EG STS Pt SP eae S Sie et ett eee a OE
sonssasire tie : A SACO AA ED OOM

a et

abnes

SeSsck-

MILIEU el sess an tes Seeger eMiestisste Stiiit5 23 ere Brice st steice-eaiseris. site sa whchbssesiabrscicessretcjezes

FSA 7° 7 a - ~ ~ =

ey eS ~ - rc ae

i - pm itn oe: setute’

roe - ‘ Metiate
=x" : eee

5 ‘i ir +

on AAA:

2: 7

ohn An oh
we

LEGS
e x >
ERC

= Rew 2 Ue,
Ss 7
: Ct otetetete
- +) co oF : “
a ieete 8

= =

a ss ; “Ae
Soe ae : See :

= ee
1 -. — 7 : &, ESS ee ee

Sere

7 a 3 : -8 SAS
a 3s cat * Tr 5 - x 2 SE

te te

Pi
His

=

2 srizk ea,sts < : ; : : ab a an oa eh.
ete pee Seen aie Se
3 >: ee — : ere zat Sian ret

4
ey

7, =

Wes

a 3 3) :

= st tt ae ot. =

— oe >, ot eo SF eee
Ae Fa ra ee eee tT ore see

=; rutete ort : AS?

t ; So. SP

hi babe
Par.

.

43

5
a
46)

4
. 2
(Rates
o
4d 84S

:
(54!

; Ree : ~ = = ke "he, : Se
rah) or ‘vuye : . e = r aS - - ey SRS AAS
3 . = ~ : a3 2 : : - :
228 es ‘e <= “ eens - , erecta ~ 3 = eA Saas

e4>* +i . . = a : sortie ooo

1S
4
as

.
ie
4 ie

ee
Dat ata 8s de ok ee

Ce eo ot ee
tert:

Cite Fe Teli Ef zat f SEO

Sat . . : 7, : 33
Gants Sy eee aS

sere

#54, 9. —
Ki 2 Be
ee ad

2

raat =i
‘ ;
re

2

een Paty Rio ier
Sy a Se
=<

$2 carerecy Seas : moo

F *

pe $1

+
te

re
te

BK

=>.
x x

ty

=
te atgee

t

bars

harburistatatastptesrie
Soke Se bisk sh acigtaret.u $e oy te nbeee

aby)
ty
‘

sigisis ticles cesemte agsieisie: sche

<p fe eel
Puts a = Lr yt

: re tosaracaanas SS

Ediitreserssasi tt Tatpstaebest ' tae

et 2s >

et ne Se Poe

_ : ? i 7) ~ 6] -
/ VA / ith the Auther’s
x PA ( ( L717

Nompliments.

ay

cS
Rous wae

THE

SKULL OF THE DOG.

A MANUAL FOR STUDENTS.

WITH A GLOSSARY OF OSTEOLOGICAL TERMS.

BY

WAL Tek <2. GObLINGE,- FiZcS:,

ASSISTANT LECTURER AND DEMONSTRATOR IN ZOOLOGY AND COMPARATIVE

ANATOMY, MASON COLLEGE, BIRMINGHAM.

Ellustrated,

London:
DULAU & CO., 37, SOHO SQUARE.
Hirmingham:
CORNISH BROTHERS, 37, NEW STREET.
1896.

[ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.|

PEA G

BIRMINGHAM:

PRINTED BY Ropert BirBeck & Sons, BRoAD STREET.

PREFACE.

THE present Manual has been written with
of supplying the student of Comparative Anatomy
and Osteology, with a concise and accurate account
of the structure of a Mammalian skull. For this
purpose, that of a dog has been chosen, it being now
largely used for general teaching purposes; and it
has also the advantage of being easily procurable in
both the adult and young stages.

A short glossary of osteological terms has been
appended, which it is hoped will add to the usefulness
of the work.

The illustrations are all from original drawings,
made by Mr. F. W. Crispe and myself; and drawn
on wood and engraved by Mr. Edwin Wilson of
Cambridge, to whom my best thanks are due for the
great pains he has bestowed upon the same.

I take the opportunity of expressing my thanks
to Professor T. W. Bridge for several valuable sugges-
tions, which have materially increased the value of the
work ; to Professor B. C. A. Windle, who has very
kindly permitted me to reprint the tables concerning
the cranial characters of the different breeds of dogs,
iy Chapter IV; and to Mr. -T. Manners-Smith, and
Mr. W. A. Brockington for assistance in revising the

proof sheets.
Wo. Is) G.

Mason College,
Birmingham, 1895.

Beh AS

Page 5, line 5 from bottom, for ‘‘cell sometimes ” vead ‘cell is

sometimes, ”

,, 24, in foot-note 1, for “ periotic anchylose” zead ‘‘ periotic
bones, &c.”

», 25, in foot-note 1, for ‘‘ Beever” xead ‘* Beaver.”

»» 36, line 4, for ‘‘ cornu” read ‘‘ cornua.”

»» 44, line 7 from bottom, for ‘‘cup” read “cap.”

“6

> 51, line 6 from bottom, for maxilla, pre-maxilla,” vsead

*“maxillz, pre-maxille.”

»» 58, for ‘‘ Weidersheim ” vead ‘* Wiedersheim.”’

CONTENTS.

PAGE
iresor Wiustraniens <=. = 2=24°=. 82> 2° vil
CHAPTERS
INTRODUCTION.

The Study of Osteology. Preparation of Specimens.
Seetloning. = 4.04 3 = ee ae 1-3
CHAPTER OIL
THE STRUCTURE AND FORMATION OF BONE.

Connective Tissue. Cartilage. Development of Cartilage
Bone. Formation and Growth of Bone - 4-12

CHAPTER ILE.

THe DOE S*SRULL-
the Cranium. The Sense Capsules. The Jaws: Hyoid
Bones. Foramina and Apertures of the Skull.

Foramina for the passage of Cranial Nerves. ‘The
‘Teeth. Sections:- - - = =.+ = - = 43-58

CHAP Pik Iv,

GENERAL REVIEW OF THE SKULLS OF THE CARNIVORA
AND THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF Docs - 58-82

CIeAP PER < Vv.
GEOSSARY OF OSTEOLOCICAL Terms - - - = $2=1¢6

lige rome ee ek oe ee ay re oe he Filo Sel oho

Ge

wisheor, ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig. 1.—Lateral view of the skull. (F. W. Crispe).

Fig. 2.—Dorsal view of the skull. (F. W. Crispe).

Fig. 3.—Ventral view of the skull. (F. W. Crispe).

Fig. 4.—Inner side of the right ramus of the lower jaw.
Ci) W. Crispe):

Fig. 5.—Hyoidean apparatus, front view. (W. E. C).

~ Fig. 6.—Ventral view of the skull. (F. W. Crispe).

Fig. 7.—Longitudinal vertical section of the skull.
CE W.. Crispe).

Fig. 8.—Transverse section through the posterior portion

of the skull, showing the tympanic bulla in
sceviom:. (Wi Ee: ae Fe Wi).

Fig. 9.—Transverse section passing in front of the fronto-
parietal suture, and the anterior border of
the pre-sphenoid. . (WE. C).

Fig. 1o.—Transverse section anterior to the cribriform
plate: (W.°E.: ©).

Fig. 11.—Transverse section through the anterior portion
of ithe nares. “(Ws E.G).

CHAPTERGK

INTRODUCTION.

The Study of Osteology is one, which the student
of Comparative Anatomy is apt to neglect; and it is
only quite recently that it has been adequately repre-
sented in the ordinary course of Zoology and Com-
parative Anatomy, taught in the University and
College Classes of this country.

It is of the greatest importance, that a definite
and accurate knowledge should be obtained of the
framework, supporting and modifying the tissues
which cover it. Further, as has been pointed out by
Professor Flower, “large numbers of animals, all of
those not at present existing on the earth, can be
known to us by little else than the form of their
bones.”

The student, who, having mastered the facts laid
down in the following pages, desires to acquire a
further knowledge of general osteology, cannot do
better than carefully study the admirable work by
Professor Flower and Dr. Gadow, and Parker and
Bettany’s “ Morphology of the Skull.” References to

a number of memoirs upon the cranial -osteology of
B

2 INTRODUCTION.

various mammals will be found cited in the references
to Chapters III and IV, which may be consulted with
advantage by senior students.

Preparation of Spectmens.— To obtain perfect
skeletons or parts of skeletons, the larger portion of
flesh, &c., should be carefully dissected away. The
part should then be placed in water to macerate for a
time; after which any remaining portions of the flesh
may be brushed away by a small brush with stiff
bristles : they should then be well washed and bleached
by exposure to sunlight. During the process of
bleaching, which will take two or three weeks, the
bones should be repeatedly rinsed with water.

When sections of a bone or series of bones, such
as the skull, are required, a fine saw should be used.
Young skulls it is best to imbed in a matrix of plaster
of Paris, as the sutures have not anchylosed, and the
parts are apt to fall away. In making longitudinal
sections, the skull should be cut slightly to the left of
the median line, so as not to damage the mesethmoid
or vomer. If microscopic sections are required, either
of the following methods should be adopted :

1.—The method I prefer for decalcification is to
soak the bones in a solution of nitric acid and alcohol,
three parts of nitric to seventy parts of alcohol ; in this
solution they are allowed to remain for several days,
or weeks, according to their size and age. Sections

should be stained in a weak aqueous solution of eosin

PREPARATION OF SPECIMENS. 3

for about five minutes, dehydrated in absolute alcohol,
and mounted in Canada balsam (benzol-solution).
Young or foetal bones may be treated as follows:
(Busch’s method). Place in a mixture of bichromate
of potash I per cent, and I-10 per cent of chromic
acid ; decalcify in I or 2 per cent solution of nitric
acid, to which a small quantity of chromic acid (1-10
per cent), or chromate of potash (1 per cent), has been
added.

2.— Sections of non-decalcified bone may be
obtained by the following method (Ranvier). When
the flesh has been removed, the bone should be cut
into lengths, and allowed to macerate in water, which
is being constantly changed. When all the soft parts
are destroyed, the bone should be dried; and the
sections cut with a fine saw. The section should then
be taken, and rubbed down on moistened pumice-
stone. Both sides of the section should be rubbed
smooth and then polished on a moistened Turkey
hone. Spongy bone should be soaked in gum or
copal solution, and allowed to dry, before rubbing
down.

CHAPTER Lk

THE STRUCTURE AND FORMATION
OF BONE.

Connective Tissues.—Those tissues, whose func-
tion it is to serve as connecting, supporting, or skeletal
substances are known as connective tissues; and
include such forms as areolar, elastic, fibrous, retiform,
lymphoid and adipose tissue, cartilage and bone; all
of which are derived from the mesoblast. It is with
these two last mentioned substances—cartilage and
bone—that we are at present more directly concerned.

Cartilage, in mass, is a yellowish or bluish-white
elastic tissuc, the cells of which are imbedded in a firm
eround substance, or matrix. Excepting on those
surfaces articulating with some other part of the body,
it is usually covered by a fibrous connective tissue
the perichondrium, which is richly supplied with
blood-vessels, lymphatics and nerves. No nerves pass
into the substance of the cartilage; at 1s, thereierc,
non-sensitive.

Cartilage contains a substance known as chon-

drigen, which yields on boiling chondrin, a mixture of

HYALINE, CARTILAGE: 5

mucin, gelatin, and various salts in small proportions.
Chondrin is soluble in hot water, and insoluble in
alcohol, chloroform, or ether.

Mecordme to the character of the matrx ‘or
ground substance all cartilage may be grouped under
three varieties: 1. Hyaline cartilage, 2. Elastic
cartilage, and 3. White fibro-cartilage.

1. Hyaline cartilage forms the costal cartilages
of the sternal portion of the ribs, the skeleton of
the embryo, &c.

It takes its name from the hyaline transparent
nature of its ground substance.

The cells, which are irregularly scattered through-
out the ground substance, are oval or spherical nucle-
ated masses of protoplasm, enclosed in a transparent
membrane or capsule, which forms what is known as
the cartilage lacunze. This membrane is not usually
distinguishable from the ground substance, except
when treated with special reagents. In each lacuna
there is a single cell; but two, four, or more may be
present. In certain forms of hyaline cartilage, fine
channels connect the lacunze with one another, and
enter into connection with the lymphatics of the
perichondrium. “

The protoplasm of the cartilage cell, sometimes
filled with globules of fat.

It has been shown by Tillmans, Babor, and
others that, under special treatment, hyaline cartilage
can be broken up into fibres.

6 STRUCTURE AND FORMATION OF BONE.

2. Elastic Cartilage known also as _ yellow,
reticular, or spongy cartilage, is opaque and more
flexible than either hyaline or fibro-cartilage. The
ground substance is traversed by a dense branched
network of elastic fibres, with small spaces around
the cells. Between the meshes of these fibres, and
in the space surrounding the cells, hyaline cartilage
is present. Elastic cartilage occurs in the epiglottis,
Eustachian tube, larynx, and ear.

White-fibro cartilage is much more flexible,
and tougher than hyaline cartilage. It consists of
series of bundles of fibres arranged in layers, in
which there are irregularly distributed cartilage
cells. Where the fibres are very dense, these cells
become very flattened. White fibro-cartilage occurs
in the intervertebral and interarticular discs, sesamoid
cartilages, &c.

Development of Cartilage.—Like the rest of
the skeletal tissues of the body, cartilage arises from
the mesoblast. In the embryo, certain cells of the
mesoblast assume a definite shape, usually polygonal ;
and a transparent substance surrounds each cell, which
‘ultimately forms the capsule. In this stage there is no
matrix, Water the cells enlarce and: divide;andvan
intermediate matrix is formed. On the division of a
cartilage cell, a new capsule is formed around the new
cells; the old capsule blending with, and ultimately

forming part of the matrix. The process of division

STRUCTURE OF BONE. 2

is as follows: the original cartilage cell divides into
two, a new capsule being formed around these, the
old one blending with the matrix ; these two again
divide, now forming a group of four, each having a
separate capsule; they may further divide, and form
a group of eight. The origin of the capsule is but
imperfectly known; whether or not it is secreted by
the cartilage cell (Kolliker), or formed from a part of
the protoplasm of the cell, is not yet settled.

Bone is a connective tissue, the ground substance
of which has become impregnated with various calcium
salts; and which has entered into association with
other tissues to form a support for the softer parts of
the body.

Bone may be either compact, or spongy or cancel-
fous, the two imperceptibly passing into each other.
Compact bone is of an ivory nature, and forms the
peripheral portion of the bone. Spongy or cancellous
bone forms the articular portions of long shaft-like
bones. In the bones of the skull—tabular bones—
the spongy tissue lies between an inner and outer
layer of compact tissue. In such bones the cancel-
lated layer is termed azfloé.

The whole of the skeleton is invested by a fibro-
vascular membrane, the periosteum. It consists of
two layers: an outer-fibrous layer, a series of closely
aggregated bundles of white fibres ramified by blood-

vessels; and an inner or osteogenetic layer consisting

8 STRUCTURE AND FORMATION OF BONE.

of a looser network of elastic fibres. Beneath this
second layer is a fibrous network containing, in the
young bone, numerous protoplasmic nucleated cells
of a spherical or oblong form ; these are the osteoblasts
—the active agents concerned in the formation of new
bone. Those portions of the bones, which enter into
articulation with others, are covered by hyaline carti-
lage ; the periosteal layer being absent here.

The external portion of the bone, the matrix or
osseous substance, is a dense fibrous connective tissue.
The matrix—ossein—is largely impregnated with
various insoluble inorganic calcium salts, chiefly phos-
phates and carbonates.

The osseous element is arranged in a series of
microscopic plates, or lamelle, between which are a
series of oblong or oval spaces, the lacunze. From
each of these spaces numerous fine canals—eanaliculi
—pass out, and fuse with those passing out from the
lacune above and below. ‘The lacunz and canaliculi
together form the lymph canalicular system, and com-
municate with the lymphatic vessels of the marrow.

In each lacuna there is a flattened protoplasmic
cell, containing an oval nucleus termed the bone cell.
In the young bone the cell gives off pseudopodia-like
branches, which pass into the canaliculi. In the adult
condition these branches are few ; and the cell is then
often termed a bone corpuscle.

In an ordinary shaft of bone (compact bone) the

STRUCTURE OF BONE. 9

lamelle are arranged cither in a concentric manner
around a blood-vessel (Haversian canal), or as inter-
stitial or ground Jamelle.

Each Haversian canal contains two blood-vessels,
an artery and vein, surrounded by connective tissue.
The canals pass in the bone in a longitudinal direction,
giving off transverse or oblique branches ; and so anas-
tomose with one another. They open on to the osteo-
genetic layer of the periosteum by fine pores, and into
the medullary cavity; as the canals approach the
medullary cavity, they gradually enlarge, and finally
fuse with the marrow tissue. The concentric lamellz
surround the Haversian canals, while the interstitial
or ground lamelle fill in the space between the
Haversian systems.

In the spongy portion of the bone, the cavities
are termed Haversian spaces, and are usually filled with
a red marrow; the bone substance here forming a
series of septa or lamella, which are termed the bone
trabecule.

The centre or hollow cavity of a bone is termed
the medullary cavity; surrounding this internal cavity
in the form of a lining membrane is a vascular layer
of areolar tissue the endosteum.

The marrow is a fibro-vascular tissue, consisting
of a matrix of retiform and adipose tissue, blood-
vessels and cells. The marrow cells are termed yellow

marrow and red marrow respectively. The former

1O STRUCTURE. AND FORMATION OF BONE.

fills the cavities of tubular bones; the latter occurs at
the ends of tubular bones, and in the spongy bone
substance. There are also present in the marrow a
series of various sized. miulti-nucleated cells, the
myeloplaxes of Robin; which, according to Kolliker,
are concerned with the process of bone absorption,
while other authors regard them as entering into the
formation of blood corpuscles.

Formation and Growth of Bone.— Bone is de-
veloped in two ways, viz. in the cartilage of the
embryo, or directly from the osteogenetic layer of the
periosteum ; these two methods are known respectively
as intracartilaginous or endochondronal and intra-
membranous or periosteal.

(he futurey skeleton; of the embryo. ariseseas) a
series of mesoblastic cells; these undergoing certain
modifications, and becoming cartilaginous, and later
impregnated with calcareous matter. It has been
pointed out, however, that bone arises by another
mode, distinct from the skeleton of the embryo, and
atua later period.o Ite will, theretore;-benwell? to girst:
consider that first formed in the embryo.

1. Intracartilaginous or endochondronal ossifi-
cation. The ossification of a cartilage,such for instance
as that: which in the adult will form the humerus;
commences in the middle, the ossification gradually
proceeding towards the ends.

The cells in this central portion of cartilage first

GROWTH OF BONE. jf

become enlarged,and thenseparated somelittledistance
from one another, by the surrounding matrix. Cal-
careous matter is deposited in this matrix which later
encloses the cartilage cells. In the meantime the car-
tilage cells have become much larger and flatter, and
assumed a definite arrangement, forming a series of
columns radiating from the centre. While this central
ossification has been taking place, a growth of osseous
substance has been formed on the surface of the car-
tilage, immediately beneath the periosteum. It has
already been pointed out (p. 8) that, beneath the inner
layer of the periosteum, there are a series of nucleated
cells termed osteoblasts; and it is due to these that
this osseous layer on the outer surface of the cartilage
is formed. As layer upon layer is formed, lacune
containing osteoblasts are also formed. After a time
this outer or osteoblastic tissue becomes irrupted, and
passes into the inner ossified portion ; ultimately filling
up the areolz, and finally entirely supplanting the
ossified cartilage which is gradually absorbed.
2.—Intermembranous or endochondral ossifi-
cation. Covering the embryonic cranium, we find a
tissue or membrane composed of a series of fibres—
osteogenic fibres—large granular corpuscles and an
intervening ground substance. Calcium carbonate is
deposited within these fibres, which form bony spicules ;
these extend in all directions, in certain regions be-

coming thicker by the deposition of bony matter, and

I2 SPECIAL REFERENCES.

form a small bony plate. By continued growth, this
plate extends, until it meets with neighbouring bones.
What, in the adult skull, appear as sutures are, in the
embryo, filled by a vascular connective tissue, in which
numerous osteoblasts are present. The growth of this
tissue ceases, when the bones have become complete,
and only the sutures remain; and even these in old

skulls may become almost obliterated.

SPECIAL REFERENCES.

PIZZOZERO:. “ Neue Untersuchungen ueber d. Bau
o
des Knochenmarkes bei den Vogeln.”
Aten fj. mikr. Aviat., 1800, TV) xx.

SCHAFER, E. A.: “ Quain’s Elements of Anatomy.”
Volt, part 1,“ General: Anatomy or

Histology.” London, 1891.

S@RICHT, ©:v. d.:“ Recherches sur la structure fonda=
mentale du tissu osseaux.”
Arch. de Biologié, 1889, T. ix.

STRICHT, O. v. d.: “Recherches sur la cartilage hyalin.”
Arch, de Biologié, 1887, T. vii.

THIN, G.: “ On the Structure of Hyaline Cartilage.”
Proc. Royal Soc., 1885.

CHAPTER III.

THE DOG'S SKULL.

The Mammalian Skull may conveniently be
divided into a cranial and facial portion: the former
consisting of. the brain-case, or cranium proper, and
the auditory bulla; the facial portion being composed
of those parts in front of or below the orbits, in-

‘cluding the jaws and olfactory capsules.

THE CRANIUM.

The bones of the cranium proper are grouped in
three segments or rings, viz., (i) the oceipital,
(ii) the parietal, and (iii) the frontal segments.

a. The occipital segment consists of three
cartilage bones, which in old animals may
fuse together inseparably.

i. The basi-oceipital is a median flat
bone, bounded anteriorly by the basi-
sphenoid, laterally by the right and
left auditory bulla, and posteriorly by
the inferior margin of the foramen
magnum.

ii. The ex-oecipitals form the lateral
boundaries of the foramen magnum,

THE DOGS SKULL.

and the occipital condyles. In front
of the condyles; and” close to, the
posterior lateral borders of the basi-
occipital, they are perforated by the
condylar foramina, through which
the hypoglossal nerve passes. The
ex-occipitals are each laterally pro-
duced into a prominent downward
and outwardly directed process, the
par-occipital or paramastoid pro-
cess, which enters into close relation-
ship with the auditory bulla, and serves
for the attachment of the digastric
and other muscles. Between the ex-
occipital and periotic, the foramen
lacerum posterius passes, through
which the ninth, tenth, and eleventh
nerves find their exit.

iii. The supra-occipital is a large, median,
and somewhat convex-shaped bone,
forming the superior portion of the
occipital segment ; anteriorly it passes
into the parietal segment as a narrow
prominent ridge, to which the splenius
and other muscles are attached; the
squamosal also forms the lateral por-
tion of this ridge, known as the lamb-
doid or occipital crest, to which part
of the temporal muscle is attached.

b. The parietal segment consists of both carti-

THE CRANIUM. 15

lage and membrane bones. Its superior and
inferior margins meet posteriorly with the
occipital segment ; laterally, they are separ-
ated by the interposition of the squamosal,
and the auditory bulla.

i. The basi-sphenoid is a median flat tri-
angular bone, the base of the triangle
being posterior and lying immediately
in front of the basi-occipital. Laterally,
it is bounded by the pterygoids, ali-
sphenoids, and squamosals. On the
dorsal surface of the basi-sphenoid is
a little hollow, the sella turcica, which
lodges the pituitary body.

ii. The ali-sphenoids arise from the sides
of the basi-sphenoid as two wing-like
bones, forming part of the floor of the
cranial cavity. From the ventral sur-
face of each ali-sphenoid, there projects
a downwardly directed vertical plate
of bone,the pterygoid process, whose
anterior edge is connected with the
palatine. Between the posterior por-
tion of the ali-sphenoids, and the ex-
occipital, the foramen lacerum me-
dium passes; andthroughittheinternal
carotid artery enters the cranial cavity.
The basal portions of the ali-sphenoids
are perforated by the foramen ovale,
a large oval-shaped foramen transmit-

THE DOGS SKUEL.

ting the third division of the trigem-
inal nerve (vth), and, anterior to this,
the foramen rotundum, a much
smaller and more circular aperture,
through which the second division of
the trigeminal nerve passes. Between
the ali-sphenoids and orbito-sphenoids,
is a large oval foramen the foramen
lacerum anterius, or sphenoidal
fissure; through it the motor-occull
(iii) pathetic (iv) and abducens (v1)
nerves find exit.

iii. The zuter-parzetal is a small narrow
median bone, anchylosed with the su-
pra-occipital, and extending for some
distance between the parietals.

iv. The parzeta/s form the greater portion
of the upper and lateral surface of
the cranium ; they articulate with each
other in the mid-dorsal line, forming
the sagittal suture; the point of su-
ture forms a raised crest, the sagittal
erest, which divides in the anterior
portion of the parietals and extends
anteriorly on either side of the frontals,
as far as the post-orbital process of
these bones; it serves for the attach-
ment of the temporal muscle, which
passes through the space bounded by
the zygoma, known as the temporal

Fig. 1.—Cants familiaris. Lateral View of the Skull. (¥.w.c.)

AS. Ali-sphenoid. AS.C. Ali-sphenoid canal, posterior opening. BO.
Basi-occipital. E.A.M. External Auditory meatus. EO. Ex-occipital. F.
Frontal. F.L.A. Foramen lacerum anterius. F.R. Foramen rotundum.
10.F. Infra-orbital foramen. IP. Inter-parietal. L, Lachrymal. LC.
Lachrymal canal. MA. Malar. MX. Maxilla. N. Nasal. O.C. Occipital
condyle. OF. Optic foramen. OS. Orbito-sphenoid. .P, Palatine. PA.
Parietal. PG.F. Post-glenoid foramen. P.M X. Pre-maxilla. PA.P. Par-
occipital process. PT. Pterygoid. SM.F. Stylomastoid foramen. SO.
Supra-occipital. §Q. Squamosal. TY. Tympanic bulla.

C

THE DOG’S SKULL.

fossa, and converges in a fan-like

manner to its point of insertion into

the coronoid process of the mandible.

ec. The frontal segment forms the anterior

boundary of the brain case; it lies anterior

to the parietal segment, with which it articu-
lates.

i. The pre-sphenoid is a median bone in
front of the basi-sphenoid, bounded
laterally by the pterygoids, and the
posterior portion of the palatines. Its
ventral or basal portion is straight,
with a somewhat irregular dorsal por-
tion. It is cancellous or spongy in
texture. Its posterior and dorsal por-
tion forms the lower margin of the
optic foramina, through which the
optic nerves pass out; anterior to this
it diverges on either side of the median
line,and forms part of the inner walls
of the orbits.

ii. The orbito-sphenoids are a pair of
bones, forming part of the wall of the
orbits and cranium. They are fused
with the pre-sphenoid, and united su-
turally with the frontals, ali-sphenoids,
and squamosals. Their posterior bor-
ders form the upper marein -or the
optic foramina.

iii. The frontals are a pair of membrane

THE CRANIUM, 19

bones, forming the roof and sides of
the anterior portion of the cranium,
mecting both dorsally and ventrally.
They unite suturally; posteriorly with
the parietals by the transverse coronal
suture, ventrally with the orbito-sphe-
noids and pre-sphenoids, and anteri-
orly with the jugals, lachrymals, max-
illz2, and nasals. The most .anterior
portion is produced, and passes _ be-
tween the nasals and maxille. Lat-
erally each is slightly produced down-
wards and outwards into a process
above the orbit, the supra-orbital
process.

iv. The /achrymals are two small bones
forming part of the anterior walls of
the orbit. They lie between the fron-
tals, maxille and jugals. Each is
perforated by a small aperture for the
passage of the lachrymal duct. The
lachrymal is probably homologous
with the antorbital bone of fishes,
which is the most anterior of a series
of sensory canal bones bordering the
orbits.

d. The ethmoidal region is situated anterior to
the cranium, and forms the dorsal and poste-
rior division of the facial portion of the skull.

i, The mes-ethmoid consists of two parts,

Fig. 2.—Canzts familiaris. Dorsal surface of the Skull. (¥.w.c.)
A.P.F. Anterior palatine foramen.
men. I0.F. Infra-orbital foramen.

F. Frontal. I N.F.Inter-orbital fora-
Lambdoidal crest. M. Malar.

IP. Inter-parietal. L. Lachyrmal. LC.

MX. Maxilla. N. Nasal. OR.F. Orbital
fossa. PA. Parietal. P.M X. Pre-maxilla. PP, Post-orbital process. §
Squamosal. SC. Sagittal crest.

: SO. Supra-occipital. TF. Temporal fossa.
Z. Zygomatic arch.

GE SENSE? CAPSULES. 21

an upper and posterior portion, which
‘forms the inferio-anterior portion of
the brain-case, the eribriform plate.
It is perforated with numerous small
holes, through which the divisions of
the olfactory nerve pass to: the nose.
The lower and anterior portion, the
lamina perpendicularis forms a ver-
tical plate immediateiy in front of the
cribriform plate: its anterior border
is produced and forms a vertical
cartilaginous plate, the septum nasi;
the two forming a partition between
the right and left olfactory cavities.

THE SENSE-CAPSULES.

At an early stage in the development of the dog,
the olfactory, optic, and auditory organs become
enclosed from their ventral surface by cartilage;
the lateral walls of the basal plate extend up-
wards and inwards, ultimately enclosing the
whole of the sense organs, and, in some verte-
brates, part or all of the dorsal surface. Such
a cartilaginous skull, however, does not persist
in any of the mammalia, but in some fishes,
e.g. Elasmobranches, it forms.the skull (chon-
docranium) of the adult. In the higher Verte-
brata, cartilaginous capsules ossify from certain
centres and form bones. The position, form,

THE ‘DOGS SKULL.

&c.,of these ossifications in the dog are described
below.

a. The olfactory capsule in the dog forms a very
large portion of the facial region, entering
into very close relationship with the eth-
moidal region, and the bones of the maxillary
arch.

i. The zasals are two long flat membrane
bones, forming the dorsal portion of
the nasal cavities. Posteriorly they
articulate with the frontals, and with
each other in the median line.

il. The naso-turbinals form the inferior
surface of the nasals; they are thin
laminated bones, and are produced
into pouch-like processes.

il. The ethmo-turbinals consist of a series
of infolded laminz of bone, lying in
the posterior and upper portion of the
nasal cavity. They are fused with
the lower portion of the cribriform
plate.

iv. The maxillo-turbinals are similar
bones to the ethmo-turbinals; they
occupy the anterior portion of the
nasal cavities. They are thinner, and
altogether much more delicate, than
the ethmo-turbinals, and folded much
closer.

v. The mesethmoid cartilage lies upon

Fig. 3.—Canzs familiaris. Ventral Surface of the Skull. (F.w.c.)

A.P.F. Anterior palatine foramen. AS. Ali-sphenoid. AS.C. Ali-sphen-
oid canal, posterior opening. BO, Basi-occipital. BS. Basi-sphenoid. CF.
Condylar foramen. E.A.M. External auditory meatus. EO. Ex-occipital.
F. Frontal. F.L.A. Foramen lacerum anterius. F.L.M. Foramen lacerum
medium. F.L.P. Foramen lacerum posterius. FM. Foramen magnum. FO.
Foramen ovale. FR. Foramen rotundum. MA. Malar. M.A.I. Meatus
auditorius internus. M X. Maxilla. OC. Occipital condyle. OP. Optic
foramen. OR.F. Orbital fossa. P, Palatine. PA.P. Par-occipital process.
PG.F. Post-glenoid foramen. PS. Presphenoid. PT. Pterygoid. P.MX.
Pre-maxilla. SM.F. Stylomastoid foramen. $0. Supra-occipital S@,
Squamosal. TF. Temporal fossa. TY. Tympanic. VO, Vomer,

24 THE DOG'S SKULL.

the dorsal border of the vomer, and
forms part of the partition between
the two nasal cavities ; in old skulls it
is very largely ossified.

vi. The vomer is a long narrow blade-like
bone, posteriorly bounded by the
anterior portion of the pre-sphenoid ;
its ventral border lies upon the maxilla
and palatine. It terminates anteriorly
amltttle behind the "suture. of the
premaxille. |

b. The optic capsules. Those bones forming
the boundaries of the orbit have already
been described in their respective segments.

c. The auditory capsules. In the embryo, as
has been pointed out, the auditory organs are
enclosed within a cartilaginous capsule which
later becomes ossified, and is replaced by the
otic bones. In the human skull ossification
proceeds from three centres termed respec-
tively pro-otic, epi-otic, and opisthotic.*

i. The periotics are the series of fused
otic bones, already referred to, situated
between the occipital bones and the

1 “Tn birds, the three periotic anchylose with one another, as well
as with the adjacent supra-occipital and exoccipital, so completly, that
even the Y-shaped suture becomes obliterated.” (Huxley).

In the crocodile the epiotic is early united with the supra-occipital,
and the opisthotic with the ex-occipital; the pro-otic alone remains
» =. “incthe*turtle, the opisthotie- remains
permanently distinct.” (Miall).

separable throughout life.

THE SENSE CAPSULES. 25

squamosal. They are divided into two
portions: a petrous portion, arising
from the pro- and opisthotic; and a
mastoid portion, arising from the
epiotic.
The petrous portion forms the anterior
part, and encloses the internal ear.
On its outer surface are two foramina
situated almost above each other: the
larger is the fenestra ovalis, and the
smaller the fenestra rotunda; to-
gether they form the means of com-
munication between the internal ear,
and the tympanic cavity. On the
inner surface of the petrous portion
of the periotic, there are two large
fossa: the upper and larger one is the
floccular fossa’, which lodges the
floccular lobe of the cerebellum ; the
lower one has a ridge of bone passing
across it, which divides it into an
anterior and a_ posterior opening.
The posterior one is the meatus
auditorius internus, which transmits
the auditory nerve to the internal
ear. The anterior opening forms the

? Its size varies in different skulls. In many mammals it is entirely
absent (e.¢. Sheep, Elephant, Zchzdiza &c.) In some of the Rodentia
(Porcupine, Capybara) it is also absent, while in others (Beever,
Chinchella) it is very conspicuous.

26 THE DOG'S SKULL.

aqueductus Fallopii; through it the
facial nerve passes.

The mastoid portion forms the posterior
and external portion of the periotic.
Its most posterior portion is directed
downwards, and forms the mastoid
process; between the mastoid and
the auditory bulla is the stylomastoid
foramen, transmitting the main trunk
of the facial nerve.

ii. The ¢ywpanzcs lie on the outer side of
the periotics, they are somewhat flask-
shaped. The portion, which forms in
nearly all the Carnivora such a con-
spicuous prominence on the ventral
surface of the skull, is the bulla:?
laterally it is slightly produced ; its
edges being uneven, and supporting
the cartilage of the external ear. The
lateral” opening; of the bulla,- the
meatus auditorius externus, has at
its base an incomplete bony ring, the
tympanic ring, which rises up as a
part of the septum ; in life it is covered
by the tympanic membrane. The
septum lies behind the tympanic ring,
aud divides the bulla into an inner

1 In Zhylicinus (a Marsupial) whose skull resembles in very many
particulars that of the Dog, the tympanics are rudimentary and do not
anchylose with the cranial elements, and there is no bulla.

THE SENSE CAPSULES. 27

and outer chamber. [rom the outer
chamber the Eustachian canal passes.
Its connection with the ear, it should
be remembered, is quite a secondary
-one, it forming no essential portion of
the auditory organ. It arises as a
modification of the embryonic hyo-
mandibular cleft, persisting in certain
fishes as a spiracle.

iii. The auditory ossicles. Morphologic-
ally, the chain of three small bones
lying across the tympanic cavity from

‘the tympanic membrane to the mem-
brane across the fenestra ovalis, should
be treated of together with the bones
of the mandibular and_ hyoidean
arches. Their very close relationship,
however, to the auditory organ makes
it more convenient that they should
be examined here.

a. The malleus is a small stout bone,
consisting of a body and two processes.
The larger process, the manubrium,
is very distinct, being long, thin, and
strongly curved, and attached to the
tympanic membrane. The smaller
process articulates with the tympanic
bone in a small fossa.

8. The ineus articulates with the malleus,
this portion being produced and form-

28

THE DOG'S SKULL.

ing a saddle-shaped head. Posteriorly
a process extends on to the periotic
bone, in a fossa of which it articulates.
The incus is pyriform in shape; the
two processes forming the upper por-
tion of the bone; the lower portion or
stalk bends downwards and inwards
and becomes attached to a minute
disc-like bone, the os orbiculare.

y. The stapes is stirrup-shaped: ventrally
its base is attached to the membrane
covering the fenestra ovalis ; while its
upper portion, which forms the arch,
articulates with the os orbiculare.

With regard to the development and homologies of

the auditory ossicles, much uncertainty prevails.
The generally accepted views are as follows.
The malleus and incus arise in connection with
the mandibular arch, the former from the lower
portion and the latter from the upper portion
of the arch; the malleus being homologous
with the articular and angular elements of
Meckel’s cartilage, and the incus with the palato-
quadrate cartilage of lower Vertebrata. The
stapes arises in connection with the hyoid arch,
and an ossification from the periotic capsule ;
according to Kitchen Parker, Hertwig and
others, it is the homologue of the columella in
Birds, Reptiles, and Amphibia.

THE DOG’S SKULL. 29

THE JAWS.

The maxillary and mandibular arches arise as
modifications of the primitive cartilaginous
visceral arches of the embryo; thus becoming
adapted to a function very different from their
primitive one. In the downward growth of the
first visceral arch, an upward and forwardly
directed process is developed known as the
maxillary process (palato-quadrate cartilage),
which forms the foundation of the upper jaw of
the adult ; growing forwards they meet with a
cartilage, the naso-frontal process. The down-
wardly directed portions of the arch has in the
meantime continued its growth, and become
united by its distal end with the process of the
opposite side, the two forming the future lower
jaw (Meckel’s cartilage).

a. The maxillary arch. The bones of the
maxillary arch enter into very close relation-
ship with those of the olfactory capsule, and
the ethmoidal region of the cranium.

i. The pterygords are two plate-like bones
lying upon the basi-sphenoid and
ali-sphenoid. Their lateral borders are
partly supported by the ali-sphenoids
and palatines. Anteriorly they join
with the posterior portions of the
palatines. The posterior portion of

30 THE DOGS SKULL.

Fig. 4.—Canis familiaris. Inner side of right ramus of
the lower jaw. (F.w.c.)

A.Angle. Cd. Condyle. CP. Coronoid process. I.D.F. Inferior dental
foramen. S, Symphysis.

THE JAWS. 31

each is produced backwardly into a
curved lamellar process, the hamular
process. The median space between
the two pterygoid plates is known as
the meso-pterygoid fossa. Lateral
to the hamular process is a small
space, the pterygoid fossa.’

i. The fpalatenes are two bones lying
anterior to the pterygoids and articu-
lating with the maxillz, the vomer,
the orbital portions of the frontals, the
lachrymals, the pre-sphenoid, orbito-
sphenoids, and ali-sphenoids. Each
palatine bone consists of two almost
vertical plates, termed respectively
the ascending and horizontal plates.
The former constitutes the main por-
tion of the bone, and is perforated by
the posterior palatine foramen.

ii. The szaxzlle form the greater part of
the facial portion of the skull, and
consist of two large irregular shaped
bones. Posteriorly they articulate
with the jugals and frontals; anteriorly,
with the premaxilla. They carry the
canine, premolar, and molar teeth.
Above the first premolar is a large
aperture, the infra-orbital foramen,

? More distinctly seen in the Cat’s skull.

32

THE, DOGS SKULL,

through which the maxillary division
of the fifth nerve passes.

Anteriorly each maxilla is produced into a

plate-like portion, the facial or nasal
plate. In a like manner posteriorly
each is produced and forms the malar
process. Behind and beneath the
malar process is a small tuberosity,
in which are a number of small fora-
mina, for the passage of the superior
dental nerve and blood vessels. The
ventral portion is termed the alveolar
portion; it is hollowed out into the
alveoli, or sockets, for the lodgment
of teeth. From the alveolar border
a large horizontal process passes in-
wards, the palatine plate, which meets
with its fellow of the opposite side in
the median line, in a sutural ridge
which lends support to the vomer.
The premaxill@ form the most anterior
portion of the skull; together with
the maxillz, with which they articu-
late, they form the upper jaw. They an-
chylose with each other in the median
line, and also carry the incisor teeth.
The lateral and dorsal portions of each
bone articulates with the nasal.

On the ventral surface each is perforated

by a large aperture, the anterior

THE JAWS. 33

palatine foramen. Their median
portion is produced into a folded
lamine, which lodges an accessory
organ of smell known as Jacobson’s
organ.

v. The jugals or malars form the bound-

aries of the orbit below and in front.
Dorsally they articulate with the fron-
tals and mawnilla. Posteriorly each
bone is produced into a laterally
compressed bar, forming part of the
zygomatic arch. They support the

zygomatic process of the squamosal
on their free ends.

b. The mandibular arch.

1. The sguamosals are two large bones

wedged in between the occipital and
parietal segments. They form the
hinder portion of the sides of the
cranial cavity, and articulate with the
parietals and frontals.

From the ventral portion of each bone

On

a strong outwardly directed process
passes forwards, the zygomatic pro-
cess, and meets with the posterior
portion of the jugal; the two forming
the zygomatic arch.

the under surface of the squamosal,
and on the inner border of the base
of the zygomatic process, is an oblong

D

THE DOGS SKULE.

surface, the glenoid fossa: the pos-
terior edge is projected forwards and
forms the postglenoid process; the
two serving for the articulation of the
condyle of the mandible.

ii. The smandzble consists of two rami
joined anteriorly by a symphysis, and,
posteriorly, articulating with the
elenoid fossa of the squamosal bone.
Each ramus consists of a short anterior
portion, the horizontal ramus, lodging
the teeth, and a thinner hinder angu-
lated portion, the ascending ramus.
On its upper border is a large condyle,
which articulates with the glenoid
fossa of the squamosal. Beneath this
condyle is a vertically extended pro-
cess, the angle. The anterior border
bears a deep groove, its outer portion
or coronoid process being turned
inwards, and is the point of insertion
of the temporal muscle.

On the inner side of each ascending ramus
is a large foramen, which admits a
branch of the mandibular nerve, the
dental nerve, to the teeth. It lies just
behind the last molar, slightly above
and in front of the angular process ;
and is known as the inferior dental
foramen. It leads into the dental
canal.

THE JAWS. 35

On the outer side of each horizontal ramus,

The

The

The

beneath the first premolar, is a smaller
opening, the mental foramen, through
which a branch of the dental nerve
makes its exit.

point of junction of the two horizontal
rami is termed the symphysis; on the
lower border of which the digastric
muscle is inserted in a small depression.
actions of the muscles moving the
lower jaw may be briefly indicated as
follows:

lower jaw is raised by the masseter,
internal pterygoid, and temporal mus-
cles; the depression of the jaw is
accomplished by the digastric muscle,
and a series of hyoid muscles. The
larger portion of the external ptery-
goid muscle, having their fibres nearly
horizontal, draw the jaw forward ; while,
when these muscles act alternately, the
jaw is moved from side to side: this
movement, however, in the dog is
very restricted. The retraction of
the jaw is effected by the hinder part
of the temporal muscle.

36 THE DOG'S SKULL.

THE HYOID BONES.

The hyoid bones serve for the attachment of the
root of the tongue and the larynx ; in the dog

they consist of a body, and two anterior and
posterior cornu.

a. The body of the hyoid.
i. The basihyal is a flat bar-like bone,
having its terminal portions turned
dorsally and thickened. It forms the

ventral portion of the hyoidean
apparatus.

Fig. 5.—Canis famtliar’s. Hyoidean apparatus, front view.
( w. E. C.)

S H. Stylohyal. EH. Epihyal. CH, Ceratohyal. BH. Basihyal. TH.
Thyrohyal. AC. Anterior cornu. PC. Posterior cornu.

b, The posterior cornu.
ii. The thyrohyal articulates with the
basihyal and is united with the
thyroid cartilage of the larynx; it

THE HYOID BONES. 37

consists of a curved bone between
these two points.
c. The anterior cornu.

Each consists of four parts, and connects
the series with the cranium.

i. The tympanohyal lies in a canal on the
inner side of the stylomastoid foramen
between the tympanic and _periotic
bone. Its ossified portion is cylind-
rical and is connected with the proxi-
mal end of the stylohyal by a band
of cartilage.’

ii. The stylohyal is a curved, somewhat
twisted bone, forming the posterior
portion of the anterior cornu, of which
it is the largest division.

ii. The epihyal is slightly shorter than the
stylohyal, and dilated at its distal and
proximal ends.

iv. The ceratohyal is a short stout bone,
attached at its distal end to the
basihyal.

? As has been pointed out by Prof. Flower, ‘‘it can be seen more
distinctly in some dogs’ skuils than others.”

38 THE DOG'S SKULL.

FORAMINA AND APERTURES OF
THE SKULL.

The foramina through which the cranial nerves
make their exit from the cranial cavity, and
through which certain blood vessels pass, are as
follows:

i. The foramen magnum, a large median
opening on the posterior end of
the skull, in the occipital segment.
Through it the spinal cord passes to
the brain.

ii. The condylar foramina pass obliquely
through the ex-occipitals; at either
side of the basi-occipital and anterior
to the condyles, they transmit the
hypoglossal nerve.

iii. The foramen lacerum posterius is
situated in front of the condylar, and
between the ex-occipital bone and
auditory bulla ; through it the glosso-
pharyngeal, pneumogastric, and
spinal accessory nerves make their
exit, the internal jugular vein also
passes through.

iv. The stylomastoid foramen is a small
irregular opening between the auditory
bulla and the paroccipital process ;

Fig. 6.—Canzs familiaris. Ventral Surface of the Skull. (F.w.c.)

A.P.F. Anterior palatine foramen. AS. Ali-sphenoid. AS.C. Ali-sphen-
oid canal, posterior opening. BO, Basi-occipital. BS. Basi-sphenoid. CF.
Condylar foramen. E.A.M. External auditory meatus. EO. Ex-occipital.
F. Frontal. F.L.A. Foramen lacerum anterius. F.L.M. Foramen lacerum
medium. F.L.P. Foramen lacerum posterius. F M. Foramen magnum. FO.
Foramen ovale. FR. Foramen rotundum. MA. Malar. M.A.I. Meatus
auditorius internus. M X. Maxilla. OC. Occipital condyle. OP. Optic
foramen. OR.F. Orbital fossa. P, Palatine. PA.P. Par-occipital process.
PG.F. Post-glenoid foramen. PS. Presphenoid. PT. Pterygoid. P.MX.
Pre-maxilla. _SM.F. Stylomastoid foramen. $§0O.-Supra-occipital. SQ,
Squamosal. TF, Temporal fossa. TY. Tympanic. VO. Vomer.

40 THE DOG'S SKULL.

it transmits the main trunk of the
facial nerve.

v. The external auditory meatus is the
large dorso-lateral opening in the
auditory bulla.

vi. The post-glenoid foramen is situated
immediately behind the process of
the squamosal; it transmits a vein
from the lateral sinus.

vii. The foramen lacerum medium is
an oval aperture between the posterior
portion of the ali-sphenoid ; through
it the internal carotid artery passes
to the cranial cavity.

viii. The internal auditory meatus is
situated on the cranial side of the
petrous portion of the periotic, and
permits the passage of the auditory
nerve (viii) to the internal ear, and of
the facial (vii) to the stylomastoid
foramen.

ix. The foramen ovale opens at the basal
portion ot the ali-sphenoid. It trans-
mits the third or mandibular division
of the fifth nerve.

x. The ali-sphenoid canal opens im-
mediately in front of the foramen
ovale. It passes in a horizontal direc-
tion forwards in the ali-sphenoid, and
opens into the foramen rotundum.

FORAMINA AND APERTURES OF THE SKULL. 41

Xi.

X11.

Xill.

The canal is traversed by the external
carotid artery.

The foramen rotundum opens di-
rectly anterior to the posterior open-
ing of the ali-sphenoid canal and
transmits the maxillary division of
the fifth nerve.

The foramen lacerum anterius, or
sphenoidal fissure, is situated be-
tween the basal portions of the ali-
sphenoid and orbito-sphenoid. It is a
large irregular opening and transmits
the motor-occuli (iii), pathetie (iv),
and abducent (vi), nerves, and the
ophthalmie division of the. fifth
nerve,

The optie foramen is a large aper-
ture in the orbito-sphenoid : it trans-
mits the optic nerve.

. The posterior palatine foramina are

a series—usually six—of small aper-
tures, bordering the suture between
the palatines and maxille; they trans-
mit branches of the fifth nerve and
blood vessels.

xv. The anterior palatine foramina are

two large oval apertures in the median
line bordered posteriorly by the max-
illaz, and anteriorly by the premaxille.
Through them the naso-palatine
branch of the fifth nerve passes.

THE DOGS SKULL,

xvi. The inter-orbital foramina per-
forate the anterior portion of the
palatine, on the inner wall of the orbit.
They transmit the nasal branch of
the ophthalmie division of the fifth
nerve.

xvii. The infra-orbital foramina are
two large apertures, one situated on
either side of the maxilla beneath the
jugals. They transmit branches of
the maxillary division of the fifth
nerve.

xvill. A series of foramina perforate the
posterior border of the ethmo-turbinal,
through which branches of the olfaet-
ory nerve pass. This _ perforated
plate is termed the eribriform plate.

xix. The inferior dental foramen is a
large aperture on the inner side of
the ascending ramus of the mandible,
slightly above and in front of the
angular process. It leads into the
dental canal, and admits a branch of
the fifth nerve known as the dental
nerve, also an artery.

xx. The mental foramen is a small
aperture on the outside of the hori-
zontal ramus of the mandible ; and, in
the anterior portion, throuch-1t va
branch of the dental nerve makes
its exit.

V1.

Vil.

Viil.

FORAMINA FOR THE PASSAGE OF
CRANIAL NERVES.

Olfactory. Passes through numerous foramina
in the cribriform plate.
Optic. Passes through the optic foramen, a large
aperture in the orbito-sphenoid.
Both pass through the foramen
Oculo-motor. lacerum anterius, situated be-
Pathetic. tween the basal portions of the

ali- and orbito-sphenoids.
Trigeminal.

1. Ophthalmie division. Passes through the fora-
men lacerum anterius.
2. Maxillary division. Passes through the fora-
men rotundum,and infra-

orbital foramen.
3 Mandibular division. Transmitted by the fora-

men ovale.

Abducent. Passes through the foramen lacerum

anterius.

Facial. Leaves the skull by the stylomastoid

foramen.

Auditory. Passes to the internal ear through
the periotic, by the internal audit-
ory meatus.

Glossopharyngeal.) All make their exit from the

Vagus. skull by the foramen lac-

Spinal Accessory. erum posterius.

Hypoglossal. Passes out through the condylar

foramina, situated in the ex-
occipitals near the condyle.

44

The

THE DOGS SKUEL.

THE TEETR:

teeth while forming no part of the skeleton,
and having quite a different origin, are so
closely related to the manillary and mandibular
arches, and offer such valuable aid in the iden-
tification and classification, that they may here
be conveniently described in completing the
description of the dog’s skull.

Development: The teeth are developed in the

The

mucous membrane of the jaw, the enamel being
produced from the epithelium (epzb/astec), and
the dentine, pulp, and cement from the sub-
epithelial connective tissue (mmesoblastic ).

first sion ofa tooth im the embryo, 1s an
involution of the epithelium to form a groove,
the primitive dental groove, which is filled
with the imvoluted epithelial cells, “At the
bottom of this groove, from a series of differen-
tiated corpuscles in the sub-epithelial tissue, a
dental papilla is formed. The involuted epi-
thelial cells increase in number, and certain of
these become modified, and form a cup over
the apex of the papilla, and ultimately become
the enamel organ. The papilla grows, and
becomes differentiated into formative pulp
and dentine. Calcification later takes place,
successive thin layers of dentine forming as
the -milk teeth -grow. Finally the papilla

THE TEETH. 45

becomes narrower by the continued calcification
of the pulp, leaving only a central pulp cavity,
into which blood vessels and nerves pass. A
portion of the involuted epithelium becomes
separated off from the original sac, and a new
papilla rises at its side; from this the perma-
nent tooth arises.

Structure. Each tooth consists of three tissues,
enamel, dentine and cement, covering a soft
vasculated tissue, the pulp.

Enamel forms the outermost part of each tooth.
It is the hardest of all the tissues, containing
from 95 to 97 per cent. of mineral substances
(calcium phosphate and fluoride, calcium car-
bonate, magnesium phosphate, &c.), and the
smallest amount of organic matter. It consists
of a series of slender prismatic fibres.

Dentine constitutes the greater part of a tooth.
Although not identical with, it is not unlike,
bone. It consists of a matrix, largely impreg-
nated with calcium phosphate, and permeated
by a series of fine branched tubes—dentinal
tubes—arising from the pulp cavity. In each
is a soft uncalcified fibre, which is continuous
with a cell on the surface of the pulp (Tomes).
There are a number of varieties of dentine,
known as Plici-dentine, Vaso-dentine, Osteo-
dentine, &c.

Cement. The cement forms a coating over the
fangs of each tooth. It is very closely allied

46

The

THE DOGS SKULL.

to bone, consisting of a laminated matrix with
lacunz, canaliculi, and, when of considerable
thickness, vascular canals agreeing with Haver-
sian canals.

Pulp occupies the central portion of the tooth.
It is richly supplied with blood vessels and
nerves and consists of a gelatinous connective
tissue, containing numerous cells. It is largest
in developing teeth, often in later life becoming
converted into a form of dentine.

As the teeth are used largely by anatomists 10

diagnosing the characters of the skull a “dental
formule” has arisen, expressing by numbers, or
letters and numbers, the nature of the dentition.
Thus we express the Pees na pimalt an den-
tition as follows: 14,.c¢-. p,m 2——> total 44,
the letrersnis «c. -p, aa, ee for incisors,

canines, premolars, and molars. It being suf-
ficient to enumerate the teeth on one side of
the jaw only, it may be abbreviated to sucha
formula as the following :
Man 3733=32 Dog 3775= 42.

Where the incisors are separated from the
molars by a gap (as in Rodents) the space is
termed a diastema.

a. The teeth of the upper jaw.

ii The ineisors. There are six in the
upper jaw, in alveoli in the premax-
illa. The last—z 3—is much larger than
those in front of it. Each has a single

THE TEETH. 47

root and on its surface a groove,
dividing the crown into three cusps,
of which the centre one is the largest.

iii, The premolars. There are four pairs
borne by the maxilla. They increase
in size from before backwards, the last
—p 4—becoming specially modified. It
is known as the sectorial or carnassial
tooth. It forms a blade-like surface
and has three cusps, the anterior and
inner one being the smallest, the
middle one the highest and most
pointed, and the posterior having a
sharp straight ridge. There are three
roots, that of the inner cusp being
distinct.

ii. The canines are separated from the
incisors by an interspace, they are two
in number, borne by the maxilla.
Each is slightly curved and pointed.

iv. The molars are the two pairs of pos-
terior teeth. The first is the largest.
They have no deciduous predecessors.

b. The teeth of the lower jaw.

i. The incisors are six in number, as in
the upper jaw. They differ from
them in being slightly smaller, and
in having the cusps more strongly
marked.

ii, The eanines of the lower jaw are

48 THE DOG'S SKULL.

erooved on their inner and anterior
surface, and sharper on their posterior
surface. They are also slightly larger
than those in the upper jaw.

ili. The premolars are eight in number.
They aremore compressed, and sharper,
than those of the upper jaw.

iv. Thesmolars: “There pare three pairs
of molars in the lower jaw. The
firstis very different from the upper one.
It is the seetorial tooth of the lower

jaw. It has four cusps.

SECTIONS.

Many points in the structure of the skull, such
fom, Instance as. the relations of the bones of the
occipital segment, auditory capsule, nasal cavities, &c.,
are best studied by an examination of a series of
sections.

A. Longitudinal Vertical Section slightly to the
left of the median line (Fig. 7).
Notice that the skull has a longitudinal central
axis—the eranio-facial axis—the bones of
which form the basal region of the skull, and
support the three segments of the cranial
region, which form the cranial cavity and
enclose the brain. This cavity may conveni-
ently be divided into three compartments, the

Fig. 7.—-Can?s familiar’s. Longitudinal vertical section of the

Skull. (¥.w.c.)

AS. Ali-sphenoid. B QO. Basi-occipital. BS. Basi-sphenoid. C R.
Cribriform plate. EO. Ex-occipital. ET. Ethmoturbinal. F. Frontal.
I.P A. Interparietal. ME. Mesethmoid. M.T. Maxillo-turbinal. M X.
Maxilla. N. Nasal. O.C, Occipital condyle. O.F. Optic foramen. OS.
Orbito-sphenoid. P. Palatine. PA. Parietal. PER. Periotic. P.M X.
Pre-maxilla. P.P. Par-occipital process. PS. Pre-sphenoid. PT. Ptery-
goid. SQ. Supra-occipital TY. Tympanic bulla) VO. Vomer

E

50

THE DOGS SKULL.

most posterior the cerebellar fossa, extending
as far as the periotic bone and the junction of
the supra-occipital and parietal, it lodges the
cerebellum; anterior to this is the cerebral
fossa, lodging the cerebrum. On the posterior
portion of the orbito-sphenoid and frontal is
a slight ridge, which forms an imperfect division,
and lodges the frontal and temporal lobes of
the brain respectively.

In the oceipital segment notice the basi-occipital

The

The

forming the inferior margin of the foramen
magnum, and its suture with the ex-occipital;
above the ex-occipital is a larger cancellous
bone, the supra-occipital, dorsal to which, and
between the two parietals, is a long narrow
bone, the inter-parietal.

parietal segment consists of the basi-sphenoid
below, in which notice in the middle, on the
the sella turcica
—which lodges the pituitary body. The basi-

inner surface, a little hollow

sphenoid is bounded on either side by a wing-
like bone, the ali-sphenoid, dorsal to which are
the large parietals. Notice that between the
occipital and parietal segments there are a
series of bones—the periotic and squamosal—
which unite the two segments inferiorly.

basal portion of the frontal segment is formed
by the pre-sphenoid, from the sides of which
project the orbito-sphenoids ; above these the
frontals are situated, forming the dorsal, and

SECTIONS. 51

part of the anterior portion of the cranial
cavity.

The facial portion of the skull is separated from
the cranial cavity by the cribriform plate,
which is lodged between the _ pre-sphenoid,
orbito-sphenoids, and frontals. It is further
divided into two tube-like portions (better seen
in tranverse section), which constitute the nasal
cavities. The median partition is formed by
the mesethmoid cartilage, which is situated in a
eroove of the vomer, the dorsal portion of which
is produced into a thin vertical plate and also
enters into this dividing septum, in the ventral
portion. The sides of the vomers are laterally
produced and form a partial division between
the nasal cavity and the olfactory chamber (see
transverse section D). The anterior and pos-
terior portions of the nasal cavities are filled
by a series of infolded laminze of bone—the
maxillo-turbinals and ethmo-turbinals ; inferi-
orly are a similar series—the naso-turbinals.
Enclosing the nasal cavities and _ olfactory
chamber, and forming the outer wall of the
facial portion of the skull, are the nasals,
maxilla, premaxilla, palatines, and pterygoids.
Viewed in longitudinal section, only a small
portion of these bones are visible. The nasals
form the dorsal portion of the nasal cavities,
and articulate with the frontals; they are situ-
ated immediately above the ossified mesethmoid

52 THE DOG’S SKULL.

cartilage. The anterior portion of the middle
of the maxilla is -visilble as a “thin! vertical
plate; in front of which is the premaxilla, its

inner border forming the anterior narial

Fig. 8.—Transverse section through the posterior portion
of the Skull, showing the tympanie bulla
in seetion. (w.£.c. and F.W.c.)

BS. Basi-sphenoid. Car. Carotid Canal. E, Eustachian canal. E.A.M.
External auditory meatus. IC, Inner chamber. P A. Parietal. Pt,
Periotic. Sq. Squamosal. S, Septum. T. Tympanicring. Ty. Tympanic.

opening. A portion of the palatine, immedi-
ately behind the maxilla, forms a vertical plate,
its edge rising and meeting with the vomer.

SECTIONS, 53

A thin vertical plate of bone, articulating ante-
riorly with the palatine, and lying beneath
the pre-sphenoid and orbito-sphenoid, is the
pterygoid.

B. Transverse Section through the posterior
portion of the Skull. (Fig. 8).

In the left hand of the section the periotic is shown
lying dorsal to the tympanic bulla. Notice on
the right hand side, that a portion of the
anterior wall of the tympanic bulla has been
cut through, and laterally the external auditory
meatus. Dorsally, the prominent sagittal crest
forms a median prominence. The parietals
form the dorso-lateral boundary of the section,
the ventral and lateral portions being com-
pleted by the squamosals. Lying on the inner
border of the squamosal, notice the periotic.

In the section of the bulla, notice that the cavity
is imperfectly divided into two chambers by
an incomplete bony septum, arising from the
anterior wall. The inner chamber terminates
blindly ; while into the outer, the Eustachian
tube enters. The somewhat prominent lip of
the external auditory meatus, is well seen in
section. .Om.the inmer sidevof the? section:
notice the cut portion of the carotid canal.

C. Transverse Section passing in front of the
fronto-parietal suture, and the anterior
border of the pre-sphenoid. (Fig. 9).

The dorsal portion of the section. is formed by the

$4 THE DOGS SKULL,

frontals; on the sides of which, notice the post-
orbital processes.

The cribriform plate is bounded dorsally and later-
ally by the frontals; beneath and posterior to
the cribriform plate, the most anterior portion
of the pre-sphenoid is visible, and anteriorly
the vomer.

P P [n.O.F.

Fig 9.—Transverse section through the Skull passing in
front of the fronto-parietal suture and the

anterior borderof the Pre-sphenoid. (F.w.c.)

C. Cribriform plate. F. Frontal. FS. Frontal Sinus. JIn.0O.F. Inter-

orbital foramen. I.0.F. Infra-orbital foramen. JU. Malar. L. Lachrymal.

L.C. Lachrymal canal. OrS. Orbito-sphenoid. P, Palatine. Po.P. Post-
orbital process. PS. Pre-sphenoid. Vo. Vomer.

Laterally, notice the lachrymals, perforated by the
lachrymal canal.

SECTIONS. B5

The malars form the most lateral portion of the
section, and bound the infra-orbital foramen.

The orbito-sphenoid, the anterior portion, is visible
lying between the frontal and palatine.

The palatines form the floor and the lateral portions

NV

Fig. 10.—Transverse section anterior to the cribriform
plate. (w-.E.c.)

ME. Mesethmoid. M X. Maxilla. N. Nasal. N.P. Nasal passage.

0.C. Olfactory chamber. P. Palatine. P.P.F. Posterior palatine foramen.

of the section; beneath the orbito-sphenoid

they are perforated by the inter-orbital foramen.

D. Transverse Section through the skull, an-
terior to the cribriform plate. (Fig. 10).

The section is bounded dorsally by the nasals and

maxillz, and ventrally by-the palatines. The

56

THE DOC Ss smUL,

mesethmoid is a thin plate-like bone, forming
a median partition between’ the olfactory
chambers ; dorsally it is attached to a ventral
process of the nasals.t. The ventral border
of the mesethmoid is thickened and lodged in
the dorsal portion of the vomer. The vomer,
in the portion shown in section, forms a complete

N

N _ PMs

Fig. 11.—Transverse section through the anterior portion

of the nares. (w.E.c.)
M X. Maxilla. N. Nasal. NP. Nasal Passage. P.M X. Pre-maxilla.

S.N. Septum nasi.

septum between the right and left nasal pass-
ages, by meeting ventrally with the palatines.
Dorsally it is trough-like, or V-shaped; the
two lateral arms embracing the ventral border
of the mesethmoid. From these lateral arms,

* In old skulls the nasals fuse, and this process is very distinct.

SECTIONS. 57

wing-like processes extend to the right and
left of the nasal cavity, and form a horizontal
partition, separating the nasal passages from
the olfactory chambers. The horizontal laminz
of the palatines complete the floor of the nasal
passages. In the transverse section E, through
the anterior region of the mawille, the section
is bounded dorsally by the nasals, and the pos-
terior portion of the dorsal part of the pre-
maxille; the sides and floor are formed by
the maxillz. Ventrally the maxille form a
horizontal plate, anterior to which the floor is
formed by the pre-manille.

REFERENCES.

FLOWER, W. H. & GADow, H.
“An Introduction to the Ostcology of the
Mammalia.” (Skull, pp. 116-242.) Lon-
don, 1885.
HUXLEY, ¥..-E.
“A Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated
Animals.” (Dog’s Skull, pp. 353-4.)
London, 1871.
MARSHALL, A. MILNES, & HURST, C. HERBERT.
SX. Punto Course of Practical Zoolog gy.” (Rab-
bit’s Skull, pp. 294-313.) London, 1895.
MIVART, ST. GEORGE.
“Fhe at. tondon, 1881.
MORRELL, G. H.
“The Student’s Handbook of Comparative
Anatomy, Pt. I. Mammalia.” (Sheep’s
Skull, pp. 208-260.) London, 1872.

58 THE DOG'S SKULL.

OWEN, R.
* Whe Anatomy, of Vertebrates: i(Vel= Tigo:
297.) London, 1866.

PARKER, W. K. & BETTANY, G. T.
“The Morphology of the Skull.” (Skull of the
Piss Se, pp. 267-300:) London, 1877.
PARKER, T. JEFFREY.
“ A Course of Instruction in Zootomy.” (Rab-
bit’s Skull, pp. 268-278.) London, 1884.

WEIDERSHEIM, R.
“Lehrbuch, dor Vergleichenden Anatomie der
Wirbelthiere” GSkull; spp. 451-108)
Jena, 1886.

WEIDERSHEIM, R. & PARKER, W. NEWTON.
“Elements of the Comparative Anatomy of
Vertebrates.” (Skull, pp. 80-34.) Lon-
don, 1886.

CEA PAK a:

GENERAL REVIEW OF THE SKULLS
OF THE CARNIVORA, AND THE
DIFFERENT BREEDS OF DOGS.

The term Carnivora, when first used, included
the Insectivora and Cheiroptera, as well as the Car-
nivora, as restricted by Huxley, Owen, and Flower.
For this reason, certain authors have suggested and
used the term Sectorialia, which, however, has not

been generally adopted.

GENERAL REVIEW OF THE SKULL. 59

ORDER CARNIVORA.
Sub-order FISSIPEDIA.

Comprises the Cats, Dogs, and Bears. Cuvier
divided the sub-order into two groups :

Plantigrada, walking on the sole of the foot; and

Digitigrada, walking only on the toes.

The distinction is not one of any great importance,
seeing that almost every intermediate condition exists.

Section A*LUROIDEA. Comprises: the eat-like
forms, and includes the following families :

1. Felidge. Skull usually short, especially facial
portion. In /. wxc:a (the Ounce) the facial portion
is much broader than in any other member of the
family, the nasal bones being broad and flat. Zygo-
matic arch prominent. Mastoid process often absent,
never very conspicuous. Auditory bulla smooth,
rounded, and large; with an almost complete bony
septum between the two chambers of the bulla. There
is no ali-sphenoid canal; and the canal for the passage
of the carotid artery is very small. Condylar and
elenoid foramina small. An interesting fossil (Eocene),
form Eusmzlus, grouped under this family, has four
incisor teeth in the lower jaw, and small canines, which
are separated from a single premolar and true molar
by a diastema.

2. Viverridz. Includes such forms as the Civet-
Cats, Ichneumons. Skull more elongated in the facial

60 THE DOG'S SKULL.

portion than in the Fede. Carotid canal distinct,
running as a groove on the side of the bulla. Audi-
tory bulla ossified (ex. Nandznza), large, and divided
by a septum. In the sub-family Herfestzne, it is
somewhat pyriform in shape, the posterior chamber
being large, and rounded. Ali-sphenoid canal gener-
ally present (ex. Cryptoproctine, Herpestine, Galidictine,
Euplerinine). In Eupleres, of which genus only one
species is known, the &. goudotz of Madagascar, the
jaws are slender and of small size, and there is no
ali-sphenoid canal.

3. Proteleidz. This genus contains but a single
species, Proteles cristatus. The molar teeth are rudi-
mentary in character, being small, and placed far
apart. There is no ali-sphenoid canal. The auditory
bulla consists of two separate chambers.

4. Hyenide. Skull with no ali-sphenoid canal.
Sagittal crest prominent. Auditory bulla not divided,
but rudiment of septum may be present, and usually
anchylosed into one mass.

Section CYNOIDEA. Contains only one family.

1. Canide. Includes the Dogs, Wolves, Jackals,
and Foxes. The Doss skull may be regarded “as
typical of the family.

Section An CTOIDE A. ‘Comprises the dears:
Otters, Badger, and Weasels.

1. Urside. Facial portion short. Zygomatic

arches and sagittal crest largely developed (especially

GENERAL REVIEW OF THE SKULL. 61

so in @/uropus). Auditory bulla depressed. Orbits
small, and incomplete posteriorly. Paroccipital pro-
cess prominent. Condylar foramen exposed. Ex-
cepting in .4:/uropus, there is an ali-sphenoid canal.

2. Procyonide. Facial portion of the skull
usually short and broad, cranium high and com-
pressed. Zygomatic arches strong. Coronoid process
of mandible strongly developed.

3. Mustellidz. Cranium elongated and narrow
in many genera. The post-glenoid process is often
produced over the deep glenoid fossa (e.g. Je/es), and
fits lightly over the condyle of the mandible. No ali-
sphenoid canal. Dentition variable ; in Latar there
are but two incisors in each side of the lower jaw, thus
differing from all other Carnivora. The paroccipital
process of the ex-occipital usually distinct from the
bulla, triangular in shape, and directed outwards,
downwards, and backwards.

Sub-order 11 PINNIPEDIA.

The families of this sub-order are: 1. Otariide;
2. Trichechidz#; 3. Phocide. They are all aquatic,
and differ from the rest of the Carnivora in the modi-
fication of the limbs for progression in water. The
cranial characters have been tabulated by Mivart as
follows : | :

“1. No complete septum in the auditory bulla of
any genus.

2. The lip of the meatus auditorius externus pro-

62 THE DOG’S SKULE.

jects greatly outwards in the Phocrde ; but it is not
the median inferior part of the lip, as in the Bears ;
but posteriorly, as in the Otters. It is not prolonged
outwards in the Ofarzzde and Trichechide.

3. The paroccipital process is more or less tri-
angular, and directed outwards, downwards, and back-
wards, except in Zvzchechus, where it forms a small
buttress against, and uniting with, the hinder side of
the great mastoid.

4. The mastoid process may be considerably
prominent (as in Ofaria), or extremely so (as in 777-
chechus), or may form part of a wide-spread rounded
prominence (as in the Phocid@). It may form a
continuous bone wall with the paroccipital process (as
in Otaria), or be separated from it (as in the Phoczde),
or blend with it (as in 77zchechus).

5. The carotid foramen is always large and con-
spicuous; and is placed towards, or almost at the
hinder end of, the bulla, which the carotid canal
traverses, towards or along its inner margin — its
course being indicated externally in Ofaria and 771-
chechus, but not at all in the Phoczde. It is never con-
cealed (as it is in the Bears) by a projecting lip of the
basi-occipital.

6. The condyloid foramen is always distinct and
exposed, and never overlapped by a ridge of bone
running from the paroccipital process of the condyle ;

and never opens into, though it appears sometimes to

GENERAL REVIEW OF THE SKULL. 63

coalesce with, the foramen lacerum posterius.

7. The glenoid foramen is always very small, and
is sometimes not to be detected. |

8. The alisphenoid canal may be present or
absent.

9g. The suborbital foramen is always rather large ;
but never as large relatively as in Lutra and Exhydra.
It is largest in 7rechechus.

10. The frontal postorbital process, present in
Otarza and Trichechus, is never more than a rudiment
in the Phoczde.

11. [The zygomatic postorbital process is formed
both by the malar and squamosal in the Phoczde,
mainly by, the malar in the O/aria, and entirely by
it in Zvechechus.

12. The ali-sphenoid and parietal always join by
a narrow process of the latter bone.

13. The premaxilla never ascend to join the
frontals.

14. There is never a lachrymal foramen.

15. The basis cranii is nearly always bent, so as
to be convex downwards.

16. The anterior nares are quite terminal in 7yz-
chechus; rather more distant from the end of the
muzzle in Ofarza, and not at all terminal, but looking
more or less exteriorly, upwards as well as forwards,
in the Phoczde.

17. The opening represents both the foramen
rotundum, and the spheno-orbital fissure.

64 THE DOGS SICUEL.

18. The optic foramina open into the cranial
cavity by a single aperture in Otaria and in Steno-
rhynchus, but not in the Phocide generally, as in
Trichechus.

19. The palate always extends backwards, much
behind the last molars; but is not commonly nar-
rowed, behind, save-in -O7a7za. - ‘It is not at) allese
narrowed in 7vichechus.

20. Defects of ossification commonly occur in
the occipital in the Phoczde, but not in Ofarza and
Trichechus.

21. A preorbital process exists in Ofarza and
Trichechus ; sometimes, but rarely, in the Phocide.

22. The angle of the mandible is inflected (as in

Marsupials) in O¢arza, but not in the other genera.”

THE CRANIAL AND DENTAL CHARACTERS
OF THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF DOGS.

The tables 1 and ii detail.a series of measurements,
made on the skulls of a number of different
breeds of dogs. In table 1 the maximum and
minimum measurement of each breed is given,
the difference between these two, and the
average. It will be seen that the averages in
the different breeds differ very little from one
another; this is perhaps more noticeable, in
tableit, im the teeth: In table the Jensen
and breadth are compared.

Table J.—COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS.—CRANIAL.

TOTAL LENGTH.
| Max. Min. Dilf. Av.
Esquimaux 220/00.|. 260723 69°86 29908 |
Sheep-dog 200'78-| 264706 20712") 2oo556 |
Newfoundland S25 562, yO RelA 2BAAG>| O60! |
Greyhound | 250°7e | 280-00 7FOqOs, 3haen 4 |
Italian Greyhound 62 7EOn. y BZ00c00 TOs) |) 2 1e2@
Trish Wolf-dog, modern | 337°41 | 3204°34 23°07) Sopa
Irish Wolf-dog, old 326°66 | 28484 | 4282 | 304°47 |
Spaniel a13°70.| 250718 55°61 | 283°19 |
Bloodhound 348°33 | 284°70 63°03) ;, “207 50m
Pointer 300°0 252-99 | 47°01 | 20:08
Mastiff 35616 | 270,00: | FOrsGul 200051
Bull-dog 350°00 | 2AA SO | TOSI hao
Pug | 22G°Oo-| 213-03 | 25°25 || 22740
Fox-Terrier 22052261) 200-4 1 6181 284°61
Skye-Terrier } 320128 | 27272 | Bead |) 26e 10%
Pariah 220°322 | 264-48 | 35°84 | 301°64
Dingo | 22:2°20) | 263560 29570 30257

66

Table I.—COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS. —CRANIAL.

ZYGOMATIC: WIDTH.

Max. Min. Diff. Av.
Esquimaux 1O7 OF 15044 Al-40)| “170 62
Sheep-dog 173430) 23000) (3777 | 157,08
Newfoundland LOO71d |) 157 14 | 32°04 17 3048
Greyhound T6718 | 13846 | 20:72 | 151-30
Italian Greyhound TOAtGO, |) *1AiG 1839) 1eatg |e Saas
Irish Wolf-dog, modern | 169°56 | 152°63} 16°93 | 162703 |
Irish Wolf-dog, old I7O106)| 153°73"| 227981) TOGETO |
Spaniel 17560} 54°54 21°32) | Fos oom
Bloodhound 19166 | 154°28 37°38 | 166796
Pointer 175 :02 4) 14:38:08 272A" | STGOs02
Mastiff 202359 102-33 ALOR ee cae
Bull-dog 22 O72 eG TaTAe 67-20." Joram |
Pug OOO 3 4) hay ois: 31-40 | 1L6S8i00
Fox-Terrier LOGS 50 LOOs2 20738|) T7Oulqan
Skye-Terrier BNO 52 We A727 2 | 37°80 | 193°64 |
Pariah 188'18 | 149°19 | 38'99°| 165-75 |
Dingo 72:22 | 167°74 9°48 | i727

67

Table I.—COMPARATIVE MEAUSREMENTS.—CRANIAL.

Esquimaux
Sheep-dog
Newfoundland
Greyhound

Italian Greyhound

Trish Wolf-dog, modern |

Irish Wolf-dog, old
Spaniel
Bloodhound
Pointer

Mastiff

Bull-dog

Pug

Fox-Terrier
Skye-Terrier

Pariah

Dingo

LENGTH OF BONY PALATE.

Min.

138°46
130°83
146°60

147°76

Diff.

Av.

68

Table T.—COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS.—CRANIAL.

Esquimaux
Sheep-dog
Newfoundland
Greyhound

Italian Greyhound

Irish Wolf-dog, modern |

Irish Wolf-dog, old
Spaniel

Bloodhound
Pointer

Mastiff

Bull-dog

Pug

Fox-Terrier
Skye-Terrier

Pariah

Dingo

WIDPEVOF LONY PALATE:

Max. Min. Diff. Av.
T19'09 92°30 27°79 | 109°38
LOG!445|) For 007| 17 75" enooiee
[13°65 | Too'oo | a3csm|| ones
9375 | 8709 | 606) “oame
T00°0O $9056) O35 94°46
103°22 96°05 | 719 |. r00 24
10500 88°60 17°40 We:
Isl 25067 | “ FOO700 12:06: i) "Pods
Taga 90°00 22°22 Oia
1G Sa ip O5 72 15°30 |) 2Onr@s
115°38 95°71 19°67 | 104°82
ESQ eUO loz on 7 50°02 |= 20.0405
125°00 | 116°66 S44) aa
FI 7277. | (124A | Fe 225 | ToSwis
EQAiSO) > O22 7 22°61, 1G Ae
110°68 90°32 20°30 | “100784
10819 98°48 9°61 |. To4ras |

69

Table I.—COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS.—CRANIAL.

Esquimaux
Sheep-dog
Newfoundland
Greyhound

Italian Greyhound

. Irish Wolf-dog, modern

Irish Wolf-dog, old
Spaniel
Bloodhound
Pointer

Mastiff

Bull-dog

Pug

Fox-Terrier
Skye-Terrier

Pariah

Dingo

LENGTH, OF

Max Min.

121°48 93°07
15468 | 95°83
10000 96°00
LEL°7E. |) Losses
10565 | 98°39
LEE? | toa 79
10972 96°96
LI3°20 89°09
106°66 | go'00
ror's8 96°47
T1695 |- ‘S441
99°28 oaTe
88°09 68°18
T0285 | 95°55
I15°78 | 1Loo'0o
124°78 88°70
116°33 98°78

Pm. & M.

Table I.—COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS.—CRANIAL.

Esquimaux
Sheep-dog
Newfoundland
Greyhound

Italian Greyhound
Irish Wolf-dog, modern
Irish Wolf-dog, old
Spaniel
Bloodhound
Pointer

Mastiff

Bull-dog

Pug

Fox-Terrier
Skye-Terrier

Pariah

Dingo

LENG OF =

Min.

TOs 22
10580
109°85
88°31
108°30
88°63
114°58
120°45
106°45

T2105

Pm. & M.
Diff. Av.
A522.) SEr2 70"
ro'66 | 16°86
Soro) | Ee) 5
15:00. | huey
8:00 ||" F14583
581 | 124°79
26:02 1) Sigaae
13320 || “ena
O28) Tigyen
33°72. | 18:08
217i) skal eae
23°37 | 102°49
2°Or |) 31545
acim a eas 275)
27°49 | 122°79
EO°O5) 1” a20us2

7%

Table IT.—COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS. — DENTAL.

Max
Esquimaux Doge
Sheep-dog 30°17
Newfoundland 23°57
Greyhound 29°23
Italian Greyhound 21g

Irish Wolf-dog, modern 20°71

Irish Wolf-dog, old

Spaniel
Bloodhound
Pointer
Mastiff
Bull-dog
Pug
Fox-Terrier
Skye-Terrier
Pariah

Dingo

LENGTH oF P™.4:

Table I7.—COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS.—IDENTAL.

Esquimaux
Sheep-dog
Newfoundland
Greyhound

Italian Greyhound

Irish Wolf-dog, modern

Irish Wolf-dog, old
Spaniel

Bloodhound
Pointer

Mastiff

Bull-dog

Pug

Fox-Terrier
Skye-Terrier

Pariah

Dingo

LENGTH oF Mt

Diff.

Ay.

73

Table II.—COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS.— DENTAL.

Esquimaux
Sheep-dog
Newfoundland

Greyhound

Italian Greyhound

Irish Wolf-dog, modern
| Irish Wolf-dog, old

Spaniel

Bloodhound

Pointer

Mastiff

Bull-dog

Pug
Fox-Terrier
Skye-Terrier
Pariah

Dingo

|

Max.

Min.

22°05
24°40
22°29
22530
24°00
23°68
22°28
As B
25-42
20°26
19°74

24°5

PACE
25°00
23°38

25°08

8°85

BREADTH oF Mute

ae ee
mes

74

Table IJ7.—COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS.—DENTAL.

Esquimaux
Sheep-dog
Newfoundland
Greyhound

Italian Greyhound
Irish Wolf-dog, modern
Irish Wolf-dog, old
Spaniel
Bloodhound
Pointer

Mastiff

Bull-dog

Pug

Fox-Terrier
Skye-Terrier
Pariah

Dingo

LENGTH oF “2:

Min. Diff.
8°97 4°51
9°48 4°69
10°81 1°73
IO'Ig 17
10°56 | 1°44
11501. I'I4
p09 341
10°20 2°13
10°00 2°50
ay 4°31
9°72 2°99
g'6o | 5°29
10°34 “5
10122 2°93
9°67 2501
3°77 4°19

Table II.—COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS. — DENTAL.

Esquimaux
Sheep-dog
Newfoundland
Greyhound

Italian Greyhound
. Irish Wolf-dog, modern
Irish Wolf-dog, old
Spaniel
Bloodhound
Pointer

Mastiff

Bull-dog

Pug

Fox-Terrier
Skye-Terrier
Pariah

Dingo

Max.

BREADTH oF M2:

Min.

Soe eS ee

I4°1O
15°00
14°86
14°92
14°56
16°44
1625

14°69

a7 6
13°85
12°77

14°16

1561
EI"36
13°7o

1491

Diff.

6°26

3°69

Avy.

16°39
16°35
15°89
16°10
15°39
16°93
17°88
16°95

17°67

76

Table IIT.—COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS.—DENTAL.

LENGTH OF Mea

Max. Min. | Diff. Av.
Esquimaux 20°27 29°48 | 979 34°23
Sheep-dog 34°52 3ico3: |) 348 32°68
Newfoundland 34°96 30°67 4°29 32°48
Greyhound 33°57 a1e 7A 1°83 32°49
Italian Greyhound 28°25 34/00 4°35 35°92
Irish Wolf-dog, modern | 34°05 | 31°57 2°48 | 33°06
Irish Wolf-dog, old |
Spaniel SOME (wee) | eS | bn
Bloodhound 37°00 BieA2 a We 5S gees)
Pointer 35°18 30:42 || 4476 32°15
Mastiff 36°76 27°08 9°68 2054
Bull-dog 42°55 | 274 10°81 2506
Pug 33:33 | 2976 | 3r57 1) 326
Fox-Terrier BHT 35535 AAL | 35103
Skye-Terrier 40°78 36°26 Ace 39°24
Pariah 20:12 30°90 8:23 34°18
Dingo 38°00)" Sag: | 6655) 1) eames

id

Table IJ.—COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS.—DENTAL.

Esquimaux

Sheep-dog
Newfoundland
Greyhound

Italian Greyhound
Irish Wolf-dog, modern
Irish Wolf-dog, old
Spaniel

Bloodhound

Pointer

Mastiff

Bull-dog

Pug
Fox-Terrier
Skye-Terrier
Pariah

Dingo

LENGTH OF oe

Min.

12°69

12-20

Diff.

3°66
5°62

a

on
bo
i)

AV.

13°86

EACLE

13°81

13°66

Table IJ.—COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS.—DENTAL.

Esquimaux
Sheep-dog
Newfoundland
Greyhound

Italian Greyhound
Irish Wolf-dog, modern
Irish Wolf-dog, old
Spaniel
Bloodhound
Pointer

Mastiff

Bull-dog

Pug

Fox-Terrier
Skye-Terrier

Pariah

Dingo

LENGTH OF Weea
M. 3.

Min.

Diff.

2°61

2°95
68

8°26

Table ITT.—COMPARISON OF LENGTH AND BREADTH.

Oe ee
OG HIAREHWNY HOO SI AUHYW NO

TOTAL LENGT A AND ZYGOMATIC WIDTH:

AVERAGE 63°53.

Chinese Pug-nosed Spaniel
Pug

Bull-dog
Black-and-tan ‘Toy Terrier
King Charles

Skye

Fox-Terrier

Turnspit

English Terrier
Beagle

Black-and-tan Terrier
Otter-dog
Pomeranian

Pointer

Harrier

Spaniel

Italian Greyhound
Mastiff

Dingo

Esquimaux
Newfoundland
Fox-hound
Sheep-dog
Bloodhound

Pariah

New-Zealand dog
Irish Wolf-dog, old
West-Indian dog

St. Bernard

Irish Wolf-dog, modern
Greyhound

AG)

Index.

ee oe Corn ar SN
NY os B ~T Go
COO wt OW

on o1 on On On U1 ON

52°85

80

Table 11171.—COMPARISON OF LENGTH AND BREADTH.

NO 4 = SB HR ASR OR Oe Oe Oa
DOD HAI AKRHW NY HOO SU AUNEHW DH

PALATINE LENGTH AND WIDTH.

AVERAGE 76°93.

DOG.

Chinese Pug-nosed Spaniel

Bull-dog
Pug

King Charles

Black-and-tan Toy ‘Terrier

English Terrier
Harrier

Skye

Pomeranian
West-Indian dog
Fox-Terrier
Spaniel

Beagle
Black-and-tan ‘Terrier
Otter-dog

Mastiff

Esquimaux
Sheep-dog
Newfoundland
Pointer

Dingo

Turnspit
Fox-hound
New-Zealand dog
Pariah

Italian Greyhound
Bloodhound

Irish Wolf-dog, old
St: Berard

Irish Wolf-dog, modern
Greyhound

Index.

I20'00
106°84
105°76
QI‘20
86°56
81°82
80°0O
77°98
tied
TO.O2
76°92
76°68
76°33
2099
72°20
71°86
7070
OWS
19°23
FOr
10293
68°57
68°42
68°23
68°22
68°14
OF ig
67°06
65°35
65°17
60°36

REFERENCES. SI

REFERENCES.
EYEREIN, J. Av.

“History of North American Pinnipeds.”
Washington, 1880.

“On the Eared Seals (Otariadz).”’ Bull. Mus.
Comp. Zool., Camb. U.S.A., 1870, vol. ii.
pp. 1-89, pts. I-3.

DORAN, ALBAN H. G.

“Morphology of the Mammalian Ossecula
auditts.” Trans. Linn. Soc. (Zool.) 2nd
ser. 1570," vol." 1, pps. 471-4907.) pis
Iviti-Lxiv.

FLOWER, W. H.

“On the Value of the Characters of the Base
of the Cranium in the Classification of
the Order Carnivora. “Proc. Zool: Soc,
1869, pp. 5-37.

Article “Mammalia.” Ency. Brit., 9th ed. vol.
XV, Pp. 347-446.

FLOWER, W. H. & LYDEKKER, R.

“An Introduction to the study of Mammals,

living and extinct.” London, 1891.
FLUXELEY.: “TD. He.

“Qn the Cranial and Dental Characters of the
Canide.” Proc. Zool. Soc., 1880, pp.
238-88.

MIVART, ST. GEORGE.

“The Cat, An Introduction to the study of
Backboned Animals,. especially Mam-
mals.” . Lendon,.53S1.

“On the Classification and Distribution of the
Zeluroidea, -Froc. Zool. Sac. 1882, pp.
135-208.

G

82 GLOSSARY.

“Onthe Anatomy, Classification and Distribu-
tion of ‘the Atluroidea.” Proe: Zool:

Soc., 1885, pp. 340-404.
“Notes on the Pimnipedia. “Proc. Zool. Soc;
1885, pp. 484-500.
“ A Monograph of the Canide.” London, 1890.
POR NER EL UN:

“ Observations relating to some of the Foramina

in the Base of the Skull in Mammalia.”

Proc, Zool. Soc; 1848, pp.-63-38.

WATERHOUSE, G. R.
On the Skulls and Benaition of the Carni-
yord.’ RLF. Ss fo20- pp. Fa-7:
WINDLE, B.C. A., & HUMPHREYS, JOHN.
“On Some Cranial and Dental Characters ‘ot
the, Domestic Dos. “Prac Zocl, sec,

1890, pp. 5-29.

Chiaki RV.

GLOSSARY OF OSTEOLOGICAL
TERMS.

Acetabulum (L. a vinegar cruet)—The socket of the
innominate bone which receives the head of
the femur.

Acrodont (Gr. akron, high ; odontos, a tooth).— Having
the teeth anchylosed to the top of the alveolar
process.

Acromion (Gr. akron, and omos, the shoulder).—A pro-
cess of the scapula forming the summit of
the shoulder.

GLOSSARY. 83

Ale (L. a/a, a wing.)—Applied to the wing-like pro-
cesses of bone.

Alinasal process (L. a/a, and zxasus, the nose)—A
process surrounding the nasal aperture in
Amphibians.

Alisphenoid (L. a/a, and os sphenoids).—A distinct
bone in certain skulls; in human anatomy it
is represented by the great wings and ex-
ternal pterygoid plates of the sphenoid.

Alveolus (L. a/veolus, a little hollow).—A hollow or
depression, e.g. the socket of a tooth.

Amphiarthrosis (Gr. awphz, both; arthron a joint).—
A class of mixed articulation with partial
mobility (see symphysis).

Amphicelus (Gr. amphz, both ; kozlos, hollow).—
Applied to vertebree having a concavity at
either end.

Ampulla (L. ampullor, 1 swell out).— The dilated
portions of the semicircular canals of the
internal ear.

Anapophysis (Gr. aza, upon; apfophuo, | grow).—A
process on the neural arch of certain lum-
bar vertebra; in human anatomy termed
accessory process.

Anchylosis(Gr. azkule, a thong or clasp).—The union
of two or more bones.

Angular (L. angu/us, a corner)—An element of the
mandible in certain Vertebrata.

Angulo-splenial (L. avzgu/us, and splenzum, a splint).
An element of the mandible in some Verte-

84 GLOSSARY.

brata, in human anatomy the name splenial
is given to an ossification taking place in the
membrane on the inner side of Meckel’s
cartilage.

Ankylose (see Auchy/osis).

Annularis (L. azzulus, a ring)—The fourth digit of
the manus.

Antebrachium (L. azze, before ; brachtum, the arm).
—The fore-arm, composed of radius and
ulna.

Antitrochanter (Gr. avztz, opposite, against).—In
birds applied to the articular surface of the
ilium upon which the great trochanter of the
femur plays.

Antrum (L. a cavern).—A term applied to deep
cavities in the interior of certain bones.

Apophysis (Gr. afophuo, 1 grow from.)—A process or
protuberance on the surface of a bone.

Appendicular (L. appenazx, an appendage).—Used to
denote that portion of the skeleton (the
limbs) which is attached to the axial
skeleton.

Aqueeductus cochlex (aqueduct of the cochlea).—A
small canal passing from the cochlea of the
human ear opening inferiorly, close to the
jugular fossa on the under surface of the
petrous bone.

Aqueductus Fallopii (L. aqueduct of Fallopius).—
The canal in the temporal bone transmitting
the facial nerve.

GLOSSARY: 85

Aqueeductus vestibuli (L. aqueduct of the vestibule).
—A canal which leads from the vestibule of
the internal ear to the posterior surface of the
petrous bone.

Articulare (L. artzculus, a joint)—A bone of the
posterior portion of the lower jaw, formed
in most vertebrates, except Mammals, from
an ossification of Meckel’s cartilage.

Arytenoid (Gr. avytaina, a pitcher ; ezdos, shape).—
Applied to two cartilages, situated on the
upper border of the cricoid cartilage, at the
back of the larynx.

Astragalus (Gr. astragalos, die-shaped)—A_ bone of
the tarsus, in man forming the ankle-bone,
the morphological components consist of
tibiale and intermedium.

Atlas (Gr. In the Greek Mythology, a giant who bore
up the earth upon his shoulders).—The first
cervical vertebra.

Autogenous (Gr. azzos, self ; geneszs, birth)— Applied

1d
to parts of a bone developed from indepen-
| dent centres of ossification.

Antostylic.—A term applied to skulls in which the
mandibular arch is attached to the cranium
without the intervention of the hyoid arch.

Axial. A term used to denote that portion of the
skeleton forming the main axis of the body.

Axis (L. a pivot).—The second cervical vertebra.

Basalia Gr. daszs, a pedestal).—Applied to the base of
the skull. The basal cartilages of the fins of
Elasmobranch fishes.

86 GLOSSARY.

Basihyal (L. daszs, the base ; yordes, hyoid bone).—
An ossification of the hyoidean arch in
certain fishes; represented in man by the
body of the hyoid bone.

Basioccipital (L. daszs, the base ; occzput, the back of
the head).—A bone of the skull ; represented
in man by the basilar process of the occipital
bone.

Basipterygoid (Gr. daszs, a pedestal; plerygion, a
wing).—A bone of the skull ; represented in
man by the pterygoid plates.

Basisphenoid (Gr. Jaszs, a pedestal ; sphen, a wedge).—
A bone of the skull ; represented in man by
thes posterior portion, of the body -of the
sphenoid bone.

Basitemporal (Gr. daszs, a pedestal ; L. ¢empora, the
temples).—One of the bones of the skull.

Basis cranii,—The base or floor of the skull.

Bicuspid (L. dzs, twice ; cuspzs, a point).—Having
two points or fangs, as the bicuspid teeth.

Brachium (L. the fore-arm).—The upper arm, that
portion which articulates with the scapula
and extends to the elbow.

Bulla (L. dud/a, a bubble).—The osseus wall surround-
ing the tympanum in some Vertebrata.

Caleaneum (L. ca/r, the heel).—The os calcis of the
tarsus, in man forming the heel. It corres-
ponds to the fibulare and perhaps the fibular
sesamoid bone of the morphologist.

Calear (L. a spur)—The “spur” of some birds.

GLOSSARY. 87

Canaliculi (L. little canals)—Applied to the minute
canals in bone.

Cancellous (L. cancellz, trellis-work)—A term applied
to certain bone tissue which assumes a
spongy form.

Canine (L. cavzs, a dog).— Applied to those teeth next
to the incisors, popularly known as “eye-
teeth,”

Capitulum (L. a little head).—A term applied toa
rounded prominence or small head of a bone.

Carina (L.a keel).—A process of the sternum of most
birds.

Carpus (Gr. argos, the wrist)—The wrist. That
portion of the fore-limb uniting the manus
to the fore-arm.

Cartilage (L. cartilago, gristle)—One of the animal
connective tissues.

Caudal (L. cada, a tail)—Like or relating to the tail,
as the caudal vertebre.

Centrale (L. ceztrum, the centre)—The central bone
of the carpus.

Centrum (L. cextrum, the centre)—The body of a
vertebra.

Cerato-hyal (Gr. £eras, a horn).—An ossification in
the lower portion of the hyoidean arch in
certain fishes, represented in man by the
lesser cornua of the hyoid bone.

Cervical (L. cervzr, the neck).—Like or relating to the
neck, as the cervical vertebre.

Chevron bones (Fr. a rafter)—Downward processes

88 GLOSSARY.

of the caudal vertebre enclosing the posterior
portion of the aorta, present in certain
Vertebrata.

Chondro-cranium (Gr. chondros, gristle ; kranion,
skull)—The cartilaginous skull of certain
lower vertebrates, the embryonic skull of
higher vertebrates.

Clavicle ) (L. clavicula, a small key).—The collar-

Clavicular § bone. So-called from its supposed
resemblance to an ancient key.

Clinoid processes (Gr. kine, a bed; ezdos, shape).—
Processes of the body of the sphenoid bone.

Cnemial crest (Gr. £xeme, leg).—A prominent ridge
of bone on the proximal end of the tibia.

Coaptation (L. con, together ; apo, I fit)—-Applied
to the movement of joints where the articular

surface of one bone travels over that of
another, as the patella on the femur.

Coceygeal (L. coccyx, the cuckoo).—Relating to the
COCCYX.

Coceyx.—A term applied to the four terminal vertebrz
of man, which unite and form a structure
which somewhat resembles a cuckoo’s beak.

Cochlea (L. a snail’s shell)—The interior division of
the internal ear.

Condyle (Gr. kondulos, a knuckle)—The articular
surface of a bone.

Condyles.—The articular surfaces of the ex-occipital
bones which articulate with the vertebral
column.

GLOSSARY. 89

Conoid tubercle.—A process on the posterior border
of the clavicle in man.

Coracoid (Gr. korax, a crow ; ezdos, shape).—One of
the bones of the pectoral girdle in most
vertebrates ; represented in man by the
coracoid process of the scapula.

Cornicula (L. cornzculum, a little horn)—A term
sometimes applied in human anatomy to the
cerato-hyals.

Coronoid (Gr. sorone, a crow ; ezdos, shape).—Crow-
shaped ; applied to a process of the lower
jaw (coronotd process).

Costal (L. costa, a rib)—Connected with or relating
to the ribs, as the costal cartilages.

Cranium (Gr. £ranzon, the skull).—The skull.

Cribriform (L. cvzbrum, a sieve; forma, shape).—
Perforated like a sieve. Applied to the
perforated portion of the ethmoid bone
through which the fibres of the olfactory
nerve pass.

Cricoid (Gr. £rzkos, a ring ; ezdos, shape).—Ring-like.
Applied to a series of cartilages surrounding
the larynx.

Crista galli (L. crasta, a crest ; gallz, of a cock).—
Applied to a ridge of the ethmoid bone.

Crista ilii (L. crzs¢a, a crest ; 2/77, the ilium).—A pplied
to one of the borders of the iliac bone.

Crus (L. the leg)—Applied to parts of the body
resembling a leg. That portion of the lower
extremity lying between the femur and
tarsus,

90 GLOSSARY.

Cuboides (Gr. £ubos, a cube ; ezdos, shape).—A bone of
the tarsus.

Cuneiforme (L. cuneus, a wedge; forma, form).—A
bone of the carpus, sometimes termed ulnarc;
also applied to three bones of the tarsus.

Dentary (L. dens, dentis, a tooth)—Relating to the
teeth. A bone of the lower jaw containing
teeth. In the embryonic human mandible
this name is given to an ossification taking
place in the membrane on the outer side of
Meckel’s cartilage.

Dentate (L. dens, dentis, a tooth)—Toothed: having
short triangular divisions at the margin.
Applied to the second vertebra, because of a
toothlike process which occurs on it.

Dentine (L. dens, dentis, a tooth).—The calcified sub-
stance forming part of the tooth, closely
allied to bone.

Diaphysis (Gr. da, between ; phuszs, growth).—The
centre of ossification in the shaft of a long
bone.

Diapophysis (Gr. aza, between ; apophuo, to sprout).—
The superior transverse process of a vertebra
where there are two such processes present.

Diarthrosis (Gr. da, between ; arthron, a joint).—A
name given to a class of joints possessing
considerable yet varying degrees of mobility.

Diastema (Gr. d@za, apart ; Azstemmz2, to place)—A space
or gap, especially between teeth.

Didactyle (Gr. as, twice ; daktulos, a_ finger).—
Possessing two digits.

GLOSSARY. QI

Digit (L. digitus, a finger or toe).—A finger or toe.

Diphycereal (Gr. aiphues, mixed ; kerkos, a tail).—
Applied to the tails of fishes when the caudal
fin-rays are divided into two equal or nearly
equal parts.

Diploe (Gr. diplods, double)—The spongy texture in
tabular bones.

Dorsum sellz.—Applied to the posterior boundary of
the sella turcica.

Ectopterygoid (Gr. ektos, without; Afexyr, a wing ;
ezdos, shape).—A bone of the skull in some
Vertebrata.

Endoskeleton (Gr. evzdon, within)—The bony and
cartilaginous portion of the body covered by
muscles and integuments.

Ensiform process (L. ezszs, a sword ; forma, form).—
Applied to a process of the sternum, also
termed metasternum and xiphisternum.

Entopterygoid (Gr. exfos, within ; ptevyx, a wing ;
eidos, shape).—A bone of the skull in certain
fishes (Teleostet).

Epicondyle (Gr. efz, upon ; £ondulos,a knuckle).—The
most prominent portion of the internal con-
dyle of the humerus.

Epicoracoid (Gr. ¢fz, upon; kovar, a crow).—A bone
of the pectoral arch in some Vertebrata.

Epihyal (Gr. efz, upon; L. hyozdes, hyoid bone).—An
ossification of the cornua of the hyoidean
arch in certain fishes ; represented in man by
the stylo-hyoid ligaments. |

92 GLOSSARY.

Epiotie (Gr. ez, upon ; ows, otos, the ear)—A bone of
the skull above the ear. In human anatomy
the mamé is given to ome Gf the osseous
deposits in the embryonic petro-mastoid.

Epiphysis (Gr. efz, upon; phuses, growth).—Portion
of a bone ossified from a separate centre of
ossification.

Epipteric (Gr. ef7, upon ; pleryx, a wing).—Applied
to a scale-like ossification sometimes found
lying between the antero-inferior angle of
the parietal bone, and the great wing of the
sphenoid bone. Synonymous with a Wor-
mian bone.

Episternum (Gr. ¢f/z, upon ; sternon, the breast)—A
median membrane bone, connected in some
Vertebrata with the sternum; also termed the
enterclavicle.

Ethmoid (Gr. e¢hios, a sieve ; ezdos, shape).—-A bone
of the skull having its posterior surface per-
forated, forming the cribriform plate.

Ethmo-turbinals (Gr. ethmos, a sieve; L. turbo, a
twining round).—Applied to certain folded
bones entering into the formation of the
olfactory chambers of the skull.

Ethmovomerine plate.—The anterior plate formed by
the union of the trabeculz in the foetal skull.

Ex-occipital (L. ex, without ; occzput, the head).—A
bone of the skull, lying on either side of the
foramen magnum; in man formed by the
condyloid portion of the occipital bone.

GLOSSARY. 93

Femoral (L. femur, the thigh).—Relating to the
femur.

Femur (L.)—The thigh bone.

Fenestra ovalis (L. oval window).—An oval shaped
aperture in the tympanum of the ear into
which the stapes (or its homologue in the
lower Vertebrata) fits.

Fenestra rotunda (L. round window).—A_ small
round aperture in the tympanum of the
ear.

Fibula (L. 7du/a, a buckle)—The outer and smaller
bone of the leg.

Fibulare.—A bone of the tarsus articulating with the
fibula, sometimes termed calcaneum.
Fontanelle (L. fozs, a fountain).—A membranous
interval between the bones of the skull,
through which arterial pulsation may be seen,

hence its name.

Foramen (L. an aperture or opening).—A perforation
or opening by which blood vessels or nerves
pass through the bones.

Foramina, p/w.

Foramina incisiva (L. incisor openings).—Openings
that remain in the Mammalia between the
premaxillez and palatine plates of the max-
illary bones.

Foramina obturatoria (L. openings to be stopped
up).—The apertures in the innominate bones
between the ischia and pubes, and which
are covered by fibrous membrane.

94 GLOSSARY.

Fossa (L. fossa, a ditch).—A small cavity or depression
in a bone.

Frontal (L. frovs, frontis, the forehead).—A bone of
the skull relating to the region of the fore-
head.

Furculum (L. fzrca, a fork)—A _ bone in birds formed
by the united clavicles, and which is some-
what V-shaped.

Ginglyform (Gr. e7zglumos, a hinge).—Hinge-like.

Ginglymus.— Applied to joints which allow motion
in two directions only, as the joint of the
elbow.

Glabella (L. ¢/abra, smooth)—An eminence between,
and connecting together, the two superciliary
ridges ; sometimes termed nasal eminence.

Glenoid fossa (Gr. gene, a socket; ezdos, shape).—
The cavity in the scapula an’ which the
head of the humerus articulates.

Gomphosis.— The articulation of a tooth with its
socket.

Hemal arch (Gr. Zaza, blood).—Applied to the arch
under the vertebral column, which encloses
and protects blood vessels.

Hemapophyses (Gr. “azma, blood ; apophuo, | grow
from).—Processes of the vertebree which form
the hzmal arch.

Hallux (L. “allus, the great toe)—The first digit of
tne spes:

Hamulus lachrymalis (L. Zamulus, a little hook),—
The hook-like process of the lachrymal bone.

GLOSSARY. 95

Harmonia (Gr. armoza, I fit together)—A variety of
suture in which the two bones are in simple
apposition.

Hiatus Fallopiii—A groove on the internal surface of
the petrous portion of the temporal bone,
which lodges the great superior petrous
nerve.

Homocerecal (Gr. /omozos, like; kerkos, a tail).—
Applied to the tails of fishes when the
caudal fin-rays are arranged symmetrically
to the axis of the body.

Humerus (L. the shoulder)—The bone of the arm
from the shoulder to the elbow.

~Hyoid (Gr. v (the letter upsilon); ezdos, shape).—A
small bone situated between the tongue and
the larynx.

Hyomandibular (Gr. Zyozdes, hyoid bone ; L. mandzble,
the lower jaw).—The cartilage or bone at
the proximal end of the hyoidean arch.

Hyoplastron (Gr. p/astos, moulded).—In the Chelonia
the second lateral piece of the plastron.

Hyostylie—A term applied to skulls in which the
mandibular arch is supported by the hyoid
arch,

Hypapophysis (Gr. “ufo, under ; apophuo, 1 grow
from).—A process on the ventral surface of
the vertebra in some Vertebrata.

Hypoplaston (Gr. 40, under).—In the Chelonia the

: third lateral piece of the plastron.

Hypotarsus (Gr. ufo, under ; zarsos, the flat of the

96 GLOSSARY.

foot)—A process developed in most birds
from the region of the tarsal and metatarsal
bones.

Hypural (Gr. Zufo, under ; oura, the tail)—The bones
which in fishes support the caudal fin-rays.

Iliac (L. z/za, the flanks)—Relating to the region of
the ilium.

Tlium (L. z/za, the flanks)—A bone of the pelvic
girdle; in the higher Vertebrata the ilium
forms the upper division of the os innomi-
natum.

Incisor (L. zzczdo, I cut into)—A cutting tooth.

Incisura of acetabulum (L. zzczsura, a notch)—An
incomplete portion of the margin of the
acetabulum.

Incisura ethmoidalis.— A notch separating the
orbital plates of the frontal bone.

Incisura semilunaris.—The centre or middle notch
in the upper border of the sternum.

Incus (L. an anvil)—A small ossicle of the ear.

Index (L. zzdzco, I point out)—The index or fore-
finger, the second digit of the manus.

Infra-orbital (L. 27/ra, beneath).—One or more bones
beneath the orbit in fishes.

Infra-temporal crest.—A ridge bounding the tem-
poral fossa inferiorly and separating it from
the pterygoid fossa. Synonymous with
pterygoid ridge.

Innominate (L. zz, not ; omen, a name).—The bone
forming the pelvis of higher Vertebrata.

GLOSSARY. 97

Interclavicula L. zzfer, between ; clavicu/a, the collar-
bone)—A median membrane bone between
the clavicles in many Vertebrata, also termed
the epzsternum.

Intererural (L. zzzer, between).—A term applied to
additional neural arches, when more than
one is present on each vertebra.

Intermaxillary (L. zv¢er, between).—A name some-
times applied to the premaxillary bones.

Intermedium (L. zz¢ermedius, intermediate).—A bone
of the carpus, also termed centrale.

Interoperculum (L. z7Zer, between ; operculum, a lid).
—A bone in fishes lying between the oper-
culum and preoperculum.

Interspinous (L. zz¢er, between).— Between the spines.
Applied particularly to certain bones on the
dorsal fin of fishes developed between the
spines of the vertebre.

Ischium (Gr. zschzon, the hip).—A bone of the pelvic
cirdle.

Jugal (L. jugum, a yoke).—A name applied to the
malar or cheek bone.

Jugular (L. 7ugulum, the fore-part of the neck),—Per-
taining to the neck. Used to denote the
position of ventral fins in some fishes, when
they are situated in front of the pectoral fins.

Lachrymal (L. /achryma, a tear)—Applied to a bone
on either side of the face, through which the
lachrymal duct passes from the eye to the
nostrils ; the os wuguzs of some authors.

H

98 GLOSSARY.

Lambdoidal suture (Gr. the letter A, lambda; ezdos,
shape).—Another name for the occipito-
parietal suture of the skull.

Lamina spiralis (L. spiral plate)——The thin, bony
septum of the cochlea of the ear.

Limbous (L. /z#zdus, a border).—A term applied to
such sutures as that between the parietal
and frontal bones.

Linea aspera (L. rough line)—A prominent ridge
extending along the femur.

Lingula sphenoidalis (L. “xgwa, a tongue).—A small
bony spicule of the sphenoid bone bounding
the carotid groove externally, it has a separate
centre of ossification and corresponds to the
sphenotic of lower Vertebrata.

Lophosteon (Gr. /ophos, neck ; osteon, a bone).—That
portion of the sternum in birds from which
the keel ossifies.

Lunare (L. a little moon).—A bone of the carpus, also
termed the semzlunare or tntermedium.

Malar (L. salar, the cheek).—The cheek bone, also
termed jugal.

Malleolar (L. sa/leolus, a \ittle hammer)—A bone in
the Ruminantia, articulating below with the
calcaneum, and above with the astragalus.

Malleolus (L. a little hammer).—A_ process of the
tibia and fibula.

Malleus (L. a hammer).—One of the three movable
bones of the ear, articulating with the
tympanic membrane on the one side and the
incus on the other.

GLOSSARY. 99

Mandible (L. sando, | chew).—The lower jaw, the
inferior maxilla of human anatomy.
Manubrium (L. a handle).—Applied to the anterior
portion of the sternum, also termed /pre-

Slernum.

Manus (L. the hand).—The hand.

Marginal bones,—A name given to certain additional
bones on the radial and ulnar borders of the
manus in the /chthyosauria.

Mastoid (Gr. zastos,a nipple ; ezdos, shape)—Applied
to a process of the temporal bone behind
the ear.

Maxilla (L. a jaw).—The upper jaw, although some-
times applied to both upper and lower jaws,
which are then spoken of as inferior and
superior maxille respectively.

Maxillo-turbinal.—The inferior turbinated bone of
the face.

Meatus (L. a way, passage).—A small canal.

Meatus auditorius externus (L. external auditory
canal). — The passage leading from the
exterior to the cavity of the tympanum.

Meatus auditorius internus (L. internal auditory
canal)—The opening in the posterior portion
of the periotic, for the passage of the auditory
nerve to the internal ear.

Meckel’s cartilage.—The cartilage of the chondo-
cranium forming the axis of the mandible.

Medius (L. middle).—The third digit.

Mental prominence (L. mentum, the chin).—A tri-

TOO GLOSSARY.

angular elevation of the mandible forming
the chin, and peculiar to the human skull.

Mental spines.—A name applied to two pairs of
prominent tubercles on the mandible for the
attachment of muscles.

Mento-meckelian element (L. mentum, the chin).—
Applied to that portion of Meckel’s cartilage
which becomes ossified and forms the chin.

Mesethmoid (Gr. mesos, middle; ethmos, a_ sieve ;
e7dos, shape).—The vertical plate of the
ethmoid bone in man, a cartilage in the
lower Vertebrata.

Mesopterygium (Gr. esos, middle ; prerux,a wing).—
The median basal cartilage in the pectoral
fin of the Elasmobranchii.

Meso-pterygoid (Gr. sesos, middle ; pterwx, a wing).—
A bone Jor the skull “in ycertain= sishes
(Teleostei).

Meso-seapula (Gr. mesos, middle; L. scapula, the
shoulder-blade)—A term sometimes applied
to the spine of the scapula.

Meso-sternum (Gr. wzesos, middle ; sternon, the chest).
—The middle portion of the sternum, some-
times termed the gladzolus.

Metacarpal (Gr. meta, beyond ; karpos, the wrist).—
Applied to each bone of the metacarpus.

Metacarpus (Gr. meta, beyond ; karpos, the wrist).—
That part of the manus situated between the
wrist and the fingers.

Metacromion (Gr. me¢a, beyond ; akron, the summit ;

GLOSSARY. IOI

omos, a shoulder).— The long projecting
process from the acromion process found in
certain rodents.

Metapophysis (Gr. meta, beyond ; apfophuo, I grow
from).—The mammillary process of human
anatomy. A lateral process sometimes
developed on the vertebre.

Metapterygium (Gr. sefa, behind ; pterwx, a wing).—
The hinder basal cartilage in the pectoral
fin of the Elasmobranchii.

Metasternum (Gr. szeza, behind ; s¢ernon, the chest).—
The xzphisternum. The posterior portion of
the sternum, also termed the ensiform carti-
lage.

Metatarsal (Gr. meta, beyond ; farsos, the sole of the
foot)—Applied to each bone of the meta-
tarsus.

Metatarsus (Gr. seta, beyond ; Zarsos, the sole of the
foot).—That part of the pes situated between
the ankle and the toes.

Metosteon (Gr. meta, behind ; osteon, a bone).—The
posterior portion of the sternum in birds.

Minimus (L. the least)—The fifth digit of the fes or
MANUS.

Molar (L. so/a, a mill)—A grinding tooth.

Multicuspid (L. mts, many; cuspis, a pointed
extremity).—Possessing many cusps, as the
molar teeth.

Mylo-hyoid groove.—A groove on the internal side
of the mandible, in which the mylo-hyoid
nerve and artery run.

102 GLOSSARY.

Murtiform fossa.—A depression on the superior
maxillary bone, known also as the zzczsor
Sossa.

Nasal (L. zasuws, the nose).—Relating to the nose.

Naviculare or Navicular (L. zavzcula, a little ship).—
A bone of the tarsus, also termed centrale,
and also used for the scaphozd of the carpus.

Necrosis (Gr. zeckros, dead).—The death of a mass of
bone.

Neural plate.—Cartilaginous plates forming the sides
of the neural canal in the Elasmobranchi.

Neuropophysis (Gr. zeuron, a nerve ; afophuo, | grow
from).—The spinous process of a vertebra
formed at the point of the neural arches.

Neuro-central suture (Gr. zeuron, a nerve; L. sutura,
a seam).—The suture between the ossifica-
tion of the centrum of a vertebra and those
of the neural arches.

Obturator foramen.
chium and pubis, closed by fibrous membrane.

Occipital (L. occiput, the back part of the head).—
Pertaining .to, or connected with, the back
part of the head.

Occipito-mastoid suture.—A continuation of the
lambdoidal suture.

Occipito-parietal suture.—The suture between the
occipital and parietal bones, also termed
lambdoidal.

Occiput (L. occzpuz, the back part of the head)—The
hinder part of the head or skull.

Ihe aperture between the’ is

GLOSSARY. 103

Odontoid (Gr. odous, a tooth ; ezdos, shape).— Applied
to a process, tooth-like in shape, of the second
cervical vertebra.

Oleecranon (Gr. olexe, the elbow ; ranion, the top
of the head).— The summit of the ulna,
which forms the elbow.

Olivary eminence (L. olive-shaped)—An eminence
in mammals on the superior surface of the
body of the basi-sphenoid.

Omosternum (Gr. omos, the shoulder; sternon, the
breast).—A median process developed from
the coraco-scapula cartilages in the Batrachia.

Operculum (L. a lid).—The gill cover or bony flap
covering and protecting the gills in many
fishes.

Opisthoceelus (Gr. ofzsthen, behind ; £oz/os, hollow).—
Applied to those vertebre the centra of
which are concave posteriorly.

Opisthotie (Gr. opzsthen, behind ; ous, otos, the ear).—
An ossification of the temporal bone surround-
ing the fenestra rotunda and cochlea. In
Teleostean fishes it persists as a separate
bone.

Orbito-sphenoid (L. ovdzto, the orbit; Gr. sphen, a
wedge ; ezdos, shape)—A bone of the skull
in front of the optic foramen, in human
anatomy termed the lesser wing of the
sphenoid bone.

Os articulare (L. articular bone)—A bone in the
mandible in some Vertebrata.

104 GLOSSARY.

Os ealcis (L. the heel-bone)—Another name for the
calcaneum.

Os cloace (L.the bone of the cloaca)—A bone support-
ing the front wall of the cloaca in some
Lacertilia.

Os coxe (L. the hip bone).—Another name for the
ennominate bone of the pelvic girdle.

Os en ceinture (Fr. girdle bone).—A peculiar cartilage
bone in the frog’s skull.

Os innominatum (L. a nameless bone).—In the higher
Vertebrata the large bone of the pelvis,
formed by the coalesence of the ilium, ischium,
and pubis.

Os lingue (IL. bone of the tongue).—Synonymous,
with the hyoid bone.

Os magnum (L. large bone)—A bone of the carpus
known also as the capzetatum.

Os odontoideum (L. tooth-shaped bone).—The peg-
like bone, anchylosed with the second verte-
bra in the higher Vertebrata, on which the
head rotates.

Os orbiculare or lenticulare (L. orbicular or lentil
shaped bone).—A name formerly used for
the tubercle of the incus, in human anatomy
known as the lenticular process of the incus.

Os penis (L. penis bone)—A bone in the penis of
certain Vertebrata.

Os planum (L. flat bone)—Another name for the
orbital surface of the ethmoid bone, or the
external boundary of the ethmo-turbinals.

GLOSSARY. 105

Os pubis (L. pubic bone).—A bone of the pelvis. In
the higher Vertebrata a portion of the os
znnominatume.

Os trigonum (Gr. triangular bone).—The posterior
part of the astragalus. Frequently developed
from a separate centre of ossification.

Ossa suprasternalia (L. bones of the sternum).—
Applied to two small nodules of bone some-
times found in connection with the pre-
sternum; they are supposed to represent
median portions of the episternum.

Ossa triquetra (L. triangular bones).—Small trian-
cular pieces of bone sometimes present
between the bones of the skull.

Ossa wormii (after Wormian, a Danish anatomist).—
Bones found in sutures such as the ossa
triquetra, sometimes termed ossa suturarum.

Osseus (L. os, a bone).—Composed of, or resembling
bone.

Ossicules.—Small bones.

Ossicula auditus (L. little hearing bones).—The three
small bones in the tympanum of the ear.

Ossification (L. os, a bone; /aczo, I make).—The
process by which cartilage or membrane is
converted into bone.

Osteoblast (Gr. osteon, a bone ; d/astos, a germ).—The
bone-cells which probably secrete the osteogen.

Osteoclast (Gr. osteon, a bone; kao, 1 break).—A term
applied to the large nucleated cells which
form excavations in bony tissue during the
process of absorption.

106 GLOSSARY.

Osteodentine (Gr. osteon, a bone; L. dents, a tooth).
—A substance intermediate in structure
between dentine and bone.

Osteogen (Gr. osteon, a bone; gennao, | produce).—
The soft transparent tissue which in the
formation of bone becomes ossified.

Osteology (Gr. osteon, a bone ; logos, a discourse).—
That branch of anatomy which treats of the
skeleton of vertebrated animals.

Palatine (L. palatum, the palate)—The name of a
pair of bones in the skull, also of foramina in
the same bones.

Parachordal (Gr. fara, by, near ; chorde, a string).—
A term applied to the embryonic cartilages
in the posterior portions of the skull.

Parapophysis (Gr. para, beside ; apophuo, | grow
from).—The inferior transverse process of a
vertebra, when two are present on each side
of the centrum ; also called the capztular
process from the fact that the head of the rib
articulates here.

Parasphenoid (Gr. para, beside ; sphen, a wedge;
ezdos, shape).—A bone of the skull in some
Vertebrata, forming portion, of the base
between the basi-occipital and pre-sphenoidal
region.

Parietal (L. parzes, a wall). The name of a pair of
bones in the skull.

Parieto-mastoid suture.—The suture between the
parietal bone and the mastoid portion of the
temporal.

GLOSSARY. 107

Paroccipital (Gr. sara, beside ; occzpzto, the head).—
A name given to a pair of processes of the
ex-occipital bones, sometimes termed fara-
mastotd, and in man jugular processes.

Patella (L. patella, a small pan or plate)—The knee-
cap or pan, also termed the votu/a.

Pectoral (L. fectus, a breast)—Connected with or
belonging to the region of the chest, ¢.¢., the
pectoral arch.

Pedicle (L. pediculus, a little foot)—The ventral
portion of either side of the neural arch of a
vertebra.

Pelvis (L. pelvis, a basin).—The cavity surrounded by
the pelvic girdle.

Perichondrium (Gr. ferz, around ; chondros, gristle).—
The sheath of connective tissue covering
cartilages.

Pericranium (Gr. ferz, around ; razon, the skull).—
The region around the skull.

Periosteum (Gr. ferz, around ; osteon, a bone).—The
sheath of connective tissue which invests
bones.

Periotic (Gr. perz, around; ous, ofos, the ear)—A
name given to the petro-mastoid portion of
the temporal bone.

Pes (L. foot)—That portion of the hind limb which
includes the tarsus, metatarsus, and digits, in
man forming the foot.

Petrous (Gr. fetros, a stone)—Applied to a dense,
solid mass of bone forming the basal part of
the temporal bone.

108 GLOSSARY.

Phalanges (Gr. phalans, a line of soldiers).—A term
applied to the bones of the digits, they being
arranged in rows. (Singular phalanx.)

Pisiform (L. pzsum, a pea; forma, shape)—A name
applied to the small bone of the Mammalia,
situated in the tendon of the flexor muscle of
the wrist, on the ulna side. It is supposed
by some anatomists to be the remains of a
seventh digit.

Planiform (L. A/anum, a level place ; forma, shape).—
Applied to a class of joints in which the
surfaces are nearly flat ; also termed arthro-
dial.

Plastron (Gr. emplastron, a plaster)—The ventral
exoskeleton of the Chelonia.

Pleurapophysis (Gr. plewron, a rib; apophuo, | grow
from).—A lateral out-growth from a vertebra.

Pleurosteon (Gr. pleuron, a side ; osteon, a bone).—A
lateral ossification in the anterior portion of
the sternum of birds.

Pollex (L. thumb).—The first digit of the manus, the
thumb.

Post-axial.—A term applied to that surface of a limb,
which is posterior, when the limb is at right
angles to the vertebral column.

Post-clavicula (L. fosé, after; clavicula, the collar
bone).— A bone of the pectoral arch in
certain Teleostean fishes.

Posterior (L. following after).— Towards the tail ;
behind.

GLOSSARY, 109

Post-frontal (L. fosz, after)—A bone in some Verte-
brata which lies behind the orbit and dorsal
to the ali-sphenoid.

Post-glenoid process.—A process of the temporal
bone, situated immediately behind the

elenoid fossa.

Post-orbital process.—A process on the dorso-lateral
border of the frontals in .some Vertebrata
for the attachment of muscles.

Post-sphenoid (L. /osz, after)—An independent ossi-
fication of the posterior portion of the body
of the sphenoid bone, seen in the fcetal
skull.

Pre-axial (L. pre, before)—A term applied to that
surface of a limb, which is anterior, when
the limb is at right angles to the vertebral
column.

Pre-coracoid (L. gv, before)—A bone of the pec-
toral arch in some Vertebrata.

Pre-frontal (L. fre, before)-—A bone of the skull in
certain Vertebrata.

Pre-maxilla (L. pre, before)— A bone formed in
most skulls in which the upper incisor teeth
are implanted. It is present in the human
foetus, but fuses normally with the maxilla
before birth.

Pre-operculum (L. fre, before)—A bone in Teleos-
tean fishes, situated in front of the operculum.

Pre-sphenoid (L. gre, before)— A bone of the skull
in some Vertebrata in front of the sphenoid

Ilo GLOSSARY.

bone. In human osteology this name is
given to the anterior portion of the body
of the developing sphenoid bone.

Pre-sternum.—The sanubrium, which see.

Process (L. processus, to go forwards).—A _ projecting
part or protuberance of a bone.

Processus brevis vel obtusus (L. short or obtuse
process).—Applied to a short process on the
malleus.

Processus cochleariformis (L.spoon-shaped process).
—A thin plate of bone in the petrous portion
of the temporal bone, situated above the
Eustachian canal.

Processus gracilis (L. slender process)—Applied to
the long process on the malleus.

Processus lenticularis (L. lentil-shaped process),—
The os orbiculare, a process of the incus
which articulates with the stapes.

Proccelus (Gr. pro, before ; £oz/os, hollow).—Applied
to vertebre which have a concavity in their
centra in front.

Prognathous (Gr. pro, forward ; grathos, a jaw).—
Applied to skulls with a large cranio-facial
angle and protruding upper jaw.

Pro-otic (Gr. fro, before ; ous, otos, the ear)—A bone
in some Vertebrata in front of the ear. In
human anatomy the name is given to one of
the osseous deposits in the embryonic petro-
mastoid.

Propterygial (Gr. pro, before; prerux, a wing)—A

GLOSSARY. Tit

name applied to the anterior basal fin
cartilages in the Elasmobranchii.

Pterotic (Gr. pteron, a wing ; ous, ofos, the ear).—An
ossification between the pro-otic and epi-otic
bones in some Vertebrata. The name is
given by some human anatomists to one of
the osseous deposits in the embryonic petro-
mastoid.

Pterygoid (Gr. pteron, a wing ; ezdos, shape).—A pair
of bones behind or lying partly on the
palatines of some Vertebrata ; in human
anatomy they are termed the internal ptery-
goid plates of the sphenoid bone.

Pubis (L. pubes, the region of the groin)—A_ bone of
the pelvis; in human anatomy the anterior
portion of the os zznominatum.

Pygostyle (Gr. puge, the rump ; szz/os, a style, pen).—
A bone in most birds supporting the tail
feathers ; the ploughshare bone.

Quadrate (L. guadratus, square).—A bone of the skull
articulating with the lower jaw in all Verte-
brata below the Mammalia.

Quadrato-jugal (L. guadratus, square ; jugum, a
yoke)—A bone formed by the union of the
quadrate and jugal in some Vertebrata, in
others a bone situated behind the jugal and
maxillary bones.

Quadrato-palatine (L. guadratus, square ; palatus,
the pallet)—A bone formed by the union of
the quadrate and palatine in some Verte-
brata.

I12 GLOSSARY.

Radial sesamoid.— The tubercle of the human
scaphoid. Supposed by some to represent
the first digit of the heptadactylus manus,
7.é., a pre-pollex.

Radius (L. vadzus, a ray, or spike).—The outer bone of
the fore-arm.

Ramus (L. ramus, a branch).—Each half of the lower
jaw or mandible of the Vertebrata.

Rostrum (L. vostrum, a bill or beak)—Applied to the
anterior or facial portion of the skull of

certain fishes, where greatly produced. A
sharp prominence or spine in the middle
line of the sphenoid bone of the skull.

Sacral (L. sacrum, sacred).—Relating to the region of
the sacrum.

Sacrum.—The terminal anchylosed vertebrz, imme-
diately succeeding the lumbar vertebre, to
which the pelvic arch is articulated.

Sagittal suture (L. sagz¢fa, an arrow ; sutura,a seam).
—The suture uniting the parietal bones of
the skull.

Seaphoid (Gr. scaphe, a boat ; ezdos, shape).—Boat-
shaped.

Scaphoides (Gr. scaphe, a boat ; ezdos, shape).—One of
the bones of the carpus, and also one of the
tarsus.

Scapho-lunar (Gr. scaphe, a boat ; L. /unar, a moon).—
Seapula (L. the shoulder-blade).—The shoulder-blade
of the pectoral arch of Vertebrata.

Scapula accessoria (L. additional scapula).—A small

GLOSSARY, 113

bone on the outer side of the scapula.
Developed in some birds.

Schindylesis (Gr. schindulzo, 1 split)—A variety of
suture where one bone fits into a groove in
another.

Sella turcica.—The depression on the superior sur-
face of the basi-sphenoid which lodges the
pituitary body.

Sensory canal bones.—Applied to a series of ossifi-
cations which protect and convey the sensory
canals in certain fishes.

Sesamoid (Gr. sesamon, a kind of small grain; ezdos,
shape).—Applied to small bones formed in
tendons.

Sinciput (the fore part of the head).—The fore part of
the head or skull.

Sphenethmoid (Gr. sphen, a wedge ; ethos, a sieve ;
etdos, shape).—A bone of the skull in some
Vertebrata, anterior to the parasphenoid.

Spheno-palatine foramen.—A foramen formed by
the palatine and sphenoid bones.

Sphenoid (Gr. sphen, a wedge ; ezdos, shape)—A bone
of the skull which wedges in and locks
together other bones.

Spinous (L. sfzza, a thorn)—Applied to any spine-
like process of a bone).

Splenial (L. sp/enzuwm, a splint)—A bone of the skull
in certain Vertebrata.

Squamosal (L. sguama, a scale).—A bone of the skull
in lower Vertebrata, represented in human

I

114 GLOSSARY.

anatomy by the squamous part of the tem-
poral bone.

Squamo-zygomatie (L. sguama,a scale ; Gr. sugnum,
I yoke together)—A suture which forms a
centre of ossification in the fcetal skull.

Stapes (L. a stirrup)—A stirrup-like bone of the ear,
htting in the fenestra ovalis.

Sternum (Gr. sternon, the breast)—The flat bone of
the breast to which the rib or costal cartilages
are attached.

Stylo-hyal.—An ossification in certain Vertebrata,
which connects the hyoidean arch with the
skull. The styloid process of the temporal
bone of human anatomy consists of a fusion
of Stylo-hyal and Tympano-hyal.

Styloid (Gr. stulos, a style ; ezdos, shape).—Style-like.
Applied to certain processes of bones, as
those of the ulna, radius, and temporal.

Sub-operculum (L. své, under ; operculum, a lid).—A
bone in Teleostean fishes forming the ventral
portion of the skeleton covering the gill.

Suchospondylia (Gr. swchnos, long ; spondulos, a
vertebra). — Applied to certain Reptilia
having elongated and divided transverse
processes on the dorsal vertebre.

Suleus (L. a furrow).—A term applied to furrows or
depressions in bones, eg. the sulcus frontales
of the frontal bone.

Superciliary ridge (L. swper, above ; cz/zum, an eye-
lash)—An eminence on the frontal bone,

GLOSSARY. 115

above the margin of the orbit, caused by the
projection of the frontal sinus.

Supra-angular (L. supra, above).—A bone of the
mandible in some Vertebrata, above the
angular.

Supraclavicle (L. supra, above ; clavicula, the collar-
bone).—A bone at the dorsal end of the
clavicle. Present in some fishes.

Supracondyloid process (L. swpra, above).—A small
process sometimes present on the humerus.
It represents a portion of the bar of bone
which in many animals passes from this
situation to the ezzo-condyle and forms a
supra-condyloid foramen, through which the
median nerve and the brachial artery pass.

Supra-occipital (L. swpra, above ; occzput, the back of
the head).—A bone of the skull above the
foramen magnum in some Vertebrata.

Supra-orbital (L. above the orbit)—A bone of the
skull in some Vertebrata, also applied to a
notch or foramen above the orbit in the
frontal bone.

Supra-seapular.
the scapula. In some animals there is a

Applied to the superior border of

distinct cartilage in this situation.
Supra-temporal.—A bone of the skull in certain
Vertebrata.
Suspensorium (L. szspendo, | hang, or suspend).—The
apparatus suspending the lower jaw to the
cranium.

116 GLOSSARY.

Suture (L. su¢ura, a seam).—An immovable articula-
tion of bones.

Symphysis (Gr. swz, together ; phuszs, | grow).— The
union of bones where there is not a complete
articulation.

Symplectic (Gr. symplino, to entwine together).—A
bone of the skull in Teleostean fishes, forming
the lower ossification of the suspensorium
and articulating below with the quadrate.

Synarthrosis (Gr. sw, together ; arthron, a joint) A
class name for immovable articulations.

Synchondrosis (Gr. saz, together ; chondros, gristle).
—A form of articulation existing in early
life, in which a thin layer of cartilage is
interposed between the bones.

Synostosis (Gr. swz. together ; osteon, a bone), —
Applied to the premature obliteration of the
sutures of the skull.

Synovia (Gr. sux, together ; oom, an egg).—A viscid,
transparent fluid, secreted in the cavities of
joints.

Synovial membrane.—A thin membrane situated in
the interior cavity of a joint, covering the
inner surfaces of the ligaments connected
with the joint. The membrane secretes the
synovia.

Talus (L. a die).—The astragalus, which see.

Tarsalia (Gr. ¢arsos, the flat of the foot)—The bones
of the tarsus.

Tarso-metatarsus.—The single bone in the leg of a

GLOSSARY. 1L7

bird, being formed by an anchylosis of the
tarsus and metatarsus.

Tarsus (Gr. Zarsos, the flat of the foot)—That portion
of the posterior limb between the crus and
metatarsus, the ankle in man.

Temporal (L. ¢espora, the temples)——The names of
each of a pair of bones in the skull of higher
Vertebrata ; the squamosal of many lower
Vertebrata.

Temporo-parietal.—A pplied to the suture joining the
temporal and parietal bones of the skull.

Tetradactyle (Gr. ¢etras, four ; daktulos,a finger or
toe).—Possessing four fingers.

Thecodont (Gr. ¢heke, a sheath; odous, odontos, a
tooth).— Having the teeth lodged in alveoli,
as in the Protorosauria, a group of extinct
Lacertilia.

Thyro-hyal (G. ¢hureus, a shield)—Applied to two
ossifications of the hyoid in the lower Verte-
brata ; homologous with the great cornua of
the hyoid bone in man.

Thyroid (Gr. ¢hureos, a shield ; ecdos, shape).—A pplied
to the largest cartilage of the larynx.

Tibia (L. a flute)—The larger of the two bones of the
leg.

Tibiale.—A bone of the tarsus articulating with the
tibia.

Trabecula (L. a little rafter)—Two cartilaginous
plates in the embryo from which the dorso-
anterior region of the skull arises.

118 GLOSSARY.

Trapezium (Gr. ¢rapezion, a geometrical figure, from
trapeza, a small table or board).—A bone of
the carpus of very irregular form.

Trapezoid (Gr. ¢rapeza, a table; ezdos, shape).—One
of the carpal bones.

Tricuspid (L. ¢vza, three ; cusfzs, a point).—Having
three points.

Tridactyle (L. ¢rza, three ; Gr. daktulos, a finger or toe).
—Having three digits.

Tridentate (L. ¢za, three ; dens, dentis, a tooth).—
Having three tooth-like divisions.

Trochanter (Gr. zrochas, I roll or run round).—One of
the two processes (sajor or minor) on the
upper part of each femur.

Trochlea (L. ¢rochlea, a case containing pulleys).—
Applied to that part of the humerus articula-
ting with the ulna.

Tuber caleis (L. zwzder, a knob; calx, the heel).—The
large posterior extremity of the os calcis.

Tuberosity (L. tuber, a knob).—A term applied to any
knob-like bony prominence, usually giving
attachment to muscles.

Tympanie (L. zympanum, a drum).—A bone in some
Vertebrata surrounding the tympanum of
the ear.

Ulna (Gr. olene, the elbow).—The bone of the fore-arm,
the proximal end of which forms the elbow
in man.

- UInare.—A bone of the carpus articulating with the

ulna.

GLOSSARY. 119

Unciform (L. wxcus,a hook ; formzs, shape).—A bone
of the carpus also termed wzcinatum and
hamatume.

Uncinate (L. wxcus, a hook)—Hooked. A process of
the ethmoid bone.

Ungual phalanges (L. wgwzs, a nail)—The terminal
phalanges of the digits which are provided
with nails or claws.

Urohyal (Gr. owra, the stern, the tail)—An_ ossifica-
tion in the posterior portion of the hyoidean
arch in fishes.

Urosacral (Gr. owra, the tail ; sacrus, sacred).—A term
applied to certain caudal vertebre in birds
which are anchylosed together.

Urostyle (Gr. oura, tail; stulos, a style, or pen).—A
bony prolongation of the vertebral column
in certain fishes and amphibia.

Venter of scapula (L. venter, the belly)—A broad
concavity on the anterior surface of the
scapula; also termed the sub-scapular fossa.

Vertebra (L. vero, to turn)—The name of each of the
bony segments forming the spinal column.

Vertebrata dentata.— A term sometimes applied to
the second cervical vertebra or axis.

Vertebra prominens.—A term sometimes applied to
the seventh cervical vertebra in man, on
account of its prominent spine.

Vidian canal (after Vzdzus, a French Professor).—A
small canal which passes through the internal
pterygoid plate of the sphenoid bone, trans-

“T2Z0 GLOSSARY.
~-mitting a branch of the internal maxillary
artery and a nerve passing from the spheno-
palatine ganglion.

Vomer (L. a ploughshare)——A bone of the skull,
so-called from its fancied resemblance to a
ploughshare.

Weberian ossicles (after Weber, a German professor).
—A series of three ossicles, originally de-
scribed by Weber, serving as a connection
between the internal ear and the air-bladder
in certain families of Physostomous Teleostei.

Wormian bones.— Bones found in sutures, some-
times termed ossa suturarum.

Xiphisternum (Gr. xzphos, a sword; sternon, the
breast).— The posterior portion of the
sternum, in Human Anatomy known as the
enstform cartilage.

Xiphoid cartilage (Gr. rzphos, a sword; ezdos, shape).
—Sometimes applied to the azphzsternuam.

Zygapophyses (Gr. zugos, a yoke; apophuo,1 grow
from).— The articulating process of the
vertebrze.

Zygomatie arch, (Gr. 2#gos, a yoke).—The arch

Zygoma formed by the zygomatic process

of the temporal bone, and the
malar bone.

Zygomatic fossa (Gr. zugos, a yoke; L. fossa, a
ditch)—The lower part of the fossa bridged
over by the zygomatic arch. »

INDEX.

Atluroidea, 59
Ali-sphenoid, 15
-- canal, 40
Alveoli, 32
Angular bone, 34
Aperture of Eustachian tube, 27, 53
Aqueeductus Fallopii, 26
Arctoidea, 60
Artery, external carotid, 41
internal carotid, 40
Auditory capsule, 24
Auditory ossicles, 27
development of, 28
homologies of, 28

BR.
Basi-hyal, 36
Basi-occipital, 13
Basi-sphenoid, 15
Bone, 7
bone cells, 8
bone trabecule, 9
canaliculi, 8
cancellous, 7
endosteum, 9
growth of, 10
Haversian canals in, 9
lacune, §
lamelle, 8
medullary cavity, 9
myeloplaxes, 10
osteoblasts, 8
osteogenetic layer, 7
ossein, 8
periosteum, 7
preparation of, 2
sections of, 2

spongy, 7
tabular bones, 7

Brain-case, see Cranium
Bulla, tympanic, 26, 53

c

Canal, ali-sphenoid, 40
», Eustachian, 27

Canide, 60

Canine tooth, 47

Carnivora, general review of, 58

Cartilage, 4
chondrigen, 4
chondrin, 4
development of, 6
elastic, 5, 6
hyaline, 5
lacunze, 5
white-fibro, 5, 6
Cerato-hyal, 37
Chondrocranium, 21
Condyle, 34
Connective tissue, 4
Cornua of hyoid, 36
Coronal suture, 19
Coronoid process, 18, 34
Cranium, 13
segments of, 13
Cranio-facial axis, 48
Cribriform plate, 21, 42
Cynoide, 60

D.

Dental canal, 34, 42
Dental formulz, 46
Diastema, 46

Digitigrada, 59

Diploé, 7

Dog, different breeds of, 64
Duct, lachrymal, 19

122
E.

Ear, see Auditory capsule
Endosteum, 9

Epihyal, 37

Epi-otic, 24

Ethmoidal region, 19
Ethmo-turbinal, 22
Eustachian canal, 27, 53
Ex-occipital, 13

F,

Facial plate, 32
Felidae, 59
Fenestra ovalis, 25
»» rotunda, 25
Fissipedia, 59
Foramina
anterior palatine, 33, 41
condylar, 14, 38
inferior dental, 34, 42
infra-orbital, 31, 42
inter-orbital, 42
lacerum anterius, 16, 40
lacerum medium, 15, 40
lacerum posterius, 14, 38
lachrymal, 19
magnum, 38
mental, 35, 42
optic, 18, 41
ovale, 15, 40
post-glenoid, 40
posterior palatine, 41
rotundum, 16, 40, 41
sphenoidal, 16, 40
stylo-mastoid, 26, 38
Fossa
cerebella, 50
cerebral, 50
floccular, 52
glenoid, 34
meso-pterygoid, 31
temporal, 18
Frontal bone, 1, 18
jy SePMent, 13550

G.

Glenoid process, post, 34
Glossary, 82

INDEX.

Jal

Hamular process, 31
Haversian canal, 9
Hertwig, homologue of incus, 28
fLyentde, 60
Hyoid, 36
anterior cornu, 37
posterior cornu, 36
body of, 36

1.
Incisor, 46, 47
Incus; 27
Interparietal, 16

J.
Jacobson’s organ, 33
Jaws, 28
Jugal, 33

1

Lachrymal bone, 19

Be duct, 19
Lambdoidal crest, 14
Lamina perpendicularis, 21

M.
Malar, 33

ca process, 32

Malleus, 27

Mandible, 34

Mandibular arch, 33

Manubrium, 27

Mastoid, 26

Mastoid process, 26

Maxilla, 31

Maxillary arch, 29

Maxillo-turbinals, 22

Meatus auditorius externus, 26, 40
ae 5 internus, 25, 40

Meckel’s cartilage, 29

Medullary cavity, 9

Mesethmoid, 19, 22

Meso-pterygoid fossa, 31

Mivart, on the Pimnipedia, 61

Muscles, action on movement of
Jaw, 35

INDEX. "E23

Muscle
digastric, 35
external pterygoid, 35
hyoid, 35
internal pterygoid, 35
masseter, 35
temporal, 35
Mustellide, 61
Myeloplaxes, Io

IN:

Nasal bone, 22, 56
Nasal plate, 32
WNaso-turbinals, 22

Nerve

Ist cranial—olfactory, 42, 43

2nd ,, —optic, 41, 43

3rd. ,, —oculo-motor, 41,
43.

4th ,, —pathetic, 41, 43

5th ,, —trigeminal, 40,
41, 42, 43

6th ,, —abducent, 41, 43

7th ,, —facial, 40, 43

8th ,, —auditory, 40, 43

gth ,, —glossopharyn-
geal, 38, 43

Ioth ,, —pneumogastric
or vagus, 38,
43

Iith ,, —Spinal acces-
sory, 38, 43

12th ,, —hypoglossal, 38,
43

©.

Occipital condyle, 14
segment, 13, 50
Olfactory capsule, 22
Opisthotic bone, 24
Optic capsule, 24
Orbito-sphenoid, 18
Ossein, 8
Os orbiculare, 28
Ossicles, Auditory, 27
Osteoblasts, §
Osteogenetic layer, 7
Osteology, study of, I
Otartiede, 61

Palatine, 31
Ss plate, 31, 32

Parietal bone, 16

Ar segment, 13, 14, 50
Parker, W. K., on the auditory

ossicles, 28
Paroccipital process, 14
Perichondrium, 4
Periosteum, 7
Periotic, 24
Petrous, portion of the, 25
Phocide, 61
Pinnipedia, 61
Plantigrada, 59
Post-glenoid process, 34
Pre-maxilla, 3
Preparation of specimens, 2
Pre-sphenoid, 18
Procyonide, 61
Pro-otic, 24
Proteleide, 60
Pterygoid, 29

fossa, 31
process, 15

S.

Sagittal crest, 16
55. . suture, 16
Sections of bone, 2
a of skull, 48
Sectorialia, 58
Sectorial tooth, 47
Sella turcica, 15, 50
Sense-capsules, 21
auditory, 24
olfactory, 22
optic, 24
Septum nasi, 21
Sphenoidal fissure, 16, 40
Squamosal, 33
Stapes, 28
Stylo-hyal, 37
Supra-occipital, 14
Supra-orbital process, 19
Sutural ridge, 32
Symphysis, 35

124

i:

Teeth, 44
development of, 44
structure of, 45
Tabular bones, 7
Temporal fossa, 18
Thyrohyal, 36
Thyroid cartilage, 36
Trichechide, 61
Tympanic bulla, 26, 53
membrane, 26
RA ring, 26
Tympanohyal, 37

29

INDEX.

U.

Urside, 60

Vein

We

internal jugular, 38
lateral sinus, 40

Viverride, 59
Vomer, 24

Z.

Zygomatic arch, 33

BIRMINGHAM!

39

process, 33

PRINTED BY ROBERT BrrBeEcK & Sons, BROAD STREET.

fas te

,
.
a
7

on
y wie vier
Fd PSD |
n. roy Wh Aha
lad Ay ‘ » As - SS
rst p hi AN

wa wile ae ays

é
VE
Apel,
iF mel) ¥

edu lt
4 t
At «t
ani

49

4 ia

ie Re

“t

~~" 4

my a

a8)

syetety

ay

PP) Ee

4 Pal

<} ase

t at

“hae hi

4%

eat
M

‘
‘2
"

a?
i%
4 le

4 44

mob: Aeiite

ata tat ete

Sid

: feel

al
{
2
4
ii
.
! { bh "
teeheses ‘ a eich
i 1¢3 .
gegeate
‘t eds 45 we “414
cs ia sat a BRR
‘ “este ii i $05 t ae
cares sat ae age
) te “ite ie ‘3 eS eee
sh wi i os o ie oe aS oS fetes
ainsi i | auaaacias Sat nh
si Re aids aa tease aia ee
4 a ise ny = tla as e{egeie) ‘ pete dps perh
Efe ye si arches Sane ¢ ed {Si _ it $f ie ie , ee ie
viet) 0 SR sai ae as € +3 paee oe ce
> + tei the Ng Sette t etsie felt 4 Reiats ete ry! Soe 465 oe st Gye, {5 rt,
a rele My Prrol enn Ste by Seis ‘Ke eed iWee ae tat af of v2
eI ¢ aig Sete couse’ bl bas « letens ith <eeag vi « opotet Ss ace ay ie
— sicics Ce rts; {ices 4 hPa Headed tg «eae « ieteie >) ie yo bo
if es See stefes SASaset ech Seat pete si54 4 Ge Sait tes
ante! SERRE ae S48 ¢ 4 ty % 4 a 4 sei 44, ae eae { niece t . © A
salad S84 Sets te ; Ps 4 4 ‘ ed bbe 4 4 «i seh £24 ite ite ‘a
gS aSad tele? 4 EK <4 at iy y ie Sah m < Ac Sete 3s setees Hi 9 4 6) ¢
nl be ¥} tet 4 « ect 40 yh hh ry a4 ‘se >, Diba ae “6 tity ai 1 « 5
be 4 es teh saat i aes : csi uu aoe ac et SSRRe ak diate ae ests 4 aeetes ne ets ‘ a i
aa: ay 4 secteteaed % *, ae Acasa’ ssiateset asf
a BS Soe asset ‘ — sae a AN 43 he eh oo ae sae sae
a at She a4 4 Sse Ps AS < nh 4 th east « aaah i fetes aiearee x yy) 4) 4 ths seh MSGcSs i tee
de ese 5? cele yas Oe 4e od thee Bh Deore Stig mi « tests 4 «4 esciet nt sR sts 4 4 Stoth 253 te} efelet katong 9} tisate
Neh Bos Wigte fied ba ss aoe aN cleat rata! Ring $a} Py bf Me sete CU “4 te} uh ee {$36} « He be S548 bf) HH5855 ah
Fase fi Sa tote aie bf) 14 < Df) ce issiefe? yr, ay e4eae os «4 sietete of aroha a shen ites rear {3 40 Ses es ced 4 Shs
tg Hoke th a8 4 4 eee Sate IK Bststetet ‘ 844 seh es este se 4 > ‘i b fete it a «85. efetet 4 «st Ase 46 tase :
HOSne seis Py) aa 4 Ae «ie Ss — ei poets tele
eet Hey} PER J Fels 4%, ‘ini Sy “ be} 44 aS, Sy 44 beth. cise 1A oe ie ‘¢ Ae oe ; « ih ‘ 4 “454 te pint wrth) te5¢ 4a M4, i-4 ao «
ate in}: selene atsn hy sera ae} hoe Pa GQ MEE S¢ Si 43 Cau i eS +40 4 Steet $643 tite 4 het Messieied
aie Nei io OM eg ee "1 ies ehh tei £34 gee ert +f sees ASS akc 5 ie} ‘genie tote adele 6 ca eiefese Ks 4
Se Se: . Di eee} t a ede dese re sais mi £5 eS 44 < tes $454 I fc hy ASS us < ah « oR SE Ss 6 4 45454 4545 «4 Bie dée see =H
inte in )) sd < 4} aX 4 rhe) ale Ge te M4 ‘4 atat oh 4 ay ‘ 2 bh teha! ‘ 4 S48 & te Shy ue % 4; te ote 454 {ef 4¢ tap ctete < ‘
ce hese er 43 o t deste a siete! ti < ise SAS tee hi eSe4e efesese <a eh igs ea 4 {acta 4
eke zy oe Rie eattt ¢ sete sets Dah Aue 4 Py »; Pio <ete See ics « Se €5¢9 4¢ eed Guy hed Sra se Ny ee “f ‘ te
ete Risk Raa eres Pel 6 cy Sesh oteced 3eete K¢ isis i ef etate ‘si » SG bh {es seu Suede etches ja} 18 he s thet sede uct «Se e
/ aC th 4° 44 babe ce Babs rh cK “ ye 6 4d s Popp <4 fete isesss oe ses 4 aide $040 ie us « ef «} hie: P Bhat het ie
+ fis tees 6 cies GG as ade baby ate ise Sei 104 ehate fete 349 eesed seid 5) sere +f tesieed aor we ssid «fe :
Se 4 cig ete at 4 Sete eeeas iar ote MSs 54 Silt si fea ¢. 4 sis} Sete diel { e4 RRB teset 4s b ite
ee ; st a i ' ie seth S tabas 3494 :] ars) ates tet mbm 1h wb} S ¢ 4 2 Shei ‘ $48e8 tht ips ce Jef t¢ 4° mt 4 raed ° ‘ 4
AY fF te use suas Bs HA} MN s$ 48 ‘ eve {; 4 4 Xe nets é a6 Sije oe Saif 246 « % 84 “¢ é 46 42 te caake x etic (tak qe
< « yh « Q 44 br} 4 4% {de 4 tte 4 < ee fe 4 4 1 4c te oy <6 sche ‘¢ <
sie | Se) sie oe ish i Mott ie y “ fete vf) aS ‘ Para 4 if be S4o4e CH4o 445s 44 & q ht <4 44 Set Hy i atdCdte Saket *¢ < ;
sis is t Bh Pi ise <3 { Heat n 46 OS S4 te $084 tS 4e tate %4 oh 446 S4h¢ + sce! > 4 Q Te 20) te | rat *
hal it 353} ¢ beh St 4 4e Os 4 qehesi pe) Sf 6 br sh oe te ‘ SS S< 404 Se 4¢ he t G adele ‘ 4 t diets 4 $c ar py: :
Bie sh : Se 6 1 504 , 4 <j ING ate 4 ‘ oat ee 46 4Se5450! & 44 ‘rs 4 4 gaat ote « G tec’ te m > Y
sci ot Bo Pater < ss is , yo 4 rh i ates! 4¢ cs Aas 45484 re sche jefe! fact ates tie ‘ ee a8ta8 esas 4 as ‘
ede | fe i “s Wa 4 aa seis Ae Scie eh ft fe es + stesete stated fe ry 846k ie } sie siaat Seid stsesise Se tc meet : us d
44 IF $4 dee caeeess S88 > 3 ssise 4 ‘ ee $4 84 of etal >} Gees «4 368 9 eee th, 44 Mae iG i 3efeh a4 \ Se Se ofoPy) S¢ ‘ k
Seas ‘ yh i siete ra 484 pest ai< “¢ sek Ciehe ats 4 aie ch RoR ete 4 ies eis C4 }4e es 554 Sis sata cg ‘
ete [if Sf as 4 f4 see 4 esses Mee BARR Haass Pape Rea $4 SiG cases * ates! SaSe:
ete Has « al oe) a) “4 af iat < AeA Akt 4e “ae Py $49 oy <4 efit tent SASS “8 ms fetes &« tas “ eis % at rb G ataatet i ‘
4 ng s,| Core 4 4% Og 404 ot q te . y) 43 40 4 44 “4 4¢ 4 Seed 4 ae 4 40 a2 4 fais i mes hehe’ vpat 4% Diet a $4hc t 4, |
Se oe le Es ;
4 1 4! ri se oth) arpa: « Sc4 <4 € 44 ¢ 1, te ASSeSet 44 “ 4 G 4¢ Dyer h $; « th “ éi<t tSehe « Pi 6 ri Pars
bi era ‘ Mite 4e C4363 Sei 4 as aia <j at) q td Me $e) 4 oh oth, q “ aa Debt <4 tatas seeteset feos Diop s¢ < eSeses 4 ocd s
Py? } 86 88 BERR dee Pah th 4 45 sag oo ae Pi alee as eige a agen atetgt ces ace ced t
eis <} ie ‘ eke ¢ 24369 4g sh aS6 oe 4 458 | tases eisai eae Ce if ,
take te 4h cate #3 ois Qe SS ie 4% a4 (Sas < Ke sea eats ae esses eee tae ») < Pay et tg 3
ete “1 Bn 9 43 “i ak cS SRB UT fist siceel teeicen : cieteless ae SR ‘ > (Se eee ies
eke ik ‘ Bae 43 <i te tI « ara eae <fefe} ote +3 cfstehese | q ised ra 4 2 ee « reece Pian
ec “i SM Sos teh 365 ates } pears! +4 3 &¢ eaidces oe Sa eRe bet hele ‘ fcesteaet eh |
a < 4 38 r Sat 6 6 bth 4646 ‘ iS pry prey Sada eases oe >) $c aes eief ‘ iss tele “ <e “hete! bebe,
Mit h thes ishing ree hehe ea aeQt feiss ae us 464 e059 fetes 4 ac as CAN as q “ ‘ rth) Ss ase ages rey tis teases te, "
ede rf Sai Sues oy >) , aed » e4¢ § rs vb) 44 heels rfp q rye) <4 rfp c +7) obs, te ‘ sr eis 4 « <, Pay fp! See , ‘
ete ett ch Aiefese Gaede OR “ici asst Beh (ae . ‘ ieee Sette «is “s Seechae og 4
St RSs aes sistas {O14 . te is dices {eis s settee ee
S48 if es « 43¢ i S¢5¢ br pt} 4e8¢ 448 “4 r >, MES 4g S¢ %4 4¢ % 4¢ th ag vp p & $6 « $< 4% 40 Sq 44 r 4cte 4 tgehe & CA. }
ee fa Ks xe stds 4¢ of 4 Sheds S464 Heide eeseds « «S548 eles Sette sees “cated sec « (aes pry? 4eke 442 + $8 ket stats ‘
ra aS tf Sieh ist seis csehe Shag! 44 appre i eases fefes seis tase ae asses & op C6548 Ske 43 % ett i «sess ot ;
eft ha othe eh) ty 4s 1.40 th 4 < saaesisis ‘ei cfeieses eet {ete eh Shes « 48 q rere 4 ? q q Pa 4% eh “8 as pe hae
seas eecices Seite aia ike 4 {ete ¢ “fet te poy Se ase i repre iene ests “ vo) % ies eis at 5) sess 404 ») 13 “ € tates ‘ eat ty
< rh: 4 ae 4% ‘ OSG < ¢ Mg 4¢ “8 Ae “43 <e tbs Pi % S yp} & >i us « ate © afb + aa “4S < 46 Sf 44, 4 me fats dete
etd | i #asehdeek “44 eh «hg $4 iS eieses 4 a6¢ <6 C584 be aed rf} ahces 4¢ if 4¢ ty ass the cas cele Sele tae peat 484 see Sh
Shag p mses ii iq 4 ryotot rere (¢ & sii . ihc Sekchad < Asc eed 4 4046 te, ype rte f f
S14 i Cae oth seseie , seed 5 ed tes . ret ans at ‘aed ep tate Cas We,
ci Ge a tg <i4ea 4% de é 24 aes seisit $< a sitet roret ees fetes steietese sess ees « ae Sch 4 »? % 4 my th 404 sahas OR ey
cd! At; 4 4c4¢ 4 p>) 404 Gq 44 «< sete i ote G yr} 44 P5 4 q 4 ti +? 1 44 id ad 4 4 Cor} 4 (40 7 ag iy ‘8 $i
« et ete > rip) qed eae eheits Scie co Kiet <a +P : é tot, Pi aC “ i A
ele | nce 1 Ces cided 4 $5 &% deefe ides » seiei etetes a6a66 S446 ¢ 4 sets fe} <4 «Sess iKi6 < Py ke { 4: « < 4 ( 404; #254 Cat Sus 14
fe i RAS « eis 448 prt thst . aa i preter felcte’ dg 4, 44, Soke ceeiet ca }
ete aE | fede «4 oth £4 fafe $c 4Aeag ots y ee Cg oe Se$eheS isicist seas tet 4ete fete Reg ie tk
eS | Ne at tee <4 NSS Para Ph siti eter dtcte cea Mes a é <f4 | { 44 ‘ «tate 46 th 14) pe ss! te
eee uu it 4c dts SPS Ps I % 46%, 404 é RY rerio tbe 468 aes 4 at ess hese bh Hee t (Letete y" { 464! “s 4 tb Sek ye!
<5! 14 } ac +?) ee selesese tists ates te 4¢ as <0 t %& (ite 46 44 54 % ae % ic & i ees 4 < « { 4 “a Qa i 4 Peri i
+ ne rH S¢ Gy 4¢ rrryp) < ¢ te} 4 4 > t¢ 4 Cake »s>} 4 SPLPhe i <¢ & 4 +P) ae “4 < % é & «% : ¢ < 5 Bh é a rt exe
he | 1) | ces 4 4% ici Pi it 1054 44% ‘a 4 feheke ‘ & ede 4G ede « ieesed iaees fits < $ 6% t 4G s§ eh PLP eat are
scat eee oie 84% Sefeie® otges 4e4e fads . EEK fetches ‘ Hy “s th <i tes i ae
te | rth fedaheke eeetes eens ate Poe ta si PROD . ehesee 1654 ehgsehe ete fifctef tectesees oy rn
chats } efeies sed deesesetet 1826 ees 464) Hts ges . ote ieee “felts 4c Sefched teeteseses 44 :
Sc ic} Prot ate eis Ssiete % tier ieee ssf eee oe ete cheteted Sete & 440 Jedetet tei <tes f
ce | eSe5es st {Sas siete sad eects Bea . She teas siete! tote cesses Meat
ele ‘ A, rere esis aed Dp yp 4 ease i iS Has ick ets s Py) 44 cas hess Seg heeees 444 § fede Scsahat c SG + A
ee | 4, 4 as } a4 4¢ tes 445454 cies aot Oe dtp Pi 4 Sy 9) 4, 4¢ chee! 4c fe fe “: & 4 teh § 4 ¢ 4 ceded ‘ * a
tp) heed dies atte ee 5084 ate Prat sechiett ae feted peer: Se8¢ : Per Sc ? <4 4
ese ¢ bese 4084 ae SSS 454 4% 149 4 ics <f a esis sea dee (GS “ dicta tects b , Sais cee aS a 8
{ <) 1 ig 4 {afd ‘et “484 steht th ‘a é iA5§ Par 4484 td 44 oh ial estes } Sas 4 b 4iMg 1 < : caus PLDs aby 4
ie as i Bh Ry } ae ce is oon » < , Pa r i : P| | ‘ Ske eis i
>> ba $15 it ageled € 4484 Spar 4 ae tages deseses 4 4 4 2 <%& a ‘
gs ied: ieee ase iis Gedy And %e oo ee . ; t | : k < ' id $ 4 ese Ses it
ag ae or sei |. 4 | — ii Salk S4 ‘ a4 , ct be: is
Scie ass Re sdeeaginte sagas ore dseceat ne 4 ANG fad < ererereeety }
ie? ia Mid dg Shed Ph br Sef eh) ase 44 Mss “ai >) ie eke «e pep Sahat qe Motor 45 4 4% éS5
t3e) 84 aie € ded 4 S484 Se ees ey en 4 1ghe ‘ 4; rbot ete, aesess
fae {a6 tfef Que aN eee Scie Sases Sade fades q ‘ Pi 448 4 Gi oe:
Ra Bk a a ges ue SRRRRRE eRe ite
ieSc) 4 $¢ 4, 44) SE age $4 44 Se >?) 44 isi < 7 id 4 & fei ‘ te 4¢ sade cess at
Ase | ies efedetes 44 ae 454 446 4 ph ¢ “i 4 %G i ¢ ‘sect et def teas Pett pep 484 « « 4 afd 4 sess <
ee RCRRR si a i is a suits aah ie
ie as oa iene is citi fail isa seas ei “ oe PI > : 43 { «hes tI
« 4 S q 4 « ¢ “¢ % 4 +?) ‘ ae ty easy 4 & < & ¢ 4 £4544 pt
fof isi <f isi eles 4 446 ?) br} pI otis “i deh et ah4 ‘8 Mh elec tite 4¢ < 4 4 4 taal 4
tete 4 ue >) ei <iq 4 isisiels eh det & “ss $554 4 ci 4 ¢ teats melded 4; ¥ 4 ieee
re ii oe oe sa eae aie i aiid ds wet aie
ig hs } bith ees 4 Steee ¢ $46 4 seas at é deat oe 46 48 ‘ { ess
fete r bran Pi eesti: State dtetet ae ae qief sro gt¢ oy 4 aeetse ee h 4 4 a ‘ sens
af<: acs Haass Pp? ie seis efetes Pi ct See Seeteset oe 4 4 t 4 > 1%
tec. $i aici aig rere series «i eh <548 sei “ $eseses ete { BS : feel atta RH
ihc 4 eletese 5 a & eleies ad 404 S854 is 54s Shs at celal teats HG sais feiei Sciefete ith ‘0
46% “i Rast ie Ss 1466 aeStsase & east eae eles Ate ei , flct “ » PSPs >
Ace ood sania teeetets fet Stq Heieteed aie selfs oes ue as «G ‘ dc re rotted
take q Ne Qdcie ¢ Hite ititeet ite <i 4% estas Cee ae ¢ ¢ As pope chess j aa Rp 4¢
48¢ ef % Se i €Qeht a & th da che path Ieee 136 ets Seas ¢ iid ( q Cotman ) eh
ro Ki deg its RTS decedetd iit Ht Sc settee QU ds eR
(as Res a a I oy 4 fesek 18 Aiete sie site teiekefes Sete 4¢ < <¢ effete sata ; q 454 ideas ¢
tek et ine « ti SseSieds tS sf) ae HS S44 $ tic Sef 4¢ ee : teatety ¢ eases
is H Bae sta iat ‘i 3 ee . saa tu
ct , < ; :
aie aes ah qe seas iis . 1% ei eee afte ist
tee Cny Seo cite BB <4 dae iis H Sik sents ek — ete getaegs cShease
as Ee oe iste sfeietess st slag seit sete ‘ as aia
“ ; a % eae : PI a
ie < reat oe oe 4 . aiefs fates
13. oe eyeees i 4 40 ator < <4 a ats i) feiss Se sh 4 aati ee Ce pte atte
44° a : Xe afi at esses a ai he Pthteh dass te oie Se
ae aS ig Sed Sf Sesese HESS ick . ees
$64, ile 48 MOR OG ies $ sie tc Seed a8 een <j fegted 46 Hh, ¢ 3 aaty Seces i Shs “} tH Sith “
‘A, ¢ i ‘ yous ‘ tate Piri *) stdeaieles prey
16 HS i saath ¢ iat CaN . “44 sie Seeds oo '
i we te SRARRD salsa St see PRR ‘ Geitct sits aaa Sil
$4 de Seis de Cie Se Pury coe Safes Sh a 4443 sestsatat Baga 3 jas
4G eitee ue 40 Ges aS4 ee $48 ‘ead Sith a ’ + ¢ % 4, ) Jel is,
| eae tae t eyes eirted t
col ARRRR $etesesss Hae < a sess : #4 Het bey i HOE
a sau aun peel gece % ESE i Sete ay ied
4 S; « Adee Recents 4 lg it <4 : 4
. bh 4 tate Py 4 4 4 t 45 1, 4 3 in!
| 4 Bedi ee € Seteh
. brs! 4 qed dau qi > Se “i eae % ists
“4 <, oe 4 Sata +
ats Sen oo eta < oie SiMag
ve of, ie se i i484 Ports eS feces! $8483
4 ast e335 Sa r tid 4 aah ate Se} 4 lege qj 43
4 4454 1 ei Sieh IGS Se hr
a4 & Ne fete ¢ ¢ Nest ath $4 € t 7 AN
a a oo See be Se is intatit
> ' 4 } t {Ne , a a 4 iy Ke > 4%¢ Na jut
<< in Vale Korn wi ie a aa 4 yen gif 5 4 <4) Se Ge 5434
} Baas ht o aa et oT sitet aie ee a5)
, Ses Sy Netate ae ‘
é Ne ay > 4 te y te 44) 14 “tice TT] + en8
< +?) 4 »?) ease he dhe r Qt t, *
3 He: eas fete atest heey ie @ Re Si 45° st : yuo! #
ae oe a ee of
a t 1G ets a i tele oR 7
1 a et BBY } eS 43 eel MI
of let ais IG ass: 7a a Nie «
" xs eee > i$ sis $ Sue ra
Roe a ade
sy c oaie eid SSNS
as) ne GR ro MARS
a » af fy saben +
Se ee us ena
th a8 Yes sine
te iy
ies Has

As,
Seti
Shy
‘4
+,"
os
q%s
<*
ye rr)
+4443
Sgt 8
Ye %<3
4><
4‘
8 4)
Whih
Pai
ua
Weg has
YeX¢
Aeegtctdta’
% an
“ Goo ra
4
ae
KR
ty 4
ag
wate
WN
yang
ery
eer
Vel
iNet
t ri
ees,
4
Phrar
mM >
134%
ha!
ye%).
4)
Tense}
SICK