SR - 2

Small-Craft Harbors:
Design, Construction, and
Operation

by
James W. Dunham and Arnold A. Finn

SPECIAL REPORT NO.2
DECEMBER 1974

DOCUMENT |
COLLECTION A /

Prepared for

U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS

COASTAL ENGINEERING
RESEARCH CENTER

Kingman Building
Fort Belvoir, Va. 22060

Reprint or republication of any of this material shall give appropriate
credit to the U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center.

U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center
Kingman Building

Fort Belvoir, Virginia 22060

UNCLASSIFIED

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE (When Data Entered)

READ INSTRUC
REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE BEROREICOMDE Roe
1. REPORT NUMBER 2. GOVT ACCESSION NO, 3. RECIPIENT'S CATALOG NUMBER
SR 2

4. TITLE (and Subtitle) 4 5. TYPE OF REPORT & PERIOD COVERED
SMALL-CRAFT HARBORS: DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND
OPERATION SPECIAL REPORT ,

6. PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMBER

8. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(s)

7. AUTHOR(S)
JAMES W. DUNHAM and ARNOLD A. FINN

DACW 72-72-C-0011

10. PROGRAM ELEM

NT, PROJECT, TASK
AREA & WORK U

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
= IT NUMBERS

Moffatt and Nichol, Engineers

250 W. Wardlow Road

P.O. Box 7707

Long Beach, California 90807

11, CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS
Department of th e Army

Coastal Engineering Research Center

Kingman Building, Fort Belvoir, Virginia 22060

~ MONITORING AGENCY NAME & ADDRESS(If different from Controlling Office)

E'
N

B31234

12. REPORT DATE
December 1974

13. NUMBER OF PAGES

375

15. SECURITY CLASS. (of thie report)

UNCLASSIFIED

15a, DECL ASSIFICATION/ DOWNGRADING
SCHEDULE

- DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of this Report)

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.

- DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of the abstract entered in Block 20, if different from Report)

- SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

- KEY WORDS (Continue on reverse side if necessary and identify by block number)

Fueling systems

Docks Marinas
Harbors 3
Drydocks Piers
: Harbor structures E f
Environmental Impact Planning and Design

Harbor facilities
. ABSTRACT (Continue on reverse side if necesaary and identify by block number)

Analytical data and design standards and procedures are presented for use in the development of small-craft

harbors and launching facilities under a wide variety of conditions applicable to a broad spectrum of geographic

locations. Environmental impact and governmental control aspects are discussed. Procedures for determining

project feasibility and possible sources of governmental assistance are presented. Harbor operations and

administration are reviewed. Several case histories of harbors are included.

FORM 4
DD , jan 73 1473 EDITION OF Tt NOV 65 1S OBSOLETE UNCLASSIFIED
SS Leb Retest oer oa ee
SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE (When Data Entered)

1 )

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE(When Data Entered)

ae Se
SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE(When Data Entered)

2

PREFACE

This report is published to assist design and construction engineers and operators of small-craft harbors.
The work was carried out under the coastal construction research program of the U.S. Army Coastal
Engineering Research Center.

This report is the first in a series to be published to form a Coastal Engineering Manual.

This report was prepared by Moffatt and Nichol, Engineers, under CERC Contract No.
DACW72-72-C-0011. Cooperation and assistance were provided by Corps of Engineers Divisions and
Districts and various boating agencies of the 50 States. Preparation of the report was under the direction of
James W. Dunham with the assistance of Arnold A. Finn. Consultation and technical advice were rendered
by William J. Herron, Jr., and John M. Nichol. The report was reviewed by Lawrence W. McDowell, retired
director of the Long Beach Marina, whose excellent suggestions were incorporated in the final draft.
Federal, State and local government agencies, consulting engineers, marina-product manufacturers, and
marina managers throughout the United States and its territories were contacted to obtain data on marina
construction and boating customs that would make the report as universally applicable as possible.
Although differences of opinion were encountered on much of the subject matter and in many geographical
areas, it is believed that the information presented represents the current concensus of all authoritative
sources on the subject matter covered.

Special appreciation is extended to all of the marina managers and operating personnel who answered
the inquiries of the task group or who completed the rather lengthy and detailed marina-survey
questionnaire. The survey participants listed below were particularly helpful in their contributions to the
data supporting the case studies.

BaltiayViargemee tect ereagty (ok gcg emis Sy ty cmc sig rica: as vo We prensa aCUn vex sk erate eas eegeRNeS Mr. J. Yeager
GalvestonmvachtsBasin=s-asu-peie there eet aes echo e atces se Ree ene eae chon tae Mr. R. E. Smith
Canison Meson ane| Wray OOH 9 5 cog aad en doo UU biole o bldloro 6 6 5 6c Mr. E. P. Lee
FlaWall-Wal Meiers, (5: Gants RN TAI UT cee Gh iscoe Soy Sao es en Mr. L. V. Andrade
dtighthouseyBay, Marinales Sse erect eter are Nt) FUE Ngie fal-Sieage eek Pray ayer citeiae ence Mr. L. A. Stadel
Marinayl elU Rey. eyentarauceshe <dlepe raiagrnts Piao crite ac tcpieyy wins cl urn e deers! Zan Sweet Mr. J. W. Quinn
OmnowPrajectspian sec, arn eet ra er eaemny ewe tem ears Mr. R. G. Stanhope, Stanley Consultants, Inc.
SALMON ALDOLcmetah A Tee OMe AeMeGR ret Nihon br ge en sheg\ aMaute® roc carat ron 20 We Noah MMs Mr. H. Ludwig
Spruce Run Reservoir ........... Messrs. D. L. Somma and A. D. Stasi, Edwards and Kelcey, Inc.
StileWaterspVarinayies sa rac crue ean eran et see veto, jilaliies So duleie.caaea nai Sali ange Mr. J. R. Wilbanks
Wahiweap! Marina airy sen tec cae) none enn ae anne TA BUS AY Eee BMP Sah A RIS RR Mr. C. A. Greene

The special contributions of Mr. A. M. Filak of Marina Associates, Mr. T. C. Hardwick of Floating Dock
Systems, and Mr. S. Sedlmaier of Frederic R. Harris, Inc. are gratefully acknowledged.

Mr. Robert A. Jachowski, Chief, Design Branch, was the CERC contract monitor for the report, under
the general supervision of Mr. George M. Watts, Chief, Engineering Development Division.

Comments on this publication are invited.

Approved for publication in accordance with Public Law 166, 79th Congress, ppEzovcd 31 July 1945, as
supplemented by Public Law 172, 88th Congress, Ee 7 November 19637-——

JAMES L. TRAYER |
Colonel, Corps of Enginéers

Commander and Director

I
II

Ill

IV

VI

Vil

CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION) (02.8 69. OES RO ee 11
TYPESSOF HARBORS ioe: Siase scons ede ii ciieg ee) CU eee 12
l.Commercialiteiis camieenict ager OF as Ss ISR ee ne 12
2: "Recreational He. tee, AU gh MAO. LO FEN E ea eeee ae r 13
Bis MEET KAM OM NTE: "dys i blo ue ditong odio po & Bebo oo Gob 6 5c 13
SUT EVAINAIDY SIS ove eee cues os Sort eee ne nr ee 13
Up General ele scp sayqusens meme maceshis! boas uetita op ©: air decmen cn ea 13
2-cRiversMouths) jes ais i ious modo Sey ce cel ee ee 14
3: Dredsed"Wowlands Beer (ietes aoc ek ee ee ee eee 14
As CIBAY'S. > ie cn sare Sea valengaai op 5), cules! c/s) a) G. . ets ee 14
Oi Woadstéads. vet cues ies le eis a aro otatte te Serer aa 18
6: Open’ Shorelines.) eieia-y on = enews bobfcih ec eek ee ee ae 19
7. Riverside Sites. be. Wine bce 2s) oe 19
ENVIRONMENTAL SITING CONSIDERATIONS ........... 19
I. Local’Weather Factors: 5.2. 1s 2.» ee 19
25, WaverHactors sxe.) aie sy suye va) silo ele ke Oca Jel ea 25
3.) Water Area) Shoaling Factorsy@.) 2-1 )1' ict le cme em ae 33
a (Geological Ractors | 7). seers tt) set oer neem 38
5: ProjectImpact on Environment. 95 3.9.) 20404) 39
Os ;Sociological(Factors)ajicr. j0y mien), 0 -\ialick CRE ane eee 45
FUNCTIONAL PLANNING AND DESIGN ............... 46
1 Primary; Objectives) iy. jaccu-cci-sp clin hee el vey CE 46
2. Design Criteria for Protective Features and Entrances ....... 47
3.) Layout Criteria! for!Marinas\.. <<). (nei oui -y oh een eRe 80
4. Design Criteria for Basins and Dockage Structures ......... 86
©. Design Criteria for Support Facilities’ <5). . ni) 2). 2 eee 156
6: /Environmental Protection ie) 1 s)he ne 213
PUBLIC AGENCY PARTICIPATION ...............245 218
I FederallCovernment: iets aes) a ee 218
2. state|Governments) icu-pcy ae hin ies Cee na 222
3:ylocal Governments! sp. 7k) eo) ie vom ee eee 228
ECONOMICS IMPLEMENTATION AND OPERATION ........ 233
Py Heasibility/Studiesttetes 2 m-yeutnn cen ar: Sue CAMARA SO; (010) 6 233
2-7 Projectslmplementationy .9 0. v7an) <ul eee en ana 239
3. Operating Principlesis cle uilicn-wrii-n olan nein 242

CONTENTS—Continued

VIII MARINA SURVEY AND CASE STUDIES ...............

eG enicrale ye cocaum ttn it alebtes sh hionia ctcbnaoh cian oh oiaper ck ee ches
2.) survey, sampleland Data) Resolution’ .).J". 0) 7) 2... oe
See DecioM¥ETOb) EME SUMNM ayant esia tt eben ce) aero mane ster a oy) Se oviroatea es
AaUnique Desionehieatures iy se.nie-y se cles ot Cetus, 7) lito dnen ot) on eas
De Gase! SUUGIes mens eam ein LU tun ys NUMMER ei hk aly ah che

APPENDIX

nee wh

A GLEOSSARY4ORSRERIMS I yi a coieF ctvsd Ae pebaeibopy Py cbuyabestyaty obueli ack Miceie cheep ls

AWPI TECHNICAL GUIDELINES ...................

B
C INCHSTANDARD Orie ira) ya 1c ec sapien uni e a el gs oe, Vc, Suen
D

GUIDANCE FOR SELECTING TYPES OF CONCRETE MIXES FOR
SPECIALZENVIRONMENTS) (ijl i coeh Sate ere ws Ae~ ey shi vionaue rn.

FEDERAL AGENCIES SPONSORING PROGRAMS WHICH MAY
PROVIDE AID AND ASSISTANCE IN DEVELOPING SMALL-

CRAB TFA CIEDIIES yids, ntosubeeralabeaite! ois ys,)-ol ee clitee tla ca sl N5) ces cots
G STATE AGENCIES HOLDING JURISDICTION OVER MATTERS
CONCERNING SMALL CRAFT AND SMALL-CRAFT FACILITIES
H SUMMARY OF SIGNIFICANT SERVICES, PROGRAMS AND
CONTROLS OFFERED OR EXECUTED WITHIN THE STATES
ANDITERRETORIES tout) weve aii cites (ose fue J seu ey ches ater he ahs
I COASTAL SMALL-CRAFT HARBORS REGULATION ORDINANCE .
J PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS OFFERING INFORMATION ......
K CERC SMALL-CRAFT HARBOR QUESTIONNAIRE .........

TABLES

Galvanic Compatibility of Fastenersin Seawater ................
Economic Development Administration (EDA) Projects ............
Subjects Covered by State Boating Regulations .................

Site Workeltems/Requiring Desion Control) 39.9. 9.05 5 a see se os ‘

Marimnay eltttevahiacttshee tim wig ta uo cicaicsmch ole) esas) inst ies) oem oistr ees cae

SONnNaun Fwh &

wwwwwwnwwnwnnt nt NNN NNN WNWD B&B BM BR RKB eK KE ee
NA UN PWNHrYRKH CTU ANA UN HwWNeFKH COTW ANA uN HwWwWNeK OS

CONTENTS—Continued

FIGURES

Wepoe Bay, Oregon’. craic vos olsen, eee, eyo. ceo s (OR eee ere
Hastings small-Boat Harbor, Minnesota) 2asy.) 5) een ee
MerrillisiMarinaysunsetbeachs Galikonniameeemee me eee nn ee
Hyannis InnerHarboruMassachusettsm isn). -a ies) ce scaly ite eee
Port San Luis, California. A typical harbor in aroadstead ............
ShilsholesBay) Marinas seattle.«Washingtome i. t eis ies ieee ae eee
Prarhing shpsiim! ayriver v aic..4-nlo yey oe od erie co: SUE ao eee eee
Covered slips in Bellingham Harbor, Washington ................
Floating docks being pinched upward by forming ice in Lake Michigan .... .
Ice- and frost-damaged parking lot, Boston Harbor Marina, Massachusetts
Samplejrefraction-ditfraction diastampry e-news) 1 eae ee ee
Model study for proposed harbor at Port San Luis, California ..........
Entrance shoaling by littoral drift in a Massachusetts harbor ..........
Nearshore section/of rubble-mound jetty) s94-)--)- © oa coce meee
Maintenance of entrance to off-river basin with land-based equipment .... .
Mechanical!current;generaton gs ea -y eae ee
Adjacent park complements harbor development ................
Quadripod armor units being placed on breakwater ..............-.
Wave and surge barrier, Monterey Harbor, California ..............
Baie ‘Comeau Breakwater, Quebec se <faasn 3 osu aetna eee em a
Use of toe stone to prevent wave scour at the base of vertical walls .......
Dana Point; Marinas Californiayps 9 se ee ee ee eee
Two-stage construction of rubble-mound structure ...............
Littoral transport and beach erosion due to wave diffraction ..........
Enirancesto) Newport Bay. Galitorniayag.t yen eae ae re eae
Changing cross sections of channel-flank protection ...............
Dypicaldredge*cut through harbor entrance) =e en eo i
Narrow channel construction by land-based equipment .............
Channel bottom erosion and shoaling due to waves and tidal currents .... .
Entrance to Oceanside Harbor, California, showing wave breaker design

Well protected entrance to boat basin, Harwick, Massachusetts .........
Rubble-slope revetment being placed directly on filter cloth ..........
Slope revetment of prefabricated overlapping block, Florida ..........
Grout-filled cloth mattress bank protection with weep holes ..........-
Shallow, boat basinimarginal tovayiverun rae) eerie! ee aes eee
Conversion of river bifurcation into a small-craft harbor ............
Three-log floating boom for short-period wave attenuation ...........

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ol
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o4.
sys)
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a7

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FIGURES—Continued

Page

Flank drop-skirt on channel side of floating dock for short-period wave

abLemuatl O liceseet mens) Samui ce le chet PRA ee toe FP Nnamere tray ae RT BN Egg PRD re 77
hirewwaye-mazenloatinesbrealcwatenrs, yn aif est mel oe ae) ure ee Stet Nae he 78
Floating corrugated metal pipe breakwater, Detroit Harbor, Michigan . . . 79
Schematic layout of a marina showing desirable interrelation of facilities . ... 81
Commercial area, Westport Marina, Grays Harbor, Washington ....... 82
Spacerallocationmorragbypicalymaninays nue) ier cents) Seton ge) ae 85
Slopemprapshowaneatwoytypeslontilters| iy) ssn ers ee 88
Slope;pavins showanesiwo) types on filters yi u-9)4 ee ecu ss acy 89
Weer ofgeabionsinymaninaiconsthuctiommeury i) ei. liaie! opie ee ee ea teas 91
Wselotmilterclothttorsealitimbersbulkheadsy ep .eeeee edie sie 92
dimber bulkkheadiat) Bellingham Washington’ ie )sge a) Sie sy 2 93
Halinestimberbullcheadttenysyr tre shey iat abh nie Wi ouNee IED THRONE MUAGEV Ns yO) (og Ui 94,
Low-height, free-standing aluminum bulkhead ............... 96
Concrete L-wall under construction, Dana Point, California ......... 99
Typical concrete sheet-pile section with grooves for grout-sealing joints . 100
Cap and tie rod system for concrete sheet-pile wall ............. 102
iypical pile-supportedyc-wall for:weak soils) ye) ene cys ees c= 103
Spalled face of concrete wall due to inadequate rebarimbedment .... . 104
Molded concrete bank simulating natural conditions ............ 106
Shilshole Bay Marina, Washington. Interior steel pile-supported timber wave

barrier: Wey) cigeie een Pee Sil nes rag Seman OM red ed on Nee a ele hie 107
Alternating wave baffles protect a berthing area. .............. 108
Cooperative switch-tie system for atwo-boat sip .............. 111
Two-boat slip compartmented by a narrow tie finger ............ 112
Lightweight sailboats stored on floating docks ............... 112
Charter boats tied stern-to-dock, Miamarina, Florida ............ ILS}
Dimensionaliciiteradonberthedicrattae sy eee ee eas ey eee 114
Tri-maran berthed at West Palm Beach Marina, Florida ........... 115
Modularistar-clusten tloatinctslips iy) ueuercwen een tel ero) ke ei ss) 5)
Locker boxes, firefighting equipment and utilities along a wide main walk at

DinnerskeyaMarinassEloriday seein gina ene sumac a) scr a Cor ao sie 117
Cantilevered boarding fingers at Occoquan Marina, Virginia. ........ Lae
Raised-level finger pier junctions with main walk .............. 118
Hanging boarding ladders, Old Town Yacht Haven, Alexandria, Virginia 118
Batten-protected creosoted-pile tops, Lighthouse Point Marina, Pompano

Beachestiloriga ne pease i teecie ded re CNTs. arit Vo Raep a before sens ON Eee tac Pore 119
Proposed use of prestressed deck slabs for fixed pier construction ....... 121

FIGURES—Continued

Page
72 Concrete-supported timber deck, Dinner Key Marina, Florida ......... 122
“is, Pier cate, Coyote Romt Marina, sanvbirancisco Bayi 2s) 2) hee 122
(4 Fiberglass wrap)peelinsraway, trom foam float 4) ) leit) eh eee een enone 125
Gow, Metaliboxstloating Imiensystem yaya eee n-th 126
Om Hoambiloatawith:concretevde cla a lyme yeaa eared oun ra eee W27¢
dice Water-ballastedsiloatingidocki: sweater ems nortan ap ane 129
78 Reduction of freeboard due to concentration of flotation elements for
py Uns INOINES Gg Gola io pula Bo omy 6 wleie bye eb b.5 Slube cleo o od & 130
(Oe Hloating ships wathaverticalerend ek OStcjiem nacht acme men aim) (cer arene LS2
80A Isotachs showing fastest mile of wind (in miles per hour) 30 feet above ground,
50-year perlodrofrecurrencel-c)405) coe eee arene ome er ee nee 134
308: Windloadmpfagamstiayverticalstace jn ew ame eee fie eee ea 134
SI Average pronilesneight versus) lenethioticrait epee eae ee en ee eae 135
82 Sample calculation of windloading on a floating slip system .......... 136
83 Determination of required guide pile penetration ................ 138
84 Determination of allowable bending moment for a prestressed concrete pile . . 139
85" “Examples of pile! gutdes, ipa aay. 12" SEAR SA tere re aie il ee ae 140
86 Pile:guide with heavy duty rollers). 3 yee Saat a 141
3@} Closemittingspipe-sleevespileyouides.) 4. heey ot meee nnn ee 142
88 Determination of allowable loading of sleeve-guided pipe pile .......... 143
89 A-frame dolphins guide a floating pier at Shilshole Bay Marina, Washington . . 144
90 Submerged crossties strengthen floating slip system ...........--.-.- 145
91 Deepwater anchorage of floating pier with drawdown adjustment ...... . 147
92 Crossties and struts used to strengthen floating pier decks ........... 149
93 Crosslocked connection of finger and headwalk stringers ............ 150
94 Diagonal decking strengthens a floating slip structure .............. 152
99) Deckipanels}wathmonskidisurtace). sean cre ey ene eee es 154
96) Rugged canewayespin-injeradle whinge 9 = yee ay ere lien ee ene 155
97) Bypicalilargeandismallivancwaysi es eam ener cuenta er rel ieee a SY
98> /Simple;metaliguides for allightivancwaye sani en cee 158
99 Pipe-and-rod apron plate hinge for heavy gangway ........-...... 159
LOO) Hirehose*cabinet onvatiloating-<deck) 2a es ie ee eee 160
LOL, Rackjtor gardenjhose ontpile extension =a meni neem ee 160
102 Proper connection of hose and pipe at gangways ............- Ficus Ol
103 Overhead dock wiring creates a cluttered appearance .............. 162
104) Power outlet racks\forastixed concrete/piergn less 2d ee es 163
105 Well protected outlets may thwart quick plug-ins ................ 163
106 High perimeter floodlighting may cause excessive glare ............. 166

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FIGURES—Continued

Intermediate-height, shielded dock lights typify most marina lighting systems . 166
Low level dock lights reduce glare but may not provide adequate illumination . 167

Main deck utility duct with removable cover ..............2.2-..- 169
Utility lines hung under side stringers of a floating main walk .......... 169
Utility#linesilaidvalong sides of main}walkityag-m iene nelle) eh Metis eterno 170
Locker box with built-in outlet box and hose bibb ............... 171
Step along basin perimeter provides site for locker boxes .......-.-..-. 171
Cabinetstomenemicalifirevextinouishen gy see emcees Crewe. 1) tetrad etter 172
Iyarkoall TET GENRVOIS) auor pier Sy als 6 Gino 0 ob Hog P Ga lHle bis 6 oo a 6 174
A sanitary holding-tank pumpout facility .............+...---. 175
Hardwood cleat for small-craft mooring ines ................-.. 176
Cleats along edge of main walk for bowline ties ............-.---- AY
A row of tie piles beyond ends of finger piers ..........--+-+-+-+--- 177
Damaged bumper stripping along a floating dock ............-..-.. 179
Bumper extrusion’ designed! to resist tear-out) ©. 7°21... 3 2). - 2 ee 179
Cormerwheeltontamloatineminge nerd mmmemmment ey ont eel aetna dr 180
Rounded tfingenend facilitates entny, torslipyecwe 0) nent he eet . 180
Verticalitumbertenders\tortixed concretersiips =<) ene) ere ee eet eel 180
erticalgplasticatubestorsont tendenin ogame nmen se pcr men facie ete h meat 181
Strad dledhoiststae-a ey at ke co Cas Mann raweaten ny bran SU, Tir IRINA Wieaietiigi mse naan Lydon sos 2 183
Hyperextendable forklift truck for boat launching ............... 184
Dineen! Inonet loogit Newineiar o6 o's Gio oo ole Bho ud ere 6 ‘dolce 6 Gp 0 oO 6 186
Weight versus length of recreational craft)... 2 2 187
Jab-boomlcrane tor sailboat, launchiney 20h) oye. so ses ee ee 188
Siiliclewdennickenolstamen sper ener ite. fener yee orto) ch mitten caver ia) (ac 188
Mareeandismalltfloatine boat lifts oe. cence) elite ate te ine io Gal oan 190
Hoist-outdnysstorave ton aicovered slip) |). =) heya oe) 191
Hoist-out storage rack for overwater mooring ......--+-+++++++-- 19]
Layout of a typical launching ramp facility ..........-.-.-+-+-+..-.. 193
INonskidiconcrete rampisUntace ims a tie meni e ee mney we) alec) eto: 194,
Examples of administration building exteriors ........---+-+-+:+-+-- 196
Typical floor plan for large administration building ......-.-.-.-.-.--. 197
Typical maintenance building and yard layout .....-....-------- 199
Castered boat dolly for use in boat repair yard .....-----++--+--- 200
Railstranster pit serving boat litte. ect sie) siete) i eye ee 200
Farge covercdiboab repair facility S07 aya ce =) ye 201
Small sailboats unmasted and stored keel-upinracks ............-.-.- 204
Trailered sailboats dry-stored at the Washington, D.C. Sailboat Marina .... . 204

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M2

ICs}
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FIGURES—Continued

Hoist-launching facility with dry storage yard ................
Swiveling stacker crane for launching and storing boats ...........
Deep-keel sailboat stored on trailer at yacht club ..............
Jib-boom hoists and large boarding dock at yacht club ...........

Powered trailer-puller used to move trailered sailboats to and from

OISES Serer fe (iiss a) Hell dU a eiaet Ue cameN ar tal eu tdas Eaves oe le ata corer a
Acwellusedisandid olliy. ish) j3 vatin cutis eis ovesheusehicmas) Sasich ccm seem
Hinged) tloatingisailboat-launchingiampiis > cy ceewei ey) oan eee
Two-wheel dolly used to launch small sailboats ...............
Standardiparking lot lay outs critter alse) ani nrg eee
Examplesiof permanent signipostin gwen inst sieeieicn =e cae ee
Examplesjofice-prevention!systemsi vei) sehen) ky oe ct eee
River tloodidamage, Ventura Marinas Californial se40, <5.) 4-0 Geen

Adjustable “fixed-dock,” Lakeside Marina, South Lake Tahoe, California

Conicallyishaped plastic pile capsmemeneis ie ye) > ees ee
Cansway,counterbalanceisystem sari eee ney anne
General layout of Hawaii-Kai Marina Development, Oahu, Hawaii... . .
Marina Del Rey, Los Angeles County, Califormiay) 2). = 5 3,4.) aoe eee
Salmon) Harbor, Winchester, Bay Orecomm atin aya 9 0e )ae-en eae
Land use proposal for the Salmon Harbor expansion project ....... .

Above-deck extensions of pier piles support and protect utility risers at

Bahia Mar Marina, Fort Lauderdale, Florida... 5. oc. 2 ee
Bahia'Mar Marina layout plan) a4 5 a) cose tees hu eee
Lighthouse Bay Marina, Quenemo, Kansas’)55). 52 6. 3022 Va ee
Layout, Cimcinnati’s transient marina, Ohio = = 4 46)-2-) nie ee
River anchor for floating dock on the Ohio River .......-..-.--.--
Galveston’ Yacht Basin, Galveston, Mexas saan) sels 0) seen eee
Galveston) Yacht Basini layout planyie esi ir ie ene eee
Landing design for floating docks, Spruce Run Reservoir, New Jersey .. .
Boarding ramp guide posts poured integrally with concrete launching ramp,

Spruce RunvResenvoirNewnerseya es ee ee eee

Small-craft dry storage facility, Still Waters Marina, Dadeville, Alabama

Wahweap Lodge and Marina complex, Lake Powell, Arizona ........
Rainbow Bridge Marina, Lake Powell, Arizona ...............

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SMALL-CRAFT HARBORS: DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATION

by
James W. Dunham and Arnold A. Finn

I. INTRODUCTION

The objective of this report is to enable anyone with a basic engineering background,
aided by other general engineering handbooks, to plan and design a small-craft harbor, or to
do so with the help of one or more specialists. The report outlines methods of investigating
the problems involved and the various engineering, economic, and environmental criteria to
be applied. It also points out the technical areas in which the assistance of specialists is
needed and the kinds of information they are capable of supplying.

The size, shape, meteorological environment, and hydraulic characteristics of the body of
navigable water to which access by boat is to be provided usually dictate the requirements
for many of the harbor features, including the entrance, the interior facilities, and any
special protective works needed to deflect currents or dissipate wave energy. Harbors along
the open seacoast require protection far in excess of that required for harbors naturally
protected in bays, rivers, and small lakes. Floating boat slips in areas of extremely large tidal
range and in reservoirs subject to large seasonal water level fluctuations must be anchored
differently than those in lakes and along the seacoast where water level fluctuations are only
a few feet. Therefore, a major purpose of this report is to provide the designer with the
means for selecting the right site, developing the most functional layout plan, providing
adequate protection, and installing the proper facilities for the water area served.

Local weather is an important factor to consider. Winds frequently reach hurricane
proportions in some regions, but seldom exceed gale force in others; snow or ice complicate
planning for some regions, whereas the hot sun is the only problem in others. Thus, another
objective of this report is to show the designer how to cope with the specific weather
problems of the region, e.g., the rigorous climate of Alaska or the mild climate of the
subtropics.

Environmental factors, including ecology, and related effects on economic analysis are
beginning to have a much greater impact upon engineering design. Hence, this study includes
a discussion of financing marinas and ensuring their economic sufficiency, of limitations
imposed by laws and ordinances, and of environmental considerations (U.S. Army, Corps of
Engineers, 1972).

Some of the terms used in this report may be unfamiliar to the reader or may have
different meanings here than elsewhere. A glossary is presented in Appendix A to show the
intended definition of each word or term that might otherwise be misconstrued.

If engineering assistance with the design of a small-craft facility is desired, see the current
publications by The National Association of Engine and Boat Manufacturers (NAEBM) and

Il

The Outboard Boating Club of America (OBC). These publications are periodically updated
and contain lists of consultants. The full title and publisher’s address for each are given
under “‘Literature Cited.” These references are not intended to be an endorsement of the
firms listed, nor is it intended to exclude from consideration any firms not included. Before
retaining the services of any consultant the owner should first determine the qualifications
of that consultant for the type of engineering work required.

Il. TYPES OF HARBORS

1. Commercial. Consideration of commercial facilities in this report is limited mainly to
harbors for commercial fishing fleets, barges, and small-craft transportation terminals,
including berths for excursion craft of various kinds. Figure 1 shows a typical small-craft
commercial harbor used primarily by a west coast fishing fleet and a few charter boats.
Small-craft facilities are often within or adjacent to harbors built primarily for deep-draft
cargo or passenger vessels. In such cases, large ships and small craft will move through the
same waters. Planning criteria must be adopted to reduce the collision hazard to a minimum
without curtailing the activities of either class more than is essential for navigational safety.
Otherwise the planning of such small-craft facilities should follow the guidelines contained
herein.

Figure 1. Depoe Bay, Oregon. A typical small-craft harbor used primarily for berthing
commercial fishing and charter boats.

12

2. Recreational. Small-craft harbors are designed for various recreational craft, including
sailboats, rowboats, pedal-craft, air-cushion, and vehicle. Other exotic craft are not
specifically covered, although the basin and entrance planning techniques described will, in
most instances, be found satisfactory for all classes of using craft.

3. Harbor of Refuge. Most of the boats and small vessels that fall within the general
classification of small craft have relatively short cruising ranges. To take these craft on trips
that extend beyond half of their safe cruising range in any large body of water may be
extremely hazardous unless harbors are available along the route at safe cruising intervals.
Such harbors may be needed only for replenishment of fuel or provisions, for shelter during
unexpectedly bad weather and when equipment fails, and for sick or injured boaters.
Depending on the class of boat and characteristics of the region, the safe cruising distance is
usually between 20 and 40 miles, or 2 hours’ cruising time. When a remote harbor is
provided specifically to accommodate transient craft rather than as a home port for the
local craft of the immediate area, it is designated as a harbor of refuge. Such a harbor need
not have all the refinements of a home port, but must have an entrance that is navigable in
adverse weather, access to emergency aid, and appropriate facilities to accommodate the
transient boater. In remote areas, harbors of refuge meeting just the needs of the transient
boaters often are subsidized. In these instances, the harbor of refuge may possibly be made
self-sustaining by berthing a small number of home-based craft in addition to meeting the
periodic needs of transient craft; it may not survive economically on either type of craft
alone.

Ill. SITE ANALYSIS

1. General. In selecting a harbor site, two basic needs must be fulfilled regardless of the
body of water on which it is to be located. The site must provide safe navigation access to
cruising waters, and have adequate land access, including approach roads, for boat owners to
conveniently reach their craft. Other important factors in site selection are: (a) enough
protected water area or low land that can be excavated to navigable depth, and areas for
future expansion; (b) adequate perimeter land or low land that can be filled for vehicle
parking, harbor service structures, roads, and ancillary facilities, including land needed for
future expansion; and (c) utility service to the site, such as electric power, potable water,
telephone, gas, and sewerage.

In addition to these physical factors, several environmental, economical, and sociological
factors may have a governing influence on site selection. These factors are discussed in detail
later in this report, but are mentioned here because of their importance in the early phases
of harbor planning. They include legislative restraints, zoning ordinances, permit
requirements, land ownership problems (also those involved with submerged lands), and
water quality and ecological preservation factors. Before any site is finally selected, all of

these factors must be considered and any conflicts resolved (Sec. VII).

13

2. River Mouths. The area on either side of a river just upstream from its mouth has certain
advantages as a site for a small-craft harbor (Fig. 2). The river current is often minimal, and
the site is usually protected from ocean or lake waves. Also, the river has usually scoured a
deep channel that may be adequate for navigational access. However, the site may be
endangered by occasional river floods, and sediments moved by river currents or tidal action
may shoal the harbor basins and channels. Much depends on the characteristics of the river:
whether it is relatively slow-flowing and stable; has a steep gradient and is subject to flash
floods and channel meandering; and if the sediment load may be transported into the water
areas of the harbor. These factors require in-depth study by qualified coastal engineers. At
times, the river flows through a delta estuary or marshland before reaching the ocean or
lake; then the harbor can be situated in a basin and isolated from the main flow of the river.
This type of river-mouth site is safer from direct flood damage, but the channel leading to
the harbor from the main flow of the river may be subject to shoaling by river floods.

3. Dredged Lowlands. Low, marshy areas are often found adjacent to ocean and lake
shores where no river exists. Ecological factors permitting, these areas are good sites for
small-craft harbors (Fig. 3). Marshes can usually be dredged to navigable depth at reasonable
costs. If the dredged material is suitable, it may be used to fill perimeter areas to design
levels for roads, parking, and other harbor-support uses. Although the low cost of using this
marginal land may be attractive, this advantage may be offset by the high cost of
maintaining an entrance to navigable waters in the lake or ocean if the rate of longshore
movement of littoral material is high. Protection against shoaling due to littoral drift is
possible by using various methods. If the longshore transport is predominantly in one
direction, provision must be made for sand bypassing (discussed in Sec. V). If the shore of
the lake or ocean is frequented by high waves, protective structures may be required to
reduce surge and wave action in the entrance and interior basins, as discussed in Section IV.
There are advantages to siting an ocean harbor opposite the head of a submarine canyon.
The deep water of the canyon refracts waves toward its flanks, making the canyon head a
relatively calm area of wave divergence. Thus, the harbor is ensured not only of a deep,
maintenance-free channel, provided littoral transport is excluded, but a minimum of wave
energy penetration into the berthing basins. The need for adequate exchange of water in a
dredged interior basin to preserve its quality may be another important factor.

4. Bays. Some natural embayments provide excellent sites for small-craft harbors (Fig. 4).
However, the mouth of the bay should be small or protected by islands to exclude most
waves from entering the bay from open water. Preferably, the bay should be small enough
so that waves of undesirable heights cannot be generated by winds within the bay’s confines.
In a large bay, some type of protective structure may be required to exclude larger, locally
generated waves from the berthing areas, or for secondary protection from large storms.

14

Figure 2. Hastings Small-Boat Harbor, Minnesota.

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Several types of natural bays present a deceptive first impression to harbor siting. The
first type is a natural bay protected by an offshore spit on an open coast. Many of these
bays along the Atlantic and gulf coasts appear quite fragile, but provide excellent sites for
small-craft harbors. Sounds, on the other hand, appear to provide excellent harbor sites
because they offer protection from high waves approaching from open waters. However,
their great lengths usually are conducive to high, locally generated wind waves and possible
resonance with waves (seiching), which can result in extreme ranges of water level
fluctuations. Many sounds are too deep and anchorage of slips and docks becomes a severe
problem. Where a sound is located between headlands and is narrow like a fjord, perimeter
lands often rise abruptly from the water, and access routes and provision of adequate land
area for supporting a harbor complex become critical factors.

5. Roadsteads. A good site for a small-craft harbor may often be found close to the open
ocean in an area that is shielded from the prevailing ocean waves by natural terrain features.
An example is a bight in the shoreline behind projecting headlands (Fig. 5). Site selection
here must include consideration of occasional wave episodes from directions other than
those of the normal wave regime and from which the site is exposed. Studies of wave
refraction may be needed to ensure that open-sea swell from certain offshore directions does

Figure 5. Port San Luis, California. A typical harbor in a roadstead. This site is protected
from the prevailing westerly waves but is exposed to occasional high wind waves
from the south.

18

not penetrate the area, although the site may appear to be well protected from those
directions. Before selecting a harbor in a roadstead location, the vulnerable approach
directions must be carefully analyzed by thorough examination of historical wind and waye
records and by wave refraction study techniques. A special case of roadstead siting is a
harbor on the lee side of an offshore island, where the island acts as a breakwater against the
prevailing waves.

6. Open Shorelines. Some factors controlling harbor location dictate that a site be selected
along an open shoreline. In this case, protection against wave action must be achieved by
breakwater-type structures (Fig. 6). Two steps that will provide guidance on site selection
are: (a) to make a statistical study of the historical wave climate coupled with wave
refraction analysis to pinpoint areas of frequent wave convergence; and (b) to make
subsurface probes to detect bedrock levels that can be used to ascertain the possibility of
keeping the harbor close to shore by dredging into the shallow nearshore bottom to obtain
navigable depth. Both steps require the assistance of specialists. The resulting information
will be useful in the detail design of the harbor complex after the site has been selected.

7. Riverside Sites. Rivers often provide excellent water courses for small-craft cruising.
Harbor sites may be found along or just behind a river bank, the choice usually depending
on good road access to the site and places where the current near the bank is minimal.
Floating docks may be anchored to dolphins or boomed out from the shore on the open
river, where they are not in violation of navigation-encroachment regulations and flood
control or other restrictions (Fig. 7). Some protection from floating debris and ice may be
required, depending on the physical environment and characteristics of the river. Also,
provision must be made for adjustment of the floating system to fluctuations in the water
level of the river.

In some instances, channels and basins may be excavated into and behind the river bank
to provide safe small-craft harbors. The navigation entrance to the basin should be at a point
along the river bank where the current is minimal and preferably connect with the
downstream end of the basin. The site must be located in an area where it can cope with
extreme high and low river levels both with respect to slip anchorage and access from the
land. Many off-river basins have entrance shoaling, as suspended sediment carried by the
river is deposited on the bottom in the quiet entrance waters. Only experience will
determine the severity of this problem along a river and may dictate whether an off-river

basin or a complex of riverbank slips is best.

IV. ENVIRONMENTAL SITING CONSIDERATIONS
1. Local Weather Factors.
a. Precipitation. Normal rainfall or light snowfall present no serious problem in
small-craft harbor design, provided an adequate surface-drainage plan is adopted. Such a
plan must provide for a facility capable of draining the waters from a maximum probable

rainfall without eroding the perimeter land; and also for the diversion of any possible

19

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inflows from land around or safely through the harbor complex. Although most small craft
are designed to shed water, covered slips are sometimes provided to keep the craft dry above
the waterline, and to shed snow, prevent hailstone damage, and shield the craft from
excessive exposure to sunlight (Fig. 8). In regions where snowfall is heavy, landside
structures and slips must be designed to shed snow or to carry a heavy snow load.

Figure 8. Covered slips in Bellingham Harbor, Washington.

b. Wind. In most regions, the design windloading of structures is specified by local
building and safety codes. If not specified, historical meteorological records must be
examined to determine the most severe wind conditions that might occur. Floating slips
must be designed to withstand the horizontal thrust of the berthed craft during the design
wind condition; also, the slips must be anchored securely so that the entire complex with its
berthed craft does not drift under wind stress.

Where winds may be strong and even reach hurricane strength, the water area structures
must be designed to withstand the induced forces, and the land structures anchored securely
to their foundations (American Society of Civil Engineers, 1961). In addition, substantial
increase or decrease of the water level due to wind stress must be considered in the layout
and design of the harbor. Where strong winds blow landward over a shallow offshore shelf or
across a shallow lake, wind stress effects may be greatly amplified, raising or depressing the
water level at the harbor site by several feet in a few hours. A fair assessment of the water

22

level fluctuation can be obtained in some areas by examining historical records. However,
the design maximum and minimum water levels must usually be determined by computing
the wind setup or depression in accordance with instructions in the Shore Protection Manual
(U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, 1973).

In regions where tornados occur, little can be done beyond following the precautions
recommended for hurricane-prone areas. The destructive force of a tornado exceeds the
practical design safety factor used for most structures. Some damage may be prevented by
designing buildings for quick exchange of atmospheric pressure by the use of large sacrificial
doors and windows to avoid complete collapse.

The movement of sand by the prevailing winds of a coastal area creates special problems
that must be considered. Windblown sand may shoal harbors and cover land areas, requiring
frequent dune and drift-sand removal from roads, parking lots and other areas. Evidence of
dune formation at a harbor site should be examined, and an estimate made of its
seriousness. At some sites the windblown sand problem has been solved by paving, by
landseape-planting the dry sandy areas windward of the harbor complex, or by stabilizing
with sand fences and dune grass (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering
Research Center, 1973).

c. Ice. Sheet ice can cause damage to a small-craft harbor. The best and most popular
precaution against ice damage is to remove boats from the water in winter. They can either
be removed to dry storage or hoisted out of their slips and left suspended above the water
surface.

Damage to fixed and floating slips occurs in two ways. As sheet ice forms, it expands and
can crush floats and cut into piles. A secondary effect of this action is that if the water level
rises after freezing has begun, the ice sheet hugging the piles exerts an upward force tending
to jack them up and reduce penetration into the soil. Repeated freezing and thawing may
eventually lift the piles completely out of the ground. Most ice damage is caused by the
impact of drifting floes on structures as the ice melts in spring.

In areas where freezing does not produce a thick ice sheet, ice formation can be
prevented near piles, floating slips, and boats by forced-convection currents. This system is
discussed in Section V. Steel or metal-cladded timber piles can be driven deep enough in
some soils to develop great withdrawal resistance, so that the ice will slide along the pile as it
rises. Floating slips can also be designed with tapering or rounded bottoms so that the
pinching effect of the ice squeezes them upward (Fig. 9).

Natural basin perimeters and revetted slopes can be severely eroded by expanding ice
sheets. One method of preventing this erosion is to line the perimeter slope with smooth
concrete. Vertical perimeter walls may be pushed back into soil behind them in winter and
then spring back when the ice thaws. The extent of weakening that results will depend on

the type of construction.

23

Figure 9. Floating docks being pinched upward by forming ice in Lake Michigan
(Courtesy of Harbor Host Corporation).

24

Frost formation at night followed by thawing in the daytime may cause damage in some
regions. Frost or freezing of water trapped in crevices between structural members may pry
them apart or loosen connections. Eliminating the crevices through careful design and
construction can avoid this type of ice damage. Figure 10 shows how frost and ice action
can damage a concrete parking area.

Damage from ice-floe impact is common in rivers, but it may also occur in harbors as a
result of floes drifting with the wind or with circulatory currents in lakes or arctic waters.
Deflecting booms made of logs or heavy timbers can often be devised to protect the
berthing area from drifting ice. Fixed-pile structures that break the ice sheets into smaller
pieces are discussed later in Section V.

d. Fog. Although fog causes little damage in a small-craft harbor, the reduced visibility
is a serious navigational problem. Most water areas have occasional foggy conditions and
most recreational boaters have limited skill in navigating their craft under poor visibility
conditions. For, this reason, entrance channels and main fairways in a harbor should be as
straight as possible. There is no method of dispelling fog at a reasonable cost, and although
radar and infrared devices have helped the navigator, such sophistication is seldom available
to the small-craft operator. Small-craft harbor entrances and fairways should therefore be
designed so that they can be navigated in dense fog by following marker buoys and other
channel-marking devices, with as few turns as possible.

2. Wave Factors.

a. Sea and Swell. These factors have been mentioned as they apply to site selection.
Once the site has been fixed, the harbor must be planned so as to reduce wave action from
the entrance and interior basins to acceptable heights. This is done through a combination
of entrance-channel orientation, protective breakwaters and jetties, and interior
wave-dissipating devices. Where a harbor opens into the ocean or a large lake, the entrance
should be oriented for a boat to enter without turning broadside to the incoming waves and
thus risk broaching or being “‘surf-boarded” into a jetty during high wave conditions. Both
historical wave data and the statistical hindcast data required for site selection can be useful
in orienting the entrance and designing the protective structures. Wave-dissipation structures
can often be used in reducing to acceptable heights the waves that do find their way into the
entrance. The normal criteria for acceptable maximum wave heights are about 2 to 4 feet in
the entrance channel and 1 to 1.5 feet in the berthing areas, depending on the characteristics
of the using craft.

Generally, if waves can be attenuated to a height of about | foot in the berthing areas,
their horizontal oscillations will not be troublesome, and any longer-period resonant effects
will go unnoticed. In initial planning, the best orientation of the entrance and location of
protective structures can be obtained by refraction and diffraction diagram analysis
(U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, 1973), (Fig. 11).

25

Figure 10. Ice- and frost-damaged parking lot, Boston Harbor Marina, Massachusetts.

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A few diagrams tracing the divergence factors from deep water into the entrance for the
most critical wave periods revealed by statistical hindcast analysis will indicate the relative
effectiveness of any entrance plan for attenuating waves. Once the approximate layout plan
is determined by this method, it may need to be checked by model analysis and the
protective structures adjusted to achieve maximum attenuation of the waves.

Some harbor sites have natural entrances that cause a reduction of the height of waves
entering from the main water body. This can occur as a result of island shielding in an
embayment or an entrance located within a series of prominences in a roadstead or sound.
In this case, the need for protection is reduced in proportion to the degree of wave
attenuation at the site. The historical records may show that only minimal protective works,
if any, are required.

If the site is close to a large water body and an artificial entrance must be provided, a
model study may be needed to ensure that the required degree of wave attenuation in the
inner basins is achieved (Fig. 12). If wave height just outside the proposed artificial entrance
exceeds 10 feet, construction of the entrance and its protective structures will be costly and
a harbor capacity of several hundred boats must be provided to ensure enough revenues to
defray the initial cost outlay. Cost of such a harbor may exceed a million dollars and the
additional $50,000 to $100,000 cost of a hydraulic model study is worth the ensurance that
the inner basins will be free from troublesome wave action.

Some harbors are so large that troublesome, short-period waves may be generated within
the harbor confines by strong winds blowing down long fairways or the wakes of numerous
power craft may combine to produce undesirable turbulence in the berthing areas. Where
small craft and large commercial vessels share the same harbor, the wakes of the large vessels
may penetrate the small-craft berthing areas. In such cases, the probability of troublesome
interior wave generation must be determined in the planning stage and corrective action
taken through the proper arrangement of moles or the provision of wave baffles as described
in Section V.

b. Surge. Waves of long period and great length with low height are termed surge. The
most troublesome aspect of surge in a harbor is its horizontal water motion or oscillation,
which causes stress in mooring lines and anchorage systems and can make the maneuvering
of boats into slips difficult. Ordinary wind-generated waves that penetrate the entrance of a
harbor may acquire the characteristics of surge in the inner basins. If the period of the surge
oscillations in the basins correspond to the period of the sea or swell outside the entrance,
then the exterior sea or swell is the cause of the surge within the harbor.

If the harbor surge period differs from the wave period outside, the oscillations may be
due to harbor geometry with respect to the wave input at the entrance. Most waves that
penetrate the entrance and reach the interior basins with a significant amount of residual
energy will usually have a length that is much greater than the water depths of these basins.

28

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All the waves will then travel according to shallow water wave theory at a speed that may be
calculated by the formula:

CaVgl
where

C = the wave propagation speed

g = the acceleration due to gravity
and

d = the basin depth .

If a rectangular basin with vertical walls is closed at both ends, a wave starting from one end
will travel to the opposite end and be reflected back to its starting point in a fundamental
period of time that may be calculated by the formula:

pe 2
Ved
where
T = the fundamental resonance period
b = the length of the basin
and

Q.
|

= the basin depth.

For example, if a basin is 650 feet long and 15 feet deep, the fundamental period of the
wave will be about 1 minute. If small waves were propagated through a narrow entrance at
one end of the basin at 1-minute intervals, each would add energy to the wave being
reflected back and forth until the amplitude of that wave would become considerably larger.
This would be resonant surging to the fundamental period of the basin. Since most wind
waves and swell that penetrate harbor entrances have periods of a fraction of a minute, such
resonance is unlikely to occur. However, the harmonic wave periods of the basin are 1/2,
1/3, 1/4, 1/5—1/n of the fundamental, and if wind waves or swell arrive at the entrance with
periods equaling any of those harmonics, they may induce harmonic resonant surging in the
basin. The wave periods of concern would therefore be computed by the formula:

ah — _2b-
yea
where
ji = Bo Bodin

The value of m would be the number of nodes in the resultant harmonic surge-wave system

between the two reflecting walls. Because resonant surging is more readily induced at the

30

fundamental or lower harmonic periods of a basin, small, deep basins (with short
fundamental periods) triggered by outside waves are more susceptible to surge problems
than are large, shallow basins. Also, the wave input at one end may induce a lateral resonant
surging in the direction of the short axis of the basin.

If the ends and sides of the basin are poor wave reflectors, resonant surging will be
difficult to induce. Also, if the shape of the basin is irregular or its depths vary irregularly,
resonant surging is less likely to occur. Unfortunately, vertical basin walls are usually more
desirable than poorly reflective basin perimeters, and rectangular basins are more efficient
than irregular basins for berthing arrangements. As a result, some kind of compromise will
often be the best solution.

In large, shallow lakes surging effects may be triggered by wind stress and often produce
fluctuations of the water surface level similar to the lunar tides of the ocean. Surge in a
river-connected harbor may be the result of navigation-lock operations, and hydrogenerator
operations of a major cooling-water withdrawal system. The body of water served by the
harbor site should be examined for past records of water level fluctuations and these
fluctuations should be considered in the harbor design. Regardless of the cause, surging
oscillations are difficult to reduce once the harbor has been built. Therefore, every effort
should be made during harbor design to ensure that surging does not reach troublesome
proportions in the berthing areas.

The best way to study harbor surge is by hydraulic-model analysis. This will determine
the proper entrance orientation, protective structure positioning, and inner basin
configurations required to minimize internal water motion. Progress is being made on new
techniques in mathematical analog analysis from computed programming (LeMehaute and
Hwang, 1970) to study harbor designs. Although the analysis is not as complete as hydraulic
modeling, it does provide a technique to evaluate the basic features of a design. Another
method that gives promise of detecting flaws in preliminary design is the acoustic-analogy
technique (Morrow, 1966). Acoustic analogy has been used in designing resonator basins at
the harbor entrance, which are tuned to specific troublesome wave periods (James, 1970).
Such basins resonate to waves with periods within a given bandwidth of the spectrum,
regardless of incident direction, and reflect them back out to sea.

Most recreational boats in a small-craft harbor are insensitive to surge with periods in
excess of those normally encountered in sea and swell. Large cruising and commercial craft
may experience fender and mooring line difficulties under long-period surging, and any
harbor with these vessels should be designed to eliminate its cause.

c. Tsunamis. These long-period waves of seismic origin are relatively infrequent and
normally occur only in the major oceans. The major fault zones that rim the Pacific Ocean
have produced most of the tsunamis of record, some of which have caused great damage in
the coastal harbors of the U.S. Pacific coast and Hawaii. These waves usually have periods of
10 to 20 minutes and travel at speeds of several hundred miles per hour. Because of a low
steepness factor they cannot be visually detected in deep water; when these waves arrive at a
distant shore they may cause fluctuations of several feet in the water surface elevation.

31

Tsunami waves behave like a very rapid tide impressed on the lunar tide at whatever stage it
happens to be. The rapid flushing of channels and basins that results may cause unusual
amplifications and channel velocities that scour banks and make navigation of any size vessel
extremely hazardous. The tsunami wave may rise above the adjacent land surface of a
harbor and flood marginal lands.

Little can be done to prevent a tsunami wave penetration in a small-craft harbor, but
precautions can be taken to minimize the damage. A site should be selected where the
perimeter land surface is above the level to which tsunamis might raise the water surface. If
this is not practical, the floors of buildings in the perimeter area should be kept above this
level. Another precaution is to keep the tops of the anchor piles of floating slips well above
this level so that the floats will not rise above them.

Anchorages should be designed to resist the lateral loads that may be imposed by
tsunami-generated currents. The trough of a tsunami wave might lower some of the berthed
craft to the bottom. To prevent damage from such an occurrence, shearing off the barnacles
from guide piles below the normal low tide level by a cutting device could prevent a pile
guide from sticking on their rough surface in a tsunami drop and capsizing the berthed craft
on the tsunami crest. In regions where tsunami flooding has been serious, a warning signal
and emergency evacuation system should be devised.

d. Tides. Lunar tides vary from place to place along the shores of all oceans. Tide
prediction tables, published annually by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, are available for most locations where small-craft harbors may be built.
Ocean tides may extend many miles upstream from the mouths of large rivers and are
semipredictable for most potential harbor sites. If a coastal site is chosen that is remote
from any of the stations listed in the tables, it is possible to interpolate predictions for the
site from values given in the tables for the two nearest stations. The extremes of the
predicted spring tides provide criteria for designing the harbor to accommodate any water
level fluctuation that may occur.

Interior surge, boat-wake waves, tsunamis, and hurricane surge should be considered in
conjunction with the tidal fluctuations. In determining the project bottom depths of
interior channels and basins, consideration must also be given to the drafts of the largest
vessels that will be using the facility and to effects of squat, roll, pitch, and heave on these
vessels in maneuvering areas. For example, the berthing basins of one marina were dredged
to what was thought to be sufficient depth below the predicted extreme low tide level to
provide adequate clearance for the keels of the deepest-draft boats to be accommodated;
yet, after a short period of operation, there were complaints of groundings. Investigations
showed that the maneuvering habits of the larger power craft in some areas resulted in a
combined squat and resonant pitch that “kicked up” bottom materials into submerged
“windrows.” In other instances, designers have neglected to take into account internal wave
action, and during the first extreme low water, the normal wave penetration into the

berthing area caused some boats to strike bottom.

Astronomical tides and tidelike effects of surge in stillwater bodies, due to any of the
causes previously enumerated, often play an important role in water quality control. The
current-producing exchange of water between the harbor basins by tidal action may be
essential to the marine ecology and the prevention of a stagnant condition. Consideration
should be given in harbor planning to the achievement of the best possible circulation of
water through the basins and channels by effective use of the tidal prism. Water level
fluctuations on a slower cycle often occur in inland lakes and rivers for various reasons, and
although they usually occur too slowly to produce beneficial water-exchange effects, they
must be accounted for in design. Typical examples are: (a) seasonal drawdown of water
conservation reservoirs, (b) annual changes in the water levels of the Great Lakes, and
(c) periodic water level changes in many natural lakes and rivers due to increases and
decreases in precipitation over their tributary areas.

3. Water Area Shoaling Factors.

a. Littoral Drift. A principal cause of shoaling at entrances to harbors along the shores
of oceans and large lakes is littoral drift (Fig. 13). Because the longshore movement of sand
is due mainly to wave action, any structures that change the normal regimen of waves
breaking along a coast may influence the littoral movement. If an unprotected channel is
dredged through a beach into an inner basin, the wave impinging on either side at the mouth
will be refracted in such a way as to cause abnormalities in the wave pattern approaching the
lips of the channel. If the approach of the prevailing waves is normal to the shore, the initial

Figure 13. Entrance shoaling by littoral drift in a Massachusetts harbor.

33

effect will be a movement of the littoral material from the lips inward along each flank of
the channel, thus eroding the lips and shoaling the inner channel. As the process continues,
the channel banks accrete toward the center of the channel, fed by material from the beach
on either side of the entrance. Unless tidal currents are strong enough to maintain an
opening against the forces tending to shoal the entrance, the channel will soon be closed.
Where the prevailing wave approach is oblique to the shoreline, sediment being transported
along the shore by littoral currents will be interrupted at the channel opening near the
updrift lip and that lip will soon begin to accrete. As the wave-induced longshore current
again begins to “feel” the shore downdrift of the channel mouth, it attempts to reacquire its
sediment load. As a result, the downdrift lip of the channel will erode at about the same rate
the updrift lip accretes, and the channel mouth will migrate in the downdrift direction.

In each of these cases, the forces of nature are attempting to reestablish the littoral
balance that was present before the channel was excavated. The above account is an
oversimplified version of an extremely complex process and excludes consideration of the
effects of sandbar formation, eddy currents, and tidal channel meandering.

The customary solution to entrance shoaling is the construction of jetties along each
flank of the entrance channel from the lips.of the mouth seaward beyond the breaker zone.
The structural features of the jetties must be such that the materials will not be washed
through or over the structure into the channel. A typical section of a sandtight
rubble-mound jetty is shown in Figure 14. If the littoral transport from one direction
predominates and the entrance is stabilized by jetties, accretion will occur along the updrift
shore and erosion along the downdrift shore. Mechanical bypassing of this littoral material
must be instituted to minimize the influence of the jetty structures on longshore transport.
Since littoral transport rates in excess of one million cubic yards annually have been
recorded along some reaches of the continental coastline, bypassing may be costly but
necessary for harbor maintenance.

Longshore-type sediment movement can also occur inside a harbor where any segment of
the perimeter is left as a beach for wave absorption or recreational purposes. If such a beach
is near the entrance, residual wave action entering the harbor may cause longshore
movement of the beach material. The best means of avoiding this problem is to determine,
before harbor construction, the approach direction of the waves that will pass through the
entrance to the vicinity of the beach, and then to aline the beach normal to this direction. If
a revetted slope or bulkhead wall is to be located on either or both ends of the beach sector,
the beach must be recessed behind the general alinement of the revetment or wall so that
the beach toe does not extend beyond the toe of the revetment or wall. Because the residual
wave action inside the harbor is usually diverging, the beach alinement should be made so
that the incoming wave will be normal to the beach at all points.

Boat-wake generated waves can also cause sediment movement along beaches within a
harbor. This may be a minor problem that can be solved at low cost by using mechanical
equipment to periodically deepen the channel and restore the beach. If the beach existed

before the harbor was developed, and it was not intended for recreational use or esthetic

34

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enhancement, the best means of preventing the shoaling of nearby harbor waters by material
eroded from this beach is to revet the beach face. To perserve the beach, an inharbor wave
baffle or fence may be required between the navigation channel and the beach to control
the sediment migration. Another control is to effectively implement a slow-speed zone in
the reach of channel opposite the beach. If the beach is only for recreational purposes, it
should be located at the inner end of a basin where boat-wake waves are seldom generated,
provided that the water quality in that location is adequate. In this location, the beach
would also help to reduce surge oscillations in the basin.

b. River Discharge. Harbors in off-river basins are subject to shoaling because of
sediment deposition in the quiet water area and by eddy currents that may be created by
the entrance configuration and the flowing water in the river. Although shoaling can not be
prevented, it is often reduced by proper entrance design. Along the Colorado River, for
example, the banks are friable and sandy, without much cohesive property. The river
silt-load increases rapidly with slight increases in flow velocity; the suspended material is
coarser than normal, and it settles out rapidly in the quiet waters of the entrance channel to
any off-river basin. The best solution is to provide a flat area on the downstream lip of the
entrance from which a dragline can excavate deposits from the bottom of the entrance
channel and cast them into the river downstream from the entrance (Fig. 15). The entrance
must be kept narrow to permit such an operation, and a training dike off the upstream lip is
helpful in reducing the deposits.

c. Nearby Water Area Structures. Structures in the water area outside the harbor
entrance may also cause harbor shoaling, especially along shorelines where littoral transport
is a problem. An example is a groin or jetty located in an area that is normally downdrift
from a harbor entrance. This type of structure tends to impound or stockpile sediment
under normal conditions. However, on those occasions when waves approach from the
opposite direction and cause a reversal of direction of littoral transport, some of this sand
may be transported back into the entrance and cause shoaling. Relatedly, periodic
maintenance operations of another harbor located updrift from the problem harbor may
result in large quanities of sand being transported downcoast toward it. Beach-fill operations
along the nearby coast may increase the transport rate of material into the harbor entrance.

On rivers, any structure upstream or across from the harbor may alter the current flow
and cause excessive shoaling at the harbor site. Current-deflecting dikes, bridge piers, and
pile-supported structures are examples of manmade works that may affect the shoaling
characteristics of the river at the site. Bank realinements and erosion-control works
undertaken after a harbor has been built may have a profound effect on the harbor. Thus, it
is important first to consult with controlling authorities about any-plans for future
construction or corrective works near the site, or upstream from it, before harbor
construction on any river. Such information should be considered in the siting and design of
the harbor.

d. Redistribution of Bottom Materials. In some water areas, the shifting of bottom

materials by natural processes poses a severe threat to any harbor built along the margins of

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those waters. A good example is San Francisco Bay, mostly rimmed with a wide shelf of soft
bay silts and mud, the surface of which lies but a few feet below mean sea level. Any harbor
constructed along the margin of this bay must have an access channel to deep water through
this shelf. Wind waves generated within the bay frequently stir this muddy bottom material
into suspension and move it long distances; most of the material is redeposited in navigation
channel and harbor entrances. As a result, the channel characteristics are continually
changing and the channels must be marked with buoys and redredged frequently to
maintain navigation.

Rivers meander from the natural process of flood plain and delta aggradation. River flow
continuously erodes material from concave bends where the currents concentrate; the
material is then deposited on convex bars farther downstream where the current is slower.
Examples of this meandering are prevalent throughout the Mississippi Valley and other
major river systems. The harbor designer must study the proposed site carefully to
determine if this natural channel migration and its related movements of bottom sediments
pose a severe threat, or if their effect can be overcome by maintenance efforts within the
financial capabilities of harbor operations. If the problem is serious, he should seek the
advice of a river-hydraulics specialist familiar with the particular area involved.

4, Geological Factors.

a. Basin Excavation. On rare occasions, the harbor site provides basins that are already
the correct size and shape and have adequate depth throughout. However, some excavation
is usually required, and a knowledge of the characteristics of the substrata to be removed
must be obtained to determine the best method of removal. This is usually done by taking
borings and core samples. The core samples are analyzed to determine if the materials can be
moved by normal dredging or excavating equipment, or if ripping or blasting is required.

In areas where the material is granular and unconsolidated, wash-borings may be
satisfactory for determining the nature of the materials and can be done at less cost than
core-borings. However, wash-borings tend to segregate the fine materials from the coarse
materials and give an unreliable indication of substrata characteristics. Borings should be
done only by personnel familiar with the local geology and with wash-boring techniques;
they must be able to distinguish the different strata by their relative resistance to probing -
with the jetting rod, by the color of the effluent brought to the tops of the casting, and by
the feel and appearance of the sediments entrained in the effluent.

Occasionally, the subsurface characteristics of the area are so well known or uniform that
it is only necessary to know the depth of bedrock below the overlying strata of
unconsolidated materials. Sonic probings can make this determination at less cost than any
boring procedure. Sonic probings can complement the knowledge gained by a few
strategically placed core-borings; geologic interpretations are possible over a large area, and
thus reduces the overall cost of the subsurface exploration. In some instances, a satisfactory
delineation of the mud-sand or the sand-rock interface may be obtained simply by probing
with a long steel rod.

38

b. Foundations. Data on soil mechanics for the various substrata of the site are needed
to determine the holding resistance of guide piles, the probable lengths of bearing piles and
sheet piles required for bulkhead walls and building foundations, the bearing capacity of
spread footings, and the active earth pressures to be resisted by bulkheads and retaining
walls. Such data can only be obtained by testing core-borings or other undisturbed samples
of the substrata in a soils laboratory.

c. Seismic Activity. Some areas are more prone to earthquakes than others, and all
structural works must be designed to resist these seismic forces. The United States has been
subdivided into seismic-risk zones according to historical seismic records, and local building
codes use this zoning in their design standards. Thus, harbor and related facility
construction in any metropolitan area will automatically be governed by the applicable
codes. Where local codes have not been prescribed, the Uniform Building Code (1970) gives
seismic-design data for buildings; the State of California Bridge Planning and Design Manual
(1969) gives seismic-design data for bulkheads and piling in water areas. If possible, areas of
active faults should be avoided in siting the harbor.

d. Material Sources. Stone for breakwaters, jetties, and revetments is usually obtained
from the nearest developed rough-stone quarry. If a developed quarry is not near the site, it
may be advisable to explore the comparative cost of transporting stone from distant quarries
versus conducting a geologic exploration for a potential new quarry. Quarrystone should be
sound, durable, hard, and free from laminations, and of such character that it will not
disintegrate from the action of air, water, or conditions to be met in handling and placing.
Suitable fill material for the marginal area of the harbor is generally available from the
harbor excavations. Sometimes this is insufficient to meet the need for landfill or it is of
poor quality. Fill material then may have to be obtained from other nearby “borrow” areas.
Fill is usually not as difficult to obtain as stone, but, like stone, it must be of adequate
structural quality. Most clays and fine silts are too plastic for good foundations; the best is a
sandy material with the right amount of binder for good cohesion. A variety of qualities
may be found in between. Sand and silty sand can be compacted to maximum density by
flooding. Other soils must be compacted mechanically to a carefully regulated optimum
moisture content. If aggregates for concrete are not available commercially, gravel pits and
sand deposits may have to be located for this purpose.

5. Project Impact on Environment.

a. Water Quality. This subject has been discussed briefly in relation to site selection,
tidal, and riverflow factors. Water is particularly important for health and environmental
quality, especially in warmer climates where biological processes are accelerated. Successful
control of water quality is usually dependent on periodic exchanges of harbor water with
the main water body that the harbor serves. In flowing rivers, the problem is minimized
because the river currents will induce circulatory flow even in off-river basins. Tidal or
pseudotidal fluctuations are important factors in adequate water exchange in harbors. For

single-entrance harbors, an average daily exchange of water equivalent to about one-third of

39

the harbor’s mean tide volume is usually sufficient to prevent water stagnation. Although
such exchanges penetrate only part of the harbor, sufficient diffusion occurs to maintain
adequate water quality.

Where water level fluctuations are small, special arrangements may be necessary to ensure
adequate water exchange. Sometimes this can be done by providing two entrances to the
harbor so that wind-generated currents or tidal currents, feeble though they may be, move
continuously through the harbor. It is important, however, to make sure that the outside
source of exchange water is not already polluted. Complete exchange of water about every
10 days is usually adequate for proper control. If this is not done naturally, a
mechanical-flow generator may be required. Such devices are manufactured especially for
this purpose (Fig. 16) and may be installed to circulate the water within a single basin or to
move it from one basin to another through a large conduit.

Water exchange does not always ensure good quality, especially in the back basins of a
multibasin harbor. A significant factor in water quality control in any harbor is elimination
of the direct sources of pollution. These sources may be: (a) discharges of industrial wastes
and sewage into the harbor, (b) local surface runoff, (c) discharge of water from storm
drains from tributary areas, (d) flushing of boats’ sanitary facilities within the harbor,
(e) inadequate control of bilges, or (f) dumping of garbage and trash in the harbor waters.

Sanitary-sewer and industrial waste discharges into harbor waters must be eliminated in

Figure 16. Mechanical current generator.

40

harbor planning. The flushing of sanitary facilities and dumping of pollutants must be
controlled by ordinance and by provision of pumpout stations and garbage and trash
collection services at convenient locations. Surface runoff waters accumulate contaminants,
and their discharge directly into the harbor should be prevented as much as possible.
Although storm drains should be diverted away from the harbor, some local surface water
and drains may have to discharge into it. In this case, extra care should be taken to keep
harbor streets, parking lots and other marginal surfaces reasonably clean, and to prevent
fertilized landscapes from overflowing when watered.

The biostimulated deterioration of water quality is largely a function of biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD). The input of nitrates, phosphates, and silicates in sewage and
surface runoff stimulates aquatic plant life, which then dies and decomposes, using up large
quantities of dissolved oxygen in the process. This in turn leads to the demise of
water-dwelling animal life, which needs oxygen to survive. The result is turbid and often
foul-smelling water. This is an oversimplified account of a rather complex chain of events;
its many ramifications are best known to the marine biologist. However, an occasional check
on dissolved oxygen levels in various parts of a harbor will indicate whether corrective
action is needed. In most States, control agencies establish the level of water quality that
must be maintained in harbor areas and reservoirs and provide the necessary testing.

The problems and the plant and animal life involved differ in freshwater and saltwater.
Seawater is considerably more aseptic than freshwater, and fairly low rates of exchange may
be capable of controlling large amounts of contamination. When man interferes with natural
processes near the ocean where freshwater rivers become tidal, care should be exercised not
to upset the salinity balance. The U.S. Federal Water Quality Control Administration
recommends that, “For the protection of marine and estuarine organism, no changes in
channels, in the basin geometry of the area, or in freshwater inflow should be made that
would cause permanent changes in isohaline patterns of more than +10 percent of the
natural variation.”

b. Preservation of the Ecology. In recent years, considerable attention has been given to
the effects of man’s enterprise in coastal areas on aquatic life, from the smallest one-celled
creatures to fish, birds, and water-oriented animals. In the construction of artificial harbors,
the habitat of many living creatures may be disturbed. As a result, fish and wildlife
administrations of most States now exercise considerable control over such activities and
often require special permits and comprehensive environmental impact statements for the
construction of all new facilities and for the expansion of existing ones. The National
Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (Public Law 91-190) requires an environmental impact
statement on all actions or projects partly or wholly funded by Federal allocations and on
major structures requiring Federal permits. This statement must @describe: (a) the
environmental impact of the proposed action, (b) any adverse environmental effects that
cannot be avoided should the proposal be implemented, (c) alternatives to the proposed

41

action, (d) the relationship between local short-term uses of man’s environment and the
maintenance and enhancement of long-term productivity, and (e) any irreversible and
irretrievable commitments of resources that would be involved in the proposed action
should it be implemented.

The intent of these statements is to present to the reviewing authorities information with
which to evaluate the probable effects of each project on the environment to the end that
the nation may: (a) fulfill the responsibilities of each generation as trustee of the
environment for succeeding generations, (b) ensure for all Americans safe, healthful,
productive, and esthetically and culturally pleasing surroundings, (c) attain the widest range
of beneficial uses of the environment without degradation, risk to health or safety, or other
undesirable and unintended consequences, (d) preserve important historic, cultural, and
natural aspects of our national heritage, and maintain, wherever possible, an environment
which supports diversity and variety of individual choice, (e) achieve a balance between
population and resource use that will permit high standards of living and a wide sharing of
life’s amenities, and (f) enhance the quality of renewable resources and approach the
maximum attainable recycling of depletable resources. Not only must the effects on living
creatures be considered, but in wooded areas, limitations may be placed on clearing-out
trees and shrubs, and on rocky coasts, the alteration of scenic landscapes.

The excavation of an entrance channel through a beach or the placement of rock and
earthfill on the offshore bottom may affect the habitat of bottom-living creatures and
perhaps some of the creatures themselves, such as shellfish and worms. During construction,
some adverse effect may prevail; however, in many cases the constructed or completed
works greatly enhance the habitat and existence of bottom-living creatures. The runoff from
a dredge-fill placed on land areas normally carries large volumes of suspended fines that
ultimately settle out on the bottom in the quiet waters of the effluent-runoff basin. It is
becoming a common and required practice to implement techniques and means of
controlling the runoff effluent to meet water quality standards. Construction practices and
procedures must be followed during the design and planning stages so that compliance with
environmental standards will be met.

In coastal estuaries, the tidal flats are usually teeming with lower-life species upon which
many aquatic birds and fish depend for their existence. Tidal flats are also spawning grounds
for many species of fish. Considerable pressure by environmental protection groups is now
being exerted to prevent the further encroachment of harbor construction into these areas;
legislative action has been instituted in many areas to convert them into permanent
preserves. The ultimate solution in such cases may be to locate the harbor offshore. Where
protective structures such as rubble breakwaters and jetties must be built, an important
marine biological factor concerning their construction may be found in the excellent habitat
they provide for fish life. The small fish are able to swim into the interstices in the
stonework, which provides protection against predators. Also, in seawater, marine growth
on the stones soon supports a wide variety of shellfish and marine plantlife.

42

c. Disposal of Dredged Material. Most materials excavated in the dry can be used
directly for backfill, for raising ground levels, and for various other beneficial purposes;
other materials excavated by dredging below the water surface are difficult to dispose of
beneficially. Without careful planning, the disposal of dredged materials may be detrimental
to the environment, yet dredged sand and coral may be highly useful. Because such material
settles out of suspension quickly, it regains the same characteristics it had before being
dredged. It can be used to replenish or build new beaches by controlling the discharge from
the pipeline. By manipulating the runnoff waters properly, it can also be used to raise
ground levels over large areas.

Silts, clays, and loams are often transformed by the mixing process of a hydraulic dredge
into substances that present numerous problems in disposal. Extremely fine particles with
certain chemical properties that occur in many soils often form colloids that remain in
suspension indefinitely in the waters into which they are discharged. Fine silts settle out
slowly and may be diffused over a wide area of the water body into which they are released
before finally dropping to the bottom. Clays form in balls during their passage through the
disposal pipe and create undesirable amorphous pockets wherever they are discharged.
Nonsandy material contained by dikes or training walls in a landfill after being discharged
tends to segregate with the coarsest materials settling out near the end of the discharge line
and with the fines being carried toward the spillway end of the enclosure. The fine silts and
colloids remaining in suspension at the spillway are then discharged into the receiving waters
where they present further problems.

There are no simple solutions to the disposal problem, but some of the more successful
efforts have been as follows:

(1) In firm, clayey material, use a clamshell dredge in lieu of a hydraulic dredge, and
transport the material to a well-drained drying area. Spread it in a 2- or 3-foot layer, and
when reasonably dry, rehandle it to some beneficial disposal area such as a grade-raising
project, the core of a dam or dike, or a sanitary landfill.

(2) Discharge the material from a hydraulic dredge into a diked area and spill the
effluent into another basin for holding until clarified. This system may have to be expanded
to include two or more clarifying basins if the settling process is exceptionally slow. As the
diked area fills, the good material may push a deposit of sludge toward the spillway. This
sludge may have to be removed and disposed of at times, but the disposal of these minor
amounts of poor material is not difficult. After the diked area is filled with reasonably good
material to about 110 percent of the design-fill thickness, it can be dried in any one of
several ways. Ditching at intervals to draw off the water that seeps out will help. Running
over the area with heavy equipment will speed the process. Rehandling the material into
high stockpiles will also help it to drain faster. If the base material over which the material is
spread is sandy, well points may be used to extract the water that leaches down into it from
the new fill. The dried-out result should shrink to about the desired grade. If not, vary the

amount of initial overfill until it does.

43

(3) If a layer of very soft mud overlies firmer substrata on the bottom, remove this
soft material first with a “‘dustpan” suction head or some other device that screens the local
dredging area from the surrounding water, discharging the slurry into a series of clarifying
ponds. After as much mud as possible has been removed in this manner, proceed with the
usual cutterhead operation as described earlier.

(4) If alternate good and bad strata are encountered, control the depth of each
successive cut and dispose of each layer of material in a manner best suited to that material.
This procedure is usually too expensive for most projects, but it may be the only solution if
the environmental requirements are sufficiently demanding.

(5) Dike off the area to be dredged, unwater it, and excavate with dryland equipment.
Allow the excavated basin to refill slowly so as not to wash the dike material into it, and
then remove the dike progressively with a dragline working along the crown.

(6) Where a major concern is that basin waters clouded by dredging operations will
_ diffuse into the main water body, screen off the area where the dredge is working with a
vertical skirt of flexible impermeable plastic material. The skirt is suspended from a plastic
pipe floating on the surface, and the lower end is held on the bottom by rocks or sand bags
placed by divers. When dredging begins, enough water will be drawn in over the top of the
plastic pipe to replace the water used by the dredge. After dredging has been completed and
the basin waters have clarified, the screen may be removed.

(7) Where dredge fill is to be pumped onto a beach or into the water adjacent to a
beach, the disposal site may be screened off (described earlier) to prevent the escape of
suspended fines. However, once the screen is removed, wave turbulence may again stir the
fine material into suspension. A better solution is first to bulldoze the beach sand into a
dike that is far enough offshore to contain all the dredged material between it and the
shoreline. A separate basin may be needed to receive and store effluent from the disposal
site until it has clarified sufficiently. If desired, the top of the resulting fill may be left a
foot or two below the adjacent ground surface and covered with beach sand or other
indigenous material.

(8) If the material is dredged from a basin adjacent to the ocean or a deep sound, it
may be possible to obtain permission to carry the dredge slurry via floating pipeline offshore
to a disposal area deep enough to be undisturbed by surface waves. If the material contains a
high percentage of fines or colloids, however, the danger of widespread diffusion of clouded
waters may prevent issuance of such a permit.

(9) A new Italian product called the Hydocyclone, when installed at the discharge
end of dredge pipe, is capable of separating the heavier grains from the lighter silts, clays,
and colloids by vortex action. Although not tested extensively in this country, it appears to
be capable of extracting the good material from the undesirable fraction for use in fills. If
not too costly to operate, this device may offer a solution to those disposal problems that
require selective placement of certain fractions of the dredged material.

44

d.. Esthetics. A small-craft harbor can readily be made esthetically attractive. With good
architectural treatment of the buildings and imaginative landscaping of the marginal land,
any harbor can be made pleasing to the eye. There are a few factors that may reduce a
harbor’s attractiveness if not properly taken into consideration. All marginal lands on which
people walk or vehicles travel should be paved or treated to eliminate mud and dust.
Perimeters should either be bulkheaded, slope revetted, or beached. Work areas where boats
are repaired or maintenance equipment is kept should be located in a remote part of the
harbor, preferably shielded from view by fencing. Utilities should be kept underground in
the marginal lands and below deck level in the berthing area.

Good maintenance is also a requirement for esthetic appearance. Banks of basins and
channels that are left natural must be maintained against erosion and unsightly weed
growth. Provision must be made for the removal of floating debris from pockets on the lee
side of basins and channels or wherever debris accumulates. Painted -surfaces should be
repainted as required, worn or damaged facilities repaired promptly, landscaping properly
cared for, and streets, parking areas, and walks kept clean. With these few precautions in
planning and maintenance, any harbor will be a credit to the community and a focal point
of civic pride.

6. Sociological Factors.

a. Relation to Adjacent Development. Any site selected for a small-craft harbor within
or close to a city should be compatible with other development in its general area. Some
sites may be satisfactory otherwise, but not desirable from a sociological standpoint.
Examples of undesirable adjacent development might be waste disposal areas. Zoning
restrictions may rule out harbor construction at some highly desirable site, and conversely ,
may prescribe the harbor location in accordance with a municipal development plan.
Examples of desirable adjacent development are parks, large estates, shopping centers,
condominiums, historical monuments, forest and wildlife preserves, and amusement centers.

b. Related Recreation. Other types of recreation are compatible with boating activities,
and facilities for them will be complementary tothe harbor itself whether they are sited
within or adjacent to the harbor complex. Examples of such facilities are gymnasiums,
saunas, swimming pools, scuba diving schools, tennis courts, golf courses, rowing courses,
and hiking and bicycling trails (Fig. 17). The provision of such facilities either by a
municipal recreation department or by private enterprise should be encouraged to help
round out the harbor complex as a recreational center.

c. Transportation Facilities. Although most boaters will commute to and from the
harbor in their personal cars, many employees of the harbor and its ancillary facilities may
require public transportation. Transient boaters from other harbors also may desire to use
the local public transportation system. If it is possible, arrangements should be made to
include one stop at the harbor on the scheduled route or routes of a local bus or rail system.
Where the harbor complex is isolated from such a system, providing an internal shuttle

service either by franchise or by operation under harbor management should be considered.

45

Figure 17. Adjacent park complements harbor development.

V. FUNCTIONAL PLANNING AND DESIGN
1. Primary Objectives. Once the site has been selected and environmental factors evaluated,
the harbor must be planned with certain primary objectives as follows:

The entrance should be safe to enter by all using craft under all conditions of winds and
waves that may occur in the water body served, except for conditions under which the craft
cannot navigate. This objective may not always be achieved, as other factors may place
limits on the orientation, size of opening, controlling depth, and perimeter features of the
entrance that preclude the development of the best entrance plan for all-weather safety.
Nevertheless, this basic objective must be kept in mind throughout the planning stage.

The interior channels, fairways, and berthing areas must be adequate for the sizes, types,
and numbers of craft to be berthed. Long, tortuous channels should be avoided. Channels
must be wide enough to accommodate the anticipated peak-hour traffic without undue
hazard to navigation. Fairways must be wide enough to permit the maneuvering of boats in
and out of slips and to and from the entrance channel. Berthing areas must be large enough
for the planned number of berths without encroaching on established clearance standards
and fairways.

The water area use allocation must be planned to accommodate all classes of boats, such
as privately owned rental, charter, and commercial fishing, and where possible, to avoid
interferences with the use of perimeter lands, fairways, and turning basins.

46

The initial cost of the harbor, including protective structures, channels, basins, docks,
and administrative and service facilities, must be consistent with: (a) achievement of
reasonably long-lived construction, (b) avoidance of components with unusually high
maintenance requirements, and (c) provision of an esthetically pleasing and functional
installation.

Conversely, the harbor design, types of materials used, and workmanship involved in the
initial construction should be of a quality no higher than is necessary to reduce maintenance
to the minimum level possible without overspending to achieve slight advantages in
maintenance reduction.

The overall harbor area must be adequate for all purposes, with a proper balance between
land and water area. Enough perimeter land must be available for streets and parking, for
ancillary facilities that produce the revenues needed to supplement slip rental fees, and for
all harbor support facilities. Where future expansion is anticipated, adequate undeveloped
land or water area must be available and reserved for this purpose.

A master plan should be adopted as a guide for all future developments.

2. Design Criteria for Protective Features and Entrances.

a. Breakwaters. Where site selection and environmental considerations indicate a
breakwater to be necessary, the type of construction and design will depend on availability
and cost of materials, and on the amplitude of the waves to be resisted. The most common
type of breakwater used in the open ocean and most large lakes is the rubble-mound
breakwater, sometimes armored with concrete units of various shapes (Fig. 18). This
breakwater is intended to prevent or reduce the transmission of wave energy into the harbor
by absorbing some of this energy and by reflecting as much of the remaining energy as
possible back toward the main water body. Design criteria for this type of breakwater can
be found in the Shore Protection Manual (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal
Engineering Research Center, 1973), and Quinn (1972). If a rubble breakwater is too porous,
it will allow transmission of a high percentage of the longer period wave energy through it,
and excessive wave disturbance will occur within the interior channels and berthing areas.
Under this condition the orbital motion within the advancing wave is destroyed at the
breakwater, but the potential energy is transmitted by hydrostatic pressure differentials
through the voids in the stonework and a new wave of the same period is generated in the
lee of the structure. For this reason, voids in rubble mounds should be reduced by
incorporating a low porosity or impermeable core built to as high an elevation as possible in
the structure.

A breakwater is seldom built to a height that will not be overtopped by the design wave.
A certain amount of overtopping can usually be tolerated, but only to the extent that
regenerated waves causes only minor acceptable disturbance in the protected area. For
example, if an open water area such as an entrance channel or main fairway lies immediately

behind the breakwater, overtopping waves can usually be tolerated up to the point that the

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48

interior waves they regenerate are about 3 feet in height, provided that these interior waves
do not in turn cause excessive waves in the berthing areas. Moreover, as high overtopping
waves will occur infrequently, the slight damage or inconvenience they cause will usually be
minor in comparison with the extra cost of building the breakwater to nonovertopping
dimensions. On the other hand, the overtopping waves will subject the breakwater to
disruptive forces that would not occur under normal conditions, and the structure must, of
course, be designed to withstand such forces.

If the breakwater is in shallow water, large waves may break before reaching it. Then it is
only necessary to design the structure to resist the highest wave that can reach it without
breaking. As a first approximation, waves break when the depth of the water is about 1.3
times the wave height. For design purposes, the wave should be determined by the method
described in the Shore Protection Manual (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal
Engineering Research Center, 1973) which indicates that the height of a breaking wave is a
function of wave period, slope of the seabed, and the water depth at the structure. The ratio
of the water depth to breaking wave height can vary from 0.7 to 1.5 depending on the above
factors.

If the breakwater is in deeper water, records of the measured deepwater waves during the
highest wave episode ever recorded may be used to determine the design wave height. If no
records are available, wave hindcasts for the site based on recorded wind speeds or analysis
of barometric pressure patterns in the wave-generating area can be used. In this event, a
general rule for rubble-mound design is to use as the design wave height the significant
height of the one-tenth-percent-occurrence wave episode, i.e., will not be exceeded in wave
height (for any direction within a 90° sector centered on the perpendicular to the
breakwater’s axis) more than one-thousandth of the time, or about 9 hours each year. Some
displacement of armor units may occur during the exceedance-design wave episodes, but the
cost of their replacement is usually small in comparison to the extra initial expense of

designing against the highest wave that might occur.
The integrity of a rubble breakwater is largely dependent on the stability of the stones

and armor units of which it is built. Large stones, if placed directly on a soft bottom, may
sink and lose their usefulness. This can be avoided by first covering the entire base with
filter cloth and then covering the cloth with a bedding layer of spalls or quarry waste to a
thickness of about 1% times the average dimension of the average stone in the bedding layer.
Filter cloth made of woven monofilament plastic yarns have proved to be the best for
breakwaters, jetties, and shore-protective structures (Barrett, 1966; and Calhoun, 1972).
Tests have shown that these filter cloths are superior to perforated plastic membranes, cloth
made of woven multifilament plastic yarns, and glass fiber filters. Several methods of placing
the cloth under water have been devised, each suitable for a specific bottom condition or
type of water agitation. The filter manufacturers can furnish information as to methods of

placement.

49

The toe of a rubble-mound structure in water shallower than about twice the design-wave
height may be subjected to severe scouring currents caused by wave turbulence. It is
important that the bedding layer be carried well beyond the toe stones to prevent these
currents from scouring sand or other soft bottom material from under them. If the toe
stones are dislodged, they may allow the armor units above them to slide down the slope.
For this same reason, a berm of secondary armor stone about two stones wide is usually
placed at the toe of the armor units.

When a rubble-mound breakwater is subjected to massive wave overtopping, the armor
units in the crown and back slope of the structure are as much in danger of being dislodged
as those in the front slope. Therefore, the crown should be three and preferably four armor
units wide and the units on the back slope down to about wave height distance below the
surface should be as large and as well placed as those on the front slope. In designing a
rubble breakwater for overtopping, this fact must be pointed out in the project reports so
that there will be no misunderstandings or recriminations if minor damage occurs in later
stages of the project. It should be noted that damage to rubble mounds is not usually
sudden but progressive, and even a badly damaged structure retains much of its original
wave breaking capability and can be easily repaired. Van de Kreeke (1969), and the Shore
Protection Manual (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center,
1973) present data obtained from model studies that can be used to estimate damage to
rubble-mound structures under design-exceedence wave attack.

Timber, steel, and concrete sheet-pile or masonary-block breakwaters, or composite
structures made with these materials, differ from rubble-mound structures in that they may
fail or be severely damaged by a single wave of more than design proportions. It is essential
that rubble-mound breakwaters be designed to withstand either the breaking wave or the
highest 1 percent nonbreaking wave, although the wave may overtop the structure by several
feet. A wall must be designed for hydrodynamic shock forces if it presents a continuous flat
surface to the sea with no pressure-release features, and is in water to a depth where waves
break directly on its face. Hydrodynamic shock forces may be highly localized and of
extremely short durations, but pressures within the shock zone may exceed by several fold
the normal hydrostatic pressures exerted by nonbreaking waves.

Design for timber, steel, and concrete breakwaters take many forms. The most common
in low wave areas is the sheet-pile structure, but its use is limited to soft bottoms into which
piles can be easily driven. Sheet-pile structures must be strengthened by wales or a
substantial cap, and unless the design wave is small, it must be braced to prevent
overturning. A variation of the sheet-pile breakwater is the diaphragm wall supported by

king piles (Fig. 19). In hard bottom, the king piles may have to be drilled and grouted in
place.

50

Figure 19. Wave and surge barrier, Monterey Harbor, California. An outer breakwater inter-
cepts most of the wave action, but timber diaphragm with braced king-pile
supports keeps large diffracted waves from reaching berthing area.

Other breakwater types include: (a) sand-filled sheet-pile or prefabricated concrete cells —
set side by side and securely fastened together, (b) concrete superstructure built on a
submerged rubble base where large pieces of stone are not available for an all rubble
structure, and (c) the perforated swiss-cheese breakwater, which partially dissipated wave
energy in a chamber behind a perforated wall (Fig. 20). Design details for these structures
may be found in the Shore Protection Manual (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal
Engineering Research Center, 1973), and Chaney (1961).

Regardless of the type of construction used, special attention must be given to the
foundation and bottom materials. Any wave resisting, vertical-faced structure built on a
bottom of unconsolidated materials can cause the waves to generate toe-scouring currents
and undermine the structure or make it unstable. Caissons or other large structural units
that rest on the bottom rather than imbedded, are particularly vulnerable; they have been
known to topple seaward into their own scoured-toe trench. Sheet-pile walls have sometimes
lost so much embedment from toe scour as to threaten their integrity. Such scour can be
prevented by dumping stone of appropriate size (large enough not to be carried away by the
toe currents) along the toe of the newly placed structure (Fig. 21). The individual stone size

and overall fillet size will vary with the height of the design wave.

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The precise positioning of a breakwater usually requires careful study. In the absence of
other controlling factors, the alinement should be roughly normal to the primary direction
of wave approach to intercept the maximum amount of wave energy with the shortest
possible longshore length of structure. The breakwater should be as close to the shore as
possible, because, as the water depth increases, the structure cost usually increases.
However, the breakwater should not encroach on water area needed for an entrance and
fairway in its lee during normal and peak traffic conditions; it should be only as long as is
required to effect suitably quiet water for a safe entrance. An exception to these general
criteria is the occasional need to make an offshore breakwater long enough to trap littoral
drift and to hold it for periodic bypassing operations. A low-height breakwater may have to
be located farther off shore to allow for the turbulence that overtopping waves will generate
in its lee. A submerged reef may provide a good base for a lower-height structure required at
optimum distance from shore. Many coral reefs with wide lagoons in their lee fall in this
category. |

Where a harbor is built entirely offshore rather than in a basin behind the shoreline, its
entire outer perimeter except for the entrance must generally be a breakwater. The
breakwater location is then determined by the harbor configuration as well as by wave
characteristics and depth requirements. An example of such a harbor is shown in Figure 22.
In this event, transmitted and overtopping waves along the seaward leg of the perimeter may
require a second line of defense, such as a smaller inside breakwater or a revetted mole.
These secondary structures will usually be designed to protect the berthing areas in their lee
from surge and low-height waves that penetrate the outer structure. This configuration
leaves a parallel-to-shore entrance channel between the inner secondary structure and the
outer breakwater in which intermediate-height waves are acceptable.

An important factor in breakwater design is construction planning. The designer must be
aware of construction problems and design within the capabilities of the equipment that is
available. He must be aware of potential sources of materials and lead times required to get
them to the site, and he must study possible routes and means of transportation. For
example, an offshore breakwater must be constructed with a floating plant, or a temporary
trestle must be built to the offshore site for the use of land-based equipment. During early
stages of construction, there will be no protection against waves; therefore, the work should
be done during the most favorable season of the year. Provisions must be made to get
personnel and equipment to safety in a sudden storm or wave attack.

In rubble-mound construction, the bedding layer and internal layers of smaller stone
must be placed before the armor layer is applied. The designer must know how this is done,
and analyze the difficulty of holding a slope of small stones exposed to sea and swell until it
can be protected with armor stone or concrete armor units. He must know boom lengths of
cranes and not design sections that can only be built with special equipment that will create

excessive costs. A transfer point will be required for moving land-source stone onto floating

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equipment, and it may be important to provide the place and perhaps some of the means for
doing this. A shore-connected breakwater can be built entirely with land-based equipment,
but progress will be slowed by the single-point operation and congestion of haul traffic over
the breakwater crown. A two-stage construction program may be advisable, with the crown
being kept low (and wider) in the first stage and the capstone being applied inthe final stage
(Fig. 23).

A shore-connected breakwater is usually an attractive structure to fishermen. During the
design stage, it must be determined if the top of the breakwater will be made available for
fishing and the conditions for this use. Additional provisions may be required to reduce the
hazards to those who avail themselves of such a concession. A level footpath along the top
of a rubble mound or a handrail along the cap may be required. Because of unexpectedly
high waves, people have been swept off these structures, especially along ocean shores. Users
_ must be warned of the danger by posted signs. This same consideration also applies to
jetties.

The wave diffraction pattern caused by a breakwater has a significant impact on the
adjacent shoreline, and must be considered in project planning. A schematic analysis of this
diffraction effect on a typical sand beach is shown in Figure 24. This analysis should be
made whenever a breakwater is constructed off a shore area comprised of friable materials,
and the indicated effects should be accounted for in project design. The Shore Protection
Manual (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, 1973)
contains instructions and data for analyzing wave diffraction under most conditions
encountered in harbor design.

b. Entrance Channel and Structures. The design of harbors and entrance channels must
be related to the site selection and positioning of the protective structures. The jetties and
breakwater must permit construction, maintenance, and passage of tidal flows. All these
aspects must be considered in harbor design.

The channel alinement should be as close to the natural channel alinement as possible.
Any bends that are necessary should be gradual. The number and size of vessels must be
known to determine the design width and two-way traffic that must be accommodated. The
minimum width for small boat traffic should be about 50 feet or 5 times the beam of the
widest boat expected to be berthed in the harbor. If sailboats use the harbor, extra width
should be provided for tacking. When small craft are combined with a commercial fleet,
separate channels should be considered. Channel depth is usually measured from low water
datum and depends on many factors, including size and types of vessels, traveling speed, and
wave magnitude. Traveling speeds govern the degree of squat which can be determined. An
overdepth of 1 foot in soft material and 2 feet in rock should be allowed for dredging
irregularities. The channel depth should be the sum of: (a) the draft, (b) squat, (c) one-half
the wave height, and (d) overdepth. A minimum of 6 feet is suggested for the channel depth.

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In large marinas with entrance problems, it may be necessary to prohibit the tacking of
sailboats and require them to negotiate the entrance channel on auxiliary power under
peak-hour conditions.

Although no criteria have been established for determining the width of an ocean
entrance channel where boat traffic is a controlling factor, a good practice is to provide a
navigable width of 300 feet for the first 1,000 boats, plus an additional 100 feet for every
additional 1,000 boats berthed in the harbor including the daily launching capacity of
operational ramps and hoists. In 1973, Marina Del Rey (see Sec. VIII) berthed about 6,000
boats; its entrance has a navigable width of about 700 feet (versus 800 feet by the above
tule), and has recently begun to experience an entrance-congestion problem on peak days.
The harbormaster has solved this problem successfully, by creating lanes to separate
powercraft and sailcraft entering and leaving the harbor. The system is not regulated by
ordinance, but requires the voluntary cooperation of the boaters. Newport Bay, California
(Fig. 25) is a natural harbor with a jettied entrance channel of about the same length as that
of Marina Del Rey, but skewed to the general alinement of the coast so that the daily sea
breeze is quartering. The navigable channel width ranges from about 500 to 700 feet, and
the bay contains about 8,000 powercraft and sailcraft. Long reaches of cruising waters
within the bay satisfy many small sailboat owners so that they seldom use the entrance.
Assuming that 1,000 boats are in this class, the required entrance channel width would be
900 feet. Although the channel is overcrowded on peak days, its orientation with respect to
the prevailing winds reduces the requirement for sailboat tacking. Also, along a reach just
inside the 1,800-foot jetties, small sailboats can range well outside the marked channel
boundaries into marginal waters. Of general interest, Newport Bay traffic counts made
during typical summer weekends show that an average of about 27 percent of the harbor’s
oceangoing fleet uses the entrance on Saturdays and 32 percent on Sundays.

Every entrance has its own special characteristics that may modify the tentative entrance
width determined by the above general rule. A short reach of constricted channel with more
area for maneuvering at either end can be considerably narrower than would be desirable for
a long channel of uniform width. Where boating characteristics of the harbor tenants spread
the daily entrance-use pattern uniformly over several hours rather than to concentrate in a
few peak hours, a narrower entrance may be acceptable. At times, the need to exclude as
much wave energy as possible from the harbor may override the congestion consideration;
then, an exceptionally narrow entrance must be provided and its use restricted in some
manner during peak hours. However, if the harbor berths a high percentage of sailboats and
requires a long entrance channel that for geographic reasons must be alined parallel to the
prevailing wind direction, the channel may have to be even wider than the general rule
would indicate.

One method of entrance-congestion analysis (Ely, 1972) considers the passage of boats
through entrances by assuming each boat to have a rectangular “blockading area” larger

59

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with the axially moving craft are calculated mathematically for various speeds and numbers
of craft per hour in channels of various widths. Although a small percentage of such
interferences would result in actual collisions, each would require some kind of safety
maneuver; the more frequently they occurred the greater would be the likelihood of an
accident. The harbor planner must use a considerable amount of judgment in determining
the entrance channel width, orientation, and configuration.

The primary function of a jetty is to protect the entrance channel from waves in the
main water body and from littoral drift entering the channel from the flanking beaches.
Because the entrance must usually be alined nearly normal to shore, a jetty is usually
required on each flank. Occasionally, a natural protection (e.g., a rocky headland) will
obviate the need for a jetty on one side or the other. Although the jetties may be alined
nearly parallel to the prevailing direction of the waves, occasional waves from other
directions must be anticipated. For this reason, jetties must also be designed to serve as
breakwaters. The direction limits can be determined by a review of historical records or by
wave hindcast and refraction analysis. In small lakes, jetties can often be designed as
freestanding sheet-pile structures, but wherever large waves are anticipated, they must be
quite massive. Rubble-mound or broad-based concrete construction is usually required to
protect entrances from the open ocean or large lakes.

Since wave energy decreases as the water becomes shallower, considerable savings in
construction cost can be affected by making the jetty section progressively smaller from the
outer end toward shore (Fig. 26). The outer end must be designed to withstand the full
force of a wave from any direction. Rubble mounds may be decreased progressively toward
shore, both in height and size of armor stone in accordance with design criteria for
breakwaters. Sheet-pile structures require progressively less penetration as they approach
shore. Refraction and diffraction analysis (or model study) will be required to determine
design wave heights both on the channel side and the exposed flank of each jetty.

Jetties are usually constructed from the shore end outward for equipment-access
purposes, and before channel dredging for dredge-protection and drift-exclusion reasons. If
the work is done during wave action, the turbulence at the working end tends to scour a
hole in unconsolidated bottom material whether the jetty is of wide-base or sheet-pile
construction. Therefore, in a rubble structure, a quarry-waste bedding layer should be
placed on the bottom before construction to prevent scouring. If the bottom is soft, this
bedding layer should be placed on filter cloth. The outer end of a sheet-pile jetty will
usually require stabilization against scouring for the same reasons. If construction proceeds
from the outer end toward shore, a similar scouring effect will take place at the unfinished
inner end, particularly as it nears the shoreline. It is important that scouring be anticipated
in the design and accounted for in the cost estimate and the construction procedure.

Spacing of the jetties must accommodate both the entrance channel and a protective
berm of appropriate width on either side of the jetty (Fig. 27). The berm deters

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undermining of the jetties. The side slopes of the channel cut must be stable for the type of
material required, and for the characteristics of wave action and currents that are
anticipated within the jetty confines. When a cutterhead dredge is used, it is customary to
cut the channel to full project depth slightly outside the design bottom-of-slope limits. This
leaves the steeper slope that the material will initially stand on and allows wave action to
flatten it to an approximation of the design slope later. The width of the berm will vary
with construction methods and characteristics of the bottom material. A good general rule is
to make the berm width either 25 feet, or the cut-depth multiplied by the
horizontal-to-vertical ratio of the design side slope of the channel, whichever is greater;
however, considerable judgment should be used in actual design. The width may be allowed
to vary from a quite narrow width at the outer end, where the depth of excavation is
minimal, to a generously wide width at the shoreline where the cut is deep.

Where a jetty nears the shoreline, a transition must be made in the entrance section from
that of a jetty-flanked channel to a protected-bank channel (Fig. 26). This protection bank
usually consists of a revetted slope, but it may be a sheet-pile wall or poured-in-place

concrete wall as shown in Figure 28.

Concrete L' Wall x

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Figure 28. Narrow channel construction by land-based equipment.

The channel may be trimmed to design side slopes where narrow entrances are flanked
by retaining walls or riprapped slopes and behind which land equipment can be maneuvered
to excavate the channel (Fig. 28). Whatever type of bank protection is used, it should
extend at least 5 feet below the extreme low water level to avoid wave erosion. A berm may
be left between the toe of the wall of revetment and the top of the design side slope of the

navigation channel, using the above general rule if desired. Land or water area may be saved,

64.

however, by carrying the revetted slope or exposed wall face to the channel bottom, thus
obviating the need for a berm. In this event, care must be exercised during maintenance
dredging to avoid damaging the toe of the revetment or wall.

The depth of the inner entrance channel must provide adequate clearance below the hulls
of the largest user craft, taking into account possible water level fluctuations, wave trough
depressions and vessel squat. Near the outer end of the channel, it is important to eliminate
breaking waves. This is a factor only when the channel outlet has no offshore breakwater
protection and waves can enter directly from long offshore fetches. In this case, the depth
may have to be increased to prevent the design wave from breaking as it enters the channel.

Where river or tidal ebb-flow currents are present, the period of each incoming wave is
shortened, but its energy remains the same, and will break at greater bottom depth. This
effect must be analyzed and accounted for in the entrance-depth calculations. Moreover,
such currents, coupled with the incoming wave turbulence, may cause asymetric erosion of
the channel side slopes with resultant meandering of the channel itself (Fig. 29). This is a
special problem that may require the help of a stream-flow analyst.

c. Wave and Surge Dissipation. Site selection and environmental considerations have
indicated that it is not always possible to prevent undesirable swell and surge from entering
a harbor, particularly along the Pacific coast. However, there are several methods of
reducing swell and surge to acceptable heights before they reach the interior basins. The
provision of harbor-resonator basins just inside the entrance has been discussed but they are
still experimental and, if used, might occupy land sorely needed for other purposes. A very
effective energy dissipator is a nonuniform array of large stones placed on a flat slope facing
the outer entrance at the first turn in an entrance channel (Fig. 30). Waves are broken by
the stones and their energy dissipated in turbulence and heat rather than being reflected off
a wall or revetted slope into the inner basins.

A variation of this type of energy dissipator is the wave-absorption beach, recessed in the
elbow of the first bend in the channel. Another variation is the wave reflector, designed to
reflect the waves back toward the first leg of the entrance channel rather than to break them
up. The wave reflector is a series of short reflecting walls or revetted slopes set in echelon
around the first bend. Each is aimed back toward the entrance and separated from its
neighbor by a short training wall alined in the wave direction. The reflected waves are out of
phase with each other and undergo diffraction as they pass the ends of the training walls,
they then diverge in a scattered pattern of harmless wavelets as they move erratically back
through the channel. These reflectors have not as yet (1973) been installed in a prototype
channel, but their effectiveness in model analysis is encouraging.

Some dissipation of wave energy can be achieved by the combination of a trapezoidal
channel-bed section and upper slopes roughened by large stones in the revetment. In theory,

the waves diverge away from the channel axis by refraction and are partly destroyed by the

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67

roughness of the sides. In actual practice, the dissipation of long-period or unusually large
waves in this manner is small, and the cost of roughening the sides sufficiently to be
effective is not justified by the results. If long-period waves (16 seconds or more) or unusual
height (15 feet or more) are common to the water body served, a detached breakwater set
athwart the entrance will probably be necessary to keep surge in the harbor within
acceptable limits, regardless of any interior dissipating devices that might be tried. Only a
hydraulic model study should be used to make this determination.

d. Bank Protection. Landward of its jetty-protected reach, the channel requires no
protection from the main water body, but does require protection from waves and currents
in the channel itself. Erosion of the channel banks is the main concern, and several types of
revetted slope have been used successfully to prevent erosion. The least expensive, where
quarrystone is readily available, is a rubble layer (Fig. 31) placed on a filter layer. Kach bank
must first be built or trimmed to a slope that will be stable under the conditions of
placement of the revetment. The slope will depend primarily upon the nature of the bank
materials. If it is entirely a cut-slope in undisturbed natural soil, it may be stable with an
inclination of 1 on 1.5. If any part of the bank is filled, it must be compacted and trimmed
not steeper than about 1 on 2. Some soils will require a flatter slope, and this determination
should be made on the basis of laboratory soil tests.

Figure 31. Well protected entrance to boat basin, Harwick, Massachusetts. Rubble revetment
protects exposed bank.

68

The filter material must be porous enough to allow water to pass through and not build
up a dangerous hydrostatic head behind the rrevetment, but tight enough to prevent wave
action from pumping the underlying material through the voids. A graded gravel or crushed
stone blanket can be used as a filter but the gradation of the blanket material is dependent
on the size and gradation of the bank material. The filter layer should be spread in a
uniform layer 8 inches to 1-foot thick on the trimmed slope. Woven plastic filter cloth,
placed in accordance with the manufacturer’s directions, is equally satisfactory and often
less expensive (Fig. 32). It has the added safety feature of ensured continuity, as it cannot
be worked through voids in the protective armor layer by eddy currents or wave turbulence.
The cloth should be of woven monofilament polyvinylidene or polypropylene.

Below the water surface the filter also serves as a bedding layer for the armor stone. It
should be placed with extra care to ensure reasonable uniformity of gravel thickness or
full-design overlapping of cloth strips. The revetment stone should be placed on the
underwater part immediately after the filter has been layed to prevent being disturbed by
wave or currents.

The revetment stone may be designed in accordance with formulas for breakwater armor
layers, using the anticipated maximum wave height in the basin or channel whose perimeter
is being protected. Since patrol boats may traverse a basin or channel at high speeds in
emergencies, and generate large wake waves, a lower limit of about 4 feet should be placed
on the design-wave height, and the thickness of a rubble revetment should seldom be less
than 3 feet. The result will be an armor that can withstand almost any tidal or river current.
The top of the revetment must be above the limit of uprush of the design wave at extreme
high tide, and the bottom must be the design-wave height below extreme low water. Where
strong currents are anticipated, the revetment should continue to the bottom. Prefabricated,
overlapping concrete blocks may be used for the armor layer where stone is too expensive
(Fig. 33). The blocks should be sized according to the manufacturer’s recommendations for
the design wave, and the toe should be well secured to prevent the entire revetment from
sliding down the slope. If the armor material does not extend to the top of the bank, the
remainder of the slope must be paved or otherwise stabilized to prevent rainwash and
possible displacement by pedestrians or animals.

An alternative to the rubble or concrete-block revetment is the grout-filled cloth
mattress. Some proprietary fabrics manufactured especially for this purpose, may simply be
unrolled empty into place and then pumped full of grout (Fig. 34). The fabrics have the
advantage of requiring no bedding layer ensuring continuity of the protection and
facilitating placement. Also, they can be placed on a slope of 45° if the underlying material
will safely stand at that angle considering possible static-head fluctuations. Filter-point
mattresses are available for those parts of the revetment that must be ‘‘weep-holed” to

release hydrostatic pressures.

69

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Figure 34. Grout-filled cloth mattress bank protection with weep holes
(Courtesy of Construction Techniques, Inc.).

In limited spaces, a composite type of bank protection may be used, with a sheet-pile or
a poured-in-place concrete wall at the top and a revetted slope from the toe of the wall to
the channel bottom. The least costly combination is usually a poured-in-place L-wall with
footing at about water table level (Fig. 28). The revetted slope should just cover the toe
projection of the footing and extend downward on as steep a slope as the material will
safely stand, considering the surcharge loading of the wall and the material it retains. The
wall should be provided either with weep holes and a French drain just above the footing
slab, or with continuous drainage from the backface of the wall, under the footing slab, to
the revetment filter layer. If sheet piling is used, the joints will usually be permeable enough
to relieve hydrostatic pressures without weep holes. The design of the wall part of a
composite section generally follows the design of an ordinary bulkhead or retaining wall;
several versions are covered in Chaney (1961) and various general engineering texts.

e. Riverfront Protection. To berth boats directly in a river, several means are available
for providing some protection to the berthing area. A current deflector placed upstream will
divert the main force of the river current away from the area and prevent floating debris and
ice floes from impinging at full-current speed on the berths and boats. The deflector is
usually built like a pile-dike fence inclined downstream, with heavy beams for horizontal

members in the area of surface level fluctuations to fend off floating debris. Enough current

72

is allowed to pass through the fence and keep the silt in suspension, but does not make
maneuvering into and out of slips difficult; a solid-diaphragm fence would result in
undesirable eddy currents and perhaps deposition of silt in the berthing area. A floating log
camel along the outside of the fence may be needed to fend off exceptionally heavy floating
debris. Bank protection may also be advisable, both for protection against wave and current
scour and to prevent damage by floating debris and ice.

One method of protection along a waterfront is to excavate a shallow basin into the
riverbank (Fig. 35). The main current will still follow the old riverbed, but some residual
current may flow through the basin. A series of piles along the old bankline will help keep
debris out of the basin. They can normally be the guide piles at the outer end of floating
piers, thus serving a dual purpose. If debris flow is heavy, an overlapping mole may be left at
the upstream end of side basin, enclosing as much of it as necessary. The banks of the mole
may have to be revetted to prevent erosion. The ultimate step in such a modification is to
leave the mole long enough to enclose all of the basin but the entrance, so that it becomes
an off-river basin.

River Flow

Guide Piles Act As Debris Deflectors

Figure 35. Shallow boat basin marginal to a river.

Another version of the off-river basin is the utilization of one arm of a river bifurcation
around an island as a harbor. Usually, the smaller arm is selected, allowing the main current
to follow the larger channel. Debris deflectors may be required where the river bifucates to
prevent large pieces of debris from entering the boat basin, or the upstream end of the
smaller arm may be diked off as shown in Figure 36. Some widening of the river arm
selected for harbor use may be necessary to obtain enough water area for the desired
number of slips. If the river carries a heavy silt load, such enlargement should be kept to a

minimum to avoid siltation problems.

73

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On rivers or tidal channels that freeze over in winter, ice breakers can be installed
upstream from the harbor site to break large ice formations. These are usually timber
dolphin-type structures with vertical railroad-rail cutting edges near the water surface, alined
in the direction of current flow and bent to form smooth sloping tops. Ice sheets are either
broken by the cutting edge or forced up the rail slope until the overhand causes breakage
into smaller pieces. Chaney (1961) presents a more detailed discussion of icebreakers.

f. Floating Wave Attenuators. No floating breakwater has yet been devised that will
economically and sufficiently attenuate large ocean waves. However, many harbor sites in
lakes and partially protected coastal waters (e.g., roadsteads and sounds) meet all the site
selection criteria except for lack of an appropriate fixed-breakwater foundation. One reason
for this may be that the bottom slopes too steeply from the shoreline so that at the
breakwater site the water is too deep. Another reason may be that restrictions in the interest
of ecological preservation prohibit fixed-breakwater construction of any kind. In such cases,
some type of floating wave attenuator may prove to be the best solution. Although no
floating attenuator will eliminate all wave energy, several types are now capable of reducing
moderate waves to acceptable proportions.

The simplest type of floating protection is the chained-log boom, used mainly on rivers
and small lakes. The log boom is effective only against very short-period waves or “wind
chop” and is better for protecting swimming areas or berths for canoes, rowboats, and small
sailboats from waves that would not bother most powered small craft. The log boom can be
made twice as effective by binding the logs together in units of three; the boom then floats
with one log down and two on the surface (Fig. 37).

The next step above the log boom is a stiff membrane skirt extending into the water
from a float or barge (Fig. 38). The skirted units must be anchored end-to-end to form a
continuous wave attenuator. This principle is sometimes used in skirting the fairway sides of
finger floats at the outer ends of floating-slip piers and is partially effective in reducing small
boat-wake waves entering the berthing area from the fairway. However, any skirted-float
system has little effect on wind waves generated in fetches of a mile or more because of the
longer periods of such waves and consequently the greater depths of the water particle
orbits that propagate them.

Any solid floating device having small width and depth dimensions in comparison to the
wave length is intended to attenuate, and will only “ride” the wave rather than break it.
Research has been directed toward the development of devices that break up the orbital
continuity of the water particles within a wave or that pit the energy in one part of the wave
against another part. Orbital continuity can be destroyed by the controlled release of air
bubbles, but the cost increases roughly with the square of the wave height; it would be
prohibitive when used in conjunction with a small-craft harbor. This also applies to water

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Figure 38. Flank drop-skirt on channel side of floating dock for short-period
wave attenuation.

In 1972, a floating breakwater of modular polyolefin pontoon units secured by timber
stringers, was installed at Friday Harbor, Washington. The shape of the units when
assembled, leave vertical openings occupying 30 percent of the surface area covered between
the units. The breakwater is 24 feet wide, 400 feet long, and 5 feet high. It is water-ballasted
to float half submerged and is anchored with fore-and-aft chains to submerged piling on the
bottom. Scale model tests at the University of Washington have indicated that the
coefficient of attenuation should be about 0.2 for the relatively short-period waves that
approach the site from the San Juan Channel. Alongside-docking is permitted in calm
weather, increasing the harbor capacity by about 60 boats. The structure cost about $320 a
linear foot and has performed as expected. The pontoon units have a life expectancy of 25
years; however, it is too soon to indicate how well the assembly will hold up over an
extended period of time.

Another approach required a maze of wornout rubber tires secured together to form a
continuous porous mass that floats just above the surface (Fig. 39). Test results (Kamel and
Davidson, 1968) on various sizes and shapes of tires show that to be effective, the depth of
the maze below the surface should be about half the water depth, and the crest width
(length in direction of wave propagation) should be about one wave length. Also, the
effectiveness of a tire maze is very sensitive to wave length. For example, a maze 10 feet
deep and 100 feet wide in 20 feet of water would dissipate about 80 percent of the energy

UH,

Figure 39. ‘Tire wave-maze floating breakwaters

78

in a wave train of 5-foot height and 5-second period. The same maze would dissipate only
20 percent of the energy in a wave train of 5-foot height and 10-second period. The maze
would require about 150 to 200 tires per foot of crest length. The maze must be anchored
in place, but the forces exerted on the anchor lines would not be excessive. Although the
tire maze is not effective against waves with periods in excess of about 7 seconds, except at
prohibitive cost, it may be practical for harbor sites not exposed to these longer period
waves. If practical, the designer should apply the test results of Kamel and Davidson (1968)
to the site conditions to determine the proper dimensions and anchorage plan for an
effective tire maze.

Other types of floating breakwaters considered but not tested through long-term use are:
(a) an air-filled mattress at the surface or suspended at some distance below the surface to
achieve out-of-phase damping, (b) a thin membrane on the surface to achieve viscous
damping, (c) random arrangements of horizontal pipes to destroy orbital wave motion, (d) a
series of vertical diaphragms to accomplish the same effect, and (e) various types of solid
structures with void patterns designed to break up wave action in one way or another
(Fig. 40). Although the search continues, none of these types has yet given promise of being

a practical solution to long-period wave dissipation.

Figure 40. Floating corrugated metal pipe breakwater, Detroit Harbor, Michigan.

79

3. Layout Criteria for Marinas.

a. Layout Planning. The proper siting of the various components of a small-craft harbor
is a prerequisite for the functional soundness of the overall plan. The following general
principles will provide guidance in determining the best allocation of land area within the
confines of the harbor boundary (Fig. 41).

For several reasons the larger craft should generally be berthed near the entrance. They
are less influenced by residual wave action entering the harbor where action is greater near
the entrance. Larger craft require greater maneuver space, which is usually provided in the
harbor area near the entrance for the larger volume of traffic. More physical space is needed
than for the smaller boats, and if the larger craft are berthed so they need not traverse the
inner fairways of the harbor, those fairways may be proportionately narrower. The deeper
drafts of the larger craft require a deeper channel and basin; hence, the inner parts of the
harbor can be shallower if they are not used by the larger craft. This allowance for a
shallower inner harbor is also a factor in initial channel and berthing area excavation.

Commercial craft usually fall in the same category as large private recreational craft with
regard to their water area requirements. The berthing areas of commercial and recreational
craft should generally be separated because of different adjacent land use requirements. If
possible, commercial boats should be located near the entrance in a separate basin or across
a fairway from the recreation craft. A commercial fishing fleet will require special hoists and
other equipment for moving the fish out of the holds onto perimeter docks and for sorting
and preparing the catch for market. In some instances, canneries or freezing plants are
located adjacent to the fleet berthing areas (Fig. 42). The general public should be excluded
from these working areas for obvious reasons.

Charter boats for sport fishing must have adjacent facilities for selling their services, for
controlling the boarding and debarking of clients, and for parking cars. Fish-cleaning
stations are often provided for clients to have their catch cleaned by professionals. A
viewing area for prospective clients to watch the cleaning operations will help to advertise
the charter boat service.

Rental boats should be berthed in the same area and not mixed with private recreational
craft. This berthing area should be close to the office where the rentals are handled, with
easy access to the harbor entrance. The car parking area for rental boat clients should be
separate from the slip rental parking area, but it may be shared with visitors to other
facilities in the harbor complex.

Sailboats without auxiliary power should be berthed in slips that open to leeward of the
prevailing winds and that can be reached via wide fairways and channels or routes that allow
for sailboat tacking with least interference to the powered craft.

Ramps or hoists for launching trailered craft should be separated from the berthing areas
as far as possible. The boating habits of the owners of these craft are usually different from

those of the berthed craft; conflicts may result if the same fairways are used. If possible, the

80

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Figure 42. Commercial area, Westport Marina, Grays Harbor, Washington.

trailered craft should have a separate entrance or be launched directly into the main water
body without using the harbor. If trailered craft must use the same protected waters, the
launching area should be as near the entrance as possible and physically separated from the
berthing areas so that vehicle traffic to berthing areas and trailer traffic to the launching area
do not merge. Occasionally, the launching area must be at the inner end of the harbor
complex where more parking space is available. The launched craft may then have to share
the main channel with the berthed craft, and the channel made wide enough to
accommodate traffic from both sources without overcrowding.

The best location for a boat fueling dock is near the entrance in an area that is protected
from waves in the entrance channel, thereby causing no interference with the entrance
channel traffic. The adjacent land area must be suitable for buried fuel storage tanks and
easily accessible for fuel distributing vehicles. The pumpout station should normally be
located in the same area and is often on or along the fueling dock so that its operation can
be supervised by the station manager. However, it should not be so close to the fuel pumps
that a client has to wait for a pumpout operation before he can dock for fueling. It should
not be necessary for any boat to go far out of its way for these services. Also, the station
should not be in a location where it interferes with traffic flow or constitutes a fire hazard

because of its proximity to other harbor facilities or berthed craft.

82

The harbor administration area should also be located near the entrance and guest docks,
where owners of visiting craft can easily come ashore to obtain information. The
harbormaster’s office should either be a part of or close to the administration complex to
provide a good view of boats passing through the entrance. A good view of the berthing
areas is recommended, but is not essential and may be impossible in a large harbor.

Vehicle parking lots for the berthing basins should be located so that no parking space in
any lot is more than about 500 feet from the head of the pier for the particular lot it is
intended to serve. Parking lots for ancillary facilities should be adjacent to parking lots for
the berthing basins so that overflow from one lot can be absorbed by the other under
time-staggered peak-use conditions. Lots should be well marked for the major area or
function they serve.

The boat repair and servicing yards should be located in a remote part of the harbor that
has adequate navigation access for the largest craft. If a marine railway, large hoist, drydock,
or other device for launching or retrieving large craft is to be provided, it should be included
as a part of this operation. The marine traffic generated by the repair yard will be minimal
in comparison with the regular entrance channel traffic and need not be a consideration.
However, the yard should be readily accessible to large tractor-trailers used for hauling new
cruisers or boats to be launched.

If an operational dry storage facility is a part of the harbor complex, it should be located
generally in accordance with the criteria that apply to launching ramps. The launchings and
retrievals in such a facility are generally accomplished by hoist rather than by ramp, and a
well-protected launching basin is necessary for this purpose. If the dry storage facility is for
off-season layup only, it should be in a remote area not required for the more important
facilities of the harbor; in fact, it need not be in the harbor complex at all. In many places,
vehicle parking lots are used in the off-season for dry storage in lieu of providing a separate
facility for this purpose.

If a U.S. Coast Guard vessel is to be docked in the harbor complex, it should be located
near the entrance where it can move out quickly with the least interference from regular
harbor traffic. U.S. Coast Guard personnel should, of course, be consulted and their
concurrence obtained as to the exact site.

Boat sales and chandlery facilities should be located along the main access route to the
harbor where all vehicular traffic must pass. Restaurants should be located where they have
a commanding view of harbor activities but not interfere with or occupy areas that are
needed for more vital harbor-support functions. A good restaurant site would be one
overlooking the entrance or the main water body just outside the entrance. If transient
housing facilities are included in the harbor complex, they should be near the restaurants or
adjunct to them. Any recreational facility should be near or readily accessible from the
housing facilities. General shopping areas for food supplies, clothing, and drugstore items
should be near the harbor’s land boundary and away from a water-oriented activity. Yacht

clubs should generally be located away from the main activities of the harbor for a more

exclusive atmosphere. Higher ground that overlooks the harbor from a nearby viewpoint
often makes a good yacht club site. A variation is a yacht club with its own separate basin.

b. Space-Allocation. The total area available to the harbor development often places a
restriction on the number of boats that the harbor can accommodate and on the size and
scope of the ancillary activity it can support. Several general relationships, found valid for
most harbors, may help the planner to make tentative allocations of space, which can later
be adjusted to definite dimensions in the final planning stages. Such allocations are
important in making adequate allowance for future expansion (Fig. 43).

The average harbor with all-slip moorage can berth about 15 to 20 boats per acre of
navigable water area, including main interior channel, fairways, and slip areas, but not the
entrance channel. This general rule applies only when the average boat length is 30 to 35
feet and where good basin geometry can be obtained. Because of the wider fingers needed
for two-boat slips, they will occupy almost the same area as that required for single-boat
slips. When bow-and-stern moorings are used in lieu of slips, about 2 to 4 times as much
water area (depending on the water depth) will be required, exclusive of fairways and
channels. Single-point moorings require about 6 times the area occupied by the same
number of bow-and-stern moorings if full-circle clearance is provided.

For the normal distribution of boats, a minimum of three vehicle spaces in the parking
lot will be required for every four boats in the berthing area. About 90 cars can be parked in
an acre, so that roughly one-sixth of an acre of parking lot is required for each acre of water
area in the harbor. Where the average size of the berthed craft is large—and many are used
for social occasions and multi-family cruising—the ratio may have to be increased to a
maximum of about three spaces per berth.

An average launching ramp or hoist will launch and retrieve about 50 trailered boats on a
peak day, and because of staggered usage, car-trailer parking spaces will be required for only
80 percent of the peak-day ramp or hoist traffic. About 30 car-trailer units can be parked in
an acre if pullthrough parking at 45° is provided. This works out to 1.33 acres of parking lot
per ramp lane or hoist.

Land area required for harbor service facilities, ancillary facilities, and roads varies from
one harbor to another. The minimum requirement is an area roughly equal to the parking
area required for berths and operational launchings. This will generally provide enough space
only for harbor support facilities and roads. To obtain a good revenue versus cost balance it
is usually necessary to supplement slip rentals with leaseholds for ancillary facilities; with
the additional parking area required, the minimum leasehold and supplemental parking area
needed for the extra services that convert a simple small-craft harbor into a complete marina
is about twice the area needed for boatowner parking alone. Thus, once the parking area
requirement for slips and launching has been determined, it should be multiplied by 4 to
obtain the total minimum land area required for a complete marina. Any additional land
that can be obtained may be put to beneficial use later, as a good marina will upgrade its

surroundings and attract more revenue-producing ancillary development.

84

Available Area = /40 Acres (Two'Gridges to be Removed )
Want 3-Lane Launching Ramp

Parking = 3x 1.33 Acres = 4 Acres

Ramp, Road, Wash Area = / Acre
Available For Marina -/35 Acres

Let W =Water Area of Berthing Basins & Channels

ThenW+4 4(2)= 135 Acres

We GUMAGKES

(This Leaves 54 Acres For Back-up Land to be Filled)
Approx.Berthing Capacity = 81x 20= 1620 Boats
Daily Launching Capacity = 3x 50= 1/50 Boats

WoGo

Entrance Channe/ Width = 300 +100 = 400 Ft.

Figure 43. Space allocation for a typical marina.

85

4. Design Criteria for Basins and Dockage Structures.

a. Water Area Perimeter Stabilization. Within the protected basins of a marina, or along
a lake or river shore in front of which boats are to be berthed, some type of bank
stabilization is usually desirable. Because the shore areas in these locations are not exposed
to large waves or strong currents, the degree of stabilization required against external forces
is usually minimal. Many marinas have no bank protection other than that provided by the
natural ground cover of the region. Some banks present a rather pleasing appearance if
properly cared for; others detract from the esthetics of an otherwise orderly appearing
installation.

Armoring is usually required unless a natural bank already is a sand or shingle beach with
a flattened slope and adjusted to the action of water exposure. Protection may be needed
against scour by boat-wake waves (Sorensen, 1973), impact by floating debris or boats out
of control, or gouging by ice. Moreover, the amplitude of periodic water surface fluctuations
may make natural ground cover impractical. The most common slope armorings for marinas
are riprap, precast concrete block units (usually overlapping or interlocking as shown in
Fig. 33), and concrete slope paving. While availability of materials and economic
considerations usually dictate the selection, internal forces due to active soil pressures (often
intensified by surcharge loading at the top of the bank) must also be considered. These
forces usually determine the steepness upon which the slope will safely stand.

Factors in determining the slope to which a bank should be trimmed are: (a) grain size
for a beach or an armored slope in uncohesive material, (b) soil tests for cohesive soils,
(c) anticipated dry-wet cycles that may affect the slide plane characteristics, such as water
level fluctuations and saturation by landscape watering, and (d) surcharge loading at the top
of the bank. A sand beach will usually be stable with a 1 on 8 slope in the tide and
wave-runup zone and a gravel or shingle beach with a 1 on 6 slope. Finer uncohesive soils
such as silty sands should normally be armored in the tide and wave-runup zone and tend to
vary in allowable slope steepness above the wave-runup zone from about | on 3 to 1 on 2
depending on grading characteristics and median diameter of soil particles. A poorly sorted
soil (with a steep grading curve) and small median diameter will require a flatter slope than a
well-graded soil (with a flat grading curve) and large median diameter. Cohesive soils such as
loams and clays will take steeper slopes but may be subject to plastic distortion and sliding
when saturated, especially during extreme low tides and under high surcharge loading.
Unless prior experience has already indicated the safe slope limit for the particular soil
formation of the site, a soil mechanics engineer should be employed to make the slope limit
determination. Below extreme low water where scouring currents (over 3 feet per second)
are not present and where wave action is minimal, most soil will be stable on a slope c
about 1 on 3 to 1 on 4.

86

The maximum steepness of an armored slope is often determined by the nature of the
armoring material. A small stone riprap of rounded cobbles may not be stable on a slope
steeper than about | on 2.5, whereas with increasing size and angularity the steepness may
be increased to a maximum of about 1 on 1.5 provided the cut slope will stand on this slope
until the armor is placed. Extremes of wave action and current flows may determine the
minimum stone size of a riprap slope. These possible extremes (sometimes occurring in an
off-season when the boats have been removed from their berths) should be determined in
project planning and the proposed armoring materials checked for size against applicable
formulas for seawall and river revetment design.

Because of the strong pumping action of waves and eddy currents, armor stone ripraps
should always have a thickness of twice the average stone dimension, and a filter blanket
under this armor layer is a vital requirement. If an appreciable amount of the underlying
material should be pumped from beneath the riprap at any point, the armor stones will drop
down into the resulting scour pockets, leaving the native soil exposed. Progressive erosion
may then destroy large sections of the revetment before the damage can be repaired.
Deposition of properly graded filter gravel of adequate thickness (0.5- to 1-foot thick
depending on riprap stone size) may prevent such a-failure. However, the danger of
displacement of this filter material during construction requires careful supervision during
riprap laying operations. An alternate filtering device that is gaining wide acceptance is the
continuous cloth filter, which ensures continuity and complete filtering action throughout
the revetted area (Barrett, 1966). Riprap cross sections specifying these two types of filters

are shown in Figure 44.
A slope paved with precast concrete blocks also requires a filter layer as the underlying

soil may be pumped through the joints between the blocks. Using filter cloth alone for this
purpose may provide inadequate relief for hydrostatic uplift pressures, and may result in
individual blocks being lifted out of the section. Unless the underlying soil is exceptionally
porous, a gravel layer between the cloth and concrete blocks is recommended to allow quick
lateral distribution of locally high pressures to points of relief. The ease with which an entire
face of the block paving can slide down a slope dictates a need for an adequate toe-thrust
resistor. This usually takes the form of a sheet-pile cutoff wall, or if it can be built in the
dry, a poured wall or edge beam.

If the entire slope can be unwatered or can be armored at the extreme low water level,
concrete slope paving may be the best solution (Fig. 45). However, a soils engineer should
ensure that the soil is not subject to heaving and shrinking, and crack the concrete.
Expansion joints should be provided at intervals of 50 to 100 feet depending on the extreme
range of temperature and, within the concrete, temperature steel reinforcing bars should be
spaced not more than 12 inches apart both laterally and longitudinally. Weep holes
connected by French drains should be spaced at about 10-foot intervals down and along the

87

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slope for relief of hydrostatic pressures, unless the width of the slope is less than about 15
feet and the subsoil is exceptionally porous. Toe thrust should be resisted by a cutoff wall
trenched about 2 feet deep along the toe of the slope, and a thickened edge beam at the top
of the slope should be provided to resist uneven loading along the shoulder. With careful
placement, a good stiff mix may be poured on a slope of 1 on 1.5. For steeper slopes,
airblown mortar (Gunite) must be used. Perimeter slopes have been paved with asphaltic
concrete, but they usually fail in a few years because of softening in water or uneven
settlement of the base material. Asphaltic paving should be used only above the extreme
high water level.

An old-fashioned revetment system that permits perimeter slopes to be built steeply at
low cost (where adequate small stone is available) is that of rockfilled wire mesh gabions
(Smythe, 1961). Normally used only for flowing watercourses and dry bank retaining walls,
this construction is also suitable for marina perimeter stabilization. Heavy duty wire mesh
baskets with rectangular sides and of convenient size for such construction are
manufactured commercially and shipped to the site in collasped form. They come
galvanized for freshwater use and galvanized plus polyvinyl-cloride-coated for saltwater use.
The filled baskets may be placed vertically on top of each other; for better stability they
should be canted back to about a 4 to 1 batter slope. Battering may also be done by setback
of successive rows for a terraced appearance. The gabioned slope should be backed by a
layer of filter cloth to prevent the pumpout of material from the earthbank behind it. As
yet the experience record for such construction in marinas is minimal and its permanence is
unknown. The various uses of gabion in marina construction are shown in Figure 46.

Where surging is anticipated, due to partially attenuated wave action reaching the interior
basins of a marina, consideration should be given to low reflectivity perimeter stabilization,
especially at the inner ends of basins. A beach is the best type of surge absorber, followed
by the flat riprapped slope built with large stones. Concrete slopes, either poured-in-place or
of block construction, are almost as reflective as vertical walls.

Most vertical bulkheads are more expensive to construct than an armored slope. Where
land and water areas are limited or costly, elimination of the waste space occupied by the
slope may be an economic requirement.

Of the many types of vertical perimeter walls currently in use, the least costly to build is
usually a tied-back pile-type timber bulkhead. Where construction in the dry is possible, the
simplest construction usually consists of round or square piling tied to tie piles or deadmen
and sheathed on the landward side to a depth well below the seaward toe of the wall. The
pile size used for the tieback system and thickness of the sheathing must be determined by
engineering analysis. Plastic filter cloth can be used to prevent loss of material through
cracks in the sheathing (Fig. 47). Where timber is economical, the tiebacks may be made
with timber planks (Fig. 48).

90

New Pier

Wooden Float
—_ =I New
rs Cc Seawall

Seawall £6 9) Boat Slip

/

UJ

High Water Line

High Water Line /

Gabions

Gabions

Filter Cloth

SECTION A-A SECTION B-B

Gobions

4" x4" Timber Fender

2"x 4" Timber

3/4" ¢ Bolt
SECTION C-C SECTION D-D

Figure 46. Use of gabions in marina construction.

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Figure 48. Timber bulkhead at Bellingham, Washington. Note projecting planks used for
tiebacks.

Where it is difficult or impossible to excavate behind a row of king piles to the sheathing
depth required, timber sheet piles may be used in lieu of horizontal sheathing members. An
excellent technical guideline on this type of construction titled, “Bulkheads: Design and
Construction,” was published by the American Wood Preservers Institute (AWPI), in its
monthly magazine, Wood Preserving News, in 1970. By permission of AWPI, the entire text,
tables, and figures of the three-part technical guideline are reproduced in Appendix B.

All timber should be pressure-treated to avoid dryrot and destruction by living
organisms. In saltwater, coaltar-creosote treatment in accordance with applicable Federal
Specifications or AWPA Standard C18 should be specified. Without proper treatment,
timber construction soon falls into unsightly disrepair (Fig. 49), and may be compromised
to the point where it cannot fulfill its intended function.

The structural properties of timber piles, wales, struts, and sheathing vary with the types
of timber used, with the nature of curing to which it was subjected, with its environmental
exposure in the structure, and sometimes by the type of preservative treatment used. These
properties, including allowable stresses under various loading conditions and environments,
are discussed in the Timber Construction Manual published by the American Institute of
Timber Construction (AITC), (1966). The standards for various types of lumber are listed in
Section 101-65, paragraph 3.5, of the publication; these are changed from time to time, and

93

Figure 49. Failing timber bulkhead.

94.

only the current issues should be used. The standards are published under the general title of
“Standard Grading Rules for — — — ,” “Official Grading Rules for — — — ,” or “Standard

b)

Specifications for Grades of — — — ,” with the dashed line being the type of timber covered,
such as Douglas Fir, Sitka Spruce, Southern Pine, and Tidewater Red Cypress. Some of
these standards are repeated in the Uniform Building Code (1970), or in the most current
edition. Wherever a timber bulkhead of more than minimal height or length is required, the
designs discussed in the AWPI Technical Guidlines (App. B) should be checked against the
latest grading standards for the type of timber used.

Timber bulkheads often fail because of corrosion, abrasion, or fatigue of metal
connectors, or because of abrasion of the wood by loose connectors and not as a result of
deterioration of the wood members. For marine exposure, all hardware should be galvanized

and the following minimum sizes used:

In or Below Splash Zone

J BGT TS ts eel cy Cai oe talc Ga Ree core re a l-inch diameter

[PLATS cee Nate ace ie ul Pyaar et ae ta a 0.5-inch thickness

Washers eet aoe smcnene acieuaet ons 2 Ogee (standard size to fit bolt)
Above Splash Zone

TBXOD LS aso es Cosi RCI Cor AIR Seat sis ENS eee eum ea 0.75-inch diameter

Platesiers smear wen ecstasy: a acid ue emo u ne kM 0.375-inch thickness

VEU IVS Se See GS Oe re 0.25-inch plate (ogee operational)

In general, the exposure of bolts to the atmosphere should be reduced to a minimum by
using only one washer or plate per unit. Adjacent timbers should be in contact with the bolt
to prevent exposure. Boltholes should not exceed the diameter of the bolt by more than
0.062-inch. Drift bolts or spiral bolts should have a driving fit. Washers should bear evenly
and fully on the timber, and where the axis of the bolt is not perpendicular to the face of
the timber, beveled plates or washers used.

Steel or aluminum sheet-pile bulkheading with an exposed face of not more than about 6
feet can be constructed quickly and at fairly low cost with special lightweight sheet-pile
sections (Fig. 50). Matching cap beams and deadman anchors of the same metal are available
for some of these lightweight sheet-pile systems. Their manufacturers claim that with proper
control of alloy content in the base metal, or application of preservative coatings, these
sheets can be resistant to seawater and a wide range of hydrogen-ion (Ph) values in
freshwater. The primary advantages of the lightweight sheets is that they require only the
simplest equipment for handling and driving, and yet provide a sandtight wall with
considerable tensile strength at interlocking joints. Manufacturers usually provide design
details that require only the simplest engineering analysis. Asbestos-cement sheet piles have
been used successfully for low bulkhead walls to avoid the corrosion problem. Because of

the low allowable fiber stress of the material, the active earth pressures should be checked

95

Figure 50. Low-height, free-standing aluminum bulkhead
(Courtesy of Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical Sales, Inc.).

carefully against the section modulus to make sure the sheets will not be overloaded. The
sheets are brittle and should only be used where they can be jetted into place. Some
cements in asbestos-board tend to deteriorate after long periods of immersion; therefore,
only sheets that are certified by the manufacturer for marine applications should be used.
Where the exposed face is more than about 6 feet in height, the section modulus
provided by the lightweight sheets is usually insufficient to resist the active soil pressures,
and careful engineering analysis is required to determine design limits. Some of the heavy
gage steels may prove satisfactory to about 8 feet of exposed wall, but beyond that, a
stronger section is needed. Standard rolled steel sections are generally used for steel
sheet-pile walls with an exposed face more than 8 feet high. These walls can be designed as
freestanding or cantilever-type structures, if the space just behind the wall is required to be
kept free of any obstructions such as a tieback system. The extra pile length for such
construction is usually costly, however, and tiebacks with either a single or multiple-wale
system are more economical. Detailed engineering analysis of the soil mechanics involved
and structural analysis of the steel sections used will ensure a safe and most economical

design.

96

The design principles discussed in the AWPI Technical Guidelines (App. B) are generally
applicable to steel sheet-pile construction by substituting the structural properties of the
steel members used for those of timber construction. Chaney (1961) also provides a treatise
on bulkhead design for steel and other materials.

Several corrosion-retarding procedures have been devised for steel components in a water
environment, including galvanizing, aluminizing, flame-spray metal coatings, various types of
brush coatings, and cathodic protection. An excellent, economical coating for large
members is coal-tar epoxy, shop-applied to white metal steel surfaces and, before
installation, carefully examined for flaws with approved electrical equipment. Some coatings
are available for application in a wet environment, but experience records are too short for
reliable determination of their effectiveness. A 15-year experiment was started in 1967
(Watkins, 1971) to test the performance of 32 different systems of steel-pile protection in
the Atlantic Ocean off the Virginia coast. When completed, this test should provide some
fairly reliable data on protective systems in a marine environment. Meanwhile, a good
practice is to allow for the loss of 0.003 inch of metal per year from each surface of an
uneoated steel section of standard alloy content where the average water temperature ranges
between 50° and 70°F. in colder coastal waters (0.002 inch in freshwater). This factor may
be decreased slightly in colder waters, but must be increased significantly for higher
temperatures. A good preservative coating (applied to white metal) should double the
effective life of the section. An efficiently operating cathodic-protection system may extend
the life of the steel structure indefinitely, but it should be installed by an expert.

Special precautions should be taken to avoid the use of different metals or even different
grades of the same metal in close proximity in seawater because of the galvanic action thus
induced. The low conductivity of freshwater does not present a galvanic-action problem, but
dissolved oxygen content and splash zone oxidation causes rusting. The Ph factor of the
water and the soil into which the piles will be driven should be checked and the
recommendations of a corrosion expert obtained wherever a metal sheet-pile system is to be
installed in freshwater. Uhlig (1953) presents a detailed treatise on corrosion theory and
methods of retarding or eliminating corrosion. The compatibility of various metallic
fasteners with certain base metals in seawater is shown in Table 1.

Concrete bulkhead walls come in a variety of sections and in combinations with other
types of construction. The most commonly used combination in marina construction is a
wall with a vertical or slightly battered face extending to about extreme low water level, and
a slope extending from that level down to the project depth of the marina. The slope should
be armored with riprap from the wall to about 5 feet below extreme low water to prevent
wave or eddy current scour at low water levels. Because of the danger of boats grounding on
the riprap slope, such construction should not be used where the bulkhead is marginal to a
navigation fairway unless the limits of the deepwater channel are marked with buoys, or
where berthing facilities or other structures prevent inadvertent navigation close to the wall.
This combination of concrete structure and revetted slope is often the most economical

solution.

97

Table 1. Galvanic Compatibility of Fasteners in Seawater

Base Metal |Aluminum®*|Carbon Steel| Silicon Bronz | Nickel |Nickel-Chromium | Type 304 |Nickel-Copper| Type 316
Alloys Ss | soya | 400 ss

Steel and Cae
Cast Iron

Austenitic Cc
ae Cast

Copper Cc
70/30 a oe NC C C Cc —— C
Copper-Nickel

Alloy

Q

Nickel-Copper May Vary § May Vary — May =
Alloy 400

Type 316 May | May Vary§ | May Vary § Vary § May | May Vary § Neutral §

* Anodizing would change ratings as fastener.
+ Fasteners are compatible and protected but may lead to enlargement of bolthole in aluminum plate.

es Cathodic protection afforded fastener by the base metal may not be enough to prevent crevice corrosion
of fastener particularly under head of bolt fasteners.

§ May suffer crevice corrosion under head of bolt fasteners.

NOTE: C= compatible, Protected. NC = Not Compatible, Preferentially Corroded.

The concrete section may either be of unreinforced gravity construction, or a reinforced
section. Where construction in the dry is possible, the reinforced concrete L-wall is usually
the most economical for exposed faces not exceeding 15 feet in height (Fig. 51). For greater
exposures, counterforted walls or cellular construction may be more economical. Design
details for monolithic wall sections are too complex for inclusion in a manual of this scope.
The design effort falls into two general categories: analysis of the external forces and
structural design of the section to resist these forces. A treatise on external forces is
available in Bowles (1968), and Navy Bureau of Yards and Docks (current DM-7). Bowles
(1968) presents enough design data and examples of internal design to cover most sections
used in marinas.

Where the wall site cannot be conveniently unwatered, concrete sheet piling is usually
the simplest alternative, but tiebacks are usually required. The most difficult part of
concrete sheet-pile construction is the achievement of sand tightness in the joints. Joints are
usually of the tongue-and-groove type that are not provided with interlocks for horizontal

tensile strength. A common method of achieving the necessary joint tightness is the casting

98

Figure 51. Concrete L-wall under construction, Dana Point, California. Note filter cloth
taped to concrete at weepholes and expansion joints preparatory to backfilling.

of opposing grooves on the edges of the piles above the mudline (Fig. 52). After all the
sheets have been driven, joint grooves are jetted clean and grout is pumped into them by
starting from the bottom. To contain the grout if serious leaks occur, elongated plastic bags
can be inserted into the joint along with the grouting pipe. The grouting pipe is lifted out as
the grout is pumped in, and the bag remains in the groove preventing escape of the grout
through cracks along the opposing edges. Although the plastic material prevents bonding of
the grout to the concrete, the joint is closed enough for sand tightness. Sometimes it is
possible to place a strip of filter cloth behind each joint, thus obviating the need of joint
grouting for sand tightness.

Concrete sheet piles must be reinforced and, in a saltwater environment, the reinforcing
steel must be kept 3 inches behind the concrete saltwater interface. Sheet piles with a single
plane of reinforcing can be used for walls with less than about an 8-foot exposure; two
planes are required to provide the necessary section modulus for walls of greater height.
Since the backfilled face of the wall will not be visible, the sheet piles can be cast directly on
the grourid provided the bed is first carefully rolled and graded to a perfect plane. To
achieve a smoother face, a thin polyethelene sheet may be spread over the bed before setting
the reinforcing cage and edge forms.

99

Jet Clean & Grout
After Driving Piles

SECTION A-=A

SECTION B-B

Concrete Sheet Piles

ELEVATION

Figure 52. Typical concrete sheet-pile section
with grooves for grout-sealing joints.

100

The pile tip is mitered to keep it closed into the adjacent pile while driving or jetting.
The upper part of the pile is held against the adjacent pile with a rope sling, and a temporary
timber backing frame is used to keep the wall on line as the work progresses. In sandy soils,
jetting alone is used to seat the piles, but in loam or clayey soils, they must be driven into
place to avoid loose seating. The tieback system differs from that of metal or timber sheet
piling in that the tie rods are usually embedded in a cap beam poured around the top edge
of the completed wall (Fig. 53).

Except for width of the pile, the proper dimensions for the concrete sheet piles must be
determined by engineering analysis in the same manner as for timber or metal sheet piles.
The pile width (incremental length of progression along the wall per pile) may be varied to
suit the placement conditions of the site. In sandy soils where jetting to grade is permissible,
the width of the pile is limited (in combination with the thickness and length) only by the
capacity of the handling equipment and certain convenience considerations. These factors
usually limit the width to about 4 or 5 feet. Where the piles must be driven in tight soils, the
width must be decreased to prevent damage in driving. In tight soils, a good practice is to
make the width about twice the pile thickness, and the reinforcing cage must be
strengthened with more looping near the top to prevent shattering of the concrete under
hammer impact.

Concrete perimeter bulkheads are the most durable if properly designed and constructed.
In a marine environment, it is important that the ingredients of the concrete, mixing and
placing in the structure be carefully controlled. Chaney (1961) discusses in detail the types
of cements that are suitable for various conditions, the selection of aggregates, placement,
and resultant structural properties of the cured concrete in the structure. For ready
reference, the ACI Standard 211-1-74, Recommended Practice for Selecting Proportions for
Normal and Heavyweight Concrete, published by the American Concrete Institute is
reproduced in Appendix C.

Guidance for selecting types of concrete mixes for special environments is published by
the California Division of Highways, Bridge Department, in a Bridge Planning and Design
Manual, 1969. The part on “Corrosion Protection for Concrete” is reproduced in
Appendix D.

Marinas are often built in areas where the substrata have low bearing capacities, and a
heavy wall may settle unless adequately supported on bearing piles (Fig. 54). The tendency
of silty materials and soft clays to flow out from under walls or to push the entire wall
toward the basin under saturated conditions requires careful analysis. Proper drainage
through French drains or weep holes under the base of the wall and provision of batter piles
will usually counteract these destructive tendencies. A soils analysis will reveal the required

extent of such drainage requirements. All concrete construction must be designed in

101

Concrete Pile Cap

Concrete Deadman

Concrete Sheet Piles

CONCRETE) Pee. CAR

Figure 53. Cap and tie rod system for concrete sheet-pile wall.

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monolithic units separated by construction and expansion joints. Unless these joints are
made and spaced properly, cracking, bulging, or separation of units may occur. Adequate
imbedment of reinforcing steel in all concrete construction is vital to the prevention of
spalling. Here again, proper design and control of construction procedures are necessary to
prevent failures (Fig. 55).

Figure 55. Spalled face of concrete wall due to inadequate rebar imbedment.

If necessary to cross the basin perimeter to gain access to the berthing area, provision
must be made for a pier landing. When a landing is directly on a perimeter wall or top of the
slope, adequate structural detailing for each landing must be incorporated in the perimeter
structure. Because this landing usually places an extra load on the wall or top of the slope,
additional engineering analysis is required to ensure: (a) the adequacy of this perimeter
structure to receive the load, and (b) the capability of the substrata to support it. The load
may require extra bearing piles under a wall or a special load-distributing seat or abutment
at the top of a slope. Whatever the requirement, it should be considered and be planned as
an integral part of the perimeter treatment and not deferred to a later phase of the design
effort.

All bulkhead walls and perimeter slopes steeper than about 1 on 1.5 should be protected
by handrails if the adjacent water is more than about 2 feet deep or if at low water level the

104

drop along the edge exceeds about 6 feet. Municipal or county building and safety agencies
often provide design criteria for handrails. In the absence of handrail criteria, it is customary
to make the top rail 42 inches above the adjacent ground level and to design the top rail and
supporting posts for a minimum lateral thrust of 30 pounds per foot of rail. One secondary
rail should be provided about midway between ground level and the top rail. Some agencies
require a handrail system with no openings larger than 6 inches, necessitating insertion of
wire mesh panels or other means of compliance.

The selection of materials for the handrail will depend on the type of bulkhead
construction. With timber bulkhead construction, the handrail is usually of timber.
Galvanized pipe handrails, are commonly used and provide long life except where subjected
.to salt spray. One of the best handrail materials is aluminum with a hard anodize finish
1.5-millimeters thick. Some aluminum handrails have an experience record of over 15 years
without maintenance in a salt-air environment. They are available commercially, are
adaptable to almost any foundation or face-fastening situation, and have corner-turning and
termination systems to meet a variety of requirements.

One type of perimeter treatment has been developed that produces a natural rustic
appearance and may be suitable for the channels and water areas adjacent to a marina where
bank erosion may be a problem. It consists of special molds for the exposed face and use of
colored concrete to blend with the native soil and, when completed, is similar to those
produced by natural weathering. Although the concrete must be placed in the dry, this
treatment could be the answer to many river- and lake-connecting channel problems where
preservation of esthetic quality is a requirement (Fig. 56). 3

b. Basin Depths. The interior basin requirements of a small-craft harbor are determined
generally by the same criteria applied to entrance and basin approach channels. An
additional factor that must be considered, however, is the effect of bottom depth on
structures of the berthing system, such as fixed-pier supports, floating pier guide piles and
dolphins, and interior wave and surge baffles. The cost of each structure increases roughly
with the square of the depth; hence, the basins should be no deeper than navigational
considerations dictate. For this reason, as well as for space utilization economy, it is
customary to berth the larger and deeper-hulled craft near the entrance and to decrease
basin depths in step increments toward basins or parts of basins away from the entrance.
Thus, the narrower fairway and smaller turning area requirements of the small craft
decreases the amount of water area required for nonberthing use. Also, the shallower back
basin areas reduce pier and slip construction costs. In the berthing basins, assuming that the
maximum depression of a boat below the stillwater surface will be about 2 feet (due to wave
action and scend), the depth should be at least 2 feet below the keel of the deepest-craft
boat at extreme low water (see Sec. V, para. 4d, Fig. 63, for values of deepest draft).

105

Figure 56. Molded concrete bank simulating natural conditions
(Courtesy of Mr. Harlan Glenn).

In rivers, natural lakes and manmade reservoirs, bottom depths must often be accepted as
they are, sometimes well below a higher level indicated to be adequate by navigation
criteria. Then, less conventional anchorages must be devised for floating systems, and
floating wave baffles may be needed. In rivers and off-river basins where sediment
deposition becomes troublesome, initial project depths may have to be increased to allow
for bottom buildup between periodic maintenance dredging activities. Also, during initial
planning, consideration must be given to the interference problems of later dredging. Fixed
structures must be kept to a minimum in areas where accretion is anticipated. Where
possible, provision should be made for periodic removal of shoals by means of land-based
equipment operating from strategically placed moles or platforms.

c. Interior Wave Barriers. Within a small-craft harbor, troublesome waves are often
generated by boat wakes (Sorensen, 1973) from a busy fairway or strong winds blowing
from a long interior watercourse. The best way to keep these waves out of a berthing area is
to place a solid sheet barrier between the source and the berths (Fig. 57). Where a solid
barrier may prevent the necessary water circulation needed for water quality control, a
baffle made of alternating panels on either side of a pier framework, may be a better barrier
(Fig. 58). A single diaphragm with windows will seldom give satisfactory results; too much

106

North Side

SN Gans

South Side
Figure 57. Shilshole Bay Marina, Washington. Interior steel
pile-supported timber wave barrier.

107

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108

window space is required for the necessary circulation and wave transmission through the
windows defeat the purpose of the barrier. Where only a single diaphragm is used, the best
means of achieving some water circulation without increasing wave transmission to
unacceptable limits is to carry the solid sheathing about three-fourths of the way to the
bottom and leave the bottom one-fourth completely open except for supports. This will
effect a high degree of attenuation of short-period waves, and although it will still allow the
longer-period waves to regenerate, a satisfactory fraction of the circulatory currents will pass
under the barrier.

If a fixed barrier is impractical because of depth problems or lack of space, some degree
of wave protection can be achieved by a continuous drop panel on the outside of a floating
walkway, along the margin of the fairway from which protection is sought. Where a series of
fixed or floating piers extends out to a main channel, a frequently used alternative is to
attach drop panels to the end fingers (Fig. 38). To be reasonably effective, the panels should
extend at least 6 feet below the water surface.

A good way to ensure that troublesome boat-wake waves will not enter the berthing area
is to design the harbor so that heavily traveled fairways or channels are separate from the
berthing areas (Sorensen, 1973). Separation of basins from channels can be done by
geometric arragement of the interior water areas. The layout of Marina Del Rey, discussed in
Section VIII, is a classic example of basin separation by moles.

d. Berthing Facility Arrangements. The oldest methods of securing unattended small
craft are anchor moorings and beachings. Any type of anchor mooring, from single-point
free-swinging to multiple-anchorage ties, results not only in the inefficient use of space, but
the need for shoreboats in transferring personnel between the moored craft and shore.
Beachings are not only difficult for larger craft, but take up considerable perimeter area. For
these and perhaps other reasons, neither anchor moorings or beachings appear compatible
with modern marina operations except in a few isolated cases.

When a visiting craft arrives at a small-craft harbor it is normally docked alongside a float
or fixed pier near the harbormaster’s office, and the owner proceeds to make his
arrangements for temporary berthing or for a longer-term slip rental. The first type of
facility, the landing dock, requires alongside breasting of the craft, usually with ties to
mooring cleats or curb timbers on the dock foreand-aft of the boat. This type of docking is
not suitable for long periods of unattended berthing; the constant differential movement of
boat with the dock may cause hull abrasion or may accelerate wear on a fendering system. It
is used, therefore, only for short stays, like at a fueling dock. One exception is the trailing
floating slips sometimes used in flowing rivers (Fig. 7), which can only be used satisfactorily
in conjunction with alongside dockage.

In a boat slip, the craft may be tied away from the dock structure, usually with
fore-and-aft ties on both sides. In a single-boat slip, the craft is flanked on each side by a

109

finger pier. In a double-boat slip, various methods have been used to avoid breasting against
a finger, including a tie pile centered between the finger ends, three-point ties, steel whips,
and cooperative switch-tie systems agreed upon by two-slip occupants (Fig. 59). A
compromise scheme places a narrow tie finger (usually half-length) between the two
boarding fingers (Fig. 60). The full-length, single-slip system is the most desirable from the
boatman’s standpoint, but is more costly than a double-slip or any of the compromises. The
system selected will depend largely on what the boat owners of the local area are
accustomed to or the amount of slip rental fees they are willing to pay.

Small boats in relatively quiet waters may be berthed to a dock with stern hooks or bow
clamps at a considerable savings in both structural costs and water space, but boarding is
more difficult. When not in use, lightweight sailboats are sometimes pulled onto a floating
dock equipped with special launching rollers and cradles to keep the hulls dry (Fig. 61).
Charter boats are sometimes tied to a system of tie piles with their sterns close to a crew
boarding dock (Fig. 62). When the boat is scheduled for a cruise, access to the stern is
readily available for tending the mooring lines and subsequent movement of the craft to the
passenger boarding dock. .

Berthing facilities for commercial fishing fleets are more utilitarian than those serving the
recreational fleets. Because the hulls are generally more rugged, breasting against a dock is
common, and two or more boats under single ownership or cooperative arrangement are
often clustered beam-to-beam at a single dock.

Slip arrangements vary, usually for best conformance to the shape of a basin. The most
common is a series of piers or headwalks extending perpendicular to the bulkhead to a
pierhead line, with finger piers extending at right angles from the headwalk on either side.
For power craft, widths of fairways between finger ends are usually 1.75 to 2 times the
length of the longest slips served, while for sailboats the width is 2 to 2.5 times the slip
length. Slip widths have been increased in recent years because of the wider beams of some
craft. A graph from the boat manufacturers’ current catalog data and showing average beam
width and maximum depths of keels for various lengths of craft is shown in Figure 63. The
graph also shows suggested average widths for right-angle slips where the actual dimensions
of craft to be berthed are not known. Where basin configuration or curtailment of water
space dictates a need for skewed slips, the slip spacing must be calculated, allowing about
1.5 feet of clearance on each side between hull and finger for boats up to 35 feet in length
and 2 feet of clearance for longer craft. With the increase of houseboats and multihulled
craft, it may be advisable to provide a number of extra-wide slips, depending on past
experience record and projected needs of the area (Fig. 64).

An interesting proprietary system arranges modular floating slip units in star-shaped
clusters (Fig. 65). Access to a cluster is either by shoreboat or by a star-to-shore extension

of one of the fingers.

110

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Figure 61. Lightweight sailboats stored on floating docks.

112

Figure 62. Charter boats tied stern-to-dock, Miamarina, Florida.

Note fish cleaning facilities along dock.

113

Draft or Width in Feet

°

Power Boats
v——— Sailors
e—-— Keel Depth (Sailboats)
* Does not Include Width of Fingers

Note: Put all Craft Longer than 60 Feet
in Single - Boat Slips

Wo = W, + Wy t 2’

Deepest Droft of Power Boats

b)

30 40 50 60 70 SO) in 0) JOO: “HO [Zo
Overall Length in Feet

Figure 63. Dimensional criteria for berthed craft.

114

Figure 64. Tri-maran berthed at West Palm Beach Marina, Florida.
‘ Consideration should be given to the berthing problems
of extra-wide-beamed craft in future marinas.

- Figure 65. Modular star-cluster floating slips
_ (Courtesy of Harbor Host Corporation).

115

Widths of headwalks and finger piers vary from one region to another, although cities,
counties and other local agencies have begun to set minimum limits. The average headwalk
width is about 8 feet, with a range of about 5 to 16 feet. The wider headwalks usually have
some width for bearing-pile risers, locker boxes, firefighting equipment, and utility lines
(Fig. 66). The narrower piers often have all obstructions moved to knees at the junctions of
finger piers. Extra-wide headwalks are usually in fixed-pier installations because of the
higher cost of floating construction. Long, fixed headwalks can also serve as roadways for
service vehicles.

Boarding fingers for single-boat slips are usually about 3 feet wide, normally the
minimum allowed for floating construction because of the instability of narrower floats. For
this reason, floating fingers longer than 35 feet are usually 4 feet wide. In double-boat slip
construction, a finger width of 4 feet is common for all slip lengths. A compromise system
of alternating full width and narrow fingers (about 12 inches) is used in some areas. An
interesting use of short cantilevered fingers supported only by headwalk piles, and used for
boarding (not mooring ties), is shown in Figure 67. A reverse variation of the cantilevered
finger is the above-deck-level finger, with its outboard end supported on a pile and the
inboard end resting on the headwalk (Fig. 68). A hanging ladder system used for boarding
from high level fixed fingers is shown in Figure 69.

e. Fixed-Pier Structures. Structural design criteria for fixed-timber headwalks and
fingers are presented in Chaney (1961). All timber used for construction should be treated
to avoid damage by dry rot and living organisms. Both Chaney and the American Society of
Civil Engineers (1969) present data on timber treatment. The American Wood Preserver’s
Association (1971), Standard C-1, describes the treatment processes, materials used, and
results of preservative treatment for wood products by various preservatives applied by the
pressure process. AWPA Standard C-18 extends the coverage of Standard C-1 to include the
specific requirements for pressure-treated piles and timbers used in marine construction.
These standards are updated periodically to include the latest techniques and materials;
hence, only the current editions should be used. Because of possible failure due to
undetected weakness in the wood, all deck planking should be of nominal 2-inch thickness
and not less than 6 inches in width. Galvanized nails and hardware should be used. Deck
nailing should penetrate the supporting timbers at least 3 inches so the nails will not pull up
under repeated flexure caused by passing traffic. Creosoted piles that project above deck
level should be protected with battens (Fig. 70) or some protective sheathing.

Metal framework berthing structures are generally too costly to fabricate commercially
available basic components, but several systems have been developed that use factory-built
components for easy field installation. Most are of tubular and pressed-steel construction
with either stamped metal or timber plank decks. Bottom conditions in the berthing basin
must be checked to determine if the anticipated loading will cause settlement or if the
depths in the basin are too great for the system. Most prefabricated systems are for small
individual docks along a lakefront or riverbank and are not normally suitable for large
installations.

116

Figure 66. Locker boxes, firefighting equipment and utilities along
a wide main walk at Dinner Key Marina, Florida.

Figure 67. Cantilevered boarding fingers at Occoquan Marina, Virginia.

MILG

Figure 68.

Raised-level finger pier junctions with main walk.

This could be a stumbling hazard.

Hanging boarding ladders, Old ‘Town Yacht Haven,

Alexandria, Virginia.

118

Figure 70. Batten-protected creosoted-pile tops, Lighthouse Point Marina, Pompano Beach,
Florida. ;

In areas where timber is scarce or costly, reinforced concrete construction is frequently
used for fixed-level berthing systems. The structural design criteria are similar to timber
construction except that connections and fastening devices are different and the dead load
to be supported is greater. However, lightweight concretes are sometimes used in stringers
and decking to reduce the dead load. If enough concrete cover on the reinforcing steel is not
provided, cracking and spalling from rust swells may result. As for bulkhead construction,
all concrete in a saltwater environment should have 3 inches of concrete covering all steel
reinforcement. This amount of cover may be insufficient if care is not exercised in placing
and vibrating the concrete. With a properly designed mix and careful placement, a good
dense concrete can be obtained to outlast almost any type of construction.

The lasting quality of concrete was demonstrated in an experiment started in 1905 by
the U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers. Eighteen large test blocks of concrete were placed on a
shelf just below the waterline on the seaward side of the Los Angeles Harbor breakwater at
San Pedro, California. The concrete was varied from block to block both in the mix and
type of cement used (several commercial brands were available at the time). Seventeen
blocks were recovered, core-drilled and returned to the shelf in 1932; six were again
recovered, core-drilled, and replaced in 1972. Cores from the 1932 operation tested from
2,180 to 6,010 pounds per square inch and those from the 1972 operation tested from

119

3,060 to 6,020 pounds per square inch. Original form marks were still visible and edges were
still sharp. Three blocks had gained strength since 1932, two had remained the same, and
one had decreased slightly.

Although prestressed concrete construction has been used successfully in many other
types of marine structures, it probably has not been used for pier decks in small-craft
harbors. One reason is the high cost of special prestressing beds needed for this construction.
If two standard width precast deck sections could be agreed upon by the construction
industry, one for headwalks and one for fingers, the sections could be turned out in long
mass-produced beds at prices competitive with other systems, especially with the use of
lightweight aggregates. A sketch of the section and details of possible seating arrangements
on pile supports is shown in Figure 71.

One type of construction that uses a combination of concrete and timber in a fixed-pier
structure is illustrated in Figure 72. The concrete piles (when properly treated) have a
reasonably long life. They can be readily replaced when worn or damaged, either piecemeal
or in their entirety. A timber superstructure is desirable because of the ease with which
attachments may be made after final construction.

The mainwalks and finer piers of a small-craft harbor generally have no handrails. Public
safety has sometimes been an issue, but the prevailing logic seems to be that the danger of a
person falling is not sufficiently great to justify the cost and inconvenience of handrails on
either fixed or floating dockage systems. Where small children are likely to venture out on
the docks unattended, locked gates can be installed at the basin perimeter or on the
approach pier leading from the perimeter (Fig. 73). If a fixed pier is too high above the
water surface during low water levels to constitute a hazard, a floating system is required.
This is important for easier boarding of boats.

f. Floating Pier Structures. Where water levels do not fluctuate more than 2 feet, the
berthing docks and slips are almost universally of fixed construction. If the normal range is
between 2 and 5 feet, the use of a floating system is optional. Where water levels fluctuate
more than 5 feet, a floating system is mandatory. The cost of a floating system is usually
greater than a fixed system, but the difficulty in keeping boats properly tied and the
inconvenience of boarding or leaving boats during extreme low water often justify the
choice of a floating system.

A successful floating dock system has the best possible combination of flotation units
and structural system. Numerous floats have been used, and most are described in Chaney
(1961), and American Society of Civil Engineers (1969). The most successful are the foams,
such as extruded polystyrene (Styrofoam), expanded-pellet polystyrene, and foamed
polyurethane. Although foam floats have been used extensively without any surface
protection, they attract marine growth and living organism. Large accumulations of aquatic
plants on the floats can be unsightly, and may foul propellers. Also, birds and sea animals
have been reported to tear out pieces of foam while seeking marine life burrowed on the

underside of the foam surface. For these reasons some external protection is now usually

A — Prestressed Concrete Decking

ager
|
|
|

—-——s

Drilled Hole
Grout-bond Dowel Rod

Monolithically |
Cast

Cast-in-place Cap

SECTION A-A SECTION A-A
FINGER PIER MAIN PIER

Figure 71. Proposed use of prestressed deck slabs for fixed pier construction.

121

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aa
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Figure 72. Concrete-supported timber deck, Dinner Key Marina, Florida.
Note cantilevered support for locker boxes.

Figure 73. Pier gate, Coyote Point Marina, San Francisco Bay.
Note trash collection station in foreground.

122

applied to all foam floats, especially in seawater. This protection may be a brush of spray
coat of polyvinyl-acetate emulsion or dense polyurethane, a fiberglass and resin application,
a plaster coating, or concrete encasement of the foam.

Extruded polystyrene is often preferred to the heat-spanded pellet product (beadboard)
because it is of uniform quality and is completely impervious to water. However, unless
specially treated, it can be damaged by petroleum product spills and must be protected by a
hydrocarbon-resistant coating where this is a potential hazard. The expanded-pellet product
can also be made hydrocarbon-resistant and is usually less costly than extruded polystyrene.
If improperly made, it can be penetrated by water and may lack the desired amount of
cohesiveness. To reduce costs, some manufacturers have used a less than minumum amount
of material and have overexpanded the beads, producing a friable foam with high void
content. Unequal heating during manufacture will also produce a foam with various flaws.
Adequate density specification and proper heat-expansion techniques will correct both
problems. Because of the widespread use of polystyrene for flotation, the following
specifications, recommended by the California Department of Navigation and Ocean
Development (State of California, 1971), are quoted for the guidance of prospective
purchasers of polystyrene for flotation of structures in marinas:

“(1) Materials: Cellular polystyrene may be formed by the expansion of high
density beads or granules in a mold or directly from the base resin by extrusion.
The material shall be firm in composition and essentially unicellular. No
reprocessed materials shall be used.

(2) Dimensions: Unless otherwise specified, the manufacturers’ standard size
will be acceptable if incorporated into the design with a minimum of field cutting.

_The tolerance in each dimension shall be plus 1 inch or minus 0.5 inch.

(3) Color: As normally supplied by the manufacturers for the particular
type of polystyrene. Variation in color indicative of damage or deterioration will
not be accepted.

(4) Surface Finish: Surface shall be stressed, polished, free from pits,
blisters, cracks, dents, waviness, heat marks, or deep scratches.

(5) Odor: The material shall be free from any objectionable odor.

(6) Exterior Coating: In all locations where the waterfront is subject to
infestation by marine borers which damage polystyrene, the flotation material
shall be protected with an adequate material capable of resisting any anticipated
attack by marine organisms.

(7) Physical Properties: Specimens from polystyrene planks shall conform
to the requirements stated below:

(a) Density: 1.5 pounds per cubic foot (minimum).
(b) Compressive Strength: 20 pounds per cubic inch minimum at 5

percent deflection.

123

(c) Tensile Strength: 40 pounds per square inch minimum at break.
(d) Shear Strength: 25 pounds per square inch minimum at break.

(8) Moisture Absorption: The maximum water absorption shall be 0.12
pounds per square foot of skinless or rindless surface when tested by immersion
method in accordance with U.S. Department of Defense, Military Specifications
Mil-P-40619 (3 April 1962) 4.5.7.

(9) Hydrocarbon Resistance: Polystyrene planks to be used in the vicinity
of gas docks or other areas subject to petroleum products floating on water shall
be hydrocarbon resistant. The materials shall show no apparent softening or
swelling when tested by the immersion method specified in the U.S. Department
of Defense, Military Specifications MIL-P-40619 (3 April 1962) 4.5.10.

(10) Shape: Surfaces of the finished planks shall lie in normal planes so that
the plank, when installed in final position in the floating dock, shall lie in a true
horizontal plane with the water. Edges formed by molding or cut sections may be
either rounded or square.”

Polyurethane foam is more costly than polystyrene foam, but is sometimes preferred
because it can easily be “foamed” into a mold without expensive processing. Also, it is
naturally hydrocarbon-resistant. Two types are available, but only one is nonabsorbent—the
monocellular variety, which should always be specified. Like polystyrene, it should have
protective covering for marina use.

Care must be used in selecting coatings to ensure compatibility with the base foam.
Polyester resins cannot be used with polystyrene, but will bond well with polyurethane.
Polyvinyl-acetate emulsion and dense polyurethane may be applied directly to polystyrene
foam which makes a fairly tough coating. Epoxy glues should be used to bond separate
boards of polystyrene foam; epoxy-bonded protective coatings may be used with either
foam. If the additional protection of a fiberglass and resin application is desired over
polystyrene, an epoxy coating compatible with the resin must be first applied. Where wrap is
used, it should be lapped well over the top shoulder of the foam and not carried to the top
edge, as the wrap may peel away from the foam (Fig. 74).

The two most common methods used to secure foam floats to deck structure are: (a)
hardware dowels driven on a skew into the foam through holes in the bearing boards, and
(b) 2-inch nylon strapping. The strapping method is preferred because it is more secure and
easily removed if the float has to be replaced or repaired. Bearing boards must have enough
bearing surface to prevent crushing the foam under maximum loading. The foam can be
loaded to about 5 pounds per square inch; however, it is weak in bending strength, and
bearing contact areas should be spaced not more than 2 feet apart, and continuous along
each edge.

Most of the hollow shell floats are now being replaced with foam-filled shells. Few
shell-type floats are being manufactured without a foam core of some kind. Problems with

leakage, internal condensation of moisture, and vandalism (mainly bullet punctures) are the

124

Figure 74. Fiberglass wrap peeling away from foam float.

125

reasons for this change. Fiberglass shells are still the most common of the thin shell types,
but foam fillers are often provided. Tubular metal floats for freshwater use are now nearly
all foam-filled. They are particularly serviceable in areas where ice formation and heavy
floating debris are problems. Monolithic concrete shell-and-deck units are now almost
universally cast around foam cores. Nearly all the metal box floats (Fig. 75) are also
foam-filled.

Figure 75. Metal box floating pier system. Note collection of surface debris due to
continuity of flotation elements, with no gaps for debris to flow through.

One type of floating construction that appears very promising is the fiberglass or
plastic-coated shell with a molded foam core over which a reinforced concrete deck is
poured (Fig. 76). The edge beam and the crossbeam and tie rod system in this construction
make the units exceptionally strong, if the concrete is properly mixed and placed. Although
topheavy, there is no danger for a headwalk with finger piers of this construction to turn
over. The extra weight and stiffness of the concrete deck add an element of inertia under
pedestrian traffic that makes it approximately equal to the monolithic concrete
shell-and-deck float in stability. However, the extra weight of concrete or part-concrete
floating units places a severe stress on the unit connecting stringers and on the finger
headwalk connections under moderate wave or surge conditions. For this reason, heavy
floating systems should be installed only in well protected basins.

126

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A difficulty with concrete decks built over foam cores is the occasional formation of a
hazardous ice sheet over the decks in cold weather. Hollow concrete floats are not as
susceptible to this problem, probably because the trapped air conducted heat from the
warmer water to the deck slab and kept it above freezing temperature. The foam acts as an
insulator preventing this heat transfer. No low-cost solution has been found for this problem
that may be faced in certain regions.

Lightweight floating docks tend to be “bouncy” and, for this reason are often rejected in
favor of the heavier types. One thin shelled float deliberately leaves a pocket of unfilled
space below the foam core. After launching, these pockets fill with water through small
holes punched in the bottom of the shells. The trapped water moves with the float, adding
measurably to its inertia without increasing the load on the supporting foam. The result is
less bounciness with no increase in the deadweight of the floating components before
launching (Fig. 77).

g. Vertical Loading and Deck Levels. Minimum deck loading criteria for fixed structures
are usually specified by a building and safety agency of the area from whom a construction
permit must be obtained. Without specific design requirements, fixed structures built over
the water should be designed for a deck loading of not less than 50 pounds per square foot
for fingers and 100 pounds per square foot for main walks and building floors. Where
vehicles are to be allowed on main walks, the design loading should be increased
accordingly. The structural integrity of any floating system requires careful analysis to
ensure its capability of supporting the design loads as well as resisting windloads, currents,
and impact stresses. Floating slip systems are normally designed with flotation adequate to
support the dead load plus a live load of 20 pounds per square foot of deck space. The
height at which the deck rides above the water surface under dead loading only is
determined to some extent by the sizes and types of boats to be berthed. The height usually
ranges from 15 to 20 inches, but the level selected must be constant throughout the system.
In this respect, gangways often add considerable extra dead load in the landing area of the
floating system, requiring enough additional flotation to maintain this prescribed level.
Some agencies specify the allowable deck level limits for dead loading plus a further
requirement that the system will not settle more than 8 or 9 inches under full live loading.
This effectively places a lower limit on the percentage of the deck area that must have
flotation. Figure 78 shows the minimum percentage of deck area requiring flotation for
various minimum freeboard requirements with various dead and live loads and the resulting
submergence of the floats under the assumptions noted, provided the floats are square cut
(vertical sides).

If the design dead load deck level is other than 18 inches, subtract the number of inches
the design deck lies above 18 inches from (or add the number of inches the design deck lies
below 18 inches to) the required minimum F/p,7,) and enter the left side of the graph at
that point (Fig. 78). The correct values of P,Sp and S(p+L) Will then be given by the

procedure shown in the following example problems:

128

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129

LLL Off LLL ELE LALLY I I af ff Uff isan

P= 50% Flotation Lidia

Assumptions: Thickness of Deck and Flotation Adjusted to Make
Deadload Freeboard (Fp) = 18°

Salt Water Density = 64 Lbs/Ft® = 5.33 Lbs/In. Ft?

Fresh Water Density = 62.2 Lbs/Ft*= 5.18 Lbs/In. Ft?

Therefore: S =

F255, 2G =s Load Conditions

\e Fresh Water ( Typ.)

2

Ss
NANG

Submergence of Floats or F = Freeboard (Inches)

Sz

0) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
P= Percent of Deck Area Supported by Floats

Figure 78. Reduction of freeboard due to concentration of flotation elements for
Fp = 18 inches.

130

FipeL) With Indicated

S With Indicated

Load inLbs/Ft®x 100 ) Where Sand F Apply
P x Density of Water for Dead or Live

Live Load

Total Load

SS SF HS SF HF SS HH Se HH SF SH FH Fe HK HH Se Hie F SF F H SF EF HS HF HK

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
Example 1 (for Fp) = 18 inches)

Given: DL (dead load) = 20 lbs./ft?
LL (live load) = 25 lbs./ft?
Fp = 18in.
F(p+L) = 12 in. (in seawater)
S(D+L)
Pp.

Solution: Enter left side of Figure 78 at F/p,7) = 12 im. and intersect with curve
LL = 25 lbs./ft?
Read P on bottom scale (P = 78 percent)
From intersect with LL = 25 Ibs./ft?, move vertically to intersect with
Total Load curves to:
DL + LL = 45 lbs./ft? and read S(p+L) = 10.8 in. on left scale.
DL = 20 lbs./ft? andread Sp = 4.8 in. on left scale.

Answers: P = 78 percent; S(D+L) = 10.8in.; Sp = 4.8 in.
Example 2 (for Fp # 18 inches)

Given: DL = 20 lbs./ft?

LL = 25 lbs./ft?

Fp = 20 in.

Fip+L) = 121m. Gin seawater)
Find: Sp

S(D+L)

P

Solution: F/p,7,) must first be adjusted because dead load deck level (Fp) # 18 in.
(See text)
F(p+L) = 10 in.
Using Fip+L)> find Sp, Syp+z)> and P ina similar manner to
Example 1.

Answers: P = 58 percent; S/p4z) = 14.4in.; Sp = 6.4 in.

% £ € ¥ HF FF HF HS KH HK HK HE HE SH HE KF KF HE HF HF HF KK KF EF F FS ¥ HF HF FE F HF HF EF EF FE

131

If the float sides are not vertical, the depth of submersion of the entire system can be
readily computed for any given deck load from a table showing the load supported for each
inch of submersion of the float. This table is normally provided by the pontoon
manufacturer. Entrapment of floating debris is a major defect in the use of 100 percent
flotation (Fig. 75).

A major consideration in stringer or side skirt design for the floating system is to
determine at what level the stringer or the attached fender stripping will make contact with
the hull of any boat that might be berthed against or near it. Some boats have a low rub
strake that may catch under the bottom edge of a stringer if it is too high off the water. The
stringer then should be wide enough to extend down to within about 8 inches of the water
surface under dead load only. However, some boats have high gunwales topping strongly
battered hull sides that allow the deck to protrude over a low level finger pier. For this
reason, some low level floating fingers are provided with vertical fender posts that extend
upward from each side a few feet above deck level at intervals of about 8 feet (Fig. 79). The
level at which the deck floats above the water surface and the method of fendering the slips
will be determined largely by the characteristics of the using craft, the local custom, and the
desires of the patrons.

Figure 7Y. Floating shps with vertical tender posts (Courtesy of MEECO Marinas, Inc.).

132

The fixed-pier approaches and hinged gangways leading from the basin perimeter to a
floating dockage are designed to carry more live loading than the specified flotation loading.
This occurs from a concentration of loading in an area of the fixed part of the system or on
the gangways at one time without the knowledge of the persons causing the overloading.
Once on the floating system, however, the same persons will become aware of any
overloading because of the canting of a deck surface or the partial submergence of a float.
Then they will instinctively move back or spread out to regain a safe load situation. For this
same reason the deck system and all interfloat stringers should also be designed for fixed
system loading; this is usually 40 to 50 pounds per square foot, but it may be specified
otherwise by the controlling agency. A common additional specification for deck loading is
that a concentrated load (e.g., 500 pounds) can be placed anywhere on the deck surface
without stressing the framing members beyond their design capacity and without tilting the
deck more than about 6° from the horizontal.

h. Lateral Loading. The maximum lateral loading of a fixed or floating system is usually
produced by strong winds blowing against the structure and berthed craft. Such loading
usually exceeds normal docking impact loads or current drag. The design lateral load is
normally specified in terms of a given wind speed acting on the above water profile of the
system and craft. This loading in pounds per square foot for wind speeds up to 120 miles
per hour is shown in Figure 80. This is for steady-state winds neglecting gusts. The higher
loads of gust winds are seldom transmitted to a dock because of the inertia of the boats and
the flexibility of the tielines and piling. Design winds are often specified by the local
building and safety agency; if not, they should be determined by analysis of local wind
records.

In analyzing the system for lateral loading it is customary to check two directions:
parallel and perpendicular to the main walk. If the anchorage or lateral bracing system is
adequate for these directions, it will normally be adequate for all other directions. Some
agencies simplify the calculations by specifying that the average profile height for boats in
open berths be 15 percent of the slip length. This assumption is conservative, and if not
specified, a lower design profile height can be obtained from Figure 81, which shows actual
average profiles for most craft in marinas. In calculating the parallel windload on a line of
boats, all shielded boats may be assumed to experience only 20 percent of the windloading
that is applied to the first (unshielded) boat. In calculating the perpendicular windloading
on a system, the total projected area on which the wind acts is obtained by multiplying the
average craft profile height by the slip width and that product by the total number of slips;
then, add to the result the above water areas of the finger pier ends exposed to the wind.
Where slips are provided on both sides of the main walk, the area calculation should include
the side that berths the set of boats with the largest average profile height. This value should
then be multiplied by 115 percent to account for the wind force on the sheltered or leeward
boat row. A sample calculation for lateral loading on a typical open pier system is given in
Figure 82.

133

\

\

Figure 80-A. Isotachs showing fastest mile of wind (in miles per hour) 30 feet above

Velocity Pressure, P

Pounds Per Square Foot

ground, 50-year period of recurrence (from ASCE Paper 6038, Journal
of Structural Division, July 1968).

For use in determing design wind stress on
small-craft berthing systems, and buildings
only. These wind speeds are not to be used
to determine the design waves

0°-10° Flat Roofed
House, K=1.40

20 40 60 80 100 120
Wind Velocity, V, in Miles Per Hour
Wind Velocity Versus Wind Pressure

Figure 80-B. Windloading against a vertical face.

134

Profile Height of Berthed Craft, in Feet

Sport Fishing Boats

oo

Power and Sailboats with Cabins

Open (Day) Cruisers

SOM Onw DS Onn LOOm mi O 807 SOOO HO
Overall Length of Craft, in Feet

Figure 81. Average profile height versus length of craft.

120

Bulkhead Wa/l/

nculor Wind

J
pendaicu!
pa P|

[1 UA
(DES

[ae

a. Sue
ITT Re

Design Wind Load. 1/5 Lbs/5q. Ft

Perpendicular Wind

4OFt Goats. GEach x 19Ft Beam x 3.5Ft. Height x I5 Lbs. = 12540
Fingers. 9 Each x 4Ft. Widthx 1.5 Ft. Height x15 Lbs. = 8/0
Multiply By 115 For Row of ZOFt Goots=1/5 x 135350 = 15352.5
/E8Fr. Boat. 20Ft Beamx 7.4Ft. Height x 15 Lbs. = 2220.0

Total Perpendicular Load = 17572.5
Para/lel Wind
78 Ft Boat. 78Ft.x 74FtHeght«l5Llbs = G658
40 Ft Boats. 8 Each 40F tx 5.5 Fi. Height x 3 Lbs. 5280
JOFt Boats. /OEach SOFLXE.GFt Heightx JLDs. 4320
Total Parallel Load == 18298 _ 11 933

ngle Pil City =
Single Pile Capacity HON ya ie

Figure 82. Sample calculation of windloading on a floating slip system.

136

The bearing load and cross bracing requirements for most fixed open pier systems will
normally result in adequate structural stability to resist design windloading; but, if there is
any doubt, the system should be analyzed. However, floating systems must always be
analyzed to determine the number of guide piles required, or with a cable-moored system,
to determine the adequacy of the lines and anchors. Any covered system must be analyzed
for windloading against the building itself and not the berthed boats. This results in
exceptionally high lateral loading in most areas, often requiring dolphins or subsurface
cables and anchors rather than an array of single guide piles.

Guide piles are usually the least costly anchorage system. A typical 14-inch diameter
prestressed concrete pile with anaylsis for design moment calculation is shown in Figure 83.
A sample analysis of the lateral load resistance of the same pile in a typical bottom
formation with the load applied at a given distance above the bottom is shown in Figure 84.
Where guide piles of other types and materials are used, the allowable bending moment must
be computed in accordance with standard structural design procedures. The pile length and
resistance to lateral loading may be computed by the method shown for the typical case.
This requires an analysis of soil samples taken from the basin substructure to determine the
slide angle, the dry density W,, and the saturated moisture content V. If strata of
different properties are penetrated by the piles, a more complicated calculation will be
required and the services of a soil-mechanics specialist should be obtained.

The spacing of guide piles in a floating pier system is largely a matter of judgment. It
must be assumed that a floating main walk with 40 or 50 feet between adjacent piles is
fairly rigid in a horizontal plane and will take bending loads due to wind stresses, exhibiting
almost no flexure. Most guide piles will flex in cantilever bending from the bottom allowing
windloads to be distributed evenly throughout the pile system, provided the guides do not
have more than 3 or 4 inches of play, and the center of resistance is fairly concentric with
the center of loading. Each pile guide should be designed to resist the design load of the pile
in any direction and to transmit load safety to the structural members of the main walk,
either directly, or through fingers. Several commonly used types of pile guides are shown in
Figure 85. Guides that do not completely surround the pile may fail to transmit the load in
certain directions and thus throw inordinately high loads on other piles.

In marina sites subjected to frequent or prevailing moderate to strong winds or currents,
certain guides of a guide-pile system take all the lateral load most of the time and therefore
wear out quickly. Some guides have lateral adjustment devices that permit adjustment of the
driven pile and will distribute the load equally to all piles in the system. This is seldom the
case, however, and it is important that the harder working guides be made easily replaceable
or strongly wear-resistant. This may be done by fitting the guide with easily replaceable
hardwood blocks or with heavy-duty rollers (Fig. 86).

137

Pile Penetration /4'9 Prestressed Pile

Soil Properties

Data From Soils Report.

C255"
WO =1/5 pct

VE SO2

Ws = 115 -[ 55° (64)]-19-42= 73 YF?
Pp =73 tan (45+ 2)=73 (3.69) 269

Pa 273 tan? (45-2) =73(.272) =19

Pp-Pa =<250YF t

For 14'9 Pile 1/7(250) =292°7F t

Reference. Anderson, Paul “Substructure Analysis And Design “ 2nd

Penetration.
Edition, 1956, Ronald Press, New York - Ret: p.47, Ea. ha
Mox.Tsunam: or Wind Set-up 1m 5 ea xe ee ie Pa 7) 20 20

Max Loagil Her Pile =1950L bs. 81530) (2 120153021) 201530)
MiB 2 eUsDt. (20H g

292

x |-4/8x | -1320r|-110| =0

+20700 - 6020-19830 5

r|

Max. High Tide
ere 2

13 |t28530 |-7070 | -/10 \+4220

Y
SS |
Ss |
SS5| :
Ni NI Total Length /2
SiS 2/
SSS ' 5
-/24> | a
= - J8 =— Length

Check Moment:
Find Where V=0.' 0-/211530) =3.24"
292

M2153 (214+-3.24)- £(292)(3.24/)7

=37/-/7

235.4" = 425" = a3"
(3% Over)
Say O.K.

Figure 83. Determination of required guide pile penetration

138

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139

Figure 85. Examples of pile guides.

140

Figure 86. Pile guide with heavy duty rollers. This guide is needed only for “hard-working”
piles.

In most installations pile handling and driving equipment are so large as to preclude
placement of the piles after the floating system is installed. It is then necessary to drive each
pile precisely in its predetermined location by means of shore control and then move the
floating system into place and build the guides around the piles. This requires careful
planning and may necessitate the hookup of some floating elements after the main walk is in
place. A good location for a guide pile is in a knee at the junction of the main walk and a
finger. Usually the two end fingers that form the T at the end of the main pier may make
an ideal location for breast-docking large cruisers of twice the length of the slips. For this
reason, end fingers are usually wider than the others and secured with guide piles at their
ends. Where end-of-pier breast-docking is permitted as a permanent feature of the system, a
large vessel must be considered in windloading calculations.

As previously stated, finger piers longer than about 35 feet are normally wider than the
shorter fingers intended for boarding access and other reasons. In a floating system, the
width of the finger is often controlled by the need to withstand a large bending moment
caused by lateral windloads wherever they are applied in a horizontal plane. The full design
windload against a single slip-length boat is assumed to apply at the center of the finger, or
half the load is assumed to apply at the outer end of the finger, whichever creates the

141

greatest structural design problem. Either type of loading to about 40 feet can be resisted by
building adequate strength into the stringers and main walk attachments to accommodate
the cantilever bending forces. It is usually necessary to place a pile at the end of each finger
for longer slips. This procedure will require more guide piles to resist the windloading on the
whole system. However, the internal strength of each finger and connections to the main
walk must still be considered in the structural analysis.

Some floating systems are being marketed that rely for lateral support on pipe piles of
rather small diameter driven through pipe sleeves after the system is in place (Fig. 87). The

OE

'
|
-

AICS

Figure 87. Close fitting pipe-sleeve pile guide. Piles are driven through sleeves after floating
system is in place.

analysis of such systems is made complex by the flexibility of both the pipe and the floating
components. The resistance of the bottom materials to cantilever bending of the piles from
bottom is usually small, and it is necessary to consider the probability that a reverse
cantilever action occurs in which the pile may be considered fixed within the sleeve. A
simple reaction force must then resist the pile tip at some point below the mud line. The
sleeve and attachments to the floating framework, and the framework itself must all be
adequate for cantilever action in the pile. A sample calculation of the forces involved in this

type of guide.pile is shown in Figure 88.

142

3°E.S. Pipe

Floating Dock ; 55" Std. Pipe
|_|

Water Surface
P=362

Assume Pipe Pile Fixed Here

Gottom

Assume Pin-Fastened Her

Approx. Pressure Oragram For
=) Passive Sor! Resistance
Drive Pile Deep Enough To
Develop Soil Resistance To

—=/,|
Force P —— !
/f Pipe Goes Deep Enough To
Develop Fixity in Soil, Allow-
able Force P May Be Increased
Approx. 75%

For 3°E.S. Pipe, $=2.23 In3

Allowable Moment, M=fs= 20,000 x 2.23=
44.600In.Lbs= J62Z0F t Lbs.

Allowable Force, P= # = 362 Lbs.

Figure 88. Determination of allowable loading of sleeve-guided pipe pile.

143

The anchorage of a covered floating system is usually required to be much stronger than
that of an open system. In sheltered sites an ordinary guide-pile system may be adequate if
the number of piles required is not prohibitive. It is more common to use some other
anchorage system. Dolphins that develop their strength on the A-frame principle rather than
through the combined cantilever bending strength of their component pile members are
often in this situation (Fig. 89). Considerable internal strength can be built into the

Bt iiss

Figure 89. A-frame dolphins guide a floating pier at Shilshole Bay Marina, Washington.

structural framework of the cover so that points of lateral support may be widely separated.
A single dolphin may develop 10 to 20 times the strength of one guide pile, and few may be
needed. If the water is deep enough, submerged structural ties across finger ends well below
the keel depth of the berthed craft are sometimes used to strengthen a covered floating
system (Fig. 90).

Since a large amount of flotation is required for covered slips and high windloading must
be resisted by the anchorage system, a separate berthing system and cover may be desirable.
At sites where the bottom is not too deep and the water level does not fluctuate more than
a few feet, the cover may be a pole-supported shed. Long poles driven into the bottom
support the roof and sides of the sheltering structure. The floating slips are then placed
within the covered area and the supporting piles of the shed are spaced so that they can be

144.

Figure 90. Submerged crossties strengthen floating slip system.

145

used as finger-end guide piles. The eaves of the roof must be high enough to clear the
superstructures and masts of all the berthed craft at the highest water level.

At some sites, the water may be too deep or the water level may fluctuate with too great
an amplitude to permit guide-pile anchorage. A cable and bottom anchor to moor the
floating system is then necessary. Such a system is usually more costly than a guide pile or
dolphin system. To maintain proper distance from the shore, horizontal displacements of
the entire installation will occur as the water level changes. Chaney (1961) contains a
description of one such system. Another scheme that may be used where the bottom is
more rugged, as in mountain reservoirs, is shown in Figure 91. Where this anchorage system
can be installed in the dry before the reservoir is flooded, the work will be greatly
simplified. Anchors that can be installed in deep water include massive concrete weights,
large boulders with drilled-and-grouted eyebolts, pulled-in ship anchors, and shot-in anchors.

Where the surface level fluctuation amplitude is small, a system of long lateral lines with
sinkers or counterweights may provide for automatic adjustment to meet the specific
requirements of lateral positioning at different levels. In cases where adjustment is done by
winches, it is important to devise a system that is simple to operate and more foolproof.
Systems that require several adjustments to be made concurrently should be avoided. To
devise a system that requires only one winch is usually impossible, but with ingenuity a
two-winch system can usually be designed for all the necessary adjustments. The two-winch
system should be planned by a rigging expert. Steel cable manufacturers often have such
personnel or can recommend a qualified rigger.

A floating dock system is common along the bank of a river or canal where a
unidirectional current prevails all or most of the time. Several river anchorages are possible,
but all are based on the trailing slip principle shown in Figure 7. The differences are usually
based on the varying methods for anchoring the system against the pull of the current. The
American Society of Civil Engineers (1969) shows a river anchorage system in which a
dolphin is used for one of the anchors. Each boat is moved into a berth against the current
from a downstream access. When leaving, the mooring lines are unfastened and the boat is
guided carefully by hand to clear all moored boats and other obstructions until it drifts out
of the berthing area.

In locations where the bottom drops steeply from the bank, or where the bottom should
remain free of piles, anchors, and cables, a floating system may be held away from the bank
by double-hinged struts. Struts are generally used only for small docks and slips because of
the large stresses that can be transferred to the struts and shore anchorages by small lateral
loads on the floating system. If the gangway can be attached to the bank at the same level as
that of the strut system, it may substitute for one of the struts. The hinges must be larger
than the ordinary gangway hinge to resist the higher tensile and compressive stresses to
which the struts are subjected. Because of the limited use of these systems they are not

discussed in detail, but included as a possible solution to a specific problem.

146

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147

The forces imposed by windloading on a fixed berthing facility can be resisted easily by
almost any adequately designed structural system. It is only necessary to check the
resistance of the array of supporting bearing piles to determine if they can take the lateral
loading in cantilever bending or if cross bracing is needed.

i. Interconnection of Floating Components. A floating system requires considerable
analysis of the internal forces imposed by the various types of loading to which it may be
subjected. As has been pointed out, each floating finger must be considered separately, and
the design lateral load in many locations will be great enough to require considerable
strengthening of the commonly used stringer and crosstie deck systems and the connections
of fingers to headwalks.

Pull tests made at Marina del Rey, California, in the early 1960’s on certain proprietary
flotation systems that had been accepted without structural check elsewhere revealed
weaknesses that required major modification of structural systems. One problem involved
buckling of fingers due to the eccentricity of shear-stressed members with compression and
tension members under lateral loading. Corrective. action included increasing the size of the
stringers to resist torsional forces and the addition of a system of cross struts and tie rods.
Some of the clip angles attaching fingers to headwalks failed in internal bending and had to
be strengthened with gusset plates. Other clip angles held but caused failure of the headwalk
stringers to which they were attached. Some bolted splice-joints failed for lack of enough
bolts or insufficient end distance in the joining members. An important lesson learned was
that measurable strengthening can be effected in any flotation system tied together with
timber stringers by the addition of cross struts and tie rods under the deck at frequent
intervals (Fig. 92).

The wave-produced vertical deflections of any floating system can be dealt with in either
of two ways. One is to join fairly short, rigid components with hinged connections. Unless
the hinges are quite massive and kept well greased, this procedure usually results in rapid
wear and ultimate failure of the hinges by a peening action, which progressively elongates
the holes of the hinged connections. This peening action caused by repetitious reversal of
stress becomes noisy as the situation worsens and may be a source of irritation to people in
the harbor. The other method is to join all components semirigidly by continuous headwalk
stringers and bolted finger connections; a modification is to join the fingers to the main
walk by extending the finger stringers under the main walk, joining its components in a
crosslocked system (Fig. 93).

The semirigidity of any extensive floating system without hinges sets up some rather
severe vertical bending stresses in the connecting stringers when waves pass under the
structure, especially in heavy systems such as those with concrete floats or decks. In a basin
of 10-foot depth, e.g., a typical local wind wave of, say, 5-second period, will have a
crest-to-crest length of about 80 feet. If this wave is 2 feet high (about the maximum
allowable for any floating system) and approaches along the axis of a headwalk, the

148

Cross Strut

SECTION A-A

BOTTOM VIEW

Figure 92. Crossties and struts used to strengthen floating pier decks.

149

{Agnes -

Finger

SECTION B-B

Figure 93. Crosslocked connection of finger and headwalk stringers.

150

headwalk deck and supporting floats will conform more or less to the wave profile, as the
ordinary stringer system will not support even the dead load in bending with supporting
points 80 feet apart. The floats in the crest area may be depressed a few inches below, and
those in the trough area raised a few inches above their free-floating position, but the
resultant deflection will still be about 1.5 feet in 45 feet. Either the stringers must flex this
amount or their splice-joints must loosen and allow a hinging action that will permit this
deflection. Once this type of hinging begins, the structural integrity of the system starts to
deteriorate, and major repairs may be necessary if the loose joints are not tightened
immediately.

With proper splice-jointing, timber stringers will flex enough between joints and float
attachments to accommodate all reasonable wave action in a berthing basin for an indefinite
period. No evidence of pure fatigue failure in a timber stringer system has yet been reported.
Most damage from interior wave action has resulted either from loose bolts in the stringer
splices or from loose connections between the floating elements and the stringers. Much of
this damage could have been prevented by the use of larger bolts, larger washers, and better
positioning of splice points.

In many floating berth marinas the fingers are hinged to the headwalks because of the
above-mentioned differential movements caused by wave action. Where necessary, the
hinges should be of rugged construction with fairly large pins. Special cast-steel hinges used
for this purpose in the Shilshole Bay Marina, State of Washington, have performed
effectively, even with the heavy concrete floating system used and the proximity of the
basin to occasional high waves coming from Puget Sound to the area just outside the two
entrances. In most cases, however, hinging of finger connections is unnecessary if strong,
rigid junctions are used.

In some proprietary steel-frame systems the floating components are interconnected
entirely by bolting. They are intended only for freshwater lakes and rivers, as the galvanizing
or other coatings will not provide adequate protection in a saltwater environment. The
quieter waters of most freshwater locations will not overstress these systems, but where
higher waves from a large lake may penetrate into the berthing area, these systems should be
checked for structural adequacy under wave action of the type previously discussed.

j. Deck Materials and Surfacing. Many wood-plank decks without a coating have given
many years of satisfactory life without maintenance. In most larger installations, however,
some coating is provided for improved appearance and to minimize splintering. These
coatings usually have a roughened surface texture to give a nonskid quality. Because of the
shrinkage and expansion of wood planking and the tendency to curl as the planking loosens
and gains moisture, the planks should not be more than about 10 inches wide and spaced
about a quarter of an inch apart. Diagonal planking is sometimes used for floating docks to

provide cross-bracing strength (Fig. 94).

151

Figure 94. Diagonal decking strengthens a floating slip structure.

152

All commercial grades of exterior plywood are now made with waterproof glues of
excellent quality and may safely be used for exposed decking. A slight crowning of the
plywood is sometimes induced by crown-trimming the framework to which it is fastened
(usually by lag-bolting) to guard against a bird-bath effect in wet weather. Some plywoods
have a special plastic surface that is waterproof and provides an excellent base for painting.
Some floating dock manufacturers provide a heat- and pressure-bonded silicone-base
synthetic coating with an embossed pattern that provides excellent nonskid and
long-wearing quality (Fig. 95).

The laminated plank described in the American Society of Civil Engineers (1969) is
another type of timber deck that has many favorable qualities, including a pleasing
appearance and a high degree of stiffness. It is usually made of nominal 2- by 3-inch or 2- by
4-inch cedar sticks glued together side-by-side in a special endless-belt press that moves the
plank slowly through a curing oven. As the plank emerges from the press it passes through a
planner that finishes the sides and edges.

The sandwich deck has a polystyrene core glued to plywood top and bottom faces and
edged with 2-inch lumber to achieve a degree of stiffness equal to or exceeding that of the
laminated deck. It is lighter in weight than most decking, and by increasing or decreasing the
thickness, the height of the deck above the water surface can be adjusted as desired. Cost of
the sandwich deck compares favorably with the laminated deck.

Concrete slab decking provides both stiffness and durability, but unless the quality of the
mix is carefully controlled, it may crack or spall shortly after installation, and repair is
difficult. Before engaging the services of any concrete deck manufacturer, examples of
similar installations should be examined to judge the quality of the product.

Metal decks of various types are available in modular units for use in a freshwater
environment. Modern coating techniques have been used for good weathering and wearing
quality. However, all parts must be factory built, and field modification is difficult if they
must be tailored to meet special dimensional requirements. Once bent, or pulled apart at
their connections, repairs may be difficult.

All fiberglass deck panels and other synthetic decks are available with certain flotation
systems now on the market. Most of these panels have little resistance to torsional bending
forces and must rely on the framework for stiffness and prevention of damage by racking
action in rough water. Some panels have excellent wearing qualities. but are rather brittle
and may break or chip if twisted or if a heavy object is dropped on them. Each must be
analyzed for compatibility with the flotation system and the physical environment of the
site.

k. Approach Piers and Gangways. Access to the docks and slips from the basin
perimeter is usually accomplished by a fixed-pier approach to a fixed-berthing system and a

hinged gangway to a floating system. The fixed-pier approach is usually an extension of the

153

h nonskid surface.

wit

gure 95. Deck panels

i

154.

headwalk to a landing on the bulkhead wall or an abutment at the shoulder of a sloping
bank. In a floating system, one end of the gangway must be supported on floats; hence it
should be lightweight and only long enough to result in some predetermined maximum
slope at extreme low water level. The slope is usually specified by the controlling agency; a
slope of 1 on 3 is about the maximum that can be traversed safely without the use of cross
cleats. If a steeper slope must be used, a hinged staircase with self-leveling steps should be
provided.

In the interest of safety, all gangways should have handrails designed to the same
standards as those on the perimeter walls. Gangways are normally narrower than fixed-pier
approaches because of the need to save weight. A 3-foot clear width between handrails is
usually the minimum, and 4 to 5 feet may be specified if the pier served has many berths or
if the gangway traffic is expected to be heavy. Gangways are normally hinged at the top
inside edge of a perimeter bulkhead wall. If the perimeter is a sloping bank, a short
fixed-approach pier is usually required to reduce the length and weight of the gangway.

The hinge at the upper end of the gangway should be of fairly rugged design. An example
of a gangway that has been standardized for Marina Del Rey, California, is shown in
Figure 96. If the gap between the end of the gangway and perimeter deck is greater than

Figure 96. Rugged gangway “‘pin-in cradle” hinge. Note loose fit to accommodate lateral
movement of gangway.

155

1 inch at any level of the water surface, a cover plate should be provided. The gangway may
be of any design that meets the structural requirements. Manufactured gangways that meet
most design criteria are available in sizes for most marina requirements (Fig. 97). Before
gangways are designed for an installation, cost data should be obtained from a
manufacturer; they can usually be purchased at less cost than would be required to
custom-build a gangway.

Where the bottom end of the gangway rests on a floating deck that is restrained in
horizontal movement by guide piles or cables, it must either slide or roll with changes in
water level. Because of the tendency of this rolling or sliding end to creep sideways and
severely stress the hinges at the upper end, guides are usually provided to prevent any lateral
movement (Fig. 98). Sliding ends are used for gangways weighing less than about 500
pounds. Heavier gangways should always be provided with rollers and aprons. The apron
plates should be long enough to clear the ends of the roller guides at low water level and
attached to the bottom end of the gangway with a pipe-and-rod hinge (Fig. 99).

5. Design Criteria for Support Facilities.

a. Utilities, Locker Boxes, and Fire Equipment. Freshwater from a municipal water
system or a local water supply development is normally piped out along the main walks of a
marina, mainly for use by boaters to wash craft and the adjacent dock area, but can be used
for fire protection. Where no fire hydrants are provided, a 0.75-inch line will serve about
20 berths and a l-inch line about 40 berths. Where provided, fire hydrants are spaced at
about 100-foot intervals and serve standard 75-foot, 1.5-inch-diameter canvas hose racks in a
red colored firehose cabinet (Fig. 100). Local regulations will usually establish the size of
the supply line, normally not less than 2 inches. In a saltwater environment, the lines should
be either plastic or copper. In freshwater harbors, galvanized iron pipe may be used if
permitted by local regulations, and the owner is willing to accept the probable shorter
trouble-free lifespan of the material. Bronze hose bibbs, usually 0.75-inch diameter, are
provided for every one or two boats on each side of but not on the main walk. Some
backflow-prevention system acceptable to local authorities should also be provided.
Unprotected risers should not extend higher than 1 foot above the deck, and preferably
attached to a supporting pile, a locker box, or other dock fixture. Because the valves may
eventually break or wear, they should be attached to the piping by a threaded adapter at or
near the point of support; replacement can then be made without disturbing a soldered or a
plastic joint. All risers should be brass or copper pipe rather than plastic. Hose racks will
help to achieve an orderly appearance of the docking area (Fig. 101). A shutoff valve should
be provided to each pier served.

The landside water main serving a berthing system should be protected with a backflow

preventer. A positive neat appearing junction of buried and exposed lines should be

156

Figure 97. Typical large and small gangways.

157

Figure 98. Simple metal guides for a light gangway.

158

\/4° Apron Plate

Deck Plate

Wear Lip Screwed

Curb Each Side To Keep to Plate

Underside Gangway Clear

7/8' Steel Rod

RAS PSSSSSPd

"Standard Pipe
° Welded to Apron

FRAMING AND HINGE DETAIL

Figure 99. Pipe-and-rod apron plate hinge for heavy gangway.

159

Figure 100. Firehose cabinet on a floating deck.

Figure 101. Rack for garden hose on pile extension.

160

provided where the buried lines emerge from the basin perimeter. If the docks are floating,
flexible hose connections are needed at each end of the gangway. The hose should always
attach to a downward facing pipe end and hang in a U-shaped loop to prevent early fatigue
failure (Fig. 102). In galvanically active soils, buried pipe requires either a corrosion resistant
wrap or cathodic protection. It is customary to provide a free water supply to the slip
renters; hence, only one water meter is normally required for the marina. Ancillary facilities
may be metered separately.

An electric power outlet is normally provided at each slip for boats over 20 feet in
length, with breaker switches at each outlet rather than just at the pier landing. Capacities
will vary from 20 to 50 amperes, depending on the amount of electrical gear carried by the
various berthed craft. Most craft require 120-volt service, but many larger cruisers also need
240-volt service. In a few installations, service is provided to the docks by overhead wiring
(Fig. 103), but a below-deck-level conduit is preferred. Special outside outlets are available
‘that are virtually foolproof and completely weathertight. Some are placed in riser racks just
above deck level (Fig. 104). Others are supported on locker boxes or other convenient deck
facility. Local agencies sometimes specify that only twist locks be used, but the outlet
selected should be of a noncorrosive outdoor-type, and well protected from the elements
(Fig. 105). It is important that outlets be located and oriented for convenient plug-in. Some
outlet boxes have been manufactured with such a penchant for weatherproofing that the
outlet plugs are difficult to reach and have become a source of irritation to harbor patrons.

Calculation of distribution circuits should always be done by a qualified electrical
engineer to avoid inadequate sizing of lines. A 25 to 50 percent demand factor may be
applied on each pier in estimating the connected load, but judgment must be based on local
experience. Conduits should be large enough for wiring to be pulled without difficulty.
Electrical conduits are often placed alongside the waterlines and telephone or public address
system conduits. Grounding wires should always be returned to land and not to grounding
plates in the water.

The electrical system for any large marina should be designed by an electrical engineer,
but for the small operator who may desire to design and install his own facilities, the
following data will be helpful. Where required, an owner’s construction permit can be
obtained from a local inspection authority. A copy of the local electrical codes should also
be obtained.

Service voltage to the utility outlets may be a 120-volt, 60-hertz, 2-wire system or a
120/240-volt, 3-wire system with the neutral (white or green) wire grounded for craft
requiring 240 volts.

The measure of power is termed watts. The information on watts is obtained from

equipment nameplate data or may be computed if the values for amperes and volts are

161

Figure 103. Overhead dock wiring creates a cluttered appearance.

162

Figure 104. Power outlet racks for a fixed concrete pier.

Figure 105. Well protected outlets may thwart
quick plug-ins. See also Figure 108.

163

known. If any two of the three variables (watts, amperes, volts) are known, the third can be
computed as follows:

To find watts when volts and amperes are known, multiply the variables.
15 amperes X 120 volts = 1,800 watts

To find amperes when watts and volts are known, divide watts by volts.
1,800 watts + 120 volts = 15 amperes

To find volts when watts and amperes are known, divide watts by amperes.
1,800 watts + 15 amperes = 120 volts

The longer the circuit for a constant load and conductor size, the greater the power loss in
the circuit due to resistance of the wire. The resistance in the wire dissipates some of the
power by converting it to heat. For example, the input voltage may be 120 volts, but the
voltage may be only 114 volts at the output end, which is a drop of 6 volts or 5 percent. To
reduce this loss to 3 percent, a larger wire or cable with a larger cross-sectional area (and
therefore a lower resistance) would be required. To determine the cable or wire to be used
for a 3-percent voltage drop instead of 5 percent, the following method may be used. This
method is based on the International-Ohm-Mil-Foot (1-O-M-F), which has been established
as a standard constant of 10.8 ohms per foot of wire length. The ohm is defined as a unit of

resistance. An example of this method follows:

Hee HH HHHHKHH HY HHH HH HHH HH HHH HRHRHHH HHH HH HH

EXAMPLE PROBLEM

Problem: What size wire should be used to serve a load of 50 amperes on a single-phase
2-wire circuit 300 feet from the power source? The supply voltage is 120 volts
and the resistance loss is to be kept to about 3 percent.

Solution: Find 3 percent of 120 volts = 120 volts X 0.03 = 3.6. volts; I-O-M-F constant for
two wires = 2 X 10.8 = 21.6; Distance = 300 feet, one way; Current = 50

amperes.

Find wire size in circular-mils:

constant X length X ampheres _ 21.6 X 300 X 50

Circular mils

acceptable voltage drop i 3.6-volt drop
= aa = 90,000 circular mils .

164

From a wire table in the National Electrical Code (1971), page 487, find the following:

Size No. 1 AWG (American Wire Gauge) is 83,690 circular-mils (too small)

Size No. 0 of 1/0 is 211,600 circular-mils (too large)

Since there is no size between these two, use the wire closest to the requirement, the 83,690
circular-mils wire, and tolerate the slight difference in drop. In using the No. 1 wire, note
that the voltage drop is about the 3 percent required and is close enough for practical
purposes:

_ 21.6 X 300 X 50

1 = = 3.87 volt
Volts ‘drop 83,690 circular-mils se

3.87 volts
120 volts

Percent drop X 100 = 3.2 percent

eH HEHEHE HHRHHHEKRHH HEHEHE HHH HEHEHE HEHEHE HE

Outlets should be ampere-rated—20 amperes for 0 to 20 amperes; 30 amperes for 0 to 30
amperes; and 50 amperes for 0 to 50 amperes. In addition, outlets must contain a separate
grounding pole for each white-green grounding conductor.

Circuit breakers (used as circuit protective devices instead of fuses) provide quick
restoration of service after an outage. Maximum circuit loads should not exceed 75 to 80
percent of the breaker-trip rating to compensate for higher than normal ambient
temperature conditions.

Experience has indicated that maximum demand on circuits is between 20 and 50
percent of the connected load outlets. However, each case should be individually estimated.

Lighting circuits are rated 100 percent of installed lamp-load in watts plus 25 percent,
and demand is 100 percent. For best results, lighting facilities should not be supplied from
outlet receptacle circuits.

All equipment must be weatherproof or raintight and safely installed, and not be a
hazard either electrically or mechanically to persons, craft, or navigation.

Dock lighting methods vary considerably throughout the United States. Many older
marinas were illuminated with a few floodlights around the basin perimeter. This method of
lighting proved inadequate, as light failed to reach some of the outermost slips and the
floodlights caused excessive glare, both directly and by water reflection (Fig. 106). Most
floodlights have been replaced with a system of smaller lights set between 8 to 12 feet over
the main walks of the marina at frequent intervals (Fig. 107). Complaints about glare have
led to the small, well-shielded lights set at about 30 inches above deck level that are now
prescribed by some harbor administration agencies (Fig. 108). However, one marina

165

Figure 106. High perimeter floodlighting may cause

excessive glare.

Figure 107. Intermediate-height, shielded dock
lights typify most marina lighting

systems.

166

ES
=
.
=
.
2

Figure 108. Low level dock lights reduce glare but may not provide adequate illumination
(Courtesy of Harvey Hubbell Corporation).

167

reported that about 75 percent of the low-level lights were broken off or stolen during the
first year. The manager felt that these lights failed to illuminate the area sufficiently for the
necessary security at night. Most managers and many boaters still prefer the medium-height
standards.

An intercommunication system is desirable at any harbor berthing more than a few
dozen boats. Some marinas merely provide pay telephone stations at convenient intervals;
others have phone jacks for every berth. Some have only a public address system for paging;
others combine this system with a telephone at the shore end of each main walk. The
system selected should best meet the anticipated requirements of the slip renters. A
two-way public address system costs little more than a one-way system and will be far more
useful in a small-craft harbor. If there is a question as to the need for individual service,
telephone company recommendations should be obtained, especially regarding requirements
for conduits installed initially in anticipation of future telephone service. One of the best
communications systems that meets the requirements of most medium size marinas is a
paging system, with speakers located within easy hearing distance of every slip and support
facility, and a central telephone switchboard in the administration office. The harbor
manager routes each incoming call to the phone extension nearest the party called and
notifies that party by paging. Conversely, he handles all outgoing calls as instructed and
charges a predetermined per-call fee for this service.

Conduits and waterlines should be extended out on each main walk in an easily
accessible utility duct or a hanger system with supports at 8-foot intervals. A few berthing
systems provide built-in utility ducts with easily removable covers just under the main walk
decks (Fig. 109). However, this location tends to disrupt the structural integrity of a system.
Most systems employ an alternative utility line location on the outside of the stringers,
below deck level (Fig. 110) and, although not as convenient as a special utility duct, this is
probably the best hidden site for the lines. The primary objective is to locate the lines for
easy repair work. In some marinas the desire for convenience outweighs the desire for neat
appearance, and conduits and waterlines are placed directly on the decks (Fig. 111).
Duplicate lines on the sides of the main walk sometimes serve each row of slips separately.
The common practice is to extend the waterline on one side and the electrical conduits on
the other side, with underdock cross runs to serve outlets on opposite-side slips. Chaney
(1961) should be consulted for a detailed treatment of water supply and electrical —
installations.

Sanitary sewer lines have been provided on some fixed-pier structures in marinas, usually
where they serve restaurants, fish cleaning stations, or clubhouses built over the water.
There has been little requirement for direct-connection sanitary systems to serve boats
berthed in marinas. With the trend toward houseboats and live-aboard-berthed-craft
practices, consideration is now being given to the use of shore-connected water supply and
automatic pumpout facilities in many of the berthed craft. Craft with pumpout facilities

may soon be in service, and the future need for installation of direct-connection sewerlines

168

Figure 109 Main deck utility duct with removable cover.

Section Thru Headwalk

WYy((YYyW0

| iT i
Water Supply : ©)

Electrical Conduit

Note. Place Cross-runs To Outlets on Opposite

Sides of Headwalk in Gaps Between Flota-
tion Units.

Figure 110. Utility lines hung under side stringers of a floating main walk.

169

Figure 111. Utility lines laid along sides of main walk. Note locker boxes with tread tops
for boarding boats.

(on at least some piers of each new marina welcoming live-aboards) suitable for transferring
the pumped out effluent into the landside sewer system may be necessary. Technical
problems involved in such systems need to be worked out; in time, another utility line may
be required.

Locker boxes are not only used by slip renters for gear storage, but often provide
structural support for electrical fixtures or hose bibbs. The boxes may be located in the
knees of floating systems (Fig. 112) or in some out of the way spot on decks of fixed
systems (Fig. 113). Some are custom made of plywood or sheetmetal, but manufactured
fiberglass boxes suitable for most sites are usually available for less cost and are more
durable in a marine environment. Some marinas require tenants to furnish boxes, but for
uniformity the modern trend is toward the initial installation of all locker boxes as an
integral part of the system. This is imperative if locker boxes support utility outlets and
light standards. Some are available with a conveniently located low-wattage light that not
only illuminates the power outlets and locker interior but also keeps an ambient
temperature, thus preventing condensation and resultant mildew or corrosion of stowed
gear. Many boaters use the tops of locker boxes as workbenches; if the lid is not already
suitable for this purpose, a special removable overlid cover can be devised for patrons that
use them for workbenches.

170

Figure 112. Locker box with built-in outlet box and hose bibb. Note

location on knee at junction of finger pier and main walk.

Figure 113. Step along basin perimeter provides site for locker boxes.

171

Provision of adequate firefighting equipment is a good precaution for any marina and a
requirement of most controlling agencies. Although dock fires are extremely rare outside of
fuel docks, they can occur. Water is a poor agent for fighting hydrocarbon and electrical
short-out fires. For this reason, there is a trend toward elimination of fire hydrants and
reliance on chemical firefighting equipment (Fig. 114). When used, chemical firefighting
equipment should be placed at intervals of about 200 feet along each main walk unless
closer spacing is required by ordinance. The cabinets housing the equipment should be
painted red.

Figure 114. Cabinet for chemical fire extinguisher.

b. Fuel Docks and Pumpout Stations. The design and construction of a fuel dock differs
from an ordinary loading dock in that the fuel dock must be more rugged, support the fuel
pumps, and take aboard the lines from the buried tanks ashore. These requirements present
no special problems in a fixed system, but a floating system also requires flexible fuel lines
leading to the fixed lines installed in the dock. The simplest solution is to lease the entire
fueling area to an oil company to develop and operate.’ Where the economics indicate an
advantage in owner operation, a mechanical engineer specializing in piping systems should

be engaged to work with the structural engineer in devising the system. An important

172

consideration is a quick-disconnect provision at the high point in each fuel line that will
prevent the siphoning of the storage tank contents into the basin in case of a line break
below the stored-fuel level. Examples of a modern fueling station are shown in Figure 115.

Emphasis on water quality control has led to the requirement in many areas that all
boats with heads be equipped with chemical holding tanks. Periodically, the tanks must be
pumped out and fresh chemicals added. Several manufacturers now make pumpout facilities
for this operation (Fig. 116). Facilities are often placed on or near the fuel dock so that
fueling and pumpout can be accomplished successively at the same place. However, the
pumpout station should not be too close to the fuel pumps and interfere with fueling
operations. The recharge chemicals for the holding tanks are also sold by the station
attendant. Every new marina should have a pumpout station unless one is already available
nearby.

c. Cleats and Fenders. Every dock or slip requires a set of cleats for mooring lines and
fenders to cushion the impact of moored or drifting craft against the dock. Manufactured
metal cleats, either galvanized or of noncorrosive alloys, are available in several sizes. Cleats
can also be made of hardwood (Fig. 117). Wooden cleats are preferred by some marina
operators because when damaged or loosened after the nuts have rusted fast to the bolts
that hold them, they can be split and chipped out, leaving the bolts exposed for easy
removal with a hacksaw. A 10- or 12-inch length is preferred for boats up to 40 feet long;
lengths of about 16 and 20 inches will serve cruisers up to 75 and 100 feet long,
respectively. The cleats must be securely bolted to the framework with through bolts rather
than lag bolts. Many lightly fastened cleats have pulled out under severe line stress.

The cleat-arrangement pattern may vary with different slip or docking systems, but
generally one cleat near the knee and one at the end of a finger (on each side) will serve
boats up to 35 feet long. For larger craft, one more cleat per side should be added for each
additional 30 feet or fraction thereof. If cleats are used on loading docks or fuel docks
designed for breast mooring, they should be sized for the largest craft anticipated and
spaced at about 15-foot intervals. A better system is to provide a continuous curb rail
supported on blocks spaced about 3 feet apart for tying mooring lines. In a double-boat slip
system, two cleats about 3 feet apart should be secured to the edge of the headwalk and
centered between the two fingers. The finger piers of many fixed systems are either not as
substantial as the headwalk or the stringers are too far in from the edge to provide a secure
cleat anchorage. The inboard or knee finger cleats must then be secured to the headwalk
(Fig. 118). A tie pile will often substitute for the two cleats at the outer end of the finger
(Fig. 119).

Many fendering systems of the early marinas were of makeshift quality, using old rubber
tires, discarded firehose, or hemp hawsers for the bumper elements. Special synthetic
extrusion or molded shapes are now being manufactured, which provide better appearing

and more functional fendering for small-craft dockage in floating systems. The preferred

173

‘suoneys Surjany peotdAyT, “GT ] eansty

174

‘(Auedwioy yuoudmby uoyuay yo ksazn07) Ayyptoey oduind yuez-Surpjoy Aseyues y -g{ T en3rgq

175

V-V

“SQUT] SULIOOU }JeIO-[[PUS IO} }eIPD POOMPIeY] *2[[ as

NOILIAS NOILVAI 143

176

Figure 118. Cleats along edge of main walk for bowline ties.

ees
ee
Peer,

Figure 119. A row of tie piles beyond ends of finger piers.

177

type of bumper stripping for the edge of a finger or dock is a synthetic extrusion that runs
along the top edge of the outside stringer with a lip extending over the top. The usual
accident that destroys the continuity of such a fender strip is a sharp-edged bow or stern
impact that bites into the synthetic material and tears it out at nailing points (Fig. 120). For
heavy-duty use, an extrusion with a slight recess for metal fastening strips should be
obtained to resist this tearing action (Fig. 121). Materials that have good weathering
qualities and resilience retention are neoprene and butyl rubber. Other commercially
available materials may also prove satisfactory, but many turn brittle or chalk off with age
in an exposed environment.

Outside-corner fendering requires special consideration, because this is where most
collisions occur; also, extrusions cannot bend around a sharp corner. Molded corner
bumpers of the same material as the extrusion can often be obtained and will provide
adequate protection for smaller craft. Large cruisers and sailboats can best be
accommodated with corner wheels (Fig. 122), especially where the finger extends all the
way out to an interpier fairway. Entry into the slip can then be made by easing the craft
against the wheel before it is fully turned and then completing the turn like a large vessel
uses a turning dolphin. Corner wheels are used primarily on floating systems, where they are
always at the proper level with respect to the hull of the boat; seldom will they work
properly on a fixed system at all water levels. Some floating fingers are manufactured with
rounded ends, thus avoiding the sharp corner problem (Fig. 123).

Because of water level changes, the fendering of fixed piers usually runs vertically rather
than horizontally. Projections beyond the hull of a boat such as a rub strake or overhanging
gunwale coping may catch on any horizontal member of a fixed-fender system during a
rising tide. The most commonly used fenders for fixed systems are vertical timbers spaced at
8- to 10-foot intervals along each side of a finger pier (Fig. 124). The size of the timber
ranges from 3 by 4 inches to 8 by 8 inches depending on the size of the berthed craft.
Lengths are determined by a need to extend upward above the highest part of a gunwale at
extreme high water and to extend below the lowest rub strake at extreme low water. Pier
attachments must be adequate to resist any moment that might be applied by cantilever
bending loads up to the design moment of the fender section. Bolt heads or nut and bolt
ends must be countersunk into the fender pieces to avoid scoring of boat hulls. This
countersinking reduces the strength of the fenders and must be accounted for in the
calculations.

A softer vertical fender is the plastic tube stretched between points of support or
suspended from a top fastening with a heavy pendulum weight hanging below the lowest
possible point of hull contact (Fig. 125). The tube works on the same principle as the
vertical timber fender except that it cannot take cantilever loading. Its milder impact on
hulls and long lasting quality makes the plastic tube worth the extra cost in many marinas.
Special instructions for installation are supplied by the manufacturer.

178

Figure 120. Damaged bumper stripping along a floating dock.

Extruded Butyl
Rubber

Non-corrosive Metal Retaining
Strips and Lag Screws

Figure 121. Bumper extrusion designed to resist tear-out.

179

ae é& aS
Figure 122. Corner wheel on a floating finger end.

Figure 124. Vertical timber fenders for fixed concrete slips.

180

ina Products

tic tube for soft fendering (Courtesy of Mar
181

ing, Incorporated)

Manufactur

Figure 125. Vertical plas

d. Launching Hoists, Elevators, and Ways. The most common types of equipment used

in marinas for transferring boats between land and water are listed below:

Davits Mobile cranes

Forklift trucks Overhead-rail launchers
Jib-boom cranes Stiff-leg derricks

Lift slips Straddle-truck boat hoist
Marine railways Vertical-lift platforms

Four of these types will not be discussed in this study for various reasons, and the reader
may consult Chaney (1961) or some other text if detailed information is needed. Mobile
cranes, either truck-mounted or crawler-mounted, are too expensive for boat launching
alone, and can be justified only where used in conjunction with some ancillary operation
that requires this type of equipment. Marine railways are rapidly becoming obsolete because
of high cost, waste of space, and lack of versatility. Vertical-lift platforms are used mainly
for large craft (25 tons and over) and are not normally a component of a small-craft harbor.
Davits are for smaller craft and lack the versatility of other launching devices.

Of the six remaining types of boat-handling equipment, two are completely mobile and
most versatile—the straddle-truck boat hoist and the forklift truck. The hoist is similar to
the lumberyard truck, but is designed for boat handling service. It is imited to the beat size
the hoist will handle by its load-carrying capacity and straddle clearance, and must be used
in conjunction with a launching well or parallel piers (Fig. 126). Some models have one
open end so that boats with masts or superstructures can be handled, as shown in Figure
126. All are proprietary vehicles, and the costs, dimensions, and capacities can be obtained
from the manufacturer or distributor. Construction of the launching well must follow the
principle outlines for construction of bulkhead walls, except that the well walls must extend
down to the design depth of the basin and be capable of supporting the extra surcharge
loading of the vehicle and the design boatload. The cost of constructing the well or parallel
piers frequently exceeds the cost of the vehicle.

The forklift truck used for boat launching has a fork ladder with the capability of
hyperextending down over a bulkhead wall to the depth required to place the forks under
the hull of a floating boat. Because of the eccentric loading, forklifts are only available in
capacities for lifting smaller craft (up to about a 30-foot length). All outboards and some
inboard cruisers have most of their weight near the stern and can be lifted stern-to, with the
keel parallel to the forks. This greatly facilitates placing the boats in dry storage racks
(Fig. 127). Because of a limited downward reach, forklifts are best suited for use in marinas
with little water level fluctuation. In marinas with large tidal ranges, they may be used for
repair and maintenance work on the boats if not inconvenient to await a high tide. However,
this would be impractical for daily operational use. Although no boat well is required for a
forklift, the bulkhead wall for launchings and retrievals must be designed for the additional

182

yh fa

SS

Figure 126. Straddle hoists. Top photo shows hoist at a boat well;
bottom at parallel piers. Note storage rack in background
of bottom photo.

183

Figure 127. Hyperextendable forklift truck for boat launching.

184.

surcharge loading of this operation. Also, a specially contoured curb must be located on the
exact line that will positively prevent any further forward motion of the vehicle and yet will
allow the fork ladder to clear the top of the wall when lowered into the basin. Such details
must be obtained from the manufacturer.

Overhead-rail launchers, either monorail or duorail, function the same as a straddle
vehicle except that they are not mobile (Fig. 128). For daily trailer-boat launching where
versatility is not required, this system provides a rapid operation at less cost per cycle than
can be obtained with mobile equipment. The overhead rail is pushbutton-operated, hence
requires less operational skill, and is easier to maintain. However, an electric power source is
required, and because of the extensive structural framework, the installation cost may equal
or exceed that of a straddle-vehicle system. Unless the framework is high, the overhead rail
cannot be used for masted or high-superstructured craft. Some proprietary rail-hoist systems
include the structural framework, and others have only mobile and hoisting components, so
that the design of the supporting framework can be tailored to the requirements of the site.

Because only one rail hoist can normally be afforded at any given marina or launching
site, and the cost increases rapidly with design lifting capacity, the selection of size is
critical. A forecast of probable use will indicate the largest craft to be handled in sufficient
numbers to make a rail-hoist operation feasible. A rail hoist of this capacity should then be
installed; larger craft must go elsewhere or be handled by a stiff-leg derrick or other
large-capacity equipment that may also be installed at the same marina for such oversize use.
A graph for selecting the proper capacity hoist for various lengths of power boats and
sailboats is shown in Figure 129.

The counterpart of the rail hoist for sailboat launching is the jib-boom crane (Fig. 130).
The crane is generally less costly than a rail hoist of the same capacity and can handle power
boats and sailboats. Two main drawbacks of the crane are the relatively short reach of the
boom and the slower operation because of the need to rotate the craft as the boom swings.
The rotation is done by hand to avoid any contact by mast or rigging with the boom and to
lower or raise the craft without scraping the hull on the bulkhead wall. These hazards are
not in a rail-hoist system. The excessive cantilever bending moment at the base of the crane,
caused by the eccentric load, requires a rugged foundation that must be close to or made a
part of the bulkhead wall without endangering stability. Unless the foundation is designed
initially, the later addition of a jib crane could require costly modification of the bulkhead
at the crane site.

The stiff-leg derrick is usually less costly than other launching equipment with equal
hfting capacity (Fig. 131). The derrick has the rotational problem of the jib crane and also
requires greater skill by the operator and usually a tag-line crew to control the craft while in
the air. Derricks are usually installed in larger capacities for handling larger craft that cannot
be handled by the faster operating but lighter equipment. In very large capacities, cost is less
than the other types, and with a long boom can operate over a fairly large area, thus

185

Figure 128. Duorail hoist boat launcher.

186

60

Power Boats
50

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Weight of Boat in Thousands of Pounds
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Overall Length in Feet

Figure 129. Weight versus length of recreational craft.

Figure 130. Jib-boom crane for sailboat launching.

Figure 131. Stiff-leg derrick hoist.

188

increasing versatility. Stiff-leg derricks of various types and sizes can be purchased complete,
or designed and built with readily available structural members and mechanical components
to fit any given situation.

Any type of lifting equipment requires a spreader bar to avoid crushing a hull or
springing the structural framework of the craft. Heavy-duty straps of woven nylon or other
strong synthetic fabrics are available for any size boat normally handled by such equipment.
Straps must be examined periodically and replaced if signs of severe wear or dangerous cuts
indicate incipient failure. Some sailboats and small motorboats have lifting eyes that are
integral with the structural framework of the hull and can be lifted with hooks rather than
straps. Many yacht clubs and a few marinas require that all craft have lifting eyes to
standardize and speed up the launching operation.

Three types of lift slips used in some marinas do not transfer boats to dry land. One is
the elevating work slip that merely raises the boat out of the water so that the hull may be
washed or minor damages to hulls, rudders, or screws repaired (Fig. 132). The boat remains
on a cradle or in a sling in raised position above the water only until the operation is
completed. In the second type of lift slip, a pair of hoists that remain as part of the berthing
facility hold the craft above the water while not in use (Fig. 133). The third type is used in
some berthing sites along the shores of large lakes or bays that cannot be protected at
reasonable cost against the moderate wave climate of the area. This is merely a
fixed-framework hoist that will allow the waves to pass through the supporting legs without
overturning. The berthed craft is hoisted high enough to clear the worst “‘sea’’ condition
anticipated (Fig. 134). Another reason for using the second and third types of lift slips is to
prevent hull damage due to barnacle incrustations, corrosion, or ice formation.

e. Launching Ramps. Hoist-launching operations involve the use of mechanical
equipment and usually trained operators. Many small-boat owners resent paying high fees
for such service; therefore, some marinas provide only a launching ramp to get any boat that
can be transported by trailer into or out of the water. Some boating facilities consist only of
a launching ramp and a car-trailer parking lot, with no provision for berthing small craft in
the water, except temporarily for boarding purposes. Regardless of the purpose for which
they were installed, all fixed launching ramps have essentially the same design criteria.

The slope of the ramp ranges between 12 and 15 percent. Few trailered boats can be
launched with a ramp slope flatter than 12 percent without submerging wheel hubs of the
pulling vehicle. Slopes steeper than 15 percent are dangerous for all but the most skilled
drivers. Many trailered sailboats cannot be launched without hub submergence, even on a
15 percent slope. The best alternatives are to use a trailer-tongue extension or to launch the
craft with a hoist.

The surface of the ramp should be paved down to an elevation of about 5 feet below
extreme low water level; the top should be rounded over on a 20-foot vertical curve until it
becomes nearly level at about 2 feet above extreme high water. The bottom of the ramp
should end in a level shelf of loose gravel so that a vehicle losing brakes or traction would be
stopped before sliding deeper into the water.

189

Figure 132. Large and small floating boat lifts.

190

4

Figure 133. Hoist-out dry storage for a covered slip.

Figure 134. Hoist-out storage rack for overwater mooring.

191

The wetted part should be paved with portland cement-concrete, as asphaltic or
bituminous paving does not hold up well from traffic in submerged areas. Unpaved ramps
will soon deteriorate under even moderate use. A single-lane ramp should not normally be
narrower than 15 feet, and a multiple-lane ramp should not have raised divider strips.
Lane-marking is not necessary and may lead to less than optimum use during peak hours.

Ample maneuver room should be provided beyond the top of the ramp, usually 40 to 60
feet, on a gentle rampward slope (about 1 on 50) for proper surface drainage. About 50
pullthrough parking spaces should be provided for each ramp lane, with a clearly marked
traffic-circulation pattern between the parking area and ramp.

Boarding docks should be provided, preferably on each side of the ramp and extending
out into or along the sides of the basin, with a total boarding length of at least 50 feet for
each ramp. The ramp should adjoin fairly quiet water, although not necessarily as quiet as
that needed for a berthing site. Ample protected holding area in the water just off the ramp
and boarding dock location should also be available for boats awaiting their retrieval turn
during peak hours.

Ramps leading into saltwater or polluted waters should have a conveniently located
washdown facility, just outside the maneuver area if possible. This area should be large
enough to accommodate one car and trailered-boat per ramp. A waiting area of about the
same size for boats just retrieved should also be provided. Freshwater piped from the local
supply main and washdown hoses of ample length should be available at this site, together
with an adequate drainage system. Boaters will desire to wash saltwater and pollutants from
the boat hull and from the wheels and hubs of the trailer and car. In washing, some oil,
grease, mud, or other debris will be hosed off the undercarriages of the vehicles. For this
reason most controlling agencies require that the washdown area drain into a debris-trap
sump and then into the sanitary sewer system of the area rather than back into the basin.
The sewer intake must then be provided with a rain valve to avoid flooding the sewer system
with rainwater. Whether or not the use of detergents is permitted with this operation is
largely a decision to be made by the controlling agency. Ramp users often beach their craft
temporarily before retrieving them. Accordingly, users will appreciate having a small sandy
beach reserved for this purpose near the launching area. A typical launching-ramp facility is
shown in Figure 135.

Where the ramp area can be unwatered down to the lowest elevation, a poured concrete. |
pavement is normally the easiest and least costly to construct. The surface should be
finished with deep, square-shouldered grooves molded into the surface parallel to the
contours (Fig. 136). Raked, rough-broomed, or other coarse-grain finishes without the deep
grooves will soon lose traction. Although the grooves may fill with mud, pneumatic tires will
force enough mud out to bring full bearing on the squared concrete shoulders and thus
prevent skidding. The grooves are usually made with 1- by 1-inch oiled sticks located about
3 inches apart on a frame that is pressed into the freshly poured surface and then carefully

192

Figure 135. Layout of a typical launching ramp facility.

193

Figure 136. Nonskid concrete ramp surface.

pulled out just before the concrete has initially set. The sides of each stick should first be
planed to about a 0.062-inch taper before being nailed to the framing boards to facilitate
frame removal. A tap on the end of each stick before lifting will help to break any bond that
might form.

Any part of the ramp that must be placed underwater should be precast in sections of a
size that can be conveniently slid or lowered into place onto a carefully prepared gravel bed
about 6 inches thick. One method that has been used successfully is to precast 6- by 12-inch
slabs that are a lane-width long, space them 3 inches apart perpendicular to the slope, and
fill the gaps with coarse gravel. Some submerged ramps have been tremie-poured, but often
with poor results and at a cost greater than that of a precast-slab ramp. Large concrete
bricks and building blocks have been used, but they tend to become dislodged easily if the
subgrade is soft. (See Portland Cement Association, 1965, for more detailed information on
ramp design.)

A partial listing of manufacturers offering products related to small-craft harbors or
ancillary facilities is presented in Appendix E. All the manufacturers listed aided in the data
preparation by contributing solicited information about products, samples, or photos of
their proprietary items or systems. However, this is not intended to be a comprehensive list

of all marine product manufacturers, nor a special endorsement for those listed.

194

f. Support Buildings and Ancillary Structures. The most important support feature of a
small-craft harbor is the administration building. Criteria for location have been presented
under “Layout Planning,” in Section V, 3 but the internal allocation of space also requires
careful planning. Although only two or three rooms are required for a small installation,
many rooms are needed for the headquarters of a large marina. The functions to be handled
and features to be included are generally as follows:

(1) A clerical reception office with a counter for transacting business with clients,
such as giving advice to visitors, making assignments of slips, and collecting rental fees. Free
literature concerning the harbor and other informative matter should be displayed
prominently in racks on or near the counter.

(2) A large record board showing a graphical layout of the harbor, the number or
letter description of each slip and docking area, and the occupancy status.

(3) Record files containing slip-rental records, employee records, facility-maintenance
records, and utility-service records. Important records or documents should be kept in a
fireproof vault.

(4) An office where the manager can work, shielded from disturbances of the clerical
office, or can discuss in private with public officials, salesmen, employees, and special
visitors.

(5) A communications center for relaying incoming and outgoing calls and operating
the paging system.

(6) Restroom facilities for the staff, and in large installations, for the visiting public as
well.

(7) In large installations, such supplemental facilities as a boardroom, a coffee-break
room, an engineering room for planning and designing and for filing record drawings, and a
storage room for items not currently used.

Some examples of administration building exteriors are shown in Figure 137; Figure 138
is a typical floor plan for a large administration building.

The harbormaster’s office, if not located in the administration building, should be nearby
for convenience or have a duplicate occupancy-status chart. In a small marina the manager
may function also as harbormaster, but in a large installation, the harbormaster’s duties are
so demanding as to require one individual’s complete attention and are usually handled by
another person. The harbormaster is responsible for all navigational aspects of harbor
operations, including compliance of all boaters with regulations for security of the entire
complex as well as the berthed craft, for dissemination of information to harbor occupants
regarding navigation and berthing matters, and often for supervision of regattas and other
boating activities. For these reasons, he should have a patrol boat berthed close to his office
and a vehicle for land travel so that he can quickly reach any part of the harbor in
emergencies and take charge of the situation. He supervises the work of all harbor
patrolmen, and he or some of his subordinates are often uniformed and deputized as peace

195

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Figure 137. Examples of administration building exteriors.

196

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197

officers. The harbormaster’s office must therefore include all facilities needed to carry out
these functions, such as dressing rooms with lockers, a place to train and brief subordinates,
stowage space for gear and equipment, and record files for traffic counts, accident reports,
vandalism records, and regulations and ordinances established by the harbor management
and higher authority.

Every small-craft harbor requires a maintenance building and yard for storage of vehicles,
equipment, and spare components and parts used to keep the installation in good condition.
If the marina operates a boat repair facility, the harbor maintenance functions may be
combined with that facility, and one building and yard will satisfy both requirements. If the
boat repair and maintenance function is leased for private operation, a separate maintenance
facility is required. The facility should include work benches, equipment, tools, and supplies
needed for grounds-keeping, for vehicle maintenance, and for repair of docks and berths.
Replacement items for the harbor utility system, the firefighting equipment, and the
berthing system should also be stocked.

Replacement items for the berthing system should include fendering components,
mooring cleats, and for floating systems, extra flotation components, pile-guide rollers, and
hinge pins. Most harbor maintenance buildings include a paint and sign shop. A small office
will be needed for keeping maintenance records on all items requiring periodic attention, for
preparing requisitions for needed parts and supplies, and for transacting business with
salesmen and delivery personnel. Some open storage areas will be needed for large items that
do not require cover, including a paved entry road leading to an unloading dock for receipt
of supplies. In a large marina, a small machine shop may be needed for repair and
maintenance of a fleet of mobile land equipment and vehicles, together with a washdown
apron for keeping the equipment clean and operable. A typical maintenance building and
yard layout is shown in Figure 139.

A boat repair installation is a necessary adjunct in every large marina and a desirable
ancillary facility in a small-craft harbor. The facility is usually a part of, and immediately
adjoining a hoist or elevator. Various methods of transporting the boats from the retrievel
area to the working area have been used. In small installations where only lighter craft are
handled, four-wheel, castered dollys are usually the most satisfactory (Fig. 140). However,
large-capacity elevators are usually accompanied by a rail system with a transfer pit for
shunting the boats on fixed-axle dollys from one track to another (Fig. 141). The repair
installation normally has a covered work area with a gantry crane for removing engines and
other major components, as well as tools, work benches, and other equipment needed for
engine and hull repair (Fig. 142).

A marine hardware supply store is a welcome ancillary facility at a marina; it serves a
basic need for harbor patrons, and may also be a supplemental source of revenue for the
overall project if handled properly. In a small installation the store is often run by the

management, but frequently handled on a franchise-lease basis in a large harbor complex.

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Figure 141. Rail transfer pit serving boat lift.

200

Figure 142. Large covered boat repair facility.

201

The building that houses the store should either be built by the harbor management and
leased, or the site should be leased on a long-term basis and the lessee required to secure
management approval of the design. No special criteria are offered, but the architecture
should be in keeping with the decor of other facilities at the installation and the interior
functionally suited for the intended purpose. Boat sales or yacht brokerage enterprises may
either be a part of the boat service installation or headquartered in a separate building.

Public restrooms must be provided as part of the harbor complex on the basis of about 1
toilet for every 15 berths (with equal numbers of men’s and women’s facilities) unless local
authority specifies a different ratio. Restrooms of such capacity should be located no
farther than about 1,000 feet from any slip. In areas prone to vandalism, it may be
necessary to keep all the restrooms locked and provide passkeys for the slip tenants. Where
this practice is prohibited by ordinance, all fixtures should be of a type that cannot be
twisted off or otherwise easily damaged. Pushbutton or spring-closing valves should be used
in lieu of ordinary faucets, and washbasin drains should have no plugs. In some areas it has
been necessary to install warm air hand driers in place of paper towels that can be used to
form plugs to stop up drains. Some marinas provide showers in restrooms, but always
requires a passkey for entry. The architecture of the restrooms should agree with that of the
other facilities of the complex.

Trash containers must be provided, and should be located near slips with easy access for
collection and, if vandalism is a problem, be located behind a locked gate or otherwise made
secure against removal, overturning, or entry. The containers are usually at or near headwalk
landings, often alongside a small shed or enclosure used for storage of pier maintenance
equipment such as brooms, pails and hose. In many marinas, patrons have poured crankcase
oil into trash containers; this can be avoided by providing special oil containers.

Shopping centers, transient housing facilities, restaurants, snack bars, and recreational
facilities within the marina complex should be planned along with the more basic facilities.
The architecture and floor plans should be checked by the marina management or an
architectural review board, and adequate access routes, parking, lighting, and public
restrooms provided.

The entire land area of the marina must be served by a road and walkway system (with
adequate lighting) that provides good traffic circulation and pedestrian access to all the
facilities in the complex. The need for adequate parking has been mentioned, and
parking-lot design will be discussed later. Because many nonboaters go to marinas just to
observe the activity, observation points, some in the form of kiosks, are often provided at
convenient points.

In most residential or commercial projects, the road and walkway system usually
provides the routing pattern for utility lines, storm drains, and sanitary sewers in the land
area of the complex. The design of such a system is beyond the scope of this manual, but

the planner and engineer can obtain the necessary criteria from several texts on the subject.

202

Esthetic considerations normally require that the electric power and communications
system of a marina be underground. Therefore, advance planning of underground vaults and
conduits is essential. Small-craft harbors in saltwater environments often have chemically or
galvanically active soils that require care in routing direct burial lines and conduits.

One small item, not usually considered before marina construction, is that many boaters
have pets. A conveniently located dog run will help preserve the cleanliness of the complex.
Some unused part of the land area that is generally hidden from view is best and should
perhaps be left to develop natural foliage without special landscaping effort.

Certain land areas of the complex may require fencing. At some marinas, a complete
perimeter fence with entrance gates kept locked at night may be required for security
against theft and vandalism. The amount and nature of the fencing will vary with the
proximity of the harbor to public parks and beaches, depressed or high-density residential
property, or busy commercial and industrial areas. In planning the fencing and security of
the complex it is advisable to consult with local police authorities. In some public marinas
where fencing was not installed to allow complete freedom of access for good public
relations, theft and vandalism have been reduced by permitting or increasing the number of
live-aboards in the slips.

g. Dry Storage. The need for dry storage along with wet storage at a small-craft harbor
arises from either a lack of sufficient space in the protected waters or a desire by some
boatowners to keep craft dry when not in use. Because of limitations on size and weight

‘that can be handled safely by ramp or hoisting equipment, dry storage during the operating
season is normally limited to boats not exceeding 2 tons. Most sailboats under 16 feet are
unmasted and stored by hand, keel-up in racks (Fig. 143). Powerboats under 24 feet are
often stored with forklift equipment, right side-up in racks (Fig. 127). Larger powerboats
and sailboats are usually stored on special trailers built for transport over public roads
(Fig. 144); or on adjustable cradle dollys furnished by the marina, and moved either by
hand or small tractors.

If dry storage is on trailers, the facility may be only a designated area where the trailers
may be parked. The boatowner is then required to move the trailered craft to and from the
hoist or ramp with his own car. Where the dry storage is in racks or on dollys, the facility
operator must launch and return the craft to storage at the owner’s request, usually for a
predetermined fee. The primary advantages of this system are that less space is used for
storage, and the owner can phone an advance request to have his craft launched and ready
for boarding at a certain time. This procedure saves waiting time for the owner and allows
the operator to spread his work more evenly over the time available for a series of
launchings. The owner can leave his boat at the boarding dock for the operator to return to
storage’ whenever time permits. A hoist-launching and dry-storage layout designed for such a

system is shown in Figure 145.

203

Figure 143. Small sailboats unmasted and stored keel-up in racks.

Figure 144. Trailered sailboats dry-stored at the Washington, D.C.
Sailboat Marina.

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Many dry-storage systems have had a poor experience record because of a relatively long
launching cycle. A system using certain proprietary equipment will increase the storage
capacity and at the same time speed up the launching cycle (Fig. 146). The system requires
a storage building extending about 40 feet into the basin on piling and lined with boat racks
up to 8 tiers high. A swiveling stacker crane, suspended from a traveling gantry frame, moves
between the tiers. The operator, riding with the stacker, guides the forks under a boat on
either side of the building, lifts the boat from a rack, and launches directly into the water.
An associate can then move the boat to an unused part of the boarding dock or to a holding
slip. This process is reversed when the owner returns the boat.

In saltwater areas the hulls of dry-stored boats should be hosed with freshwater before -
storage; these provisions should be incorporated in the system. A special method can be
used with the system described in the preceding paragraph. The retrieved boat is placed on a
dolly, attached to a moving endless chain that pulls the boat through a washdown area
outside the building and then back into the building. At a certain point, the dolly is
automatically disengaged from the chain and remains on the floor of the building until the
stacker has an opportunity to pick up the boat and place it in a rack.

Many yacht clubs use dry storage extensively to accommodate increases in membership.
Figure 147 shows a typical sailboat stored on a trailer on the concrete apron adjoining a pair
of jib hoists (Fig. 148). Trailered boats are moved to and from the hoist area by a special
powered trailer-puller (Fig. 149). Where no handling equipment or hardstand storage space
is available, boats may be rolled up on a beach for dry storage ona sand dolly (Fig. 150).

A novel but very practical system of launching small boats from dry storage is the hinged
floating ramp (Fig. 151). The boat is placed on a two-wheeled dolly (Fig. 152), and then
moved down the ramp until the wheels rest against the bottom stop curb. The boat is then
pushed off into the water. This device can be used for dinghys, small sailboats, and small
outboards.

Many small craft larger than 25 feet carry or tow dinghys when cruising, so they can go
ashore in areas or at destinations that have no landing docks. In home port these little craft
must be dry-stored. The owners usually prefer racks on the headwalks near the slips, but the
use of space over the water for this purpose is frequently unjustified. Dry-storage racks for
dinghys, similar to the sailboat racks shown in Figure 143 but smaller, should then be
provided on shore near the slips they serve. The number of racks required will vary from one
marina to another and from region to region. The requirement is so variable that no
universally applicable formula can be given for predetermining the number needed in a
marina. It is recommended that the designer of a new facility check the experience records
of several nearby harbors before establishing the number of dinghy racks to be installed.

h. Parking Lots. After the required number of parking spaces has been determined and
the sites of the parking lots delineated, they must be designed for optimum functional use
and pleasing appearance. Rectangular lots are the easiest to design, but other shapes are

often imposed by terrain limitations and space availability. Some of the criteria normally

206

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Figure 147. Deep-keel sailboat stored on trailer at yacht club.

Figure 148. Jib-boom hoists and large boarding dock at yacht club.

208

Figure 149. Powered trailer-puller used to move trailered sailboats
to and from hoists.

Figure 150. A well used sand dolly.

209

Figure 151. Hinged, floating sailboat-launching ramp.

Figure 152. Two-wheel dolly used to launch small sailboats.

210

used for parking lot layouts are shown in Figure 153. Detailed criteria can be found in
specifications issued by some controlling agencies that have strict regulations for such
layouts. Other agencies leave the design to the engineer or architect. Generous use of curbs
and planters will improve the appearance of the lots. Maintenance of clearly visible lane
striping and provision of bumper-stops will help control the neatness of the parking lots and
ensure optimum use of available space. If necessary, painted direction arrows will help keep
traffic flowing in the intended patterns. The basic pavement in nearly all parking lots is
about 3 inches of asphaltic concrete placed on a carefully prepared subgrade of compacted
earth, or if the ground is too soft, on a 6-inch bed of rolled gravel.

Waterlines and powerlines under the parking area pavement must be carefully planned to
supply water to the sprinklers in the planters and power to the light standards. If not
otherwise specified, lot lighting should be the intensity of not less than one foot-candle.
This should be increased to 5 foot-candles in areas of high vandalism. Lights on high
standards should be shielded and not cause glare outside the lot and especially in water areas
of the complex. The surface slope of any parking space should not exceed 4 percent, and
the entire lot should be graded to drain properly.

It is not customary to charge a slip renter a parking fee at a marina. Slip-rental rates
should be set high enough to cover the cost of providing adequate vehicle parking space for
the boatowner and his guest. Some marina operators have tried reserving parking spaces by
slip number, but that usually leaves too many spaces unused. The most common practice is
to post signs in the parking lot designating the spaces reserved for boatowners and those
available to visitors. The number of reserved parking spaces is usually about half the number
of berths in the marina, which is adequate for normal use. On peak days, the overflow
boatowner parking requirements are accommodated in visitor spaces or nearby parking areas
designed for ancillary facility patrons. A large restaurant parking area, for example, may
sometimes be located to handle overflow parking needed for boating patrons during peak
hours.

Many launching ramps require a use-fee, which may be more easily collected by charging
the user for his car-trailer parking space. Such spaces can either be paid for by a
coin-operated gate or a ticket-dispensing gate opener with a pay-as-you-leave checkout
booth. Coin-actuated parking meters are seldom used at a marina or launching ramp because
of the difficulty of monitoring meters, and most patrons do not know how soon they will
return. In most regions both patrons and visitors at a boating installation resent having to
pay for parking, and the general trend is not to charge for parking privileges.

i. Sign and Bulletin Boards. The generous use of neatly painted signs in a small-craft
facility will save many hours of explanation to visitors and new patrons. Signs usually found
at a marina are: (a) a welcoming sign at the entrance giving the name of the facility and
owner, (b) direction signs where appropriate, (c) signs designating buildings, and (d) signs
concerning parking regulations, slip-rental rates and schedules, pier and slip designations,

ramp-and hoist-use regulations, and sanitation and antipollution regulations. A little

211

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planning will develop a functional array of signs for the initial opening, but certain
repetitious questions at the information counter or evidence of misuse of any of the
facilities or grounds may soon indicate a need to supplement this initial effort. Some
examples of permanent sign posting are shown in Figure 154.

A large bulletin board, located where harbor patrons frequently congregate or where
most normally pass to reach their boats, can disseminate a large amount of information.
Notices of regattas or other water-sports events, classes in boat handling and boating safety,
meetings of boating clubs, new places to go by boat, reciprocation privileges shared with
other marinas, and numerous other items can be posted on the bulletin board. It is
important that the management keep the board current, regulate its use to best serve the
need of the marina patrons, and ensure that all are made aware of events and items of
interest. In marinas having a large segment of permanent patrons, a printed newsletter
mailed periodically may be needed to reach owners who do not use boats regularly. A copy
of the latest newsletter should be posted on the bulletin board.

6. Environmental Protection.

a. Snow. In the colder climates snow loads may contribute to the problems of a
small-craft harbor. Floating systems are seriously affected by excessive snow loads, and only
the covered floating berths are apt to be submerged by a heavy snowfall. Most roofs of
floating sheds cannot be made steep enough to ensure that the snow will slide off. Snow
normally weighs about 0.10 as much as water, volume for volume. Hence, snow may be
assumed to weigh about 6 pounds per cubic foot. The area of the roof multiplied by 6 times
the anticipated highest snow load in feet will give the extra weight in pounds that is carried
by the flotation. If this exceeds the design live load, the amount of flotation should be
increased enough to support the difference without submerging the flotation units. For
example, if the roof area is four times the deck area and the design live load is 20 pounds
per square foot, the snow load will equal the live load at about 10 inches of snow fall.
Beyond that limit about 1 cubic foot of foam must be added to the flotation for every 10
square feet of roof area covered by an additional foot of snow.

Boats berthed in the open during the snow season in cold regions should be covered with
tarpaulins, fitted canvas or reinforced plastic covers. This is the boatowner’s responsibility ,
but the marina management should notify slip tenants when coverage is needed or desirable.
When the snow load on the covered berths reaches dangerous limits with regard to flotation
or structural safety, the load should be lightened by removing some of the snow.
Adequately designed fixed-pier systems are not likely to fail under heavy snow loads, but
floating systems may be submerged. When this appears imminent, the snow load should be
reduced either by hand shoveling or with small mechanical equipment. In most cold regions,
boats are removed from the water to dry storage before the winter season sets in.
A common practice is to winter-store the larger craft on cradles in the vehicle parking lot
and cover with tarpaulins. Smaller boats are often stored keel-up for better shedding of rain

and snow.

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b. Ice. In regions where temperature drops are not excessive and natural freezing does
not cause a thick ice sheet, ice formation can be prevented near piles and floating slips by
forced convection currents. A few typical systems that have had some success are illustrated
in Figure 155. These systems work on the principle that water reaches its greatest density at
about 39°F. and tends to stratify in layers, with the heaviest on the bottom. Forced
convection of this warmer but denser water from the bottom to the surface when the
surface temperature approaches 32°F. will prevent or at least postpone freezing.
Unfortunately, the internal circulation of water in a berthing basin may prevent the layer
stratification that makes a bubbler system work. Although success is achieved in some areas,
the system is ineffective in others, and a careful study of thermal interchange in a basin
should be made by an expert before installing such a system.

If a bubbler system is not used, sheet ice damage can be reduced or prevented by proper
design. Piles can be driven deeply enough in some materials to develop sufficient withdrawal
resistance to prevent lifting by ice, especially if the piles are cladded with metal sheaths in
the ice-formation zone so that the ice slides on the smooth surface as it rises. The flotation
components of floating systems can be designed with rounded or tapered bottoms so that
the pinching effect of the ice merely squeezes them upward (Fig. 9).

Damage to perimeter walls and revetments due to ice thrust can be prevented or greatly
reduced by selection of a perimeter treatment that is less susceptible to such damage and by
correct construction methods. A smooth concrete pavement on a perimeter slope will fare
much better than a riprapped slope. Thorough compaction of the backfill behind a vertical
wall will help to resist ice thrust.Careful design and construction will eliminate many
crevices, a major source of frost-expansion damage. On rivers and lakes where ice floes
occur, protective breakwaters may provide sufficient ice-impact protection. If not,
deflecting booms made of logs or heavy timbers can often be used and sited to protect the

berthing area from drifting ice. Chaney (1961) presents details for constructing two types of
ice breakers that may be used in rivers to help break floes into smaller pieces and offers
other suggestions for combating ice problems.

c. Hurricanes. In regions with a history of hurricane winds, some additional design
considerations are suggested beyond the increased windload criteria used in structural
design. Guide piles and cable or chain-anchorage systems for floating docks should be
capable of accommodating the design fluctuations of the water level and resisting the lateral
forces of the wind. Special attention should be given to safety provisions for the fuel dock
to prevent fuel and oil spills. As the electric power supply is subject to failure during the
storm, the installation of standby power-generating equipment should be considered for
facilities or floodlights that might be needed at that time. All major and minor
improvements of the harbor such as decking, roofs, and outside trash containers, must be
anchored down or fastened together to prevent movement and possible collision with
berthed craft or harbor structures. Low profile, streamlined designs for structures should be
adopted, hurricane-type shutters should be installed, and structural projections that increase
wind stress should be avoided.

215

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(Courtesy of Schramm, Incorporated).

216

Other precautions to avert or reduce the severity of hurricane damage and to prevent
injury include: (a) removing all loose or fragile items to a protected area, (b) opening a
window or door on the lee side of each building to balance pressures, (c) preparing all
emergency equipment and vehicles for immediate use, (d) tightening or reinforcing the
mooring lines of all berthed craft, (e) lashing racked dinghys or other small dry-stored boats
that cannot be moved indoors, (f) devising a system of lifelines for harbor personnel who
must check the installation during the storm, and (g) disconnecting all electrical appliances
not needed during the emergency.

d. Fire. The use of noncombustible materials in as many components of a harbor as
possible is the best precaution against fire damage, but economic considerations often
prevent doing this. The need for adequate firefighting facilities has already been mentioned.
It is important, however, that everyone concerned know how to use them, especially the
harbor security and maintenance staff. Certain regulations should be posted and enforced
such as prohibiting use of charcoal burners on wooden decks and smoking at fuel docks.
Extension cords should be checked periodically for signs of insulation failure. During the
harbor planning phase, the local fire chief should be consulted about fire safety that could
be incorporated in the design. An occasional visit by a fire department inspector after the
harbor is operating may uncover fire hazards.

e. Oil Spills. Large oil spills within a small-craft harbor are unusual, but outside oil spills
that move into the berthing area can create a major problem. If the harbor has a narrow
entrance, a simple method of keeping the oil out is to release a continuous curtain of. air
bubbles from the bottom all the way across the entrance. The bubbles set up a local forced
convection current system that moves the surface water away from the curtain in both
directions and returns it at the bottom. Because oil remains on the surface and cannot pass
the screen against the current, boats can pass through without upsetting the barrier action.

Once spilled oil enters the harbor, however, removal must be done mechanically or
hydraulically. Floating booms have been designed with which large areas of oil slick can be
encircled or guided into an unused part of the harbor. Oil skimmers then suck up most of
the oil into containers. The remainder is removed by the straw-absorption process. The U.S.
Coast Guard has been working on this problem for several years and has developed various
means of removing spilled oil that are suitable for different situations, and should be
contacted whenever an oil slick threatens to penetrate the harbor.

f. Floods. The danger of flood damage is present only at harbors on or near a river.
Harbors on the river usually have floating docks, designed so that the anchorages are secure
at any elevation of the water surface. Because steep-gradient streams are poor cruising
courses, most riverside marinas are on the sluggish segments of rivers as they pass through
flat valleys. For this reason, flood damage is usually in the form of accumulations of debris
and collisions of floating objects with structures. Therefore, berthing areas must be sheltered

from the main current so that floating debris during floods will stay clear of the entrance. In

flood stage, the river will usually carry a heavy silt load which remains in suspension only in
areas where the current speed is relatively high. This material tends to deposit in the more
quiet areas of the watercourse, such as sheltered berthing areas. The best protection against
both the debris and shoaling hazards is a training wall. Orientation of the wall will cause
floating debris to be deflected away from the entrance and silt deposits will occur in an area
that can easily be dredged out after the flood.

Off-river basins may have minor shoaling and floating debris problems, but will be
concentrated at or near the basin entrance. A greater danger is the possibility of bank scour
or overflow of the main river into the basin during a major flood. This has happened a few
times, with devasting results (Fig. 156). The best precaution against such an occurrence is to
protect the riverbank at and upstream from the basin so that it cannot fail by scour or
overtopping in that area. |

g. Vandalism. The looting of boats and malicious damaging of boats and marina
property by vandals is considered both an environmental and a sociological problem. The
environment of the harbor site is an important factor to be considered in planning the
security measures required. Several suggestions have been made for tightening the security
of various harbor components and for fencing the entire installation. Since these measures
increase the cost and restrict freedom of action without improving the functional efficiency
of the harbor, they should be held to a minimum, and consistent with the nature of the
environment and the behavioral pattern of the more antisocial elements of the local society.
No set of criteria can be offered to apply in all situations, and every site must be analyzed
separately. The best advice is to discuss the problem with local police officials during the
harbor planning stage.

VI. PUBLIC AGENCY PARTICIPATION
1. Federal Government.

a. General. The Federal Government exercises control over navigable waters of the
United States and structures built in those waters, and maintains certain navigable
waterways by periodic removal of shoals and obstructions. The Federal Government also has
a number of programs under which the States, their political subdivisions, individuals,
groups, and associations may qualify for assistance in developing boating facilities. This
assistance involves various degrees of credit, cost-sharing, technical aid, educational services,
and research. The purpose of this section is to inform interested parties of the basic
provisions of pertinent Federal assistance programs. Details concerning any specific program
may be secured from the administrating agency. The headquarters addresses for these
agencies are listed in Appendix E.

b. Primary Agencies Involved, Authorization, and Programs.

(1) U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers. This branch of the U.S. Army is responsible,
among other things, for the development and maintenance of navigable waterways within

the United States. Navigation improvements are authorized by Congress to assist in the

218

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development and conduct of waterborne commerce. Coastal harbor improvements include
channels and anchorages for both deep-draft and shallow-draft shipping, harbors to provide
refuge for small craft, and breakwaters and jetties to provide protection against wave action.
Shallow-draft navigation includes commercial fishing, recreational boating, and barge traffic.
Improvements of inland waterways consist of deepening, widening and canalization where
locks and dams are required. In addition, the Corps has the responsibility for administering
the Federal laws relating to the protection and preservation of the navigable waters of the
United States. These responsibilities include granting permits for structures, not including
bridges, in navigable waters; establishing regulations for use of navigable waterways; removal
of wrecks and other obstructions to navigation, and preventing pollution. Procedures and
guidance on permit application can be obtained from the nearest U.S. Army, Corps of
Engineers District Office.

The Corps is also authorized to study, and if economically justified, to aid in the
construction of public small-boat harbors and other navigation improvements. This
construction is limited to the waterway system of the harbor, namely breakwaters, jetties,
general navigation channels, turning basins, and anchorage areas. Under present law, such
Federal participation in a small-craft harbor project may be obtained in three different
ways, depending on the estimated cost to the Federal Government: (a) if the Federal share
of the project is less than $1 million, the project can be approved and funds allocated by the
Secretary of the Army acting through the Chief of Engineers (Section 107, 1960 River and
Harbors Act, as amended in the 1970 Act), (b) Section 201 of Public Law 89-298, 1965,
authorizes the Secretary of the Army, acting through the Chief of Engineers, to construct
projects with a Federal share of less than $10 million without specific Congressional
authorization, if there is little or no controversy over the project, and if approved by
resolutions of the Public Works Committees of the Senate and House of Representatives, on
the basis of reports submitted to Congress, and (c) projects in which the Federal share
exceeds $10 million must be approved individually by Congress, and then after review and
approval by the Appropriation Committees of the Senate and House Committees, be
individually funded. The Federal financial share for construction of these general-navigation
features, according to present Congressional policy, varies from 100 percent for features
serving commercial navigation to 50 percent for purely recreational features. Construction
costs for combined harbors are usually prorated according to relative economic benefits.

Because of background knowledge developed through numerous small-craft harbor
studies, the U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers may also be of assistance to any public agency in
assessing the need for a new harbor at any given site and in providing advice on permit
procedures, even though the project may not qualify for Federal participation.

(2) U.S. Coast Guard. This Federal agency is responsible for the regulation of boating
and the control of boating safety in all Federal waters. The Federal Boat Safety Act of 1971
increased the U.S. Coast Guard’s responsibility and authority in this field. Initially, the U.S.

Coast Guard bore the entire burden of regulation in coastal waters, but the Federal Boating

220

Act of 1958 allowed relinquishment of this duty to the individual States in cases where
State legislation was in conformity with the provisions of the Federal Act. Subsequently,
most States passed conforming legislation, established a State Boating Law and appointed an
administrator to carry out the law’s provisions. As a result, the U.S. Coast Guard has
developed the role of coordinator in this field and has broadened the scope of safety and
regulatory activities into a comprehensive program that starts with small-craft manufacturers
and continues through dealerships, owners, and marina operations.

In the development of small-craft harbors, U.S. Coast Guard assistance is limited
primarily to information programs. Program aims are to promote public safety on navigable
waters, to promote efficiency in the operation of powered craft and sailboats, and to
facilitate U.S. Coast Guard operations in other areas. Free public courses are provided which
emphasize safety, small-craft handling, and basic seamanship. A courtesy motorboat
examination provides the boatman with a free check of all required and recommended
equipment. Marina clientel can also avail themselves of films and lectures, provided to
groups by U.S. Coast Guard personnel upon request.

(3) Bureau of Outdoor Recreation. This Bureau established in 1962 within the
Department of the Interior, serves as a focal point for coordination between State and local
governments, other Federal agencies, private organizations, and individuals with the aim of
providing increased opportunities for outdoor recreation. The Bureau supplies financial
assistance to State and local governments for acquisition and development of boating and
other public outdoor recreation facilities through the Land and Water Conservation Fund
Program. Projects to qualify for assistance, must be in accordance with the State
Compresensive Outdoor Recreation Plan (SCORP) and approved by the Secretary of the
Interior. Funding to public agencies is a 50-50 matching basis, as established by the SCORP,
with project priorities determined by State liaison officers who are appointed by the
Governors of the respective States. The Bureau also provides limited technical assistance in
the form of referrals and information from a technical assistance clearing house.

c. Programs of Other Agencies. Several other Federal agencies offer programs related to
development of small-craft facilities that meet certain unique criteria and other specific
requirements. The Farmers Home Administration of the U.S. Department of Agriculture
will provide low-interest loans to qualified farmowners who wish to develop
income-producing recreational enterprises on farmlands. The loans may be used to develop
land and water resources, repair and construct buildings, buy land and equipment, and pay
operating expenses. Almost any type of outdoor recreational enterprise will qualify,
including developments for golf courses, campgrounds, nature trails, and small-craft
facilities.

Another program that could include marina development is the Department of Housing
and Urban Development’s program for Model Neighborhoods in Model Cities. This program
provides grants and technical assistance to plan, develop, and carry out comprehensive

programs for rebuilding or restoring slum and blighted areas through coordinated use of all

221

Federal programs, State, private, and local resources. Grants may include up to 80 percent
of the project cost. To be eligible for grants and technical assistance, plans must cover not
only housing, jobs, health, and education, but also associated problems such as social and
recreational services. A marina development that is planned as the nucleus for a total
recreation complex might qualify for assistance under the master plan for that complex.

The Economic Development Administration (EDA) under the Department of Commerce
is a third unique source for possible assistance in small-craft harbor development. EDA is
authorized to provide financial assistance to areas of high unemployment and low median
family income to enable them to stabilize and diversify their economies and create new and
permanent job opportunities. Such assistance includes: (a) grants and loans for public works
and facilities development projects, (b) loans on attractive terms for business development
projects, and (c) technical assistance. Table 2 is a partial listing of EDA-funded projects
involving marinas or boating facilities.

Public Works grant and loan assistance by the Secretary of Commerce may be extended
to tourism or recreational projects if it is shown that the project directly contributes to the
fundamental growth of tourism in an area where tourism was previously unimportant, or
that there is a lack of sufficient private capital to overcome a shortage of accommodations
in an area already dependent on tourism. It must also be shown that the proposed facilities
will provide services or have special attributes that tend to induce a net increase in tourist
visits to the area, or that it is part of a larger area-wide program.

A number of other Federal agencies sponsor programs which under certain circumstances
may provide aid and assistance in developing small-craft facilities. A comprehensive list of all
Federal agencies that relate in any way to small-craft harbors is presented in Appendix F.

2. State Governments.

a. Agencies Involved and Control Exercised. State agencies that exercise a primary
measure of control or authority over small-craft harbors or activities of small craft are listed
in Appendix G. The scope of authority and degree of control exercised by these individual
agencies vary considerably from State to State. A summary of the more significant services,
programs, and controls offered or executed within each State is given in Appendix H.

Several State agencies have developed programs to the extent that they possess universal
jurisdiction over all marine matters in both inland and coastal waters. Some States have
agencies that confine their control to public waters only, or waters that are confined within
or adjoining State-owned land; others exercise authority only over non-Federal waters,
leaving all tidal waters to the control of the U.S. Coast Guard.

A few States have no special programs or controls of marine matters, or have but a few
laws or statues that apply uniquely to development of small-craft facilities or to activities of
small craft. Vermont, for instance, upholds a statute concerning land under public waters,
and Maine has no laws that directly affect marinas.

Methods of administering marine affairs vary between the individual States. Several
States have attempted to centralize control under one agency, such as the California

Department of Navigation and Ocean Development, which is responsible for the California

222

Table 2. Economic Development Administration (EDA) Projects

Location

Alabama
Scottsboro
Arizona
Maricopa County

San Carlos
Window Rock
California
Dobbins
Fort Bragg
Illinois
Shawneetown
Maine
Jonesport
Michigan
Mackinaw City
Manistee
Marquette
Naubinaway Village
Northport
Ontonagon
Petoskey
Port Huron
Presque Isle

Minnesota
Cass Lake
Grand Marais
Knife River
Onigum
Onigum Point
Tower

Montana
Browning

Crow Agency

Nevada
Pioche

New York
Ogdensburg

North Dakota

Fort Berthold Reservation

Utah
Fort Dushesne
Washington
Ilwaco
Wisconsin
Bayfield
Bayfield

Saxon

Description
Outdoor Recreation Complex

Recreation Facility/Community Building
Recreation Facility (Soda Canyon)
Reservoir for Tourism

Feasibility Study Recreation
Mooring Basin/Boats

Port Facility-Marina
Public Landing and Boat Facility

Recreation Boating Facilities
Marina

Marina

Marina

Marina Facilities

Marina

Marina

Public Marina

New Marine Facility

Marina/Trailer Park Exposition
Improve Marina

Construct Harbor/Marina
Recreation/Marina/Camp
Tourism/Marina Complex
Tourist Complex/Marina

Lodge/Restaurant/Marina
Marina and Facilities

Recreational Complex
Feasibility /Marina Complex
Recreation Complex/Motel/Pool
Tourism/Recreation Complex
Mooring Basin

Harbor-Marina Development
Refuge Harbor-Marina Development
Improve Marina

223

Boating Law. Other States divide the responsibility and authority between several agencies,
e.g., the Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources of Kentucky has jurisdiction over 24
lakes that are owned and managed by the Department, while the Department of Public
Safety exercises control over most other waters.

The majority of States have either adopted or are in the process of adopting State
Boating Acts. These Acts officially delineate the laws and codes concerning small craft and
navigation and safety standards that will be enforced in the State. Subjects normally covered
by State Boating Acts under the headings of laws, codes, or navigation and safety standards
are listed in Table 3.

Many State general laws, codes, and statutes also bear directly on small-craft activities or
facilities, such as zoning laws. Many States are now zoning land areas adjacent to water,
including the water areas, with restrictions favoring commercial fishing, sport fishing, water
recreation, water conservation, and commercial development. Comprehensive land planning,
development, and management programs have recently become favorably inclined toward
establishing marinas as hubs for recreation complexes or parks.

Most States rely on standard design and construction codes to cover the development of
small-craft marinas or launching facilities, although many States also adopt specific
standards to cover the special problems of these facilities. Hawaii, for instance, publishes
70 pages of regulations specifically for small-boat harbors.

Ecological factors have become a major concern of most State-regulating agencies.
Stringent requirements concerning the ecological features of environmental impact
statements that are prerequisite to any construction project are not uncommon. State
agencies are also concerned with water quality, pollution prevention, and waste and sewage
disposal problems in marinas and other areas frequented by small craft. Even emissions
from outboard engines have come under critical scrutiny.

In Florida, the Division of Marine Resources has as one of its primary goals the
minimizing of the possible adverse impact that marina and harbor development may have on
marine biological resources. Therefore, in planning for development, consideration is given
to protecting marine grassflats, mangrove fringes along the water’s edge, and the
maintenance of good water quality in marina areas. In design, the division favors riprap or
sloping revetments over vertical bulkheads because they reduce wave reflection and provide
more area for attachment of marine organisms.

Similarly, the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission concedes that regulations covering
the construction of small-craft harbors and marinas are mainly directed toward control over
ecological factors, and has adopted very stringent water quality and pollution standards. The
State of New York requires a review of all marine engineering projects, investigates their
impact on the environment and on navigation, and requires provisions for sanitary facilities
and pumpout stations at all marinas. New York is also among the few States that require an
economic feasibility study showing a favorable benefit-cost ratio for all proposed projects.

b. Assistance and Development Programs. The range in scope and degree of

participation varies widely between the States in assistance and development programs for

224

Table 3. Subjects Covered by State Boating Regulations

Age of operators

Application of State law; local regulations

Boat and water funds

Capacity of watercraft

Device for arresting backfire

Duties of sheriffs, conservation officers, county boards
Enforcement for violations

Fire extinguisher; ventilation

Hazards to navigation; removal of buoys or structures
Horn or whistle; siren

Lights

Liquor, drugs, physical or mental disability

Marine toilets

Muffler

Navigation of watercraft on waters of State
Obstruction of navigation; advertising; buoys
Operation generally

Personal property taxes

Race or other competition or exhibition
Reimbursement of county sheriffs for search and rescue operations
Rental of watercraft

Riding on gunwales or decking

Safety equipment

Stopping at scene of accident; reports, liability
Swimming or bathing areas

Temporary structures and buoys

Water skiing; scuba diving

Watercraft licenses

Waterway markers

i)
i)
On

small-craft facilities. Most of the programs are partially or totally financed through revenues
derived from taxes on marine fuels, registration fees, and various tariffs.

State-supported grant programs are the most common forms of assistance. The Ohio
Department of Natural Resources provides grants for civic marina and civic launching-ramp
development to a maximum of two-thirds of the total development costs. The Oregon State
Marine Board and the Washington State and New York State Parks and Recreation
Commissions furnish grants covering 100 percent of the same qualifying developments. A
common practice for States that offer grant programs is to reserve rights to review
engineering designs and proposals and to enforce construction and design standards.

The same reservation of rights is evident in State-sponsored loan programs especially
where loans are not restricted to civic marina developments. The following excerpts from
the California Boating Law (1971), shows the control exercised by many States concerned

with marina planning or construction loans:

(1) Feasibility Study: A report containing sufficient information and detail to
demonstrate that the project is engineeringly and financially feasible, and
economically justified. The report shall include, but not limited to:

(a) A project plan and map which establishes the project area and location.

(b) Preliminary layout and designs of project features in sufficient detail to
develop accurate cost estimates.

(c) A plan for operational and fiscal management of the project throughout
the loan period.

(d) The proposed method and means of retiring the loan, meeting other
financial obligations of the project, and, if the project is to be undertaken with
funds in addition to the construction loan applied for, a funding plan indicating
the source of such additional construction funds.

(e) A report on the effect the project would have on the environment. The
department will provide the sponsor with a copy of the latest law on this subject.

(2) Feasibility Review: The applicant’s formal application will be judged as to
the following principal considerations:

(a) Engineering feasibility, including a determination as to whether or not
the project can be developed within the total amount of funds to be made
available.

(b) Economie justification, including an evaluation of the benefit-cost ratio
in accordance with the department’s criteria.

(c) Financial feasibility, including an analysis of the availability of capital to
finance construction to completion, user’s willingness and ability to pay
anticipated berthing and other charges used in estimating revenues, and evaluation
of the sufficiency of revenues to cover annual cost on a year-by-year basis,
including the amortization of the applied for loan.”

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About 10 percent of the States fund and administer development programs have no
strings attached. Alaska probably has the most comprehensive program of this type. Other
than a few private marina facilities in Ketchikan, Juneau, and Sitka, nearly all small-boat
harbors have been provided by the State. The Division of Water and Harbors is the primary
agency responsible for the development of small-boat harbors and other shallow-draft vessel
facilities in the State. The division provides public docks, floats, grids, launching ramps, and
other associated harbor improvements. Small dredging and filling projects are included if

sufficiently justified and are not covered under any Federal program.
The Alaska harbor program is a traditional carryover from the former territorial

government and is geared to tax income from marine fuel sales. In keeping with a general
State policy of delegating management responsibility to local interests, the facilities are
leased to local government entities wherever possible. As a matter of policy the lessee is
responsible for the installation of electrical utilities, sanitary facilities, parking areas, and
other supporting shoreside facilities and minor maintenance. Of the 60 separate facilities in
Alaska, 42 have been leased to the local community for the nominal fee of $1 per year and
the remainder are under management control of the State. Responsibility for major repairs
at all facilities rest with the division. To maintain some degree of uniformity throughout the
State, the standard lease agreement specifies minimum moorage rates, together with
regulations regarding other basic operational procedures. In general, however, the
community has broad authority to operate the harbor as it may deem appropriate.

The goals of the Alaska Division of Water and Harbors are to bring all existing harbors to
optimum capacity and to provide new harbors where needed. The objectives of the program
are to: (a) reduce or prevent the incidence of property damage or loss of life by providing
protected small-craft moorage facilities, (b) enhance and promote the development of
fishery resources, and (c) develop opportunities for the enjoyment of the recreational
potential of the coastal and inland waters of the State.

Boating facilities in the State of Hawaii are generally designed, constructed, operated,
and maintained by the State Department of Transportation, Harbors Division. Much of the
design and construction of main channels and protective structures is accomplished in
cooperation with the U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers. The State encourages private
enterprise to enter this field, but to date the private sector has been discouraged by several
factors, including the shortage and high costs of land and protective structures.

In the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, the Fish Commission administers a comparable
program. The commission enters into agreement with local governments under which the
State takes a long-term lease on a harbor site to construct a small-craft facility. The
completed facility is then returned to the local government for operation and maintenance.
The State funds each project in entirety as long as the facility is designed to serve only the
needs of the fishermen and boatmen (from whom the funds are derived). If the local
government desires supplemental facilities beyond the exclusive needs of fishermen and
boatmen, local funds may be provided.

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Many States do not have programs as extensive as the three described, but do provide
significant assistance. The Illinois Department of Conservation collects marine fuel taxes in
excess of $2 million per year, which are used for developing boating facilities. The
department does not construct small-craft harbors, but their program is oriented toward
construction of access facilities to serve the needs of boaters. Statistics show that 90 percent
of the boaters of Illinois trailer their boats and use the State-provided launch ramps, parking
areas, comfort stations, drinking water, lighting, and small picnic areas. Facilities are located
primarily on navigable public rivers of the State and Federal-State impoundments, and the
interior lakes of the State. New Mexico, North Carolina, and Minnesota have programs
similar to that of Illinois. Other States offer little assistance or none at all.

c. Information Programs. Many States provide significant assistance in the form of
information centers and aids to planning small-craft harbors and other boating facilities.
These States usually have compiled, or can gain access to data and reports that can help
justify either local-public or -private participation in small-boat harbor development.
Reports on traffic patterns, annual income figures for existing facilities, boating and fishing
seasons, and fish populations are particularly useful in the economic evaluation of any given
site.

Most States publish data on availability of small-craft facilities and on boating activities
within those States. Many States sponsor special boating activities such as sea festivals and
regattas, and some develop marine parks. Florida has an underwater State park on one of its
Keys. These State activities and sources of information, together with such ancillary services
as navigation and boating safety courses offered by agencies of many States, complement
the Federal programs and local development efforts in furthering the advantageous use of
navigable waters throughout the Nation.

3. Local Governments.

a. General. Most marinas, with the possible exception of those being constructed by the
Federal and State government on their own lands, will require some degree of interface with
the local government. The relationship of a marina to the local community is based on
mutual needs and cooperative goals of the parties involved, including the community.
Communities have developed rules and regulations that must be respected, and many also
have master plans for economic growth and for land development and management. These
plans must also be respected. A new waterfront development, including a small-craft harbor
or marina, must be compatible with the established plans of the community or it will not
receive the support of civic leaders or administrative officials.

Many municipal and county planning boards have already provided for waterfront
development, and a small-craft facility may be the logical improvement of an undeveloped
waterfront. A city or county can derive as much benefit from a marina as from a park,
playground, golf course, swimming pool, or any other recreational facility. Many marinas,
often combined with one or more of these other facilities, have proved to be assets to the
local community.

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From a strictly fiscal standpoint, many communities have experienced increases in land
values around marinas that have measurably broadened their tax bases. In several cases the
expansion of waterfront boating facilities has been directly responsible for a new and
significant prosperity in the surrounding area. The many locally sponsored information and
development programs testify to the value placed on marinas. The time and effort devoted
to the drafting and adoption of regulations controlling the operation of small-craft facilities
also demonstrate this favorable concern on behalf of local governments.

In some instances, a small-craft harbor is located to serve not one but two or more cities;
in others, the harbor serves only the coastal area of a large city or county, and people living
inland have little or no interest in boating and will not support community efforts to
establish boating facilities. For either situation, the formation of a harbor district or some
other improvement district may be the best solution. Most States have laws under which
special districts can be formed, and when established by a vote of the people living within
the designated district boundaries, they are vested with such taxing privileges and
development and regulating authority as to enable them to provide the locally desired
harbor facilities. These districts have all the capabilities of a city or county government in
the area of boating-facilities development and come under the same general category of local
government insofar as small-craft harbors are concerned.

Some special districts and authorities that have been established for other purposes or for
recreational facilities development in general also are endowed by law with small-craft
facilities development capabilities. They include port districts, recreation districts,
water-resources districts, and port authorities; each may be considered an agency of local
government in later discussions.

b. Regulations and Permits. The regulations and permit requirements originating at local
government level are generally intended to complement the State and Federal regulations
applicable to a given area. The local regulations are usually more broad in scope and more
detailed in technical coverage because they must take into account those characteristics of
the local environment that may have a special impact on local construction or development.
The design, construction, and maintenance of a marina complex must comply with the
regulations established by the local public entity governing the area in which it is built. The
minimum standards and requirements for marina construction will be set forth in
ordinances, codes, rules, and regulations of the public entity, whose administrators will
usually measure compliance therewith against a set of documents such as: (a) Uniform
Building Code, (b) Uniform Plumbing Code, (c) Uniform Wiring Code, (d) National Electric
Code, (e) Water and Sewerage Standards, (f) Standard Land Development Specifications,
(g) Standard Design Specifications, and (h) Uniform Fire Code. Local site characteristics
may dictate additional regulations intended to reduce damage from hurricanes, tornados,
earthquakes, and extreme weather conditions. Some local codes apply specifically to
marinas, such as berthing facility and fire protection standards for boatyards and marinas.

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Many local governments that have joint public-private marina development programs
publish standards with titles such as Design Criteria for Construction by Lessees, which deal
solely with marina design and construction. These standards include topics about site work,
buildings, signs, and mooring facilities. Site work includes controls over items like those
listed in Table 4. The regulations in the Buildings section are usually directed toward
achievement of harmony between structural design and space utilization, and use of
architectural themes to enhance the harbor complex. This type of control imposes no
restriction on architectural design; its purpose is to achieve a proper blend of esthetics and
functional adequacy. Design requirements could include establishment of public viewpoints
overlooking the entrance and harbor areas and use of building materials that will create
weather-resistant, low-maintenance structures. They could also cover screening from public
view such items as utility and mechanical equipment, trash-collection centers, and service
areas, and provide criteria for setback of structures, and use of color on exteriors.

The section on Signs should include topics on sign posting, sign design, restraints on
advertising signs, required permanent signs, and controls over use of temporary signs. A
typical design that may be required for temporary signs at a marina is shown in Figure 154.

The section on Berthing Facilities will normally establish all controls and regulations
pertaining to the design and construction of the interior harbor facilities previously
discussed in Section V.

In addition to preparing the technical regulations, the local entity must designate the
proper procedures for submitting designs, acquiring permits, requesting plan reviews,
obtaining appeals, and executing resubmittals. Data formats and required time schedules
must also be provided for the guidance of prospective developers.

If several small-craft harbors are to be constructed or already exist, the local city or
county government may elect to regulate their operations by ordinance. A model for such
an ordinance, as drafted by the California Marine Parks and Harbors Association, is
presented in Appendix I.

c. Development Programs. The municipally sponsored marina is often financed by bond
issues. Because public funds are used, it is under mandate to provide the best possible service
to the public. Thus, municipal authorities must ensure that the resources of each municipal
installation are used to the fullest potential, preferably on a self-sustaining basis, either as a
civic enterprise or as a leased operation.

Many municipalities provide the inner basins, perimeter protection, and entrance to a
harbor, but allow private enterprise to provide the berthing and ancillary facilities under
lease agreement. For ancillary facilities, only the site is provided by the local government
and the lessee develops it completely except for utility and sewer systems.

Leases to the private sector are usually granted to provide services not normally
performed as government functions, but which will enhance public use and enjoyment of
the harbor. When the harbor administrative authority determines that a service should be

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Table 4. Site Work Items Requiring Design Control

Curbs, Gutters and Walks
Configuration
Material

Mixing, forms and finish

Drainage

Catch basins, storm drains, sinks
Outfalls
Curbs and gutters

Hydrology study

Landscaping
General plan
Lawns
Small shrubs and plants
Trees
Sprinkler system

Signs

Utilities
General
Sewers
Electrical
Water
Telephone

Rubbish collection
Public address system

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Perimeter Screening and Barriers
Falls
Fences

Other barriers

Grading
Required slopes
Tie-in to universal datum
Fill compaction

Fill materials

Area Lighting
Luminaries and standards
Circuitry and switching
Height
Density
Shielding
Safety

Parking
Boat slips and launching areas
Ancillary facilities
Employees
Surfacing
Curbs, planters, tire bumpers
Surface markings

Traffic patterns

provided through a lease agreement, definitive specifications for the scope of the lease are
prepared. Lessees are then selected either through direct negotiation or from a list of
qualified parties who have submitted proposals that comply with the lease scope
specifications. It is not always necessary or even advantageous for the lessee to be selected
through competitive bidding procedures. Applicants are usually evaluated on the basis of
financial status, experience, and competence as well as on the plans submitted and the
proposed development schedules. The design and construction must meet all requirements
specified in the local agency’s Design Criteria document, and the lessee’s development will
be subject to review and controls of the local authorities.

Lessees usually are required to pay for general maintenance and repair of landscaping,
property and equipment, and any alteration or improvement of the leased area must be in
accordance with an approved master plan. All leases are subject to periodic review to ensure
that reasonable maintenance, modernization, and operational practices are followed.

Leases are granted for as short a term as is consistent with sound economic policy. The
object of a lease in the eyes of the governing authority is to provide the best possible service
to the general public at the least possible cost commensurate with quality merchandising,
operations, and service. The lessee must be allowed to realize a reasonable return on his
investment while paying a fair rental to the municipality. Leasehold fees may either be
assessed at a flat rate or computed as a percentage of gross incomes with a yearly minimum.
The initial fees are often set low to allow the lessee adequate time to develop the project
into a profit-making enterprise. After it is operating with a profit margin, the rental fee may
be increased sufficiently to allow the city to realize a fair return on its overall investment in
the harbor, which will probably include many nonprofit features.

Normally, long-term leases are executed under an agreement whereby all improvements
become the property of the city on termination of the lease period. In the event of
cancellation before the termination date, the improvements may be bought by the
municipality in accordance with a predetermined amortization schedule.

Another method of local government sponsorship is the lease-back arrangement whereby
the facility is built with public funds for some special or revolving account and then
immediately purchased under prior agreement by a large financing firm. The purchase price
is returned to the special account where available for other purposes, and the financing firm
leases the facility back to the public agency for operation and maintenance on a rental basis.
The primary objective of this financing system is to allow the city to develop the harbor and
control its operation without tying up a large expenditure of public funds over a long period
of time.

Various standard provisions often included in local agency-private sector lease
agreements are: (a) audit of records by agency, (b) quiet possession by lessee, (c) posting of
performance bond by lessee, (d) entry and inspection privileges of agency, (e) reservation of
easement rights by agency, (f) no subletting by lessee, (g) compliance with all laws,

(h) adequate insurance, (i) breach of contract terms, and (j) responsibility to receive notices.

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d. Information Program. Local governments may be able to achieve some small-craft
facility development goals simply by disseminating information concerning opportune sites
for such development and then offering further advice and planning assistance wherever
private enterprise is favorably inclined. The prominent display at City Hall or other public
buildings of a master plan showing the areas where such development is desired, and
occasional feature articles in the local press covering success stories on similar projects
elsewhere, may plant the seeds of future implementation in the right places. Some of this
work may be sponsored by the local chamber of commerce and other civic-minded groups in
cooperation with municipal officials.

The planning department of the local government may assemble certain statistical data
that will help a private developer to evaluate the potential of the site. The road department
should be prepared to discuss access routes to new facilities and possible public road
extensions to accommodate the new development. The local Department of Building and
Safety may establish a special section to handle marine affairs and prepare a special set of
minimum standards for berthing and marine ancillary facilities that will assist the developer
in estimating his construction costs. This section should also be prepared to answer
questions concerning disposal of surplus dredged or excavated materials and the special
requirements of the cognizant water quality control and environment-impact agencies for
waterfront construction. A cooperative attitude on the part of civic officials may pave the
way to securing the desired waterfront development with a small expenditure of public
funds.

Private organizations offering information in small-craft facilities are listed in Appendix J.

VII. ECONOMICS IMPLEMENTATION AND OPERATION
1. Feasibility Studies.

a. Purpose and Procedure. The decision to investigate the feasibility of constructing a
new small-craft harbor is usually reached through consideration of more favorable aspects.
Unless the need was fairly obvious or the economic potential attractive, the project would
never have reached the first planning stage. The purpose of the preliminary feasibility study
is to determine whether the initial indicators of desirability will remain valid in the light of
all the many factors that must be considered, some of which may prove to be unfavorable.
The scope of the study should not normally cover more than is required to establish beyond
reasonable doubt that the project is either worthwhile or should not be undertaken. In some
instances, the scope must be extended to determine the optimum size of the new facility or,
if the size initially considered proves infeasible, whether a larger or smaller size will show
feasibility.

The first step in the study is to search out any factors that may disqualify the project on
grounds other than economics. It could be found, for example, that expansion of a nearby
existing harbor will accomplish the same purpose at less cost. An initial rough evaluation of

the environmental impact of the project may show that it cannot qualify for a permit under

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established local regulations. An initial evaluation of the physical characteristics of the site
may reveal construction or operational problems too great for further consideration of the
project. If an initial analysis fails to reveal any potentially disqualifying factors, each of the
factors discussed below should be investigated, generally in the order listed. The report
should then summarize the findings, list the conclusions, and present recommendations for
further studies needed in project planning.

b. Selection of Site. If more than one potentially feasible site is available, the first
efforts of the study should be directed toward eliminating those that are less desirable and
reaching a decision as to the best site as soon as possible. Each site should first be subjected
to the elimination tests suggested earlier; the surviving sites should then be analyzed only to
the extent necessary to establish which is the best, all factors considered. If two or more
sites appear to be about equally well qualified, each must be evaluated sufficiently to enable
the owner or the sponsoring public agency to reach a decision.

c. Availability of Public Assistance. If the sponsoring agency is a public entity, such as a
city or a harbor district, some form of contributory assistance may be available from one of
the higher-level government programs described in Section VI. In some instances, the
feasibility of a project may depend on whether it qualifies for assistance, and in any event, a
feasibility report is usually required as a feature of the application for assistance. It is
important to ascertain at the beginning of the study the items of information that must
accompany the application and the leadtime required to obtain the assistance offered. If it
appears questionable that the project actually qualifies, or if the indicated leadtime is so
great that it is doubtful the assistance will arrive in time to be helpful, the feasibility study
should present an analysis of the economics both with and without assistance.

Direct public assistance is seldom available to a private developer. However, many
projects that have been initiated by private enterprise include public features, the
desirability of which was first pointed out in a developer’s preliminary feasibility report. For
example, a large privately owned tract of land adjacent to a good harbor site may be worth
developing only if the harbor is also developed. A city (or other local public entity) may
desire to develop the harbor, but cannot qualify for State or Federal assistance until it owns
some of the perimeter land and can demonstrate full-use potential. The developer’s
feasibility study is then prepared on the premise that if he deeds a part of-his land to the
city and develops the remainder into a residential-commercial complex, the full-use
potential of the harbor can be realized and the city can qualify for assistance. Other
possibilities of private-public cooperation can often be found that will benefit both parties.
Such possibilities must be sought out and analyzed in the early stages of the feasibility
study, as they may set the course for the remainder of the study.

d. Socioecological Aspects. An environmental impact statement must be submitted on
nearly every small-craft facility project in most States. It is important to learn very early in
the feasibility investigations whether a study is actually needed or is likely to cause the

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project to be rejected. This information can often be obtained simply by asking the proper
agencies. The local water quality control agency may know immediately whether the project
will be acceptable from a water quality standpoint. If not, it will outline the information
that must be submitted to obtain a ruling. A ruling will probably have to be obtained if the
project requires dredging, placing fill material in the water, dry excavation to be flooded
later, or disposal of waste materials in nearby waters.

The probable effects of harbor construction on the ecology in the project area must be
reported in the impact statement if required. Local building and safety permit authorities
can usually provide information on other local or State agencies that exercise jurisdictional
control over local environmental matters and whether projects of the type under
consideration have a good or poor acceptance experience. If the experience is generally
good, the impact statement may be deferred to a later stage of planning. If experience has
been poor, an early submittal may result in project rejection before much time and effort
have been spent on planning. If no information can be obtained at the local level, a letter
request to the Environmental Protection Agency (Federal) should produce the necessary
guidelines for covering this field in the feasibility studies.

Another aspect of an environmental statement is the possible effects of harbor
operations and boating on noise levels (e.g., racing engines), water pollution (due to oil
spills, surface drainage into harbor, and littering), and vehicle traffic. The existence of a
harbor in lieu of an undisturbed natural shore-area environment has been protested as a
downgrading of the esthetic qualities of an area. These are all matters that may influence a
controlling agency in judging the value of the project to the community. On the other hand,
existing conditions or ongoing activities in the surrounding area may have a detrimental
impact on harbor operaticns which, when pointed out in the feasibility report, could
discourage the developer from further consideration of the chosen site. Examples of such
impact would be the close proximity of large concentrations of disruptive elements of
society that would tend to sabotage or plunder the completed project, or nearby factories
that pollute the air or water to a degree that would be harmful to exterior finish of small
craft or to persons living or working at the harbor. These detrimental factors are usually
discovered before site selection, but, if not, they must be revealed and evaluated in the very
early stages of the feasibility study.

e. Area and Access Availability. The first evaluation of the site should define the exact
area available, both on land and in the water. By applying general planning principles and
rules outlined in Section V, a good estimate can be quickly obtained for the number of
boats that can be accommodated. This application may place a physical limitation on the
capacity of the project which, in areas of great need for harbor facilities, may make it
necessary to evaluate the market potential. However, if ample area is available, the market
potential must be evaluated to determine the size of the facility.

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A most important part of the area study is the evaluation of access routes, both by land
and by water. Good vehicle access routes will be required, including some offsite road
construction. Whether this must be done as part of the project cost or will be a cooperative
effort by the local public road department, must be determined at this stage of planning.
Similarly, if an entrance channel is needed from the main water body to the harbor site, the
study must reveal whether it will be provided by others or will be a project obligation.

Ownership and acquisition problems must also be evaluated at this time. If the developer
does not already hold all the land and water area in full ownership, the probable cost of
aquisition must be determined or the terms of a possible lease agreement negotiated with
the current owner. If the water area is owned by the State or Federal Government, some
arrangement for its proposed use as a small-craft berthing or launching-basin facility must be
agreed upon during the feasibility studies.

f. Geophysical Characteristics. After the proposed boundaries of the site have been
established, certain field investigations will usually be needed to support a construction cost
analysis. The extent of exploratory work done at this time will vary with the geophysical
characteristics of the site and prior knowledge obtained from construction in adjacent or
similar land formations. The purpose is to reveal information needed to determine the
relative difficulty of dredging or excavating wherever the work is to be done, and to evaluate
bearing capacity, slope stability, and other soil mechanics of the various formations to be
encountered. Some exploration and soil testing may be deferred to a later stage of planning,
but on a small project or one that appears feasible, it may be more economical to obtain the
field data while mobilized for such work.

Other geophysical data to be aquired at this time should include wind, weather, tide, and
wave statistics or data on river flows or lake levels needed for design of protective structures,
berth construction, and anchorages. Temperature trends must be analyzed to determine
what kind of seasonal changes in harbor usage to expect and whether snow, ice, or frost will
be troublesome. Extremes of heat in summer often place covered berthing systems in high
demand.

g- Market Potential. A study of boating habits and experience records of other
small-craft facilities in the area will often provide the information needed to determine the
probable requirements for berthing facilities, ramps, and hoists. In an area newly opened to
boating, such as a reservoir on a lake or bay to which vehicle access has recently been
provided, the numbers, types, and sizes of craft that will be attracted to the facility must be
estimated. This will require a study of distances to population centers, boating recreation
opportunities offered at the body of water served, and experience records of similar
installations at other newly opened areas under similar circumstances.

In urban areas where other facilities are available within easily traveled distances, a study
must be made of spheres of influence of such facilities in relation to the one under
consideration. Because boating is still an expanding form of recreation in most areas, the

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harm that will be done to existing facilities by a new installation competing for patronage is
usually short lived. Enough new craft will usually be purchased by families living in the
market area to make up for lost patrons at existing harbors within a short time.
Nevertheless, a statistical survey of boats registered within the market area should be made
to determine whether the ratio of boats to population is nearing the saturation level by a
comparison with other strong boating-oriented communities in a similar environment.

In any area or situation where a real question exists concerning the types and numbers of
craft that will be attracted to a new installation, the market analysis becomes the most
important feature of a feasibility study. If the proposed facility is fairly large, an economic
consultant specializing in market analysis should be engaged to assess the market potential.
An economist will frequently have better sources of information than the developer, and
because of his training and experience can easily obtain the necessary data to better judge
the true meaning of the final assemblage of statistics. The analysis will be interpreted in
terms of probable numbers of different types of craft coming to the new facility shortly
after opening, and the annual increase in patronage to be expected. This information is vital
to determine the proper phasing of the various components of the facility. It will ensure
that no components are built in the initial effort only to be idle for several years and
deteriorate before actually needed.

Another objective of the market analysis is to determine the ancillary facilities, both to
satisfy the needs of the boating patrons and to provide additional revenue for the developer.
In many areas the going scale of slip-rental rates is so low that the marina management must
rely on ancillary facilities for an adequate net return on the overall investment. Here again,
the economic consultant is best prepared to evaluate the ancillary-facilities potential of the
installation. A little imaginative forethought along these lines coupled with an objective
analysis of available statistics will often result in a flourishing complex of facilities and
activities in an area that might otherwise become devoted to a purely boating enterprise that
must struggle for economic existence. A perusal of the case histories in Section VII will
readily demonstrate this point.

h. Predesign Planning. As soon as basin dimensions, channel requirements, and
protective structure needs are determined by analysis of the geophysical characteristics of
the site and consideration of the numbers and types of craft to be accommodated, the
actual planning of the installation can begin. In the preliminary feasibility stage, this
planning is carried only to the point necessary to prepare a valid construction cost estimate
with schematic layout drawings and sketches to convey to cognizant permit-approving
agencies and prospective financing institutions a fairly clear idea of what is intended. It must
also show the numbers of boats to be accommodated and locations of all proposed support
and ancillary facilities.

It is customary at this stage to show all reasonably valid alternative layout schemes and
to present a brief analysis of each, leading to the selection of the best plan. Consideration of

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alternatives is not essential with a private development, but serves a very useful purpose in a
public project. Concerned citizens will often point out what they think are errors in
planning if only a single concept is presented. Alternatives will not only prevent criticism,
but will give the general public a sense of confidence in what its officials are doing. If by
chance a better plan was overlooked in the preliminary studies, the presentation of
alternatives may stimulate general thinking to the point that someone will submit this better
plan before project planning has reached the stage where a change would be costly.

i. Cost Estimate. The initial construction cost estimate must be prepared in sufficient
detail to ensure that no major item is overlooked and that the total is adequate to cover the
actual cost. The time required for construction of each. major component should be
estimated for any large project, and a rough construction-phasing scheme prepared showing
how much funding will be needed at any given time. Because of a time lapse before actual
construction begins and a possible change in plans, this preliminary estimate is usually based
on major-item quantity estimates—square feet of piers, docks, buildings, and parking lots;
lineal feet of perimeter walls, streets, and walks; cubic yards of excavations, fills, and
dredging; lengths of pipelines or conduit runs for utilities, water supply and sewers; and
various other shortcuts for estimating additional items of lighting, landscaping, and
sign-posting. Since this method may fail to include certain minor items that will be
necessary later, and conditions at the site may result in higher costs than elsewhere, a
contingency item of 10 to 20 percent should be added to ensure that the total is adequate
for budgeting purposes. Preparation data for the estimate must be given so that any
escalation in the construction-cost index for the region can be taken into account if the
project is delayed for any length of time.

j. Method of Financing. A major indirect cost is the interest that must be paid on the
capital required to fund any project. The best method of financing must be made in the
feasibility study to determine the approximate amount of the carrying charges on the
investment. If the project is to be funded with capital already on hand, a determination
must be made of the returns which that capital would bring if invested elsewhere, and these
potential returns must be charged against the project. If funds are not readily available,
several possible sources should be investigated. Private developers can often obtain financing
through a major marina construction firm by agreeing to use that firm’s system to the
exclusion of all others. Public agencies, however, are required to obtain competitive bids for
any project construction and must have an established source of funding before such bids
can be solicited. The usual sources of construction funds are loans from government
agencies and bond sales.

Although the Federal Government does not loan funds for local agency construction
projects, some of the grant programs discussed previously for the Federal and State
Governments may reduce the financing load of the local public agency. If the project can
qualify for a State loan, this source will usually ‘carry a lower interest rate than bonds or
institutional loans. General obligation bonds, guaranteed by the taxing power of the local

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agency, will bring the lowest interest rate of any bond-sale method of financing. However, a
two-thirds vote of the electorate is usually required to authorize bond sales, and the
allowable bonded indebtedness is limited to a percentage of the total tax base of the agency
as established by its organizing charter.

A simple majority vote of the electorate will authorize a revenue-bond sale, which does
not obligate the taxpayer and is guaranteed only to the extent of the revenues that the
project will bring. Because of the greater risk, these bonds are normally bid at a rate
considerably higher than the general obligation bond rate for a similar project. The actual
amount of this rate will be determined to a large extent by the findings reported in the
feasibility study. Because of this, it is not unusual for the local agency to have the
preliminary feasibility study upgraded to the status of a prospectus for revenue-bond sales
by the addition of such further marketing analysis and cost studies as may be considered
necessary to give the prospective bond buyer a better insight into the project’s economic
potential.

k. Cash-Flow Analysis. An important device for evaluating economic potential is the
cash-flow table that sums up the estimated expenditures and receipts for each year of the
project from inception to full amortization of indebtedness. The table must take into
account the probable debt-servicing charges, advertising and insurance costs, and all
operational and maintenance expenses (including the costs of replacing any short-life
components) as compared to the estimated annual income from berth rentals, launching
fees, and ancillary-facility leaseholds. If phased construction is anticipated, the dates on
which additional capital input will be needed must be shown, together with the resultant
increases in debt-servicing charges during the ensuing years. If a financing institution
disagrees with the debt-servicing estimates, but accepts the other elements of a cash-flow
analysis, it can simply substitute a figure for debt servicing and reach an independent
conclusion as to the economic potential of the project. To gain a better understanding of
the many problems to be faced in managing a small-craft facility, and to make a more
realistic appraisal of the economic factors involved, the prospective developer should
carefully review the following principles, and the case histories of actual marina projects
described in Section VIII.

2. Project Implementation.

a. Timing of Design and Construction. If it appears certain during the feasibility study
that the project will be implemented, or as soon as funding is guaranteed, preparation of
final plans and specifications for the facility should begin. Any site investigation work left
for this stage of project planning must be completed to provide the necessary design criteria.
If the findings reveal a need to modify any features of design assumed in the feasibility
study, such as the protective structures or the dimensions of channels or basins, these facts
must be evaluated at once to determine their effects on economic feasibility. Detailed
planning can then be pursued, but the order in which the various components are designed

and constructed may be important in several respects.

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Sometimes protective features such as breakwaters and jetties must be constructed
before work can be done in the interior water areas. Then, it is customary to complete the
design of these protective features first, so that they can be constructed while planning
continues on the interior features. Approach roads and some interior road work may be
necessary to provide access to the site for the working equipment. These roads should be
planned and constructed early in the project. If the site is remote from developed areas,
water supply and power transmission lines may have to be designed and built separately as
another early feature of the project. Certain components may require a longer time to
construct than others, e.g., long entrance channels and large excavated basins. Design and
construction must be started in time for completion along with the rest of the project.

On small projects, the best procedure may be to design the entire facility before
construction begins so that it can be accomplished under one contract. On larger projects,
planning and construction time estimates become important in setting up work schedules
that defer all expenditures until they are actually needed to prevent delaying project
completion. The Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) is often employed to
relate all the various events in design and construction to the time required to accomplish
them. A similar technique is the Critical Path Method (CPM) by which all activities in
project design and construction are analyzed graphically to determine which ones become
critical in accomplishing all the work in the least possible time. The scope of this text does
not permit a detailed explanation of these procedures, but they are covered in various
engineering publications and may be found useful in some large harbor construction
projects.

All the major components with the exception of certain proprietary systems require
complete design detailing. With the wealth of specialized knowledge in the fields of
floating-dock systems and boat-handling equipment, considerable design effort can be saved
by merely designating the areas available for such systems and the approximate dimensions
of docks, piers, and slips, or the required capacities for the hoisting equipment. Proposals
are then solicited from the various equipment and systems manufacturers, and the most
desirable selected early in project planning. These systems will have certain requirements for
anchorages, gangway landings, utility line connections, local perimeter treatment, and
foundations that must be considered in the design of basins and perimeter walls. If a bubbler
system is installed in a cold climate marina, it may have additional requirements for line
connections and the compressor site. All of these requirements must be obtained from the
manufacturers or system installers and satisfied in the final design of any other components
that may be affected.

b. Contracting Procedures. The degree of detailing in the construction drawings and
specifications will vary with the contracting procedure used, but a minimum amount is

required regardless of the contractual arrangement. For this reason it is advantageous to

both the developer and the contractor to provide a minimum of detailing to ensure the
proper quality of materials and workmanship and to avoid misunderstandings about what is
expected. The basic rule is to inform the contractor exactly the ultimate product desired,
but allow him maximum freedom of choice as to how this goal will be reached. Certain
critical items must be specified in great detail; other items may be roughly dimensioned and
specified with instructions that the contractor submit shop drawings for approval before
proceeding with construction. This is especially important for features where modular units
must be fitted together or where multiple choices are available that will give approximately
equal results.

Most public agencies and large private developers have standard contract forms to protect
them against mistakes, accidents, and inabilities of the contractor. If the agency or
developer has had little experience in contract administration, the following is a checklist of
protective items normally covered in the bidding and construction-contract documents.

(1) Items Covered in the Invitation to Bid.

(a) A deposit for each set of plans and specifications taken out covering their
reproduction costs. The deposit is reimbursable when the items are returned with the
contractor’s bid. Extra copies may be turned over to the successful bidder, as several sets
will be needed during the construction period.

(b) Bid bond in the amount of about 10 percent of the bid price to ensure that,
if successful, the bidder will sign the contract.

(c) Prevailing minimum wage rates for labor (usually required by a public
agency’s charter, but not necessary for a private developer).

(d) A listing of the bidder’s equipment to be used on the project.

(e) Reservation of the right to reject any bids, to waive informalities in bids, and
to make awards as the interest of agency or developer may require.

(2) Items Covered in the Contract Form.

(a) Time for commencement and completion of contract with specification of a
Liquidated Damages assessment for each day of overrun in the-estimated amount that such
delays in completion will cost the owner in terms of administrative expense and (in some
cases) loss of revenues. Certain provisions for time extension must be included to cover
delays that are not the fault of the contractor.

(b) Acknowledgment of prior site investigation by the contractor and ensurance
of his complete acquaintance with conditions that may affect his work.

(c) Declaration of full responsibility of the contractor for all the work specified
including that done by subcontractors and their employees.

(d) Requirement for the contractor to comply with all applicable laws and to
secure all necessary permits.

(e) Provision for holding the owner harmless against law suits or other actions

that may be brought against the contractor as a result of his performance of the contract.

241

(f) Provisions for making changes in the work and for increasing or decreasing
quantities as shown in estimates.

(g) Provisions for inspecting the work and final acceptance, including correction
of all defects and resolution of disputes.

(h) Statement of conditions for partial progress payments and final payment.

(i) Provisions for termination and default in case the contractor fails to fulfill
contract provisions.

(j) Requirement for posting a performance bond in the contract amount to
ensure fulfillment of contract.

(k) Provisions for auditing of contractor’s records.

(1) Requirement that the contractor be properly insured with regard to
workman’s compensation and general liability.

c. Advertising and Berth Reservations. While the small-craft harbor is under
construction, future availability must be advertised to the boating community well in
advance of the opening date. This can be done by encouraging feature articles concerning
the new facility, both in the local press and in boating magazines. Full use should be made
of any allocations budgeted for advertising in project funding. The harbor administration
office should be opened as soon as the advertising program begins and a large layout map of
the berthing basin prominently displayed. Reservations for berths should be accepted on a
reasonable downpayment basis and posted on the layout map. Initially, a small staff will be
required to handle reservations and answer questions. If ancillary facilities are developed by
leasehold, they should also be advertised and the staff instructed as to the proper disposition
of inquiries concerning them. The sooner leases can be negotiated, the greater will be the
ensurance of a successful enterprise and the estimates will become more accurate for proper
timing of successive stages of project development.

3. Operating Principles.

a. Staffing. The initial staff of a small-craft harbor should only be large enough to: (a)
handle the problems and administration requirements of the slip renters at the time of
opening, (b) exercise control over activities within the harbor boundaries, (c) operate
launching equipment, and (d) maintain the premises in good condition. The usual staff
consists of a manager, an administration clerk, a harbormaster, a maintenance supervisor,
and enough additional help to operate equipment and other manual work required. In a
small installation, some of the functions can be combined and handled by one person. In a
large installation, the manager and each department head may require one or more assistants
to perform the supervisory work.

The patrolling duties of the harbormaster and his deputies will become more demanding
as occupancy of the harbor increases, but the work required of the administrative staff and
maintenance personnel may be heavy from the start. The reason for the early administrative

load is the need to set up the record files and handle an influx of new harbor patrons during

242

the early growth period. When the harbor approaches occupancy capacity, the
administrative work becomes more routine and although the number of patrons has
increased, the files have been established, billing procedures have been systematized, and
fewer questions are being asked at the reception desk. The early demands on maintenance
personnel are usually of a troubleshooting nature—new equipment is being broken in, minor
flaws develop in the berthing or utility systems and must be corrected, and surface drainage
problems arise and must be solved. Most of the landscaping is omitted from the initial
construction stage to reduce costs and is left to the maintenance staff, which is not expected
to be too heavily burdened until the newness of the facilities begins to wear off.

b. Administration and Operating Procedures. An important part of the early
administrative work is the systematizing of recordkeeping, including preparation of standard
forms to be used for this purpose. A separate file should be set up for each slip renter by
name, and crossfiles established containing the more important records by boat or slip
classifications for statistical and slip-rental billing purposes. A cost-accounting system must
be established to keep a complete record of receipts and expenditures for auditing purposes.
A personnel and payroll section must be established to keep a permanent record of each
employee, prepare paychecks, maintain withholding accounts, and perform all other
functions normally assigned to such a section. A system of purchase orders must be
established for procuring maintenance items and replacement parts. These are the major
administrative considerations, but others may develop and all will require careful scrutiny
until they are being handled smoothly and routinely. National Association of Engine and
Boat Manufacturers (1967) contains some excellent suggestions for handling administrative
details and operating a small-craft harbor; typical examples of forms used in cost accounting
and recordkeeping are also shown.

c. Liability and Insurance. The manager of a small-craft harbor must be aware of all the
laws and regulations covering his own operations and the activities of his patrons. If any part
of the water area is under State or Federal jurisdiction, the cognizant agency must be
consulted on requirements for aids to navigation and other steps to be taken to ensure
compliance with applicable laws and regulations. In the navigable waters of the United
States, the U.S. Coast Guard is responsible for upholding the established rules of navigation
and the U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers for maintaining channels and removing hazards to
navigation. In inland lakes and on intrastate canals and rivers, the State or a Federal agency
other than the U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers may exercise control over waters for
navigation, fishing, skiing, and other water sports. The relationship between such agencies
and the harbor manager or owner should be one of mutual cooperation rather than law
enforcement and compliance. The common objective is to increase the enjoyment of
boating (or in some instances the benefits of commercial small-craft navigation) with the
least hazard to life and property and without damaging the environment or the quality of

the water.

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Activities in the land areas are also regulated, but usually by the laws and ordinances of
the local governing authority. The manager may find that the U.S. Coast Guard or the State
boating agency regulates activities in the water, whereas the city or county police and fire
department enforce the laws and protective ordinances on land. In both land and water
areas the manager can best protect himself and the owner against property damage, injury,
and law suits by making patrons clearly aware of the prevailing rules and regulations and by
insisting that the harbormaster enforce them courteously but firmly. The judicious use of
sign posting and dissemination of written information will be helpful, but personal contacts
through public meetings will often be the best way to educate the patrons. Classes in
navigation and safety should be promoted with the assistance of the U.S. Coast Guard, the
U.S. Power Squadron, or the local yacht club. National Association of Engine and Boat
Manufacturers (1967) contains a sample set of rules and regulations, and, if modified to
reflect local needs, could be adopted by the management of a small-craft facility.

Regardless of the efforts toward patron education and elimination of physical hazards,
the owner of a small-craft facility may still be sued for damages and injuries due to accident
or other causes. The most common types are: (a) damage to berthed craft while unattended,
caused by disasters, acts of other patrons, or vandalism, (b) dropped craft at hoists, (c)
vehicles skidding down into the water at an alleged improperly designed or maintained
ramp, (d) any kind of fire damage to berthed or dry-stored craft in the owner’s absence, (e)
damage due to wave or surge battering of berthed craft (claiming inadequate protection), (f)
hull or propeller damage due to collision with submerged obstructions, especially at low
water level, (g) falling injuries due to steep gangways, gaps in handrails, tripping obstacles,
and other possible causes, (h) injuries due to accidents in using equipment provided for
harbor or launching operations, and (i) accidental drownings in the harbor area.

The marina owner should have insurance against liable suits for any of the above-listed or
other accidents to users of the harbor, and also against accidental damage to or loss of the
facilities and equipment and injuries to employees. The common types of insurance are fire,
automobile liability, public liability, workmen’s compensation, and marina operator’s
liability. National Association of Engine and Boat Manufacturers (1967) contains a detailed
discussion of insurance policies and the operator’s liability in all areas of small-craft facility
operations. The insurance coverage of the harbor should be reviewed periodically to ensure
that it is adequate. Insurance companies change their insuring policies from time to time and
may offer endorsements to cover special needs as they arise. Some insurance agents are not
completely familiar with small-craft harbor operation and may fail to realize all of the
potential hazards. In the final analysis, the manager is responsible for seeing that insurance
policies held by the owner provide all the protection needed.

d. Maintenance. The limited scope of this report does not permit inclusion of a
comprehensive discussion of all the problems commonly encountered in maintaining a
small-craft harbor. Maintenance of buildings, landscaping, roads, walks, parking lots, and

24.4,

utilities in the land areas of marinas is similar to a land-based enterprise. Maintenance of
basins, channels, piers, docks, perimeter structures, and protective works is different from
landside maintenance and warrants the following remarks:

(1) Breakwaters and jetties are frequently maintained by the U.S. Army, Corps of
Engineers or the State. If maintenance is a local responsibility, detection of any early signs
of deterioration is important. Excessive toe scour of a structure in a high-wave energy
environment should be corrected by filling the scour pockets with stone of adequate size
before the integrity of the structure is jeopardized. Stee! structures usually deteriorate as a
result of corrosion unless their coatings are maintained or their cathodic-protection system
are kept in working order. Abrasion near the sand line is also a possibility, but prevention is
difficult. Cladding with concrete is a method by which steel abrasion has been successfully
prevented. Concrete structures usually deteriorate as a result of progressive cracking and
spalling. Major damage can often be prevented by pressure-grouting the cracks with an
epoxy cement. This process requires the equipment and skills of a concrete repair specialist.
Timber structures usually deteriorate rapidly if connectors loosen and begin to work and
flex under wave agitation. Periodic tightening of nuts may prolong the life of a timber
structure. Leaching of pressure-injected preservatives will expose the timber to marine-borer
attack or dry rot. Cladding with concrete has prolonged the life of some timber structures.
Various synthetic membrane wrappings have been used for protection of timber piles, often
with considerable success.

(2) Armored perimeter slopes usually fail either by plastic flow or sliding ‘of the
embankment after a rapid water level drop or by having the fines pumped through voids in
the armor as a result of an inadequate filter. Several types of corrective action may be taken
depending on the type and severity of the failure. Trenching and installation of drains
behind the slope may solve a sloughing tendency in clayey soil. Grout-sealing a leaking
riprap may prevent further pumpout of fines. If a riprap deteriorates under prevailing wave
and current action even though the filter remains effective, it may either be grouted with
concrete or stabilized by the replacement of an additional layer of heavier stone.

(3) Vertical bulkhead walls frequently fail because of inadequate depth of penetration
of sheet piling or improper filtering of soils under and behind a poured-in-place concrete
wall. Saturation of the retained fill coupled with pulsations in the hydrostatic head
differential due to wave action results in the fill being pumped out from under the wall. This
action can sometimes be stopped by filling the sinkholes behind the wall with a mixture of
straw and gravel or quarry waste, which eventually clogs the leak and effects a filtering
action. If this corrective action fails, it may be necessary to excavate a wide trench behind
the wall to the depth of the mud line at the face of the wall and place a layer of filter stone
in the bottom of the trench before backfilling.

If the leakage of fines is through joints between concrete or timber sheet piles, sealing of
the joints may be possible. One method is to drive about a 3-inch pipe between the wall and

245

the fill at each joint using a special sacrificial driving tip that forces the tip to follow the
joint. Grout is then forced through the pipe as the pipe is withdrawn. If the gap is so wide
the grout escapes through it, a special rubber or plastic tube must first be inserted in the
pipe to act as a form to retain the grout after the pipe is withdrawn.

(4) Shoaling of channels and basins may present a difficult maintenance-dredging
problem. Ordinary excavating equipment such as draglines, clamshell-dredges and the usual
hydraulic dredges cannot safely work near armored slopes, vertical walls, fixed piers, and
docks or under piers and docks whether they are fixed or floating. A new type of dredging
suction head will now solve this problem. It uses high-pressure water jets to loosen the
bottom material and compresses air to operate pneumatic slurry pumps in the suction head
which force the material in high concentration mixture with water through the discharge
line. The suction head has no moving parts and is operated entirely through flexible tubing
leading down to the suction head from a floating or landside water pump and air
compressor. Thus, it can be more easily guided into areas that would normally be difficult
to reach without endangering either the suction head or nearby structures. It is only
necessary to guide the suction head at constant depth to all parts of the shoaled area to
restore the desired uniform depth of the basin or channel.

(5) Fixed piers and other structures built on piling need the same maintenance as
landside structures except that in a moist air environment they may require more frequent
painting and rust-prevention treatment. Moreover, the supporting piles and bracing members
must be examined periodically for evidence of deterioration. Damaged or badly deteriorated
piles may have to be removed and replaced occasionally, and bracing members should be
replaced when broken or otherwise cease to be functional.

(6) Floating piers and docks may deteriorate in several ways: (a) loss of flotation,
(b) working of bolts against wooden side stringers or connections of finger to headwalks,
(c) loosening of hinged connections, (d) fatigue failure of structural members or their
connectors due to continuous flexing under wave action, and (e) abrasion of deck surfacing.

The most troublesome problem is usually flotation loss, which may be partial for foam
floats but sometimes total in hollow-shell floats. A periodic check of the freeboard in
various components of the floating system will indicate where flotation loss has occurred.
Nonleaking hollow floats sometimes take on water by internal condensation of airborne
moisture or possibly by infiltration of surface water through breather caps and only need to
be pumped out occasionally. Some foams are partially water-absorbent and may stabilize at
a satisfactory level after becoming saturated over a period of time due to capillary intrusion.

In seawater, an incrustation of marine growth may cause some loss of flotation, although
most plant and animal life have the same density as its water environment. The shells of
crustaceans cause most of the settlement due to marine growth, and have to be scraped
periodically to hold the desired freeboard. In some marinas, scuba divers may be hired to

clean the hulls of boats and bottoms of flotation units supporting floating piers and docks

246

with water jets and hydraulic vacuum cleaners. The bottom surfaces of some foam floats
have intentionally been left uncoated to ensure automatic self-cleaning in seawater. After a
few years of incrustation the growth becomes heavy, tears loose and drops to the bottom.
When this occurs, a small amount of foam will be removed, but not enough to cause
appreciable loss of freeboard over the normal life of a floating structure. A greater danger in
some areas is an infestation of screw worms or other burrowing biota that reduce the
effective buoyant volume of the foam. In turn, birds and small animals cause further loss of
foam by searching out these worms for food. In areas known to be infested with such
burrowing biota, all foam surfaces should be coated.

Loosening of bolted connections is a major cause of deterioration of floating systems in
harbors with more than minimal wave action, especially if the jomed components are heavy.
Nuts often corrode fast to bolts and cannot be tightened. The resultant differential
movements of floats and stringers may then quickly enlarge the boltholes to the extent that
both the connecting hardware and the stringers must be replaced. Hinge-connected floating
components often stress the hinges severely under wave action. Worn hinges not only
become noisy but the resultant peening of metal against metal as stresses are reversed by the
wave cycles may accelerate the wear so that the hinges break long before the components
become unserviceable. Such peening action may be prevented by inserting block rubber
expanders between the ends of the hinged components to keep the hinge continuously in
tension. This also eliminates noise, provided the hinge is kept well greased.

(7) Pile guides in a pile-anchored floating system deteriorate more rapidly than other
parts of the system and if not repaired may damage the piles and threaten the integrity of
the anchorage system against strong wind or current-induced stresses. When this occurs, the
damaged guides should be replaced with heavy-duty roller guides such as the one shown in
Figure 86. Two or three guides of this type may satisfy the needs of the system and prevent
wear in the other guides that are forced into contact with the piles less frequently because
of the peculiarity of the guide-pile geometry system.

Cable anchorage for floating-slip systems is so variable that no single aspect of such a
system can be singled out as being universally prone to early maintenance trouble. Unlike
the customary multiple anchorages, cable systems usually rely on not more than three or
four cable ties per floating system for maintenance of position. Hence, it is important that
all winches, lines, and anchors be inspected regularly, as one lost anchor or line may allow
the entire system to drift and collide with some other object. The results of such a collision
could be disastrous.

(8) Utility lines and outlets on fixed piers differ slightly in maintenance from similar
installations on land. On floating piers, however, utility conduits and pipes are usually much
closer to the water surface and hence exposed to more wave splash and moisture-laden air.
Loose connecting stringers may allow enough flexing along a headwalk under wave action to
break the conduit or pipes if they are attached firmly rather than loosely supported. In

247

basins subjected to large water level fluctuations, flexible hose connections at gangways are
often early points of failure in the utility-distribution system. Conversion to the hanging
U-configuration shown in Figure 102 will prolong the life of such hose connections.

Valves and washers in hose bibbs require periodic replacement, and an adequate stock of
spare parts should be kept on hand. The trend toward greater power consumption
frequently overloads the electrical distribution system of a marina. Wherever break-tripping
becomes a frequent occurrence, larger capacity wires, outlets, and circuit breakers should be
installed. With a large amperage installation, special attention should be given to electrical
safety precautions. Slip-renters must be cautioned against the use of undersized or defective
extension cords, and a sharp surveillance of all electrical equipment should be maintained to
prevent overheating, shorting, or sparking.

In some saltwater marinas, a high rate of pitting of propeller blades and water-seal
bearings has occurred. This may be due to stray currents of low potential but high amperage
escaping into the water from the electrical distribution system. An electrical engineer should
examine the system to determine and eliminate all probable causes of this electrolysis.

Vill. MARINA SURVEY AND CASE STUDIES

1. General. In developing information and data for this report, it was not practical nor even
desirable to include every unique design feature encountered in the course of the
investigation. Critical response from marina owners and operators, however, can be
extremely helpful in evaluating the validity of present design concepts, and can also help to
pinpoint some of the significant and recurrent problems relating to marina design,
development, or management. In an effort to obtain such response and to reveal problems
that need greater resolution, a survey was taken of 394 marina owners and operators
throughout the 50 States, Washington, D.C., the Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico. This
survey was based on the questionnaire presented in Appendix K. A summary of the
survey-sample characteristics and the case studies developed from the data obtained, are
presented in this section. The last part of the marina survey questionnaire solicited
statements concerning any design feature that had worked better or worse than expected, or
any problems that in the operators evaluation could have been avoided by better planning.
These statements are also summarized in this section. Several of the concepts mentioned
have already been covered to some extent in this report, but are repeated because of their
high incidence of occurrence in this survey.
2. Survey Sample and Data Resolution. About 60 percent of the marinas contacted during
the survey were chosen at random from a commercially prepared mailing list. The remaining
40 percent were recommended by State agencies as being typical or representative of their
respective State, or were selected from various publications such as boating almanacs,
boatman’s guides, and boating periodicals. Fifty-seven marinas across the United States were
visited, with onsite interviews conducted during the visits.

The size of the facilities covered by the survey ranged from a six-slip installation for a

birdwatching club to a 6,000-boat complex. The average marina size was 255 slips. The

248

marinas were sited on a wide variety of water bodies, with about 36 percent located on
bays, 22 percent on rivers, 16 percent on lakes, 14 percent on the ocean, and the remainder
on watercourses and basins such as the Intracoastal Waterways along the east coast,
reservoirs, manmade canals, and locked basins.

Boat-mix trends within the survey sample can best be described as following an intuitive
pattern. Sailboats were more prevalent on larger bodies of water and in warmer climates.
Powerboats outnumbered sail craft in more restrictive waters such as rivers, in colder
climates, and in areas reputed to have good sport-fishing waters. Commercial tour boats,
fishing boats, and rental craft were encountered generally throughout the survey sample.
Boat-mix trends were difficult to discern and any results concerning boat-mix must be
considered inconclusive.

In berthing areas, the average depth was near 12 feet, but ranged from a low of 2.5 feet
to a high of 250 feet. The water surface fluctuations due to tides, drawdowns, and seasonal
variances ranged in extremes from 0.5 foot to 20 feet daily and from 1 foot to 40 feet
yearly. The most extreme range of water surface fluctuation on record for any body of
water by a marina in the survey was 65 feet.

These basin characteristics had a predictable effect on the respective berthing facilities.
Fixed-pier systems were generally used in locations where the basin depth did not exceed 20
feet and the water level fluctuation was never more than 4 feet. Sixty-five percent of the
sampled facilities used floating-dock systems, primarily self-manufactured. About two-thirds
of the floating system were secured by guide piles, the others fixed by cable or chain
systems, or by hinged struts, usually due to greater basin depths.

A freshwater supply to the docks was almost universal and in all cases free. Four out of
five marinas sampled provided 120-volt power to the berths, and one-fourth also provided
240-volt service. A majority of the marinas had public address systems, dock lights above
waist level, and phone service only in the office or at public pay stations.

All of the marinas in the sample provided one or more ancillary facilities. Major ancillary
facilities listed in order from most common to least frequently provided and percent of
sample marinas providing these facilities were as follows:

Ancillary Facility Percent
Fuel station 60
Boat sales ys)
Major boat repairs 42
Snack bar 34
Minor boat repairs 32
Restaurant 26
Boat rentals 24
Bait and tackle 14
Motels or accommodations 10

249

Other services offered included marine supplies or ship’s chandlery, engine repairs,

showers, cocktail lounge or bar, laundry, grocery, ice, licenses, scuba equipment and tank

refills, electronics shop, and trailer parks. A summary of average marina characteristics

derived from the survey data follows:

Ih
. Basin Depth: 12 feet

. Capacity: 255 slips

. Boats per Slip: 2

. Average Daily Water Level Fluctuation: 4 + feet

DAI DH S&S Ww

12.

Marina Location: Bay

. Type of Docks: Floating
. Anchored by: Guide piles
. Utilities:

. 120-volt power supply to docks, included with slip-rental
. Water provided free

. Phone available in office

. Lighting system, located above waist level

. Public address system

> 0 &o om BD

. No sanitary pumpout facilities available

. Waste Collections per Week: 2+
10.
. Ancillary Facilities Available:

Car Parking Spaces per Slip: 1—

a. Fueling station

b. Snack bar

c. Boat sales and repairs

Most Probable Operational Problems:
a. General maintenance

b. Parking

c. Vandalism (minor)

3. Design Problem Summary.
a. The Master Plan. Many of the problems encountered by the marinas surveyed could

be attributed to inadequate planning either because no master plan existed or because the

existing plan was not broad enough or not followed.

By far, the most frequent problem discussed was the lack of slips. The demand for slips
at the surveyed marinas averaged 140 percent of the marina capacities. One marina complex
of 150 slips had a waiting list of 130 patrons. Another had a projected waiting period of

5 years. This situation has forced some patrons desiring slips at this marina into paper

partnerships in which they purchase a craft from an owner who already has a slip under

contract. Although the boat is purchased outright, the previous owner’s name is kept on the

250

title as a 50-percent owner and will not be required to give up the slip presently occupied by
that craft. It was evident that the demand for boating facilities greatly exceeded their
availability and that new slips were being filled as fast as they were constructed. The Bureau
of Outdoor Recreation predicts that this problem will worsen. In 1965, boating was the
10th most popular outdoor recreation activity according to the Bureau. The Bureau’s
publication, “Outdoor Recreation Trends,” projected an increase of 215 percent in boating
participation from 1965 to 2000. The Bureau’s statistics show that the number of pleasure
boats in use in the United States almost tripled between 1950 and 1971 from about
3 million to 9 million, exceeding the 215-percent projection growth rate. This trend should
be taken into account in the master plan, with the number of slips being maximized within
any project and provisions for expansion given closer consideration.

Many of the marinas experiencing this problem of being too small also related difficulties
in correcting the situation. A common complaint was that the piecemeal development,
afterthought design, and scab-on expansion projects tended to dislocate the operational
routine of a previously smooth-functioning operation. Maintenance procedures were often
complicated when added facilities consisted of proprietary systems that were not similar to
those in the original installation. In several instances, owners stated with regret that no
provisions had been made for future expansion and the now obvious srowth potential
cannot be realized. However, detailed planning of projected future facilities long before they
are scheduled to be built is also unwise. Changing concepts of marina development indicate
that it is best to plan specific facilities before development. This allows the planner to take
advantage of the most current state-of-the-art.

Other problems revealed by the survey were not easily predicted; they were based on
trends less obvious and more difficult to forecast. Nevertheless, they now plague many of
the surveyed marinas. The trend to wider-hulled craft and craft with high prows has caused
problems with fendering systems and berth spacings. The emphasis placed on pollution
problems is being felt and the majority of large installations cited problems in keeping the
marinas clean. Sixty-two percent of the marinas surveyed specifically mentioned the
growing demand for sanitary pumpout facilities, whereas only nine marinas indicated that
they had such facilities.

Surprisingly, much discussion concerned the planning trade-offs made between
functional design and esthetic design. Several marina operators stated that practical planning
had been preempted by esthetic consideration with resultant inconvenience to patrons.
They felt that appearance should not be the major consideration in locating fueling docks,
or administration and supply buildings. The location of utility runs in inaccessible places
was another point of contention, particularly with maintenance personnel. The operators
believed that most marina patrons were little concerned with the appearance of utility
systems as long as they functioned properly.

251

b. Parking and Traffic Circulation. The most universal, although less vital problem area
revealed by the survey was that of vehicle parking. The average number of parking spaces
per boat slip was slightly less than one. From the number of parking problems cited, the
adequacy of this ratio must be questioned. Most of the parking conflicts seem to stem from
patrons of major ancillary facilities on the marina premises competing with slip tenants for
convenient parking spaces. A few marinas indicated that this problem was alleviated with a
more extensive sign system. Others have resorted to decal-controlled or card-key lots.
Another major problem was the need to protect vehicles left for extended periods of time
by boatowners on long cruises. Many marina operators state that they are increasingly
pressed to provide camper parking and hookups for recreation vehicles.

With the overcrowded conditions experienced at marinas, especially during peak-usage
times, a few operators have cited traffic circulation problems. Wider roads and left-turn
stacking lanes were recommended solutions by several marina managements. At some larger
installations, the trend toward bicycle riding has also caused problems, and the management
of the marinas involved suggested that consideration be given to bicycle lanes in marina
layout planning.

c. Ice. The largest regional problem was ice formation in the cold climates.
Consideration was frequently given to ice buildup in harbor planning, but that ice floes
could be windblown or moved by currents into the berthing areas was overlooked. Many of
the marinas surveyed claimed that free-floating cake ice was the greatest cause of ice
damage. Two distinct problems were involved. In a fixed-pier system supported on tapered
timber piles, it is customary to drive each pile tip-down. Sheet ice and rising water can
readily extract piles. Where ice formation is anticipated, the piles should be driven
butt-down if practicable, so that as the water level rises, the ice sheet will slide off the pile
taper rather than wedge to it and pull it out. Also, when the water level drops, the ice will
tend to hang up on the piles before breaking, and keep the piles well seated.

In a floating-pier system the greatest damage was reported to be caused by ice crushing
the floats. Therefore, many marina operators removed their floating systems from the water
during the winter season; most who did, commented unfavorably on the work involved and
time consumed in the seasonal removal, storage, and reinstallation effort. Because of these
problems, many operators are now using forced-convection or bubble systems to combat ice
formation. Most of the marinas involved report that these methods of ice prevention are
quite effective both for fixed and floating systems. One marina in the Chicago area reports
that the system was able to clear ice layers up to 4 feet thick. The systems, however, are an
added expense, requiring 35 compressors to keep 400 slips ice-free. The system took
1 month to install.

d. Miscellaneous Common Problems. The most numerous complaints about system
components at marinas concerned utility services, particularly electric power. The problem
usually resulted from the severely corrosive environment, especially seawater, which has an

252

insatiable appetite for metals. Many of the surveyed marinas that have low level lighting
systems reported failures due to sea spray in high wind conditions. Unprotected connections
or outlets are reported to incur high maintenance costs. One operator who switched to an
environmentally protected electrical system complained of the lack of standardization in
marine electrical equipment and the many interface problems that developed with what he
had assumed were salvageable parts of his original system.

Difficulties with water supply was also reported. Because of the frequency with which
marina water valves corrode shut, T-type faucet handles were recommended over the
‘circular type. It was found that women patrons could open stock T-handled valves with a
sharp blow or kick, whereas most could not budge the circular handles. One operator also
reported several incidences in which a circular-cast handle broke or failed in the patron’s
grip, resulting in severe hand injury. It was also found that with a copper-tubing system, the
vulnerability of the tube risers caused many sweated joints to be broken, either by accident
or inadvertently during repair work. Rejoining of the components could then be
accomplished only after the entire tubing system had been drained and dried out. The
maintenance superintendent at the reporting marina recommended that all hose bibbs and
risers have threaded connections with the mains or cross runs.

Many comments were directed at the use of untreated wood for decking or structural
members of fixed piers. In most cases the maintenance and replacement costs required for
untreated wood eventually exceeded what would have been the initial cost and subsequent
maintenance cost of treated wood components. Generally, the use of inferior construction
materials will lead to future economic problems that must be faced while the marina is in
operation. Replacement of inferior construction will prove costly, and income will be lost
while the defective facility is repaired.

Chemonite and cellon treatments of wood components received favorable comments.
Nonbattened creosoted timber, however, was castigated for ruining clothing or staining
personal property of the patrons and for polluting the surrounding water areas.

Floating-pier systems evoked two particular complaints. The first was the difficulty of
adjusting chain or cable anchorages during water surface fluctuation cycles and the tendency
of these systems to drift beyond desired limits. A related problem was maintaining shore
access when a pier drifted or its anchorage was adjusted. The second complaint was the time
and difficulty involved in the seasonal removal and storage of floating systems at locations
requiring winter security.

Some marina operators questioned the reliability of fuel line connections to floating-pier
stations. Fixed-pier stations, however, experienced an operational problem in fueling boats
during extreme low water levels. Two marinas claimed that it was advantageous to locate
their fueling facilities on land behind a bulkhead rather than on a dock or floating pier. This
location also permitted gasoline sales to motorists, with the same pumps and service crew

253

handling both marine and landside sales. Several other marinas, having adopted this
fuel-service setup, now regret their choice, contending that it was more difficult to service
the boats from pumps located behind a bulkhead. Careful consideration should be given to
the many alternatives for locating support facilities to determine which is best for the
general layout and development plan.

Finally, two very common problems, vandalism and boat-wake waves, although not
directly related to design, should be given consideration in the early planning stages.
Vandalism was a major problem in 30 percent of the marinas surveyed, and about one-half
of the managers attributed the problem to improper siting. These marina locations were
variously described as ‘undesirable areas, heavy industry regions, tough waterfront
locations, and slum sections.”’ Most of the 70 percent who found that vandalism was not a
major problem at their facility attributed this to the marina policy allowing live-aboards, or
the remote location of the marina, away from densely populated areas.

Fifty-three percent of the survey respondents complained of boat-wake problems. The
primary complaint was that existing speed regulations for craft operated near berthing areas
were not being enforced.

4. Unique Design Features. Most of the favorable design features mentioned by the marina
owners and operators were of a general nature and have already been covered. Several
unique features deserve mention, even though they cannot be universally applied.

The choice between floating and fixed docks is usually influenced by local customs and
other nontechnical criteria. Floating systems are usually more expensive than fixed systems
where the water depth does not exceed 20 feet, but each location must be evaluated in light
of several other factors that would qualify this generality. The primary factor is water level
fluctuation. As previously stated in the discussion of design, with all other factors favoring a
fixed-dock system, the maximum acceptable fluctuation is about 5 feet. Other factors
include bottom configuration, basin side slopes, soil characteristics, wind and wave
conditions at the site, and storm history.

Occasionally, conditions at the site are borderline indicators between fixed and floating
construction. One enterprising engineer combined the advantages of both systems in a
96-slip installation featuring an adjustable fixed-dock system (Fig. 157). The system consists
of fixed timber walkways and fingers supported by steel stringers. The stringers are attached
to steel pipe piling by large U-bolts so that the entire system can be adjusted to lake level.
The system is part of the Lakeside Marina (freshwater) complex at South Lake Tahoe,
California. Lake Tahoe has a yearly water level fluctuation cycle of 2 to 3 feet; however,
over a longer cycle of 6 to 10 years, and dependent on the annual rainfall records, the
fluctuation, though very gradual, can have a much greater range. The prevailing winds at this
location are from the west and generate fairly consistent waves of 2 to 3 feet high. These
factors and the shallow basin depth (10 feet maximum) suggested this unique solution.

254:

Figure 157. Adjustable “fixed-dock,” Lakeside Marina, South Lake Tahoe, California.

259

Ice problems in cold climates may present rare opportunities for unique solutions. Burns
Harbor Marina in Indiana takes advantage of the hot water return from a conveniently
located steel plant to keep the berthing area ice-free during the winter months. Many large
industries or powerplants require large volumes of water for heat exchange systems and are
normally located near large bodies of water. With proper planning, the Burns Harbor
solution could be repeated in many areas, and the result would be a more efficient use of a
common resource.

Another innovation that has proven useful and effective is shown in Figure 158. The
major function of these conically shaped plastic pile caps is to keep birds off the pilings and
the marina neat and clean. Before pile cap, sharpened spikes were used to keep birds off
pilings, but a few unwary creatures were impaled on the spikes. The change to these
ecologically acceptable items solved the problem and improved the esthetics of the marinas
where they have been installed. In large marinas, cones with distinctive colors have been
used in different berthing areas to aid patrons and guests in finding their slips.

Figure 158. Conically shaped, plastic pile caps.

Finally, Figure 159 shows a schematic of a gangway counter-balance system encountered
at the Royal Vancouver Yacht Club, British Columbia. This system is designed to support
most of the deadweight at the lower end of the gangway and thus reduce the amount of
flotation that would otherwise be needed for a landing on the floating system.

256

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5. Case Studies.

a. Planning.

(1) Hawaii-Kai. Hawaii-Kai is a private, planned community development on the
southeastern tip of the island of Oahu, Hawaii, about 15 miles from Honolulu. Presently,
about 20,000 people live in this 6,000-acre Kaiser-Aetna development.

Initially, the site was undeveloped except for a few scattered farms, houses, and a small
crossroads market. Thus, the planners had an opportunity to completely master-plan an
entire new community from start to finish. The developers followed the principle that the
feasibility of a master-planned project depends on the ultimate completion of the whole
plan, and if parts of a plan are arbitrarily eliminated, the entire plan may be compromised as
a result. This principle ensured that community services that were to be subsidized by the
developers would not be omitted during later development stages.

The evolution of Kuapa Pond into the private Hawaii-Kai Marina has been a part of the
Hawaii-Kai master plan since its inception in the early 1960’s. A large swamp in the center
of the project was dredged, and the surrounding land converted into residential waterfront,
a harbor, and a 200-foot-wide access channel to the open ocean. This water-oriented
community is similar to those at Huntington Harbor, California, Coral Gables Estates,
Florida, or Nantucket Island, Massachusetts. The marina berths a total of 1,600 small craft,
including those berthed at the Koko Marina docks and at individual berths of waterfront
residents.

Over 1,400 marina dwelling units have already been constructed in Hawaii-Kai. Before
completion, it is anticipated that about 2,500 additional marina units will be built along the
waterways. Waterfront property owners pay a marina maintenance fee of $6 per month, and
provide their own docks, which must be approved and not extend beyond the pierhead line.
Owner-residents pay only $1 per year for boat registration. Residents who live off the water
do not pay the monthly maintenance fee, but must pay $73 per year for boat registration
and dockage at the Koko Marina.

The average depth of the water basins is 6 feet; the geographic configuration of the water
system is shown in Figure 160. The developed area is surrounded by hills, providing a wide
variety of terrain and environs. Residences range from marina waterfront homes to sheltered
valley homes, and from large estates to small hillside view homes. Although Hawaii-Kai
comprises 6,000 acres, only about one-half of this acreage is developable. The remainder
includes conservation areas along the mountainsides and the 258-acre marina.

The objective of the Hawaii-Kai master plan was to develop a water- and
recreation-oriented community for residents to enjoy Hawaiian living to the fullest. This
project is a good example of how a marina can become the nucleus of a residential
community in a previously underdeveloped area. It also exemplifies the implementation of a
master plan that included comprehensive land planning, development, and management
techniques.

(2) Marina Del Rey. The first feasibility study for construction of a small-craft
harbor at the Marina Del Rey site in Los Angeles County, California, was submitted by the

258

Figure 160. General layout of Hawaii-Kai Marina Development, Oahu, Hawaii.

259

U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers in 1949. This report proposed an 8,000-slip complex at a
total estimated cost of $23,600,000. The report was taken under consideration and in 1953
the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors sponsored State legislation that eventually
granted the county a $2 million loan from State tidelands oil revenues to assist in the
purchase of the present harbor site (Fig. 161).

The following year, Public Law 780 was signed, making the Marina Del Rey harbor an
authorized Federal project, which committed the Federal government to a 50-50 sharing
with Los Angeles County for costs of all the main navigational features of the development.
Construction began in 1957 and the entrance channel and jetties were completed in 1958.
The county’s share of the costs and the remainder of the project was financed through
revenue bond issues.

Construction delays plagued the early development and when the harbor finally opened
for operation it suffered storm damage so severe that an emergency program was initiated to
provide greatly increased protection from wave action. Fortunately, based on early
indications of excessive vulnerability of the harbor to wave action, a model study was
already underway at the U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station at
Vicksburg, Mississippi, when the first physical damage occurred in the winter of 1962-63.
With cooperation of the Federal Government the study program was expedited on a crash
basis and the model was used for a feasible interim solution. The county proceeded
immediately to construct temporary protective sheet-pile baffles in the turning basin of the
main channel to give vital protection for continued development and operation pending the —
completion of permanent protective work by the Corps of Engineers.

Meanwhile, the results of the model study indicated a requirement for an offshore
breakwater, and construction began in 1963 and was completed in 1965 at a cost of $4.2
million. Although 4 years behind the original development schedule, Marina Del Rey
successfully surmounted major development problems and formal dedication was held on 10
April 1965. As indicated in Table 5, over 5,500 boats are presently berthed in the various
marinas at the complex; hundreds of additional boats in dry storage also claim Marina Del
Rey as their home port. The launching facilities have also made the complex a harbor of
opportunity for many of the 100,000 trailered boats located in the Southern California
area.

Occupancy of the existing apartment units is at 97 percent of capacity (1973) in a new
community having a projected permanent population over 10,000 and a seasonal peak day
population of 30,000. Construction of additional ancillary facilities is following a sound
growth pattern. Private investment in facilities now exceeds $107 million, and long-range
plans indicate a conservative total of another $65 million.

Accrued project income to the county from lease revenues is over $3.5 million annually
(1973) and steadily increasing to a projected $4 million level. The tax base of the county
has substantially expanded in an area where previously the tax return was insufficient to
cover the costs of a required mosquito-abatement program. Total investment of public funds
in the basic project is shown in Table 5.

260

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261

Table 5. Marina Del Rey Fact Sheet
Public Recreational Facilities Residential and Transient Facilities Boating Facilities

Public Beach and Picnic Area Hotels and Motels 5,600 Boat Slips

Spectator Events: 16 Apartment Complexes Beach launching area for hand-carried boats
Regattas, Crew Races, 22 Restaurants Launching facilities for trailer-borne boats
(both by ramp and high-speed hoist)

Dry storage of trailer-boats

Yacht Clubs

Repair Yards, Fuel Docks and Pumpout
Station, Live Bait

Boat Parades, Sailing Races
Sportfishing, Harbor Cruisers
Boat Rental and Sailing Instruction
Fisherman’s Village
Theater
Shopping Centers
Direct Freeway Access via

Marina Freeway
Statistics:

780-acre site (405 acres of water, 375 acres of land).

2,340 feet of offshore breakwater.

2 miles of main channel, 1,000 feet wide and 10 feet deep.

3 miles of side basin, 600 feet wide and 10 feet deep.

7.5 miles of concrete bulkhead.

6 miles of landscaped boulevard roadways.

All utilities underground
Future Development _ Private Development of Facilities Public Development of Site
Facility Cost | Site Cost
Hotels, Motels, Office Buildings, }| Slips $ 8,250,000 || Federal Government: 50 percent
Library, Public Park, Apartment Units 86,900,000 || of main navigation features $ 4,600,000
Fire Station Hotels and Motels 4,350,000 || State Government:
Construction activity estimated || Restaurants 4,009,000 || Site acquisition 2,000,000
at $42 million for 1972 Commercial 7,700,000 || County Government:
Yacht Clubs 1,800,000 Land acquisition, 50 percent of
main navigation features 15,875,000
Proceeds from sale of revenue bonds:
Site preparation 13,000,000
Motor Vehicle Fund:
Perimeter roads 775,000
Total Cost $113,000,000 $36,250,000

Economic Impact on Area:
Taxes paid by lessees provide significant new tax revenue for county, city schools, ete.
New community with projected permanent population of 10,000 and seasonal peak-day population of 30,000.
Over 200 individual businesses, providing 6,000 to 8,000 new jobs.

Leads the way in the area planning for full development potential of Santa Monica Bay.

Income:
Revenue derived from leases (estimated over $3 million annually) will service bond debt, pay operating expenses

and repay State and County loans.

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A unique feature of Marina Del Rey’s development has been the joint public-private
investment partnership in which capital from both sectors was used to develop a facility that
benefited the entire community. The lessees are given a set of guidelines to follow and then
are allowed to develop the berthing, support, and ancillary facilities under a permit-approval
procedure. Lessees are also responsible for maintenance of all lands and facilities installed in
their respective leasehold areas. This has effectively reduced the county’s overhead and
allowed the marina management personnel to function in a purely administrative capacity.
The County Fire and Sheriff Departments maintain facilities and personnel at the marina,
which greatly simplifies the work of the harbormaster. This is an extremely practical
compromise in a harbor complex of this size, and has resulted in one of the most successful
ventures ever undertaken by the County of Los Angeles.

(3) Salmon Harbor. Salmon Harbor, located off the mouth of the Umpqua River in
Winchester Bay, Oregon, is unique in two respects: original development evolved primarily
as a result of the single activity of salmon fishing, and the harbor is in the midst of an
extensive expansion program (Fig. 162).

In 1951, Douglas County and the Port of Umpqua initiated planning for the project,
directed toward: (a) protecting the waterfront of the town of Winchester Bay from future
erosion, (b) providing a base for the local commercial fishing fleet, and (c) providing a safe,
adequately equipped pleasure-craft harbor and marine recreation area. Construction began
in 1952, with various dredging and filling operations completed in 1955, 1957, and 1963.
Work was financed jointly by Douglas County and the Port of Umpqua.

The two authorities agreed, in 1952, to appoint a management committee to supervise
the operation of Salmon Harbor. One member was appointed by the Douglas County Park
Board, another by the Port, and a third by mutual agreement of both parties. The
committee has functioned for the past 17 years, without pay, directing the operation of the
harbor, and handling such varied problems as moorage rates, land leases, harbor
maintenance, and Fleet Days activities.

The present basin, shown in the lower part of Figure 163, has a 650-slip capacity. The
basin experiences little surge and only minor maintenance has been required. The entrance
channel has been dredged twice in 20 years.

Spruce logs were used. for flotation in the original docking system, but are gradually
being replaced by polystyrene units with concrete decks. Creosoted timber piles are used for
guides primarily because of their low cost in this region. The slip rental rate is $1 per foot
per month, with slips ranging from 18 to 50 feet. Water and power are included in this rate.

Few clients live aboard their craft, and most remove them from the water for home
storage during the winter months. The present facility has a launching ramp, two cranes, and
a boatyard, and has had enough work to support it during the 5 years of operation.
According to the manager of the installation, the only real problem is parking the many
campers that use the facilities.

Most revenue from the Salmon Harbor operation has been from charter boats, slip

rentals, boat launching, car parking, and real estate leases. Gross receipts for a 17-year

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264.

PARKING

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CONDOMINIUM

Figure 163. Land use proposal for the Salmon Harbor expansion project.

265

period ending in 1970 totaled $439,513 and the net receipts were $177,581. The difference
was used for maintenance and operating expenditures. A substantial part of this amount was
reintroduced into the local economy in the form of salaries and services.

In addition to the net receipts from harbor operations, significant indirect benefits have
accrued to the area as a result of salmon fishing made possible by the harbor. In 1969, for
instance, about 60,500 anglers fished for salmon out of Salmon Harbor, 40,000 from private
craft, and 20,500 from charter craft. Records show that 63,454 salmon were brought into
the harbor by sport fishermen that year. The Oregon State Game Commission, in Technical
Bulletin No. 78, September 1964, estimated that the average cost of catching salmon on
sport-fishing tackle was $63 per fish. Assuming that this represents the value placed on such
fishing by anglers (the money would have been spent on something else), an indirect
economic impact on the area of $3.5 million for the 1969 catch was indicated.

The present expansion plan was initiated primarily in recognition of these large indirect
benefits. A comprehensive land-use master plan was developed in early 1970 with the intent
of integrating the existing facilities with proposed developments in a manner that would be
feasible and functional, and that would optimize project benefits to the area. The resulting
land-use proposal is shown in Figure 163.

Sixty-two acres of usable land have been created as a result of the expansion project.
Most of this land will be devoted to recreation and ancillary facilities. The small peninsula
protecting the entrance to the new basin has been set aside for a day park, providing over
3 acres of picnic area. A nature area and additional camping area are planned for the western
arm of the project. These two areas are a natural extension of the existing park facilities at
Windy Cove.

Commercial development will be confined primarily to the smaller peninsula areas that
jut into and partition the three boat-berthing areas. The proposed commercial developments
include: (a) A condominium-motel restaurant complex, (b) a boat and motor sales and
service facility, (c) dry-storage facilities, (d) an undersea garden aquarium, (e) automatic
vending facilities for around-the-clock sales of tackle and bait, (f) a floating restaurant,
(g) gift shops and boutiques, (h) a bar and cocktail lounge, and (i) fish receiving and
processing facilities.

The berthing capacity of the harbor will more than double, with 900 additional slips.
Both private and public conveniences will be added, including expanded charter-boat
service, more bait and tackle shops, a coffee shop, and marine fuel facilities.

This case study exemplifies a well planned expansion program that has considered future
opportunities as well as existing facilities and operational procedures. Also, the execution is
well coordinated, with the least possible disruption of ongoing operations.

b. Management.

(1) Bahia Mar. Bahia Mar is a 350-slip open-berth marina situated on the Intra-
coastal Waterway in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. The 40-acre complex is about evenly divided

266

between water and land area. It was built in 1950 under a design-and-construction contract
on Federal surplus land purchased by the city of Fort Lauderdale with proceeds from bond
sales. The city subsequently operated the marina, mostly at a loss, until 1962 when the
entire property was leased to private enterprise. That lease is now owned by MCD
Enterprises, Inc., a Maryland real estate development corporation, which has added several
ancillary facilities. Bahia Mar now includes a marine fuel service depot, a large restaurant, a
marine hardware store, a 115-room motel, and a shopping mall with spaces leased to
boutiques and other businesses. Proceeds from these facilities supplement slip-rental income
to. make the total operation economically profitable. The motel operation has been so
successful that the company is building a 195-room addition.

Project depth throughout the marina is 10 feet below mean low water. The berthing
facilities are fixed, with concrete decks supported by concrete piles. The support piles
project upward through the deck to about 2 feet above deck level, and the projections
support and protect the utility risers (Fig. 164). Both 120- and 240-volt power outlets are
provided at each slip without metering as part of the rental fee. A local ordinance makes it
illegal to resell power.

The marina has no public address system because phone jacks are provided at each slip.
The phone service is monitored” through a central switchboard, and a minimum fee of 25
cents is charged for each outgoing local call, with straight rates being charged for
long-distance calls. Public pay phones are also provided at the head of each pier. The marina
has no sanitary pumpout facility, but-one is planned in the near future. Internal trash
collection is accomplished by marina personnel, and the collected trash is picked up,
compacted, and hauled away by a sanitation contracting company.

Preferential parking is provided in a card-key lot for 152 cars at a rate of $50 per season.
Parking spaces for the remaining slips are provided at a ratio of three spaces for every four
slips on a first-come-first-served basis. Overflow from this lot is accommodated at a shopping
center lot.

The pier configuration is shown in Figure 165. Breakdown of rental berths by lengths is

as follows:
Slip or Dock Length Quantity

(feet)
30 210
40 28
50 20
65 7
90 15

100 5

The remaining 60+ slips are provided for commercial fishing and excursion craft.

267

Figure 164. Above-deck extensions of pier piles support and protect utility risers at
Bahia Mar Marina, Fort Lauderdale, Florida.

268

INTRA-COASTAL WATERWAY

GAS DOCK

ICE
RESTAURANT OFFICE DOCKMASTER MARINE SUPPLY

CARD KEY PARKING

POST OFFICE

CHARTER FISHING

PEDESTRIAN WALK

ATTESAIN: TRG Oe Ca Car Ala,

Figure 165. Bahia Mar Marina layout plan.

269

Located in a large boating-tourist area, the Bahia Mar facilities are designed primarily to
serve transient powerboaters. The peak season is from November through April. For the
1972 winter season, the daily rates for berth rentals were 30 cents per foot, with a $9
minimum. A 4-month winter contract is offered, which reduces the rate to 25 cents per foot
per day. Summer (off-season) rates are 10 cents per foot per day. Annual contracts are also
available, the yearly rate ranging from $2,100 to $3,000 depending on boat length.

Service and convenience facilities include showers and dressing rooms, a freshwater
swimming pool, an elevated pedestrian walkway for access to the oceanside beach, car-rental
services, a U.S. Post Office, and a U.S. Customs clearing station. Because these facilities
must be available to the public, no security fences are possible, but a 24-hour roving security
guard is provided, and during the winter season all vehicles must pass through entrance
control gates.

The only troublesome construction features are a few of the perimeter walls, which were
not provided with adequate filter courses. Inadequate embedment of rebars has resulted in
some spalling of the concrete. Wave and surge action has apparently pumped fill material
from behind and underneath the perimeter wall into the berthing basins in some areas,
leaving sinkholes behind the wall.

Bahia Mar is a good example of a small-craft harbor that has been converted from a
financial burden on a community to a successful business enterprise by the addition of
ancillary facilities financed by the private sector. Success is mostly attributable to an
accurate assessment by the new owners of additional services desired by harbor patrons, and
the investment of private capital in facilities needed to provide these services. Good
management of the facilities and vigorous advertising to make the boating public aware of
their availability is also recognized.

(2) Lighthouse Bay Marina. Lighthouse Bay Marina (Fig. 166) is on the shore of
Pamona Lake near Quenemo, Kansas. This 200-slip marina is privately owned and operated
by the Aquamarine Corporation of Quenemo. Funds for financing the project were obtained
through the local bank.

The marina is managed by one of the three equal partners who own Aquamarine
Corporation. The operation supports four other full-time employees year round; a
mechanic, two general maintenance personnel, and a bookkeeper. During the peak summer
months, April through October, the marina remains open 24 hours per day and the
personnel requirements increase to 14.

The lake on which the marina is situated is regulated to a conservation level. In the
9 years of pool operation the lake level reached a high of 14 feet above conservation level
twice and dropped once to 4.5 feet below level. The average yearly lake-level fluctuation is
5 feet. This history coupled with the average basin depth of 24 feet required a floating-dock

system, anchored by cable and shore-connected, hinged struts.

270

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271

Eighty percent of the marina patrons own conventional-hull, open cockpit powerboats
and prefer covered slips. The marina obtained the slips from two different manufacturers
and is satisfied with the performance of both proprietary systems. The floating docks are
assembled into units referred to as houses by the marina personnel; each unit consists of
about 12 berths (number of slips is variabie) arranged abreast under a common roof. The
Lighthouse Bay management decided to purchase the dock materials in bulk and do the
assembling themselves so that the maintenance personnel obtain a better working knowledge
of the docks.

The most recently installed house was a 20-slip unit, and the inplace cost was about
$1,000 per slip. The maintenance costs on this system have been running about $3 per slip
per year on 200 slips. One of the biggest maintenance problems is the need to move the
shoreside anchor points frequently as the lake level varies. Each house is secured to the bank
by two cables, a hinged strut at one end of the dock unit and a hinged-gangway strut at the
opposite end. The time required to adjust all the 17 units is about 25 man-hours.

The only other major maintenance problem is that caused by winter ice damage.
Although the lake remains frozen for about 6 weeks each winter, the resultant damage is not
serious enough to warrant the difficult task of dismantling and removing the systems for the
winter. Drifting ice floes or windrows have not been a problem at Lighthouse Bay; good
natural protection is afforded by the cove site and by the abundance of trees along the
shoreline, which break the wind.

Some of the dock flotation has been in use for 8 years and is still in serviceable
condition. About 2 percent of the flotation units are replaced each year. In some cases more
flotation is added to a unit instead of replacing the old sections.

The slip occupancy at Lighthouse Bay has been 100 percent for the past 3 years. The
management attributes this partially to the marina’s close proximity to a metropolitan area.
The rental season is from 1 April to 31 October. The summer clientel are encouraged to
winter-store their craft at the marina, but is not demanded in the seasonal contract. In an
attempt to generate more winter activity, the marina management has completed the
installation of a heated fishing dock facility.

Presently, 75 boats are stored under cover during the winter, and 20 are stored outside.
The covered storage facility consists of a 90- by 200-foot building with a heated shop in one
corner and a concrete floor throughout. Access to the winter storage area is controlled, and
marina personnel must be in the area before an owner is allowed to inspect his craft.
Practically all boats are winter-stored on trailers for the multihulled craft, which are usually
placed on blocks.

The marina provides all eight of the ancillary facilities listed in the marina questionnaire
(App. K) as well as tent rentals and camper hookups. The present docking arrangement
provides each slip tenant a camping area immediately shoreward of his assigned boathouse.
This arrangement is apparently agreeable to the patrons, as no one has suggested changing it.

Generally, this is a fine example of a well managed and efficiently operated lakeshore

marina.

c. Design.

(1) Cincinnati’s Ohio River Project. Through the years, the city of Cincinnati has
utilized the Ohio River as a vital natural resource to enhance commercial and recreational
growth. To meet present-day needs, the city began, in the late 1960’s, to develop the
riverfront into a modern attractive recreational area to satisfy the ever-growing demands of
the general public. Within a few years, the area previously used for automobile parking,
commercial boat docking, and miscellaneous storage has grown into an area that now
consists of a new major sports arena, public landing area for commercial boat docking,
parking facilities, river promenade, and a riverfront park facility under construction.

Land transportation is adequate, but increased boating activities have influenced officials
to provide a small-craft docking facility to meet the need for water access to the area.
However, due to river characteristics of frequent flooding, heavy floating debris, high river
velocities, and lack of a protected basin, development of a marina in this area required some
unique planning and design considerations. A stringent set of operating procedures to
safeguard floating docks from damage by varying river conditions was also necessary.

This case study is based on the present (1972) status of improvement. Final design is
complete and construction has started. The marina, when operational, will serve transient
boaters to the use-area rather than provide permanent slip rentals by lease agreement. The
marina design layout is shown in Figure 167.

The Ohio River experiences large water level lveriations annually. The high velocity
river current increases the hazard of floating debris, which requires special debris deflectors.

Because pleasure boating is not recommended on the Ohio River under high water
conditions, the floating docks are designed only to operate during safe boating levels,
allowing for a water fluctuation of about 13 feet above the normal pool elevation of 455
feet. To reduce marina damage, facilities must be removed from the immediate area to a safe
location for storage during the winter and early spring seasons and during rises in summer
river levels higher than 13 feet above normal pool.

Anchorages must withstand both lateral and longitudinal river and wind forces for
unusually heavy loads due to high currents and floating debris. Lateral anchorage and
restriction to upstream movements are accomplished by use of spud pipes, which stabilize
the floating docks. This system permits the docks to move vertically up and down along the
spud pipes maintaining uniform freeboard for boaters as water levels change. Site
characteristics and river depth are not satisfactory to securely hold the bottom of the spud
pipe. Therefore, a special spud-anchorage system (Fig. 168) will be constructed near the
river bottom. The anchor consists of a cluster of four battered piles encased with an
underwater poured-in-place concrete anchor unit. The spud pipe is seated into a pipe sleeve

located in the center of each concrete unit and extends through a sleeve in the floating
dock.

273

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275

Longitudinal forces are withstood by using the existing concrete ice breakers located
upriver from the docks. Connecting cables between the floating docks and the ice breakers
hold the floating docks in position. Winches located on the floating docks are used to adjust
the connecting cables as water fluctuations occur.

To safeguard against heavy floating debris, a protective float is to be located upstream
from the docks so that debris will deflect around the docks to reduce maintenance and
protect the docks and boats. The guard will consist of a flotation unit of three foam filled
steel pipes stacked vertically and connected to a frame braced against the upstream face of
the ice breakers. Flotation units will be located as shown in Figure 167. The protective
float, about 4 feet deep, will be constructed at an angle with the river flow and floating
docks so that the river currents will assist in moving debris around the marina and minimize
debris accumulation against the upstream face of the docks. However, operating personnel
must regularly clean away debris collecting at the facility to eliminate any large buildup of
debris.

The city of Cincinnati is considering operating the facility without the protective float
on a trial basis.

(2) East 55th Street Marina. Cleveland’s East 55th Street Marina is situated on Lake
Erie. A study of the boatowner requirements for this area showed the need for a large
marina with accommodations for craft up to 60 feet long. Initially, 274 berths were
constructed; the facility can eventually be expanded to accommodate 426 berths. The
proposed site offered both advantages and disadvantages. The nearly adequate protection
afforded by existing breakwaters and sufficient depth for a small-boat harbor provided the
pluses. Also, the site offered convenient highway access.

Disadvantages included weak soils in the basin bottom and rubble fill in the area selected
for building and utility services. Additionally, two major combined sewers (storm and
sanitary) discharged into the protected basin near its entrance. Although these factors
increased development costs, they did not overshadow the harbor and location advantages.

Extreme variations in Lake Erie levels previously recorded at Cleveland were about
5 feet. Soil borings taken in the marina bottom showed loose deposits of fine materials to
depths up to 70 feet below average water level. With these conditions, both convenience and
economy dictated the use of floating piers. The structures provide uniform levels with
respect to boat decks regardless of water elevation. They also permit economical anchorage,
which does not require high-strength foundation soils.

Because of the weak soils an underwater system of mooring cables and anchors holds the
floating piers in position. The galvanized coated cables are the same as those used for bridge
construction. More than 12,000 feet of zinc-coated bridge rope was used on this project.

Seven cable lines, spaced to transmit about equal loads, connect all piers to the east and
west anchors. Each east-west cable line is arranged in three lengths: one between the west
anchor and west pier, one between the two end piers, and one between the east pier and east

276

anchor. A wench for each cable length permits adjustment of pier position and cable
tension. North-south positioning is accomplished by cables connected to anchors located
beyond the north and south ends of each pier. The north cable lines also have wenches for
adjustment. The seven east anchors, the nine north anchors, and five of the seven west
anchors consist of concrete blocks resting on the marina bottom. Several tons of rock piled
in front of the anchors provide additional resistance. Two west anchors connect to the new
steel breakwater extension. Anchors located on the shoreline consist of concrete blocks
weighted with earthfill. These blocks also support the bridge ramps between the shore and
floating piers.

Cables are pretensioned sufficiently to hold approximate horizontal positions. The
system will accommodate changes in water level up to about 5 feet without wenching
adjustments. Connecting the several piers has a calming effect on the marina basin, tending
to dampen waves and reduce movements during storms.

This unique anchorage system combined with the existing site-feature advantages have
provided the Cleveland area with a safe full-service marina facility since 1969.

(3) Galveston Yacht Basin. Probably the most uniquely engineered small-craft
installation encountered during the marina survey was the Galveston Yacht Basin (Fig. 169).
This full-service marina is located only five blocks from downtown Galveston and is sited on
Galveston Channel, which provides access to both the Intracoastal Waterway and the Gulf of
Mexico.

This installation offers covered berths for 416 power cruisers, pigeonhole dry-storage
parking for 180 boats, and open slips for 150 sailboats. The layout plan is shown in Figure
170. In the north basin, shown at the top of the figure, are four long, parallel-covered piers.
The three piers labeled B, C, and D each shelter 116 craft; pier A shelters only 46 because of
the land interface on its south side. These piers are protected by two moles and a
breakwater.

The mole on the north side also provides protection for 50 open sailboat slips that are
located in its lee. The southwest mole supports one of the two fuel stations. The south basin
contains the remaining sailboat slips, a smaller covered row of 17 slips, the launching
facilities, and a second fuel dock. Both basins are 12 feet deep at low water.

The most unusual engineering feature of the marina is the structural design of piers B, C
and D (with pier A differing only because of land-water interface). Each main walk is of the
usual reinforced concrete slab-on-stringers design, but alternate finger piers of massive
concrete construction form the bases for structural steel roof-support columns about 10 feet
out from each edge of the main walk. From that point outward to ends of fingers and edge
of roof, both the concrete finger piers and the steel-framed roof are cantilevered. The entire
concrete floor system with superimposed roofload is supported on timber piles,
pressure-treated with coal-tar creosote. Intermediate finger piers between the roof-support
fingers are of very narrow timber construction on creosoted timber pile supports and are
intended for fendering and for mooring ties rather than for the boarding of passengers.

277

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279

Although the normal tide range at this site seldom exceeds 1 foot, the maximum
hurricane-generated surge is estimated at several feet. The local building code requires
houses near the coast to be built with floors at least 13 feet above mean water level, and a
wind setup of 9 feet has been recorded at Galveston. For this reason the clearance between
mean water level and the roof structure is 24 feet, and main roof beams are designed for the
installation of a lift-out boat hoist for each slip if desired by the slip renter. Thus far, hoists
have been installed in about 20 percent of the slips, mainly for use in hull maintenance and
minor repairs. In the event of a hurricane warning, however, each boat under a hoist would
be lifted well up toward the roof and lashed securely in place.

The slips are rented on a daily, monthly, or yearly schedule. Each slip is provided with a
water connection, 120- and 240-volt electrical power, and a private full-height, walk-in
locker, all included in the slip rental. A private telephone installation is also available at each
slip through arrangements made directly with the phone company by the slip tenant. Trash
collections are daily, and the marina is in the process (1972) of installing a sanitary
pumpout facility. Paved parking spaces are available to meet the requirements of all patrons
and one of the services provided by the marina management is electric cart transport from
parking lot to boat berth (Figs. 169 and 170). The two service centers, located at the heads
of piers B and D, offer slip tenants the use of shower baths, laundromats, air-conditioned
restrooms, vending machines, and ice dispensers. A bait camp, fish-cleaning house, outboard
motor sales and service, marine supply store, and yacht repair and mechanical service
facilities are also available within the complex.

The launching facilities, all located in the south basin, consist of a ramp 40 feet wide for
handling boats up to 40 feet long, two forklift trucks, used primarily in conjunction with
the dry-storage operation, and a mobile hoist that travels on parallel piers and can launch
boats up to 65 feet long.

Immediately adjacent to the marina complex are a drugstore, grocery store, coffee shop,
motel with a swimming pool, restaurant, and a nightclub.

Since the weather plays a particularly important role in boating activities in this region,
the marina management subscribes to the weather wire service and posts 2-hour radar
reports. A 24-hour security patrol is also provided. Considering all the planning and design
that have gone into this installation and the many amenities provided for tenants, the
Galveston Yacht Basin represents the elite in luxury boating services.

(4) Spruce Run Reservoir. The New Jersey Green Acres Land Acquisition Act, 1961,
gave the State the power to acquire, preserve, and develop parklands and recreation areas for
the people. In a highly developed area like New Jersey, the competition for available lands is
very keen, and land costs are high. For this reason, it is important to develop existing
resources to the fullest extent possible.

The Spruce Run Reservoir located about 16 miles east of Phillipsburg, impounds the

excess waters of two tributary streams and figures prominently in the present and future

280

water supply programs of the State. To maximize benefits from this project, the State has
utilized the 1961 Act to provide recreation facilities for this site consisting primarily of a
launching facility for trailered small craft, an all-weather fishing pier, and a small marina
installation to be leased to a concessionaire for berthing rental boats.

During periods of drought, when water demands are at peak level, the reservoir
experiences an average drawdown of about 10 feet. This was a major problem in project
design, but was not the only problem. Most of the reservoir site is underlain by limestone
with varying thicknesses of overburden. The discovery of many sinkholes in the adjacent
land area motivated a decision not to drive pilings of any kind for fear of piercing the
mantle. Not only would this be unsafe for structural support, but could lead to the loss of
storage water through hidden sinkholes.

The problem of variable drawdown was solved at the marina installation by articulating
the landing ramps and floating dock units. Piano hinges fabricated from heavy pipe sections
allowed the necessary relative movement between floating and grounded units, at the same
time keeping the sections together. An elevation view showing the landing configuration is
presented in Figure 171.

The floating-dock sections were fabricated from 24-inch-diameter steel pipe with
seal-welded end plates. As a further precaution against vandalism, the pipes were filled with
polyurethane foam. The entire floating system is fixed in placé with hand-adjustable cables
and anchors. At the landward end, near the paved slope areas, the guide cables were rigidly
attached to the concrete pavement slab.

The launching ramp facility consists of two adjacent ramps separated by one boarding
dock and flanked by two others. The ramps are of reinforced concrete slabs on compacted
subgrade, with a 12 percent lakeward slope. The pontoon units that make up the
132-foot-long boarding docks are hinged together in the same fashion as the marina’s
floating docks, but are guided by reinforced concrete guideposts that were integrally poured
with the concrete ramp (Fig. 172).

The nearby fishing pier is semicircular in plan, with two shore ends about 50 feet apart.
Trestle supports of the pier are kept ice free during the winter months by a compressed-air
bubbling system, which was installed so that the facility could be used year round. The
submerged bubble line is made of 0.75-inch-diameter perforated polyethylene tubing that
follows each side of the concrete pad. Air is supplied by a 1-inch polyethylene line that
extends underground from a landside valve pit until it emerges through the bank slope about
4 feet below the high water line.

These three facilities are well designed and well integrated into a single installation that
should be a high-use recreation area.

(5) Still Waters Marina. Lake Martin is a landlocked lake which, like many other
lakes and watercourses in central Alabama, is well fished, cruised, and used for water skiing.

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Spruce Run Reservoir, New Jersey.

283

and inboard-outboard cruisers that are easily transported by trailer. Recognizing this local
trend toward use of small craft, designers of the Still Waters Marina specifically designed the
installation to accommodate them.

One of the marina’s main features is a dry-storage facility. The operation is housed in a
steel warehouse-type building, which is sheathed and roofed with corrugated sheet metal
and has a concrete floor. One hundred boats up to 20 feet long can be dry-stored in the
multilevel, well padded racks of this building (Fig. 173). A boat that is to be launched is
lifted from the rack with a forklift truck, transported to the lake on the two 12-foot padded
forks, and lowered into the water. The 12,000-pound-capacity lift has the capability of
hyperextending its forks down over a specially designed bulkhead. Retrieval is accomplished
by reversing the cycle. With this operation, the boats are kept clean and safe inside the
dry-storage building until launching is requested. The dry berth rental rate is $1.10 per foot
length of boat per month, and includes launching and retrieval as often as once a day if
desired.

Although the dry-storage facility is limited to boats of 20 feet or less, the marina has wet
berths available for craft up to 50 feet long. The seasonal water level fluctuation of Lake
Martin averages 12 feet, a factor that dictated the choice of a floating rather than a fixed
berthing system. A standard floating-dock system is used, but the means of anchoring the
floating piers and the 26- by 26-foot floating fuel island is rather unusual. A number of
vertical pipe sleeves were first bolted to the outboard edges of the dock structures and then
long lengths of 4-inch-diameter pipe were dropped through the sleeves to act as guide piles.
Because the marina is favorably sited, experiences little current, and is exposed to minimal
wind forces and wave action, the lateral loading on the docks is small. Apparently the pipes
penetrated the bottom silt to a depth that is adequate to develop the necessary passive soil
resistance to prevent lateral displacement of the docks. In any event, the management
reports that the system has worked well.

Covered dry-storage racks used in conjunction with an operational launching enterprise is
not new or unusual, but may be a viable alternative to wet storage for smaller craft where
berthing space is limited and demand is great enough. Because of the relatively high cost of
the launching facilities and operating personnel required, this system can only be successful
at installations serving more than 100 boats. An efficient operational system that does not
keep a client waiting long for his boat to be launched is also required. Unsatisfactory
experiences with such operations have had a deterrent effect on the dry-storage market in
many areas in the past, but with improved equipment, new handling systems, and a
dwindling inventory of good undeveloped wet berthing space, dry storage should expand
significantly in the future. Still Waters Marina is a good example of a successful combination
of both types of small-craft berthings.

(6) Wahweap and Rainbow Bridge Marinas. Lake Powell, on the Arizona-Utah
boundary, was formed on 21 January 1963, when the control gates of the newly completed

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was nearly 400 feet deep at the dam and extended 289 miles upstream with over 1,800
miles of serpentine finger shoreline. During 1972 over 770,000 tourists visited the Lake
Powell recreation area. Many of these visitors took advantage of the marina facilities at
Wahweap.

Wahweap Lodge and Marina north of Page, Arizona, is a total recreation complex
operated by Canyon Tours, Inc., under exclusive contract to the U.S. National Park Service.
The marina has an ultimate capacity of 300 slips and is located near the lodge parking lot
(Fig. 174). Several unique design features are incorporated into this marina. The dock is a
floating system anchored by cable, dictated by the great depth of water and the annual
water level fluctuation of about 18 feet. The original installation consisted of 32 slips of
wood and polystyrene construction, but the newer docks are of steel construction. The
flotation units consist of steel plates rolled into 42-inch-diameter by 8-foot-long tubes with
sealed ends. The tubes are bolted together with steel straps and angle iron braces, which act
as supports for the metal framework in which the 2- by 4-foot steel deck panels rest. The
main walks are constructed in 400-foot lengths interconnected with hinge-and-swivel joints.
The finger piers are also connected to the main walks with hinge-and-swivel joints to
accommodate wave action without overstressing the system.

The floating slip is moored in place by a web network under the docks to which are
attached 1.125-inch-diameter wire rope mooring lines leading to 5,000-pound bottom
anchors. The system is adjusted laterally as the water surface fluctuates by hand winches;
land access is achieved by adding or subtracting floating walkway sections.

The berths are protected by a unique floating breakwater designed by the U.S. National
Park Service. The breakwater is constructed of cellular concrete containing polystyrene
flotation elements. Manufactured sections are about 8 feet wide and 10 feet high. These
sections float with a freeboard of about 3 feet and a keel depth of 7 feet. The sections are
interconnected with heavy chain, and the entire breakwater is moored in position with
l-inch-diameter wire rope lines attached to 20 (U.S. Navy-type) 1,500-pound anchors. A
system of hand winches adjusts to the varying lake levels. The breakwater is at the lower left
in Figure 175.

Marina occupancy is averaging 70 percent during the winter months and exceeds capacity
during the summer season. During the 1972 summer season, 210 private power craft,
8 private sailboats, 12 commercial tour boats, and 105 rental boats were berthed at the
marina. Slip-rental rates were $1.75 per foot per month, or $2.50 to $3.50 per day when
available. The marina manager estimates the major activities of the patrons to be cruising
(40 percent), fishing (35 percent), and skiing (25 percent).

Electrical power (120 volts) for lighting is supplied to the docks and the charge is
included in the slip-rental fee. The dock lighting is a high-level system. Water is supplied
free, there is a public address system to the docks, and four phones are strategically located
along the piers. The marina has a sanitary holding tank, pumpout facilities, and daily trash

collection.

286

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A ramp, 1,800 feet long and 200 feet wide, extends at a 9 percent slope into the lake and
functions both as a launching ramp and a parking area. The ramp can handle craft up to 65
feet long. Launchings are free, and there are no hoists at the marina.

The ancillary facilities are extensive. Three two-story buildings now comprise the lodge;
construction on a fourth is scheduled for 1973. When completed, a total of 320 rooms will
be available. The lodge complex also includes dining rooms, a cocktail lounge, and a
convention center. Cabins, a trailer park, and campgrounds are also available.

Rentals available include boats for water skiing, fishing, and houseboats. In addition,
guided tours by boat and vehicle are offered.

One of the most unusual of all the ancillary facilities encountered during the marina
survey was Wahweap’s sister-installation, the Rainbow Bridge Marina, a floating marina with
no land interface. Modules were constructed at Wahweap and floated in sections for 50
miles to the present anchorage (Fig. 175). Apartments for operating personnel are an
integral part of this small isolated marina, which functions primarily as a halfway house,
providing fuel, food, and general supplies for boaters touring the lake. The fueling facilities
consist of 18 pumps, which pump up to 10,000 gallons per day. The station is supplied by a
small tanker.

289

LITERATURE CITED

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY OFFICIALS, “Standard Specifications
for Highway Bridges,” 10¢4 ed., Washington, D.C., 1970.

AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE, “Recommended Practice for Selecting Proportions
for Normal and Heavyweight Concrete,” ACI Standard 211.1-74, Detroit, Mich., Jan.
1974.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION, Timber Construction Manual,
and ed., Wiley, New York, 1966.

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, “Wind Forces on Structures,” Trans-
actions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 125, Part II, Paper No. 3269,
1961, pp. 1124—1197.

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, “Small-Craft Harbors,” Manuals and
Reports on Engineering Practice—No. 50, ASCE, New York, N.Y., 1969.

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS, “Applicable ASTM Standards,”
Philadelphia, Pa., 1971 (periodically updated).

AMERICAN WOOD-PRESERVER’S ASSOCIATION, “Standards of the AWPA,” Standards
C-1 and C-18, Washington, D.C., 1971 (periodically updated).

AMERICAN WOOD-PRESERVER’S INSTITUTE, “Bulkheads: Design and Construction,”
AWPI Technical Guidelines for Pressure Treated Wood, Parts I, II, and III, Washington,
D.C., 1970.

BARRETT, R. J., “Use of Plastic Filters in Coastal Structures,” Proceedings of the 1oth
Conference on Coastal Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 2, 1966, pp. 1048—1067.

BOWLES, J. E., Foundation Analysis and Design, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968.

CALHOUN, C.C., Jr., “Development of Design Criteria and Acceptance Specifications for
Plastic Filter Cloths,’ Technical Report S-72-7, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss., 1972.

CHANEY, C. A., ‘“‘Marinas—Recommendations for Design, Construction and Maintenance,”

National Association of Engine and Boat Manufacturers, Inc., Greenwich, Conn., 1961.

291

CHELLIS, R. D., Pile Foundations, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1961.

ELY, A. L., “Congestion in Small-Craft Harbor Entrance Channels,” National Transporta-
tion Engineering Meeting, ASCE, Preprint, 1972.

JAMES, W., “Spectral Response of Harbor Resonator Configurations,” Abstracts of the
12th Coastal Engineering Conference, ASCE, No. 51, 1970, pp. 151—154.

KAMEL, A. M., and DAVIDSON, D. D. ‘“‘Hydraulic Characteristics of Mobile Breakwaters
Composed of Tires or Spheres,” Technical Report H-68-2, U.S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss., June 1968.

LE MEHAUTE, B., and HWANG, LI-SAN, “Harbor Design: Scale Model or Computer?,”
Tetra Tech, Inc., Pasadena, Calif., 1970.

MORROW, C.T., “Diffraction of Ocean Waves About a Breakwater,” Journal of the
Waterways and Harbors Division, ASCE, Vol. 29, No. WW3, Aug. 1966, pp. 25—44.

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF ENGINE AND BOAT MANUFACTURERS, ‘Marina
Operations and Service,” Greenwich, Conn., 1967.

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF ENGINE AND BOAT MANUFACTURERS, “Marina
Architects, Consultants, Designers and Engineers,” Greenwich, Conn., 1967 (periodically
updated).

NATIONAL ELECTRICAL CODE, National Fire Protection Association, Boston, Mass.,
1971.

NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION, Tide Tables, Rockville,
Md., 1974 (annually updated).

NAVY BUREAU OF YARDS AND DOCKS, “Soil Mechanics, Foundations, and Earth
Structures,” Design Manual, DM-7, NAVDOCKS (now Naval Facilities Engineering
Command), Naval Supply Depot, Philadelphia, Pa., 1962 (periodically updated).

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292

QUINN, A. D., Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures, 2nd ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1972.

SMYTHE, A., “Countering Erosion,” New Zealand Harbour & Shipping Export Review,
June 1961.

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and Coastal Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 99, No. WW2, Paper No. 9754, May 1973,
pp. 245-256.

STATE OF CALIFORNIA, “Corrosion Protection for Concrete,” Bridge Planning and
Design Manual, Vol. 1, “Design Specifications,” Item 6-14, Department of Public Works,
Division of Highways, Bridge Department, Sacramento, Calif., 1969.

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Development, Resources Agency, Sacramento, Calif., 1971.

TERZAGHI, K., “Anchored Bulkheads,” Transactions of the American Society of Civil
Engineers, ASCE, Vol. 119, 1954, pp. 1243-1324.

UNIFORM BUILDING CODE, “Uniform Building Code Standards,” International Confer-
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Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1973, 1,160 pp.

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VAN DE KREEFKE, J., “Damage Function of Rubble-Mound Breakwaters,” Journal of the
Waterways and Harbors Division, ASCE, Vol. 95, No. WW3, Aug. 1969, pp. 345—354.

WATKINS, L. L. “Corrosion Test of Steel Piling in Sea Water,” Journal of the Waterways,
Harbors, and Coastal Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 97, No. WW3, Aug. 1971, pp.
549-558.

293

APPENDIX A
GLOSSARY OF TERMS

accretion—May be either natural or artificial. Natural accretion is the buildup of land solely
by the action of the forces of nature, on a beach by deposition of waterborne or airborne
material. Artificial accretion is a similar buildup of land by reason of an act of man, such
as the accretion formed by a groin, breakwater, or beach fill deposited by mechanical
means.

amplitude—The magnitude of the displacement of a wave from a mean value.

anchor pile—A pile or column that is an integral part of a structure, and whose main
function is to keep the structure firmly in place, having been driven into the earth for

this purpose.

ancillary facilities—Installations or services provided at a harbor that complement the
harbor’s operations, but are not essential to harbor functioning, per se (e.g., snackbars,

ice-vending machines, and sail repairs).

armor—An outer layer of large stone or concrete armor units whose function is to ensure the
integrity of an embankment, jetty, or breakwater for protection against wave action or

currents.
aseptic—Free from pathogenic or infecting micro-organisms.
attenuate—To lessen the amplitude of waves or surge.

auxiliary power—Any means of propelling a craft that is not the primarily designed means
(e.g., an engine-driven propeller on a sailboat).

B-stone—Quarrystone sized for use in the supporting layer below the armor in a breakwater,

jetty, or revetment.

bar—A submerged or emerged embankment of sand, gravel, or other unconsolidated material

built in shallow water by waves and currents.
battens—Thin wood strips, often those affixed vertically around large pilings for protection.

batter—The slope or cant off the vertical of a pile or the face of a wall.

295°

bearing boards—The wood members that transmit the deckloads to the floats in some
floating-dock systems.

bedding layer—The first and lowermost layer of gravel or stone that acts as a bearing layer
for larger stones or armor units placed upon it. It also functions as a filter layer for the
material beneath the structure.

benefits—The dollar value placed on the overall contributions of a project such as a marina
to the economy, including the indirect as well as the direct contributions (as
distinguished from actual revenues).

benefit-cost ratio—The ratio of the estimated average annual benefits from a project to its
estimated average annual cost, including debt-servicing, periodic replacement of major

components, operating expense, and maintenance.

berm—A nearly horizontal part of the beach or backshore formed by the deposit of material

by wave action. Some beaches have no berms, others have one or several.

berth—A place where a boat may be secured to a fixed or floating structure and left
unattended.

berthing area—The water area in which craft are berthed.

bifurcation—A division of the main stream or channel into two branches, often caused by an
island or exposed bar in such a manner that the two branches remerge into a single
channel downstream.

bight—A bend in a coastline forming an open bay. A bay formed by such a bend.

boat—Any type of surface craft that may be berthed in a small-craft harbor.

boater—A person who uses any type of small craft.

breaker depth—The stillwater depth at the point where the wave breaks.

breakwater—A structure protecting a shore area, harbor, anchorage, or basin from waves.

bulkhead—A structure or partition to retain or prevent sliding of the land. A secondary

purpose is to protect the upland against damage from wave action.

296

caisson—A hollow structure filled with selected material that is used as a breakwater or jetty
section.

cantilever—A projecting beam, pile, or structural member that resists (or is capable of
resisting) a transverse load applied to the part projecting beyond its last point of support.

cap—The finished structural member topping off a wall or bulkhead, providing strength,
protection, and continuity to the wall or bulkhead.

channel meandering—The tendency of a sedimentary channel to change course mainly due
to the changing pattern of erosion and deposition of bottom sediments.

cleat—A wooden or metal fitting usually with two projecting horns around which a rope
may be tied.

core—The inner makeup or part of a rubble-mound jetty or breakwater that is. beneath the

armor layer or lowest armor-supporting layer.

contiguous land—Adjacent or adjoining lands.

Continental Shelf—The zone bordering a continent and extending from the low water line to
the depth (usually about 100 fathoms) where there is a marked or rather steep descent
toward a greater depth.

counterfort—A triangular bracing wall between a bulkhead wall and its footing.

course—In stonework, a layer one stone thick.

crowning—Warping or raising the center part of a flat surface so that it will shed water.

cruising range—Total distance over which a powered craft can travel using one store of

self-contained fuel, excluding its emergency safety reserve.
cutterhead dredge—A dredge that uses a rotating, toothed head mounted on the end of a
translating boom for loosening or cutting away the bottom material that is to be

removed or dredged.

damping—Reducing in amplitude or intensity; attenuating.

297

deadman—The buried object to which bulkhead or seawall tiebacks are attached. An anchor
pile may be used in lieu of a deadman.

deep water—Water so deep that surface waves are little affected by the ocean bottom.
Generally, water deeper than one-half the surface wavelength is considered deep water.

delta—An alluvial deposit, usually triangular or digitate in shape, formed at a river mouth.

diaphragm breakwater—A comparatively thin, impervious wall, membrane, or structure
designed to resist wave penetration, usually a secondary defense structure.

diffraction diagram—A diagram showing lines of equal wave height (and sometimes
successive crest positions) after a wave of given characteristics has undergone diffraction

about the end of a breakwater or through a gap.

dock—A fixed or floating decked structure against which a boat may be berthed either
temporarily or indefinitely.

dolphins—A cluster of battered pilings joined at the top.
downdrift—The direction of predominant movement of littoral materials.
ebbtide—The period of tide between high water and the succeeding low water; a falling tide.

ecological preservation—Maintaining the natural balance or pattern in the relationship
between marine or near-water organisms and their environment.

eddy current—A circular movement of water formed on the side of a main current. Eddies
may be created at points where the main stream passes projecting obstructions or where

two adjacent currents flow counter to each other.

estuary—(1) The part of a river that is affected by tides. (2) The region near a river mouth in
which the freshwater of the river mixes with the saltwater of the sea.

exchange of water—The flushing or replacement of water in a basin area, usually that

required to combat pollution or to ensure good water quality.
fairway—The parts of a waterway that are open and unobstructed for navigation.
fendering system—A protective bumper system designed to prevent damage to either boats

or docks whenever they come in contact.

298

fetch—The area in which seas are generated by a wind having a rather constant direction and
speed. Sometimes used synonymously with fetch length.

fetch length—The horizontal distance (in the direction of the wind) over which a wind
generates seas or creates a wind setup.

filter—The underlayer of small rock or gravel that permits proper seepage and dissipation or
distribution of water beneath or behind a structure wall or riprapped slope without
allowing the earth or other retained material to escape. Plastic cloth may also be used as
a filter.

fines—Grains of silt and clay magnitude that are carried away in suspension by waves and
currents. In stonework, any material smaller than the smallest grading classification or
sieve size in a given specification.

finger pier—A comparatively smaller pier structure attached (usually perpendicular) to the
headwalk of a multislip pier; usually provided to facilitate access to the berthed craft.

foot-candle—A uniform measure of light intensity standardized by the Illumination
Engineering Society.

formwork—The structure used to contain and shape poured concrete.

freeboard—The additional height of a structure above design high water level to prevent
overflow. Also, at a given time, the vertical distance between the water level and the top
of the structure. On a ship, the distance from the water line to main deck or gunwale.

french drain—A continuous run of buried gravel through which water can flow for drainage
purposes.

gabion—A connected system of wicker or metal cages filled with brush or rock and used for
slope protection or stabilization.

gangway—A pedestrian or handcart bridge affording access from shore or a shore-connected
fixed pier to a floating structure (sometimes called brow).

grid (gridiron)—A woven or welded metal mat or framework used for ramps, slope
stabilization, or erosion control.

guide piles—The piles in a floating dock system that resist the horizontal displacement of the
system but allow and guide its vertical movement with changes in the level of the water
surface.

299

gunwale—The upper edge of the side of a ship or a boat.
harbormaster—The officer who executes the regulations respecting the use of a harbor.

harbor service—The action taken and facilities provided by the harbor administration for the
benefit and protection of the harbor patrons.

head—A toilet in a boat or a ship.

head walk—The main walkway on a multislip pier. Usually more substantial structurally
than finger piers; supports the utility lines and may support the lighting system,
firefighting equipment, and locker boxes.

heave—The rhythmic vertical displacements of an entire craft due to sea, swell, or boat

Waves.

impact statement—A report on the expected effects or influence any development will have

on its environment.
interstices—The internal spaces or voids in a rubble-mound structure.

jetty—(1) (U.S. usage) On open seacoasts, a structure extending into a body of water, and
designed to prevent shoaling of a channel by littoral materials, and to direct and confine
the stream or tidal flow. Jetties are built at the mouth of a river or tidal inlet to help
maintain and stabilize a channel. (2) (British usage) Jetty is synonymous with wharf or

pier.

king piles—The primary structural pile members that carry or support the panels, sheating,
or sheet piles of a diaphragm breakwater or bulkhead.

land access—Means provided for reaching any facility in the water from shore.

marina—A small-craft harbor complex that includes most or all of the support and ancillary
facilities needed or desired by boatmen, such as launching equipment, repair facility, a
fueling station, restrooms, marine hardware supply, and restaurants. This term is used to

describe harbors that are intended primarily for recreational craft.

operational Jaunching—Boat launching on a routine in-and-out basis at the boater’s option,

as distinguished from initial or seasonal launching.

300

orthogonal—On a wave-refraction diagram, a line drawn perpendicularly to the wave crests.

oscillation—A periodic motion backward and forward. To vibrate or vary above and below a
mean value.

pierhead line—The limiting line to which any pier or dock structure can extend into the
main channel area.

pitch—The rotational oscillations of a craft about its transverse axis under wave excitation.

prevailing winds—The characteristic and most commonly occurring winds, both in
magnitude and direction, observed at a given location.

profile height—The quotient obtained by dividing the cross-sectional area of a craft’s end
(or side) profile above the water surface by the overall width (or length) of that craft.

project bottom depth—The design depth of a basin or channel, usually measured below a
given water surface elevation such as mean low water. Authorized depth to be

maintained.

protected water—Sheltered water areas, protected either by natural or manmade wave

barriers, which are adequate for the safe mooring of watercraft.

pumpout station—A facility for removal of sanitary wastes from a boat’s holding tank or
head.

reach—A length, distance, or leg of a channel or other watercourse.
rebar—Reinforcing bar or rod imbedded in a concrete structure.

refraction diagram—A drawing showing successive positions of a wave crest and/or

orthogonals in a given area for a specific deepwater wave period and direction.

residual wave action—Wave action that remains after an incident wave has been partially
attenuated, reflected, absorbed, or otherwise modified by any natural or manmade
obstacle.

resonance—The phenomenon of amplification of a free wave or oscillation of a system by a

forced wave or oscillation of exactly equal period. The forced wave may arise from an

impressed force upon the system or from boundary conditions.

301

revetment—A facing of stone, concrete, or other material, built to protect a scarp,

embankment, or shore structure against erosion by wave action or currents.

riprap—A layer, facing, or protective mound of stones randomly placed to prevent erosion,

scour, or sloughing of a structure or embankment. Also the stone so used.

riser—A vertical pipe, post, or support extending above deck level to support utility outlets

and other facilities.

roadstead—(Nautical) A sheltered area of water near shore where vessels may anchor in

relative safety. Also road.
rock—Stone in the mass, as in a quarry or rock stratum.
roll—The rotational oscillations of a craft about its longitudinal axis under wave excitation.

rubble mound—A mound of random-shaped and random-placed stones protected with a
cover layer of selected stones or specially shaped concrete armor units. (Armor units in

primary cover layer may be placed in orderly manner or dumped at random.)

rub strake—A longitudinal rib or protective strip running along the hull of a craft to

function as a bumper.
scend—The sinkage of a craft in the trough of a wave.

scour—Removal of underwater material by waves and currents, especially at the base or toe

of a shore structure.
screw—A propeller on any type of craft.

sea—(1) An ocean, or alternatively a large body of (usually) saltwater smaller than an ocean.
(2) Waves caused by wind at the place and time of observation. (3) State of the ocean or

lake surface in regard to waves.

section modulus—A relative measure of the ability of a cross-sectional configuration to resist
bending forces. Technically, the maximum allowable bending movement of a homoge-

nous beam divided by its maximum allowable fiber stress.

seiche—A standing wave oscillation of an enclosed water body that continues, pendulum

fashion, after the cessation of the originating force.

302

sheet pile—A pile with a generally flat cross section to be driven into the ground or seabed

and meshed or interlocked with like members to form a diaphragm, wall, or bulkhead.
shingle—(1) Loosely and commonly, any beach material coarser than ordinary gravel,
especially any having flat or flattish pebbles. (2) Strictly and accurately, beach material
of smooth, well-rounded pebbles that are roughly the same size. The spaces between
pebbles are not filled with finer materials. Shingle often gives out a musical note when

stepped on.

shoal—(verb) (1) To become shallow gradually. (2) To cause to become shallow. (3) To

proceed from a greater to a lesser depth of water.

shoal—(noun) A detached elevation of the sea bottom comprised of any material except

rock or coral, and which may endanger surface navigation.

significant wave height—The average height of the one-third highest waves of a given wave
group. Note that the composition of the highest waves depends upon the extent to which
the lower waves are considered. In wave record analysis, the average height of the highest
one-third of a selected number of waves, this number being determined by dividing the
time of record by the significant period.

slip—A berthing space between two finger piers.

sonic probe—Investigation or exploration of depths by use of radio or sound pulse echos.

spalls—Small fragments or chips of stone.

squat—The vertical downward displacement of a craft under power with respect to its

position in the water when not underway.
stone—Quarried rock. Also, any individual piece of rock broken away from its original mass.
stringers—The relatively long, main, horizontal beams that support the deck of a fixed pier
or dock between bearing points. In a floating structure, the continuous beams (usually
along the sides) that join a series of floating modules.

submarine canyon—A cut or gorge in the Continental Shelf.

substrata—The layers of material beneath the surface soil.

303

support facilities—Installations or services needed to support the functions, such as utility
services, fueling stations, repair and launching facilities, the harbor headquarters, and

restrooms.

surcharge loading—Any load applied to the surface area immediately behind a retaining wall,
bulkhead, or embankment.

surge—The name applied to wave motion with a period intermediate between that of the
ordinary wind wave and that of the tide, say from 30 seconds to 60 minutes. It is of low
height; usually less than 0.3 foot.

swell—Wind-generated waves that have traveled out of their generating area.

temperature rebars—Reinforcing bars provided primarily to resist temperature and shrinkage

stresses in concrete.

tidal prism—The total amount of water that flows into a harbor or estuary and out again

with movement of the tide, excluding any freshwater flow.

trailing floating slips—Floating (usually multiboat) slips that aline themselves with the
prevailing river current. Although they must be secured against downstream displace-
ment, they do not require guide piles.

training wall—A wall or jetty designed to direct or stabilize current flow.

transient boater—A boater within the confines of a harbor that is not his home base facility.

tremie-poured concrete—Concrete poured under water through a tube (tremie) and cured
below the water surface. The placement process systematically displaces a given water
volume with concrete, with very little dilution of the fresh concrete by water

penetration.

tsunami—A long-period wave caused by an underwater disturbance such as volcanic eruption

or earthquake. Commonly miscalled tidal wave.

unwater—To pump the water out of an enclosed basin to permit construction in the dry of

any facilities to be built within the enclosure.

updrift—The direction opposite that of the predominant movement of littoral materials.

304

wale—A strake, rib, ridge, or raised reinforcing strip along any structure. A horizontal
stringer along a sheet-pile bulkhead to which tie rods are attached or against which king
piles bear.

water exchange—Cyclic replacement from outside sources of water in a basin. This may

occur as a result of tidal action, river currents, forced circulation, or other means.

wave attenuation—Reduction of wave height or amplitude for any reason as the wave is

propagated from one area to another.

wave breaker—A device that absorbs a large amount of wave energy with respect to the

amount it reflects or transmits.

wave convergence—(1) In refraction phenomena, the decreasing of the distance between
orthogonals. Denotes an area of increasing wave height and energy concentration. (2) In
wind setup phenomena, the increase in setup observed over that which would occur in an
equivalent rectangular basin of uniform depth, caused by changes in planform or depth;

also the decrease in basin width or depth causing such increase.
wave energy—The theoretical capacity of a wave to do work.

wave hindcasts—The calculation from historic synoptic wind charts of the characteristics of

waves that probably occurred at some past time.

wave period—The time for a wave crest to traverse a distance equal to one wavelength. The

time for two successive wave crests to pass a fixed point.

wave propagation—Transmission of waves through water.

wave refraction—(1) The process by which the direction of a wave moving in shallow water
at an angle to the contours is changed. The part of the wave advancing in shallower water
moves more slowly than that part still advancing in deeper water, causing the wave crest
to bend toward alinement with the underwater contours. (2) The bending of wave crests
by currents.

wave steepness—The ratio of the wave height to the wavelength.

weep hole—A drainage or pressure relief opening in an otherwise watertight structure.

305

wind setup—(1) The vertical rise in the stillwater level on the leeward side of a body of
water caused by wind stresses on the surface of the water. (2) The difference in stillwater
levels on the windward and the leeward sides of a body of water caused by wind stresses
on the surface of the water. (3) Synonymous with wind tide and storm surge. Storm
surge is usually reserved for use on the ocean and large bodies of water. Wind setup is

usually reserved for use on reservoirs and smaller bodies of water.

306

APPENDIX B

AWPI GUIDELINES FOR PRESSURE TREATED WOOD

307

APPENDIX B

AWPI Technical Guidelines

For Pressure Treated Wood

$2

1970

Bulkheads: Design and Construction—Part |

SUMMARY

This bulletin describes several variations of bulkhead
construction, including two principal types of anchor-
age systems. The reader is given summaries of both
the proper construction sequence and the design
procedures. The step-by-step descriptions will be dis-
cussed in Parts It and II! and will assist the designer
in completing the design and specification of treated
timber bulkheads.

INTRODUCTION

There are many approaches to bulkhead design and
construction. Three typical systems are shown in Figs
1, 2 and 3. These systems illustrate the differences
that may be expected under varying site conditions,
Particularly with respect to variations in water levels.
An engineer or architect who is not experienced in
the design of bulkheads may want to rely upon con-
sultants for the design of critical bulkheads and sea-
walls, the latter being a bulkhead exposed to more
severe forces ;

The principal difference between a bulkhead and a
retaining or crib wall is that a bulkhead is built near
water, adding an additional design factor. In designing
bulkheads, the architect and engineer can utilize their
experiences with design of similar earth-retaining
structures. The main question that may arise is how to
cope with the presence of water. Therefore, the pur-
pose of this bulletin is to show where information about
the effects of water can be found and to express, in
concise terms, the procedures that bulkhead designers
have consistently used.

The designs in this bulletin are relatively conserva-
tive. Where existing soil conditions are superior to
those assumed in these design procedures, the thick-
nesses of sheet pilings and the sizes and spacings of
tie rods and anchor systems can be reduced. Yet,
precisely because these procedures are somewhat
conservative, they may be used with confidence.

TYPICAL TIMBER BULKHEADS

Figure 1 shows a conservatively-designed, low bulk-
head for installation where the existing grade along
the sheet piles is somewhat higher than the low-water
level. Figure 2 shows an intermediate bulkhead suit-
able for retaining fill at the site of a marina or for
providing a finished waterfront in a housing develop-

© 1969 AMERICAN WOOD PRESERVERS INSTITUTE

ment. If these bulkheads are located further in shore,
or if the outside water level variations are less than
shown in the figures, the heights of bulkheads and
lengths of sheet piles may be reduced.

The anchorage systems shown in these two figures
Gepend upon the passive resistance of a mound of
earth immediately around the anchor post and wales.
The theoretical mound required to develop this pas-
sive resistance is shown by a dotted line. If backfill
were placed directly against the sheet piles before
this mound of earth is compacted around the anchor
system, the resulting forces would displace the bulk-
head or even push it over, resulting in a costly and
disastrous failure. After earth is compacted over the
anchorage system, backfill can be deposited against
the sheet piles by a drag line, truck dumping, hydraulic
pipe line, or other suitable method

Figure 3 shows a bulkhead suitable for the deep-
water portions of marinas, or for locations where the
existing water depths are 6 to 8 feet and extensive
land fills are desirable. The anchorage system is a
self-supporting A-frame that does not depend on pas-
sive earth resistance. The anchor system is particu-
larly adaptable to filling by the hydraulic method
because the backfill can be raised behind the sheet
piles without regard for the placement of backfill at
the anchorage location

To install the A-frame anchorage, a pile-driving rig
is required to drive the piles to specified bearing
Capacity. At locations with less water-level variation
than the 4 feet shown, the height of finished grade
may be lowered proportionally. For an increase in
water-level variation, a similar increase in height of
finished grade can be made with a corresponding
reduction in water depth. The 5-foot vertical distance
from finished grade to tie rod level should be main-
tained.

CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES

The proper sequence for bulkhead construction is:

1. Drive all round timber piles, both vertical and
battered; set or drive all posts.

2. Using bolts, attach the horizontal wales for the
sheet piles and the anchorage system.
Drive sheet piling.
Complete all bolted connections and install tie
rods.

308

APPENDIX B—Continued

Mean High Woter

memos
(See

Fender Piles >

Fig. 2: Bulkhead design, four-foot water depth.

from the standpoint of foundation support for shore
structures.

lf the hydraulic method is used for backfilling, pro-
vide sufficient drainage to permit rapid escape of
water at the ends of the construction area, both to
prevent formation of pools and to maintain as low a
free-water level in the backfill as possible. Although
the bulkhead is designed to hold earth, it may not be
designed to resist water pressures that can be gen-
erated during hydraulic filling.

One method of facilitating drainage is to provide
openings through the sheet piling above the level of
the outside wale Space these openings at intervals
of about 60 feet to supplement the escape of drain-
age water. The final three feet of backfill adjacent to
the sheet piles should be put into place by earth mov-
ing equipment to avoid hydrau'ic pressures at the upper
portions of the bulkhead. The hydraulic discharge line
should be parallel to the bulkhead alignment, not
directed at it, and should be located at least 100 feet
behind the bulkhead sheet piling.

€ 10° 12” 2 14'.0"

4" 212" x 160" T&G

DESIGN STEPS

At a construction site, the natural conditions that exert
the most influence on the design of any waterfront
structure are water level variation, wave action, and
type of soil. Ice conditions are a special consideration
for locations subject to the effects of solid ice sheets,
floating ice fields,or large ice packs.

Removal Of Poor Quality Soils

Often the natural soil is capable of providing the
necessary resistance for the lower ends of the sheet
piling in seawalls, bulkheads, and groins. However, if
the bottom soil is soft silt, mud, or Soft clay, it should
be removed and replaced with granular materials.

In most cases, earth fill is required above the exist-
ing ground line for some distance shoreward from the
face of the sheet piling. The filling material for a suffi-
cient width to encompass the anchor system should
be predominantly granular in nature, even though it
may be necessary to transport it from a considerable
distance. (continued, part Il)

309

APPENDIX B—Continued

A 1” diam. x 18-2" Tie Rods
with Turnbuchles
spaced @ 10’0"

67 2 8" x 10°0" Woled>

<€ Wale 6” » 8” x 16-0"

Piling T&G
12” of 3” x 10”
0"

Meon High Woter

Fig. 1: Bulkhead design, zero-foot water depth.

5. Place the backfill Where passive resistance
anchorage systems are used, be certain to place
fill over the anchors before backfilling behind
the sheet-pile wall.

Establish accurate survey lines as a control for the
construction of water front.and shore-protection struc-
tures and anchorage systems. Exercise care in locat-
ing positions of round piles and posts that support
horizontal timbers that will be used as driving guides
for sheet piles. In all cases, use a driving guide for
sheet piles. preferably the permanent horizontal wale
that is attached to the vertical round piling or posts.
(See Figs 1. 2, and 3.)

It is particularly important to drive the first few sheet

. piles accurately vertical in all directions. The wall must
be plumb and the sheet piles must not be inclined
within the plane of the wall. One of the common prob-
lems facing piling contractors is ‘creep,’ the tendency
for successive sheet piles to lean more and more in
the direction of construction of the wall. The wall can
be perfectly plumb, yet piles can lean; this error in
alignment tends to accumulate and, if left uncorrected,
can create considerable difficulties in driving succes-

= - a.

SNE AUN ES
ANG awh »

Lp. first Stoge
of Filling

sive piles. A discussion of this situation and how to
correct it is given in Ref. 1, pp. 332 and 333.

As sheet-pile driving proceeds, place the tongue of
each new sheet in the forward position and the groove
in tight contact with the tongue of the sheet previously
driven. Keep the joints between piles as tight as prac-
ticable. Remember that the maximum allowable open-
ing at joints is % inch for splined and Wakefield piling
and % inch for tongue-and-groove piling. If wider
joints appear after the sheet piles have been spiked
to the outer wale, cover them with treated timber lath
to prevent the backfill material from gradually filtering
through the cracks and being lost.

Wherever passive-resistance anchorage systems are
used, the anchorage must be well covered with a com-
pacted mound of earth before backfill material is
deposited to any appreciable depth against the piling.
Otherwise, the pressures generated by the backfill may
disrupt the sheet piling and the anchorage system

Use a predominately granular material for backfill
adjacent to the sheet piling and over the anchorage
system. Shoreward of the anchorage, a poorer quality
filling material may be used unless it is objectionable

310

APPENDIX B—Continued

A 148" diom. x 23'-0" Tie Rod @ 8'-0”

€ Shoet Piling, Splined
6” 2” x 22'-0”

STEM ETETIS SME TSE ETE

Meon High Water Predominantly Gronular Fill

One Pile 35'-0" >/ / <€ Two piles 25'-0”
//
Fender Piles U
22'-0” Minimum >

Fig. 3: Bulkhead design, eight-foot water depth.

oll

APPENDIX B—Continued

AWPI Technical Guidelines

For Pressure Treated Wood

$3

1970

Bulkheads: Design and Construction—Part Il

SUMMARY

This bulletin discusses the nine (9) procedures which
are required in the design for anchored bulkhead con-
struction. The step-by-step descriptions which include
some basic information are presented in detail from
steps la through Ig. Descriptions from step 2 through
step 9 will be discussed in later bulletins
Design Steps
Several steps are required in the design of an
anchored bulkhead as follows:
1. Determine the following basic information: (See
Fig. 4.)
Water depth required (by owner)
Water level variation in front of sheet piling
(From Tide Tables.)

. Effects of scour (elevation of stable mudline)
Ground water level behind bulkhead at time
of low-water level in front
Level of finished grade behind bulkhead
Types of soil available for backfill and for
resisting movement of lower ends of sheet
piling; unit weights of moist and submerged
soils. (See Table 2.)

Amount of vertical surcharge loads (if any)
anticipated on ground behind bulkhead
(determined from proposed use of site)
Prepare earth-pressure diagrams for inner and
outer faces of sheet piling to obtain resultant
pressure diagram. (See Figs. 6 and 7, Part Ill.)
Determine depth of sheet pile penetration
Determine pull in tie rods
Compute bending moment in sheet piling
Determine required thickness of sheet piling
Determine size and spacing of tie rods
Determine bending moment and required size of
wales.
Design anchorage to resist for tie-rod pull
Each cf these steps is described in detail and in
sequence in the following paragraphs

WATER DEPTH REQUIRED (Step Ia)

The depth of water against the face of a timber bulk-
head must be determined before the bulkhead can
be designed. If the bulkhead is simply a ‘retaining
wall’’ for shore protection of a building site, the depth
of water may simply be whatever naturally results
when the bulkhead is constructed along the desired
shoreline

Elsewhere, in a marina for example, the depth of
water may depend upon the types of boats that may
be brought adjacent to the bulkhead: The property
owner, or the developer of the marina, may establish
minimum requirements for water depth. Some dredg-
ing may be required to achieve these depths, although,
generally, the least costly solution is to place the bulk-
head farther from shore in deeper water.

WATER LEVEL VARIATION (Step 1b)

At coastal locations, the water level variation on the
exposed face of the sheet piling may be obtained from
tide tables published by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey and by the Navy Oceanographic Office. At
inland locations adjacent to lakes and rivers, seasonal
records of high- and low-water levels may be used.
These latter data are available from offices of the
Corps of Engineers, state or local conservation
agencies, city or county engineers, and building
officiais.

The ‘‘design value’ used for the ‘high-water level”
requires some judgment. This value need not be the
highest water level ever recorded in the vicinity, but
should be a reasonably high value that, statistically, is
expected to occur within the design life of the
structure

DEPTH OF SCOUR (Step 1c)

The construction of a bulkhead may deflect wave
energy in such a way that it erodes the bottom material
adjacent to the sheet piling. This is most likely to occur
in shallow depths, especially if mean low water is less
than two feet. It is advisable to assume that the energy
deflection. occurring at the time of intermediate and
higher tide stages. will erode the bottom material to
a depth of 2 or 3 feet below mean low water.

Accordingly, when lacking more definitive data,
assume a minimum low-water depth of 2 to 3 feet
This will result in a requirement for slightly longer sheet
piling, but will prevent the failure that can occur if the
bottom material is eroded to the extent that the sheet
piling may be shoved out of place.

WATER LEVEL IN THE BACKFILL (Step 1d)

The ground-water level in the backfill will rise and fall
as the tide rises and ‘alls. This is caused mostly by
natural percolation of water through the soil, behind
the lower portions of ine bulkhead wall, rather than

©1970AMERICAN WOOD PRESERVERS INSTITUTE 2600 Virginia Ave., N. W. Washington, D. C. 20037

312

APPENDIX B—Continued

Finished Grade

TTR RT NM STROZ

Wave Allowance >
High Woter Level

we
ater 23 | Water level/ini Backfill (Vories)

€ Unbolonced Pressure

Pressure Due to Woter log

Distribution >
Diagram

€ Bottom of Sheet Piling

Fig. 4: Bulkhead or seawall, basic vertical dimensions.

by passage of water through cracks in the bulkhead
Because the soil slows down the flow of water some-
what, the ground-water level behind the bulkhead is
seldom the same as the free-water level on the sea-
ward side. As the tide rises, the ground water level
rises, but ata slower rate. Similarly, as the tide recedes,
the ground-water level falls, also at a Slower rate. The
distance between these two water levels is called the
water lag (Fig. 4).

When the free water is higer than the ground water
there is no particular design problem. The water pres-
sure is resisted by the soil backfill. But when the
ground-water level is higher than the free water, there
is an outward pressure that is resisted only by the
wall and its anchorage system. The net effect of the
ground-water pressure !s similar to that of the backfill
against the bulkhead. The outward pressure of both
water and soil must be considered in the design of a
bulkhead wall

To determine the ground-water level, dig a hole
behind the sheet piles of any nearby bulkhead. Water
will rise and fall to measurable levels. If no bulkheads
exist in the vicinity, use a minimum value of one foot,
Or a maximum of one-half the tidal variation, for the
water lag.

Table 1: Estimated Wave/Bulkhead Heights

Minimum Height of Bulkhead
above high water level, as
allowance for wave action

Wave Height
Crest to Trough

1 to 2 ft
2to3ftt

As the water level recedes during ebb tide, the water
in the ground behind the sheeting will escape through
any openings left in the wall, carrying away the finer
particles of the soil backfill. During numerous tidal
interchanges, large quantities of backfill can escape
in this manner, unless tight joints are provided between
sheet piles. Figure 5 shows joints used to minimize
losses.

FINISHED ELEVATIONS (Step 1e)

Figure 4 indicates the criteria used to determine the
basic vertical dimensions of a bulkhead. The finished
elevation of the bulkhead and backfill were established
by allowing for wave action above the high water leve:

Wave height is a function of wind velocity and dura-
tion, of expanse of water (fetch) over which the wind
blows, and of water depth. Reference’ 2 describes ,
methods for estimating wave height and period under
various site conditions

In protected areas, where treated timber bulkheads
have their best application, the length of fetch and
water depth are limited. Consequently in most cases
the expected wave heights are in the range of 1 to
2 feet

Use Table 1 to estimate wave action, where a more
precise calculation is not required. By observing the
heights of existing structures in a particular locality,
experience can often be used as a guide in arriving
at the elevation of the finished grade

AVAILABLE SOIL MATERIALS (Step 1f)

Granular materials, such as sand and gravel are
preferred for backfill behind bulkheads and for base

Table 2: Unit Weights of Soils and Coefficients of Earth Pressure

Unit Weight of Soil
Pounds per cubic toot

Min

Clean Sand:
Dense 140 65
Medium 130 60
Loose 125

Max
78
68

56 63
Silty Sand:
Dense 150 70 88
60 68
50 63

Medium 130
Loose 125

Backfill

Active Earth Pressure Passive Earth Pressure
Moist Submerged] Coefficient. K,

Angles Coefficient, K, Angles
Soils of tor of

in Friction, | Soils in Place Friction,
Place | Degrees Degrees

313

APPENDIX B—Continued

%" deep by

square 154" wide
von Spline > oa SPs groove,
CB me each side

< From one
6" x12"
rough

€ From three
2” x10" of 2” x 12”
Rough

eae
a” wide
” Offset Tongue > TS.

ULEFES

ive eitane
Groove

€ From one
47 10" of 47 x 12”
Rough

Fostened with two 2” diam.

bolts
18” centers

SPLINED

Fig. 5: Types of sheet piling.

materials into which sheet piles are driven. Granular
materials have several characteristics that make them
desirable. The active pressures they exert on bulk-
heads are considerably less than those exerted by
silts and clays or even by sands that are “‘contami-
nated” with silt or clay. Granular materials can develop
a higher passive resistance, permitting the use of
shorter sheet piles

It is often preferable to bring granular materials to
the construction site by truck or other conveyance
rather than to backfill with silt or clay. In the final
analysis, a judgment is required. A designer must
determine whether it is more economical or otherwise
more desirable to increase the thicknesses of materials
in the bulkhead rather than to transport granular
materials from far distances. Fortunately, granular
materials are quite often readily available near bodies
of water.

Granular material also promotes drainage behind
the bulkhead and is less likely to be eroded away
through minor fissures in the bulkhead as the water
level rises and falls. The drainage is advantageous
wherever the backfill is to be used for roadways, side-
walks, parks, yards, and so on. Grass and plants will
grow better ima soil that is moderately well drained;
the granular material will not shrink and swell with
alternate drying and wetting to the same degree that
clay will. The backfilled area is not likely to resemble
a marshy bog where drainage is provided through
granular materials. Where lawns and other plantings
are required, a relatively thin layer of top soil can be
placed over the granular material.

Where the material at the shoreline is silt or Clay,
the passive resistance will be very low. This will require
lengthening the sheet piling to obtain sufficient passive
resistance to avert a failure. The greater length of
sheet piling induces a higher degree of bending in the
piling, requiring a thicker piling than would otherwise
be needed

WAKEFIELD

ond two 30d nails at

TONGUE AND GROOVE

Under these circumstances, the designer should
consider removing the poor soil and replacing it with
a granular material, such as clean sand. The cost Is
often far less than that of providing thicker materials
and more elaborate anchorage systems for the
bulkhead.

SURCHARGE (Step 1g)

Where the backfill behind a bulkhead will be used for
supporting loads above and beyond that of the earth
itself, for example a road or street subject to automo-
bile traffic, the effect of these additional forces must
be considered in the design of the bulkhead. To sim-
plify the design, lighter loadings are translated into
surcharges for convenience in design. Surcharges
are uniform loadings applied to the surface of the
finished elevation. Lateral earth pressures resulting
from surcharges are calculated in the same manner
as the lateral earth pressure of the soil behind the
bulkhead itself:

The magnitude of the surcharge depends upon the
use to which the land adjacent to the bulkhead will
be put. Only a very small surcharge would be required
for a footpath; heavier surcharges for light vehicles.
Where automobile and truck loadings will occur, refer
to authoritative texts. such as the AASHO Bridge Spe-
cifications, for load data. (continued, port Ill)

REFERENCES

1. Chellis, Robert D.. Pile Foundations, McGraw-
Hill, 1961.

2.U. S. Army—Coastal Engineering Research
Center, Shore Protection, Planning and Design, Tech-
nical Report No. 4, Third Edition, 1966.

3. Terzaghi, Karl, “Anchored Bulkheads,” Trans-
actions, ASCE 1954 (Vol. 119) pp. 1243 to 1324.

314

APPENDIX B—Continued

AWPI Technical Guidelines S4

For Pressure Treated Wood

1970

Bulkheads: Design and Construction—Part III

SUMMARY

This bulletin discusses the remaining eight (8) pro-
cedures which are required in the design for anchored
bulkhead construction Part Il of the series on Bulk-
heads: Design and Construction, presented nine (9)
design steps and Cciscussed Steps 1a through 1g The
step-by-step descriptions which include some basic
information are presented in detail trom steps two (2)
through nine (9)

EARTH PRESSURE DIAGRAMS (Design Step 2)

The sheet piles are driven into the ground to hold
earth on one side of the wall at a higher level than on
the other. The pressure exerted against the sheet pies
by the retained earth is called active earth pressure
The pressure exerted by the earth on the low side in
resistance to lateral movement of the sheet piling is
known as the passive earth pressure Because cohe-
sive soils can resist higher forces than they can
create, the allowable passive pressure is virtially
always higher than the active Pressure occasionally
nearly ten times as much

The magnitude and distributicn cf active pressure
against a sheet pile wall depends on a numter of fac-
tors. These factors include the physica! properties of
the retained earth, the friction between the earth and
the sheet pile wall, the amount of deflection of the
wall, and the flexibility of the sheet piles. Similar fac-

tors influence the magnitude and distribution of the
Passive earth pressure. For a discussion of the
behavior of sheetpile walls and the influence of var-
tous factors on the active and passive earth pressures,
see Ret 1 c

Customarily. the lateral earth pressures are prcpor-
tional to the vertical pressure at any given level. If
the symbol P.. designates the vertical pressure at any
giver: level (weight of overlying soil) the lateral pres-
sures are expressed as KaPv for active pressure and
as KeP, for passive Thesymbcls Kaand Kp, are known,
as coefficients of earth pressure In determining the
vertical pressure Py at any level in the soil for bulk-
head design, the unit weight ts that of moist earth
above and that of submerged éarth below, the free
waier surface

Sands are classified as dense. medium. or loose, to
approximately descrite the censity, and as clean or
silty to indicate tne absence or presence of fine mate-
nals These physical properties influence both the unit
weights of the material and the earth pressure coe‘fi-
cients Table 1 showing some physicai properties for
clean and silty sand, is from Ref. 1, p. 1268

For Gesigning timber sheet piie walls backfilled with
predominately grandular materials and driven into nat-
ural undisturbed deposits, the following average vaiues
may be used for the unit weights of sand and for the
earth pressure coefficients:

Table 1: Unit Weights of Soils and Coefficients of Earth Pressure

Unit Weight of Soil Neti
Pounds per cubic foot

Submerged Coetfi

Backfill

Clean Sand:
Dense
Medium
Loose

Silty Sand:
Dense
Medium
Loose

ve Earth Pressure Passive Earth Pressure

maaeiee Coetficient, Ka Angles
of of

Friction Soil ae Friction
Degrees a Degrees

cient, Ka
——

©1970 AMERICAN WOOD PRESERVERS INSTITUTE, 1651 Old Meadow Read, Mclean, Va. 22101

315

APPENDIX B—Continued

Unit weight of moistsand ....... 100 Ib per cu ft
Unit weight of submerged sand ... 60 Ib per cu ft
Ke = 5.0
Ka = 3.0

For sand fills. Ke = 3.0

Preparation of Earth Pressure Diagrams

Figure 7 shows a typical combined lateral pressure
diagram for the bulkhead illustrated in Fig. 2, part 1
(S2). Granular materials are assumed throughout, with
the material below the outside bottom assumed as un-
disturbed soil The combined lateral pressure diagram
is obtained from the diagrams on Fig. 6 showing the
separate effects of active earth pressure, water lag,
and passive earth pressure. The active earth pressure
increases at a rate of KaWe, where Ka is taken as 0.3
and We is effective unit weight of earth. We is taken as
100 pounds per cubic foot (pcf) above the free water
surface within the backfill and as 60 pcf below the free
water surface. Hence the active earth pressure
increases at a rate of 30 pcf above the free water sur-
face and at 18 pcf for the submerged earth.

The available passive earth pressure increases ata
rate of KeWe but, to allow for a factor of safety (Fs)
against the outward movement of the lower ends of
the sheet piles, the rate of increase in the passive pres-
sure is taken as KpWe/Fs. The factor of safety against
the outward movement of the sheet piles should be in
the range of 1.5 to 2.0. Hence, if Fs is taken as 1.67
and Ke is 5.0, the rate of increase for the passive pres-
sure, including allowance for the factor of safety is:

(5.0,1.67) X 60 pcf (Submerged earth) = 180 pct

The free water surface behind the sheet piling for
the diagrams in Fig. 6 is taken as 1.0 foot above the
Outside water level, which for the purpose of analysis
is taken as MLW because the maximum outward forces
occur at low water level. The unbalanced water pres-
sure due to this one-foot water lag augments the out-
ward pressures of the earth.

Assuming that sea water, weighs 64 pcf, the water
lag pressure has a constant value of 64 pounds per
square foot (psf) from MLW level to the level of the

470 pif

-
c—
ee
ae

outside bottom at elevation minus four teet (-4.0)
Although the water lag pressure probably decreases
from its value of 64 psf at the level of the outside bot-
tom (-4.0) to a zero value at the bottom of the sheet
piles, the assumption is often made that the water-lag
pressure continues at a constant value to the bottom
of the sheet piles as shown by the solid line in Fig.
6b and 6d. This assumption simplifies the computation
Process in arriving at the combined lateral pressure
diagram, because the required depth of penetration
for the sheet piling remains to be determined at the
time that the construction of the pressure diagrams is
in progress

Thus the slope, or rate of increase of the combined
Pressure diagram below elevation 4.0 in Fig. 7 is sim-
ply the difference between the value of 180 pcf for
the passive pressure and 18 pcf for the active pres-
sure, giving 162 pcf if the water-lag pressure remains
at its constant value of 64 psf to the bottom of the
sheet piles

The diagram for active earth pressure plus water
lag shown in Fig. 6d is obtained by adding the pres-
sure diagrams shown in figs. 6a and 6b. The combined
Pressure diagram shown in Fig. 7 results from adding
the pressure diagrams shown on the two sides of the
sheet piles in Fig. 6c and 6d.

DEPTH OF PENETRATION (Design Step 3)

The sheet piling must extend below the outside bottom
to a depth such that the total resultant force developed -
by the passive earth pressure will be of sufficient mag-
nitude and so located that, together wiih the tie roa
reaction, it will equalize the effects of the summation
of outward loads produced by the combined active
earth pressure and water lag pressure. This require-
ment is known as the equilibrium of moments condi-
tion about the tie rod reaction.

To determine the required depth of penetration, the
forces for the several pressure areas behind the bulk-
head, and the positions of their centers of gravity with
respect to the tie rod level are determined as shown
in Fig. 7. The moments of these forces about the tie

1500 psf

Pig. 6: Lateral Pressure Diagrams

APPENDIX B—Continued

6b: Water

60. Active Earth Pressure LeqiPresiore

Fig. 7: Pressure Diegram For Bulkhead.

rod level are computed as shown in the following
tabulation:

Force Arm Moment
540 pounds -1.0 Ft -540 Pound Ft
220 1.52 340

1,190 4.08 4,850

_ 340 6.69 2,280

2,290 6,930

The location of the zero value (point "0" in Fig. 7) for
the combined pressure diagram is found to be at a
dista..ce below the outside bcitom of:

334/162 = 2.06 ft.
The required penetration below point ‘'0"' is designated
by the letter “‘d’’. Then the equilibrium of moments
condition is expressed by the equation:

(162d?/2) (8.06 + 2d/3) = 6,930
This equation is best solved by trial, whence d = 2.92
ft. The total depth of penetration below outside bottom
is then 2.06 + 2.92 = 4.98 ft. The residual passive
pressure intensity at the bottom of the sheet piles is
computed as:

162 X 2.92 = 470 psf
The area of the residual passive pressure triangle is:

470 X 2.92 X 1/2 = 690 pounds per lineal foot of
wall.

TIE ROD REACTION (Design Step 4)

The tie reaction then becomes:
2,290 — 690 = 1,600 pounds per ft of wall.

BENDING MOMENT IN SHEET PILING (Design Step 5)

Bénding moment in sheet piling: Maximum moment
occurs at elevation of zero shear
Let 'Z" = distance below MLW to plane of zero shear.
Then in the case of Fig. 3 (Part 1, S2) Z is found as
follows:
Shear at MLW = 1,600 —540 —220 = 840 Ibs.
262Z + 1827/2 = 840 Ibs
Z = 2.92 ft.
Moments of forces above plane of zero shear taken

317

424 psf

6d: Active Eorth Pressure

6c: Possive Earth Pressure Plus Water log (6a & 6b)

with respect to plane of zero shear are shown in the
following tabulation:

Force Arm Moment
Clockwise Counter-
clockwise
1,600 -4.92 7,870
540 5.92 3,200
220 3.39 750
763 1.46 1,110
ue 0.97 mas)
1,600 5,135

Bending moment in sheet piling per foot of wall length
= 7870 — 5135 = 2735 ft-lbs. This is conventionally
called the ‘free earth support’? moment.

The ‘free earth support’’ moment may be reduced by
a factor of 30% to allow for beneficial effects related
to flexibility of sheet piling. (see Ref. 1, p. 1261.) Hence,
Design Bending Moment = 0.7 X 2,735 = 1,910 Ibs.
per foot.

SHEET PILING THICKNESS (Design Step 6)

Required thickness of sheet piling:

Try 4 X 12 sheeting, actual thickness = 3% inch
Section modulus = 12 x 3.6252/6 = 26.3 inch?
Bending stress = 1,970 X 12/26.3 = 870 psi

Try 3 X 12 sheeting, actual thickness = 2% inch
Section modulus = 12 x 2.6252/6 = 13.8 inch?
Bending stress = (1910 X 12)/13.8 = 1,660 psi

For sheet piling of common commercial grade, the 4-

inch thickness should be used.

TIE ROD SIZE AND SPACING (Design Step 7)

The size and spacing of tie rods must be compatible
with the design of the wales and anchorage. A spacing
of eight feet will be selected.

Tie Rod Pull = 8X 1,600 = 12,800 Ibs
For 1%-inch diameter tie rod, area at root of thread =
0.89 square inches.

Tensile stress = 12,900/0.89 = 14,400 psi.
This conservative unit stress is desirable to allow for
effects of corrosion, surcharges, unequal yield of
anchorages. and other variables

APPENDIX B—Continued

WALE SIZE (Design Step 8)

Bending moment in wales
a. Front Wale
Max moment over support
WIz.10 = 1,600 X 82.10 = 10 200 Ibs per foot
Deduct 2 inch width for tie rod hole
For 12 X 10 wale, width = 115 —20 = 95 depth
= 95
Section modulus = 9.5 X 9 52/6 = 143 inches?
Bending stress = (10,200 X 12)/143 = 850 psi
, 3 1,600 X 4.0
Horizontal shear = 2 x 95x95 ~ 107 psi
b Anchor Wale
Max moment over support =
Wa2/3 = 1,600 X 32/2 = 7,200 Ibs per toot
For 12 X 10 wale with 2 inch width squared deducted
for tie rod hole, bending stress = (7200 X 12)/143
= 600 psi

Max moment at L span = Wi2/8 —Wa?/2 = 1,600
X 8.3 -—7,200 = 5,600

Section modulus (no hole) = 115 X 93-6 = 173
inch?

Bending stress = 5,600 X 12.173 = 390 psi

PASSIVE RESISTANCE ANCHORAGE (Design Step 9)

The anchorage for the bulktiead shown on Fig 3 (Part
1) relies on passive resistance. To locate this anchor-
age at a safe distance behind the bulkhead, a slope
line is drawn from. the botto:n of the sheet piles to the
finished grade at an angle @ to the horizontal. where
0 is the angle of internal friction of the material. For
the sana backrill assumed. @ is iaken as 30 4ogrees
The upper edge of the ancncrage should be located
beneath this slope line

For a continuous anchorage, like that for the bulk-
head shown on Fig. 2 (Part 1) in which the height of

bearing contact is only one foot, with center of bearing
contact located 5 5 feet below the ground surface. the
ultimate resistance is approximately equal to the bear-
Ing capacity of a continuous strip of footing of one
foot width located at a depth of 55 feet See Ref 2.
p 231 The overburden pressure is 55 feet X 100
pounds per cubic foot which 1s 550 pounds per square
foot

Then by Ref 2. p 125

Ultimate Resistance = 550 Na. where Nas a bear-
ing capacity factor to be
taken from curve Naisread
as 7.0.

Ultimate Resistance = 550 X 7.0 = 3 850 nsf

For 7 foot length of anchor wale to each tie rod, the
ultimate resistance of the anchor wale is 7 x 1.0 x
3.850 = 26.950 pounds per tie rod With a tie rod
reaction of 1.60C pounds per foot, x 8 feet = 12,800
Pcunds. the factor of safety is 25,950,12,800 = 21
The res:starce of the anchor post would increase this
safety factor somewhat A value of 20 1s censidered
adequate !f an arbitrary iimit of 3,0CO pounds per
square foot (1 5 tons) is assumed for the ultimate
resistance as shown in Fig. 7 the total resistance
including the ancher post will still provide a safety
factor of 2.0.

REFERENCES

1 Cheliis Robert D., Pile Foundations, McGraw-Hill
1961

2 U.S A:rmy—Coastal Engineering Research Center,
Shore Prctecticn, Planning and Design. Technical
Report No. 4, Third Edition, 1966

3 Terzaghi. Karl, “Anchored Bulkheads,” Transac-
tions, ASCE 1954 (Vol. 119) pp. 1243 to 1324

318

APPENDIX C

ACI STANDARD
RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR SELECTING PROPORTIONS
FOR
NORMAL AND HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE

(ACI 211.1—74)

319

APPENDIX C

ACI Standard

Recommended Practice for Selecting Proportions for
Normal and Heavyweight Concrete (ACI 211.1-74)*

Reported by ACI Committee 211

JOHN R. WILSON

Chairman, Committee 211

EDWARD A. ABDUN-NUR
ROBERT A. BURMEISTER
WILLIAM A. CORDON
CLAYTON L. DAVIS
EDWIN A. DECKER
DONALD E. DIXON
FRANK G. ERSKINE

H. P. FAUERBY
RICHARD J. FRAZIER

A. T. HERSEY

WILLIAM W. HOTALING, JR.
EDWARD J. HYLAND
HECTOR I. KING

PAUL KLIEGER
FRANK J. LAHM
RICHARD C. MEININGER
JOHN T. MOLNAR
AUSTIN H. MORGAN, JR.

J. NEIL MUSTARD
FRANK P. NICHOLS, JR.
JOHN E. PALO

SANDOR POPOVICS
JOHN M. SCANLON, JR.
GEORGE W. WASHA
CECIL H. WILLETTS
CEDRIC WILLSON

JOHN C. WYCOFF

Describes, with examples, two methods for selecting and adjusting proportions for

normal weight concrete. One method is based on an estimated weight of the
concrete per unit volume; the other is based on calculations of the absolute volume
occupied by the concrete ingredients. The procedures take into consideration the
requirements for placeability, consistency, strength, and durability. Example calcu-
lations are shown for both methods, including adjustments based on the character-
istics of the first trial batch.

The proportioning of heavyweight concrete for such purposes as radiation shielding
and bridge counterweight structures is described in an appendix. This appendix uses
the absolute volume method which is generally accepted and is more convenient for
heavyweight concrete.

Keywords: absorption; aggregates; air entrainment; cement content; coarse aggregates; con-

crete durability; coneretes; consistency; durability; fine aggregates: heavyweight aggregates:
heavyweight concretes; mix proportioning; quality control: radiation shielding; slump tests: volume;

water-cement ratio.

1. SCOPE

1.1—This recommended practice describes meth-
ods for selecting proportions for concrete made
with aggregates of normal and high density (as
distinguished from lightweight and special high
density aggregates) and of workability suitable
for usual cast-in-place construction, (as distin-
guished from special mixtures for concrete prod-
ucts manufacture).

1.2—The methods provide a first approximation
of proportions intended to be checked by trial
batches in the laboratory or field and adjusted,
as necessary, to produce the desired character-
istics of the concrete.

1.3—U. S. customary units are used in the main
body of the text. Adaptation for the metric sys-
tem is provided in Appendix 1, and demonstrated
in an example problem in Appendix 2.

1.4—Test methods mentioned in the text are
listed in Appendix 3.

3

0

2. INTRODUCTION

2.1—Concrete is composed principally of ce-
ment, aggregates, ard water. It will contain some
amount of entrapped air and may also contain
purposely entrained air obtained by use of an
admixture or air-entraining cement. Admixtures
are also frequently used for other purposes such
as to accelerate, retard, improve workability, re-
duce mixing water requirement, increase strength,
or alter other properties of the concrete.

2.2—The selection of concrete proportions in-
volves a balance between reasonable economy
and requirements for placeability, strength, dura-
bility, density, and appearance. The required
characteristics are governed by the use to which
the concrete will be put and by conditions ex-

rican Concrete Institute

*Adopted as a standard of the
the

Am
May 1974. to supersede ACI 211.1-70, in accordance with
Institute standardization procedure.
Copyright © 1969, 1973, American Concrete Institute

APPENDIX C—Continued

pected to be encountered at the time of placement
These are often, but not always, reflected in speci-
fications for the job.

2.3—The ability to tailor concrete properties to
job needs reflects technological developments
which have taken place, for the most part, since
the early 1900s. The use of the water-cement ratio
as a tool for estimating strength was recognized
about 1918. The remarkable improvement in du-
rability resulting from the entrainment of air
was recognized in the early 1940s. These two
significant developments in concrete technology
have been augmented by extensive research and
development in many related areas, including the
use of admixtures to counteract possible de-

ficiencies, develop special properties, or achieve,

economy.* It is beyond the scope of this discus-
sion to review the theories of concrete propor-
tioning which have provided the background and
sound technical basis for the relatively simple
methods of this recommended practice. More de-
tailed information can be obtained from the list
of references.

2.4—Proportions calculated by any method
must always be considered subject to revision on
the basis of experience with trial batches. De-
pending on circumstances, the trial mixes may
be prepared in a laboratory or, perhaps pref-
erably, as full-size field batches. The latter pro-
cedure, when feasible, avoids possible pitfalls of
assuming that data from small batches mixed in
a laboratory environment. will predict- perfor-
mance under field conditions. Trial batch pro-
cedures and background testing are described in
Appendix 3.

3. BASIC RELATIONSHIP

3.1—Concrete proportions must be selected to
provide necessary placeability, strength, dura-
bility, and density for the particular application.
Well established relationships governing these
properties are discussed briefly below.

3.2—Placeability (including satisfactory finish-
ing properties) encompasses traits loosely ac-
cumulated in the terms “workability” and “con-
sistency.” For the purpose of this discussion,
workubility is considered to be that property of
concrete which determines its capacity to be
placed and consolidated properly and to be fin-
ished without harmful segregation. It embodies
such concepts as moldability, cohesiveness, and
compactability. It is affected by the grading,
particle shape and proportions of aggregate, the
amount of cement, the presence of entrained
air, admixtures, and the consistency of the mix-
ture. Procedures in this recommended practice
permit these factors to be taken into account to
achieve satisfactory placeability economically.

321

3.3—Consistency, loosely defined, is the wet-
ness of the concrete mixture. It is measured in
terms of slump—the higher the slump the wetter
the mixture—and it affects the ease with
which the concrete will flow during placement.
It is related to but not synonymous with work-
ability. In properly proportioned concrete, the
unit water content required to produce a given
slump will depend on several factors. Water re-
quirement increases as aggregates become more
angular and rough textured (but this disad-
vantage may be offset by improvements in other
characteristics such as bond to cement paste).
Required mxing water decreases as the maxi-
mum size of well graded aggregate is increased.
It also decreases with the entrainment of air.
Mixing water requirement may often be sig-
nificantly reduced by certain admixtures.

3.4—Strength. Strength is an important char-
acteristic of concrete, but other characteristics
such as durability, permeability, and wear re-
sistance are often equally or more important.
These may be related to strength in a general
way but are also affected by factors not sig-
nificantly associated with strength. For a given
set of materials and conditions, concrete strength
is determined by the net quantity of water used
per unit quantity of cement. The net water con-
tent excludes water absorbed by ihe aggregates.
Differences in strength for a given water-cement
ratio may result from changes in: maximum size
of aggregate; grading, surface texture, shape,
strength, and stiffness of aggregate particles; dif-
ferences in cement types and sources; air con-
tent; and the use of admixtures which affect the
cement hydration process or develop cementitious
properties themselves. To the extent that these
effects are predictable in the general sense, they
are taken into account in this recommended prac-
tice. However, in view of their number and com-
plexity, it should be obvious that accurate pre-
dictions of strength must be based on trial
batches or experience with the materials to be
used.

3.5—Durability. Concrete must be able to en-
dure those exposures which may deprive it of its
serviceability—freezing and thawing, wetting and
drying. heating and cooling, chemicals, deicing
agents. and the like. Resistance to some of these
may be enhanced by use of special ingredients:
low-alkali cement, pozzolans, or selected aggre-
gate to prevent harmful expansion due to the
alkali-agegregate reaction which occurs in some
areas when concrete is exposed in a moist en-
vironment: sulfate resisting cement or pozzolans
for concrete exposed to seawater or sulfate-

*See ACI Committee 212. “Admixtures for Concrete,” ACI
Journat, Proceedings V. 60, No. 11, Nov. 1963, pp. 1525-1534.

ACI STANDARD

APPENDIX C—Continued

bearing soils; or aggregate free of excessive soft
particles where resistance to surface abrasion is
required. Use of a low water-cement ratio will
prolong the life of concrete by reducing the
penetration of aggressive liquids. Resistance to
severe weathering, particularly freezing and
thawing, and to salts used for ice removal is
greatly improved by incorporation of a proper
distribution of entrained air. Entrained air should
be used in all exposed concrete in climates where
freezing occurs.*

3.6—Density. For certain applications concrete
may be used primarily for its weight characteris-
tic. Examples of applications are counterweights
on lift bridges, weights for sinking oil pipelines
under water, shielding from radiation, and for
insulation from sound. By using special aggre-
gates, placeable concrete of densities as high as
350 lb per cu ft can be obtained—see Appendix 4.

4. BACKGROUND DATA

4.1—To the extent possible, selection of con-
crete proportions should be based on test data or
experience with the materials actually to be
used. Where such background is limited or not
available, estimates given in this recommended
practice may be employed.

4.2—The following informaticn for available

materials will be useful:

4.2.1 Sieve analyses of fine and coarse ag-
gregates

4.2.2 Unit Weight of coarse aggregate

4.2.3 Bulk specific gravities and absorptions
of aggregates

4.2.4 Mixing water requirements of concrete
developed from experience with available aggre-
gates

4.2.5 Relationships between strength and wa-
ter-cement ratio for available combinations of
cement and aggregate

4.3—Estimates from Tables 5.3.3 and 5.3.4, re-
spectively, may be used when the last two items
of information are not available. As will be
shown, proportions.can be estimated without the
knowledge of aggregate specific gravity and ab-
sorption, Item 4.2.3.

5. PROCEDURE

5.1—The procedure for selection of mix propor-
tions given in this section is applicable to normal
weight concrete. Although the same basic data
and procedures can be used in proportioning
heavyweight concrete, additional information as
well as sample computations for this type of con-
crete are given in Appendix 4.

5.2—Estimating the required batch weights for
the concrete involves a sequence of logical,

PROPORTIONS FOR NORMAL AND HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE

322

straightforward steps which, in effect, fit the
characteristics of the available materials into a
mixture suitable for the work. The question of
suitability is frequently not left to the individ-
ual selecting the proportions. The job specifica-
tions may dictate some or all of the following:

5.2.1 Maximum water-cement ratio

5.2.2 Minimum cement content

5.2.3 Air content

5.2.4 Slump

5.2.5 Maximum size of aggregate

5.2.6 Strength

5.2.7 Other requirements relating to such
things as strength overdesign, admixtures, and
special types of cement or aggregate.

5.3—Regardless of whether the concrete char-
acteristics are prescribed by the specifications or
are left to the individual selecting the propor-
tions, establishment of batch weights per cubic
yard of concrete can best be accomplished in the
following sequence:

5.3.1 Step 1. Choice of slump. If slump is not
specified, a value appropriate for the work can
be selected from Table 5.3.1. The slump ranges
shown apply when vibration is used to consoli-
date the concrete. Mixes of the stiffest consistency
that can be placed efficiently should be used.

TABLE 5.3.1—RECOMMENDED SLUMPS
FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION

Slump, in.

Types of construction Maximum? |Minimum

Reinforced foundation walls and footings 3 1

Plain footings, caissons, and
substructure walls

Beams and reinforced walls

Building columns

Pavements and slabs

Mass concrete

wus.aw
| te ee

*May be increased 1 in. for methods of consolidation other
than vibration.

5.3.2 Step 2. Choice of maximum size of ag-
gregate. Large maximum sizes of well graded
aggregates have less voids than smaller sizes.
Hence, concretes with the larger-sized aggre-
gates require less mortar per unit volume of
concrete. Generally, the maximum size of ag-
gregate should be the largest that is economically
available and consistent with dimensions of the
structure. In no event should the maximum size
exceed one-fifth of the narrowest dimension be-
tween sides of forms, one-third the depth of slabs,
nor three-fourths of the minimum clear spacing
between individual reinforcing bars, bundles of
bars, or pretensioning strands. These limitations
are sometimes waived if workability and methods
of consolidation are such that the concrete can be

eFor further details, see ACI Committee 201, “Durability of
Concrete in Service," ACI Journat, Proceedings V. 58, No. 12.
Dec. 1962, pp. 1771-1820.

APPENDIX C—Continued

placed without honeycomb or void. When high
strength concrete is desired, best results may be
obtained with reduced maximum sizes of aggre-
gate since these produce higher strengths at a
given water-cement ratio.

5.3.3 Step 3. Estimation of mixing water and
air content. The quantity of water per unit volume
of concrete required to produce a given slump is
dependent on the maximum size, particle shape
and grading of the aggregates, and on the amount
of entrained air. It is not greatly affected by
the quantity of cement. Table 5.3.3 provides esti-
mates of required mixing water for concretes
made with various maximum sizes of aggregate,
with and without air entrainment. Depending on
aggregate texture and shape, mixing water re-
quirements may be somewhat above or below the
tabulated values, but they are sufficiently ac-
curate far the first estimate. Such differences in
water demand are not necessarily reflected in

TABLE 5.3.3—APPROXIMATE MIXING WATER AND
AIR CONTENT REQUIREMENTS FOR DIFFERENT
SLUMPS AND MAXIMUM SIZES OF AGGREGATES*

Water, lb per cu yd of concrete for
indicated maximum sizes of aggregate

Slump, in.
3 in.| 14 1n.| %in.[1in. [1% in. |21n.¢/3in.t] 6 int
Non-air-entrained concrete
lto2 350 | 335 | 315 | 300 | 275 | 260 | 240] 210
3to4 385 365 340 325 300 285 265 | 230
6 to7 410 | 385 | 360 | 340 | 315 |300 | 285) —
Approximate 3) 25 2) 15 1 |05 03 | 02

amount of

entrapped

air in non-

air-en-

trained

concrete,

percent

Air-entrained concrete
lto2 305 295 280 | 270 250 240 225 | 200
3to4 340 325 305 295 275 265 250 | 220
6107 365 | 345 | 325 | silo | 290 |280/ 270] —
Recom- 8 7 6 5 45 4] 35 3

mended

average

total air

content,

percent

°These quantities of mixing water are for use in computing
cement factors for trial batches. They are maxima for reasonably
well-shaped angular coarse aggregates graded within limits of
accepted specifications.
ie slump values for concrete containing aperepate larger
than 115 in. are based on slump tests made after removal of
particles larger than 113 in. by wet-screening.

strength since other compensating factors may
be involved. For example, a rounded and an
angular coarse aggregate, both well and simi-
larly graded and of good quality, can be ex-
pected to produce concrete of about the same
compressive strength for the same cement factor
in spite of differences in water-cement ratio re-
sulting from the different mixing water require-
ments. Particle shape per se is not an indicator
that an aggregate will be either above or below
average in its strength-producing capacity.

Table 5.3.3 indicates the approximate amount
of entrapped air to be expected in non-air-en-

trained concrete, and shows the recommended
levels of average air content for concrete in
which air is to be purposely entrained for dura-
bility: Air-entrained concrete should always be
used for structures which will be exposed to
freezing and thawing, and generally for struc-
tures exposed to sea water or sulfates. When
severe exposure is not anticipated, beneficial ef-
fects of air entrainment on concrete workability
and cohesiveness can be achieved at air content
levels approximately half those shown for air-
entrained concrete.

When trial batches are used to establish
strength relationships or verify strength-produc-
ing capability of a mixture, the least favorable
combination of mixing water and air content
should be used: This is, the air content should be
the maximum permitted or likely to occur, and
the concrete should be gaged to the highest per-
missable slump. This will avoid developing an
over-optimistic estimate of strength on the as-
sumption that average rather than extreme con-
ditions will prevail in the field. For information
on air content recommendations, see ACI 201,
301, and 302. ¥

5.3.4 Step 4. Selection of water-cement ratio.
The required water-cement ratio is determined
not only by strength requirements but also by
factors such as durability and finishing proper-
ties. Since different aggregates and cements gen-
erally produce different strengths at the same
water-cement ratio, it is highly desirable to have
or develop the relationship between strength
and water-cement ratio for the materials actually
to be used. In the absence of such data, approxi-
mate and relatively conservative values for con-
crete containing Type I portland cement can be
taken from Table 5.3.4(a). With typical mate-
rials, the tabulated water-cement ratios should
produce the strengths shown, based on 28-day
tests of specimens cured under standard labora-
tory conditions. The average strength selected
must, of course, exceed the specified strength
by a sufficient margin to keep the number of low
tests within specified limits.*

For severe conditions of exposure, the water-
cement ratio should be kept low even though
strength requirements may be met with a higher
value. Table 5.3.4(b) gives limiting values.

5.3.5 Step 5. Calculation of cement content.
The amount of cement per unit volume of con-
crete is fixed by the determinations made in
Steps 3 and 4 above. The required cement is
equal to the estimated mixing water content
(Step 3) divided by the water-cement ratio
(Step 4). If, however, the specification includes a
separate minimum limit on cement in addition to

°See “Recommended Practice for Evaluation of Compression
Test Results of Field Concrete (ACI 214-85).”

ACI STANDARD

323

APPENDIX C—Continued

TABLE 5.3.4(a}—RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
WATER-CEMENT RATIO AND COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

Water-cement ratio, by weight

ressive strength

mipall

28 days, psi® Non-air-entrained Air-entrained
concrete concrete
6000 0.41 _
5000 0.48 0.40
4000 0.57 0.48
3000 0.68 0.59
2000 0.82 0.74

®Values are estimated average strengths for concrete contain-
ing not more than the percentage of air shown in Table 533.
For a constant water-cement ratio, the strength of concrete
is reduced as the air content is increased.

Strength is based on 6x12 in. cylinders moist-cured 28 days
at 734+3F (23+1.7C) in accordance with Section 9(b) of
ASTM C31 for Making and Curing Concrete Compression
and Flexure Test Specimens in the Field.

Relationship assumes maximum size of aggregate ‘about 34 to
1 in.; for a given source, strength produced for a given water-
cement ratio will increase as maximum size of aggregate
decreases; see Sections 3.4 and 5.3.2.

TABLE 5.3.4(b}—-MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE
WATER-CEMENT RATIOS FOR
CONCRETE IN SEVERE EXPOSURES*

Structure wet continu- Structure
ously or frequently exposed to
Type of structure and exposed to sea water
freezing and thawingt | or sulfates
Thin sections (railings,
curbs, sills, ledges,
ornamental work) and 0.45 0.403
sections with less than
1 in. cover over steel
All other structures 0.50 0.45¢

*Based on report of ACI Committee 201, “Durability of Con-
crete in Service,"’ previously cited.

+Concrete should also be air-entrained.

+I£ sulfate resisting cement (Type II or Type V of ASTM
casos used, permissible water-cement ratio may be increased
y 0.05.

requirements for strength and durability, the
mixture must be based on whichever criterion
leads to the larger amount of cement.

The use of pozzolanic or chemical admixtures
will affect properties of both the fresh and hard-
ened concrete.*

5.3.6 Step 6. Estimation of coarse aggregate
content. Aggregates of essentially the same maxi-
mum size and grading will produce concrete of
satisfactory workability when a given volume of
coarse aggregate, on a dry-rodded basis, is used
per unit volume of concrete. Appropriate values
for this aggregate volume are given in Table
5.3.6. It can be seen that, for equal workability,
the volume of coarse aggregate in a unit volume
of concrete is dependent only on its maximum
size and the fineness modulus of the fine ag-
gregate. Differences in the amount of mortar re-
quired for workability with different aggregates,
due to differences in particle shape and grading,
are compensated for automatically by differences
in dry-rodded void content.

The volume of aggregate, in cubic feet, on a
dry-rodded basis, for a cubic yard of concrete is
equal to the value from Table 5.3.6 multiplied by
27. This volume is converted to dry weight of
coarse aggregate required in a cubic yard of con-
crete by multiplying it by the dry-rodded weight
per cubic foot of the coarse aggregate.

PROPORTIONS FOR NORMAL ANS HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE

324,

TABLE 5.3.6—VOLUME OF COARSE AGGREGATE
PER UNIT OF VOLUME OF CONCRE®E

| Volume of dry-rodded coarse aggregate®
Maximum size

er unit volume of concrete for

of aggregate, different fineness moduli of sand
2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00
3 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44
Ig 059 0.57 0.55 0.53
% 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60
1 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65
14 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69
2 0.78 0.76 0774 0.72
3 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.76
6 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.81

*Volumes are based on aggregates in dry-rodded condition
as described in ASTM C 29 for Unit Weight of Aggregate.

These volumes are selected from empirical relationships to
produce concrete with a degree of workability suitable for
usual reinforced construction. For less workable concrete such
as required for concrete pavement construction they may be
increased about 10 percent. For more workable concrete, such as
may sometimes be required when placement is to be by pump-
ing, they may be reduced up to 10 percent.

5.3.7 Step 7. Estimation of fine aggregate
content. At completion of Step 6, all ingredients
of the concrete have been estimated except the
fine aggregate. Its quantity is determined by
difference. Either of two procedures may be em-
ployed: the “weight” method (Section 5.3.7.1) or
the “absolute volume” method (Section 5.3.7.2).

TABLE 5.3.7.1—FIRST ESTIMATE OF
WEIGHT OF FRESH CONCRETE

First estimate of concrete ~'cight,
Maximum size abjpcricuivas
of aggregate, in. Non-air-entrained | Air-entrained
concrete | concrete
cy 3840 3690
Mg 3890 3760
% 3960 3840
1 4010 3900
1g 4070 3960
2 4120 4000
3 4160 4040
6 4230 4120

*Values calculated by Eq. (5-1) for concrete of medium
richness (550 lb of cement per cu yd) and medium slump with
aggregate specific gravity of 2.7. Water requirements based on
values for 3 to 4 in. slump in Tables 5.3.3. If desired, the esti-
mated weight may be refined as follows if necessary in-
formation is available: for each 10 lb difference in mixing
water from the Table 5.3.3. values for 3 to 4 in. slu:np, correct
the weight per cu yd 15 lb in the opposite directica, for each
100 lb difference in cement content from 550 lb correct the
weight per cu yd 15 lb in the same direction; for each 0.1
by which aggregate specific gravity deviates from 2.7, correct
the concrete weight 100 lb in the same direction.

5.3.7.1 If the weight of the concrete per
unit volume is assumed or can be estimated from
experience, the required weight of fine aggregate
is simply the difference between the weight of
fresh concrete and the total weight of the other
ingredients. Often the unit weight of concrete is
known with reasonable accuracy from previous
experience with the materials. In the absence of
such information, Table 5.3.7.1 can be used to
make a first estimate. Even if the estimate of
concrete weight per cubic yard is rough, mixture
proportions will be sufficiently accurate to per-

°See report of ACI Committee 212 “Admixtures for Concrete,”
ACI Journat, Proceedings V. 60, No, 11, Nov. 1883, pp, 1481-1524.

APPENDIX C—Continued

mit easy adjustment on the basis of trial batches
as will be shown in the examples.

If a theoretically exact calculation of fresh
concrete weight per cubic yard is desired, the fol-
lowing formula can be used:

U = 16.85 G, (100 — A) (5-1)
+C(1—G,/G.) — W(Ga — 1)
where

U = weight of fresh concrete per cubic yard, lb

G. = weighted average specific gravity of combined
fine and coarse aggregate, bulk SSD*

G. = specific gravity of cement (generally 3.15)

A =air content, percent

W =mixing water requirement, lb per cu yd

C =cement requirement, Ib per cu yd

5.3.7.2 A more exact procedure for calcu-
lating the required amount of fine aggregate in-
volves the use of volumes displaced by the in-
gredients. In this case, the total volume displaced
by the known ingredients—water, air, cement,
and coarse aggregate—is subtracted from the unit
volume of concrete to obtain the required volume
of fine aggregate. The volume occupied in concrete
by any ingredient is equal to its weight divided
by the density of that material (the latter being
the product of the unit weight of water and the
specific gravity of the material).

5.3.8 Step 8. Adjustments for aggregate mois-
ture. The aggregate quantities actually to be
weighed out for the concrete must allow for
moisture in the aggregates. Generally, the ag-
gregates will be moist and their dry weights
_should be increased by the percentage of water
they contain, both absorbed and surface. The
mixing water added to the batch must be reduced
by an amount equal to the free moisture con-
tributed by the aggregate—i.e., total moisture
minus absorption.

5.3.9 Step 9. Trial batch adjustments. The
calculated mixture proportions should be checked
by means of trial batches prepared and tested in
accordance with ASTM C 192, “Making and Cur-
ing Concrete Compression and Flexure Test Speci-
mens in the Laboratory,” or full-sized field
batches. Only sufficient water should be used to
produce the required slump regardless of the
amount assumed in selecting the trial propor-
tions. The concrete should be checked for unit
weight and yield (ASTM C138) and for air con-
tent (ASTM C138, C173, or C231). It should
also be carefully observed for proper workability,
freedom from segregation, and finishing proper-
ties. Apprppriate adjustments should be made in
the proportions for subsequent batches in ac-
cordance with the following procedure.

5.3.9.1 Re-estimate the required mixing
water per cubic yard of concrete by multiplying
the net mixing water content of the trial batch by

3

+)

27 and dividing the product by the yield of the
trial batch in cubic feet. If the slump of the
trial batch was not correct, increase or decrease
the re-estimated amount of water by 10 lb for
each required increase or decrease of 1 in. in
slump.

5.3.9.2 If the desired air content (for air-
entrained concrete) was not achieved, re-esti-
mate the admixture content required for proper
air content and reduce or increase the mixing
water content of paragraph 5.3.9.1 by 5 lb for each
1 percent by which the air content is to be in-
creased or decreased from that of the previous
trial batch.

5.3.9.3 If estimated weight per cubic yard
of fresh concrete is the basis for proportioning,
re-estimate that weight by multiplying the unit
weight in pounds per cubic foot of the trial batch
by 27 and reducing or increasing the result by
the anticipated percentage increase or decrease in
air content of the adjusted batch from the first
trial batch.

5.3.9.4 Calculate new batch weights starting
with Step 4 (Paragraph 5.3.4), modifying the
volume of coarse aggregate from Table 5.3.6 if
necessary to provide proper workability.

6. SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS

6.1—Two example problems will be used to il-
lustrate application of the proportioning proce-
dures. The following conditions are assumed:

6.1.1 Type I non-air-entraining cement will
be used and its specific gravity is assumed to be
3.1.5.4

6.1.2 Coarse and fine aggregates in each case
are of satisfactory quality and are graded within
limits of generally accepted specifications.¢

6.1.3 The coarse aggregate has a bulk specific
gravity of 2.68% and an absorption of 0.5 percent.

6.1.4 The fine aggregate has a bulk specific
gravity of 2.64,+ an absorption of 0.7 percent, and
fineness modulus of 2.8.

6.2—Example 1. Concrete is required for a por-
tion of a structure which will be below ground
level in a location where it will not be exposed
to severe weathering or sulfate attack. Structural
considerations require it to have an average 28-
day compressive strength of 3500 psi.§ On the
basis of information in Table 5.3.1, as well as

°*SSD indicates saturated-surface-drv basis used in consider-
ing aggregate displacement. The aggregate specific gravity used
in calculations must be consistent with the moisture

condition
assumed in the basic aggregate batch weights—i.e..

bulk drv
if aggregate weights are stated on a dry basis, and bulk SSD
if weights are stated on a saturated-surface-drv basi

+The specific gravity values are not used if a ia are
selected to provide a weight of concrete assumed to occupy

aie as the “Specifications for Concrete Aggregates,” (ASTM

Practice for Evaluation of SComnressionl pest. Results of Field
Conerete (ACI 214-€3).°

AC] STANDARD

APPENDIX C—Continued

previous experience, it is determined that under
the conditions of placement to be employed, a’
slump of 3 to 4 in. should be used and that the
available No. 4 to 1%-in. coarse aggregate will be
suitable. The dry-rodded weight of coarse aggre-
gate is found to be 100 lb per cu ft. Employing
the sequence outlined in Section 5, the quan-
tities of ingredients per cubic yard of concrete
are calculated as follows:

6.2.1 Step 1. As indicated above, the desired
slump is 3 to 4 in.

6.2.2 Step 2. The locally available aggregate,
graded from No. 4 to 1% in., has been indicated
as suitable.

6.2.3 Step 3. Since the structure will not be
exposed to severe weathering, non-air-entrained
concrete will be used. The approximate amount
of mixing water to produce a 3- to 4in. slump in
non-air-entrained concrete with 1%4-in. aggre-
gate is found from Table 5.3.3 to be 300 lb per
cu yd. Estimated entrapped air is shown as 1
percent.

6.2.4 Step 4. From Table 5.3.4(a), the water-
cement ratio needed to produce a strength of
3500 psi in non-air-entrained concrete is found
to be about 0.62.

6.2.5 Step 5. From the information derived
in Steps 3 and 4, the required cement content is
found to be 300/0.62 = 484 lb per cu yd.

6.2.6 Step 6. The quantity of coarse aggregate
is estimated from Table 5.3.6. For a fine aggregate
having a fineness modulus of 2.8 and a 1% in.
maximum size of coarse aggregate, the table in-
dicates that 0.71 cu ft of coarse aggregate, on a
dry-rodded basis, may be used in each cubic foot
of concrete. For a cubic yard, therefore, the
coarse aggregate will be 27 x 0.71= 19.17 cu ft.
Since it weighs 100 lb per cu ft, the dry weight of
coarse aggregate is 1917 Ib.

6.2.7 Step 7. With the quantities of water,
cement, and coarse aggregate established, the re-
maining material comprising the cubic yard of
concrete must consist of sand and whatever air
will be entrapped. The required sand may be de-
termined on the basis of either weight or absolute
volume as shown below:

6.2.7.1 Weight basis. From Table 5.3.7.1, the
weight of a cubic yard of non-air-entrained con-
crete made with aggregate having a maximum
size of 1% in. is estimated to be 4070 Ib. (For a
first trial batch, exact adjustments of this value
for usual differences in slump, cement factor,
and aggregate specific gravity are not critical.)
Weights already known are:

Water (net mixing) 300 Ib
Cement 484 lb
Coarse aggregate 1917 Ib (dry)°®
Total 2701 Ib

PROPORTIONS FOR NORMAL AND HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE

326

The weight of sand, therefore, is estimated to be
4070 — 2701 = 1369 lh (dry) *

6.2.7.2 Absolute volume basis. With the
quantities of cement, water, and coarse aggregate
established, and the approximate entrapped air
content (as opposed to purposely entrained air)
taken from Table 5.3.3, the sand content can be
calculated as follows:

Volume of
water ee 00
Solid 62.4
volume 484
aE IGNs Sane or
volume
of coarse
aggregate = 1917 ——
Volume of 2.68 x 62.4
entrapped
air = 0.01 x 27 = 0.27 cu ft
Total solid volume of ingredients
except sand = 19.00 cu ft
Solid
volume
of sand
required =
Required
weight of
dry sand =8.00 x 2.64 x 62.4 = 13181b

6.2.7.3 Batch weights per cubic yard of
concrete calculated on the two bases are com-
pared below:

4.81 cu ft

2.46 cu ft

it

11.46 cu ft

27 — 19.00 8.00 cu ft

i}

Based on Based on

estimated absolute

concrete volume

weight, of ingredients,
Ib Ib
Water (net mixing) 300 300
Cement - 484 484
Coarse aggregate

(dry) 1917 1917
Sand (dry) 1369 1318

6.2.8 Step 8. Tests indicate total moisture of
2 percent in the coarse aggregate and 6 percent
in the fine aggregate. If the trial batch propor-
tions based on assumed concrete weight are used,
the adjusted aggregate weights become

Coarse aggregate (wet) — 1917 (1.02) = 1955 1b
Fine aggregate (wet) = 1369 (1.06) = 1451 lb

Absorbed water does not become part of the
mixing water and must be excluded from the
adjustment in added water. Thus, surface water
contributed by the coarse aggregate amounts to
2—0.5 = 1.5 percent; by the fine aggregate
6 — 0.7 = 5.3 percent. The estimated requirement
for added water, therefore, becomes

300 — 1917¢0.015) — 1369 (0.053) = 199 Ib

The estimated batch weights for a cubic yard of
concrete are:

°Aggregate absorption is disregarded since its eectim is in-
consequential in relation to other approximations.

APPENDIX C—Continued

Water (to be added) 199 Ib
Cement 484 lb
Coarse aggregate (wet) 1955 Ib
Fine aggregate (wet) 1451 Ib

6.2.9 Step 9. For the laboratory trial batch, it
is found convenient to scale the weights down to
produce 0.03 cu yd or 0.81 cu ft of concrete. Al-
though the calculated quantity of water to be
added was 5.97 lb, the amount actually used in
an effort to obtain the desired 3 to 4 in. slump is
7.00 lb. The batch as mixed therefore, consists of

Water (added) 7.00 Ib
Cement 14.52 lb
Coarse aggregate (wet) 58.65 lb
Fine aggregate (wet) 43.53 lb
Total 123.70 1b

The concrete has a measured slump of 2 in. and
unit weight of 149.0 lb per cu ft. It is judged to
be satisfactory from the standpoint of workabil-
ity and finishing properties. To provide proper
yield and other characteristics for future batches,
the following adjustments are made:
6.2.9.1 Since the yield of the trial batch was
123.70/149.0 = 0.830 cu ft
and the mixing water content was 7.00 (added)
+ 0.86 on coarse aggregate + 2.18 on fine aggre-
gate = 10.04 lb, the mixing water required for a
cubic yard of concrete with the same slump as
the trial batch should be

10.04 x 27
0.830

As indicated in Paragraph 5.3.9.1, this amount
must be increased another 15 lb to raise the
slump from the measured 2 in. to the desired
3 to 4 in. range, bringing the net mixing water
to 342 lb.

= 327 |b

6.2.9.2 With the increased mixing water,
additional cement will be required to provide the
desired water-cement ratio of 0.62. The new ce-
ment content becomes

342/0.62 = 552 Ib

6.2.9.3 Since workability was found to be
satisfactory, the quantity of coarse aggregate per
unit volume of concrete will be maintained the
same as in the trial batch. The amount of coarse
aggregate per cubic yard becomes

58.65
which is
1908
and

1871 (1.005) = 1880 SSD*

6.2.9.4 The new estimate for the weight of
a cubic yard of concrete is 149.0 x 27 = 4023 Ib.

327

The amount of sand required is, therefore,
4023 — (342 + 552 + 1880) -= 1249 lb SSD
or
1249/1.007 = 1240 lb dry

The adjusted basic batch weights per cubic yard
of concrete are

Water (net mixing) 342 1b
Cement 552 lb
Coarse aggregate (dry) 1871 1b
Fine aggregate (dry) 1240 Ib

6.2.10 Adjustments of proportions determined
on an absolute volume basis follow a procedure
similar to that just outlined. The steps will be
given without detailed explanation:

6.2.10.1 Quantities used in nominal 0.81 cu
ft batch are

Water (added) 7.00 1b
Cement 14.52 lb
Coarse aggregate (wet) 58.65 Ib
Fine aggregate (wet) 41.91 lb
Total 122.08 lb

Measured slump 2 in.; unit weight 149.0 1b per cu
ft; yield 122.08/149.0 = 0.819 cu ft; workability
o.k.

6.2.10.2 Re-estimated water for same slump
as trial batch:

27 (7.00 + 0.86 + 2.09)
0.819

Mixing water required for slump of 3 to 4 in.:

328 + 15 = 343 lb

= 328 lb

6.2.10.3 Adjusted cement content for in-
creased water:
343/0.62 = 553 lb

6.2.10.4 Adjusted coarse aggregate require-
ment:

58.65

0.819 X 27 = 1934 1b wet

or
1934/1.02 = 1896 lb dry
6.2.10.5 The volume of ingredients other
than air in the original trial batch was

9.95

Water 624 = 0.159 cu ft
14.52

Cement 315 x 624 = 0.074 cu ft
57.50

Coarse aggregate 2.68 x 62.4 = 0.344 cu ft
39.54

Fine aggregate 264x624 = 0.240 cu ft

Total = 0.817 cu ft

°*Saturated-surface-dry

ACI STANDARD

APPENDIX C—Continued

Since the yield was 0.819 cu ft, the air content
was

0.819 — 0.817

0819 = 0.2 percent

With the proportions of all components except
fine aggregate established, the determination of
adjusted cubic yard batch quantities can be com-
pleted as follows:

Volume of 343

water =" Seas = 5.50 cu ft
Volume of 553

cement = 315x624 — 2.81 cu ft
Volume of

air = 0.002 x 27 = 0.05cu ft
Volume of

coarse 1896

ageregate = 968x624 — 11.34 cu ft
Total volume exclusive of

fine aggregate | = 19.70cu ft
Volume of

fine ag-

gregate

required = 27—19.70 = 7.30cuft
Weight of

fine ag-

gregate

(dry

basis) = 7.30 x 2.64 x 62.4 = 1203 lb

The adjusted basic batch, weights per cubic yard
of concrete, then, are:

Water (net mixing) 343 1b
Cement 553 Ib
Coarse aggregate (dry) 1896 lb
Fine aggregate (dry) 1203 Ib

These differ only slightly from those given in
Paragraph 6.2.9.4 for the method of assumed
concrete weight. Further trials or experience
might indicate small additional adjustments for
either method.

6.3—Example 2., Concrete is required for a
heavy bridge pier which will be exposed to fresh
water in a severe climate. An average 28-day
compressive strength of 3000 psi will be re-
quired. Placement conditions permit a slump of
1 to 2 in. and the use of large aggregate, but
the only economically available coarse aggregate
of satisfactory quality is graded from No. 4 to 1
in. and this will be used. Its dry-rodded weight is
found to be 95 lb per cu ft. Other characteristics
are as indicated in Section 6.1.

The calculations will be shown in skeleton form
only. Note that confusion is avoided if all steps
of Section 5 are followed even when they appear
Tepetitive of specified requirements.

6.3.1 Step 1. The desired slump is 1 to 2 in.
6.3.2 Step 2. The locally available aggregate,
graded from No. 4 to 1 in., will be used.

PROPORTIONS FOR NORMAL AND HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE

328

6.3.3 Step 3. Since the structure will be ex-
posed to severe weathering, air-entrained con-
crete will be used. The approximate amount of
mixing water to produce a 1 to 2-in. slump in air-
entrained concrete with l-in. aggregate is found
from Table 5.3.3 to be 270 lb per cu yd. The
recommended air content is 5 percent.

6.3.4 Step 4. From Table 5.3.4(a), the water-
cement ratio needed to produce a strength of
3000 psi in air-entrained concrete is estimated to
be about 0.59. However, reference to Table
5.3.4(b) reveals that, for the severe weathering
exposure anticipated, the water-cement ratio
should not exceed 0.50. This lower figure must
govern and will be used in the calculations.

6.3.5 Step 5. From the information derived in
Steps 3 and 4, the required cement content is
found to be 270/0.50 = 540 lb per cu yd.

6.3.6. Step 6. The quantity of coarse aggregate
is estimated from Table 5.3.6. With a fine aggre-
gate having a fineness modulus of 2.8 and a
1 in. maximum size of coarse aggregate, the table
indicates that 0.67 cu ft of coarse aggregate, on
a dry-rodded basis, may be used in each cubic
foot of concrete. For a cubic yard, therefore, the
coarse aggregate will be 27 x 0.67 = 18.09 cu ft
Since it weighs 95 lb per cu ft, the dry weight of
coarse aggregate is 18.09 x 95 — 1719 Ib.

6.3.7 Step 7. With the quantities of water,
cement and coarse aggregate established, the re-
maining material comprising the cubic yard of
concrete must consist of sand and air. The re-
quired sand may be determined on the basis of
either weight or absolute volume as shown below.

6.3.7.1 Weight basis. From Table 5.3.7.1, the
weight of a cubic yard of air-entrained concrete
made with aggregate of 1 in. maximum size is
estimated to be 3900 lb. (For a first trial batch,
exact adjustments of this value for differences
in slump, cement factor, and aggregate specific
gravity are not critical.) Weights already known
are:

Water (net mixing) 270 Ib
Cement 540 Ib
Coarse aggregate (dry) 1719 Ib
Total 2529 1b

The weight of sand, therefore, is estimated to be
* 3900 — 2529 — 1371 lb (dry)
6.3.7.2 Absolute volume basis. With the
quantities of cement, water, air, and coarse ag-
gregate established, the sand content can be cal-
culated as follows:

Volume of 270

water =—¢624. = 433 cu ft
Solid volume 540

of cement =315 x 624 = 275 cuft

APPENDIX C—Continued

Solid volume
of coarse 719

aggregate =968 x 624. 10.28 cu ft

Volume of
air = 0.05 x 27

1,35 cu ft

Total volume
of ingredi-
ents except

sand 18.71 cu ft

Solid volume
of sand
required

= 27 — 18.71 8.29 cu ft

tl

Required
weight of
dry sand =8.29 x 2.64 x 62.4= 1366 lb

6.3.7.3 Batch weights per cubic yard of
concrete calculated on the two bases are com-
pared below:

Based on Based on

estimated absolute

concrete volume

weight, of ingredients,
Ib lb
Water (net mixing) 270 270
Cement 540 540
Coarse aggregate

(dry) 1719 1719
Sand (dry) 1371 1366

6.3.8 Step 8. Tests indicate total moisture of
3 percent in the coarse aggregate and 5 percent
in the fine aggregate. If the trial batch propor-
tions based on assumed concrete weight are used,
the adjusted aggregate weights become

Coarse aggregate (wet) =1719(1.03) =1771 1b
Fine aggregate (wet) = 1371(1.05) = 1440 lb

Absorbed water does not become part of the
mixing water and must be excluded from the
adjustment in added water. Thus, surface water
contributed by the coarse aggregate amounts to
3 — 0.5 = 2.5 percent; by the fine aggregate
5 — 0.7 = 4.3 percent. The estimated requirement
for added water, therefore, becomes

270 — 1719(0.025) — 1371 (0.043) = 168 lb

The estimated batch weights for a cubic yard of
concrete are:

Water (to be added) 168 Ib
Cement 540 Ib
Coarse aggregate (wet) 1771 1b
Fine aggregate (wet) 1440 lb
Total 3919 Ib

6.3.9 Step 9. For the laboratory trial batch, the
weights are scaled down to produce 0.03 cu yd or
0.81 cu ft of concrete. Although the calculated
quantity of water to be added was 5.04 lb the
amount actually used is in an effort to obtain
the desired 1 to 2-in. slump is 4.50 lb. The batch
as mixed, therefore, consists of

Water (added) 4.50 lb
Cement 16,20 lb
Coarse aggregate (wet) 53.13 lb
Fine aggregate (wet) 43.20 Ib
Total 117.03 Ib

The concrete has a measured slump of 2 in., unit
weight of 141.8 lb per cu ft, and air content of
6.5 percent. It is judged to be slightly oversanded
for the easy placement condition involved. To
provide proper yield and other characteristics for
future batches, the following adjustments are
made:

6.3.9.1 Since the yield of the trial batch
was é

117.03/141.8 = 0.825 cu ft

and the mixing water content was 4.50 (added)
+ 1.29 on coarse aggregate + 1.77 on fine aggre-
gate = 7.56 lb the mixing water required for a
cubic yard of concrete with the same slump as
the trial batch should be

7.56 X 27

Sao a 247 lb

The slump was satisfactory but, since the air
content was too high by 1.5*percent, more water
will be needed for proper slump when the air
content is corrected. As indicated in Paragraph
5.3.9.2, the mixing water should be increased
roughly 5 x 1.5 or about 8 Ib, bringing the new
estimate to 255 lb per cu yd.

6.3.9.2 With the decreased mixing water,
less cement will be required to provide the de-
sired water-cement ratio of 0.5. The new cement
content becomes

255/0.5 = 510 Ib

6.3.9.3 Since the concrete was found to be
oversanded, the quantity of coarse aggregate per
unit volume will be increased 10 percent, to 0.74,
in an effort to correct the condition. The amount
of coarse aggregate per cubic yard becomes

0.74 x 27 x 95 = 1898 lb dry
or

1898 x 1.03 == 1955 lb wet
and

1898 x 1.005 = 19071bSSD*

6.3.9.4 The new estimate for the weight of
the concrete with 1.5 percent less air is 141.8/0.985
= 144.0 lb per cu ft or 144.0°x 27 = 3888 lb per

cu yd. The weight of sand, therefore, is

3888 — (255 + 510 + 1907) = 1216 lb SSD*
or

1216/1.007 = 1208 Ib dry

*Saturated-surface-dry

ACI STANDARD

329

APPENDIX C—Continued

The adjusted basic batch weights per cubic yard
of concrete are

Water (net mixing) 255 Ib
Cement 510 1b
Coarse aggregate (dry) 1898 lb
Fine aggregate (dry) 1208 lb

Admixture dosage must be reduced to provide
the desired air content.

6.3.10 Adjustments of proportions determined
on an absolute volume basis would follow the
procedure outlined in Paragraph 6.2.10 which will
not be repeated for this example.

REFERENCES

1. Fuller, William B., and Thompson, Sanford E., “The
Laws of Proportioning Concrete,” Transactions, ASCE,
V. 59, Dec. 1907, pp. 67-143.

2. Abrams, Duff A., “Design of Concrete Mixtures,”
Bulletin No. 1, Structural Materials Research Labora-
tory, Lewis Institute, Chicago, 1918.

3. Edwards, L. N., “Proportioning the Materials of
Mortars and Concretes by Surface Areas of Aggregates,”
Proceedings, ASTM, V. 18, Part 2, 1918, p. 235.

4. Young, R. B., “Some Theoretical Studies on Pro-
portioning Concrete by the Method of Surface Area of
Aggregate,” Proceedings, ASTM, V. 19, Part 2, 1919,
p. 444.

5. Talbot, A. N., “A Proposed Method of Estimating
the Density and Strength of Concrete and of Propor-
tioning the Materials by Experimental and Analytical
Consideration of the Voids in Mortar and Concrete,”
Proceedings, ASTM, V. 21, 1921, p. 940.

6. Weymouth, C. A. G., “A Study of Fine Aggregate
in Freshly Mixed Mortars and Concretes,” Proceedings,
ASTM, V. 38, Part 2, 1938, pp. 354-372.

PROPORTIONS FOR NORMAL AND HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE

330

7. Dunagan, W. M., “The Application of Some of the
Newer Concepts to the Design of Concrete Mixes,”
ACI JourNnaL, Proceedings V. 36, No. 6, June 1940, pp.
649-684.

8. Goldbeck, A. T., and Gray, J. E., ‘A Method of
Proportioning Concrete for Strength, Workability, and
Durability,” Bulletin No. 11, National Crushed Stone
Association, Dec. 1942, 30 pp. (Revised 1953 and 1956).

9. Swayze, M. A., and Gruenwald, E., “Concrete Mix
Design—Modification of Fineness Modulus Method,”
ACI Journat, Proceedings V. 43, No. 7, Mar. 1947, pp.
829-844.

10. Discussion of “Concrete Mix Design—A Modifica-
tion of the Fineness Modulus Method” by Stanton
Walker and Fred F. Bartel, ACI Journat, Proceedings
V. 43, Part 2, Dec. 1947, pp. 844-1—844-17.

11. Henrie, James O., “Properties of Nuclear Shield-
ing Concrete,” ACI JourNAL, Proceedings V. 56, No. 1,
July 1959, pp. 37-46.

12, Mather, Katharine, “High Strength, High Density
Concrete,” ACI Journat, Proceedings V. 62, No. 8,
Aug. 1965, pp. 951-960.

13. Clendenning, T. G.; Kellam, B.; and MacInnis, C.,
“Hydrogen Evolution from Ferrophosphorous Aggregate
in Portland Cement Concrete,” ACI JourNnat, Proceed-
ings V. 65, No. 12, Dec. 1968, pp. 1021-1028.

14. Popovics, Sandor, “Estimating Proportions for
Structural Concrete Mixtures,” ACI JournaL, Proceed-
ings V. 65, No. 2, Feb. 1968, pp. 143-150.

15. “Tentative Specification for Aggregates for Radia-
tion-Shielding Concrete,” (ASTM C637), American
Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia. :

16. Davis, H. S., “Aggregates for Radiation Shielding
Concrete,” Materials Research and Standards, V. 7,
No. 11, Nov. 1967, pp. 494-501.

17. Concrete for Nuclear Reactors, SP-34, American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1972, 1736 pp.

*Saturated-surface-dry

APPENDIX C—Continued

APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1—METRIC SYSTEM ADAPTATION

Al.1—Procedures outlined in this recommended prac-
tice have been presented using British (United States
customary) units of measurement. The principles are
equally applicable in the metric system with proper
adaptation of units. This Appendix provides all of the
information necessary to apply the proportioning proce-
dure using International SI (metric) measurements.
Table Al.1 gives relevant conversion factors. A numeri-
cal example is presented in Appendix 2.

Ai.2—For convenience of reference, numbering of
subsequent paragraphs in this Appendix corresponds
to the body of the report except that the designa-
tion “Al” is prefixed. All tables have been converted
and reproduced. Descriptive portions are included only
where use of the metric system requires a change
in a procedure or formula. To the extent practicable,
conversions to metric units have been made in such a

TABLE Al.I—CONVERSION FACTORS,
BRITISH TO METRIC UNITS*

inch (in.) centimeter (cm)
inch (in.) millimeter (mm) 23.40
Volume cubic foot (ft) cubic meter (m®) 0.02832
cubic yard (yd®) | cubic meter (m®) 0.7646
Mass pound (1b) kilogram (kg) 0.4538
Stress pounds per kilograms force
square inch per square
(pst) centimeter
(kgf/cm?) 0.0703
Densi' junds per kilograms per
ey Prouble Foot cubic meter
(Ib/ft*) (kg/m*) 16.03
junds per kilo; 13
Peeuble yard cubie meter
(Ib/yd*) (kg/m?) 0.6233
Temperature de, degrees
Fehrenheit (F) entigrade (C) 3

°*Gives names (and abbreviations) ots measurement units in
this this report a in the 8.1. (metric) 1D reas: end along with multipliers
1 converting the former ASTM Bets
Eractice Guide” (and Taltion, sea),
?Systéme International a Unites
3C=(F—BMD/S.

331

way that values are realistic in terms of usual prac-
tice and significance of numbers. For example, ag-
gregate and sieve sizes in the metric tables are ones
commonly used in Europe. Thus, there is not always a
precise mathematical correspondence between British
and metric values in corresponding tables.

Al15.2 Steps in calculating proportions. Except
as discussed below, the methods for arriving at quan-
tities of ingredients for a unit volume of concrete are
essentially the same when metric units are employed as
when British units are employed. The main difference
is that the unit volume of concrete becomes the cubic
meter and numerical values must be taken from the
proper “Al” table instead of the one referred to in the
text.

Al.5.2.1 Step 1.
A1.5.2.1.

Choice of slump. See Table -

Al.5.2.2 Step 2. Choice of maximum size of ag-
gregate.

Al.5.2.3 Step 3. Estimation of mizing water and
air content. See Table A1.5.2.3.

Al.5.2.4 Step 4. Selection of water-cement
ratio. See Table A1.5.2.4.

Al.5.2.5 Step 5. Calculation of cement content.

Al1.5.2.6 Step 6. Estimation of coarse aggregate
content. The dry weight of coarse aggregate required
for a cubic meter of concrete is equal to the value
from Table A1.5.2.6 multiplied by the dry-rodded unit
weight of the aggregate in kilograms per cubic meter.

TABLE AI.5.2.1—RECOMMENDED SLUMPS FOR
VARIOUS TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION (METRIC) |

Slump, cm
Maximum® | Minimum

Types of construction
Reinforced foundation walls and
footings

Plain footings: caissons, end
substru walls

Beams and Taintereea walls
Building columns
Pavements and slabs
Heavy mass concrete

May be increased 3 cm for methods of consolidation other
than vibration.

pom BD 09 DDO

ACI STANDARD

APPENDIX C—Continued

TABLE AI.5.2.3—APPROXIMATE MIXING WATER
REQUIREMENTS FOR DIFFERENT SLUMPS AND
MAXIMUM SIZES OF AGGREGATES (METRIC) *

Water, kg/m! of concrete for indicated
maximum sizes of aggregate in mm
Slump, i
cm. 10 12.5 20 25 40 Sot 7101 150+
— Ih
Non-air-entrained concrete
3to 5 205 200 185 180 160 | 155 145 125
8B told 225 | 215 200 195 175 170 160 140
15 to 18 240 | 230 | 210 | 205 185 180 170 —
Approximate
amount of
entrapped
air in non-
air-en- 3 25 2 15 1 05 03 02
trained
concrete,
percent
Air-entrained concrete
3to 5 180 175 165 160 145 140 135 120
8to10 200 190 180 175 160 155 150 135
15 to 18 215 205 190 185 170 165 160 —
Recom-
mended
average
total air 8 7 6 5 45 4 35 3
content,
percent

*These quantities of mixing water are for use in computing
cement factors for trial batches. They are maxima for rea-
sonably well-shaped angular coarse aggregates graded within
limits of accepted specifications.

1The slump values for concrete containing aggregate larger
than 40 mm are based on slump tests after removal of particles
larger than 40 mm by wet-screening.

TABLE Al1.5.2.4(a)—RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
WATER-CEMENT RATIO AND COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH OF CONCRE7E: (METRIC)

| Water-cement ratio, by weight

Compressive strength | Non-air-entrained Air-entrained

at 28 days, kgf/cm?* concrete concrete

) 450 0.38 —
400 0.43 —
350 0.48 0.40
300 0.55 0.46
250 0.62 0.53
200 0.70 0.61
150 0.80 0.71

*Values are estimated average strengths for concrete contain-
ing not more than the percentage of air shown in Table Al.5.2.3.
For a constant water-cement ratio, the strength of concrete is
reduced as the air content is increased.

Strength is based on 15x30 cm cylinders moist-cured 28
days at 23+1.7C in accordance with Section 9(b) of ASTM
C31 for Making and Curing Concrete Compression and Flexure
Test Specimens in the Field. Cube strengths will be higher
by approximately 20 percent.

ee auoneyD) assumes maximum size of aggregate about 20
to 30 mm; for a given source, strength produced by a given
water-cement ratio will. increase as maximum size decreases;
see Sections 3.4 and 5.3.2.

TABLE A1.5.2.4(b)—MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE

WATER-CEMENT RATIOS FOR CONCRETE IN
SEVERE EXPOSURES (METRIC)*
Structure
Structure wet continuous], exposed to
Type of Structure Yorfreezing and thawingy |or sulfates

Thin sections (railings,
curbs, sills, ledges,
ornamental work) and
sections with leas than
3 cm cover over steel

AU other structures

*Based on the report of ACI Committee 201, ‘Durability of
Concrete in Service,” previously cited,

{Concrete should also be air-entrained.

cis) ee eate panes coment (type pag on Type V of (poe
used, permissible water-cement ratio ma e in-
creased by 0.08, ui

PROPORTIONS FOR NORMAL AND HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE

Al.5.2.7 Step 7. Estimation of fine aggregate
content. In the metric system, the formula for calcula-
tion of fresh concrete weight per cubic meter is:

Um = 10Ga(100 — A) + Cu (1 — Ga/Ge) — Wau (Ga — 1)
where

Um = weight of fresh concrete, kg/m?

Ga = weighted average specific gravity of combined
fine and coarse aggregate, bulk, SSD

G- = specific gravity of cement (generally 3.15)

A = aircontent, percent

Wm = mixing water requirement, kg/m?®

Cm = cement requirement, kg/m

Al1.5.2.9 Trial batch adjustments. The follow-
ing “rules of thumb” may be used to arrive at closer
approximations of unit batch quantities based on
results for a trial batch:

A1.5.2.9.1 The estimated mixing water to pro-
duce the same slump as the trial batch will be equal
to the net amount of mixing water used divided by
the yield of the trial batch in m3. If slump of the
trial batch was not correct, increase or decrease the
re-estimated water content by 2 kg/m of concrete
for each increase or decrease of 1 cm in slump desired.

A1.5.2.9.2 To adjust for the effect of in-
correct air content in a trial batch of air-entrained
concrete on slump, reduce or increase the mixing water

TABLE A1.5.2.6—VOLUME OF COARSE
AGGREGATE PER UNIT OF VOLUME
OF CONCRETE (METRIC)

Volume of dry-rodded coarse aggregates
per unit volume of concrete for different
Maximum size fineness modulit of sand
Of aggregate, ==
mm 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00
10 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44
12.5 0.59 0.57 055 0.53
20 0.65 0.64 0.62 0.60
23 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65
40 0.76 0.74 0.72 0.70
50 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72
70 0.81 0.79 0.77 0.75
150 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.81

*Volumes are based on aggregates in dry-rodded condition as
described in ASTM C29 for Unit Weight of Aggregate.

These volumes are selected from empirical relationships to
Produce concrete with a degree of workability suitable for
usual reinforced construction. For less workable concrete such
as required for concrete pavement construction they may be
increased about 10 percent. For more workable concrete, such as
may sometimes be required when placement is to be by pump-
ing, they may be reduced up to 10 percent.

tFineness modulus of sand=sum of ratios (cumulative) re-
tained on sieves with square openings of 0.149, 0.297, 0.595, 1.19,
2.38, and 4.76 mm.

TABLE AI.5.2.7.1—FIRST ESTIMATE OF
WEIGHT OF FRESH CONCRETE (METRIC)

First estimate of concrete weight, kg/m**

Maximum size
of aggregate,
mm

10

Air-entrained
concrete

Non-air-entrained
concrete

(A18.2.7) for concrete of medium
of cement per m*) and medium slump with
aggregate specific gravity of 2.7, Water requirements based on
values for 8 to 10 cm slump in Table A1.8.2.3. If desired, the estl-

°Values calculated by Eq.
richness (330 k

mate of weight may be refined as follows if necessary informa-
tion fs available: for each & kg difference in mixing water from
the Table Al.5.2.3 values for 8 to 10 cm slump, correct the
weight per m® 8 kg in the opposite direction; for each 20
ifference in cement content from 330 kg, correct the weigh!

r m* 3 kg in the same direction; for each 0.1 yewhich le
@regate specific gravity deviates from 3.7, correct concresa
weight 70 kg in the same direction.

332.

APPENDIX C—Continued

content of Al.5.2.9.1 by 3 kg/m$ ot concrete for each
1 percent by which the air content is to be increased
or decreased from that of the trial batch.

Al1.5.2.9.3 The re-estimated unit weight of the
fresh concrete for adjustment of trial batch proportions
is equal to the unit weight in kg/m’ measured on the
trial batch, reduced or increased by the percentage
increase or decrease in air content of the adjusted
batch from the first trial batch,

APPENDIX 2 —

EXAMPLE PROBLEM IN METRIC SYSTEM

A2.1—Example 1. Example 1 presented in Section
6.2 will be solved here using metric units of measure.
Required average strength will be 250 kgf/cm? with
slump of 8 to 10 cm. The coarse aggregate has a
maximum size of 40 mm and dry-rodded weight of
1600 kg/m3. As stated in Section 6.1, other properties
of the ingredients are: cement—Type I with specific
gravity of 3.15; coarse aggregate—bulk specific gravity
2.68 and absorption 0.5 percent; fine aggregate—bulk
specific gravity 2.64, absorption 0.7 percent, and fine-
ness modulus 2.8.

A2.2— All steps of Section 5.3 should be followed in
sequence tu avoid confusion, even though they some-
times merely restate information already given.

A2.2.1 Step 1. The slump is required to be 8 to
10 cm.

A2.2.2 Step 2. The aggregate to be used has a
maximum size of 40 mm.

A2.2.3 Step 3. The concrete will be non-air-en-
irained since the structure is not to be exposed to
severe weathering. From Table Al1.5.2.3, the esti-
mated mixing water for a slump of 8 to 10 cm in
non-air-entrained concrete made with 40-mm aggregate
is found to be 175 kg/m3.

A2.2.4 Step 4. The water-cement ratio for non-
air-entrained concrete with a strength of 250 kgf/cm?
is found from Table A1.5.2.4(a) to be 0.62.

A2.2.5 Step 5. From the information developed in
Steps 3 and 4, the required cement content is found
to be 175/0.62 = 282 kg/m3.

A2.2.6 Step 6. The quantity of coarse aggregate is
estimated from Table Al.5.2.6. For a fine aggregate
having a fineness modulus of 2.8 and a 40 mm maxi-
Mum size of coarse aggregate, the table indicates that
0.72 m$ of coarse aggregate, on a dry-rodded basis, may
be used in each cubic meter of concrete. The required
dry weight is, therefore, 0.72 x 1600 = 1152 kg.

A2.2,7 Step 7. With the quantities of water, ce-
ment and coarse aggregate established, the remaining
material comprising the cubic meter of concrete must
consist of sand and whatever air will be entrapped.
The required sand may be determined on the basis
of either weight or absolute volume as shown below:

A2.2.7.1 Weight Basis. From Table A1.5.2.7.1, the
weight of a cubic meter of non-air-entrained concrete
made with aggregate having a maximum size of 40 mm
is estimated to be 2420 kg. (For a first trial batch,
exact adjustments of this value for usual differences
in slump, cement factor, and aggregate specific gravity

Water (net mixing) 175 kg
Cement 282 kg
Coarse aggregate 1182 kg
Total 1609 kg

The weight of sand, therefore, is estimated to be
2420 — 1609 = 811 kg

A2.2.7.2 Absolute volume basis. With the quan-
tities of cement, water, and coarse aggregate estab-
lished, and the approximate entrapped air content (as
opposed to purposely entrained air) of 1 percent
determined from Table A1.5.2.3, the sand content can
be calculated as follows:

eae 175 ;
Volume of water = 1000 0.175 m'
Solid volume of cement = eee 0.090 m*
3.15 x 1000 ‘

Solid volume of 1152 0

coarse aggregate = 2638 x 1000 0.430 m!
Volume of entrapped air= 0.01 x 1.000 0.010 m®
Total solid volume of

ingredients except sand 0.705 m?
Solid volume of

sand required = 1.000 — 0,705 0.295 m?
Required weight of

dry sand = 0295x264x1000 - 779kg

A2.2.1.3. Batch weights per cubic meter of con-
-crete calculated on the two bases are compared below:

Based on

Based on absolute

estimated concrete volume of

weight, kg ingredients, kg

Water (net mixing) 175 | 175
Cement 282 282
- Coarse aggregate (dry) 1152 1152
Sand (dry) 811 7719

A2.2.8 Step 8. Tests indicate total moisture of 2
percent in the coarse aggregstc and 6 percent in the
fine aggregate. If the trial batch proportions based on
assumed concrete weight are used, the adjusted ag-
gregate weights become

Coarse aggregate (wet) = 1152(1.02) = 1175 kg
Fine aggregate (wet) = 811(1.06)= 860 kg

Absorbed water does not become part of the mixing
water and must be excluded from the adjustment in
added water. Thus, surface water contributed by the
coarse aggregate amounts to 2—0.5=1.5 percent; by
the fine aggregate 6 — 0.7=5.3 percent. The estimated
Tequirement for added water, therefore, becomes

175 — 1152(0.015) — 811(0.053) = 115 kg

The estimated batch weights for a cubic meter of
concrete are:

Water (to be added) 115 kg
Cement 282 kg
Coarse aggregate (wet) 1175 kg’
Fine aggregate (wet) 860 kg
Total 2432 kg

A2.2.9 Step 9. For the laboratory trial batch, it is
found convenient to scale the weights down to produce
0,02 m3 of concrete. Although the calculated quantity
of water to be added was 2.30 kg, the amount actually
used in an effort to obtain the desired 8 to 10 cm
slump is 2.70 kg. The batch as mixed, therefore, con-
sists of

Water (added) 2.70 kg
Cement 5.04 kg
Coarse aggregate (wet) 23.50 kg
Fine aggregate (wet) 17.20 kg
Total 49.04 kg
ACI STANDARD

333

APPENDIX C—Continued

The concrete has a measured slump of 5 cm and unit
weight of 2390 kg/m’, It is judged to be satisfactory
from the standpoint of workability and finishing prop-
erties, To provide proper yield and other characteristics
for future batches, the following adjustments are made:

A2.2.9.1 Since the yield of the trial batch was
49.04/2390 = 0.0205 m3

and the mixing water content was 2.70 (added) + 0.34
(on coarse aggregate) + 0.86 (on fine aggregate) = 3.90
kg, the mixing water required for a cubic meter of con-
crete with the same slump as the trial batch should be

3.90

0.0205 = 190 ke

As indicated in A1.5.2.9.1, this amount must be in-
creased another 8 kg to raise the slump from the
measured 5 cm to the desired 8 to 10 cm range, bring-
ing the total mixing water to 198 kg.

A2.2.9.2 With the increased mixing water, ad-
ditional cement will be required to provide the desired
water-cement ratio of 0.62, The new cement .content
becomes

198/0.62 = 319 kg

A2.2.9.3 Since workability was found to be satis-
factory, the quantity of coarse aggregate per unit
volume of concrete will be maintained the same as

in the trial batch. The amount of coarse aggregate per
cubic meter becomes

23.50 _
00205 7 1146 kg wet
which ‘is
1146
1027 = 1124 kg dry
and,

1124 x 1.005 = 1130 kg SSD*

A2.2.9.4. The new estimate for the weight of a
cubic meter of concrete is the measured unit weight of
2390 kg/m3, The amount of sand required is, therefore

2390 — (198 + 319 + 1130) = 743 kg SSD

or
143/1.007 = 738 kg dry

The adjusted basic batch weights per cubic meter of
concrete are

Water (net mixing) 198 kg
Cement 319 kg
Coarse aggregate (dry) 1124 kg
Fine aggregate (dry) 7138 kg

A2.2.10 Adjustments of proportions determined on
an absolute volume basis follow a procedure similar

to that just outlined. The steps will be given without
detailed explanation:

A2.2.10.1 Quantities used in the nominal 0.02 m3
batch are

Water (added) ~

2.70 kg
Cement 5.64 kg
Coarse aggregate (wet) 23.50 kg
Fine aggregate (wet) 16.51 kg
Total 48.35 kg

Measured slump 5 cm; unit’ weight 2390 kg/m3; yield
48.35/2390 = 0.0202 m3; workability o.k.

PROPORTIONS FOR NORMAL AND HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE

334

A2.2.10.2 Re-estimated water for same slump as
trial batch:

2.70 40.34 +083 _ 1,
0.0202 Saisaake

Mixing water required for slump of 8 to 10 cm:
192 + 8 = 200 kg

A2.2.10.3 Adjusted cement content for increased
water:

200/0.62 = 323 kg

A2.2.10.4 Adjusted coarse aggregate require-
ment:

23.50

0202" = 1163 kg wet

1163/1.02 = 1140 kg dry

A2.2.10.5 The volume of ingredients other than
air in the original trial batch was

Water =

= 2
To0o = 0.0039 m
5.64 = 5
Cement Zs x 1000 = 0.0018 m
23.04 FL 2
Coarse aggregate 268 x 1000 = 0.0086 m
Fine aggregate 15.58 = 0.0059 m?
2.64 x 1000
Teta} 0.0202 m?

Since the yield was also 0.0202 m3, there was no air in
the concrete detectable within the precision of the unit
weight test and significant figures of the calculations.
With the proportions of all components except fine
aggregate established, the determination of adjusted

cubic yard batch quantities can be completed as fol-
lows:

= 200 = 2
Volume of water = 7000 = 0.200 mi
= 323 —, = 3
Volume of cement = 315 x 1000 = 0.103 m:
Allowance for volume
of air = 0.000 m?
Volume of coarse 1140 = (SD
aggregate = 268 x 1000 = eS
Total volume exclusive
of fine aggregate = 0.728 m?
Volume of fine
aggregate required = 1.000 — 0.728 = 0.272 m3

Weight of fine
aggregate (dry basis) = 0.272 x 2.64 x 1000 = 718 kg

The adjusted basic batch weights per cubic meter of
concrete, then, are:

Water (net mixing) 200 kg
Cement 323 kg
Coarse aggregate (dry) 1140 kg
Fine aggregate (dry) 718 kg

These differ only slightly from those given in Para-
graph A2.2.9.4 for the method of assumed concrete
weight. Further trials or experience might indicate
small additional adjustments for either method.

°Saturated-surface-dry

APPENDIX C—Continued

APPENDIX 3—-LABORATORY TESTS

A3.1—Selection of concrete mix proportions can be
accomplished effectively from results of laboratory
tests which determine basic physical properties of
materials to be used, establish relationships between
water-cement ratio, air content, cement content, and
strength, and which furnish information on the work-
ability characteristics of various combinations of in-
gredient materials. The extent of investigation desirable
for any given job will depend on its size and im-
portance and on the service conditions involved. De-
tails of the laboratory program will also vary, depend-
ing on facilities available and on individual preferences.

A3.2—Properties of cement

A3.2.1_ Physical and chemical characteristics of ce-
ment influence the properties of hardened concrete.
However, the only property of cement used directly
in computation of concrete mix proportions is specific
gravity. The specific gravity of portland cements of
the types covered by ASTM C150 and C175 may
usually be assumed to be 3.15 without introducing
appreciable error in mix computations. For other
types such as the blended hydraulic cements of ASTM
C595, the specific gravity for use in volume calcula-
tions should be determined by test.

A3.2.2 A sample of cement should be obtained
from the mill which will supply the job, or preferably
from the concrete supplier. The sample should be ample
for tests contemplated with a liberal margin for
additional tests that might later be considered desirable.
Cement samples should be shipped in airtight con-
tainers, or at least in moisture-proof peckages.

A3.3—Properties of aggregate

A3.3.1 Sieve analysis, specific gravity, absorp-
tion, and moisture content of both fine and coarse ag-
gregate and dry-rodded unit weight of coarse aggre-
gate are physical properties useful for mix computa-
tions. Other tests which may be desirable for large or
special types of work include petrographic examination
and tests for chemical reactivity, soundness, durability,
resistance to abrasion, and various deleterious sub-
stances. Such tests yield information of value in judg-
ing the long-range serviceability of concrete.

A3.3.2 Aggregate gradation as measured by the
sieve analysis is a major factor in determining unit
water requirement, proportions of coarse aggregate
and sand, and cement content for satisfactory work-
ability. Numerous “ideal” aggregate grading curves
have been proposed, and these, tempered by practical
considerations, have formed the basis for typical sieve
analysis requirements in concrete standards. ASTM
C33, “Specification for Concrete Aggregates,” provides
a selection of sizes and gradings suitable for most
concrete. Additional workability realized by use of
air-entrainment permits, to some extent, the use of
less restrictive aggregate gradations.

A3.3.3 Samples for concrete mix tests should be
representative of aggregate available for use in the
work. For laboratory tests, the coarse apgregates
should be separated into required size fractions and
reconstituted at the time of mixing to assure represen-
tative grading for the small test batches. Under some
conditions, for work of important magnitude, labora-
tory investigation may involve efforts to overcome
grading deficiencies of the available aggregates. Un-
desirable sand grading may be corrected by: (1) separa-
tion of the sand into two or more size fractions and
recombining in suitable proportions; (2) increasing or
decreasing the quantity of certain sizes to balance the
grading; or (3) reducing excess coarse material by
grinding or crushing. Undesirable coarse-aggregate
gradings may be corrected by: (1) crushing excess
coarser fractions; (2) wasting sizes that occur in
excess; (3) supplementing deficient sizes from other
sources; or (4) a combination of these methods. What-
ever grading adjustments are made in the laboratory
should be practical and economically justified from the
standpoint of job operation. Usually, required aggre-
gate grading should be consistent with that of eco-
nomically available materials.

A3.4—Trial batch series

A3.4.1 The tabulated relationships in the body of
this report may be used to make rcugh estimates of
batch quantities for a trial mix. However, they are
too generalized to apply with a high degree of ac-
curacy to a specific set of materials. If facilities are
available, therefore, it is advisable to make a series
of concrete tests to establish quantitative relationships
for the materials to be used. An illustration of such a
test program is shown in Table A3.4.1.

A34.2 First, a batch of medium cement content
and usable consistency is proportioned by the described
methods. In preparing Mix No. 1, an amount of water
is used which will produce the desired slump even if
this differs from the estimated requirement. The fresh
concrete is tested for slump and unit weight and ob-
served ¢losely for workability and finishing character-
istics. In the example, the yield is too high and the
concrete is judged to contain an excess of sand.

A3.4.3. Mix No. 2 is prepared, adjusted to cor-
rect the errors in Mix No. 1, and the testing and
evaluation repeated. In this case, the desired prop-
erties are achieved within close tolerances and cylinders
are molded to check the compressive strength. The
information derived so far can now be used to select
proportions for a series of additional mixes, No. 3 to
6, with cement contents above and below that of Mix
No. 2, encompassing the range likely to be needed.
Reasonable refinement in these batch weights can be
achieved with the help of corrections given in the notes
to Table 5.3.7.1.

A3.4.4 Mix No. 2 to 6 provide the background, in-
cluding the relationship of strength to water-cement

TABLE A3.4.1—TYPICAL TEST PROGRAM TO ESTABLISH CONCRETE-MAKING
PROPERTIES OF LOCAL MATERIALS

Cubic yard batch quantities, lb

Concrete characteristics

Water 28-day
Mix Coarse —————_———__ | Total Compressive. Work-
No. Aggregate Estimated Used used strength, psi ability
|_—_______—— _———.-
1 325 350 4033 _ Oversanded
2 343 340 3965 ok.
3 345 345 3955 2130 ok.
4 345 345 3960 2610 ok.
8 345 345 3880 3800 ok.
6 M45 345 3088 4360 o..
ACI STANDARD

335

APPENDIX C—Continued

ratio for the particular combination of ingredients,
needed to select proportions for a range of specified
requirements.

A3.4.5 In laboratory tests, it seldom will be found,
even by experienced operators, that desired adjust-
ments will develop as smoothly as indicated in Table
A3.4.1. Furthermore, it should not be expected that
field results will check exactly with laboratory results.
An adjustment of the selected trial mix on the job
is usually necessary. Closer agreement between lab-
oratory and field will be assured if machine mixing
is employed in the laboratory. This is especially de-
sirable if air-entraining agents are used since the type
of mixer influences the amount of air entrained. Be-
fore mixing the first batch, the laboratory mixer
should be “buttered” or the mix “overmortared” as
described in ASTM C192. Similarly, any processing of
materials in the laboratory should simulate as closely
as practicable corresponding treatment in the field.

A3.4.6 The series of tests illustrated in Table
A3.4.1 may be expanded as the size and special re-
quirements of the work warrant. Variables that may
require investigation include: alternative aggregate
sources, maximum sizes and gradings; different types
and brands of cement; admixtures; and considerations
of concrete durability, volume change, temperature rise,
and thermal properties.

A3.5—Test methods

A3.5.1 In conducting laboratory tests to provide
information for selecting concrete proportions, the
latest revisions of the following methods should be
used:

A3.5.1.1 For tests of ingredients:

Sampling hydraulic cement—ASTM C 183

Specific gravity of hydraulic cement—ASTM
C 188

Sampling stone, slag, gravel, sand, and stone
block for use as highway materialsk—ASTM
D775

Sieve or screen analysis of fine and coarse
aggregates—ASTM C 136

Specific gravity and absorption of coarse ag-
gregates—ASTM C 127

Specific gravity and absorption of fine ag-
gregates—ASTM C 128

Surface moisture in fine aggregate—ASTM C 70

Total moisture content of aggregate by drying
—ASTM C 566

Unit weight of aggregate—ASTM C 29

Voids in aggregate for concrete—ASTM C 30

Fineness modulus—Terms relating to concrete
and concrete aggregates, ASTM C 125

A3.5.1.2 For tests of concrete:

Sampling fresh concrete—ASTM C 172

Air content of freshly mixed concrete by the
volumetric method—ASTM C 173

Air content of freshly mixed concrete by the
pressure method—ASTM C 231

Slump of portland cement concrete—ASTM
C 143

Weight per cubic foot, yield, and air content
(gravimetric) of concrete—ASTM C 138

Concrete compression and flexure test speci-
mens, making and curing in the laboratory—
ASTM C 192

Compressive strength of molded concrete cylin-
ders—ASTM C39

PROPORTIONS FOR NORMAL AND HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE

336

Flexural strength of concrete (using simple
beam with third-point loading) ASTM C 78

Flexural strength of concrete (using simple
beam with center point loading)—ASTM
C 293

Splitting tensile strength of molded concrete
cylinders—ASTM C 496

A3.6—Mixes for small jobs

A3.6.1_ For small jobs where time and personnel
are not available to determine proportions in accordance
with the recommended procedure, mixes in Table
A3‘6.1 will usually provide concrete that is amply
strong and durable if the amount of water added at
the mixer is never large enough to make the concrete
overwet. These mixes have been predetermined in con-
formity with the recommended procedure by assuming
conditions applicable to the average small job, and
for aggregate of medium specific gravity. Three mixes
are given for each maximum size of coarse aggregate.
For the selected size of coarse aggregate, Mix B is in-
tended for.initial use. If this mix proves to be over-
sanded, change to Mix C; if it is undersanded, change
to Mix A. It should be noted that the mixes listed in
the table are based on dry or surface-dry sand. If the
sand is moist or wet, make the corrections in batch
weight prescribed in the footnote.

A3.6.2 The approximate cement content per cubic
foot of concrete listed in the table will be helpful in
estimating cement requirements for the job. These
requirements are based on concrete that has just enough
water in it to permit ready working into forms with-
out objectionable segregation. Concrete should slide,
not run, off a shovel.

TABLE’ A3.6.1—CONCRETE MIXES FOR SMALL JOBS

Procedure: Select the proper maximum size of aggregate (see
Section 53.2). Use Mix B. adding just eneugh water to produce
a workable consistency. If the concrete appears to be under-
sanded change to Mix A and, if it appears oversanded, change
lo 1x *

Approximate weights of solid ingredients
per cu ft of concrete, lb
Maxi- Sande Coarse aggregate
mum
size of Gravel Iron
agere-| Mix | Air- Concrete or blast
gate, | desig- entrained | without |crushed | furnace
in nation | Cement | concretet air stone slag
4 A 235 48 51 54 47
B 3 46 49 56 49
CS 23 44 47 [ 58 51
% A 23 45 49 62 54
B 23 43 47 64 56
Cc 23 41 45 66 58
1 A 22 41 45 70 61
B 22 39 43 72 63
c 22 37 41 74 63
145 A 20 41 45 7 78 65
B 20 39 43 77 67
(Le c 20 2] 37 41 7 69
2 A 19 40 cian ae 69
B 19 38 43 81 2
c 19 36 41 3 72

°Weights are for dry sand. If damp sand js used, increase
rao ated weight of sand 2 lb and, if very wet sand is used, 4

+Air-entrained concrete should be used in all structures which
will be exposed to alternate cycles of freezing and thawing.
Air-entrainment can be obtained by the use of an air-entraining
cement or by adding an air-entraining admixture. If an admix-
ture is used, the amount recommended by the manufacturer
will, in most cases, produce the desired air content.

APPENDIX C—Continued

APPENDIX 4—
HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE MIX
PROPORTIONING

A4.1—Concrete of normal placeability can be propor-
tioned for densities as high as 350 1b per cu ft by using
heavy aggregates such as iron ore, barite, or iron shot
and iron punchings. Although each of the materials has
its own special characteristics, it can be processed to
meet the standard requirements for grading, soundness,
cleanliness, etc. The acceptability of the aggregate
should be made depending upon its intended use. In
the case of radiation shielding, determination should be
made of trace elements within the material which may
become reactive when subjected to radiation. [n the
selection of materials and proportioning of heavyweight
concrete, the data needed and procedures used are
similar to that required for normal weight concrete
except that the following items should be considered.

A4.1.1—In selecting an aggregate for a specified
density, the specific gravity of the fine aggregate should
be comparable to that of the coarse aggregate in order
to lessen settlement of the coarse aggregate through the
mortar matrix. Typical materials used as heavy aggre-
gates include the following:

Specific Approx. concrete
Material Description gravity unit wt (Ib/cu ft)
Limonite Hydrous iron 3.4-3.8 180 - 195
Goethite ores
Barite Barium sulfate 40-44 205 - 225
Timenite
Hematite Iron ores 42-48 215 - 240
Magnetite
Iron Shot, pellets, 65-7.5 310 - 350

puncnings, etc.

A4.12—When the concrete in service is to be ex-
posed to a hot, dry environment, it should be propor-
tioned so that the fresh urfit weight is at least 10 lb
per cu ft higher than the required dry unit weight.

A4.13—When entrained air is required to resist con-
ditions of exposure, allowance must be made for the
loss in weight due to the space occupied by the air.
To achieve adequate consolidation using high frequency
vibrators and close insertion intervals, without the
excessive loss of entrained air, plastic concrete should
be designed for a high air content to offset this loss
during placement.

A4.1.4—Heavyweight concrete is often used for radi-
ation shielding. In this case, the aggregate type and
concrete weight should be selected consistent with the
type of radiation involved. Generally speaking the
greater the mass the better are the shielding properties
against gamma and beta rays. However, neutron at-
tenuation depends more on the specific elements present
in the concrete, i.e., hydrogen, carbon, boron, etc.

A4.1.5—Ferrophosphorous and ferrosilicon (heavy-
weight slags) materials should be used only after
thorough scrutiny. Hydrogen evolution in heavyweight
concrete containing these aggregates has been known to
result in a reaction of a self-limiting nature, producing
over 25 times its volume of hydrogen before the reac-
tion ceases.

A41.6—In Section 5.3.7 (Step 7) caution must be
exercised if the weight method (Section 5.3.7.1) is used
to estimate the fine aggregate batch weight. The values
in Table 5.3.7.1 must be corrected for overall aggregate
specific gravity since the table is based on an average
aggregate specific gravity of 2.7. Therefore, it is recom-

337

mended that the required amount of fine aggregate be
determined by the absolute volume procedure (Section
5.3.7.2).

A4.2—Production and quality control. The technique
and equipment for producing heavyweight concrete
are the same as used with normal weight concrete. In
the selection of heavyweight materials and combina-
tions thereof for the purposes of proportioning speci-
fication concretes, attention must be directed to
aggregate effects on placeability, strength, and dura-
bility of the concrete. Testing and quality control
measures assume greater importance than with normal
weight concrete. Control of aggregate grading is essen-
tial because of the effect on the placing and consolidat-
ing properties of concrete, and on the unit weight of
the concrete. In enforcing strict quality control special
attention should be paid to the following:

A4.2.1—Prevention of contamination with normal
weight aggregate in stockpiles and conveying equip-
ment.

A4.2.2—Purging of all aggregate handling and batch-
ing equipment, premixers and truck mixers, before
batching and mixing heavyweight concrete..

A4.2.3—Accuracy and condition of conveying and
scale equipment, aggregate storage and concrete batch-
ing bins. Due to the greater weight of heavyweight
aggregate, the permissible volume batched in a bin is
considerably less than the design capacity. For ex-
ample: a 100 ton aggregate bin designed for 75 cu yd
of normal weight aggregate should not be loaded with
more than 25 to. 55 cu yd for the range of specific
gravities shown in Section A4.1.1.

A4.2.4—Condition and loading of mixing equipment.
For concrete of a weight range of approximately 4800
to 9500 lb per cu yd, the capacity of a truck mixer,
without overloading, is reduced from 20 to 60 percent.

A4.2.5—Accurate aggregate proportioning to main-
tain w/c ratio. Degradation of some coarse heavy-
weight aggregates, iron ores in particular, is another
production problem which should be carefully con-
trolled. Either the coarse aggregate should be rescreened
immediately prior to incorporation into the concrete
or adjustments made in the mixture proportions that
compensate for the increased percentage of fines in the
coarse aggregate, caused by aggregate breakdown dur-
ing handling. Therefore, caution should be exercised
and frequent gradation checks made on _ stockpiled
aggregates.

A4.2.6—Frequent checks of fresh unit weight.

A4.2.7—Design and construction of forms to handle
additional weight of concrete:

A4.2.8—Vibrators for consolidation.

A4.3—Example problem. Concrete is required for
counterweights on a lift bridge not subjected to freezing
and thawing conditions. An average 28-day compressive
strength of 4500 psi will be required. Placement con-
ditions permit a slump of 2 to 3 in. and a maximum size
aggregate of 1 in. The design of the counterweight re-
quires a dry unit weight of 230 lb per cu ft. An in-
vestigation of economically available materials has
indicated the following:

Cement
Fine aggregate
Coarse aggregate

—Type I (non-air-entraining)
—Specular Hematite
—Iimenite

The table in Section 4.1.1 indicates that this combina-
tion of materials may result in a dry unit weight of 215
to 240 lb per cu ft. The following properties of the
aggregates have been obtained from laboratory tests:

ACI STANDARD

APPENDIX C—Continued

Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate

Fineness modulus 2.30 _
Specific gravity (Bulk SSD) 4.95 < 4.6)
Absorption (percent) 0.05 0.08
Dry rodded weight _ 165 lb per cu ft
Maximum size = lin.

Employing the sequence outlined in Section 5 of this
recommended practice, the quantities of ingredients per
cubic yard of concrete are calculated as follows:

A4.3.1 Step 1. As indicated above, the desired slump
is 2 to 3 in.

A4.3.2 Step 2. The available aggregate sources have
been indicated as suitable, and the coarse aggregate will
be a well-graded and well-shaped crushed ilmenite
with a maximum size of 1 in.

A4.3.3 Step 3. By interpolation in Table 5.3.3, non-
air-entrained concrete with a 2 to 3 in. slump and a
1 in. maximum size aggregate requires a water content
of approximately 310 lb per cu yd. The estimated en-
trapped-air is 1.5 percent. (Non-air-entrained concrete
will be used because (1) the concrete is not exposed to
severe weather, and (2) a high air content could reduce
the dry unit weight of the concrete.)

Note: Table 5.3.3 values for water requirement are
based on the use of well-shaped crushed coarse aggre-
gates. Void content of compacted dry fine or coarse
aggregate can be used as an indicator of angularity.
Void contents of compacted 1 in. coarse aggregate of
significantly more than 40 percent indicate angular
material which will probably require more water than
that listed in Table 5.3.3. Conversely rounded aggre-
gates with voids below 35 percent will probably need
less water.

A4.3.4 Step 4. From Table 5.3.4(a) the water-cement
ratio needed to produce a strength of 4500 psi in non-
air-entrained concrete is found to be approximately
0.52.

A4.3.5 Step 5. From the information derived in Steps
3 and 4, the required cement content is calculated to be
310/0.52 = 596 Ib per cu yd.

A4.3.6 Step 6. The quantity of coarse aggregate is
estimated by extrapolation from Table 5.3.6. For a fine
aggregate having a fineness modulus of 2.30 and a 1 in.
maximum size aggregate, the table indicates that 0.72
cu ft of coarse aggregate, on a dry-rodded basis, may be
used in each cubic foot of concrete. For a cubic yard,
therefore, the coarse aggregate will be 27 x 0.72 = 19.44
cu ft. Since the dry-rodded unit weight of the coarse
aggregate is 165 lb per cu ft, the dry weight of coarse
aggregate to be used in a cubic yard of concrete would
be 19.44 x 165 = 3208 lb. The angularity of the coarse
aggregate is compensated for in the ACI proportioning
method through the use of the dry-rodded unit weight;
however, the use of an extremely angular fine aggre-
gate may require a higher proportion of fine aggregate,
an increased cement content, or the use of air-entrain-
ment to produce the required workability.

A4.3.7 Step 7. For heavyweight concrete, it is recom-
mended that the required fine aggregate be determined

PROPORTIONS FOR NORMAL AND HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE

338

on the absolute volume basis. With the quantities of
cement, water, air and coarse aggregate established,
the sand content can be calculated as follows:

310
Vo) f te} = = =H
olume of water 624 497 cu ft
Volume of air = 0.015 x 27 = 0.40 cu ft
Solid volume of cement = we =3.03 cult
3.15 x 62.4 ;
Solid volume of 3208
coarse/ageregate =46l x 624 GOL
Total volume of all ingredients
except sand = 1955 cu ft
Solid volume of sand = 27 — 1955 = 7.45 cu ft
Required weight of 4
and = 745 X 4.95 X 62.4 = 2301 Ib

A438 Step 8. Tests indicate total moisture of 0.15
percent in the fine aggregate and 0.10 percent in the
coarse aggregate; therefore, the adjusted aggregate
weights become:

Fine aggregate (wet) = 1.0015 xX 2301 = 2304 Ib
Coarse aggregate (wet) = 1.0010 x 3208= 3211 Ib

Absorbed water does not become part of the mixing
water and must be excluded from the adjustment in
added water. Thus surface water contributed by the
fine aggregate amounts to 0.15 — 0.55 = 0.10 percent;
by the coarse aggregate 0.10 — 0.08 = 0.02 percent. The
estimated requirement for added water, therefore be-
comes:

310 — 2301 (0.001) — 3208(0.0002) = 307 Ib

A4.3.9 Step 9. The resulting estimated proportions
by weight of the heavyweight concrete becomes:

Cement = 5961b
Fine aggregate (wet) = 2304 lb
Coarse aggregate (wet) = 3211 1b
Water = 371b

Estimated unit wt (fresh) == 6418/27 = 237.7 lb per cu ft

A44—The above heavyweight concrete proportioned
mixture was actually used for approximately 5060 cu
yd. Field adjustments resulted in the following actual
batch weights:

Cement 590 Ib
Fine aggregate 2310 Ib
Coarse aggregate 3220 Ib
Water 285 Ib (plus a water-reducing agent)

The actual field test results indicated the concrete
possessed the following properties:

Unit weight (fresh) 235.7 Ib per cu ft

Air content 2.8 percent
Slump 213 in.
Strength 5000 psi at 28 days

APPENDIX D

6-14 Corrosion Protection for Concrete
-1 Preliminary Report

The minimum cover for reinforcing steel in concrete structures and the type of cement to be used is
dependent upon the environment. The Districts will normally investigate the bridge sites for chloride and
sulfate content of the soil. The preliminary report writer will obtain the site corrosion data from the
District materials report and include it in the preliminary report.
-2 Chloride Protection

The minimum covering measured from the surface of the concrete to the face of any reinforcing bar
shall be as shown in Table A under normal environment. For those structures subject to marine or high
chloride environment the covering to the face of the bar shall be increased to the values listed under the
appropriate heading.

Table A

GUIDANCE FOR SELECTING TYPES OF CONCRETE MIXES FOR SPECIAL ENVIRONMENTS

Minimum Covering for Reinforcing Steel!)

Structure Member

Piles

Footings

Walls

Outside face of Box Girder Webs

I and T Beam Webs

Bottom Flange Bulb of I or T Beam
Curbs and Railings

Exposed slab
Riding surface
Bottom surface

Columns
Flat face
Comer

Caps
Flat face
Comer

Normal
(inch)

4)
1-1%

2
2
2
2

Marine?)
(inch)

Environment

High Chlorides
(above 1000 ppm)

See
Table B

(1) A protective coating shall be applied to steam cured members in a marine

environment.

(2) A marine environment is defined as in or within about 1,000 feet of the ocean or
tidal water. Concrete shall contain a minimum of seven sacks of cement per cubic

yard.

(3) A protective coating shall be applied to that portion of pile which will remain
above the ground or water line. Limits of protective coating shall be shown on the

plans.

(A) 2" in freeze-thaw environments.

339

APPENDIX D—Continued

Table B
| _—_—Chilorides (PPM)(>)

ae Member 1000—5000 5000—10000 10000-10000)
“ i i

Columns
Flat face
Comer

(5) The coverings shown are for members in a chloride environment and apply only to
those particular members that are in direct contact with the soil or water.
Concrete shall contain a minimum of seven sacks of cement per cubic yard.

(6) Including ocean water—submerged or splash.

.3 Sulfate Resistance

Resistance to concrete attack by high sulfate content in the soil is provided by increasing the Type II
cement factor or using Type V cement. The cement content and the cement types to be used for concrete
which will be in contact with soils containing sulfates will be as shown in Table C. The limits shall be shown
on the plans.

Table C
Sulfates (SO) PPM Sacks per Cubic Yard (min) Cement Type
0—2000 II

2000-15000 Il
Over 15000 WW

4 Freeze-thaw Resistance
All concrete placed in a freeze-thaw environment shall contain a minimum of seven sacks of cement per
cubic yard and 6 percent

340

APPENDIX E

MARINE PRODUCT MANUFACTURERS

1. Floating Piers, Gangways, Docks and Docking Systems.

American Marina Engineering Co.
3233 SW 2nd Avenue
Fort Lauderdale, FL 33315

C.M. Beuthe Co.
120-B Cloverdale Avenue
Concord, CA 94518

Hardwick Engineering and Associates
729 Kast Willow Street
Long Beach, CA 90806

Harbor Host Corp.
1027 East Algonquin Road
Arlington Heights, IL 60005

Koppers Company, Inc.
Forest Products Division
750 Koppers Building
Pittsburgh, PA 15219

MEECO Marinas, Inc.
PO Box 66
Carrollton, TX 75006

Poly Sintering, Inc.
Commercial Flotation Division
1624 15th Avenue West
Seattle, WA 98119

Tomlinson Industries, Inc.
13700 Broadway
Cleveland, OH 44125

United Flotation Systems
2400 Fairwood Avenue
Columbus, OH 43207

Armco Steel Corp.
1001 Grove Street
Middleton, OH 45042

Dock Masters Inc.
PO Box 1687
Huntington Beach, CA 92647

Hallsten Supply Co.
PO Box 41036
Sacramento, CA 95841

International Marina Systems, Inc.
PO Box 7531
Tulsa, OK 74105

Marina Products Manufacturing, Inc.
221 SW 14th Court
Fort Lauderdale, FL 33315

Pacific Gangways

Pacific Pipe Co.

PO Box 4011, Bay Shore Station
Oakland, CA 94623

Steel-N-Foam Docks, Inc.
PO Box 737, 501 South Valley
Kansas City, KA 66119

Trautwein Bros.
2410 Newport Boulevard
Newport Beach, CA 92660

341

APPENDIX E—Continued

2. Perimeter Protection, Erosion Control.

Cathage Mills Inc. Construction Techniques, Inc.

Erosion Control Division 1111 Superior Building

124 West 66th Street Cleveland, OH 44114

Cincinnati, OH 45216

Griffolyn Company, Inc. Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical Sales, Inc.
PO Box 33248 Kaiser Center, 300 Lakeside Drive
Houston, TX 77033 Oakland, CA 94604
Macafferri-Gabions of America, Inc. Macafferri-Gabions of America, Inc.
One Lefrak City Plaza 2470 Westlake North

Flushing, NY 11368 Seattle, WA 98109

3. Electrical Components, Corrosion Control.

The Arrow-Hart & Hegeman Electric Co. Harvey Hubbell Inc.
Hartford, CT 06106 Bridgeport, CT 06602
Kiekhaefer Mercury Occidental Coating Co.
Division of Brunswick Corp. 7755 Deering Avenue

Fond du Lac, WI 54935 Canoga Park, CA 91304.
Pennwalk Automatic Power The Pyle-National Co.

213 Hutcheson Street 1334 North Kostner Avenue
Houston, TX 77003 Chicago, IL 60651

Wide Lite

PO Box 191

Houston, TX 77001
4. Slings, Hoists, Lifts and Winches.

A. C. Hoyle Co. Acme Marine Hoist, Inc.
Box 589 658 Rockaway Turnpike
Iron Mountain, MI 49801 Lawrence, Long Island, NY 11559
Clark Equipment C. M. Hoist
Industrial Truck Division Division, Columbus McKinnon Corp.
Battle Creek, MI 49016 Freemont Avenue
Tonawanda, NY 14150
Electrolift, Inc. Midland-Ross Corp.
204 Sargeant Avenue RPC Division
Clifton, NJ 07013 PO Box 499

Roxboro. NC 27573

342

APPENDIX E—Continued

Midwest Industries, Inc.
Marine Division
Ida Grove, IA 51445

J.H. Baxter
1700 South El Camino Real
San Mateo, CA 94402

Koppers Company, Inc.
Forest Products Division
730 Koppers Building
Pittsburgh, PA 15219

Minuteman Sales & Service
PO Box 1
Plymouth, MA 02360

5. Wood Products.

The Dow Chemical Co.
Designed Products Department
Midland, MI 48640

Permapost Products Co.

25600 SW Tualatin Valley Highway

Hillsboro, OR 97123

6. Sanitary Pumpout Systems.

American Marina Engineering Co.

3233 SW 2nd Avenue
Fort Lauderdale, FL 33315

Kenton Equipment Co.
Marine Division
3280 Kurtz Street

San Diego, CA 92110

Sani-Station
Sta-Rite Industries, Inc.
Delavan, WI 53115

7. De-Icing Systems.

Sta-Rite Industries, Inc. Schramm, Inc.

Delavan, WI 53115 Aeration Division
612 North Garfield Avenue
West Chester, PA 19830

8. Dredging Equipment.
National Car Rental System, Inc.
Mud Cat, Hydro-Soil Division
5901 Green Valley Drive
Minneapolis, MN .55431

Ellicott Machine Corp.
1615 Bush Street
Baltimore, MD 21230

Pneuma Dredging Equipment Sauerman Bros., Inc.
Civil & Marine Engineering Co., International 620 South 28th Avenue
90 Broad Street Bellwood, IL 60104
New York, NY 10004

Vortex-Hydra

Ewing Sales Agency

18106 Redbud Circle
Fountain Valley, CA 92708

343

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APPENDIX F

FEDERAL AGENCIES SPONSORING PROGRAMS WHICH MAY PROVIDE
AID AND ASSISTANCE IN DEVELOPING SMALL-CRAFT FACILITIES

Information Staff

Farmers Home Administration
Department of Agriculture
Washington, DC 20250

Director
Office of Business Economics
Department of Commerce

Washington, DC 20230

Information Service

Department of Housing and
Urban Development

451 Seventh Street SW

Washington, DC 20410

Department of Interior

Conservation Education Office
Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
18th and C Streets, NW

Washington, DC 20240

Division of Information
National Park Service
Interior Building
Washington, DC 20240

Commissioner of Reclamation
Department of Interior
Washington, DC 20240

Office of Public Affairs
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
6010 Executive Boulevard
Rockville, MD 20852

U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers
Department of the Army
Washington, DC 20314

Division of Information and Education
Forest Service

Department of Agriculture
Washingion, DC 20250

Office of Administration and
Program Analysis
Economic Development Administration
Main Commerce Building
Washington, DC 20230

Environmental Protection Agency
1626 K Street, NW
Washington, DC 20460

Office of Information
Bureau of Land Management
Department of Interior
Washington, DC 20240

Organization Division

Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
Interior Building

Washington, DC 20240

Office of Water Resources
Department of Interior
Washington, DC 20240

Department of Transportation
400 Seventh Street, SW
Washington, DC 20590

U.S. Coast Guard
400 Seventh Street, SW
Washington, DC 20590

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APPENDIX G

STATE AGENCIES HOLDING JURISDICTION OVER MATTERS
CONCERNING SMALL CRAFT AND SMALL-CRAFT FACILITIES

Department of Conservation
Water Safety Division
Montgomery, AL 36104

Coordinator, Game and Fish Department
2222 West Greenway Road
Phoenix, AZ 85023

State of California Resources Agency

Dept. of Navigation and Ocean Development
1416 Ninth Street

Sacramento, CA 95814

Director, Boating Commission
Department of Environmental Protection
State Office Building

Hartford, CT 06115

Department of Natural Resources
Division of Marine Resources
Larson Building

Tallahassee, FL 32304

Department of Transportation
Harbors Division

PO Box 397

Honolulu, HI 96809

Department of Conservation
605 State Office Building
400 South Spring Street
Springfield, IL 62706

Superintendent of Waters Section
State Conservation Commission
300 4th Street

Des Moines, IA 50319

Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources
State Office Building Annex
Frankfort, KY 40601

34.7

Department of Public Works
Division of Water and Harbors
Pouch Z

Juneau, AK 99801

Information and Education Division
Game and Fish Commission
Little Rock, AR 72201

Chief Warden

Game, Fish and Parks Department
6060 Broadway

Denver, CO 80216

Department of Natural Resources and
Environmental Control
Dover, DE 19901

Coordinator, Special Services
State Game and Fish Commission
Trinity-Washington Building
Room 710

Atlanta, GA 30334

Idaho Department of Parks
Statehouse
Boise, ID 83707

Enforcement Division
Department of Natural Resources
606 State Office Building
Indianapolis, IN 46209

Field Services Division

Forestry, Fish and Game Commission
Box 1028

Pratt, KS 67124

Department of Public Safety
State Office Building Annex
Frankfort, KY 49601

APPENDIX G—Continued

Supervisor of Revenue

Wildlife and Fisheries Commission
Wildlife and Fisheries

400 Royal Street

New Orleans, LA 70130

Chief, Boating Division

Department of Chesapeake Bay Affairs
1825 Virginia Street

Annapolis, MD 21401

Department of Natural Resources
Stevens T. Mason Building
Lansing, MI 48926

Mississippi Boat and

Water Safety Commission
Robert E. Lee Building, Room 403
Jackson, MS 39201

Department of Fish and Game
Helena, MT 59601

Department of Fish and Game
1100 Valley Road
Reno, NV 89510

Supervisor Motorboat Numbering
Department of Environmental Protection
PO Box 1889

Trenton, NJ 08625

New York State Parks and Recreation
State Campus, Building 2
Albany, NY 12226

North Dakota State Park Service
Ft. Lincoln State Park

Route 2, Box 139

Mandan, ND 58554.

Bureau of Watercraft
Registration and Safety
State Office Building
Augusta, ME 04330

Director, Marine and Recreation Division
100 Nashua Street
Boston, MA 02114

Department of Natural Resources
Centennial Office Building
Si. Paul, MN 55101

Missouri Boat Commission
PO Box 603
Jefferson City, MO 65101

Nebraska Game and Parks Commission
2200 North 33rd Street

PO Box 30370

Lincoln, NB 68503

Department of Safety
Division of Safety Services
Concord, NH 03301

State Park and Recreation Commission
141 East De Vargas Street
Santa Fe, NM 87501

Wildlife Resources Commission
Box 2919
Raleigh, NC 27602

Department of Natural Resources
Division of Watercraft

1350 Holly Avenue

Columbus, OH 43212

APPENDIX G—Continued

Director, Lake Patrol Division
Department of Public Safety
PO Box 11415

Oklahoma City, OK 73105

Pennsylvania Fish Commission
PO Box 1673
Harrisburg, PA 17120

Wildlife Resources Department
Division of Boating

15 Lockwood Boulevard
Charleston, SC 29401

Tennessee Game and Fish Commission
Ellington Agricultural Center

PO Box 40747

Nashville, TN 37220

Boating Chief

Division of Parks and Recreation
1596 W. North Temple Street
Salt Lake City, UT 84116

Commission of Outdoor Recreation
8th Street Office Building

803 E. Broad Street

Richmond, VA 23219

Chief, Law Enforcement Section
Department of Natural Resources
State Office Building

Charleston, WV 25305

Game and Fish Commission
Cheyenne, WY 82001

Ports Authority
GPO Box 2829
San Juan, PR 00936

State Marine Board
Agriculture Building
Salem, OR 97310

Division of Coastal Resources
Veterans Memorial Building
83 Park Street

Providence, RI 02903

Department of Game, Fish and Parks
Pierre, SD 57501

Texas Parks and Wildlife Department
John H. Regan Building
Austin, TX 78701

Agency of Environmental Conservation
Department of Water Resources
Montpelier, VT 05602

Washington State Parks and
Recreation Commission

PO Box 1128

Olympia, WA 98504

Department of Natural Resources
PO Box 450
Madison, WI 53701

Harbor Master

Metropolitan Police Department
Harbor Precinct

550 Main Avenue, SW
Washington, DC 20024

Ports Authority
Maritime Division
Charlotte Amalie

St. Thomas Island, VI

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APPENDIX H

Table H. Summary of Significant Services, Programs and Controls
Offered or Executed within the States and ene

2 a
Pepepe fore Pte pepe

Alabama
Alaska xX Doe
Arizona
Arkansas
California

A mM x RM

Colorado
Connecticut?
Delaware
Florida
Georgia

xX xX 224?

Hawai
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana

x KM mM
ms
Pa
nN
i)
a]
Nv

Iowa?

~

Kansas

ms
~
Pal
w~

Kentucky
Louisiana*
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan

Minnesota

x MM mM RM
AM
><
od
>

Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire Xo, X

1. Alphabet Code (See end of this Table).
2. Page in text where specific item is discussed for particular State.

X xX 224?

a a a

Pas

3. No response from State before publication.

4. State sponsors no applicable services or programs.

dol

Table H.

State or Territory

Summary of Significant Services, Programs and Controls
Offered or Executed within the States and Territories—Continued

Control, Regulation or Assistance’

PSS ee
A ne Se ee ee ee ae
XG es xX X xX

New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas

Utah

Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia?
Wisconsin

Wyoming

Washington, D.C.?

Puerto Rico
Virgin Islands?

1. Alphabet Code

xm eK PM RP RX

mx PS

x Kx

eM KM mR

ra

228?
xX xX xX xX 224?
xX 2282

A. State exercises control over navigation on inland waters.
B. State sponsors navigation classes or boating safety programs.

ase mormon

. State provides printed data on boating activities or availability of small-craft facilities.
. State provides loan program for civic marina development.

. State provides grant program for civic marina development.

. State provides loan program for civic launching or access installations.

. State provides grant program for civic launching or access installations.

. State issues design standards for marina construction.

. State requires economic evaluation previous to marina development.

. State provides maintenance for channels, etc., into civic or private harbors.

2. Page in text where specific item is discussed for particular State.
3. No response from State before publication.
4. State sponsors no applicable services or programs.

352

APPENDIX I

COASTAL SMALL-CRAFT HARBORS REGULATION ORDINANCE

Submitted by
California Marine Parks and Harbors Association

An Ordinance regulating the use of—harbors and maritime facilities; setting penalties for
violations of any of the provisions hereof.

This model ordinance is designed for use along ocean shores and in tidal estuaries. If
adapted to use in inland waters, it should be modified with respect to water surface
fluctuations and certain regional or local area terminology. Unapplicable sections should be
deleted and possible others should be added to meet the local area requirements.

ARTICLE I
General Provisions

Sec. 1. Short Title: This ordinance shall be known and may be cited as the

Sec. 2. Applicability: The provisions of this Ordinance and any rules and regulations
adopted pursuant thereto shall be applicable, and shall govern, the harbor(s) and all other
maritime facilities under the jurisdiction of—-—————— . This Ordinance shall be
subordinate to existing Federal and State regulations governing the same matters and is not
intended to preempt other valid laws.

Sec. 3. Invalidity of Provisions: If any provisions of this Ordinance is held invalid or
inoperative, the remainder shall continue in full force and effect as though such invalid or
inoperative provisions had not been made.

Sec. 4. Authority: Whenever, by the provisions of this Ordinance, a power is granted to
the—-——————— or a duty is imposed upon him, the power may be exercised or duty
performed by a deputy of the--—————— or by a person authorized pursuant to law,
unless it is expressly otherwise provided.

Sec. 5. Facilities, Control of Use: The--—————— is vested with authority over and
control of all floats, wharves, docks, and other facilities owned, leased, controlled,
constructed or maintained by the -——————— , or constructed or maintained by a lessee in
any ———————— harbor or any other maritime facility for the purpose of causing to be
corrected any condition.

353

Sec. 6. Rules, Regulations and Orders: The-—-—————— shall have the power and duty
to enforce the laws, ordinances, traffic and safety regulations covering usage of-——————

harbors and other maritime facilities, under his jurisdiction.

Sec. 7. Chief of Harbor (or Other Designation): The-—-—————— officer of the
Harbor———————— or authorized agent acting under the orders and jurisdiction of
the-———————— shall have full authority in enforcement of all laws, ordinances and
regulations affecting the --—————— harbor or other maritime facility and waterways and

beaches within such harbors and facilities, and he may cite alleged offenders to appear
before the-——————— Court.

Sec. 8. Violations: Violation of this Ordinance is a misdemeanor punishable by a fine of
not more than Five Hundred Dollars ($500) or by imprisonment in the -—-—————— jail for
not more than six (6) months or by both such fine and imprisonment. A repetition of
continuation of any violation of any provisions of this ordinance or of any order or
direction of the-——————— on successive days constitutes a separate offense for each day

during any portion of which such violation is committed, continued, or permitted.
ARTICLE II
Definitions

Access Service Route: Shall mean any access roads and/or easements designated or

identified by --—————— for use by authorized emergency or utility vehicles.

Auxiliary: Shall mean any vessel having both sails and either an inboard or outboard
motor and which may be propelled by its sails or by its motor, or both.

Basin: Shall mean a naturally or artificially enclosed or nearly enclosed body of water

where small craft may lie.

Beach: Shall mean a public or private beach area bordering the waters of a~--—————

harbor or maritime facility.

Camp Cars: Shall mean a vehicle with or without motor power which is designated for
permanent or temporary human habitation and which contains sleeping facilities, plumbing,
heating, cooking (whether attached or portable) or electrical equipment. Any such camp car
shall be subject to the provisions of Article VIII, Section 66.

354

Carrying Passengers for Hire: Shall mean the carriage of a person by vessel for valuable
consideration, whether directly or indirectly flowing to the owner, charterer, operator,

agent or any other person interested in the vessel.

Commercial Vessel: Shall mean any vessel used or engaged for any type of commercial
venture, including but not limited to the display of advertising or the carrying of cargo

and/or passengers for hire.

Distress: Shall mean a state of disability or a present or obviously imminent danger
which if unduly prolonged could endanger life or property.

Emergency: Shall mean a state of imminent or proximate danger to life or property in
which time is of the essence.

Entrance Channel: Shall mean all that portion described as follows: (Insert own
description.)

Facilities: Shall mean any and all facilities of a harbor or maritime facility either publicly
or privately owned that are intended primarily to be used by or for the service of small craft
(including ramps, hoists, parking areas, leased water areas, concessions and service facilities)
located on land or in the waters of the -——————— under jurisdiction of the-——————— in

either———————— or———————— territory.
Fairway: Shall mean the parts of a waterway kept open and unobstructed for navigation.
Fire Department: Shall mean the-—-—————— of the -——————— :

Float: Shall mean any floating structure normally used as a point of transfer for

passengers and goods and/or for mooring purposes.

Harbormaster: Shall mean the Chief Officer of the Harbor Patrol or competent member
of the Harbor Patrol that he may designate to act in his stead in his absence.

Harbor Patrol: Shall mean the organization comprising all members regularly employed
by the -——————— as Harbor Patrolmen or Harbor Patrol Officers.

Harbor Patrolman: Shall mean a harbor policeman as referred in Section——-—————— of

the State Harbors and Navigation Code, who, when qualified, shall have the authority of
“Peace Officer.”

399

Head of Operating Agency: Shall mean the——-—————— :

Live Bait Receiver: Shall mean a water-ventilated container immersed in water, the
purpose of which is to confine live bait fish.

Maritime Facility: Shall mean any facility affecting the use and operations of pleasure or
commercial vessels bordering on, concerned with, related to a protected water area of
the———————— ocean that is owned, managed or controlled by the --—————— or under

Moor: Shall mean to secure a vessel other than by anchoring.

Mooring: Shall mean (1) a place where buoyant vessels are secured other than a pier;
(2) the equipment used to secure a vessel; and (3) the process of securing a vessel other than
by anchoring.

Mooring Buoy: Shall mean an appliance used to secure to the bottom by anchors and
provided with attachments to which a vessel may be secured by use of its anchor chain or
mooring lines.

Operating Agency: Shall mean——-—————— :

Public Agency: Shall mean———————— ;

Public Area: Shall mean all areas of any harbor except those areas under specific lease to

private persons of firms or owned privately.
Regulatory Marker or Waterway Marker: Shall mean any of the waterway markers
defined as “regulatory markers” in the State Administrative Code, Titl——-—————— 3

Article———————— ,

Slip: Shall mean berthing space for a single vessel alongside a pier, finger float, or
walkway.

Shore: Shall mean that part of the land in immediate contact with a body of water,
including the area between high and low water lines.

Shall and May: “‘Shall”’ is mandatory “May” is permissive.

State: Shall mean the State of ———————— :

356

Stray Vessel: Shall mean (1) an abandoned vessel; (2) a vessel the owner of which is

unknown; or (3) a vessel underway without a competent person in command.

To Anchor: Shall mean to secure a vessel to the bottom within a body of water by
dropping an anchor or anchors or other ground tackle.

Underway: Shall mean the condition of a vessel not at anchor; without moorings; and

not made fast to the shore nor aground.

Waterway: Shall mean any water area providing access from one place to another,
principally a water area providing a regular route for water traffic, that is owned, managed,
or controlled by the———————— or under the jurisdiction of the-—-——-———— either in

incorporated or unincorporated territory.

Waters of a Harbor: Means all waters of any harbor that is owned, managed, or
controlled by the——-—————— or under the jurisdiction of the-———————— in which the

Ocean has been fixed by ordinance, statute, court action or otherwise and whether or not

the lands lying under said tidal water are privately or publicly owned.
ARTICLE III
General Boating and Traffic Control Regulations

Sec. 9. Traffic Control Authority: The-——————— shall have authority to control
water-borne traffic in any portion of the waters of a harbor or maritime facility under his
jurisdiction by use of authorized State regulatory markers, signal, orders or directions any
time preceding, during and after any race, regatta, parade or other special event held in any
portion of the waters of a harbor or maritime facility or at any time when the-———————
deems it necessary in the interest of safety of persons and vessels or other property, and it
shall be unlawful for any person to willfully fail or refuse to comply with any authorized
State regulatory marker utilized by --—————— , or with any signal, orders or directions of

Sec. 10. Basic Speed Law: The operation of any vessel within the harbor area in excess
of posted speed limits or, in the absence of such limits, in a manner to create a wash which
endangers persons or property, shall constitute a violation of this Ordinance; provided that
special written permission may be granted to conduct and engage in water sports and

regattas in specific designated areas.

307

Sec. 11. Permits for Races and Special Events: It shall be a violation of this Ordinance
for any person to engage or participate in a boatrace, watersport, exhibition, or other special
event unless especially authorized by permit from the -—-—————— who shall have authority
to issue such permits and to attach such conditions thereto as, in his opinion, are necessary

and reasonable for the protection of life and property.

Sec. 12. Reverse Gears: It shall be unlawful for any person to operate on the waters of
any harbor or maritime facility any power or motor driven vessel that does not have a means
to reverse or stop the vessel, except when participating as a contestant per Section 10.
Motor vessels shall have aboard and ready for instant use a suitable anchor with chain or line
affixed.

Sec. 13. Rafting or Nesting: A permit shall be obtained from—-—————— for the
purpose of rafting or nesting vessels during a regatta or boatrace. This permit must be
obtained from———————— a LEt———————— hours before the regatta schedule to be

held.

Sec. 14. Insurance: As a condition for granting such permit, the-—-—————— shall
determine as a condition of a permit for racing whether insurance shall be carried by

participants and if required shall be for the total period of time and shall be in an amount

not less than $-—-—————— for bodily injury to one person; and $--—————— for bodily
injury in any one accident; and $-——————— for property damage in any one accident. The
policy providing such insurance shall be in the name of -——-————— as additional insured

(insureds). A certificate evidencing that such insurance is in force and will remain in force

for the period of time such permit shall be in effect.
ARTICLE IV
General Regulations
Sec. 15. Liability:
(a) Boat Owner: Any person using the facilities within the limits of a harbor or
maritime facility shall assume all risk of damage or loss to his property and he-——-————

assumes no risk on account of fire, theft, Act of God, or damages of any kind to vessels

within the harbor or maritime facility.

358

(b) Marina Owner and/or Operator: It shall be the responsibility of the owner,
licensee, lessee, or operator of any marina, anchorage, repair yard, or other marine facility,
located within any harbor, waterway or other maritime facility, to maintain the physical
improvements under his jurisdiction in a safe, clean, and visually attractive condition at all
times, to provide adequate security and fire prevention measures and appropriate fire
fighting equipment as may be directed by-—-—————— , and to rent or lease available
accommodations on a first-come first-served basis without regard to color, race or creed
upon payment of established fees. Failure to initiate within 30 days of receipt of written

notice from———————— to correct unsafe or otherwise unsatisfactory conditions and to
pursue same to completion to the satisfaction of———-————— shall be a violation of this
section.

Sec. 16. Launching and Recovery of Vessels: None other than the driver may occupy a
motor vehicle while it is present upon the area known as the launching ramp located within
the———————— . All motor vehicles using said ramp area must securely block at least one
wheel of the said motor vehicle while it is standing upon said ramp.

Sec. 17. Permits, Suspensions or Revocations: All permits granted under the authority
of this Ordinance shall be valid only for such period as may be determined
by———————— and permits of unqualified duration of validity shall not be granted. A
violation of the provisions of this Ordinance or of any other applicable Ordinance by any
permittee shall be grounds for suspension or revocation of such permit or permits.

Sec. 18. Lost and Found Property: The finder of lost property within the harbor shall

deliver it to the-——————— and report its identity and location to the-—-—————— . Unless
promptly claimed by the owner, the-——————— may remove the property, store it,
advertise and sell it or otherwise dispose of it, all at the expense of the owner in
conformance with———————— of ———————— Code.

Sec. 19. Damage to Harbor or Other Property: It shall be unlawful to willfully or
carelessly destroy, damage, disturb, deface or interfere with any public property in the
Harbor area.

Sec. 20. Tampering with or Boarding Vessels without Permission: It shall be a violation
of this Ordinance for any person willfully to board, break in, enter, damage, move or tamper
with any vessel or part thereof, located within the harbor unless authorized by the rightful
owner of such vessel. Violation of this provision shall constitute a misdemeanor, punishable
by the penalties hereinabove provided for violations of this Ordinance and to additional
penalties not to exceed in the aggregate $1,000 and six months imprisonment for each
offense. Any person violating this provision shall, in addition, be responsible to the rightful
owner of any such vessel for any damages caused by such violation and to the reasonable
cost of any attorneys fees, necessarily incurred as a result thereof.

359

Sec. 21. Obstruction of Facilities: It shall be a violation of this Ordinance for any person

willfully to prevent any other person from the use and enjoyment of the harbor facilities.

Sec. 22. Place of Abode: It shall be unlawful for any person other than one specifically
authorized by permit, license or lease from the-—-—-————— , to camp, lodge, sleep or tarry
overnight upon any public portion of a harbor or maritime facility, or to erect, maintain,
use or occupy any tent, lodge, shelter, structure, housetrailer, trailer coach, or conveyance

used as a place of abode, exclusive of public waters.

Sec. 23. Signs, Erection and Maintenance: The———————— may place and maintain, or
cause to be placed and maintained, either on land or water, such signs, notices, signals buoys
or control devices as he deems necessary to carry out the provisions of this Ordinance, or to
secure public safety and the orderly and efficient use of a harbor or maritime facility. For
Sale signs shall be limited to a size of eight and one-half inches (8 %"’) by eleven inches
(11”) and must be posted on the vessel.

Sec. 24. Securing Permission for Debarkation: It shall be a violation of this Ordinance to
disembark passengers or discharge cargo from a commercial vessel onto any public or
privately owned float, pier or wharf within the harbor, without the consent of the owner
thereof or of the -——————— , as the case may be, except at piers and wharfs expressly

designed for commercial purposes.

Sec. 25. Protected Swimming Area: It shall be a violation of this Ordinance to operate
or navigate any vessel within a designated swimming area. The-—--———— may identify

swimming areas by signs, buoys, or other means.

Sec. 26. Record of Vessels: The—-——————— shall keep an accurate record of the
number, size, type and description of all vessels within a~—-————— harbor or maritime
facility using public facilities and which remain more than———————— hours, and it shall be

unlawful for any person having knowledge thereof to fail or refuse to provide said

information to-———————— on demand.
Sec. 27. Underwater Diving:
(a) Permit for skin diving or underwater diving by persons having certificates of
competence may be authorized in designated areas by the---————— . Such action shall

otherwise not be engaged in except in cases of emergency or for the purpose of underwater

inspection.

360

(b) When a person or persons are engaged in an underwater diving activity other than
an emergency or inspection, there shall be present an attendant not less than sixteen (16)
years of age who shall be on the surface of the water close over the person or persons
engaged in the underwater activity, and such attendant shall conspicuously display the
Divers Flag during diving activities. The--—-————— shall be given prior notice of the time
of all such diving operations.

Sec. 28. Swimming, a Hazard to Navigation: All swimming and bathing shall be in those
areas designated by the-——————— for such purposes and such areas may be defined or
properly marked by competent authority.

ARTICLE V
Regulations Concerning Anchoring, Mooring and Security of Vessels

Sec. 29. Placement of Private Moorings: It shall be a violation of this Ordinance to place
any mooring in the harbor without a permit from the-——————— 2

Sec. 30. Anchoring: It shall be a violation of this Ordinance to berth or anchor a vessel
in the harbor without obtaining a permit from the-—-—————— , or from the berthing
facility operator, except in designated anchoring areas. Vessels in distress are excepted from
this prohibition, but as soon as practicable, the person in charge of any such vessel shall
report the situation to the-—-—————— . Except in specially designated anchorage areas,
proper anchor lights must be displayed and fog signal sounded when appropriate.

Sec. 31. Use of Harbor Facilities: It shall be a violation of this Ordinance to berth or
anchor any vessel within the harbor without obtaining a permit from the --—————— , who
will require proper ground tackle and a sighting of anchors, when used, at intervals not
exceeding three (3) months.

Sec. 32. Obstructing Channels: It shall be a violation of this Ordinance knowingly or
willfully to obstruct the free use of any channel or waterway within the harbor or to fail to
report to the-——————— any collision between vessels or other accident or incident causing

damage to persons or property.

Sec. 33. Abandoned Vessels: When, in the opinion of the--—————— , a vessel has been
abandoned in the harbor, he may take custody and control of such vessel and remove it,
store it or otherwise dispose of it, all at the expense and sole risk of the vessel owner.
Reasonable notice of such disposal shall be publicly given.

361

Sec. 34. Vessels Making Fast: No person shall make fast or secure a vessel to any
mooring already occupied by another vessel, or to a vessel already moored, except that a
rowboat, dinghy or yacht tender regularly used by a larger vessel for transportation of
persons or property to or from shore may be secured to such larger vessel or to the mooring
regularly used by such larger vessel. If tied within a slip, such rowboat, dinghy, or tender
shall not extend into the fairway beyond the larger vessel if such larger vessel is also

occupying the slip, or otherwise beyond the slip itself.

Sec. 35. Docking or Berthing at——-—————— Facilities: A person having charge of any
vessel shall not make it fast or secure it to any—-—————— jetty, breakwater, bulkhead,
wharf, pier or mooring buoy without the consent of ---————— except in an emergency, in
which case such person shall forthwith report the emergency to the---————— and

thereafter act in accordance with the———————— instructions.

Sec. 36. Secure Berthing and Anchoring of Vessels: The owner of any vessel moored or
anchored within a~-——-————— harbor or maritime facility shall be responsible for causing
such vessel to be tied and secured or anchored with proper care and equipment and in such
manner as may be required to prevent breakaway and resulting damage, and shall thereafter
provide for periodic inspection by———————— , maintenance, replacement and adjustment

of anchor, mooring or tie lines at reasonable intervals.

Sec. 37. Unseaworthy Vessels Prohibited in Harbor: Exception: A person shall not moor
or permit to be moored in any harbor a vessel of any kind whatsoever which is unseaworthy
or in a badly deteriorated condition or which is likely to sink or to damage docks, wharves,
floats or other vessels or which may become a menace to navigation, except in cases of

emergency.

Sec. 38. Correcting an Unsafe Berthing: If any vessel shall be found in the judgment
of ———————— to be anchored or moored within any harbor or maritime facility in an
unsafe or dangerous manner, or in such a way as to create a hazard to other vessels or to
persons or property ,——-—————— shall order and direct necessary measures to eliminate
such unsafe or dangerous condition. Primary responsibility for compliance with such orders
and directions or——-—————— shall rest with the owner of the improperly anchored or
moored vessel or his authorized agent; in the absence of such owner or agent, said
responsibility shall rest with the authorized operator of the facility at which the vessel is
anchored or moored. In an emergency situation and in the absence of any such responsible
person,———————— shall forthwith board such vessel and cause the improper situation to
be corrected, and the owner of the vessel shall be liable for any costs incurred

by———————— in effecting such correction.

362

Sec. 39. Removal and Custody of Illegally Berthed or Abandoned Vessels: If any
unattended vessel shall be found to be anchored or moored illegally within a harbor or

maritime facility, or if—-—-—————— has reasonable grounds to believe that a vessel has been
adandoned within a~—-—————— harbor or maritime facility, the --—————— may assume
custody of such vessel and cause it to be removed and held or placed in storage.
———————— or his——————~—-~shall not be held liable for any damage to such vessel nor
liable to its owners before or after assuming custody. Vessels so taken into custody shall be
released to the owner by the-——————— only after satisfactory proof of ownership has
been presented and full reimbursement made to-—--—————— for all costs incident to

recovery, movement and storage as set forth in Article V, Sec. 40. If proof of ownership
cannot be established within a reasonable amount of time, said vessel shall be dealt with in
accordance with Article IV, Sec. 18.

Sec. 40. Fees Incidental to Recovery, Movement and Storage: Charges imposed
by———————— for recovery and/or movement of vessels shall be in accordance with the
“Schedule of Charges for services rendered and supplies Furnished by the Harbor Patrol” as
approved by the———————— or as subsequently amended, and whenever a vessel is
impounded or held for safekeeping there shall be in addition a charge for storage at the rate

Sec. 41. Obstructions of Fairways, Channels or Berthing Spaces and Removal of Sunken
Vessels:

(a) It shall be unlawful to tie up or anchor a vessel in a~——-————— harbor or
maritime facility in such a manner as to obstruct the fairways or channels or to prevent or
obstruct the passage of other vessels; or to voluntarily or carelessly sink or allow to be sunk
any vessel in any channel, fairway, berthing space; or to float loose timbers, debris, logs or
piles in any channel, fairway, or berthing space in such a manner as to impede navigation or
cause damage to vessels therein. It is understood that wrecked or sunken vessels within a
harbor are subject to the published rules and regulations of the United States Coast Guard
and any applicable State law, rules or regulations.

(b) Whenever the navigation of any waters within——-—————— harbor or maritime
facility, including anchorages and berths therein, shall be obstructed or endangered by any
sunken vessel or other obstruction and the obstruction or danger has existed for a period of
more than ten (10) days, the vessel or obstruction shall be subject to removal, sale or other
disposition in accordance with Article 4, Section 18. The owner or owners of such vessel or
other property causing said obstruction or danger shall be liable to the ---————— for all
costs incident to said removal and disposition, and the-——————— , its employees, agents,
and officers, shall not be liable for damages of any nature whatsoever arising out of or in

any way connected with removal, sale or disposition of such vessel or other property.

363

Sec. 42. Dangerous or disabled Vessels: Any vessel that may enter a~-——————— harbor
or maritime facility in a disabled condition, or any vessel within a harbor or maritime
facility which may for any reason be rendered disabled, shall immediately become subject to
the orders and directions of the--—————— and it shall be unlawful for any person to fail
or refuse to comply with his orders or directions with regard to the disposition of such
vessel.

Sec. 43. Unseaworthy Vessels: No person shall secure or permit to be anchored or
moored in a harbor, waterway, or maritime facility a vessel of any kind whatsoever which is
unseaworthy or in a badly deteriorated condition, or which is likely to sink or to damage
docks, wharves, floats, and/or other vessels, or which may become a menace to navigation.
Such vessels shall be removed from the water and/or be otherwise disposed of as directed

ARTICLE VI
Regulations Concerning Commercial Activity

Sec. 45. Vessels for Hire—Passenger Information: The owners, master or person in
charge of or operating any vessel using and——-———— harbor or maritime facility --———— be
required to furnish to—-—————— information regarding the number of passengers carried
and the charges or other considerations paid by such passengers. Failure to provide such
information to the-——————— on demand shall be a violation of this article.

Sec. 46. Soliciting: Soliciting is prohibited within the harbor, except as may be specially
authorized by permit issued by the——-—————— , and subject to terms and conditions

prescribed in such permit.
Sec 47. Bait Receivers: Non-Conforming: Removal of:
(a) All unattended live bait receivers in the waters of a—~-—————— harbor or
maritime facility shall have a screen, solid cover, or lids which shall fit closely over the well

of the receiver, unless the receiver is within and completely enclosed by a larger structure.

(b) Storage of bait in any receiver not conforming to the requirements of this Article

is prohibited; non-conforming bait receivers may be sealed, removed, stored, sold or

otherwise disposed of by——-—————— at his discretion without liability for any damage to
receivers or death or loss of bait, and the owner of such non-conforming receivers shall be
hable for any cost incurred by——--—————— in effecting removal, storage, sale, or other
disposition.

364.

Sec. 48. Commercial Bait Tanks: Bait tanks on commercial vessels containing bait shall,
when said vessels are in the waters of a~-——-————— harbor or maritime facility, be covered
by a screen cover or other cover which shall fit closely over the top of all said bait tanks
except while bait is actually being transferred to or from said tank, and the operators of
such commercial vessels shall at all times have aboard a covered can, box or other additional
receptacle for dead bait.

Sec. 49. Bait, Transfer: No person shall transfer live bait from one vessel to another
within the limits of a—-—————— harbor or maritime facility except when all vessels

involved are anchored or berthed, or such vessels are outside navigational channels.

Sec. 50. Sale of Live Bait: No person shall sell live bait from a vessel within the limits of

a———————— harbor or maritime facility. This section shall not apply to the delivery of live
bait by vessel to a commercial live bait receiver which has been authorized
by——————-—— lease or written permit of ——-—————— to dispense live bait.

Sec. 51. Water Taxi and Rental Vessels: No person shall operate a water taxi within a
harbor or maritime facility without first obtaining a permit from the----———— and
complying with any rules and regulations of Ordinances of the----———— including any
licensing requirement.

Sec. 52. Disposal of Bait in Harbor Prohibited: No person shall put, place or allow live
bait to be put or placed in the waters of the harbor, except when the same is actually used
for the purpose of fishing, and at no time, for any purpose, shall any person put dead bait or
any portion thereof in the waters of the harbor unless the same be attached to a hook or
hooks in the act of fishing.

Sec. 53. Commercial Vessels Providing Sleeping Accommodations—Watchman Required:
Whenever any person other than the owner or members of the regular crew is allowed or
permitted to sleep in or otherwise occupy accommodations aboard a commercial vessel or
vessel regularly carrying passengers for hire, it shall be the duty of the owner or other person
in charge of such vessel to maintain on duty a competent watchman, guard, or crew
member, and failure to so maintain such a watchman, guard, or crew member on duty while
the accommodations of such vessel are so occupied shall be a violation of this Ordinance.

ARTICLE VII
Sanitation Regulations

Sec. 54. Discharge of Refuse: It shall be a violation of this Ordinance to discharge or
permit the discharge into the waters of the harbor of any refuse or waste matter, petroleum
or petroleum matter, paint, varnish or any other foreign matter, including dead animals, fish
and bait.

Sec. 55. Toilet Fixtures:

(a) Vessel’s Toilet Fixtures Not to be Used: No person shall operate the toilet
fixtures of a vessel within a harbor or maritime facility at any time so as to cause or permit
to pass or to be discharged into the waters of such harbor or maritime facility any sewage or
other waste matter or contaminant of any kind.

(b) Acceptable Devices: Upon application to the-——-—————— , persons operating,
maintaining or possessing vessels using a—-~——————— harbor or maritime facility may be
authorized by———————— to-use and operate toilet fixtures equipped with approved and
acceptable devices that will prevent contaminants from entering the waters of such harbor
of maritime facility.

(c) Toilet fixtures of a vessel which are equipped with a device or devices for the
purpose of preventing contaminants from entering into the waters of a harbor or maritime
facility shall not be used for the disposal of sewage or other contaminants unless a permit in
writing has first been issued by --—————— :

Sec. 56. Use of Vessel as Abode: Living aboard vessels in the harbor is prohibited except
as may be specially authorized by permit issued by the--—————— . For the purpose of
this Section, the term “‘living aboard” means the continuous use of a vessel for a period in
excess of three days, including use of the vessel for overnight lodging.

Sec. 57. Responsibility for Sanitation of Facilities: The lessee, agent, manager or person
in charge of a facility or water area under lease from the-——————— harbor or maritime
facility shall at all times maintain the premises under his charge in a clean, sanitary
condition, free from malodorous materials and accumulations of garbage, refuse, debris and
other waste materials. Should —-——————— find that any facility or water area under lease is
not so maintained, he shall in writing notify said lessee, agent, manager or other person in
charge of said facility or area to immediately commence and diligently prosecute to
completion the necessary correction of the unsanitary condition to the satisfaction
of———————— . Failure to do so with reasonable dispatch shall be a violation of this
Article, and the———————— may then cause condition to be corrected and the cost of such
correction shall be charged to said lessee, agent, manager or person in charge.

ARTICLE VIII
Safety and Maintenance
Sec. 58. Welding and Burning: Except at specially designated areas, open fires are

prohibited within the harbor, except for stoves or fireplaces permanently installed onboard

366

and below decks on vessels or hibaches or barbeques used for cooking and/or heating
purposes. Repairs to vessels requiring welding or other open flame devices may be
performed only upon special authorization by the --—————— and within the time period

stipulated in such authorization.

Sec. 59. Flammable and Combustible Liquids and/or Materials: Within a-~—-——————
harbor or maritime facility no person shall sell, offer for sale, or deliver in bulk any class of
flammable liquid or combustible material, nor dispense any flammable or combustible
liquids into the fuel tanks of a vessel except when in compliance with all requirements of
the N.F.P.A. Fire Code and any other laws or regulations applicable thereto.

Sec. 60. Obstruction to Walkways: Obstructing walkways within the harbor by mooring
lines, waterhoses, electrical cables, boarding ladders, permanently fixed stairs or any other
materials is strictly prohibited. Dinghys may not be left on the floats and piers, but may be
stored only in areas designated for that purpose.

Sec. 61. Defective or Dangerous Conditions: Whenever any buildings, structures or
floating facilities within a harbor or maritime facility either on land or water are found to be
defective or damaged so as to be unsafe or dangerous to persons or property, it shall be the
duty of the owner, agent, lessee, operator or person in charge thereof to immediately post a
proper notice and/or fence or barricade and at night to adequately light such unsafe area or
areas, and such unsafe area or areas shall be kept posted and lighted and/or fenced or
barricaded until the necessary repairs are made. In the event an owner, agent, lessee,
operator or person in charge fails or neglects to repair or to put up fences or other barriers
to prevent persons from using or going upon the unsafe area or areas,-——————— may then
take such measures as he may deem necessary for the protection of the public and charge
the cost of same to such owner, lessee, agent, person or persons having charge of the

buildings, structures, or floating facilities that are defective or dangerous.

Sec. 62. Time, Fees and Permit Requirements for Use of Mooring or Slip:

without charge if it is determined the vessel may be secured or moored for such longer time
without using space otherwise needed. Private vessels moored at-——————— facilities for a

period in excess of -——————— shall pay mooring fees as hereinafter provided.

(b) Visiting Vessels—Transients: A vessel will be considered transient if the vessel

remains in the slip or at the dock designated for such transient for not more

367

official business, for more than—-—————— hours in any———————— slip or mooring
unless the-——————— says that vessel may be berthed or moored for a longer time without
using space otherwise needed, in which case he may be granted permission for a longer stay
without paying the transient fees. Total time shall be at the discretion of the--————— but
not to exceed——————— hours. The transient rental fees shall be as follows: --——————
upon entering a harbor, owner or operator of vessel shall proceed directly to harbor
headquarters in order that he may be assigned a berth. Berthing fees are usually payable in

advance.

(c) Subletting of Berthing Space: The owner of any vessel having space shall not
sublet said space to another user or boat owner; however by agreement between
the-——————— and the transient, another boat owner may use the slip, provided the
original transient pays the fee or fees and has requested permission from the-——————— to

berth said vessel.
Sec. 63. Vessel Extending Beyond Slip:

(a) No part of any vessel shall extend more than——-—————— feet beyond the end of
any slip without permission of -——————— including but not limited to boats with davits,

booms, boomkin, or bowsprit.
(b) No part of any vessel shall extend over the main walkway so as to be a hazard.

Sec. 64. Mooring at Termini of Main Walks: Vessels may be moored or secured at the
terminus of any main walk within a basin, except that any such vessel shall not extend into
the fairway more than——-—————— measured at right angles from the pierhead line of a

basin. Any such vessel shall be secured parallel to such pierhead line.

Sec. 65. Commercial Sportfishing Activities Allowed Only at Specific Areas: No owner
or operator of any commercial sportfishing boat or any other boat, licensed or unlicensed,
shall conduct, maintain, or engage in any sportfishing activity for hire from any premises
within———————— except from those leaseholds specifically permitted to conduct such
activities, nor shall any lessee or any boat mooring operator in——-————— permit,
authorize, or allow the operation of a commercial sportfishing activity from within the area
of their control or tenancy unless specifically authorized by written permit of --——————
or by terms of their lease.

368

Sec. 66. Parking of Camp Cars and Boat Trailers: Camp cars herein defined shall park in
an area set aside for such purpose and no other except they may be parked for a period not
to exceed———————— hours in the regular parking areas provided they not be used for
eating, sleeping, cooking, preparation of foods or personal toilet. Boat trailers used for
carrying a boat shall be parked only in the areas set aside for such parking. They may be
parked for a reasonable period of time on the public streets or other parking areas not to
exceed———————— hours for the purpose of removing a boat from such trailer or placing a

boat upon such trailer.

369

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APPENDIX J

PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS OFFERING INFORMATION

American Boat & Yacht Council, Inc.
15 East 26th Street
New York, NY 10010

Boating Industry Association
401 North Michigan Avenue
Chicago, IL 60611

National Association of Engine & Boat
Manufacturers

9037 Steamboat Road

Greenwich, CT 06830

Outboard Boating Club of America
401 North Michigan Avenue
Chicago, IL 60611

37]

American Wood Preservers Institute
1651 Old Meadow Road
McLean, VA 22101

Marine Accessories & Services Association
401 North Michigan Avenue
Chicago, IL 60611

National Recreation & Park Association
1601 North Kent Street
Arlington, VA 22209

Portland Cement Association
Old Orchard Road
Skokie, IL 60076

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APPENDIX K
CERC SMALL-CRAFT HARBOR QUESTIONNAIRE

Respondent: Please submit as much of the following information as possible. Where exact
figures are not readily available, give approximate answers.

Owner: semen Ss ed Designer:
Sitesleocation: Rivers a) Wakes Bays oe Ocean
Other.
Boat Capacity (Wet Storage): Private Powerboats____.___ Private Sailboats
Commercial Boats___________ Rental Boats

Type of Docks: Fixed______ Floating Manufacturer.
If Floating, anchored by: Piles Cable
Boats per Slip: 1___ 2_____ No. of Covered Slips_____._. Dep th of Basin ________
Dry Storage Capacity: Trailers or Dollys________._Open________ Racks
Trailers or Dollys_______-- Covered___.___ Racks.

Monthly_____ Yearly

Average Range of Water Surface Fluctuation (feet): Daily.

Most Extreme Range of Water Surface Fluctuation on Record for Body of Water Served:
Feet

Major Activities of Users (percent): Fishing _____ Cruising________ Skiing ______
Other

Power Supply to Docks: None Free Metered___ Included in Slip Rental__—
Number of Outlets Amps. per Outlet. 120-V cs 240) Vo
Other.

Water Supply to Docks: None Free Included in Shp Rental_—

Located: Above Waist Level___— Below Wasist Level _—

Lighting on Docks: None

373

APPENDIX K—Continued

No.

Public Address System: Yes

Phones: None__ Provided in Office__._ Provided at Docks by: Marina

Phone Company_____

Other

Launching Facilities: None Ramp Width Ramp Slope
Boat Size Handled___._ Type of Hoist and Capacity

Number of Trash or Garbage Collections per Week:

Sanitary Holding Tank Pumpout Facilities: Yes____ No

Car Parking Spaces Provided per Slip:

Ancillary Facilities Available: Fuel Station______ Snackbar
Bait and Tackle Boat Rentals Boat Sales
Boat Repair: Minor. Major
Other

Are Live-Aboards Permitted?

Any Wave or Surge Problems?

Any Troublesome Maintenance Problems?

374

Restaurant.

APPENDIX K—Continued

GENERAL INFORMATION, DATA, AND VISUAL AIDS

We would appreciate the enclosure (with your submittal) of as many items listed below as
possible; items will be returned if so designated.

1. An aerial photo of your marina and any other photos of significant or unique features;
all photos to be black and white.

2. Prints of the general plan or layout of the marina (if no aerial photo is available).

3. Construction drawings that show general features or typical sections of piers, revetments,
bulkheads, anchoring system, etc. (Note: If not readily available, it may be possible for
our draftsmen to draw them up from rough, dimensioned sketches, so please include.)

4. Standards of design issued to prospective lessees, engineering firms or contractors for
construction or expansion of facility. Names and addresses of constructors or

manufacturers. (This normally applies only to large, publicly operated marinas.)

5. Copies of charts or tables that show slip occupancy, entrance-traffic counts, maintenance
and operation costs, revenues, water level fluctuation, etc. A breakdown of construction

cost per slip and maintenance cost per slip.

6. Copies of articles that have been written narrating the history of project development,

Le., origin, designer, financing, etc.

7. Sales brochures or fact sheets giving general data on the installation, i.e., types and

numbers of slips, ancillary facilities, etc.

8. A narrative concerning any design feature that has worked out better or worse than
expected, or problems you feel could have been avoided by better planning. Mention
special systems such as ice protection, wave protection, anchorage in extreme water

drawdown, antihurricane design, etc.

375

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