions. In forest tracts young seedlings may be found in large quantities after a good seed-year, indicating that even if a considerable proportion of the seed fails to germinate, the seedUngs which survive from seed which does germinate are sufficiently plentiful. Numerous experiments have been carried out at Dehra Dun to ascertain the conditions which favour natural reproduction, and so far as they go these experiments have shown that germination, which takes place early in the rains, is more successful on bare ground than where the fruits are scattered on grass or on low weeds. Although germination takes place fairly readily in the case of fruits lying on the surface of the ground, there is a higher percentage of success if they are slightly buried, as often happens imder natural conditions on loose soil during the early showers preceding the rainy season. Moisture greatly stimulates germination, and thus the seed may germinate freely under the densest shade, though the seedlings do not survive for more than one season if the shade is at all heavy. Successful germination as well as establishment of seedlings is possible in the case of fruits lying on a layer of dead leaves both in the sun and under shade ; this is not the case with sal, which fails to germinate on a layer of dead leaves in the sun, while under shade, although germination takes place, the seedlings do not survive more than one season where the leaf layer is thick. In a damp sodden growth of weeds the seedlings tend to rot during the first rainy season : otherwise they are capable of making their way through a moderate growth of grass and low weeds. 522 XXVII. COMBRETACEAE The effects of light and shade and of soil-covering at the time the fruit falls are indicated by the following results of experiments in six plots in the same locaUty at Dehra Dmi : Termi7ialia tomentosa : survival and development of seedlings. Percentage of Condition of plot. (1) In full sunlight : on bare ground, not weeded subsequently (2) In full sunlight : on short grass (3) In moderate side shade : on bare ground, not weeded subsequently (4) In moderate side shade : on short grass (5) In dense overhead shade : on bare groimd, not weeded subsequently (6) In dense overhead shade : on short grass germmation (100 fruits scattered in each plot). 42 14 29 45 29 Percentage and condition of survivors at end of first season. 40 ^ Seedlings up to 6 m. high ; plots I covered wiih grass up to 1 ft. 12 J high. 28 \ Seedlings health}-, up to 5| in. I high ; gromid moist with heavy 4 I dew ; grass and weeds about J 9 in; high. 14 Of which only 2 health}-, 4 in. high, on side of plot near light ; remainder djdng. 6 Up to 5 in. high, only on side of plot near light. The effect of light on natural reproduction has been further brought out in two plots in close proximity to each other at Dehra Dun, one plot being under the fairly heavy shade of bamboos and the other in the open. These plots were laid out with the view of ascertaining if sal seed scattered on the surface of a thick layer of leaves would germinate and the seedlings would establish themselves under shade and in the open respectively. The leaves in question were collected in the forest, and among them were a number of fruits of Terminalia tomentosa. In the shaded plot several seedlings appeared from these fruits during the rainy season in July and August : germination was very successful owing to the wet layer of leaves. Of the seedlings which appeared the survivals were only 4 in November, 2 in December, 1 in January, 1 in March, and none in July. It is probable that the mortality was due not only to shade but also to want of moisture, since the ground became decidedly dry after the rainy season was over ; this, however, would also hold under similar conditions in the forest. In the open (unshaded) plot ten seedlings appeared : although some of the fruits germinated on the dry upper layer of the dead leaves a number failed to do so, and this indicates that a thick layer of dead leaves in the open may prevent reproduction to some extent, though to nothing like the extent wliich it does in the case of sal, for the sal fruits fall after the season of leaf-shedding, whereas those of Terminalia tomentosa fall in the early part of it and therefore do not he on the top of the leaves. These ten seedlings all survived, and by October of the second year varied from 1 ft. 5 in. to 4 ft. 2 in. in height ; some were amongst grass about 2 ft. high and others were quite in the open. This experi- ment clearly demonstrates the necessity for an abmidance of light for successful natural reproduction. To summarize, it may be said that these preliminary experiments indicate the foDowing to be some of the main factors which favour the estabhshment of natural reproduction : (1) abundance of light, (2) a fair degree of soil moisture. (3) bare ground. (4) loose soil, enabling the fruits to be slightly TERMINALIA 523 covered during the early showers, (5) absence of dense sodden grass and weed- growth. The influence of frost, fire, and grazing will be alluded to below. Confirmation of the results of these preliminary experiments may fre- quently be met with by observations in the forest. The effect of light in particular is constantly noticeable. Vigorous young seedlings appear in quantity along roads, paths and fire-lines, and on open spaces. Dense masses of saplings establish themselves in gaps with complete overhead light, and the stronger ones eventually suppress the weaker. An instance of the result of admitting light and clearing the gromid is recorded in the Burma Forest Report for 1914-15, where it is stated that good natural reproduction resulted from the burning of an area in Toungoo in which' the bamboo had flowered ; this area had previously been fire- protected for many years. A good instance of the value of loose soil was observed a few years ago in the Gonda district of the United Provinces, where vigorous seedlings appeared in large numbers in the loose earth washed down along the base of the ridge of earth thrown up alongside a new bomidary trench. The abundance of the seedhngs was due to the fruits ha^ang been washed against the base of the ridge and partially covered with soil, and indicates that surface water in the rains is an important distributing agency ; the vigour of the seedlings was apparently due to the loose earth in which they grew. Similarly in loose bare earth along the sides of cart tracks in the" forest seedlings are often found in great abundance. The establishment of the pure type of Terminalia tomentosa forest on alluvial land in parts of the sub-Himalayan tract, which has already been alluded to, furnishes a good instance of a combination of factors which favour the reproduction of this species to such an extent that it becomes dominant, forming pure or almost pure forest. The chief factors in question are full overhead light, loose soil, sufficient soil moisture, and absence of dense weed- growth, though the gromid may be covered with an open growth of moderately tall grass. The gradual evolution of this type of forest, which is illustrated in Figs. 197-200, is as follows : The fruits are partly wind-borne and partly water-borne, and the seed germinates on alluvial deposits in the beds and along the banks of streams in a soil consisting of sand, or of fine sand with an admixtm-e of clay forming a rich alluvial loam. Frequently Acacia Catechu and Dalbergia Sissoo are found coming up along with the Terminalia, the latter being mixed with the others either by single trees or, as is more common, by groups. In such a mixture the Acacia and Dalbergia eventually become outgrow^n and sup- pressed by the Terminalia, and the latter forms a pure crop or, if there are gaps in the crop, other species may come in ; of these the commonest is Anogeissus latifolia, while sal also tends to appear where the locality is suitable and the cover is not too dense. The development of this forest is interesting as showing that Terminalia tomentosa, like Acacia Catechu and Dalbergia Sissoo, is capable of establishing itself on new alluvial ground on which sal is unable to establish itself owing to the fact that the soil moisture in the dry season of the year is insufiicient to support it ; in other words, Terminalia tomentosa is capable of estabhshing 524 XXVII. COMBRETACEAE itself in soil in which sal fails to survive for want of sufificient permanent moisture. On the other hand, a copious rainfall in the year of seeding appears to favour natural reproduction : thus in the Dehra Dun forests in 1910, following a season of abundant rainfall, young seedlings were found in great abundance in the ensuing cold weather. In connexion with soil moisture it may be mentioned that seedlings of Terminalia tomentosa, like those of sal, have been observed to die back in dry localities, forming long thick taproots which enable the young plants eventually to establish themselves. Excessive grazing is a serious menace to natural reproduction. Allusion has already been made under ' silvicultural characters ' to a bushy growth resulting from excessive grazing in the Bhandara district, Central Provinces. In the Gonda district of the United Provinces, where excessive grazing has resulted in a dense undergrowth of Carissa spinarum with little or no repro- duction of tree species, the plan was adopted a few years ago of cutting the Carissa and with the cut plants forming a thorny fence round coupes recently feUed, in order to keep out cattle : the exclusion of grazing combined with the admission of light resulted in abundant reproduction of Terminalia tomen- tosa, and provided weed-growth is kept within bounds its establishment is assured. In the drier types of forest, fire is undoubtedly injurious to natural reproduction, but in moist types, such as those of Kanara and Malabar, fire-protection tends to oust this and other deciduous species and to replace them by shade-bearing evergreens. Mr. F. A. Leete,^ writing in 1900 of the results of fire-protection in the sal forests of Kheri and Bahraich in Oudh, observed that fire-protection had not favoured Terminalia tomentosa repro- duction, but the reverse, and that although saplings which originated before the days of fire-protection were plentiful, seedling reproduction had come to a standstill. Mr. (now Sir Sainthill) Eardley-Wilmot,^ referring to these observations, noted that the forests in question had passed through three stages, namely : ' First stage. The forest annually burnt, impossible for seed to germinate save in those localities which escaped fires ; in consequence the tree represented in perfection in low-lying areas and along the drainage lines and banks of lakes. ' Second stage. The forests protected from fire, the above restriction removed and immediate spread of the species over the ruined sal forest. ' Third stage. Continued protection, recovery of vitality in the sal forest, renewed suitability of the soil for sal reproduction, intolerance and defeat of other species by the triumphant sal forest.' The observation on the third stage undoubtedly bears out the results of the preliminary experiments in respect of the light requirements of the young plant and its inability to compete with more vigorous vegetation, in this case sal. The explanation of the paucity of Terminalia reproduction in tliis case is no doubt the correct one, namely, that whereas reproduction is favoured by fire-protection, it is prevented by continuous protection, which favours the sal to a greater extent. In such a case the reproduction of Terminalia must be looked for only in places unsuitable for the sal, and this is in fact the case, ^ Ind. Forester, xxvi (1900), p. 239. 2 7^,7/., p. 377 TERMINALIA 525 for it is in low-lying badly drained ground, where sal cannot gain a footing, that Terminalia chiefly springs up. The fruits fall for the most part before or during the season of fires, and this fact has been held to be a preventive of reproduction owing to the destruc- tion of the fruit. In the case of severe fires the germinative power of the seed is possibly destroyed, but in the case of light fires it is difhcult to believe, in the absence of definite tests, that the hard endocarp is not a sufficient pro- tection to the seed. In some localities, particularly in the Indian Peninsula, the plants assume a low bushy growth only a few feet high, which they may maintain for several years before they commence to grow up. Haines notes that the ultimate stem is a sympodium, arising not from the apex of one of the shoots but from a bud lower down. The cause of this bushy growth is not always definitely known, but probably it is due to more causes than one. Excessive grazing, and more probably trampling, have already been noted as a cause. Frost certainly produces this growth, for it has been noticed to be prevalent in frosty hollows where the stems are killed back annually. Fire and suppression are other possible causes, while on the analogy of the dying back of sal this abnormal growth may perhaps be due in some cases to want of soil moisture, to stiffness or hardness of the soil, or to some other unfavourable soil factor, such as bad soil- aeration. It has been suggested that rich soil and absence of weeds may be possible causes of this form of growth ; if this be the case these factors certainly do not always cause it. Mr. P. M. Lushington mentions that the pruning of all but the strongest shoot may result in a leader being formed. Artificial repeoduction. Direct sowings, as well as transplanting from the nursery during the first rains, before the taproot has reached any great length, prove quite successful. In order to ensure regular weeding at small cost sowing in lines is preferable to other forms of sowing ; in order to allow for indifferent germination the fruits should be sown fairly close together, at intervals of about 6 in., superfluous plants being afterwards transplanted to fill gaps in the lines. Line sowings with field crops have proved successful on an experimental scale, the lines being kept clear of crops to a width of about 2 ft. Pit sowings to fill up blanks have proved successful in Bombay. Sowing should be carried out before the early rains, the soil being worked up and the fruits lightly covered. As a rule 1 lb. of fruits will suffice for 100-120 ft. ' of line. In the nursery the fruits should be sown not long after they ripen, about March-April, and if the beds are regularly watered and weeded the seedlings should be ready for transplanting early in the rainy season. In Bombay the fruits are sown on a layer of leaves and grass in order to raise them from the ground and prevent them from rotting : the seed germinates readily after a good fall of rain, and the seedlings are easy to lift without damage to the root if the sowing is done on leaves.^ Mr. R. Bourne informs me that in Malabar he has obtained the best results in germination by sowing the seeds in seed-beds divided into squares surrounded by small mud walls, so that when the beds are flooded the water stands in them for some time. 1 R. S. Pearson in Ind. Forester, xxxi (1905), p. 170. 526 XXVII. COMBRETACEAE Owing to the light requirements of the young plants, sowing and planting under cover should be avoided, such work being confined to open places or gaps of some extent. Plantations are apt to be damaged by deer and pigs. SzLVicuiiTURAL TREATMENT. The correct treatment of this tree must be based on its light-demanding character during all stages of its existence. Actually its treatment is as a rule that of an accessory species to more valuable trees such as teak or sal, or as a component of a mixed crop in which it is not of outstanding importance. Under existing working plans it is worked along with, other species usually under some form of selection fellings or under coppice- with-standards. For the rearing of silkworms it is regularly pollarded. It is quite suitable for working as even-aged high forest with natural or artificial reproduction. Rate of growth. (1) High forest. The annual rings are not always clearly distinguishable, though the rate of growth in several working plans is based on the results of ring-countings ; the figures deduced in tliis way may be taken as only approximately correct. The results of various sample plot measurements are available, and these may be taken to be more accurate than the figures based on ring-countings, though here also there is an element of uncertainty in the fact that the time required for a seedling to establish itself under different conditions is not known. United Provinces. The statement below gives a summary of the results of sample plot girth measurements in natural forest up to 1917, the measure- ments in all sample plots being combined for separate localities or forest divisions. These sample plots are situated in sal forest. Terminalia tomentosa : girth increment in high forest sample plots, United Provinces. { ZJorresponding girth. Dehra Dun. S. Kheri. N. Kheri. Gonda, Pilibhit. Bahraich. Age. (260 trees) (67 trees) (30 trees) (64 trees) (21 trees) (30 trees) years. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. 10 ■ • , , . . 0 5 20 , , o" 5 0 7 0 4 • • 0 10 30 0 11 0 10 1 1 0 7 1 5 40 1 4 1 2 1 8 0 11 2 "o 2 0 50 1 10 1 6 2 2 1 4 2 6 2 7 60 2 3 1 11 2 8 1 8 2 11 70 2 9 2 4 3 2 2 0 3 3 80 3 4 2 10 3 7 2 4 3 7 90 3 11 3 4 4 0 2 9 3 11 100 4 6 3 10 4 4 3 1 4 2 110 5 2 4 5 4 8 3 6 120 5 9 5 1 4 11 3 10 130 5 2 4 3 140 5 4 4 9 150 5 6 5 4 160 5 8 5 11 170 5 10 180 5 11 , , Note. — Measurements taken over bark at 4J ft. from ground-level : no addition made for time required for seedling to establish itself. TERMINALIA 527 Bihar and Orissa. The following are the results of measui-ements in two sample plots in the Singhbhum forest division, (1) in Tirilposi block, (2) on the Samta-Hendakuli old road : Terminalia tomentosa girth increment in high forest sample plots, Singhbhum division. Girth No. of trees under class. observation. (1) (2) ft. 2-3 1 3-4 6 18 4-5 • • < • 5-6 3 6-7 1 No. of years under observation. (1) 18 (2) 27 \ Mean annual girth increment for period. (1) (2) in. in. 0-47 0-51 0-30 0-33 037 A tree raised from seed sown in 1901 by Mr. Haines in the forest garden at Chaibassa attained in sixteen years a height of 33 ft. and a girth of 2 ft. 3| in. Central Provinces. Ring-countings in the case of a few felled trees in the South Chanda forest division gave the following results : ^ Terminalia tomentosa : girth increment. South Chanda, Central Provinces. Girth at 4J ft. from Mean annual girth ground-level. Age. increment. in. years. in. 6 8i 0-71 12 17 0-70 18 251 0-71 24 47 0-51 30 76 0-40 Note. — ^No addition made for time required for establishment of seedling. The following results of sample plot measurements extending over a period of eight years in respect of 39 trees in the Baihar and Raigarh ranges of the Balaghat division show a very slow rate of growth : ^ Terminalia tomentosa : girth increment in high forest sample plots, Balaghat. Mean girth, ft. in. 2 6| 2 9i 3 0 Age. Mean girth. Age. years. ft. in. years 20 0 3i 70 30 0 6 80 40 0 9 90 50 1 0 100 60 1 2* 110 jar I girth. Age. ft. in. years 1 5i 120 1 8 130 1 lOf 140 2 li 2 4 Note. — No addition made for time required for establishment of seedlmg. 1 Working Plan for the Dhaba, Ghot, and Markhanda Ranges and Elchil Forest, South <:handa, J. Donald, 1913. 2 Statistics compiled in the Silviculturist's office, 1916-17 ; Ind. For. Rec, vol. vi, pt. v. 528 XXVII. COMBRETACEAE Bombay. The following table has been compiled from measm'ements based on ring-countings and recorded in high forest working plans in Bombay : Terminalia tomentosa : diameter increment in high forest, Bombay Presidency. North Kanara district. Surat district. -^T3 m tiO ee CC r5 « 0) n ^-g cc (•1 5 ^■.■=. pa fuel lerves.^ 1906) Ankolahighfo Blocks xxiv : XXV.- (1908) ddi slo ck XXV 1909) Ankola-Kui coast.'' (1911) wn for( 1913) Age. 02 2 Kalina Bio ( r- CO b*i -,. ^ •s O ^^ 02 Sirsi to ( Yekai lug Bloc ( years. 10 in. 2-21 in. 2-18 in. 2-4 in. 1-7 in. 1-6 in. 1-1 m. 10 20 4-20 400 5-7 3-7 40 2-4 2-6 30 6-27 5-76 8-4 6-2 6-4 3-7 4-6 40 812 7-46 9-9 6-8 8-6 50 6-6 50 1006 905 12-2 8-4 10-3 6-2 8-8 60 11-50 10-55 14-2 100 11-8 7-4 10-7 70 11-73 15-9 11-6 13-1 8-7 12-5 80 12-80 17-6 13-1 14-3 10-1 14-3 90 14-13 18-9 14-5 , , 11-5 160 100 15-51 20-4 15-8 . , 13-0 17-6 110 16-82 21-9 17-1 14-4 19-2 120 18-10 23-2 18-5 , , 15-6 20-6 130 19-21 24-4 19-9 . , 16-6 21-8 140 20-75 25-5 21-3 . , 17-6 22-8 150 21-96 26-5 22-7 . , 18-0 23-6 160 2310 27-3 24-0 , , , , 24-4 170 . . • . . . 25-4 m Q -iS Csl in. 2-5 7-3 10-6 13-2 16-2 20-2 22'2 24-5 25-5 Note. — Measurements do not include bark. Thickness of bark is given as 1-3 in. in the North Dangs forests, and 1-6 in. in the Sopinhosalli and Yekambi-Sonda forests. 1 Measurements by D. A. Thomson. ^ Measurements by R. S. Pearson. 3 Measurements by P. E. Aitchison. * Measurements by G. E. Marjoribanks. Madras. Ring-countings in the Begur forest (25 trees) and Chedleth range forests (77 trees), North Malabar, gave the following results : Terminalia tomentosa : results of ring-countings, North Malabar, Madras. Mean age. iameter. Corresponding girth. Begur. Chedleth range, in. in. years. years. 6 19 28 26 12 38 58 48 18 57 85 72 24 75 117 100 (2) Coppice. United Provinces. Measurements by Mr. C. M. McCrie in 1910 in sal coppice coupes at Ramgarh in the Gorakhpur district gave the following results for Terminalia tomentosa as compared with sal {Skorea rohusta) : TERMINALIA 529 Terminalia tomentosa : growth of coppice at Ramgarh, Gorakhpur, United Provinces. Mean height. Mean girth. Age. Teminalia tomentosa. Sal. Terminalia tomentosa. Sal. years. ft. ft. in. in. 2 4-5 30 1-3 4 90 70 30 20 6 12-3 10-3. 4-5 2-9 8 150 130 5-7 3-8 10 170 15-3 7-3 4-8 The following measurements made by me in 1911 in yomig coppice coupes in the Tikri forest, Gonda, show the comparative growth of Terminalia tomen- tosa and sal : Terminalia tomentosa : growth of young coppice in the Tikri forest, Gonda, United Provinces. Mean height. Average No. of shoots per stool. Age. Terminalia tomentosa. Sal. Terminalia tomentosa. Sal. years. ft. ft. in. in. 1 8-2 4-7 4-7 2-2 2 11-2 100 2-9 1-7 2 6-3 7-6 4-7 1-8 Bihar and Orissa. Measurements in coppice coupes of various ages in the Saitba block, Kolhan, Chota Nagpur, in a somewhat dry type of forest on hilly ground with stony soil, gave the following results : Terminalia tomentosa : growth of coppice in the Saitba block, Kolhan, Chota Nagpur. Mean height. Mean girth. Age. Terminalia tomentosa. Sal. Terminalia tomentosa. Sal. years. ft. ft. in. in. 2 5 -5 9-0 1-5 40 4 10-5 160 3-2 6-5 6 14-5 20-0 4-8 8-6 8 17-8 22-5 6-5 10-3 10 20-4 24-5 8-3 11-5 12 22-7 26-5 100 12-6 14 24-5 28-5 11-6 13-6 Bomhay. The following coppice measurements are recorded in the working j)lan for the Karwar fuel reserves. West Kanara forest division : ^ Terminalia tomentosa : growth of coppice in the Karwar fuel reserves. West Kanara, Bombay. Age. uirtn. •Age- Vjtllbll, years. in. years. in. 4 6-75 11 1116 5 8-46 12 11-31 6 8-55 13 11-69 7 8-71 15 12-75 8 9-26 18 170 9 10-55 1 Working Plan for the Karwar Fuel Reserves, West Kanara, Bombay, D. A. Thomson, 1904. 2307.2 O 530 XXVII. COMBRETACEAE 4. Terminalia Arjiiua, Bedd. tSyn. T. glabra, W. and A. ; Pentaptera Arjuna, Roxb. Vern. Arjun, arjima, hahua, koha, Hind. ; Savimadat, Mar. ; HoIemaUi, Kan. ; Kula maruthu, Tarn. ; Thella maddi, Tel. (Fig. 204.) A large handsome tree, evergreen or nearly so, with trunk often buttressed, a large crown and drooping branchlets. Bark smooth, exfoliating in thin irregular sheets, green when newly exposed, turning light grey, pink inside ; young bark with chlorophyll. The tree resembles T. tomentosa except for its smooth bark, the narrower wings to the fruits, and the fact that it is charac- teristic of the banks of streams. It sometimes attains an enormous girth. Mr. J. C. McDonnell ^ records two trees 26 ft. and 32 ft. in girth at 5 ft. from ground-level at the village of Manapur in Jammu. The wood is brown, very hard, used for building, agricultural imple- ments, carts, and boats. The bark is used for tanning, and is much collected for the purpose in Central India. A special blazing instrument is used which strips off flakes of cortex without penetrating to and damaging the cambium, and within two years the stripped patches are covered with a thick new growth of cortex slightly lighter in colour than the original bark : if the cambium is injured the wood blackens and no regrowth of cortex takes place. Distribution v^nd habitat. Terminalia Arjwia is common throughout the greater part of the Indian Peninsula along rivers, streams, ravines, and dry watercourses, reaching a large size on fertile alluvial loam. It extends northward to the sub-Himalayan tract, where it is locally distributed along the banks of streams. It is common in Chota Nagpur, Central India, the Central Provinces, and parts of the Bombay and Madras Presidencies, extending south to Ceylon. It is often planted for shade or ornament along roadsides and in avenues. In some localities it has escaped from cultivation along streams, and is doubtfully indigenous. It is found naturally in regions where the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 100° to 118° F., the absolute minimum from 30° to 60° F., and the normal rainfall from 30 to 70 in. ; as, however, its occurrence depends largely on the moisture supplied by streams, its distribution is not governed by climatic considerations alone. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The tree is evergreen or nearly so, the new foliage appearing early in the hot season. The panicled spikes of small white flowers appear from April to July, and the fruits ripen the following February to May. The fruits (Fig. 202, a) are 1-2 in. long, with a hard bony axis and five to seven wings 0-25-0-5 in. broad ; about 80-110 weigh 1 lb. As in T. tomentosa, the germinative power of the seed is often indifferent. The tree flowers and fruits at an early age : a tree six years old flowered and fruited abundantly at Dehra Dun in 1918. Germination (Fig. 202, h~J). Epigeous. The hard endocarp of the fruit opens slightly and the radicle emerges. The hypocotyl elongates bj^ arching, and the large foliaceous cotyledons, which are convolute in the seed, extricate themselves and unroll. The hypocotyl straightens and still farther elongates, carrying the cotyledons above ground ; at the same time the young shoot emerges from between the two cotyledonary petioles. * Ind. Forester, xxix (1903), p. lo2. Fig. 202. Terminalia Arjtma — Seedling x f a— Fruit b - f— Germination stages g, h— Development of seedling to end of first season TERMINALIA 531 The seedlixg (Fig. 202). Boots : primary root long, terete, tapering, wiry : lateral roots numerous, fibrous, distributed down main root. Hypocotyl distinct from root, 2-2-3 in. long, terete or slightly compressed, tapering slightly upwards, tomentose. Cotyledons : petiole 0-3-0 -6 in. long, flattened above, tomentose : lamina 0-7-0-9 in. by 1-4-2-2 in., foliaceous, somewhat fleshy, reniform, much broader than long, apex broadly truncate, base decurrent, entire, green, with three conspicuous and two minor veins from the base. Stem erect, terete, pubescent ; first internode, above the cotyledons, 1-8-2-2 in., subsequent internodes 0-2-1 in. long. Leaves simple, alternate, or first pair sub-opposite, exstipulate. Petiole 0-2-0-3 in. long, flattened above, pubescent. Lamina 2-4-4 in. long, elliptical lanceolate, apex and base acute, widely serrulate, sparsely pubescent, or glabrous on the upper surface, venation sub-arcuate, lateral veins 8-12 pairs. The young seedling of this species is easily distinguished from those of T. tomentosa and T. Chebula by the length of the hypocotjd and cotyledonary petioles (see p. 519). The growth of the seedling during the first season is somewhat faster than in the case of T. tomentosa, a height of about 5-12 in. being ordinarily- attained under natural conditions, and a height of 1 ft. to 1 ft. 9 in. in the case of nursery-raised plants. A fairly long taproot is developed early and may attain a length of as much as 1 ft. within two months of germination. As in the case of T. tomentosa and T. myriocarpa, the young plant during the first few years tends to assume a straggling or branching formation, sacrificing height-growth to the production of long side branches which bend over towards the ground. This does not alwaj^s occur, however, and rapid height-growth may take place from the commencement ; thus young tended plants at Dehra Dun have attained a height of 6-10 ft., with a basal girth of 5-8 in., in three years. In Berar seedlings have reached a height of 1^ ft. in two years, and at Nagpur they have attained 3 ft. in 2^ years. Growth is stimulated by regular watering and loosening of the soil. The seedlings are somewhat sensitive to frost, and are decidedly sensitive to drought, both in the germinating stages and subsequently. They grow well in full sunlight provided the ground is moist ; they also stand moderate shade, but not dense overhead shade. In northern India the season's growth ceases in November-December and new growth commences about March. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. The tree is capable of standing more shade than T. tomentosa. It has a more or less superficial root-system, and relies for its moisture chiefly on the streams whose banks it frequents. It is some- what tender to frost as well as to drought. Mr. C. M. McCrie ^ notes regarding the abnormal drought of 1899 and 1900 that many trees along the banks of the streams in the Nagpur district died owing to the lowering of the subsoil water-level. The tree produces root-suckers and pollards well. Experiments in Bombay have shown that it coppices well up to a girth of about 2| ft., after which the coppicing power is indifferent. Natural reproduction. Under natural conditions germination takes place early in the rainy season, and may actually commence with the early showers before the monsoon proper. Numerous experiments at Dehra Dun, 1 Ind. Forester, xxvi ( 1900), p 338. 02 532 XXVII. COMBRETACEAE including plots of ground kept moist by percolation in order to imitate natural conditions, showed that the seed does not germinate readily if exposed to the sun, and if germination begins the radicle is very liable to dry up. If the fruits become partially buried by rain or otherwise germination is much more successful, while the success is greater on bare soil with a considerable amount of moisture, provided the fruits are buried : these conditions ordinarily obtain on alluvial ground along streams. A certain degree of shade, particularly from the side, assists the establishment of the seedling, but heavy shade is inimical. In the forest seedlings are often to be found in large quantities where the fruits have been accumulated by the action of streams in loose alluvial soil and conditions for germination have been favourable. Artificial reproduction. The plants bear transplanting well during the first rainy season before the taproot becomes too long. The fruits should be sown in the nursery about April-May, covered lightly, and watered regularly. Irrigated weeded line sowings have been found successful. Rate of growth. Few detailed statistics are available regarding the rate of growth, but young trees planted at Dehra Dun and well watered have grown fairly rapidly. A cross-section from the United Provinces 2 ft. 8| in. in girth, including bark, in the silvicultural museum at Dehra Dun showed 43 rings, giving a mean annual girth increment of 0-75 in. Trees raised from seed sown in 1901 by Mr. Haines in the forest garden at Chaibassa, Chota Nagpur, attained the following dimensions in sixteen years : (1) Height 40 ft., girth 2 ft. 11 in. (2) Height 37 ft., girth 2 ft. 8 in. (3) Height 37 ft., girth 1 ft. Sf in. Measurements in coppice coupes in Bombay showed that a height of 12 ft. and a girth of 10 in. may be expected in six to seven years. 5. Terminalia myriocarpa, Heurck and Muell. Arg. Vern. Panisaj, Nep. ; Hollock, jhalna, Ass. A very large evergreen tree with pendulous branches. Bark greyish brown, rough, exfoliating in vertical flakes. Wood dark brown, hard, used for house-building, canoes, cheap furniture, and other purposes. The tree attains very large dimensions. Mr. Jacob ^ records one tree in the Raidak valley over 30 ft. in girth, and two trees close together in the Chirrang valley roughly 36 and 27 ft. in girth. Babu R. N. De ^ records a tree 46 ft. 4 in. in girth round buttresses in the Lakhimpur district, Assam. Distribution and habitat. Eastern Himalaya from Nepal eastwards, in valleys and lower hills up to 5,000 ft., Assam, hills of Upper Burma. It is very plentiful in some localities, often coming up in gregarious patches on newly exposed ground, forming pure even-aged groups underneath which evergreen species appear. Mr. Jacob notes that it is very common in Bhutan up to 3,000 ft. and is found up to 4,000 ft. Mr. Milroy ^ reports that in the Abor country it is the predominant tree on the lower hills, where trees of 12 and 14 ft. girth are common, and still larger ones up to 18 and 20 ft. are not scarce ; he adds that although the trees are apt to be short in the bole 1 Report on the Forests of Bhutan, 1912. ^ i^d. Forester, xliv (1918), p. 517. ^ Report on the Forest Resources of the Abor Country, 1912. a — Fruit Fig. 203. Terminalia myriocarpa — Seedling x \ b - d — Germination stages e - i — Development of seedling to end of first season TERMINALIA 533 and much branched a great quantity of clean timber could be extracted from them. Terminalia myriocarpa is essentially a tree of moist situations and rich soil, and in Assam is often found associated with Bischoffia javanica. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 90° to 102° F., the absolute minimum from 33° to 45° F., and the normal rainfall from 80 to 200 in. or possibly more. Flowering and fruiting. The panicles of small pink flowers appear in October-November and the fruits ripen from March to June. The fruits (Fig. 203, a) are small and light, 0-1-0-15 in. long, light yellowish brown, with a pair of lateral membranous wings, the whole 0-4-0-5 in. in width. About 4,000 to 4,500 weigh 1 oz. The germinative power of the seed is fairly good, tests at Dehra Dun showing a fertility of 63 per cent., which for a small light seed is not unsatisfactory. Seed-year records show that the tree seeds well as a rule every year. The trees are a very handsome sight when covered with masses of pink blossom or yellow fruits. Germination (Fig. 203, b-d). Epigeous. The thin radicle emerges from one end of the winged fruit and the cotyledons from the other ; the hypocotyl quickly elongates, carrying above ground the cotyledons, which expand in the meantime, and the yoimg shoot emerges from between them. The seedling (Fig. 203). Roots : primary root moderately long, terete, tapering, wiry : lateral roots numerous, fine, fibrous, distributed down main root. Hypocotyl distinct from root, 0-5-0 -8 in. long, thin, terete, cylindrical, tomentose. Cotyledons : petiole 0'l-0-15 in. long, flattened above, pubescent : lamina 0-1-0-2 in. by 0-15- 0-3 in., foliaceous, reniform or sub-orbicular, broader than long, apex truncate or retuse, base tapering, entire, glabrous or minutely pubescent. Stem erect, terete, green or red, rusty tomentose ; internocles 0-2-0 -7 in. long. Leaves, first pair opposite, small, subsequent leaves larger than first pair, alternate, exstipulate. First pair with petiole 0-1 in. long or less, tomentose, lamina 0-4-0-5 in. by 0-15-0-2 in., elliptical lanceolate, apex and base acute, entire or obscurely serrate, glabrous or sparsely pubescent above, sparsely pubescent beneath. Subsequent leaves with petiole 0-1-0-3 in. long, tomentose, lamina 0*1-2-8 in. by 0-4-1 in., elliptical lanceolate, acuminate, base acute, serrate, pubescent, venation arcuate, lateral veins 6-10 pairs, nearly reaching the margin ; later leaves of the first season with glands at the base. The serrate leaves of the seedling are interesting ; the adult leaves of this species, and of the whole order, are entire. In its early stages the seedling is minute, and is apt to be washed away by rain before it gains a footing. It develops rapidly, however, and attains a height of about 4-8 in. or more by the end of the first season. As in the case of T. to^nentosa and T. Arjuna, the young plant has a tendency to produce long straggling branches in place of a definite leader, but in spite of this its height -growth after the first season is rapid. Sixteen plants gi"own at Dehra Dun had a height of 4 ft. 8 in. to 7 ft. 3 in. by the end of the second season, and 10 to 15 ft. by the end of the third season. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. The tree bears a fair amount of shade and is exacting as regards moisture. It is not known to produce root-suckers. Natural reproduction. The ideal conditions for successful reproduc- tion are a loose porous soil free from weeds, in order to enable the small light 534 XXVII. COMBRETACEAE fruit to reach the soil and the germinating seedling to establish itself quickly, and a fair amount of soil moisture. The light fruits tend to be washed into heaps and the minute seedlings are also liable to be washed awaj^ considerable mortality resulting. The young seedlings are apt to dry up if exposed to the sun, and benefit by a certain amount of shade ; they are also apt to die off in quantity on stiff water -logged soil, and good drainage appears to be necessary for their establishment. The young crop often tends to come up gregariously, where conditions are favourable, on newly exposed ground or fresh alluvium. Artificial reproduction. Direct sowings are unsuitable, as the small light fruits are liable to be washed away. Experiments at Dehra Dun showed that the best results are attained in fine porous sandy soil in boxes or in well- raised beds protected from sun and heavy rain ; watering should be frequent but light. Germination ordinarily starts in two or three weeks and may- continue for about three months. The plants transplant well during the first rainy season when 3 to 4 in. high. 6. Terminalia Catappa, Linn. Syn. T. procera, Roxb. Indian almond. Vern. Badam, Beng. Known in the Anclamans as ' white bombway ', a cor- ruption of the Burmese hanbwe {Carey a arborea). A large handsome deciduous tree with whorled branches and large glabrous leaves which turn red before falling in the hot season. Bark smooth, grey, stem often buttressed. The tree is a native of the Andamans and adjacent islands and of the Malay Peninsula, in coast forests. It is extensively planted in tropical India and in Burma, particularly round monasteries, both for ornament and for the sake of its fruits, the kernels of which are eaten. In the Andamans it is common in the littoral forests on raised beaches and deposits of sea-sand above high tide, associated with Calophyllum Ino- 'phyllum, Afzelia bijuga, Thespesia populnea, Heritiera littoralis, Erythrina indica, Sterculia spp., Pongamia glabra, Odina Wodier, Hibiscus tiliaceus, and Pandanus tectorius. It also extends into the padauk forests, where it is confined to sandy soil as a rule not far from the sea, or to diluvial deposits formed of detritus brought down by streams in flood. The whitish flowers, in axillary spikes, appear from February to May, and according to Bourdillon again in October-November (Travancore). The fruits ripen in June-July (also January, Bourdillon). The fruit is a yellowish ellipsoidal drupe, somewhat compressed, 1-5-2 in. long, with a porous fibrous to fleshy pericarp and a hard endocarp enclosing the edible seed. The fruit is adapted for dissemination by water, the thick husk of porous tissue rendering it buoyant. The tree is easily raised from seed, the fruits being sown in the nursery about July and the seedlings transplanted during the following rainy season. The tree grows best in a moist tropical climate. 7. Terminalia paniculata, Roth. Vern. Kindal, kinjal, Mar. ; Hulve, honal, bili-matti, Kan. ; Pulavdi, venmarudu, pumarudu, Tam. ; Nimiri, pula- rnaddi, Tel. A large to very large deciduous tree. Bark 0-4-0-6 in. thick, dark brown, rough, with numerous shallow longitudinal and transverse fissures. The lower part of the bole is often much fluted. Heartwood light brown, very hard ; wood used chiefly for planking, agricultural implements, and canoes, but not TERMINALIA 535 quite so much in demand as that of T. tomeniosa. The bark contains much tannin. The tree reaches considerable dimensions. Mr. H. Tireman records one 13 ft. 3 in. in girth measured in the Coorg forests : large trees, however, are usually unsound inside. It attains a height of 100 ft. under favourable conditions. Distribution and habitat. The tree is found in the western regions of the Indian Peninsula from Bombay southwards, and in southern India. In Bombay it is one of the commonest trees of the North Kanara mixed deciduous forests, its most important associates being teak, Dalbergia latifolia, Pterocarpus Marsupium, Terminalia tomentosa, Lagerstroemia lanceolata, and Xylia xylocarpa. It is rare on the Deccan trap and absent from the Dangs and Satpuras. It extends southwards through South Canara and Malabar to Travancore, and occurs in the Nilgiris, Anamalais, and other hill ranges of southern India. In Coorg it is most plentiful and attains its largest dimensions in the deciduous forests of the ghats ; it is also found throughout the eastern forests, but here it reaches smaller dimensions-. Throughout its region it is often the most plentiful species of the mixed forests. Bourdillon says it is probably the commonest tree in Travancore, often forming 50-60 per cent, of the trees in the deciduous forests up to 2,000 ft. elevation. It is also the commonest timber tree of the Nilambur valley in Malabar and of some of the Kanara forests. The tree is most frequently found in valleys and on lower slopes, preferring fairly moist situations. It requires a well-drained soil, and is not found on water-logged ground, thus differing from T. tomentosa. In the Western Ghats it grows equally well on the laterite soils at the foot of the ghats and on the decomposed crystalline rocks of the slopes. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 95° to 102° F., the absolute minimum from 55° to 65° F., and the normal rainfall from 40 to 180 in. or more. Flowering and fruiting. The flowering season appears to vary. Brandis gives it as August to December, Talbot (Bombay) as August to Septem- ber, and Bom^dillon (Travancore) as July to December, one flowering succeeding another. Mr. H. Tireman informs me that in Coorg he has observed it in flower in April-May. The flowers are small and white in rusty-pubescent panicled spikes. The fruits, which ripen from December to May, are brick-red, 0-25-0-5 in. long, with one large wing about 0-5-0-75 in. broad and two smaller wings ; about 100-120 fruits weigh 1 oz. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. The tree stands rather more shade than T. tomentosa, saplings and poles being found coming up in small gaps ; it wiU not, however, stand heavy shade, and may be regarded as a light-demander rather than a shade-bearer. Frost is unknown within its region, and prolonged drought seldom if ever occurs. The tree coppices well up to a moderate size. Natural reproduction. The natural reproduction of this tree is as a rule plentiful, though the conditions influencing it require further study. In many places the moist deciduous forests of Kanara are gradually changing towards the evergreen type as a result of fire-protection, and the natural 536 XXVII. COMBRETACEAE reproduction of this and other deciduous trees is reported to be suffering in consequence, though it is plentiful near cultivation and along the sides of roads where heavy weed-growth is kept down. Mr. Tireman notes that in the Coorg ghats it probably owes its existence to fires, as the deciduous forest is almost certainly due to the humri cultivation which has killed all the ever- green trees which must formerly have covered the locality. This would fiu-t her indicate that newly exposed ground, such as that obtained by shifting cultivation, is a favourable factor, as it is in the case of light winged seeds and fruits in general. PtATE OF GROW'TH. The following table shows the rate of growth in diameter, based on the results of ring-countings recorded in working plans of the North Kanara district, Bombay : Terminalia paniculata : growth in diameter in high forests of the North Kanara district, Bombay. Ankola Yekanibi Supa high forest, Kalinaddi Sopinhosalli Sonda fuel Blocks xxiv slopes, higli forest, Ankola -Kumta Sirsi town high fores reserves.^ and XXV.- Block xxvi." Block xxvii.2 coast." forests.^ Block XXV Age. (1906) (1908) (1909) (1910) (1911) (1913) (1914) years. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. 10 21 21 2-2 1-2 1-8 10 1-2 20 4-2 41 4-4 2-8 4-0 2-4 2-8 30 6-6 5-9 6-6 4-4 6-3 3-8 4-8 40 9-2 7-7 8-8 6-4 8-5 5-4 70 50 11-8 9-5 110 8-5 10-8 7-2 9-4 60 13-3 11-2 13-2 10-5 130 90 11-5 70 , , 12-9 15-2 12-6 15-2 111 13-5 80 , , 14-6 171 14-6 17-4 13-3 15-4 90 , , 16-2 190 16-7 ^ , 151 170 100 17-8 20-7 18-8 16-6 18-5 110 , , 19-4 22-5 20-9 , , 17-7 200 120 20-6 241 230 21-5 130 .. 220 25-4 • • 231 140 • • 23-3 26-4 24-7 150 , , 24-2 27-2 ^ , 26-4 160 , , 24-9 27-6 ^ ^ , , , , . . 170 , , 25-6 , , , , , , Note. — Diameter excludes bark. 0-6 in. in Sopinhosalli high forest. Average bark thickness 0-4 in. in Ankola high forest and Kalinaddi sic ^ Measurements by I). A. Thomson. ^ Measurements by P. E. Aitchison. 2 Measurements by R. S. Pearson. As regards coppice, the following measurements by Mr. H. A. Gass in the Kadike block of the South Canara district, Madras, were recorded in 1898-9 : Terminalia 'paniculata : coppice measurements, 8outh Canara. No. 0 f shoots Age. Girth. Height. per stool. years. in. ft. ■ 8 15 2 2 4 18 4 I 7 15 6 flOJ 15 9i 12 3 9i 18 14" 20 8 12 18 Fig. 204. Terminalia Arjuna, Bombay. 536 Fig. 205. Anogeissus latifoUa, Dehra Dun, T'nitt d Provinces. TERMINALIA 537 8. Termiiialia bialata, Steuclel. White chugiam (Andamans). Vern. Lein, Burm. ; Chugalam, And. A large deciduous tree of Burma and the Andamans, reaching a height of 100 ft. In Burma it occurs in the upper mixed deciduous forests along with teak and its associates, and probably also in the lower mixed forests. In the Andamans it is one of the chief species in the semi-deciduous forests associated with Pterocarpus dalbergioides (padauk), Lagerstroemia hypoleuca, Bomhax insigne, StercuUa spp., Albizzia Lebbek, and others. It also occurs sometimes in the evergreen dipterocarp forest. It flowers in the rainy season (Brandis) and the fruits ripen in the cold season (Kurz) ; ripe fruits have been received from Burma in February. Mr. C. G. Rogers ^ says that numbers of germinating seeds were seen in the Andaman forests in the month of May, and that the large proportion of this species, including saplings and poles, in the standing crop points to its being better able to reproduce itself naturally than the other trees associated with padauk. The wood of this tree is strong, elastic, straight grained, and of good quality, and it is likely to become an important timber when better known. Another tree known in Burma as lein is common on the plains of Pegu, where it is of comparatively small size with a bushy form of growth. This is probably T. pyrifolia, Kurz, which, according to Brandis, merits careful study in the forest, as to whether it is really a distinct species ; its size and mode of growth are certainly different from that of the larger and cleaner- stemmed T. bialata. 9. Termiiialia Oliveri, Brandis. Vern. TJmii, Burm. A moderate-sized deciduous tree with smooth greenish grey bark and a somewhat irregularly shaped and often channelled stem. It attains a height of 40-50 ft. and a girth of 4-5 ft., but on poor ground it is stunted. The leaves are only 1-5-3 in. long, and turn red before falling in the hot season. The fruit is five-winged like that of T. tomentosa, but much smaller. The wood is a good fuel and the bark is illicitly used to adulterate cutch. This tree is very common in the dry zone of Upper Burma in tracts where the rainfall varies from 22 to 40 in. and the soil is often poor and shallow. It extends from the Magwe and Yamethin districts in the south to about 23|° N. lat. in the Ruby Mines district in the north. It is one of the most charac- teristic trees of the dry open forests associated with Acacia Catechu, A. leuco- %)hloea, Tectona Hamiltoniana, Diospyros burmanica, TenniTialia tomentosa, Pentacme sicavis, and other species. Towards its northern limit in the Ruby IVIines district it occurs in dry open forest on poor shallow soil, its chief associates being Diospyros burmanica, Vitex pubescens, Pterocarpus macro- carpus, Anogeissus acuminata, Xylia dolabriformis, Terminxilia tomentosa. Acacia Catechu, and others, with bamboos, chiefly Dendrocalamus strictus : the trees are of small size. Towards its southern limit in the Magwe and Yamethin districts it occurs in dry forest of a similar type, which may be regarded as a transition between the scrub forests of the dry zone and the upper mixed deciduous forests occurring outside that zone. 1 Report on the Exploration of the Forests of the South Andaman and other Islands, 1906, para. 23. 538 XXVII. COMBRETACEAE 2. ANOGEISSUS, Wall. This genus contains three well-defined Indian species ; A. sericea, Brandis, which occurs in parts of the Central Provinces and in the Panch Mahals, is possibly not distinct from A. acuminata, Wall. The fruit is small, dry, two- winged, terminating in a beak formed by the persistent calyx-tube ; the fruits are clustered in small globose heads. One of the chief peculiarities of this genus is the infertility of the seed, in spite of which natural reproduction often appears in great quantity, resulting in the case of A. lafi folia and A. pendula in gregariousness. This question is discussed in dealing with A. latifolia ; it has been suggested that fertile seed is produced in quantity only in certain years, and that the cause of this is climatic. Species 1. A. latifolia, Wall.; 2. A. pendula, Edgw. ; 3. A. acumiiiata. Wall. 1. Anogeissus latifolia, Wall. Syn. Conocarpus latifolia, DC, Vern. DJmura, dhau, dhawa, bdkli. Hind. ; Dindal, dinduga, Kan. ; Vellay naga. Tarn. ; Chiriman, Tel. (Fig. 205.) A moderate-sized to large deciduous tree with a somewhat feathery rounded crown and di'ooping branchlets. Bark thin, smooth, greenish or greyish white, exfoliating in irregular thin rounded scales which leave shallow depressions ; the outer layer contains chlorophyll. The bark sheds rapidly, and rings of paint often disappear within two or three years of being applied. The tree seldom attains very large dimensions, a girth of more than 6 ft. not being common. Mr. T. Carr recorded a sound tree 9 ft. 3 in. in girth in the Sarda range of the Haldwani forest division. United Provinces. A cross- section without bark in the silvicultural museum at Dehra Dun measures 8 ft. 9 in. in circumference ; this was cut from a tree in the United Provinces. The wood, which is hard, very strong, and tough, is used for cart-axles, shoulder-poles, axe-handles, furniture, agricultural implements, poles and rafters, boat-building, and other purposes. The leaves are rich in tannin, and are collected for tanning purposes ; the bark is also used for tanning, and yields a gum much used in calico-printing. Apart from its economic uses the tree is useful silviculturally in clothing dry hill-sides, and is an important constituent in certain dry types of forest. Distribution and habitat. Throughout the sub-Himalayan tract and outer hills from the Ravi to Nepal, ascending to 4,000 ft., Bihar, Chota Nagpur, Central India, and southwards throughout the greater part of the Indian Peninsula, ascending the hills of southern India to 4,000 ft. ; also in the dry country of Ceylon. Not in eastern Bengal, Assam, or Burma. The tree is characteristic of deciduous forests, usually of a dry type, but is also common in sal forest and in other types of moderately moist forest. In the outer Himalaya it often marks a distinct zone towards the upper limit of the low-level species, at about 2,500-4,000 ft. ; here it is gregarious, forming almost pure crops or mixed with Bauhinia retusa and a few other species. In the JSiwalik hills it occurs gregariously in the same way on sandstone and conglomerate, the chief species associated with it being Buchanania latifolia, ANOGEISSUS 539 Ovgeinia dalbergioides, Terminalia tomentosa, Wendlandia exserta, and Pinus longifolia. In the submontane forests of the Himalayan region it is often abundant, both in certain types of sal forest and in mixed forest without sal. A very common companion is Terminalia tomentosa, and on alluvial flats near streams the crop sometimes consists entirely of this species and Anogeissus ; here the trees attain large dimensions. In Chota Nagpur it is very common, especially on the drier hills, often growing more or less gregariously. In the hills of Central India it is likewise plentiful in some localities. In Gwalior it often forms an underwood in Boswellia forests. In the Central Provinces and Bombay it is a common constituent of the mixed deciduous forests, where it is at times gregarious, among its chief companions being teak, Terminalia tomentosa, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Ougeinia dalbergioides, Diospyros Melanoxylon, Cassia Fistula, and Phyllanthus Emblica. In Bombay it is one of the commonest trees above ghats, particularly in Belgaum and Kanara ; on the eastern (Dharwar) side of the North Kanara forest division it forms nearly pure crops over considerable areas. In the Madras Presidency it is perhaps more abundant than it is anywhere else, particularly in the south-east, in Madura and in Tinnevelly, where it may form as much as 50 per cent, of the crop on the upper dry slopes of the hiUs. It is plentiful in the eastern forests of Coorg, in many parts of Mysore and Hyderabad, and in the dry deciduous forests of Travancore up to 4,000 ft. Generally speaking it avoids moist regions, but on the other hand it does not extend into the driest parts of India, being absent from Sind and rare in Ajmer-Merwara : in the drier regions of its habitat it is usually stunted and crooked, though this condition is often due in part to fire and maltreat- ment. It grows on a variety of geological formations, including sandstone, limestone, metamorphic rocks, trap, and laterite : it attains its largest dimen- sions, however, on deep alluvial or diluvial soil. It avoids swampy and badly- drained ground, and requires good drainage. In the natural habitat of the tree the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 102° to 118° F., the absolute minimum from 30° to 60° F., and the normal rainfall from 25 to 90 in. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The leaves turn a coppery red to reddish brown about November, and in the cold season the trees are very conspicuous with their deep red foliage. The leaves fall chiefly in February, the trees remaining leafless until xA.pril-May, when the new foliage appears. The insignificant greenish yellow flowers, in small globose heads, appear from June to September according to locality (August-September towards the northern limit of the species). The small dry indehiscent fruits (Fig. 206, a), crowded in globose heads, are 0- 15-0-25 in. in diameter, compressed, with a narrow wing on each side, yellowish brown, fairly hard. About 3,000-3,500 weigh 1 oz. They ripen from December to March, fall soon after ripening, and may be found scattered over the ground round the trees from February-March onwards. As a rule the tree seeds abundantly every year, but the fertility of the seed is usually very poor ; this question is considered under ' natural 540 XX\ai. COMBRETACEAE reproduction '. Fertility tests can probably best be carried out on shaded well raised and watered beds of loose sand and gravel, as explained under ' artificial reproduction '. Geemixatiox (Fig. 206, b). Epigeous. The radicle emerges from the extremity of the fruit and descends. The hypocotyl and the cotyledonary petioles elongate, raising the cotyledons above ground. The shell of the fru.it encloses the cotyledons for a time, falling with their expansion. The seedling (Fig. 206). Boots : primary root long, moderately thick, terete, tapering, woody or wiry : lateral roots few to moderate in number, short, fibrous, distributed down main root. Hypocotyl distinct from root, 0- 1-0-3 in. long, terete or slightly compressed, minutely pubescent. Cotyledons : petiole 0-5-0 -9 in. long, finely pubescent, often red : lamina 0-2-0-4 in. by 0-35-0-6 in., foliaceous, much broader than long, apex truncate or retuse, base tapering, entire, glabrous above, minutely pubescent beneath, green, often red beneath, prominently 3-veined from the base. Stem erect, terete, wiry, pubescent, often reddish ; internodes 0-1-0-8 in. long. Leaves, first two sub-opposite or alternate, some- times abortive and 0-1-0-2 in. long, subsequent normal leaves alternate, at first small, successively increasing in size. Stipules absent. Petiole up to 0-1 in. long. Lamina 0-4-2-8 in. by 0-3-1-1 in., elliptical ovate, acute or acuminate, mucronate, base acute, entire, glabrous above, glabrescent or minutely pubescent beneath, especially on the veins, margins finely ciliate, venation arched reticulate, veins often reddish on under surface. The growth of the seedling is only moderate, a height of 4-8 in. being ordinarily attained by the end of the first season. The taproot attains a length of 18 in. or more in the same time. The seedlings suffer a little from frost, but the damage is not as a rule serious, and extends only to the wilting of the leaves. In dry localities the seedlings may die back annually for some years before they finally shoot up. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. The tree is a decided light -demander, though it can stand a slight amount of shade in early youth. Although it grows in dry types of forest it is sensitive to drought, and suffered much in the abnormal droughts of 1899-1900 in the Indian Peninsula and of 1907 and 1908 in Oudh : in the dry years from 1911 to 1914 in Jodhpur many young coppice-shoots died back and the stools did not recover. As regards its susceptibility to frost, Branclis notes that in January 1870, on the borders of Pertabgarh, south-west of Nimuch, he found it had been injured a good deal. It may, however, be found flourishing in grass-covered frosty blanks where tender species could not exist, for example on the flat land fringing the Siwalik hills along with other frost-hardy species such as Stereospennum suavolens, Ougeinia dalbergioides, and Acacia Catechu. It cannot therefore be considered a very frost-tender species. It is less susceptible to damage by browsing than many other species, even goats being not very partial to it. It suffers from fire, and in severely burnt areas it becomes gnarled and hollow. It produces root-suckers. If cut at the right season of the year it coppices and pollards well in most localities, but in experiments carried out in North Chanda, Central Provinces, in 1909, of trees pollarded only 16 per cent, produced pollard-shoots, while in the case of trees coppiced in different months the percentage of stools which produced coppice-shoots was: (1) April, 92 ; (2) May, 100; (3) June, 50; (4) July, 50; (5) August, nil; (6) September, nil. This shows that coppicing .V. Fig. 206. Anogeissiis latifolia — Seedling x f a — Fruit b— Germination c - g — -Development of seedling during first season ANOGEISSUS 541 in the rainy season is unsuccessful. In an experimental coppice area in North Khandesh, Bombay, in 1903, the percentage of felled trees which yielded coppice-shoots was 60, the number of shoots per stool varying from 2 to 7. In experiments carried out by Mr. E. Marsden in the United Provinces pol- larding was found to give better results than coppicing for the production of young leaves and twigs for tanning ; the best season for pollarding was found to be not later than March, and the best results were obtained from branchy trees, girth being of less importance than branchiness for the pro- duction of numerous shoots. Natural reproduction. The natural reproduction of this tree is not yet fully understood. Seedlings come up naturally, often in abundance, on newly exposed well-drained ground on stony hill-sides, on landslips, on aban- doned cultivation, on open grassy areas as well as on alluvial ground. Repro- duction is always best, however, where the drainage is perfect, dense crops of saplings appearing on the well- drained slopes, of hills and on sandy or gravelly soil. Light is undoubtedly an important factor in the establishment of natural reproduction, which is often plentiful in open gaps and bare places, but the Bombay experiments described below under ' artificial reproduction ' would indicate that shade and moisture are favourable to successful germina- tion. Absence of weed-growth is also favourable, for the seedlings are very intolerant of suppression by weeds, and it is noteworthy that good reproduction has been observed to spring up on burnt areas, though its ultimate establish- ment is favoured by protection from fire and excessive grazing. The want of fertility of the seed does not accord with the fact that reproduction often springs up in dense masses on well-drained hill-sides, and Mr. R. S. Pearson ^ has advanced a theory to explain this fact. Having noticed in the Panch Mahals that reproduction appeared in even-aged masses differing from each other by definite intervals of years, as determined by counting rings on cut seedlings and saplings, he ascertained that the years in which reproduction took place were those following on years of deficient rainfall. He surmised therefore that whereas under normal conditions the tree produces little or no fertile seed, the production of fertile seed is stimulated by years of drought. This theory is well worth following up by fertility tests of seeds carried out annually for a series of years, including seasons of good and of deficient rainfall, the results so obtained being supplemented by comparative observations of the state of reproduction in the forest. Mr. A. K. DesSii ^ notes that seedlings sprang up in great abundance on flat grass-covered ground in the Panch Mahals as a result of the opening out of the forests by the removal of dead timber killed by the drought of 1899-1900. If Mr. Pearson's theory be correct, the production of fertile seed as a result of the drought might be considered to be the rnain factor which induced this reproduction. Mr, H. Tireman^ remarks on the profuse reproduction of Anogeissus which springs up and establishes itself in the Coorg forests on the removal, after burning, of the dense growth of lantana which infests them. The germination of the seed is evidently favoured by the clean bare soil under 1 ;Ind. Forester, xxxiii (1907), p. 231. - Ihid., xxxiv (1908), p. 15. 3 ii^id^^ xlii(1916), p. 390. 542 XXVII. COMBRETACEAE the lantana, and the rapid growth of the seedlings, when the lantana is removed, is stimulated by the absence of grass for the first year or two and the fact that the lantana enriches the soil. Artificial eeproductiox. The fruits require to be collected when the heads commence to break up, and not before. The infertility of the seeds is a serious drawback to artificial reproduction, and if the theory just referred to holds good the best results would seem to be obtainable after dry years when a fertile crop of seed is obtained. Under ordinary conditions the infertility of the seed would preclude any great success by direct sowings, though in years of fertile seed-production they should prove successful on well-drained porous ground. Many years ago Mr. Haines carried out successful sowings on heaps of loose earth and rubble at Chaibassa, Chota Nagpur. Mr. Pearson ^ notes that he obtained successful germination in the Panch Mahals, Bombay, by sowing the seed on well-irrigated raised beds, the soil being mixed with a large q-uantity of coarse sand ; the seed was sown in June and lightly watered by hand every day. Germination commenced after about twenty days ; it was successful only where the beds were well shaded by a thick covering of leaves and branches some 18 in. above the ground : under this shade a large mass of seedlings came up, whereas in beds exposed to the sun hardly any seed germinated. Seedlings can be transplanted without difficulty. SiLVicuLTURAL TREATMENT. At present this tree is worked only as a component species of mixed forests, either as coppice-with-standards or under selection and improvement fellings, when, however, it is frequently cut out in the interests of more valuable species such as teak or sal. As the leaves and bark give promise of furnishing valuable tanning material, it is not unlikely that some system will have to be devised before long for working this species for the production of regular supplies of bark and leaves. The young tender leaves and shoots are richest in tannin. Short rotation coppice, or some modification of it, suggests itself, though the best method remains to be discovered by experiment. Meanwhile the following experiment carried out in Central India is of interest : A trial coupe of 6 acres on the slopes of the Sharda Devi hill, about 2| miles from Maihar in Central India, was coppiced in January 1916, about 1,500 trees having been cut to ground-level, leaving rounded stools. The trees were all small and badly shaped. The yield obtained from these was ; Dry leaves . . .31 maunds (of approximately 82 lb. each). Dry bark . . .41 maunds. Dry fuel . . .214 maunds. Within two months of cutting, strong shoots of a bushy growth appeared, covered with fresh leaves rich in tannin. The first flush of leaves was collected and weighed 3 maunds. The method of working proposed in this tract is to continue the collection of the fresh leaves from the coppice-shoots for two or three years and then to leave one strong shoot on each stool to develop into a pole before any further coppicing is carried out. Fresh new leaves are found to be produced on the young coppice-shoots very soon after the shoots have been stripped of leaves. ^ Irid. Forester, x.xxi (lOOii), p. 637. ANOGEI88US 543 The following programme of pollarding and plucking has been adopted tentatively in Central India : October, November, December : collection of old leaves, only green leaves being suitable. January, February, March : pollarding and collection of twig bark, once in three years. April, May, June : collection of sumach (young leaves) once a month ; this is the most important crop. July, August, September : continued collection of sumach if drying arrangements are possible. Rate of growth. The following figures are available of girth measure- ments in sample plots in high forest : Anogeissus latifolia : girth increment in high forest sample plots. No. of years Xo. of trees Mean annual Forest under under Girth girth incremen >vince. division. Locality. observation. observation. classes. ft. 1| 3 for period. ed Lansdowne Chaukhamb 17 8 in. 0-29 ninces Jogichaur 12 2 11-3 014 Giwain 4 2 li-3 0-27 9? 12 10 1^3 0-63 Haldwani Khonani 6 1 1^-3 0-20 Gonda Chandanpur 2 13 14-1 016 Sakra 2 16 11-3 0-24 :?ral Balaghat Baihar and 8 8 1-2 0-20 1 mnees Raigarh ranges ■r and Fissa Singhbhum Tirilposi 25 1 3-4 4-5 2-3 0-30 0-32 0-37 Samta-Hendakuli 11 4 3-4 0-35 > 2 4-5 0-76 .Some of these figures probably under-estimate the rate of growth actually attainable, since all these plots are in sal forest, and their main object is to estimate the rate of growth of sal ; hence in thinned plots dominant accessoiy species would be cut out, and the increment figures would refer to dominated or suppressed trees. Trees raised from seed sown in 1901 by Mr. Haines in the forest garden at Chaibassa, Chota Nagpur, attained the following dimen- sions in sixteen years : Height. Girth. ft.. ft. in. 35 1 101 281 1 10| 29" 1 61 28 1 01 29 1 31 The annual rings are tolerably clear. Gamble's specimens gave an average of 7 rings per inch of radius, or a mean annual girth increment of 0-9 in. A cross-section in the silvicultural museum at Dehra Dun, measuring 8 ft. 9 in. in girth without bark, had 176 rings, giving a mean annual girth increment of 0-6 in. Measurements of natural saplings in the Panch Mahals, Bombay, recorded 544 XXVII. COMBRETACEAE by Mr. Pearson/ give some idea of the rate of growth in youth : the ages were determined by ring-countings on the stumps of felled saplings. The measure- ments are as follows : Anogeissus latifolia : rate of growth of natural saplings, Pancb Mahals, Bombay. Age. years. 4 5 o 20 Xo. of plants. 1 3 3 Girth. At base. 34 in. At k'ft. 8,11, 11, Hi, and 1 3 i in. Height. 7 ft. 4 in. 8-10 ft. 2, 5, and 9 ,J Remarks. These measurements are of dominant plants ; very small plants of the same age were also met with. 25, 25, 15, 26, and 20 ft. respectively The following table summarizes the available results of measurements in coppice coupes : Anogeissus latifolia : rate of growth of coppice. Saitba block, Kolhan, Bihar and Orissa Age. (1 916). years. girth. height in. ft. 1 , , , , 2 1-3 4-5 4 2-5 8-2 6 3-6 10-8 8 4-6 13-0 10 5-5 15-0 12 6-4 16-8 14 7-2 18-0 15 , , , , Mean girth and height in different localities Gorakhpur, Tikri, Dehra Dun U.P. (A. F. Broun, (C. M. McCrie, 1886). 1910). girth, height, girth, height. Gonda, Bhandara, N. Khandesh, m. ft. ni ro ft. 7-25 2 U.P. C.P. Bombay (1911). (1912-13). (190;>). height. height. height. ft. ft. ft. S 6-2 2-5 2. Anogeissus pendula, Edgew. Vern. Dhokra, Ajmer-Merwara ; Kardhai, ■Central India. A small tree with a short usually crooked bole, readily distinguished from A. latifolia by its smaller leaves and graceful slender drooping branches. In exceptional cases the tree reaches a height of 30-40 ft. and a girth of 5 ft., but ordinarily the height is about 20 ft. and the girth 2-3 ft., the stem branching at a height of about 4-5 ft. The bole yields little or no timber, but poles cut from the branches are in demand for building and other purposes. The leaves contain tannin, and the tree has possibilities as a producer of sumach. In the dry regions in which it occurs this is an important tree, not only as a source of timber and fuel, but also for clothing dry tracts. Distribution and habitat. The tree has a decidedly limited distribu- tion. It extends from the Aravalli hills in Rajputana to Bundelkhand, and from the Kishengarh state and the Jhansi, Hamirpur, and Banda districts of the United Provinces on the north to the Nerbudda in Nimar and the Panch 1 Ind. Forester, xxxiii (1907), p. 234. # V. X MA ( \ \ Fig. 207. Anogeissus pendula — Seedling a — Fruit x i^ b — Germination x li c - f— Development of seedling during first season x | ANOGEISSUS 545 Mahals in the south. It is essentially a tree of the dry hot regions ; within its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 115° to 120° F., the absolute minimum from 30° to 38° F., and the normal rainfall from 17 to 35 in. The tree is typically gregarious, sometimes forming pure forests and sometimes occurring in mixture with a few other species. In the Aravalli hills of Rajputana, Ajmer and Merwara, which consist of metamorphic and sub-metamorphic rocks — chiefly gneiss, schist, slate, and quartzite with occasional limestone and trap — it often forms almost pure forests of consider- able extent, usually occupying the lower and more gentle slopes. The ridges and upper slopes are occupied mainly by Boswellia serrata, below which and extending to the foot of the hills Anogeissus pendula occurs, particularly if the soil is good. Where the slopes are gentle this tree may extend to the hill- tops ; where the soil is poor it is replaced by Acacia rupestris. Besides the two species mentioned, its more important associates in this region are Acacia %Catechu, Albizzia odoratissima, Dalbergia lanceolaria, DichrostacJiys cinerea, Bauhinia racemosa, and Grewia spp., while on the level ground below the Anogeissus forests the prevailing species is Zizyphus Jujuba. In the Jhansi district the tree forms practically pure forests on quartzite ridges, other species such as Diospyros Melanoxylon, Acacia Catechu, Zizyphus Xylopyrus, Bauhinia racemosa, Odina Wodier, and Butea frondosa, being occasionally scattered with it. The trees here are small and badly shaped, though the forest is often well stocked. Another type of forest in this district is that occurring on undulating to hilly ground on a gneiss formation ; here Anogeissus pendula occurs in pure patches or in mixture with A. latifolia and Acacia Catechu, while the other species previously mentioned occasionally make their appearance. Leaf-shedding, flow^ering, and fruiting. The leaves, which are green throughout the rainy season, turn a beautiful reddish brown colour in the cold season and commence falling in January, the trees becoming leafless about March and remaining so until about May-June, when the new foliage appears. The small flower-heads, about J in. in diameter or less, appear towards the end of the rainy season. The fruits (Fig. 207, a) ripen December-January ; they are small, winged, and nearly orbicular, about 2,700 weighing 1 oz. The tree fruits abundantly nearly every year, but the germinative power of the seed, like that of A. latifolia, is usually poor, though tests carried out at Dehra Dun gave a higher percentage of fertility than in the case of A. latifolia. Germination (Fig. 207, b). Epigeous. The radicle emerges from the extremity of the fruit and descends. The hypocotyl elongates, raising the cotyledons above ground. The shell of the fruit encloses the cotyledons at first, and falls with their expansion. The seedling (Fig. 207). Boots : primary root long, thin, terete, wiry : lateral roots moderate in number, short or moderate in length, fibrous, distributed down main root. Hypocotyl distinct from root, 0-5-0-6 in. long, terete, minutely tomentose. Cotyledons : petiole 0-1 in. long or less : lamina 0-15-0-25 in. by 0-35-0-55 in., foliaceous, reniform, much broader than long, truncate or slightly retuse, base truncate or slightly lobed, entire, green, glabrous. Stem erect, terete, wiry, tomentose ; internodes up to 0-5 in. long. Leaves simple, first pair usually 2307.2 p i 546 XXVII. COMBRETACEAE opposite or sub-opposite, subsequent leaves alternate, exstipulate. Petiole less than 0-1 in. long. Lamina 0-2-1 in. byO-1-0-5 in., ovate, acute or acuminate, mucronate, entire, glabrescent above, pubescent on veins beneath, gland- dotted. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. The tree stands a fair amount of shade in youth, but as saplings appear in quantity in open gaps it seems to require a good deal of light for successful development. It is frost-hardy, but suffers severely from drought in abnorrhally dry years : in the famine of 1892 in Ajmer the branches of the trees were extensively killed, but new shoots were produced from the stem. The tree coppices and pollards well, but the growth of the coppice-shoots is slow. It produces root-suckers freely. Natural reproduction. The factors which affect natural reproduction require further study. Reproduction by root-suckers is often plentiful, but seedling reproduction is also frequently good. Like^4. latifolia the tree tends to regenerate in even-aged masses, and this would indicate that the theory put forward with regard to that species, namely that the production of fertile* seed in quantity takes place only after years of scanty rainfall, might apply equally to A. pendula. In 1913 seed was sown at Delira Dun along a ridge of loose earth and also in the trench from which the earth was dug. No seed germinated on the ridge, but several seedlings appeared in the loose alluvial soil accumulated in the trench ; none of these, however, survived the rainy season, being killed by an excess of moisture. Definite conclusions cannot be drawn from this solitary experiment, but it might be inferred that, as in the case of A. latifolia, shade, or rather protection from a hot sun, is favourable to germination, and also that the seedlings cannot tolerate an excess of moisture. Silvicultural treatment. Forests of Anogeissus pendula are at present treated either under coppice-with-standards or under improvement tellings for the removal of old badly shaped trees over promising young natiural crops. A coppice rotation of twenty years in Ajmer has been found to be too short for the production of material of a useful size. In the Jhansi forests Mr. J. Whitehead has suggested that after a provisional period of improvement fellings the most suitable method of treatment, in view of the tendency of this tree to come up in even-aged masses, would be to regenerate in even-aged crops imder a shelterwood.^ Rate of growth. A cross-section 3 ft. 2 in. in girth, in the silvicultural museum at Dehra Dun, shows 42 rings, representing a mean annual girth increment of 0-9 in., which is fairly fast. This does not accord with observa- tions in the forest, at all events in the case of young plants, whose growth is decidedly slow. Coppice-shoots likewise grow somewhat slowly, particularly in the earlier years. In Ajmer shoots seven years old had a height of 7-8 ft. and a girth of 3-4 in., while shoots eight years old had a height of 10-12 ft. and a girth of 4-7 in.^ 3. Anogeissus acuminata, Wall. Vern. CJmkwa, Beng. ; Pasi, Tel. ; Yon, Burm. A large handsome deciduous tree with a tall straight bole and graceful ^ Working Plan for the Forests of the Jhansi and Banda Districts, 1911. '^ Ajmer-MtTwara Working Plan, 1909. ANOGEISSUS 547 drooping branches. Bark dark grey, in Burma often covered with small globular pustules. The tree is variable. In Burma Kurz distinguishes two varieties: var. 1. genuina, with densely pustular bark, frequent in the mixed forests all over Burma ; and var. 2. pJiillyreaefolia, with smaller leaves, and bark more or less destitute of pustules, restricted to the savannah and swamp forests of the alluvial plains of Prome and Pegu, and extending to Upper Burma. Haines distinguishes three varieties in Chota Nagpur, of which complete material is wanting. The wood is moderately hard, but is inferior to that of A. latifolia ; it is not durable, and warps and cracks in seasoning. Distribution and habitat. The tree is found in limited quantity in Chota Nagpiu" (Singhbhum district), extending southward through Orissa, the Northern Circars, and the Chanda district. Central Provinces. It is found typically along the banks of streams on alluvial ground. It occurs in the Chittagong hill tracts, and is a common forest tree throughout the greater part of Burma, extending to the borders of the dry zone. In Burma it is frequent not only along river banks, but also in the upper mixed deciduous forests with teak and its associates. It is, however, perhaps most plentiful in the lower mixed deciduous forests of the plains, along with Dillenia pentagyna, Terminalia tomentosa, T. belerica, T. Chehula, Schleichera trijuga, OdiTia Wodier, Dalbergia cultrata, Vitex glabrata, Eugenia Jamholana, Adina cordifoUa, Stephegyne diversifolia, and in the better drained localities teak, Xylia dolabriformis, and Homalium totnentosum. It extends into low-lying swampy ground, and is one of the most characteristic species of the freshwater swamp forests of the plains, which are inundated during the rainy season. It is, however, not confined to moist localities, but is common in certain dry regions, for example in the Ruby Mines district, where it occurs in open dry forest on somewhat poor shallow soil, the trees being of small size ; here it is associated with Terminalia tomentosa, Acacia Catechu, Diospyros burmanica, Vitex pubescens, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, and others. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 100° to 115° F., the absolute minimum from 40° to 55° F., and the normal rainfall from 35 to 120 in. or more. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. In Burma the tree is leafless for a short time in the hot season ; the flowers appear in February-March, and the fruits ripen in April-May, falling as soon as they ripen. In Chota Nagpur, according to Haines, the flowers appear in March-April and the fruits commence ripening in April. About 1,100 to 1,800 of the fruits weigh 1 oz. The seed, like that of other species of this genus, is very unfertile. No fewer than fifteen tests under different conditions were carried out at Dehra Dun in two separate years with samples of seed from three different localities in Burma, and in no case did a single seed germinate. Natural reproduction. Notwithstanding the unfertile nature of the seed, natural reproduction of this tree in Burma is often very good, young plants sometimes forming dense even-aged thickets, particularly on alluvial ground in places where the fruits have been washed into heaps along with silt. In the case of A. latifolia it has been suggested that fertile seed is produced only in certain years, probably following on seasons of deficient rainfaU. P2 548 XXVTI. COMBRETACEAE Although it is possible that in the case of A. acuminata the production of quantities of fertile seed may take place only in certain years, the reason for this cannot be any deficiency of rainfall, since this does not occur throughout the greater part of its habitat in Burma. 3. LUMNITZERA, Willd. Lumnitzera racemosa, Willd. Vern. Kir pa, Beng. ; Yinye, Burm. An evergreen shrub or small tree of the mangrove swamps along the coasts of India and Burma, an accomit of which is given on pp. 496-500. It extends also into the tidal forests behind the mangrove swamps, occurring chiefly on the banks of streams. The wood is hard and durable, and is used for house-posts and for fuel. Flowers March-April ; fruits September (Talbot). Its root-system is superficial, the roots bending out of the mud in the form of knees for breathing purposes. ORDER XXVIII. MYRTACEAE An important order containing some useful Indian trees {Eugenia, Gareya) and a number of introduced species, mainly of the great Australasian genus Eucalyptus, several of which have become thoroughly acclimatized in India. Among trees and shrubs yielding edible fruits may be mentioned Psidiuin Guayava, Linn., the guava, introduced from tropical America and groMai all over India, Eugenia Jamhos, E. Jambolana, and other species of Eugenia, and Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, Wight, the hill gooseberry of the Nilgiris. Many of the species have aromatic and coriaceous leaves, and exhibit xerophytic characters, as seen for example in the pendulous leaves of Eucalyptus. Their silvicultural requirements vary considerably even in different species of the same genus. Of those which thrive in moist and even swampy ground may be mentioned Barringtonia and several species of Eucalyptus and Eugenia, while other members of the last two genera are found on dry poor ground. Of hardy fire-resisting species characteristic of burnt savannah lands, the most important are Carey a arbor ea and Eugenia operculata. Many of the members of this order coppice with great vigour. Genera 1. Eugenia, Linn. ; 2. Eucalyptus, L'Herit. ; 3. Barringtonia, Forst. ; 4. Careya, Roxb. ; 5. Planchonia, B1. 1. EUGENIA, Linn. This genus is probably richer in tree species than any other Indian genus. Brandis {Indian Trees) enumerates no fewer than 79 species, chiefly trees, with a few shrubs ; of these 76 or 77 are indigenous. They are nearly always evergreen, with gland-dotted often coriaceous leaves, which with rare excep- tions are opposite. The fruit is a one- or few-seeded berry, often succulent, sometimes nearly dry. The great majority of the species are moisture-loving, and are found in moist localities, often in evergreen forest, while several grow along the banks and in the beds of streams. E. formosa, Wall., a large-leaved species with ternate leaves up to 18 in. long, often grows in the beds of perennial Fig. 208. Eugenia Jambolana on bank of stream, United Provinces. 548 o -r. 6; ~8 d M EUGENIA 549 streams with its roots permanently in water. E. Heyneana, Wall., a willow-like shrubby species, grows in the beds of streams, and is often inundated for a considerable period during the rainy season. E. Jamholana, Lam., and others, sometimes grow under similar conditions. Some species, on the other hand, grow in dry types of forest and exhibit xerophytic tendencies. Thus E. Jamho- lana itself is the most characteristic tree of the dwarf evergreen formation on the laterite of the Mahableshwar plateau, Bombay, while the variety caryo- phyllaefolia, Lam., of the same species, is found on dry hills in Chota Nagpur. E. grandis, Wight, occurs on dry ridges in Upper Burma. Several species of this genus are rare or local, and on the whole the trees are, with one or two exceptions, not of great importance in Indian forestry. By far the most important generally is E. Jamholana, Lam. In the sal forests of northern India, E. operculata^ Roxb,, is a useful species from a silvicultural point of view. Species I. E. Jamholana, Lam.; 2. E. operculata, Roxb.; 3. E. Jamhos, Linn. 1. Eugenia Jambolana, Lam. Black plum. Yevn. J dman, Hind. ; Jamhul, Mar. ; Nerlu, Kan. ; Naval, Tam. ; Neredu, Tel. ; Thahye, Burm. (Fig. 208.) A large evergreen tree with a dense shady much-branched crown of shining dark green foliage and usually a rather crooked bole. Bark up to 1 in. thick, light to dark grey or brown, fairly smooth, with shallow depressions caused by exfoliation, red inside. Wood moderately hard, fairly durable, used for common building, agricultural implements, well curbs, and other purposes ; an excellent fuel. This is an important forest tree, and is also largely planted on roadsides and in gardens for shade or ornament and for the sake of its edible fruits. It is variable as regards the shape of the leaves and the size and shape of the flowers and the fruits. Sometimes it reaches a very large girth : Mr. J. C. McDonnell ^ records one 20 ft. 6 in. in girth by the Saruinsar lake, Jammu. Distribution and habitat. Common throughout India and Burma, except in the most arid regions. Also in the Andamans, Ceylon, the Malay Archipelago, and southward to Australia. In the Himalayan valleys it ascends to 4,000 ft. or sometimes more, and in the Nilgiris to 6,000 ft. It is found in a variety of situations, but most typically along streams and in damp and even marshy localities, where it is often gregarious (see Figs. 209, 211). In the Indian Peninsula a variety with narrow leaves is very common on alluvial sand or loam in the beds and along the banks of watercourses which are often dry for several months in the year. The tree is, however, by no means confined to very moist situations. It is a common constituent of the sal forests. It is the commonest species of the stunted evergreen forest on the laterite of the Mahableshwar plateau in the Bombay Presidency, forming roughly 50 per cent, of the stock and associated with ActinodapJme Hookeri, Memecylon edule, Flacourtia Ramontchi, TermiTialia Chehula, Olea dioica, and Canthium didymum. The plateau is exposed, the ground often rocky, and the soil shallow, while the rainfall is heavy (over 200 in.), most of the rain falling in July and August ; the trees seldom grow more than 25 ft. high, and have short thick boles and low flat crowns. 1 Ind. Forester, xxix (1903), p. 152. 550 xx\t:ii. myrtaceae The narrow-leaved variety, cart/ophyllaefolia, Lam., is mentioned by Haines ^ as being very common in dry open forest on the hills of Singhbhum, Palamau, and Manbhum ; this variety, as noted below, exhibits the xerophytic character of dying back in the seedling stage. In Burma the tree occurs in various types of mixed deciduous forest, both upper and lower, in tropical evergreen forest, and in indaing (dry diptero- carp) forest on laterite, here again occurring in a xerophytic environment. In Travancore it is common on the Peermerd plateau at 4,000 ft., and else- where in the evergreen forests of the hills (Bourdillon). In its natural habitat in India and Burma the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 95° to 118° F., the absolute minimum from 28° to 65° F., and the normal rainfall from 35 to over 200 in. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The leaves usually com- mence falling about January and continue falling during February and March. The new leaves, which are coppery red in colour, appear in February -March. In dry localities the trees become almost, if not quite, leafless for a short time early in the hot season. Sometimes trees with large quantities of blossom become almost leafless. The panicles of small greenish white sweet-scented flowers appear chiefly from March to May. The fruit (Fig. 210, a), which ripens from June to August, is an oblong-obovoid or sub-globose juicy berry, 0-5-1 in. long, or larger mider cultivation, purplish-black, smooth and shining when ripe, with a thin skin and a pink succulent flesh, which is edible though somewhat astringent. The seed (Fig. 210, &) is 0-4— 0-8 in. long, shaped like the fruit, or tw^o to five angular and irregularly shaped seeds are compressed together into a mass resembling a single seed, the whole enclosed in a sub-coriaceous covering. The germinative power of fresh seed is high, but the seed very quickly loses its vitality. The fruits fall as soon as they ripen ; they are eagerly devoured by birds and flying foxes, and the seed is spread by their agency. Germination (Fig. 210, c, d). Hypogeous. The covering enclosing the seeds quickly rots off, leaving the green interior (cotyledons), which usually breaks up into two or more portions, from each of which a seedUng is pro- duced ; usually two or three, sometimes four or even five, seedlings emerge from one fruit ; the cotyledons remain in or on the ground. The seedling (Fig. 210). Roots : primary root moderately long and thick, terete, tapermg, wiiy : lateral roots numerous, moderately long, fibrous, distributed down main root or often crowded at its base. Hypocotyl very short and scarcely distinguish- able, subterranean. Cotyledons irregular in shape and size, angular, fleshly, green, subterranean. Stem erect, quadrangular, green or pinkish, glabrous ; internodes 0-2-1 -2 in. long. Leaves simple, exstipulate, fii'st few often abortive, 0 1-0-2 in. long, sometimes alternate or sub-opposite, subsequent normal leaves opposite. Petiole 0-1 in. long or less, channelled above. Lamina 0-7-2 in. by 0-4-1 in., ovate, obovate or elliptical, apex acute or sometimes obtuse, base acute, entire, glabrous, coriaceous, aromatic when crushed. The development of the seedling is slow during the first season, but under favourable conditions is more rapid during the second and subsequent years. ^ For. Flora Chota Nagpur, p. 351. a #^ e ^ d .1 ^ or ^ \f #f n y Fig. 2IO. Eugenia Jamholana — Seedling x \ a— Fruits b— Seed c - d— Germination stages e - h— Development of seedling during first season i — Seedling early in second season EUGENIA 551 In the case of the normal moisture-loving variety seedlings are very sensitive to drought if exposed to the sun, mortality commencing as early as September or October, and being particularly common during the subsequent hot season. Even under shade, seedlings have been observed to die off on dry ground. Soil moisture, indeed, appears to be of more importance than shade, since seedlings develop well even if exposed to the sun, provided the soil is kept moist. Under natural conditions, however, or where watering is not carried out, shade is of great benefit in preventing the desiccation of the soil and the death of the seedlings. A striking instance of the value of shade occurred in connexion with experimental line sowings at Dehra Dun. Two lines of Eugenia Jambolana, IJ ft. apart, were sown early in the rains along a clear strip 3 ft. wide, with the object of ascertaining the value of this species as a nurse to sal, a line of which was sown between the two lines of Eugenia. The strip ran from north- west to south-east, and on either side of it field crops (lesser millet) were sown ; these field crops grew rapidly and attained a height of 3| ft. by the end of the rains. The direction of the strip was such that one line of Eugenia received shade from the sun from midday onwards, while the other line was exposed to the sun. The seed germinated along both lines, and the seedlings developed well during the rainy season. On the sunny line, however, high mortahty from drought occurred in September-October, and continued to some extent subsequently, the result being that whereas the shady line con- tinued to be weU stocked with vigorous seedMngs, very few plants survived until the following rains in the parallel line exposed to the sun. Fig. 212 shows the appearance of the two lines a year after sowing. In the case of var. caryophyllaefolia, Lam., I have noticed numerous seedlings in Singhbhum in open hiU forest, growing on the driest ground in situations exposed to the smi ; these seedhngs, like those of many other species in diy localities, were observed to have died back amiually for some years in their early stages, new shoots having been sent up each year from the base or from lateral buds. This great dissimilarity in the habit of this form from that of the normal seedling lends colour to Haines's suggestion as to this form being a separate species. The seedling is capable of struggling well amongst weeds, but its develop- ment suffers. Weeding and watering, particularly the former, have a marked effect on its growth and vigour. On stiff soil the development is poor. Where, as is frequently the case, the seedlings are in dense masses, the more vigorous individuals rapidly suppress the more weakly plants. The seedhngs are some- what frost-tender, particularly on grassy ground, where they are frequently killed back. The season's growth continues until November-December, new growth commencing in February or March (northern India). The taproot reaches only a moderate length during the first season, showing greater develop- ment during the second year, when it attains a length up to 2 ft. or more. The following measurements, made in experimental plots at Dehra Dun, give some indication of the dimensions attained by young plants under different conditions : 552 XXVIII. MYRTACEAE Eugenia Jambolana : development of seedlings, Dehra Dun. Height and other particulars at end of season. Condition under which grown. ^ 1st season. 2nd season. 3rd season. (1) ^fursery plants watered and Maximum Oft. 4 J in. weeded (2) Irrigated sowings, full sun- Maximum 0 ft. CJin. Oft. 4 in. -4 ft, 1 in. Maximum 8 ft. 0 in. light, weeded ° (dense mass of strong thick-stemmed plants) (3) Irrigated sowings, full sun- Maximum 0 ft. 6 in. 0 ft. 3 in.-l ft. 3 in. Oft. 8 in. -3 ft. 1 in. (con- light, unweeded dition somewhat poor) (4) Unirrigated sowings, full sun- Maximum Oft. 10|in. 0 ft. 7 in. -3 ft. 8 in. light, weeded , (vigorous, the larger suppressing the smaller) (5) Unirrigated sowings, full sun- Maximum 0 ft. 6 in. 0 ft. 6-| in.-O ft. 10 in. light, unweeded (6) Unirrigated sowings, in par- Maximum Oft. 4|in. Maximum 2 ft. 3 in, tial shade, weeded (7) Unirrigated sowings, in par- Maximum 0 ft. 5 in. Maximum 2 ft, 0 in. tial shade, weeded (8) Transplants, in partial shade Maximum 0 ft. 3 in. Maximum 1 ft. 6 in. 0 ft. 11 in. -2 ft. 7 in, Nos, 2 to 5 demonstrate the great value of weeding. Fig. 213 shows Nos. 2 and 3 during the second season ; the effect of weeding, as shown on the left of the staff, is very marked in comparison with the unweeded plot on the right of it. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. Eugenia Jambolana is a shade-bearer, particularly in youth ; dense masses of young plants may be found coming up under moderate shade near streams and in other moist places, while seed- lings and saplings are often found under shade in sal forest and other types of forest. Although somewhat frost-tender in j^'outh, it is hardier later, and in the abnormal frost of 1905 in northern India it was not much affected. In the abnormal drought of 1907 and 1908 in Oudh it proved to be hardy in the sal forests, but along streams and in swamps it suffered when the water dried up. It is not readily browsed by cattle. The tree possesses remarkable coppicing power, shoots being produced in large quantities, chiefly round the periphery of the cut surface of the stool ; large stumps as well as small ones produce shoots as a rule. Figs. 209, 211, and 215 show the appearance of pure coppice on rich alluvial land, subject to inundation in the rainy season, along the banks of streams in the Gorakhpur district. United Provinces. At an age of four years, with a height of 15 ft., there are often more than thirty shoots on one stump, more than half of them being usually dominant. The soil requirements of the tree have akeady been alluded to ; they are somewhat contradictory, though the differences appear in some cases to coincide with well-marked botanical varieties. Natural reproduction. The fruits fall in quantity under and around the parent trees early in the rainy season ; the seeds are washed into heaps by the rain, germination quickly taking place on moist ground and in pools of mud. Each fruit may produce from one to four or even five seedlings clustered together, and the seedlings often appear in dense masses : this is particularly the case on alluvial ground, where as many as 100 seedhngs about (i in. high to the square foot have been counted after the end of the rainy Fig. 211. Eugenia Jambolana coppice 30 ft. high in process of being felled on swampy ground, Gorakhpur district, United Provinces. 552 TiV Fig. 212. Eugenia Jambolana, line sowings in second year, sliowing beneficial effect of side shade, Dehra Dun. Line on left (a) exposed to the sun for a eonsi(Uu'able part of the day, with the result that nearly all the plants have died of droiight : line on right (b) receives side shade for most of the day, w ith the result that there has been little or no mortalitv from drought. EUGENIA 553 season on sandy alluvium. Fig. 214 shows profuse growth of seedlings at the end of the first season. Sometimes two or three tiers of seedlings of different years may be found under the same seed-bearer, showing to what an extent the young plants will stand shade. Seedlings often occur sporadically in the forest where there are no seed-bearers in the neighbourhood, the seed having been disseminated by the agency of birds. The necessity for soil moisture in the establishment of natural reproduction and the mortality which takes place on dry gromid, even under shade, have already been noted under ' the seedling ' ; indeed, the value of shade appears to lie mainly in its power of preventing desiccation of the soil. The exceptional case in which natural seedlings of var. caryopJiyllaefolia establish themselves on dry hilly ground after dying back for some years in succession has abeady been alluded to : possibly this may also be found to be the case with seedlings growing on laterite. Artificial reproduction. So far as experiments show, direct sowing is preferable to transplanting, since there is usually a considerable proportion of failure during transplanting, in spite of precautions. Of the forms of direct sowing tried so far, line sowings kept regularly weeded have proved the most successful, but it is essential that the soil should be kept moist, and where irrigation cannot be carried out, shade is necessary. This can be effected by means of narrow cleared and well-hoed lines under the shade of an overwood or cut through low growth, so as to retain shade and at the same time allow of regula^r weeding : side shade is of more importance than overhead shade. The seed should be sown early in the rainy season, as soon as it ripens. Sowings of Eugenia Jamholana to fill open grassy or other blanks have been repeatedly tried, but they have almost invariably resulted in failure except along the edge of the surrounding forest, where side shade is obtained from the sun. For transplanting purposes the greatest success is obtained by sowing in baskets, two or three seeds in each, and retaining the healthiest seedhng in each basket. The baskets are kept well watered under moderate shade, and are planted out during the second rains. For forest purposes transplanting should usually be done under shade unless the ground is permanently moist. Roadside trees usually require watering in dry weather for the first year or two. Transplanting from nursery beds requires care, as the seedlings do not stand much exposure of or injury to the roots. Natural seedlings in the forest can be transplanted successfully in moist places or under shade. SiLVicuLTURAL TREATMENT. In the forest the tree is ordinarily treated as an accessory species and worked along with other species in coppice coupes or in selection fellings. In private forests on alluvial ground along river- banks in parts of Oudh, pure crops of this species are worked very successfully as simple coppice for the production of poles (see Figs. 211 and 215). The rotation is usually a short one, about 10-15 years, or sometimes less, and judging by the density of the crops the yield must be high ; these areas are grazed, but the cattle do not appear to damage the coppice-shoots to any extent. Rate of growth. (1) High forest. The following statement gives a summary of available girth measurements in high forest sample plots : 554 XXVIII. MYRTACEAE Eugenia Jamholana : girth increment in high forest sample plots. No. of years No. of trees Mean annual Forest under under Girth girth increment Province. division. Locality. measurement. measurement. classes, ft. for period. in. United Dehra Dun Sherpur forest 4 1 0-1 0-41 Provinces Lansdowne Chankhamb 17 2 U-3 0-70 Giwain 4 1 li-3 013 Barswar 4 14 l|-4 0-33 95 Jogichaur 4 1 6-8 0-32 Ramnagar Mandal 1 3 ii-3 0-40 J J S. Patli Dun 19 5 0-3 0-27 99 Donianda 19 1 11-3 0-36 Haldwani Silani 11 4 li-6 0-61 S. Kheri Kishanpur 9 1 4-5 0-09 Gonda Chandanpur 2 1 0-li 015 S> Sakra 2 2 lJ-3 030 Central Balaghat Raigarh and } 8 {1 1-2 0-47 Provinces Baihar ranges ij 2-3 0-31 The sample plots in question are situated in sal forest, and the rate of growth shown is probably slower than what might be expected on moist alluvial ground near streams. Ring-countings made in 1905 by Mr. D. A. Thomson in respect of nine trees in the Supa fuel reserves, North Kanara, Bombay, gave the following results : ^ Eugenia Jambolana : rate of growth in Supa fuel reserves, North Kanara. Age in years . , . 5 10 15 20 Mean diameter (inches) . 1-06 2-16 3-26 4-38 Corresponding girth (inches) 3-2 6-6 101 13o 25 30 35 40 5-48 6-58 7-60 8-78 17-2 20-7 23-9 27-6 45 50 55 9-82 10-73 1113 31-4 33-8 350 A cross-section from the United Provinces in the silvicultural museum at Dehra Dun, measuring 3 ft. 3 in. in girth, had 34 rings, representing a mean annual girth increment of 1-15 in. Measurements in 1907 of eight planted trees, sixteen years old, in the Thapal grant estate, Saharanpur, United Pro- vinces, gave an average girth of 2 ft. 4 in. and an average height of 25-7 ft., which shows that under favourable conditions the growth is fairly fast. 2. Coppice. On fertile ground coppice-shoots grow rapidly. On ricli alluvium along river banks in Gorakhpur, Oudh, coppice four years old showed an average height of 15 ft. In Nellore, Madras, a height of 6 ft. was attained by coppice-shoots in eight months.^ Measurements made in 1911 in the Tikri forest, Gonda, United Provinces, showed for an age of two years an average height of 7 ft., as against 7-6 ft. for sal. The following measurements made in 1886 by Mr. A. F. Bromi in the Bullawala sal coppice, Dehra Dun, compare the rate of growth of Eugenia JamhokiTha coppice with that of sal : Growth of Eugenia Jamholana and sal coppice, Bullawala, Dehra Dun. Mean girth. Mean height. Age. years. 8 8 9 10 Eugenia. in. 7-5 6-5 7-2 90 Sal. in. 8-3 71 8-7 5-9 Eugenia ft. 16 14 10 14 m. 6 0 0 Sal ft. 16 13 13 m. 2-5 1-9 5-5 Working Plan for the Supa Fuel Reserves, 1907. 11 10-6 2 Forest Report, 1909-10. Fig. 213. Eugenia Jamholana. plants 1.3 months old from broadcast sowings, showing bene- ficial effect of weeding, Dehra Dun : on left of staff", plot regularly weeded contains 88 vigorous seedlings up to 3 ft. 9 in. in height ; on right of staff, plot sown at same time and left unweeded contains 23 seedlings up to 1 ft. 3 in. in height struggling through grass and weeds. ■ >5 .:■-, fT-*' ^^^,%S i:>i;-^ ^'^¥ -o^^r?' Fig. 214. Eugenia Jarnbuluna, natural reproduction on soft sandy soil, end of first season, seedHngs about 6 in. high, Tirsal forest, Dehra Dun, United Provinces. Note dense mass of seedlings in upper part of picture. o he , •/; •> g 71 ^ -i ^ c o o e o ^, •§ F— I d EUGENIA 555 Measurements made in 1910 by Mr. C. M. McCrie in sal coppice in Gorakh- pur, United Provinces, showed the following growth for Eugenia and sal respectively : Growth of Eugenia Jamholana and sal coppice, Gorakhpur. Mean girth. Mean height. Age. Eugenia I. Sal. Eugenia. Sal. years. in. in. ft. in. ft. in. 2 2 0 3 0 4 2-0 2-0 4 8 7 0 6 3-0 2-9 7 0 10 4 8 3-8 3-8 8 5 13 0 10 4o 4-8 10 0 15 4 2. Eugenia operculata, Roxb. Vern. Pidman, Rai jdman, Hind. ; Kon thdbye, Burm. A moderate-sized evergreen tree with a short bole and spreading branches. Leaves coriaceous, turning red in the cold season. Found in the sub-Himalayan tract, Bihar, Orissa, Assam, Chittagong, and Burma. This is a familiar tree in the sal forests of northern India, particularly on grassy savannahs and blanks, where it is often the first tree to appear, and being fire-resisting and frost-hardy, it establishes itself in such localities and forms a useful nurse to sal, which regenerates weU under its protection. In their earlier stages, how- ever, the seedlings are sensitive to frost. In northern India the fruits ripen about August. The growth is slow to moderate. Sample plot measurements in sal forest in the United Provinces give the following results : Eugenia operculata : girth increment in sample plots, United Provinces. Forest division. Locality. No. of years under measurement. No. of trees under measurement. Girth classes. ft. 11-3 0-3 Mean aimual girth increment for period. in Lansdowne Ramnagar Barswar S. Patli Dun 4 19 5 2 0-34 0-17 A cross-section 6 ft. 3 in. in girth, in the silvicultiu:al museum at Dehra Dun, has 83 rings, giving a mean annual girth increment of 0-9 in. The tree coppices well, and the coppice-shoots sometimes show fairly rapid growth. Measurements of coppice made in 1911 in the Tikri forest, Gonda, United Provinces, showed an average height of 6 ft. in two years, compared with 7 ft. 7 in. for sal ; the average number of shoots per stool was two as compared with 1-8 for sal. Measurements by Mr. C. M. McCrie in 1910 in a coppice coupe three years old in Gorakhpur, United Provinces, showed an average height of 7 ft. 6 in. as against 9 ft. 7 in. for sal. Measurements in 1886 by Mr. A. F. Broun in the Bullawala coppice coupes, Dehra Dun, showed the following growth of Eugenia operculata as compared with sal : Eugenia operculata : growth in coppice coupes, Bullawala, Dehra Dun. Mean gu;th. Mean height. Age. Eugenia operculata. years. in. 8 8-1 8 6-2 9 15-2 10 10-5 :5al. Eugenia operculata. Sal. in. ft. in. ft. in. 8-3 17 4-4 16 2-5 71 13 6-6 13 1-9 8-7 17 5-5 13 5-5 5-9 18 3-6 11 10-6 556 XXVIII. MYRTACEAE These coupes are subject to occasional severe frosts which damage the sal coppice, and this accounts for the poor growth of the sal in some cases. 3. Eugenia Jambos, Linn. Rose apple. Vern. Guldb jdman, Hind. A tree cultivated in many parts of India and Burma for its fruit, which is rather insipid though sweet-scented. According to Brandis it is indigenous in the Malay Archipelago and in Upper Burma (Shwebo district, at 1,000 ft. on stream banks). It has run wild in many places. The handsome flowers, with large yellowish white bunches of stamens, usually appear from February to April. The fruits ripen from June to August, and drop at once ; the seeds germinate soon after falling, and large quantities of seedlings may be fovmd under and around the trees during the rainy season, as in the case of E. Jam- hokina. These survive if the locality is sufficiently moist and shady, but if exposed to the sun they die off rapidly. This habit coincides exactly with that of the common form of E. Jambolana, and it is possible that on closer study of the various species it may be foimd to be fairly general in the case of those which grow in moist localities. 2. EUCALYPTUS, L'Heritier. An Australasian genus consisting of about 140 species, most of which are found in Australia and some in Tasmania, New Guinea, and other islands. The eucalypts are evergreen trees, all more or less aromatic and containing oil-glands in the leaves ; the oil distilled from the leaves of some species is of value in medicine. The leaves of young trees, of young coppice-shoots, and of shoots sent out after injury by fire or otherwise, are generally opposite, sessile, and horizontal, and are often of a different shape from the normal leaves of the adult tree ; the latter are usually alternate, petiolate, and hang vertically. The flowers are white or red, and the flower-buds have the calyx-tube covered with a lid or operculum which faUs off when the flowers open. The fruit is a woody capsule, consisting of the hard calyx-tube and containing numerous small seeds, a considerable proportion of which are usually unfertile. The eucalypts contain several of the most important timber trees of the Australian continent, where they form large tracts of forest, some growing pure and others mixed. Some of them reach gigantic size, and are among the largest trees in the world, specimens of the blue gum {E. Globulus, Labill.) and peppermint gum {E. regnans, F. v. M., formerly included under E. amyg- dalina, Labill.) having been stated to reach a height of over 400 ft. Introduction into foreign countries. The eucalypts appear first to have attracted attention outside their natural home in the early part of the nineteenth centmy, when seed began to be introduced into southern Em-ope, and the trees, probably for the most part E. Globulus, began to be cultivated, first for ornament or as curiosities, and later, when their rapid growth and economic importance began to be realized, in plantations. Since then eucalypts have been extensively planted in the Mediterranean region, in California, Florida, Hawaii, and several other parts of the western hemisphere, in South Africa, and in other sub-tropical and warm temperate regions throughout the globe. Introduction into and cultivation in India. The introduction of EUCALYPTUS 557 eucalypts into India probably dates from 1843, when a few trees were planted experimentally in the Nilgiris mainly with the object of finding some species capable of yielding regular and plentiful supplies of fuel : regular plantations, chiefly of E. Globulus, were commenced in these hills in 1856, and have been extended subsequently on a large scale. Numerous species have since been tried under all sorts of climatic and other conditions in many parts of India and Burma, both in the hills and on the plains. Some details of the results attained in different localities are given below, but it may be said generally that some species or other of eucalyptus has been found which is suited to almost any climate in India with the possible exception of: (1) very moist tropical regions, where the seedlings damp off in spite of all precautions ; and (2) elevations above the winter snow-line, where snow-break is to be feared. It is, however, possible that species may yet be found which will grow well in localities where eucalypts have failed hitherto, for although several species have been proved to thrive well in India under given conditions, the intro- duction of a large number is as yet in the initial stage of experiment or has not yet been attempted. The extension of eucalyptus cultivation in India has its advocates and its opponents. The former urge the great utility of these trees in supplying fast- growing timber and fuel as well as oil, tannin, and other products, their swamp- draining capacity and their direct anti-malarial value, though from a medical point of view the last-named quality appears to be problematical. The latter maintain that the extension of eucalyptus cultivation in India has gone far enough, that the trees are monotonous, and that in regions where they are capable of growing it is possible to grow indigenous trees which furnish better timber and are superior in every way except so far as rapidity of growth is concerned. There is something to be said on both sides. It is true that as timber trees the eucalypts have not come up to expectations in India, but that is no reason for believing that some good timber species may not yet be found which will be capable of profitable cultivation. On the other hand, so far as fuel production goes, the rapidity of growth and the volume-production of the eucalypts in places where they do thrive far exceed anything attainable by indigenous species. The blue gum has conferred an inestimable boon on the Nilgiris, and those who complain of the monotony of the eucalypts which dominate the landscape on the Nilgiri plateau should remember that these trees saved a fuel famine in the middle of last century, while in Ootacamund and the adjoining stations they now yield plentiful supplies of fuel, obtainable at far cheaper rates than is the case in any other hill station in India. Where large supplies of quick-growing and therefore cheap fuel are required, there seems to be every reason for the extension of eucalyptus plantations in India in places where these trees wiU grow well and furnish liigher yields than in- digenous species ; while, again, the experimental introduction of little-known or new species, which has been proceeding for several years past, is all to the good, since it tends towards a solution of the question of cheap supplies of fuel and possibly of timber. Provided, therefore, the extension of eucalyptus cultivation in India is confined to cases where it is likely to be of distinct advantage, and does not involve the clearing of valuable indigenous timber species, there is much to be said in favour of it. 558 XXVIII. MYRTACEAE Much experimental work has been carried out in the past, and continues to be carried out, in the cultivation of eucalyptus in India, but in spite of this the records of results are in most cases disappointing, and are often unreliable. Fruitful sources of error are the wrong naming of seeds, the inadvertent mixing of seeds of different species, the interchanging of labels of plants in different stages, as well as errors and omissions in maintaining the records. Again, it frequently happens that a species grows well for a few years and then fails ; it is favourably reported on for some years and the record then ceases, though the plant has by this time acquired an undeserved reputation, and is wrongly recorded as a success. It is therefore of little use judging of the suitability of a species for a given locality until it has reached reasonable dimensions and shown its adaptability to its new environment. Mistakes in identification are very common, and have been the cause of a good deal of confusion in the past. For the correct identification of the eucalypts, botanical specimens should be as complete as possible, and should ordinarily include primordial as well as adult leaves, flowers, fruits, and bark : as these are not all obtainable at the same time, great care is necessary to ensure that the specimens are all collected from the same tree. Numerous failures in the past have been due to the fact that trees from the temperate regions of Australasia have been repeatedly tried in the hotter parts of India, while those from the tropical and other warm regions of that continent have been tried at cool elevations in the hills. Generally speaking it may be laid down that for low elevations in India, if any species is to have a reasonable chance of succeeding it must be obtained from the tropical and warm parts of Queensland and adjacent northern regions, where also are found such well-known Indian trees as Bombax malabaricum, Eugenia Jamho- lana, Barringtonia racemosa, Alstonia scholaris, Mallotus philippi7iensis , Trema orientalis, Ficus glomerata, and Casuarina equisetifolia. On the other hand^ species from Tasmania and the southern parts of Australia only are likely to be successful at the higher elevations in India. To quote one example : the blue gum {E. Globulus), a tree of Tasmania and the south-eastern parts of Australia, has been tried time and again at low elevations in India, but has always failed signally, whereas at the higher elevations in the Nilgiris it has been a remarkable success. The results attained hitherto in different parts of India, so far as records are available, are of some interest, and may prove to be useful as a guide towards the selection of species for further experiment. 1. The Nilgiris. The introduction of eucal3^pts in 1843, and the formation of plantations from 1856 onwards, have already been alluded to. In 1914 the total area of Government eucalyptus plantations, either pm:e or mixed with acacia, amounted to 1,089 acres, in addition to which there are numerous privately owned plantations. Fuel from these is supplied at extremely cheap rates. The altitude of the plantations varies from 5,000 to 8,300 ft. The principal rock is a fine-grained gneiss decomposing into a red clay : there is a marked absence of lime in the soil. The climate of the Nilgiris is cool, equable, and moist, with a well-dis- tributed rainfall of about 50 to 80 in. The winter is on the whole mild, with only occasional frosts of more than slight intensity, and these are of short EUCALYPTUS 559 duration ; snow is unknown. The following climatological statistics may be quoted : Climatological statistics for the Nilgiris. Shade temperature (degrees Fahr.). Station. Maximum, Minimum. Absolute. Average. Absolute. Average, tacamund . . 75 . . 35 ',327 ft.) onoor ,200 ft.) jUington 83-4 81 24-7 36 1,200 ft.) Normal rainfall (inches). Jime-Sept. Oct. -Dec Jan.- Apr.- (SW. Mar. May. monsoon). 2-46 9-70 24-76 (NE. monsoon). 1403 8-17 8-82 16-68 32-09 Total for vear. 50-95 65-76 51-09 The species far more extensively planted than any other is E. Globulus, which grows very rapidly and thrives admirably. Many other species, however, have been planted, not only in plantations but also in private gardens and along roadsides, while there are many different species in the Government gardens at Ootacamund and in Sim's Park at Coonoor. The identity of many of these was obscure until, in 1912 and subsequently, Mr. R. Bourne made a careful investigation into the question, and with the aid of specimens collected on the spot succeeded in establishing the identity of no fewer than 36 species. After E. Globulus by far the commonest species in the Government planta- tions are E. ohliqua and E. Sieberiana. Except E. Globulus the only two species which have attained large dimensions are E. obliqua and E. eugenioides, to which may be added occasional large specimens of E. viminalis. The following is a complete list of species which IVIr. Bourne has succeeded in identifying in the Nilgiris : E. acmenoides, Schauer, E. amygdalina, Labill., E. botryoides, Sm., E. calophylla, Brown, E. capitellata, Sm., E. cornuta, Labill., E. corymbosa, Sm., E. crebra, F. v. M., E. eugenioides, Sieber, E.ficifolia, F. v. M., E. foecunda, Schauer, E. Globulus, Labill., E. Gunnii, Hook., E. hemiphloia, F. V. M., E. Leucoxylon, F. v. M., E. longifolia, Link and Otto, E. macrorrhyncha, F. V. M., E. maculata. Hook., var. citriodora, Bailey, E. microcorys, F. v. M., E. miniata, Cunn., E. obliquu, L'Herit., E. paniculata, Sm., E. ptychocarpa, F. V. M., E. pilularis, Sm., E. pulverulenta , Sims., E. punctata, DC, E. redunca, Schauer, E. resinifera, Sm., E. robusta, Sm., E. rostrata, Schleich, E. saligna, Sm., E. sideropJiloia, Benth., E. Sieberiana, F. v. M., E. Stuartiana, F. v. M., E. tereticornis, Sm., E. viminalis, Labill. Trials were commenced in 1910 to ascertain if any good timber-yielding species will succeed in the Nilgiris, and for this purpose small experimental plantations were formed at three different elevations, namely 6,700, 7,300, and 8,300 ft. The species tried were E. acmenoides, Schauer, E. crebra, F. v. M., E. eugenioides, Sieber, E. hemipJdoia, F. v. M., E. paniculata, Sm., E. pilularis, Sm., E. punctata, DC, and E. sideropJiloia, Benth. There was some difficulty in raising the young plants, which proved tender in the early stages, and had to be reared under forcing frames. When once put out they proved more hardy, but required protection against frost, for which purpose they were surrounded with coverings of bracken. The species which have done best so far are E. punctata, E. acmenoides, and E. pilularis. The least promising is E. hemiphloia. 2. Indian Peninsula. Except in the Nilgiris there is little reliable infornia- 560 XXVIII. MYRTACEAE tion regarding the results of planting eucalypts in the Indian Peninsula. Probably the most successful species so far tried at low elevations is E. tereii- cornis, which grows well even at Bombay ; E. rostrata also does well at low elevations, and is grown at Poona and elsewhere. Attempts made about 1874—6 at Saugor in the Central Provinces, to grow certain species, including E. cornuta; E. Globulus, E. marginata, E. obliqua, E. rostrata, E. Sideroxylon, and E. viminalis, resulted in failure. E. Globulus was tried in 1909 in coast sand in the Madras Presidency, but needless to say the result was a failiu-e. In the same year E. marginata, E. resinifera, and E. rostrata were sown in the Sanyasimalai plantation in North Salem at an elevation of 4,000 ft. ; the seedlings throve the first year, but no subsequent information is available. Eleven different species were tried at Mercara in Coorg in 1913 ; those which proved the most successful during the first few years were E. maculata, E. pilularis, E. punctata, E. goniocalyx, E. saligna, and E. resinifera. Plants of E. maculata three years old had a maximum height of 21 ft. and a maximum girth of 7 in. . 3. Himalaya. Eucalypts have been grown in various parts of the Himalaya for many years, but at elevations where there is any appreciable snowfall in winter they have suffered so severely from snow-break that they are now recognized to be unsuitable for planting except at the lower elevations. E. Globulus is probably the species which has been planted most extensively, and it has grown well except for liability to snow-break ; E. Sideroxylon is reported to have done well in the Kumaun hills. Mr. R. N. Parker notes that at Abbottabad (elevation 4,000 ft.), where eucalypts are extensively grown, the species seen are E. tereticornis, E. rostrata, E. Sideroxylon, E. macu- lata var. citriodora, and E. Globulus.^ Prior to the abnormal frost of 1905 E. Globulus was far commoner than it is now, but all the trees were badly injured and many were killed outright in that year. At present E. tereticornis is by far the commonest species in that station : there are also several specimens of E. Sideroxylon, and one each of E. rostrata and E. maculata var. citriodora, dating from before 1905. Experiments in the cultivation of eucalyptus in the Simla liills have been in progress for some years past, the most complete of these dating from 1909, when small experimental plots were established at various elevations along the Kalka-Simla railway and in the neighbourhood of Simla itself. The cultiva- tion was carried out by means of direct sowings on roughly prepared ground, no watering being done. So far the following have been found to succeed, to some extent at least, at different elevations : [a) Under 4,000 ft. : E. calophylla, R. Br.*, E. cornuta, Labill., E. cory- nocalyx, F. v. M., E. eximia, Schauer*, E. gomphocepMla, DC, E. goniocalyx, F. V. M., E. Gunnii, Hook., E. hemiphloia, F. v. M., E. Leu/^oxylon, F. v. M.*, E. longifolia. Link and Otto*, E. Maideni, F. v. M., E. melliodora, A. Cunn., E. microcorys, F. v. M., E. paniculata, Sm.*, E. punctata, DC, E. resinifera, Sm., E. rosttata, Schlecht*, E. rudis, Endl., E. Stuartiana, F. v. M., E. tereti- cornis, Sm.* (6) 4,000-6,000 ft. : E. amygdalina, Labill., E. Ca^nbagei, Deane and Maiden*, E. coriacea, A. Cunn., E. corynocalyx, F. v. M., E. crebra, F. v. M., ^ Ind. Forester, xxxix (1913), p. 81. EUCALYPTUS 561 E. eugenioides, Sieb., E. eximia, Schauer*, E. Globulus, Labiil.*, E. gornp/io- cephala, DC, E. Ghmnii, Hook.*, E. hemiphloia, F. v. M., E. longifolia, Link and Otto*, E. Maideni, F. v. M.*, E. melliodora, A. Cunn., E. Planchoniana, F. V. M., E. regna7is, F. v. M., E. rudis, Endl., E. saligna,, Sm,, E. Sideroxylo7i, A. Cunn., E. Stuartiana, F. v. M.*, E. tereticornis, Sm., E. viminalis, Labiil.* (c) 6,000-7,000 ft. : E. Gamhagei, Deane and Maiden, E. corymbosa, Sra., E. corynocalyx, F. v. M., E. crebra, F. v. M., E. Globulus, Labiil., E. Gunnii, Hook.*, E. hemiphloia, F. v. M., E. Maideni, F. v. M.*, E. Stuartiana, F. v. M.*, E. viminalis, Labiil.* (d) Over 7,000 ft. : E. corymbosa, Sm., E. corynocalyx, F. v. M., E. crebra, F. V. M., E. melliodora, A. Cunn., E. saligna, Sm. Those marked with an asterisk have so far proved the most successful. Above 5,000 ft. the results have not been nearly so satisfactory as they have below that elevation, though this is ascribed more to poverty of soil than to elevation. Species which have so far proved unsuitable for introduction on a large scale are E. Imertmstoma, Sm., E. rnacrorrhynclm, F. v. M., E. Muelleriana, Howett, E. obliqu/i, L'Herit., E. pauciflora, Sieb., E. pilularis, Sm., E. piperita, Sm., E. Sieberiaim,, F. v. M. Further experiments are in progress in the Simla hills with numerous other species, and these may be expected to yield definite results in due course. 4. Sub-Hinmlayan tract and plains of northern India. Eucalypts were first introduced into northern India about 1860, and numerous species have been tried. The reports of the Government gardens at Lucknow, Lahore, and Saharanpur contain the results of various trials from time to time. In the Changa Manga irrigated plantation near Lahore various species were intro- duced many years ago, while more recently experiments on a considerable scale have been carried out there and in the Kot Lakhpat plantation. Mr. R. N. Parker ^ enumerates the following species found growing on the Punjab plains, which he has been able to identify with tolerable certainty, though he admits that the list is by no means complete : E. muculata, Hook., var. citriodora, Bailey. Less common than the following two in the Punjab, but the commonest species in Saharanpur and Dehra Dun. E. tereticornis, Sm. This and the next are the commonest species in the Punjab, and have given the best results where extensive trials have been made. Almost the only species in the Rawalpindi and Hazara districts. Succeeds well in the Hoshiarpur district. Not common at Saharanpur and Dehra Dun. E. rostrata, Schl. Very common on the Punjab plains ; seldom seen in Rawalpindi and Hazara. Does well at Saharanpur. E. crebra, F. v. M. Occasionally seen in Lahore, Amritsar, Kapurthala, Changa Manga, and Saharanpur. E. melanophloia, F. v. M. Grown in Lahore, Changa Manga, Agra, and Saharanpur. E. saligna, Sm. Grows well at Amritsar and Saharanpur. E. robusta, Sm. Occasionally grown in Lahore, Kapurthala, Saharanpur, and Agra. * loc. cit. 2307.2 Q 562 XXVIII. MYRTACEAE E. siderophloia , Benth. One specimen in Changa Manga doing well. E. Sideroxylon, A. Cunn. Several in Changa Manga, not doing very well. The first three of the above species are by far the commonest grown in the plains and sub-Himalayan tract. According to Mr. Parker the following species have been sufficiently tried to show that they are quite unsuitable for planting on the plains : E. amygdalhia, Labill., E. capitellata, Sm., E. coccifera, Hook, f., E. coriacea, A. Cunn. {E. pauciflora, Sieb.), E. corymbosa, Sm., E. Globulus, Labill., E. goniocalyx, F. v. M., E. Gunnii, Hook, f., E. hae^nastoma, Sm., E. 7nacrorrhynca, F. V. M., E. marginata, Sm., E. obliqua, L'Herit., E. pilularis, Sm., E. piperita, Sm., E. resinifera, Sm., E. Sieberiana, F. v. M., E. Stuartiana, F. v. M., E. urnigera, Hook, f., E. viminalis, Labill., E. virgata, Sieb. (E. stricta, Sieb.). The following species appear to be unlikely to thrive on the plains, though evidence is not yet conclusive : E. acmenoides, Schau., E. alpina, Lindl., E. Andrewsi, Maiden, E. Bailey - ana, F. v. M., E. calophylla, R. Br., E. ci^ierea, F. v. M., E. corynocalyx, F. V. M., E. delegafensis, R. T. Baker, E. dives, Schau., E. engenioides, Sieb., E. eximia, Schau., E. ficifolia, F. v. M., E. longifolia, Link and Otto, E. Lueh- 7nanniana, F. v. M., E. Macarthuri, Deane and Maiden., E. macrandra, F. v. M., E. macrocarpa, Hook., E. Muelleriana, Howett, E. occidentalis, Endl., E. obcordata, Turcz. {E. Platypus, Hook.), E. Planchoniana, F. v. M., E. regnans, F. V. M., E. rubida, Deane and Maiden, E. Smithii, R. T. Baker, E. stellulata, Sieb., E. trachyphloia, F. v. M., E. umbra, R. T. Baker. Many other species are under trial. At Lahore, among species which have shown promise during the first few years are E. gomphocepJiala, DC, E. hemi- pJiloia, F. V. M., E. melanophloia, F. v. M., E. inelUodora, A. Cunn., and E. rudis, Endl. The last named has shown extraordinary growth on poor saline soil, and appears to be well suited for such ground. E. Kirtoniana, F. v. M., does well if it gets sufficient water. At Saharanpur the most successful so far, apart from those already mentioned, are E. microcorys, F. v. M., E. obliqua, L'Herit., E. paniculata, Sm., and E. rudis, Endl. The following, recently grown at Dehra Dun, are well established : E. bicolor, A. Cunn., E. botryoides, Sm., E. microcorys, F. v. M., E. patenfinervis, R. T. Baker, E. rostrata, Schl., E. saligna, Sm,, E. Sideroxylon, A. Cunn. ; of these E. bicolor, E. botryoides, and E. Sideroxylon are regarded as failures at Saharanpur. The following climatological statistics for plains and low-level stations in northern India give some indication of the conditions under which the above-mentioned species have been tried : Climatological statistics for some plains and low-level stations in northern India, Shade temperature (prior to 1903). Absolute Absolute Normal Station. maximum. minimum. rainfall. degrees P. degrees F. in. Tjahorc 120-3 29-2 20 Saharanpur 116 .30 38 Lucknow 119 30 38 Agra 120 30 26 Dehra Dim 111 ,33-9 8.') The great bulk of the rain falls during the SW. monsoon from .July to September ; the remainder of the year is dry except for occasional showers or burets of rain. EUCALYPTUS 563 5. Assam. E. Globulus thrives at Shillong, showing ra})id growth and attaining very fair dimensions. 6. Burma. Eucalypts have been tried from time to time in various parts of Burma. At Maymyo (elevation 3,500 ft.) planting was commenced about the year 1893 ; the species which has proved- most successful there is E. rostrata, though E. amygdalina and E. maculata var. citriodora have also done well, and E. resinifera fairly well. These species are likely to do well on the Shan States plateau should plantations be required there. There is a fine avenue in the Maymyo bazaar consisting chiefly of E. rostrata. E. Globulus has proved a failure at Maymyo, but has succeeded in the hills of the Ruby Mines district. The species which has done best at low elevations is E. vimi- nalis, which has proved hardy. E. cornuta was reported in 1911-12 to be growing well in a rubber plantation at Kwanhla in the Amherst township. 7. Andamans. Seventeen species were tried in the Andamans in 1914, but after the first year the only species showing any promise were E. resinifera, E. robusta, E. rostrata, and E. tereticorriis. Two species, namely E. botryoides and E. robusta, were tried in mangrove swamps, but were unable to stand the salt water. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. Eucalypts, as a rule, are intolerant of shade, though many species tend to branch low if grown in isolated positions, and in early youth seedlings endure a little shade for a time. Many species coppice well, but the blue gum {E. Globulus) is probably the most vigorous of all the better known species in this respect. The root-system is usually of a spreading type, the roots penetrating for a considerable distance in search of moisture ; superficial spreading roots are common. Eucalypts are generally speaking wind-firm, but many species are liable to become bent, gnarled, and stunted in exposed situations. Species tried at the higher elevations in the Himalaya have been found very liable to snow-break. Fire does little damage to older trees with thick persistent bark, but young trees and those with thin or deciduous bark suffer severely : those whose bark exfoliates in long dry strips, like E. Globulus, suffer much damage, the fire ascending up the loose bark into the crowns. Most species have good power of recovery from damage by fire. Injured trees produce shoots with primordial leaves, and a blue gum plantation which has recently been burnt presents a silvery-blue appearance, owing to the production of these shoots. The most aromatic eucalypts are not readily browsed by cattle ; two species particularly susceptible to this form of damage are E. corynocalyx, whose leaves have a sweetish taste, and E. Gunnii, whose leaves are not strongly aromatic. Plantations of young trees near Dehra Dun have suffered much through rubbing by deer, the aromatic bark attracting these animals ; where deer are prevalent, fencing may therefore be necessary. In the Changa Manga plantation in the Lahore district, seedlings are browsed down by nilgai in the winter, and when the plants are out of reach of browsing these animals gnaw the bark. The requirements of the various species as regards soil and climate vary considerably. Some details are given under the individual species described below, but so far as Indian conditions go our knowledge is confined to a com- paratively small number of species which have been tried in different localities. Much experimental work remains to be done in discovering species suitable Q2 564 XXVIII. MYRTACEAE for the diverse climates and types of soil met with in India, for experience has shown that it is most unsafe to predict the behaviour of a newly tried species in India, even though its requirements are well understood in its natural home. Generally speaking, most if not all eucalypts grow best on deep fresh soil with a fair amount of subsoil moisture ; many, however, accommodate tliemselves to poor dry soils, swampy ground, exposed situations, high altitudes, or other conditions unfavourable to their best development, and here they often assume a stunted or misshapen form or display special characteristics amounting to sub-specific variation, for example in the form of the bark, the shape and size of the leaves, or the amount of essential oil contained in them. The following are some examples of species whose requirements are tolerably well known : Suitable for wet ground : E. rostrata (probably the best for swampy ground), E. rohusta, and to some extent E. hotryoides, E. Globulus, and E. Ureti- cornis. Suitable for dry, poor soil : E. corynocalyx, E. resinijera, E. siderophloia, E. Sieheriana. Exacting as to soil : E. Globuhis, E. pilularis. Not exacting as to soil (i. e. will tolerate dry as well as unduly moist soils) : E. amygdalina, E. cormita, E. resinifera, E. robusta, E. rudis, E. Sidero- xylon, E. viminalis. Suitable for saline soils : E. rudis. Frost-resistant : E.coriacea, E. Ounnii, E. resinifera, E. rostrata, E. sidero- phloia, E. tereticornis, E. viminalis. Frost-tender : E. calophylla, E. maculata var. citriodora. The following list of relative frost-hardiness of different species of Euca- lyptus has been drawn up by Mr. E. N. Munns as a result of observations during an exceptional period of low temperature in South California : ^ Very resistant to low temperatures : E. viminalis, E. polyanthema, E. Gunnii, E. regnans, E. crebra. Resistant to low temperatures : E. tereticornis, E. rostrata, E. Globulus, E. coriacea, E. resinifera, E. corynocalyx, E. robusta^, E. goniocalyx. Frost-sensitive, but capable of recovering from injury : E. Sideroxylo7i, E. Stuartiana, E. citriodora, E. longifolia, E. amygdalina, E. saligna. Very frost-sensitive : E. rudis, E. corymbosa, E. Leucoxylo7i, E. cornuta, E. diversicolor , E. calophylla. Drought-resistant : E. corynocalyx, E. resinifera. Drought-tender : E. Globidus, E. maculata var. citriodora, E. obliquxi, E. saligna. Natural reproduction. So far as India is concerned, the question of natural reproduction from seed is at present of no consequence. To a limited extent natural seedlings have been springing up in and around the blue gum plantations of the Nilgiris for some years past, and the essential conditions appear to be bare soil free of weeds and sufficient light. In Australia it is generally recognized that natural reproduction can be secured without much difficulty by cutting the undergrowth, passing fire over the area, and there- after strictly protecting from fire and in the first few years from grazing ; these methods usually result in a good crop of natural seedlings, from seed * Journal of Forestry, xvi (April 1918), p. 412. EUCALYPTUS 565 lying dormant or falling subsequent to the fire, wherever there is sufficient light for their development. Artificial reproduction. The artificial raising of eucalypts requires a considerable amount of care : the seeds are small and are easily washed away by rain, while the young seedlings of many species are sensitive to drought or frost and for some little time after germination are very liable to damp off with excessive moisture. Direct sowings are less commonly employed than transplanting, but E. crehra was sown with success at Dehra Dun on alluvial ground in lines with the aid of field crops, a cleared strip 3 ft. wide in which the eucalypts were sown being left imsown with the field crop ; two lines of eucalypts 1| ft. apart were sown, with a line of sal between them, the object of the former being to act as a protection to the sal against frost and drought. The field crop employed was the lesser millet or mandwa (Eleusine coracana), which was sown in June and reaped in October, and the eucalyptus was sown in August, 1| oz. of seed being used for sowing the double line 74 ft. long. The eucalypt seedlings died off in quantity in the first dry season, but a sufficient number survived to produce thickly stocked lines, the dominant plants reaching a height of 5-6 ft. in eighteen months ; they were then much in need of thinning out, and their subsequent development was poor owing to their congested state. This experiment is not conclusive, but this method of sowing is worth further trial where seed is plentiful. Experimental broadcast sowings have been carried out since 1909 in small patches in the Simla hills, and the results have been noted on pp. 560 and 561 ; more recently sowings on a larger scale have been tried, but the results have not proved successful. Nursery treatment. The methods of raising eucalypt seedlings in the nursery vary considerably, and local experience alone can decide which method to adopt in any particular case. Experience has shown that the best time for sowing the seed in most parts of India, both in the hills and on the plains, is early spring, about February-March or even as early as January in the hills ; this enables the seedlings to reach a size large enough for planting out at the beginning of the rainy season. The cheapest method of raising seedlings is to rear them in seed-beds, which should be well raised and should consist of a mixture of fine leaf-mould and sand. The surface having been well smoothed and moderately, not excessively, watered, the seed is sown broadcast on the surface and lightly covered with a layer of fine earth. The seed-beds should be kept moist with a fine spray until germination begins : from the commencement the beds should be protected by a covering, raised about 12 in. above them, of thatch or other material impervious enough to prevent rain from dripping through, these screens being removed in dull cloudy weather and replaced to protect the beds and seedlings from sun, frost, or heavy rain. The seedlings require a fair amount of water, but excess of moisture causes damping ofif. The beds should never be flooded ; watering should be done frequently but sparingly with a fine spray. Flat boxes about 4 or 5 in. deep are in many ways preferable to seed-beds, and for new species as yet untried or of which only a limited quantity of seed is available they should certainly be adopted. The bottoms of the boxes should have a number of small holes bored in them for drainage purposes, 566 XXVIII. MYRTACEAE and otherwise the same precautions as regards soil, watering, and protection should be employed. An open shed is useful for protecting the boxes of seedlings during heavy rain and frosty weather or in the heat of the day. One special advantage of seed-boxes is that they can be protected against ants, which carry off the seeds, and white ants, which destroy the roots of young seedlings : the boxes may be isolated by placing them on stones wrapped in cloth soaked with kerosene oil or on stands the legs of which rest in tins of water. In place of boxes, kerosene tins cut in half, with holes punctured on the under side, may be employed. Whether raised in seed-beds or in boxes, the seedlings on attaining a height of 2 to 4 in. should be pricked out 2 to 3 in. apart, either in nursery- beds or in boxes, and shaded for the first two or three days. Pricking out requires much care, as the seedlings are sensitive to any damage to stem or roots. On attaining a height of about 6 in. they may require pricking out again, or what is preferable, they may be planted individually in baskets or pots made of stiff paper about 8 or 9 in. deep, or in bamboo tubes open at either end, the lower end being stopped up with grass or other material ; in transplanting the baskets or pots are buried bodily, the bottoms having been broken open, while in the case of the bamboo tubes the plant is forced down through the tube into the planting hole, the tube being removed. In this way there is no disturbance of the roots during transplanting. Clay pots at least 7 in. deep may also be employed, the seedlings being carefully removed from them, with the earth intact, for planting purposes. In the Nilgiris the system of mossing is sometimes adopted, the roots of the seedling, enclosed in a ball of earth, being wrapped round with moss with the object of retaining moisture ; the mossed plants are placed on the ground under partial shade, regularly watered, and shifted slightly every few days to prevent the roots from fixing themselves in the ground. Where baskets, pots, &c., are employed, the preliminary pricking out is sometimes dispensed with, the seedhngs being transferred to them straight from the seed-beds or boxes. For planting out purposes where seedlings have been pricked out in boxes the boxes of seedlings should, if possible, be conveyed to the planting site and the seedlings should be removed from the boxes by means of a trowel, with as little disturbance of the earth round the roots as possible. If transplanting is to be carried out in a dry situation the plants should be gradually hardened in the nursery by giving them more and more sun and less and less water. Planting and s'pacinrj. In India the best time for planting is about the ]>cginning of the rainy season, and for forest purposes seedlings about 12 in. in height are the most suitable. Winter planting has been tried in the Hima- laya, but the results were less successful than in the case of monsoon planting. It is advantageous to dig the pits two or three months beforehand and expose the soil ; in low-lying or swampy ground it may be found advisable to plant on slightly raised mounds. The question of spacing is somewhat debatable, and probably (he only tlefinite conclusions arrived at so far in India are in respect of the blue gum ])iantations in the NiJgiris, where in the earlier years various spacings from 6 ft. by 6 ft. to 9 ft. by 9 ft. were adopted. At first opinions varied as to EUCALYPTUS 567 the results likely to be attained, but there is now no doubt whatever that a spacing of 9 ft. by 9 ft. is preferable to one of 6 ft. by 6 ft., and that there is no occasion to plant closer than 8 ft. by 8 ft. ; these wider spacings not only give equally good, if not better results, but also reduce the cost of formation considerably. As regards other species and conditions, accurate information is wanting as to the best spacings to adopt in India. Generally speaking, however, wide spacings, say 8 ft. by 8 ft. to 10 ft. by 10 ft., are indicated on good soils, and for species which grow vigorously and tend to form clean boles, while closer spaciiigs are necessary on poor soils and for species which develop more slowly and tend to branch low. It is doubtful if a spacing of less than 6 ft. by 6 ft. is ever indicated in India if a plantation is to prove profitable. Subsequent tending. For the first year, or sometimes two years, it may be necessary to protect the young plants from frost by means of cowls of grass or bracken. Hand watering is not ordinarily practicable under forest con- ditions on a large scale ; most eucalypts, however, respond to irrigation. Thinnings first become necessary as a rule from the sixth to the tenth year, and the effect of regular thinnings on the yield and on the subsequent develop- ment of the crop is most marked. System of working. So far as India is concerned, the Nilgiri blue gum plantations are the only ones which have as yet been worked regularly, the system adopted being for the most part simple coppice for the production of fuel : hitherto the rotation adopted has been ten years, but this has recently been increased to fifteen years. A few of the less accessible plantations have been left as high forest to be felled later, and as far as can be foreseen the best method of regeneration will be by clear-felHng and replanting. Coppice- with-standards has been tried in the Nilgiris, but the results were unsatisfactory owing to the poor growth of the coppice, and this system has been abandoned in the Government plantations. Some further details regarding the working of the Nilgiri plantations will be found below under E. Globulus. Particulars regarding species. Information regarding most of the species which have hitherto been tried in India is given below. Particulars as to the characters and occurrence of these trees in their natural home have been taken mainly from von Mueller's Eucalyptographia, Maiden's Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus and Flora of New South Wales, Baker and Smith's Research on the Eucalypts, Bentham's Flora Australiensis, and Bailey's Queensland Woods. Species (in alphabetical order) 1. E. acmenoides, Schauer ; 2. E. alpina. Lindl. ; 3. E. amygdalina., Labill. ; 4. E. Andrewsi, Maiden ; 5. E. Baileyarui, F. V. M. ; 6. E. bicolor, A. Cunn. ; 1. E. botryoides, Smith ; 8. E. calophylla,, R. Br. ; 9. E. Cambagei, Deane and Maiden ; 10. E. capifellata. Smith ; 11. ^. cinerea, F. v. M. ; [E. citriodora, Hook., see 36. E. imculata, Hook. ; E. coccifera, Hook, f., see 3. E. amygdalina, Labill.] ; 12. E. coriacea, A. Cunn. ; 13. E. cornuta, Labill. ; 14. E. corymbosa. Smith ; 15. E. corynocalyx, F. V. M. ; 16. E. crebra, F.v.M. ; 17. E. delegatensis, B,.T. Baker ; 18. E. dives, Schauer; 19. E. eugenioides,S\eher ; 20. E. eximia,Sch3iUev; 21. E.ficifolia, F. V. M. ; 22. E. foecunda, Schauer ; 23. E. Globulus, Labill. ; 24. E. gompho- cephala, DC. ; 25. E. goniocalyx, F. v. M. ; 26. E. Guniiii, Hook. ; 27. E. 568 XXVIII. MYRTACEAE haemastoma. Smith; 28. E. hemiphloia, F. v. M. ; 29. E. Kirtoniana, F, v. M.; 30. E. Leucoxylon, F. v. M.; 31.-5/. longifolia. Link and Otto; 32. E. macran- dra, F. v. M. ; 33. E. Macarthuri, Deane and Maiden ; 34. E. 7nacrocarpa, Hook. ; 35. E. macrorrhyncha, F. v. M. ; 36. E. inaculata. Hook. ; 37. E. Maideni, F. v. M.; 38. E. marginata, Smith; 39. E. melanopkloia, F. v. M. ; 40. E. fmlliodora, A. Cunn. ; 41. E. microcorys, F. v. M. ; 42. E. miniata, Ciinn. ; 43. E. Mueller tana, Howett; 44. E. ohcordata, Turcz.; 45. E. obliqua, L'Herit. ; [E. obtimfolia, DC, see 74. E. virgata, Sieb.]; 4G. E. occidentalis, Endlicher; 47. E. paniculata. Smith; 48. E. patentinervis, R. T. Baker; [E. pauciflora, Sieb., see 12. E. coriacea, A. Cunn.]; 49, E. piUdaris, Smith; 50. E. piperita, Smith ; b\. E. Planchoniana, F. v. M. ; [E. Platypus, Hook., see 44. E. ohcordata, Turcz.] ; 52. E. ptychocarpa, F. v. M. ; 53. E. pulverulenta, Sims. ; 54. E. punctata, DC. ; 55. E. redunca, Schauer ; 56. E. regnans, F. v. M. ; 57. E. resinifera. Smith ; 58. E. rohusfu, Smith ; 59. E. rostrata, Schlecht ; 60. E. ruhida, Deane and Maiden ; 61. E. rudis, Endl. ; 62. E. saligna, Smith ; 63. E. siderophloia, Benth. ; 64. E. Sideroxylon, A. Cunn. ; 65. E. Sieberiana, F. V. M. ; 66. E. Smithii, R. T. Baker; 67. E. stellulata, Sieb. ; [E. stricta, Sieb., see 74. E. virgata, Sieb.]; 68. E. Stuartiana, F. v. M. ; 69. E. tereticornis. Smith; 70. E. trachijphloia, F. v. M.; 71. E. umbra, R. T. Baker; 72. E. urnigera, Hook. f. ; 73. E. viminalis, Labill. ; 74. E. virgata, Sieb. 1. Eucalyptus acmenoides, Schauer. White mahogany. A fairly tall straight-growing tree with drooping rather bushy foliage. Bark persistent, fibrous. Wood strong, tough and durable, used for posts, piles, building, &c. ; posts are said to have lasted over fifty years in Australia. Indigenous in eastern New South Wales and Queensland, growing well on well- drained sterile hills. There are a few specimens in the Nilgiris. Mr. R. Bourne gives the following: (1) CoonoorPeak; (2) below Cluny Hall; (3) St. Thomas's churchyard. It is being experimented with further as a plantation tree and has done well so far. It has not attained a large size in the Nilgiris. It is being tried on the plains of northern India, but appears unlikely to thrive. 2. Eucalyptus alpina, Lindl. A shrubby rare alpine species found on Movmt William, Victoria, at an elevation of over 4,000 ft. Very slow-growing and of dwarf habit. Has recently been tried on the plains of northern India, but is most unlikely to succeed. A curiosity and not a species of commercial importance. 3. Eucalyptus amygdalina, Labill., including E. regnans, F. v. M. Giant gum, peppermint gum. Maiden separates the two species, but they are here considered together because it is not yet certain to which belong the trees grown under the name of E. amygdalina in India. In its native home E. regnans is the largest of the eucalypts, trees over 400 ft. high having been recorded (F. v. Mueller). The stem is tall, straight and clean, with smooth almost white bark, and the foliage feathery and handsome. New South Wales, Victoria (eastern humid districts), and Tasmania, up to 4,000 ft. It attains its largest dimensions in well-watered ravines of the cooler ranges; in open country and on ridges it is a much smaller tree. Wood fairly light, floating in water, unlike that of most eucalypts, not very durable underground, but used for shingles, planking, and palings. EUCALYPTUS 569 The leaves are very rich in oil, but perhaps this refers to the variety known as the peppermint gum, with fragrant leaves. The tree is grown to a certain extent in the Nilgiris : Mr. R. Bourne mentions the following : (1) Coonoor Peak, block I, compartments 4 and 7 ; (2) several fine speci- mens in Sim's Park, said to be about 30 years old (in 1912), the largest 114 ft. high and 11 ft. 1| in. in girth ; (3) a few specimens near Wrenn and Bennett's ; (4) Springfield, compartment 11, six fine specimens along the road. It has been under trial in the Simla hills since 1909, and so far it has been found to do moderately well at 4,000-6,000 ft. It has been tried on the plains of northern India, but according to Mr. R. N. Parker it has been found quite misuitable. Dr. Brandis in 1876 reported a number of trees, believed to be this species, in the Changa Manga plantation, the largest, then eight years old, being 56 ft. high and 27 in. in girth ; probably, however, the species was not correctly determined. It has done well at Maymyo in Burma (3,500 ft.). Var. coccifera. Hook, f., has been tried without success on the plains of northern India. It is said to be very frost-hardy, and to have passed through severe winters in England. 4. Eucalyptus Andrews!, Maiden. Blackbutt or peppermint (of New England), white top. A tall tree with rough somewhat fibrous bark on the stem, and red twigs. Timber not of the first class, with many gum veins. Common in New England, New South Wales, generally on metamorphic rocks, on rocky ground with poor soil. Stands a considerable degree of cold. Has been tried recently on the plains of northern India, but is unlikely to prove successful. 5. Eucalyptus Baileyana, F. v. M. Rough stringybark. A tall tree with dense shady foliage, attaining 150 ft. in Australia. Bark very rough and fibrous. Wood very tough, suitable for tool handles. South- east Queensland, on poor somewhat sandy ridges near Brisbane. Has recently been tried on the plains of northern India, but so far does not show much promise. 6. Eucalyptus bicolor, A. Cunn. Black box. Usually a small tree or only a shrub. Has recently been grown at Dehra Dun and has established itself well so far. 7. Eucalyptus botryoides, Smith. Bastard mahogany. A tall straight-stemmed tree with handsome dark green dense shady foliage resembhng that of a Eugenia. Bark furrowed, outside greyish brown, inside rusty brown. Wood hard, tough and durable, used for large beams and felloes of wheels. South Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tas- mania, in moist localities along river flats and in mountain ravines. Also on coast sands, where it is somewhat gnarled ; it is one of the few eucalypts suitable for such localities. Will endure excessive soil- moisture, but the growth suffers if the ground is too swampy. Unsuitable for dry climates. It is among the species grown in the Nilgiris. Mr. R. Bourne gives the following localities : (1) Cairn Hill, block III ; a felled tree measured 97 ft. in height ; (2) Sim's Park, compartments 2 and 3, and in the Park itself. It grows well at Coonoor. It has recently been tried at Dehra Dun, and has estabhshed itself satisfactorily so far. It has been tried in mangrove swamps in the Andamans, but without success. 570 XXVIII. MYRTACEAE 8. Eucaiyptiis calophylla, R. Br. Orange- flowered gum. A moderate-sized to large tree with broad almost equilateral Eugenia-like leaves, and easily recognized from its very large urn-shaped fruits. SeedUng leaves peltate at the base. Bark persistent, dark brown, deeply furrowed, reddish and rather stringy on young trees. Wood not durable in the ground, but useful for spokes and tool handles, for which purpose it is replacing hicko^3^ South-west Australia, often in jarrah {E. marginata) forests. An extra-tropical tree, but has succeeded fairly well in some almost equatorial regions, as at Zanzibar. Requires a mild equable climate, and does not stand frost. It is grown in the Nilgiris. Mr. R. Bourne gives the following localities : (i) Coonoor Peak, block I, compartments 10, 33, and 36 ; (2) Rallia ; (3) an aged specimen on the Coonoor gJmt below Aravankadu on the north side of the road ; (4) Botanical gardens, Ootacamund, No. 17, 4 ft. in girth and 66 ft. in height. It was introduced experimentally in 1909 in the outer Himalaya below Simla, and so far has done well below 4,000 ft. It has recently been tried on the plains of northern India, but has not shown much promise. 9. Eucalyptus Cambagei, Deane and Maiden. Bastard box. A low stunted tree with somewhat fibrous bark. Timber of no use. Victoria and New South Wales. It has been tried in the Simla hills since 1909, and has done well at 4,000-6,000 ft. and moderately well at 6,000- 7,000 ft. elevation. 10. Eucalyptus capiteilata, Smith. Brown stringybark. A moderate- sized to tall straight or sometimes stunted tree with rather dense dark foliage and deeply fissured stringy bark. Wood tough, strong, durable, and fissile, used for construction, posts, shingles, and fuel. New South Wales (south-west and north of Sydney on poor rocky country), Victoria (Gippsland over 500 ft. and in places along the coast), South Australia (Mount Lofty). It is stunted and forms dwarf forests on moist sandy ridges. Suitable for wet sandy soil, and is found sometimes on moist flats. Grown in the Nilgiris, Cairn Hill, block HI ; a tree 66 ft. in height was measured by Mr. R. Bourne. Has been tried on the plains of northern India, but has proved quite unsuccessful. 11. Eucalyptus cinerea, F. v. M. Argyle apple. A handsome tree 40-50 ft. high, covered with a whitish bloom. BarJv fibrous, thick. New South Wales. Has recently been tried on the plains of northern India, but does not show much promise. Eucalyptus citriodora, Hook., see 36. E. maculata, Hook. Eucalyptus coccifera, Hook, f., see 3. E. amygdalina, Labill. 12. Eucalyptus coriacea, A. Cunn. Syn. E. pauciflora, Sieber. A moderate-sized tree, often with spreading branches, the branchlets more or les.s pendulous and often covered with a bluish bloom. Bark smooth, whitish grey. Wood rather soft and brittle ; an excellent fuel. Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania, from the lowest elevations up to near the snow- line in the Australian Alps. Is capable of standing rather severe frost, and grows close to glaciers, forming dwarf forests with E. Gunnii up to 5,500 ft. Has been tried in the Simla hills since 1909, and has done moderately well at 4,000-6,000 ft. Recently tried on the plains of northern India, but failed. EUCALYPTUS 571 13. Eucalyptus coriiuta, Labill. Yate. A tree reaching fair dimensions in its liome, but usually of small or moderate size, with slightly drooping foliage. Bark dark greyish brown, rough. Wood hard and elastic, used for shafts, boat ribs, and agricultural implements. South-west Australia. It thrives best in moist localities and does well in a humid climate, but can grow on poor soil. It can stand a con- siderable degree of frost, trees in Florida having withstood temperatures as low as 23° F. Under favourable conditions its growth is rapid. It has been grown in the Nilgiris (Botanical gardens, Ootacamund). It was tried without success about 1874-6 at Saugor in the Central Provinces. It has been tried in the Simla hills since 1909, and so far has done moderately well below 4,000 ft. It was reported in 1911-1 2 to be growing well in a rubber plantation at Kwanhla in the Amherst township, Burma. 14. Eucalyptus corymbosa, Smith. Bloodwood. A tall tree, but often small and stunted. Bark persistent, rough, blackish grey, yellowish or reddish brown inside, that of upper branches smooth and reddish or whitish. Wood very hard and durable, but difficult to saw owing to the quantity of kino in it, and not a good fuel ; used for piles and fence- posts. Queensland, North Australia, and New South Wales ; the commonest eucalypt in Queensland (Bailey). There is a specimen, which has not grown to any size, in the Nilgiris in Sim's Park, Forest Lodge. It has been tried in the Simla hills since 1909, and has done moderately well above 6,000 ft. It has recently been tried without success on the plains of northern India. 15. Eucalyptus corynocalyx, F. v. M. Sugar gum. A moderately tall tree with smooth bark and sweetish foliage which attracts cattle and sheep. Wood durable and very strong ; said to be better than hickory. South Australia and Victoria. Growth not very rapid. Very drought-enduring, but grows best with a fair amount of moisture : intolerant of excessive soil moisture. It has been tried since 1909 in the Simla hills at various elevations, and so far has done moderately well from below 4,000 ft. to over 7,000 ft. It has recently been tried on the plains of northern India, but so far it does not show much promise. 16. Eucalyptus crebra, F. v. M. Narrow-leaved ironbark. A moderate-sized or large tree with long narrow leaves, slender drooping branchlets, and small flowers and fruits'. Bark rough, deeply furrowed, grey to almost black. Wood hard, tough, elastic and durable, used for posts, piles, bridges, and wagons. Queensland, New South Wales, and North Australia ; often gregarious. Grown in the Nilgiris. Mr. Pv. Bourne gives the following : (1) Sim's Park ; (2) below Cluny Hall, one tree measured 4 ft. 10 in. in girth and about 40 ft. in height ; (3) Botanical gardens, Ootacamund, 7 ft. 6 in. in girth and 92 ft. in height. Now being experimented with further as a planta- tion tree in the Nilgiris, but the growth of the young trees is very slow, and success is not anticipated. Has been tried in the Simla hills since 1909, and so far has done only moderately well from 4,000 ft. upwards. Occasionally seen on the plains of northern India (Lahore, Amritsar, Kapurthala, Changa Manga, Saharanpur, Lucknow). On the plains the success is variable and the growth is slow in youth. Parker says the growth is slow for eucalyptus, but he records a tree 7 ft. in girth and fully 100 ft. high in Amritsar, the age of 572 XXVIII. MYRTACEAE which could not have been more than fifty years, and may have been con- siderably less. Line sowings along with field crops made at Dehra Dun proved successful in the earlier stages, a thick crop over G ft. high having resulted after two years : the plants did not suffer from frost, though in the very early stages many died of drought. The lines were, however, left untended and the ])lants suffered from overcrowding. Flowers Deceinber-January, Punjab (Parker). 17. Eucalyptus delegatensis, R. T. Baker. White ash. A tall tree with reddish stringy bark. Wood fissile, pale coloured, light, esteemed for indoor work. South-eastern part of New .South Wales, Victoria, on mountain ridges. Has been tried on the plains of northern India, but does not show much promise. 18. Eucalyptus dives, Schauer. Broad-leaved peppermint gum. A moderate-sized tree with very aromatic leaves. Bark rough on the stem, smooth and yellowish on the branches. Timber of little value. New South Wales and Victoria, on poor rocky ground, usually on gTanitic rock. Has been tried recently on the plains of northern India, but gives little promise of success. 19. Eucalyptus eugeuioides, Sieber. Wliite stringybark. A tall tree with dense dark shining Eugenia-like foliage and almost horizontal side branches. Bark thick and very stringy. Wood durable, fairly hard, easily worked, splits easily into shingles, slabs, &c. ; used also for fence- posts, building, sleepers, paving-blocks, flooring, and other purposes. Bark used for roofing and inner bark for mats and packing. South Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria, growing gregariously for the most part on elevated poor ground but descending into sandy low land. The tree grows very Avell in the Nilgiris, reaching a size not attained in its natural home. Mr. R. Bourne gives the following : (1) Coonoor Peak, block I, compartments 4 (girth 12 ft. 5 in.) and 36 ; (2) three or four fine specimens (one measured 113 ft. high and 10 ft. 7 in. in girth) in Botanical gardens ; (3) Sim's Park (girth 5 ft. 0 in. and 7 ft. 4 in., height 81-| ft. and 95 ft. respectively) ; (4) below Walthamstow ; (5) one fine specimen on the roadside near the lake below Woodcot ; (6) Keti, Snowdon, Aramby experimental plantations. It has been tried in the Simla hills since 1909, and so far has done moderately well at 4,000-0,000 ft. elevation. It has recently been tried on the plains of northern India, but does not give much promise of success. 20. Eucalyptus eximia, Schauer. White bloodwood, mountain bloodwood. A fairly tall tree with dark foliage. Bark persistent, somewhat scaly or flaky, yellowish, verging into a brown or grey tinge. Wood soft, not durable, containing kino ; a good fuel. Has been tried in the Simla hills since 1909, and has done well so far at elevations below 6,000 ft. Has recently been tried on the plains of northern India, but does not promise well, 21. Eucalyptus ficifolia, F. v. M. Scarlet-flowered gum. A small bushy tree with broad stiff leaves, dark above, paler below, and clusters of large handsome crimson flowers. A very handsome tree, planted mainly for ornament. South-west Australia. Has been extensively planted for ornament in the Nilgiris. Has recently been tried on the plains of northern India, but does not promise well. O a:) o o o 572 •+^ a -tJ t! a ^~' 1 — ' ^ f^"^ .-^ ^ -M rt ^ n^ tH) ^ < r^ o ^ -^ ■z: ^-1 13 r^ O o ^_^ O ^^ c (M M CO f-t C6 ^ CD o >> ;h O f-( bJO p r. -*^ ^ i+H o • rH ft ^ o Q •+i ^ « S • 1— t r-o CU o r^ ;i S © =0 r" ?^ ■w s ic t^ '^ t-^ f— * (^ f-^ -^i 13 Svl 'ho ■^ c3 ;^ o CI o O EUCALYPTUS 573 22. Eucalyptus foecuuda, Schauer. A whnib or sma!l tree with dark green foliage and darkisii .smooth bark f^hedding in cartilaginous lamellae. Wood hard and elastic. Western Australia, chiefly on limestone, but also on sandy plains with a calcareous substratum. Grown in the Nilgiris, but rare ; Sim's Park (R. Bourne). 23. Eucalyptus Globulus, Labill. Blue gum. A very large tree, with a tall straight clean bole when grown under forest conditions, but often tending to branch freely when grown in the open. Bark constantly decorticating in brown strips of varying length, showing the young smooth greyish or bluish white bark ; sometimes almost wholly persistent, and often rough at the base of the stem. The tree can be recognized by the quadrangular branchlets, the warty glandular calyx covered by a crown-shaped lid, and the characteristic leaves of seedlings and young coppice-shoots, which are opposite, sessile, cordate or cordate-ovate, covered with a bluish-white bloom and strongly impregnated with a gummy aromatic oil ; the stems of seedlings and young coppice-shoots are sharply quadrangular. Primordial leaves are also produced by adult trees which have been injured by fire or otherwise, and a burnt plantation has a characteristic silvery appearance. In the Nilgiris ripe seed may be collected about May, but the seed does not fall naturally until about July-August. Samples of Nilgiri seed gave 6,500 to 9,400 per oz. ; fresh seed gave the highest percentage of fertility, that kept for one year germinating fairly well, and that kept for two years germinating poorly. Fertile seed is produced at an early age : seed collected from coppice-shoots nine years old in the Nilgiris in 1912 showed a fertility of 47 per cent. The wood is hard, heavy, and strong, and in its native home is con- sidered durable, though not among the most durable of eucalypt timbers ; it is much used for house-building (joists, rafters, &c.), ship-building, carriage- building, &c. In the Nilgiris it has an indifferent reputation as timber, owing to its tendency to warp and split, but has proved to be fairly durable and is used for fence-posts. Possibly its poor reputation is due to some extent to the employment of timber from immature trees, for in some cases timber of fair quality has been yielded by large-sized trees. So far as Indian experience goes, however, there is not at present sufficient justification for planting the blue gum on an extensive scale as a timber tree. In the Nilgiris it is the principal source of fuel supply, and owing to its rapid growth and high yield it is eminently suitable for cultivation as a fuel tree. The blue gum is a native of Tasmania, Victoria, and New South Wales, where it occurs chiefly in the humid regions, in valleys as well as on ridges and mountain slopes ; while common in most parts of Tasmania it is most plentiful in the south, but it does not ascend to alpine elevations. The blue gum has been more extensively planted than any other eucalypt in extra- tropical regions throughout the globe, its first introduction into southern Europe dating from the early part of last century. It was among the earliest of the eucalypts introduced into India, probably about 1843, when the first attempts were made to cultivate these trees in the Nilgiris. The blue gum grows best in a moderately cool moist equable climate on deep fertile soil. It will endure excessive moisture, though not the equal of 574 XXVIIT. MYRTACEAE E. rostrata in this respect : swampy ground, however, is not favourable to good growth. It is averse to calcareous and to saline soils. The seedlings are somewhat sensitive to frost and drought, and even in the Nilgiris, where the winter cold is by no means intense, they require to be protected from frost for the first year after planting out. The adult trees also do not stand severe frost or drought. The blue gum has been tried from time to time in all kinds of localities throughout India, and from the experience gained it may be laid down that it is totally unsuitable for cultivation on the plains, or indeed at any elevation much below 4,000 ft. It has even been tried on coast sand in Madras, but needless to say the attempt was a complete failure. It has been planted in various parts of the Himalaya and has succeeded tolerably well in several places, particularly where the climate is not too severe, but it is very liable to breakage by snow, for which reason it is unsuitable for cultivation at altitudes where the snowfall is at all heavy. Prior to the abnormal frost of 1905 it was one of the commonest species grown at Abbottabad (4,000 ft.), but it was severely injured in the great frost, and many trees which had been killed outright were felled ; there are now far fewer specimens there, and those which existed prior to 1905 are all injured. Experiments within recent years have shown that it grows well in the Simla hills at 4,000-7,000 ft. elevation. In Burma it has proved a failure at Maymyo (3,500 ft.) but has succeeded in the hills of the Ruby Mines district. It grows well at Shillong in Assam. It is in the Nilgiris, however, that this tree grows to the greatest perfection ; it has been extensively planted at elevations varying from 5,000 to 8,300 ft., and is of paramount importance as a fuel-producing species. The climate of the Nilgiris has been described on pp. 558-9 : being cool, equable, and moist it is an ideal one for the growth of the blue gum, while the red clayey soil overlying gneissic rock, and remarkably free from lime, appears to be specially favourable to the growth of the tree. The Nilgiri plateau is hilly to undulating, and consists largely of open grassy downs with sholas, or patches of dense evergreen "forest of rather small-sized trees, occupying the more fertile hollows and ravines. Blue gum plantations have been formed both on grass-land and on shola-land, and the latter being more fertile the growth on this type of land is superior to that on the grass-land. The blue gum plantations of the Nilgiris are worked mainly as simple coppice, the rotation adopted for some time past being ten years, but under the latest revised working plan ^ it has been raised to fifteen years, this rotation being likely to furnish a higher yield. Some of the plantations in the less accessible situations have remained as high forest, and these give some idea of the large dimensions attained by this tree. Coppice- with- standards was tried at one time, but the standards were found to interfere with the development of the coppice, and the system was therefore abandoned : some of the coppice-with-standards coupes have been allowed to grow up into high forest. The coppicing power of the tree is remarkable, numerous shoots being sent up both from the cambium round the top of the stool and from the periphery of the stool lower down, but chiefly from the latter ; a callus forms over the top of the stool and may cover it completely in a few years. ^ Working Plan for the Nilgiri Plantations, S. Cox, 191 .3. ^ o CI 'o r^ '■+3 ^ ce <— -t^ f^ ^+^ *-* ~ c5 ^■— f i<— 1 o c !>j a> .0 M r^ ^ fl CS eg r^ > ^ •r- 1 cS -^ 0 G -*^ O 32 bJD' 9 ?J X! 9 0 S ,. ...Ji ^ 0 m™=,,,. -ji ^ J ^ 0 0 f-^ , (^ r TjT fl 1— I 0 ^U_9.- m U 19 cS CO . .. ,Jfl !-< P-l ■*■■'«'**■. bC •N 0 2 s A 'o ^ 02 '0 > 0) ^ t >i +3 S-1 !__.., 00 ^ ^^1 ^ QO '^1 0 -* '1^1 w' -^1 • ~ -t^ ^H vi-^nji^Bl ^^ _bJO 4> J** 0 a; 03 ti ^ c3 -0 ^ -S ^ s p <% (^ ' ^^1 ^ • (— ( ^^^^1 ■t-A ,606 cub. ft. 'stacked. Fig. 220. Eucalyptus Globulus plantation on shola land ; age 49 years ; girth average 6 ft. 9 in., maximum II ft. 6 in., height average 175 ft., maximum 185 ft.; trees per acre 51, solid volume per acre 12,704 cubic ft., Aramby II. 5, Ootacanuind. Fig. 221. Eiicali/ptiis (jllohnJns liigh toii-st plantation, before tliinning ; age 30 years ; after thinning, mean girth 3 ft. 11 in., mean height 143 ft. ; before thinning, stems per acre 028, solid volume per acre 15,822 cub. ft., Mutinad plantation, Nilgiris. EUCALYPTUS 577 The following tables showing form factors and bark allowances have been compiled from the measurements made in 1912 : 3. Eucalyjptus Globulus : form factors., Nilgiri plantations. Remarks. Average of 179 felled trees. Form factor, /, obtained from the formula / = - where v = volume of tree including bark, 5 = sectional area at breast height, and h = total height of tree : s and V obtained from true sectional area, iir -. Height. ft. 30-50 Form factor. 0-55 51-70 0-54 71-100 0-53 over 100 0-51 4. Eucalyptus Globulus : allowance for bark thickness, Nilgiri plantations. Average allowance for Total girth of tree Average thickness bark in girth including bark. of bark. measurements. in. in. Under 6 in. 01 0-6 6in.-ll in. 0-25 1-6 1 ft.-l ft. 11 in. 0-4 ^ 2-5 2 ft. -2 ft. 11 in. 0-6 3-8 3 ft. -3 ft. 11 in. 0-8 50 4 ft. -4 ft. 11 in. 0-9 5-7 5 ft. -5 ft. 11 in. 1-2 7-5 6 ft. -6 ft. 11 in. 1-3 8-0 7 ft. -7 ft. 11 in. 1-35 8-5 8 ft. and over 1-4 90 24. Eucalyptus gomphocephala, DC. Tooart. A tall fairly shady tree. Bark persistent, rough and dark on old stems, greyish and smooth on younger stems and branches. Wood hard, strong, heavy, durable, difficult to split, used for ship-building, piles, bridge-construc- tion, and other purposes. Western Australia, near the coast on limestone formation. Has been tried since 1909 in the Simla hills, and so far has done moderately well below 6,000 ft. Has recently been tried at Lahore and has succeeded fairly well hitherto, reaching a height of 16 ft. in four years. 25. Eucalyptus goniocalyx, F. v. M. Mountain gum, spotted gum of Victoria. A very tall tree, in rich valleys attaining 300 ft. in height, but often much smaller and tending to branch low. Bark persistent, wrinkled or fissured, but somewhat variable. Wood hard, tough, and durable, difficult to split, used for boat-building, construction, wheel-work, posts, &c. Victoria and New South Wales ; a rough-barked variety grows on low dry and stony ranges, and a taller variety with smoother bark is found in hilly country up to 3,000 ft., descending into wet valleys. Not usually gregarious. Has been tried since 1909 in the Simla hills, and has succeeded moderately well at elevations below 4,000 ft. Has been tried on the plains of northern India, but without success. It has recently been tried at Mercara in Coorg, and shows some promise. 26. Eucalyptus Gunnii, Hook. Swamp gum, cider gum. A tree reaching large dimensions, but often crooked, and sometimes stunted. The leaves have not the strong aromatic odour characteristic of most eucalypts, and are therefore readily browsed by cattle and sheep. Bark constantly exfoliating in long strips, exposing the younger whitish bark. Wood 2307.2 R 578 XXVIII. MYRTACEAE hard and of good quality, but straight stems are not always available ; usually splits with difficulty. South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, and Tasmania, on alluvial flats, particularly in swampy places, but also on moist hill-sides and mountains, ascending in a dwarf state to 5,500 ft. A hardy species, standing a considerable degree of frost. It is cultivated in the Mlgiris ; Mr. R. Bourne gives the following : (1) Sim's Park, Forest Lodge ; (2) Botanical ■gardens, Ootacamund, No. 16, girth 4 ft. 2 in., height 63 ft. 6 in. ; (3) Cairn Hill, block III. It has been tried in the Simla hills since 1909, and has done well at elevations of 4,000-7,000 ft. and moderately well under 4,000 ft. It has been tried on the plains of northern India, but without success. 27. Eucalyptus haemastoma, Smith. White or scribbly gum. A fairly tall slender erect tree with rather broad peppermint-scented leaves. Bark very white. Wood not of great value, not durable : a fair fuel. South Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania, often on poor ground. Has been tried without success in the Simla hills and on the plains of northern India. 28. Eucalyptus hemiphloia, F. v. M. White or grey box. A moderately tall tree with drooping foliage. Bark peeling off in long strips. Wood strong, hard, tough, close grained, and durable, used for posts, building, wheel-work, tool-handles, &c. South Queensland, sometimes extend- ing into the tropics. New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia, some- times on fiats but usually on rough dry hills or ridges. Not particular as to soil or climate. It is grown in the Nilgiris, where it is only a small tree. Mr. R. Bourne gives the following : (1) Sim's Park; (2) below Cluny Hall, one tree measured 3 ft. in girth and about 35 ft. in height ; (3) St. Thomas's churchyard. It has been tried since 1909 in the Simla hills, and so far has done moderately well at elevations below 7,000 ft. It has recently been tried at Lahore, and has shown promise during the first few years, having reached a height of 22 ft. in four years. 29. Eucalyptus Kirtoniana, F. v. M. A large tree with rough somewhat fibrous bark. According to Maiden this is a variety of E. resinifera, Smith, but whereas the latter cannot be gro^vn on the plains, E. Kirtoniaria has been grown successfully at Lahore and Saharanpur. According to Parker it does well on the plains provided it gets a good deal of moisture. There are a number of specimens in the grounds of the Punjab Club at Lahore. Flowers October-November (Parker). 30. Eucalyptus Leucoxylon, F. v. M. Victorian ironbark, white gum of South Australia. A tree sometimes reaching a large size but usually crooked and of small size, with pendulous branchlets. Bark persistent, deeply fissured, very hard, and dark coloured ; a variety has the stem pale and smooth through the outer bark falling. The bark is rich in kino. Wood very hard, durable, and strong, used for wheel-work, shafts, railway sleepers, paving-blocks, axe- handles, &c. South Australia, New South Wales, and southern Queensland. The ironbark variety with persistent furrowed bark occurs chiefly on stony ridges or mountains of sandstone and slate formation. The white-barked variety occurs on alluvial plains around Adelaide. It has a wide range of climate and will grow even on poor soil. According to von Mueller it is one EUCALYPTUS 579 of the best eucalypts for a moist tropical climate. There are specimens in the Nilgiris, but they have attained only small size. Mr. R. Bourne gives the following : (1) Government gardens, Ootacamund ; (2) Sim's Park, compart- ment 1; and (3) along Walker's Hill road, where it forms a handsome avenue. It has been tried since 1909 in the Simla hills, and has done well so far at elevations below 4,000 ft. 31. Eucalyptus longifolia, Link and Otto. Woolly butt. A large handsome tree with drooping foliage which turns a pink colour. Bark persistent, greyish brown, fibrous, very thick. Wood more useful for fuel than for timber ; used for fence-posts. Victoria and New South Wales. It is grown in the Nilgiris, attaining a fair size. Mr. R. Bourne gives the following : (1) Sim's Park ; (2) Botanical gardens, Ootacamund : two trees measured, (i) girth 10 ft. 2 in., height 95 ft. 6 in., (ii) girth 7 ft. 6 in., height 113 ft. 10 in. It has been tried in the Simla hills since 1909, and has done well so far at elevations below 6,000 ft. It has recently been tried on the plains of northern India, but does not show much promise. 32. Eucalyptus macrandra, F. v. M. A shrub or small tree with smooth bark, a native of Western Australia. Has been tried recently on the plains of northern India, but has not shown much promise. 33. Eucalyptus Macarthuri, Deane and Maiden. Paddy's River box. A moderate-sized tree with rough bark. A native of New South Wales, preferring low swampy situations. Has recently been tried on the plains of northern India, but has not shown much promise so far. 34. Eucalyptus macrocarpa, Hook. A large shrub, mealy all over with a whitish bloom, leaves opposite, sessile, lobed at the base. Flowers large and handsome with orange or crimson stamens. Western Australia, in dry scrub forests. Has recently been tried on the plains of northern India, but does not promise well. 35. Eucalyptus macrorrhyncha, F. v. M. Victorian stringybark, red stringybark. A tree sometimes attaining fair dimensions but usually of moderate size, with handsome drooping foliage. Bark persistent, greyish brown, thick, deeply fissured, stringy, used for roofing. Wood hard, durable, easily split, used for shingles, fencing, and boarding. South Australia, Victoria, and New South Wales, on comparatively sterile ridges and ranges, often gregarious, frequently mixed with E. obliqua, not usually ascending to any great elevation. It is grown in the Nilgiris. Mr. R. Bourne gives the following : (1) Sim's Park; (2) Botanical gardens, Ootacamund, No. 13, height 75 ft., girth 9 ft. 4 in. It has been tried in the Simla hiUs and also on the plains of northern India, but so far has proved unsuccessful. 36. Eucalyptus maculata, Hook. Spotted gum, including var. citriodora, Bailey (Syn. E. citriodora, Hook.), lemon-scented gum. A tall straight clean-boled tree. Seedling leaves peltate at the base, rough with reddish hairs. Var. citriodora is distinguished from the normal variety by its strongly lemon-scented leaves. Bark smooth, whitish to reddish grey, falHng off in patches, leaving an indentation where each patch was peltately attached and giving a spotted appearance to the stem. Wood strong, tough, R2 580 XXVIII. MYRTACEAE elastic, and durable, liable to warp in drying, easily split, used for wheel-work, carriage -building, tool-handles, ship-building, wood-paving, sleepers, &c. New South Wales and Queensland, the lemon-scented variety in Queensland. In its home it occurs usually on hilly ground. Outside its habitat it has been found incapable of resisting severe frost or excessive drought. It does best with considerable soil moisture, but will grow on fairly dry ground. In the severe frost of 1905 at Lahore young plants were killed but new shoots were sent up from the base ; nursery plants at Dehra Dun are apt to be affected by frost in the winter unless protected. This is the species (var. citriodora) most commonly planted at Saharanpur and Dehra Dun, where it grows well and rapidly, though it runs to height rather than to girth. An avenue of this species was planted in the Forest Research Institute grounds at Dehra Dun in 1914. It also grows well at Lucknow and other stations of northern India. In the Punjab it is less common ; seedlings are somewhat difficult to raise at Lahore. It is fairly common at Abbottabad. There are several specimens in the Nilgiris : Mr. R. Bourne gives the following : (1) Sim's Park, a specimen in the front of the Lodge ; (2) in Mr. C. Mackenzie's garden at Ootacamund ; (3) Botanical gardens, Ootacamund, girth 4ft. 4 in., height about 70 ft. ; (4) Sim's Park, compartment 1, in front of Forest Lodge; (5) a solitary specimen growing in the Moyar forest by the side of the Masnigudi-Tappacadu road, where it seems to be thriving fairly well. It was tried in 1913 at Mercara, Coorg, and so far has proved one of the best species experimented with, having attained a maximum height of 21 ft. and a maximum girth of 7 in. in three years. There are some trees at Maymyo in Burma, planted about 1893 and doing well. Flowers February-March, Punjab (Parker). 37. Eucalyptus Maiden!, F. v. M. A tall straight tree with smooth white or bluish bark. New South Wales, at 1,000-2,000 ft., often on steep slopes. It has been tried since 1909 in the Simla hills, and has done well at 4,000-7.000 ft., and moderately well under 4,000 ft. elevation. 38. Eucalyptus marginata, Smith. Jarrah. A large tree, averaging 100 ft. and reaching 150 ft. in height, sometimes buttressed at the base. Bark persistent, greyish brown, somewhat fibrous. Wood extremely durable, though not by any means the strongest of eucalypt timbers. It lasts for a long time under various conditions, not only in or on the ground, but also under water, and is said to be immune from the attacks of teredo in the sea. One of the best known timber trees in the world : wood largely used for piles, construction of all kinds, railway sleepers, paving-blocks, ship-building, &c. Jarrah sleepers have been imported into India in quantity for several years past. It occupies an area estimated at 8,000,000 acres in the south-western part of Western Australia, growing gregariously and at its best on hilly country on granite and ironstone, while on the sandy plains near the coast it is scattered and inferior in quality. Its region has an average rainfall of 30 to 40 in., and is peculiar in having regular winter rains from April to October. Where tried outside its habitat it has been found to be readily affected by frost, and to be unsuited for dry soils, requiring a moist but well-drained soil. Its introduction into India has been attempted from time to time, but so far as is known it has not yet been successfully established. EUCALYPTUS 581 It has been tried and found quite unsuitable for the plains of northern India. At Lucknow it was found incapable of standing the rains. BrancUs reported in 1876 that it was cultivated in the Nilgiris, but no specimens are known to exist there now. Seed was sown in 1909 in the. Sanyasimalai plantation. North Salem, Madras, at an altitude of 4,000 ft., and the seedlings are reported to have done well during the first year, but no further reports are available. 39. Eucalyptus melanophloia, F. v. M. Silver-leaved ironbark. A tree with a spreading crown and opposite sessile silvery leaves. Bark dark, rough. Wood hard and close grained. New South Wales, Queensland, in open country. This species is grown in Lahore, Changa Manga, Agra, and Saharanpur. When young it is apt to grow spindly and rec[uires staking. Given sufficient water the growth is fairly fast ; at Lahore young plants reached a height of 24 ft. in four years. It stands drought well. Flowers May-June, Punjab (Parker). 40. Eucalyptus melliodora, A. Cunn. Honey-scented gum, yellow box. A moderate-sized tree, occasionally attaining large dimensions, with pendulous branches and slender branchlets. Bark brownish grey outside, yeUow inside, more or less persistent. Wood yellowish, very hard, heavy, tough, and durable, used for wheel-work, posts, &c., but not very suitable for sawing into planks ; an excellent fuel. Victoria and New South Wales, chiefly on ridges but descending into valleys. Will live on poor soil. Has been tried since 1909 in the Simla hills, and has done moderately well at elevations below 6,000 ft. Recently tried at Lahore, and has shown promise during the first few years, having reached a height of 25 ft. in four years. 41. Eucalyptus microcorys, F. v. M. Tallow- wood, wangee. A large tree with reddish fibrous persistent bark. Wood very tough and durable, used for house- and ship-building, sleepers, wheel-work, &c. New South Wales and southern Queensland, on arid or sandy hills, on the coast side of the ranges. Comparatively rare in the Nilgiris : Sim's Park, a good specimen above the drive to Sim's Park Lodge (R. Bourne). Has been tried since 1909 in the Simla hills, and so far has done moderately well below 4,000 ft. Has recently been tried with some success at Saharanpur. 42. Eucalyptus miniata, Cunn, A very ornamental tree with red flowers. Bark with external appearance and fracture resembhng mica-schist. North Australia and Queensland. Nil- giris, in Sim's Park reserve (R. Bourne). 43. Eucalyptus Muelleriana, Howett. Yellow stringybark. A tree often attaining 60 ft. in height, mth straight massive bole and moderately spreading branches. Bark dark grey, fibrous, fissured. Wood of good quafity, fissile, very durable. South AustraHa, Victoria, and New South Wales, usually on broken country, preferring the taluses of hills on moderately good soil and avoiding exposed situations (Maiden). It has been tried experi- mentally in the Simla hills since 1909, but has proved unsuitable for intro- duction on a large scale. It has also been tried recently on the plains of northern India, but does not show promise. 44. Eucalyptus obcordata, Turcz. Syn. E. Platypus, Hook. A large shrub or small tree with broad leaves with wavy margins and very broad flattened flower-stalks. Bark smooth, greyish. Western Australia, 582 XXVIII. MYRTACEAE often forming almost impenetrable thickets. Has recently been tried on the plains of northern India, but gives Httle promise of success. 45. Eucalyptus obliqua, L'Herit. Stringybark (South Australia and Tasmania), messmate tree (Victoria). A very tall straight tree, attaining a maximum height of about 300 ft. Bark persistent, very fibrous, greyish outside, brownish red inside, rather soft. Wood not very durable but much used, owing to its abundance, for rough building purposes ; very fissile, and extensively split into palings, shingles, &c. It is said to be an indifferent fuel, but this has not been found to be the case in the Nilgiris, where it is much used. The bark is used for roofing. South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, and Tasmania, one of the commonest and most gregarious of the eucalypts, forming vast forests and extending to high but not to alpine elevations. It does not stand drought. After E. Globulus this is one of the commonest species in the Nilgiris, where it reaches large dimensions. It was tried at Saugor in the Central Provinces in 1874-6, but failed. It has been tried in the Simla hills at various elevations, but so far has not proved successful. It has failed hitherto on the plains of northern India, but recently it has given more promise of success in the early stages at Saharanpur. Eucalyptus obtusifolia, DC, see 74. E. virgata, Sieb. 46. Eucalyptus occideutalis, Endl. Flat-topped yat. A moderate-sized tree, attaining fairly large dimensions in favourable locaUties, but often Uttle more than a shrub. Wood hard and strong, used for wheel-work. Western Australia, on clayey as well as on sandy soil, and also in wet places. Has recently been tried on the plains of northern India, but does not show much promise. 47. Eucalyptus paniculata, Smith. White ironbark. A moderate-sized tree, attaining a height of 60 to 70 ft. Bark persistent, hard, rough, brown. Wood strong and very durable, much used for wheel- work, carriage-building, construction, sleepers, posts, &c. Chiefly in New South Wales in the coastal regions ; also in Victoria. It can stand poor dry soil but not excessive heat or drought. There are specimens in the Nilgiris : Sim's Park, Forest Lodge (R. Bourne). It has recently been tried experi- mentally for plantation work in those hills, but so far the growth has been slow. It has been tried since 1909 in the Simla hills, and has done weU hitherto at elevations below 4,000 ft. It has been grown for some time at Saharanpur, and there are a few trees at Changa Manga. Flowers September-October, Punjab (Parker). 48. Eucalyptus pateutinervis, R. T. Baker. Bastard mahogany. A large tree with angular branchlets and bark resembling that of some species of pine. New South Wales. Has recently been tried at Dehra Dun and has estabhshed itself, but has not been tried long enough to give definite results. Eucalyptus pauciflora, Sieb., see 12. E. coriacea, A. Cunn. 49. Eucalyptus pilularis, Smith. Blackbutt. A very large tree. Bark persistent at the base, greyish, fibrous, and rough, falling off in strips from the upper part of the trunk and branches. Wood hard, tough, and durable, used for building, ship-building, paving-blocks, EUCALYPTUS 583 posts, &c. Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria. Usually a mountain tree, but sometimes found on level ground along rivers ; prefers a damp climate and a moist rich soil. It is not common in the Nilgiris, and does not attain the large dimensions reached in its native home : Mr. R. Bourne records a tree in Sim's Park 116 ft. high and 5 ft. 6 in. in girth. It is being further experimented with in the Nilgiris as a plantation tree, and so far has shown promise. It was tried at Mercara, Coorg, in 1913, and has done well so far. It has proved a failure in the Simla hills and on the plains of northern India. 50. Eucalyptus piperita, Smith. Sydney peppermint. A moderate- sized tree, closely akin to E. pilularis, but with rougher bark extending to the branches. Wood said to be of inferior quality. Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland, on rather poor ground. Has been tried in the Simla hills and on the plains of northern India, but without success, 51. Eucalyptus Planchoniana, F. v, M. A moderate-sized tree with angular branchlets and flattened petioles. Bark persistent, more or less fibrous. Wood hard and heavy, used for house- building. Local in southern Queensland and New South Wales on sandy or rocky ridges. Has been tried since 1909 in the Simla hiUs and has done moderately weU between 4,000 and 6,000 ft. elevation. Has recently been tried on the plains of northern India, but does not promise well. Eucalyptus Platypus, Hook., see 44. E. obcordata, Turcz. 52. Eucalyptus ptychocarpa, F. v. M. A moderate-sized tree with persistent grejdsh, wrinkled, somewhat fibrous bark, ornamental red flowers, and longitudinally ridged fruits. North Australia, along rocky streams and dry watercourses. Nilgiris : ( 1 ) Cairn Hill ; (2) plentiful along the Walker's Hill road in Coonoor ; (3) two or three fine specimens along the Ghat road from Aravankadu to Wellington (R. Bourne). 53. Eucalyptus pulverulenta, Sims. Silver-leaved stringybark. A small scraggy tree with bluish white glaucous opposite sessile leaves and grey stringy bark. Wood brittle and twisted. Victoria and New South Wales. It has been grown to a small extent in the Nilgiris : Mr. R. Bourne gives the following : (1) Botanical gardens, Ootacamund ; (2) Cluny Hall compound ; (3) in a small plantation above the Sigur Ghat road, just beyond the junction of the Lascelles and Sigur roads. 54. Eucalyptus punctata, DC. Leather jacket, hickory gum, A moderate-sized to large tree of spreading habit, with dark rough bark. Wood hard, tough, extremely durable, difiicult to spht, used for sleepers, fence-posts, wheel-work, building, &c. ; a good fuel. New South Wales, usually in dry rocky places. It is grown in the Nilgiris (Sim's Park), and is receiving a further trial there as a plantation tree, showing good promise so far. It was tried at Mercara, Coorg, in 1913, and has proved successful in the early stages. It has been tried in the Simla hills since 1909, and hitherto has suc- ceeded moderately well at elevations below 4,000 ft. Recently it has been tried along the railway between Lakhsar and Hardwar, and so far has done well on dry stony ground. 55. Eucalyptus reduiica, Schauer. Wandoo, white gum (Western Australia). A large tree with persistent smooth white bark. Wood hard, heavy, 584 XXVIII. MYRTACEAE durable, and very tough, much in demand for building, wheel-work, shafts, and tool-handles. Western Australia, forming extensive forests and more plentiful in the south-western parts of Australia than any species except E. marginata. It grows on hill slopes and on flats, being content mth poor soil and even badly-drained ground. It is grown in the Nilgiris (Sim's Park), but is apparently uncommon (R. Bourne). 56. Eucalyptus regnaus, F. v. M. See under 3. E. amygdalina, LabiH. Trees raised from seed imported under the name E. regnans have been under trial since 1909 in the Simla hills, and so far have done moderately well from 4,000 to 6,000 ft. elevation. This species has also recently been tried on the plains of northern India, but does not promise weU. 57. Eucalyptus resinifera, Smith. Red mahogany. A large tree, forming a tall straight clean bole. Bark rough, fibrous, persistent, decorticating on the branches, deep reddish brown in the young trees, changing to Kght grey and brown on older stems. Wood a rich red colour, strong and durable, used for piles, fence-posts, and building. The tree exudes kino. New South Wales and southern Queensland, not extending far inland. It prefers a moist semi-tropical climate, gro^ving best on deep fertile gromid ; it will grow on a variety of soils, including poor gravel and sand, and is drought-resistant, but will not stand badly-drained swampy ground. It has proved exceptionally^ frost-resistant in Florida, having with- stood temperatures of 19° F. without damage.^ It is grown in the Nilgiris (Sim's Park), but is apparently rare (R. Bourne). It has recently been under trial in the Sanyasimalai plantation. North Salem, at an elevation of 4,000 ft. Its cultivation has been attempted in the Simla hills since 1909, so far with moderate success at elevations below 4,000 ft. It has been tried on the j)lains of northern India, but without success : a species introduced about J 865 and successfully cultivated at Lucknow under the name of E. resinifera was in 1876 finally determined to be ^. saligna, Smith. Mr. R. N. Parker notes that for many years E. rostrata and E. tereticnrnis have been distributed from the Agri-Horticultural Gardens, Lahore, under the name of E. resinifera. This species has done fairly well at Maymyo in Burma (elevation 3,500 ft.). It was tried in the Andamans in 1914, and showed some promise after the first year. It has been found to do well in the neighbourhood of Mercara in Coorg, at 4,000 ft., in places sheltered from the force of the south-west monsoon, and it is proposed to plant such areas with this species for the fuel supply of INIercara. 58. Eucalyptus robusta, Smith. Swamp mahogany. A moderate-sized to large tree with stout angular branchlets, large leaves, and somewhat spreading habit, making it suitable as a shade tree. Bark persistent, wrinkled, and somewhat furrowed, grey outside, sometimes turning a rusty colour. Wood rather brittle, difficult to split, fairly durable, used chiefly for building. Ncav South Wales and Queensland, growing best in regions not far from the sea. This tree prefers moist situations, but will grow under a variety of conditions ; it is particularly well adapted for thriving in badly-drained swamps, though not quite so tolerant of swampy ground as E. rostrata. It is somewhat sensitive to frost. The growth is fast. There are ^ Eucalypts in Florida, R. Zon and J. M. Briscoe, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, For. Serv. Bull., No. 87, 1911, p. 21. EUCALYPTUS 585 a few trees in the Nilgiris. Mr. Bourne records two in Sim's Park: (1) girth 9 ft. 9 in., height 60 ft. ; (2) girth 7 ft., height 80 ft. He states that no trace of this species can be found in the plantations, and where references to it are made in old records E. obliqua was evidently meant. It is grown in various parts of the plains of northern India and in the sub-Himalayan tract, where it is worth growing only in moist situations, being unsuccessful in even moderately dry places ; young plants grow vigorously, but older trees often become misshapen and ugly. It was recently tried in mangrove swamps in the Andamans, but was unable to stand the salt water , it showed some promise during the first year on ground farther inland. 59. Eucalyptus rostrata, Schlecht. Red gum. A large tree attaining a large girth, sometimes erect and symmetrical, but often irregular in shape, with droopmg foliage. Bark smooth, ashy grey or whitish, often mottled mth brown. Wood strong and very durable, used for railway sleepers, piles, bridge-construction, ship-building, wheel-work, and many other purposes ; a very good fuel. Victoria, South Austraha, Western Australia, New South Wales, Queensland, and North x\ustraHa ; not in Tasmania. This is one of the most important timber trees of Australia, not only because of its useful timber, but also because of its wide range and great abundance. It has been introduced into various parts of the globe, and grows under a variety of cHmatic conditions and in various situations and soils, preferring moist alluvial valleys and river-banks, but enduring considerable drought. It is particularly well adapted for grooving in moist swampy localities, being probably unsurpassed by any other eucalypt for this purpose. It stands a considerable degree of frost as well as of heat ; in California it endures minimum temperatures of 15° to 20° F., and maximum temperatures of 110° to 115° F.^ The growth is rapid, though not equal to that of E. Globulus. It is grown in the Nilgiris, where it coppices badly ; Mr. R. Bourne gives the following locaUties : (I) Cairn Hill, block I, compartment 3 in the swamp, and block II, compartments 4 and 5 ; (2) Aramby, in a few places. It was tried without success at Saugor, Central Provinces, in 1874-6. It was sown in 1909 in the Sanyasimalai plantation. North Salem (elevation 4,000 ft.), and did well in the early stages. It has been tried since 1909 in the Simla hills, and has done weU up to date at elevations below 4,000 ft. It is one of the species grown at Abbottabad (4,000 ft.). On the plains of northern India it thrives well and grows rapidly. In the Changa Manga plantation this species and E. tereticornis have proved more successful than any other eucalypt hitherto tried, and when once established they can hold their o^vn against the mulberry. At Maymyo, Burma (elevation 3,500 ft.), it has done better than any other species tried so far ; the fine avenue in the Maymyo bazaar consists chiefly of this species. It has recently been tried in the Andamans, and has shown promise in the early stages. It is cultivated at Calcutta, Poona, and other low elevations. Flowers May-June, Punjab (Parker). 60. Eucalyptus rubida, Deane and Maiden. Candle-bark. A tree with smooth glaucous bark, often with reddish patches, the outer layer falling off in ribbons. Nev/ South Wales and Victoria. It has recently been tried on the plains of northern India, but has not shown much promise. 1 Eucalyptus, its History, Growth, and Utilization, C. H. Sellers, California, 1910. 586 XXVIII. MYRTACEAE 61. Eucalyptus rudis, Endl. Swamp gum, flooded gum. A moderate -sized to large tree with leaves rich in oil. Bark greyish, usually rough and persistent, but sometimes flaking off and leaving the trunk smooth. Wood useful for fueL and also used for posts. Western Australia, on river-banks and around swamps. In California it has proved remarkably hardy to heat and cold, enduring minimum temperatures of 15° to 18"" F,, a,nd maximum temperatures of 110° to 118° F.^ It has been tried since 1909 in the Simla hills, and so far has proved fairly successful at elevations below 6,000 ft. Within recent years it has been tried on the plains of northern India and in the sub-Himalayan tract (Lahore, Saharanpur, Lucknow, Dehra Dun), and has proved extraordinarily successful. A tree situated in the worst plot of land in the Government Agri-Horticultural Gardens, Lahore, attained a height of 50 ft. and a girth of 2 ft. 5 in, in four years. '^ This tree formed one of a row of trees groAving vigorously in a patch of saline soil in which the salt- weed {Suaeda fruticosa) could hardly grow, and where all ordinary plants were incapable of living ; at three j^ears of age they averaged 30 ft. in height. ]\Ii'. R. N. Parker,^ in describing these plants at Lahore, notes that for satisfactory growth, E. rudis apparently requires a very dry climate ; the Lahore plants received constant irrigation since they were planted, but an abundance of water is not essential, as in the Kot Lakhpat plantation near Lahore this species is growing remarkably well with only moderate irrigation and with long- intervals between successive watering. This species is doing well at Lucknow, and is reported to be thriving on swampy ground between Lakhsar and Hardwar.'* Flowers October to February (Parker). 62. Eucalyptus saligna, Smith. Grey gum. A tall straight tree mth deciduous rather thick grey bark. Wood very hard, tough, and close grained, used for ship -building, carpentry, &c. New South Wales and southern Queensland, often plentiful on ridges, but also frequent along banks of streams. Said to prefer a deep moist soil and. to be sensitive to drought. In Florida a tree has withstood temperatures of 22° F. without serious injury ; another tree in an exposed situation was bent and dwarfed by the wind.^ It is grown in the Nilgiris (Sim's Park), It has been tried in the Simla hills since 1909, and has done moderately well above 4,000 ft. It grows well on the plains of northern India, but apparently in most of the older reports the name E. saligna has been applied to totally different species. On the other hand, at Lucknow specimens of Avhat were at first considered to be E. resinifera were in 1876 finaUy determined to be E. saligna ; one tree was reported in 1877 to have attained a height of 45 ft, and a girth of 8 ft. 9 in. at 3 ft. from ground-level in ten to twelve years. Recently this species has again been tried at Lucknow, and so far it has proved very promising. It has recently been tried at Mercara in Coorg, and shows some promise. Mr, R, N, Parker ^ notes that on the Punjab plains he has seen this species only in Amritsar, where there are a number of specimens growing remarkably well ; seedlings sown in Lahore in 1912 died off in large numbers during the monsoon, but the survivors were quite healthy and ^ngorous the following year. The ^ yellers, loc. cU., p, 73. - CJardeii Report, 1914-15, ^ Iiid, Forester, xl (1914), p, 452. * Report Gov, Bot. Gardens, Saharanpur, 1915-16. * Zon and Briscoe, loc. cif., p. 26. ^ Ind, Forester, xxxix (1913), p. 85, EUCALYPTUS 587 plants reached a height of 12 ft. m three years. Flowers May, Punjab (Parker). 63. Eucalyptus siderophloia, Benth. Sydney ironbark. (The name broad-leaved or large-leaved ironbark is the one more correctly applicable to var. rostrata, the young leaves of wliich are often 2 to 6 in. mde).^ A large tree mth a straight stem. Bark persistent, dark brown to nearly black, thick, deeply furrowed. Wood close grained, very hard, heavy and durable, largely used for building, bridge-construction, railway sleepers, wheel- work, and other purposes for which great strength is required ; this is the principal ironbark tree in its native home. New South Wales and southern Queensland. A tree in Florida about ten years old measured 55 ft. in height and 13-7 in. in diameter ; it was growing on dry soil and had withstood a temperature of 22° F.- In the Nilgiris there is a small plantation beyond Forest Lodge in Sim's Park, where this species is growing well (R. Bourne). It is now being experimented with further as a plantation tree in those hiUs, and has hitherto shown fairly rapid growth. There is a specimen doing well in the Changa Manga plantation near Lahore. It has been tried at Lucknow since 1912, and so far has done well. At Lahore seeds of this species were • sown in 1911, and the plants reached a height of 11 ft. 7 in. in three years, but failed in the fourth year. Flowers April, Punjab (Parker). 64. Eucalyptus Sideroxylon, A. Cunn. Red ironbark, Victoria ironbark. A moderate-sized or large tree with narrow silvery leaves and hard, rough, dark-coloured bark. Wood dark red, very hard, heavy, strong, and durable, used for railway sleepers, beams and girders, shafts and wheel-work. New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland, usually on poor sterile ranges. In California it endures minimum temperatures of 16° to 20° F., and maximum temperatures of 110° to 112° F.^ It was tried mthout success at Saugor, Central Provinces, about 1874r-6. It is reported to have done well in the Kumaun hiUs, and is one of the species grown at Abbottabad, where it survived the severe frost of 1905. It has been tried since 1909 in the Simla hills, and has done moderately well between 4,000 and 6,000 ft. It has been tried at Changa Manga, but does badly ; the heartwood of the trees becomes eaten by white ants. Not suitable for the plains. In India it tends to form a crooked bole and to produce large branches. Flowers September, Punjab (Parker). 65. Eucalyptus Sieberiana, F. v. M. Yohut, mountain ash. A large tree attaining 120 ft. in height. Bark dark brown or grey, deeply furrowed, red and scaly on young trees, smooth and pale on branches. Wood tough and elastic, not durable when exposed to the weather, used chiefly for ship-building, tool-handles, and carriage-building ; a good fuel. South AustraUa, Victoria, New South Wales, and Tasmania, frequent on poor barren ground or sandy soil on rocky and stony mountain ranges, ascending on southerly aspects to 5,000 ft. This tree has been grown to some extent in the Nilgiris, where it is found almost always as coppice ; older trees are of rather crooked growth. Mr. R. Bourne gives the following locahties : (1) Cairn Hill, block II, compartments 1, 4, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 19, and block III; (2) Aramby, block II, compartments 13 and 14; (3) Baikie, compartments 3 and 5. It has been 1 Bailey, Queensland Woods. - Zon and Briscoe, loc. cit., p. 27. 3 Sellers, loc. cit., p. 73. 588 XXVIII. MYRTACEAE tried without success in the Simla hiUs and also on the plains of northern India. 66. Eucalyptus Smithii, R. T. Baker. White top, gully ash. A tall tree \^ith furrowed dark grey bark, smooth on the branches and upper bole. New South Wales, in the south coastal districts. Has recently been tried on the plains of northern India, but does not show much promise. 67. Eucalyptus stellulata, Sieb. A small or moderate-sized tree with dense foHage and rough dark some- what scaly bark, smooth and greenish on the branches. Wood a good fuel, but not much in request as timber. Victoria and New South Whales, along elevated river valleys or flats and on mountain sides up to the sub-alpine zone. Has recently been tried on the plains of northern India, but does not show much promise. Eucalyptus stricta, Sieb., see 74. E. virgata, Sieb. 68. Eucalyptus Stuartiana, F. v. M. But-but, apple-scented gum.. Stanthorpe box. A small to moderate-sized tree with drooping branchlets, and often with a twisted stem ; bark persistent, fibrous, soft. Wood hard, tough, and durable. South Austraha, Victoria, New South Wales, and Tasmania, on sandy and ' moist tracts, often on low ridges, sometimes on river flats, where it reaches a fair size ; Queensland, on poor ground. It is grown in the Nilgiris (Cairn Hill, block III), where, according to Mr. R. Bourne, several of the trees have been killed by cattle and deer, which tear off and eat the succulent bark. It has been tried in the Simla hills since 1909, and so far has done well between 4,000 and 7,000 ft., and moderately well below 4,000 ft. elevation. It has been tried on the plains of northern India, but has proved quite unsuitable. 69. Eucalyptus tereticornis, Smith. Grey gum, forest red gum. A tall handsome tree. Bark smooth, whitish or greyish, more or less deciduous. Wood reddish, close grained, tough, and diu-able, used for building and many other purposes. Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, never far from the Kttoral regions, and usually found on fertile ground on humid flats, around swamps and lakes, or along watercourses, never on sahne ground or along salt-water streams ; stunted if found on rocky exposed locahties. Under favourable conditions the growth is rapid. It does well on sandy soil, even if comparatively dry, but not on hard dry soil. In Florida trees have withstood temperatures of 20° and 22° F., but were frozen back at 19° F., although not permanently injured ; in CaUfornia it is said to endure lower temperatures and to withstand drought well, while in Provence and Algeria it has grown well on low, marshy tracts where the soil is deep, and in Brazil on inundated soil where E. rosirata could not be grown successfully.^ The tree coppices excellently. At Abbottabad coppice-shoots attained in one year a height of 15 ft. and a girth of 7Hn., and in 5| years a girth of 22 in. At Dehra Dun the branches have been found rather liable to breakage by wind. Parker says it was severely damaged by frost at Abbottabad in 1905, but not so much as E. Globulus or many of the indigenous trees. The tree has been grown in the Nilgiris ; Mr. Bourne mentions a specimen 6 ft. 2 in. in girth and 60 ft. high in Sim's Park, and adds that a whole planta- ^ Zon and Briscoe, loc. ciL, p. 28. ighi t, 115 ft. 55 115 ft. 55 115 ft. J5 75 ft. EUCALYPTUS 589 tion of this species is said to have been planted by Mr. Gamble at the back of the Range Lodge, but either it died out or there was a mistake in identity. This species is probably the most successful one tried so far at low elevations in India, growing well even at Bombay. On the plains of northern India it is one of the best species, doing well in the United Provinces and the Punjab as far north as the Rawalpindi district, and also in Hazara. The growth is very rapid ; of trees raised from seed sown about 1877 at Unah, Hoshiarpur district, measurements of some of the finest in 1893 (aged about sixteen years) were as follows : ^ 1. Girth a,t 4 ft, from ground, 5 ft. 7 in. 2. 5, ., 5 ft. 5 in. 3. ,, ,, 5 ft. 1 in. 4. ,, ,, 5 ft. 6 in. Parker mentions a tree on poor gravelly soil near Haripur, Hazara, six years from seed, which measured 30 ft. in height and 2 ft. 5 in. in girth. There are a few good specimens in the Kaunli garden at Dehra Dun. It is the com- monest species at Abbottabad. It has been tried in the Simla hills since 1909, and so far has done very well below 4,000 ft. and moderately well from 4,000 to 6,000 ft. It was tried in 1914 in the Andamans, and was one of the few species which showed any promise after the first year. Flowers January to April, Punjab (Parker). 70. Eucalyptus trachyphloia, F. v. M. White bloodwood. A moderate-sized tree with dense foKage. Bark persistent, rough, fibrous, or almost woody inside. Wood hard, heavy, and durable. Southern Queens- land, on poor hilly country, chiefly on sandstone. Said to be suitable as a shade tree in hot dry localities. Has been recently tried on the plains of northern India, but so far does not show much promise. 71. Eucalyptus umbra, R. T. Baker. A tall tree with dark coloured stringy bark. Timber not very durable. New South Wales. It has recently been tried oh the plains of northern India, but has not shown much promise. 72. Eucalyptus urnigera, Hook. f. ' A small to moderate-sized tree with spreading branches and drooping branchlets. Bark smooth, pale brown. Tasmania, in alpine districts. It has recently been tried on the plains of northern India, but has proved quite unsuitable. 73. Eucalyptus viminalis, Labill. Manna gum. A large handsome tree with drooping foliage. Bark partly persistent on the lower part of the stem, rough, wrinkled, and brownish, decorticating on the upper parts and on the branches, leaving the young smooth, bluish white bark, which when rubbed gives off a white powder. Wood fairly strong but not very durable, used for rough building, shingles, and rails. South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania, reaching large dimensions in deep forest glens, but found chiefly in open land, accommodating itself to poor and even sandy soil. It grows in the Nilgiris, sometimes attaining a fair size. Mr. R. Bourne gives the following distribution : (1) Sim's Park on lake 1 W. Coldstream in Ind. Forester, six (1893), p. 381. 590 XXVIII. MYRTACEAE edge ; (2) below Cluny Hall ; (3) some fine specimens at Snowdon Hall lining the Kotagiri road above the Snowdon ponds; (4) Sim's Park, compartment 1, above Forest Lodge. Measurements at Snowdon Hall gave girths of 8 ft., 9 ft. 6-i in., 10 ft. 7 in., and 13 ft. 4 in. ; also girth 9 ft., height 124 ft. 6 in., girth 10 ft. 01 in., height 128 ft. 6 in. It was tried without success about 1874-6 at Saugor, Central Provinces, and recently on the plains of northern India. It has been tried since 1909 in the Simla hills, and so far has done M^ell at elevations of 4,000-7,000 ft. In Burma it has proved successful at low^ elevations. 74. Eucalyptus virgata, Sieb. Syn. E, stricta, Sieb. ; E. obtusifolia, DC. A large shrub, usually with very narrow leaves. New South Wales, ascending to high elevations in the mountains. Has been tried mthout success on the plains of northern India. 3. BARRINGTONIA, Forst. Species 1. B. aculoMgula, Gaertn. ; 2. B. racemosa, Bl. 1. Barringtonia acutangula, Gaertn. Vern. Injar, neora, Hind. ; Hijal, Beng. ; Tivar, piwar, Mar. ; Kanapa, Tel. ; Kyi, kyeni, Burm. A moderate-sized evergreen tree with dark rough bark, obovate leaves clustered at the ends of the branches, and long pendulous racemes of flowers with bright red stamens. The wood is used for boat-building, cabinet-making, and other purposes ; the bark is rich in tannin, and is used to intoxicate fish. The tree is fairly common in many parts of India and Burma, in the sub- Himalayan tract from the Ganges eastwards, Bengal, Chota Nagpur, the Indian Peninsula, and Burma; also in Ceylon, the Malay Archipelago, and northern AustraUa. It is always found along the banks of streams, round the edges of swamps and in similar moist places. It is a familiar tree in the swamps of the sub-Himalayan tract, and is Fig. 222. Barringtonia acut- ^^^^ common near the coast, though not found in angula. Seedling x |. mangrove swamps. a, swollen hypocotyl ; b, cross- The leaves fall and the new leaves appear section of hypocotyl. from February to April ; the flowers appear chiefly from March to May, and the fruits ripen in July- August. The fruits are oblong, quadrangular, 1 in. or more in length, and about \ in. in diameter. The seed is exalbuminous and solitary, and the embryo thick BARRING TONI A 591 and fleshy with rudimentary scale-like cotyledons. The fruits fall into the moist often muddy ground around the trees, and seedlings may be found in quantity growing in soft mud. Germination is peculiar. The shoot is developed from one end of the fleshy embryo and the root from the other end. A long taproot descends into the mud and the original fleshy portion of the embryo enclosed in the testa, and retaining the shape of the fruit, persists until the seedling attains a fair size. This fleshy portion resembles a tuber, and if cut across shows a ring of vascular tissue like that of a carrot (see Fig. 222). The function of this tuberous growth is presumably to store up nutriment in order to feed the young plant in the dry season when the mud dries up. The tree is often planted for ornament. It is also suitable for planting in swampy ground where few other species mil grow ; probably direct sowings would prove most successful. It is ordinarily frost-hardy, but at Lahore it was slightly afl'ected in the severe frost of 1905. In the abnormal drought of 1907 and 1908 it suffered along the banks of streams and swamps in Oudh when the water dried up. 2. Barriiigtonia racemosa, Bl. A species with much larger flowers and fruits than the preceding. It also grows by streams and in swampy ground, and is indigenous along the west coast of the Indian Peninsula, in the Sundarbans, Andamans, Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula, and Polynesia. 4. CAREYA, Roxb. Carey a arborea, Roxb. Vern. Kumb, kumbi, Hind.; Beng. ; Kiimbia, Mar. ; Kaval, Kan. ; Ayama, Tarn. ; Gadava, Tel. ; Banbwe, Burm. A moderate-sized to large deciduous tree with large obovate leaves clustered at the ends- of the branches. Bark dark grey, fissured, red and fibrous inside. The wood is durable, especially under water, and is used for building, carts, furniture, &c. ; the bark gives a good rough cordage fibre. Distribution and habitat. The tree is found sporadically throughout the greater part of India and Burma, but not in the driest regions. It is very typical of savannah lands, where owing to its fire-resisting capacity it is able to survive and to regenerate, along with other fire-resisting species such as Dillenia pentagyna, Eugenia operculata, and Bombax malabaricum. When fire- protection is introduced more tender species take possession of the ground, but the old and often branchy savannah trees persist scattered in the new growth. Careya arborea is a familiar tree in the sal forests and in the grassy blanks so common in them. In Burma it is commonest in the lower mixed forests of the plains and in the open savannah tracts. Generally it is characteristic of the moist types of mixed deciduous forest, and not of the drier types. Leap-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The tree is leafless early in the hot season, the new leaves appearing in March-April. The leaves turn red in the cold season before falling. The clusters of large pink and white flowers appear with the new leaves in April-May, and the fruits ripen about June-July : they are green, globose, about 3 in. in diameter, containing several seeds embedded in a fleshy pulp, and fall soon after ripening. The seeds are exalbuminous, but have a large embrj'^o similar in structure to that of Barringtonia : they often germinate within the fruit as it lies on the ground. 592 XXVIII. MYRTACEAE SiLVicui.TUEAL CHARACTERS. The tree stands a fair amount of shade. In the abnormal drought of 1907 and 1908 in the sal forests of Oudh it proved to be decidedh' hardy. It coppices well. It is very subject to damage by browsing, coppice-shoots in particular being greedily eaten by cattle and deer. As already noted, it is very fire-resistant. Rate of growth. The following statistics regarding the rate of growth are available from sample plot measurements in sal forest : Careya arborea : girth increment in high forest sample plots. Province. Forest division. Locality. No. of years under measurement. No. of trees under measurement. Girth classes. ft. 1-2 lf-8 li-3 lJ-3 1-2 Mean annus girth increme for period. United Provinces Central Provinces Saharanpur Lansdowne Balaghat Malowala Chaukhamb Jogichaur Rehar Baihar 12 17 12 19 8 4 6 2 1 1 in. 0-20 0-32 0-18 005 0-44 Ring-countings by Mr. D. A. Thomson in respect of seventeen trees in the Supa fuel reserves, North Kanara, Bombay, gave the following results : ^ Age in years 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 Mean diameter (inches) 1-05 2-02 307 4-09 5-08 5-90 6-84 7-74 8-46 9-38 10-14 10-94 11 Coppice-shoots grow fairly rapidly. Measurements in 1911 in two separate coupes, each two years old, in the Tikri forest, Gonda, United Provinces, showed average heights of 11 and 12 ft. as compared with 10 and 7-6 ft. re- spectively for sal in the same coupes. Measurements made in 1886 by Mr. A. F. Broun in two coupes, each eight years old, in the Bullawala coppice, Dehra Dun, gave the following results : Careya arborea : growth of coppice, Bidlawala, Dehra Dun, Mean height. Mean girth. Age. Careya. Sal. Careya. Sal. years. ft. in. ft. in. in. in. 8 30 0 13 20 90 7-1 8 10 4 16 2-5 5-7 8-3 ]\Ir. H. A. Gass recorded in 1898-9 an average height and girth of 10 ft. and 7 in. respectively, with nine shoots per stool, in a coppice coupe three years old in Kadike block, South Canara, Madras. 5. PLANC.^HONTA, Bl. Plauchonia andamanica, King. An evergreen tree of the Andamans, occurring in evergreen or semi- deciduous forests in association with Dipterocarpus spp., Hopea odorata, Mimusops Elengi, Arfocarpus Chaplasha, Pterocarpus dalbergioides, Albizzia Lebbek, Terminalia bialata, Lager stroemia hypoleuca, and other species. The wood is hard , durable, and of good quality, and promises to become an important timber ; the tree deserves study from a silvicultural point of view. ^ Working Plan for the Supa Fuel Reserves, 1906. 593 ORDER XXIX. LYTHRACEAE This order contains a number of important Indian timber trees, chiefly belojiging to the genus Lagerstroemia. Genera 1. Lagerstroemia, Linn.; 2. Duabanga, Hani.; 3. Sonneratia, Linn. f. ; 4. Woodeordia, SaHsb. ; 5. Punica, Linn. 1. LAGERSTROEMIA Linn. This genus contains eleven Indian species of trees and perhaps a twelfth, L. indica, Linn., a well-known garden tree which is indigenous in China and possibly in the Shan hills in Upper Burma. To this genus belong some im- portant Indian timber trees, most of which are very ornamental owing to their large showy flowers. The silviculture of these trees is at present imperfectly understood. The fruit is a capsule containing many winged, usually small light seeds, which, in all the species studied so far, are uncertain in their germinative power, a large proportion being as a rule unfertile. L. mdica and L. Flos- Eeginae are known to be caj)able of propagation from cuttings, and the same may possibly be the case with other species. Species 1. L. 2)cirviflora, Roxb.; 2. L. Flos-Reginae, Retz.; 3. /,. tomentosa, Presl.; 4. L. lanceolata, Wall.; 5. L. macrocarpa, Kurz ; 6. L. hypoleuca, Kurz. 1. Lagerstroemia parviflora, Roxb. Vern. Dhaura, lendia, Hind. ; Sidha, Hind., Beng. ; Lende, bondga, Mar. ; Ckenangi, Tel. ; Zaungbale. kyeftawsa, 1 . Burm. A large, in poor localities a small deciduous tree. Bark light grey to reddish, thin, smooth, exfoliating in narrow longitudinal flakes, light brown inside. Wood very hard, durable, used for building, agricultural implements, carts, boats, shafts, axe-handles, &c. The tree sometimes exhibits twisted fibre from left to right, and often produces burrs, especially when injured. Large trees are often hollow in the centre, and the timber has the fault of splitting a good deal near the centre. Apart from its economic value this tree is important silviculturally as a common companion of the sal, teak, and other valuable species. Distribution and habitat. Sub-Himalayan tract from the Jumna eastwards, ascending to 3,000 ft., Bengal, Assam, Chota Na.gpur, central India, and the Indian Peninsula southwards to the Nilgiris, Upper Burma. As a general rule the tree is not gregarious, though often plentiful. In the sub-Himalayan tract it is a common constituent of the sal forests, and is also plentiful on the dry waterless bhahar tract, a deep boulder formation along the base of the outer hills. Here the forest is often of a dry mixed type, and in the United Provinces among the chief associate species are Adina cordifoUa, Terminalia tomentosa, T. belerica, Hymenodictyon excelsum, Holoptelea integri- folia, Acacia Catechu, and Phyllanthus EtKblica. Farther east, in the Duars of Bengal and western Assam, it is one of the commonest trees along the base of the outer hills and on the dry boulder formation skirting them, the forest being of a dry character and the chief trees besides Lagerstroemia being Shorea robusta, Terminalia Chebula, T. belerica, PhyUantJiKS Emblica, Stercidia villosa, Dillenia pentagyna, Bombax w.alabaricum. , Gmelina arborea, Premna, Stereo- spermum, and others, and near rivers Dalbergia Sissoo and Acacia Catechu. 2307.2 « Fig. 223. Lagerstroemiaparvifora. Seedling x|. a. seed ; h-e, germination stages ; /, g, development of seedling during first season. LAGERSTROEMIA 595 In these forests it attains considerable dimensions ; a girth of 8 ft. 2 in. and a height of 100 ft. were measured in the Borojhar forest, Buxa, and this is by no means a maximum. In the bhabar tract of the Duars it sometimes springs up gregariously on gravel and boulder deposits near rivers, after the land has become elevated above river-level ; here pure patches of young Lagerstroemia, sometimes of considerable extent, may be found with large specimens of Dalbergia Sissoo scattered among them, the latter being the survivors of a former riverain forest (see Fig. 224). The tree is found in fair quantity throughout the dry mixed forests of the Indian Peninsula as far south as the Nilgiris, in association with teak, Terminalia toinentosa, Anogeissus latifolia, Diospyros Me.lanoxylon, Oligemia dalbergioides, Buchaiiania latifolia.^ Phyllanthus Emblica, and other species. As a rule it does not attain large dimensions, trees over 6 ft. in girth being rare ; in the Dangs forests of Surat, hoAvever, large trees are occasionally met with, a girth of 13 ft. having been recorded. In the Bori forest of the Central Provinces a girth of 15 ft. has been measured. In Upper Burma it occurs in mixed deciduous forest along with teak, Terminalia tomentosa, Dillenia pentagyna, Bursera serrata, Anogeissus acumi- nata, Schleichera trijuga, Lagerstroemia Flos-Reginae, and other species. The tree accommodates itself to a variety of soils and geological forma- tions, including black cotton soil and trap ; it thrives best on deep porous loam, and although it is often found on clay, it does not stand water-logging. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 100° to 118° F., the absolute minimum from 30° to 50° F., and the normal rainfall from 30 to 180 in. Leaf-siiedding, flowering, and fruiting. The leaves turn brown towards the end of the cold season and are shed in February-March, the new leaves appearing in April-May. The panicles of small white fragrant flowers appear from April to June, and the capsules ripen and open from December to February ; they are 3- to 4-valved, 0-7-1 in. ormorein length, ovoidor obovoid, brown when ripe, and remain some time on the tree after ripening. The seeds including wing (Fig. 223, a) are 0-4-0-6 in. long, brown, with a terminal papery wing, having a thick stiff curved ridge along one edge. The germinative power of the seed is frequently poor. Tests were carried out at Dehra Dun for three successive years : in the first two years the seed was almost entirely unfertile, but in the third year it germinated well. Germination (Fig. 223, b-e). Epigeous. The radicle emerges from the end of the seed opposite the wing, the hypocotyl arches and extricates the coty- ledons in straightening, the seed-coat being left as a rule on or in the ground, though it is sometimes carried up over the cotyledons, falling with their expansion. The seedling (Fig. 223). Roots : primary root long, terete, tapering, wiry : lateral roots moderate in number and length, fibrous. Hypocotyl scarcely distinguishable, up to 0-1 in. long. Cotyledons : petiole 0-2-0-5 in. long, channelled above, glabrous : lamina 0-4- 0-5 in. by 0-4-0-5 in., foliaceous, orbicular, base tapering, entire, green, glabrous. Stem erect, quadrangular, often winged, green or reddish, glabrous ; internodes 0- 1-0-5 in. long. Leaves simple, alternate, or first pair sometimes sub-opposite, sessile, exstipulate, 0-3-2 in. by 0-2-1 in., ovate S2 596 XXIX. LYTHRACEAE acuminate, base acute, entire, glabrous, margins minuteW pubescent, venation arcuate, lateral veins 4-10 pairs. The groAvth of the seedling is moderately fast. Young plants raised at Dehra Dun reached a height of 4 in. in two months, and 12 in. by the end of the year ; on poor ground the growth is slower. For its best development the young plant requires a porous well-drained soil free from weeds. Young seedlings are very frost-tender, unlike coppice-shoots, which resist frost fairly well. They do not stand heavy shade or suppression from a dense growth of grass. SiLVicuLTUEAL CHARACTERS. The tree is a light-demander, and soon becomes suppressed under shade. It is fairly frost-hardy. In the abnormal drought of 1907 and 1908 in the forests of Oudh it proved to be decidedly hardy ; saplings, however, were affected in the severe drought of 1899 and 1900 in the Central Provinces. Cattle avoid it, and on heavily grazed areas coppice-shoots often remain untouched after most of the other species have disappeared : sometimes the presence of pure Lagerstroemia parviflora may be the result of heavy grazing. The tree coppices and pollards vigorously. Experiments were carried out in 1909 in North Chanda, Central Provinces, in which trees were coppiced in successive months from April to September ; in no month did a single stool fail to coppice, a result not attained by any other species experimented with. Again, Mr. A. E. Osmaston ^ records complete success in the case of 25 trees coppiced in experiments in the Gorakhpur district. United Provinces. The f olloAving numbers of shoots per stool have been measured in the United Provinces : 1. Gorakhpur district : age one to sixteen years ; average !•() to 3-2 shoots per stool. 2. Gonda district : age one and two years ; average 1-7 to 2-7 shoots per stool. Natural reproduction. The natural reproduction of this tree requires further study. As far as is known, fertile seed is not produced in abundance every year, though in certain years reproduction springs up in quantity. Loose porous bare soil appears to favour natural reproduction- which often comes up readily on abandoned cultivation on well-drained ground, and on riverain alluvial gravel which has lisen above river-level. Immunity from damage by grazing anrl good power of recovery from the effects of lire and mutilation are factors which favour the natural reproduction of this species : the admission of light also stimulates it. 81LVICULTURAL treatment. As a rule this tree is treated as an acces- sory to species of greater value, such as teak or sal, and its treatment is sub- ordinated to that of the j)rincipal species. It is eminently adapted for working as coppice, a rotation of thirty years being generally sufficient for the production of poles for building purposes. Rate of growth. 1 . High forest. The following residts of girth measure- ments in sample plots are available : 1 Ind. Forester, xxxvii (1911), p. 429. ?= cS ^ M !j; 'Jl < ^ <£ '-^H u . ^ o o 'd ? a:> .<* 'd ^ rt :3 O CSS ^ • -t^ • 7^ ? bD . ;^ ^ r— 1 .— n . »> o 8 p^ :^ F^ ^^- -^2^ Fig. 225. Lagerstroemia lanceolata, Bombay LAGERSTROEMIA 597 Lagerstroemia parvijlora : girth increment in high forest sample ]3lots. I'ovince. ited Provinces itral ■ovinces Forest division. Dehra Dun Saharanpur Lansdowne Haldwani S. Kheri Balaghat Locality. Thano and Kansrao Dholkhand Lakarkot Malowala Andermajhera Kaiu'ia Aonla Khera Chilla Khonani Kishanpiir Raigarh J Number of years under measurement. 17 17 4 4 11 6 9 8 Xumber of trees under measurement 1? f ^ 32 I 4 12 3 1 4 5 2 1 1 Girth classes. ft. 1-2 2-3 0-1 1-2 2-3 0^ li-3 0-1 i 3-6 li-6 2-3 1-2 2-3 Mean annual ^irth increment for period. in. 0-13 0-30 0-23 0-23 0-34 0-11 0-14 0-40 0-34 0-31 0-10 0-09 0-03 These figures indicate a decidedly slow rafce of growth. The sample plots in question, however, are all in sal forest, and presumably many of the Lager- stroemia trees are dominated or even suppressed. The follomng rate of growth has been deduced from measurements of 41 trees in the Dholkhand, Lakarkot, and Malowala sal sample plots, Saharan- pur forest division. United Provinces, and of 22 trees scattered in sal sample plots in the Buxa forest division, Bengal : Lagerstroemia parviflora : rate of growth in high forest, Saharanpur and Buxa divisions. Girth. Girth. Age. Saharanpur. Buxa. Age. Saharanpur. Buxa. years. ft. in. ft. in. j^ears. ft. in. ft. in 20 0 10 100 1 11 4 1 30 o" 7 1 3 110 2 H 4 6 40 0 9 1 8 120 2 5 4 11 .50 0 Hi 2 0 130 2 8i 5 4 60 1 2 2 5 140 3 0 5 8 70 1 41 2 10 150 . . 6 1 80 1 6* 3 3 160 . • 6 6 90 1 9" 3 8 A cross-section 4 ft. 6 in. in girth in the silvicultural museum, Dehra Dun, had 56 rings, giving a mean annual girth increment of 0-9(5 in. 2. Coppice. The rate of growth of Lagerstroemia parviflora coppice is at first usually more rapid than that of sal, but the latter afterwards outgrows the former. The follomng are some recorded measurements of young coppice- shoots : Lagerstroe^nia parviflora : rate of gro^\th of young coppice, compared with sal or teak iji the same coupes. Height. Locality. Gonda, United Provinces GorakhiJiu', United Provinces Thano, Dehra Dun, United Provinces Bhandara, Central Provinces . Age. years. 1 2 12 li o 1 Lagerstroemia par vi flora. ft. 6-8 10-3 9-.5 7-8 7-3 9-1 1.5-01 6-3 Sal. Teak ft. ft. 4-7 , , 100 • • 7-6 4-5 • • 2-8 • • 9-7 • . 71 Mean girth 6 in. 598 XXIX. LYTHRACEAE Mr. A. F. Broun recorded the following measurements made in 1886 in coppice coupes at BuUawala, Dehra Dun : Lagersiroemia parviflora : rate of growth of coppice, Bullawala, Dehra Dun. Mean height. Mean girth. Lager stroemia Lager stroemia parviflora. Sal. parviflora. Sal. ft. in. ft. in. in. 19 1-1 13 1-9 6-2 15 4-2 16 2-5 6-4 18 60 11 10-6 6-0 Age. years 8 8 10 in. 7a 8-3 5-9 Mean girth. Lagersiroemia parviflora. Sal. in. in. 3-9 2-0 4-8 2-9 5-4 3-8 6-0 4-8 6-5 5-8 6-9 6-7 7-2 7-5 The results of measurements made by Mr. C. M. McCrie in 1910 in coppice coupes in the Gorakhpur district. United Provinces, are shown as follows : Lagerstroemia parviflora : rate of growth of coi)i)ice, Gorakhpur. Mean height. Lagerstroemia Age. parviflora. Sal. years. ft. ft. 2 6-8 3-0 4 9-8 7-0 6 12-3 10-3 8 14-5 130 10 16-4 15-3 12 180 17-5 14 19-4 ' 19-2- 16 20-5 20-9 2. Lagerstroemia Flos-Reglnae, Betz. Syn. L. spieciosa, Pers. Vern. Jarul, Beng. ; Ajhar, Ass. ; Taman., bondara, Mar. ; Hole-dasal, chaUa, Kan. ; Ptimarathu, Tam. ; Manimarathu, Mai. ; Pyinrna, Burm. ; Eikmive, U. Burm. A large deciduous tree with a rounded crown and large handsome mauve flowers. Bark smooth, grey or yellowish grey, exfoliating in fairly thin irregular flakes. Wood light red, hard, durable, used for construction, boat-building, canoes, carts, and other purposes. This is one of the most important timber trees of Burma and Assam. DiSTRiBLTTiON Ais'D HABITAT. Assam, Bengal, Chittagong, western and southern India from North Kanara and the southern Konkan southwards through Malabar to Travancore, Chota Nagpur (not very common, and of small size). Common throughout Burma, but not in the dry zone ; Ceylon, in the moist low country. In the sub-Himalayan tract the tree is not con- sidered to be indigenous west of Bengal, but it is certainly plentiful, though of comparatively small size, along the banks and within some little distance of certain streams in forest lands in the Gorakhpur district. United Provinces, and if not indigenous it has at all events run wild. It is planted for ornament in many parts of India. The tree is typically found along the banks of rivers and streams and on low-lying swampy ground. It is not, however, always confined to such places, for in Burma it is often scattered in the moister tyjjes of lower mixed deciduous forest on alluvial ground and sometimes in evergreen forest : in the upper mixed forests it is usually confined to the banks of streams and to alluvial flats in their neighbourhood. Its growth is best on rich deep alluvial loam : on badly-drained swampy ground it is usually small and crooked. d f .^i»^ »''>^ h I /\ /. Fig. 226. Lageystvoeviia Flos-Reginac — Seedling ] a — Fruit b — Seed c - f- -Germination stages g-i — Development of seedling during first season LAGERSTROEMIA 599 In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 95° to 110° F., the absolute minimum from 36° to 65" F., and the normal rainfall from 60 (about 50 in Gorakhpur) to 180 in. or more. Leaf-sheddi>:g, flowering, and fruiting. The tree sheds its leaves about February-March, the leaves turning reddish before falhng ; the new leaves appear in April-May. The large terminal panicles of maave flowers, 2-3 in. in diameter, appear from April to June, at which time the trees are extremely handsome. The capsules (Fig. 226, a), 5- to 6-valved, broadly ovoid, O'7-l in. long, ripen from November to January, according to locality, though they do not actually open and scatter the seeds for some little time (February, Goalpara, Assam, 1915 ; March-April, Dehra Dun, planted trees). The seeds (Fig. 226, h) are light brown, angular, fairly hard, with a stiff brittle wing, the whole 0-6-0*7 in. long ; they are often unfertile. The tree seeds at an early age ; vigorous plants raised from irrigated broadcast sowings at Dehra Dun commenced to bear seed at the age of three years. Germination (Fig. 226, c-f). Epigeous. The radicle emerges from the end of the seed opposite the wing ; the hypocotyl arches slightly and extricates the cotyledons in straightening. The seed-coat is left on or in the ground. The seedling (Fig. 226). Roots : primary root moderately long, wiry, flexuose, thick in vigorous plants : lateral roots numerous, long, fibrous. Hypocotyl distinct from root, 0-4-0-7 in. long, quadrangular, reddish or green, glabrous. Cotyledons : petiole 0-05 in. long : lamina 1-5-2 in. by 2-2-5 in., foliaceous, somewhat fleshy, orbicular reniform, broader than long, apex truncate or slightly retuse, entire, glabrous. Stem erect, 3- to 5-angled and winged, woody, glabrous, young parts green or reddish, older parts greenish brown ; internodes 0-1-1-3 in. long. Leaves simple, alternate, sessile or sub-sessile, exstipulate, earlier leaves small, the size increasing with successive leaves, 0-5-2-5 in. by 0-3-1-5 in. in natural seedlings, up to 8 by 3 in. in vigorous artificially grown seedlings, elliptical or elliptical lanceolate or obovate, acute or acuminate, base acute, entire or undulate, glabrous, paler beneath than above, venation arched, with a pro- minent intramarginal vein, midrib often reddish, veins prominent, raised on under side. During the first season the growth of the seedling is slow, a height of only 2-6 in. being ordinarily attained by the end of the year ; subsequently the growth is considerably faster. Weeding and irrigation, particularh^ the former, greatly stimulate growth. Plants raised from weeded broadcast sowings on tilled ground at Dehra Dun reached in three years a height of 10 ft. when irrigated, and 8 ft. when not irrigated. In the first year they attained a height up to 3 ft. The leaves fall about November to January, and new growth starts in March (Dehra Dun). In their earlier stages the seedlings are small and delicate, and are apt to be washed away by heavy rain ; they are sensitive to frost and drought. SiLVicuLTFRAL CHARACTERS. The tree is a moderate light-demander, soon becoming suppressed under shade which is at all heavy ; it is less light- demanding than teak. In its natural habitat it is exposed neither to frost nor ordinarily to drought : in the severe frost of 1905 trees planted at Dehra Dun suffered. It is a decidedly moisture-loving tree. It coppices well, the coppice-shoots growing vigorously. 600 XXIX. LYTHRACEAE Natural reproduction. Under natural conditions the seeds lie on the ground during part of the hot season and often become washed into heaps during the early showers. Germination takes place early in the rainy season. The factors influencing natural reproduction require further study, but exj)eri- ments carried out so far indicate that bare loose soil is favourable, and that weed-growth is most unfavourable. For the establishment of natural repro- duction a considerable amount of light is required. The sensitiveness of young seedlings to drought has been alluded to. The prevalence of natural repro- duction round the edges of swamps and along the sides of watercourses is probably due mainly to the fact that the seeds are washed together in quantity on the bare ground, and the seedlings develop well under the conditions of light and soil moisture which they enjoy. Good natural reproduction is reported to have appeared in the Yetkanzin forest, Toungoo, Burma, in an area where bamboos had flowered, which had been fire-protected for many years and then burnt after the flowering of the bamboos.^ Artificial reproduction. Owing to the lightness of the seed and the small size of the young seedlings, direct sowings are less suitable than trans- planting from the nursery. Broadcast sowings on cleared and hoed ground at Dehra Dun have, however, proved successful on an experimental scale. A fair amount of planting has been done within recent years in Assam, notably in Lakhimpur. Direct sowings in lines 6 ft. apart were carried out between 1876-7 and 1882-3 iji the Nambor forest, Sibsagar, Assam, the Lagerstroemia being mixed with Mesuaferrea. In 1 903 the area was found to be very densely stocked with young poles of both species, in which the Lagerstroemia greatly outnumbered the Mesiia.'^ Transplanting after pruning the roots has been tried without success in Sibsagar. Mr. R. Bourne informs me that in Malabar he obtained the best results in germination by sowing the seeds in flat beds divided into squares surrounded by small mud walls, so that when the beds were flooded the water stood in them for some time. Rate of growth. Th(?re are few reliable statistics showing the rate of growth. The following heights of young plants are recorded in diflerent plantations in the Jokai reserve, Lakhimpur, Assam : ^ Age Average height. (exchisive of time in nurserj Year of planting 1 year 2 years . 3 years . ) ft. 6 i 10 9 A few trees planted at Kuch Behar in 1873-4 liad attained in 1881 a maximum girtli of 2 ft. 4 in. with a height of 16 ft. The locality was reported to De unsuitable, the trees having developed a low shrubby growth.^ The Rangoon plains forests working plan ^ gives an estimate of the rate of growth based on ring-countings, the results being as follows : ' Burma Forest Report, 1914-15, - Working Plan for the Nambor Reserved Forest, Sibsagar, A. R. Dicks, 1905. ■' Forest Report, 1913-14. •> W. R. F. in Ind. Forester, vii (1881-2), ]\ 41. '' Working Plan for the Plains Forests, Rangoon Division, Burma, J. J. Rorie, 1905. Fig. 227. Lagerstroemia tomentosa — Seedlin'g x -f a— Fruit b Seed c -f— Germination stages g, h— Development of seedling during first season i — Seedling in second season (iii ■th. ft. in, 1 6 3 0 4 6 LAGERSTROEMIA 601 Corresponding age. years. 36 63 94 6 0 125 The mean annual girth increment, 0-576 in., is identical with that esti- mated for teak growing in tlie same forests. 3. Lagerstroemia tomentosa, Presl. Vern. Lha, Burm. A large deciduous tree, reaching a height of 100 ft. or more, and a girth of 10 to 12 ft. or more in favourable localities. Bole usually straight and clean to a considerable height. Bark about 0-3-0-4 in. thick, light grey, fairly smooth, with longitudinal cracks. Wood light grey to greyish brown, moderately liard, close grained, fairh^ durable, used for planking, building, canoes, carts, shafts, wheels, and furniture, and deserving of more notice for boxes and such purposes. It has been tested and reported suitable for match manufacture. Distribution and habitat. The tree is common throughout the greater part of Burma, except in the dry zone. It is found in evergreen and semi- evergreen tropical forest, and in mixed deciduous forest of the upper and lower types. In the upper mixed forests it is associated with teak, Xylia dolabri- formis, and their common companions, usually occupying the lower slopes of hills and well-drained valleys on deep rich soil ; in the drier types of mixed forest it is either absent or is found in stunted form. In the lower mixed forests on alluvial ground it is sometimes very plentiful, ])articularly in some localities along the base of the eastern sIojdcs of the Pegu Yoma. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 100° to 110° F.. the absolute minimum from 40° to 55° F., and the normal rainfall from 40 to 200 in. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The tree is leafless for a time in the hot season. The panicles of handsome w-hite flowers, 1-1-3 in. in diameter, appear in April-May, and the capsules (Fig. 227, a) commence to ripen about November, dehiscing at various times up till Aj)ril ; they are ovoid, 0-5-0-6 in. long, dark brown when ripe. The light winged seeds (Fig. 227, 6) are about 0-3 in. long ; they escape from the capsules chiefly during the hot season and are carried by wind to some distance from the tree. Like that of other species of this genus, the fertility of the seed is uncertain. Tests carried out at Dehra Dun showed that the seed retains its vitality to some extent for one year if carefully stored. At Peradeniya, Ceylon, where the tree was introduced in 1891, flowering takes place twice a year, in April and October ; this may also be the case sometimes in Burma. Germination (Fig. 227, c-f). Epigeous. The radicle emerges from the end of the seed opposite the wing, the hypocotyl arches somewhat, and the seed-coat is either left in or on the ground or is carried up, falling with the expansion of the cotyledons. The seedling (Fig. 227). Roots : primary root moderately long and thick, terete, tapering, woody : lateral roots numerous, long, fibrous. Hypocotyl distinct from root, 0-3-0-5 in. long, quadrangular, glabrous. Cotyledons : petiole up to 0-06 in. long : lamina 0-2-0-3 in. by 0-25-0-3 in., foliaceous, sub-orbicular or broadl}^ obovate, apex rounded, truncate or refuse, base tapering, entire, green. Stem erect, quad- 602 XXIX. LYTHRACEAE rangular. stellate tomentose ; internodes 0- 1-0-6 in. long. Leaves simple, exstipulate, first pair opposite, subsequent leaves on main stem alternate, sometimes sub-opposite, those on side branches opposite or sub-opposite. Petiole 0-1 in. long, stellate tomentose. Lamina 0-8-3 -2 in. by 0-3-1-3 in., elliptical lanceolate, acuminate, base tapering, entire, stellate pubescent. During the first season the seedling remains comparatively small, but from the second year onwards the growth is fairly fast. Seedlings raised in a box at Dehra Dun were 1 ft. 6 in. to 2 ft. 7 in. in height by the middle of the second season, and one of these which was transplanted reached a height of 9 ft. 7 in., with a basal girth of 7| in. by the end of the fourth season. These seedlings for the first two or three j^ears developed long thin weak stems and had the habit of climbers rather than of erect plants ; eventually, however, they became rigid and erect. The young seedlings are sensitive to drought ; frost is unknown in the natural habitat of the tree, but at Dehra Dun the young seedlings proved to be very sensitive to frost, and all those grown in the open succumbed during the first winter. Natural reproduction. The seeds fall during the hot season, and are washed into heaps by the early showers. Germination takes place at the beginning of the rainy season. The factors influencing natural reproduction require further study, but experiments at Dehra Dun indicate that bare loose moist soil is favourable to germination, and that stiff soil and weed-growi:h are unfavourable ; also that in early youth shade is beneficial in preventing mortahty through drought. These experiments, however, are not conclusive, more especially as climatic conditions at Dehra Dun are very different from those met with in the natural habitat of the tree. Artificial reproduction. Experiments at Dehra Dun showed that young plants can best be raised on well-drained porous soil kept moist and protected from the sun. Transplanting can be carried out without much difficulty in the second rainy season. No plantations of this species, so far as is known, have ever been made. A young tree in the Forest Research Institute grounds, Dehra Dun, raised from seed sown in 1912, shows good promise. 4. Lagerstroemia lanceolata, Wall. Syn. L. microcarpa, Wight. Benteak. Vern. Nana, Mar. ; Nandi, bili-7iandi, Kan. ; Ventek, Tarn. (Fig. 225.) A large deciduous tree with smooth whitish bark exfoliating in large papery strips. Wood moderately hard, used for building, furniture, boxes, &c. A valuable timber, but liable to split and not durable in the open. Distribution and habitat. This is one of the most important trees of the west coast of the Indian Peninsula, where it is very common along and below the Western Ghats from Bombay southwards to Travancore, ascending the hill range.s of Coorg, Mysore, and Travancore, and the Nilgiris and other hills, to 4,000 ft. In East Khandesh it is rare, and in Kolaba and Surat is only scattered. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum sliade temperature varies from 95° to 115° F,, the absolute minimum from 43° to 63° F., and the normal rainfall from 30 to 180 in. or more. It attains its best development in regions of heavy rainfall, for instance in Kanara, Malabar, and Coorg, where it reaches a large size. It grows well both on hill slopes and in valleys, preferring crystal- line rocks to laterite. It is found most commonly in mixed deciduous forests associated witli teak, Terminalia tomentosa, T. j)anicvlaia, Xylia xylocarpa, Dalbergia latifolia, Pterocarpu-'i Mar^upium, Adina cordifolia, and other species. LAGERSTROEMIA 603 It occurs also in evergreen forest, but usually in the form of large trees surviving from a former deciduous forest into which the evergreen species have encroached. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The tree is leafless for a time in the hot season. The small white flowers appear from April to June, and the fruits ripen in the cold season. The small hght seeds fall early in the hot season and germinate at the beginning of the rains : they are carried by the winds to some distance from the tree. Mr. H. Tireman mentions that he has twice tried to raise seedlings in Coorg, but on neither occasion did any seed germinate : this would indicate that the germinative power, like that of other species of this genus, is uncertain. Silviculture and natural reproduction. The factors influencing natural reproduction require further study. So far as is known the seedlings do not stand exposure to a hot sun, and benefit by slight shade, while they require a fair amount of moisture in the soil. Bare loose soil aids natural reproduction, which appears freely on abandoned cultivation. The seedling is capable of bearing considerable shade, but later the tree benefits by an abundance of light, though it is less hght-demanding than teak. Fire does not appear to do much harm to reproduction, though it produces hollows at the bases of the trees. In the moister tj^pes of forest fire-protection has had an adverse effect in encouraging the growth of dense evergreen vegetation which has prevented the reproduction of this and other light-demanding deciduous trees. Mr. H. Tireman notes that the limited amount of grazing in Coorg is beneficial in keeping down undergrowth and favouring natural reproduction. The tree coppices well. Rate of growth. 1. High forest. The following table has been com- piled from measurements, based on ring-countings, recorded in high forest working plans in the North Kanara district, Bombay : Lagerstroemia lanceolata : rate of growth in diameter in high forests of the North Kanara district, Bombay. Ankola Ankola- Sirsi Yekambi Supa fuel high Kalinaddi Sopinhosalli Kumta town Sonda reserves.^ forest. 2 slopes.'^ high forest.3 coast.-^ forests.'"^ high forest.^ Age. (1906) (1908) (1909) (1910) (1911) (1913) (1914) ^ear.s. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. 10 2-2 2-7 2-9 1-8 2-0 M 1-3 20 4-4 4-9 5-3 3-6 4-8 2-4 3-2 30 6-7 6-7 7-5 5-3 7-2 3-8 5-5 40 8-9 8-5 9-7 7-1 9-3 5-3 7-8 50 10-8 10-3 11-9 9-0 11-4 6-9 10-0 60 12-2 11-9 14-2 10-9 , . 8-2 11-8 70 13-2 13-3 15-9 12-8 ^ , 9-7 13-4 80 13-7 14-8 17-5 14-5 ^ , 11-2 150 9C» 16-2 190 16-2 , , 12-6 16-4 100 17-5 20-3 17-8 , , 13-8 17-8 110 18-6 21-7 19-3 , , 15-0 19-1 120 19-6 22-9 20-8 , , 161 20-3 130 20-6 23-9 . . ■ 17-2 21-4 140 • • 21-5 25 0 , , , , 18-3 22-5 150 22-4 25-9 , , 19-4 23-6 160 23-2 26-8 , ^ 20-5 24-6 170 • ■ 24-0 27-5 ^ , , , 21-6 25-6 180 • • 24-7 28-2 . . Note. — Diameter excludes bark : average bark thickness 0-33 in. in Ankola, 0-3 in. in Kaliuaddi slopes and Sopinhosalli. I Measurements 1 by D. A. Thomson. 2 Measurements by R. S. Pearson. Measurements by P. E. Aitchison. 604 XXIX. LYTHRACEAE Mr. H. Tireman has recorded the following measurements, made in 1916, of trees which sprang up in two teak plantations in Coorg. formed in 1884 and 1891, and therefore 32 and 25 years old respectively : Plantation of 1884. Girth at Height. breast height, ft. ft. in. (1)65 2 9 (2)61 2 8 (3)60 2 8 (4)58 1 10 (5)51 1 10 (6) 50 2 10 Plantation of 1891. Girth at Height. breast height ft. ft. in. (1)50 2 5 (2)49 2 6 (3)48 2 8 (4)47 2 7 (5)45 2 2 (6)45 1 10 Since the age of these trees cannot be greater than that of the plantations, the mean annual girth increments would be at least 0-91 and 1-13 in. in the two plantations respectively. Measurements in North Malabar gave the following results : Average age at 6 in. diameter 28 years. »5 ;> 1^ 51 55 50 ,, 1 8 7'"* 55 55 -*-*-' 59 55 ' "* 5 5 5 5 5 5 '-'^ *! 5 5 i-\JO .. Age. Height. years. ft. 5 10-5 10 19-0 15 23-0 20 27-5 25 31-5 30 34-5 35 370 40 39-0 Gamble's specimens gave six to eight rings per inch of radius, representing a mean annual girth increment of 0-78 to 1-05 in. 2. Coppice. Mr. H. Murray records the following measurements of coppice-shoots in Bel gaum. : Diameter, in. 2-3 3-6 4-6 5-S 6-9 8-0 9-0 9-75 5. Lagerstroemia macrocarpa, Wall. Vern. Konpyinma, Burm. A moderate-sized tree, somewba,t resembling L. Flos-Reginae, but with larger leaves and flowers. The latter are 3 in. or more in diameter, and tlie tree is extremely handsome when in flower in the hot season. This species is most commonly found in the plains forests and on cultivated lands, often in rather low bushy form ; it is usually confined to moist or even swampy situations. 6. Lagerstroemia hypoleiiea, Kurz. Vern. Pyinma, Burm. (in Andamans) ; Pdbdd, And. A large deciduous tree with thin whitish bark. Wood hard, durable, used for building, shingles, wheel-work, and other purposes ; apt to split in seasoning. This is one of the principal species of the Andamans, where it occurs chiefly in deciduous forests associated with Pterocarpus dalbergioides, Terminalia hialafa, T. Manii, T. Catappa, Odina Wodier, Bombax insigne, Albizzia Lebbek, Admanthera pavonina, Stercnlia spp., and others. Lager- stroemia hypoleuca is found usually on sandy soil on low ground, and is less common in the hills. It extends into evergreen forest, where it is associated d Fig. 228 Diiahanga soniuratioides — Seedling x \ a — Seed x 5 b-d —Germination stages (b and c x 5, d x 2|) e, f -Development of seedling during first season x i^ g - i— Development of seedling during second season x J LAGERSTROEMIA 605 \v-ith various species of Dipterocarpus and other trees. Mr. C. G. Rogers ^ notes that the tree seeds freely nearly every year, and the seeds germinate easily ; on Wilson Island he mentioiis that natural reproduction in very open forest is remarkably good, extensive thickets of this species being found. Mr. F. H. Todd - notes that natural reproduction is good in the North Andaman. Flowers June-Julj- ; fruits cold season (Kurz). 2. DUABANGA, Ham. Duabanga soniieratioides, Ham. Vern. Lmnpatia, Nep. ; Khokan, Ass. ; Myaukngo, Mau-lettanshe, Burm. (Fig. 229.) A large deciduous tree with characteristic long horizontal branches drooping at the ends, and opposite large sessile leaves. Bark greyish brown, peeling off in thin flakes. Under forest conditions the tree forms a long clean bole. tSometimes it attains a very large girth ; Mr. J. W. A. Grieve measured a tree 18 ft. in girth in the Tista valley. Wood grey or yellowish grey, soft, seasoning well without warping or splitting, excellent for tea-boxes, for which it is largely used ; also used for canoes, and has been reported on as a good wood for match manufacture. As a fast -growing useful softwood this tree is v.ell worth more attention. Distribution and habitat. Eastern sub-Himalayan tract, ascending to 3,000 ft., Assam, Manipur, Chittagong, Burma, Andamans, and Nicobars. It occurs mainly along the banks of streams and on the sides of moist ravines, springing up on landslips and other places where the soil has been exposed, always on well-drained ground. It is essentially a tree of moist warm climates. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 98^ to 110° F., the absolute minimum from 36° to 60° F., and the normal rainfall from 50 to 200 in. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The tree is leafless for a time in the hot season. The clusters of large showy white flowers appear at the ends of the long spreading branches in Februarj^-March, weighing them down at the ends. The capsules ripen in the end of April or during May. The seeds (Fig. 228, a) are minute, averaging 0-05 in. long, tapering at each end to a point, and very light. Tests at Dehra Dun showed that the seed retains its vitality fairly well for a year. The tree flowers and fruits at an early age (six years in the case of a tree planted at Dehroj Dun). Germination (Fig. 228, b-d). Epigeous. The testa splits at one end and the radicle emerges ; the hypocotyl elongates, carrying the testa above ground, and the latter falls with the expansion of the cotyledons. The seedling (Fig. 228). Roots : primary root at first minute, resembling a flue thread, with a mass of woolly hairs round upper part ; by end of first season from two to several inches long, moderately thick, with long branching fibrous lateral roots, chiefly from upper part of main root. Hypocotyl distinct, at first less than 0-1 in. long, very fine, white or green, afterwards elongating to 0-2-0 -3 in., becom- ing" thicker, ofteji dark red. Cotyledons at first less than 0-05 in. long, aftci- 1 Report on the Exploration of the Forests in tlie South Andaman and other Ishxnds, 1900, para. 23. 2 Draft Working Plan foi the North Andaman, 1906. 606 XXIX. LYTHRACEAE wards enlarging to 0-15-0-2 in. by 0-1 in., ovate, apex rounded, base obtuse or sub-cordate, entire, delicate, green, later often turning dark red. Stem erect, quadrangular, the corners winged by the decurrent leaf -bases, glabrous, green with a pink tinge in first season ; internodes in first season 0-1-0 -5 in. long. Leaves simple, alternate on main stem, opposite on side branches, sub-sessile or with petioles up to 0-2 in. long, exstipulate, first two or three leaves often small and abortive. Normal leaves 1-3 in. by 0-3-0-9 in. in first season, up to 8 by 2 in. in second season, oblong lanceolate, acute or acuminate, base elongated and decurrent down petiole and stem, decurrent wings expanding abruptly on joining stem, entire, glabrous, dark green with petiole and decur- rent wings often pink. After germination the young seedlings are extremely minute, almost resembling green powder on the surface of the ground ; they are smaller even than those of Adina cordifolia or Stephegyne parvifolia. The growi}h during the first season is slow, a height of only 1 or 2 in. being attained by the end of the year. During the second year the growth is more rapid, a height of 2 ft. or more being attained ; thereafter the growth is very rapid. Seedlings raised at Dehra Dun proved to be very sensitive to drought and frost ; the former is seldom and the latter never experienced within its habitat. The seedhngs are somewhat subject to the attacks of insects, and in the forest young plants are readily eaten by deer and cattle. Young saplings develop characteristic long horizontally spreading branches at an early age. Natural reproduction. Natural seedlings spring up on newly exposed ground such as landslips and river-banks, and appear to require for their development an abundance of light and absence of drip from overhanging trees. Complete drainage and loose but moist soil also appear to be necessary. Natural reproduction comes up readily on banks of silt in the beds of rivers. Mr. Gamble ^ describes the profusion with which natural seedlings come up on the sites of old charcoal kilns in the Darjeeling tarai. The nearest seed-bearers were at least half a mile distant, and the seed must have been carried by wind. The sites of these charcoal kilns evidently offered ideal conditions for the germination of the seed and the development of the seedlings, which did not appear elsewhere in the neighbourhood, even on recently hoed ground. Experiments at Dehra Dun showed that if seed is scattered soon after ripening over fine earth or powdered charcoal in the open it is washed into heaps by the early monsoon showers, and the minute seedlings appear in groups, but are washed away in quantities during the rains. Only where the drainage is perfect and the young plants grow vigorously enough to obtain hold of the ground before being washed away, is it possible for any seedlings to survive the first season. In the case of charcoal -covered ground it is probable that the exceptional vigour induced by the porosity of the germinating bed is the main cause of the survival of the young seedlings. Artificial reproduction. Direct sowings on bare hoed ground have been carried out frequently in Bengal, and landslips are occasionally sown uj) M'ith success. On the whole, however, sowings have proved a failure owing chiefly to the liability of the young plants to be washed away during the first season. 1 Ind. Forester, iv (1878-9), p. 245. Fig. 229. Duabanga sonneratioides . 006 •'' ■'»^- * ■ '"• -' »**•-■—;"-,■ .. '.car , .-• ViSjf'4 r^fi;-- 'v? JSSi DUABANGA 607 In the Mongpoo plantations of the Cinchona Department, in the DarjeeUng hills, the seed is sown about the end of May or beginning of June in well-raised seed-beds of porous soil which have been very little manured, and the beds are sheltered by sloping double bamboo mats about 3 ft. above the ground. The seedhngs are pricked out once and are not planted out until early in the rains of the following year, when they are about 1 ft. high. Experiments at Dehra Dun showed that it is impossible to raise seedlings in open seed-beds, as the minute seedlings are washed away or beaten down and destroyed by heavy rain. The best results were attained by mixing the seeds with fine earth and scattering the mixture on very fine porous soil or on powdered charcoal in May or early June in boxes kept under cover or in well-raised seed-beds protected from rain by screens. Great care is necessary to water the beds or boxes with a very fine spray. The seedlings may be pricked out when about 1-2 in. high, and transplanted at the beginning of the next rainy season. Little difficulty was experienced in transplanting the seedlings provided the roots were kept enclosed in balls of earth. Basket planting would probably prove successful, the seedhngs being transferred to baskets towards the end of the first rainy season. Direct sowings on raised mounds under bamboo mats have given some success in the Tista forest division of Bengal. Mounds of loose soil 3 ft. by 3 ft. at the base and 6 in. high are sown with a pinch of seed and covered with bamboo mats 2 ft. by 2 ft. in size raised 1 ft. above the mounds. The mats are removed as soon as the seedlings are w^ell established, that is, about the end of the rainy season. Superfluous plants are removed and used to fill up gaps. In plantations protection from deer and cattle is necessary for the first few years. Rate of growth. After the first year or two the growth is rapid, an average height increment of 5 ft. a year or more being not unusual. A saphng at Dehra Dun attained a height of 9 ft. 2 in. and a girth of 6^ in. at 4 ft. from ground-level by the end of the fourth season, including a height-growth of only about 1^ in. during the first season ; this, in a locahty far outside its natural habitat, and subject to more severe cold than it is ordinarily accustomed to, is very fair growth. Measurements carried out by Mr. E. Marsden in 1917 in three sample plots in the Darjeehng hiUs gave the following results : Duahanga sonneratioides : measurements in sample plots, Darjeeling hills. After thinning. Yield from thinning in 1 01 7. Volume per acre , solid. Volume per acre, solid. Number of stems per acre. Mean girth. Mean height. Timber over 24 in. girth. Small- wood. Total. Number of stems per acre. Timber over 24 in. Small- girth, wood. Total. Locality, 328 ft. in. 0 11-6 ft. 34 cub. ft. cub. ft. 310 cub. ft. 310 317 cub. ft. cub. ft. cub. it. 123 123 Below Lopchu. 131 110 2 20 3 3-7 50 78 364 2,308 559 408 923 2,716 86 99 316 316 — 575 575 Near Birick. Sum bong. GOS XXIX. LYTHRACEAE The second of these plots is shown in Fig. 230. These figures show a veiy rapid rate of growth and a high yield. Trees measured in 1915 in a plantation in the Jalpaiguri district had attained a height of 18 ft. in five years. The rate of growth as deduced from measurements in two unthinned sample plots in the Darjeeling division was as follows : ^ Duabanga sonneraiioides : girth increment in unthinned sample plots, Darjeeling division. Age. Mean girth, years. ft. in. ' 10 1 101 20 3 2" 30 4 2i Age. Mean girth years. ft. in. 5 2J 50 6 4 60 7 U The growth here is considerably slower than that shown in the first state- ment : this is possibly due to the fact that no thinnings were carried out. Ring-countings in respect of 25 trees in the Tista valley gave an average of 3-1 rings per inch of radius, rej)resenting a mean annual girth increment of 2026 in. - Gamble's specimens averaged 5 rings per inch of radius (mean annual girth increment 1-26 in.), while one specimen showed 2 rings per inch (mean annual girth increment 3*14 in.). 3. SONNERATIA, Linn. f. This genus comprises trees with opposite entire thick leaves, growing in the mangrove swamps of littoral regions (see under ' Rhizophoraceae '). There are four Indian species, of which two, S. acida, Linn, f., and S. apetala, Ham., are fairly widelj^ distributed along the coasts and two, S. alba, Smith, and S. Griffithii, Kurz, are far more local. Species 1. aS'. apetala, Ham.; 2. S. acida, Linn. f. ; 4. S. alba, Smith. 1. Sonneratia apetala, Ham. Vern. Keora, Beng. lanki, Tel. ; Marama, Tam. ; Kanbala, Burm. A small to moderate-sized evergreen tree with slender drooping branches and light glaucous-green foliage. Bark black, smooth, with horizontal oval lenticels. The tree produces thin upright rather sharp pneumatophores from its superficial roots. It coppices vigorously. Wood moderately hard, used for planking, furniture, knees of boats, and fuel. Distribution and habitat. Tidal forests of the coasts of India and Burma. This is one of the chief constituents of the mangrove formation, growing gregariously and springing up in more or less pure patches, usually on new alluvial land thrown up in the form of islands or of flats in tlie bends of tidal rivers and estuaries. It is a common tree in the Sundarbans, appearing on newly formed land and gradually dying out on the higher ground, where it tends to be replaced by Heritiera Fomes and other species. Flowering and fruiting. The Avhitish flowers appear from April to June. Ripe fruits have been received from tlie Sundarbans in September. ^ Statistics compiled in the Silviculturist's Office, 1916-17, Ind. For. Rec, vol. vi, pt. v. - Working Plan for the Darjeeling Forests, J. W. A. Grieve, 1912. 3. *S'. Griffithii, Kurz ; ; Kandal, Mar. ; Ky- SONNERATIA 609 They are globose, about 0-7-0-8 in. in diameter, fleshy, indehiscent, containing several angular irregularly-shaped seeds about 0-3 in. long, with a rather hard testa. The fruits are buoyant, and are distributed by water ; they are also said to be eaten by birds. After falling they soon rot and disintegrate, the seed being scattered. Germinatioist. Epigeous. The testa splits at one end and the radicle emerges. The hypocotyl arches and the testa is carried above ground, falling with the expansion of the cotyledons. Rate of growth. Mr. Trafford ^ notes that this tree grows more rapidly than any other in the Sundarbans ; he estimates the mean annual girth increment at 1-2 in. 2. Sonneratia acida, Linn. f. Vern. Ora, orcha, Beng. ; Tiwar, Mar. ; Thirala, Mai. ; Tabu, tamu, Burm. A small evergreen tree with dull green foliage and black shining lenticellate bark. It produces pneumatophores in the shape of asparagus -like rootlets emerging from the mud. This is another common species of the mangrove swamps, with an even wider distribution than S. apetala. 3. Sonneratia Griffithii, Kurz. A species of the Burma coast, strongly resembling S. acida. 4. Sonneratia alba, Smith. A shrub or small tree of the mangrove swamps of the Andamans, Mergui, and the Konkan (Brandis). 4. WOODFORDIA, Salisb. Woodlordia floribunda, Salisb. Vern. Dhaula, dhau, ddwi, Hind. ; Dhaiti, Mar. ; Jaji, Tel. ; Yetkyi, pattagye, panle, Burm. A large shrub with more or less fluted stem and long spreading branches, widely distributed throughout India and the drier parts of Burma, ascending to 5,000 ft. in the Himalaya ; also in Africa, Arabia, China and elsewhere, and in Ceylon (rare). This is a common gregarious shrub which springs up on landslips, abandoned cultivation, and other open places, kiUing out grass and acting as a useful soil-improver and a most efficient nurse to tree species, including sal, which come up freely under its protective cover. For clothing landslips it is invaluable. It is not eaten by cattle, and is frost-hardy, and thus appears often in extensive pure masses on open ground subject to grazing. In tracts where shifting cultivation has been practised the presence of old bushes of Woodfordia gradually dying out under the shade of poles of tree species usually indicates the site of a former cultivated clearing in which the shrub has appeared and the tree species have grown up through it, eventually sup- pressing it. The bright red flowers, which appear from January to April in axillary cymes along the spreading branches, make the plant a conspicuous sight. The capsules ripen from April to June and shed the minute seeds, which require open well-drained ground for germination. Mr. Haines notes that it scatters its seeds slowly for several weeks, and only that seed germinates 1 Working Plan for the Sundarbans, 1912. 2307.2 T 610 XXIX. LYTHRACEAE and survives which is lucky enough to fall just before a several days' period of continuous wet weather.^ The most successful way in which to grow the plant artificially is to sow the seeds in broken bricks ; on ordinary seed-beds it is very difficult to obtain germination and to raise seedlings. The plant coppices well ; coppice-shoots five years old in the Gorakhpur district, United Provinces, averaged 10 ft. :} in. in height. 5. PUNICA, Linn. Puuica (iranatum, Linn. Pomegranate. Vern. Anar,^ Hind. ; Dharu, daruna, Pb. A deciduous shrub or small tree, indigenous in Persia and Afghanistan ; wild and probably indigenous in Hazara, where it is very common and often gregarious on dry rocky ground on the limestone of the outer hill ranges at 3,000-5,000 ft., often associated with Olea cuspidata ; also found in the Kagan valley up to 6,000 ft. on dry hill-sides. It is widely cultivated for the sake of its fruit, and is frequently found as an escape from cultivation, particiilarly in the Himalaya, where it ascends to 7,000 ft. and where it sometimes forms dense crops on the gravel and boulder deposits in the beds of dry ravines and similar places. It is cultivated from seed or from cuttings. In the Himalaya it flowers chiefly from April to July, and the fruits ripen from July to October. ORDER XXX. SAMYDAOEAE Genera I. Casearia, Jacq. ; 2. Homalifm, Jacq. 1. CASEARIA, Jacq. Species 1. C. tomentosa, Roxb. ; 2. C. glomerata, Roxb. 1. Casearia tomentosa, Roxb. Vern. Chilla, bheri, Hind. ; Modi, Mar. A small deciduous tree with spreading branches, tomentose leaves, and small greenish flowers clustered in the axils of the leaves. The wood is of little use, but the tree is common in the sub-Himalayan tract and the Indian Peninsula in deciduous forests, open scrub jungles, and waste lands. It often owes its abundance to its immunity from damage by grazing. It is very drought-hardy, as was shovm in the abnormal drought of 1907 and 1908 in Oudh, It suffered much in the severe frost of 1905 in northern India, but apparently has good powers of recovery, since it is frequent in grassy blanks subject to annual frosts. The tree coppices well. The rate of growth in high forest is slow, sample plots in sal forest in the United Provinces showing mean annual girth increments of 0-09, 0-19, 0-22, and 0-34 in. Coppice-shoots grow more rapidly. Measurements made in 1911 in a coppice coupe one year old in the Tikri forest, Gonda, LTnited Provinces, showed an average height of 4-5 ft. as against 4-7 ft. for sal. Measurements made in 1910 by Mr. McCrie in coppice coupes in Gorakhpur, United Provinces, showed the following results for Casearia tornentosa and sal respectively : ^ Inspection note, P o TJ o D o o CO 6 o a; S o O ^ bO — ■^ o ADINA 617 the dry regions of Ceylon. In the sub -Himalayan tract large trees are found along the lower slopes of the outer hills from the Jumna eastwards and on the boulder terraces at the base of these hills, where it is sometimes almost gregarious. It is also a familiar tree in the sal forests of the United Provinces. It is fairly common in mixed deciduous and sal forests in Chota Nagpur, and is scattered throughout the greater part of the Central Provinces and the Indian Peninsula generally. In Burma it is found both in the upper mixed and in the lower mixed deciduous forests. The tree is found most frequently, and attains its best development, on well-drained ground, for instance along the lower slopes of hills among boulders ; it also grows well on alluvial ground provided the drainage is good. Like Stephegyne parvifolia it is sometimes met with in the sub -Himalayan tract round the edges of swampy depressions where the soil is stiff and the drainage deficient, but in such places it is always stunted and tends to become stag-headed early. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 100° to 118° F., the absolute minimum from 30° to 55° F., and the normal rainfall from 35 to 150 in. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The leaves are shed about February and the trees remain leafless until about May- June, when the new fohage appears. The large whitish stipules enclosing the leaf -buds are con- spicuous ; they fall to the ground when the young leaves appear. The yellow globose flower-heads, about 0-6-1 in. in diameter, appear from June to August. By October the globose fruit-heads are almost fully formed, bjit are still green and unripe ; they do not actually ripen and shed their seeds until from April to June of the following year (northern India). The fruit-head (Fig. 237, a) consists of a large number of small two-valved many-seeded capsules. After the capsule-valves and seeds have been shed the remains of the fruit-heads appear like small prickly balls formed of the bristle-Hke axes of the capsules ; these, on their peduncles 1-3 in. long, soon fall to the ground and may be found there in quantity during the rainy season. Sometimes the ripe fruit-head falls before shedding the seeds, which may even germinate within the fallen fruit- head (Fig. 237, 6). The seeds (Fig. 237, c) are very small and light, 0-06 to 0-12 in. long, brown, with numerous minute longitudinal wrinkles, one end tapering to a point, the other terminating in a pair of pointed appendages. As many as 11,000 seeds weigh 1 gramme, giving over 300,000 to the ounce avoirdupois. Tests carried out at Dehra Dun showed that the seed, if carefully stored, retains its vitality well for at least a year. Germination (Fig. 237, d-g). Epigeous. The minute radicle emerges from the blunt end of the seed, the hypocotyl elongates, arching shghtly, and the testa, enclosing the cotyledons, is carried above ground, falhng with their expansion. The seedling (Fig. 237). Roots : primary root in first season very fine, white, delicate, with a dense mass of woolly hairs in the upper part which soon disappears ; in the second season much thickened, tough, terete, tapering, yellowish brown : lateral roots moderate in number and length, fibrous, distributed down main root, 618 XXXIII. RUBIACEAE chief lateral roots thickening considerably in second season. Hypocotyl distinct from root, 0-1-0-15 in. long, very fine and delicate, white turning green. Cotyledons sub-sessile or very shortly petiolate, up to 0-1 in. long, ovate, acute, base truncate or sub-cordate, entire, foliaceous, delicate, green, glabrous. Stem erect, terete or compressed, delicate at first, becoming woody later, tomentose ; internodes at first 0- 1-0-2 in. long, in second season up to 1 in. long. Leaves simple, opposite decussate. Leaves of the first season usually only two pairs : petiole up to 0-05 in. long, lamina 0-1-0-5 in. by 0-08-0-4 in., ovate, acute or obtuse, base obtuse, entire, usually reddish, glabrous, or minutely pubescent beneath. Leaves of second season : stipules 0-2-0-5 in. long, ovate, obovate or elliptical, pale green, terminal pair enclosing terminal bud : petiole up to 0-5 in. long, flattened above, tomentose : lamina up to 3-5 by 2 in., elliptical ovate, acute, base acute or obtuse, more rarely cordate, entire, glabrous above, paler and minutely pubescent beneath, lateral veins 6-9 pairs. For some little time after germination the seedlings are extremely mirmte and delicate, and are very liable to be washed away or beaten down b}'^ the rain. During the first season their development is slow, many attaining a height of only 1 in. or less, with two or three pairs of leaves, though under favourable conditions the more vigorous individuals may attain a height of 4-6 in. or even more, with seven or eight pairs of leaves. During the second season the growth is more rapid, a height of 1-2 ft. or even more being attained under favourable conditions, though on stiff soil or weed-covered ground the growth is poor ; good drainage and a free porous soil are essential conditions for successful development. The taproot remains thin, but attains a fair length, during the first season ; during the second season, however, it thickens con- siderably, attaining in some cases a diameter of as much as |- in. The seedlings are very sensitive to frost and drought. The leaves turn reddish-brown in the cold season and fall about November to February, the new leaves appearing about March or later (northern India). Fig. 235 shows a vigorous seedling in the third season. In the forest the seedhngs require some practice to recognize, even when two or three years old. Superficially they are not unlike those of Clerodendron infortunatum., a plant often occurring in the sal forests where Adina is found. The Adina seedlings, however, can always be distinguished by the terminal stipules enclosing the bud, which are often reddish ; also their leaves are entire and glabrous, while those of Clerodendron seedhngs are serrate and pubescent. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. Although secdUngs spring up under moderate shade, and require protection from drought, from the sapling stage onwards the tree is a strong light-demander. Saplings are sensitive to the rubbing of their leading shoots by overhead trees, and their leaders tend to die where this takes place. The soil requirements of the tree have already been alluded to : good drainage is essential for the best development, trees on stiff soil remaining stunted. Although the seedlings are sensitive to drought the tree is moderately hardy ; it was only shghtly affected in the abnormal droughts of 1899 and 1900 in the Indian Peninsula and 1907 and 1908 in Oudh. After the seedling stage it is moderately frost-hardy, having suffered only to a slight extent in the severe frost of 1905 in northern India. Young plants and coppice-shoots suffer more than those of almost any other species from browsing by cattle, goats, deer, and nilgai ; they have good power of recovery, Fig. 237. Adina covdifolia — Seedling c — Seed X 2 d - g Clermination a — Fruit-head x g b — Fruit-head with germinating seedlings x | stages X 2 h, i — Development of seedling to end of first season j j-1 — Development of seedling to end of second season x | (Seedling raised artificially, and more vigorous than a natural seedling) ADINA 619 but remain in a bushy condition with repeated browsing. In some localities bison and sambhar do much damage by barking sapUngs. The tree coppices readily up to a moderate size, producing numbers of shoots, chiefly from the base of the stool. Natural reproduction. The minute seeds, shed during the hot season, are often carried to a distance by the wind ; in some cases the fruit-heads fall before all the seed is shed, and the seed may germinate within the fruit- heads. Germination takes place early in the rainy season. The seeds are produced in vast numbers, but the proportion of seedlings which survive and establish themselves is relatively very small. The chief reasons for this are : first, that the minute seeds and young seedlings are very liable to be washed away and so perish ; and second, that the seedlings in their early stage are very delicate. It is often recorded that the natural reproduction of this species is almost entirely absent ; this is, however, far from being the case, and such statements are probably as a rule the result of failure to recognize the seedlings. For successful germination under natural conditions bare ground appears to be essential, whereas for the successful estabhshment of the young seedling it is necessary that the seeds, or perhaps even the young seedlings, should be washed up out of the reach of floods during the first rainy season, and find a lodgement in a well-drained situation where the seedhngs are not liable to be inundated or washed away. Seedlings have actually been observed in greater or less abundance in the following situations : (1) on small landslips on hill slopes ; young plants of all ages are often found on such ground at the base of the outer Himalaya ; (2) in loose earth and debris at the base of the hills ; where this material is washed out over natural well-drained terraces seedlings are often plentiful, and this no doubt explains the origin of the many large old trees found on the boulder terraces at the foot of the Himalaya ; (3) on well-drained alluvial ground near rivers, and on flat ground generally, always provided the ground is bare and not covered with weeds when the seed germinates ; on such ground seedlings may often be found in plenty on small natural humps or mounds, or round the bases of trees or termite heaps, where the seeds or young seedlings have been stranded during the rains ; as many as eight small seedlings were counted in the slightly raised earth round the base of one sal tree on flat ground in the Gorakhpur forests, United Provinces ; (4) on abandoned cultivation, for instance in taungya clearings in Burma, where natural reproduction often springs up m quantity ; (5) on the sides of walls, embankments, and ditches ; on the side of the boundary trench romid the Birpur forest rest-house, Gonda, United Provinces, were observed numerous saplings sprung from seed washed on to the sides of the trench, probably on new ground when the trench was made ; (6) round the edges of natural tanks and depressions where water lodges during the rains, the seeds being washed up out of the reach of floods and stranded ; (7) on the sites of old charcoal kilns ; seedhngs often appear on these owing to the good drainage afforded ; (8) occasionally in the form of epiphytes in forks of or hollows in trees ; (9) in clefts in rocks ; a seedhng U ft. high and probably a few years old was found growing tightly wedged in a crack in a large sandstone boulder where there was no soil. 620 XXXIII. RUBIACEAE As regards light requirements, the young seedlings probably benefit from shade, j)rovided this does not take the form of low weed-growth, since they are undoubtedly sensitive to drought. That they establish themselves well under moderate shade is certain from the fact that they may be found coming up in sal forest : numerous seedlings were observed thriving on bare alluvial ground under a well-thinned sissoo plantation in the Gorakhpur district, United Provinces, while in the same district seedlings, probably two or three years old, were found in plenty on bare ground under a light cover of Flemingia Chappar. That the admission of light greatly stimulates the establishment of natural reproduction is clear from the fact that in various parts of the sal forests of Oudh, where the canopy has been heavily opened out owing to the death of large numbers of trees during the abnormal drought of 1907 and 1908, Adina saplings have appeared in quantity because of the admission of light ; no doubt many of these plants were present before the canopy was opened, but their growth since then has been greatly stimulated. A dense sal crop in the Gonda district was experimentally opened out in January 1911 in the form of a regeneration felling for the sal ; the plot was inspected two years later, and found to contain numerous young Adina seedlings which had made their appearance owing to the admission of light. Protection from grazing is essential for the successful establishment of natural production, owing to the readiness with which animals browse down the young plants. Artificial reproduction. As far as is known success has never been attained by means of direct sowings. Experiments at Dehra Dun, by which seed was sown broadcast on hoed ground, as well as on ridges and in trenches, failed entirely, any seed which did germinate being washed away before the seedhngs could gain a footing. In the United Provinces broadcast sowings on hoed ground have been tried from time to time, but failure has always been recorded. Experiments at Dehra Dun have shown that seedhngs can be grown successfully in well-raised beds of fine sifted soil with a considerable proportion of sand, or better still on powdered charcoal, but it is essential that the beds should be covered with screens raised about a foot above them, in order to keep off rain and sun, and that watering should be done with a very fine spray. Seed-boxes, however, have proved more successful than seed-beds, and con- sidering the large number of seedlings obtainable from one box there is little question that raising in boxes is to be recommended in preference to any other method. The following procedure has given good results : The seed-box is filled to within about 1 in. from the top with finely sifted earth with a large proportion of sand, the surface is made smooth and watered, and the seeds are sown about April or May on the wet surface and very Hghtly covered with fine earth or sand. The box should be kept under cover, and watering with a very fine spray should be done frequently but sparingly. Germination ordinarily takes place in about three to six weeks. As soon as the seedlings are large enough to handle, that is, in about two to three months, tliey should be pricked out about 2 in. apart in boxes ; the more vigorous ones may even be pricked out about 4 in. apart in nursery-beds. The seedlings will be ready to plant out in the forest early the following rains. Transplanting iff '• "^v •'• '"''^A * r^\^ -^ f- tJ.rJiL'^-.i.lWi'-SiTiti|-lt.- Fig. 238. Stephegyne parvifolia, height 78 ft., girth 27 ll . 0 in., Siwalik hills, United Provinces. OJl ADINA 621 is not unattended with risk owing to the UabiHty of the seedhngs to die of drought ; care is therefore necessary to keep a ball of earth round the roots. Risk is further avoided by pricking out the plants into baskets or bamboo tubes instead of into boxes or nursery-beds, so that there is no interference with the roots during transplanting. After transplanting it is advisable to keep the soil round the plants well loosened and free from weeds in order to stimulate vigorous growth and to prevent caking of the ground. Rate of growth. The following results of girth measurements in high forest sample plots are available : Adina cordifolia : girth increment in high forest sample plots. Province. Forest division. Locality. Number of years under measurement. Number of trees under measurement. Girth classes. ft. 3-4 l|-3 1^3 li-3 1-2 2-3 4-5 Mean annual girth increment for period. United Provinces Central Provinces Saharanpur Lansdowne Gonda S. Kheri Balaghat Dholkhand Giwain Chandanpur Bhira Raigarh and Baihar 7 U 2 11 8 1 1 3 4 1 {1 in. 1-0 0-97 0-27 0-51 0-72 0-53 0-19 , Coppice measurements by Mr. C. M. McCrie in 1910 in the Gorakhpur district, United Provinces, showed an average height and girth of 18-7 ft. and 6-9 in. respectively in seven years, as compared with an average height and girth of 10-2 ft. and 3-87 in. respectively for sal in the same coupe. Measurements of coppice-shoots on somewhat poor stony ground in the Saitba block, Kolhan forest division, Chota Nagpur, gave the following results : Adina cordifolia : coppice measurements, Saitba block, Kolhan. Age. Mean girth. Mean height. Age. Mean girth. Mean height years. in. ft. years. in. ft. 2 30 10 5-5 13-5 4 30 6-5 12 61 15-0 6 4-0 9-0 14 6-6 16-5 8 4-8 11-5 3. STEPHEGYNE, Korth. Species 1. S. parvifolia, Korth. ; 2. S. diversifolia, Hook. f. 1. Stephegyne parvifolia, Korth. Syn. Nauclea parvifolia, Willd. ; Mitra- gyna parvifolia, Korth. Y ei'n. Kaem, phaldu, Hind. ; Kalamb, Mar. ; Kadawar, yetega, Kan. ; Chinna kadamhu, Tam. ; Rattaganapa, Tel. ; Tein, teinthe, Burm. A large deciduous tree with a full rounded crown and a bole often short, fluted, and buttressed. Bark up to 0-8 in. thick, grey, smooth, exfohating in scales which leave shallow depressions. Wood light pinkish brown, even grained, used for building, furniture, agricultural implements, bobbins, combs, cups, spoons, and other carved and turned articles ; it is less in demand than that of Adina cordifolia. Under favourable conditions the tree reaches large dimensions : Fig. 238 shows a tree on alluvial ground in the Siwalik hills 27 ft. 6 in. in girth and 78 ft. high. Distribution and habitat. Throughout the greater part of India and Burma, ascending to 4,000 ft. in the outer Himalaya ; also in Ceylon. Not 622 XXXIII. RUBIACEAE reported from north and east Bengal or Assam. Within its habitat the tree is scattered in deciduous forests, not as a rule in any great abundance. Like Adina cordifolia, with which it is often associated, it reaches its best develop- ment on well-drained ground with deep soil. It is, however, more tolerant of stiff badly- drained ground than Adina, and often grows more or less gregariously on low-ljdng ground with clayey soil, for example on badly- drained savannah lands in Burma, and in many localities round the edges of tanks and swamps ; in the tarai and plains of the sub -Himalayan tract it occurs frequently in low-lying somewhat swampy ground along with Eugenia Jambolana. In such places, however, its development suffers, and as a rule it remains stunted. In the Indian Peninsula it is often found on black cotton soil, and on alluvial ground near rivers. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 100° to 118° F., the absolute minimum from 30° to 55° F., and the normal rainfall from 35 to 130 in. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The leaves are shed about February-March, and the tree is leafless in April-May, the new leaves appearing about May (northern India). The fragrant globose white or pale yellow flower- heads, 0-7-1 in. in diameter, appear from May to July, and the fruit-heads become fuU formed, but are stiU green and unripe, by October ; in northern India they do not ripen and shed their seeds until about April-May. Haines mentions that ripe seed has also been collected in November in Chota Nagpur. The fruit-heads (Fig. 239, a) are globose, 0-5-0-7 in. in diameter, with numerous small two-valved many-seeded capsules. Sometimes the ripe fruit-heads fall before shedding the seeds, which may even be found germinating within the fallen fruit-heads (Fig. 239, b). The seeds (Fig. 239, e) are minute, 0-1-0-15 in. long, pointed at either end, light brown, very light, as many as 10,000 weighing 1 gramme, giving nearly 300,000 to the ounce avoirduj)ois. Germination (Fig. 239, d-f). Epigeous. The testa splits at one end and the minute radicle emerges, the hypocotyl elongates, arching slightly at first, and the testa, enclosing the cotyledons, is carried above ground, falling with their expansion. The seedling (Fig. 239). Roots : primary root in first season very fine, white and delicate, with a dense mass of woolly hairs in the upjjer part which soon disappears ; in second season much thickened, terete, tapering : lateral roots moderate in number and length, fibrous, distributed down main root. Hypocotyl distinct from root, 0-1-0-15 in. long, very fine and delicate, white turning green. Cotyledons very shortly petiolate, up to 0-1 in. long, ovate, acute or rounded, base rounded, truncate or sub-cordate, entu'e, foliaceous, glabrous. Stetn erect, delicate at first, becoming woody later ; internodes in first season very short, in second season up to 1 in. long. Leaves simple, opposite decussate. Leaves of first season usually only two pairs, sub-sessile or very shortly petiolate, 0- 1-0-5 in. by 0-08-0-4 in., ovate, acute or rounded, base obtuse or acute, entire, often reddish. Like those of Adina cordifolia, which they strongly resemble, the seedlings for some little time after germinating are extremely minute and deficate, and are very hable to be beaten down or washed away by rain. During the first season their growth is very slow, a height of barely J in. being ordinarily ^ / -Fruit-head x \ Fig. 239. Stephegyne parvifolia — Seedling b— Old fruit-head with seedlings germinating x 2 c~Seed x 5 d - f— Germination stages x 5 g -h — Development of seedling to end of first season x 3 STEPHEGYNE G23 attained by the end of the season, and usually about two pairs of foliage leaves being produced. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. In eaily youth the tree stands a certain amount of shade, seedlings and saplings being often found under cover, but later it is a Hght-demander : as in the case of Adina cordifolia, saplings are sensitive to the rubbing of their leading shoots by overhead trees. As already mentioned, the tree is capable of growing on badly-drained ground, but its growth suffers in such places. It is fairly hardy against drought, having suffered only to a sKght extent in the abnormal droughts of 1907 and 1908 in Oudh, and 1899 and 1900 in the Indian Peninsula. The tree coppices well up to a moderate size. In some locaHties bison are apt to damage poles of this species by stripping the bark off them. Natural reproduction. So far as the natural reproduction of this tree has been studied, the conditions influencing it appear to be very similar to if not identical with those affecting the reproduction of Adina cordifolia. As in the case of the latter species, the minute seeds are scattered in the hot season, some remaining in the fruit -heads and germinating in them after they fall to the ground, and reproduction springs up in places similar to those in which Adina cordifolia reproduction appears, seedUngs of the two species being often found together. The survival of reproduction on badly-drained ground is, however, more marked than in the case of Adina. Natural reproduction sometimes comes up fairly freely on abandoned cultivation. Artificial reproduction. According to experiments carried out at Dehra Dun, the most satisfactory method of raising this tree artificially is in boxes, the procedure followed being exactlj'- the same as that described for Adina cordifolia (p. 620). Rate of growth. The following results are available of high forest sample plot measurements in the Singhbhum forest division, Chota Nagpur : Stephegyne parvifolia : girth increments in high forest sample plots, Singhbhum. Number of Number of Mean annual years under trees under Girth girth increment Locality. measurement. measurement. classes. for period. ft. in. Tirilposi block 18 {I 5-6 6-7 0-58 0-54 Samta-Hendakuli old road 10 {I 6-7 7-8 0-37 0-2.5 A cross-section 3 ft. 10 in. in girth in the silvicultural museum at Dehra Dun showed 61 rings, representing a mean annual girth increment of 0-75 in. Gamble's specimens showed 5 to 15, averaging 9, rings per inch of radius, representing mean annual girth increments of 0-42 to 1-26, averaging 0-7 in., which is moderate. Coppice measurements made in 1910 by Mr. C. M. McCrie in the Gorakhpur district, United Provinces, gave the following results for Stephegyyie as com- pared with sal : 624 XXXIII. RUBIACEAE Stephegyne parvifoUa : coppice measurements, Gorakhpur. Mean girth. Mean height. Age. Stephegyne. Sal. Slephegyne. Sal. years. in. in. ft. ft. 2 4-5 30 4 2-2 2-0 9-0 7-0 6 3-3 2-9 120 10-3 8 4-2 3-8 140 130 10 50 4-8 16-0 15-3 12 5-8 5-8 18-0 17-5 2. Stephegyne diversifolia, Hook. f. Syn. Nauclea rotundifoUa , Roxb. Vern. Binga, Burm. ; Hnawthein, U. Burm. A moderate-sized to large deciduous tree with large nearly orbicular leaves, found in Burma, the Andamans, and Chittagong ; also in Java and the Philippines. The tree is a very common one in the mixed deciduous forests of Burma, both of the upper and of the lower type. In the lower mixed forests on flat alluvial Igind it is often found in great abundance. Thus in the Thindawyo reserve in the Tharrawaddy district enumerations showed it to be the commonest species in the forest, an average of 118 trees 3 ft. in girth and over being counted per 100 acres. ^ The seeds are minute, like those of 8. parvifoUa and Adina cordifolia, and a further study of the tree wiU no doubt reveal points of similarity to those two species in matters relating to reproduction. Natural reproduction is often abundant on alluvial ground along rivers and streams. The Burma Forest Report for 1914-15 mentions that natural seedlings appeared freely in the Yetkanzin reserve, Toungoo, in an area where bamboos had flowered and which had been fire -protected for many years and burnt when the bamboos flowered ; the reproduction was the result of the burning, which would indicate that clear ground, as in the case of S. parvifoUa and Adina cordifoUa, is a favourable factor. It often comes up in abundance on abandoned cultivation. Mr. A. Rodger - in 1916 enumerated a dense pole crop on an old taungya cultivated about seventeen years previously in the Prome district of Burma. The enumeration showed 1,150 stems per acre, of which 72 per cent, consisted of Stephegyne diver sifoUa. 4. NAUCLEA, Linn. Nauclea sessilifolia, Roxb. Syn. Adina sessiUfoUa, Hook. f. Vern. Tein- kala, Burm. A large deciduous tree of Cachar, Chittagong, and Burma, occurring in mixed deciduous forests. In Burma it is particularly common in some of the lower mixed forests on flat alluvial gromid. Enumerations in the Thindawyo reserve of the Tharrawaddy district showed that after Stephegyne diversifoUa it was more plentiful than axij other species enumerated, showing an average of 98 trees 3 ft. in girth and over per 100 acres.^ On flat alluvial ground by rivers and streams natural reproduction often springs up in great quantity, ^ Working Plan for the Satpok, Sitkwin, and Thindawyo Reserves, ThaiTawaddy, Burma, 1906. - Ind. Forester, xlii (191G), p. 499. NAUCLEA 625 forming dense pure patches. The seeds are minute like those of Adina cordi- folia and Stephegyne diversifolia, and a further study of this tree will probably reveal points of resemblance to those species, particularly as regards reproduc- tion. The wood is used for planking and building. 5. HYMENODICTYON, Wall. Hymenodictyou excelsum, Wall. Syn. H. thyrsiflorum, Wall. ; H. utile, Wight ; Cinchona excelsa, Roxb. Vern. Kukurkat, bhaulan, bauranga, Hind. ; Bhorsal, Mar. ; Pottaka, Tel. ; Kusan, Burm. A large deciduous tree, usually with a straight cylindrical bole and a rounded crown. Bark greyish brown, thick, soft, corky and furrowed on stems of older trees, smooth on poles and branches. Wood white when fresh, turning darker, soft, light, used for planking, boxes, scabbards, toys, &c. ; has been reported as excellent for match manufacture. In northern India, however, the trees have often been noticed to be riddled with large burrows, probably those of a longicorn beetle, and the quality of the wood suffers in consequence. Distribution and habitat. Scattered throughout the greater part of India and Burma in dry mixed deciduous forests. The tree is particularly common on loose dry deposits of boulders and debris along the base of the outer hills in the sub-Himalayan tract. It is one of the characteristic trees of the bhabat' tract of the United Provinces, a deep boulder formation on gently sloping ground where the subsoil water-level is at a great depth ; here among its commoner companions are Holoptelea integrifolia, Lagerstroeniia parvifolia, Acacia Catechu, Bombax rnalabaricum, Terminalia belerica, Adiiia cordifolia, Anogeissus latifolia, Cassia Fistula, and Odina Wodier. It is also frequently met with on sandy or stony soils on alluvial ground near rivers, and in savannah lands. It is not infrequent in the sal forests of northern India. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 98° to 118° F., the absolute minimum from 30° to 60° F., and the normal rainfall from 35 to 90 in. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The large broadly elliptical long-stalked leaves turn a rich yellow and fall in November-December at a time when few other trees are shedding their leaves. The new leaves do not appear until about May, and throughout the intervening months the leafless trees are conspicuous with their candelabra-like fruit-panicles sub- tended by pairs of dry leafy reddish brown bracts. The small white fragrant flowers, in large terminal panicles, appear from June to August. The capsules are conspicuous from November-December onwards, but do not open and shed their seeds until April-May : they are two-valved, elHpsoidal, 0-5-0-7 in. long, and contain many seeds. The seeds (Fig. 240, a) are flat, winged all round the margin, 0-3 by 0-1 in. including the wing ; they are very hght, about 4,800 weighing I oz., and are disseminated to a distance by the hot weather winds. Tests carried out at Dehra Dun showed that the fertility of fresh seed is high, but that the seed loses its vitality within a year. 2307.2 u a y \ ^ ■h / / Fia. 240. Hymenodlclyon excelsiim. Seedling x J. I, sood ; }>-v, (germination Ht,.ap;oH ; /, (j, devolo])tnont. of seedling during first season; li.. seedling towards en second season (long tliick taproot not shown). HYMENODICTYON 027 Germination (Fig. 240, 6-e). Epigeous. On the emergence of the radicle the hypocotyl elongates, carrying above ground the cotyledons enclosed in the testa. On the expansion of the cotyledons the testa usually remains for a time on the end of one of them, ultimately dropping to the ground. The seedling (Fig. 240). Roots : primary root long, thickening early and becoming very thick in second season, terete, tapering : lateral roots few to numerous, fibrous. Hypo- cotyl distinct from root, 0-3-0-5 in. long, cylindrical, green, minutely pubescent. Cotyledons : petiole up to 0-1 in. long, flattened above : lamina 0-35-0-5 in. by 0-25-0-3 in., foliaceous, ovate, emarginate, entire, glabrous, usually per- sisting till end of fii'st season. Stem erect, minutely pubescent, in fii-st season short, with internodes 0- 1-0-2 in. long; in second season thick, woody, with internodes 0-4-1 in. long. Leaves simple, opposite decussate : stipules (first season) less than 0-1 in. long, triangular, pubescent : petiole (first season) 0-1 in. long, pubescent, midrib runnmg prominently down upper side : lamina (first season) 0-8-1-8 in. by 0-6-1 in., sub-rhomboidal or ovate, acute, base tapering, entire, pubescent, venation arcuate, lateral veins 4-6 pairs, midrib often red. The seedling develops very slowly above ground during the first season, and under natural conditions also during the second or third seasons, after which, if the plant survives, the growth is more rapid. As a rule a height of not more than 1 or 2 in. is attained during the first season, with not more than three to five pairs of leaves. The underground development, however, is considerable, a long stout taproot being quickly formed ; this may be as much as 1 ft. 6 in. long by the end of the first season. This underground develop- ment, which is common among seedlings of trees characteristic of dry types of forest, is evidently an adaptation for the establishment of the plant before any marked growth in the stem begins. The seedling is very sensitive to frost, especially during the first year or two while the plants are small ; in locaHties subject to frost many seedlings are killed outright, while some may shoot up again from the base. Weeds impede the development of seedlings considerably, suppressing and kiUing them if heavy. The seedling is decidedly light-demanding. Growth ceases from November to May ; the leaves turn yellow or reddish and drop in November-December, the plants being leafless from January to May, when the new leaves appear (northern India). The following measurements in experimental plots at Dehra Dun give some indication of the rate of growth of young plants : Hymenodictyon excelsum : development of seedlings, Dehra Dun. )n under which Height at end of season. gfown. 1st season. 2nd season. 3rd season. 4th season, ral conditions Maximum 0 ft. 1 in. ery, weeded and ired ,, Oft. 1 1 in. Maximum 1 ft. .3 in. [cast sowing, irri- A, unweeded „ 0 ft. 2 in. „ 0 ft. 3 in.' Killed by weeds in 3rd season icast sowing, un- ated, unweeded „ Oft. 1 J in. „ 0 ft. 1 Mn.^ Ditto [least sowing, un- ated, weeded „ 0 ft. 2 in. „ 0 ft. 4 in.^ 10 in.-2 ft. 4 in. Maximum T) ft. Gin. * New shoots from base ; seedlings killed back by frost in previous winter, U2 628 XXXIII. RUBIACEAE SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. Except that the tree is known to be a strong Ught-demander its silvicultural characters have not been studied in detail. Natural reproduction. Germination takes place during the rainy season. Bare ground is favourable to germination and subsequent survival, young seedlings being killed off in quantity where weeds are present. The small seedlings are liable to be washed away by heavy rain during and after germination, the seed is liable to destruction by insects, while the slow develop- ment of the seedling and its sensitiveness to weeds, frost, and shade are all contributory factors towards failure of natural reproduction, which explains to some extent its comparative scarcity in many localities. Artificial reproduction. The artificial propagation of this tree is not easy. Direct sowings are not very suitable owing to the liability of the seed to be washed away and to the slow development of the seedling. Seed should be sown in the nursery in April and May in porous sandy loam, and lightly covered ; the seedlings begin to appear in about eight to ten days. The beds require protection from heavy rain. The seedlings should be pricked out when about two or three months old and protected from frost in the winter. The more vigorous plants will be ready to plant out during the following rainy season, but the smaller ones should be kept another year in the nursery. Care is necessary to retain earth round the roots dialing trans- planting, which may possibly be found more successful with the aid of long baskets or bamboo tubes. Rate of growth. There are no detailed measurements available, but a cross-section from the United Provinces in the silvicultural museum at Dehra Dun had 41 rings for a girth of 3 ft. 11 in., giving a mean annual girth increment of 1-15 in., which is fairly fast. 6. WENDLANDIA, Bartl. Wendlandia exserta, DC. Vern. Chaulai, chila, Hind. A small deciduous or evergreen tree with greyish pubescent foliage, found locally in the sub-Himalayan tract, outer Himalaya, Chota Nagpur, and parts of the Indian Peninsula. It comes up gregariously on newly exposed ground, particularly on landslips and abandoned cultivation ; the minute seeds appear to require such ground for successful germination. The tree is a useful one for reelothing bare hill slopes and clearings. It is strongly light-demanding. The growth is fast : Gamble's specimens gave 4 to 5 rings per inch of radius, or a mean annual girth increment of 1-26 to 1-57 in. 7. GARDENIA, Linn. This genus contains about eleven Indian species of small trees or shrubs, most of which are interesting as being common members of dry open types of forest on poor ground on which many species are unable to exist. The wood of these trees deserves to be better known as a substitute for boxwood, being hard, close grained, and compact. The most widely distributed species is G. turgida, Roxb., described below. The species best known in the Indian Peninsula are G. lucida, Roxb., G. gnmmifera, Linn., and G. latifolia, Alton. These are small trees or shrubs of xerophytic habit, growing on dry poor ground GARDENIA 629 often consisting of hard clay with quartz pebbles or calcareous nodules ; they exude a clear fragrant yellow protective gum-resin which envelops the leaf- buds. The seeds of G. latifolia sometimes germinate in crevices in boulders and in forks or hollows of trees, and the plants grow and persist in such places : one plant was noticed in the Singhbhum district growing out of the side of a hollow Bridelia retusa tree about 10 ft. from the ground, appearing at first sight as if it had been grafted ; the roots penetrated the inside of the Bridelia down to the ground. In Burma various species of Gardenia are characteristic of induing (dry dipterocarp) forest on laterite, or of open dry scrub forests ; the better-known Burmese species are G. turgida, Roxb., G. coronaria, Ham., G. erythrodada, Kurz, G. obtusifolia, Roxb., and G. sessiliflora, Wall. The gardenias are characterized by very fragrant tubular white flowers which appear mainly in the hot season and turn yellowish before falling. The fruits are fleshy, and those of some species at least are eaten by birds and animals, the seeds being disseminated by their agency. Sometimes dense clusters of young seedlings may be found on the ground, having sprung from seed which has germinated within the remains of fruits which have fallen from the tree. The gardenias are comparatively immune from damage by grazing, and in grazed areas tend to become dominant owing to the extent to which most other species are kept down. The rate of growth is slow to moderate. Gamble's specimens showed for G. coronaria 14 rings per inch of radius, giving a mean annual girth increment of 0-45 in., and for G. latifolia 8 rings per inch of radius, giving a mean annual girth increment 0-78 in. A cross-section of G. latifolia 1 ft. 0| in. in girth in the silvicultural museum at Dehra Dun had 28 rings, giving a mean annual girth increment of 0-44 in. A tree of the same species measured for a period of eight years in a sample plot in the Balaghat district. Central Provinces, showed a mean annual girth increment of 0-23 in. Gardenia turgida, Roxb. Vern. Thanela, karamha, ghurgia, Hind. ; Ben- geri, Kan. ; Thaminsa-ni, Burm. A small deciduous tree with light grey or whitish smooth bark, rigid branches armed with sharp straight thorns, and leaves crowded at the ends of the branches. Wood hard, close grained, whitish. Distribution and habitat. Throughout the greater part of India and Burma in dry open deciduous forests, ascending the outer Himalaya to 4,000 ft. The tree is characteristic of poor dry stony soil, dry rocky hill-sides, laterite, Jcankar, and also of stiff clayey soil. In Burma it is common in open indaing forests on laterite, in the open scrub forests of the dry zone, and in the dry deciduous forests of the Shan hills and elsewhere. Leap-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The old leaves are shed about March, the new foliage appearing about May. The white dimorphic flowers, the females larger than the males, appear chiefly in March-April, when the trees are leafless or nearly so, and the fruits ripen and fall during the hot season a year later. The fruits are sub-globose, 1-5-3 in. in diameter, greyish green, with a thick rather hard pericarp and a woody endocarp, con- taining numerous angular seeds (Fig. 241, a) embedded in pulp. The germina- 630 XXXIII. RUBIACEAE tive power of the seed is fairly high : tests carried out at Dehra Dun gave a fertiHty of 77 per cent. Germinatiok (Fig. 241, b-g). Epigeous. The radicle emerges from one end of the seed ; the hypocotyl elongates by arching, and in straightening raises above ground the cotyledons enclosed in the testa, which falls to the ground on their expansion. The seedling (Fig. 241). Roots : primary root moderately long, at first thin, afterwards thickening, terete, tapering : lateral roots few to moderate in number, fibrous, distributed down main root, Hypocotyl distinct from root, 0-6-1 in. long, terete, tapering upwards, white turning green, minutely pubescent. Cotyledons : petiole less than 0-1 in. long, flattened above, minutely pubescent : lamina 0-8-0-9 in. by 0-5-0-6 in., foliaceous, ovate, acute, entire, green, glossy and glabrous above, glaucous and glabrescent or minutely pubescent beneath, margins sometimes fringed with fine hairs, venation arcuate. Stem erect, slightly compressed, pubescent, in first season short, with internodes up to 0-3 in. long. Leaves simple, opposite, sub-sessile or with short petioles bordered by the decurrent leaf-base : lamina up to 1 in. by 0-5 in., ovate, elliptical, obovate or oblanceolate, acute, base decurrent, entire, coriaceous, dark green and glossy above, paler beneath, both surfaces sparsely pubescent, margin with a fringe of fine hairs. Usually not more than two pairs of foliage leaves are produced in the first season. The growth of the seedling during the first season is very slow, a height of only 1-2| in. being attained. In the second season it is more rapid : nursery- raised seedlings at Dehra Dun attained a height of 1| to 4| ft. by the end of the second season, but under natural conditions, which are more unfavourable, the growth is probably much slower. The seedlings are decidedly frost-hardy. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. The tree is decidedly hardy as regards both frost and drought. On low-lying grassy land subject to severe frosts it is often one of the few species capable of existing. In the abnormal drought of 1907 and 1908 in the forests of Oudh it escaped injur}^ when many other species were killed off in quantity. It is not readily browsed, even by goats. Natural reproduction. The fruits are eaten by birds and animals, and the seeds are scattered by their agency. Those which are not eaten lie on the ground, turning brown and drying up somewhat in the hot season, and becoming partially eaten by white ants, or gradually rotting in the rainy season ; in this case most if not all of the seeds lie ungerminated until the second rainy season, when germination takes place. Artificial reproduction. There is little difficulty in raising this species in the nursery and transplanting it. The seed should be sown about March or April : germination is rather slow, the seedfings usually appearing about six weeks to two months or more after solving. The seedlings should be pricked out during the first rainy season and transplanted early in the second rains. Rate of growth. The growth is slow to moderate. A cross-section from the United Provinces in the silvicultural museum at Dehra Dun showed 37 rings for a girth of 2 ft. IJ in., giving a mean annual girth increment of 0-7 in. Gamble's specimens averaged 13 rings per inch of radius, giving a mean annual girth increment of 0-48 in. h fl % Fig. 241. Gardenia turgid a. .Seedling]. a, seed ; h-g, germination stages ; /*, i, development of seedling to cud of first season. 632 XXXIII. RUBIACEAE 8. RANDIA, Linn. This genus contains about fifteen Indian species of shrubs or small trees, some armed and others unarmed, some evergreen and others deciduous. Most of them have hard whitish close-grained woods suitable as substitutes for boxwood. The two species most commonly met with are R. uliginosa, DC, and R. dumetorum, Lam. A third, R. malabarica, Lam., is a thorny evergreen shrub common in the dry scrub forests in parts of the Indian Peninsula, often on laterite. The better-known species of Randia, unlike the gardenias, appear to be very subject to browsing, especially by goats ; this is certainly the case with R. dumetorum, R. malabarica, and R. tetrasperma, Roxb., a Himalayan species which is browsed down to a dense compact bush. Species 1. R. uliginosa, DC. ; 2. R. dumetorum, Lam. 1. Randia uliginosa, DC. Syn. Gardenia uliginosa, Retz. Vern. Pindara, Hind. ; Hmanbyu, Burm. A small deciduous rigid armed tree with reddish brown bark and quad- rangular branches, common throughout the greater part of India and Burma, particularly on low-lying swampy ground and savannah lands ; also on black cotton soil in the Indian Peninsula. It produces root-suckers freely, and is hardy against frost and drought ; in the abnormal drought of 1907 and 1908 in the forests of Oudh it escaped untouched. The tree is leafless as a rule from February to April. The fruit, which ripens about February-March (northern India), is an ellipsoidal berry, 2-2-5 in. long, yellow when thoroughly ripe, with about twelve seeds embedded in a somewhat soft pulp (the swollen placentas) in two cells within a somewhat leathery pericarp. The seeds are dark brown, hard, shining, obscurely angular, 0-15-2 in. long. The growth of the young seedling is very slow. At Dehra Dun a height of less than 1 in. was attained by the end of the first season ; by the end of the third season, however, plants attained a height of 7 ft. The rate of growth is moderate. A cross-section in the silvicultural museum at Dehra Dun showed 56 rings for a girth of 2 ft. 7| in., giving a mean annual girth increment of 0-56 in. Gamble's specimens gave 6 to 7 rings per inch of radius, representing a mean annual girth increment of 0-9 to 1-05 in. 2. Randia dumetorum, Lam., including R. longispina, DC, and R. nutans, DC. Vern. Mainphal, Hind. ; Sethanbaya, thaminsa, Burm. A large shrub or small tree armed with straight axillary thorns and leaves in fascicles along the branches, extremely common as an undergrowth species in the sal forests of the sub-Himalayan tract, and common also in many parts of the Indian Peninsula and Burma, where it extends into the dry zone. It is a drought-hardy species, having resisted well the abnormal drought of 1907 and 1908 in the forests of Oudh. It is readily browsed by goats. It produces root-suckers. The fruit is a globose or ovoid berry, 1-1-5 in. long, yellow when ripe, containing a number of more or less angular seeds embedded in pulp ; the fruits ripen in the cold season. As regards rate of growth, a cross-section in the silvicultural museum at Dehra Dun showed 26 rings for a girth of 1 ft. 4 in., giving a mean annual girth increment of 0-62 in. Gamble's specimens averaged 7 rings per inch of radius, representing a mean annual girth increment of 0-9 in, 633 ORDER XXXIV. ERICACEAE This order is not of great importance in Indian forestry, though two species, Rhododendron arboreum, Sm., and Pieris ovalifolia, T>. Don., are famihar trees in the Himalaya and other hill regions, where they are useful in clothing hill-sides and acting as nurses to more valuable species. All the Indian species of this order, of which at least forty belong to the genus Rhododendron, are trees or shrubs of the hills, many ascending to high elevations. Genera 1. Rhododendron, Linn. ; 2. Pieris, D. Don. 1. RHODODENDRON, Linn. Rhododendron arboreum, Sm. Vern. Chahan, Haz. ; Chiu, burdns, W. Him. ; Zalatni, Burm. A small evergreen tree, often with a somewhat crooked or gnarled trunk. Bark soft, easily cut through with a pocket-knife, 0-5-1 in. thick, old bark grey, exfoliating in irregular longitudinal plates, exposing the smooth pinkish new bark beneath. The wood is of inferior quaUty, both as timber and as fuel. Distribution and habitat. This is a common tree in the western Himalaya, occurring chiefly at 5,000-8,000 ft. in association with Quercus incana and Pieris ovalifolia, and at the lower elevations with Pinus longifolia, but ascending to 11,000 ft. or even higher. It is somewhat rare in Hazara, being commonest in the Siran Pinus longifolia forests at 4,000 ft. and upwards in moist ravines. It extends to the eastern Himalaya, where, however, it is less common ; it is also found in the Khasi hills and the hills of Burma, southern India, and Ceylon. Flowering and fruiting. The large showy crimson, sometimes pink, flowers in dense corymbs appear usually from March to May, but in certain years only partial flowering takes place then, and a second flowering takes place in June or July ; this happened in the Simla hills in 1916, following an exceptionally dry winter and spring, and the flowers of the second bloom were paler in colour than usual. Similar late flowering is also said to take place if the first bloom is checked by hail or other injury. Occasionally trees may be seen in flower in January-February. The fertilization of the flowers is carried out partly by insects. Mr. G. B. F. Muir notes an interesting case observed in Tehri Garwhal of Indian martens {Martes flavigula) visiting one cluster of flowers after another and thrusting their noses into the flowers to lick up the nectar ; fertiHzation is thus carried out by their agency, and possibly birds may also be agents in cross-fertilization. The capsules (Fig. 242, a) are 0-8-M in. long by 0-3-0-4 in. in diam.eter, oblong, curved, greenish brown when ripening, then turning brown. They contain a large number of minute dark brown compressed oblong seeds about 0-05 in. long, with a fimbriate tuft at either end (Fig. 242, 6). The capsules open and shed their seeds chiefly from January to March (western Himalaya). The open capsules as a rule remain many months on the tree. Germination (Fig. 242, c-e). Epigeous. The radicle emerges from one end of the seed and descends. The hypocotyl elongates, arching slightly, and 634 XXXIV. ERICACEAE the testa is carried above ground over the cotyledons, falling to the ground with their expansion. The seedling (Fig. 242). Roots : primary root terete, tajjcring, short and delicate for about two years, subsequently long and wiry : lateral roots at first few, short, after- wards numerous, moderately long, fibrous, distributed down main root. t a G f Fig. 242. Rhododendron arboreum. Seedling. a, cajisuk! \ ; b, seed X 5 ; c-e, germination stages x 5 ; /, seedling towards end of tirst season x 5 ; g, seedling in third season \ ; h, seedling in fourth season ] . Ilypocotyl distinct from root, up to 0-] in. long, terete, cylindrical or tapermg sHghtly upwards, green, glabrous. Cotyledons up to 0-06 in. by 0-04 in,, foliaceous, slightly fleshy, sub-sessile, elliptical or almost orbicular, acute, obtuse or rounded, minutely and somewhat widely serrulate, often tm-ning i(id in the autumn. Stem erect, very short during first two years, elongating slowly during the next few years. Leaves simple, alternate, in fii'st season shortly petiolate, uj) to 0-12 in. by 0-1 in., broadly ovate or orbicular, mucro- iiate, entire, upper surface and margins covered with stiff glandular hairs, PIERIS 635 leaves sometimes tmning dark red in autumii ; leaves gradually increase in size from second season onwards, becoming elliptical, coriaceous, entire, the upper surface and margins still covered with stiff glandular hairs, at any rate on young leaves, for the first three or four years. During the first season the seedling is minute, reaching a height of scarcely 0-1 in., with 2 or 3 foliage leaves besides the cotyledons. For the first few years the growth is very slow. The seedling is very sensitive to drought, and survives in moist well-drained places., such as damp shady banks, cuttings, and rocks. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. The tree stands a fair amount of shade, but develops best in the open. It will grow on rocky ground provided there is sufficient soil moisture, but thrives best on moist loam. It coppices well. Natural reproduction. Natural reproduction springs up readily on newly exposed ground such as road-cuttings and landslips and in the crevices of bare rocks. In such places seedlings of various ages may often be found in large quantities provided the soil is moist : natural reproduction does not appear in dry places, as the seedlings perish quickly from drought. Artificial reproduction. Seedlings may be raised artificially by sowing seed in March or April in boxes or pots filled with fine sand or powdered brick previously soaked with water ; the seeds should not be covered. The boxes or pots should be sheltered from rain and sun and watered regularly. The seedlings may be pricked out, if large enough, in the second season, and kept in the nursery until sufficiently large to plant out. A more satisfactory method of planting is to dig up seedhngs from the banks and cuttings on which they spring up naturally and transfer them to the nursery, keeping them there until large enough to plant out. Rate of growth. The annual rings are not always distinct, but where visible they show a slow rate of growth. Brandis gives 14 rings per inch of radius, while Gamble's specimens varied from 12 rings in the western Himalaya and the Nilgiris to as many as 36 in Sikkim, representing a mean annual girth increment varying from 0-17 to 0-52 in. Coppice growth, though usually faster for a time than that of Quercus incana, is slow. Measurements made in 1911 in a coppice coupe six years old at BhowaH near Naini Tal (elevation 5.600 ft.) showed an average of 5 shoots per stool and a mean height of 4 ft. 4 in. 2. PIERIS, D. Don. Pieris ovalifolia, D. Don. Syn. Andromeda ovalifolia, Wall. Vern. Ayar, Hind. ; Allan, Pb. A small deciduous tree. Bark brown, thick, fibrous, exfohating in long narrow strips, deeply furrowed longitudinally, the furrows often proceeding spirally up the stem. This is a familiar tree in the western Himalaya at 4,000-8,000 ft., chiefly on grassy slopes in association with Quercus incayia and Rhododendron arbor eum, or at the lower elevations with Pinus longifolia. In Hazara it is rare except in the Pinus longifolia forests of the Siran valley, where it is fairly common at 4,000 ft. and upwards. It is also found in the eastern Himalaya, descending to 2,000 ft. in the Tista valley, the Khasi hills, and the hills of Burma. The wood is of little value either as timber or as fuel. 636 XXXIV. ERICACEAE but the tree is useful in covering hill slopes, and in the western Himalaya in acting as a nurse to the deodar. It is fire-resisting and is not browsed by cattle : the leaves are said to be poisonous to goats and camels. The racemes of heath-hke white honey-scented flowers appear from April to June (western Himalaya), and the capsules, containing numerous minute seeds, begin to ripen about December, dehiscing from January to March. The tree coppices well, the coppice growing faster than that of Quercus incana. Measurements in 1911 in a coppice coupe six years old at Bhowali near Naini Tal showed an average of 8 shoots per stool and a mean height of 5 ft. 1 in., as compared with 4 ft. 3 in. for the oak. Gamble gives the rate of growth as 12 to 18 rings per inch of radius in the west, representing a mean annual girth increment of 0-35 to 0-52 in., and about 6 rings in the east, representing a mean annual girth increment of 105 in. ORDER XXXV. MYRSINACEAE AEGICERAS, Gaertn. Aegiceras majus, Gaertn. Syn. A. corniculata, Blanco. Vern. Kulsi, Beng. ; Kanjala, Mar. ; Butalet, Burm. A large evergreen glabrous shrub or small tree with grey bark, common in the mangrove forests along tidal creeks, where it is frequently gregarious. It is one of the most widely distributed species of this formation, occurring at the mouth of the Indus, along both sides of the Indian Peninsula, in the Sundarbans and along the coasts of Chittagong, Arakan, Burma, and the Andamans. Like the true mangroves this tree exhibits vivipary, the seed germinating within the pericarp of the curved horn-shaped fruit. The tree coppices Avell. The wood is used for small building material and for fuel. ORDER XXXVT. SAPOTACEAE An important order of forest trees, some furnishing useful timbers, others edible flowers and fruits and oil-seeds, others latex of commercial value. The two genera of most importance in Indian forestry are Bassia and Mimusops. The gutta-percha of commerce is furnished by the latex of certain species of Palaquium (syn. Dichopsis, Isonandra) and Payena, found in the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago ; both these genera are represented in India, though none of the Indian species are known to yield gutta-percha of good quality. The two most important gutta-percha producing species in the Malayan region are Palaquium Gutta, Burck., and P. oblong if olium, Burck. An interesting account of the gutta-percha forests of the Malay States is given in the Indian Forester, vol. xxxi (1905), p. 309, by Mr. A. M. Burn- Murdoch, who points out that gutta-percha is derived almost entirely from trees growing within 6 or 7 degrees of the Equator. Apart from the two species of Palaquium already mentioned, gutta-percha of good quality is yielded by Payena Laerii, which species, however, is not abrmdant. An inferior latex is produced by Palaquium pudulatum. Pvcferring to P. Gutta, including P. ohlow/ifolitun, which is very similar and is not always considered to be SAPOTACEAE 637 specifically distinct, Mr. Burn-Murdoch notes that the tree is easily recognized by its leaves, which are coriaceous, oblong or obovate-oblong, about 2 in. long in mature plants but much longer in young plants, dark glossy green above and a beautiful coppery gold colour beneath. The tree occurs most frequently on the low hills and plains, often on steep hill-sides, up to 2,000 ft. and even 3,000 ft. above sea-level. During the latter half of last century the trees large enough to yield gutta-percha were practically exterminated ; from about 1898 onwards steps were taken to conserve the existing stock, which, however, was by that time found to consist of little except immature trees. The tree is a pronounced shade-bearer and is able to maintain the struggle for existence successfully, if slowly, in the dense evergreen forests in which it grows. Its growth is slow. Natural seedlings are often plentiful, but in the overworked areas many of the young plants are found to be coppice-shoots. At the time Mr. Burn-Murdoch wrote regular plantations were found to be impossible in the Federated Malay States for want of seed, and the method followed by the Forest Department was to cut lines through the dense under- growth and to transplant into these lines young natural seedlings taken from outside the reserved forests or from congested clumps of reproduction within those forests. In addition improvement fellings are carried out to assist poles and saplings, and undergrowth is cleared once a year or at longer intervals, as may be found necessary, over natural seedlings or transplants : these measures have been found to produce very beneficial results. The chief damage to this tree is caused by the larva of a moth (Rhodoneura myrsusatis, Wik. ? ) which eats the young shoots and leaves ; the damage is more extensive in pure plantations than in the case of isolated plants under natural conditions. Genera 1. Mimusops, Linn. ; 2. Bassia, Linn. 1. MIMUSOPS, Linn. Species L M. Elengi, Linn. ; 2. M. hexandra, Roxb. ; 3. M. liitoralis, Kurz. 1. Mimusops Elengi, Linn. Vern. Mulsdri, Hind. ; Bukal, Beng. ; Oivli, Mar. ; Bukul, Kan. ; Mahila, magadam, Tam. ; Elengi, Mai. ; Kaya, Burm. A large evergreen tree with a dense crown of shiny coriaceous leaves with undulate margins. Bark dark grey, scaly. Wood very hard, with dark red heartwood, heavy, strong, and durable, used for building, rice-pounders, &c. The fruit is eaten and the seeds yield an oil used for cooking and lighting and in medicine. Under favourable conditions the tree reaches large dimensions, with a long cylindrical bole. Distribution and habitat. The Indian Peninsula along the Western Ghats from Bombay southwards, and on the east from the Northern Circars southwards, the Andamans and Burma, in Martaban and Tenasserim ; also in Ceylon. The tree is fairly common in the moist evergreen forests of the Western Ghats, where it attains large dimensions ; on the Eastern Ghats it is found in the dry evergreen forests, often on laterite, as a comparatively small tree. In the Andamans it is common in the evergreen and semi-deciduous forests with Dipterocarpus spp., Planchonia andamanica, Artocarpus Chaplasha, A. Lakoocha, Mesua ferrea, Hopea odorata, Terminalia bialata, T. Catappa, Lager- stroemia hypoleuca, and other species. In its natural habitat the absolute 638 XXXVI. SAPOTACEAE maximum shade temperature varies from 95° to US"" F., the absolute minimum from 50° to 62° F., and the normal rainfall from 30 to 150 in. or more. The tree is largely cultivated in India and Burma for ornament and for the sake of its fragrant flowers, which are used for making garlands and for distilling into perfume. Flowering and fruiting. The fragrant white star-shaped flowers appear from February to April, and the fruits ripen the following year from February to June or later. The fruit (Fig. 243, a) is an ovoid orange-yellow one-seeded berry, about 1 in. long. The seeds (Fig. 243, b) are elliptical or rhomboidal, compressed, 0-6-0-9 in. by 0-4-0-5 in., brown, smooth, shining, with a hard testa and a soft whitish albumen ; about 50-60 weigh 1 oz. The seeds do not retain their vitality long. Germination (Fig. 243, c-g). Epigeous. The hard testa spKts in two, exposing the albumen ; the radicle emerges, the hypocotyl elongates by arching, and in straightening carries the cotyledons above ground. When the cotyledons expand the testa, or half of it, and the albumen often adhere for a time to one cotyledon before falling to the ground. The seedling (Fig. 243). Eoots : primary root long, terete, tapermg, wiry, flexuose : lateral roots moderate in number, fibrous, distributed down main root. Hypocotyl distinct from root, 1-2 in. long, terete, fusiform or tapering upwards, at first green and finely pubescent, becoming brown and woody. Cotyledons sub-sessile, 0-9-1-1 in. by 0-7-0-8 in., foliaceous, broadly ovate, entire, dark green, glabrous, coriaceous, persisting sometimes into the second season. Stem erect, terete or slightly compressed, wiry, green, young parts pubescent, older parts glabrous ; internodes 0-4-1 in. long. Leaves simple, alternate. Stipules minute, subulate. Petiole 0-1-0-15 in. long, flattened above: lamina 1 •7-2-3 in. by 0-5-0-8 in., elliptical lanceolate, acute or acuminate, entire : young leaves sparsely pubescent, soon becoming glabrous, coriaceous, shining. The growth of the seedling is slow, a maximum height of about 3 in. being ordinarily attained by the end of the first season. The seedlings are very sensitive to frost, which, however, is unknown in their natural habitat : they are capable of standing a considerable amount of shade. SniVicui/ruRAL characters. The tree is a shade-bearer, retaining a full crown under fairly dense shade. Gamble says it appears to reproduce well in shade and to remain small until an opportunity offers for removal of the cover, when it grows up at once. Judging from cultivated trees the growth* is slow. Artificial reproduction. The best method of propagating the tree is to sow the seeds singly in baskets and plant these out bodily when the seedlings are large enough, that is, usually two years after sowing, in the rainy season. 2. Mimusops hexandra, Roxb. Syn. M. indica, A. DC. Vern. Khirni, Hind. ; Banjayia, raini, Mar. ; Pala, palai, Tam. ; Palu, Cingh. A large handsome tree with a spreading crown and a straight massive bole ; the leaves are dark greyish green, shining, with an obtuse or emarginate apex, and are crowded at the ends of the branchlets. Bark rough, dark grey, crimson inside, and exuding drops of milky juice when cut. Wood red, very hard, heavy, tough, and durable, used for house-posts, turjiery, oil-presses, and other purposes. The fruits are sweet and edible, and are largely collected t^ Fig. 243. Minmsops Elengi — Seedling x f a — Fruits b — Seed c-g — Germination stages h, i — Early development of seedling MIMUSOPS 639 for food. Under unfavourable conditions, for example in very dry situations, the tree becomes stunted and even shrub-like. Distribution and habitat. In dry forests of the Deccan, Circars, Orissa, and the Carnatic, extending north to the sandstone of the Pachmarhi hills and west to Khandesh and Guzerat. In the Central Provinces Haines ^ says it is common along sandy nalas in North and South Chanda, occurs in the Sirpur range, Raipur, and does well also in lime soils, being common on marl in the Sattara forest. In the Indian Peninsula it is one of the principal trees of the dry ever- green forests of the Carnatic and surrounding country, especially on sandstone and laterite. In its natural habitat in India the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 104° to 115° F., the absolute minimum from 32° to 58° P., and the normal rainfall from 25 to 60 in. It is often cultivated for ornament and for the sake of its fruit. In Ceylon the tree is of more importance than it is in India. Mr. A. F. Broun,^ describing its occurrence and habit in that island, mentions that it is one of the most characteristic and important trees of the dry zone, occurring in the northern half and along the eastern and south-eastern fringes of the island at low elevations in situations having a rainfall of not much over 50 in. It does not occur in the wet zone. In favourable localities it attains a height of 100 ft. with a bole of 40 to 50 ft., but usually not more than 30 ft., and a girth up to 14 or 15 ft. The most favoiu-able soil is a deep sandy loam, but it is found on almost pure sand, on gravel, clayey loam, and soil overlying limestone. On the poor soils of the arid zone it degenerates into a small tree. Among its chief companions in Ceylon are Diospyros Ebenum, D. ovalifolia, CJiloroxylon Swietenia, Berrya Ammonilla, Alseodaphne semecarpifolia, and NepheliuTn Longana. Flowering and fruiting. The white or pale yellow flowers appear from November to January and the fruits ripen from April to July. The fruit is an ovoid or ellipsoidal berry, 0-5-0-6 in. long, smooth and red when ripe, containing one reddish brown shining seed, rarely two seeds. Mr. Broun states that in Ceylon good seed-years, which are generally dry years, are very irregular. Silvicultural characters and natural reproduction. Mr. Broun makes the following interesting observations regarding this tree in Ceylon : ' It is a curious fact that trees of the lower girth-classes are generally com- paratively rare in high forests, but are found more abundantly in old chenas (regrowth after temporary cultivation). Enumeration survey figures . . . indicate that the tree does not reproduce itself easily under a dense leaf- canopy. The very appearance of the tree with its large crown, which it spreads out above its companions, shows that it Hkes to have light in large doses. It is therefore apparent that the seed fellings require to be made heavy. I have noticed that felhngs in palu forests are not generally followed by the appearance of a seedling crop of that species, although seed-bearers were adjoining the gaps made. This is probably partly due to the great irregularity of the good seed-years, which are generally dry years, but I attribute it also to the following causes. The rainfall being slight, the seed exposed to the ^ Central Provinces List - Ind. Forester, xxvi (1900), p. 3G9. 640 XXXVI. SAPOTACEAE scorchino' sun does not readily germinate, and if it does the tender seedling cannot stand the exposure, or it cannot force its roots through the tufts of dense urry grass which spring up on exposed patches. Moreover, the seed being edible and lying, as it does, in an exposed place, is soon carried away by animals ; it is also removed by villagers in large quantities from the seed- bearers. ' As mentioned above, palu saplings are by no means uncommon in scrub forests ; it follows that the young plant requires some low shelter, and this is obtained in high forest by sparing the undergrowth which protects the soil and spares the fruit. Perhaps the best method of carrying on seed fellings is to girdle the trees adjoining seed-bearers.' Rate of growth. In Ceylon Mr. Broun estimates from sample plot statistics, which he admits to be scanty and tentative, that a girth of 6 ft. is attained in about 130 years. Owing to the compact and uniform nature of the wood the incremental rings are indistinguishable. 3. Mimusops littoralis, Kurz. Andaman bullet-wood. Vern. Katpali, Burm. ; Mohwa (in the Andamans). A large evergreen tree with leaves crowded towards the ends of the thick branchlets. Bark thin, smooth, blackish brown. Wood red, very hard, durable, used for bridge-construction and house-posts. Common along the coasts of the Andamans, Cocos, and Nicobar islands ; also in upper Tenasserim (Kurz). In the Andamans this is a common tree in the mixed forests of the littoral fringe, in association with Calophyllum Inophyllum, Afzelia bijuga, Thespesia populnea, Terminalia Catappa, Heritiera littoralis, Pongamia glabra, and others. This type of forest occurs on raised beaches on deposits of sea- sand. Mimusops littoralis sometimes predominates, especially where the sand deposit is deep, forming at times almost a pure fringe. It often forms a pro- tective belt against the force of the south-west monsoon, which it possesses good power of withstanding. 2. BASSIA, Linn. Of the five Indian species of Bassia the best known and most widely distributed is B. latifolia, Roxb., while in southern India this species is replaced by B. longifolia, Linn., an important tree v/ithin its region. Both these trees are valuable on account of their flowers, the fleshy corollas of which are eaten or distilled into spirit, and their seeds, which yield oil. B. butyracea, Roxb., the seeds of which yield a vegetable butter, is a species met with in the sub- Himalayan tract and outer hills. The oily seeds of the trees of this genus have a high percentage of fertility when fresh, but lose their vitality if kept for any time. Species 1 . B. latifolia. Roxb. ; 2. B. longifolia, Linn. ; 3. B. butyracea. Roxb. \. Bassia latifolia, Roxb., including B. villosa. Wall. Vern. Mohira, Hind. ; Ippi, Tel. ; Kat illipi. Tarn. A large deciduous tree, usually with a short bole, spreading branches, and a large roimded crown. Bark grey, with vertical cracks. This is one of the most important forest trees of India, its importance being due mainly to the fleshy corollas of its flowers, which are eaten raw or Fig. 244. Bassia latifolia tree, with others in background, remaining on former forest land cleared for cultivation, Singhbhum, Chota Nagpur. -/;'■ Fig. 24',. Diospyros hurmanicrt, regrowth from root-suckers and co])pice- shoots on liclds left unworked for four years, Burma. BASSIA 641 cooked, or are dried, ground, and mixed with flour for making cakes, or are distilled into spirit. A thick white oil extracted from the seed is used by jungle tribes for cooking and burning, and is sold for the manufacture of margarine, soap, and glycerine. The wood is of good quality, but the tree is seldom felled, owing to the value of its flowers and fruits. Distribution and habitat. Common in the deciduous forests of the Central Provinces, Bombay Presidency, northern parts of the Madras Presi- dency, Central India, Chota Nagpur, Orissa, and extending north to the sub- Himalayan tract in Oudh, Kumaun, and westward, though not common, to the Ravi. Doubtfully indigenous in Upper Burma. Not found in the southern parts of the Indian Peninsula. Much planted on the plains of northern India and in the Peninsula. The tree is a characteristic one in mixed deciduous forests, usually of a somewhat dry type, often growing on dry rocky or sandy soil, and thriving on the Deccan trap. It is common also in the drier types of sal forest in Chota Nagpur and the Central Provinces. When forest land is cleared for cultivation the moJuva trees are carefully preserved, and may be found scattered over cultivated lands long after the clearing has taken place (see Fig. 244). In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 106° to 118° F., the absolute minimum from 30° to 46° F., and the normal rainfall from 30 to 75 in. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The leaves fall gradually from February to April, and the new leaves appear about April or early May, with or shortly after the flowers. Fig. 244 shows a tree in March, partly bare of leaves. The new leaves are conspicuous from their coppery red colour. The brown flower-buds appear at the ends of the thick branchlets early in February, and the flowers open from the end of February to April. The corollas are 0-5-0-6 in. long, cream-coloured, fleshy, and sweet, and fall soon after opening. They are collected in large quantities off the ground, usually in places swept bare under the trees ; they are also eagerly devoured by bears, deer, and other animals. The fruit, which is ovoid, fleshy, greenish, 1-2 in. long, 1- to 4-seeded, ripens from June to August, and falls at once to the ground. The seeds (Fig. 246, a) are 0-8-1 -3 in. long by 0-5-0-7 in. broad, slightly compressed, ellipsoidal, light brown, smooth, shining, with a moderately hard testa ; about 200 weigh 1 lb. on an average. Fresh seed has a high percentage of fertility, but the seed quickly loses its vitality if kept, and is much subject to insect and fungus attacks. Speci- mens of a microlepidopterous insect whose larvae were found in large numbers destroying the insides of seeds have been named by Meyi'ick Stathmopoda basiplectra, sp. nov. Seeds attacked by fungi were examined by Dr. Butler, who detected two separate fungi, a Diplodia, probably parasitic, and a Schizo- phyllum, probably saprophytic after the seeds had lost their vitality. Affected seeds become rough and blistered, the surface often assuming a silvery colour, and the black pycnidia of the Diplodia appearing on the surface. The liability of the seed to attacks of insects and fungi is a matter of importance in so fai- as natural reproduction is concerned, for, as will be seen later, seed whicli becomes buried soon after falling germinates without being attacked. The mohiva crop is of great importance to the jungle population, and 2307.2 Y 642 XXXVI. SAPOTACEAE good flowering years are eagerly looked forward to. They do not occur every year, but, as far as records go, one to two good crops may be expected every three years. An otherwise promising crop is sometimes destroyed by hail before the flowers are developed. Trees are said to commence bearing crops of flowers and fruit when about ten years old. The yield of mohiva (corollas) per tree is said to be about a maund (82 J lb.) a year when fifteen years old, increasing to two maunds when in full bearing. Germination (Fig. 246, 6-/). Hypogeous. Germination commences with the development of thick cotyledonary petioles, as in the case of many oaks. These petioles, which are not visible in the seed, reach a length of 0-6-1 in., and assist the radicle to make its way into the ground and the plumule to extricate itself from between the fleshy cotyledons, which are in close contact. The cotyledons remain underground, the testa brealdng open as they swell. The seedling (Fig. 246). Roots : primary root long, thick, terete, tapering, light brown and delicate in early stages, soon becoming rough and woody : lateral roots at first few and short, afterwards longer and more numerous, fibrous, distributed down main root. Hypocotyl very short, subterranean, white turning green or reddish. Cotyledons : petiole 0-6-1 in. long, thick, fleshy, flattened, glabrous : lamina 1 in. by 0-6 in., thick, fleshy, oblong, outer surface convex, inner flat or slightly concave. Stem erect, terete, pubescent ; first internode 1-2 in., subsequent internodes 0-5-1-3 in. long. Leaves simple, first pair opposite or sub-opposite, subsequent leaves alternate, first few leaves sometimes small and scale-like. Stipules 0-15 in. long, linear. Petiole 0-1-0-2 in. long, channelled above. Lamina 1-4 in. by 0-7-1-5 in., elliptical, oblong or ovate, apex and base acute or more rarely obtuse, entire, glabrous above, slightly pubescent beneath, especially on the veins, young leaves often coppery red. The growth of the seedling is comparatively slow, and weeding and watering, though they stimulate development to some extent, appear to have a less marked effect on it than is the case with many other species. The follow- ing measurements of seedlings in experimental plots at Dehra Dun give some idea of the rate of growth under different conditions : Bassia latifolia : rate of growth of seedlings, Dehra Dun. Maximum 2 ft. 0 in. Condition under which grown. 1st season. In nursery (weeded and Maximum 0 ft. 5 in, watered) Natural conditions (not | (i) Maximum Oft. 4 Jin. ( 1) Maximum 1 ft. 2 in. weeded or watered) in full ^ ^ ^^ 3 . ^^ ^^ ^^.^^_ 2 Maximum 1 ft. 0 in. sunlight ) ^ ' Sowings, irrigated and weeded 0 ft. 1 1 in.-O ft. 5 in. Sowings, irrigated but not 0 ft. 1 f in.-O ft. 4f in. weeded Sowings, weeded but not irri- 0 ft. 1 1 in.-O ft. 6 in. gated Nursery-raised traiLsplants . . Maximum 1 ft. 1 in. (planted out in second rains) Height at end of season. 2nd season. 3rd season. 4th ses ( 1 ) Maximum 2 ft. 0 in. 0 ft. G in.-O ft. 10 in. Maxiii 3 ft. € Maximum 1 ft. 4 in. Growth ceases from November to February, the new leaves appearing in March (Dehra Dun). Young plants are somewhat frost-tender. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. The tree has a large spreading root-system. BASSIA 643 many of the roots being superficial. It is capable of thriving on poor dry ground, where, however, it is apt to suffer, sometimes severely, in times of abnormal di'ought. It is ordinarily frost-hardy, but in the severe frost of Fig. 246. Bassia latifolia. Seedling x |. a, seed ; h-f, germination stages ; g, h, development of seedling during first season ; i, seedling early in second season, 1905 it suffered to some extent in northern India. In its younger stages it is very liable to be browsed by deer and cattle. It is a strong light-demander, becoming readily suppressed under shade. It coppices fairly well if cut in the dry season, but not in the rains. In some localities the tree suffers greatly from the attacks of Loranthus ; this is particularly the case in some parts of X2 644 XXXVI. SAPOTACEAE the Central Provinces and Central India, where the trees are killed off in large numbers by this parasite, which itself dies after killing its host. Special measures are urgently called for to deal with this pest and to prevent its further spread. Systematic and repeated cutting of the parasite appears to be the only practical method of dealing with it ; mohwa lessees should be required to do this, and organized efforts should be instituted in the forest, in cultivated lands, and generally wherever the Loranthus makes its appearance. Natural, reproduction. The seed germinates early in the rainy season, soon after falling. For successful germination it is important that it should become covered with earth or debris, otherwise the seed is liable to fungus attacks, while the radicle is apt to dry up or to become eaten by insects if exposed. Natural seedlings are thus found chiefly in slight hollows into which earth is washed at the commencement of the rains. Tbeir subsequent growth, which is comparatively slow, is favoured by the admission of abundant light. Artificial reproduction. The tree may be propagated either by direct sowing or by transplanting from the nursery. For forest purposes direct sowings in prepared lines or patches are preferable, as transplanting gives trouble and is attended with much risk owing to the long and rather delicate taproot developed by the seedling. In either case fresh seed should be sown about July-August, and care should be taken to cover it with earth to a depth of about half an inch. For transplanting purposes it is preferable either to soav the seed direct in long pots or baskets, or to transplant the seedlings from nursery-beds into pots or baskets during the first rainy season a few weeks after germination. The plants may be put out in the forest early in the second rainy season. While they are in the nursery watering should be somewhat sparingly carried out, and the soil should be kept loose. Plantations should be protected from cattle and deer. Rate of growth. Few reliable statistics are available regarding the rate of growth of this important tree. The following measurements are recorded in high forest sample plots : Bassia latifolia : girth increment in high forest sample plots. Number of Number of Mean annual Forest years under trees under Girth girth increment Province. division. Locality. measurement. measurement. classes. ft. U-3 for period. United Gonda Chandanpiir 2 5 in. 0-61 Provinces and Sakra Central Balaghat Baihar and / 8 /I 1-2 0-70 Provinces Raigarh \ \3 2-3 0-23 As regards copj)ice, measurements made in 1911 in the Gonda district. United Provinces, in two coupes each two years old, showed an average height of 4-7 and 10 ft. as compared with 7-6 and 10 ft. for sal. Coppice-shoots one year old measured in Bhandara, Central Provinces, had an average height of 4-25 ft. as compared with 7-1 ft. for teak. Coppice measurements made in 1910 by IVIr. C. M. McCrie in Gorakhpur, United Provinces, gave the following results for Bassia latifolia as compared with sal : a ^'% e a \ Fig. 247. Bassia loiigifolia — Seedling x ^ a— Seed b - e— Germination stages f - h— Development of seedling to end of first season BASSIA 645 Bassia latifoUa : coppice measurements, Gorakhpiir. Mean height. Mean girth. Age. Bassia. Sal. Bassia. Sal. y^ears. ft. ft. in. in. 2 r 3 4 13 7 2-3 2 6 17-5 10-3 3-5 2-9 8 20 13 4-5 3-8 10 22 15-3 5-4 4-8 12 23-6 175 6-3 5-8 14 25 19-2 7-2 6-7 16 2G-7 20-9 8-0 7-5 2. Bassia loiigifolia, Linn. Vern. Ijypi, Kan. ; Pedda ippa, Tel. ; Illupei, Tarn. ; Meze, Burm. A large evergreen tree with a dense spreading crown and lanceolate leaves clustered at the ends of the branchlets. Bark yellowish grey to brown, red and milky inside. The wood is similar to that of B. latifolia : in Arakan it is used for ships' keels and is said to be very durable, resisting the attacks of the teredo. The flowers and seeds are used in the same way as those of B. latifolia. It is an excellent avenue tree. Distribution and habitat. This tree replaces B. latifolia in southern India. It is indigenous chiefly in the monsoon forests of the Western Ghats from tlie Konkan southwards, where it is common along the banks of rivers and streams and in ravines : it extends into the Deccan. It is also common in many parts of southern India, where it is frequently cultivated as an avenue tree and for the sake of its flowers and fruits. In Arakan it is said to be in- digenous in the Sandoway and Kyaukpyu districts : it is occasionally planted elsewhere in Burma. Although found wild most commonly in rather moist regions, it can be grown in comj^aratively dry localities. Flowering and fruiting. The flowers, which have fleshy corollas like tliose of B. latifolia, appear in November-December in Bombay (Talbot), from February to May in Travancore (Bourdillon). The fruits rif)en about June. The seeds (Fig. 247, a) are 1-2-1 -6 in. long by 0-5-0 -7 in. in diameter, comjjressed, light brown, smooth, shining, with a fairly thick and hard testa ; about 180-200 weigh 1 lb. The fertility of fresh seed is high, but the seeds do not retain their vitality long. Germination (Fig. 247, h~e). Hypogeous, and similar to that of B. latifolia. It commences with the development of thick cotyledonary petioles, which, however, are not so long as those of B. latifolia ; these assist the radicle to make its way into the ground and the plumule to extricate itself from between the fleshy cotyledons. The cotyledons remain underground within the testa. The seedling (Fig. 247). Roots : primary root long, thick, terete, tapering, woody, pubescent when young : lateral roots moderate in number, fibrous, distributed down main root. Hypocotyl distinct from root, 1-1-5 in. long, thick, subterranean. Cotyledons : petiole 0-3-0-4 in. long, broad, thick, flattened, somewhat fleshy, bent to one side of stem : lamina 1-1-2 in. by 0-4-0-5 in., thick, fleshy, obliquely oblong, outer surface convex, inner flat. Stem erect, terete or slightly com- pressed, green or reddish, young parts pubescent, later becoming glabrous ; 646 XXXVI. SAPOTACEAE internodes 0-4-3 in. long. Leaves simple, first pair opposite or sub-opposite, subsequent leaves alternate. Stipules 0- 1-0- 15 in. long, linear, pubescent. Petiole 0-1-0-2 in. long, pubescent. Lamina 1 •6-4-5 in. by 1-3-2 in., elliptical or ovate, apex and base acute, or base sometimes obtuse in first pair, entu-e, pubescent or glabrescent ; young leaves often coppery brown ; lateral veins 9-16 pairs. The growth of the seedling is moderate, a height of 6 in. to 1 ft. being attained in the first season and a height of about 1 to 2 ft. being ordinarily attamed by the end of the second season. A long but somewhat fragile taproot is developed rapidly, the length being sometimes as much as 1 ft, within a month of germination, and 2 ft. by the end of the first season. Frost is unknown in the natural liabitat of the tree ; seedlings raised at Dehra Dun were found to be very frost-tender. Artificial reproduction. In spite of the long fragile taproot the seed- lings can be transplanted successfully with care during the first rainy season when about one month old. Fresh seed should be sown about June-July and well covered with earth. The most satisfactory method is to sow the seeds direct in long pots or baskets, or to prick them out into these from the seed- beds when about one month old, and to plant the seedlings out without dis- turbance of the root-system early in the second rainy season. 3. Bassia butyracca, Roxb. Vern. Phalwara, phulwa, chmra, Hind. A large deciduous tree with leaves somewhat larger than those of B. lafi- folia, and crowded near the ends of the branches. Bark dark grey. The seeds furnish a white vegetable butter. The tree occurs in the sub-Himalayan tract and outer Himalaya from the eastern Dun eastwards, ascending to 5,000 ft. In the hills it is found chiefly along the sides of ravines. It flowers in the cold season, and the fruits ripen in June-July ; the seeds are 0-7-0-8 in. long. The growth is fast. A cross- section 3 ft. 5 in. in girth, without bark, in the silvicultural museum at Dehra Dun had 46 rings, giving a mean annual girth increment of 0-9 in. Gamble's specimens gave three to four rings per inch of radius, representing a mean annual girth increment of 1-57 to 2-1 in. ORDER XXXVII. EBENACEAE DIOSPYROS, Linn. This genus, which contains nearly 50 Indian species, is of importance chiefly as containing the ebony-yielding trees. The true jet-black ebony of commerce is yielded by D. Ebenum, Koenig, Avhich is of more imj)ortance in Ceylon than in India. The commonest Indian black ebony tree is D. McJano- xylon, Roxb. (including D. tomentosa, Roxb.), the heartwood of whicli, though not so jet black as the true ebony, is used to a considerable extent in India for carving and turning. Of variegated ebonies the best knowai are tlie cala- mander wood of Ceylon {D. quaesita, Thw.) and the marble-wood or zebra- wood of the Andamans {D. Kurzii, Hicrn.). Silvicultur-ally this genus requires further study. Several species thrive ill dry regions, foi- exam])le D. Melanoxylori, D. burmanica, D. Ebenum, DIOSPYROS 647 and others. D. Embryopteris goes to the other extreme, thriving on moist and even marshy ground. The fruits are few-seeded berries ; some of them are edible, 'and are readily devoured by fruit-bats, monkeys, and other animals, as well as by birds, particularly hornbills, and the seeds are scattered by their agency. As a rule the seeds have a high percentage of fertility. The seedlings develop long taproots at an early stage, often before any appreciable elonga- tion of the shoot takes place. A curious creej^ing habit of the young taproot has been noticed in the case of D. Melanoxylon, D. luoutmm, and D. Chloroxylon (see under these species) ; possibly this may also be the case in other species. The growth of the seedling is decidedly slow in all the species hitherto examined. A characteristic of certain species, notably D. Melanoxylon and D. burmanica. is the freedom with which root-suckers are produced ; it is doubtful if any other Indian tree surpasses D. Melanoxylon in the profusion, hardiness, and tenacity of its sucker reproduction. To this genus belongs the fruit-tree D. Kahi, Linn, f., the persimmon (Japanese Kaki, Burmese Tayok-te), which is much cultivated in China and Japan, and occurs wild in the Khasi hills and in Upper Burma. It has been tried in India, and has succeeded fairly well at Dehra Dun, where the fruit ripens towards the end of the rainy season. D. Lotus, Linn., vern. amlok, Punj., a native of western Asia, extending in the Himalayan region eastward to Kashmir and Hazara, is cultivated for its fruit in the Punjab and in the Mediterranean region : it is frequently cultivated round villages in Hazara. Species 1. D. Melanoxylon, Roxb. (including D. tomentosa, Roxb.) ; 2. D. Embryopteris, Pers. ; 3. D. Kurzii, Hiern. ; 4. D. burmanica, Kurz ; 5. D. Ebenum, Koenig ; 6. D. Chloroxylon, Roxb. ; 7. D. morUana, Roxb. (in- cluding D. cordifolia, Roxb.) ; 8. D. ehretioides, Wall. L Diospyros Melanoxylou, Roxb., includmg D. tomentosa, Roxb. Vern. Tendu, Hind. ; Balai, Kan. ; Tumki, Tel. In his Forest Flora of North-West and Central India Brandis unites these two, but in his Indian Trees he separates them, while expressing doubt as to their being distinct species. Gamble, in his Manual of Indian Timbers, mentions that it is very difficult to distinguish them either in the field or in the her- barium. Haines, in bis List of Trees, Shrubs, c&c, of the Southern Circle, Central Provinces, notes that both varieties occm* mixed up and appear to be often indistinguishable, but that in the region dealt with D. tomentosa is perhaps more eastern in its distribution : see also his Forest Flora of Chota Nagjyur. The main botanical distinction consists in D. Melanoxylon having leaves narrower than D. tomentosa, with base and apex often acute and secondary nerves raised, while D. tomentosa usually has rounded or obtuse leaves and secondary nerves impressed above. So far as the two have been studied silviculturally, their characters appear to be identical, and unless further study should reveal any radical differences they may be united from a silvi- cultural point of view. A small to moderate-sized, occasionally large tree, with leaves opposite, sub-opposite, or alternate, coriaceous, and varying much in size and form. Bark greyish black, exfoliating in regular rectangular scales. Wood hard, reddish brown, with an irregular black heartwood sometimes streaked with purple or brown. The wood is used for building, shafts, shoulder-poles, and other purjioses, and is carved into walking-sticks, picture-frames, and fancy articles ; when burnt it emits showers of sparks, and is therefore not a safe 648 XXXVII. EBENACEAE fuel. Silviciilturally the tree is of importance in clothing dry poor ground, and is interesting owing to its wonderful hardiness in surviving maltreatment. Distribution and habitat. The distribution of D. Melanoxylon is stated to be the Indian Peninsula generally, extending northward to Bihar, and that of D. tomentosa the sub-Himalayan tract from the Ravi to Nepal, eastern Rajputana, the Central Provinces and Berar, Bihar and Orissa, and the Northern Circars. Both are common in the Central Provinces, and Haines says that the latter is the commoner form in Chota Nagpur, where it is one of the commonest trees throughout the forests. Considering the two forms as one species, this is one of the most characteristic trees of the dry mixed deciduous forests throughout India. It is locally common also in sal forest, often replacing the sal where the ground becomes too poor to support the latter. In the Peninsula it appears to reach its best development on metamorphic rocks. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 105° to 119° F., the absolute minimum from 30° to 55° F., and the normal rainfall from 20 to 60 in. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The tree is leafless for a sliort time in the hot season or is frequently never quite leafless. The flowers appear from April to June, and the fruits ripen from April to June the foUowmg year. The fruit is a globose to ovoid berry, 1-1 -5 in. in diameter, smooth and yellowish when ripe, with 3-8 seeds embedded in a sweet yellow edible pulp. The seeds (Fig. 248, a) are oblong, compressed, 0-5-0*8 in. long, brown, shining, with a wrinkled testa and ruminate albumen. About 25 to 40 weigh 1 oz. Fresh seeds have a high percentage of fertility ; different samples of seed tested at Dehra Dun after being stored for a year had a fertility of 10, 55, and 60 per cent, respectively. The fruits are readily eaten by fruit-bats and by birds, notably hornbills, which may often be seen in quantity among the trees at the time the fruits are ripening ; the seed is spread by their agency. Germination (Fig. 248, b~f). Epigeous. The radicle emerges from one end of the seed and descends rapidly, forming a taproot of some length before the elongation of the hypocotyl is completed. The hypocotyl elongates by arching, and in straightening raises above ground the cotyledons enclosed in the testa and albumen. The cotyledons are caducous, and either they become detached before extricating themselves from the testa and fall to the ground still enclosed in it, or more usually they extricate themselves, the testa falling to the ground, but they fall off not long after. The seedling (Fig. 248). Roots : primary root long, thick, at fii'st fleshy, afterwards woody, black, tomentose, often bent or swollen in upper part near ground-level : lateral roots sliort, fibrous, distributed down the main root. Hypocotyl distinct from root, 1-2-1 -6 in. long, slightly compressed or terete, tapering upwards, minutely tomentose, at first smooth and pink with a pale grey or pale yellow base, afterwards rough and reddish brown to nearly black. Cotyledons sessile, 0-7-0-8 in. by 0-25-0-3 in., foliaceous, oblong lanceolate, apex acute or rounded, entire, glabrous, delicate, white, pale pink or pale green, caducous, venation reticulate. Ste7n erect, slightly compressed or terete, woody, tomentose ; internodes 0-1-0-7 in. long. Leaves simple, exstipulate, first pair or sometimes two pairs opposite, subsequent leaves alternate or sub-opposite. Petiole about 0-1 in. long, tomentose. Lamina 1-2 in. by 0-6-1-2 in., elliptical, ovate "1 0 cr ^ / :~ Fig. 248. Diospyros Melanoxylon — Seedling x f a— Seed b- f— Germination stages g-j— Development of seedling to end of first season DIOSPYROS 649 or obovate, apex acute, obtuse or rounded, base rounded or slightly cordate, entire, coriaceous, glabrescent or sparsely pubescent with yellowish hairs, principal veins of lower surface pubescent ; older leaves dark green, younger leaves dull reddish green ; lateral veins 5 to 10 pairs, in D. tomentosa impressed on the ujDper surface, in D. Melanoxylon somewhat variable, but for the most part not impressed. Note. — This descrii^tion applies to the seedling both of D. Melanoxylon and of D. tomentosa. The main development of the seedling during the first year or two is underground ; a long taproot is quicldy formed, and may attain a length of 1 ft. or more in a few weeks, and a length of 2 ft. or more with a diameter of nearly i in. by the end of the second season. Meanwhile the growth above ground is slow, a maximum height of 3 or 4 in. being attained by the end of the first season ; during the second season the growth is not much faster except under favourable conditions, when a height of 1-2 ft. may be reached by the end of the season. Under unfavourable conditions dying back may take place, particularly where drought is severe, the stem of the young plant dying down while the root system develops, and a new stem being produced the following year. The season's growth ceases about November (northern India) ; some seedlings are leafless by February-March, but others are never quite leafless, the old leaves continuing to fall throughout March. New growth begins in March or April. The seedlings stand a considerable amount of shade, persisting under it for some time. They are hardy against frost and drouglit, but not against excessive damp, and tend to rot in heavy damp weed-growth. They have great jDower of struggling through grass, but their development suffers, while more vigorous growth is promoted if the ground is kept clear of weeds and periodically loosened. SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. In the Seedling and young pole stage the tree stands moderate shade, but later it requires more light. It is decidedly frost-hardy, and in the abnormal frost of 1905 in northern India it resisted the frost more successfully than almost any other species. It is also drought- resistant ; in the abnormal drought of 1907 and 1908 in the forests of Oudh it proved to be conspicuously hardy {D. tomentosa), but in the severe drought of 1899-1900 in the Indian Peninsula it was affected to some extent, though sucker reproduction is said to have escaped injury {D. Melanoxylon). Young plants and suckers are immune from damage by browsing ; in heavily grazed sal forest in Oudh an undergrowth of this species may be found in places where the ground has been grazed bare, while in over -grazed forests in the Peninsula the prevalence of a stunted growth of Diospyros is a familiar sight, the development of the tree being probably hindered by the trampling and hardening of the soil and not by browsing. The tree coppices moderately well, but the coppice-shoots grow slowly ; it pollards better, though the growth of the pollard-shoots is also slow. Coppice experiments in North Chanda, Central Provinces, showed that after April the coppicing power is very poor, the percentage of stools which coppiced success- fully in different months being (1) April 100, (2) May 30, (3) August nil. The extensive production of root-suckers, however, is one of the most characteristic features of this tree. Its hardiness and immunity from damage by grazing assist it to establish itself in quantity by this means, and on cleared forest 650 XXXVII. EBENACEAE land masses of sucker reproduction persist for many years after other species have disappeared, and they are difficult to eradicate on land required for cultivation. Similarly on abandoned cultivation sucker growth springs up readily, and if left alone may result in pure crops of Diospyros. Natural reproduction. As already mentioned, the seeds are spread by fruit-bats and by birds, notably hornbills ; seedlings may sometimes be found in the forks of trees or in other places above the ground, the seed having been conveyed there by their agency. Under natural conditions, germination begins early in the rainy season and continues during that season ; some seed may remain dormant until the second rainy season. Germination is greatly favoured if the seed becomes covered with earth, as in tliis case the radicle is less liable to destruction by insects, or, if exposed to the sun, by drought. Nevertheless the young taproot is very hardy, and under shade or under the protection of grass it may creep for some distance along the sin^face of the ground until it is able to penetrate the soil ; this is a common habit in natural seedlings. The profusion and tenacity of sucker reproduction is, however, in itself sufficient to ensure the survival and increase of this species even without the aid of seedling reproduction, which is itself often plentiful. Artificial reproduction. Experiments at Dehra Dun have shown that transplanting from the nursery is attended with much risk owing to the large size of the taproot ; this applies both to seedlings transjilanted entire and to those transplanted with pruned stem and root. Probably the most successful method, if planting has to be resorted to, would be to sow the seeds in long narrow baskets and to plant these out intact in the second rains. Sowing should be carried out about April-May, care being taken to cover the seeds with earth. Direct sowing is usually preferable to transj)lanting, the best method being to sow in lines and to keep the lines weeded during the first two or three years. Line sowings with the aid of field crops have been carried out in the Amraoti forest division, Berar.^ Rate of growth. The few sample plot measurements available indicate that the rate of. growth is slow ; these are as follows : Diospyros Melanoxylmi and D. tomentosa : rate of growth in high forest sample plots. Province. United Provinces Central Provinces Forest division. Locality. S. Kheri Kishanpur Baiaghat Raigarh and Baihar Number of years under measurement. 9 8 Number of tiees under measurement. 1 2 Mean annual Girth girth increment classes. for period. ft. in. 1-2 0-23 2-3 0-20 A tree felled in West Kurnool, Madras, had 216 rings for a girth of 6 ft., representing a mean annual girth increment of 0-33 in.- Coppice growth is also slow. Measurements made in 1911 in two coppice coupes each tw;© years old in the Gonda distiict, United Provinces, gave an average height of 4 and 4-8 ft. as compared with 7-6 and 10 ft. for sal ; in 1 Ind. Forester, xxxvii (1911), p. 8. 2 Working Plan for the Gundlabrahmeswaram Range, West Kurnool, H. F. A. Wood, 1912. DIOSPYROS 651 either coupe the average number of shoots per stool was 1-4, and the rate of growth of this species was slower than that of any other species present. Measurements in 1912-13 in coppice coupes one year old in Bhandara, Central Provinces, showed an average height of 5-1 ft., as against 7-1 ft. for teak, 3-0 ft. for BucJianania latifolia, and 3-8 ft. for Soyynida fehrifuga. Measurements made in 1910 by Mr. C. M. McCrie in coppice coupes in the Gorakhpur district. United Provinces, gave the following results : Diospyros tomentosa : rate of gro%vth of coppice, Gorakhpur. Age. Mean height. ]\Iean girth. Age. Mean height. Mean girth, years. ft. in. years. ft. in. 2 4-8 1-8 10 9-1 3-9 4 6-8 . 2-8 12 9-3 41 6 7-9 3-3 14 9-3 4-2 8 8-7 3-6 16 9-3 4-3 2. Diospyros Embryopteris, Pers. Vern. Gab, kala tendu, Hind. ; Timburi, Mar. ; Kusharta, Kan. ; Niti tumiki, Tel. A moderate-sized% much-branched, handsome evergreen tree with a short bole and a dense rounded crown of dark green foliage with shining coriaceous leaves. Bark smooth, dark greenish grey. The fruits are rich in tannin, and the unri]3e fruits contain a viscid pulp used as gum in bookbinding and for paying the seams of boats. The tree is often planted for ornament in gardens ; it is not a timber tree. Distribution and habitat. The sub-Himalayan tract from the Jumna to the Tista, Chota NagjDur, in many parts of the Indian Peninsula, and in Martaban and Tenasserim. The tree frequents moist and even swampy ground along streams and in shady ravines, where it is sometimes more or less gregarious. In the Dehra Dun valley it is characteristic of swamp forests, in association with Putranjiva Roxburghii, Ficus glomerata, Eugenia Jambolana, Pterosjperrnum acerifolium, Carallia lucida, Trewia nudijiora, Bischoffia javanica, and a few other species. In the Sundarbans it is found on old village sites in the interior. Flowering and fruiting. In northern India the creamy white fragrant flowers appear from March to May along with the young leaves, which are bright crimson. The fruits begin to ripen about May in the following year, but may be found on the tree for a few months later ; they are more or less globose, 1-5-2 in. in diameter, covered with a red velvety tomentum (Fig. 249, a) ; they contain about 5-8 seeds in a glutinous pulp. The seeds (Fig. 249, b) are 0-6-0-8 in. by 0-4-0-45 in., compressed, with a fairly thick testa ; about 350-400 weigh 1 lb. The fertihty of fresh seed is high, but so far as tests at Dehra Dun show the seed does not retain its vitahty for a year. The fruits are eaten by fruit-bats and monkeys, and the seeds are distributed by their agency. Germination (Fig. 249, c-g). Epigeous. The radicle emerges from one end of the seed and descends rapidly, forming a black taproot of some length before the elongation of the hypocotyl is completed. The hypocotyl elongates by arching, and in straightening raises above ground the cotyledons enclosed in the testa and albumen. 'The cotyledons are caducous, and are usually left 652 XXXVII. EBENACEAE wholly or partially enclosed in the seed-coat, falhng with it, or sometimes they extricate themselves, the testa falling to the ground, but they in their turn soon fall, leaving the pointed plumule, from which the first pair of foHage leaves soon expands. The seedling (Fig. 249). Boots : primary root long, thick, terete, tapering, black, at first fleshy, afterwards woody, minutely tomentose ; lateral roots moderate in number, short, fibrous, chiefly in apical part of main root. Hypocotyl distinct from root, lower portion 0-5-0-7 in, in length, swollen, grey or light greenish brown, upper portion, 1 •5-2-2 in. in length, compressed, pink or green turning dark greenish brown, glabrescent or finely pubescent. Cotyledons : jDetiole 0-1 in. long, channelled above ; lamina 1-1-3 in. by 0-4-0-5 in., foliaceous, oblong lanceolate, entire, glabrous, pale pink, caducous, apices folded into the albu- men. Ste7n erect, compressed, pubescent, dark greenish brown, young parts red ; internodes 0-2-0-7 in. long. Leaves simple, exstipulate, first one or two pairs opposite or sub-opposite, subsequent leaves alternate or sub-opposite. Petiole 0-1-0-2 in. long, flattened above, minutely pubescent. Lamina 1-5-3 in. by 0-4-0-7 in., oblong lanceolate, entire, dark green, smooth, shining, coriaceous, glabrous above, pubescent on midrib beneath, young leaves red. The growth of the seedhng is very slow, averaging only a few inches a year for the first three years. Seedlings raised at Dehra Dun attained the following maximum heights by the end of the first five seasons : (1) 6 in., (2) 8 in., (3) 10 in., (4) 2 ft. 9 in., (5) 3 ft. 2 in. A long taproot is developed early, and may attain a length of 9 in. within a month of germination ; its subsequent growth is slower, a length of about 18 in. being ordinarily attained by the end of the second season. In their earlier stages the seedlings are subject to the attacks of insects, while birds, squirrels, and hares bite off the young shoots. Seedlings are sensitive to frost and drought ; they require shade for their best development, and are apt to die off if exposed to a hot sun. They also require plentiful moisture in the soil. SiLVicuLTXJRAL CHARACTERS. The tree is a shade-bearer ; in the natural state young plants develop freely under a fairly heavy canopy. It thrives with abundance of moisture in the soil, and along streams and in swampy ground it is sometimes found growing with its roots submerged in running water ; very moist ground, however, is not essential for its growth, since it is found wild, and is often cultivated, on ordinary loam, where it thrives, provided the soil is not too dry. Natural reproduction. The seed is frequently spread by animals, particularly monkeys and fruit-bats, and possibly also by birds ; groups of seedlings have been observed in the forks of trees several feet above ground, from seed carried by fruit-bats and passed out in their excreta. The fruits themselves fall to the ground from about June or July onwards, and soon dry up or rot, the seeds being exposed ; provided the latter become buried within a reasonable time, or are lying in a moist shady place, germination takes place during the rainy season, but seeds lying exposed in the open usually fail to germinate. Artificial reproduction. Seedlings can be raised in the imrsery and transplanted successfully provided care is taken not to injure the long taproot. a a — Fruit b — Seed Fig. 249. Diospyros Embryopteris — Seedling x ^ c - g — Germination stages h - j — Development of seedling to end of first season DIOSPYROS 653 Fresh seed should be sown in the seed-beds about July, the seeds being placed about 4 in. apart in drills 9 in. apart. The soil should be well worked up before sowing, and subsequently prevented from caking, and the beds should be shaded and well watered in dry weather. The seedlings usually appear in two to three weeks after sowing. Transplanting may be done either in the first or in the second rainy season ; dry situations exposed to the sun should be avoided, the seedlings being planted if possible under moderate shade, preferably from the side. Watering maj^ be necessary for a time after transj^lanting. If the trees are grown for their fruit, wide spacing, say 20 ft. by 20 ft. or even more, is necessary owing to the spreading nature of the crowns. Rate of growth. The rate of growth is moderate. A cross-section in the silvicultural museum at Dehra Dun had 70 rings for a girth of 3 ft. 3 in., or a mean annual girth increment of 0-56 in. Brandis gives 7-8 rings per inch of radius, representing a mean annual girth increment of 0-78-0-9 in. 3. Diospyros Kiirzii, Hiern. Andaman marble-wood or zebra-wood. Vern. Pecha-da, And. ; Kala lakri, Hind, (in Andamans) ; Thitkya, Burm. (in Andamans). An evergreen tree with thin smooth grey bark, ordinarily attaining a height of 40 to 50 ft. with a clear bole of 15 to 20 ft. and a girth up to 5 ft. ; occasionally it reaches larger dimensions. The wood, which is known on the London market, is a valuable and very handsome variegated ebony with alternating streaks of black and grey ; the out-turn of variegated wood from the log is, however, comparatively small. The tree is found throughout the Andamans, and occurs also in the Nicobars and Coco Islands. It is found scattered in semi-deciduous and evergreen forests, usually on low-lying and undulating ground, along with padauk {Ptero- carpus dalbergioides) and its associates. Its silviculture has not been studied in detail. 4. Diospyros biirmanica, Kurz. Vern. Te, Burm. A small to moderate-sized deciduous tree with rigid branches. Bark rough, blackish. This tree is common in Burma in indaing forest of a dry type, usually on laterite, along with Dipterocarpus tubercidatus, Shorea oblusa, Pentacme suavis, Buchanania latifolia, and other trees characteristic of this type of forest, and also in the dry open mixed forests of the dry zone of Burma. The flowers appear in March- April, and the fruits ripen in December-January ; they are 1-1-5 in. in diameter, sweet and edible when ripe. The tree produces root-suckers freely, and often springs up gregariously on abandoned cultiva- tion by means of suckers from roots left in the ground (see Fig. 245). 5. Diospyros Ebenum, Koenig. Ebony. Vern. Karunkdli, Tam. ; Tuki, 7iaUuti, Tel. ; Kaluwara, Cingli. A large evergreen tree with a dense crown and thick dark coriaceous leaves. Bark dark grey, rather rough, with longitudinal cracks. Mr. A. F. Broun ^ says that in Ceylon it attains a girth up to 14 ft. ; in India it is of com- paratively small size. The heartwood furnishes the true ebony of commerce, a jet-black, very hard, close-grained wood, used for turnery, carving, piano- keys, and fine ornamental work of various kinds. The tree is of great com- mercial importance in Ceylon, whence the wood is regularly exported to 1 Ind. Forester, xxv (1899), p. 275. 654 XXXVII. EBENACEAE Europe and elsewhere ; in India, however, the trees are neither large nor common enough to be of any great importance commercially. Distribution and habitat. Sparsely scattered in the forests of the Deccan and Carnatic, chiefly in Kurnool and Cuddapah, scarcer farther south. Bourdillon says that in Travancore it has been found only in the Anjinaud valley in the north, but it may also occur on the slopes above Puliyan and near Panagudi. It is a tree of the dry regions, and occurs chiefly in dry ever- green forests. In Ceylon, according to Mr. Broun, it is most abundant in the dry zone, and the richer forests are all in the northern half of the island, especially in the eastern portion of the North Central Province ; it is also well represented in the Northern and North-Western Provinces. Outside the dry zone it occurs in the intermediate zone, and in the south of the island it penetrates even into the moist zone. The best ebony is found on rocky well-drained soil, usually on sandy loam with a good subsoil drainage, but at times on soil with a fair proportion of clay ; it is frequently found near watercourses which are dry during part of the year, but never on swampy soil. It does not grow pure, but is found scattered in mixture with many other species, including Chloro- xylon Swietenia, Mimusops hexandra, Nephelium Longana, Gleniea zeylanica, Vitex altissima, Albizzia odoratissima, Berrya Ammonilla (on moister soils), and other species of Diospyros. Flowering and fruiting. In Ceylon the flowers appear about March, but the flowering season seems to be rather irregular ; the fruits usually ripen before the north-east monsoon, that is, about September-October, but the tree is said occasionally to seed twice a year. Good seed-years are somewhat irregular, and the seed is hable to the attacks of weevils (Broun). SiLVicuLTURAL CHARACTERS. The Seedlings endure a fair amount of shade, but after they have estabhshed themselves the admission of light directly overhead is beneficial. Mr. Broun considers that it is best not to admit too much light until the maximum height is reached, when space should be given for the development of the crown. Rate of growth. The rate of growth is slow. Mr. Broun gives for Ceylon the following average figures, which, however, he admits to be only tentative : Girth, Corresponding age. ft. in. years. 16 25 3 0 75 4 6 135 6 0 200 6. Diospyros Chloroxylon, Roxb. Vern. Ninai, netisi, Mar. ; Ullingi, Tel. A large shrub or small tree, often spinescent. Bark rdugh, dark grey, with small rectangular corky scales. Wood yellowish grey. This is a useful fuel plant, and yields good fodder ; the fruits are edible. It is found in many parts of central and southern India, extending north to Orissa, C'handa, and Nasik. It is common in dry deciduous forests ; Gamble says it is common in the dry evergreen forests of Cuddapah, Kurnool, North Arcot, and ('hingleput, preferring laterite and sandstone hills, and is a useful fuel plant ; Haines says it is common on cotton soil in North and South Chanda. DIOSPYROS 655 The flowers appear in June-July, and the fruits ripen from January to April. The fruit is globose, smooth, shining, 0-3 in. in diameter, with 2-3 seeds. The seeds have a high percentage of fertility, and tests at Dehra Dun gave a fertility of 80 per cent, mth seeds kept for one year. Experimental plots at Dehra Dun showed that under natural conditions germination starts early in the rainy season, and that, as in the case of D. Melanoxylon and D. montana, if the seed is not buried, the young taproot may creep along the surface of the ground for some time in its efforts to penetrate the soil. In this case if exposed to the sun the seedling soon perishes, but under shade it may remain alive and vigorous ; seedlings with two well developed foliage leaves have been observed with their taproots still creeping along the surface of the ground and developing lateral rootlets, although not yet established in the soil. The seed- hngs are capable of standing a considerable amount of shade and of persisting under grass ; they orchnarily reach a height of 4-6 in. in the first season. The tree produces root-suckers. 7. Diospyros montana, Roxb., incl. D. cordifolia, Roxb. Vern. Bistendu, Hind. ; Tembhurni, Mar. ; Vakkanai, Tam. ; Chok, Burm. A small to moderate-sized, very variable, deciduous tree, often spinescent. Nowhere very common, but widely distributed in deciduous forests throughout the greater part of India and in Burma (var. cordifolia only). The wood does not furnish any black heartwood. The flowers appear from March to June, and the fruits ripen from December to February (northern India), but the fruiting season appears to vary ; Bourdillon (Travancore) and Talbot (Bombay) say the rainy season. On three occasions I have received fresh seeds from the Central Provinces in June- July. The fruit is globose or ovoid, 0-7-1 -2 in. in diameter, greenish yellow, turning black. The seeds are 0-6-1 -1 in. by 0-4-0-5 in., brown, compressed ; the percentage of fertility is high. Under natural conditions the seed germinates early in the rainy season, and if it lies unburied the taproot may crawl along the surface of the ground for some time before it succeeds in penetrating the soil, as in the case of D. Melanoxylon and D. Chloroxylon. Under these conditions, if exposed to the sun, the germinating seedlings are liable to perish, but under shade they persist for some time until the taproot eventually establishes itself. Grass and weed- growth also act as an efficient protection during germination. The seedlings are capable of standing fairly dense shade. Their growth is slow. 8. Diospyros ehretioides. Wall. Vern. Aukchinsa, Burm. A large deciduous tree with spreading branches and large leaves up to 1 ft. or more in length. The wood, which is grey with darker streaks, some- times handsomely mottled, is not much used. This is a familiar tree in the mixed deciduous forests of Burma, both in the upper and in the lower mixed types, though perhaps commoner in the latter. It is somewhat shade-bearing, its spreading crown being often conspicuous below an upper, story. The fruits ripen in the cold season and are eaten by hornbills, as the Burmese name implies. 656 ORDER XXXVIII. OLEACEAE Genera 1. Fraxinus, Linn. ; 2. Olea, Linn. ; 3. Nyctanthes, Linn. ; 4. SCHREBERA, Roxb. L FRAXINUS, Linn. Brandis {Indian Trees) enumerates five Indian species : (1) F. floribunda. Wall., flowers with petals, appearing after the leaves ; Afghanistan, trans- Indus, Himalaya, Khasi hills and Shan hills. (2) F. Griffithii, Clarke, flowers with petals, appearing after the leaves ; Mishmi hills. (3) F. excelsior, Linn, (including F. Hookeri, Wenzig), flowers without petals, appearing before the leaves, leaflets two to four pairs, base entire, upper part slightly serrate ; western Himalaya from the Ravi drainage westwards. (4) F. oxyphylla, M. Bieb., similar to (3) but leaflets one to four pairs, coarselj^^ serrate ; Balu- chistan, Afghanistan. (5) F. xanthoxyloides, Wall., syn. F. Moorcrojiiana, Brandis, a shrub or small tree with very variable leaves, occurring in dry situations in the western Himalaya, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan. Parker {Forest Flora for the Punjab), distinguishing between F . floribunda. Wall., and F. 7nicrantha, Lingelsh. — a very similar species except that the flowers have no petals — gives (1) F .floi'ibunda. Wall., Himalaya, Nepal, Assam ; all the western Himalayan species he has seen belong to F . micrantha and not to F. floribunda. (2) F. micrantha, Lingelsh., Himalaya 6,000-7,000 ft., Kumaun to Bashahr and probably farther west ; he has, however, seen only one Punjab specimen. Species 1. F. floribunda, Wall. ; 2. F. excelsior, Linn. ; 3. F. xanthoxy- loides. Wall. 1. Fraxinus floribunda, Wall. Indian ash. Vern. Sum, angu, W. Him. A large deciduous tree with opposite imparipinnate leaves ; leaflets usually seven to nine, all with petiolules except the upper pair, which are sub-sessile. Branchlets purple, compressed, glabrous, with white lenticels. Bark grey, smooth on young poles, rough with deej) longitudinal furrows on older trees. Wood pinkish white, moderately hard, tough, used for oars, shoulder-poles, &c. It is probable that many specimens termed F. floribunda in the forest are in reality F. micrantha (see introduction to this genus). The Indian ash is found in the Himalayan region from Sikkim westwards at 5,000-9,000 ft., in the Khasi hifls, and the Shan hills of Upper Burma at 4,000 ft. It is occasionally cultivated in the Himalaya at suitable elevations. In the wild state the tree is by no means abundant, its distribution being- somewhat local ; it is confined as a rule to rich moist soils and shady situations. Mr. Fernandez ^ says that in the Naini Tal district it occurs generally in the neighbourhood of limestone rocks, and that it seeds profusely and reproduces fairly well on loose soil free from weeds. The tree is leafless in the winter. The flowers appear in April-May and the fruits ripen in September-October. The seed lies dormant in the ground for a whole year, and transplanting from the nursery is therefore better than direct sowing. Seed may be sown in tM nursery in the autumn of ripening ^ Naini Tal Working Plan. FRAXINUS 657 or in the following spring ; in either case it germinates in the spring about seventeen or twelve months later as the case may be. Transplanting is pre- ferably done in the winter with seedhngs kept about two seasons in the nursery. During the first season the growth of the seedhng is comparatively slow, but during the second season it is usually faster, a height of 2 ft. being attainable by the end of the season under favourable conditions, while by the end of the third season a height of 3-5 ft. is ordinarily attained. The treatment of the seed usually followed in Europe in the case of F. excelsior (see below) may prove suitable for this species. The growth is slow to moderate : Gamble's specimens gave an average of 13 rings per inch of radius, representing a mean annual girth increment of 0-48 in. Wallich gives 8 rings, or a mean annual girth increment of 0-78 in. 2. Fraxinus excelsior, Linn. European ash. Vern. Sum, Punjab. A large straight-stemmed tree. Bark (India) light grey, smooth in young trees, becoming rough with deep longitudinal furrows in old trees. Wood whitish, moderately hard, tough and elastic, used for oars, shafts, tool-handles, and many other purposes. In the European ash there are nine to fifteen leaflets ; the Indian representative has usually five, rarelj^ seven leaflets, and this together with other distinctions led Wenzig to regard it as a distinct species {F. Hookeri, Wenzig). Fraxinus excelsior occurs wild in the western Himalaya at 7,000-10,000 ft. elevation in Hazara, Kashmir, and Chamba. Its distribution is very local ; it is confined to moist, deep, fertile soil, often in the neighbourhood of streams, and attains a height of 80-90 ft. and a girth of 8 ft. and over. There are some good specimens in the upper Siran valley in Hazara, on deep, moist, fertile loam obtained from the decomposition of mica schist ; here the tree grows on the sides of moist ravines, often in the neighbourhood of running water, the surrounding forest consisting of spruce, silver fir, blue pine, and deodar, as well as horse-chestnut, maple, walnut, and other broad-leaved species. Fig. 250 shows a large tree in this locality. Natural reproduction springs up chiefly on newly exposed clean ground on the sides of moist ravines, often among boulders. The artificial cultivation of this ash deserves more attention. It has been planted with success as low as 4,000 ft., and appears to grow better at lower than at higher elevations. For planting purposes, however, care is necessary always to select deep, moist, fertile soil, preferably on the sides of ravines or near mountain streams. Based on European experience, its characters and requirements may be briefly indicated. The tree is a light-demander, but stands some shade in youth. It avoids sandy soil, thriving best on deep, moist, fertile loam, and in Europe is found most commonly on low ground near rivers. It has a well- developed root-system, and is wind-firm. It is sensitive to drought and to frost. It coppices and jDollards well, and reproduces to some extent by suckers ; stools, however, do not live very long. In Europe the seed ripens in October and falls during the winter, germinating in the second spring : it retains its vitality for two or three years. Before sowing it is usual to bury the seed in sand from the time it ripens until the second spring, when it is sown as late as possible to avoid the risk of late frosts. In nurseries the seedlings are 2307.2 Y 658 XXXVIII. OLEACEAE pricked out in the spring the year after sowing, and are ready for planting out one or two years later. The ash is treated as coppice, coppice-with-standards, on the pollard system, or as high forest, in which case it should be underplanted with a shade- bearer. The height-growth is fairly rapid, but the tree does not attain a. great age or a very large diameter. 3. Fraxinus xanthoxyloides, Wall. Syn. F. Moorcroftiana, Brandis. Vern. Sanjal, hanuz, anga, W. Him. A large shrub or small tree with branchlets compressed and minutely and densely pubescent. Bark grey, smooth, dark and cracked when old. Wood hard, used for tool-handles, walking-sticks, and fuel. Indigenous in the western Himalaya from Kashmir to Kumaun at 3,000-9,000 ft., trans-Indus, Afghani- stan, and Baluchistan ; locally plentiful and often gregarious on dry slopes, chiefly in the inner Himalayan valleys. In Hazara it occurs on dry hill-sides in scrub forest in the Kagan valley, chiefly between 4,500 and 6,000 ft., asso- ciated at the lower elevations with Acacia modesta, Olea cuspidata, Berberis spp., and Punica Granatum, and in places with Quercus Ilex. Fig. 251 shows the rocky ground on which it is often found. The tree is much lopped for fodder. It is an important species in the Baluchistan forests. The flowers appear March- April and the fruit ripens July- August. Adverse weather conditions sometimes prevent the ripening of the seed. The growth is slow : Brandis gives 20 rings per inch of radius, representing a mean annual girth increment of 0-31 in. The following measurements of coppice-shoots in the Hazar-Ganj forest are recorded in the Baluchistan Forest Reports for 1914-15 and 1915-16 : Fraxinus xanthoxyloides : coppice measurements, Hazar-Ganj forest, Baluchistan, 1914-16. Height. Height. Age. 1914-15. 1915-16. Age. 1914-15. 1915-16, years. ft. ft. years. ft. ft. 1 1-3 , , 6 4-10 , . 2 2-4 2-4 7 6-12 6-12 3 2-6 2-5 8 8-13 8-13 4 2-4 6-8 9 6-14 10-14 5 6-9 2. OLEA, 10 Linn. 10-15 .Sfjecies 1. 0. cuspidata, Wall.; 2. 0. glandulifera, Wall.; 3. 0. dioica, Roxb. ; 4. O. europaea, Linn. 1. Olea cuspidata, Wall. Syn. 0. ferruginea, Royle. Indian olive, wild olive. Vern. Kao, kahu, W. Him. ; Zaitun, Pushtu. (Fig. 252.) A moderate -sized unarmed evergreen tree with small coriaceous leaves, dark green above, reddish brown beneath. Bark grey, thin, smooth, exfoUating in narrow strips. Wood brown, very hard, close grained, used for tool-handles, turnery, combs, &c. ; an excellent fuel. This species yields very little oil from the fruit kernels, but it makes a suitable stock on which to graft the cultivated olive, O. europaea, Linn., to which it is closely allied. It attains a height of 30 to 40 ft. and a girth of 6 ft. or more. H o CO O GO &C (U _2 -t^ n c3 c3 fl M cS «v S 1^ r^ -*^ ^ •r* > ^ r^ c3 V ;~t o •g CO H C-i «j & =0 f3 ;;2 • ~a H e V, ^ d ICI Iillinstonia hortensis, Linn, f . Syn. Bignonia suberosa, ,Roxb. Indian cork-tree. Vern. Akds nim, Hind. ; Kat malli, Tam. ; Kavuki, Tel. ; Egayit, Burm. A tall, handsome tree, with an elongated crown and large bipinnate, sometimes tripinnate leaves. Bark dark yellowish grey, corky. Wood soft, yellowish white, of very fair quality, suitable for tea-boxes and similar pur- poses. The tree is l)olieved to be indigenous in Burma, and is largely cultivated for ornament throughout India. It is fast-growing, tall, and straight, and. as Gamble riglitly suggests, it is well worth considering as a useful soft-wood for MILLINGTONIA 693 plantation purposes, though it does not appear to have been tried as such. In October-November (northern India) it is covered with drooping masses of very fragrant white to pale pink flowers with long slender corolla-tubes, which perfume the air around. The fruit, a flat linear capsule, about 1 ft. long with numerous delicately winged seeds, ripens towards the end of the hot season ; seeds are rarely produced in northern India. The tree is decidedly hardy, and is not particular as to soil ; although it grows best in a moist climate it does fairly well in dry situations, growing well in Lahore Cantonment without irrigation, which not many trees are capable of doing. It is, however, brittle and shallow-rooted, and is liable to be broken or uprooted by strong winds. It has a tendency to send up root-suckers in great profusion, which is a disadvantage in gardens. It is easily raised from seed when obtainable, from cuttings put down in the spring, or from root- suckers dug up and transplanted during the rainy season. Seed should be sown in the nursery as soon as it ripens, towards the end of the hot season, and the seedlings, which bear transplanting well, should be planted out a year later at the beginning of the rainy season. The growth is fast. Gamble's specimens gave four to five rings per inch of radius, representing a mean annual girth increment of 1-26 to 1-57 in. 4. TECOMA, Juss. Tecoma undulata, G. Don. Syn. Tecomella undulata, Seem. Vern. Lahura, Punj. ; Lokero, Sind ; Raktarohida, Mar. ; Rori, Bal. A shrub or small tree, nearly evergreen, with simple grey leaves and large yellow to orange flowers, which appear from January to April, when the tree is a very handsome sight. The fruit, a curved capsule 6-8 in. long, ripens from May to July. The wood is yellowish brown, mottled, handsome, highly prized for furniture, carving, and agricultural implements (Brandis). This is a tree of the driest regions of India, namely the Suliman and Salt Ranges, Sind, Baluchistan, trans-Indus, Punjab, ascending to 4,000 ft. in the outer Himalaya, Rajputana, Guzerat, and Khandesh. It is sometimes planted in gardens. It coppices fairly well, and is easily grown from seed or cuttings. It is readily browsed by cattle. It is drought-hardy and very resistant to fire. It would be a useful species for afforesting dry tracts. ORDER XLV. ACANTHACEAE This order, consisting chiefly of herbaceous plants, contains some under- growth shrubs and climbers of indirect importance in Indian forestry. Genera 1. Acanthus, Linn.; 2. Adhatoda, Nees ; 3. Phlogacanthus, Nees ; 4. Strobilanthes, B1. L ACANTHUS, Linn. Acanthus ilicifolius, Linn. A spinescent shrub of the mangrove forests where it sometimes forms a dense undergrowth troublesome in wood-cutting operations. 694 XLV. ACANTHACEAE 2. ADHATODA, Nees. Adhatoda Vasica, Nees. Syn. Justicia Adhatoda, Linn. A gregarious shrub, abundant in the sub-Himalayan tract, and ascending the outer hills to 4,000 ft. It appears in great quantity on waste places, where it persists and spreads owing to its immunity from damage by browsing. It also forms a dense undergrowth in riverain forests of Acacia Catechu and DaJbergia Sissoo, and sometimes also in mixed deciduous forests. 3. PHLOGACANTHUS, Nees. Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus, Nees. An evergreen shrub with a large thj^rsoid inflorescence of handsome brick-red flowers, frequent as an undergrowth species in moist, shady places in parts of the sub-Himalayan tract and in Burma. 4. STROBILANTHES, Blume. This genus contains about 160 species of handsome flowering shrubs, many of which are of great importance in Indian forestry as undergro^vth species. The majority are shade-bearing, and many are gregarious, forming dense masses over considerable areas and having an important bearing on the natural reproduction of trees. Although several species flower and fruit annually, many, like bamboos, flower and fruit at intervals of several years, the interval between successive flowerings being as a rule constant for each species, but varying with different species. After the flowering and fruiting the whole plant dies, and the folloM'ing year the ground is covered vrith young seedlings commencing the next generation ; this periodic dying is of impor- tance, as will be seen below, in connexion with silvicultural operations for the eradication of the plant. When gregarious flowering takes place, bees are attracted in large numbers, while R. M., writing in the Indian Forester, vol. xx (1894), p. 130, remarks on the large number of jungle-fowl which were attracted by the seed during a gregarious seeding in the Nilgiris. An interesting general account of the more important Indian species is given in Gamble's Manual oj Indian Timbers (1902), pp. 518 et seq., which may be referred to. See also Indian Forester, vol. xiv (1888), p. 153. The members of this genus are charac- teristic mainly of hilly country, the most notable exception being *S^. auricidatus, Nees, a common plant in the sal forests of the sub-Himalayan tract and the Indian Peninsula. In no part of India is this genus so well represented as in the Nilgiris and other hills of southern India, where the plants reach a larger size than else- where and are found in profusion, with great variety and beauty of flowering, in the shola forests. S.foliosus, T. And., is one of the largest species, the stems attaining 4-6 in. diameter. Perhaps the commonest and best known species of the Nilgiris is S. Kunthianus, T. And., which prefers dry slopes on the eastern sides of the hills where there is little or no tree forest ; this species flowers at intervals of four to six years, giving a bright blue colour to the landscape. The genus is also M^ell represented in the Himalaya and the hilly parts of Assam, Burma, and the Indian Peninsula. In the eastern Himalaya, among the commonest species are S. pectinatus^ STROBILANTHES 695 T. And,, and S. divaricatus, T. And. The former is a large shrub, attaming a height of 10 ft. and a girth of 9 in. or sometimes more ; its flowering period is twelve years (recorded 1890, 1902). In the western Himalaya, S. alatus, Nees, and 8. Dalhousianus, Clarke, are common non-gregarious species of little silvicultural importance, which flower every year. The important species of this region is *S^. Wallichii, Nees (with 8. atropurpureus, Nees, which is possibly not a distinct species). This plant, known in Jaunsar a,s jhanu, grows gregari- ously, forming a dense carpet in the oak and fir woods at 7,000-10,000 ft., and preventing by its thick mass of roots and stems the establishment of natural reproduction of tree species ; the results of experiments in eradicating it are described below. This plant flowers and dies at intervals of twelve years (recorded 1882, 1894, 1906, 1918). Its mode of growth is pecuHar, though possibly that of other species may be similar. Each year a new shoot consisting of several internodes is sent up in the spring, but at the end of the season the whole of the year's shoot drops off except the lowest internode of the year, so that the age of a plant can at any time be told by counting the number of old internodes. In the Western Ghats from Bombay southwards there are several impor- tant species. Talbot enumerates thirteen species in the Bombay Presidency, of which one, 8. caUosus, Nees, is common on laterite or hard rocky ground, and extends to comparatively dry trap regions of the Satj)uras in Khandesh and Central India. This species, known in Bombay as karvi, flowers at intervals of seven or eight years ; its stems are used with mud plaster for walls of huts, and when it flowers and dies the dry stems are largely collected for fuel. Of other gregarious species of the Western Ghats, which are said to flower at intervals of about seven years, may be mentioned 8. reticulatus, Stapf (vern. akra), 8. barbatus, Nees, 8. sessilis, Nees (flowers every seven or fifteen yesivs ?), and 8. perfoUatus, T. And. In Burma there are species which form a dense undergrowth in teak forests, hindering reproduction. Mr. C. W. A. Bruce ^ describes the gregarious flowering of 8. rufescens in the teak forests of the Upper Chindwin district. This plant is said to flower once in six years, when it clothes the forest under- growth with masses of strongly-smelling blue flowers which attract innumer- able bees ; the flowering was observed in March, the plants seeded early in April, and the dead stems acted as a protection against fire, no doubt because they had killed out the grass and weeds and were themselves less inflammable than these. The silvicultural importance of the gregarious members of this genus lies in their effect on the natural reproduction of tree species, and it will be useful to consider the results of efforts made to eradicate them. It does not always follow, however, that it is necessary or even advisable to eradicate the plant, for, in the case of the larger species at all events, it may afford a useful shelter to shade-bearing tree species in early youth, and its eradication may result in tlie entry of weeds of a more noxious description. The eradication of 8. Wallichii, Nees, has been carried out experimentally from time to time at Deoban, near Chakrata, in the western Himalaya, where it exists as a dense carpet under Qnercus semecarpifoUa, and prevents seedlings of that species 1 Ind. Forester, xxi (1895), p. 47. 696 XLV. ACANTHACEAE and of firs from establishing themselve^s. Mere uprooting of the shrub has given satisfactory results, but the cost amounted to over Rs. 6 per acre. Also since there are often tree seedlings among the Strobilanthes these stand in dano-er of being uprooted during the process. Advantage was therefore taken of the gregarious flowering of 1906 to ascertain if the cutting of the flowering or fruiting stems would have any effect. The flowers began to appear in the first week of July, the seed ripened from the middle of September to the middle of October, and the plants died by the first week in November. The cutting of the flowering shoots was commenced in the middle of July, but this was found to be ineffectual, as new flowering shoots were produced, and cutting had to be repeated two or three times. It was found eventuall}^ that the best time to cut the stems was immediately before the seed ripened, that is, in September. An experimental plot was kept under observation for six years subsequently, and during this time no Strobilanthes seedlings appeared, while numerous oak seedlings succeeded in establishing themselves. Many oak seedlings were found to date from the time when the Strobilanthes was eradicated, but many on the other hand were older, which indicates that the oak seedlings were able to persist in spite of the dense covering of Strobilanthes, though they were assisted greatly by its removal. Outside this plot the Strobilanthes was observed to commence germina- tion in the first week of September of the year following the seeding, and within a year or two the ground was again carpeted with seedlings. The plant is a favourite fodder of sheep, goats, and buffaloes, and it was suggested that the admission of grazing before the fruit ripened would have the same effect as cutting ; the owners of the animals, however, refused to allow them to graze, on the ground that the unripe fruits are injurious, although after the seed ripened they ate the fruits readily without harm. There can be little doubt that even without artificial measures for eradicating Strobilanthes, natural reproduction of tree species benefits greatly each time the plant dies na.turally, for it takes two or three years at least for the new generation to reach a size large enough to be troublesome. Mr. B. B. Osmaston ^ mentions that in the case of S. pectinatus, T. And., a large shrubby species in the Darjeeling hills, an experiment made during the gregarious flowering of 1902 showed that it could be eradicated successfully if cut in the month of June, when it had commenced to flower ; in this it differs from S. WaUichii. Mr. J. S. Gamble 2 has described the measures taken in the eradication of Strobilanthes in the Nilgiris, and the following passage may be quoted : ' So dense is the thicket of Strobilanthes in the undergrowth of the forests, that under ordinary natural circumstances it is really only at the time of the periodical flowerings that the tree seedlings get a chance of a start. There are usually thousands to be found under the thicket, but until the Strobilanthes dies, or is cut awaj^ they simply remain stunted, waiting until the removal of the cover gives them a chance, and then they usually take advantage of it and come on quickly. It has, consequently, on the Nilgiris been lately found useful to assist in disengaging the seedlings by clearing away the growth of Strobilanthes. In the forests round Ootacamund and Coonoor, where there is a large demand by the poorer classes of natives for small fuel, and where the ^ lud. Forester, xxx (1904), p. 195. - Ibid., xiv (1888), p. 154. STROBILANTHES . 697 hard, brightly burning wood of the Strobilanthes is much appreciated, it is possible to clear away the growth of it and not only allow of the young tree seedlings getting a chance of growing, but provide a considerable amount of fuel ample, at very cheap rates, to cover the whole cost of the work. In the Lamb's Rock forest, 37 acres cleaned in 1886, at a cost of Rs. 222, produced 9,038 head-loads of fuel (about 323 tons), realizing at one anna each, Rs. 565, equivalent to a net profit of Rs. 9-4-0 per acre. Something like nine-tenths of the material cut consisted of Strobilanthes. The good results of this work were most marked : myriads of seedlings were disengaged, and a few years hence, with the help of a seed cutting or cutting under selection in the cover, what was a few years ago merely a dilapidated shola with cover of old, mostly unsound, trees and underwood of Strobilanthes, will be converted into a fully stocked pole forest. It may easily be understood that the clearing of Strobi- lanthes must precede the seed cutting or the cutting under selection (jardinage). When the cover overhead in a forest is light, the bank of Strobilanthes under- neath is often very valuable as assisting to retain the moisture in the soil, prevent fires, and nurse the tree seedlings, and in some cases it is best not to clear away the growth too wholesale, but to disengage seedlings in plots where they are found sufficiently thick and good. An example of a shola in which not only the Strobilanthes were cut, but also the covering trees some years ago, may be seen in the valley at the back of the inspection house at Nadu- vatam. There, the growth of new Strobilanthes and tree seedlings together is so thick as to be at the disadvantage of the latter ; and, did funds admit, the Strobilanthes should now be thinned out.' ORDER XLVI. VERBENACEAE The cliief importance of tliis order lies in the fact that it contains the principal timber tree of India, and one of the most important in the world, namely the teak, Tectona granclis, Linn, f . It contains also other trees of some importance or interest {Gmelina, Vitex, Premna), as well as numerous shrubs and several climbers. Genera 1. Tectona, Linn. f. ; 2. Gmelina, Linn. ; 3. Vitex, Linn. ; 4. Premna, Linn. ; 5. Callicarpa, Linn. ; 6. Avicennia, Linn. ; 7. Lantana, Linn. 1. TECTONA, Linn. f. Species 1. T. granclis, Linn. f. ; 2. T. Hamiltoniana, Wall. 1. Tectona graiidis, Linn. f. Teak. Vern. Sdgun, Hind. ; Sdgwan, sag, Mar. ; Tegu, tegina, Kan. ; Teku, Tel. ; Thekku, Tam., Mai. ; Kyun, Burm. (Fig. 262.) A large deciduous tree with a rounded crown and, under favourable con- ditions, a tall clean cylindrical bole, which is often buttressed at the base and sometimes fluted. Branchlets quadrangular, channelled, with a large quad- rangular pith. Leaves opposite, large, broadly elliptical or obovate, usually 1-2 ft. long, but often larger in coppice-shoots and young plants, rough above, stellately grey tomentose beneath, with minute glandular dots, which are red in young leaves, afterwards turning black. Bark, 0- 15-0-7 in. thick, grey or light greyish brown, fibrous, with shallow longitudinal fissures, exfoliating in long, thin, narrow somewhat corky flakes. Measurements of bark thickness in various localities in Bombay and the Central Provinces showed averages of 0-15 to 0-4 in. for trees of small to 698 XLVI. VERBENACEAE moderate size, and gave a general average of about 0-25 in. Measurements in the Xilambur plantations gave the following average bark thicknesses : Girth of tree, 1-2 ft. ; bark thickness, 0-5 in. „ „ „ 2-3 ft. ; „ „ Ooo in. „ „ „ 3-4 ft. ; „ „ 0-65 in. „ „ „ 4-6 ft. ; „ „ 0-7 in. Wood moderately hard. Sapwood small, whitish. Heartwood dark golden yellow, sometimes with dark streaks, turning brown with age, oily, with a characteristic odour, extremely durable, seasons well, and does not warp or split. The teak is the most important timber tree of India. For ship-building, its timber stands in a class by itself, and has a world-wide reputation. It is also extensively used for house-building, bridge and wharf construction, piles, furniture and cabinet-work, railway carriages and wagons, carving, ordnance work, wheel spokes and felloes, general carpentry, and numerous other pur- poses. Teak timber is largely exported from Burma to Europe. Under favourable conditions the teak reaches large dimensions, Bour- clillon^ records a tree in the Achencoil valley, Travancore, 26 ft. in circumference, Imt it had a short bole ; he mentions that at the beginning of last century, when the British Naval Department were collecting teak in Travancore, a tree was felled in the Idiyera valley M-hich measured 7 ft. in diameter at its butt and 26 in. at a length of 70 ft., and therefore contained 900 cubic ft. of timber. In the Anamalais Beddome records trees above 22 ft. in girth, with boles 80 or 90 ft. to the first branch. Mr. K. R. Venkatramana Iyer ^ records an exceptionally tall tree standing in evergreen forest near the Karumpoya river in the Edakutti forest, South Malabar ; it had a height of 192 ft., a clean straight trunk to the first branch of 114 ft., and a girth at base of 16 ft. 8 in., and at 4| ft. from ground-level of 15 ft. 10 in. Mr. H. Tireman ^ records a tree felled in the forests of southern Coorg which had a girth at breast-height of 25 ft. 2 in., and yielded three logs with the following measurements : (1) Length 11 ft. 7 in. ; mean girth 18 ft. 6 in. ; out-turn 248 cubic ft. (2) „ lift. 4 in. ; „ „ 16 ft. 1 in. ; „ 182 „ „ (3) „ 10 ft. 3 in, ; „ „ 14 ft. 4 in. ; „ 132 „ „ Total 562 „ „ Muhammcd Habibullah Sahib * records a tree felled in the Tekkadi leased forests. South Coimbatore, The girth at breast-height was 18 ft. 7 in., and the tree yielded eleven logs totalling 711 cub. ft. Mr. A. Wimbush^ records a tree recently felled at Palacadava in South Coimbatore which yielded five logs totalling 1,099 cub. ft. Among large trees recorded from Burma may be mentioned one measured by Dr. Brandis in the Gwethe forest, Toungoo, with a girth of 16 ft. at 6 ft. from ground-level, and a clear bole to the first branch of 114 ft. A tree 19 ft. in girth at 6 ft. from ground-level is recorded in the working plan of the Kadin- bilin forest, Tharrawaddy, 1885. In the Myittha-Panlaung forest, Mr. H. ^ Forest Trees of Travancore, p. 285. - Ind. Forester, xxxix (1913), p. 174. ^ Ibi'l., xliv (1918), p. 86. ■> Ibid., p. 468. ^ Ibid., xlvi (1920), p. 247. mr- .,M4^%. Fig. 262. Tectona grandis, girth II It. 7 in., Mim^f, Toungoo, Burma. o o 03 ;-i ^ M-l 70 cS Ci r-" ^ 4^ ;h ^ 3 .£P w 'S r^ CO .^_i f— ( ,^ i "3 ^ .^ ^ t£ >^ r-" ■J2 P-i 2 '* ^ CO o CO a tc , o 1 (M o Fig. 266. Teak in upper mixed forest, Bhanio district, Upper Burma : the bamboo is young Cephalosfarln/iitn pfrfirarih. TECTONA 703 occur in unbroken stretches of considerable extent or be confined to the crests and upper slopes of ridges and spurs, the lower slopes of which are occupied by moist forest. As a rule teak does not attain such large dimensions in dry as in moist forest, but it reproduces itself more freely in the former. The most typical associates of teak in dry forest are Xylia dolabriformis, Terminalia tomentosa, T. Chebula, Acacia Catechu, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Homalium tomentosum, Shorea obtusa, Pentacme suavis, Dalbergia cultrata, Bombax insigne, Sterculia spp., Premna tomentosa, as well as many other species. A particular form of somewhat dry forest is that known by the Burmans as thitkyin, in which bamboos are scarce or absent and there is often an undergrowth of thorny twiners ; the most characteristic trees are teak, Xylia dolubriformis, Terminalia tomentosa, Homalium tomentosum, and Lagerstroemia Flos-Reginae, and there is sometimes a dense advance growth of young Xylia. In moist upper mixed forest the prevailing bamboos vary with locality. Throughout the Pegu Yoma and in certain other tracts the most typical species are Bambusa polymorpha and Cephalostachyum pergracile in its more luxuriant form ; the latter has a wide range in Burma. Locally common is Oxytenanthera albociliata, often on sandy soil. In moist valleys of the Pegu Yoma, Dendrocalamus longispathus is common, and where the moist forest merges into evergreen forest dense masses of Teinostachyum Helferi cover the ground. In the northern parts of Upper Burma among the commoner bamboos of the moist mixed forest are Dendrocalamus Brandisii, D. Hamiltonii, and D. membranaceiis, with Cephalostachyum pergracile plentiful in some locaHties. The commoner tree species associated with teak in the moist upper mixed forests are Xylia dolabriformis, Lagerstroemia Flos-Reginae, L. tomentosa, Anogeissus acuminata, Terminalia belerica, T. pyrifolia, Homalium tomentosum, Adina cordifolia, A. sessilifolia, Stephegyne diversifolia, Vitex glabrata, Bombax insigne, Eugenia spp., and where the forest merges into evergreen, Dipterocarpus alatus. In the lower mixed deciduous forests teak is associated with Xylia dolabri- formis, Lagerstroemia Flos-Reginae, L. tomentosa, Dipterocarpus alatus, Berrya Ammonilla, Terminalia tomentosa, T. pyrifolia, T. belerica, T. Chebula, Adina cordifolia, A. sessilifolia, Stephegyne diversifolia, Odina Wodier, Spondias mangifera, Eugenia Jambolana, Eriolaena Candollei, Careya arborea, Vitex glabrata, Dillenia pentagyna, Miliusa velutina, Diospyros ehretioides, Dal- bergia cultrata, D. purpurea, Kydia calycina, Pterospermum semisagittatum , Phyllanthus Emblica, Anogeissus acuminata, Bridelia retusa, Schleichera trijuga, and many others. In these forests teak avoids the badly drained areas, but where the drainage is good it may become very plentiful and may reach large dimensions. Particularly rich teak forests of the lower mixed type are the Kangyi and Satpok reserves in the Tharrawaddy district, both of which are outlying forests on the alluvial plain of the Myitmaka river. To this type may be referred the interesting forest of Mohnyin in the Katha district of Upper Burma (see Fig. 264). This forest is situated on fiat or nearly fiat ground on deep alluvial soil. Over part of the area teak forms the bulk of the growing stock, and in places is practically pure, and the trees reach very large dimen- sions. The pecuharity about this forest, apart from the high percentage of 704 XLVI. VERBENACEAE teak it contains, is that the trees are mainly of large dimensions, the proportion of small trees being very deficient ; natural reproduction is almost entirely wanting until special measures, which are described later, are taken to stimulate it. Bamboos are absent over much of the area ; the chief companions of the teak are Gmelina arborea, Anogeissus acuminata, and Careya arborea. Although the teak trees attain large size the timber is not of the best quality, Toeing much riddled by the bee-hole borer {Duomitus ceramicu-s, Wlk.). In some localities, notably in the Ruby Mines district, teak occurs in belts or pockets which follow the courses of streams, large stretches of intervening country being covered with induing or other types of forest devoid of teak. The teak confines itself to the alluvial flats or other fertile ground in the neighbourhood of the watercourses. Throughout Burma, in forest both of the upper and of the lower mixed types, teak is very commonly found, some- times in gregarious form, on well-drained alluvial flats of varying size, on the fertile loam of which it may attain large dimensions. Bamboos are often absent in such places, or if they are present the commonest species is Bambusa Tulda. Teak is sometimes found in indaing forest on laterite, but in this type it is invariably stunted. As a general rule teak forms a comparatively small proportion of the gro^ving stock in the forests of Burma, the trees being scattered singly or in groups among a large number of other species. Some years ago I made an examination of the numerous statistics contained in the various working plans which have been compiled for the teak forests, and published the results.^ The figures yielded— including those furnished by the Mosit reserve in Bhamo, the working plan of which has been issued since — show that over the teak- bearing area of whole forests, that is, whole working circles and not selected areas rich in teak, the average number of teak trees 6 ft. or over in girth per 100 acres is 100 or more in respect of fourteen forests hitherto enumerated, aggregating 972 square miles of teak-bearing forest ; of these the Mohnyin forest heads the list with 241 such trees per 100 acres. Only four of these forests have 100 or more teak trees 7 ft. in girth and over per 100 acres. Considering next those forests which are rich in sound teak trees 3 ft. and over in girth, it is interesting to note that the three richest forests are situated on flat alluvial ground. The three forests in question are : 1. Mohnyin (Katha division), 707 trees per 100 acres. 2. Satpok (Tharrawaddy division), 455 trees per 100 acres. 3. Kangyi (Zigon division), 441 trees per 100 acres. Satpok and Kangyi are typical lower mixed forests. Next in order of richness come two typical upper mixed forests of the Pegu Yoma, namely Bondaung (Toungoo) with 409 trees, and Kadinbilin (Tharrawaddy) \\ith 408 trees. No fewer than nine forests have totals of between 300 and 400 sound teak trees 3 ft. and over in girth per 100 acres, and of these all but one are situated in the Pegu Yoma. As regards the percentage of teak in the total growing stock in teak- bearing forest, in the twelve richest forests in which enumerations of all species have been carried out, the percentage of sound teak trees 3 ft. in girth and ' A Note on some Statistical and other Information regarding the Teak Forests of Burma. Ind. For. Records, vol. iii, yt. i, 1911. TECTONA 705 over varies from 15 to 33, the two richest forests being situated in the Zigon forest division ; these are Bawbin with 33 per cent., and Kangyi with 29 per cent., the former being of the upper and the latter of the lower mixed type. These figures, however, do not include the Mohnyin forest, in which only teak was enumerated ; this forest probably contains a much larger percentage of teak than any other. The lowest percentage of teak 3 ft. and over in girth in true teak forests hitherto enumerated is 6, in the Gwethe and Saing working circles of Toungoo. Indian Peninsula, general distribution. The distribution and types of teak forest in the Indian Peninsula are determined mainly by rainfall and geological formation with resulting soil. The great majority of the teak areas are situated on one of two great systems of rocks: (1) the Deccan trap, which stretches from about 25° N. lat. southwards with occasional interruptions to about 16° N. lat., embracing parts of Central India and the Central Provinces, the greater part of Bcrar, the whole of the northern part of Bombay as far south as Belgaum, and the western part of Hyderabad ; (2) the crystalline rocks (granite, gneiss, schist, &c.) which occur in Bundelkhand, in several parts of the Central Provinces, in the eastern part of Hyderabad, along the Western Ghats and throughout the greater part of the Madras Presidency. Broadly speaking, there is a marked difference in the types of teak forest found on these two geological formations. On the trap areas, where the soil is often very super- ficial, the teak is usually of small size but occurs in great abundance, often forming the bulk of the growing stock and even occurring pure over con- siderable areas. To some extent this is due to artificial causes, in that teak has been able to survive better than its companions the lopping, hacking, grazing, and burning to which many of the forest tracts have for long been subjected ; in some cases also teak owes its prevalence to the fact that as a ' royal tree ' it has received special protection in the past. On the crystalline areas, although the teak trees are as a rule more scattered than they are on trap, they reach considerably larger dimensions where the rainfall is favour- able. United Provinces. In the Jhansi district of the United Provinces teak occurs on gneiss and quartzite, and is confined to areas within a few miles of the larger rivers. It is found in the small forest of Sairwas, where it forms the greater part of the crop, in the protected forests of Talbehat, and occasionally on the bank of the Betwa river. The rainfall in these tracts is under 40 in., and the teak is of small size. Central Provinces and Berar. In the Central Provinces and Berar teak occurs to a greater or less extent in Jubbulj^ore, Damoh, Saugor, Hoshangabad, Seoni, Chindwara, Nagpur, Wardha, Chanda, Balaghat, Bilaspur, Raipur, Buldana, Betul, and Amraoti (Melghat), and possibly to a small extent in other locahties. In Bilaspur, Balaghat, and Raipur it is very local, occurring chiefly on alluvial ground near streams. Within its region the rainfall varies from under 40 in. to about 65 in., except in the Bori forest of the Hoshangabad district, where it is between 75 and 80 in. Teak occurs on a variety of geological formations, notably trap, limestone, gneiss, mica schist, sandstone, con- glomerate, shale, and clay. It is usually absent from the quartzite plateaux, and although occasionally found on laterite, the growth is poor ; it also avoids 2307.2 B b 706 XLVI. VERBENACEAE black cotton soil. On trap areas teak is often very plentiful, though of small size. In some localities it attains a fair size on the Vindhyan" limestone and sandstone or on alluvial ground near rivers. Teak is not ordinarily found with sal, but occasionally the two occur mixed, for example in the Bilaspur district, where there is a small area of teak mixed with sal poles near Deosara in the West Lormi range. The requirements of the two species differ, teak seeking good subsoil drainage combined with a fair rainfall, and sal seeking the more hygroscopic soils. Teak is one of the constituents of the mixed deciduous forests which are so typical of the Central Provinces. Its chief companions are Tertninalia tomentosa, T . belerica, Lagerslroemia parviflora, Ougeinia dalbergioides, Ano- geissus latifolia, Dalbergia lalifolia, D. paniculata, Pterocarjju^ Marsupium, Diospyros Melanoxylon, Acacia Catechu, Chloroxylon Swietenia, Soymida fchrifuga, Schleichera trijuga, Schrcbera swietenioides, Gmelina arhorea, Cleia- ianthus collirius, Odina Wodier, Cassia Fistula, Bridelia retusa, Adina cordifolia, Stephegyne parvifolia, Butea frondosa, Bassia latifolia, Phyllanthus Eniblica, Buchanania latifolia, Xylia xylocarpa (in Chanda), and Boswellia serrata (in dry places and on ridges). The prevailing bamboo in teak-bearing forest is Dendrocalamus strictus, but occasionally Bambusa arundinacea is found on alluvial flats by rivers. The type and quality of the forest, and the actual companions found with the teak, vary according to local conditions. In the great majority of cases the teak is of comparatively small size, and it has often suffered from past maltreatment in the shape of lopping, grazing, and burning, in consequence of which many trees are unsound or misshapen. The largest teak in the Central Provinces is produced in South Chanda, in which the most important forests are those of Allapilli in the Ahiri range, forming a compact block about 73 square miles in area and situated about 70 miles south of Chanda. The north-west and central parts of this tract are flat or undulating, the remainder being hilly, the Bhimaram hills in the south- west rising to 1,600 ft. above sea-level. The rock is metamorphic, chiefly granitic ; the soil is a rich light loam, but is shallow and rocky on the hill ridges. The rainfall is about 50 in. The forests of the Bhimaram hills are characterized by a plentiful growth of bamboo {Dendrocalamus strictus). Teak is the most plentiful tree species, the forest consisting in many places of large teak trees standing between bamboo clumps, with scattered individuals of Dalbergia latifolia, Pterocarpus Marsupium, and Stephegyne parvifolia, while Schleichera trijuga is common in the valleys. At the base of the hills and in the valleys the forest is more varied, the teak being associated with Terminalia tomentosa, jStephegync parinfolia, Adina cordifolia, Diospyros Melanoxyloti, Anogeissus latifolia, Odina Wodier, Xylia xylocariM, Holarrhcna antidysenterica, Butea frondosa, Cleistanthus collinus, and others. These species extend to the Bhimaram jjlains forests, where teak greatly predominates, and to the Mirkullu block, though the hilly portions of the latter are occupied by a very dense growth of bamboo, the result of former shifting cultivation. Another interesting teak forest in the Central Provinces is the Bori forest in the Hoshangabad district. This forest is situated in a deep valley at an average elevation of 1,450 ft. above sea-level, through which runs the Bori river ; this valley is enclosed on the north by a scarped ridge rising to 3,777 ft.. TECTONA 707 and on the south by several minor ridges rising to 1,900 ft. above sea-level. The rocks are partly trap, partly massive sandstones of the upper Gondwanas, and partly soft sandstones, clays, and shales of the lower Gondwanas. The soils resulting from these rocks are often intermingled, the result being favour- able to forest growth, though the teak is most abundant and of best growth where trap predominates. An important factor is the rainfall, which is between 75 and 80 in., and is considerably higher than in any of the neighbouring parts of the Peninsula. Teak is the predominant tree, especially on alluvial ground along river-banks, where it may form as much as 90 per cent, of the crop. The chief associate species are Ougeinia dalbergioides, Terminalia tomentosa, Diospyros Melanoxylon, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Anogeissus latifolia, Ptero- carpus Marsupium, Dalhergia latifolia, and many of the other common trees of the Central Provinces. Bamboos {Dendrocalamus strictus) are also plentiful. Teak is capable of reaching very fair dimensions, and coppice-shoots show remarkable growth, attaining a height of 100 ft. and a girth of 6 ft. Bombay. The most important teak forests of the Bombay Presidency are those of North Kanara, where under the uafluence of a heavy rainfall and favourable soil the trees attain large dimensions. The rocks are chiefly crystal- line (granite, gneiss, schist, limestone, quartzite, &c.), with occasional trap or sandstone and shale, and the soil is often a deep rich loam. Laterite is frequent, but the teak avoids pure laterite soils. The best teak areas of the Western Ghats and h&\ow-ghat tracts of North Kanara are in the regions of heavy rainfall, that is, where the rainfall is over 60 in., and may reach 150 in. or more. Here the teak reaches large dimensions on well-drained slopes such as those of the Kalinaddi and Gangawuli river drainages. Teak occurs only in mixed deciduous forests, and although occasional trees are found standing in evergreen forest this, as in Burma, indicates recent encroachment of evergreen species in former forest of a deciduous type. In the Kanara high forests, teak is a scattered tree, forming a comparatively small proportion of the growing stock. Farther inland, where the rainfall is less, the teak diminishes in size but increases in relative quantity ; thus the eastern parts of Kanara, and the adjoining forest tracts of Belgaum and Dharwar, where the rainfall varies from 35 to 60 in., are the regions of teak pole forests. The chief companions of the teak in the forests of Kanara are Terminalia tomentosa, T. paniculata, T. belerica, Lagerstroemia lanceolata, L. parviflora, Dalbergia latifolia, Pterocarpus Marsupium, Xylia xylocarpa, Adina cordifoUa, Stephegyne parvifolia, Grewia tiliaefolia, Schleichera trijuga, 8tereosp3rmum xylocarpum, Anogeissus latifolia, Saccopetalum tomentosum, Dillenia pentagyna, and Careya arborea. The bamboos are Barnbusa arundi- nacea on the lower slopes and in the valleys, De7idrocalamus strictus, and Oxytenanthera monostigraa, the last-named often forming on the upper slopes a dense undergrowth which hinders natural reproduction. Outside North Kanara, Belgaum, and Dharwar, teak is found over a con- siderable portion of the great trap area extending from Surat and Khandesh in the north to the northern parts of Kanara and Belgaum in the south, as well as on the gneiss, schist, sandstone, and quartzite of the Panch Mahals. In the Khandesh Akrani teak ascends to 3,700 ft. Throughout the great bulk of the trap area the teak is of comparatively small size, but, as elsewhere on B b 2 708 XLVI. VERBENACEAE trap formation, it forms as a rule a large percentage of the growing stock, sometimes occurring jiractically pure over considerable areas. The rainfall over most of the trap areas of Bombay varies from under 30 in. to about 70 in., but in the ghat regions of Thana and Nasik it is in places over 100 in. Where the rainfall is small the growth is extremely poor, and reproduction is largely from shoots sent up from stools and old thickened root-stocks ; here the teak suffers periodically from drought. Even where the rainfall is heavy the soil is often shallow and rocky and the trees do not reach large dimensions, though occasionally in valleys and ravines where there is some depth of soil, fair growth is attained. In the Dangs of Surat and the Khandesh Akrani teak attains a larger size than in most parts of the trap area, but the larger trees are usually unsound owing to past maltreatment. The companions of the teak in these forests are much the same as those occurring in most of the Central Provinces teak forests, and include Terminalia tomentosa, T. helerica, T. Ghebula, Lagerstroemia parvijiora, Adina cordifoUa, jStephegyne parvifolia, Grewia tiliaefolia, Pterocarpus Marsupinin, Dalbergia latifolia, Ougeinia dalbergioides, Phyllanthus Emblica, Cassia Fistula, Acacia Catechu, Diospyros Melanoxylon, Butea frondosa, Bridelia retusa, Odina Wodier, Soymida febrifuga, Erythrina suberosa, Schleichera trijuga (chiefly near water- courses), and Boswellia serrata (in dry places). The bam.boos, where present, are Dendrocalamus strictus and, on the more fertile ground or where the rainfall is heavy, Baynbusa arundinacea. Southern Iiidia. The most important natural teak areas of southern India are in North and South Malabar, particularly in the Wynaad, the Anamalai hills, Coorg, the south-western part of Mysore, and Travancore, that is, in the south-westerly part of the Peninsula. The rocks are for the most part metamorphic (granite, gneiss, and schist), and the rainfall in the best teak areas is chiefly between 60 and 150 in., but is more in places. Teak here occurs in mixed deciduous forest ; the companion species are much the same as those of North Kanara, and include Terminalia tomentosa, T. belerica, T. paniculata, Dalbergia latifolia, Lagerstroemia lanceolata, Pterocarpus Mar- supiuin, Grewia tiliaefolia, Schleichera trijuga, Anogeissus latifolia, Adina cordifoUa, Stephegyne parvifolia, Stereospermum xylocarpum, Carey a arbor ea, Bombax midabaricum, and Gmelina arborea. Xylia xyloearpa occurs below the ghats, sometimes associated with teak. The chief bamboo is Batnhusa arundinacea, with Dendrocalamus strictus on drier slopes. In Malabar teak flourishes and reaches large dimensions, both in the Wynaad, at elevations of over 2,000 ft., with a rainfall of about 80 to 140 in. and at lower elevations below the ghats, where the rainfall is heavier. The Nilamhur valley of South Malabar is celebrated for its extensive and remark- ably successful teak plantations, commenced in 1844 and continued to the present day. In the Anamalais teak grows to a large size on fertile loam resulting from the decomposition of gneiss. The teak forests are of a some- wliat moist type, the chief associate species being those just mentioned, and there is often a dense herbaceous undergrowth which prevents teak repro- duction. The forests of Coorg fall into two main tracts — the eastern forests, at an ah,iiii(le of 2,(i00 to 4,488 ft., with a rainfall varying from 124 in. at Mercara Fig. 267. Teak in lower mixed forest, Pyinmana, Upper Burma : on right of large teak tree is a Dillenia tree. 08 c X a fi «* '-^Ifefc* 1 ♦iw^ !» f ^ i^-fSniw !4 1 i I ^iii'ti'l,'^^ ^^ M|^ m ft'— — .^.i t** 1 r* 1. -fc ^W !i yitss h ;3 ^ ISit fW ^i I^^ i V / 1 M\l Eki ^ ■ rj^^^^ ^ /«\^^^^»^HHHH w •i n^ ^- 1 — -^2 ■^' i k ^i4j IK^^PiwCnK»^v JT ft jf^'/ ^^m^r^mi^.Wij^ K. ^ ^fK ^^^^J-^^KK^^i^'j-i f-^.,. ^ ^^Kl^mMSlJL m ■^ M fa W" I ^ mmmMja^m *Sv M^^ ^ 'f'^^^^^«X ■i ^ —A- -^p * A "^ k. -^/ 1 ; ' 1 ^ <'t T % Btl 1 pa i 1 . _. . _ V V- 4^ 1 m 1 i -4« ■^ •! vv !>,- ■A s C t/J 72 O o o "5 00 a I— ( TECTONA 709 to 42 in. at Fraserpet, and the ghat forests, situated on the slopes of the Western Ghats and in the tracts below, where the rainfall is probably as much as 300 in. or more in places. The rock is chiefly gneiss, which is covered as a rule with a considerable depth of soil ; laterite is found in places, but the teak avoids pure laterite. The eastern forests may be roughly divided into two zones, the dry eastern or teak zone and the western or moist zone. In the former teak is plentiful, but in the drier parts to the east the forest is open and the growth is poorer than it is farther west ; in the south-eastern forests the growth is better. The western zone is characterized by a luxuriant growth of Bambusa arundinacea ; the forest is well stocked with numerous tree species of good growth, but teak is comparatively rare, though existing plantations indicate that the locality is well suited to its growth. The ghat forests are mainly evergreen, and are not teak-bearing. In Travancore teak grows at various elevations up to 3,000 ft., though at the higher levels it does not thrive. It is found on sandstone, granite, and limestone, as well as on alluvial ground along rivers. The best teak is found on the lower slopes of hills up to 2,000 ft. elevation ; the Idiyera valley was at one time celebrated for the size and quantity of its teak, but extensive working, dating from 100 years ago or more, has depleted this and other favourable localities. In Travancore, as elsewhere, teak grows in mixed deciduous forests, its chief comjDanions being those noted above for south- west India in general. The common bamboo is Bambusa arundinacea, while in the Idiyera valley the teak is found growing a,mong thickets of the reed- like bamboo, Ochlandra travancorica, Benth. In Travancore the teak grows best where the rainfall is 100 in. or more. In the drier parts of the state, particularly in the extreme south, it is of small size, but grows in fair quantity, often forming the greater part of the growing stock. Among other teak localities in the Madras Presidency may be mentioned Coimbatore (apart from the Anamalai hills) chiefly on gneiss, Tinnevelly on granite and schist. South Cuddapah up to 3,900 ft , the Yerramalais of West Kurnool, where the rainfall is only about 25 in., and teak occurs locally in stunted form, chiefly on shale, and along the Godavari river. The Godavari forests are situated partly on hilly and partly on level ground ; the soil is fertile and is capable of producing fair-sized timber, but the forests have suffered from past over-felhng and from shifting cultivation. The teak wood from these forests is figured and ornamental, and is prized for furniture and cabinet-making. Among the chief associates of the teak in the Godavari forests are Terminalia tomentosa, T. Chebula, Xylia xylocarpa, Dalbergia lati- folia, Pterocarpus Marsupium, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Adina cordifoUa, Anogeissus latifolia, Soymida febrifuga, Chloroxylon Swietenia, Diospyros Melanoxylon, and Cleistanthus collinus. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. In dry situations and seasons the leaves fall from November to January, while in moist localities the tree may remain in leaf until March or even later. As a rule the trees are leafless throughout the greater part of the hot season. The new leaves ordinarily appear from April to June according to locality and season ; in wet seasons they sprout early, while in abnormally dry seasons the trees remain leafless longer than usual 710 XLVI. VERBENACEAE The large terminal panicles of small white flowers (Fig. 268) appear during the rainy season, as a rule from June to August or September according to season and locality, but in abnormally wet seasons they may begin to appear as early as April, as they did in Berar in 1915 as a result of frequent showers early in the year. During the rainy season the teak trees are conspicuous from a distance with their masses of white inflorescences. Mr. E. Marsden states that he observed the teak in full flower in the Tinnevelly district, Madras, in January 1917, and that this is apparently usual. The fruits ripen from November to January and fall gradually, some remaining on the tree through part of the hot season. The fruit is a hard, bony, irregularly globose nut (Fig. 270, a), somewhat pointed at the apex, enclosed in a thick, felty, light brown covering, usually 0-4-0-6 in. in diameter, but varying much in size, containing one to three, rarely four, seeds. The nut is enclosed in the inflated bladder -like calyx, 0-8-1 -5 in. in diameter. Through- out the cold season the feathery erect fruiting panicles (Fig. 269) are conspicuous on the trees. The fruit may be conveniently collected by clearing the ground under the trees in January and February and sweeping up the fruits every few days ; the fruits may, if necessary, be lightly beaten off the trees with sticks. For convenience in storage and transport it is advisable to remove the bladder -like calyx. This can be done by half filling a bag with the fruits and vigorously rubbing and shaking it, after which the remains of the calyces can be separated from the nuts by winnowing. The nuts vary much in weight. In samples from Burma the number varied from 570 to 850 per lb., while in samples from the Central Provinces it varied from 900 to 1,400 per lb. The teak seeds well almost every year, though occasional poor seed-years occur. The seed-crop may be partially destroyed by storms between the time of flowering and fruiting. Insects are sometimes responsible for the destruction of much of the seed-crop. Fertile seed begins to be produced at a comparatively early age. A plantation formed in 1873-4 at Ramgarh in the Gorakhpur district, United Provinces, commenced regenerating naturally when less than twenty years of age. Coppice -shoots flower and fruit abnormally early. Seed from coppice nine years old, collected in Saugor, Central Provinces, and tested by tiio Forest Botanist at Dehra Dun in 1908, germinated and produced healthy seedlings. This disposes of the idea that seed from coppice shoots is necessarily unfertile. Mr. G. M. Ryan,^ however, states that germination tests with seed from coppice-shoots up to fifteen years old in Thana, Bombay, were unsuccessful. Old trees are capable of producing fertile seed : in Burma seed from large trees 10 ft. in girth and over has been tested on at least three different occasions and found to be quite fertile. Individual tests reveal considerable differences in the percentage of fertility of teak seed, but as a rule the percentage is high in well-selected seed. The seed often fails to germinate the first year, particularly if sown late, and may lie dormant in the ground for one or more years before germinating. Seed stored for a year is usually found to germinate more freely than fresh seed. Various methods of hastening germination are described below under ' artificial reproduction '. The vitality of teak seed is remarkable. Two instances may be quoted in which seed has lain dormant for many years, retaining its fertility. 1 Ind. Forester, xxx (1904), p. 45G. 4 • <» A * T g '# /' IX y ^ ^«i» k Fig. 270. Tcctona grandis — Sickdling x ^ a — Nut b - g — Germination stages f - j — Development of seedling during first season TECTONA 711 The first is the case of the Mohnyin forest in Katha, Upper Burma, situated on flat ground and consisting in parts of almost pure teak of large size but with no reproduction present. Some years ago experiments were undertaken to induce natural reproduction, among other measures tried being the clearing of undergrowth and the clean sweeping of the ground ; this resulted in the appearance of dense masses of teak seedlings sprung from seed which liad lain dormant in the ground, and which must have accumulated for years before producing seedlings in such quantities. In a portion of the Bilumyo forest near and of the same type as Mohnyin, all teak seed-bearers were girdled in 1911, and in 1915 the forest growth was cleared and burnt ; this was followed by the plentiful appearance of teak seedlings from seed which must have lain dormant in the ground for at least four years. The second instance is one recorded by Mr. A. W. Lushington ^ in the forests of the Nallamalais of Kurnool. Here from 1901 onwards clear -fellings made in a type of forest devoid of teak trees resulted in plentiful natural reproduction of teak : this is attributed to the fact that in the sixties of last century or later teak was abundant in these forests, whereas in the eighties or nineties a totally difl^erent type of forest arose by which the teak was temporarily ousted, and when from 1901 onwards this forest was cut, teak sprang up in abundance from seed which must have lain dormant in the ground for many years. Germination (Fig. 270, b-g). Epigeous. The nut splits open on one or two sides, or sometimes on three or even four sides, the side pieces separating from the central axis of the nut like valves. Through the openings thus caused the radicles first emerge and descend, the cotyledons soon making their way upwards through the cracks, leaving the testas within the nut. As the plant emerges the valves soon fall away from the central portion of the nut. One nut usually produces one or two seedlings, but occasionally as many as three or even four seedlings may be produced. The seedling (Fig. 270). Roots : primary root long, thick, terete, tapering, tomentose, whitish and delicate at first, becoming light brown and woody later : lateral roots numerous, moderately long, at fii'st delicate, wliite, pubescent, afterwards fibrous. Hypo- cotyl .distinct from root, 0-5-1 in. long, compressed, white turning green, tomentose and covered with minute dark red glandular dots. Cotyledons : petiole 0-1-0-25 in. long, channelled above, light green, tomentose, covered with minute dark red glandular dots : lamina 0-45-0-6 in. by 0-3-0-5 in., foliaceous, fleshy, broadly elliptical ovate, entire, apex emarginate, base cordate or truncate, convex and bright green above, concave and paler green beneath, minutely tomentose and covered on both surfaces Avith minute dark red glandular dots which turn black later, midrib depressed, basal lateral veins two, somewhat obscure. Stem erect, at first terete or slightly compressed, soon becoming quadrangular, green, tomentose, covered with glandular dots, at first dark red, soon turning black. Leaves simple, opposite decussate, exstipulate. Petiole 0-1-0-5 in. Lamina 1-12 in. or more by 0-4-10 in., elliptical ovate or obovate, acute or obtuse, base tapering, serrate or crenate, hispid above, coarsely pubescent beneath, both surfaces, pai-ticularly the lower, covered with glandular dots at first dark red, soon becoming black ; venation prominently reticulate, the veins depressed on upper, raised on lower surface. 1 Ind. Forester, xxxii (1907), p. 409. 712 XLVI. VERBENACEAE Fig. 271 shows seedlings in various stages up to about two months old. During the first year the leaves remain comparatively small except in the case of vigorous seedlings which have grown under favourable conditions ; these develop large leaves which may reach a length of over 1 ft. Fig. 272 shows a vio-orous seedling during the first season. In the Nilambur plantations trans- planted seedlings which are regularly weeded attain an average height of 6 ft. by the end of the first year on soils of good quality, the principal growth taking place not during the rainy season but as soon as it is over. Under less favourable conditions a height of not more than a few inches is attained during the first season. Healthy seedlings produce a stout taproot which may attain a length of 12 in. or more during the first season and 2-3 ft. or more by the end of the second season. Seedlings are leafless during part of the hot season. Teak seedlings are decidedly sensitive to drought and to frost, particularly during the first year, when they are frequently Idlled outright. During the second and subsequent years frost does less permanent injury, and plants, if affected, have a better chance of recovery from the base. In the drier parts of the Peninsula drought is a common cause of death among seedlings, and it is of the greatest imx^ortance to secure early germination and vigorous development during the first rainy season, in order to enable the young plants to survive the subsequent dry Aveather. In dry localities the stems of seedlings are frequently Idlled back by drought for some years in succession, while the root-system develops until it attains sufficient vigour to produce a permanent stem. In the first year seedlings do not tolerate injury to the taproot, but in subsequent years it is possible to transplant them Avith a fair chance of success after pruning the root and stem. In nurseries seedlings are often killed through injury to the taproot by insects ; the grub of the rhinoceros beetle [Oryctes I'hinoceros) is one of the worst offenders. Young teak jilants have a wonderful power of recovery from damage by fire, and in burnt forests their stems may be killed back for many years in succession, while in the meantime they gradually produce a much thickened root-stock from which a permanent shoot is finally produced when conditions are favourable to its survival. It has been observed in Burma that seedlings lacking in vigour when thus killed back by fire subsequently produce much more vigorous shoots. Young teak plants are not readily browsed by cattle and other animals. Teak seedlings are intolerant of shade, and thrive best entirely in the open ; only in dry localities do they benefit in their earher stages by side protection from the direct rays of the sun. They are very sensitive to any suppression by weeds, and it is a well-known fact that wherever weed-growth is to be feared the survival of teak seedlings cannot be ensured without regular weeding. This fact requires no demonstration to those who have had any experience of the cultivation of teak, but Fig. 273 may serve to demonstrate it to those who have not had such experience. This figure shows two parallel lines of teak sowings in the second year ; line A, on the left, has been regularly weeded, with the result that the plants are healthy and vigorous, while line B, on the right, lias been left unweeded, with the result that every seedling has been killed by weeds, although these are by no means heavy. These sowings were carried out at Dehra Dun in 1013. M a o 03 c3 03 bO IB o o CO o f» OQ - Stl O \ V 0) I — I r-j o CO ] 1 ] ] 2 "o m a o O ft . TECTONA 719 coppiced did not show a single shoot that had not sprung up in contact with the stools. Besides this, on many occasions when I have met with young teak plants that from their position to trees near them looked like suckers, I have had them carefully dug round and have invariably found their roots entii-ely distinct from those of the suspected parent trees.' So far as direct evidence goes at present, then, it may be said that teak does not possess the tendency to throw up true root-suckers at a distance from the parent stem, and that the so-called ' suckers ' which spring from low down on the stumjD, at its junction with the main lateral roots, although they may in certain cases bear a close resemblance to true root-suckers, should more correctly be regarded as stool-shoots. True root-suckers, such as those of Dalbergia Sissoo, Butea j'rondosa, Oroxylmn indicum, and many other trees, if they are produced by the teak, must be of rare or local occurrence. Natural reproduction. The natural reproduction of teak has been the subject of numerous experiments and observations which enable us to arrive at certain conclusions regarding the effects of various factors, favourable or otherwise, which bear on it. Our knowledge of the subject, however, is by no means complete, and much detailed research still remains to be done. The factors influencing natural reproduction may be considered under three heads : (1) spread of seed, (2) factors influencing germination, and (3) factors influencing the survival and development of the seedling. (1) Spread of seed. Under natural conditions the fruits begin to fall in the cold season, about December or January, and continue falling during the ensuing hot season. On more or less level ground they fall and remain under and around the trees until, if conditions are favourable, germination takes place. On hill-sides where there is an insufficient soil-covering of grass or other plants to hold them up, many fruits are washed down the slopes early in the rainy season. The chief transporting agency of teak seed is water, and this accounts in part for the fact that teak often springs up gregariously on alluvial flats, whither the fruits are conveyed in the season of floods and deposited in quantity. (2) Factors influencing gerinination. Given a sufficient degree of moisture, the chief factor influencing germination is temperature ; soil-aeration is a probable factor, while certain other factors are brought into play in con- nexion with the burying of the seed. (i) Temjierature. A temperature sufficiently high to induce ready ger- mination may be produced either by the heat of the sun or by fire. In cool shady places teak seed germinates with difficulty or not at all, and may lie dormant for years, eventually germinating in quantity as soon as the direct rays of the sun are admitted to the ground by the opening of the canopy and the clearing of undergrowth. This is amply demonstrated by the regenerative operations in the Mohnyin forest described on p. 752 and by some of the examples quoted below. Mention may also be made of an experiment carried out by Mr. Hole at Dehra Dun.^ Seed was sown on July 2, 1913, in two adjacent plots, one open to the sun and rain, the other completely shaded from the sun but receiving all the rain which fell : the percentage of germina- tion was 17 in the former and 1 in the latter. After two years the open plot 1 Ind. Forester, xlii (1916), p. 51. 720 XLVI. VERBENACEAE was full of vigorous seedlings, but of the few seedlings which germinated in the shaded plot none survived. The shade over the latter was removed on June 28, 1915, and the admission of the sun's heat was at once followed by the o-ermination of a number of seeds which had lain dormant for two years. Numerous instances have been recorded in the forest of teak seedlings appearing in quantity where the canopy has been opened ; some of these are quoted below. Germination is greatly stimulated if the seed lies in the open exposed to a thorough baking by the sun during the hot season, and to the alternate soaldng and heating which it experiences during the early showers preceding the monsoon proper. Germination then takes place chiefly at the beginning of the monsoon, though in some cases it may continue throughout the greater part of the rainy season. A case of failure of seed to germinate when lying in an area shaded laterally is described below (p. 722). The beneficial effect of fire in stimulating the germination of teak seed is now thoroughly realized in Burma. Experiments which I carried out in that province in 1903 and 1904 showed that slight scorching, such as would occur in a light leaf fire, stimulates germination, but that severe scorching, amounting to charring of the fruits, destroys the vitality of the seed ; the latter condition is produced by the firing of a thick layer of leaves or of a somewhat heavy growth of grass. Under natural conditions the fruits fall partly before and partly after the season of fires, and in burnt forests it is probable that a portion of the seed-crop is destroyed by fire while a portion has its germination stimulated by fire, the net result depending a good deal on the nature of the soil-covering. In the case of seed lying dormant in the ground, fire undoubtedly has a stimulating effect on germination, as various experiments in Burma in cutting and burning the undergrowth have shown. The measures now adopted in Burma for securing natural reproduction are described in detail on p. 755 ; it will be seen that thorough burning is regarded as essential to success. The beneficial action of fire is probably connected not only with the heat produced by it, but also with its action in clearing and aerating the ground. An experiment in Coorg ^ may here be referred to, in which the undergrowth below twelve trees was burnt in the hot weather of 1908, with the result that a large number of natural seedlings sprang up, of which only 184 survived the drip from the mother trees during the subsequent monsoon. (ii) Soil-aeration. In the experiment referred to above, Mr. Hole demon- strated that an admixture of dead teak leaves in fairly heavy loam was beneficial to germination when the soil was kept well aerated and fully exposed to light and air, but was injurious when kept constantly wet. In my experi- ment at Tharrawaddy, described below, the beneficial effect of hoeing the soil is clearly shown. Further experiments, however, are necessary to determine the precise effects of soil-aeration under different conditions. (iii) Burying of the seed. Experiments at Dehra Dun, which were repeated several times, showed that seed lying on the surface of the ground exposed to the sun almost invariably fails to germinate owing to the fact that the rafliole dries up or is eaten by insects or birds before it penetrates the soil ; the drying up of the radicle is particularly liable to occur on hard ground. 1 For. Admin. Report, Coorg, 1907-8. TECTONA 721 Actually on bare ground teak seed becomes buried naturally in a remarkably short space of time. Rain is the chief agent in burying the fruits, but white ants frequently devour the outer felty covering, leaving the inner hard nut intact, and these insects no doubt assist in burying them. In experimental plots at Dehra Dun a quantity of fruits scattered on bare ground in February had almost all become buried before the end of July : on grass-covered ground they remained for the most part on the surface uncovered, but here germination was moderately successful owing to the protection from the sun which the grass afforded during the process. The beneficial effects of loose soil are due in part to the fact that it facilitates the burjdng of the fruits. A covering of half an inch or less is quite sufficient, seed buried deeper germinating more tardily. (iv) Combinations of factors. An experiment which I carried out at Tharrawaddy, Burma, in 1904, throws some light on certain combinations of factors influencing the germination of teak. Eight adjacent plots were marked out in the open, exposed to the full effect of the sun's heat and light. In each plot 100 teak seeds, not treated in any way, were sown. In six of the plots, which may be termed A, sowing was carried out on April 13, that is, before the first showers, and in the remaining two plots, which may be termed B, sowing was carried out on June 23, that is, after the monsoon had w^ell set in. The method of preparation of the plots and the results of the germination were as follows : Tectona grandis : results of germination experiments, Tharrawaddy. Method of preparation of soil and sowing of seed. A. Sowing carried out on April 13. Soil not prepared Seed so\\ii broadcast Percentage of seeds which germinated up to date. burnt ; about 3 in. r of leaves not burnt ; spar- Y covered with dry ■t grass at time of ing Soil loosened with hoe Soil not prepared Soil loosened mth hoe and not covered (1) / Seed sown broadcast ' and not covered (2) I Seed sown broadcast * and lightly covered (3) Seed sown broadcast and not covered (4) [ Seed sown ■ broadcast I and not covered (5) 1 Seed sown broadcast I and lightly covered (6) June 18. 26 32 67 19 42 June 24. 27 43 75 8 21 42 July 17. 28 47 81 11 25 44 B. Sowing carried out on June 23. / Seed sown broadcast and not covered (7) Soil not prepared Seed placed in shallow holes and lightly covered (8) Xo germination took place throughout the rains : even had it done so the j'oung plants would have had a harder struggle against weeds than those in plots A. Although a single experiment of this kind cannot be regarded as con- clusive, yet it confirms results obtained in other experiments, and indicates ; (1) that germination is greatly stimulated if the seed lies exposed to the sun from before the commencement of the early shoAvers preceding the monsoon, 2307.2 c c 722 XLVI. VERBENACEAE and that without this early exposure it may fail altogether during the first year, even in the open ; (2) that the best results are obtained by burning the soil-covering, hoeing up the soil, and lightly covering the seed ; (3) that the worst results are obtained in the case of seed lying uncovered on ground neither burnt nor loosened. In this experiment it was noticeable that the seedlings made the best start and the weed-growth was retarded most on ground burnt and hoed, while on ground not burnt but hoed up conditions were nearly as good. Weed- growth was most plentiful on the plots which were neither burnt nor hoed up ; on these a tall growth of grass and weeds sprang up early, and by July had begun to kill out the seedlings. (3) Factors influencing the survival and development of seedlings. So far as is known the chief factors influencing the establishment of natural repro- duction are (i) light, (ii) soil-aeration, (iii) soil-moisture, (iv) weed-growth, (v) grazing, and (vi) fire. (i) Light is one of the most important factors in the establishment of natural reproduction, the teak being a strong light -demander from its earliest youth. Although saplings may persist for a time under the light shade of bamboos and other overhead cover, their development is slow and they become readily suppressed. Experiments carried out within recent jesbis in Pyinmana and Prome have shown that a sudden influx of light to badly suppressed teak saplings, far from causing their recovery, may cause their death. The admission of light by the opening of the overhead cover is the main object of so-called improvement fellings for the benefit of the young crop in natural forest. In Burma, where bamboos play such a prominent part in the com- position of the forests, excellent teak reproduction is often seen in areas where elephants have been herded for some time in connexion with timber extraction ; these animals perform a useful service in breaking down the bamboos and admitting light and warmth to the ground, with the result that teak seedlings sometimes spring up and establish themselves in a manner suggesting a well- stocked plantation. At the same time elephants, if kept longer than is necessary in such areas, may undo the good they have done owing to their propensity for damaging young teak poles. Intensive bamboo exploitation has a similar effect in stimulating teak reproduction. Again, along the sides of dragging- patfis, on fire-lines and in other openings through the forest, natural reproduc- tion tends to spring up freely (see Fig. 274). Along the sides of dragging-paths and where exploitation has been in progress the breaking up of the soil no doubt also acts favourably, apart from the admission of light. IVIr. R. Bourne has noted an interesting case of the adverse effect of side shade in one of the Nilambur plantations. Part of the Aravillicava plantation was clear -felled in 1917, and natural reproduction sprang up in quantity in July ; in places the seedlings were so dense that it was hardly possible to step without treading on them. This clear-felled area had already been planted up the previous month and the new plantation was weeded without damaging the natural seedlings. In this clearing were two areas on which shade was cast for a con- siderable period in the morning by the adjoining plantations, which were 90 to 110 ft. high. Here not only did no natural seedlings spring up within the area shaded after 8 to 9 a.m., owing to the temperature necessary for germina- r\\'-- TECTONA 723 tion being insufficient, but the planted seedlings showed markedly poorer growth in that area than they did in the open. On the edge of the clearing the drip from the overhanging trees in the adjoining plantations certainly affected the young plants ; but in the shaded areas the breadth affected and devoid of all natural reproduction was in places as much as 130 ft., and it is therefore beyond question that the absence of natural reproduction and the inferior growth of the planted seedHngs were the direct result of the lateral shade. (ii) 8oil-aeration is a term which may for the present be applied, for want of a better one, to certain conditions which have a marked effect on the establishment or failure of natural reproduction. Under this head may be included the tendency of teak seedlings to rot in excessively moist or water- a logged situations, and where damp weed-growth exists ; the mortality from this cause during the rainy season may be very high. The wholesale death of seedlings during the rainy season owing to the drip from overhead trees may possibly be attributable, in part at least, to the same cause. It has sometimes been attributed to some toxic effect in rain water falling from teak leaves, but this is mere conjecture. Whatever the precise nature of the adverse influence may be, it is a well-known fact that seedlings are killed off in large quantities by the drip from overhanging trees, and that anything short of complete clearance of the overhead canopy is liable to result in high mortality among teak seedlings in forest at all approaching a moist type. The aeration of the soil by loosening has a marked effect on the development of young plants, and in dry localities it is a useful means of stimulating a strong and healthy growth which enables seedlings to survive drought. In the experiment alluded to above, Mr. Hole found that an admixture of dead teak leaves in fairly heavy loam was beneficial to the growth of teak seedlings when the soil was kept well aerated and fully exposed to light and air, but was injurious when kept constantly wet. The vigorous growth of teak seedlings on the sites of old charcoal kilns and on patches of burnt debris is probably attributable to the aeration of the soil in such places. Soil-aeration pla3^s an important part in the establishment of seedlings under the system of mulching described in the next paragraph. (iii) Soil-moisture. Deficiency of soil-moisture is one of the greatest obstacles to the establishment of natural reproduction in many parts of the Indian Peninsula, particularly in forests of a dry type. Seedlings often appear in quantity at the beginning of the monsoon, but have to contend against weedsv during the rainy season, with the result that those which survive the struggle are weakly plants, which succumb to drought during the ensuing dry season. Any measures which will tend to promote vigorous growth during the early life of the seedling are likely to aid it in surviving the effects of drought, and the measures first tried with success by IVIr. W. E. Copleston in the Hahyal teak pole forests in the drier parts of the Kanara district and now adopted in other parts of Bombay, have proved to be an effective method of securing the survival of natural seedlings in localities where under ordinary circumstances they are liable to perish from drought. The survival of the seedlings is secured by a system of surface mulching. The mulch consists of a small armful of green twigs with leaves, grass, or even dead material, the refuse of the fellings, spread in a ring round the plant ; on this c c 2 i 724 XLVI. VERBENACEAE are thrown two or three spadefuls of earth. According to Mr. Copleston/ the soil round the plants is not loosened, and the two main objects of the mulch are (1) to keep the soil round the plants free from weeds, for which purpose a six-inch layer of grass and leaves, with a very little soil to keep them in their place, is sufficient to keep the ground clean for a whole year ; (2) to secure the loosening and aeration of the soil by worms and insects, for after the mulch has been down a month in the monsoon a mass of worm-casts and much tunnelling by insects may be found under it. The class of forest to which this system of mulching is applied is thinly stocked pole forest of teak on dry, hard, stony ground ; the rainfall is only about 30 in. The results are remark- ably good, for in coupes where formerly no seedlings survived it is possible to establish from 200 to 300 per acre at a cost of between Rs. 3 and Rs. 4 per acre. This method of tending natural seedlings has recently been tried in the Melghat, Berar ; in open* places the results were good, but where there was any drip from overhanging trees the seedlings failed to survive. (iv) Weed-growth. The intolerance of teak seedlings to suppression b}- weeds has already been alluded to under ' the seedling ' ; weed-groA\iih is one of the most serious obstacles to the establishment of natural reproduction, which in areas where weeds are prevalent can be secured in quantity only by means of systematic weedings commenced in the first rainy season and continued regularly until the plants are free from the risk of suppression. (v) Grazing. If not heavy, grazing appears to favour the reproduction of teak rather than otherwise, by keeping down, heavy grass and undergrowi-h. Experiments were carried out in 1914 in the Wardha district. Central Provinces, in which cattle were admitted into coppice coupes which had been closed to grazing for three years after felling. This resulted in little or no injury to the teak coppice or seedlings, but one year's grazing stimulated such a rank growth of Cassia Tora and Indigofera glandulosa as to threaten further teak repro- duction. (vi) Fire. In the drier types of teak forest, such as those met with throughout a considerable part of the Indian Peninsula, fire is admitted to have an adverse influence on the establishment of teak reproduction, which is greatly assisted by fire-protection. In many of the moister types of forest, on the other hand, it has now been proved beyond doubt that indiscriminate fire- protection exercises an adverse influence on teak reproduction by encouraging the growth of inferior species, bamboos, and dense undergrowth at the expense of the more fire-resisting and light-demanding teak. We are not concerned here with the question of damage done by fire to the standing crop, or to the effect it is sometimes held to have in impoverishing the soil ; nor are we concerned with the effect of fire-protection on the drier types of forest, but only with its effect on the moister types of teak-bearing forest constituting most of the best teak areas in Burma and along the Western Ghats. In the latter region the adverse effects of continued fire-protection in the moister types of teak forest have been noticed for some years past, but the matter has received more attention in Burma than elsewhere owing to the large extent and the great importance of the moister types of forest, where the teak reaches its best development. 1 Ind. Forester, xlv (1919), p. 82. Fig. 274. Natural reproduction of teak along old dragging-path, Pyinmana, Upper Burma. Fig. 275. Forest of Bamhusa polymorpha. never fire-protected, with natural reproduction of teak on the ground, Tharrawaddy, Burma. Fig. 270. T)ense young groA\Ui of Ce/phalostachyioH pergracile under Batiibusa polymorpha in forest which has been fire-protected for 14 years, Tharrawaddy, Burma. TECTONA 725 In Burma the precise effects of annual burning and of continuous fire- protection on the condition of the forest and the undergrowth are easy to observe. Where, as is usual, bamboos form as it were the matrix of the forest, tire-protection has the effect of greatly increasing the luxuriance of the bamboo growth, so much so that the establishment of teak seedlings, even if germination were possible, is out of the question. Figs. 275 and 276 respectively show typical forest of Bamhusa polymorjjka and Cephalostachyum pergracile, the former never fire-protected and containing teak reproduction, and the latter successfully fire-protected for fourteen years, during which time so dense a growth of bamboo has taken possession of the ground that teak reproduction is quite unable to establish itself. Longer periods of fire-protection show even greater changes, and in many cases the forest becomes converted from a deciduous to an evergreen type by the encouragement of sensitive evergreen shade-bearers. In annually burnt teak forests of the type under consideration the seedlings, it is true, may be burnt back year after year, meanwhile developing thick root-stocks, but their wonderful power of recovery enables them to survive, and even to gather strength with each successive burning back, until eventually the time comes when the seedlings are able to survive the burning and to establish themselves as strong healthy plants. The desirability of extending fire-protection throughout all classes of teak- producing forest in Burma was first called in question by the late Mr. H. Slade in 1896.^ The interest in the matter which was thus awakened resulted in a mass of evidence being collected, the great bulk of which affords ample proof that in the moist types of teak-bearing forest indiscriminate fire-protection is detrimental to, and may entirely prevent, the natural reproduction of teak, and that if it is continued it is likely to result in the total disappearance of teak throughout large areas of the most important class of teak-bearing forest in Burma. The recognition of this fact has resulted in the abandonment of fire -protection over considerable areas where its results are known to be detrimental to the reproduction of teak. It may be of interest here to examine some of the evidence which has led to this step being taken. The first actual enumerations made with the view of comparing the stock of young teak trees in fire-protected and burnt forest respectively appear to have been those which I carried out in 1905 in two adjoining plots, one inside and the other outside the external fire-line of the Kadinbihn reserve in Tharra- waddy.- The former plot, 37 acres in area, had been successfully protected from fire for thirty -two years, and the latter had never been fire-protected. The plots were typical of the usual moist mixed forest of the Pegu Yoma, the bamboos being Bambusa polymorpha and Cephalostachytun pergracile. Prior to the introduction of fire-protection, both plots must have been precisely the same in appearance and character ; at the time of the enumeration, however, pro- longed fire-protection had greatly increased the density of the bamboos in the protected plot. There was a sufficiency of teak seed-bearers in both plots to secure ample reproduction under favourable conditions. In both plots bamboo extraction had been carried on for many years, and in the fire-protected plot improvement fellings had been carried out twice, and dibblings of teak seed had been made. Everything therefore favoured a plentiful crop of young 1 Ind. Forester, xxii (1896), p. 172. ^ md^ xxxi (1905), p. 138. Fire-protected plot. 174 109 Unprotected plot. 135 29 24 121 141 37 62 616 726 XLVI. VERBENACEAE teak in the protected plot, had conditions for its establishment been favour- able. The enumerations revealed the following number of teak poles, saplings, and seedlings in each plot : Tectona grandis : enumeration of natural young teak in fire-protected and unprotected plots, Tharrawaddy. Number calculated for 50 acres in each case. Fire-prote Class. I. Poles 1 ft. to 2 ft. in \ (a) Sound girth. ( (b) Unsoimd and dead n. Poles and saplings un- \ (a) Sound der 1 ft. in girth ^ i (b) Unsound and dead III. Seedlings ....... These figures reveal the fact that although the larger poles, which had established themselves prior to the days of fire-protection, were more numerous in the protected than in the unprotected plot, the seedlings — many being young plants which had been burnt back for some years and were only establish- ing themselves b}^ degrees — were ten times as numerous in the unprotected as in the protected plot. A striking fact, which was wholly unexpected, was the large proportion of unsound and dead saplings and poles in the protected as compared with the unprotected plot. This was due to suppression by the bamboos ; in the unprotected plot weakly stems had to a large extent been killed back by fire and replaced by strong regrowth. In the protected plot the proportion of poles killed outright by suppression amounted to about 75 per cent, of the total number of suppressed and dead stems, and the remainder were so badly suppressed that there was no hope of their ever recovering. In the unprotected plot the sound poles were vigorous, bore no sign of fire damage, and had little to fear from future suppression, the bamboo clumps having been kept well apart by the annual burning ; the unsound and dead poles apjDeared to have suffered not from fire but from suppression in places where the bamboo growth was particularly luxuriant. These enumerations give some idea of the holocaust of young teak plants which takes place in typical moist mixed teak forest in Burma as a result of prolonged fire-protection. Unwilling to accept the figures as conclusive, I appealed at the time for further evidence as to the effects of fire-protection in different localities, and such evidence has been forthcoming. In 1907 Mr. F. Beadon Bryant recorded the results of enumerations made in 1906 in various working plan sample plots, aggregating 275 acres, in the Tharrawaddy forests. These plots had previously been enumerated when the working plans were prepared twenty-one j^ears before ; some of them had meanwhile been fire-protected for many years, others had been protected for a few years, and one had not been protected at all. Mr. Beadon Bryant's results confirmed those yielded l)y my enumerations, namely that prolonged fire-protection results in a marked decrease in the number of young teak trees in forests of the moist mixed type. Similar ro-enumerations have since been carried out in various parts of Burma, and the results have been recorded mainly in forest administration TECTONA 727 reports. The figures so recorded do not always appear to be based on sufficiently comprehensive data, but there is enough rehable evidence to confirm in no uncertain manner the conclusions previously arrived at, to the eft'ect that prolonged fire-protection in the moist types of teak forest is detrimental to the establishment of teak reproduction. As an indication of the adverse effects of fire-protection in certain of the forests of the Ruby Mines district, the following extract, which describes the condition of things after seven or eight years of successful fire-protection, may be quoted from the working plan of the Maingtha, Kunchaung, and Nanme reserves : ^ ' The effect of fire-protection here is that the undergrowth, naturally very dense and consisting largely of evergreen species, is rendered still denser : in waho 2 areas it is almost impenetrable, while in tinwa ^ areas on high ground, where light enters more freely, a heavy undergrowth of dwarf tinwa springs up. The result is that (1) teak seeds lying on a cold bed of decaying vegetable matter do not receive sufficient exposure to light and heat necessary to germina- tion, seedlings are practically non-existent, and no new root-stocks are formed whence shoots may annually endeavour to establish themselves, (2) shoots on old root-stocks are more liable to suppression than they are in non-fire- protected forests. In drawing these conclusions it has been observed that trees grown direct from seedlings are practically never found in either fire- protected or non-fire-protected areas : reproduction consists entirely of shoots on old stocks, some very old, some only a few years old. These shoots are less plentiful in fire-protected than in non-fire-protected areas, but in neither are they common except where breaks in the undergrowth and low overhead cover have been formed, usually by removal of bamboos or groups of teak in semi-evergreen forest. But the most convincing part of the experiment* has taken place in the forest in the neighbourhood of Dogyaung, Asugyi, and Kwehaungdon villages, where bamboos have been heavily cut for a. great number of years. In this locality, on the one hand, splendid groves of sound small teak trees of a girth of one or two feet may be seen which sprang up as the result of bamboo-cutting in the days when fire-protection had never been thought of ; they are not merely chance groups, as they occur freely over several compartments. On the other hand, although bamboos have been cut just as regularly and probably more heavily during the last eight years since fire-protection was instituted, there are now only a few fair patches of repro- duction, and no considerable number of seedlings or stool shoots to be found on corresponding areas ; and they ought to appear in still greater numbers if fire-protection is to be justified.' These remarks are the more interesting in that the writer, Mr. Walsh, admits having commenced his observations with preconceived ideas ' that correct conservancy of every type of forest included the prevention of fire '. Although it is now generally agreed that continuous fire-protection is detrimental to, and may entirely prevent, the natural reproduction of teak in the moist types of teak-bearing forest in Burma, our knoAvledge of the subject is by no means complete. The value of fire-protection in the dry types of teak forest in the Indian Peninsula is fully admitted, and there is in all probability a stage between the moister types and the driest types in Burma in A^hich fire- 1 Working Plan for the Maingtha, Kunchaung, and Nanme Reserves, Ruby Mines Di\dsion, H. L. P. Walsh, 1906. 2 Dendrocalamus Hamiltonii. ^ Cephalostachijuin pergracile. * The protection of these forests is described by the writer of the working plan as ' a gigantic experiment which has cost half a lakh of rupees '. 728 XLVI. VERBENACEAE protection ceases to be injurious and commences to be beneficial to the natural reproduction of teak. That stage, however, still remains to be determined. Some examples of natural reproduction. Prolific natural reproduction of teak often springs up on abandoned shifting cultivation. This is to be seen in certain localities in the Indian Peninsula, notably in the Melghat, and is frequently observed in Burma, where abandoned taungya clearings often become covered with a thick and even-aged growth of almost pure teak, in many cases resembling a well-stocked plantation. The following extract from the annual forest report of Burma for 1915-16, referring to unclassed forest adjoining the Nansaung reserve in the Mansi forest division, describes a condition of affairs often met with under similar conditions in Burma : ' Taungyas have been freely cut in this excluded portion, and the result has been that wherever the clearings were made the natural regeneration of teak is splendid, and we have patches of teak varying in age from two years to thirty which are as good as some of the best plantations in the Tharrawaddy division, and this without any expenditure at all.' In Upper Burma the origin of pure even-aged natural crops of teak, other than, those on alluvial bends of streams, may in a large number of cases be ascribed to abandoned cultivation, and there is little doubt that the Mohnyin forest of Katha, consisting in places of pure teak of large dimensions, originated on land which went out of cultivation during the conflicts between the Burmans, Shans, and Chinese towards the end of the sixteenth century. The main factors which appear to favour the reproduction of teak on abandoned cultivation are (1) the great vitality of the seed, which may accumulate and remain dormant in the soil for years prior to the clearing of the forest for cultivation ; (2) the clearing and burning of the forest and undergrowth and the cultivation of the ground, with the consequent aeration of the soil and the admission of the sun's heat and light, and the eradication of weeds ; (3) subsequent annual burning — since these areas are not fire-protected — which favours the teak against competitors. The remarkable effect of complete clearing followed by weeding, in the stimulation of natural reproduction, is illustrated in the regenerative opera- tions carried out in the Mohnyin forest, and described on p. 752 (see Figs. 287 to 290). At Nilambur the clear-felling of mature teak plantations and the burning of debris are followed by abundant crops of natural teak seedlings which spring from seed Ij^ing dormant in the ground. A remarkable instance of profuse natural reproduction is to be seen in a plantation of teak, mixed in places with sissoo, on well-drained alluvial ground at Ramgarh in the Gorakhpur district. United Provinces. This locality is well outside the natural habitat of the teak, and the trees are not particularly good specimens as regards either size or shape. The plantation was formed i?i 1873-4, and natural reproduction had already begun to appear before 1893, when the plantation was under twenty years old. At present wherever there are openings in the canopy, dense thickets of young teak of all sizes up to over 20 ft. in height are to be found. Figs. 277 and 278, the former showing young plants up to 3 ft. high, and the latter older plants, give an idea of the remarkabh^ ])rofusion with which reproduction springs \\^ where the cover is sulHciently light. The chirf factors which have caused this reproduction, o • 1— I -(-* ct -^ r^ ^-^ <-^ • w "^ sc — X ^-i X r-« 'J2 1— 1 X ce ^ o ^ -^3 -> ^ ^ (—1 &c ^ 03 OJ ^_^ ^ t£ o _r: o 03 32 '"^^ '3 n Q 05 ■+^ o o o^ fi .^H >i > 't: o ^ • ^ 1 1 -^ O 0- '> -tJ • r-t c3 rt +3 P ^^^ S Pi o ^ •r^ ^ 4J o c5 3 o O O ^ ^ & ^" o u !-l ce ^^ M ^ r-" ^ G s c3 +3 05 f^ ^ w' w ~* x — Jl O ^ Q C3 >. i>^ O r- Ti^ (M o 28 o 3 TECTONA 729 which is unusual in plantations, are probably a soil consisting of well-aerated and well-di-ained sandy loam, comparative absence of heavj^ weed-growth, and the open nature of the plantation, which contains fairly large gaps. Bamboos play an important part in connexion with teak reproduction, particularly in Burma, where the nature of the bamboo growth exercises a marked effect. Thus under the heavy shade of a dense growth of Bambusa polymorjjJia or Oxytenanthera albociliata natural reproduction is rendered impossible owing to the heavy shade, while under the lighter shade of Dendro- calamus strictvs or Cephalostachyum pergracile, or where bamboo extraction or elephant grazing has reduced the canopy of the bamboos, reproduction is sometimes plentiful. The periodical flowering and dying of the bamboo, provided the forests are not fire-protected, is known from actual observations in Burma to exercise a marked stimulus on the establishment of teak repro- duction. Measures for aiding the reproduction of teak in bamboo tracts are described on pp. 756 to 761. Artificial reproduction. The question whether or not the formation r^ ^ of teak plantations is justifiable on silvicultural or financial grounds has on \^\ occasion been the subject of discussion. Opponents of the policy declare that ^plantations are silviculturally unsound, since teak is not naturalty a gregarious tree, and that plantations are more exposed to insect attacks than teak in natural forest ; again, plantations were curtailed in Burma some years ago on the ground that the staff and labour available were insufficient to cope with the work of thinning extensive areas of plantation. It is true that teak is not usually gregarious, though pure crops sometimes spring up on alluvial flats and on abandoned cultivation, bu± if pure plantations are objected to, mixtures are always possible. Plantations are no doubt more liable to insect attacks than isolated trees ; yet although the Nilambur plantations are regularly defoliated, they have nevertheless proved a great financial and silvicultural success. On the other hand, it is by no means certain that the mixing of teak with other species can always be relied on to prevent insect damage ; it is certainly disproved by a case recorded from North Yellore in 1917,^ in which a group of 15 teak trees planted in the midst of mixed forest were attacked by Pyrausta, every leaf being skeletonized and the caterpillars being found everywhere ; there were no other teak trees within miles. In Burma the so-called bee-hole borer is a more serious menace than these defolia- tors, and if some effective means of dealing with the pest cannot be devised it may be advisable to mix the teak with other species or to limit the size of the blocks to be planted with teak, separating them by fairly wide belts of natural forest or by plantations of other species. Mr. C. F. C. Beeson has found that attacks of bee-hole borers are worse in pure plantations than in mixed forests rich in teak ; he has also found that a dense undergrowth of bamboos, and particularly of Bambusa poly- morpha, acts protectively, lessening the severity of the bee-hole attack. The borer can, according to Mr. Beeson, be dealt with to some extent in the conduct of thinnings. Thus (1) if trees marked in thinnings are felled before the end of the year, the borers in those trees will die ; (2) the removal of dominated and suppressed trees not required in the crop removes a considerable proportion ^ Conservator of Forests' Inspection Note, 1 91 7. -30 XLVI. VERBENACEAE of borers ; (3) the earlier the thinnings are commenced and the shorter the intervals between them, the lower will be the incidence of the borer. The labom: question is certainly a difficulty in some localities, and planta- tions have to be limited accordingly, but the want of an adequate staff cannot be taken seriously as an excuse for not forming jDlantations, since the remedy is obvious. It has been held that plantation teak is inferior in quality to natural teak, but ]Mr. Pearson has carried out two separate series of tests with planta- tion teak from Burma, in both of which it was found that the timber was in point of strength in no way inferior to natural teak. Wherever conditions are suitable, on the other hand, there are strong arguments in favour of teak plantations. It is obvious that land which is made to yield, say, 40 mature teak trees per acre after about 100 years or less is being utilized to much greater advantage than the same land which under natural conditions yields only a few mature trees per acre in 150 years or more. Again, the cost of tending, upkeep, and supervision for a given number of trees is much reduced by the concentration of work possible in the case of plantations, and this results in more rapid growth and a considerable reduction of the rotation, which means a great financial gain. Experience in Burma has shown that taungija plantations formed on correct lines cannot be approached for cheapness as a means of increasing the stock of teak, and that the financial prospects of such plantations are decidedly good. Finally the financial results of the Nilambur plantations, quoted below, should remove any doubts as to the desirability of forming teak plantations, always provided care is taken regarding important details such as the choice of site, the extent of area planted, the method of formation, a suitable mixture of species or isolation of planted blocks where the attacks of insects, and particularly the bee-hole borer, are to be feared, careful tending throughout the life of the plantation, and other matters. Particulars of some teak plantations. Teak plantations have been formed to a greater or less extent in many parts of the natiu-al region of this tree as well as in localities outside its natural habitat. A short account of some of these plantations may be of interest. Central Provinces. Small jDlantations exist in various districts. In the Sipna valley of the Melghat forest division of Berar about 1,000 acres were planted between 1868 and 1879. Bombay. A good deal of planting has been done from time to time in different localities. The earliest plantations formed were those at Sulgeri, Kadra, and Mardi in the Kalinaddi valley in North Kanara. The Sulgeri plantation was started in 1867-8, and continued until 1881-2, by which time the area amounted to 410 acres. The Kadra plantation was commenced about 1865 or 1866, and continued until 1881-2, \vhen the area aggregated about 200 acres. The Mardi plantation was commenced in 1869-70, and an area amounting to 102 acres was planted at different times. The spacing was 9 ft. by 9 ft. The success of these plantations has been variable. Most of the planted area is on laterite, with very shallow soil in places, and here the growth is poor or complete failure has resulted. The plantations also appear to have suffered from want of tending in the earlier vears, and from the fact that thinnings wore too long delayed. Considering that much of the area has TECTONA 731 proved a failure, the cost has been extravagantly high ; the expenditure on the Kadra and Mardi plantations up to 1908-9 is reported to have been as much as Rs. 150 per acre, while the receipts amounted to Rs. 16 per acre. Madras. Teak plantations have been formed from time to time in various parts of Madras, but by far the most important plantations are those in the Nilambur valley in South Malabar. The Nilambur plantations owe their inception to the foresight of Mr. Conolly, Collector of Malabar, who in 1840 foresaw the shortage of teak likely to occur through the depletion of the natural forests, and urged the formation of teak plantations in the Nilambur valley, a proposal which was approved by Government. After three years of experimental work, regular clear-felling of the existing forest and planting with teak was started in 1844 ; this work has been continued more or less steadily ever since, though no planting was done from 1877 to 1885. The total area planted up to 1918 was approximately 6,500 acres. The Nilambur valley is an ideal situation for teak plantations. The plantations are situated at an average height of about 100 ft. above sea-level. The valley is surrounded on three sides by hills, of which the highest, the Nilgiris, rise to 8,000 ft. The village of Nilambur itself is about 45 miles by road from the coast. The normal rainfall at Nilambur is 109 in., and the shade temperature varies from 80° to 90° F. throughout the year. Over much of the area the soil is a deep fertile well-drained alluvium admirably suited for teak ; this is interrupted at intervals by patches of laterite, often in the form of low hills or undulations. Between the best alluvial soils and the laterite, various gradations of soil occur. The laterite produces teak of poor quality, and in many places the teak has failed altogether ; hence it has been decided, as a result of the experience gained, to avoid planting on laterite areas of poor quality during the second rotation. The Nilambur valley is drained by argood floating-stream which flows into the sea at Beypore, immediately to the south of Calicut, and the outturn of the plantations can be delivered at the coast at the low cost of 2a. 6p. per cubic foot, inclusive of all charges. Much of the timber finds its way in small trading vessels to Persia and Arabia, where poles as well as larger timber are much in demand. Planting has been carried out in large contiguous blocks, and hence the Nilambur plantations have not had to contend, so far as cost of upkeep goes, with the adverse conditions from which so many of the Burma plantations have suffered b}^ being scattered in small isolated patches amidst natural forest. The Nilambur plantations have proved a conspicuous financial success. In 1912 the financial results to date were worked out, and it was ascertained that after allowing 4 per cent, compound interest on all receipts and charges the total revenue, expenditure, and surplus amounted respectively to Rs. 56,22,090, Rs. 54,79,531, and Rs. 1,42,559 ; the total planted area was then roughly 6,000 acres. The rotation has recently been fixed at seventy years, and the final fellings of the first rotation have already begun. The net surplus for the year 1917-18 was Rs. 2,75,532 for the 6,500 acres planted, or Rs. 42-4 per acre per annum ; the future surplus is estimated to be over Rs. 30, and may possibly reach Rs. 40 per acre per annum. The results would have been even better but for the fact that the planted area contains a certain proportion of laterite outcrops and badly -drained ground where teak has failed. 732 XLVI. VERBENACEAE Average figures of outturn for the Nilambur plantations \yill be found below in the yield table (p. 763) given under ' statistical '. In 1917 the largest teak tree in the plantations had a girth of 9 ft. 8 in. and a height of 135 ft. ; it was situated in one of the earliest plantations, in the Iruvalhkava block. Fio"s. 279 to 283 show typical examples of plantations of various ages at Nilambur. Coorg. The oldest teak plantation in Coorg is the Karmad plantation, started in 1868 and extended gradually till 1875. Its total area is 197 acres, of which in 1918 about 120 acres were estimated to be fairly well stocked with teak. The formation of this plantation does not appear to have been carried out on correct lines, in that the existing forest growth was incompletely felled, and the plantation suffered for many years from the presence of overhead trees ; cleanings and thinnings were also neglected to some extent. The total expenditure on the plantation from 1868 to 1918 amounted to Rs. 26,948, or Rs. 136 per acre. Kumri {taungya) plantations were started in 1891, and have been continued subsequently ; many of these are very thriving, though some have suffered for want of tending. These plantations have been raised from nursery transplants, but latterly direct sowings under the Burma method have been tried with good results. Travancore. Bourdillon states that teak plantations w^ere commenced in Travancore in 1866-7, and have been gradually extended since then, the aggregate area in 1908 being 2,666 acres. He mentions that the final fellings are expected to be made in the ninetieth year ; also that it has been calculated that after charging 4 per cent, interest the sale of thinnings will pay off all expenditure by the seventieth year, and that at the time of the final felling in the ninetieth year there will be a balance to the good of Rs. 6,887 per acre, representing an annual profit of Rs. 76-6 per acre from the commencement. Burma. Teak ^plantations were commenced in Burma in the fifties of last century, one of the oldest being the Thinganninaung plantation on the upper Winyeo river (Ataran) in Tenasserim, which was started about 1856. Several of the older plantations are associated with the name of Dr. Brandis, Among these may be mentioned the Myodwin plantation situated on flat alluvial ground about ten miles east of Zigon in the Tharrawaddy district. It was extended subsequently in 1885-6, and again about 1904. The old planta- tions were formed by clearing and burning the existing jvmgle and digging up the ground ; in 1862 seed was sown in lines 6 ft. apart, in 1863 nursery trans- plants were put out 3 ft. by 10 ft., and in 1864 seed was sown 3 ft. by 10 ft. The plantation of 1904 was formed under the taungya system, seed being sown with a spacing of 6 ft. by 6 ft. Another plantation formed by Dr. Brandis is that of Kangyi, about six miles east of Zigon ; this plantation, which is also situated on alluvial ground, was formed in 1864-5, and has produced a girth increment of at least 1 inch per annum. Another old plantation is that at Kywemakaing in the Kadinbilin reserve, Tharrawaddy. It was commenced in 1867, when an area of 58 acres was planted, and in 1869 it was increased by 86 acres, making a total of 144 acres. The spacing w^as chiefly 6 ft. by 6 ft., with a small area 10 ft. by 4 ft. This plantation is on hilly ground, and although the success varies it is good on the whole. It has proved expensive, sincte tlio orioiuai forest was felled and burnt departmentally without any Fig. 279. Teak plantation 14 years old, Ramalur block, Nilambur, South Malabar. o A o o ci fM O TECTONA 733 cultivation of field crops. The cost amounted to Rs. 112 per acre up to 1884, and Rs. 120 per acre up to 1904. The earlier Burma plantations were formed without the aid of field crops, and have accordingly been designated ' regular i3lantations '. The idea of combining the raising of teak with the practice of shifting cultivation (taungya), so prevalent among the jungle people of Burma, originated with Dr. Brandis, though the credit of applying it in its practical details in the Tharrawaddy forests appears to belong to Colonel W. J. Seaton, who was in charge of those forests from about 1863 to 1870. Taungya plantations were commenced in Tharrawaddy on a small scale in 1869, and since 1873 have been extended almost continuously. These plantations have proved a cheap and efficient means of raising teak plantations on a large scale, and are admirably adapted to the habits of the jungle population. They have been formed extensively in many parts of Burma. In 1917 the total area of teak plantations, including 6,021 acres of teak mixed with cutch {Acacia Catechu), was 71,731 acres, of which no less than 68,364 acres consisted of taungya plantations. Details regarding the method of formation and tending of taungya planta- tions, with figures of cost, are given below. The mistake of scattering these plantations in small isolated blocks is referred to on p. 735 ; but for this mistake the potential value of the teak plantations of Burma as profit-earning concerns would be much higher than it is. There is nevertheless a great future before the taungya system in Burma, provided definite concentrated blocks of forest are set aside for planting up under regular schemes ; in particular the conversion of blocks of evergreen or semi-evergreen forest into profitable teak plantations holds out considerable promise. The labour difficulty might be got over where possible by the establishment of forest villages ; the necessary increase of staff for purposes of supervision could well be justified on financial grounds wherever the choice of site has been carefully made. Perhaps the only serious obstacle to the extension of teak plantations, as far as labour con- ditions will permit, is the risk of encouraging the spread of the bee-hole borer. This danger is sufficiently real to form a valid reason for avoiding pure planta- tions of teak over large areas and for finding suitable species for growing in mixture with the teak. United Provinces. The plantation at Ramgarh in the Gorakhpur district, which has regenerated itself in a remarkable manner, has already been referred to. Recently teak has been tried in connexion with afforestation work in ravine lands in the Etawah district, and has shown rapid growth in the earlier years. Teak trees are planted, and grow moderately well if they escape frost, as far north as Dehra Dun. There is a small plantation at Lachiwala in the Dun, but it has been cut back repeatedly by frost, and may be regarded as a complete failure. Bihar and Orissa. Within recent years teak plantations have been formed in the Puri district. Bengal. There is a plantation at Bamunpokri in the Darjeeling tarai, and a small one, dating from 1869, in the Lower Tondu forest near Gorumara in the Jalpaiguri district ; both of these have succeeded fairly well. The latter was at one time reported to be a failure, but when I visited it in 1915 I found it looking healthy, although it appeared to have suffered from Mant 734 XLVI. VERBENACEAE of early tending. It is situated on well-drained sandy loam along a high bank : the rainfall here is about 160 in., and frost is unknown. At the time of my visit it was 46 years old, and the trees were found to have an average and maximum girth of 3 ft. 9 in. and 5 ft. 4 in. respectively, omitting sup- pressed stems, which is a fair rate of growth. The Sitapahar plantations along the Karnafuli river in the Chittagong hill tracts were commenced in 1872 and continued in subsequent years, but a severe cyclone in October 1897 devastated the plantations and destroyed a large proportion of the trees ; within recent years further plantations have been formed under the taungya system in this locality, and plantation work is being continued on a fairly large scale. Assam. The Kulsi teak plantations in the Kamrup district, formed in 1872 and following years, have done well ; there is also a plantation at Makum near Dibrugarh. Andamans. Teak plantations in the Andamans were started in 1883 and continued spasmodically. From 1883 to 1889 teak and padauk (Ptero- carpus dalbergioides) were raised in mixture, but the former outgrew and suppressed the latter. The teak has done well both on padauk soil and on ever- green soil, but rather better on the former than on the latter. The cultivation of teak promises to be highly successful, and to be more remunerative than that of the indigenous padauk ; the growth is nearly, if not quite, up to the average for Burma. The earlier plantations were formed by transplanting from the nursery, and the later ones by direct sowing. Arakan. There is a small plantation dating from 1825 on the Thade stream behind Sandoway. In 1915 there were 106 trees in it, of which seven were over 7 ft. in girth, the largest being 12 ft. 3 in. in girth, A plantation formed about the same time in the plains near Taunggok in the Sandoway district is reported to have been a failure. There is a plantation in the Uthalin valley dating from about 1870. In the Akyab subdivision there are numbers of small plantations formed between 1872 and 1875. In 1918 the number of plantations dating from before 1900 was about 100, aggregating 195 acres, the largest being 32 acres, while many of them were less than 1 acre in area. From 1900 onwards plantations have been extended considerably, and on suitable well-drained sites the growth is good. Choice of site. The importance of careful selection of sites for teak planta- tions has not always been fully realized. Perhaps the most essential factor is good drainage, since badly drained ground, or ground liable to inundation for many days at a time, is totally unsuitable for the growth of teak. Laterite should be avoided if the rock is anywhere near the surface ; this is well illus- trated at Nilambur, where the plantations formed on low laterite hills have not produced anything but small-sized trees, and in many cases have proved an entire failure. Similarly poor shallow soil should be avoided, since although teak can persist on such ground the trees remain stunted, and plantations formed in such localities cannot be expected to prove financially successful. Teak can be grown successfully on ground which is not naturall}^ teak- producing, even within its habitat. Some of the most promising teak planta- tions in Burma have been formed on ground which previously supported evergreen forest. The soil of tropical evergreen forest being particularly fertile, the growth of the teak on such ground is often very good ; the growth Fig. 281. Teak plantation 54 years old, Elanjeri block, Nilambur, South Malabar. o 'Ji 2 -r. TECTONA 735 of weeds and climbers is likewise luxuriant, and hence weedings and cleanings in plantations on ground formerly occupied by evergreen forest are a specially heavy item. Plantations can be formed with great success on well-drained alluvial ground, as witness some of the plantations of Burma and Nilambur ; early prognostications not -withstanding, the trees on such ground have satis- factorily maintained their soundness throughout their life, and are in some cases approaching maturity. On alluvial ground, however, great care is necessary to carr^^ out repeated climber-cutting operations, as climbers often grow in great profusion in such places. Savannah lands are, as a rule, unsuit- able for the formation of teak plantations. The size of a teak plantation is, from a financial point of view, a matter of great importance. In Burma, with its wealth of plantations, a cardinal mistake has been made in scattering these in numerous isolated j^atches, some only one or two acres and others several acres in extent, in the midst of natural forest. Many of these have been lost sight of, and have perished owing to the rapid encroachment of the surrounding bamboos and jungle. Those which survive have been saved only at the cost of periodical cleaning of their boun- daries at frequent intervals, the surrounding jungle being thus kept at bay. In the case of small scattered plantations the cost of such work soon outweighs any possible return to be derived ultimately from the plantation ; on this account many of the Burma plantations must be written down as a financial loss, while many of the smaller plantations have disappeared entirely, their site being marked only by the remains of the boundary -boards, which serve the purpose of tombstones. In a moist climate like that of Burma, where any clearing is quickly invaded on all sides by the luxuriant surrounding forest growth, and where the boundaries of plantations have to be repeatedly cleared, it is well to fix a minimum area to plant up in the course of one or more years in one self-contained block. Only by this means will the boundary be short enough, in comparison to the area of the plantation, to bear the cost of periodical clearing. In Burma this minimum area was fixed some years ago at 25 acres. In this respect the Nilambur plantations have been formed on sounder lines than the majority of the Burma plantations, as they are for the most part comprised in blocks of considerable extent. This defect in the Burma planta- tions has been due largely to an exaggerated notion that no forest should be cleared for the formation of plantations which contains any teak trees. This argument, however, can hardly hold in view of the fact that in place of a few scattered teak trees the ground will be made to support perhaps forty trees of valuable species to the acre at maturity, allowing for a suitable mixture of other trees besides teak where the bee-hole borer is to be feared. The sparing of a few isolated teak trees can certainly never ju.stify the financial loss involved in scattering the plantations in small isolated blocks. In dry climates such as those met with in many of the teak-bearing tracts of the Indian Peninsula, this rule regarding the size of plantations would not hold to the same extent, if at all, except in so far as concentration for purposes of tending and upkeep is concerned. Spacing. The spacing now almost universally adopted in Burma is 6 ft. ))y 6 ft., this giving even growth all round and being close enough to produce a complete canopy in a few j^ears. In the earlier plantations in Burma spacings 736 XLVI. VERBENACEAE of 12 ft. by 3 ft. and 9 ft. by 4 ft. were common ; the plants are thus fairly close together along definite lines, and weeding is facilitated, but the canopy takes longer to close up than in 6 ft. by 6 ft. spacing. In the Tharrawaddy plantations of 1876 and 1877 belts of teak consisting of three lines 6 ft. apart, each belt separated by an unplanted strip 30 ft. wide, were tried ; in 1878 Avider belts were formed, eight lines 6 ft. apart being planted, and unplanted strips 30 ft. wide being left between the belts. This system was apparently found unsatisfactory, as it was discontinued. In the Nilambur plantations a spacing of 6^ ft. by 6| ft. has been the ceneral rule ; a spacing of 6 ft. by 6 ft. was adopted for a time prior to 1904, but it was afterwards decided to plant with a spacing of 8 ft. by 8 ft. on first- class soils and 6 ft. by 6 ft. on second-class soils. Wide spacing, however, has now been given up, and the rule in recent years has been to j)lant 6| ft. hj Qh ft. on soils of good quality, and 6 ft. by 6 ft. on soils of poorer quality. Although wide spacing is more economical than close planting, reckoning the cost of planting an acre at a given rate per plant, at Nilambur it is said to have resulted in a fair proportion of the trees being forked at a height of 20 to 25 ft. from the ground. Mr. P. M. Lushington, again, notes that the extra cost of close planting at Nilambur is recovered from the first thinnings, and that close spacing has a great advantage in producing straight clean stems. Another result of wide spacing is that weedings have to be continued longer, and give more trouble, than in the case of close planting, so that expenditure saved in the cost of formation has to be added to the cost of tending. This was found to be the case in Coorg, where a spacing of 10 ft. by 10 ft. was tried at one time, but was discarded owing to the trouble given by weeds. In Travancore a spacing of 15 ft. by 15 ft. was tried during the first few years of plantation work, but this was afterwards discarded for a spacing of 5 ft. by 5 ft. or 6 ft. by 6 ft. Preparation of seed. In most parts of India it is customary to subject teak seed to some form of preliminary preparation in order to hasten germination, without which the seed is found to lie dormant for a year. Provided the seed is sown well before the early showers preceding the monsoon, such preparation is not always necessary ; it is not ordinarily resorted to in Burma, and the results are all that can be desired. In India many different plans are adopted. At Nilambur soaking for 48 hours before sowing in the nursery is found to give good results ; the soaking is effected by placing sacks of seed in running streams. Exposing the seed to the weather for a whole year in the open has been found successful in Bombay. In Kanara seed sown in beds early in April, and watered daily until the rainy season, has been found to germinate fairly well, though some of the seeds lie dormant for a year. Mr. L. S. Osmaston ^ has described a method which has given uniformly excellent results in Satara, where the rainfall is about 24 in. A hole large enough to hold all the seed is dug in April in a sunny spot, filled with seeds, covered with a layer of earth 1 in. thick, and thoroughly drenched with water every third day for six weeks. The seed is then taken out and spread in the sun for three weeks, by which time the rainy season is about to commence, when the seed is sown and germina- tion takes place readily. Another plan, successfully tried in Surat, is to 1 Ind. Forester, xxxiv (1908), p. 534. Fig. 283. Teak plantation 65 years old, Moolathamanoo block, Nilaiiibur, South Malabar : tree with man at base 7 ft. 8 in. in sjirth. ■S^s^^. t.-. ■•-Si * A^^A^ijftii: ^ TECTONA 737 subject the seed to alternate soaking in water for twenty-four hours and ch-ying on the ground for four days, repeating this process for a fortnight : the seed is then placed in a hole in the ground and kept moist until germination begins, when the germinating seeds are removed daily and sown. Slight charring has been found to stimulate germination, but this method is not to be recom- mended, since the vitality of the seed is destroyed if the heat is too intense. Mr. E. M. Hodgson ^ in Surat found that soaking for twenty -four hours in lukewarm water prior to sowing invariably induced germination in twelve to twenty -four hours. A method which is said to give good results in Bombay is to fill a pit with alternate layers of seeds and earth 1 in. thick, cover it with earth, and keep it well drenched with water for about a fortnight ; the seeds and earth are then mixed well together and watered until germination begins. A method tried with success in Ceylon is to spread the seed in a layer 4 in. thick on a mat in the sun and keep it constantly watered ; germination starts in about three days, and the germinating seeds are removed daily and sown in the nursery. This method should be carried out only in fine weather, since the seeds are apt to rot if kept too moist without being exposed to the sun. In an experiment carried out by Mr. H. Tireman in Coorg in 1916 good results were obtained by placing the seeds between gunny-bags in April and watering them well ; germination commenced in 13 days, and ceased 26 days later. Covering of seed. The depth to which seed, whether sown in the nursery or direct in the forest, should be covered with earth is a matter of some impor- tance. A number of experiments which I carried out at Dehra Dun, in which seed was covered to various depths up to 2 in., showed that the best results are obtained by covering it to a depth of less than \ in. These experiments were repeated several times, and the result obtained in each case was the same. Nursery treatment and transplanting. Teak may be raised either by direct sowing or by the transplanting of seedlings which are raised as a rule in the nursery ; the former method is the more usual in Burma and the latter in India, though direct sowings appear to have come more into vogue in India within recent years. The methods of raising teak seedlings in the nursery vary in detail Seedlings may be transplanted the year of sowing or may be kept in the nursery for a year. In the former case any injury to the root should be avoided, and small-sized seedlings should therefore be used, but in the latter case the plants will stand pruning of the taproot, provided the stem is also pruned down. The method which has been employed for raising most of the plantations in the Nilambur valley is as follows : Seed-beds are formed near the area to be planted ; good free soil is selected, dug to a depth of 3 ft. and broken into fine mould, after the removal of weeds, roots, and stones. An edging 3-4 in. high is constructed round the beds, which have a width of about 2| ft. between edgings. The seed is collected in February from vigorous trees and sown about the 7th to 15th April ; before being sown it is soaked for 48 hours in water. About 240 lb. of seed, sown broadcast, suffice for 150 ft. length of bed. The seeds are covered with earth to a depth of |-f in., and the beds are then covered with straw, a few leafless 1 Ind. Forester, xxvi (1900), p. 279. 2307.2 D d 738 XLVI. VERBENACEAE twigs being placed below the straw^ to prevent it from mixing \Adth the earth ;^ the object of the straw is to prevent the earth from being washed off the beds when watering is in progress. The beds are Avatered copiously every day, and germination takes place in 10-20 days, when the straw and twigs are removed. Thereafter watering is carried out more sparingly as the plants become stronger. The monsoon sets in, as. a rule, in the beginning of June, and it is of the greatest importance that the seedlings should be of the correct size, that is, about 3 in. high, with two pairs of leaves besides the cotyledons ; the third pair of leaves are usually a good deal larger, and if they have appeared they should be nipped off. The larger plants are discarded in favour of those about 3 in. high. Planting should always be carried out during continuous rain ; if this is not done, or if there is a break of a few days after planting, much failure results. Planting should be completed as early in the rainy season as possible ; in this case the seedlings reach a height of several feet by the end of the season, while those put out late show poor development. If late planting is unavoidable, small seedlings which have germinated late are selected in preference to larger ones with long thick taproots. The planting site is felled in December, the felled material being allowed to dry until March, when it is burnt, the unburnt logs being then cross-cut, piled, and again burnt. Lining is then carried out, and after the ground is softened by rain pits 10-12 in. cube are dug and filled in with the loose earth, in which the planting hole is made with the hand or with a bamboo stick at the time the seedhng is planted ; the earth is then replaced round the roots and pressed well down, care being taken not to place the seedling in a hollow, but rather to raise it slightly above the surrounding level of the ground, in order to allow for the settling of the earth. Under this system the cost of formation is somewhat high. Mr. J. Fer- guson, who was in charge of the Mlambur plantations for many years, made out the following statement of the average cost per acre of clearing and planting on forest land : Weeding undergrowth preparatory to felling Felling ...... Firing after felling .... Cross-cutting remains of first burning Piling and burning off clear Lining, marking, pitting, and planting out Weeding and hoeing round the plants Second, third, and fourth weedings at Rs. 1—4—0 each Collection of teak seed .... Preparing, sowing, and watering nursery beds Contingencies ..... Total Rs. a. P- 2 0 0 5 0 0 0 4 0 3 8 0 10 0 0 3 8 0 2 8 0 3 12 0 0 8 0 3 0 0 2 0 0 36 0 0 This does not include the cost of superintendence. The average cost of formation is now usually reckoned at Rs. 40 per acre for complete establish- ment up to the first thinning. Pruning is carried out only in the case of unlignified branches of young plants up to three years of age ; these often Plot Age at time which remeasure- shoots thinned Height. uirth. No. of thinning, ment was made. out. Thinned. Unthinned. Thinned. Unthinned. years years. per cent. ft. ft. in. in. 1 ' 3 ■ 3 64 211 219 M3 1-05 2 7 2 67 1-05 0-98 0-82 0-62 3 9 4 .. .. .. 0-82 0-77 4 15 4 .. .. .. 0-45 0-35 These figures show a girth increment in favour of the shoots of the thinned coppice, though the effect of the thinning is hardly so great as might be expected. Mr. Edie remarks, regarding this experiment, that thinnings in coppice are probably advisable, but that these should not be undertaken until the coppice is at least ten years old, partly in order to preserve the cover and partly because if shoots are thinned out in young coppice new shoots take their place. 2. High forest systems of the selection type. The treatment under high forest of vast areas in which teak, a strong light-demander, occurs scattered among numerous other species in constantly varying types of forest in which bamboos often play an important part, is by no means an easy problem, and the method of treatment hitherto applied almost universally to the extensive teak forests of Burma and to the better classes of forest on the west coast of India is in no way a solution of that problem. This method of treatment has been termed the selection system, but it is not the true selection system of Europe, since it does not provide for the attainment of normality or ensure a sufficienc}^ of reproduction, nor does it even take the silvicultural require- ments of the teak into consideration. Briefly stated, this method of treatment consists in working over a given tract of forest in a definite felling cycle and cutting out those teak trees which have reached a certain minimum girth, with the proviso that where teak reproduction is absent, seed-bearers should be left ; in most cases the maximum number of trees to be removed in any year or period of years is fixed. This system was adopted in Burma in the early days of forest organization as being the only practicable method of utilizing, under some sort of control, the stock of mature teak over the exten- sive areas of forest to be dealt with. As a provisional method of treatment it was the only one to adopt under the circumstances. Yet with the exception of one or two recent innovations, which will be noted below, it has continued to be the system in force throughout Burma down to the present day, and it must continue to be practised over considerable areas for some time to come, since the introduction of more rational systems of management over the vast areas to be dealt with must take time. It has never been denied that the cutting out of all mature teak trees from among their numerous associates will in time lead to a serious diminution of the ])rincipal species, and hence working plans have prescribed the removal t)f inferior species in the interests of immature teak of all ages. But in actual TECTONA 749 practice it has been found quite impossible to carry out these improvement fellings, as they are termed, on anything like the scale necessary to keep up with the felling of teak trees, more especially since experience has shown that in the case of young teak still in danger of suppression from weeds and bamboos a single felling is insufficient, and cleanings require to be repeated, it may be several times, before the young teak are out of danger. The note of alarm in respect of selection fellings in Burma was first sounded after the adverse effects of continued fire-protection on the establishment of teak reproduction came to be realized, and the conclusion was reached that the combination of continued fire-protection with selection fellings would ultimately lead to the extinction of teak over large areas of forest. The argument that the abandonment of fire-protection will bring about the desired result without any alteration in the method of treatment will not hold, for the constant cutting out of the teak, without the possibility of carrying out improve- ment fellings for the benefit of that species on anything like the scale necsssary, is bound eventually to deplete the stock of teak. Again, if the reproduction and establishment of the teak crop is to receive special encouragement, some regard must be had for the requirements of the species in such matters as exposure of the soil to the sun for purposes of germination, clearance of over- head cover to afford abundance of light and to prevent mortality from drip, and repeated weeding and cleaning. Finally, in most of the forests in which teak has hitherto been worked under selection fellings, the proportion of that species might be largely increased without undue risk of insect or fungus attacks, and much fertile ground which is at present unproductive might be utilized profitably. These considerations, apart from other advantages to be secured from concentration of working, have within recent years led to a fairly general consensus of opinion in Burma that the selection fellings hitherto in vogue should be superseded, when and where circumstances will permit, by some system of concentrated regeneration whereby the proportion of teak will be not only ensured but increased. A brief account of the method of selection fellings hitherto practised in teak forests may be of interest. In Burma it has long been the custom to girdle teak trees three years before felling them ; this girdling, which consists of ringing them completely down to the heart wood near the base of the tree, is carried out primarily with the object of rendering the timber buoyant for floating purposes, but it also serves to season the timber before felhng and extraction. Trees are selected for girdling, provided they have attained the prescribed minimum girth and are not required as seed-bearers, and are felled at least three years later. The exploitable girth most commonly adopted in Burma is 7 ft., or 6 ft. in dry types of forest, but in some cases it is fixed at 7| or 8 ft. The age corresponding to a girth of 7 ft. is with very few excep- tions estimated to be from 150 to 180 years. The exploitable age is divided into a convenient number of periods, which actually vary from 20 to 40 years, but are for the most part 30 years in duration ; the period is equivalent to the cycle during which fellings go completely round the whole area. The period is divided into sub -periods, which usually vary from four to eight years each, and corresponding sub-periodic blocks are laid out on the ground. The object of these blocks is to afford elasticity of working, in that girdling is not 750 XLVI. VERBENACEAE confined each year to a definite annual coupe, but may be carried out in the prescribed sub-periodic block at any time during the sub-period. The better types of teak forest in Bombay and Madras are worked as a rule under selection fellings of a similar kind. In North Kanara and Thana the exploitable size fixed is a diameter of 18| or 24 in., or a girth of 6 or 6 J ft. The rotation, where calculated, varies from 120 to 160 years, and the felling cycles adopted vary from 15 to 30 years. The yield is usually fixed by number of trees, and in some parts of North Kanara girdling is carried out two or three years before felling. In the Allapilli forest of South Chanda in the Central Provinces teak is worked under selection fellings with an exploitable girth of 6 ft., corre- sponding to an estimated mean age of 175 years. Improvement fellings of the selection type are carried out in parts of the Central Provinces and Madras, and in various parts of Bombay, particularly in Khandesh. These fellings have for their object the removal of over -mature, badly shaped, and otherwise undesirable stems, and are carried out under a definite felling cycle, which ordinarily varies from 10 to 30 years, but is in two oases as long as 45 years. These improvement fellings are often followed by cutting back operations in the young crop, with the object of producing straight coppice-shoots. It \\ill be convenient to allude here to the tending operations, termed improvement felHngs, which are carried out as far as staff and labour permit in the teak forests of Burma. These fellings are of two separate classes : (1) ' 0 ' improvement fellings, made in the interests of the old crop, and (2) ' Y ' improvement fellings, made in the interests of the young crop. The ' 0 ' fellings are in the nature of a thinning in a mixed crop, and apply to trees Avhich have passed out of the pole stage ; they are carried out as soon as possible after the extraction following the main fellings, and the intention is to repeat them at intervals of 15 years, though this interval is recognized to be too long in many cases. The object of these fellings is to free promising stems of teak and other valuable species by the removal of undesirable stems which are interfering with their development, care being taken, however, not to open the canopy to such an extent as to cause an invasion of weeds. The ' Y ' improvement fellings have for their object the establishment of such natural reproduction of teak and other valuable species as may be found on the ground. They are in the nature of weedings and cleanings, and consist of the removal of weeds, bamboos, and inferior tree species which are inter- fering with the development of seedlings, saplings, and poles. The cutting back of badly shaped, damaged, or suppressed saplings is carried out at the same time ; it has been found that badly suppressed saplings, if freed, do not as a rule recover their vigour, whereas if cut back they may send up strong new shoots. Where necessary, undesirable trees in the overhead canopy may be removed, provided that the canopy should not be opened to the extent of inducing heavy weed-growth which would suppress existing teak seedlings and saplings. These weedings and cleanings are carried out as soon as possible after the extraction following the main fellings, and are repeated as often as necessary and until the young crop is safe from suppression. As these opera- tions are of an intensive nature they are confined to areas where there is TECTONA 751 sufficient natural reproduction present to warrant their execution, and to areas from which extraction is easy. Within the area operated over, places containing no teak, but which are suitable for its growth, are regenerated artificially by the taungya system. These cultural operations, combined with artificial reproduction within the areas operated over, are interesting as show- ing an attempt to regenerate definite areas, and may be regarded as a transition stage towards the adoption of a regular system of concentrated regeneration tending towards the creation of even-aged crops. These ' Y ' improvement felhngs have now been in operation in Burma for some years, and the experience gained so far indicates that they can rarely, if ever, justify themselves financially if they are carried out in forest under continuous fire-protection, and unless they are considered as a means towards the complete regeneration of definite areas mth the aid of fire and in con- junction with the complete removal of overhead cover in the manner described below ; even so the taungya system of regeneration has proved to be cheaper and more efficient. It has been found that ' Y ' improvement fellings in fire- protected forest may be the means of saving from suppression, at considerable cost, saplings which are already established ; they do not result in the appear- ance of new seedlings. In Tharrawaddy ' Y ' improvement fellings repeated for four or five years have been found to cost Rs. 5 to Rs. 10 per acre for weeding and cleaning only, without the clearing of overhead cover, which is necessary for the proper development of the young growth, and in certain cases they have cost as much as Rs, 21 to Rs. 37 per acre when repeated for five years, with results quite incommensurate with the high cost and far less successful than would have been attained at a lower cost by the aid of taungya plantations. 3. High forest systems with concentrated regeneration. Dutch East Indies. The method of treatment of the teak forests in the Dutch East Indies has been described in a note by Mr. R. C. Milward.^ The teak grows remarkably pure on the chalky soil on which it is commonly found, and efforts are made to encourage a mixture of other species, of which SchJeichera trijuga is considered the most suitable, as it stands shade and keeps the soil in good condition. The present method of treatment is by clear -felling in plots of between 25 and 50 acres, followed by natural reproduction by seed or coppice, which is supple- mented by artificial reproduction. The rotation arrived at is 100 years on good soils and 80 years on poor soils, the average diameter attained on the former being 24 to 32 in. The trees are girdled two years before felling. Some- times the coupe is burnt over before felling, in order to assist the germination of the teak seed on the ground. Burning is in any case carried out after extraction is completed, the refuse being piled up against the old stumps to prevent the growth of coppice -shoots, which are not desired from these stumps. All the smaller stumps are then coppiced. Only one good coppice-shoot is left on each stool, the others being bent or half broken down a year or so after coppicing, in order to cover the ground. The growth of grass which tends to spring up on these large clear-felled areas is looked on as a disadvantage, and hence, although this system is very successful and comparatively easy, the Dutch foresters are on the look-out for some system which will prevent the 1 Note on the Forests of Java and Madoera of the Dutch East Indies, 1915. 752 XLVI. VERBENACEAE invasion of grass, such as natural reproduction in groups. Leucaena glauca is sown mth the view of keeping dowTi a heavy growth of grass. Mohnyin aTid Bilumyo forests. The Mohnyin and Bilumyo forests in the Katha district of Upper Burma have already been described. They are situated near each other, on fairly level ground, and have an aggregate area of 27,489 acres. Teak occupies less than one-third of the area, but where it occurs it constitutes a greater proportion of the stock than is usual in the teak forests of Burma, becoming almost pure in places. The absence of bamboos over most of the area further increases the dissimilarity between these forests and the usual types of teak forest in Burma. The teak trees attain very large dimensions, and large trees are much in excess. A feature of these forests, which for some time caused uneasiness, is the almost entire absence of natural reproduction of teak. With the view of devising means of inducing reproduc- tion, experiments were commenced by the late Mr. J. Messer about 1898 and continued for some years ; they were subsequently carried on in turn b} Messrs. McHarg and Blanford. These experiments demonstrated the fact that abundant natural reproduction, from teak seed lying dormant in the ground, could be induced by opening the canopy and by compJeteiy clearing and preferably burning the undergi'owth. They showed, however, that the seedlings were rapidly kUled off during the rainy season by the di'ip from overhead trees and by the weeds which sprang up. This indicated the pro- cedure to adopt, namely, to remove all overhead cover possible, to cut and burn the undergrowth, and to weed and clean the young teak crop for two or three years. Figs. 287, 288, and 289 show the profusion with which natural reproduction of teak is capable of establishing itself under this treatment in areas in which it is entirely absent where these measures are not taken. A working plan based on the results of these experiments was prepared by jMt. Blanford, and came into force in 1910-11, the fellings being prescribed for 20 years. The rotation adopted is 180 years, corresponding to an average girth of 8 ft., and is divided into nine regeneration periods of 20 years each, the periodic blocks being so allotted as to contain as far as possible an equal stock of teak. The working plan prescribed that periodic block I, to be regenerated first, should be divided into four 5-year coupes or compartments, corresponding to 5-year sub-periods, regeneration felHngs being carried out by felling over the whole compartment in the first year of the sub-period, or failing this by the second year, all teak except promising compact groups of young trees. This prescription has subsequently been modified to allow for annual instead of 5-yearly coupes, in order to ensure complete extraction in one year over a definite area. The working plan prescribed the retention of exceptionally well-shaped clean-boled teak below 6 ft. in girth, even if isolated, but this has been found to be unsatisfactory, and is not acted on. The aim is to effect as complete a clearing as possible in order to prevent seedlings being killed by drip from overhead trees. All felled material which can be disposed of is at once extracted, after which the whole area is thoroughly burnt, all unburnt material being cut up, piled, and reburnt ; if complete burning is not effected the first year, burning has to be repeated the second year. The working plan prescribed burning for two years prior to girdling, but this has proved to be a mistake, since it induces the germination of numerous Fig. 287. Natural reproduction of teak induced by clearing overhead canopy, cutting and burning undergrowth, and weeding young plants, Mohnyin, Upper Burma : plants of 2 rains' growth. Fig. 288. Natural reproduction of teak induced by clearing overhead canopy, cutting and 1 turning undergrowth, and weeding young plants, Mohnyin, Upper Burma : plants of 3 rains' growth. Fig. 289. Natural reproduction of teak induced by clearing overhead canopy and undergrowth, Mohnyin, Upper Burma : area not burnt but weeded regularly : plants of 4 rains' growth. Fig. 290. Regeneration fellings in Mohnyin forest, Katha, Upper Burma : a regenerated area after the second rainy season, with teak seedlings plentiful : girdled trees not yet removed. l-i.;. 291. .\H(tnal icproduitiun of teak 1 year old in ui)i)er mixed forest, induced by clearing ovcrhond cover, cutting biunbooa, thoroughly l)urning, and weeding the resulting teak seedhngs. TECTONA 753 teak seedlings which die owing to want of hght and the presence of weeds, while the supply of seed lying dormant in the ground is reduced in quantity. The seedlings, which spring up in abundance as a result of the clearing and burning, are weeded from the commencement, and weeding requires to be continued for two or three years, or until the young plants are safe, after which periodical cleanings are necessary. As many as three weedings may be required during the first rains. It was hoped that annual burning of the young crop might serve to dispense with these expensive cleanings, but an experiment to this effect resulted in failure. Fig. 290 shows a regenerated area after the second rainy season, before the removal of the girdled trees. All blanks are planted up during the first rainy season with natural teak seedlings spaced 6 ft. by 6 ft. It is not safe to postpone this work for a single year, owing to the profusion with which grass springs up on cleared areas. Three years after girdling the girdled teak trees are felled and extracted. This does great damage to the young crop, and injured stems require to be cut back. It has, therefore, been decided experimentally to girdle the teak three years before the regeneration fellings, and to fell and extract it immediately before burning. In periodic blocks II to IX, selection girdlings are prescribed which will pass completely over the area in the 20 years' period ; no tree under 10 ft. in girth will ordinarily be girdled unless it is obviously deteriorating. Although the success of this system has been amply demonstrated, further experiments are still in progress with the view of reducing the cost of regenera- tion and of introducing mixtures of other species in order to avoid raising pure crops of teak. An interesting account of these operations has been written by Mr. H. R. Blanford.^ The results of a recent experiment in regenera- tion under the taungya system bid fair to modify completely the operations prescribed in the working plan. It has been found that natural reproduction of teak, with an admixture of other species, springs up in abundance on areas cleared for temporary cultivation, and where reproduction is wanting the blanks can be easily filled up with transplanted natural seedlings. Regeneration under the taungya method very considerably reduces the cost ; on a Kachin taungya of 22 acres a complete and vigorous young crop has been established and brought through the first season at the low cost of Rs. 2 per acre. Under the prescriptions of the working plan as subsequently modified, the cost of regeneration from 1910-11 to 1917-18 has amounted to Rs. 40 per acre, which is prohibitive, although culturally the work has been successful ; this may be compared with the cost of a very successful taungya plantation formed in 1910-11, which amounted during the same period to about Rs. 19 per acre. Burma teak forests in general. The great majority of the teak forests of Burma are characterized by the presence of an under-story of bamboos which greatly affects the treatment. The question of introducing some system of concentrated regeneration in these forests was considered at a conference held in Burma in 1910. The general scheme of management tentatively approved by the conference provided for the division of the rotation into periods. Periodic block I was to be treated under regeneration felHngs with intensive weedings and cleanings, while the other periodic blocks were to be worked by selection 1 Ind. Forester, xliii (1917), p. 339. 2307.2 E e 754 XLVI. VERBENACEAE felliiios. It was decided that regeneration fellings should consist of one main felUng followed by subsidiary improvement felhngs carried out where necessary at intervals of five years. The main fellings would consist of the girdhng of mature teak trees, with a minimum girth of 7 ft. in moist and 6 ft. in dry forest, while other species would be completely cleared over young teak. The girdling of undersized teak was not contemplated except where necessary, in order to free promising groups of young trees and advance groAvth. Planta- tions and cultural operations, that is, repeated weedings and cleanings, and as far as possible also bamboo extraction and road-making, in order to encourage the utihzation of species other than teak, would be concentrated in this block. The use of fire to stimulate natural reproduction was also contemplated. In the other blocks it was proposed to carry out selection fellings of teak and other saleable species. A system on these lines aims at increasing the pro- portion of teak and other valuable species, but not at creating even-aged crops of teak, though it tends towards the ultimate establishment of even-aged crops ; at present such crops would be produced only where plantations are formed. Since 1910 a great deal of useful experimental work in the natural regenera- tion of teak forests in Burma has been carried out, and as a result the opinion is gaining ground that the most satisfactory way in which to treat the natural teak forests of Burma wherever conditions permit is to produce even-aged young crops, though not necessarily pure crops of teak of large extent. For this purpose complete clearance of the overhead canopy is necessarj^ and it is accordingly considered advisable as far as possible to confine this intensive form of regeneration to localities where at least the more valuable species of trees other than teak are marketable. For this reason the allotment and sequence of regeneration areas should be made in conjunction with schemes of roads or other export works. It has further been found to be of great advantage to reduce to a minimum the time taken to regenerate a given area completely, that is, the time from the first regeneration felling to the complete estabhshment of the young crop. For the production of even-aged crops it will be necessary to sacrifice immature teak trees, but the ultimate gain, in the production of a largely increased future stock of teak, is held to justify this sacrifice. Theoretically the areas to be placed in periodic block I, to be regenerated first, should be those containing most mature trees and least reproduction. But actually it is considered advisable to maintain a supply of mature teak to provide for the outturn some years hence, owing to the depletion of many of the important teak tracts by heavy fellings in the past and to the diminution of the number of teak trees outside reserved forests w'th the extension of cultivation. This being so, it is held to be preferable to regenerate first (1) areas which are capable of producing teak of good quality, l)ut in which teak is scarce or absent, and (2) areas containing much estaljlished reproduction, including plantations. Allotment to other periods is as a rule unnecessary, except that periodic block II should be allotted tentatively and the exploitable size in it should be placed higher than in the otiiif Mocks, in order to retain as many teak seed-bearers as possible, and to maintain the future yield. As regards the method to be employed for regenerating a given area, the TECTONA 755 method of taungija plantations, from the point of view of efficiency and economy, has proved far superior to any other method yet devised, however successful. These plantations should, if properly carried out, seldom cost more than Rs. 20 per acre to establish completely, and where no rewards are given for raising the young crop of teak they should cost a good deal less. Experimental work in obtaining natural reproduction by felling, burning, and weeding has shown that crops far less fully stocked cannot be raised except at a considerably higher cost than in the case of taungya plantations. For the systematic forma- tion and upkeep of these plantations on a large scale the establishment of forest villages will in most cases be necessary. This will ensure a permanent supply of forest labour for work other than that connected with plantations, while in addition the food of the labour force will be produced on the ground. Failing taungya plantations, experiments carried out in the upper mixed forests of the Pegu Yoma so far indicate the following to be the sequence of operations necessary to secure natural reproduction : (1) The area should be fire-protected for two or three years before fellings are commenced, in order to ensure a plentiful crop of teak seed on the ground. (2) All trees should be felled or girdled except those required as seed- bearers and compact groups of poles of teak and other valuable species which are not too old to form part of the future crop, but all solitary poles, including teak, should be cut, together with all bamboos and shrubby undergrowth ; this should be completed by the hot season. (3) The whole area should be thoroughly burnt in the hot season, the fiercer the fire the better being the results ; it may be necessary to burn again for another year or two before a sufficient crop of young teak is secured. (4) This felling and burning is usually followed by a good crop of young teak and other species where seed-bearers are plentiful and where the fire has been intense ; all trees standing on the area should be felled and removed during the cold season following the appearance of the young crop, or if teak is not to be felled green it should then be girdled, extraction being carried out three years later. (5) The young crop should be weeded, usually three times during the first rainy season, and subsequently as often as necessary until it is established. (6) After the extraction of girdled teak, damaged young growth should be cut back. (7) After the burning the area should be fire-protected as long as weeding is necessary ; thereafter experience should determine whether it is better to continue fire -protection or to burn early in the season. Fig. 291 gives an idea of the success with which natural reproduction has been obtained on an experimental scale in the Saing Yane reserve of the North Toungoo division by clearing the overhead cover, felling bamboos, thoroughly burning, and weeding the resulting natural teak seedlings. A system of concentrated regeneration fellings somewhat on the lines just indicated is being introduced throughout the whole of the hill forests of Tharrawaddy. For the present the rotation is to be fixed at 120 years, divided into six periodic blocks of twenty years each. In the blocks not under regenera- tion, subsidiary selection fellings, with thinnings, will be carried out under E e 2 756 XLVI. VERBENACEAE a felling C3^cle of thirty years, areas likely to be placed in periodic block II being excluded from girdling during the first twenty years. Teak forests of the Indian Peninsula. In the moister and better types of teak forest in the Indian Peninsula, which have hitherto been worked under fellings of the selection type, there is scope for the introduction of concentrated systems of regeneration such as those which are being introduced in Burma, though the details must vary with local conditions. In the drier types of forest a commencement has already been made in Bombay by the system of tending and mulching natural seedlings in newly felled coupes, combined mth artificial reproduction. Experiments on similar lines in Berar have indicated the necessity for removing overhead cover to prevent drip from overhanging trees, and this is a step towards the creation of even-aged crops over definite areas. The Nilambur teak plantations. These plantations have recently begun to reach maturity, and it has been decided to fix the rotation at 70 years, which under conditions prevailing hitherto produces average girths of 6 ft., 4 ft. 9 in., and 3 ft. 7 in. on soils of first, second, and third quality respectively ; under the new scheme of thinnings introduced recently these girths should be exceeded in the second rotation. The manner in which the various soil qualities are intermingled on the ground precludes the adoption of different rotations for the different qualities. The system of management is that of clear -felling with artificial reproduction by replanting. It has been found that on areas where clear -felling followed by burning of refuse has been carried out, plentiful crops of natural seedlings, sometimes of great density, make their appearance. These crops, however, are patchy, owdng to the fact that the seeds are washed together on certain parts of the area and may be scarce or absent on other parts. The natural crops would no doubt flourish if left and tended, but it has been found better to ignore them and to replant with regular spacing, as weeding and early thinning are much facilitated thereby. Hence only those natural seedlings are retained which are required to replace failures among the artificially raised plants, and which happen to be situated somewhere near the blanks to be filled ; all other natural seedlings are treated as weeds and removed. 4. Teak in relation to bamboos. In Burma, as well as in parts of India, the treatment of teak is intimately connected Mdth a study of the habits of the bamboos associated with it. Some remarks on the habits of bamboos in general wdll be found under Bambuseae. In Burma these bamboos are of many different species and vary much in character and habit, and the question of obtaining adequate teak reproduction, whether naturally or artificially, involves many problems which are not always easy of solution. It will be convenient to deal with the question separately from the point of view of bamboos which are not in flower and those which are flowering or have flowered. As regards bamboos which are not in flower, it has been demonstrated on many occasions in Burma that natural reproduction of teak can usually be obtained by felling the bamboos, opening the canopy and clearing under- growth for some distance round seed-bearers, thoroughly burning all the cut material, cutting back saplings which are injured by fire, weeding for two or three years the teak seedlings which appear on the ground, and subsequently kee])ing them clear of overhead bamboos and other growth. Where thorough burning is not carried out, failure is almost invariable. An interesting TECTONA 757 experiment in the clearing of bamboo, carried out by Mr. A. Rodger in 1916 in the South Nawin reserve, Prome, may be noted. The forest consisted of dense kyathaung {Bambusa polymorpha) on a cold northerly aspect, with a few mature teak and pyinkado {Xylia dolabriformis). The bamboos, 37 clumps in all, were cut in January for a distance of about 20 yds. round a teak seed- bearer ; the cut material was burned in the ordinary course, the area not being fire-protected, and part of the cleared area was hoed up. There was an advance growth of 22 suppressed teak plants already on the ground, and these were marked. Next year all these had disappeared under the influence of the sudden clearing, but in their place no fewer than 123 new teak and 565 pyinkado seedlings had appeared ; there was nothing to show that these were more plentiful on the hoed ground than elsewhere. These seedlings only required regular weeding and freeing from overhead bamboo cover to establish a pro- mising young crop. This experiment is interesting as showing that teak natural reproduction can be established in a type of bamboo forest which produces trees of large size and straight growth, but in which natural repro- duction is often scarce or absent owing to the heavy shade of the bamboo. The death of the pre-existing teak plants is also of interest. This does not always occur in freeing teak seedhngs and saplings from overhead bamboo cover, and the effect probably depends on the extent of the change of con- ditions suddenly brought about by the clearing, on the vigour of the plants freed, and on the severity of the fire. Possibly cutting back the saplings immediately before or immediately after the burning might assist in their survival. The effect of opening and burning bamboo forest is illustrated by the following quotation, relating to the Tharrawaddy forest division, from the Burma Forest Report for 1916-17 : ' In one plot of kyathaung {Bambusa polymorpha) forest which had been heavily worked over in 1915-16 by bamboo-cutters, who had left much trash behind them, an accidental fire occurred. Owing to the dry bamboo trash the fire was more than usually fierce. In the following December the Range Officer drew the Divisional Officer's attention to the number of new teak seed- lings which he had observed and marked. So many had come up that it was hardly possible to believe that they had not been artificially sown, since the seed-bearers stood at some little distance. In another " Y " felling plot in the same compartment the same fire had caused some dry trees to fall and burn clear lanes through the young growth of pyinkado and bamboos. Several of these lanes contained a row of new teak seedlings which at first sight appeared to have been lined out by hand.' As regards the tending of teak plants in bamboo forest, periodical cutting of the bamboo is necessary until they are free from danger of suppression, and this work is costly. An experiment carried out recently in Pyinmana showed that good results can be obtained by cutting the bamboo clumps about 5 ft. from the ground ; they then develop side branches which keep down weeds. New culms which appear are cut off annually at the same height. The importance of the flowering of the bamboo in connexion with the reproduction of teak lies in the fact that in the case of the more important species gregarious flowering takes place, usually at long intervals, over 758 XLVI. VERBENACEAE considerable areas of forest, and after flowering the bamboos die ; the dead culms then fall by degrees and, in burnt forests, become consumed by fire. The admission of light and heat caused by this opening of the bamboo cover stimulates the natural reproduction of teak provided fire is admitted. The influence of bamboo flowering on teak reproduction has at times been called in question, but it is now known from various recorded observations to be a fact that it has a very decided influence. I have myself observed its undoubted effects in the Pyinmana forests, following on a general flowering of Cephalo- stachyum pergracile. Mr. J. W. Ohver ^ has recorded the following statement : ' Where there are a sufficient number of parent seed trees an intense fire following the flowering and dying of bamboos generally gives rise to extensive reproduction of teak, without the aid of artificial sowings. Instances of this may be studied in the Setkala reserve in the Bhamo division and in some of the reserves on the right bank of the Shweli river in the Ruby Mines division ; the Nanme reserve is, I think, the particular locality I have in mind.' In the same connexion the following passage may be quoted from the Report on Forest Administration for the northern circle. Upper Burma, 1907-8 : ' Ob-' servations made during the year show that the flowering of the bamboo, tinwa (Cephalostachyum pergracile), which has been advancing in a wave southwards over Upper Burma during the last four or five years, has had markedly beneficial results on teak reproduction.' In the following year the Report says : ' Observations of the year confirm the view expressed in the last Annual Report that the reproduction of teak in areas in which bamboos have flowered and the debris been burnt, or allowed to burn, leaves little to be desired. On the other hand, where bamboos have flowered and the area has not been allowed to burn for fear of damage to contractors' logs and naturally dead and windfall timber, a tangled mass of vegetation consisting of creepers and weeds and old bamboo stems encumbers the ground, and not only prevents any fresh germination, but also hopelessly smothers any seedlings which might previously have existed.' It is evident that in the types of forest met with in Burma the admission of fire is necessary in bamboo-flowered areas where natural reproduction of teak is desired. For how long, if at all, burning is necessary after the year of seeding of the bamboo will depend on local conditions and on the extent to which weeding and cleaning can be carried out. Young bamboo growth is far less adverse to the establishment of teak reproduction than certain other I weeds — for instance, Eupatorium odoratum, Alpinia, Strobilanthes, gingers, &c. — but if it is fire-protected, young bamboos form very dense masses, which if cleaning cannot be carried out may do much harm by suppression. ij Mr. C. B. Smales ^ notes that in areas in the Thayetmyo and Prome districts, where Dendrocalamus strictus and Ba7nbusa Tulda had recently flowered and where fire -protection had been abandoned, the bamboos estab- lished themselves in dense masses even where late burning had been carried out in order to destroy the seed. Here teak seedlings contemporaneous with young bamboo were not found surviving except on the edges of the flowered areas where the fire had not been so intense. The only successful teak saplings ' Ind. Forester, xxxiii (1907), p. 242. - Xotes on a Tour in Forests on the West Slopes of the Pegu Yoma, 1917. TECTONA 759 found were those which had ah'eady been on the ground prior to the flowering. This indicates that advance growth must play a prominent part in operations for securing natural reproduction of teak at the time of flowering of the bamboo. Mr. Smales, therefore, advocates stimulating advance growth as much as possible, in view of an expected general flowering of Bambusa polymorpha, by cutting gaps in the bamboo cover round teak seed-bearers and elsewhere, and sowing teak seed in these gaps. Fig. 292 shows a group of promising advance growth of teak in an area of flowered Cephalostachyum pergracile. The dead culms have fallen or been broken down and undergrowth has been cut. As the young teak is weak and crooked the intention is to burn the area and cut back the teak. In Burma great stress is laid on the necessity for carrying out extensive operations for effecting the reproduction of teak when Bambusa polymorpha flowers gregariously, as it is expected to do before very long. This bamboo is certainly of paramount importance, but there are other important bamboos, notably Cephalostachyum pergracile, which, have frequently flowered gregariously in different localities, although the flowering has too often been allowed to pass by without any special operations being carried out in order to take advantage of it and to gain experience of how to proceed in the event of a general flowering of Batnbusa polymorpha. Based on such experience as has been gained in the treatment of teak in bamboo-flowered areas, certain measures were prescribed in 1914 in anticipa- tion of a general flowering of bamboo, and particularly of Bambusa polymorpha. These measures comprise the following: (1) collection and storage of large quantities of teak seed annually, utilizing it for plantations and other opera- tions before it deteriorates, in the event of the flowering not taking place ; (2) previous selection of suitable bamboo areas in which to conduct operations, (3) careful protection of flowered bamboo areas from fire until the end of the hot season, followed by burning before the rains commence, in order to destroy as much bamboo seed as possible, even if dibbling of teak seed cannot be carried out ; (4) removal of low overhead cover as far as possible prior to burning, and girdling of all large trees other than teak at the same time as or as soon as possible after burning ; (5) dibbling of teak seed immediately after burning, roughly 6 ft. by 6 ft., two seeds in each hole not more than 1 in. deep ; dibbling to be confined as far as possible to well-drained and accessible ridges and spurs, and to a distance of two chains on either side of them, broad, flat, badly drained ridges being avoided ; broadcast sowing to be tried only on flat ridges and gentle slopes ; (6) in the first and subsequent years after dibbling, burning to be carried out, if required, early in the season, in order to destroy fallen culms ; Aveeding to be carried out, twice in each of the first two years and once in the third year. The total cost of these weedings is estimated at Rs. 15 per acre. These prescriptions appear to be suitable so far as they go except in one particular, in which they are open to criticism, that is in th€ proposal to con- fine dibblings to a distance of two chains on either side of ridges and spurs. By so doing the mistake made in respect of so many of the Burma plantations, namely in scattering operations and thus greatly increasing the cost of upkeep, will be repeated. Again, the richest areas, where teak reaches its finest 760 XLVI. VERBENACEAE development, are not the tops of the ridges but the well-drained fertile lower slopes, and it is here in particular that the stock of teak should be increased. The prescription might well be altered to include the sowing up of compact and not stragghng or scattered areas, comprising not only the ridges and spurs but also the lower slopes and well-drained valleys. The areas operated over will be nothing more or less than plantations ; they will in a short space of time be indistinguishable from taungya plantations, and will require to be tended in exactly the same manner. Indeed the regeneration of bamboo-flowered areas by the system of taungya plantations pure and simple will probably prove more efficient and less costly than the measures described. Some examples of teak sowings in flowered bamboo areas in Burma may be quoted. In these sowings it has always been found that their success decreases and their cost increases with each year's delay after the year of seeding of the bamboo. This is due mainly to the extra cost and difficulty of weeding and cleaning with every year's start given to the young bamboo, for weeding and cleaning in young bamboo areas may be a very heavy item. In the Konbilin reserve of the Tharrawaddy division, where Cephalo- stachyum pergracile flowered gregariously in 1887, operations for increasing the quantity of teak were continued for seven years after the flowering of the bamboo. These operations consisted in girdling or felling and burning the tree- gro\\^h, cutting and burning the dead bamboo and afterwards the young bamboo growth, and dibbling teak seed as in a taungya plantation. The total area operated over exceeded 300 acres. This work showed clearly the advan- tage of the earlier over the later plantations, both in cost and in degree of success. In the case of these sowings the weeding was found to be a much heavier item than in the case of taungya plantations, and the average cost per acre during the first ten years worked out at Rs. 33-6-0 for the flowered bamboo sowings as against Rs. 20 for taungya plantations in the same locality ; thereafter the cost in either case has been much the same. A considerable area of these flowered bamboo sowings has proved to be highly successful culturally, resembling a well-stocked plantation with a dense underwood of bamboo, which gives the teak a healthy and natural appearance. Another successful series of flowered bamboo plantations has been formed to the east of Nyanle, in the Taungnyo reserve of the Zigon division. Dendro- calamus strictus flowered in 1878-9. Operations were commenced in 1881, that is, two years later than was advisable, and further areas were taken in hand in 1882 and 1883, the total area operated over in the three years being about 750 acres. The work consisted in felHng all trees and bamboos, thoroughly burning, and sowing teak seed as in a taungya plantation. This was followed by weeding for three successive years, with another weeding in the seventh year in the case of the 1881 sowings and the fifth year in the case of the later sowings. The cost per acre of the three years' sowings up to the fourth yes^v of weeding was as follows : (1) 1881 sowings : first 3 years, Rs. 8-U-O ; weeding of 7tli year, Rs. 0-11-3 : Total, Rs. 9-9-3 per acre. (2) 1882 sowings : first 3 years, Rs. 15-9-0 ; weeding of 5th year, Rs. 2-6-0 : Total, Rs. 17-15-0 per acre. (3) 1883 sowings : first 3 years. Rs. 17-3-0 ; weeding of oth year, Rs. 1-8-2 : Total, Rs. 18-11-2 per acre. ri ^ ^ ^ s^ 1-^ O s • ** ?^ o S g ^ s c6 5^ O -^j J o e >i f^ SiH Ti " ' o -ij" o j;^ ,^ ;-! <-* s f~* o ci -2 -t-i Oi >. 1) A ^ O ci ;h o c5 f-^ ce rH ■+-J '> ^ 13 ^ o ^ +^ -fj o pi tf ^ o -4-3 •l-H ^ o o rJ rH o CD J-1 r^ 7 -fj c cS W !^ 3 £J ?-f •*- P ^H Ci fl 760 Fig. 2*>:{. Sowiii^f of teak and eutcli {Acacia Cateclm) in flowered bamboo area, Bwet forest, Prome, Burma : cutch tree on left. TECTONA 761 These sowings have proved a great success, and are now represented by large areas of well-grown teak poles. In the same neighbourhood, and to the north of Nyanle, where Dendro- calainus strictus flowered in 1893-4, teak seed was dibbled among the unburnt bamboos in June. This proved a failure owing to insufficient felling and burning. These examples will serve to show that very successful plantations can be estabhshed in flowered bamboo areas, provided operations are commenced as soon after the seeding as possible, that all overhead cover is cleared and thoroughly burnt, and that regular weeding is carried out in the young crop. Among other successful works of this kind may be mentioned the sowings in the Bwet reserve, Prome, following on a flowering of Dendrocalamus strictus in 1876. These would probably have been even more successful had not a good many large trees remained unfelled on the area. Recent flowered bamboo sowings in Prome have been supplemented by the transplanting of teak seedlings ; of these natural forest seedlings have been found more success- ful than nvirsery seedlings, and of the former plants one year old or more have proved superior to young seedlings of the first rains. A successful example of the use of transplants in stocking a flowered bamboo area may be quoted from Katha, Upper Burma : ^ ' In the Katha division tin bamboo {Cephalo- stachyum pergracile) flowered in 1905 in the northern part of the division. The area was burnt in the hot weather, which stimulated the growth of coppice- shoots from teak stems burnt back. As natural teak seedlings did not spring up, nurseries were made and seedhngs planted out in the rains of 1906 and 1907. The area was cleaned from time to time, and there is now (1914) a fine crop of young teak on the ground which only needs an occasional cleaning. The area treated was about 500 acres. The cost of the operation was about Rs. 10 per acre.' Fig. 293 shows a young crop of teak mixed with cutch raised by sowing in a flowered bamboo area in the Bwet reserve, Prome. A dense growth of young bamboo will be noticed springing up under the teak. Statistical. Under favourable conditions the rate of growth of teak in its earlier years is very rapid, a mean girth of 2 in. and a mean height of 6 ft. per annum for the first few years being not unusual in well situated and tended plantations. Later the growth becomes somewhat slower, though in plantations which have been formed in favourable localities and have been regularly tended a girth increment of 1 in. a year or more may be expected. It will be convenient to consider statistical information separately for plantations and natural forest. 1. Plantations. Burma. The most recent statistics of a more or less complete nature relating to the teak plantations of Burma are those compiled by Mr. F. A. Leete - from data collected up to 1909. These statistics were prepared from measurements made immediately after thinning in selected fully stocked sample plots in teak plantations of different ages in various localities. As Mr. Leete remarks, it is as yet too early to determine whether all plantations throughout the province should be grouped together in one set ^ Forest Administration Report, Burma, 1913-14. - Memorandum on Teak Plantations in Burma. For. Bull, new ser., No. 2, 1911. 762 XLVI. VERBENACEAE of curves, or different standards should be fixed in different localities. Mean- while he has grouped them all together, and has obtained the following results : Tectona grandis : rate of growth and number of stems per acre in teak plantations in Burma (F. A. Leete, 1909). Number of stems Age. Mean girth. Mean hei ght. per acre. ^ears. ft. in. ft. 10 1 3 38 530 20 2 4 62 185 30 3 1 84 95 40 3 9 96 75 Number A])proximate of stems Mean Mean Volume age. per acre. girth. height. per acre years. ft. in. ft. cub. ft. 26 418 1 4 44 2.289 26 707 1 0 30 1,409 18. 696 0 10 28 866 Xote. (1) Suppressed stems are not included ; (2) original spacing 6 ft. by 6 ft. or 12 ft. by 3 ft. giving 1,210 plants per acre. As compared with an estimate formed by Mr. P. J. Carter in 1S96. Mr. Leete 's figures show a faster rate of growth in girth and a smaller number of stems per acre. Central Provinces. Measurements made in 1896 in the Sakata and Korai plantations in Seoni gave the following results : ^ Tectona grandis : measurements in Sakata and Korai jilantations, Seoni. No. Locality. 1 Sakata 2 3 Korai In the Sakata plantations the trees were reported to be very dense and in need of thinning, hence the poor girth increment. Madras. A small jjlantation of 1868 at Ramanapenta in West Kurnool, measured in 1911, at an age of 43 years, had a height of 60 ft. and a girth varying from 2 ft. 8i in. to 3 ft. 6i in. The waterfall plantation at Mount Stuart, South Coimbatore, measured at an age of 42 years, had a mean height of 68 ft. and a mean girth of 2 ft. 9 in. In his recent working plan for the Nilambur teak plantations Mr. Bourne has given yield tables based on extensive measurements in those plantations, and containing outturn figures in considerable detail. The statement on p. 763 gives a summary of the more important figures contained in those tables. Andamans. Measurements made in 1910 gave the following results : Year of plantation. Age. years. 1890 20 1889 21 1887 23 1883 27 2. Natural forest, {a,) Girth aiid height increment. Burma. The statements facing ]). 764, compiled from measurements recorded in the various working ^ Working Plan for the Korai Range Forests, F. Linnell, 1896. Mean girth ft. in. 2 8 2 9 2 9 2 5 TECTONA 763 Tectona grandis : yield table for one acre of pure high forest, Nilambur plantations. Intermediate yields : Mean annual Standing crop, after thinning. solid volume of Total increment Mean stemwood. yield : calculated on Mean height of Solid solid total yield : Number girth at dominant volume of Total volume of solid volume of stems. 4ift. trees. stemwood. Periodic. to date. stemwood. of stemwood. in. ft. cub. ft. cub. ft. cub. ft. cub. ft. cub. ft. I. Quality. , ^ 12-8 41 388 266 19-9 56 732 • • 504 1,236 124 179 26-4 66 1,002 374 878 1,880 125 137 31-9 74 1.247 278 1,156 2,403 120 110 37-0 81 1,471 287 1,443 2,914 117 91 41-8 87 1,688 278 1,721 3,409 114 79 46-0 93 1,901 263 1,984 3,885 111 69 50-0 97 2,111 238 2,222 4,333 108 62 53-7 102 2,316 221 2,443 4,759 106 56 57-5 106 2,513 196 2.639 5,152 103 51 6M 110 2,696 186 2,825 5,521 100 48 64-6 113 2,868 161 2,986 5,854 98 46 68-0 116 3,032 134 3,120 6,152 95 44 71-2 lis 3,188 102 3,222 6,410 92 43 74-2 119 3,336 66 3,288 6,624 88 42 77-2 121 3,478 II. Quality. 30 3,318 6,796 85 , , 10-3 30 268 ^ ^ , , , , 322 160 44 511 , , 312 823 82 222 21-1 54 714 249 561 1,275 85 169 25-6 62 907 201 762 1,669 83 137 29-9 69 1,083 202 964 2,047 82 114 33-9 75 1,252 195 1,159 2,411 80 97 37-7 80 1,416 187 1,346 2,762 79 84 41-2 84 1,575 172 1,518 3,093 77 75 44-5 88 1,730 155 1,673 3,403 76 68 47-6 91 1,877 139 1,812 3,689 74 63 50-4 94 2,014 129 1,941 3,955 72 60 52-9 96 2,142 104 2,045 4,187 70 58 55-2 99 2,264 88 2,133 4,397 68 57 57-3 100 2,379 64 2,197 4,576 65 56 59-3 102 2,488 39 2,236 4,724 63 55 61-2 103 2,591 III. Quality 18 2,254 4,845 61 7-8 19 148 , , . . . . 404 121 32 292 , , 120 412 41 290 15-8 42 429 125 245 674 45 224 19-3 50 567 122 367 934 47 182 22-8 57 694 116 483 1,177 47 151 26-2 62 815 114 597 1,412 47 127 29-4 67 930 111 708 1,638 47 109 32-4 71 1,040 103 811 1,851 46 96 35-2 73 1.143 93 904 2.047 45 86 37-7 76 1,241 79 983 2,224 44 81 39-8 77 1,332 69 1,052 2,384 43 80 41-3 79 1,416 51 1,103 2,519 42 78 42-3 81 1,496 43 1,146 2,642 41 77 43-3 83 1,570 26 1.172 2,742 39 76 44-3 84 1.640 14 1,186 2,826 38 76 45-3 85 1,704 5 1,191 2,895 36 Note. Volumes are calculated by the quarter-girth-squared formula, in sections of 9 ft. 764 XLVI. VERBENACEAE plans, shows the estimated rate of growth in girth in different localities. Except in the case of the Mawku working circle of the Upper Chindwin division, these figures do not include bark thickness, for which about 2 in, should be added to the girth in each case. Nor is any allowance made for the time required for a natural seedling to estabhsh itself ; this period is usually placed at ten years, though one working plan allows fifteen years. It has been considered best to reduce all the figures to the same level by omitting the period allowed for the seedling stage, which is at the best a very rough estimate, and probably varies under different conditions. In the earlier working plans, notably those of Zigon and Tharrawaddy, Pressler's borer was largely employed to estimate the rate of growth, and the figures obtained are probably less reliable than in most of the other working plans, where the rate of growth has been estimated from ring-countings. It may be noted that the figures given refer to trees which have grown up under natural conditions without any tending, and the rate of growth is probably slower than might be expected in regularly tended natural crops. In Tharrawaddy and Zigon the rapid growth in the alluvial plains forests as compared with the hill forests is noticeable. This is not the case in Insein, where the soil of the plains forests is not so well drained as that of the Tharrawaddy and Zigon divisions, and consists in places of laterite. Central Provinces. The following statement showing the rate of growth in girth over bark and in height has been compiled from measurements made in different localities in the Central Provinces between 1909 and 1914 : Tectona grandis : rate of growth in girth and height in natural forest. Central Provinces ; measurements made from 1909 to 1914, Melg] bat, OclU gur o. V.I lanua : i' Luapun re serve. well-groMv-n Kishen- Patri- Gourj- trees in Garhakota Kerpani garh kata hamar favourable working felling felling felling felling Bhimaran hill Bhimaran plains Age. localities. circle. series. series. series. series. forests.. forests. MirkuUu (iirth. Girth. Girth. Girth. Girth. Girth. Girth. Height. Girth. Height. Girth. years ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. ft. in. ft. ft. in. 10 0 8 , , 0 7 0 6 0 5 20 1 4 0 11 1 1 0 11 1 0 11 30 2 0 1 5 1 8 1 5 1 8 1 9 1 3 44 , , 1 2 40 2 9 ] 11 2 3 1 10 2 3 2 2 53 3 0 69 1 11 50 3 7 2 5 2 6 2 8 60 3 8 73 2 0 60 3 1 65 4 1 75 3 5 7(t 3 5 69 4 5 77 3 10 80 3 9 73 4 8 78 4 1 90 4 1 76 4 11 79 4 4 1(11) 4 4 79 5 1 80 4 7 1 10 4 7 81 5 3 81 4 10 12(» 4 10 83 5 5 81 5 1 130 5 1 85 5 7 82 5 4 140 5 4 86 5 9 82 5 7 l;:i(t 5 6 87 5 11 83 5 9 Mr. J. W. Best i has recorded the following summary of measurements of over 4,000 felled teak trees, in two local quality classes, in the Hoshangabad forests : ^ Ind, Forester, xliv (1918), p. 408. in. 8 I 9 1 6 0 6 0 l6 iO i^ ^ Dry. Moist. Av. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. 2 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 5 G 6 6 7 8 1 "6 11 4 9 1 5 9 1 5 9 1 3 1 2 10 3 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 7 8 2 7 0 5 10 3 8 1 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 6 7 4 10 4 10 *> O 8 0 5 9 1 180 7 ft. ] 6 ft.= I a ft. in. 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 6 10 0 7 2 9 4 10 3 150 7 ft. .a 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 0 6 6 7 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 6 9 0 200 7 ft. Thayet MYO. c3 Prome. 02 ce ft. in. , ft. in. ; ft. in. ft. in. 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 6 7 0 6 11 4 9 2 7 0 5 10 2 160 7 ft. t) ft.2 o 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 10 4 10 4 10 4 10 3 8 1 150 7 ft. 0 ft. -2 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 6 0 6 0 6 11 4 8 4 8 0 150 7 ft. 6 ft.''' Age. years. 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 0 I 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 Rotation (year?) Exploitable girth [To face p. 764. N. TOUNGOO. S. TOUNGO 0. Nyaung- LEBIN. Thaung- YIN. 1 1 m g a:) O do i c3 1 c 1 ID Age. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. ill. ft. in. ft. in. years, 30 40 2 "S 2 "7 2 8 2 "s 2 "7 50 3 3 3 2 2 10 3 2 3 2 3 1 60 2 10 3 10 3 9 3 4 3 0 3 8 3 8 3 7 70 ;5 2 4 5 4 3 3 10 3 6 4 2 4 1 4 0 80 3 7 4 11 4 9 4 3 3 11 4 7 4 6 4 5 90 4 0 5 4 5 3 4 8 4 4 5 0 4 11 4 10 100 4 5 5 9 5 9 5 1 4 9 5 5 5 3 5 2 110 4 10 6 2 6 2 5 5 5 2 5 10 5 7 5 6 120 5 2 6 7 6 7 5 9 5 6 6 2 5 11 5 10 130 5 6 6 11 7 0 6 1 5 10 6 6 6 3 6 2 140 5 10 7 2 6 5 6 2 6 10 6 7 6 6 150 (i 2 6 9 6 6 7 2 6 11 6 10 160 6 6 7 1 6 10 7 2 7 1 170 6 10 7 2 180 7 1 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 I'JG 160 150 180 180 IC >5 180 180 Rotation (years) 7 ft. i7f t6f t. ^ 7 ft. 7 i ft. 7 ft. 7 [t. 7 ft. 7 ft. Exploitable girth TECTONA 765 Tectona grandis : rate of growth of natural teak, Hoshangabad, Central Provinces. Local quality I Local quality II (i. e. trees attaining a height of over (i. e, trees attaining a height up to 50 ft. in 40 years). 50 ft. in 40 years). Jlean girth at 4^ ft. Mean girth at 4| ft. Age. Mean height. from ground. Mean height. from ground, years. ft. in. ft. in. 5 14 7 11 3 10 21 13 18 6 15 27 17 22 9 20 33 21 26 11 25 38 25 29 15 30 43 30 32 17 35 47 33 34 20 40 50 37 36 22 45 53 40 38 25 50 56 45 40 27 55 58 47 42 30 60 60 50 44 32 65 62 52 45 34 70 62 54 . 47 35 75 62 55 48 37 80 62 56 48 38 85 62 56 49 39 90 62 56 49 39 95 62 56 100 62 56 Bombay. The statement on p. 766 which shows the average rate of growth in girth, has been compiled from measurements recorded in Bombay working plans. In each case bark thickness has been included ; where this has not been definitely given in the working plans it has been taken to be 0-25 in. (b) Taper of logs. Mr. H. F. Blanford ^ has worked out, from numerous measurements in the Mohnyin and Mosit forests. Upper Burma, the taper of bottom logs 25 ft. in length, with the view of arriving at an estimate of the minimum girth of trees to be felled in order to produce ' Europe squares ', that is, sound, straight timber, free from sap wood, at least 12 in. square and 18 ft. in length, and averaging not less than 25 ft. in length. These measure- ments show that the taper increases slightly with age. Allowing for sap wood and bark, the minimum girth at the thin end of the log, in order to produce these squares, is 6 ft. The measurements of taper show that a breast-height girth of 7 ft. 9-7 in., or in round figures 8 ft., is necessary to produce a girth of 6 ft. at 25 ft. above the felling wedge, that is, to produce an average ' Europe square '. Mr. Blanford's measurements are summarized as follows : Average taper, i. e. diminution in girth to a height of 25 ft. above felling wedge, or 27 ft. 6 in. from ground. Girth at breast height. Mohnyin. Mosit. in. in. 6 ft. to 6 ft. 11 in. . . . 161 141 7 ft. to 7 ft. 11 in. . . . 19-7 14-4 8 ft. to 8 ft. 11 m. . . . 23-4 15-7 9 ft. to 9 ft. 11 in. . . . 260 19-1 Example : in Mohnyin a tree with a breast-height girth of 8 ft. has a girth at 25 ft. above the felling wedge of 8 ft. -23-4 in. = 6 ft. 0-6 m. 1 (1) Working Plan for the Mohnyui Reserve, Katha, 1910-11 to 1929-30. (2) Mosit Working Plan, Bhamo, 1910-11 to 1939-40. 766 XLVI. VERBENACEAE ^ "aSirei s o C5 •Tinr>nr\ ^ r-< tr- ^^ lO O (^ HOP"D -S ,-1 •aroTTT flC5-<*^OOOOOC:''*QOO-t'C^O--H-Ji ^ TII'Ksoqindog 4^ o -h ^ (m (M n cc co ^ ^ o l- I i iiixx . g U pu^iixx .s;-^' - ^ = '^ =^ ^ =^' "^ ="-'5 2 =■' •. le qgiq pogpunj\[ '" •(pautquioo ^ s(^s9ioj aioci ^- - ^ ^ (M (M JO TO !:-^ .S 5['Ba'j po§puni\[ "^^ "5 *XX P^"^ 'XI CC5Tt*OO©I:-^»0Q0'H(NTi((:000OO^C^ =^ ^ o ^ -aguBJ jBums .a /»Or-.Qor:co^ ;^ put; und-jtfgi ^ ' ^ csi fo co ^ -t< o " ' ' ' 55* ^ -S^SOJOJ .S _t^OCCOO;^^C0C 1 j| !;'Bq][) Avopg ^ ■^ puB Jndjiqv^ i3 -H^-«^^^'^^ ,H I- -H O O (N CO O (M o c I ^P^M^OH -^. ^^^^Zr^^Z^^Z ■■■■■■■■ £ pu^' uns'Brex ^o.^^(N(N S. Nawin 67 90 Zigon Bawbin 67 5? ?9 Kangyi 79 Tharrawaddy Thonze 67 ?5 Bawbm 73 S. Toimgoo Kabaung 67 fy Gamon 72 ?? ?? 66 Tharrawaddy Kadinbilin 72 Tharrawaddy Minhla 66 Prome Shwele 68 »> Mokka 66 N. Toungoo W. Swa, Sabyin, and Lonyan 68 Katha Molinyin 65 Note. Volume does not include bark. 768 XLVI. VERBENACEAE Central Provinces. The following statement has been compiled from the results of measurements of 642 trees in the Allapilli forests, South Chanda : Tectona grandis : outturn of average trees, Allapilli. Average volume per Average volume per Girth at tree, roimd timber Girth at tree. round timber breast height. measured over bark. breast height. measured over bark. ft. in. cub. ft. ft. in. cub. ft. 6 0 63 8 0 108 6 6 73 8 6 119 7 0 84 9 0 129 7 6 96 9 6 138 Bombay. The following is the result of a stem analysis of five teak trees made by Mr. W. A. Miller in the Kirwatti forests of Kanara : Tectona grandis : stem analysis of five trees, Kirwatti forests, Kanara. Mean diameter Mean annual Age. at breast height. Mean height. Mean volume. volume increment years. in. ft. cub. ft. cub. ft. 10 30 19 . . , , 20 5-5 37 , , , ^ 30 8-7 47 6-5 2-17 40 11-8 51 13-0 4-33 50 13-7 54 24-5 4-90 60 16-0 58 34-5 5-75 70 17-5 62 41-5 5-93 80 18-2 65 47-0 5-87 90 18-8 .67 51-0 5-67 100 191 69 55-0 5-50 Mr. Miller has also recorded the following results of measurements in the forests of the Arbail Slopes, Kanara, showing the average growth of single trees : ^ Tectona grandis : growth and outturn of single trees, Arbail Slopes, Kanara. Mean Corresponding Mean Mean volume Age. diameter. girth. height. per tree. years. in. ft. in. ft. cub. ft. 20 5-4 1 5 44 A 40 9-2 2 5 64 10 60 12-8 3 4 75 21 80 15-6 4 1 83 46 100 18-0 4 9 90 71 120 200 5 3 95 89 140 21-8 5 9 100 104 160 23-4 6 1 104 118 180 24-6 6 5 107 132 200 25-2 6 7 109 144 220 , , , , 110 156 240 . , , , 110 • • 2. Tectona Hamiltoniana, Wall. Vern. Dahat, Burm. A moderate-sized deciduous tree with 6- to 8-angled branchlets and leaves usually in whorls of three, sometimes opposite or in whorls of four, somewhat resembling teak leaves but much smaller. Wood brown, harder and heavier than teak, of good quality, but used mainly for fuel, though sometimes for house-posts. This is a common tree in the dry zone of Burma, in localities * Working Plan for the Arbail Slopes, Central Division, Kanara, 1918. TECTONA 769 where the rainfall varies from 23 to 45 inches. It is capable of growing on poor stony soil, and is often associated with Terminalia Oliveri, Acacia Catechu, A. leucophloea, Diospyros burmanica, and other species of the dry open scrub forests of Burma. The tree is leafless for a time during the hot season. The dense tomentose corymbose panicles of small pale blue or whitish flowers appear from June to August, and the fruits ripen in the following cold or hot season ; the fruit is a small nut tightly enclosed in the persistent tomentose calyx. The tree is a light -demander, coppices well, and is drought resistant. Frost does not occur in its habitat. 2. GMELINA, Linn. Omelina arborea, Linn. Vern. GumJiar, sewan, Hind. ; Gomari, Ass. ; Shivan, Mar. ; Shivani, Kan. : Gumadi, Tarn. ; Yemane, Burm. A moderate -sized to large deciduous tree with opposite, broadly ovate, acuminate, usually cordate leaves, glaucous beneath, or stellately hairy or tomentose beneath in one variety. Bark light grey, smooth, corky, inside yellow, rapidly turning brown on exposure, exfoliating in patches when old and exposing smooth paler coloured bark beneath. Wood yellowish or greyish white, even-grained, soft, light, and strong, seasons well without warping and cracking, and is very useful for planking, panelling, carriages, furniture, boxes, and carpentry of all kinds. It has been pronounced very good for match manufacture. In view of the good quaUty of its wood and of its rapid growth the tree is well worth more attention for plantation purposes. Under the most favourable conditions it attains a height of 100 ft. or more and a girth of 15 ft. Distribution and habitat. The tree is distributed generally throughout the greater part of India and Burma, but is usually scattered ; it is commoner in Burma than elsewhere. It is found in the moist region of Ceylon. It reaches its largest dimensions in the mixed forests of moist regions, as in Burma, the eastern sub-Himalayan tract, Assam, and elsewhere, but extends into comparatively dry regions, as in Central India. Although usually found in mixed deciduous forest, it is occasionally found in evergreen forest, and is not uncommon in sal forest. In the western Himalaya it ascends the outer hiUs and valleys to 4,000 ft., where it may occasionally be seen in stunted form even in somewhat dry situations. Its choice of locality is wide, but it shows a preference for moist fertile valleys ; it does not thrive where the drainage is bad, while on dry sandy or otherwise poor soil it remains stunted, and is apt to assume little more than a shrubby form owing to its being repeatedly killed back by drought. In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from under 100° to 118° F., the absolute minimum from 30° to over 60° F., and the normal rainfall from 30 to 180 in. or more. Leaf-shedding, flowering, and fruiting. The leaves fall as a rule about January-February, the new leaves appearing in March- April. The panicles of flowers appear from February to April, when the tree is more or less leafless, or with the young leaves, and the irregular tubular corollas, about 1 in. long, dull chestnut, with a yellow lip and throat, quickly fall from the trees and cover the ground in their neighbourhood. The fruits ripen from 2307.2 p f 770 XLVI. VERBENACEAE the end of April (Burma) to July. The fruit is a succulent ovoid or oblong drupe, 0-9-1 -2 in. long, yellow when ripe, with a leathery shining pericarp, a sweetish pulp, and a hard bony stone. The stone (Fig. 294, a) is 0-6-0-9 in. lon<^, ovoid, pointed at one end, usually 2-celled and 2-seeded, but sometimes 1- or 3-celled and seeded. About 40 stones average 1 oz. in weight. Seed-year records in Chittagong and in the Santal Parganas show that the tree seeds well as a rule every year. The germinative poAver of fresh seed is high, but if stored for a year a considerable proportion of the seed loses its vitality : a sample of fruit-stones tested at Dehra Dun, which gave 90 per cent, of success when fresh, gave only 30 per cent. Avhen kept for one year. The highest percentage obtained from fresh fruit-stones was 112, often two and sometimes three seedhngs emerging from one stone. The fruits are eagerly devoured by cattle and deer, and the stones are spread by their agency. Germination (Fig. 294, b-f). Epigeous, resembhng that of the teak. The stone of the drupe opens by means of one or two lateral valves, the radicle emerging first and the cotyledons issuing shortly after. The stone is either left on or in the ground, or is carried up over the cotyledons, falling with their expansion. The seedling (Fig. 294). Roots : primary root long, at first thin, afterwards thickening consider- abh', terete, tapering : lateral roots moderate in number and length, fibrous, distributed down main root or more plentiful in its upper part. Hypocotyl distinct from and thicker than root, 0-3-0 -7 in. long, terete or obscurely quadrangular, white turning green, finely pubescent. Cotyledons : petiole 0-1-0-2 in. long, channelled or flattened above, finely pubescent with capitate hairs : lamina 0-5-0-7 in. by 0-3-0-4 in., elliptical or ovate, emarginate. entire, somewhat fleshy, yellow turning green, finel}^ pubescent with capitate hairs, midrib deeply impressed on upper surface, lateral veins less distinct. Stem erect, more or less quadrangular near the nodes, green, fijiely pubescent with capitate hairs ; internodes 0-5-3 in. long. Leaves simple, opposite, exstipulate. Petiole 0-3-1-5 in. long, channelled above, green, glabrous or finely tomentose. Lamina 1-5-3 in. by 1-2-3 in., broadly ovate, acute or acuminate, widely