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SMITHSONIAN

MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS.

VOL. XX.

“eVERY MAN IS A VALUABLE MEMBER OF SOCIETY WHO BY HI8 OBSERVATIONS, RESEARCHES,
AND EXPERIMENTS PROCURES KNOWLEDGE FOR MEN.”’—8MITHSON,

WASHINGTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
: 1881.

JUDD & DETWEILER, PRINTERS,
WASHINGTON, D. c,

a

ADVERTISEMENT.

The present series, entitled “Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec-
tions,” is intended to embrace all the publications issued directly
by the Smithsonian Institution in octayo form; those in quarto
constituting the “ Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.” The
quarto series includes memoirs embracing the records of extended
original investigations and researches resulting in what are believed
to be new truths, and constituting positive additions to the sum of
human knowledge. The octavo series is designed to contain reports
on the present state of our knowledge of particular branches of
science ; instructions for collecting and digesting facts and materials
for research ; list and synopses of species of the organic and in-
organic world ; museum catalogues ; reports of explorations; aids
to bibliographical investigations, etc., generally prepared at the
express request of the Institution, and at its expense.

The position of a work in one or the other of the two series will
sometimes depend upon whether the required iJlustrations can be
presented more conveniently in the quarto or the octavo form.

In the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, as well as in the
present series, each article is separately paged and indexed, and the
actual date of its publication is that given on its special title page,
and not that of the volume in, which it is placed. In many eases,
works have been published, and largely distributed, years before
their combination into volumes.

While due care is taken on the part of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion to insure a proper standard of excellence in its publications, it
will be readily understood that it cannot hold itself responsible for
the facts and conclusions of the authors, as it is impossible in most
cases to vertify their statements.

SPENCER F. Barrp,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.

CONTENTS.

ArticLe I. BuLuprin OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF
Wasuineton. Vol. J, March, 1871, to June,
1874. Pp. 218.

ArticLrE I]. BULLETIN OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF
Wasuinetron. Vol. I], October 10, 1874, to
November 2, 1878. Pp. 452.

ArticLr IJ. BunueriIn or THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF
Wasuineton. Vol. III, November 9, 1878, to
June 19, 1880. Pp. 169.

vol. xx-7

RULES

FOR THE

PUBLICATION OF THE BULLETIN.

I.

The general rule will be maintained of publishing in the Bulletin only
titles and abstracts of papers, and the latter only when presented to the
Secretary by the author within three days after the evening of the read-
ing.

The President’s annual Address will be published in full.
JUG
When directed by the General Committee, any communication may
be published in full in an Appendix to eath volume of the Bulletin.

III.

Of the remarks made consequent on the reading of any communication,
only such will be published as are sent in abstract in writing to the Sec-
retary within three days after the evening of their delivery.

lV.

Communications that have been published elsewhere so as to be gene-
rally accessible will appear in the Bulletin by title only, but, if possible
with a reference to the place of publication.

Vi

In reference to communications made to the Society previous to this
date :

When the original paper has been filed with the Secretary in manu-
script in full, it will be published in abstract only, unless otherwise
ordered by the General Committee.

WasHineton, January 17, 1874.

Be ALE

'
i)
fi ie
u ‘ 7
:
mi 7 - ¥,
i ee
, fs :

BULLETIN
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

WASHINGTON,

WASHINGTON.
1874.

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS

OF THE

PRESIDENT OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
OF WASHINGTON,

PROF. JOSHPEH HANEY.

(Delivered November 18, 1871.)

GENTLEMEN:

I have been requested to make some remarks on
the character and object of this Society which may serve
to introduce it to the world through the pages of a Bulletin
of its proceedings or the public journals of the day, and
in compliance with this request I beg leave to submit the
following. .

This Society was formed by the call for a meeting of a
number of gentlemen impressed with the importance of an
association of a strictly scientific character in the city of
Washington. At the meeting which resulted from this call
a name and a constitution were adopted for the Society,
and without delay, in a series of subsequent meetings, the
objects of the association were prosecuted with such marked
success as to fully realize the anticipations which had been
entertained with regard to the enterprise. This is mani-
fest from the number, character, and variety of the com-
munications presented and discussed.

In regard to the name which has been chosen, “ THE
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON,” it is proper

to remark that it was adopted not without considerable

(7)

Com)

deliberation. The term ‘“ Philosophical” was chosen not
to denote, as it generally does, in the present day, the un-
bounded field of speculative thought, which embraces the
possible as well as the actual of existence, but to be used
in its restricted sense to indicate those branches of know-
ledge that relate to the positive facts and laws of the phy-
sical and moral universe. The second term, ‘‘ Washington,”
was selected to denote the fact that the Society is a local
establishment; that 1t arrogates to itself nothing on account
of its position at the national capital; makes no claim to any
connection with the government, nor to being, in any re-
spect, a special representative of the science of the country.

The importance of such a society must be evident to all
who are acquainted with the history of science. It is
mainly through the influence exerted and the assistance
rendered by such associations that science is advanced and
its results given to the world. Man is a sympathetic
being, and no incentive to mental exertion is more powerful
than that which springs from a desire for the approbation
of his fellow men: besides this, frequent interchange of
ideas and appreciative encouragement are almost essential
to the successful prosecution of labors requiring profound
thought and continued mental exertion. Hence, it is im-
portant that those engaged in similar pursuits should have
opportunities for frequent meetings at stated periods; this
is more particularly the case with the cultivators of abstract
science, who find but comparatively few fully capable of
appreciating the value of their labors, even in a community
how much soever enlightened it may be on general subjects.
The students of history, of literature, of politics, and of art
find everywhere men who can enter in some degree into their

pursuits, and who can appreciate their merits and derive

8 ( vii )

pleasure from their writings or conversation; while the
mathematician, the astronomer, the physicist, the chemist,
the biologist, and the student of descriptive natural history
meet with few, comparatively, who can sympathize with
them in their pursuits, or who have a sufficient knowledge
of their particular subjects to be able to award them that
intelligent appreciation and encouragement essential to
their sustained and laborious efforts. To them, the world
consists of a few individuals, to whom they are to look for
that critical judgment of their merits which is to be finally
adopted by the general public, and with these it is of the
first importance that they should have more frequent inter-
course than that which arises from casual meetings.

Furthermore, a society of this kind becomes a means
of instruction to all its members, the knowledge of each
becoming, as it were, the knowledge of the whole. Again,
there is a common bond of union between all branches of
science, since they all relate to the existence and laws of
the same universe in which the more we extend our know-
ledge the more we find of ‘‘unity in the midst of infinite
diversity.” This connection is obvious in the relations of
astronomy, mathematics, and physics, as well as in those
of geology, chemistry, and biology, which are so closely
related in many cases as to be separable only by conven-
tional limits. In a society, therefore, like the one in ques-
tion, embracing in its objects, as it does, all branches of
science, each investigator may find others cultivating fields
separated from his own by insensible degrees, from whom
he can have not only full sympathy and adequate appre-
ciation, but also, in many instances, important suggestions
and essential aid.

The governing body of such a society, in order that the

( viii ) i
organization may produce the desired effect, must be largely
composed of men who, by education and experience in the
processes of investigation, are justly entitled to the appel-
lation of ‘scientific,’ and who, from their positive contri-
butions to the science of the day, are acknowledged by
the scientific world as worthy of this distinction. It is
true, useful societies are formed for the self-improvement
of their members by the production of essays on various
subjects, or by cultivation of branches of natural history
requiring no previous special training: the city of Wash-
ington, however, needs something of a higher order,
namely, a society for the advancement of science, since in
no other city in the Union are there so many men, in pro-
portion to the population, connected with scientific pur-
suits, or so many facilities for scientific investigation.

The Philosophical Society of Washington, though of a
local and unostentatious character, may, if true to itself and
its mission, accomplish much towards increasing the repu-
tation of the country and influencing public opinion with
regard to questions of a scientific character. However
wide the diffusion of general knowledge, public opinion in
regard to scientific questions must eventually be determined
by the authority of societies, journals, and individuals, of
established scientific reputation. It is therefore of the first
importance that the operations of this Society be conducted
with great care, and that nothing be given to the world
under its sanction which is not based upon thorough inves-
tigation or established scientific principles. We should be
warned by the fate of a society established in this city
some thirty years ago, which, although it included among
its members a few men of true science, was under the con-

trol principally of amateurs and politicians, and therefore

(1x )

was unfit to discharge the duty which it claimed as one of
its functions, to decide questions of a strictly scientific
character. It should have been borne in mind by this
association that votes on questions in science should be
weighed, not counted! Had the proposition of the motion
of the earth been decided in the days of Galileo by the
popular voice, this philosopher and his friends would have
been vastly in the minority. The society to which I allude,
after achieving an unenviable notoriety, by assuming to be
the arbiter of the science of the country, gradually sunk
into oblivion, from which its memory should not be re-
called except as a warning to those who would adventure
in the same line.

It is an essential feature of a scientific society that
every communication presented to it should be subject to
free critical discussion. Such discussion not only enlivens
the proceedings, but is, generally, instructive, frequently
eliciting facts which, though insignificant when isolated,
when brought together mutually illustrate each other, and
lead, ultimately, to important conclusions. The extent to
which discussions may be allowed evidently depends on
the candor and temper of those who engage in them.
Among the things to be avoided are, merely verbal criti-
cism, undue harshness on the one hand, and unmerited
praise on the other, regard being had to truth rather than
to victory or mutual adulation. There is nothing, perhaps,
which marks more distinctly one of the characteristics of a
true scientist than the manner in which he receives and ap-
propriates to his use the critical remarks that may be made
upon his communications. He can, in many cases, at least,
derive from them the indication that he has failed to pre-

sent on some points a clear statement of his investigations;

(x)

or that in some other points his conclusions are not fully
sustained by the premises. Unfortunately, it frequently
happens that persons of a sensitive disposition are apt to
consider criticism of the kind we have mentioned as per-
sonal attacks, and that it is as offensive to doubt the accu-
racy of their experiments or conclusions as it is to doubt
their word. It should, however, be recollected that the
most gifted are liable to err, and that these criticisms are
prior to publication, and, therefore, of value to the perma-
nent reputation of both the individual and the society.

Another important matter in regard to such a society is
the publication of its prazeedings. If its object were merely
the intellectual and moral improvement of its members, it
might dispense entirely with any publication whatever—
even with the announcement of its existence. If, however,
it aspires to the more important office of advancing science,
or of enlarging the bounds of thought and assisting to dif-
fuse a knowledge of new truths, it should then publish,
if not quarto volumes of transactions, at least a bulletin
of its proceedings. This publication should present an
exposition of the organization of the society, its constitu-
tion and by-laws, give a list of the members, a synopsis of
the contents of all communications submitted for consider-
ation, and an account of important facts which may be
elicited during discussions or recalled to memory at the
moment by association of ideas.

Such a bulletin will enable:the members of the so-
ciety to publish without delay, through a proper channel,
a synopsis of their investigations, and, also, minor facts
and inferences not considered, in themselves, of sufficient
importance to form a communication to a scientific journal

or to occupy a place in philosophical transactions. Such

( xi)

facts are, nevertheless, frequently found to be valuable
contributions to the general stock of knowledge. Were
it possessed of the requisite funds, the society might
establish a higher reputation by the publication of inde-
pendent transactions. Inasmuch, however, as this is not
the case, the next best plan should be adopted, namely,
that of publishing papers in full through other channels,
such, for instance, as the Smithsonian Institution, the re-
ports of government bureaus, and scientific journals. In
such cases, the bulletin should contain references as to where
the articles in full are to appear, and in this respect it
would do good service in assisting to make more generally
known the valuable contributions to science which are
diffused through voluminous executive and congressional
documents not readily accessible to the scientific world.

The editing of the bulletin should be under the direc-
tion of the secretaries and a committee appointed for the
purpose, and a number should be issued as often as mate-
rial of the proper character and of sufficient quantity is
accumulated. It should be distributed to the principal
learned societies of this and other countries, and may also
be presented to leading journals in this and other cities.
Without at least such a publication, the society cannot
have a recognized existence.

I have stated that there is no city in the United States,
in proportion to the number of its inhabitants, where there
are so nany men of education actively engaged in pursuits
connected with science as in Washington. In illustration ~
of this remark I may refer to those who are engaged in
the Coast Survey, the Office of Weights and Measures, the
National Observatory, the Nautical Almanac, Patent Office,
Engineer Department, Hydrographic Office, Ordnance De-

esi)

partment, Medical Departments of the Army and Navy,
Lighthouse Board, Signal Corps, Agricultural Department,
Bureau of Statistics, Census Office, Bureaus of Navigation
and Steam Engineering, the Smithsonian Institution, etc.
etc. In addition to this, no city in the Union possesses
more ample facilities, in the way of books and implements,
for the prosecution of scientific research. The library of
Congress, enriched by the Smithsonian Deposit with the
transactions of all the principal learned societies of the
world, is almost unrivalled in scientific works. If to this
extensive collection we add the special libraries of the
Patent Office, the Agricultural Department, the Coast Sur-
vey, the National Observatory, and of the Surgeon-Gene-
ral’s Office} we have a collection of modern books on science,
accessible to the members of the society, scarcely surpassed
by the collections of the most favored cities of the old
world. Nor are the articles of apparatus necessary for
any line of investigation beyond the reach of any member
of the Society who may possess the knowledge and skill
requisite to their proper use. There is great liberality on
the part of the heads of departments in the way of fur-
nishing apparatus that may in any degree facilitate the
special investigations under their direction.

Among those connected with the various organiza-
tions just mentioned, a considerable number are engaged
in original investigations, the results of which are of inte-
rest to the scientific world, and which will be facilitated
and improved by the discussions of this Society. Fur-
thermore, in the daily operations of the different establish-
ments, facts of scientific importance are continually becom-
ing evident which would be lost if not preserved in the

records of the Society. It is not, however, alone to facili-

(xiii)

tate operations now going on, or to preserve facts that may
have been casually discovered, but, also, to suggest new
investigations and to encourage others to enter the field
of research who have not yet essayed their hand in this
direction. In the great domain of science, there is abundant
room for an infinite number of laborers of different grades
of attainment and original powers of mind. A series of
careful observations made with proper instruments, with
regularity and precision, which requires little more than
the exercise of the senses and a conscientious regard for
truth, is frequently a valuable contribution to science. A
series of analyses in which prescribed formulas are ob-
served, and in the application of which no more talent is
required than that which is possessed by the majority of
persons of ordinary ability and education, may give results
of scientific value. For the production of results of the
kind mentioned, and those which are effected by the scientist
who is capable of detecting hitherto undiscovered facts
and developing new laws, there is room for all grades of
talent and of powers of original investigation. It is asto-
nishing how much may be done by the association of minds
determined oh a common pursuit; how much, under such
conditions as exist in the city of Washington, may be
effected in the way of directing attention to special lines
of investigation, in suggesting questions to be asked of
nature, and in pointing out the ready means by which
the answers may be elicited, by arousing into activity
talents which, without such stimulus and suggestion, would
ever remain dormant.

The bane of many societies is the time consumed in
details of business and in the discussion of non-essential

points relative to their government. Happily, the organ-

(xiv)

ization adopted by this Society obviates this evil and se-
cures the devotion of almost every evening exclusively to
its legitimate purposes. For the government of men whose
object is the advance of truth, but few rules are necessary,
and these, unlike the laws of the Medes and Persians—
expressed in inexorable codes—must consist of simple
principles, readily adaptable to all contingencies.

In conclusion, I would say that with so many facilities
as exist in the city of Washington for the pursuit of sci-
ence, this Society would be derelict of duty did it fail to
materially aid, through communion of thought and con-
cert of action, the advancement of the great cause of human
improvement. I am happy, however, in cherishing the
opinion that the success of “The Philosophical Society of
Washington” is scarcely any longer problematical, and in

this I am sustained by the record of its transactions.

CONSTITUTION

OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

ArticLE I. The name of this Society shall be THE PHIL-
OSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF W ASHINGTON,

ArtIcLE II. The officers of the Society shall be a Presi-
dent, four Vice-Presidents, a Treasurer, and two Secretaries.

ArtIcLE III. There shall be a General Committee, con-
sisting of the officers of the Society, and nine other members.

ARTICLE IV. The officers of the Society and the other
members of the General Committee, shall be elected annu-
ally by ballot; they shall hold office until their successors
are elected, and shall have power to fill vacancies.

ARTICLE VY. It shall be the duty of the General Committee
to make rules for the government of the Society, and to
transact all its business.

ArticLE VI. This Constitution shall not be amended
except by a three-fourths vote of those present at an an-
nual meeting for the election of officers, and after notice of
the proposed change shall have been given in writing at a
stated meeting of the Society at least four weeks previously.

The General Committee also reported the Standing Rules
for the government of the Society, which had been enacted
under the fifth article of the Constitution.

( xv )

STANDING RULES

FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

1. The Stated Meetings of the Society shall be held at 8
o'clock P. M. on every alternate Saturday, the place of meet-
ing to be designated by the General Committee.

2. The Annual Meeting for the election of officers shall be
the first stated meeting in the month of November. When
necessary, Special Meetings may be called by the President.

3. Notices of the time and place of meetings shall be sent
to each member by one of the Secretaries.

4, The Stated Meetings, with the exception of the annual
meeting, shall be devoted to the consideration and discussion
of scientific subjects.

5. Communications intended for publication under the
auspices of the Society shall be submitted in writing to the
General Committee for approval.

6. New members shall be elected by the General Com-
mittee, after having been proposed in writing by at least
three members of the Society.

7. Each member shall pay annually to the Treasurer the
sum of five dollars, and no member whose dues are unpaid
shall vote at the annual meeting for the election of officers.

The Committee further reported for the information of the
members of the Society, the Standing Rules which they had
enacted for the government of the General Committee, viz.:—

( xvi )

STANDING RULES

OF THE
GENERAL COMMITTEE

OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

1. The President, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the
Society shall hold like offices in the General Committee.

2. The President shall have power to call special meetings
of the Committee, and to appoint Sub-Committees,

3. The Sub Committees shall prepare business for the
General Committee, and perform such other duties as may
be entrusted to them.

4, There shall be two Standing Sub-Committees, one on
Communications for the Stated Meetings of the Society, and
another on Publications.

5. The General Committee shall meet at half past seven
o'clock on the evening of each stated meeting, and by ad-
journment at other times.

6. For all purposes, except for the amendment of the
Standing Rules of the Committee and of the Society, and the
election of members, six members of the Committee shall
constitute a quorum.

2 ( xvii )

BULLETIN

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF
WASHINGTON.

Tu1s Society had its origin in the following initiatory
letter; ——

Prof. JosepH Henry, LL.D.

The undersigned respectfully request you to preside at a
meeting which they propose to hold for the purpose of forming
a society, having for its object the free exchange of views on
scientific subjects, and the promotion of scientific i inquiry among
its members.

M. C. Meias,
BENJAMIN PEIRCE,
THEO. GILL,
PETER PARKER,
FI. B. MEEK,
ieee RAGE
Wo. B. Taytor,
Cuas. A. Scuort,
EK. B. Evxtort,
F. V. Haypen,
J. EK Hitearp,
Aa tel By}

S. F. Barron,

Watrer L. Nicworson,

Wn. H Datu,
B. FRANKLIN GREENE,
S. V. Benér,

Horace Capron,
THOMAS ANTISELL,
J. J. Woopwarp,
J. S. Bintres,

J. K. BARNg&s,

C. H. Crane,
GEORGE A. Ors,
ALBERT J. Myzr,
A. A. Humpureys,
ASAPH HALL,
Smmon Newcomp,
Wm. Harkness,

B. F. Craig,

J. H. C. Corrin,
THORNTON A. J ENKINS,
Groree H. Exnxior,
W. T. Saerman,

(19)

20 BULLETIN OF THE

GEORGE C. SCHAEFFER, A. B. Dysr,
THos. LIncoLn CASEY, J. B. WHEELER,
JNO. G. PARKE, A. B. Eaton,
B. F. SAnps, HuisHa Foore,

SALMON P. CHASE.

Ist MEETING. Marca 13, 1871.
Prof. JosepH Henry in the Chair.

In response to this call, a meeting of the subscribers thereto
was convened and held at the Smithsonian Institution, in the
Regent’s room, on Monday, March 13, 1871. The outline of a
Constitution was adopted, and under it the following gentlemen,
who collectively should constitute a GENERAL CoMMITTEE for the
transaction of the business of the Society, were elected officers :—

PRESIDENT.
JOSEPH HENRY.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

M. C. Mees, Horace CAPRON,
J. E. Hinearp, Wm. B. Taytor.
TREASURER.

PETER PARKER.

SECRETARIES.

B. F. Crata, THEODORE GILL.

MEMBERS AT LARGE OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

THOMAS ANTISELL, EK. B. Evxrort,
J. H. C. Corrtn, W. T. SHERMAN,
S. NEwcomps, T. L. Casey,

S. F. Bairp, T. A. JENKINS,

J. J. WoopWARD.

The Constitution was then referred to the General Committee
for verbal expression; and the Committee was also empowered
to propose Rules and By-Laws for the government of the Society..

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 21

2p MEETING. Marcu 18, 1871.
The President in the Chair.

Professor 8. F. Barrp communicated to the Society, on behalf
of the author, a copy of a memoir entitled—

OFFICIAL REPORT OF THE YELLOWSTONE EXPEDITION OF 1870, BY
LIEUT. G. C. DOANE, 2D U. S. CAVALRY.

(This Report will be found published in full as Official Document, Senate,
No. 51, 41st Congress, 3d Session.)

3D MEETING. Apri 1, 1871.
The President in the Chair.

The General Committee reported to the Society the ‘“Consti-
tution,” which was adopted.

(For the Constitution and Standing Rules see pp. 14, 15, 16.)

The President announced that the following gentlemen had
been appointed on the Sub-Committees, viz. :—

SUB-COMMITTEES.
On PapErs AND Essays:

- Chairman, J. J. Woopwarp ;
S. L. Casry, J. BE. Hitcarp.

On PuBLICcATION :

Chairman, 8. F. Barrp;
B. F. Craic, TaHropore Gtut.

The transaction of business being concluded, General M. ©.

Meras laid before the Society a map of the head waters of the
Yellowstone and Lewis rivers.

Mr. J. E. Hitearp read a paper entitled—

ON THE DISTANCE TRAVERSED BY APPROACHING THE NORTH POLE
ON A LOXODROMIC CURVE.

22 BULLETIN OF THE

Mr. J. E. Hize@arp stated that having had occasion to deter-
mine the geographical centre of the United States, or the centre
of gravity of the surface of the country, he had ascertained it to
be near the Black Hills of Wyoming Territory

Professor JoSEPH HENRY made an oral communication
ON PHENOMENA OF SOUND AND EXPERIMENTS WITH TUNING FORKS:

illustrating his statements by means of a set of resounding cavities.

Dr. Wm. THomson of Philadelphia communicated a memoir
entitled—

ON A NEW METHOD FOR DETECTING AND MEASURING THE OPTICAL
DEFECTS OF THE EYE.

(The substance of this communication is published under the title, “An Addi-
tional Test for the Diagnosis and Correction of the Optical Defects of
the Eye,” in The American Journal of the Medical Sciences, N. S.,
vol. lix., pp. 76-80.)

4TH MEETING. APRIL 15, 1871.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. J. E. Hitaarp exhibited a chronograph of the kind devised
by Hippe of Neuchatel, and explained its construction.

Gen. A. B. EAtTon made a communication
ON THE PRESERVATION OF FOODS,

and exhibited specimens of preserved meats.

Col. T. L. Casey communicated a Report by Capt. Chas. W.
Raymond, U.S. Engineers,

ON THE RESULTS OF TRAVELS IN ALASKA AND THE DETERMINATION
OF THE POSITION OF FORT YUKON.

(This Report is published as Executive Document No. 12, Senate, 42d Con-
gress, 1st Session.)

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 23

5TH MEETING. APRIL 29, 1871.
The President in the Chair.

Admiral B. F. Sanps communicated, in the name of Professor
AsapH HALL, an abstract of a paper

ON THE ELEMENTS OF THE COMET I, 1871.

(ABSTRACT.)

This comet was discovered by Dr. Winnecke at Carlsruhe,
April 7th, and was also independently discovered by Mr. Lewis
Swift at Marathon, New York, on April 15th, 1871. Notice of
its discovery was received at the Naval Observatory April 19th,
and it was observed there on the 20th, 23d, and 24th, cloudy
weather preventing further observations. Although the observa-
tions are not well situated to give a good determination of the
orbit, the following elements have been computed :—

PeriHevion Passace, 1871, June 10, 496, Washington mean time.

Longitude of Perihelion, 1400 49/ 13” i ae
Longitude Ascending Node, 279 3° 81 paaiet 5 iat
Inclination of Orbit Plane, 87 42 23 Phere

‘Logarithm Perihelion Distance, 9.82206.
Motion Direct.

Computing with these elements the Altona observation of April
9th, the following differences are found—

da=—0’.8, and dg=-+ 01.1:
from which it appears that these elements must be a tolerable
approximation to the truth.

When first discovered the comet was about 95 degrees in true
anomaly from its perihelion, and is therefore approaching the
Sun, and the computations show that it is slowly approaching the
Earth. Its motion, however, in heliocentric longitude is so small
that it will be apparently very near the Sun. Were it not for
this it might become visible to the naked eye after the next full
moon. Its distance from the Earth is about 1.8 of the Sun’s
mean distance, and as it is easily observed in the telescope it is
in reality a bright comet.

Mr. J. E. Hinearp exhibited a chronoscope devised by Hippe,
of Neuchatel, and explained its application in the determination
of the rate of transmission of nerve-power.

By request, Major Kina made a verbal report

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE BRIDGE ACROSS EAST RIVER
BETWEEN BROOKLYN AND NEW YORK.

24 BULLETIN OF THE

6TH MEETING. May 18, 1871.
The President in the Chair.
Prof. S. F. Barrp communicated a paper by Dr. H. B. Butcurr

ON TWO IMMENSE METEORITES AT CONCEPTION AND SAN GREGORIO,
MEXICO.

(Concerning the subject of this communication, see ‘‘The precise geographical
position of the large mass of Meteoric Iron in Northern Mexico [etc.]
by J. Laurence Smita; The American Journal of Science,
3d series, vol. ti., pp. 335-338.)

Dr. J. J. WoopwARD made a communication

ON THE ALLEGED HERMAPHRODITE DESCRIBED BY DRS. ACCLY,
BLACKMAN, AND JACKSON.

(This communication is published under the title, “Remarks on a Supposed
Case of Hermaphroditism,’’ in The American Journal of the Medical
Sciences, NV. S., vol. lzit., pp. 123-125, July, 1871.)

(ABSTRACT.)

Dr. Woodward exhibited a wet preparation of the generative
organs in a case of supposed hermaphroditism, and a plaster cast
of the same. The specimen was originally described in the
American Journal of the Medical Sciences, July, 1853, and has
subsequently been quoted in works on medical jurisprudence as
one of hermaphroditism. It was recently presented to the Army
Medical Museum, and being well preserved in alcohol, was sub-
jected to further dissection and a careful microscopical examina-
tion. The parts supposed to be ovaries were simply little masses
of adipose tissue, and the case was in fact merely oue of unde-
scended testicle in an otherwise well-developed male.

Dr. THEODORE GILL read a paper

ON THE CHARACTERISTICS AND ZOOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF MAN.

(ABSTRACT.)

Prof. Gill adverted to the various beliefs respecting the origin
of man, contrasted those of Lord Monboddo and Darwin, and
successively enumerated those characters which man shared in
common with animals generally, and in addition thereto, with
Vertebrates, with all Mammals, with the placental mammals, with

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 25

the “Educable” division of the latter, and with those constituting
the order Primates and the suborder Anthropoidea. After the
elimination of those forms whose structure was thus shown to be
successively removed from his, he contrasted man in a final term
with the apes, and expressed his conviction that there exist no
structural (morphological) characters which would be admitted
to possess more than family value, were we able to divest our-
selves of personal and psychological prejudices, and asserted that
such was the view of the majority of the most approved students
of the mammals. Man’s relations might be exhibited in a quasi-
genealogical table by a stem from the same common branch as
the higher apes, and if the doctrine of evolution is accepted at
all, such a table would express for the believer therein the fact
of a derivation of man and the highest apes from the same com-
mon and specialized stock.

7TH MEETING. May 27, 1871.

The President in the Chair.

Dr. T. ANTISELL exhibited, on the part of the Department of
Agriculture, a vial of dust charged with organic matter from
Bitliz, Armenia.

Mr. W. H. Datu presented a paper

ON THE RELATIVE VALUE OF ALASKA TO THE UNITED STATES, AS
COMPARED WITH THAT OF OTHER TERRITORIAL ACQUISITIONS.

(This article was published in full under the title ‘Is Alaska a Paying Invest-
ment?” in Harpers’ New Monthly Magazine, vol. xliv., pp.
252-257, January, 1872.)

(ABSTRACT.)

After submitting estimates of the cost and value of Texas,
Florida, and New Mexico (including Arizona), and showing that
the direct taxes paid into the Treasury of the United States can-
not be taken as an index of the value to the community at large
of any given region, Mr. Dall gave the following statement of
items as the data on which to found an estimate of the present
value of the productions of Alaska.

26 BULLETIN OF THE

Direct taxes as established by law :—

Annual rental of seal fishery. : : $55,000 00
Tax on seal skins, 50,000 allowed to be {akon ‘hy La

regulations : . : ; . : 0 100,000 00
Bonus, 623 cents each, on such siding . < 31,250 00
Bonus on oil 55 cents per gallon, of which the crest is esti-

mated at one gallon for each seal killed . 0 27,500 00
Supplies and schools to be furnished to natives of seal iclends 2,000 00

Productions :—

Value of seal skins above taxes 3 6 : : ; 318,750 00
Furs from Yukon district annually . D 0 : : 75,000 00
Other continental furs ; 10,000 00
Fish and furs of Sitkan district according to Ma}. Tidball’s

Report : C 51,000 00
Annual yield of sea otter ‘ade. inion at one- third the

annual yield of the last twenty years : é : 65,000 00
Walrus ivory and oil (1868) . : : : ; : 7,500 00
Salt codfish (10,612,000 lbs. in 1870) ¢ : : ; 754,840 00
Cod-liver oil (10,000 gallons in 1866) : 6 6 ; 10,000 00

Whale oil and bone from Alaskan waters, estimated at one-
third the whole Behring Sea catch annually, viz.,

466,666 lbs. bone and 1,179,000 gallons oil . 0 869,499 60
Ice trade . : 6 é . 9 5 5 0 28,000 00
Spars and timber : : : f 9 0 5 5 2,000 00
Total annual production . 5 0 5 0 - $2,407,339 60

From this are to be deducted the annual expenses of the Ter-
ritory and the cost of production of the various articles, leaving
as a net profit over all expenses of every description, past and
present, the sum of $674,201 30 annually. This is equivalent to
a net profit of eight per cent.; while by similar estimates Florida
pays four per cent., Texas twenty per cent., and New Mexico
less than nothing, annually.

The total cost of Alaska up to Jan. 1, 1871, is $8,873,370 25,
and the present annual expenses are $529,468 50.

Dr. THEODORE Hincarp, of St. Louis, made a verbal commu-
nication

ON THE NUMBER OF THE CEPHALIC VERTEBRA.

(This communication is published in full in the Proceedings of the American
Society for the Advancement of Science, Twentieth Meeting.)

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 6F WASHINGTON. 27

8TH MEETING. JUNE 10, 1871.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. W. B. Taytor presented a memoir

ON THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF FORCE.

(This communication is published in full under the title, “Thoughts on the
Nature and Origin of Force,” in the Annual Report of the Board of
Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, for 1870, pp. 241-257.)

(ABSTRACT.)

The ‘‘Conservation of Force” is not an axiom, as it seems natu-
ral to regard it, but a corollary—dependent on the coexistence in
all matter of two opposing tendencies, attraction and repulsion.
Were any form of matter absolutely incompressible (and hence
inelastic), there would be in every case of the collision of such
matter, a simple destruction of vis viva.

Motion is not the only exhibition of force—as we have a large
array of static forees—nor the measure of force, since it is not
proportional thereto, but follows the law of the square root of the
power originating it. Contrary, therefore, to a not unusual gen-
eralization, motion is not persistent, but may be destroyed, re-
sulting in static force, and it may be created or produced from
static force. The phenomena of so-called ‘latent heat” may be
cited as an example.

If we accept the nebular hypothesis of the cosmogony, all force
was originally static; and observation shows us that it is on the
whole ever becoming more and more kinetic, ever more and more
equably diffused ; the tendency being steadily to what Professor
Sir William Thomson has designated the “ Dissipation of Energy.”
The sum of the static or potential, and of the kinetic forms of
energy, is of course forever constant, or unalterable.

The so-called ‘“‘vital forces” have been shown in recent times
to be but a portion of the preéxisting store of purely mechanical
energy. Not only organic nutrition, growth, and movement, but
the more subtle processes of thought and emotion are maintained
from without, and are dependent on material changes and the
transference of molecular motion. All animal power (like all
mechanical power employed by man) is derived ultimately from
the vegetable storehouse of chemical energy ; and the store of
static vegetable force is derived from the actinism of the solar
rays. :

These successive transfers of force through molecular changes
and movements are therefore but expressions of dynamic evolu-
tion resulting from the collisions of gravitative or attractive forces
with repulsive forces, in the matter of the celestial bodies. From
which it results that the origin of all dynamic displays (no less

28 BULLETIN OF THE

than their perpetual conservation) lies in the static affections
either inherent in, or indelibly stamped upon all material elements.
The derivative and convertible forms of energy should not, there-
fore, be confounded with the primordial and immutable forces
resident in the molecule and its atoms—such as cohesive, affini-
tive, and gravitative tendencies or affections.

If molecular attractions and repulsions are really the parents
of all dynamic energy, it seems wholly improbable that any form
of such attraction or repulsion can ever be the offspring of dyna-
mic energy. In other words, we must infer that such exhibitions
of molecular attraction and repulsion as those of electricity and
magnetism, however seemingly the product and correlatives of
motion—as of friction or percussion, of light or heat, of chemical
activity or gravitative fall, etc.—are really not so derived, but are
to be regarded as being only unveiled or made manifest, from a
previous condition of neutralization by a static equilibrium.

9TH MEETING. JUNE 24, 1871.
The President in the Chair.

Prof. A. Haut read a paper
ON ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY.

(This paper is published under the title, ‘On the Application of Photography
to the Determination of Astronomical Data,’’ in the American Journal
of Science and Arts (3), vol. wi., pp. 25-30, July, 1871.)

(ABSTRACT.)

An account was given in this paper of what had been accom-
plished in applying photography to the determination of exact
astronomical data. Reference was made to the labors of Messrs.
Bond and De la Rue, and it was inferred: (1) that in the case
of ordinary observations of double stars the photographic method
presents no advantages over the direct method with a filar
micrometer or heliometer; (2) that in the case of an eclipse of
the sun, or of the transit of a planet, the results hitherto obtained
are such as to give but little confidence in the accuracy of the
photographic method. On account of the obvious advantages
which the photographic method possesses over the observations
of contact in the case of a transit of Venus, provided that the
photographic observations can be rigorously and accurately re-

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 29

duced, attention was called to the importance of making early
and complete experiments for determining the real value of this
method.

Mr. EH. B. EvLiorr made a communication

ON THE STATISTICS OF THE BORROWING POWER OF THE UNITED
STATES,

Mr. J. EK. HinGarp made a communication

ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES.

10TH MEETING. SEPTEMBER 9, 1871.
The President in the Chair.

The evening was occupied by verbal communications from
various parties.

lla Mzrrine. SEPTEMBER 23, 1871.

The President in the Chair.

Prof. S. Newcoms read a paper

ON THE TRANSITS OF VENUS, PAST AND FUTURE.

Dr. THEODORE GILL made some remarks

ON ADDITIONS TO THE FISH FAUNA OF MASSACHUSETTS, DUE TO THE
RESEARCHES OF PROF. 8. F. BAIRD, U. S. FISH COMMISSIONER.

(This communication was substantially as published under the title, “On recent
additions to the Fish Fauna of Massachusetts,” in the Proceedings of
the American Association for the Advancement of Science, for
1873, B. pp. 34-36.)

30 BULLETIN OF THE

12TH MEETING. OcToBER 7, 1871.
The President in the Chair.
Prof. A. Haun read a paper, illustrated by a diagram,
ON A CURVE OF THE FOURTH DEGREE.
(This paper is published in the Educational Times, vol. xix.)

(ABSTRACT.)

The curve to be considered arises from the solution of the fol-
lowing question, proposed in one of the English annuals:
“Through the focus of an ellipse a right line is drawn cutting
the ellipse in the points D and £, and at the middle point of DE
an indefinite right line is drawn perpendicular to Dr. It is re-
quived to find the form and area of the curve that this perpen-
dicular always touches.”

Taking the centre of the ellipse as the origin of codrdinates,
and its principal axes as the axes of reference, the equation of
the perpendicular is

a*y m3 +- (a?x — c®) m?+ b2y m +- bx = 0;
where a and b are the semi-axes of the ellipse, m the tangent
of the angle which the line DE makes with the axis of a, and
c =ae; denoting by e the eccentricity of the ellipse. The equa-
tion of the curve sought will be found by eliminating m between
the preceding equation and its first derivative with respect to m.
The result of such an elimination was called by the older mathe-
maticians the resultant of the two equations, and in the phrase
of modern algebra it is called the ediminant. Performing the
elimination the equation of the curve is found to be—
4A atbtyt + (8 atx? + 20 a2c3x — c6) b2y2+ 4x (ax — 3)8 =o. (1)

Putting 2 = ae’, and solving for y we find,

i 3
YS 5 (VitVi= Bz)! 3a/k <7 ieEaS)) (2);
where the upper and lower signs in the radical expressions must
be taken together.
This elegant form for the value of y follows from this fact,
that in the solution of (1) the terms in & retain a cubic form

through two successive reductions. Equation (2) shows the form

sare h
of the curve. It is confined to the limits x = +h, and « = — 3)

and has double points for these values of x If we denote the

area of the curve by A, we have
4b. / iy ee Lena

A= f{ (Vitvit Sz). 3V7h—V h+ 8a) dx

a
e lL
th

I eee VE rear: dz.
= 8

Ne

teleo

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 31

Whence, performing the integrations and restoring the value of h,
we have

Dr. B. F. Crate read a paper

ON THE FLUCTUATIONS OF THE TEMPERATURE OF THE HUMAN BODY.

(This paper is published under the title, “Variations in the Temperature of
the Human Body,”’ in the American Journal of Science and Arts
(3), vol. i., pp. 330-332, Nov. 1871.)
Mr. E. B. Exuiorr presented an essay

ON THE NEW COINAGE OF JAPAN.

Mr. J. E. Hicarp read an essay

ON AN EXPONENTIAL FORMULA HAVING REFERENCE TO THE TOLE-
RANCE ALLOWED AT THE U. S. MINT.

13TH MEETING. OcToBER 21, 1871.
The President in the Chair.

Prof. Bens. Pierce read a paper
ON THE HEAT OF THE SUN.

The author stated that he desired to offer evidence confirmatory
of Mr. Lane’s views as to the gaseous constitution of the sun,
holding that the outer limit was fixed by laws of heat.

Prof. W. HarKNESS made a communication
ON THE PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION OF THE CORONA OF THE SUN.
(This paper is published in Washington Astronomical Observations, 1869,
Appendix I., pp. 82-89.)
Prof. JosrepH Henry made a communication

ON OBSERVATIONS MADE ON A JOURNEY TO CALIFORNIA ;

Be BULLETIN OF THE

this paper was illustrated by the rain-fall maps published by the
Smithsonian Institution.

14TH MEETING. NOVEMBER 4, 1871.
Vice-President W. B. Taytor in the Chair.

This being the annual meeting for the election of officers, the
Chairman announced the order of proceedings for the evening as
determined on by the general committee. As the result of the
election, Professor JosepH Henry was unanimously re-elected
President; Generals J. K. Barnes and M. C. Metas, and
Messrs. Hinaarp and Taynior, Vice-Presidents; Hon. PETER
ParkER, Treasurer; Doctors Grin and Craia, Secretaries; and
the following were elected members at large of the General
Committee :-—

S. F. Barren, A. HALL,

lie CASK: A. A. HUMPHREYS,
J. H. C. Corrtn, T. A. JENKINS,

E. B. Evuiort, S. NEwcome,

J. J. WooDWARD.

No amendments to the Constitution having been made, the
chairman announced that the annual address of the President
was necessarily deferred until a subsequent meeting on account
of his absence from the city.

PEILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

OFFICERS °
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON,
FOR THE YEAR 1871-1872.

PRESIDENT.

JOSEPH HENRY.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

M. C. MEIGs, W. B. Taytor,
J. KE. HitGarp, J. K. BARNES.

TREASURER.

PETER PARKER.

SECRETARIES.

B. F. Crate, THEODORE GILL.

MEMBERS AT LARGE OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

S. F. Barrp, A. HALt,

T. L. CasgEy, A. A. HUMPHREYS,
J. H. C. Corrtn, S. Newcome,

E. B. Evniort,

J. J WOODWARD,
G. H. Exior.*

* Subsequently elected to fill a vacancy.

33

34 BULLETIN OF THE

15tH MEETING. NOVEMBER 18, 1871.
The President in the Chair.
The meeting was opened by the delivery of the annual address
of the President.

(This Address will*be found printed in full in the introductory portion of this

volume. )

A letter to Professor Henry from Dr. Bessels was. read, dated
on board the Polaris, August 16th, giving some account of the
scientific operations of the North Pole Expedition up to that
date. ;

Prof. W. Harkness read a paper
ON THE SPECTRUM OF ENCKE’S COMET, AND THE APPEARANCE OF
TULTLE’S COMET.
(This paper is essentially as published in Washington Astronomical Observa-

tions, 1870, Appendix II., pp. 25-41.)

Dr. B. F. Crate made a communication

ON APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

16TH MEETING. DECEMBER 2, 1871.
The President in the Chair.

Prof. A. Haun read a paper

ON THE ASTRONOMICAL PROOF OF THE EXISTENCH OF A RESISTING
MEDIUM IN SPACE.

(This paper is published in full in the American Journal of Science and
Arts (3), vol. wi. pp. 404-408, Dec. 1871.)

Prof. W. Harkness made a verbal communication regarding’
some singular results that he had lately arrived at by the study
of the spectrum of Encke’s comet.

(The substance of this communication will be found in Washington Astronomi-
cal Observations, 1870, Appendix II., pp. 25-49.)

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 39

Mr. JosepH Henry read an eulogy

ON THE LIFE AND SCIENTIFIC LABORS OF THE LATE ALEXANDER
DALLAS BACHE,

who was one of the founders of the scientific club from which

this society took its origin.

(Fhis Eulogy is published in full in the Report of the Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution for 1870, Appendix, pp. 90-106.)

17TH MEETING. DECEMBER 16, 1871.
The President in the Chair.
Mr. J.“H. Hitearp read a paper

ON THE WESTWARD MOVEMENT OF THE POPULATION OF THE UNITED
STATES.
(This paper is published under the title, “The Advance of Population in the

United States,” in Scribner's Monthly Magazine, vol. iv., pp. 214-218,
June, 1872.)

Mr. C. S. PErrce read a paper

ON THE APPEARANCE OF ENCKE’S COMET AS SEEN AT HARVARD
COLLEGE OBSERVATORY.

7
(The substance of this communication will be published in the Annals of the
Harvard College Observatory.)

\

Mr. H. B. Exuiorr made a communication

ON THE, LOCUS OF THE POINT OF EQUAL ILLUMINATION BY TWO
UNEQUAL LIGHTS TREATED BY THE QUATERNION ANALYSIS,

Mr. CLEVELAND ABBE read a letter from Mr. 8S. A. King,
aeronaut, of Boston,

ON THE AERIAL CURRENTS OBSERVED IN FIFTY BALLOON
" ASCENSIONS.

The thanks of the Society were returned to Mr. King for his
communication.

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WASHINGTON, Dec. 16, 1871.

GENTLEMEN : In the pursuit of professional duties as an aero-
“naut I have constantly endeavored to elevate my calling, and to
utilize any knowledge I may have acquired in my voyages through
the air. Possibly it may interest you to receive even a simple
table of the directions of the aerial currents that have prevailed
during my excursions. I have therefore attempted to compile
such a table from some of the most interesting of the 162 voy-
ages that I have made; and have the honor herewith to present
it for your acceptance. The labor of compiling this table [pp.
36, 37,] has been considerable, owing to the desultory nature of
the accounts that have been published, and to their being, as you
well understand, scattered through hundreds of newspapers. The
present table comprises but about fifty ascensions: if the Society!
deem it desirable, however, I should be pleased to complete this
work, by adding, at some future time, similar tables for the re-_
mainder of my voyages.

It would afford me great satisfaction to learn that you deem
this bumble, and as I believe novel contribution to “meteorelony
worthy of your acceptance.

Respectfully,

Samu. A. Kina, Aeronaut, of Boston.

The following remarks were made by Mr. ABBE :-—

In laying this communication before you I may state that I
have examined Mr. King’s Table of Fifty Balloon Voyages, and
have formed the following synopsis, showing how many times
each current has been recorded :—

COURSE. NO. OF TIMES.
Calm 5 9
From the north ; s 5 : 6 6 6

ie northeast : ‘ 5 A ; 8
a east stnbtaNe 4 ae é ; 8
U3 southeast .. 5 : : a 9
sf south ‘ : j d : Bree lt}
sf southwest j ; A j 5 20
rs west : ; ; . ; are WG
G northwest ‘ : ; : net Uh

Total . : : ‘ . 105

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 39

In this table each current is counted once, and a decided pre-
dominance of westerly currents is evident. This is in part ex-
plained by the fact that ascensions are made by preference only
in settled pleasant weather, 2. e. on the front side of an advancing
area of high barometer. Ascensions are, however, also made
generally in the afternoon, when on our Atlantic coast the sum-
mer afternoon sea breeze would tend to increase the number of
easterly winds in the lowest stratum of air.

Mr. King’s table gives the currents in the order of their super-
position, beginning with the surface wind, and it is rare to find
an upper current in a direction opposed to the lowest or surface
wind—such generally deviate but 90°—135° from each other.
The ascensions have rarely exceeded ten thousand feet in alti-
tude, and thus can give us an insight into the nature of only the
lower system of currents that precede extended storms.

From seven balloon ascensions made on July 4, 1871, at differ-
ent points in the United States, I have deduced the velocity of
the upper currents as about four times that of the surface wind

then prevailing.

18tH MEETING. JANUARY 13, 1872.
The President in the Chair.
Mr. W. Harkness read a paper

ON THE DENSITY OF THE HYPOTHETICAL RESISTING MEDIUM IN
SPACE.

(This communication is published in Washington Astronomical Observations,
1870, Appendix II., pp. 33-38.)

Mr. T. Gitt read a communication

ON THE TAPIR OF THE ANDES AND ITS ALLIED FORMS.

Mr. R. D. Curts presented a paper

ON THE MISAPPLICATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS, AS BEARING
ESPECIALLY ON THE QUESTION OF THE INTERPRETATION OF THE
FISHERY RIGHT TREATIES.

40 BULLETIN OF THE

(ABSTRACT.)

Reference was made to the general misapplication, in the United
States, of the term ‘“‘creek” to fresh water streams and rivulets ;
to the long international dispute as to the point where the Rhine
terminated, and especially to the authoritative determination of
the mouth of the River St. Lawrence.

Under the late Reciprocity Treaty between the United States
and Great Britain, made principally with a view to settle the
question of the in-shore fisheries, a Joint Commission was ap-
pointed to examine the coasts of the North American British
colonies and of the United States as far south as the 36th parallel,
being over 6000 miles of coast, including indentations, and to
designate the “rivers and the mouths of rivers.” These were
to be reserved from the common liberty of fishing, while “bays,
harbors, and creeks’. were free. Here was an immense field
opened for the discussion and international interpretation of the
above terms. The commissioners were directed to examine each
“place” which could in any sense be considered as a ‘‘river,”
and if decided to be a river, then to agree upon a line which
should mark the outer limit of its mouth. The number of ‘places’.
presented for examination on the Provincial coasts was 167, and
54 on the coast of the United States. Of these, 105 were de-
clared to be rivers, and their mouths were designated on official
charts. ‘The Commission was in existence for a period of ten
years, 1855 to 1866, although, owing to the late civil war, only
about five years were strictly devoted to the duty assigned it.
There was a large number of cases in which a difference of opinion
was expressed. Some were reconciled, and in others an appeal
was taken to an umpire, under the authority of the treaty.

As the U. S. Surveyor attached to the Commission, the exam-
inations on the part of the United States were principally con-
ducted by me, and it frequently occurred that special reports and
long discussions became necessary as to the right of this or that
“place” to be designated by this or that term. The designations
found on the maps and charts were not considered as definitive
authority. The only rule which we could adopt was that pre-
scribed by international law, that terms employed in treaties
should be interpreted according to the definition given of them
by the science to which they belonged.

To show what divergence of opinion may be entertained in the
discussion of such apparently simple questions, it may be stated
that inlets of the sea, of greater or less extent, were called
“rivers” by one party and ‘‘creeks” by the other; that ‘‘ bays”
of large size were claimed as the “mouths of rivers” on the
ground that streams, inconsiderable in size, emptied into them ;
and that a ‘‘7iver” was not only an inland current of fresh water,
but was one also when the inlet owed its waters almost entirely
to the sea.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 4]

Of the many questions which arose, however, the most impor-
tant was in regard to the line which should mark the outer limit
of the River St. Lawrence. During the discussion which pre-
ceded the settlement of the Northeastern Boundary, the British
Government indirectly claimed that the mouth of ,that river was
defined by a line drawn from Cape Rozier to the Island of Anti-
costi, and thence to the Mingan Islands on the north shore, and
until very lately the Gazetteers and many maps have assigned to
it the same relative position. The British Commissioner under
the Reciprocity Treaty presented a claim to the same line which,
if it had been yielded to, would have excluded the fishermen of
the United States from a part of the sea more extensive than the
Bays of Chaleur, Fundy, Delaware, and Chesapeake put together.
To meet this claim, the river from Quebec to the Gulf was exam-
ined, and an argument prepared, based upon the discharge of the
inland current of fresh water; the parallelism or divergence of
the banks; the freshets and their effects, the tides and currents ;
and the depth, specific gravity, and coldness of the water between
the mouth of the Saguenay and the Island of Anticosti, which
showed that the river and its mouth terminated perhaps at Red
Island Bank, and certainly at Pr. de Monts. The area embraced
within the two lines claimed respectively by the United States
and Great Britain contained over 10,000 square miles of sea,
valuable for its fisheries.

The British Commissioner finally yielded, and the outer limit
of the mouth of the St. Lawrence was established by a line drawn
from Pr. de Monts to Cape Chatte. The waters between that
line and the Island of Anticosti constitute the northwest arm of
the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

19TH MEETING. JANUARY 27, 1872.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. J. J. WoopwARD made some remarks

ON THE-DESIRABILITY OF REPRODUCING PHOTOGRAPHS OF SCIEN-
TIFIC OBJECTS, AND ESPECIALLY OF MAGNIFIED MICROSCOPICAL
PREPARATIONS, IN A PERMANENT FORM BY SOME PHOTO-MECHAN-
ICAL METHOD.

49, BULLETIN OF THE

(ABSTRACT.)

Like M. Alexander Agassiz,* he had recently tried both the
Woodbury process, practised by Mr. John Carbutt, No. 1002
Arch Street, Philadelphia, and the Albertype method, used by
Mr. E. Bierstadt, No. 902 Broadway, New York. ‘The first had
reproduced a negative representing an ovule 7m sifu in a mamma-
lian ovary magnified 400 diameters, and had furnished an edition
of five hundred copies of excellent quality and great uniformity.
These prints were cheaper and» handsomer, as well as more per-
manent, than silver prints, but like them required careful mount-
ing on good stiff card-board. Mr. Bierstadt had furnished proofs
by his method from a negative representing a section of mammary
cancer, also magnified 400 diameters. These proofs were quite
equal to the Woodbury prints, and had the advantage of being
on flexible paper suitable for binding. If the edition should turn
out to be equal to the proofs, this method would certainly be the
more desirable one, and would be a valuable aid to those who
wish to obtain trustworthy representations of scientific objects.
Dr. Woodward then exhibited the iliustrations above referred to.

Mr. Henry presented a report from Mr. E. J. Farquhar

ON CERTAIN REMARKABLE EFFECTS OF LIGHTNING,

Mr. B. F. Crara made some remarks
ON THERMOMETERS ;

exhibiting a number of instruments of different kinds,

20TH MEETING. FEBRUARY 5, 1872.
The President in the Chair.
Mr. J. 8. Bruuines read a. paper
ON SOME MINUTE FUNGI,
illustrated by numerous drawings and specimens.

* Application of Photography to-illustrations of Natural History, by
Alexander Agassiz.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 43

(ABSTRACT.)

After a brief description of the system of classification of the
microscopic fungi at present in use, attention was called to the
fact that this system is in many respects imperfect, and can only .
be improved by learning the life history of these crganisms.
Various forms of culture apparatus and growing slides were ex-
hibited, including those of Hallier, De Bury, Maddox, and the
speaker.

he nature and mode of propagation of bacteria were explained,
and the results of a series of experiments on spontaneous gencra-
tion, being a repetition of those described by Dr. H. C. Bastian,
were exhibited. These results did not correspond with those
given by Dr. Bastian. Solutions of turnip placed in tubes sealed
while boiling were allowed to cool, and were then reheated—by
sets of three—to 100, 120°, 140°, 160°, 180°, 200°, 210°, 220°,
and 240° F. respectively. No signs of change or life appeared.
in the tubes heated to 180° and upwards. The fluid in a part of
the tubes not heated to 180° became turbid from bacteria. The
results of attempts to cultivate bacteria in various forms of growing
slides and on different.substrata were shown. In no case could
development into Hypho- or Physo-mycetous forms be considered
as proven. It is probable that the microzymes include things of
very diverse origin, properties and powers which cannot be dis-
tinguished from each other by any power of the microscope at
our conimand.

Mr. B. F. Craic submitted two thermometers of new pattern,
and explained

A METHOD OF VERIFYING WITH EXACTNESS THE INDICATIONS OF A
THERMOMETER. ;

Mr. W. B. Taynor stated certain views entertained by himself
on the subject of the Aurora Borealis, promising a more elaborate
communication at an early date.

91st MEETING. Frpruary 24, 1872.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. W. B. Taytor presented a communication

ON THE AUROBA.

44 BULLETIN OF THE

(ABSTRACT.)

The two generally recognized circumstances of an annual pe-
riodicity in the number and brillianey of auroral displays, and of
the great elevation—of several hundred miles—frequently attained
by their arches and streamers, an elevation to which our atmo
sphere can hardly be supposed to extend, having led to a question
whether extra-terrestrial matter in the form of cosmical dust or
gaseous rings (similar to the August and November rings of me-
teors) might not be concerned in the phenomenon, by being peri-
odically grazed by our planet or its atmosphere—causing the
discharge of electrical brushes—the recent elaborate Memoir of
Prof. Lovering on Auroras was consulted with much interest, to
see what light, if any, might be thrown upon the speculation by
his carefully tabulated results.

As the summing up of a large number of local observations,
two independent.tables, classified by months, are given; the first
table being derived from catalogues reaching back some 575 years
from 1864, and embracing an aggregate of 9885 observations ;
and the second or supplementary table covering about 50 years,
reaching down to 1868, and embracing an aggregate of 2497
observations (amounting together to 12,382 observations) : both
show when presented graphically the same characteristics, namely,
two very notable maxima of frequency, in March and October,
and one very remarkable minimum in June—the second minimum
in December being much less marked. By plotting a third curve
giving the summation of the two curves, this is still more clearly
presented: the total maxima of March and October being re-
spectively 1436 and 1341; and the two minima of June and
December being respectively 455 and 1090.

- Mairan in 1754, from a tabulated catalogue of 1441 auroras,
estimated the number occurring at our perihelion (in the early
part of January), as being about seven times that at our aphelion
(in the early part of July). Prof. Lovering, however, from his

much larger collection, has pointed out that the two minima agree

very nearly with our solstices, and the two maxima with our equi-
noxes. The great minimum of June occurs when our nights are

shortest ; but after making due allowance for this, there is still a

very marked deficiency observable.

Plotting in a corresponding manner the monthly frequency of
meteoric displays, in three separate curves, representing, first, an
aggregate of 1358 observations collected by Biot from the Chinese
annals (reaching back considerably beyond the Christian era) ;
secondly a table of Arago, comprising an aggregate of 813 ob-
servations of noted fire-balls; and thirdly, a table of Baumhaur,
of aerolites and fire-balls observed previous to 1845, amounting
to an aggregate of 767, we see that while there is a rough cor-
respondency in these three curves, they show apparently no rela-
tion whatever to the curves of aurora frequency.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 49

The inference deducible, therefore, from this brief and hasty .
survey is that no indication is afforded by Prof. Lovering’s results,
of an extra-terrestrial matter playing any part in the auroral dis-
charge; and that we must regard the phenomenon as a terrestrial
one, notwithstanding the reach of 400 and 500 miles, which has
been ascribed to the luminous beams.

Following this communication, remarks were made as follows :—

Mr. HE. B. Evuiorr thought that the frequency of auroras had
a simple relation to the change in the length of the earth’s radius
vector. Auroras occur most frequently when the earth is most
rapidly approaching to or receding from the sun—that is, at times
when the radius vector is most rapidly changing its length. To
illustrate this view Mr. Elliott presented a table comparing by
months the frequency of auroras, with the monthly differences in
the logarithms of the earth’s radius vector. The monthly periods
of maximum frequency of auroras being in March and October,
while the periods of the most rapid increment and decrement of
the logarithm of the radius vector were likewise respectively in
the months of March and October.

The data employed by Mr. Elliott to show the frequency of
auroras embraced from ten to twelve thousand observations, as
given in the general catalogue of auroras published hy Professor
Lovering.

Mr. C. ABBE stated that he had lately carefully studied the valu-
able tables of Prof. Lovering, and had, moreover, during the past
year, systematically collated all the observations of auroras ac-
cessible to him, with the tri-daily weather charts of the Army
Signal Office, and had arrived at a firm conviction that the aurora
stood in an intimate relation to the condition of the earth’s atmo-
sphere; that, in fact, although its ultimate cause might be ever
acting— might be cosmical, and might therefore be subject to
periods of one, eleven, and fifty-five years—yet on the other hand
that cause could not produce its visible effect, the aurora, except
in certain conditions of the earth’s atmosphere, and that therefore
certain remarkable relations existed between auroral phenomena
and terrestrial storms, &c., some of the details of which he then
briefly indicated.

46 BULLETIN OF THE

Mr. 8S. Newcoms thought the difficulties of parallactic determi-
nations rendered the estimate of the elevation of auroral streamers
quite unreliable, and that the height had been greatly exaggerated,
the British observations not indicating much over 100 miles. In
regard to the tabulated monthly frequency, as auroras were mainly
-seen between 8 and 10 o’clock, the fact that these hours fell in
twilight during the months of June and July in the northern
countries might of itself account for the small number of auroras
seen in those months.

Mr. J. HE. Hiuaarp perfectly agreed with Mr. Newcomb. On
one or two occasions Prof. Henry, with others, had attempted to
obtain the parallax of notable and characteristic auroras, but while
a distance could, of course, be assigned from the angles given by
any two observers, so soon as a third observation was combined
there was no accord, and no parallax possible. In addition to
the uncertainty of the monthly numbers from the changed lengths
of the evenings, it appeared that no allowance had been made for
the average cloudiness of nights, which would also be found to
have an annual law, and the omission of which would introduce
another element of uncertainty and source of error in comparing
monthly numbers. :

Mr. J. Henry said that the phenomena of the aurora were evi-
dently electrical, and as such there were two facts to consider:
first, the electrical discharge; and second, the matter illuminated
by the discharge. He had, during a visit to Lake Superior a few
years ago, repeated an experiment in which a beam of the auroral
light, concentrated by a small concave mirror, fell on a paper on
which were letters written with sulphate of quinine, and which
became visible as in the experiments with the same invisible
writing when illuminated by a discharge of electricity.

He had also made an observation on the effect produced by the
aurora on the needle of a galvanometer, one end of the wire of
which was connected with the water pipes, and the other with |
the gas pipes of the city. In the exhibition of the aurora, on
one occasion the needle was deflected 90°, and was only stopped
by two pins placed at this degree to prevent further motion.

A similar effect was always observed when a flash of lightning
took place within the visible horizon of Washington.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 47

From these results it would appear that the aurora acts induct-
ively in the same way as a discharge of electricity acts.

Mr. Theo GitL made a communication

ON A TUNNY NEW TO THE AMERICAN COAST.

22D MEETING. Marcu 9, 1872.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. J. J. Woopwarb made a communication

ON THE USE OF MONOCHROMATIC SUNLIGHT AS AN AID TO HIGH
POWER DEFINITION.

(This paper is published in full in the American Naturalist, 1872, August,
vol. vi. p. 394.)

(ABSTRACT.)

In this paper Mr. Woodward recounted the various attempts
hitherto made to employ monochromatic sunlight for the illumi-
nation of the higher powers of the microscope, and claimed that
sunlight passed through a solution of the ammonio-sulphate of
copper, as first recommended by Prof. J. W. Draper for photo-
graphie purposes, affords especial advantages for the definition
of difficult lined tests, such as Amphiplema pellucida, and the
Noberts plate. Several convenient methods of applying this
mode of illumination to microscopical objects were given in detail.

Mr. J. E. HitjGarp made some remarks

ON THE AURORA OF FEBRUARY 4TH.

He said that since the last meeting of the Society accounts
had been received of the aurora borealis of February 4th having
been observed not only throughout Europe, but also in Hgypt
and India. He had previously mentioned the account he had
received of its appearance in Texas, and had now to add that “it
had likewise been seen in California. It appeared thus to have
extended successively over at least two-thirds of the northern
hemisphere. It would be of great interest now to collect infor-
mation from vessels at sea between Hurope and America, in order
to learn whether the phenomenon had been continuous.

48 BULLETIN OF THE

The magnetic variation was observed by Prof. Quimby at
Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, throughout the day and
evening. The greatest disturbances, reaching 5° of declination,
were observed between 12 and 1 o’clock in the afternoon, when
the auroral display was at its height in England, while the dis- —
turbances were far less marked in the evening, when the phenom- ~
enon occupied the entire southern sky at the place of observation,

Mr. Henry explained that greater deflections might be ex-
pected from electric currents on one side of the magnet, than
when taking place on both sides, when the fluctuations would only
be produced by differences.

Mr. Hitearp also read an account of auroral phenomena vis-
ible between the observer and the horizon in the background,
reported by an observer of the Army Signal Corps in Indiana-
polis, confirmatory of similar observaticns reported by Simpson,
Lesley, and others.

Mr. Poweut took the present occasion to report an appear-
ance of the same character, witnessed by himself.

Mr. J. W. Powe. then made some

REMARKS ON THE STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY OF THE VALLEY OF THE
COLORADO OF THE WEST.

The lower portion of the Vailey of the Colorado lies but little
above the level of the sea, except where short mountain ranges
rise out of the plain. Proceeding up the Valley of the Colorado
past the Virgin to a distance of fifty or sixty miles, we find that.
the country to the north is elevated from fifteen hundred to two
thousand five hundred feet above the lower plain. The boundary
separating the plain below from the country above, is marked by
a line of cliffs stretching across the Valley from east to west, in
many places vertical for hundreds of feet, and in passing from the
plain below to the country above, these so obstruct the way that
it becomes necessary to search for some pass by which the ascent
can be made, and such passes are infrequent.

His remarks were restricted to that portion of the valley lying
between this line of cliffs and the line of the Union Pacific Rail-
road.

This region lies from five to eight thousand feet above the level

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 49

of the sea. On the east, the rim of the basin of the Colorado
is set with snow-clad mountains, rising from eight to nearly fifteen
thousand feet above the level of the sea; and on the west, by
mountains and plateaus rising from eight to twelve thousand feet.
The grand anticlinal folds cross this portion of the valley from
east to west. The most northern of these is marked by the east-
ern Uintah Mountains. This range, well defined on the west,
extends to the east across Green River until it becomes involved
with the profound transverse poles of the Rocky Mountains.

he up-turned axis of the second pole crosses the Valley of the
Colorado about twenty miles south of the junction of the Grand
and Green, and is lost in the Wasatch plateau in the west. Its
eastern extension has been examined to a distance of about thirty
miles from the river. The up-turned axis of the third fold crosses
the valley along a line a little south of the Colorado-Chiquito.
If the first fold had been lifted up without denudation part passu,
its summit would be about 27,000 feet above what is now the bed
of the river, or about 32,500 feet above the level of the sea.
Under the same supposed conditions, the summit of the second
fold would be about 22,000 feet above the level of the sea; and
the third fold about 32,500 feet.

This region is also traversed by folds, the axes of which are in
lines running in a north and south direction. These folds have
displaced the strata from 50 to 1500 feet; are variable in length,
the shortest observed being about 12 miles, the longest about 110,
and are scattered irregularly over the country.

Mr. Powell then discovered and: discussed the system of
drainage that would have obtained had these folds been lifted up
simultaneously and without denudation, until the displacement
of the formations was completed.

He then explained the system of drainage actually found. This
led to a classification of the valleys or lines of drainage.

Valleys have been observed to occur running in a direction
along the synclinal axis of folds; others along the anticlinal axes.
Other valleys were observed running in a direction with the folds,
but located between the up-turned and down-turned axes. 'The
slope on the side next to the anticlinal axis conforming in a gen-
eral way with the dip of the formations. The slope on the side
next to the synclinal axis was usually found more abrupt, and

4

50 BULLETIN OF THE

marked by a line of cliffs in which are exposed nearly vertical
sections of formations denuded from the other side of the valley.

Most of the larger valleys of this region are of this character.
These are called paraclinal valleys. This gives three classes of
valleys having a general direction the same as that of the folds,
all called longitudinal valleys. Still other valleys were found
cutting across folds. These were called diaclinal. Others were
found running in a direction against the dip of the rocks and
entering into anticlinal or paraclinal valleys. These were called
contraclinal.

Valleys were also found running with the dip of the formations,
and called conclinal. So three classes of valleys were found
having a general direction transverse to the axes of the folds,
and all called transverse valleys. And the three classes of lon-
gitudinal valleys, with the three classes of transverse ‘valleys,
were designated as simple valleys. Other valleys were found
which in parts of their courses might be referred to one of these
classes, and in other parts to some other class. These were called
complex valleys. And again, vallevs were found having their
main course simple or complex, and having lateral valleys be-
longing to other classes. These were called compound valleys.

The Valley of the Colorado itself is formed by the coalescing
of two or more distinct systems of drainage. And this was
called a Grand Valley. A tabular statement of the proposed
classification was made, as follows :—

I Order: Valleys conforming to geological folds.
II Order: Valleys in formations not folded.
III Order: Valleys superimposed upon folded formations.
The first order was divided into three sections :—
First Section: Simple Valleys.
Second Section: Complex Valleys.
Third Section: Compound Valleys.

The first section, 7. e. Simple Valleys, was separated into two

divisions :—
Division First: Longitudinal Valleys.
Division Second: Transverse Valleys.
Of the Longitudinal Valleys there are three classes :—
First: Synclinal.
Second: Anticlinal.
Third: Paraclinal.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 51

Of the Transverse Valleys there are three classes :—
First: Diaclinal.
Second: Contraclinal.
Third: Conclinal.

Grand Valleys are formed by the coalescing of distinct systems
of drainage, and their several parts may belong to two or more
of the different orders of valleys.

The Valleys of the Colorado, Mississippi, and St. Lawrence
are examples. ;

In considering this system of drainage in the Valley of the
Colorado, and the conditions under which it was formed, the fol-
lowing inferences are made :—

First: That the elevation of the folds above the sea proceeded
but little faster than their denudation by rains and rivers. And
that it ig not probable that the summits of the mountains were
ever much higher than at present.

Second: That these folds were not elevated simultaneously,
but progressively, against some fixed point of dry fand. It is
probable that this fixed point of dry land for the east and west
folds was to the south, and that for the north and south folds
was to the east.

Third: The axis of an emerging fold may fall on the land or
the sea side of the shore line, and thus determine the direction
of valleys.

Fourth: The direction of valleys is sometimes determined by
the lithological character of the formations.

A brief reference was made to the influences modifying the
contour of the valleys, to the general amount of erosion, and to the
distribution of the debris of such erosion, which is not carried
away to the sea.

2923p MEETING. Marco 23, 1872.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. J. H. SAVILLE presented a paper

ON THE NEW JAPANESE COINAGE.

59 BULLETIN OF THE

Mr. S. F. Barrp presented a communication
ON THE DECREASE OF FISH ON THE SOUTHERN COAST OF NEW ENGLAND.

(This paper ts published in Report of the U. S. Fish Commissioner for
1871-72.)

Following the paper of Mr. Baird, Mr. Gitu made some re-
marks on the relations of the fishes of Massachusetts to those of
other regions, affirming that the fauna of the State was composed
of two elements, a northern and southern, the boundaries of
which were, on the whole, tolerably well defined by Cape Cod.
The forms found north of the Cape were in great part represented
by corresponding or identical species in northern Europe, while
those inhabiting the southern waters were mostly nearly allied to
forms characteristic of the Caribbean Sea, or merely wanderers
from that region. In respect to the influence of the blue fish on
the supply of scup, he was inclined to believe that while the
pounds are in operation, the diminution of the scup would be
accelerated in constantly increasing ratio up to a certain point,
the disturbance of the equilibrium being due to the difference of
habits of the two species. The scup is rather a shore fish, while
the blue fish is an open water species and exempt in greater pro-
portion from capture in pounds; therefore, the ratio of prey to
the enemy would be constantly diminished by the capture of a
disproportionate number of the former.

247TH MEETING. Aprin 6, 1872.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. C. E. Duron read a paper

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE PRESSURE DEVELOPED BY THE EXPLO-
SION OF GUNPOWDER IN FIREARMS.

Mr. S. NEwcoms made a communication

ON THE POSSIBILITY OF A UNIVERSAL ATMOSPHERE.

Mr. B. F. Crata exhibited a recently invented apparatus for
the generation of ozone from the flame of the Bunsen burner.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 53.

25TH MEETING. APRIL 20, 1872.
The President in the Chair.
Mr. J. E. Hitgarp made some remarks
ON HINDOO ARITHMETIC.

The same gentleman also presented as a second communication,
one
ON THE RECORDING SYSTEMS OF THE TRANSATLANTIC CABLES.

Mr. JosepH Henry made a verbal report

ON THE EXPENDITURE OF THE INCOME OF THE BACHE FUND FoR 1872.

Prof. J. GC. Watson, of Ann Arbor, Mich., made some remarks

ON THE DISCOVERY OF NEW PLANETS HAVING ESPECIAL REFERENCE
TO THE ASTEROIDS.

Major Kina, of New York City, made a communication

ON THE FATIGUE OF METALS.

96TH MEETING. May 4, 1872.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. Wo. Ferret read a paper

ON THE EFFECTS OF WINDS AND BAROMETRIC PRESSURE ON THE TIDES
AT BOSTON, AND ON THE MEAN LEVEL OF THE SEA.

(This paper is published in substance in the American Journal of Science, 3d
series, Vol. V., pp. 342-347, May, 1873.)

(ABSTRACT.)

This paper related to some recent results which the author had
obtained from the discussion for the Coast Survey of the tidal
observations of Boston harbor. These results pertain mostly to
the effects of changes of the barometric pressure, and of the
winds upon the mean level of the sea. The author found that
the variation of mean level was inversely to that of the height
of the mercurial column as seven inches of mean level to one inch

54 if BULLETIN OF THE

of mercury very nearly. He said that theory, upon the hypo-
thesis that the fluid would always have time to assume the state
of a static equilibrium of the forces, would require that there
should be a change of about 13.5 inches of mean level to one of
mercury, and that a change of about ten inches of mean level to
one inch of mercury had been obtained from the Liverpool tidal
observations. He thought the small coefficient in the case of the
Boston tides might be due to the shallowness of the water in the
harbor and channel leading to the tide gauge, since the shallower
the water, the greater must be the velocity of displacement in
assuming the state of static equilibrium belonging to a given
change of mean level in any given time, and consequently in this
case the periods of the oscillations of mean level may be too
short for the fluid to assume at any time the state of static equi-
librium even approximately.

With regard to the effect of the winds upon the mean level of
the ocean in the harbor, he found that the winds from N. W.
around by 8S. W. to 8. E. depressed the mean level, the maximum
depression belonging to S. W. winds where the depression is but
little more than two inches for a wind of average force. On the
contrary, the winds from the N. W. around by the N. E. to the
8. H. raise the mean level about the same-amount, the maximum
belonging to the N. H. winds.

We also find that S. W. winds depress the barometer about one-
twentieth of an inch on the average, and N. H. winds raise it
about the same amount. The monthly averages of the barometer
were least in March and greatest in September, the range being
about 0.2 inch, and the-average very nearly 30.10 inches at the
level of tide water.

Mr. C. E. Durton gave
AN ACCOUNT OF SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS ON DIFFERENT KINDS OF
GUNPOWDER AT FORTRESS MONROE,
Prof. Porter, of Belfast, Ireland, gave an account of

RECENT EXPLORATIONS IN SYRIA UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE PALES-
TINE EXPLORATION FUND.

27TH MEETING. May 18, 1872.
Vice-President W. B. Taytor in the Chair

Mr. G. K. GILBERT? read a communication

ON CERTAIN RECENT GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL RESEARCHES IN
ARIZONA AND NEVADA.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 55

(ABSTRACT.)

I had the pleasure to accompany, as geologist, the party sent
out last year in command of Lieut. Geo. M. Wheeler by the U.S.
Engineer Department to survey and describe certain little known
portions of Arizona and southern Nevada. The chief work was
geographical, and the corps of topographers was so large that
they were enabled to separate in detachments, connecting their
work at stated points. In this manner original geographical data,
adequate to the mapping of the mountain ranges, were obtained
over an area of 83,000 square miles.

While there is great diversity in the character of the country,
a division is possible into two contrasted types—the cordillera
and the plateau, the disturbed and the undisturbed, the ridged
and the furrowed.

The surface of Nevada belongs entirely to the first of these
types. From the Wahsatch range to the Sierra Nevada the face
of the land is corrugated in a system of ridges, few of them long
or lofty, but so frequent that one who should cross the country
in a right line would meet one, on the average, in every twenty
miles. These ridges coincide approximately with meridians and
are as near parallel as are the Wahsatch range and the Sierra
Nevada. They are composed of (1) strata from Silurian to Trias,
more or less altered and uplifted, resting against (2) irruptive
granite and syenite. Over and about them are great accumula-
tions of voleanie rocks, but of these I will only say at present
that they are omnipresent in the field of our exploration. Further
south, in southeastern California and the southwestern half of
Arizona, there is a prolongation of the same system, with a de-
flection of the prevailing trend from N. and S. to N. W. and §. E.,
and a further change from slightly altered to highly metamorphic
Strata. A peculiarity of the cordillera country, due to climate,
is, that little of it finds drainage to the ocean, bat it is partitioned
into numerous independent valleys, each gradually filling with
debris from the mountains.

The plateau region, on the CONE is well drained. Its strata

are unbroken and either horizontal or lifted in gentle unduiations,
Denudation has scored it with deep chasms, and these, with the
tabular character of its uplands, are its distinguishing features.
To this system belong northeastern Arizona and great areas in
New Mexico and Utah. The limit of this district is an impor-
tant geographical and geological line, and its determination for
350 miles in Arizona is one of our most valuable geographical
results.

This section [referring to a diagram] shows the rocks eut by
the Colorado River from the foot of the Grand cafion to the Vir-
gin range. The notable points it illustrates are the profound
displacement of the strata that accompanied the upheaval of that
range, and the evidence afforded of two epochs of folding. The

56 BULLETIN OF THE

strata that in one place are horizontal, and in another are tilted
at so high an angle against the mountain, are Palaeozoic—Car-
boniferous at top and in chief part, but comprising some Devonian
and, possibly, some Silurian beds also. They rest unconformably
on a system of plicated erystalline schists that received their
contortion in pre-Devonian and probably pre-Silurian time, while
the disturbance which uplifted the Virgin range occurred in
Secondary time and produced the entire cordillera system of the
Great Basin. Prof. Whitney and Mr. King have been able to
refer the latter definitely to the Jurassic epoch, and they have
also discriminated a third (Tertiary) system of folds of which
the principal manifestations are without our field.

The subject of the distribution of sedimentary rocks in the
“‘Great West” is quite in its infancy. In most of the ranges are
folded more than one group of rocks, and whenever a complete
geological map of the Cordilleras shall have been made, it will
show as complicated a labyrinth as that which represents the
arrangement of strata in the Appalachians. It is only by rudely
tentative lines that the few general features already recognized
can be represented. To begin with the lowest: there is a broad
area in southwestern Arizona and adjacent parts of California in
which the ranges are built of highly metamorphic rocks—chiefly
crystalline schists—and granite. In these schists no fossils have
been found, and I shall apply to them provisionally the title
Azoic— without, of course, intending thereby to declare them
destitute of life. They may prove equivalent to the Laurentian
and Huronian of Canada, and they may belong, in part at least,
to the Silurian. At present it appears most probable that they
are pre-Silurian, and have never been covered by other sediments,
but rose above the Silurian ocean (as Newberry has already sug-
gested), a continent coeval with that of the Laurentian hills.
Northward from this Azoic area stretches a band of Silurian and
Devonian, broad in southern Nevada and narrow in northern,
marking an early axis of continental upheaval. Hast and west
it is flanked by Carboniferous, and then Trias, in belts trending
north and south—not regularly, indeed, but rudely symmetrical
about the axis of elevation in central Nevada, and these in turn
are succeeded both east and west by Cretaceous and later beds.

[ Mr. Gilbert illustrated the distribution of the rocks by a chart,
and exhibited advance sheets of the map engraved to accompany
the preliminary report of the expedition, then in press. |

Dr Van Sant, of San Francisco, explained the theory of his
new method of lighting gas jets by electricity, and exhibited the
apparatus invented by himself for that purpose.

Mr. W. Harkness read a letter from Capt. Tupman, of the
British Navy, communicating the results of observations made in
India on the recent solar eclipse.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 57

28TH MEETING. JUNE 1, 1872.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. G. K. GILBERT read a paper

ON SAND SCULPTURE IN THE WEST.

(ABSTRACT.)

The author exhibited a number of specimens illustrative of the
work done by sand propelled by wind, and of the similar work
of sand propelled by water, accompanied by a few explanatory
remarks, in the course of which he called attention to the fact
that in river erosion the chief erosive agent is moving sand, and
the function of the water is the propulsion of the cutting par-
ticles and the transportation of the eroded material, and to the
fact that in arid regions, where aqueous denudation is at a min-
imum, its place is taken by the denudation of wind-borne sand,
for which arid conditions are most favorable.

Mr. J. H. CO. Corrin and Mr. J. J. Woopwarp read portions
of letters recently received from Dr. B. A. Gould, Director of the
National Observatory at Cordoba, Argentine Republic, giving
an account of the progress of that institution.

Mr. J. J. Woopwarp made a verbal communication on the
Woodbury photo-relief process, exhibiting Woodbury-prints of
photographs reproduced by Mr. J. Carbutt at the establishment
of the American Photo-relief Printing Company for the Medical
History of the War. In his opinion the minute details of the
negatives were more faithfully preserved by this method than by
the Albertype process, and it was therefore preferable when natu-
ral objects of delicate texture were to be represented. It was
also well suited for reproducing photo-micrographs, as shown by
several proofs, which he also exhibited.

Mr. E. Frissy read a paper

ON A SERIES FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE NUMBER EXPRESSING
THE RATIO OF THE CIRCUMFERENCE TO THE DIAMETER.

(This paper is published in part in the Messenger of Mathematics, December,
1872.)

58 BULLETIN OF THE

This calculation has generally been made by means of the
series—
5 7
fat ee SL aN Sa
3 4) T

If we put tan ~*47 — * or ~, we have x= 1 or A ; the former is
4 6 v3

inconvenient because it converges too slowly, and the latter on
account of the radical expression.

Many other series may be deduced by resolving the are into
the sum of two or more arcs whose tangents are known; thus—

nm 1 1
=== tan 7] = tan 7 '= tans = a
4 2 a 3 (4)
aa tan-*) — tan" (b)
il 1
= 2 tan—1— -+ tan~ *_ c
Ah 7 (¢)
a tan—?) b tan "2 tan 3 (d)
at fansite ee (e)
5 239
=—4 tan~* — tan" + tan ~'S (f) &e. &c.

Any of the numbers become exceeding complicated when
raised to high powers; but these equations have all been used.
Clausen used (c) for computing ~, and Dase used (d) to 200
decimals. Machin used (e) and Rutherford (f/). Shanks has
also lately used Machin’s series for computing # to 707 decimals.

We have also—

me Le
Sin-124—-2 ue ee@ eg
Ur Soraya Oe

sin °4

Waal
93 --— sin °x7 + &e. (g)

OG

or, “sing +
Formula (c) gives
n = 2tan~’ i + tan—? a 2 sin-1__t_ + sin? pial (h)
3 7 Vv 10 Vv 50
On aceount of the numbers 10 and 50 in the denominators, this

form is more simple than any of the previous ones, but inconve-
nient on account of the radical and the complicated coefficients.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 59

But Gauss, in his “Disquisitiones generales circa seriem infini-
tam,” &c., has given another series, which can be used very con-
veniently.

In order to demonstrate this series we shall put 2 for a in
equation (g), and it then becomes

A Ten) UWB
2ae—sin22 + 55 ine ain ae &e.

—= sin 47 vide sin?20 4 5", sin‘ 22+ &e. }

where the nth term within the bracket is of the form
Ge Simy en Die CaO) (Sima a) (=o eae,
and therefore only involves even powers of sin 2, and the series
can consequently be put into the form
2 e2—sinQe{l+asin?x+ bdsint‘x+esin®x+ &c.}
a, b, c, &e. being at present unknown.
In order to determine them we shall differentiate this series, and
we have
9—2cos2xa{1l+tasin?x+bsin‘x+csin°x+ &e.}
+tsinQe{2asina+4bsin’x+6csin’x-+ &e.}cosx
—2(1—2sin?x) (1+ asin?x-+ bsin‘x+csin®x + &.)
+92(1—sin?x)(2asin’x+4bsintx+6csin’x + &.)
whence equating coefficients we have

2020, whence a=
He 2.4
5b—4a=—0 (= oF
a 24.6
Tc—6b=0 OS SR Ti &e. &e.
therefore
2easinde(1 +5 sin te po = sin op oo ain® n+ &e.)

2 2.4 2.4.6
or n—sinx cos (1+ sin? zpos in ae a ae 2+ &e.)
which is a very convenient series.

If Sine ig? cosa —= 775 and sin £COSX&—=7Fo 5

1 7 14,
If sin © = 7 50" COS Te HG sin & COS =7 995

60 BULLETIN OF THE

1 1
but ~ = 8 sin VG =| 4 sin —t [= VisG from equation (A), which,

when substituted in i last equation, gives

vane doef) HSC) #Eitl) +4}

9

+56 143(iq0) +F5lian) tilt) +}
=—2.42+ 56y —2.4 (z+ hy).

If we now examine the terms, we see that the coefficient of the
n* term is deduced from that of the (n-1) term by multiplying
it by ——_ iam = 1— : therefore if we subtract the ( ee

Niel In—1? 2n=1
part of itself from each term and remove the result one figure to
the right, we obtain the next term of the first series, &c.

For the second series we start our computation with the same
number and multiply each succeeding term in the first series by
the consecutive powers of (2), and lastly multiply the result by
3 and add it to the first series.

The computation in this manner gives every term positive, and
by computing the result to thirty places of decimals and taking
every time the nearest unit in the last place, it gives the thirtieth
figure accurate,

PHILOSOPHICAL: SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 61

The computation to 30 places of decimals stands thus :—
Ratio oF CIRCUMFERENCE T0 DIAMETER = 7 TO 30 DECIMALS.

FIRST SERIES. SECOND SERIES.

"2.40

OTA
16 | 0320
.0128 .000512
.001097142857142857142857142857 8777142857142857142857143
975238095 238095 23809523810 156038095 238095238095 238
8865800865800865800865801 283705627 7056277056277
818381618381618381618382 | 523764235 76423576424
76382284382284382284382 977693240093240092
7188920883038530097354 18403637460578637
681055662603650219749 348700429253070
64862444057490497119 6641914271487
6204233779412134507 127062707802
595606442823564913 2439603990
57354694494121066 46984966
5537694640811689 907296
535905932981776 17560
51966635925506 341
5048187489906 7
ATG LOS EYDNG) a ee ee
47858076827
4669080666
456049739
44591530 |
4364277
427521 |
41914 |
4112 |
404 |
40 |

4
2.574004435173137547211236914869
2.432520936071381533934599150330
7

30)17.027646552499270737542194052310

-567588218416655691251406468410
First series = 2.574004435173137547211236914869

mw = 3.141592653589793238462643383279

The series (0)

LL ote
4

Yd tea Det Sihn) mad
Bia 7 V5 Vv 50
could also be used, and the second series is exactly the same as
the first, with the consecutive ficures removed one figure further

to the right, but it does not converge so rapidly as the preceding.

—

62 BULLETIN OF THE

297TH MEETING. JUNE 15, 1872.
The President in the Chair.
Mr. A. Hatt read a paper

ON THE EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF THE RATIO OF THE CIR-
CUMFERENCE TO THE DIAMETER, BASED ON THE PRINCIPLES OF THE
CALCULUS OF PROBABILITIES,

Mr. Taro. GILL communicated a memoir by Mr. F. B. MEEK

ON THE DISCOVERY OF NEW SPECIES OF FOSSIL PLANTS FROM ALLE-
GHENY CO., VA., WITH SOME REMARKS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THAT
STATE,

Mr. A. Hauu read a paper entitled
A HISTORICAL NOTE ON THE METHOD OF LEAST SQUARES.
(This communication is referred to in Nature (London), 1872, vol. vi.
pp- 101 and 241.)
Mr. O. Stone read a memoir

ON THE DETERMINATION OF THE ERRORS OF A PROVISORY CATALOGUE
OF FUNDAMENTAL STARS.

380TH MEETING. JUNE 29, 1872.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. S. Newcoms made a verbal communication

ON THE PROGRESS OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE NEW TELESCOPE
FOR THE NAVAL OBSERVATORY.

(The substance of these remarks is published in Scribner’s Monthly Magazine,
October, 1873.)

Mr. W. B. Taytor made some verbal comments on a recent
publication

ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE PLANET JUPITER.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 63

31st MrretTIna * OcToBER 5, 1872.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. E. B. Evuiorr read a letter from Dr. Curtis, giving an
account of Prof. Hayden’s progress in the survey of the Western
Territories.

Mr. S. Newcoms made a second communication

ON THE PROGRESS OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE NEW TELESCOPE
FOR THE NAVAL OBSERVATORY.

(The substance of these remarks is published in Scribner's Monthly Magazine,
October, 1873.)

General W. T. SHERMAN, by invitation of the Chair, gave an
account of his recent visit to Egypt.

32D MEETING. OcToBER 19, 1872.
The President in the Chair.
Mr. Josepa Henry made a communication

ON THE FLUCTUATIONS OF THE RIVER NILE.

Mr. J. H. C. Corrin exhibited, with some comments,

MAPS PREPARED BY G. W. HILL FOR USE IN CONNECTION WITH THE
‘TRANSIT OF VENUS IN DECEMBER, 1874.

(These maps are published with text as Part II. of Papers relating to the
Transit of Venus.)
Mr. CaArusEs S. PEIRCE made a communication
ON STELLAR PHOTOMETRY,
(This paper will be published in the Annals of the Harvard College Observa-
tory.)

Mr. HE. B. Enxiorr communicated some details of an investi-

gation made by him

ON THE ADJUSTMENT OF CENSUS RETURNS.

64 BULLETIN OF THE

a

33D MEETING. NOVEMBER 2, 1872.

The President in the Chair.

This being the annual business meeting, the Secretary read the
order of proceedings as determined on by the General Committee,
and also read the names of those entitled to vote in the election
of officers. As the result of the election, Mr. JosspH HeEnry
was declared unanimously re-elected as President. For Vice-
Presidents there were elected Messrs. J. E. Hitaarp, W. B.
Taytor, M. C. Meras, and J. K. Barnes. As Treasurer, Mr.
Peter PARKER was unanimously re-elected. Mr. B. F. Crata
having declined a renomination for the Secretaryship, there were
elected as Secretaries Mr. T, Git and Mr. 8. Newcoms. As
members at large of the General Committee, there were elected —

N. S. Lincotn, S. F. Barron,

E. B. Evwiort, J. H. C. Corrin,
AY HALL, J. J. WOODWARD,
B. F. Crate, A. A. HUMPHREYS,

T. L. Casey.

On the close of the election the President, in a few remarks,
reviewed the condition and activity of the Society during the
past year.

34TH MEETING, NovEMBER 16, 1872.
The President in the Chair.
Mr. Turopore Gitt read a paper
ON THE HOMOLOGIES OF THE SHOULDER GIRDLE OF FISHES.

(The substance of this communication was published in the author’s “ Ar=-
rangement of the Families of Fishes,” pp. xtii.—xix., 1872, and, under
the title, “On the Homologies of the Shoulder Girdle of the Dipnoans
and other Fishes,’ in the “Annals and Magazine of Natural History’”
(London), 4th series, v. 11, pp. 173-178, March, 1873.)

Mr. W. Harkness read a paper

ON SOME MEASUREMENTS OF HEIGHTS BY A POCKET ANEROID.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 65

Mr. J. H. Hinearp explained the construction of the new ane-
roid constructed by Goldschmidt, illustrating his remarks by ex-
hibiting one of the instruments in question.

Dr. B. F. Crara read a communication

ON THE WATER SUPPLY OF CITIES.

35TH MEETING. NovEMBER 30, 1879.
The President in the Chair.

General W. T. SHERMAN gave an account of his travels in
oO
Turkey and the Caucasus, recounting numerous observations of
b] fon]
general interest made by him in those countries.

386TH MEETING. DECEMBER 11, 1872.
The President in the Chair.

The President stated that the meeting had been called a few
days earlier than usual for the purpose of introducing Professor
John Tyndall, of the Royal Institution, London, but that the
proceedings would be those of an ordinary meeting. The Presi-
dent then read a paper

ON CERTAIN ABNORMAL PHENOMENA OF SOUND IN CONNECTION
WITH FOG SIGNALS.

Prof. TYNDALL made some remarks on this subject, citing cer-
tain cases of abnormal phenomena which had come under his
own notice.

Mr. S. Newcomps gave an account of

THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE COMMISSION TO ARRANGE FOR THE OB-

SERVATION OF THE NEXT TRANSIT OF VENUS.
5

66 BULLETIN OF THE

Mr. W. B. Taytor read a paper

ON WAVES, MOLECULES, AND ATOMS.

(ABSTRACT.)

Of the five elements necessary to complete the physical theory
of light and heat undulations, three are known with a tolerable
degree of certainty and accuracy ; to wit, the velocity of propa-
gation, the length of the wave, and the varying rapidity corre-
sponding thereto. The two remaining elements—the average
amplitude of the wave, and the form, or character of excursion
of a wave particle—are undetermined.

Mr. M. Ponton has recently* attempted to estimate the ampli-
tude of the ethereal wave by a comparison of the velocities of
light and sound, and the relative energies of elasticity involved,
making it of the order of 500 thousand millions to the wave-
length, or 2000 billion to the inch; and making the amplitude
proportional to the wave length. Unfortunately, this estimate
takes no account of the momentum or mass of the vibratory me-
dium, an element which we have no means of determining.

The dynamical theory of heat as applied to gases, teaches us
that their isolated constituent molecules, separated from their
mutual cohesive attractions, are at all temperatures, in a state of
motion and collision, not indeed of actual pomines but of impinge-
ment upon each other’s dynasphere of repulsion ; the energy of
which repulsion is estimated by Maxwell as being inversely as the
fifth power of the distance.

From computations made by Mr. Waterston in 1857, by Mr.
Stoney in 1868, and by Sir William Thomson in 1870, all tole-
rably concordant, we may accept the order of magnitude of the
molecules as being in the neighborhood of the 200 millionth of
an inch. The conjoined calculations of Clausius and Maxwell
have rendered it probable that at ordinary temperature and pres-
sure the average length of free excursion of the molecules of a
gas between collisions, is about 300 thousand to the inch, the
mean velocity at the rate of 1640 feet per second, and the fre-
quency of collisions, consequently, about 6000 million per second.
These motions are, however, exceedingly variable and. irregular,
both in the lengths and in the velocities of the excursions; and
therefore take no part in impressing the ethereal medium, or in
the production of light.

Each molecule is a remarkably constant and complex structure,
consisting of an aggregation of parts which may be provisionally
called ‘‘atoms,” and which are in regular or rhythmical move-
ment among themselves ; and it is in this motion of the material
atoms that ‘the luminiferous waves have ever their origin. We

* Quarterly Journal of Science, July, 1871, i. 349.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 6T

thus learn that for the mean wave-length of light (about the 45
thousandth of an inch), there are about 500 billion of these
atomic oscillations or revolutions in one second; so that, brief as
is the interval of molecular excursion from neighbor to neighbor,
about 83 thousand of these undisturbed internal pulsations occur
in the interval. There is thus a constant exchange and tendency
to equalization of vis-viva between the atomic vibrations, and the
molecular flights producing them; and from the very nature of
the mode of transfer by successive irregular or variable impacts,
we are forced to conceive these atomic motions as variable ellip-
‘tical orbits, the straight line and the circle being the maximum
and ininimum limits of elliptic eccentricity. The radiation of
heat is always of atomic origin, and is transmitted with the ve-
locity of light. The conduction of heat is always of molecular
origin, and is communicated through material contacts or impacts,
and with very great slowness, from the time required to diffuse
motions with such extreme irregularity and prevalent obliquity
of impacts.

Knowing the mean period of the atomie orbits, if the average
velocity communicated to them at collisions equalled the average
velocity of the molecular flights, the average magnitude of the
orbit might easily be computed at about the 25,000 millionth
part of an inch, or the 500 thousandth of a mean wave-length.
But there is reason to believe that the average velocity is much
less than 1640 feet per second, and the mean diameter of the
orbit correspondingly smaller; since of the total or aggregate
vis-viva—external and internal—of the molecules, constituting
the specific heat of a gas, more than half belongs to the trans-
latory motion. That the orbit constituting the width of the wave
must be exceedingly small, is evident from the very wide range
of variation to which it is subject within the molecular magnitude.
The large luminous orbits undoubtedly exceed the smallest by
hundreds of thousands of times, or probably as sixteen miles ex-
ceeds one inch. The amplitude of the waves is as the square
root of the intensity (which may vary a billion times), and in-
versely as the distance of the origin.

The conclusion arrived at respecting the two unknown elements
of the luminiferous wave motion is, that the form is probably an
elliptical orbit (as in the case of liquid waves), and that its diam-
eter—constituting the amplitude of the wave—is for light of ordi-
nary brilliancy, probably of an order approaching the billionth
of an inch.

68 BULLETIN OF THE

877TH MEETING. DEcEMBER 21, 1872.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. Cuartes S. Prircr, of Cambridge, made some remarks

ON THE COINCIDENCE OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF RAIN=
FALL AND OF ILLITERACY, AS SHOWN BY THE STATISTICAL
MAPS OF THE NINTH CENSUS REPORTS,

(ABSTRACT.)

The author called attention to the striking resemblance between
the map showing the distribution of illiteracy (the percentage of
population unable to read or write) in the United States, given
in the Report of the Census of 1870, and the map showing the
distribution of rainfall during the three winter months published
in Mr. Schott’s reductién and discussion of the Smithsonian ob-
servations of that element. Mr. Peirce suggested as a possible
explanation for the resemblance that the copious winter rains
would produce agricultural plenty, which in its turn would favor
indolence.

Mr. T. Git read a paper

ON THE SCOMBROCOTTUS SALMONEUS OF PETERS.

Mr. J. E. Hinearp read a report

ON THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL METROLOGICAL
COMMISSION.

38TH MEETING. JANUARY 4, 1873.
The President in the Chair.

Prof. J. R. HASTMAN read a paper on

A COMPARISON OF THE THERMOMETERS USED TO DETERMINE THE
CORRECTION FOR ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION AT THE U. S.
NAVAL OBSERVATORY.

s (ABSTRACT.)

The discrepancies between the two thermometers used in the
observations with the transit circle and the standard thermometer

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 69

led him to place another thermometer on the west. side of the ob-
serving room and make a series of comparisons with the standard,

Thermometer A was suspended on the outside of the northern
wall of the observing room in a double tin box shaped like the
frustrum of a pyramid with a base 30 inches square.

Thermometer B was placed on the northern wall near the roof,
and just outside the eastern side of the vertical opening in the
northern wall of the observing room.

Thermometer C was attached to a rod depending from the roof
almost directly over the transit circle, and was nearly on the same
level as the object-glass when the instrument was pointed at the
zenith.

The standard thermometer D was in the meteorological observ-
atory, situated southeast of the observing room.

‘Thermometer A was 1.5 feet above the floor of the observing room.
cc

66 B (w4 16.5 66 (a3 (73
(73 OC bc 13.5 bc (a3 (a3 66
Lie: edna ack the ground on the lawn.
From A to B the distance was 11.0 feet.
HC AN i). Kf aD Bey iaass
SES LORG, a COMO E anes
oY MARCONI 0140 “about 37 yards.

Sixteen comparisons were made between May 8 and July 16,
1870, and the most marked differences were as below :—

The maximum difference between A and B was 4°.0, July 15.9
‘s ef i . A and C ‘6 .5)-May 12.0
4 ot “ i AandD “ 7.1, July 15.9
oH es « es BandC “ 4.0, June 22.4
ss “ s i Band D “ 4 .9, July 16.0
i ‘ of ‘ CandD “ 6.6, July 15.9

From the following equations giving the greatest positive and
negative differences the ranges of differences are obtained :—

A—B=-4+ 4°.0 Range 4°.0| B—-D = + 4°.9

—=— 1°.6 Range 6°.5

A—C=+6°.5
=—3°.0 Range 9°.5) C—D—-4 6°.6

= — 2°.1 Range 8°.7

B—C = + 4°.2 Range 8°.2
a HL) |

Representing the mean of the readings of the exterior and
interior thermometers, A and ©, by M, we have the maximum
value of M— D —6°?.9, and the minimum value =1°.1. Also
the maximum value of M—B = 3°.8.

Assuming the temperature indicated by the standard thermom-

70 BULLETIN OF THE

eter to be correct, it will appear that refractions computed for
65° zenith distance by means of temperatures obtained from ther-
mometer A are liable to be in error 1’.7, by thermometer B 1.2
and by thermometer C 1”.6.

At a zenith distance of 82° the error from computing from
thermometer A might be 5”.0, from B 3.4, and from C 4”.6.

Other combinations would show similar differences, though in
one or two cases of less magnitude; all, however, indicating a
marked uncertainty in the determinations of refractions at con-
siderable zenith distances, even in a fixed observatory.

A communication was received from Mr. T. ANTISELL, now at
Yokohama,

ON THE METEOROLOGY OF JAPAN,

39TH MEETING. JANUARY 18, 1873.
The President in the Chair.
Mr. R. D. Currs read a paper

ON THE RESULTS OF ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS AT SHERMAN
STATION, WYOMING TERR.

(ABSTRACT.)

The author gave an account of the origin, organization, and
results of an expedition for scientific purposes made during the
past summer, to Sherman in Wyoming Territory, of which he had
the general charge under the instructions of the Superintendent
of the Coast Survey.

The expedition was authorized by Congress at the suggestion
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
and had for its principal object an astronomical reconnaissance
to determine the advantages to be gained in the observation of
celestial phenomena by an elevation of the instrument above nearly
one-third and the densest portion of the atmosphere. The oppor-
tunity was also taken to determine the exact latitude and longi-
tude of the station, and to make a series of meteorological
observations with a view to obtain some idea of the climatic con-
dition of the elevation, and of the fitness of the locality for an
extended class of astronomical observations. For these purposes
the party consisted of a full corps of observers, provided with

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 71

instruments of the most approved character. The special class
of observations called for were made by Prof. C. A. Young, of
Dartmouth College, with the 12-foot equatorial and spectroscopic
apparatus belonging to that institution.

The astronomical station was on the high ground near Sherman
depot, which is situated on the line of the Union Pacific Railway
where it crosses the summit of the Black Hills, the most eastern
range of the Rocky Mountains. The latitude was 41° 07’ 49.5;
the longitude west from Greenwich, 105° 23’ 11”; and height
above the sea-level, 8335 feet.

Three temporary observatories were erected ; one for the transit
and latitude instrument, chronograph and telegraphic apparatus;
a second for the meteorological instruments and observers; and
the third and largest for the equatorial telescope. The observa-
tions were commenced in June and continued through July and
part of August, the meteorological class having been made hourly,
day and night, for a term of sixty days.

The longitude was determined by telegraphic exchange of
clock-beats, on seven nights, with Assistant A. T. Mosman at
Salt Lake City, Utah Territory, the intermediate distanve being
500 miles. The latitude was determined by 110 observations on
nineteen pairs of stars for differences of zenith distance.

Cistern Barometers.—

The highest mean of 24 hours was on June 21st, 22.488
The lowest mean - «June 380th, 21.977
Mean height of the 60 day set : BH Pas erelt

The tropical hours were found to be 8 A. M. and5 P. M. for
the periods of daily minima, and 9 A. M. and 10 P. M. for the
daily maxima. The hourly oscillations at night were not half so
great as during the day. The barometric column was in all cases
reduced to the freezing point.

fahrenhett Thermometers.—The temperature of the air varied
from 32° to 81°.6, the mean of the day and night being 56°.5.
The hour of lowest temperature was 4 A. M., or about half an
hour before sunrise, and of the highest at noon. The mean tem-
perature of the night, between sunset and sunrise, was 507.3, and
of the day, 60°.2.

Solar Maximum Radiation Thermometers. —The maximum
excess of temperature of the solar rays, divested of the effects of
vapor and wind, above the temperature as given by the thermom-
eters in the shade but otherwise freely exposed, was tolerably
uniform, the average being 73°.

Wet-bulb Thermometers.—The relative humidity varied from
a comparative absence of vapor to complete saturation. Its mean
value was 0.463. During many days and nights, the degree of
moisture in the air was not one-tenth of what it could have held—
showing the dryness of the atmosphere—while at other times, but
very rarely, the mean of the day was 0.900.

72 EULLETIN OF THE

EHvaporation.—The mean of the maximum evaporation of water
during the 24 hours for eleven days, was six times greater than
when ‘the water was kept in the shade and protected.

Wind.—The general direction of the wind was from the sparen
between N. W. and 8. W., or from the mountains to the plains.
The proportion from this quarter during the 60 days was 53 per
cent.; from 8. W. to S EH. 25 per cent.; from S. H. to N. H. 12
per cent.; and from N. E. to N. W. 10 per cent. The general
direction of the upper strata, as inferred from the movements of
the upper clouds, was from N. W. to S. HE. The wind was, at
times, very strong, and frequently continued so day and night,
constituting, as a rule, dry gales. Its velocity ranged from two
miles to 43.7 per hour, there being few occasions on which it was
entirely calm. The velocity per day varied from 167 to 760 miles,
the average being 332 miles.

Rain.—The total quantity of rain which fell, including melted
snow and hail, amounted to 2.55 inches.

Llectrometer. —The observations for atmospheric electricity
taken on 25 days show that the kind and intensity followed no
general law; that positive electricity prevailed during the fore-
noon; negative in the afternoon, and about equally divided at
noon; while the omission of results at certain hours and days
during the same period shows that in clear and even partially
clear weather, no trace of electricity was discovered, or if it ex-
isted, it was too feeble in amount to be detected by the instrument.
Three hundred quarter inch sparks per minute were frequently
noted during a thunder storm, or during the prevalence of a storm
in the mountains to the westward.

Casella Hypsometers.—The mean of 14 determinations of the
boiling point, on eleven days, was 197°.33, the mean corrected
barometer for the hours of observation standing at 22.309.

The weather during the 72 continuous days which the party
spent at Sherman was characterized by excessive cloudiness ; by
high winds from the N. W. and W.; by the suddenness with
which the sky would be obscured and ‘then become clear ag gain ;
by the various directions in which different cloud strata would be
moving at the same time; and by a positive uncertainty in regard
to the duration of any "favorable opportunity for astronomical
observations. The altitude was probably a little too great, as
the summit was frequently enveloped in a fog or passing cloud
when it was clear weather a few miles lower down the mountain
slopes.

The dryness of the air, so much to be desired in astronomical
work, may be illustrated by the following facts: rapid evapora-
tion; unusual and almost immediate shrinkage of newly cut lum-
ber; no perspiration; no animal putrefaction, and no mould.
The dew-point was invariably lower than the temperature of the
air, and hence there was no dew. ‘The absolute amount of moist-

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 13

ure was no doubt greater than usual, and yet it was 50 per cent.
less than at St. Louis.

When the sky was entirely free from clouds, the firmament was
indescribably brilliant—and so much more than at the sea level
that the value, to the unassisted eye, of the increased transparency
of the atmosphere was assumed at one, if not two magnitudes.
Stars of the fifth magnitude were observed for determination of
time before sunset with the telescope of the small portable
transit, and the companion to Polaris, ninth magnitude, was dis-
tinctly visible at night with a reconnoitring telescope of 24
inches aperture. The greater steadiness and definition were
very € oyu during the observations made on sixty different
time stars.

Prof. Young states in his report to the Superintendent of the
Coast Survey that hundreds of small stars which he had never
seen at Hanover, came out distinctly, and that he thought a
majority of the stars rated in the British Association Catalogue
of the seventh magnitude, were fairly within reach of the naked
eye. Asan expression of the value of the elevation, he gives it
as his deliberate opinion that at Sherman the 9,4, inch object
glass of the 12 foot equatorial was just about equal to a 12 inch
glass at the sea-level. The discoveries made by Prof. Young of
new lines in the spectrum of the chromosphere, and his observa-
tions on the spectra of solar spots and on solar storms, have been
published by him.

While the reconnaissance adds another proof of the advantages
to be derived by so great an elevation of the telescope, the Me-
teorologicai Revister clearly intimates that a more favorable
position than Sherman should be searched for, in view of any
proposition to erect a permanent observatory on the Rocky Moun-
tains to be devoted to the advancement of astronomical science
and discovery.

A full report of the expedition, illustrated with tables and dia-
grams, will appear in the Annual Report of the Superintendent
~of the Coast Survey for 1872.

Mr. R. Kerr read a paper

ON ACHROMATIC OBJECT GLASSES.

Mr. G. A. OTIs made a communication

ON FRACTURES OF THE INNER TABLE OF THE CRANIUM.

Mr. T. Ginu made some remarks

ON THE HOMOLOGIES OF THE ARM IN FISHES, AND THE DEVELOP-
MENT OF THE HUMERUS IN GANOIDS.

74 BULLETIN OF THE

40TH MEETING. FEBRUARY 1, 1873.
The President in the Chair a
Mr. Beng. Atvorp read a paper

ON THE HABITABILITY OF THE ELEVATED PLATEAUS OF THE WEST.

Professor BENJAMIN PEiRcE, of Cambridge, made some remarks
ON THE THEORIES OF THE NATURE OF COMBETS’ TAILS.
(The substance of this communication had been previously communicated to the
American Academy of Aris and Sciences, at Boston.)
Mr. E. B. Extiorr made a communication

ON LIFE AND ANNUITY TABLES, BASED ON THE CENSUS OF 1870.

Alst MEETING. FEeBruary 15, 1878.
The President in the Chair.
Mr. M. YARNALL read a paper

ON THE GENERAL STAR CATALOGUE PREPARED FROM THE OBSERVA-
TIONS AT THE NAVAL OBSERVATORY SINCE 1845,

(The substance of these remarks is published in Washington Observations, 1871,
Appendix IIT.)
Mr. W. Harkness made a communication

ON THE POWER NECESSARY TO DRIVE THE PENDULUM OF AN
- ASTRONOMICAL CLOCK,

42D MEETING. Marca 1, 1873.
The President in the Chair.
Mr. E. Foore read a paper
ON THE LAWS OF CONDENSATION OF AQUEOUS VAPOR IN THE

ATMOSPHERE.

Mr. C. EK. Durron presented a memoir

ON THE CAUSES OF THE ELEVATIONS AND THE SUBSIDENCES OF THE
EARTH’S SURFACE.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 15

Mr. JosepH Hewry delivered the first of a series of discourses

ON ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY.

43D MEETING. , Marcia 15, 1873.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. BK. Foote read a communication

ON A PROPOSED METHOD OF OBSERVING ASTRONOMICAL TRANSITS.

Dr. A. J. Worrkorr, of St. Petersburgh, read a paper
ON METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA.
(This paper is published in full in the Annual Report for 1872 of the Secre-
tary of the Smithsonian Institution, pp. 267-298.)
Mr. JosrruH Henry delivered a second discourse

ON ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY.

447H MEETING. Marcu 29, 1873.
The President in the Chair.

The PRESIDENT read a letter from General Lefroy, Governor-
General of the Bermudas, relating to the changes of sea-level at
Bermuda, and their relations to health.

Mr. B. B. Exvtiorr made a communication

ON INTERNATIONAL COINAGE.

Mr. E. Frispy read a paper

ON A GREGORIAN CALENDAR.

(The following is the calendar proposed by Mr. Frisby.)

6 BULLETIN OF THE

GENERAL GREGORIAN CALENDAR.

JULY.

4 Pet ae
11} 5] 6) 7) 8] 9

3}17]12/13, 3 1'7/18]12/13 14 15/16|1'7|18}11)12)13|14
18|19,20 21/22 23) 2 23 24|25119|20 21 22 23/24/25118)19)20 21
25 21 28 29 30/31]: | : 26 ae 29/30/31] * |25/26/27/28|:

FEBRUARY. / a : NOVEMBER.

: a 3) 4) 5] 6| 7
5 3| 4) 5] 6] 7/8 9}10,11/12]/13/14
12/13 3/14/15)161 § 16/17 18/19 20/21
19/20}: 3116 2122/23/24 25/26 27/28
5/26/27) j 29): : 29}29)30

MARCH. JUNE. s 7 DECEMBER.

1 5 1] 2
8 PANO fil fs stot 12)
5 9113/14]15|1617)18/19
2, 6/20/2 2122/23 24 25) 26
9 27 ae

Nae |

6| 7 1] 2| 3 4] 5] 6
8 90/11 1213 4 7| 8] 9|10/11/12/13] 6
15)16/17|18/19/20|21)14|15 16/17 181 9/20113]1
22, 93 24/25/26 27|28|21|22 23/24 25/26|27)20|2
29 30 31 | 28/29 30 | 97/2

Ree ee

1700, 1800, 1900, YEARS
ete: : i

7
4
1
8

]
2
2

_ |Tne 16/22] |33/3g|44is0| le1l67/7al78 Is9 95
Mon. | Sat. -. |Wed. V7lagles's4 /45/51/56/62) | 73l79ledlon
Tues. _ | Bri. 2/18| 2935.40.46 (57/63/68 74] |85,91/96
Wed. 5 . [Bri 19/24/30) /41/47/5258} |69 75/80/86) {97
Thur. | Tues. . |Sat. | 25/31 36 42/53. 59 64/70

Fri. | Wed. | Mon. (15/2026 3743 48/54 |65)71 76 82

Sat. .; Tues. ° | 21 27/3238 49/55 60,66 ees eee

(N. B.—The list of week days printed at the top of this table should be copied on
a separate slip of paper and used as a movable slide.)

DIRECTIONS.

Look for the day of the week at bottom answering to the year and century;
put this day on the movable slide first to the left, 7. e. opposite January 4th,
and we have a complete calendar for the year; for leap years in January and
February use the vacant space above the year, and for the rest of the year use the
proper number. Leap year is known by being immediately below the vacant
space; the presidential inauguration year is to the right of the vacant space,
etc. For centuries those only are leap years which are divisible by 4, as 2000.
The calendar repeats itself every 400 years.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. a

Mr. F. M. Ewnpuicu read a memoir
ON MINERALOGICAL SYSTEMS.

Ever since the attention of naturalists was directed towards
minerals, the necessity of a system of classification for them has
been felt.

Aristotle already (384-322 a. Chr. n.) classified all minerals
into épvera (stones) and perar revta (ores), the former as owing
their origin to the agency of humid vapor, the latter to dry gases.
Theophrast, and later Pliny, describe a number of minerals, many
of which may be recognized by the description, but no attempt
was made by either of them to assign them their respective posi-
tions in any definite system. The Arabian physician Avicenna
(about 1010 p. Chr. n.) separated the minerals into four classes,
viz., stones, inflammable fossils, salts, and metals. About the
same time Abul-Kihan-Albirouny took the specific gravity of a
number of minerals, but no knowledge of any more important
investigations from that time has reached us. Basil Valentin is
~ gaid to be the author of a little book published in the German
language about the year 1500, but this is most likely the work
of several German miners combined. Here we find for the first
time names like Quartz, Vries, Spat, &c. Georg Agricola, in his
“De Natura Fossilium” (1546) has copied these names, and ap-
pears to be well acquainted with form, cleavage, hardness, gravity,
color, lustre, &c. of a large number of minerals. Later, in 1760,
the first impulse to study the form of minerals more carefully was
given by the Danish mineralogist Bartholin, who measured and
calculated the angles of the transparent Iceland double-spar.
After this time considerable attention was paid to the erystallo-
graphic part of mineralogy, the knowledge of which received a
very valuable addition by the assertion of the Dane Steno in
1669, that in rock crystal, in spite of unsymmetrical development
of the faces, the angles were constant. Investigations of this
xind, carried on by different mineralogists, tended to develop the
interest in the crystalline forms of minerals, and in 1735 Carl
Linné was the first naturalist who based a classification of the
minerals on their crystallographic character, in his ‘“ Systema
Nature, sive tria regna.” He still labored under the old pre-
vailing idea, that the salts chiefly produced crystalline forms, and
therefore called them “atres,” as creating the crystals in the
“matrices.” He distinguished in his classification :—

Petre, rocks; Minerz, minerals; and

Fossilia, petrefactions.
Through these views Romé de Lisle was led to the study of
crystallography, and afterwards auy, in his ‘‘ Essai d’une 'The-
rie sur la Structure des Crystaux” 1784, and 1801 in his “ Traité
de Mineralogie” elevated crystallography to a special science.
The works of these excellent investigators had a great influence

78 BULLETIN OF THE

on the direction which mineralogy took in France, traces of which
may to-day yet be observed in the character of their books upon
that subject.

A new era was started by Werner, who introduced a natural
system, and showed his views very clearly in a little book that
appeared in 1774. He recognizes the minerals by exterior cha-
racteristics—lustre, fracture, color, hardness, sound, &c.—and
even touch, temperature, weight, and taste help him to diserimi-
nate. His systein was first published by Emmerling in 1793, and
later by Hoffmann and Breithaupt, 1811-1813. He paid great
attention to the crystallographic forms of minerals, and very care-
fully described them. In his scholar, Prof. Weiss, of Berlin, his
system received a great support, and Weiss, as an excellent erys-
tallographer, paid the necessary attention to that branch of min-
eralogical science. Mohs, also a scholar of Werner, in the same
way followed the method of a natural classification, going so far
as to almost entirely neglect the chemical composition of minerals.
Haidinger made many valuable investigations regarding the
physical qualities of minerals. C. F. Naumann, in his ‘‘ Elemente
der Mineralogie,” 1846, took the same course, differing, however,
from Weiss in the crystallographic part. Quenstedt, a scholar
of Weiss, adopted the classification of minerals as proposed by
him in his ‘“‘ Handbuch der Mineralogie,” 1854, and his text-book,
together with that of Naumann, are at the present time most
extensively in use at institutions of learning throughout Germany.

At the same time, paraliel with the work done by Werner and
others, a new basis for the classification of minerals had been
adopted by several mineralogists; it was the chemical basis.
Waillerius of Sweden, in his “‘ Mineralkicket,” 1747, and Axel von
Cronstedt in his “ Forsok til Mineralogie,” 1758, proposed a class-
ification of minerals based upon their chemical constituents. In
1782 Bergman published the “Sciagraphia regne Mineralis,”
which is generally regarded as the first chemical system. Vau-
quelin and Klaproth furnished a large number of very valuable
analyses, so that the necessity of combining chemistry with min-
eralogy became more and more apparent. Berzelius first intro-
duced the chemical symbols, and in 1815 published a classification
of minerals based upon chemical composition. In 1841 Ram-
melsberg wrote the first edition of his excellent ‘“‘ Mineralchemie,”
and in 1852 Gustav Rose published his Orystallo-chemical Sys-
tem. In this country chemical principles in classification of min-
erals have been very ably and successfully applied by Prof. Dana,
whose present ‘System of Mineralogy” ranks among the highest.
Dana makes the acid constituent the basis of his classification.

Hauy recognizes four classes :
I. Substances containing acid—
_ Lime, Baryta, &c.
II. Harthy substances—
Quartz, Zircon, &c.

®

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 19

IIL. Nonmetallic inflammable substances—
Sulphur, Diamond, Coal, &e.

IV. Metallic substances—
Gold, Silver, &t

Werner also distinguishes four classes :
I. Harthy substances—

Diamond, Augite, Garnet, &.

IL. Saline substances—
Soda, Saltpetre, &ec.

Ilf. inflammable substances—
Coal, Graphite, &e.

IV. Metallic substances—
Gold, Silver, Arsenic, &e.

Between these two systems there is practically very little differ-
ence, and that of Weiss resembles them greatly in its main out-
lines. He decides upon seven orders :
1. Oxydic rocks, or Silicates ;
Il. Saline rocks;
Hil. Saline ores;
IV. Native metals;
V. Oxydic ores;
VI. Sulphurets and sulphides of metals;
VIL. Inflammabilia;

More arbitrary, however, is the system of Mohs, accepting three
classes :
I. Gases, water, acids, salts (Soda, Nitre, &c.).
Il. Haloids (Gypsum, Fluorite, &e. &c.).
Til) Gums and coal.

The chemical system as proposed by Berzelius contained two
groups with four orders:
A. Oxygen.
I. Oxygen.
B. Inflammable substances.
I. Meéalloids,
Il. Hlectro-negative metals,
Ill. Hlectro-positive metals, closing with Sulphates, Ni-
trates, and Silicates.

He modified this system, however, and proposed a classification
having two orders:
A. Non-oxidized substances.
B. Oxidized substances, arranged according to the electro-
negative substance.

With Dana’s system everyone is familiar, so that need not
further be enumerated here.
In a chemical system we have at hand the means by which a

80 ‘BULLETIN OF THE

species or group may be exactly defined and limited, while all
other systems are based upon more or less arbitrary divisions
and assumptions, except those based on crystalline forms; these,
however, cannot be properly carried out, as so very large a num-
ber of mineral substances show no crystalline structure what-
ever. In following a chemical system, which may seem the most
rational and satisfactory, we dare not lay undue weight upon
physical characters. A mineral species in any such system
must be a single, well-defined group of individuals, and must
contain all its subspecies, varieties, and subvarieties, arranged
according to rules by which a classification adapted to the nature
of minerals can be constructed. It cannot be denied that the
physical character of a mineral, even though it has the same
composition as some other one, will have some claim upon the
attention of a chemical mineralogist, but compared with the
composition, it can only be of subordinate value.

Adopting Dana’s classification of minerals based upon their
chemical constitution, we can divide into:

Divisions, Subdivisions,
Sections, Subsections,

and in order to carry out a strict classification, adopt Dana’s
plan of Groups, and then give Species, Subspecies, Varieties,
and Subvarieties. For instance:

Division : Oxygen Compounds,
Subdivision: Ternary Oxygen Compounds,
Section: Carbonates,

Subsection: Anhydrous Carbonates,
Group : Lime Carbonates,

Species : Calcite,

Subspecies: Calcite,

Variety : Arragonite,

Subvariety: Sprudelstein.

The section ‘‘Carbonates” comes under the common general
formula, KO CO, + (HO), and the anhydrous carbonates have
KO CO,. The name of the Group will always be denoted by
the name of the basic element, with which for instance carbonic
acid is combined, and the simple combination of 1 KO with
1 CO, would in this case constitute a species. The specific KO,
however, may be replaced in part by some other, and the compo-
sition of the mineral will to some extent be changed, whereby a
subspecies would be characterized. It is necessary to pay due
attention to the differences regarding physical characters within
the limits of a species, and as a chemical mineralogist cannot
recognize a species created upon physical distinctions alone, and
his subspecies denote chemical changes, the mineral thus differ-
ing will become a variety.

As Dana says (Preface to 4th ed., 1854), “‘The mind unedu-
cated in science may revolt at seeing a metallic mineral, as Ga-

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 8l

lena, side by side with one of unmetallic lustre, as Blende,” so
may an arrangement of this kind seem arbitrary and artificial,
but in a science like mineralogy, where we have no generic and
specific characters to guide us in the same way as in zoology,
and where a classification based upon exterior characters is utterly
impossible, we are forced to take the aid of chemistry, and
thereby regulate our systems, unless we wish to follow a so-called
“natural system,” where the arrangement of groups and spe-
cies is based upon characters of less stability. By all mineral-
ogists of the present day, the importance of chemistry for their
studies is freely admitted, and however they may be opposed to
any chemical system, in case of a dispute regarding the validity
of some species, they are generally obliged to resort to analysis,
and in most cases such questions are ultimately decided by the
results of such analysis.

As long as “natural systems” are allowed to expand and new
ones are created, there can be promised from them no satisfactory
classification of minerals giving at.the same time due attention
to the physical and chemical characters. By adopting a system,
however, based upon our present knowledge of the composition
of minerals, we are enabled to look forward to some definite ar-
rangement by which ald the features of a mineral will receive the
necessary attention, and only those that are unchangeable and
truly characteristic, will be employed in discriminating.

Some systems profess to be arranged in such a manner as to
give the student more facilities in acquiring the knowledge he
seeks. These systems are mostly based upon an arrangement
of groups giving “‘natural” classes. But again to quote Dana;
“the distinction of ‘useful’ and ‘ useless,’ or of ‘ ores’ and ‘ stones,”
although bearing on ‘economy,’ is not science.”

Having given some of the reasons why a chemical system
would be preferable to any other, it may be well to propose
strict definitions of the various sections, etc., into which the
minerals would be divided.

Dana’s excellent system has been here adopted as a basis; in
the application of the terms Section, Group, and Species, some
changes are proposed; Subspecies, Variety, and Subvariety are
defined.

A. section, or divided subsection, will have a common general
formula.

One or more species and subspecies having this same common
general formula and KO alike, will then form a group.

Any metal or metalloid substance, occurring as such in the
mineral kingdom, or the representative of the simple general
formula denoting the nature and ratio of combination of any class
or subclass, will form a species.

In most of the species a larger or smaller part of their basic
element is replaced by some other, often even by several, and

6

82 BULLETIN OF THE

such a change in composition, if in certain and stable proportions,
not merely an accidental admixture, will demonstrate a sub-
species.

As a large number of minerals have the same chemical com-
position, but entirely different physical qualities, itis necessary
to regard them as varieties. For the chemical mineralogist
these differing physical qualities cannot be of sufficient import-
ance to warrant his defining them as species or even subspecies.

Subvarieties will differ from the varieties and subspecies to
which they belong in presenting local alterations and replace-
ments of constituents by others in such a manner that they must
be regarded merely as accidental admixtures; and subvarieties
will be further distinguished by some peculiar method of forma-
tion.

In some cases these definitions may not seem to be quite suffi
cient in determining the position of a mineral. Dolomite Ca G+
Me C might seemingly be placed under the species¢ Magnesite
almost as well as under Calcite, but in any case of this kind we
have the physical characters to resort to, and upon investigation
find that Dolomite in crystalline form, gravity, ete., more closely
resembles Calcite than Magnesite, therefore give it the position
as a subspecies of Calcite.

The arrangement of species within a class or subclass ought
not to be arbitrary in a strict system, and enumerating them ac-
cording to their specific gravity of their K, beginning with the
lowest figure, might prove satisfactory.

Within the groups the species and subspecies must be ar-
ranged according to their composition. As the representative
of the simple general formula of a class or subclass is defined as
species, and the subspecies have part of the K of the species re-
placed by other substances, they must follow in such order that
the one with most varied replacements will form the last member.

The class of Carbonates among the minerals is one of the
most generally known, and I have selected the subclass anhy-
drous carbonates for an arrangement based upon the principles
above elaborated.

General Formula of Subclass: Anhydrous Carbonates = KC.

6. (3.) aT Oa C (Calcite.

6. 2.85. Ca G-+ Meg 6 (Dolomite.

6. 2.98. Ga G+ (Mg Fe Mn) G (Ankerite.

6. 3.04. Meg G (Magnesite.
6. 3.33. Mg C+3¥e 6 (Mesitite.

6. 3.41. Mg G+ Fe G (Pistomesite.
3. 4.29. /Ba G (Witherite.

4. (38.) 3.64. Ba G+ Ca O (Barytoealcite.
3. 3.65. Ar G (Strontianite.
6. 4.42. ya © (Smithsonite.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. Mp aksies

6. Zn Gas Cui Ga (Herrite.

6. Zn G+ Fe G (Capnite.

6. 3.55. Mn G (Rhodochrosite.

By 3.03. Mn G6+4 (Ca Mg) G (Manganocale.

6. 3.80. Fe G (Siderite.

6. 3.41. Fe G+ 6a 6 (Siderodote.

Se 6.46. Pb G (Cerussite.
bb G+22n 0 (Tglesiasite.

2. 6.31. Pb C+ Pb Ce (Phosgenite.

Appendiz.
a. Ban 73: La G-+2 Ce (FO), (Kishtimite.
b. 4.50. (La Ce Di) C+ 2(Ca Ce) F (Parisite.

Although the gravity of Lanthan is 0.833, it became neces-
sary to place the Lanthan minerals as an appendix, because fa G,
which would be the species, is not known at present, and there-
fore their position with reference to the other anhydrous carbo-
nates is not quite clear.

It will readily be seen that we obtain by this arrangement
groups very similar (natural) both in their chemical composition
and their physical characters

In acknowledging only such as species that simply fill the
general formula of some class or subclass, and regarding every
mineral of the same chemical character, but with various replace-
ments of RO, as a subspecies, many minerals heretofore regarded
as species will only obtain the rank of subspecies or of varieties.

Thus, Aragonite, with the same composition as Calcite, but
differing in crystalline form, gravity, hardness, ete., can only be
regarded as a variety of the species and subspecies Calcite. Gra-
phite, chemically identified with Diamond, although physically
differing, will in a strict system receive the place of a variety.
Metacinnabarite, chemically Cinnabarite, differing, however, in
structure, gravity, color, etc., can be nothing but a variety of
the latter mineral.

In retaining the one name for the species or subspecies, the
right of priority will be observed. Metacinnabarite was named
in 1872, while ‘‘ Cinnabarite” has been in use already for a very
long time.

In proposing the above rules for classifying minerais, one of
my chief objects is to assume a basis tor a more rigorous distine-
tion of the terms species and varieties and those subordinated to
them, and although this to a certain extent may seem to be going
too far, in partly giving up the characteristic individuality of a
mineral, a classification of this kind may claim to be a more
logical one than many others, and in a science like mineralogy
this may perhaps be one of the chief requisites.

(84 BULLETIN OF THE

45TH MEETING. APRIL 12, 1873.
The President in the Chair.
Mr. J. H. Hirmegarp made a communication entitled:

AN INQUIRY INTO THE LAWS OF PROBABILITY.

46TH MEETING. APRIL 26, 1873.
The President in the Chair.
Mr. G. K. GiLBert presented a communication
ON THE GLACIAL EPOCH IN UTAH AND NEVADA.

(ABSTRACT.)

Ancient glacial moraines and cognate phenomena are known
upon the Sierra Nevada as far south as N. lat. 86° 30’, and on
the Rocky Mountains to nearly the same latitude; but they are
confined to high mountain valleys. The glaciers that produced
them did not extend to the lower valleys. There is evidence in
the perfect preservation of quaternary and pliocene deposits
throughout the intervening ‘Great Basin,” that it was subjected
to no general glaciation during the Glacial epoch; but glaciers
existed on the flanks of the hig hest mountains, and to the list of
these the Hngineer explorations in 1872 made several additions,
The new localities are: White’s Peak, Schell Creek range, Ne-
vada, N. lat. 39° 15’; Wheeler’s Peak, Snake range, Nevada,
N lat. 39°; Belknap Peak, near Beaver, Utah, N. lat. 38° 25/;
and Fish Lake, Utah, N. lat 38° 30’. The phenomena consist
of moraines And moraine lakes, and are found no lower than 8000
feet above the sea level. These points are believed to be the
most southerly at which, in these latitudes, such traces can be
found,

The undrained valleys of the “Great Basin” have been filled,
at a recent geological period, by large lakes, of which Great Salt,
Sevier, Humboldt, Owens, ete. are the remnants. Mr. Howell
and the writer have studied during the past summer the beaches
and deposits of the lake that covered the Sevier and Great Salt
Lake deserts, and mapped a large portion of its outline. It had
an extreme depth of one thousand feet, and an average depth of
four hundred. Its length was three hundred and fifty miles, and
its area nearly equalled that of Lake Huron. The mountain
ridges, with which the region abounds, studded its expanse with
islands, and complicated its shore with peninsulas. Its water

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 85

was fresh, and there is abundant reason to believe it overflowed
its basin, sending its surplus to the ocean.

This lake is referred to the Glacial epoch by reason of the fol-
lowing coincidence: Upon the slopes which exhibit its sediments
there are also gravels, brought down from the mountains by run-
ning water and spread by the same without thorough sorting. A
small portion of these gravels overlie the lacustrine beds, but the
great mass underlies them. The sequence, gravel, marl,gravel,
shows that the lake epoch was transient, being preceded as well
as followed by a period when, as now, the climate was too arid
to maintain a broad water surface. It was a climatal episode
characterized by increased humidity, or lower temperature, or
both. The Glacial epoch was a climatal episode of the same
general character, and occurred in the same general geological
period—that immediately antecedent to modern time. There is
the same reason for supposing the two coincident in time, that
there is for correlating the Huropean with the American Glacial
epoch.

At that time the Atlantic slope and the region of the ‘Great
Basin” were contrasted in climate, just as now. The general
causes that covered the humid east with a mantle of ice, sufficed
in the arid west only to flood the valleys with fresh water and
send a few ice streams down the highest mountain gorges.

Prof. J. R. Eastman read a paper on

THE FREQUENCY OF THE OCCURRENCE OF THE ZERO AND THE NINE
DIGITS IN THE TENTHS OF SECONDS AS OBTAINED FROM THE
CHRONOGRAPHIC RECORD OF TRANSIT OBSERVATIONS.

(ABSTRACT.)

A partial examination of the records of observations with the
Transit Circle at the Naval Observatory was made in 1870 in
order to determine whether, in reading the recorded transits from
the chronograph sheets, there was a tendency to record any par-
ticular figures in the observing book.

This examination tended to confirm my belief that no such
bias existed, but I was unable to complete the investigation until
the spring of 1873.

In the latter investigation an equal number of records were
used from each of two different chronographs. On each chrono-
graph the clock closes the circuit each second. One which I
shall refer to as chronograph A, employs only one pen, and the
speed is regulated by a friction governor. The length of a sec-
ond’s interval is 0.426 inch. The other chronograph, which I
shall call chronograph B, uses only one pen, and the length of
the second’s interval is one-third of an inch.

This instrument is known as the Hippe chronograph, the gov-

86 BULLETIN OF THE

ernor being a vibrating spring. ‘The observations of 510 stars
over nine transit threads were examined from each chronograph.
These stars were observed in the last six months of 1872.

The following record of an observation of a Canis Minoris
will illustrate the manner of recording the work in the observing
book :—

u
3
a9)
T® 32™ 52.5
54.5
0.8
2.3
4.8
These records are read from the sheets by means of scales care-
fully graduated to tenths of the second’s interval.
The number of times that each figure from 0 to 9, inclusive,
occurred in the tenths of seconds in the one thousand and twenty
observations, were carefully counted, and the results are shown

in the following table :-—

From CHRONOGRAPH A.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
799 9258 488 4384 450 494 459 446 482 450

From CHronocRaApu B.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
962 110 349 486 480 464 463 431 471 424

A slight inspection of the results from chronograph A shows
a striking difference between the 0s and Is, and a similar differ-
ence occurs in the work from chronograph B between the 0s, Is,
2s, and 9s.

Omitting those numbers and using the results from both chro-
nographs for the figures 3 to 8, inclusive, it-appears that the
probable error of a single sum is less than ,'5 of the mean. As
this probable error decreases with the increase of the number of
observations examined, it seems perfectly safe to conclude that
there is no tendency in my work to record any particular figures.

The discrepancies in the results for 0, 1, 2, and 9, can be ex-
plained by the action of the chronograph pen and by the pecu-
liarities of the two chronographs.

If the armature of the magnet which carries the pen be so
adjusted as to make the length of the clock-mark more than 35
of the interval corresponding to one second, all marks of the
observer’s key which might happen to fall in the time while the
clock keeps the circuit closed will be at least uncertain, and can

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 87

only be read as zero. It is evident, therefore, that 0.35 of the
zeros from chronograph A should be read as ones.

As the length of the interval is reduced by using a smaller
cylinder, the adjustment of the length of the clock-mark to 5}, of
a second becomes more difficult, and, accordingly, we find not
only the ones, but the twos and nines affected in the work from
chronograph B.

Kepresenting the number of zeros in a series of observations
of the same object by N, and the number of complete observa-
tions over nine threads by n, the probable correction to be applied
to the mean result of observations taken from chronograph A

would be AY Oe),

nv

E — 2
and from chronograph B IQUE — UAE oss ae ee ,
n n

The adjustment of the clock-mark to less than ;3, of a second
for chronograph B requires a strong and constant battery power,
which can only be secured by such assiduous watching that it
becomes nearly impracticable in nearly all routine astronomical
work. This difficulty can be reduced one-half by allowing the
clock to mark only once in two seconds; but the only complete
solution of the problem seems to be to increase the length of the
interval.

Mr. JosrpH Henry, in the absence of Mr. C. S. Peirce, gave
the third of his lectures

ON ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY.

470 MeErma. May 10, 1873.
Vice-President J. E. Hinaarp in the Chair.

The Chair announced that in respect to the memory of the late
Chief Justice, Salmon P. Chase, the general committee had de-
termined that this meeting of the Society should be adjourned for
one week. Dr. Perer Parker then presented, with some appro-
priate remarks, the following Resolutions, which were adopted:—

WHEREAS, since the last meeting of the Philosophical Society
of Washington, SALMON PorTLAND Cass, Chief Justice of the
United States, an esteemed and honored member of this Society,
has departed this life full of years and full of honors, no more to
meet his associates here :

88 BULLETIN OF THE

fesolved, That.in this event we recognize with profound emo-
tion the dispensation of Divine Providence, which has unexpect-
edly deprived the Society of one of its most distinguished mem-
bers, and the nation of a jurist, patriot, statesman, philanthropist,
and Christian; whose name, when the course of time is run and
the final history of the American Republic shall have been writ-
ten, shall be classed with those of Washington and Lincoln, and
of all those eminent men who by Providence have been raised
up for special crises of the Republic, and endowed with extraor-
dinary qualifications for national and extreme emergencies, and
as such his memory will be cherished by this Society.

Resolved, That as a token of our deep sense of the solemn
event, and of our great esteem for our departed associate, the
Society now adjourn.

ftesolved, That a copy of these Resolutions be conveyed to the
bereaved and deeply afflicted relatives.

48TH MEETING. May 17, 1873.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. J. J. Woopwarp read a portion of a letter from Dr. B. A.
Gould, Director of the National Observatory at Cordoba, giving
an account of the progress of his astronomical work.

Mr. C. S. PErece made a communication

ON LOGICAL ALGEBRA.

(This paper is published in full in the Memoirs of the American Academy of
Aris and Sciences.)

Mr. A. Hawt read a paper

ON THE RECTILINEAR MOTION OF A PARTICLE TOWARDS AN AT-
TRACTING CENTRE.

(This communication is published in the “Messenger of Mathematics,” Dec.

1873.)

Mr. G. K. GILBERT read a paper

ON THE USE OF THE CANONS OF THE COLORADO FOR WEIGHING THE
EARTH.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 89
49TH MEETING. May 24, 1873.
The President in the Chair.

Lieut. C. E. Durron read a memoir

ON GEOLOGICAL TIME.

50TH MEETING. JUNE 7, 1873.
The President in the Chair.
Mr. S. Newcoms made a communication
ON THE MECHANICAL REPRESENTATION OF A PROBLEM IN LEAST
SQUARES.

(This paper is published in full in Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
' Society, November, 1873.)

Mr. H. H. Bares read a paper

ON THE MOTION OF A PARTICLE TOWARDS AN ATTRACTING CENTRE.

Mr. R. Kerra read a paper
ON THE NATURE OF THE FORCE OF GRAVITATION.

51st MEETING. JuNE 21, 1873.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. J. E. Hitaarp made some remarks

ON THE AIR THERMOMETER OF PROF. JOLLY,

exhibiting also one of those instruments. The same gentleman
also made the second communication

ON THE RECENT DETERMINATION OF THE LONGITUDE BETWEEN
PARIS AND GREENWICH.

Mr. J. J. Woopwarp then exhibited, with appropriate remarks,
the spectra of certain metals and gases. The apparatus used
was a four-prism spectroscope by Browning, with a six-inch in-
duction coil by Ritchie and a condenser by Ladd. He had also
upon the table several smaller spectroscopes, with which the spec-
tra of various chlorides were shown.

90 BULLETIN OF THE

52D MEETING. OcropeEr 4, 1873.
The President in the Chair.

The President alluded to the loss the Society had just sustained
by the death of Prof. G. C. Schaeffer, a member of the Society
and one of the oldest members of the original club. The follow-
ing resolutions were then adopted, as reported by Mr. W. B.
Taylor from the general committee :—

WueEREAS, we have heard with profound regret of the decease
of our esteemed friend and colleague, Professor GroreE C.
SCHAEFFER

Resolved, That while we have to deplore the death of an asso-
ciate personally endeared to us, we feel that our Society has sus-
tained the loss of one who was for many years earnestly devoted
to the cultivation and promotion of general science.

Resolved, That we hereby express our high appreciation of the
eminent abilities of our departed friend, and of the unusually
wide and varied range of his scientific attainments.

Resolved, That we tender our sincere sympathy to his family
in their bereavement, and that the Secretary of the Society be
directed to transmit to them a copy of these resolutions.

After further remarks by Mr. J. E. Hinearp the Society then
adjourned.

53D MEETING. OctToBER 18, 1873.
The President in the Chair. .

Mr. J. EK. Hinearp gave an account of
RECENT EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES IN ACOUSTICS, BY PROF. A. M.
MAYER.
Lieut. C. HE. Durron made a communication

ON MALLET’S THEORY OF THE FORMATION OF THE PHYSICAL FEA-
TURES OF THE EARTH.

Mr. JosrpH Henry gave an account of his

EXPERIMENTS ON FOG SIGNALS DURING THE PAST SUMMER.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 91

54TH MEETING. : NoveEMBER 1, 1873.
The President in the Chair.

This being the annual business meeting for the election of offi-
cers, the order of proceedings for the evening was announced by
the President. On motion of General SamrMan, the rules were
‘suspended and Mr. JosepH Hunry was re-elected President by
unanimous consent. The following gentlemen were elected Vice-
Presidents: J. EH. Hingarp, M. C. Meigs, J. K. Barnes. As
Secretaries, THro. Gini and C. ABBE were elected. As mem-
bers at large of the general committee, there were elected the
following gentlemen :—

Seek ue Ati ae N. 8. Lincony,
J. H. C. Corry, O. M. Pos,

E. B. Evxiort, S. NEWCOMB,
A. Hatt, J. C. WELLING,

J. J. WooDWARD.

Mr. B. Atvorp called the attention of the meeting to an an-
nouncement in a San Francisco newspaper that Mr. James Lick,
of San Francisco, intended to found an astronomical observatory
on the Sierra Nevada.

55tH MEETING. NoveEMBER 15, 1873:
The President in the Chair.

Mr. JosepH Henry read a letter from Prof. Tyndall, of Lon-
don, relating to fog signals, and a second from Mr. James Lick,
of San Francisco, respecting the establishment of an observatory
and the construction of a large telescope.

Mr. E. B. Exurorr called the attention of the Society to the
change in the legal value of the dollar just adopted in England.
Mr. W. H. Exuiorr then made a verbal communication

ON THE HABITS OF THE FUR-BEARING SEALS OF THE ISLANDS OF
ST. PAUL AND ST GEORGE, BEHRING SEA,

illustrating his remarks by numerous original drawings.

(This communication will be found printed as a portion of a Report to the Sec-
retary of the Treasury.)

92 BULLETIN OF THE

56TH MEETING. NovEMBER 19, 1873.
The President in the Chair.

The President announced that the meeting was called at this
date especially to receive Mr. Alvan Clark, of Cambridge, Mass.
Mr. Clark then gave

A DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE LENSES AND
OTHER INTERESTING PORTIONS OF THE LARGE TELESCOPE NOW
ESTABLISHED AT THE NAVAL OBSERVATORY.

The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. Clark for his com-
munication.

57TH MEETING. NovEMBER 26, 1873.
The President in the Chair.

The President announced that the meeting had been called
this evening especially to listen to a communication from Dr.
Bessels of the Polaris Exploring Expedition. After further
introductory remarks by the Chair, Dr. Bessels read a paper

ON SOME OF THE RESULTS OF THE POLARIS NORTH POLE EXPEDITION.

(This communication will form a part of the detailed Report of Dr. Bessels
to the National Academy of Sciences.)

58tH MEETING. DECEMBER 6, 1873.
The President in the Chair.
Mr. J. HE. Hinearp read a communication

ON THE DETERMINATION OF THE PERSONAL ERRORS IN THE OBSER-
VATION OF ASTRONOMICAL TRANSITS,

illustrating his remarks by the exhibition of apparatus recently
constructed for the use of the Coast Survey.

Mr. J. S. Bivxines presented a memoir
ON THE COLLECTION OF A LARGE LIBRARY,

having especial reference to the medical library of the Surgeon-
General’s Office.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 93

(ABSTRACT.)

The Library of the Surgeon-General’s Office may be considered
as the Medical Section of the National Library, and is catalogued
and conducted upon the same plan as the Congressional Library.
It contains about 25,500 volumes and 18,000 pamphlets. One
of the most valuable sections of a medical library is that of the
Journals and Transactions. This library contains about 7000
volumes of Journals, of which about 1850 volumes are American,
2700 German, 1250 French, 1050 English, and the remainder
Russian, Italian, and Spanish. The first American medical
journal began in 1798, and since that date 451 medical journals
have been commenced in this country.

Attention was then called to some of the old and rare books
of the collection, including a MS. of the Lilium Medicine of
Bernard de Gordon, dated 1349; copies of the works of Gersdorff
aud Braunschweig, and a number of books dated prior to 1500.

The Library contains a large number of medical theses and
dissertations, and the best mode of binding these was referred to.
They will be bound by Universities where complete sets can be
obtained, otherwise by subjects. Pamphlets of especial rarity or
value are bound single, but on the ground of economy, conve-
nience, and to prevent loss, most of them will be bound in vol-
umes by subjects. An Alphabetical Catalogue of Authors has
just been printed, and the preparation of a subject catalogue is
to be commenced at once.

59TH MEETING. DECEMBER 20, 1873.
The President in the Chair.

The President announced the death of Professor Louis Agas-

siz, and on motion of Hon. Prtrr Parker, a committee was

appointed to draft appropriate resolutions, of which the President
was, on motion, made the chairman.

Mr. J. J. WoopwarD communicated portions of a letter from
Dr. Jackson, of Boston, detailing some of the results of the
autopsy of Professor Agassiz.

The same gentleman then made a short communication

ON MICROMETRIC WRITING ON GLASS,

94 BULLETIN OF THE

illustrating his remarks by photographs of Noberts’ lines, and of
the microscopic writing of Mr. Webb, of London.

Mr. A. Hatt read a paper
ON COMETS AND METEORS.

(This communication is published in full in “The Analyst,” vol. i. pp. 17-24,
Des Moines, Iowa, Feb. 1874.)

60TH MEETING. JANUARY 8, 1874.
The President in the Chair.

Hon. Perer Parker read a short note on the meteor of Dee.
24th, 1873, communicating the details of some observations made
by himself.

Following this communication there were given the experiences
of a number of observers who saw this meteor, and, on motion
of Dr. Parker, the President appointed a committee to collect
further information.

Mr. J. J. Woopwarp read a letter from Mr. Ramsey, of Nova

Scotia,
ON THE TIDES OF THE BAY OF FUNDY.

Mr. G. A. Oris gave
A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPIROMETER,

illustrating his remarks by means of the instrument itself.

Mr. CO. S. Prerrck communicated a note

ON QUATERNIONS, AS DEVELOPED FROM THE GENERAL THEORY OF
THE LOGIC OF RELATIVES.

61st MEETING. JANUARY 17, 1874.
The President in the Chair.
The President, as chairman of the committee, offered the fol-

lowing resolutions, which were adopted, relative to the death of
Prof. Louis Agassiz :—

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 95

Resolved, That the members of the Washington Philosophical
Society have heard with profound regret of the death of Professor
Louis Agassiz.

Resolved, That in the death of this eminent savant the world
has lost an efficient contributor to the store of human knowledge,
the results of whose labors must ever occupy a conspicuous place
in the history of Science.

Resolved, That in his adopted country he has nobly vindicated
the claims of scientific investigation to high popular appreciation
and to liberal public patronage.

Resolved, That as an instructor he has introduced methods of
study and directed the attention of students in natural history to
fields of research far superior to those which were cultivated
previous to his coming among us.

Resolved, That his ardent sympathy and genial manners en-
deared him to thousands of the inhabitants of this country, who
regard his death as a personal as well as a public calamity.

Resolved, That the members of this Society deeply sympathize
with the family of Professor Agassiz in the great loss they have
sustained, and that a copy of these resolutions be transmitted to
them by the President.

By request of the President, the Secretary read a letter from
Mr. Benjamin Hallowell, of Sandy Springs, Md., relating to the
meteor of Christmas eve.

Mr. A. Hatt, in the absence of the author, then read a me-
moir by Mr. E. 8S. Houprn,
ON THE ADOPTED VALUE OF THE SUN’S APPARENT DIAMETER.

(See the Appendix to this Bulletin.)

62D MEETING. JANUARY 31, 1874.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. F. M. EnpuiicH made a communication

a

ON ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS.

96 BULLETIN OF THE

Mr. C. E. Dutton made a communication

ON RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN THE ECONOMY OF FUEL.

Mr. J. W. Powe tt read a paper
ON THE MYTHOLOGY OF THE NUMAS.

(This paper will be published in full in a forthcoming Report to the Secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution, on the Survey of the Colorado River.)

63D MEETING. Frpruary 14, 1874.
The President in the Chair.

The President announced the names of gentlemen recently
elected members of the Society.

Mr. Wm. Harxness read an abstract of a paper
ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE OVER THE SURFACE OF THE
GLOBE.

The author presented to the Society by means of a series of
diagrams projected on a screen, fac-similes of tables and curves
elaborated by himself, and which embodied the results obtained by
the study of the annual variations of temperature at over nine
hundred stations, embracing about 7000 years of observations.

(This paper will be published in full by the Smithsonian Institution.)

Mr. Turopore GILL made a communication

ON THE PRIMATES AND THEIR RELATIONS TO MAN.

64TH MEETING. FEBRUARY 28, 1874.
Vice-President W. B. Taytor in the Chair.
Mr. Exzrorr Cours made some remarks

ON THE STRUCTURE AND HOMOLOGIES OF THE LIMBS, ESPECIALLY IN
AVES.

Following this communication Mr. THEODORE GILL made some

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON 97

remarks thereon, and dwelt particularly on the homologies of the
limbs of the lower vertebrates.
Mr. L. D. GALE made a communication
ON THE CAUSE AND REMEDY OF THE POTATO ROT.

The author maintained the so-called “chemical theory” of the
origin of this disease, and adduced in corroboration experiments
made during the past ten years in Long Island and New Jersey.

Remarks followed by various persons present, especially by
Prof. Brewer, of Yale College; the latter gave a brief synopsis
of the many theories that have been broached in reference to this
phenomenon, and showetl the unsatisfactory nature of conclusions
deduced from any partial investigation.

65TH MEETING. Marcu 14, 1874.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. L. D. Gaue offered some remarks in explanation of his
communication at the previous meeting in reference to the potato
disease.

Mr. C. 8. PErrce made a communication

ON VARIOUS HYPOTHESES IN REFERENCE TO SPACE.

Mr. J. M. Toner illustrated, by means of a map,

A METHOD OF DESCRIBING AND LOCATING WITH EASE THE APPROXI-
MATE POSITIONS OF GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS,

Mr. JosepH HENRY made a communication
ON A METHOD OF DEVELOPING MAGNETISM IN BARS OF 8TEEL.

66TH MEETING. Marcu 28, 1874.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. C. KE. Dutton made a communication

ON RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN THE MANUFACTURE OF STEEL.
T

98 BULLETIN OF THE

Prof. C. G. Forsuey, of Louisiana, made a communication

ON THE ALLUVIAL BASIN OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER STYLED THE
DELTA.

(See the Appendix to this Bulletin.)

67TH MEETING. Aprib 1], 1874.
The President in the Chair.

At the request of Mr. J. E. Hinearp, Mr. C. HE. Duron, in
continuation of his previous communication, gave a synopsis of
his views

ON THE CHEMISTRY OF THE BESSEMER PROCESS.

Mr. EH. Foore made some remarks

ON SOME CAUSES THAT PRODUCE RAIN.

Mr. F. M. ENpuicu read a paper

ON TWO BRICKS FROM THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA.

The same gentleman made a second communication

ON SPECIMENS OF METEORIC IRON FROM CHIHUAHUA, MEXICO, AND
THE STRUCTURE OF METEORITES IN GENERAL.
e
In connection with the preceding paper Mr. JosepaH HENRY
made some remarks in reference to the recent observations of
Prof. Newton, of Yale College,

ON METEOR TRAINS, AND THE UPPER ATMOSPHERIC CURRENTS.

In answer to inquiries of Mr. J. E. Hitgarp, Mr. CLEVELAND
ABBE, as Secretary of the Committee appointed to collect obser-
vations on the meteor of December 24th, 1873, made a brief
statement of the condition of their work.

In the course of some remarks on the reported earthquake phe-
nomena in North Carolina, the desire was expressed that a com-

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 99

mittee should be appointed to collect information in reference
thereto.

Mr. J. W. Powe tu desired to state his conviction that Arizona
and the southern portion of Nevada had within quite recent times
been the seat of considerable volcanic and seismic activity.

68TH MEETING. Aprin 25, 1874,
The President in the Chair.

Mr. THEopoRE GiLt made a communication

ON THE STRUCTURE AND SHAPE OF PALAOTHERIUM,

(ABSTRACT.)

Mr. Gill referred to the recent discovery of a very complete
skeleton of a species of Paleotherium in 4 plaster quarry near
Paris, with the bones in place, and indicating its natural attitude.
This recalled the form of the Llama, and the speaker reminded
the Society that on a previous occasion, in a communication on
the Tapiride, he had contended that there were no hear affinities
between the Tapirids and Paleotheriids, and that one of the latter,
judging from the separate bones, had been quite erroneously re-
stored by Cuvier under the prejudice that it was like the Tapirids.
He then contended that the form of Paleotherium was light and
slender, and the neck long, and that the absence of any muscular
scars like those of Tapirids, as well as the relations of the bones,
indicates that it had no proboscis. While the discovery of the
new skeleton has now authoritatively dissipated the idea of the
form of the animal as delineated by Cuvier, the comments there-
on indicate that the idea as to the proboscis is still prevalent.
The speaker gave in full his reasons for denying the existence
of such a proboscis in Palxotheriids, as well as in Macranchenia
and the Dinocerata.

Mr. Josep Henry made some remarks

ON GIFFARD’S INJECTOR.

Mr. CLEVELAND ABBE made a verbal communication

ON THE LAWS GOVERNING THE MOVEMENT OF STORM CENTRES.

100 BULLETIN OF THE

(ABSTRACT.)

Mr. Abbe called attention to a recent memoir by Professor
Loomis, of Yale College, on the storms of the United States
during the years 1872 and 1873. He stated that the generaliza-
tions announced by Professor Loomis constituted a most im-
portant contribution to our knowledge of this subject, and that
the laws mathematically deduced from mechanical principles by
Mr. Wm. Ferrel in his memoir on Winds and Currents, were
in every instance corroborated by observations in both Europe
and America. He stated that the law announced by himself
at Cincinnati in 1869 remained abundantly confirmed by daily
experience, and might be concisely expressed as follows: a storm
centre moves toward the region where a given barometric or other
condition produces the greatest precipitation of aqueous vapor, or
in which the latter is most rapidly taking place. In explanation
of this law he-added that when we take into consideration all the
causes that contribute to produce the precipitation of vapor
(whether in the form of haze, fog, cloud, rain, snow, or hail),
we are able to account with great accuracy for the direction and
velocity of movement of areas of low barometer.

Atmospheric precipitation is produced by cooling the air, and
a fall of temperature in any gas is the consequence either of the
radiation of heat or of the absorption of heat in performing in-
ternal work.

The mechanical absorption of heat is an important feature when-
ever masses of air are elevated and allowed to expand. This
occurs under the following circumstances: (1) whenever strong
winds blow, and in consequence of the inertia of the air and the
friction on the earth’s surface, produce vertical currents; (2) in
consequence of winds being pushed up an inclined plane, such as.
the great plains of the Mississippi Basin, or the ascents on the
east and west sides respectively of the Appalachian range, and
the Sierra Nevada; (3) in consequence of the elevation of masses
‘of warm air above the masses of cold air, which latter flow, for
example, from the extreme N. W. southward to the Gulf of Mex-
ico, down the gentle grade of the Missouri and Mississippi Val-
leys (under this head are included the formation of the local
thunder storms).

The radiation of heat may take place either (1) outward into
space whenever the air above is dry; or, (2) downward either to
the cold earth, or to masses of cold air that have underrun and
uplifted warmer layers: radiation into space is especially effec-
tive after a mass of moist air has been thus uplifted.

The radiation of heat and the visible precipitation of vapor are
remarkably counteracted whenever extensive fires prevail, by the
presence in the atmosphere of very minute particles of carbon
or of vegetable ashes, which have the property of attracting about
themselves quite dense atmospheres of aqueous vapor precisely
as oxygen is occluded by finely divided platinum.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 101

The direction in which a storm moves being thus dependent
to a great degree on the previpitation of moisture, it becomes
important to know the location of the sources of atmospheric
vapor, especially the presence of regions of snow, forests, swamps,
etc.; and explanations were given of certain abuormal storm
paths quoted by Professor Loomis.

Hspecial objection was urged against the idea that high west-
erly currents carried the storms of America eastward.

Mr. F. M. Enpuicu read a paper

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF PURE TELLURIUM IN CERTAIN GOLD MINES OF
COLORADO.

Mr. AsapH Hatt offered some remarks

ON THE METHOD ADOPTED IN WRITING THE INTERNATIONAL SCIEN-
TIFIC TELEGRAMS.

Mr. Haut recommended the use of Littrow’s system.

%

ocean

69TH MEETING. May 9, 1874.
The President in the Chair.
Mr. BENJAMIN ALVoORD read a paper

ON THE RECENT EARTHQUAKES IN NORTH CAROLINA.

According to Professor Warren Du Pré, of Wofford College,
Spartanburg, 8. C., the earthquake phenomena in North Carolina
commenced on February 10, 1874, and continued until the date
of his visit to the scene of the disturbances. They appeared
within a region of the Blue Ridge about twelve miles north from
Rutherfordton, N. C., and fourteen miles 8. E. from Mount
Mitchell, the highest peak in the United States east of the Rocky
Mountains. They occurred in a space of about twenty-five miles
square. The mountain ridge in which they appeared has several
peaks, the highest, called Bald, Stone, and Round Mountains, ex-
tending from southwest to northeast a distance of ten miles, in
the order in which they are named. They are from 3000 to 3500
feet high. They are covered with a dense forest, and composed

102 BULLETIN OF THE

of granite, gneiss, and mica-slate rocks. None of the rocks
usually called voleanic rocks have been discovered there.

From the 10th of: February to the 19th of March, the day of
his visit, there had been about seventy-five shocks, some occurring
while he was there. The noises began with an explosion like a
blast, followed by a rumbling sound lasting only a few seconds :
the shocks were simultaneous, or almost so, with the reports, and
seemed to follow the direction of the rumbling sound, with the
exception that observers near the top of the mountain assert they
appear to be under and all around them; that the reports all came
from Stone and Bald Mountain ridge; those living on the east
side pointing to the west, and those on the west pointing to the
east for the direction of the sounds: that the effects were felt five
miles on each side of the mountain ridge. In all these convul-
sions of the mountain the concurrent testimony is, that the sounds
and shocks were either simultaneous or nearly so.

Following the preceding paper, Mr. J. W. Powe. stated that
he desired to repeat a statement previously made by himself, viz.,
that the generally accepted rule that volcanic action is peculiar
to the neighborhood of the sea, rests on very limited data, and
that if we consider the geological epoch immediately preceding
the present, we find such action well developed in regions far dis-
tant from the ocean, as in western America.

Mr. C. E. Durron remarked that volcanic action is especially
remarkable in localities that have been the scene of the shifting
of sedimentary deposits.

Mr. CLEVELAND ABBE called attention to the observations of
Professor Niles, at Monson, Mass., as affording possibly a me-
chanical explanation of the phenomena in North Carolina.

Mr. W. HARKNESS made a communication

ON THE APPARATUS TO BE USED IN THE OBSERVATIONS OF THE
APPROACHING TRANSIT OF VENUS.

This paper was illustrated by transparent photographs exhib-
ited by means of the calcium light.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 103

Mr. J. K. Ginperr read a paper

ON A COLD GEYSER OR INTERMITTENT ARTESIAN WELL IN OHIO.

(ABSTRACT.)

Mr. Gilbert described an artesian well that had been bored at
Stryker, Williams County, Ohio, to a depth of 860 feet. Water
and gas had been met with at several points, and especially a
mineral water at 230 feet. There is no continuous outflow of
water, but a level is maintained a little below the surface of the
ground, and gas (sulphydric acid) constantly escapes. After
intervals, normally of about six hours, there is a spasmodic dis-
charge of a large volume of gas, with such force as to carry with
it many barrels of water, the eruption lasting ten to twenty min-
utes. By nearly closing the mouth of the well its discharge can
be indefinitely deferred, and by agitating the water with a pole,
so as to produce a vertical oscillation, the flow can be hastened.
The agency of heat, essential to the best sustained theories of
geyser action, is here out of the question, and a mechanical ex-
planation is inorder. From the possibility of a vertical vibration
of the water is inferred its communication with a reservoir stored
with gas; and it is further hypothecated that, from some source,
there is a constant accession of gas. When its volume is such
that it displaces the water at the point of communication with
the well, it begins to escape, and, at once, by its motion, clears a
larger opening. Rising in the well, its tendency is to lift the
water in part, and, by relieving the pressure, enable the elastic
gas remaining in the reservoir to expand more rapidly. From
the reciprocation of these actions results the paroxysmal discharge.

Mr. F. W. CLARKE made a verbal communication

ON THE ATOMIC VOLUMES OF CRYSTALLIZED AND DOUBLE SALTS.

(This paper will be published in the American Journal of Science and Arts.)

70TH MEETING. May 23, 1874,
The President in the Chair.

The President offered some remarks on the communication of
Mr. Benj. Alvord, made at the previous meeting.

104 BULLETIN OF THE

Mr. J. E. Htnearp then introduced Hon. T. L. CLineman, of
North Carolina, who made a communication

ON THE EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA RECENTLY EXPERIENCED IN
NORTH CAROLINA.

(ABSTRACT.)

Mr. Clingman stated that the first shock on record occurred in
1811, and similar ones had been experienced every two or three
years since that date, in some portion of a region including the
six most western counties of North Carolina, all of them imme-
diately east of the main range of the Blue Ridge.

The author had devoted much time to the investigation of this
subject, and gave many interesting details relative thereto.

(This communication has been published in the New York Daily Times, July
15, 1874.)

Mr. J. W. Powe. read a memoir

ON THE GENESIS AND DEMONOLOGY OF THE NUMA TRIBE OF INDIANS.

(This paper will be published in full in a forthcoming report of Mr. Powell to
the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, On the Survey of the
Colorado River.)

T1st MEETING. JUNE 6, 1874.
Vice-President J. HE. H1inGarp in the Chair.

The chairman announced the adoption by the general commit-
tee of a resolution ordering that in official records of the Society
all titles of members other than ‘“‘ Mr.” be hereafter omitted.

Mr. F. W. CLARKE made a communication
ON THE MOLECULAR HEATS OF SIMILAR COMPOUNDS.

(ABSTRACT.)

It is laid down in all text-books that similar compounds have
equal atomic or molecular heats. Thus, for instance, the chlorides
of the alkaline metals are said to have equal values, the carbon-
ates of the calcium group furnish a similar example, and so on.
This is probably true, with certain qualifications. The different
bodies must be compared not at the same temperature, but at
what are called corresponding temperatures. ‘These correspond-

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 105

ing temperatures would probably be at equal distances from the
melting points, although this is by no means certain. Under
ordinary circumstances, in any given series of similar compounds
the molecular heat increases slowly with the atomic weight. ‘The
two subjoined series, series which are usually taken to illustrate
the supposed equality, will exemplify this fact. Hach molecular
heat is here deduced from the mean of all the reliable determina-
tions of specific heat extant for each substance. The first series
is that of the alkaline chlorides.

Supstance. Mo.ecuLAr HBEATS.

Li Cl 11.62.
Wa Cl 12.56.
1) Oil 12.93.
Rb Cl 13.54.

No determinations have yet been made for Cs Cl.
For the carbonates of the calcium groups,
Susstance. MonecoLrar Hearts.

Ca CO, 21.09.
Sr CO, 21.34,
Ba CO, 21.49.
Pb CO, OAL Be

Comparing some chlorides, bromides, and iodides, we have—
Supstance. Mo.LecuLAk HEats.

Kel 12.93.
K Br 13 47.
KI 13.60.
Pb Cl, 18.85.
Pb Br, 19.55.
PbI 19.67.

Among liquids the increase is yet more striking: one series will
serve to illustrate this.
Susstance. Monecunar Heats.

Go 31.91.
Si Cl, 32.49,
Si’ Cl 35.25.
Sn Cl, 37.15.

I have traced out relations of this kind in over twenty different
series of compounds, and find only one er two apparent excep-
tions. These exceptions are doubtless due to experimental error,
since they occur only where there are scanty materials.

Mr. J. E. Hiwearp read a memoir communicated by Prof.
SrerpHen ALEXANDER, of Princeton,

ON THE ZODIACAL, LIGHT.

(See the Appendix: to this Bulletin.)

106 BULLETIN OF THE

Mr. L. D. GALE read a paper

ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE LIGNITE FORMATION, AND ON A HITHERTO
UNDESCRIBED DEPOSIT DISCOVERED IN 1834 IN NEW YORK BAY.

Mr. EH. S. Houpen read a memoir

ON SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL’S OBSERVATIONS OF THE SATELLITES
OF URANUS.

(See the Appendix to this Bulletin.)

Mr. J. H. Hitaarp explained the construction of

A NEW APPARATUS FOR THE INVESTIGATION OF PERSONAL ERROR
IN ASTRONOMICAL TRANSIT OBSERVATIONS.

72D MEETING. JUNE 20, 1874.
Vice-President W. B. Taytor in the Chair.

Mr. Wm. FERRELL made a communication

ON THE LAW CONNECTING THE VELOCITY AND DIRECTION OF THE WIND
WITH THE BAROMETRIC GRADIENT,

(ABSTRACT.)

Let G—the barometric gradient in the direction in which it is
the steepest, estimated by the amount of change in
the mercurial column in the distance of one hundred
miles ;

v =the velocity of the wind per hour;
r —the radius of curvature of the isobar or line of equal
barometric pressure ;
7 = the inclination of the direction of the wind to the isobar
on the side of lowest pressure ;
n =the earth’s hourly angular velocity of rotation in terms
of the radius ;
? —the latitude of the place.
The following equation then expresses very nearly the rela-
tion in all cases between the barometric gradient and the
velocity of the wind :—

gee (2nsinl-+u)vsect — (0.524 sin 7 + w) usec 2
ay 8300000 ag 8300000
in which
ye UO8 a
7’

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 107

This relation expresses a general law applicable in all latitudes
to any individual cyclone, or to the resultant of any number of
cyclones combining and interfering with one another. The value
of 7 depends mostly upon friction, “and can only be determined by
observation. Its value, however, is generally so small, except on
certain parts of the land and near the surface, that it may be
neglected without much error, since sec @ for a small angle does
not differ much from unity. The average value obtained by Mr.
Ley for inland stations* is nearly 380°, although Professor Loomis
(Silliman’s Journal, July, 1874) obtained an average value of
about 45° for the stations of the United States Signal Service.

The mathematical demonstration of this law or relation is too
complex to be given here, and must consequently be reserved for
future occasions, in which a complete and thorough investigation
of this interesting subject will be attempted. For the present it
may be regarded as an empirical law, merely to be compared with
and tested by observation.

We shall give here only a few comparisons of this law with
observation. First with regard to the two great polar hemis-
pherical cyclones having the terrestrial poles for their centres and
the equatorial calm belt for their external limits, and depending
upon the mean constant difference of temperature between the
equatorial and polar regions. In this case the barometric gradi-
ents and velocities are the means obtained from a great sn ob-
servations, in which the effects of the seasons and of all ordinary
cyclones are eliminated. The value of w in this case is the mean
constant east or west angular velocity of the wind, and 7 is the
distance from the earth's. axis. The whole value of uw, however,
in this case is so small in comparison with 2 n sin J that it may
be entirely neglected.

Observation shows that about the parallel of 35° in the northern
hemisphere, and a little nearer the equator in the southern hem-
isphere, the barometric pressure is a maximum, and that conse-
quently G vanishes. Putting G' = 0, the preceding relation can
only be satisfied by v = 0, that is, by a calm belt at these lati-
tudes as actually observed. At the equator also we have G =0,
but here the law is also satisfied by the vanishing of (2 nsin/ + w)
at the equator, and v becomes in this case indeterminate by the
preceding relation.

The mean barometric gradient in the British Islands, as de-
clined from the isobars determined by Mr. Glaisher, is about 0.02
of an inch. With this value of G the relation is satisfied with
v = 6 miles, supposing the mean direction of the wind to be from
the west or nearly so, that is, that the value of ¢ is small. This
result is a little less than the value obtained for these islands by

* Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society for the first quarter of
1873, p. 66.

108 BULLETIN OF THE

the late Professor Coffin in his Winds of the Northern Hemi-
sphere. But of course this value, depending upon so sinall a
gradient, cannot be actually determined from the observed gradient
by the preceding relation. Again, the value of G deduced from
the table of barometric pressures given by Buchan in his Mete-
orology, for the parallel of 20° north, is about 0.02 of an inch.
The wind in the Atlantic Ocean in this latitude being from the
N. E., we have the value of ¢ here about 225°. With this value
of ¢ and the preceding value of G, the equation gives v=15
miles, which is probably about the velocity of the trade winds on
the sea in this latitude.

From the same table of barometric pressures given by Buchan
we deduced, for the parallel of 52° south latitude, the value of
G = 0.07 of an inch. Supposing 7 here to be small, that is, that
the constant wind blows nearly from the west, the relation above
gives v = 21 miles for the velocity of the wind from the west.
All accounts represent the west wind in this latitude as blowing
very strong all round the globe, and Mr, Laughton speaks of it
as frequently amounting to a half gale.

In an ordinary cyclone the value of «w in comparison with
2nsin/ cannot in general be neglected, and it is readily seen
that near the centre of a cyclone where r is small the value of u
may be very large. When the isobars of a cyclone drawn to
every tenth of an inch of the barometer are one hundred miles
apart, we have G—0.1 of an inch. With this value of G, sup-
posing the value of 7 to be so small that we can put sec 27 = 1,
we get from the expression of G at the distance of four hundred
miles from the centre of the cyclone, and on the parallel of 45°,
v= 29 miles for the velocity of the wind, and this would be very
nearly the velocity at sea where 7 is so small. But with the value
of 7==45° nearly obtained by Professor Loomis, we get v = 21
miles nearly. At a distance of one hundred miles only from the
centre, all the other circumstances remaining the same as above,
we get v= 22 miles in the case in which 7 is small, as at sea, and
in the case in which the value of 7 is 45° we get v—18 miles
nearly. Hence we see that the law gives the velocities for the
same gradient considerably greater near the centre than at greater
distances.

The preceding law cannot be tested by comparing the observed
velocity of the wind in any individual case with that deduced by
means of the law from the observed gradient obtained from the
isobars laid down on the weather maps of the Army Signal
Service; for these, being laid down from observations made at
stations which are in many eases several hundred miles apart,
cannot take in the effects of the numerous local and compara-
tively small disturbances, and these latter may affect very much
the velocity of the wind at any station The law can only be
tested by comparing the average velocity of a great many in-

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 109

dividual cases with the average of the corresponding observed
gradients, as deduced from the isobars, taking account of. the
distances of the stations from the centres of the cyclones.

Mr. G. K. Gitzert made a communication
ON THE AGE OF THE TONTO SANDSTONES.

(ABSTRACT.)

The author discussed the age of a group of rocks exposed in
the grand cafion of the Colorado, and locally designated as the
Tonto group. After mentioning its reference to the Silurian by
Dr. Newberry, and to the Carboniferous by Prof. Powell on strati-
graphical grounds, he detailed some evidence, paleontological and
lithological, which led him to refer it to the Primordial division
of the Silurian, and pointed out the interest that would attend
the recovery of a fauna from some still lower beds discovered by
Prof. Powell under the Kaibab Plateau.

(This communication will appear in full in the Geological portion of the Re-
port of Lieut. Wheeler's Explorations west of the one hundredth meridian. )

Mr. CLEVELAND ABBE read a paper
ON THE POSITION OF THE PLANES OF CERTAIN NEBULA.

(ABSTRACT.)

The author stated that he had endeavored to pass from the
consideration of the apparent distribution of the nebule in space
up to the solution of more definite and tangible problems.

He had made a study of the nebule described in Sir John
Herschel’s “General Catalogue” as very much or exceedingly
extended, and had computed the position in space of a line per-
pendicular to the planes of these nebule, supposing the latter to
be thin disks seen edgewise.

He found that these lines appear to lie in or near a plane in-
clined about twenty degrees to that of the Milky Way.

(This memoir will be published in full in the American Journal of Science
and Aris.)
Mr. E. B. Eniiorr made some remarks

ON THE CREDIT OF THE UNITED STATES, AS SHOWN BY THE VALUE OF
ITS SECURITIES,

APPENDIX.

Ly M,

# 5
a

es S con gte d * Ih

) a me

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Hons:

Tih
AONE

I.
ON THE ADOPTED VALUE OF THE SUN’S
APPARENT DIAMETER.
By E. 8. HOLDEN.
(Reap 1874, January 17.)

In all, 3639 observations of both horizontal and vertical diam-
eters of the sun have been examined, distributed as follows :-—

No. of OBSERVATIONS. INSTRUMENTS.
Hor. Diam. Vert. Diam.

Greenwich, 1862-1870, 832 905 Transit Circle.

Washington, 1862-1865, 491 430 ‘Transit and Mural.
“s 1866-1870, 490 491 Transit Circle.
1813 1826

These were made by twenty-three different observers. Addendum
“A” gives the corrections to both horizontal and vertical diam-
eters as given by all the observations made in one year by each
observer. The Greenwich observations are compared with the
Nautical Almanac value; the Washington observations with the
value given in the American Ephemeris.

From Greenwich and Washington observations of horizontal

diameter, the concluded value is 82’ 2.509
From similar obs. of vertical diameter 82 2 .565
The concluded value is 32 2 .54

giving a correction — 1.46 to the Amer. Ephem.
ve — 1.08 to the Naut. Almanac.
ve + 0 .14 to the Berlin Jahrbuch.

Addendum “A” contains the figures upon which this determi-

nation depends. Owing to a difficulty of determining from the
printed observations the observer with the transit instrument at
Washington in the years 1862-65, all the observations of each
of these years have been treated as if made by a single observer.
‘Bach observation of the sun gives an ‘‘ Apparent error of ephe-
meris diameter” (horizontal and vertical). Addendum “A” con-
tains the ‘error of observer” (by changing signs). If we now
subtract from the “Apparent error of ephemeris diameter” the
“Personal error of the observer” fpr each day, we have a series
of “outstanding errors” which are due to some cause exterior to
the instrument itself, and from which the influence of the observ-
er’s personality has been eliminated.

When thefe residuals are tabulated and their means by months
taken, as in Addendum ‘“B,” it is seen that there is a periodicity
in the series. That this periodicity is not wholly or in main

8 (3)

1V APPENDIX.

caused by a periodic change in the sun itself, is shown by the fact
that these mean monthly “outstanding errors” have on the whole
opposite signs at Greenwich and Washington ; hence it is inferred
that they are in great part due to atmospheric causes. To test
this the Washington observations from 1867 to 1870 have been
tabulated in Addendum ‘‘O,” where I have placed the mean
“outstanding error” of each year under one of the numbers I to
V. These numbers are the observer’s estimate of the goodness
of the image of the sun at the time of observation, I being a
poor image and V a perfect one. It is plain from this table that
the goodness of the image has a direct influence upon the value
of the diameter deduced, as Wagner first showed in his own ease.
(Vierteljahrs. Astr. Gesell., 1873, Jan.) I treated Wagner’s
own observations, which are given in the cited work, in the same
manner as I had previously treated the Washington observations,
and I found that Wagner’s class 4 (on a scale from 1 to 6) gave
mean outstanding error of — 0%.055, while the Washington class
IJ-III, which exactly corresponds to it, gave — 0°.063: also,
his class 3 gave + 0°.029, while the corresponding Washington
class (III-IV) gave + 0°.180.

The agreement of signs shows that the influence of the goodness
of image on deduced horizontal diameters is in the same direction
at Washington and Poulkova: the discrepancy in amounts is
probably due to different habits in assigning the weights.

To show how rough a division of observations on account of
state of the image will show an influence in the deduced diame-
ters, I divided the Washington observations into two classes:
Ist, ‘those made when the sky was perfectly clear; and 2d, those
made when, according to the estimates of the watchmen of the
Observatory, the cloudiness was from 5 to 10 (10 = wholly
cloudy). The results are given below :—

TABLE oF OuTSTANDING ERRORS IN Sun’s DIAMETER AS AFFECTED BY THE
CLOUDINESS OF THE SKY AT NOON.

Horizontal Diameter, Vertical Diameter.
Year. Cloud = 0. Cloud = 5 to 10. Cloud = 0. Cloud = 5 to 10.
1867 = 5 (0333 + 0°.012 es (As + 0.35
1868 — 0 .047 + 0.030 == Il 4a + 0.45
1869 0.000 + 0.039 +0 .75 + 0.11
1870 — 0.093 + 0.014 —= (I) 70 — 0.44
I applied the same test to Greenwich Obs. for 1866, and found:
Horizontal Diameter. Vertical Diameter.
Cloud = 0. Cloud = 5-10. Cloud = 0. Cloud = 5-10.
1866 — 0°.022 + 0°.010 -L 0.55 =) Aol

which agrees in horizontal diameter with Washington Observa-
tions, but is contrary in vertical diameter.

(4)

APPENDIX.

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APPENDIX.

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APPENDIX.

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(9)

oh

‘ ON THE ALLUVIAL BASIN OF THE MISSISSIPPI
RIVER STYLED THE DELTA.

By PROF. C. G. FORSHEY.
(Reap 1874, Marcu 28.)

The Mississippi River has a hydrographic basin embracing
1,244,000 square miles * ‘The rainfall upon this area, and its
abrasions in travel towards the Gulf, have thrown upon the basin
below Cape Girardeau, an alluvial bed, extending thence south-
ward to the sea, whose area is computed by Prof. Forshey at
38,706 square miles, about 335 of the entire hydrographic basin.

The river runs through this basin, its present channel skirting
the bluffs, or diluvial uplands, on the east, from the head of the
Delta, as above, to the south boundary of Tennessee, lat. 35°, a
few miles below Memphis; thence to the mouth of the Yazoo
River, above and near Vicksburg, lat. 32° 22’, the channel
winds midway through the alluvion, and again impinges the
bluffs with its east bank; thence it keeps close to the bluffs to
Baton Rouge, Louisiana, lat. 80° 28’; and thence to its mouth,
at lat. 29°, winds through the alluvial bed 245 miles, projecting
more than 100 miles into the Gulf of Mexico.

De.tta Bounpary.—The alluvion is bounded on the left or
eastern limit by bluffs of some elevation even where the river does
not impinge upon them; whereas, the western limit of its basin is
very obscure in most of its length, and, though easily recognized
by the eye of the geologist, the uplands rise so gently above the
alluvial level as to present no definite boundary to the floods
that annually cover large areas of the alluvion.

On the west or right boundary the limit may be run from the
river at three miles below Cape Girardeau, lat. 37° 20’, south-
westwardly through the White Water Creek and the Castor
Lakes to the St. Francis River; thence across the bottom of
this river to Biack River, and with the right of its alluvion down
to White River, and with the western limit of its alluvial bottom
to the confluence of this and the Arkansas River. Thence the
limit runs up the Arkansas to near and below Pine Bluffs, across to
the Bartholomew, with its right bank to the Washita, and down
west of the alluvion of this river to Harrisonburg, lat. 34° 48’;
thence the alluvion basin is bounded by bluffs to the north shore
of Lake Ocatahoula and its outlet, the Saline, to Red River;

* In an article published in the Concordia Intelligencer, Jan. 20, 1840,
Prof. Forshey computes the area of the basin at 1,300,000 miles The
Delta survey of Humphreys and Abbott gives 1,244,000 provisionally
adopted till more accurately determined.

(10)

APPENDIX. li

thence up the Red River to Cotile, and down Cotile and Bayou
Bluff to the Cocodrie, and with its right bank and the Zeche and
Vermilion to the Gulf of Mexico, longitude 92° west.

The eastern limit on the Gulf is at longitude 89°, and the width
of the basin on the Gulf front is nearly 180 miles, while at
Natchez it is 28 miles; at Gaines’ Landing, lat. 33° 30’, it is
90 miles, and but little less above that point to near the mouth
of Ohio River.

Exceprions.—Within this area—nearly all below the level of
the Mississippi’s high water, there are various areas that are
not alHuvial. Some ridges have considerable length, such as the
Bloomfield in Missouri, and the Crowley Ridge in Arkansas,
more than 100 miles long and very narrow, lying between the
St. Francis and Black rivers; also the Bastrap and Macon Hills
in north Louisiana, and the Sicily Island and Avoyilles on
Ouachita and Red Rivers. All these are subtracted in com-
puting the area of the alluvial basin, still leaving a tract of land
with an average of 12 feet below the highest water mark of tfe
Mississippi River at points opposite, and measuring 38,706
square miles. ~

This is the extent'in greatest floods of the Fresh water DELTA
SEA.

APPARENT GEOLOGICAL History.—The testimony left on the
features of the land shows the drift beds in the form of bluffs on
both sides the basin, and of indefinite lateral extent. The drain-
age of the great hydrographic basin has unquestionably eroded
the bed now occupied by the alluvion; and whether in concen-
trated form as now, or in several or many parallel streams, the
Mississippi has cut out for itself the delta basin, and thrown
down upon its lap the varied detritus brought from the abrasions
of its many tributaries.

The diluvial beds thus worn away lie upon a tertiary, at various
points exposed on either side of the basin. The depth to which
the bed has been cut (the thickness of the alluvion) is ascertained
by only a very few sections, but sufficient to warrant the conclu-
sion for all its northern half, say above lat. 32° 30’, that this
depth is rarely greater than the deepest portions of the present
shifting channel, about 100 feet.

Ample testimony exists, and it is everywhere observable, that
the river changes its bed with ease and rapidity, showing that
the material removed to give the channel-way is of recent alluvial
deposit, and that at least so far as these changes have occurred,
the depth of the alluvion has for a minimum 100 feet or more.

At points further down, we know not at what limit, a bay from
the Gulf has been gradually filled with alluvial material, the
marine waters being driven back, and the deposits cast on the
bottom of the sea, until at the present age, the alluvion has,
greatly invaded the basin proper of the Gulf of Mexico.

(11)

ili APPENDIX.

The protrusion along the margin of the Gulf is manifestly
eighty miles or more, if we assume the line of the convex shore
of the Gulf to be continued from west of Vermilion Bay to the
shore of the Mississippi Sound at Bay St. Louis. This line
passes through the city of New Orleans.

In the progress of the stupendous work of filling the whole
Gulf area* of 700,000 square miles, and of average depth of
3000 feet or more, by the Mississippi and its auxiliary streams,
the delta we are now considering has projected beneath the pre-
sent Gulf surface an enormous plateau with less than ten fathoms
water soundings, which extends from five miles outside the pre-
sent passes of the Mississippi, westward, and has a breadth in
front of the Caillon and Atchafalaya of more than sixty miles,
and only approaches the shore west of the Vermilion Buy, the
western limit of the delta proper.

Judging from the bottom samples brought up by the sound-
ings, the alluvial materials characteristic of the Mississippi’s con-
tributions lie upon and form the bottom of the Gulf for some
seventy miles still further advanced, in a crescent southward and
eastward of this ten-fathom curve, even to where the soundings
reach beyond 500 fathoms.

This, then, is the provisional southward or Gulf limit of the
great alluvion.

ToPoGRAPHY OF THE Basin.—The river’s banks are everywhere
the highest ground within the basin, including in this description
of the banks all the shores of the Old River lakes which are so
numerous along its tortuous course.

And as the river has elevated or built up the alluvion by drop-
ping upon its lap the sedimentary and transported contributions
eroded from the great hydrographic basin, it will be obvious to
the student that the highest portions of these banks are found to
be nearly on the level (a little below) the greatest high-water
marks, as we shall see below from the chapter on the physics of
the river.

A line of levels transverse to the current, which runs mainly
southward, shows everywhere an undulating surface to the ground ;
for ‘‘the delta is everywhere threaded by interlocking bayous
and navigable channels, placing every cultivable acre of land
immediately upon or very near to steamboat navigation. In this

* According to Humphreys and Abbot, the contributions of the river,
as held in suspension, would raise a square mile 241 feet high. Add five
times this amonnt for material pushed forward on the river bottom, and we
have 241 x 6==1446/ as the height of the one mile block. With a gulf
depth of 3000 feet our contributions would fill half a square mile per year,
and would fill the Gulf area of 700,000 square miles in 1,400,000 years. But
as the other streams discharging into the Gulf bear probably one-fourth
the amount of sediment furnished by the Mississippi, this period would be
reduced to nearly a million years.

(12)

APPENDIX. lV

particular it has no parallel known to civilized man.” These
bayous and rivers have their channels mainly parallel to the
river’s course, and they serve as drains to the rain-waters fall-
ing upon the delta; and before levee history, and partially now,
they serve to bear off the waters that overflow the lower portions
of the banks of the Mississippi itself.

The depths of the greatest undulations below the river’s high-
water level are about thirty-seven feet, though such depressions
are very rare. ‘Ten, twelve, and fifteen feet are much more com-
mon; but all the depressions are greater at the greater distances
from the present channel.* The average depth reduced from all
the sections leveled, is about 12 feet. The delta sea, if raised
to the level of the river, at like latitudes, would have a mean
depth of 12 feet. In all great floods, then, the entire delta is
menaced by the river’s flowing reservoir of 12 feet average depth
of water. Thus much does the great river lack of having filled
and replaced with deposits what has been carried away by its
erosions.

PECULIARITIES OF THE PHysIcs OF THE River.—The mode by
which the river Mississippi produces the formation of the alluvial
delta, is not in general terms different from that of any river or
rivulet, whether great or small.

Th some particulars the mode is peculiar; and as these peculiari-
ties have been determined by the most elaborate investigation yet
given to any great river, the writer upon these phenomena can
speak with confidence, and may once for all give credit to the great
work of Humphreys and Abbott on the “ Physics and Hydraulics
of the Mississippi River.”

The greatest of these peculiarities is found in the perpetual tur-
bidness of the waters. Three rivers from the west, the Missouri,
the Arkansas, and the Red River, contribute turbid waters in
both flood and low-water seasons. The Missouri, however,
yields the greater portion of the transported matter, and gives
the muddy hue to the waters; the other two rivers yield ferru-
ginous matter, tinged with red, that modifies the color of the
river below them, especially in flood seasons of these rivers.

The Mississippi bears in suspension an alluminous clayey
matter, of extremely fine comminution, that amounts in quantity
to about one part by weight in 1800, and by measurement one
volume in nearly 3000, as shown by many thousands of careful
tests, carried through two entire years, and derived from all
portions of the river’s flowing volume. f

* The river bank of the Washita, at 75 miles west from Vicksburg, is
12 feet below the Mississippi’s bank ; and on this line of levels, at only 12
miles east of the Washita, the land is 38 feet below the Mississippi level ;
the greatest depression found in the 15 lines of level run across the delta.

+ The writer hereof performed these measurements, as well as others,
as the Hydrometric Engineer’s Assistant of the Delta Survey.

(13)

Vv APPENDIX.

In addition to the matter transported in suspension by the
river’s current, there is borne forward by the mechanical force of
the waters a vast volume of material of coarser and heavier kind,
which is rolled and pushed along the bottom of the channel, be-
lieved by the writer to exceed in volume the suspended matter
by five (possibly twenty) fold. Its quantity is immeasurable,
but proved to be vast.

As moving water in any river has many oblique currents, due
to irregularity of channel surfaces, much of the transported mine-
ral matter is kept in suspension, in spite of its specific gravity.
In consequence, the forward-moving matter may be, and often
is, lifted and dropped again and again, thousands of times, in
its progress. Whenever any volume of water drifts into an
eddy, or finds a slower movement, portions of its sediment are
dropped, only to be lifted again when impinged on by an oblique
and upward current. Along a bottom of ascending plane, even
heavy materials are rolled or pushed upward to greater eleva-
tions, even to the river’s surface, and thus frequently are thrown
out upon the highest banks, where obstructed currents can no
longer drift them forward; and they thus form permanent addi-
tions to the land.

It is thus that the immediate front banks of the river are
highest. The escaping waters, retarded by obstructions, leave
their heaviest load of sand near the banks, and bear forward the
lighter materials into the lower grounds, back from the front
banks. And thus is realized and explained the familiar fact that
the front surface-lands are of heaviest and often coarse sandy
material, while the remoter surfaces are of more tenacious and
clayey composition.*

The river and its auxiliary bayous have thus occupied, at
various periods, nearly all the areas of the delta, building up,
carving away, and replacing the beds of alluvion, varying in
character from coarse sand to the finest blue clay, all over the
basin.

It is obvious, in this process of changing its channel and re-
newing its walls, that the river must have many lower and
higher portions in its banks, and that in considerable floods the
water must be pouring out at many places, and finding its way
down the delta through the laterals, and often through the forests,
that cover the lower, but mainly emerged, portions of the basin.
And hence the necessity, when man claimed the occupancy of the
delta, of levees.

Levees. — When the French discoverers pitched their pal-

* It must not be inferred, hence, that these facts appear at all depths in
the alluvial basin; for in the shifting of channels, sand-banks are of.en
covered by clayey material, and the converse. The river’s caving banks
illustrate this in multiplied instances. No rule applies to sections of the
alluvion; they differ at every hundred or thousand feet.

(14)

APPENDIX. vi

metto tents where the city of New Orleans now stands, they
found themselves annually liable to floods that they must guard
against; and in 1717 the governor ordered his engineer, De la
Tour, to throw up a dike round the fort and the proposed city.
They commenced planting on the adjacent fertile grounds, and
found that crops were impossible without protection; and they
then extended the earthen embankments along the river in front
and made guard levees running back, to guide the flood waters
past them. The new arrivals of colonists planted the land still
above and below them, and extended the protection still further.
And still they found themselves flanked by the floods, and again
new settlers carried the works further and further upwards.

These efforts resulted in laws regulating levees, as communities
grew up along the river, and upon the interior streams partly
reclaimed by front levees and partly by similar works on the
bayous. After the purchase of the country from France, the
American population rapidly increased, and extended the settle-
ments upward and into the interior, invited by the extraordinary
productiveness of the lands and the mildness of the climate; and
laws regulating the levee building and enjoining upon every pro-
prietor to build and maintain his own levee, were enacted and
enforced with much rigor.

By the year 1838, when the writer’s labors in connection with
levees commenced, the protection was pretty complete from sixty
miles below New Orleans up to Red River, and a large portion of
the river front for one hundred miles above Red River was being
protected. And still the flood waters would flank the plantations,
as the levees were carried upward and upward. Several large
outlets had been closed. Bullitt’s Bayou, and L’Argent in Con-
cordia were leveed; and such were the happy effects of these
works on the interior country, that in 1840 the writer published
the bold proposition to levee and master the whole alluvial basin.
This was contrary to nearly universal opinion as to practicability,
but soon found adherents. The demand for land-dominion fast
moulded opinion.

The universal impression, without much reason, that the river
must fill up its bed, and cause a constant raising of the levees,
began to give way, and we soon (by 1847) ran our levees to the
very northern limits of Louisiana.

! The theorists, however, nearly all maintained that the proposi-

tion of the gradual elevation of the levees was heretical and unsafe.
In opposition to this, experience, now a century old or more, was
appealed to, which showed points of land near and above New
Orleans that were as high (or nearly) as the highest water marks
of recent times.

The contest ran through a decade of years, and the triumph of
the new doctrine was finally due more to the desire to possess the
lands, than to any scientific conviction. In 1851, the great Delta

(15)

Vil APPENDIX.

survey began, which ended in sustaining the grounds then as-
sumed, and announcing the practicability of the total reclamation
of the alluvion by levees.

In illustration of the sentiments of those times, I quote from
an essay written by myself in 1849, entitled the “ Physics of the
Mississippi River,” deduced from twelve years’ observations and
studies.

‘« State of Levees and their Servitudes.—24. (a) The levees
of Louisiana may be regarded as in full operation for fifty years,
for a distance of one hundred miles from Bayou Lafourche down
below the city. These levees have an average height no greater
than those now being erected in the upper portion of the State ;
and the highest water-marks known, whether within the levee
districts or ‘not, are no higher than many points of the land; and
some of the best river. plantations present long reaches without
levees.

‘““(b) The river, therefore, has not raised its bed, nor reached

point of elevation, in recent years, greater than its level when
it depositea its high grounds.

‘“(c) To maintain levees in future, therefore, we shall have to
raise them no higher than in the past.

“25. (a) The location of levees below Baton Rouge was chiefly
made before those further above, and consequently were placed
too near the bank to admit of the new abrasions, arising from cut-
offs, from extended levees, and from the never-ceasing steamboat
waves.

““(b) For this reason they are now being destroyed by caving
banks and by lashing waves of steamers and winds.

‘““(c) A period has arrived when these new elements have cut
away the small battures; and the high waters, which the geology
of this alluvion shows to have been frequent, geologically speak-
ing, in past ages, are recurring, and our levees are wholly un-
equal to the task of restraining the waters”? =* =* 4) 5%

At the beginning of the late war of secession, the levees were
extended nearly to the head of the Delta, leaving only intervals
near and above the inlet rivers, the Red, Arkansas, and St.
Francis, amounting in all to less than forty miles. And while
many of these levees were very frail and liable to frequent
crevasses, many others, and especially those which closed the
great outlets, were substantial dikes.

During the war many of the great levees were cut as a military
necessity, and many others broke of themselves, and from neglect
the cuts widened, until most of the country was remitted to deso-
lation.

The State of Louisiana undertook to restore her levees, and
has expended some twelve millions of dollars since the war in the
attempt. But the States of Arkansas and Mississippi have done
very little in the work of restoration.

(16)

APPENDIX. Vili

The floods of this spring (1874) have been so extraordinary as
to break the levees of Mississippi and Louisiana, and to devastate
these States with that of Arkansas by a most disastrous inunda-
tion, involving loss of life, property, stock, homes and improve-
ments in one vast ruin, followed by famine and threatening
pestilence.

While the flood height in most of the alluvial basin is not
greater than in some previous floods, for example in 1815, 1828,
1850, 1862, and 1871, the great extent of population and the bad
condition of the levees have given an intensity and breadth to
the suffering and devastation, incomparably greater than has ever
been experienced on the continent.

The people, in their utter impotence and poverty, turn with
prayers of desperation to the National Legislature for bread to
save them from famine, and for the strong national arm and
purse to rebuild and take charge of their levees, or the people
must perish, and the Delta be remitted to the dominion of the
annual floods.

A quotation from an essay read by the writer before the
American Association at Dubuque, in August, 1872, will form a
proper closing for this contribution :—

“The fertility of the soils of the Delta both by analysis and
experiment, is of the highest quality ; in fact, it is almost inex-
haustible. Accordingly, it produces, in its southern two degrees,
the great staples of rice and sugar in abundance and perfection
unknown in any other portion of North America. In fact, sugar
is cultivated only in the Delta, and south of latitude 31° 30’. In
nearly all portions of the Delta, but more thoroughly in the five
degrees north from 31° (north of Red River), cotton grows in
the Delta lands in double the quantities of the best uplands; and
corn, and sweet and Irish potatoes, in every portion of the Delta,
grow with facility and abundance, and with a minimum of culti-
vation. In the northern border the cereals grow and mature to
the satisfaction of the agriculturist. The fruits of the tropical
and temperate zones—oranges, figs, grapes, apples, and peaches
—are duly distributed and easily grow, each in its proper locality,
over the Delta; while pecans, the most valuable of all nuts, grow
in wild profusion over the entire alluvial basin.

“The remarks as to productiveness are applicable to every
acre not submerged, and not merely to chosen spots, as upon the
uplands adjacent on either side.

‘“We may compute then that 22,920,320 acres of actually pro-
ductive land are upon this alluvial basin. In this respect it is
probably the largest body of like fertility known to geography.

“The forests of the Delta are remarkable for the largeness of
the trees, and the exuberance of foliage and vines.

“The oaks and the cypress are the leading timber trees,
though many others are used. The live oaks in the southern

ay

1X APPENDIX.

portion are large and very abundant, indicating mainly a soil not
often inundated. But the cypress trees of vast height and mag-
nitude, andof unlimited demand, grow best in the lowest swamps,
and do greatly redeem and render equally valuable (as cultivated
land) the most impracticable portions of the whole valley. Fifty
thousand feet of lumber, clear stuff, from an acre of cypress swamp,
is no unusual product.

“Freedom from the extremes of heat and cold forms a great
feature of this Delta; and distinguishes it greatly above the allu-
vions of the Nile, the Ganges, the Amazon, and the Orinoco.

“The annual mean temperature at New Orleans, Baton Rouge,
Natchez, Vicksburg, Helena, Memphis, and Cairo, shows a regular
gradation from 69° to 5u°.

“So inviting is the temperature of this Delta, during the
largest portion of the year, from the northern limit of the cotton
region, southward; and so promptly, uniformly, and abundantly
does the soil respond to the labors of the husbandman, that its hun-
dreds of winding streams were lined with settlers before the war,
even anterior to any certain protection, by levees, from frequent.
inundation. It was common to say that a loss of two crops in
ten, by overflow, could be better borne than the half crops pro-
duced upon the uplands.”

(18)

II.
ON THE ZODIACAL LIGHT.
By PROFESSOR STEPHEN ALEXANDER.
(Reap 1874, June 6.)

As to the region of the zodiacal light M. Laplace, speaking
of the atmosphere of the sun, says: ‘‘The atmosphere at the
equator cannot extend beyond the point where the centrifugal
force exactly balances gravitation; for it is manifest that beyond
that limit the fluid must itself be dissipated. As respects the
sun, that limit is at a distance from his centre of the radius of
the orbit of a planet which would complete its revolution in a
time equal to that of the rotation of the sun. The atmosphere
of the sun, therefore, does not extend even to the orbit of Mer-
cury; and consequently it does not produce the zodiacal light,
which seems to extend even beyond the earth’s orbit. Moreover,
this atmosphere, whose polar axis must be at least two-thirds of
that of the equator, is very far from having the lenticular form
which observations give to the zodiacal light.”*

Next, as to the origin and the constitution of the material which
gives us the zodiacal light, Laplace says: “If among the zones
abandoned by the atmosphere of the sun, there should be molecules
too volatile either themselves to combine, or to unite with the
planets, they ought while continuing to circulate about the sun,
to present all the phenomena of the zodiacal light, without op-
posing a sensible resistance to the diverse bodies of the planetary
system, either because of the extreme rarity of those volatile
molecules, or because their motion is very nearly the same with
that of the planets which they encounter.”

It will be observed that the first of the two quotations here
made, estimates as probable that the material from which the
zodiacal light proceeds, itself extends beyond the earth’s orbit.
This is in fact intimated by the existence of what in German ac-
counts of observations has been designated as the “‘gegenschein,”
which is seen in the part of the heavens opposite to the sun; the
existence of which phenomenon is established by numerous ob-
servations, such especially as are detailed in various numbers of
the ‘‘Astronomische Nachrichten.”

Both eastern and western appearances are reported as occur-
ring simultaneously, by the late Rev. George Jones, A.M.,
Chaplain in the U.S. Navy; these phenomena are fully reported
in vol. III of the Report of the U. S. Japan Expedition, and the
extension of the light to both sides of the heavens is confirmed by

* Systéme du Monde, Book IV, chap. X. } Ibid., Note VII.
9 (19)

il APPENDIX.

the observations of Col., now Prof. C. G. Forshey, made while *
he was stationed in an elevated and dry region of Texas, where,
as stated by Prof. Forshey to the author of this paper, the phe-
nomenon was a common occurrence; the appearance of the zo-
diacal light in lower Louisiana is very different.

All this makes it more difficult to admit that the material in
question can be inaintained in position with the sun for its centre
of reference; the conservative influence of the great planets being
not supposable within the extended limits of the solar system ;
though the satellites of Saturn are efficient in that way, main-
taining the position of the rings under the more stringent con-
ditions of a closer arrangement.

Added to this is the consideration of the enormous extent which
would seem to be required on both sides of the ecliptic, to account
for the great breadth of the base of the zodiacal illumination,
even after the disappearance of twilight in the evening, or before
daylight in the morning; all which seems to be true of the more
dense, and, if surrounding the sun, also the more distant portion
of the material in question, which ought, unless uncommonly ex-
tensive, to be seen under a smaller angle than the other portions
of the same; a difficulty to which the hypothesis recently ad-
vanced by Mr. Richard Proctor, F.R.A.S., viz., that the zodiacal
light is due to a closely arranged group of meteors, would seem
to be especially liable; and all the more so if, ‘‘assuming” (as he
himself says ‘“‘we are bound to do’) a considerable degree of
flatness in the actual figure of the zodiacal disk, and more espe-
cially ‘of its more distant positions.”* And just ¢hat difficulty
still remains; if we even so far admit Prof. Arthur W. Wright’s
conclusion from his experiments on the polarization of the Zodi-
acal Light, viz.: “that the light is reflected from matter in a solid
Shaben | ei)

Other objections to the hypothesis which would make the ma-
terial to which we owe the zodiacal light to be an appendage of
a lenticular or other form referable to the sun as its centre, are
very exhaustively considered by Rev. Mr. Jones in the volume
already referred to.

The hypothesis that the zodiacal light is due to reflection from
the earth’s atmosphere, is also discussed and rejected by him.
Upon this, however, it will not be necessary here to comment ;
as it, most probably, is no longer insisted upon by any one.

It remains then to consider, with what modifications we may
admit Mr. Jones’s hypothesis: That the nebulous material which
gives the zodiacal light, is a terrestrial appendage; and also what
is the conservative foree which may insure its preservation of

* In a long and carefully considered ‘‘ Note on the Zodiacal Light’’ in
the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. XXXI, No.
1 (Nov. 11, 1870).

+ American Journal of Science, &c., Third Series, Vol. VII, No. 41.

(20)

APPENDIX. ili

form, and its maintenance in its revolution around the earth, even
in close proximity to the moon.

Antecedent to all that, however, will be found to be the ques-
tion of density, and of mode of illumination, as well as, in its
proper connection, the question of parallax.

The density of the material in question seems, indeed, to be
that intimated in the description of M. Laplace already quoted,
viz.: that which pertains to the state of molecules too volatile
either to combine themselves, or to unite with the planets. And
this is confirmed by the result of the spectrum-analysis; which
has led to no other reliable conclusion than that of the extreme
rarity of this same material.* The same rarity is withal indi-
cated by the transparency of the material. Of this Rev. George
Jones says, under date of Dee. 30, 1854 (in lat. 10°.46/ N., long.
89° 31’ W. of Greenwich), ‘I also this morning gave attention
to the stars as seen through the zodiacal light, and found even
at 4" 30", when the effulgent light below the zigzag” (on the
chart) “is very strong, that, with the naked eye, I could readily
make out stars of the sixth magnitude within the effulgent light,
. ... also a line of four stars below 19 Libra... . the two
northernmost of these last are of the seventh magnitude, yet I
think the naked eye detected them within this effulgent light;
but the last are near its upper edge. All this shows the great
transparency of the substance giving the zodiacal light.”+

The consideration of these phenomena inclines to the conclusion
that the zodiacal light proceeds from particles which are molecu-
lar (at least in size), and not from discrete, though very small
solids. It then must also, largely, be ¢ransmitted light; and so
the illuminated material appear brighter in conformity with the
Special direction in which the light is transmitted. Chaplain
Jones illustrates this in part—though he refers the light almost
entirely to reflection—when he says: “It seems to be quite con-
clusive, on an inspection of these charts, that we never at any one
time see the whole actual extent of the zodiacal light.” This can
perhaps be elucidated by noticing a common event—a cloud sil-
vered at one edge by the rays of the declining sun. The sun may
be shining on the bordering quite around that cloud; and if so, it
is sending off, from every part of the border, an equally brilliant,
silvery light. But our eye is in a position to catch this reflection
from ‘‘only one portion of it, and the rest is dull to our vision.
If we could, with great rapidity, change our positions, other por-
tions of the silvered edge would show themselves, according to our
changes of place. So, also, when a rainbow is presented to our
eye; the myriads of drops of falling water, in the whole rain-

* Such was, in effect, the statement of Prof. Charles A. Young (as the
result of his experience and that of others), in a personal communication
with the author of this paper.

{ Vol. III of “ Report of Japan Expedition,’’ No. 371, at p. 542.

(21)

iv APPENDIX.

shower, are sending off from each drop reflections of light in all
directions, and the universal atmospbere about us is full of these
brilliant, variously-colored rays; but only that portion which to
us forms the rainbow arch, can reach our eye, and all the rest is
lost to our sight.”

“So it is also with the zodiacal light; and the proof that we
never see the whole extent at once, is manifest in the following
facts :—

“1. That when I was in a position north of the ecliptic, the
main body of the zodiacal light was on the northern side of that
line.

“9, When I was south of the ecliptic, the main body of the
zodiacal light was on its southern side.

‘‘3. When my position was near or on the ecliptic, the light
was equally divided by the ecliptic, or nearly so.

‘4. When, by the earth’s rotation on its axis, I was, during
the night, carried rapidly to or from the ecliptic, the change of
the apex, and of the direction of the boundary lines, was equally
great, and corresponded to my change of place.

“5. That as the ecliptic changed its position, as respects the
horizon, the entire shape of the zodiacal light became changed,
which would result from new positions of the nebulous matter
coming into position to give visible reflection; while portions
lately visible were no longer giving us such a reflection.

“The first four of these results were not always uniform; but
the exceptions were few, and were probably occasioned by the
nebulous rings not being exactly in the plane of the ecliptic.”—
(Introduction to Mr. Jones’s Report, pp. 16 and 17.)

Mr. Jones in his § x adds to this: ‘‘ From the deductions
made in § I, it is apparent that we cannot expect to get a parallax
of this ring; and that we can hope for only approximations to
its width.”

The partial illumination on the side toward the observer was.
indeed a negative to parallax in excess; somewhat as aberration
is in its effect on the annual parallax of the stars, though not in
the same way.

Mr. Jones might have added, that the circumstances which he
mentions would also be in the way of ascertaining the node of
the nebulous band, and must render questionable any supposed
determination of that.

The light, as we have said, being from particles which are
molecular, and the whole material from which the light comes to
us remarkably transparent, the light itself cannot be regarded as.
being a mere reflection ;* but the result of the more complicated

* Mr. Proctor also seems inclined to admit the possibility of a more
intense illumination in special directions; though not decided as to its
cause, when he says: ‘If some solar action, for example, powerful lumi-
nosity in certain definite directions—as, for instance, near the plane of the

(22)

APPENDIX. Vv

phenomena supposable in the case of transmission. The illumi-
nation will therefore be the most intense in the general direction
of the transmitted beams; 7. e., in this case, in the plane of the
ecliptic, or else parallel to that plane; the appearance being
closely analogous to that which we see in the atmosphere, when
the sun illuminates the partially transpareat vapors through the
rifts in the clouds, and thus produces the appearance familiarly
described as ‘“‘the sun’s drawing water.”

The light being transmitted, other phenomena would also be
in place, among which are absorption—possibly interference, and
also fluorescence; new waves of light being originated in this case,
as well as, perhaps, in that of the comets, the spectrum-analysis of
whose light seems to show, among other phenomena, characteris-
tics of selfluminous material.

To this it may now be added that the nebulous ring of chap-
lain Jones may well be regarded as having not indeed the lentic-
ular form attributed by older hypotheses, and which he does not
claim, nor a ring like that of Saturn, nor yet a ring of greater
thickness, though partially luminous indeed in appearance, as
Mr. Jones would have it, but what may rather be termed a girdle,
of no great thickness it may be, but yet of very considerable
width ; such as will provide for the breadth of the zodiacal light,
and the extended elliptical spot opposite to the sun, which con-
stitutes “‘gegenschein,” and which latter would seem to be almost
wholly due to reflection. Such a girdle, moreover, could not
always—perhaps hardly ever—have all its breadth enveloped in
the earth’s shadow. There may also be some reason to suppose
that the curvature of the girdle, on one side at least, is such as
would be due to a portion of a spheroidal shell such as has here-
tofore been described in connection with other things connected
with the exposition of certain harmonies of the Solar System.

But the question at once becomes a pertinent one, How can
such a girdle escape destruction by the continued perturbation
of the moon, acting in close proximity? The answer to this
question may be found, 7f the girdle be so situated that its time
of revolution around the earth shall be equal to the periodic
dime of the moon.

What is requisite for the fulfilment of that condition will first
be considered, and then the phenomena that seem to be accordant
with its actual fulfilment.

The middle line of the girdle will form an oval, or rather con-
sist of two half ovals somewhat different in curvature. The half
oval nearest the moon may pass between the moon and the earth,
as in Fig. 1, or else outside of the moon, as in Fig. 2; in both

sun’s equator—in some such way as light is caused to appear in radial
lines through and beyond the heads of comets, our power of theorizing
from such conclusions as have been dealt with in this paper, would be

limited.”
(23 )

vi APPENDIX.

of which E represents the earth and M the moon. Now it first
becomes convenient to ascertain the periodic time of a particle, or

Fig. 1.

of an inappreciable mass, revolving at the mean distance of the
moon; and this may be ascertained by means of the formula for
the periodic time which we designate as (T); M and m being the
masses in question; and we shall have

Qnrz *
(Oa /M+m
Then when m is insensible,
: Inrk,
Tai ace?

and, when r is the same for both,

’ Vv
is = eas whence

* Encyclopedia Metropolitana, Physical Astronomy, Sect. v.

(24)

APPENDIX. . vii

our (T).

Having determined the periodic times of a particle, or of an
insensible mass, by the aid of this, we may next ascertain the
periodic time at an assumed distance E A, situated as in Fig. 1,
by the application of Kepler’s third law: let this be represented
by (6).

Now let the attractive forces of the moon and the earth, acting
at A, be separately computed in accordance with the law of gra-

(T’) =

Saute M : :
vitation (Ga) and then, taking the difference of the two forces,
let the same be expressed in terms of earth’s force F, and let it

be denoted by F, and (¢’) represent the periodic time due to f Fo
-at the same distance H A. We shall have
(eyes? (ws
PR
q
If (¢’)? thus ascertained is found to agree with the moon’s peri-
odic time, the point A is well determined. If there is any differ-
ence, that may be made to disappear by the application of the
method of trial and error. When A is situated beyond the moon,
the sum of the attractive forces must enter instead of their differ-
ence; and so also in the determination of the point B.
The positions of the points A and B, on the hypothesis that

the girdle on the one side is between the earth and the moon,
may be learned from the following table:—

In Perigee | Mean Dist. | In Apogee
Moon’s distance | 56.964 60.273 63.5834
Int. dist. HA 48.309 51.116 53.9224
Ext. dist. EH B 56.790 60.090 63.389

On the hypothesis that the girdle encompasses the moon, as in
IN, Pe
Mean Dist.
70.285

In Perigce

66.426

In Apogee

Dist. Ext. 74.1444

The distances are all expressed in terms of the radius of the
earth’s equator.

The position of the points in question ultimately depends upon
the ratio of the masses; so that the E A and EB of the girdle
in apogee, perigee, and mean distance, respectively, preserve their
ratios to the moon’s own distances, and hence A and B move
in ellipses similar to the moon’s own orbit; the girdle at those
places expanding and contracting. The self-adjusting material

(25 )

viii APPENDIX.

of the girdle will be brought everywhere into coincidence with
this; or would be, if the approximate coincidence originally ex-
isted. Then the ratios of E A, E B, and even those of the moon’s
distance from the centre of gravity to them being all constant, the
angular velocity (inversely as the square of the radius vector)
will also be determined for all the same (and all the radii vectores
answering to the same ratio), each series on its own scale; and
this involves the very principle of the conservation of areas.

CONFIRMATORY PHENOMENA.
Zodiacal Light:

(1.) Lengthening into a narrow beam when the light is trans-
mitted through the sides of the girdle, as at New Moon, or at the
Full.

(2.) Appearing bright, but short and broad at the quadratures. ©

(8.). Exhibiting a bright spot or patch of light opposite to the
moon soon after the full where the longer axis of the oval termi-
nates on that side; which bright spot rises from day to day, as
the moon moves on toward her last quarter. It has advanced
toward the top of the zodiacal illumination before the last quarter
comes. .

Observations of these phenomena have as yet been few; but
Chaplain Jones’s charts seem also to confirm them.

Postscript.—The several parts of the girdle, as they revolve
with the moon, all describe ellipses similar to the moon’s own
orbit; but the outline form of the girdle itself (¢. e. of its middle
line), does not differ much from a circle, except in the region near
the moon.

Quoting the preceding table of dimensions, we have :—

In Perigee | Mean Dist. | In Apogee
Moon’s distance 56.964 60.273 63.5834
E A, Int. dist. of Girdle | 48.309 51.116 53.9223
EB, Ext. dist. of Girdle | 56.790 60.090 63.389

At P and Q, where the moon’s attraction is in the direction
of a tangent, the accumulation of material may be different from
that at places further around toward B, but with the moon’s time
of revolution enforced, the distance E P (earth’s central attrac-
tion fully operative) must be just a trifle less than the moon’s
distance. ,

Consulting the table, we find that is also true of EB. The feeble
action of the moon will insist upon a small deviation outward at
the sides. But from P, through B around to Q, the existing
distance of the moon from the earth’s centre will be nearly pre-
served. But then even that requires a swelling out of the girdle

(26)

APPENDIX. 1X

as the moon approaches the apogee, and a shrinking as she goes

~ from there to the perigee;
the different portions A,
B, &c., each fulfilling all
the conditions of rotation
in an ellipse similar (per-
turbation apart) to the
moon’s orbit.

The permanent distor-
tion of the girdle by the
moon’s action is analogous
to, and yet different from,
an enormous ¢dal action ;
but with a tide in which
the variation of the attrac-
tive force in the inverse
ratio of the square of the
distance, and the variation
at different distances of the
centrifugal force of revolu-
tion have a very great in-
fluence. So A, the place
of what ought to be the flood tide, is the point nearesé the earth ;
the stringent conditions of slow time of revolution and contest
of forces bringing about that negative tide-like result.

The girdle form is not much troubled with the objection that
the earth’s shadow ought to cut it in two at the direction of the
meridian at midnight.

It will be perceived that the position of the point A is within
the limit assigned by Laplace to the region where the moon, in
ancient times, may have lost her atmosphere. The conditions of
revolution, &c. here give a centrifugal aid to the material, which
has to go too slow for its mere place, so that the nearest point
is for mean distance (60.273 — 51.116), 7. e., 9.157, or more than
one-seventh of the moon’s distance within.

M. Laplace has evidently made use of the ratio which would
make M A and A FE as the square roots of the masses.

It would be very curious certainly, if Saturn’s rings, dusky and
bright, are preserved in place, because that planet has so many
satellites; and our nebulous girdle be kept in place just because
we have but one satellite: but even that is so much more than
belongs to our immediate neighbors.

The earth is, indeed, the Saturn of the minor system interior
to Jupiter, in which system the asteroids and Mars correspond to
Uranus and Neptune of the major system; Karth is the Saturn
(with satellite, girdle and all) ; Venus is the Jupiter, and Mercury
(including material for more than one planet there) is the repre-
sentative of all the small planets on the greater planetary seal.

(27)

x APPENDIX.

Resemblances and Differences of Saturn and the Harth (the
minor Saturn).

1. Abnormal Density; Earth’s too great for the region, Saturn’s
too small. The former took its large density from extra-equatorial
parts of the sun’s atmosphere; latter from material abstracted
from Uranus.

2. Great oblateness in the nebulous state of former time, shown
by the great distance of satellites in both cases.

3. Each has more satellites than any other planet in the same
region. .

4. Saturn’s satellites were formed before his rings, and so kept
the latter in place. The earth’s moon and the girdle agree nearly
in their principal planes and orbit with the plane of the ecliptic;
and were, therefore, probably established before the earth’s axis
got its inclined position.

In completing my account of the zodiacal light, I will tran-
scribe here further details of the agreement of my hypothesis
with observed phenomena.

CasE 1. The zodiacal light appears narrow and tapering just
about the time of the new moon, as though the sun’s light were
indeed transmitted at that time through the least curved, and
probably somewhat rarer, sides of the oval-shaped girdle, and
that for a great part of the length of the oval.

Cass 2. After the new moon, and when the moon is approach-
ing her first quarter; when the moon has set, and the twilight
has disappeared, the zodiacal light does not extend so high as in
the preceding case, its termination is broader, and not so sharply
curved, and the intensity of the light, withal, is not especially
conspicuous; as though the sun’s light, in all us transmission,
passed through the rather less dense portion of the girdle, and
passed out of tt in a direction more across the same (as in the
Fig.), and not so nearly at a tangent to it, as under the circum-
stances indicated in the preceding case.

Case 3. After the Full Moon, and when the moon is approach-
ing her Last Quarter; then before the rising of the moon, and
after the end of twilight, a luminous spot of a considerable size,

(28 )

APPENDIX. xi

and in appearance like the brighter portion of an aurora borealis,
occupies a place in the zodiacal light which is quite accurately
opposite to the moon’s place; and, night after night, as the moon
advances, this luminous spot rises among the stars, so as still to
keep opposite to the moon; as though the somewhat more dense
portion of the further end of the oval (as respects the moon)
were thus more conspicuous than the other portions then in view:
and then, the upper extremity is broad, and not so sharply pointed
: m as is true in Case 1, as though
Jor the reason assigned in Case
2.
mM Case 4. After the Last Quarter
| and before the New Moon, the Zo-
m@ diacal Light of the evening is again
@ faint, as it was before the First
Quarter; as though the illumina-
tion were wholly of that part of
am the girdle beyond the region near
ie the longer axis.

Case 5. When the moon is
nearly in Quadrature, it would seem
that the Zodiacal Light must appear
short and bright, if apparent at all,
after the twilight of the evening; or
before twilight in the morning. Jor
then the sun’s light would be transmit-
ted by a short course through the most
curved, and probably more dense por-
tions, near to one end of the longer
axis of the oval.

These are phenomena to which I invite special attention in the
way of renewed and careful observation.

I should have said that in stating these five cases of appear-
ances of the zodiacal light, I am contemplating the supposition
that the girdle encompasses the moon.

(29)

s

IV.

ON SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL’S OBSERVATIONS
OF THE SATELLITES OF URANUS.
i By E. 8. HOLDEN.
(READ 1874, June 6.)

It is well known that Sir Wini1amM HeErRscuEt suspected that
the planet which he had discovered was accompanied by six
satellites. These he numbered in their order proceeding outwards
from the planet.

I. Period 5 days, 21 hours.

Il. 66 8 79 18 6c
III. a 10) ie Shanes
IV. 13 Seas

Vv. 66 88 c 1 66
VI. aL OU Neve, Wino Seay

Of the existence of satellites II. and IV. there is no manner of
doubt, since they were steadily vbserved by the elder Herschel
from 1787, Jan. 11, to 1810, May 25, and by his son in the years
1828 to 1832, as well as by Lamont, Struve, Lassell, and New-
comb since that time, and all of these observations have been
consistent. .

Satellites I., III., V., and VI., have no such evidence in favor
of their existence as the brighter ones II. and IV.

From the Philosophical Transactions, 1815, where Herschel
has collected all his observations of the satellites of Uranus, it
appears that he supposed satellite I. to have been observed on .
four different occasions, viz. :—

January 18, 1790.
March 27, 1794.
February 15, 1798.
April 17, 1801.

Satellite III. was seen only twice, on March 26 and 27, 1794,
while V. and VI. were suspected at various times.

Lassell, in 1847, discovered two satellites interior to Herschel’s
II., and we owe to him and to his assistant, Marth, a good series
of observations of all four satellites. The periods as determined
by Lassell are—

INAS! GE NOS Oye OL ee
Umbriel: 45> 3) 28 oD)
Mitanians 1S) Mlb BOG Zos6
Oberon TUS lo nooks

(30)

APPENDIX. li

°

It is evident that Herschel’s II. and IV. are Lassell’s Titania
and Oberon.

Lassell’s station at Malta was much better in regard to clear-
ness of sky than Herschel’s in England, his instrumental means
were far superior, and the altitude of Uranus was greater at Malta
in 1864 than in England in 1798, so that we must assume that if
Lassell could not see Herschel’s I., [I1., V., and VI., they did not
exist.

In his report of his observations (Memoirs R. A. §8., vol. 36)
Lassell says that he repeatedly scrutinized the vicinity of the
planet for the purpose of detecting faint satellites exterior to
Oberon, and that he never suspected the existence of any such.
Therefore, in the examination of Herschel’s observations, I shall
reject all those referring to satellites V.and VI., and for the
same reason [ shall reject all those referring to satellite III. ; i
this latter case we have the added testimony of five months’ ob-
servations with the Alvan Clark refractor of the U. S. Naval
Observatory at Washington.

There remain, then, of Herschel’s observations only those of
suspected interior satellites which it will be profitable to examine.

Before selecting any of these observations for discussion it is
necessary to premise a few words in regard to Herschel’s method
of observation. On a very few occasions he was able to faintly
illuminate the wires of his micrometer for a determination of the
position of Oberon and Titania, but all of his estimations of the
position of any small objects interior to these had to be made in
a perfectly dark field. Hence these estimations are liable to a
large error of from 5 to 15 degrees in position angle. Owing to
the glare of the planet in the field of the telescope Herschel found
that he could seldom see Oberon nearer to the planet than 23.6’/,
while Titania was usually invisible at distances less than 18.1’.
Of course, under ordinary circumstances, Ariel and Umbriel could
not be visible at all, but there were occasions when the fine polish
of his mirror or the good state of the atmosphere permitted him
to view objects even as close as 10’’.. It was evidently impossi-
ble for him to see an interior satellite on two consecutive nights,
and of this he was fully aware.

It was his habit to make his observations of the “first”? and
“second” satellites (7. e. of Titania and Oberon), and to map
down all small stars near to the planet. On the next subsequent
observing night he examined the spot where the planet had been,
and was thus able to identify all small stars as such. In his
printed observations the sketches of star configurations are not
given, but his remarks in full are quoted, followed by an “ identi-
fication,” as he calls it, of all suspected satellites. The patience
and skill with which these identifications are carried out year
after year are truly admirable, and they give a real value to that

(31)

ili APPENDIX

which, without them, would be simply a ponderous mass of use-
less material.

I have selected from his observations as printed, all cases
where he has seen an object interior to Titania sufficiently well
to allow him to give an estimate of its position, excluding, of
course, all cases where he has subsequently proved that such
object was certainly a star.

The cases for examination are—

1. 1787, Feb. 10 Poslioi of HEINE FO Baveliiite B35)?

2. 1790, Jan. 18 “following”

3. 1790, Jan. 20 a ef a Bile

AL Os. 1helo, 5 cs as ct 250° 57

5. 1793, Mar. 9 ee ii “ 205°

6. 1794, Feb. 28 a a ts 66°

7. 1794, Mar. 27 ah a iG

8. 1798, Feb. 15 ag a a NO TY

9. 1801, Apr. 17 i ee US 189° distance 18/’

The elements which I have used are provisional ones derived
by Prof. Newcomb from Lassell’s Malta observations. They are
‘amply adequate to the present inquiry.

From these elements I have computed the angle of position
and distance of Umbriel and Ariel in each of the cases above
set down, and compared these with Herschel’s observations, as
ae —

ES Te mkieloy Mt, 8°57". The first satellite is about 53°
M, joe er eae * * a supposed third is about 45° s. f.
In a little more ee four hours I saw the satellites go on with
the planet, and also in their orbits. * * * * No subsequent
observation of the third was made.”

On this date Umbriel was in P—82° distant 16” and Ariel
was n. p. Hence Herschel’s “‘supposed third” was neither of
the inner satellites.

2. “1790, Jan. 18, 98 32™. There is a supposed third satel-
lite about two diameters of the planet following, extremely faint
and only seen by glimpses; 1" 6™ after I could not perceive it;
a fourth is about 70° n. p.”

“Two diameters” of the planet was about 8’’, and as Herschel
usually counted his distances from the limb of the planet in his
estimations, the distance from the centre would be about 10/7.
Umbriel was in P = 124° 23’, and distant 13’’.9. Ariel was in
P—317° 10’, distant 10/7.96. ‘ 1" 6™ after” Umbriel was in
P —118° 48’, and distant 13//.54; 7. e., nearer to Uranus by
0’’.4. So far as the evidence goes we may reasonably infer that
Herschel had a glimpse of Umbriel. In the Phil. Trans., 1798,
p. 271, Herschel, in referring to this observation, speaks of it as
very certain, and supposes that the satellite might have been ‘11
or 12 degrees” from the parallel. The above identification, it is

(32)

APPENDIX. iv

true, brings it 34° from the parallel, but we must remember that
in the first place the angle of position was merely an estimate,
and secondly, that ‘ following” is here shown by Herschel him-
self to have been but a rough term, not indicating an angle of
position of exactly 90°.

The ‘fourth satellite” of this night was proved to have been
a star.

See LTO diane 20) choke eye aeuthinds satellites
45° n. p. in a line with the planet and second satellite.”

Umbriel had a position angle of 301°, and was distant 13”.72;
Ariel was n. f.; Oberon (the “second satellite”) was in P—324°
08’, and we must again conclude that Umbriel was seen.

A Tow eb io nose mona a venvasmallle Star ais
19°3’/s.p. * * * * there is no subsequent observation of
the small star.”

Umbriel was in P — 187° 19’, and Ariel was n. p._ Herschel’s
“small star” had a position angle of 250° 57’, and hence it was
neither Ariel nor Umbriel.

Os, 93) March) SelM somim Si) oc a third’ (Gatellite)
is about 65° s. p.”

Umbriel was n. p. and Ariel was n. f., and hence this observa-
tion refers to neither of them.

Gea al Aube Sanna 3 et eee re) Ko herewaismamsmall
Stare) SS aDOUtI a4 came t.7

Both Ariel and Umbriel were n. p., and hence the small object
Was a star.

7. “1794, March 27. A supposed third of this evening is pre-
ceding the first satellite, but nearer the planet * * * * ‘The
first satellite was 79° n. f.”

Titania (the “first satellite”) was in P—10° 20’, distant
34//.48, while Ariel was in P—20° 48/, and distant 13/” 48,
Umbriel being at this time s. f. Hence we must conclude that
Herschel saw Ariel.

Seah Osi Heb lS OMS nek aes ne DOsitOM ROtEOne
supposed fifth satellite” (which was really Oberon) ‘84° 497 n. f.”
+ * * at “about half the distance of the second satellite,”
and Hea it and the planet, Herschel saw what ‘“ must have
been an interior satellite at its greatest northern elongation.”
Oberon was in P = 14° 46/, distant 32’.00; Ariel was in P=
213° 7’, distant 5”.06, and therefore invisible; Umbriel was in
P =194° 26’, distant 18”.99, and therefore in its most favorable
position. Herschel says the interior satellite was between Oberon
and the planet, and if this is so he did not see Umbriel. His
account of this night’s work (op. cit., pp. 332-3 and 359) is con-
fused, and leads to the suspicion (no more) that an examination
of the originals might prove his position of the interior satellite
180° wrong—in which case Umbriel would have been seen. As
it is we must suppose the contrary.

(33)

Vv APPENDIX.

9. “1801, April 17, 10" 30". There is a third satellite at a
great angle south preceding; in the configuration it is marked
exactly in opposition to the second, and at half the distance of
the first. * * * * the third by the configuration was 81°
Sh jOS”

On the next night Herschel examined the place where the
planet was on April 17, and found no star in the former place of
the third satellite. Herschel’s satellite was in P 189°, distant
18’, Umbriel was in P=191° 27’, distant 21’.18. Hence
Herschel saw Umbriel.

The above are all the cases which a careful examination of the
printed observations suggests for discussion, and it is to be re-
marked that of the four cases where Herschel supposed he saw
the interior satellites, three have been verified fully, and a reason-
able suspicion exists that the fourth may have been likewise a.
veritable observation of Umbriel. A reference to the originals.
would probably settle most of the doubts which have arisen. We
may conclude, then, that the elder Herschel was the first observer
of Ariel and Umbriel, as well as of Titania and Oberon, but
that he was unfortunately prevented from identifying the inner
satellites because his telescope could not show them on two succes-
sive nights. It is to be noted that Sir John Herschel never caught
a glimpse of them during his examination of Uranus with the same
telescope in 1828 and 1832; the extreme difficulty of these objects.
makes us wonder at the marvellous skill and patience manifested
by the elder Herschel in this difficult research.

It would be an interesting and useful research to endeavor to
explain Herschel’s observations of the III., V., and VI. satel-
lites, and to show that these were observations of small stars.
This research I hope to execute upon the return of Prof. Watson
and Dr. C. H. F. Peters from their respective journeys for the
purpose of observing the transit of Venus. Both of these astro-
nomers have the most extended and minute maps of all the small
stars in the region where Uranus was in 1787 to 1801; and a
careful examination of tracings of these maps and of Herschel’s
observations could not fail to throw some light upon the supposed
discovery of satellites I1I., V., and VI.

The next observations of these objects were by Lassell and
O. Strave in 1847.

Lassell’s observations are given in the Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, vol. vill. p. 44. I have compared
these with the theory as below.

(34)

APPENDIX.

Lassell’s posi-
tion of Position of Umbriel.|}| Position of Ariel.
Date. Satellite.
12 A P A P A
ne O° Ww fo} wu“ (eo) ”
Bet Bet.
111845, Oct. 5 | 324.1 | arene | nee
6 §{ Bet. ;
2) 1847, Sept. 14 | 350. ’ 0 & 90 345.4 13.96
3] 1847, Sept. 27 | 326 ate aoe 320.1 10.45
4| 1847, Sept. 29 | 336 sais 1173.3 ies 1.3 13.27
5} 1847, Oct. 1 | 348 18.44 354.8 | 19.10 wae ie
6] 1847, Nov. 6 89 10 141.6 || 15.4 G00 ae
7| 1847, Nov. 6 | 349 11 Rete ane 350.1 13.89

Hence it is plain that Lassell saw Ariel on Sept. 14, Sept. 27,
and Nov. 6, and possibly on Sept. 29. Umoriel was seen on
Oct. 1.

Struve’s observations are given in Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, vol. viti. p. 46, as follows :—

Date. Umbriel (Computed). Umbriel (Observed).
in (eo) " (eo) wr
1/1847, Nov. 1)/P =194.0 =17.8 |P=186.47 a =16.59
2)1847, Nov. 28 203.6 17.0 |Between 0° and 900
3/1847, Dec. 9 218.6 13.7 |P==15205 4! a =7.4, while Ariel
was between 2700 and 3600.
4/1847, Dec. 10 180.1 17.0 |P =169C38/ a = 19.85
5)1848, Jan. 25 202.0 18’.0 Between 0° and 900

Hence Struve may have seen Umbriel Noy. 1 and Dec. 10,
1847.

In 1871 observations of Ariel and Umbriel were made at
Bothkamp with a telescope of twelve inches aperture and com-
pared with Marth’s ephemeris for that year. The positions of
Ariel differ from their predicted positions by a large angle, nearly
180°, while the positions of Umbriel agree well. Ariel, how-
ever, is much the brighter of the two inner satellites, and as it
evidently was not seen at all, it becomes probable that a small
star was mistaken for Umbriel on the five nights of observation.

This supposition is strengthened when we consider that the
Bothkamp observers found Titania and Oberon difficult objects,
which they certainly are not to any telescope which will show >
Ariel or Umbriel. Lassell estimates that Oberon and Titania
are twice as bright intrinsically as either of the inner satellites,
and this estimate is probably not too high.

We may then fairly claim that Sir W \Miam Herschel saw all four
of the satellites of Uranus, that Lassell discovered independently

10 (35)

vii APPENDIX.

and before any of his contemporaries the two faint satellites,
while Struve probably saw Umbriel on one or two occasions, and
that these inner satellites have not all been seen with any tele-
scopes save the twenty and forty feet reflectors of Herschel, the
telescopes of Mr. Lassell (two and four feet reflectors) and by
the Clark refractor at Washington.

The great reflecting telescope of Dr. Henry Draper, and the
Clark refractor at Chicago, and Mr. Newall’s Cooke refractor,
have never been used upon these objects so far as I know,
although all three are undoubtedly adequate to the purpose.

(36)

LIST OF MEMBERS

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
JUNE, 1874.
" * Absent or removed from Washington. t Deceased.

CLEVELAND ABBE
ASA QO. ALDIS
BENS AMIN ALVORD
* THOMAS ANTISELL

ORVILLE Etas Bascock
THEODORUS BAILEY
SPENCER FULLERTON BarrpD
JOSEPH K. BARNES
Tuomas W. Barriry
Henry Hosart Bates
STEPHEN VINCENT Benger
JOHN SHAW BILLINGS
SAMUEL CLaAGEerT Busey

* HORACE CAPRON

*A uaustus L. Casn

THOMAS LIincoLNn CAsry
fSaLmon PortTLAND Cuase
JOHN WHITE CHICKERING
FRANK WIGGLESWORTH CLARKE
Joun HuntTINGTON CRANE COFFIN
Eiiott Covers

BENJAMIN FANEuin CRAIG
Rogpert Craia

CHARLES Henry CRANE
JcSIAH CuRTIS

RicHaRD Domintcus Ourts

(37)

38

MEMBERS OF THE

WitiraMm Heaney DALL
Cuarves Henry DAvIs
RicHarD J. DEAN
FrREpDERIC WILLIAM Dorr
H. H. C. Dunwoopy
CLARENCE EpwARD DuTton
+ALEXANDER B. DYER

JouNn RoBiE HASTMAN
AMOS BEEBE HATON

JoHN EATON

EZEKIEL BRown ELLIOTT
Grorce Henry ELLior
Frepreric MILLER ENDLICH
CHARLES EWING

Hue Ewine

WILLIAM FERREL
ELisHa Foorr
+Joun GRAY Foster
EpGar FRISBY
Epwarp T. FRIsto“

LEONARD DUNNELL GALE
HENRY GANNETT

JAMES TERRY GARDNER
Grove Karu GILBERT
THEODORE NICHOLAS GILL
GrorGE Brown GOODE
HENRY GOODFELLOW
EpWarbD OZIEL GRAVES
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN GREENE

ASAPH HALL

IsaIAH HANSCOM

WILLIAM HARKNESS

FERDINAND VANDEVEER ILAYDEN
JOSEPH HENRY

Henry WETHERBEE HENSHAW
JuLIUus Erasmus HILGARD

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

EDWARD SINGLETON HOLDEN
Epwin EuGENE HOWELL
Henry W. HowGate

ANDREW ATKINSON HUMPHREYS

*THORNTON ALEXANDER JENKINS
WILLIAM WARING JOHNSTON

F. KAmMpr
Reve Keire

JONATHAN HomER LANE
WILLIAM LEE

NATHAN SMITH LINCOLN
Henry H. Lock woop
STEPHEN C. LyFoRD

Oscar A. Mack

ARCHIBALD ROBERTSON MARVINE
* FIELDING BRADFORD MEEK
MonTGoMERY CUNNINGHAM MEIGS
WititiAM ManugeL, Mew

W. MILNER

ALBERT J. MYER

WitiiaAmM Myers

Simon NEWCOMB
Cuarues Henry NIcHOoLs
WALTER LAMB NICHOLSON

GEORGE ALEXANDER OTIS

JOHN GRUBB PARKE
PETER PARKER
*CHARLES CHRISTOPHER PARRY
CARLISLE PATTERSON

A. C. PEALE

*TITIAN RAMSAY PEALE
BENJAMIN PEIRCE
CHARLES SANDERS PEIRCE
ORLANDO METCALFE POE
Davip Drxon PortTER

3. W. PowrELi

3%

40

MEMBERS.

Henry REED RATHBONE

RopertT RIpGway

*CHRISTOPHER RAYMOND PERRY RODGERS
JOHN RODGERS

JOSEPH ADDISON ROGERS

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN SANDS
JAMES HAMILTON SAVILLE
Freperic ADOLPHUS SAWYER
{+Guo. CHRISTIAN SCHAEFFER
CHARLES ANTHONY SCHOTT
JOHN SHERMAN

WiLLiAmM TrEcUMSEH SHERMAN
AINSWORTH RAND SPOFFORD
JOHN STEARNS

ORMOND STONE

GrorGE TAYLOR
WittiAM Bower TAYLOR

WILLIAM CALVIN TILDEN

JOSEPH MEREDITH TONER

*FRancis AMASA WALKER
JAMES. CLARKE WELLING
Grorce M. WHEELER
*Junius B. WHEELER

A. D. WILSON

JAMES ORMOND WILSON
Witt1AM MAaxweELt Woop
JOSEPH JANVIER WOODWARD
JoHN MAYNARD WoopDWORTH

MorprEcAl YARNALL
HENRY ORIPSEY YARROW

INDEX TO NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS.

C. ABBE
PAGE
35. Communicates a letter from Mr. S. A. King.

38. Remarks on a table of balloon voyages.
45. Remarks on observations of auroras.
98. Report on the meteor of December 24, 1873.
99-101. Laws of the movements of storms.
102. Remarks on seismic phenomena.
109. Position of the planes of certain nebule.

Prof. S. ALEXANDER (of Princeton, N. J.)
105. The Zodiacal Light. [See Appendix, No. ITI.]

T. ANTISELL (of Yokohama).
25. Specimen of dust charged with organic matter.
70. The meteorology of Japan.

B. ALVORD.

74. The habitability of the western plateaus.

91. Remarks on the proposition of Mr. James Lick.
101-102. The recent earthquakes in North Carolina.

S. F. Batrp

21. Communicates a report by Lieut. G. C. Doane.

24. i. a paper by Dr. H. B. Butcher.

52. On the decrease of fish on the southern coast of N. E.
H. Bates.

89. The motion o. a particle towards an attracting centre.

E. BESSELS.
34. Scientific operations of the North Pole Expedition.
92. Results of the Polaris Expedition.

J. S. Brirnes.
42-43. Some minute fungi.
92-93. The collection of a large library.
(41)

42 INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS.

Prof. T. M. Brewer (of New Haven).
PAGE
97. Theories of the potato disease.

H. B. Burcuer.
24. Two immense meteorites.

T. L. Casny
22. Communicates a Report by Capt. C. W. Raymond.

A. CxLark (of Cambridgeport, Mass.)
92. The construction of the telescope at the Naval Obs.

F. W. CLARKE.
103. Atomic volumes of crystallized and double salts.
104-105. Molecular heats of similar compounds.

Hon. T. L. Crineman (of North Carolina).
104. Earthquake phenomena in North Carolina.

J. H. C. Corrin
57. Communicates letter from Dr. B. A. Gould, of Cordoba.

63. 5 maps prepared by G. W. Hill.
K. Coves.

96. Structure and homologies of the limbs.
R. D. Curts.

39-41. Misapplication of geographical terms.
70-13. Results of observations at Sherman Station.

B. F. Crate.
31. Fluctuations of the temperature of the human body.
34. Apothecaries’ weights and measures.
42. Thermometers.
43. Method of verifying the indications of a thermometer.
52. Apparatus for the generation of ozone.
65. Water supply of cities.

Dr. Curtis.
63. Hayden’s survey of the Western Territories.

W. H. DALL.
25. The value of Alaska to the United States.

G. C. Doane.
21. Official report of the Yellowstone Expedition of 1870

INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS. 43

C. E. Dutton.

PAGE

52.
54.
74.
89.
90.
96.
ee
98.
102.

The pressure developed by the explosion of gunpowder.
Experiments on different kinds of gunpowder.
Elevations and subsidences of the earth’s surface.
Geological time.

Mallet’s theory of formation of physical features of earth.
Recent improvements in the economy of fuel.

Recent improvements in the manufacture of steel.

The chemistry of the Bessemer process.

Remarks on volcanic action.

J. R. EASTMAN.

68-70. Comparison of thermometers used at Naval Obs.
85-87. Frequency of the occurrence of numbers.
A. B. Eaton.
22. The preservation of foods.
EK. B. Evutort.
29. Borrowing power of the United States.
31. New coinage of Japan.
35. Locus of point of equal illumination.
45. Remarks on auroras.
63. Communicates a letter from Dr. Curtis.
63. The adjustment of census returns.
74. Life and annuity tables.
75. International coinage.
91. Remarks on the legal value of the dollar.
109. The credit of the United States.
H, W. Evwiortt.
91. Habits of the fur-bearing seals.
F. M. ENpuica.
77. On Mineralogical Systems.
95. Hlectrical phenomena in the Rocky Mountains.
98. Two bricks from the great wall of China.
98. Specimens of meteoric iron.
101. Occurrence of pure tellurium.

EB. J. FARQuuar.

42.

Remarkable effects of lightning.

44 INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS.

W. FERREL.
PAGE

53-54. The effects of winds and barometric pressure on tides.
106-109. Law connecting the wind with the barometric gradient

C. G. Forsuey (of Louisiana).
98. Alluvial basin of Mississippi River. [ See Appendix IT. }

KE. Foore.
74. Laws of condensation of aqueous vapor in atmosphere.
75. Proposed method of observing astronomical transits.
98. Some causes that produce rain.

EK. FRisBy.
57-61. The ratio of the circumference to the diameter.
75-76. A Gregorian Calendar.

L. D. Gaus.
97. The cause and remedy of the potato rot.
106. Geology of the lignite formation.

G. K. GILBERT.
54-56. Researches in Arizona and Nevada.
57. Sand sculpture in the West.
84-85. The glacial epoch in Utah and Nevada.
88. The cafions of the Colorado.
103. A cold geyser in Ohio.
109. The age of the Tonto Sandstone,

T. N. Git.
24. Characteristics and zoological relations of man.
29. Additions to the fish fauna of Massachusetts, ete.
39. The Tapir of the Andes and its allied forms.
47. A Tunny new to the American coast.
52. Remarks on the fish fauna of Massachusetts.
62. Communicates a memoir by Mr. F. B. Meek.
64. The homologies of the shoulder girdle of fishes.
68. The Scombrocottus Salmoneus of Peters.
73. The homologies of the arm in fishes, etc.
96. The primates and their relations to man.
96. Remarks on the homologies of the limbs of vertebrates.
99. The structure and shape of Paleotherium.

B. A. GouLp.
PAGE
57. The progress of the National Observatory at Cordoba,
88. The progress of his astronomical work at Cordoba.
A. Hatt.
23. Elements of the Comet I, 1871.
28. Astronomical photography.
30. A curve of the fourth degree.
34. Astronomical proof of existence of a resisting medium.’
62 Determination of the ratio of circumference to diameter.
62. Historical note on the method of least squares.
88. The rectilinear motion of a particle towards a centre.
94. Comets and meteors.
101. Method of writing international scientific telegrams.
B. HaLLoweE.u (of Sandy Springs).
95. The meteor of Christmas Eve, 1873.
W. Harkness.
31. The physical constitution of the corona of the Sun.
34. Spectrum of Encke’s comet, and appearance of Tuttle’s.
34. Remarks on the spectrum of Encke’s comet.
39. Density of the hypothetical resisting medium in space.
56. Communicates a letter from Captain Tupman.
64. Measurements of heights by a pocket aneroid.
74. Power necessary to drive an astronomical clock.
96. Distribution of temperature over surface of the globe.
102. Apparatus to be used in observing transit of Venus.

INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS. 45

JOSEPH HENRY.
Introduction. Annual Address.

46,

22.
3l.
34.
395.
49.
48.
53.
63.
65.
15.

Phenomena of sound and experiments with tuning forks.
Observations made on a journey to California.
Communicates a letter from Dr. Bessels.

Life and scientific labors of Alexander Dallas Bache.
Communicates a report on meteorite by Mr. Farquhar.
Remarks on the phenomena of the aurora.
Expenditure of the income of the Bache fund.
Fluctuations of the river Nile. [ signals.
Abnormal phenomena of sound in connection with fog
On atmospheric electricity.

p

46

PAGE

UD.
87.
90.
ke
93.
94.
95.
97.
98.
he)

103

INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS.

Communicates a letter from General Lefroy.

On atmospheric electricity.

Experiments on fog signals. [ Lick.
Communicates letters from Prof. Tyndall and Mr. J.
Announces the death of Professor L. Agassiz.
Communicates resolutions in memory of Prof. Agassiz.
Communicates a letter from Mr. B. Hallowell.

A method of developing magnetism in bars of steel.
Meteor trains, and the upper atmospheric currents.
On Giffard’s injector.

Remarks on the earthquakes of North Carolina.

J. H. HinGarp.

21.
22.
22.
23.
29.
31.
35.

46

47, 48.
48.
53.
53.

65

68.
84.
89.
89.
90.
90.
92.

104
104
105
106

The distance traversed on a loxodromic curve.
Remarks on the geographical centre of the U. States.
Remarks on a chronograph.

Remarks on a chronoscope.

The distribution of the population in the U. States.
An exponential formula.

The westward movement of the population of the U.S.
Remarks on auroras.

The aurora of February 4th.

Auroral phenomena.

Hindoo arithmetic.

The recording systems of the transatlantic cables.
Remarks on the new aneroid by Goldschmidt.
Proceedings of International Metrological Commission.
An inquiry into the laws of probability.

The air thermometer of Prof. Jolly. [ wich.
Determination of longitude between Paris and Green-
Remarks in memory of G. C. Schaeffer.

Experimental researches in acoustics by Prof. Mayer.
Determination of personal errors in observations.
Introduces Hon. T. L. Clingman.

Announces a new standing rule of the Society.
Communicates a memoir by Prof. Alexander.
Apparatus for investigation of error.

T. HILGARD.

26.

The number of the cephalic vertebra.

INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS. 47

EK. S. Houpen.

PAGE

95. Adopted value of Sun’s appar. diam. [See Append. I. ]
106. Sir W. Herschel’s obs. of sat. of Uranus. [See App. IV.]

Dr. Jackson (of Boston).
93. The autopsy of Prof. Agassiz.

R. Kerra.
73. Achromatic object glasses.
89. The nature of the force of gravitation.

Major Kine (of New York City).
23. The construction of the bridge across the Hast River.
53. The fatigue of metals.

8. A. Kina.
35-38. Aerial currents observed in fifty balloon ascensions.

Gen. Lerroy (of Bermuda).
15. The changes of sea-level at Bermuda.

Mr. J. Lick (of San Francisco).
91. Establishment of a new observatory.

F. B. MEEK.
62. The discovery of new species of fossil plants.

M. C. Metres.
21. Map of head waters of Yellowstone and Lewis Rivers.

S. Newcoms.
29. The transits of Venus, past and future.
46. Remarks on auroras.
52. The possibility of a universal atmosphere.
62, 63. Progress of construction of telescope for Naval Obsery.
65. Proceedings of the Transit of Venus Commission.
89. Mechanical representation of a problem in least squares.

G. A. Orts.
73. Fractures of the inner table of the cranium.
94. A description of a new spirometer.

P. PARKER
87. Communicates resolutions inmem. of Hon.8. P. Chase.
94. Remarks on the meteor of December 24th, 1873.

48 INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS.

B. PEIRCE.
PAGE

31. The heat of the Sun.
"4. Theories of the nature of comets’ tails.

C. 8. PErrce.
35. Appearance of Encke’s comet as seen at H. C. Obs.
63. Stellar photometry.
68. Geographical distribution of rainfall anu __ illiteracy.
88. On logical algebra.
94. On quaternions. |
97. Hypotheses in reference to space.

Prof. Porter (of: Belfast, Ireland).
54. Recent explorations in Syria.

J. W. PowE.u.
48. Remarks on the aurora.
48-51. Geology of the valley of the Colorado.
; 96. Mythology of the Numas.
99. Remarks on volcanic phenom. in Arizona and Nevada.
102. Remarks on volcanic action.
104. Genesis and demonology of the Numas.

Mr. Ramsey (of Nova Scotia).
64. On the tides of the Bay of Fundy.

Lieut. C. W. Raymonp (U. 8. Army).
22. Results of travels in Alaska.

B. F. Sanps .
23. Communicates a paper by Prof. A. Hall.

J. H. SAVILLE.
51. New Japanese coinage.

O. STONE.
62. Errors of a provisory catalogue of stars.

W. T. SHERMAN.
63. Remarks on a visit to Egypt.
65. Remarks on travels in Turkey and the Caucasus.

W. B. Taytor.
24. The nature and origin of force.
43-45. The aurora.

INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS. 49

PAGE
62. Our present knowledge of the planet Jupiter.
66. Waves, molecules, and atoms.
90. Communicates resolutions in memory of G. C. Schaeffer.

Dr. W. Tomson (of New York City). [of eye.
22. New method for detecting and measuring optical defects

J. M. Tonrr.
97. A method of locating geographical regions.

Capt. TupMAN (of London),
56. Observations made on a solar eclipse.

Prof. J.. Tynpauu (of London).
65. Remarks on abnormal phenomena of sound.
91. Fog signals.

Dr. VAN Sant (of San Francisco).
56. A new method of lighting gas jets.

Prof. J. C. Watson (of Ann Arbor).
53. The discovery of new planets.

A. J. WOEIKOFF.
75. Meteorology in Russia.

J. J. WoopwaArp.
24. An alleged hermaphrodite. [ form.
41. Desirability of reproducing photographs in a permanent
47. The use of monochromatic sunlight.
57. Communicates letter from Dr. B. A. Gould, of Cordoba.
57. The Woodbury photo-relief process.
88. Communicates letter from Dr. B. A. Gould, of Cordoba.
89. Exhibits the spectra of certain metals and gases.
93. Communicates a letter from Dr. Jackson, of Boston.
93. Micrometric writing on glass.
94. Communicates a letter from Mr. Ramsey.

M. YARNALL.
T4. A general star catalogue.

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BULLETIN

OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

OF

WASHINGTON, ©

VOL. II.
OcroBeR 10TH, 1874—NovemBeEr 2p, 1878.

(With a Portrait and two Lithographs.)

————_——_

PUBLISHED BY THE CO-OPERATION OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

WASHINGTON.
1875—1880.

‘ite
feast

Ne

Nia
eancus!
i}

CONSTITUTION, STANDING RULES,

AND
LIST OF MEMBERS

OF

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

WASHINGTON,

December, 1875.

rcs

Oeics
oH

ili

CONSTITUTION

OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

ARTICLE I. The name of this Society shall be THE Put.
LOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

ARTICLE II. The officers of the Society shall be a Presi-
dent, four Vice-Presidents, a Treasurer, and two Secretaries.

ARTICLE IIT. There shall be a General Committee, con-
sisting of the officers of the Society and nine other mem-
bers.

ARTICLE IV. The officers of the Society and the other
members of the General Committee shall be elected annu-
ally by ballot; they shall hold office until their successors
are elected, and shall have power to fill vacancies.

ARTICLE V. It shall be the duty of the General Com-
mittee to make rules for the government of the Society,
and to transact all business.

ARTICLE VI. This Constitution shall not be amended
except by a three-fourths vote of those present at an an-
nual meeting for the election of officers, and after notice
of the proposed change shall have been given in writing
at a stated meeting of the Society at least four weeks pre-
viously.

1V

STANDING RULES

FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY CF WASHINGTON.

DEcEMBER, 1875.

1. The Stated Meetings of the Society shall be held at
8 o'clock P. M. on every alternate Saturday; the place of
meeting to be designated by the General Committee.

2. The Annual Meeting for the election of officers shall
be the first stated meeting in the month of November.
When necessary, Special Meetings may be called by the
President.

3. Notices of the time and place of meetings shall be
sent to each member by one of the Secretaries.

4. The Stated Meetings, with the exception of the annual
meeting, shall be devoted to the consideration and discussion
of scientific subjects.

5. Persons interested in science. who are not residents
of the District of Columbia, may be present at any meeting
of the Society, except the annual meeting, upon invitation
of a member.

6. Similar invitations to residents of the District of Co-
lumbia, not members of the Society, must be submitted
through one of the Secretaries to the General Committee
for approval.

7. Invitations to attend during three months the meet-
ings of the Society and participate in the discussion of
papers, may, by a vote of nine members of the General
Comumnittee, be issued to persons nominated by two mem-
bers.

Vv

8. Comraunications intended for publication under the
auspices of the Society shall be submitted in writing to
the General ComMittee for approval.

9. New members shall be elected by the General Com-
mittee, after having been proposed in writing by at least
three members of the Society.

10. Hach member shall pay annually to the Treasurer
the sum of five dollars, and no member whose dues are
unpaid shall vote at the annual meeting for the election
of officers, or be entitled to a copy of the Bulletin.

11. The fiscal year terminates with the 31st of December
of each year. Members elected after the annual meeting
shall be exempt from the assessment for that year.

12. Members who are absent from the District of Colum-
bia for more than twelve months may be excused from
payment of the annual assessments, in which case their
names shall be dropped from the list of members. They
can, however, resume their membership by giving notice
to the President of their wish to do so.

13. Elections of officers are to be held as follows :—

In each case nominations shall be made by means of an
informal ballot, the result of which shall be announced by
the Secretary; after which the first formal ballot shall be
taken.

In the ballot for Vice-Presidents, Secretaries, and Mem-
bers of the General Committees, each voter shall write on
one ballot as many names as there are officers to be elected,
viz., four on the first ballot for Vice- Presidents, two on the
first for Secretaries, and nine on the first for Members of
the General Committee; and on each subsequent ballot so
many names as there are persons yet to be elected; and
those persons who receive a majority of the votes cast shall
be declared elected.

If in any case the informal ballot result in giving a ma-
jority for any one, it may be declared formal by a majority
vote.

vi

a
STANDING RULES

OF THE

GENERAL COMMITTEE
OF THE
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

_ DercEemBer, 1875.

1. The President, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the
Society shall hold like offices in the General Committee.

2. The President shall have power to call special meet-
ings of the Committee, and to appoint Sub-Committees.

3. The Sub-Committees shall prepare business for the
- General Committee, and perform such other duties as may
be entrusted to them.

4. There shall be two Standing Sub-Committees; one on
Communications for the Stated Meetings of the Society,
and another on Publications.

5. The General Committee shall meet at half past seven
o’clock on the evening of each stated meeting, and by ad-
journment at other times.

6. For all purposes except for the amendment of the
Standing Rules of the Committee and of the Society, and
the election of members, six members of the Committee
shall constitute a quorum.

7. Proposals of new members may be read at any meet-
ing of the General Committee, but shall lie over for at
least four weeks before final action, and the concurrence of
twelve of the members shall be necessary to election.

Vil

8. These Standing Rules, and those for the government
of the Society, shall only be modified with the consent of
a majority of the members of the General Committee.

RULES

FOR THE

PUBLICATION OF THE BULLETIN
OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

1. The President’s annual address will be published in
full.

2. When directed by the General Committee, any com-
munication may be published in full in an appendix to
each volume.

3. Abstracts of papers and remarks on the same will be
published, when presented to the Secretary by the author
in writing within two weeks of the evening of their deliv-
ery, and approved by the Committee on Publications.
Brief abstracts prepared by one of the Secretaries and
approved by the Committee on Publications may also be
published.

4, Communications which have been published elsewhere,
so as to be generally accessible, will appear in the Bulletin
by title only, but with reference to the place of publication,
if made known in season to the Committee on Publications.

Note. The attention of members to the above rules ts specially requested.

Vill

OFFICERS

OF THE
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
Sino:

President, JOSEPH HENRY.

Vice-Presidents, J. K. BARNES, Wm. B. TAYLOR,
J. E. Hinearp, J. C. WELLING.

Treasurer, PETER PARKER.
Secretaries, J. H. C. Corrin, T. N. Girt.

MEMBERS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

C. ABBE, N. 8. Lincoun,
S. F. Barrp, O. M. Pog,

C. E. Durton, S. NEwcoms,
E. B. Evuiort, C. A. ScHort,

J. J. WoopWARD.

STANDING COMMITTEES.

On ComMUNICATIONS:

Chairman, J. J. WOODWARD ;
J. HK. Hinearp,

On Pusuications:

Chairman, 8. F. Bairp;
J. H. OC. Corrin, T. N. Giuu, C. ABBE.

1X

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.
DECEMBER, 1875.

* Absent or removed from the District of Columbia. + Deceased.

CLEVELAND ABBE
S. THAYER ABERT
Asa QO. ALDIS
BENJAMIN ALVORD
* THOMAS ANTISELL

ORVILLE HLIAs BaBcock
THEODORUS BAILEY
SPENCER FULLERTON BAIRD
GEORGE BANCROFT
JosEPH K. BARNES
Tuomas W. BARTLEY
Henry Hopart BATES
Lester A. BEARDSLEE
STEPHEN VINCENT BENET
EMIL BESSELS

JOHN SHAW BILLINGS
SAMUEL CLAGETT BUSEY

*HORACE CAPRON

* Auaustus L CASE

THOMAS LINCOLN CASEY
+SALMON PoRTLAND CHASE

JOHN WHITE CHICKERING

FRANK WIGGLESWORTH CLARKE
JOHN HUNTINGTON CRANE COFFIN
ELuLiott Cours

BENJAMIN FANEUIL CRAIG

MEMBERS OF THE

RosBert CRAG

CHARLES HENRY CRANE
JOSIAH CURTIS

RicHarD DomInicus Cutts

WILLIAM HEALEY DALL

CHARLES Henry Davis

* RICHARD J. DEAN

FREDERIC WILLIAM DoRR

Henry Harrison Coase DuNWooDY
CLARENCE EDWARD DUTTON
{ALEXANDER B. DYER

JOHN RoBiE EASTMAN

* AMOS BEEBE EATON

JOHN KATON

EZEKIEL Brown ELLiotT?
GrorGE Henry ELLiot
FREDERIC MILLER ENDLICH
CHARLES EWING

Huey Ewina

WILLIAM FERREL
RospertT FLETCHER
EuisHa Foote
{Joun Gray Foster
Epaar FRISBY
HDWARD T. FRISTOE

LronARD DUNNELL GALE
Epwarp MINER GALLAUDET
HENRY GANNETT

JAMES TERRY GARDNER
GROVE KARL GILBERT
THEoporRE NIcHOLAS GILL
GEORGE BRowN GOODE
EpwarpD GOODFELLOW
HENRY GOODFELLOW
*HDWARD OZIEL GRAVES
FRANCIS VINTON GREEN
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN GREENE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

ASAPH HALL

JsalAH HANscom

WILLIAM HARKNESS

FERDINAND VANDEVEER HAYDEN
JOSEPH HENRY

Henry WETHERBEE HENSHAW
JuLtius Erasmus HILGarD
EDWARD SINGLETON HOLDEN
EDWIN HuGENE HOWELL
Henry W. HowGate

ANDREW ATKINSON HUMPHREYS

Henry ARUNDEL LAMBE JACKSON
*THORNTON ALEXANDER JENKINS
WILLIAM WARING JOHNSTON

F. KAamMpr
*REUEL KEITH
A. F. A. Kine
JOHN JAY KNox.

JONATHAN HomMeErR LANE
WILLIAM LEE

NATHAN SmituH LINCOLN
Henry H. Lockwoop
Epwarp P. LuLu
STEPHEN C. LyrorpD

Oscar A. Mack

Garrick MALLERY

ARCHIBALD ROBERTSON MARVINE
Otis Turton Mason

* FIELDING BRADFORD MEEK
MontTGoMERY CUNNINGHAM MEIGs
WitiiaM MANnuet Mew

JAMES WILLIAM MILNER

ALBERT J. MYER

WiLiiamM MYERS

Simon NEwcomMsB
CHARLES HENRY NIcHOLs

xi

xii MEMBERS OF THE
WALTER LAMB NICHOLSON
GEORGE ALEXANDER OTIS

ROBERT LAWRENCE PACKARD
JOHN GRUBB PARKE

PETER PARKER

* CHARLES CHRISTOPHER PARRY
CARLISLE PATTERSON

A. C. PEALE

* TITIAN RAMSAY PEALE

* BENJAMIN PEIRCE

* CHARLES SANDERS PEIRCE
ORLANDO METCALFE PoE
Davip Dixon PortTER

JOHN WESLEY POWELL

Henry REED RATHBONE

Ropert RipGway

* CHRISTOPHER RAYMOND PERRY RODGERS
*JoHNn RopGErs

JosEPH ADDISON ROGERS

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN SANDS
JAMES HAMILTON SAVILLE

* EF REDERIC ADOLPHUS SAWYER
{GEORGE CHRISTIAN SCHAEFFER
SAMUEL SHELLABARGER
CHARLES ANTHONY ScHotTt
JOHN SHERMAN

* WILLIAM '‘Il'‘ECUMSEH SHERMAN
AARON NicHOLS SKINNER
AINSWORTH RAND SPOFFORD

* JOHN STEARNS

ORMOND STONE

GEORGE TAYLOR

WILLIAM BowER TAYLOR
ABNER H. THOMPSON
*WILLIAM CALVIN TILDEN
JosEPH MEREDITH TONER

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. xiii

GEORGE VASEY

*FRANCIS AMASA WALKER
CHARLES WARREN

JAMES CLARKE WELLING
GrEorRGE M. WHEELER

* Junius B. WHEELER
ALLEN D. WILSON

JAMES ORMOND WILSON
CHRISTOPHER C. WoLcoTT
JOSEPH Woop

*WILLIAM MAXWELL Woop
JOSEPH JANVIER WooDWARD
JoHN MAynarp Woopworth

HEnry Orissty YARROW

ANTON ZUMBROCK

ea
Gase ii Ks
iit

BULLETIN

OF

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF
WASHINGTON.

73D MEETING. OcroBER 10, 1874.
Vice-President W. B. Taytor in the Chair.
Mr. ‘THEODORE GILL read a paper

ON THE PRODROMUS METHODI MAMMALIUM OF STORR.
(Published in full in Appendix V. of this Bulletin.)

Mr. E. B. Exuiorr made a communication

ON THE USE OF METRIC WEIGHTS AND BALANCES FOR POSTAL: -
PURPOSES IN THE UNITED STATES:

calling attention to the fact that fifteen grammes, a weight but:

slightly greater than one-half ounce avoirdupois, had been made
by statute law its equivalent for postal purposes.

Dr. B. A. Gourp, Director of the Argentine National Ob-
servatory at Cordoba, was then introduced, and, in answer to:
several questions, gave an account of the general condition of
scientific culture in the Argentine Republic.

74TH MEETING. OcToBER 24, 1874.
The President, Mr. JosepH Henry, in the Chair.

Rev. Dr. ©. W. Sutetps, of the College of New Jersey,
Princeton, read a paper

12.

16 BULLETIN OF THE

ON THE PRESENT STATE OF THE SCIENCES;

depicting the development and bounds of scientific research, and
attempting to show that there is no need of any serious differ-
ences between science and religion.

(See New York Tribune, Nov. 6, 1874; also a volume published by the author.)
The thanks of the Society were presented to Dr. Sareups for

this essay, and the hope expressed that it would be widely cir-
culated.

Mr. S. C. Busty made a communication

ON THE GATHERING, PACKING, TRANSPORTATION, AND EXPOSURE
OF FRUITS FOR SALE:

giving a summary of an extensive investigation into the causes
which lead to the deterioration of the vegetable foods as com-
monly used, with some reference to diseases resulting therefrom.

75TH Meretinec; FourtH ANNUAL MEETING. Nov. 7, 1874.
Vice-President J. H. Hiue@arp in the Chair.

Twenty-nine members present.

The order of proceedings for the evening was announced, and
the following officers of the Society were elected for the ensuing
year :—

President, JOSEPH HENRY.

Vice-Presidents, J. K. Barnes, M. C. Metas,
J. H. Hingarp, Wm. B. TAyror.

Treasurer, PETER PARKER.
Secretaries, J. H. C. Corrin, T. N. Ginn.

MEMBERS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTREE.

.S. F. Barrp, S. Nrwcoms,
C. E. Dutton, O. M. Pos,

E. B. Evwiort, C. A. ScHort,
N. 8. Lincotry, J. C. WELLING,

J. J. WooDWARD.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. UT

The following members have been elected during the year :—

Freperic A. SAWYER, JAMES W. MILNER,
OxitANpo M. Por, HENRY YARROW,
IsaiaAH HANScoM, ARCHIBALD R. MARVINE,
Henry H. C. Dunwoopy, Epwin EK. Howe tt,
Witiiam M. Mew, JoHN M. WoopwortH,
LeonarpD D. GALE, URMOND STONE,
Henry R. RATHBONE, JOSIAH CURTIS,
Exuiotr Cougs, | JOHN STEARNS,
Freperrc W. Dorr, EpwarD O. GRAVES,
Hues Ewine, FRANK W. CLARKE,
CHARLES EWING, JOHN W. CHICKERING,
JAMES ‘I’. GARDNER, HENRY GARNE,T,
Joun W. PowELtL, Henry W. HENsHaw,
JOHN SHERMAN, A. D. WiLson,
SAMUEL C. BUSEY, A. C. PEALE,
WILLIAM LEE, Davip D. PortTER,
Cuaries Henry DAvIs, CHARLES WARREN,
GEORGE B. GoopkE, JOHN EATON,

Rospert RipGway, JouN J. Knox.

Mr. J. W. CHICKERING read a paper

ON THE CORRELATION OF THE WINDS AND THE TEMPERATURES OF
THE SURFACE WATERS OF THE OCEAN ALONG THE COAST OF NEW
HAMPSHIRE.

(ABSTRACT.)

During the years 1870-’74, between the 16th July and the
15th August, a series of observations has been made at Hampton
Beach, N. H, numberinz 98 in all, and including temperature
of air and water, direction and force of wind, and state of tide.
_The extremes of surface temperature have been 52° and 72° Fahr.

19 observations gave a temperature above 65°; 12 gave a
temperature below 55°, of which 11 were during 1874.

All the high temperatures were noted in connection with
winds from the sea; all the low temperatures with land winds.
The averages for each year were as follows :—

18 BULLETIN OF THE

1870, 61°
1871, 63°
1872, 61°
1873, 64°
1874, 57° +
1870-1874, 60° +

Many changes were noted, of which the following is a speci-
men :—

July 24th, K. wind, 72°
Si ORT SON ee ge aeren Oe
yin, eS aise

One very rapid change occurred :—
July 22d, 6 A.M. N.W. wind, 54°
“OMe ML S. E. oom
As a general result, these changes in temperature followed
changes in wind within three or four hours.
A few exceptions were noted, where the rise in temperature
preceded the coming of the easterly wind by two or three hours.
The most satisfactory theory of this correlation is—that with
a strong wind off shore, the warmer surface waters are driven
off and replaced by the colder waters from beneath; and, with a
sea-breeze, the process is reversed.
Some of these exceptions remain to be harmonized.
Several series of observations of temperatures at different
depths were taken, of which one will serve as a sample :-—

July 31. Four miles EH. from Boar’s Head—

17 fathoms, 424°
ROR ee 43°
LO ye 444°
Brie ee AT
4 66 49°
Surface, 53°

Mr. Dutton, among other remarks, suggested that hygrome-
trical observations were desirable, and might aid in the solution
of cooler winds coincident with warmer water.

Mr. ABBE remarked that he found the anomalous cases quite
interesting, those, namely, concerning which Professor Chicker-
ing had stated that the change in the temperature of the water
was observed a few hours before the change in the wind occurred.
He did not think that we needed to have recourse to any occult
influence of the barometer, moisture, etc., but that probably the
simpler explanation would be found in the fact that over the sea
the wind had actually changed, but that its influence had not yet

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 19

been felt upon the land where the observer was situated. He
alluded to the fact that frequently vessels are seen a short dis-
tance from land enjoying winds very different from those pre-
vailing on shore ; and further illustrated the subject by explaining
the local winds observed on either side of the Great Lakes, shown
on the Signal Service maps.

The President spoke of the desirableness that those accustomed
to scientific research should note phenomena around them, even
at places resorted to for recreation.

Mr. E. B. Eutiorr presented

FURTHER REMARKS ON METRIC WEIGHTS AND BALANCES FOR THE
POSTAL SERVICE:

stating that efforts were making, which it was hoped would prove
successful, to have the law, which recognized 15 grammes as the
equivalent of the half-ounce avoirdupois for postal purposes,
applicable not merely for international purposes, but for all pur-
poses—domestic as well as international. .

71TH MEETING. DECEMBER 5, 1874.
The President in the Chair.

Forty-three members and visitors present.

Mr. H. H. Barss read a paper
ON THE MOVEMENT OF A PARTICLE ATTRACTED TOWARDS A POINT.

(ABSTRACT.)

In this paper it was shown that the ambiguous conclusions
heretofore arrived at, in the analytical discussion of the move-
ment of a particle attracted towards a point, involving such
absurdities as infinite attractive force and infinite velocity, were
due to the tacit assumption of want of magnitude in the attracted
particle. Said particle, however minute, must be regarded,
relatively to a simple attracting point, as a mass or sphere. But
Newton has shown that the point of maximum attraction ina
homogeneous sphere is not at its centre, but at its surface. The
law of attractive force, therefore, changes, when the attracting
point penetrates the surface, and, instead of being inversely as
the square of the distance, becomes directly as the distance ; that
is, a diminishing force, reaching zero at the centre, instead of

26 BULLETIN OF THE

infinity, with the corollary of finite velocity, passing by con-
tinuity from an accelerated into a retarded velocity as the centre
of the particle passes the attracting point.

Mr. J. J. WooDwarb read a paper

ON THE SIMILARITY BETWEEN THE RED BLOOD-CORPUSCLES OF
MAN AND THOSE OF CERTAIN OTHER MAMMALS, ESPECIALLY THE
DOG; CONSIDERED IN CONNECTION WITH THE DIAGNOSIS OF
BLOOD-STAINS IN CRIMINAL CASES,

(Published in full in the American Journal of the Medical Sciences, Jan-
uary, 1875.)

(ABSTRACT.)

The writer, after deprecating the mischievous tendency of a
recent paper “ On the value of high powers in the diagnosis of
blocd-stains,”” shows that the common supposition that a certain
small but constant difference exists between the average diameter
of the blood-corpuscles of man and of the dog, which might
serve as the basis of a distinction in legal cases, is not borne
out by an examination of the original papers of Gulliver and
Welcker, whose measurements are those vulgarly relied upon in
favor of this view, and also that it is not in accordance with the
actual facts of the case. He then details the precautions which
should be adopted to secure accuracy in such measurements, and
gives the following statement of the results of his own measure-
ments of the blood of five men and five dogs.

Measurements of Human Red Blood-Corpuscles from five
Individuals.

MEAN DIAMETER,

No. of
corpuscles | Decimals of | Decimals
measured, | an English ofa
inch. millimetre. |,

1. Dr. W. dry 5 6 a 50 .000304 00772
POE oO moist . 5 49 .000292 00742
auigees 2 net s (sls) 6 0 50 -000300 00762
CB ae BRM AIK () 8 Ly ase 0 50 .000289 00734
5. Dr. McC. dry 0 4 0 50 .000288 00731
(Shoe (ian i . 5 : 50 000294 .00747
aro seine St moist . 3 . 50 -0003501 .00765
8. Mr. W. dry c D . 50 -000298 -00757
Oy) Ge 8 Cake Ost yeni! 52 000297 | .00754
10. Mr. T. re 6 9 . 50 .000290 .00737
1 be er fares 2 fo age : 50 -000292 00742
12. Mr. B. ii 5 6 50 000296 .00752
Ib 535 0 WA ene ene GEE Marve 0 50 .000297 00754

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. Cit OND

In each of these measurements of human blood, the great ma-
jority of the corpuscles ranged from twelve to seventeen divisions
of the eye-piece micrometer; that is, from .00024 to .00034 of
an inch. Out of the whole number measured, six were as small
as ten divisions, and one as large as eighteen divisions; large
and small forms were not searched for, however. The size most
frequently measured was fifteen divisions, or .00030 of an inch.

Hxamination of Red Blood-Corpuscles of the Dog from Jive

Individuals.
MEAN DIAMETER,
| No. of
| corpuscles |Decimals of | Decimals
measured. | an English ofa j
inch. millimetre.
1. Mongrel terrier, dry : 4 50 .000292 .00742
2. Same animal, ns : . 54 .000299 .00759
3. Another mongrel terrier, dry (H.) 50 -000290 .00737
4. Same animal, moist (H.) 50 .000288 00731
5. Scotch terrier, iY 5 (Gals) 50 -CO0291 -00739
6. Same animal, U3 Sn Gees) 50 -000289 .00734
Tene be 0 3) (als) 49 .000287 00729
8. Spitz dog, dry (H.) 52 .000285 00724
9. Black and tan, moist (H.) 50 -000290 -00737

In each of these measurements of dogs’ blood, precisely as in
the case of those of human blood, the great majority of the cor-
puscles measured from twelve to seventeen divisions of the eye-
piece micrometer (.00024 to .00034 of an inch). Out of the
whole number measured, four were as small as ten divisions, but
none larger than seventeen were encountered. As with the
human blood, however, large and small forms were not searched
for, but all the perfectly formed corpuscles brought into view by
the movement of the stage, were measured as they passed under
the micrometer without selection until the required number was
recorded. The size most frquently measured was fifteen divi-
sions, or .00030 of an inch, precisely as in the case of human
blood.

It will be observed that three of the above means for human
blood, Nos. 1, 3, and 7, are a trifle larger than any of those of
dogs’ blood, and two of the latter, Nos. 7 and 8, are a trifle
smaller than any of those for human blood. All the other
means for the dog are within the range of the values found for
human blood, and the majority of them are each identical, even
to the last decimal place, with some one of those found for man.

The author has not made systematic measurements af the blood
of other animals besides the dog, whose blood could not be dis-

22 BULLETIN OF THE

tinguished from that of man, but he points out that the measure-
ments of Mr. Gulliver himself warrant the belief that the blood-
corpuscles of the rabbit and guinea-pig, among domestic animals,
besides those of most of the monkeys of both the old and new
world, the seal, the otter, the kangaroo, the capybara, the wom-
bat, and the porpoise, belong to the same category. The paper
contains full references to the literature of the microscopical
diagnosis of blood-stains, and terminates with the following para-
graph :—

‘In conclusion, then, if the microscopist, summoned as a sci-
entific expert to examine a suspected blood-stain, should succeed
in soaking out the corpuscles in such a way as to enable him to
recognize them to be circular disks, and to measure them, and
should he then find their diameter comes within the limits pos-
sible for human blood, his duty in the present state of our knowl-
edge is clear. He must of course, in his evidence, present the
facts as actually observed, but it is not justifiable for him to stop
here. He has noright to conclude his testimony without making
it clearly understood by both judge and jury, that blood from the
dog and several other animals would give stains possessing the
same properties, and that neither by the microscope nor by any
other means yet known to science, can the expert determine that
a@ given stain is composed of human blood, and could not have
been derived from any other source. This course is imperatively
demanded of him by common honesty, without which scientific
experts become more dangerous to society than the very criminals
they are called upon to convict.”

Mr. Ormonp SrTonz read a paper

ON THE CORRECTION OF A COMET’S ORBIT :
showing that some of the ordinary formule could be simplified in
practice.

(This paper is published in full in the Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 2023.)

Mr. JoserpH Henry made a communication
ON AUDITION,

Remarks were made by Messrs. Durron, Hincarp, MEtIes,
and Eastman, chiefly on the sound produced by the discharge
of guns, and the regurgitation; Mr. Woopwarp following with

gf description of the horny fibres of the human ear, which vibrated
at different sounds.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 23

“18tH M&eErTING. DECEMBER 19, 1874.
The President in the Chair.

Forty-three members and visitors present.

Mr. J. T. Garpner gave an extended abstract of a paper,
prepared by him for the Report of the Geological Survey of the
‘Territories for 1873,

.ON THE USE OF RAILROAD LEVELLINGS IN DETERMINING ELEVA-

TIONS ON THE GREAT LAKES AND RIVERS IN THE UNITED STATES

AND IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS.

(ABSTRACT.)

In connection with the work of the Geological and Gecgraphi-
cal Survey of the Territories under Prof. Hayden, Mr. Jas. T.
Gardner, the geographer of the survey, has undertaken to review
the evidence upon which rests the received elevations of the
principal points in the United States. The results are published
in the Report of Prof. Hayden for 1873.

‘Mr. Gardner had before him over 1200 railroad and canal
profiles, collected in Washington by different departments of the
government. He also visited the offices of the leading railroads
to examine original notes and ascertain exact details at the
termini and intersection of roads, so that the profiles of the
different lines might be accurately corrected.

It was found that the old elevations given by our best au-
thorities had two leading sources of error. The eastern ends
of main railroads and canals had never been properly connected
with tide gauges, so placed as to give the mean level of the
ocean; and the old reports of railroad and canal heights had
in many cases been superseded by recent and more accurate
levellings. Having sifted his great mass of data to retain only
the most trustworthy of the lines, and carefully connecting these
with the U. S. Coast Survey tide ganges, Mr. Gardner proceeded
to determine the elevations of our principal raiiroad centres from
as many independent lines as possible.

At Cleveland there were three results, which only differed
among themselves one foot; and the five separate results for the
‘surface of Lake Erie differ only 25 feet.

The elevations of Lakes Huron and Michigan are determined
by nine wholly or partially independent lines, which differ only
four feet. This agreement of results places the elevations of our
Jakes bevond doubt.

Lake Erie’s mean surface is 573 08 feet, and Lakes Michigan
and Huron are 589.15 feet above the sea. In the same way

24 BULLETIN OF THE

points along all great rivers were located, and cities at the foot
of the Rocky Mountains.

The general result of the investigation is to show that we did
not know accurately the elevation of any points except on our
seaboard. The elevation of our lakes is changed by it; the
fall of the Ohio, Mississippi, and Missouri Rivers is materially
altered ; and the mean surface of the continent is found to be
higher above the ocean than was supposed.

The Saint Louis directrix is fixed at 428.29 feet, a change of
93 feet from the old determination; while Kansas City and all
the railroads leading westward from it are shown to have an
error of 115 feet. One of the most striking instances of accuracy
in long lines of American railroad levels is given by connecting
the New York Central and Lake Shore and Michigan Southern
Roads to Chicago, and thence southward by the Illinois Cen-
tral and other roads to New Orleans, making a line 1800 miles
long, which reaches the gulf with an error of only 25 feet.

By the Iowa railroads and the Union Pacific R. R., the ele-
vation of Denver is deduced from Chicago; and by the Missouri
roads and Kansas Pacific, the height of Denver is gotten from
Saint Louis. These independent results differ less than five feet,
and the elevation of Denver is established at 5196.58 feet. The
heights of the principal Rocky Mountain peaks were measured
_above Denver; and now, that this point is fixed, we can know
with certainty the elevations of our great mountains.

Considerable discussion followed, mainly on the effect of local
attractions in determinations by the spirit-level on mountain
slopes, in which Messrs. Hinaarp, ABBE, GARDNER, and CurTs
participated.

Mr. ABBE said that, for the sake of clearness, he would state
the hypsometric problem as it presented itself to him.

We desire to deduce the exact figure of the earth’s surface, or
the position of each point of its surface, relative to a system of
co-ordinate axes, whose origin is an assumed approximate centre.
To this end we assume for the whole earth Bessel’s, or some
other, ellipsoid, that agrees well with a limited known portion,
and must then determine, as deviations from this geomctrical
figure, the irregularities of the actual surface.

If by levelling operations we seek to determine the relative
elevations of the surface, we obtain thereby the altitudes not
above the assumed spheroid, but above an irregular level surface
which is the result of the irregularities in the direction of gravity.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 25

This level surface is that in which civil engineers are interested,
but not that which the higher geodesy seeks to determine, nor
that which astronomers would use if, as in the works involving
parallax, the exact distance of a station were required from the
assumed centre of the earth.

If we would determine the altitudes above the adopted normal
ellipsoid, our levellings require indeed a correction for ‘local
attraction of the plumb line,” which, as Baeyer has shown
for Germany (Astron. Nach., No. 1993), may amount to many
feet in the case of our western plateaus.

The President in this connection gave some historical reminis-
cences of early surveys for the Hrie canal.

79TH MEETING. JANUARY 2, 1875.
Vice-President TAYLOR in the Chair.

Hight members present.

Mr. J. J. WooDWARD made remarks

ON THE MODERN MICROSCOPE, NOBERT’S LINES, AND THE ATTEMPTS
OF OTHERS TO CONSTRUCT THEM ,

followed by a conversational discussion extending to the theory
of vision and the structure of the human retina, in which Messrs.
TAYLOR, SKINNER, and WoopwarbD participated.

Mr. HE. B. Evviorr made remarks

ON, THE TRANSITION IN GERMANY, AND THE SCANDINAVIAN NA-~
TIONS OF SWEDEN, NORWAY, AND DENMARK, FROM THE SILVER
STANDARD OF COINAGE AND MONEY OF ACCOUNT TO A GOLD
STANDARD.

Adjourned MEETING. JANUARY 9, 1875.
The President in the Chair

Twenty-two members and visitors present

26 BULLETIN OF THE

Mr. L. D. GALE made a communication

ON THE FAILURE OF THE WOODEN PAVEMENTS OF WASHINGTON
CITY :
contrasting them with those of other cities, and attributing their
decay in great part to the practice of sprinkling the streets. He
also described a contrivance for protecting them, which he had
invented.

Mr. T. N. Ginn made a communication
ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MAMMALS:

and elucidated doubtful points by reference to phenomena in
other classes of vertebrates. His conclusions were that at re-
mote periods Australia, South America,.and Africa had been
colonized from a common source, and hence might be grouped
into a division—Hogaea—contrasted with another—Pleiogaea—
containing other regions. Of these Australia retains the greater
number of primitive features, as illustrated by Paleontology ;
and Africa has received the greatest number of intrusive ele-
ments.

Considerable discussion followed, in which the President and
Messrs. Mrrtes, WELLING, and TAYLor participated.

80TH MEETING. - JANUARY 16, 1875.
Vice-President TAYLor in the Chair.
Forty members and visitors present.
The Chair announced the election of Dr. A. F. A. Kine, Dr. Emin
BesseExs, and Mr. JosepH Woop as members of the Society.
Mr. C. E. Durron read a paper
ON THE GLACIAL PERIOD :

giving an historical account of the progress of speculation and
investigation, and the more recent theories respecting such a
period, and showing the slight basis on which they rested, and
stating some facts and considerations opposed to them. He
also referred to a recent article by Mr. Sclater on the geographi-
cal distribution of animals.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 27

Mr. Giiu followed, remarking on the combinations of the
several faunas; and dissenting from the views of Mr. Sclater,
as stated by Mr. Durron. He likewise discussed the extension
of warm-water forms northward in the preglacial epoch, and the
extension of cold-water forms southward in the glacial epoch.

Gen. G. K. Warren, U. 8. Engineer, by request, followed
with remarks on changes in the interior section of North
America, stating that, at some time subsequent to the glacial
period, Lake Winnipeg drained to the south, instead of the
north, as at present; and that the northern portion of this region
has been depressed.

Mr. Gave made remarks on the heaps of bowlders, arranged
in lines across Manhattan Island and Long Island, passing over
ranges of hills; expressing the opinion that these bowlders must
have come from some region more than forty miles distant.

Mr. Taytor brought up Cro.w’s theory, that when the eccen-
tricity of the earth’s orbit was at its maximum, a coincidence of
the aphelion and winter solstice would greatly increase the cold
of northern winters, and thus might be sufficient to produce a
glacial period.

Mr. Asse remarked on the insufficiency of this to account for
the great increase of cold.*

Mr. Dat gave an account of what he had observed of very
great elevations and depressions, at different periods, in the
Aleutian Isles and on the Yukon in Alaska.

S8lst MEETING. JANUARY 30, 1875.
The President in the Chair.
Fifty members and visitors present.
The President announced the election of Hon. GEORGE
Bancrort, Dr. ANTON ZuMBROCK, Prof O. T. Mason, Col. S.

THAYER Apert, Col. Garrick Matiery, and Lieut. Henry
JACKSON as members of the Society.

23 BULLETIN OF THE

Mr. E. 8. HoupeEn read a paper
ON THE NUMBER OF WORDS USED IN SPEAKING AND WRITING.

(This paper is published in Appendix VI, of this Bulletin.)

Mr. GiLBert remarked on the propriety of counting only it-
dependent words, and excluding mere inflections; and counting
in this way he had estimated his own vocabulary at from 10,000
to 14,000 such words.

Mr. Parker referred to the Chinese language, stating that the
Bible in that language required only 3600 characters, and that
1000 characters sufficed for common use.

Mr. HinearD stated that only 600 words were to be found in
Italian operas; and remarked that Mr. Marsa probably ex-
cluded inflections, and estimated only words which educated
men would usually employ, not such as would be used on special
occasions.

Mr. Powett spoke of the language of the Utes, as comprising
about 1600 roots and 8000 words.

Mr. Eastman urged the importance of classifying words
according to the frequency with which they are used.

Mr. Gitu remarked that 30,000 did not seem to be too large
an estimate of the number of words used by an educated man ;
and gave an estimate of the number of technical terms which a
naturalist must have at ready command. A zoologist required
about 25,000.

Mr. Kniaut followed on the number of words in a technical
work of his own on Mechanics; and Mr. Farquuar on the multi-
plication of words resulting from grammatical variations.

Mr. WELLING remarked that the variations in such estimates
were wide, and susgested that it was necessary to consider
separately what words would, could, or might be used, and that
the investigation should be based on what had been done, not on
what might be done.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 29

Mr. J. E. HitGarp made remarks
ON A PROPOSED REFORMATION OF THE GREGORIAN CALENDAR:

in a Bill recently introduced in the Congress of the United States.
It proposes to make the year commence at the winter solstice,
April at the vernal equinox, July at the summer solstice, and
October at the autumnal equinox. Thus the arrangement of
the civil year would correspond with these four astronomical
epochs.

Mr. Corrin remarked that the year commencing on the Ist of
January, with months of different lengths and an intercalary day
in February each fourth year, had come down to us from Julius
Cesar. In the time of Augustus one day taken from some other
month was added to August, in compliment to the reigning Em-
peror. An important change was made in 1582, under the au-
thority of Pope Gregory XIII., making the civil year more nearly
coincident with the tropical year, and, by dropping 10 days in
October of that year, restoring the vernal equinox to the 21st of
March, its date in the year 325, the time of the Council of Nice,
whose regulation of the ecclesiastical calendar depended on that
day. The inconveniences, difficulties, and delays in effecting
that change are well known. It was not adopted in Great
Britain and the American Colonies until towards the middle of
the last century. In Russia at the present day the Old Style,
as it is called, is still retained.

From the different modes of reckoning the year in different
countries and at different periods, astronomers adopt the day as
the unit, and by giving the Julian day of the commencement of
each year, whatever its Style, are able to determine the dates of
past phenomena or chronology.

The alteration proposed not only changes the time of the com-
mencement of each month, but involves also other changes in
some of them. The difficulties of the past would follow any new
change, and the one proposed presents too limited advantages to
compensate for them.

The true vernal equinox occurs at present on the 20th of
March in Washington time, also in European time except in
-each year preceding a leap year. At the beginning of the next
-century it will be restored to the 21st.

30 BULLETIN OF THE

Mr. H. B. Evisiorr spoke of the desirableness of a change in
the calendar, but not in the way proposed ; and of the great ad-
vantages in having the months 30 and 31 days in length alter-
nately, and putting the intercalary day at the end of the year
instead of Feoruary.

The simplification of certain astronomical tables by this last
change was referred to by Mr. STonn.

Mr. ParkerR remarked that in China .our new year’s days
occurred within a few days of each other without serious incon-
veniences—those of Zoroaster, the Jews, the English, and the
Russians.

Mr. Taytor objected to the change proposed in the bill before:
Congress, and described at length a year commencing with the
vernal equinox with months alternately of 31 and 30 days, drop-
ping one day at the end of each common year, advocating it
as a desirable change, could it be effected.

Mr. Hiuearp read part of an article in the Encyclopedia
Britannica on the calendar, and of the British Statute of 1751,
adopting the Gregorian calendar “for that portion of Great
Britain called England ;” remarking that the year at that time
in England commenced on the 25th of March, and in Scotland
on a different day.

He remarked in substance that the conclusion generally arrived
at appeared to be that the calendar could be greatly improved—

Ist. By beginning the year at the winter solstice.

2d. By having months alternately of 30 and 31 days, the last
month having 81 days in leap years, 30 days in common years.

3d By placing the interealary day at the end of the year, in-
stead of the second month, but otherwise adhering to the Gre-
gorian mode of intercalation.

The change should be made, if made at all, at the commence-
ment of the next century. But no one undertakes to say that
the advantages gained would balance the inconveniences arising-
from such a change.

2

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 81

82p MEETING. FEBRUARY 13, 1875.
The President in the Chair.

Forty-three members and visitors present.
Mr. F. M. Enpuicu read a paper
ON THE COLORING AGENT OF GEMS:

giving analyses of the coloring matter of a great variety of gems
and sub-gems, describing in several cases the different changes
produced by heating in the open air and when air is excluded,
and concluding that iron, chrome, and manganese are the prin-
cipal agents in giving color to these minerals.

Mr. Asapu HALL, on behalf of Rear-Admiral Davis, Presi-
dent of the Commission on the transit of Venus, communicated
letters

ON THE OPERATIONS OF THE SEVERAL PARTIES SENT FROM THE
UNITED STATES TO OBSERVE THE TRANSIT OF VENUS ON THE
STH OF DECEMBER, 1874.

(ABSTRACT.)

Dr. C. H. F. Peters writes from Queenstown, Otago in New
Zealand, that he observed with the equatorial the first and second
contacts: the former uncertain, the latter with great precision ;
none of the much talked of phenomena presenting themselves to
his eye. 178 photographs were taken in the interval of these
contacts, and 59 while the planet was in the disk. The sun was
out almost uninterruptedly during the first 12 hours. Then
came clouds, with small intervals of sunshine. The last photo-
graph was taken 10 minutes before the beginning of egress, and
from that time the sun was under a dense cloud, so that the
egress was lost. With this exception, the observation of the
transit has been successfully accomplished. At all other stations
in New Zealand observations were prevented by clouds and rain.
The American party escaped disappointment by being at a
greater elevation above the sea.

Capt. Cuartes W. Raymonp, U.S Engineer, gives a full
account of his arrangements for observing the transit at Camp-
bell Town, Tasmania. Heavy clouds and rain prevented observa-
tions of the Ist, 2d, and 4th contacts. The 3d was observed
with the equatorial, light clouds drifting over the sun and
planet. The planet seemed to gradually assume the pear-shape.
No shooting out of the planet towards the sun’s limb at or near

13

32 BULLETIN OF THE

contact was observed. Quite a number of measurements of dis-
tances were made during a cessation of the storm, the sun appear-
ing at intervals through the clouds. 55 full-sized photographs
were taken while the planet was on the disk of the sun, and 77
with the Janssen apparatus between the 3d and 4th contacts.

Prof, HARKNESS reports that at Hobart Town bad weather
prevented observations of contacts, but many photographs were
taken.

Mr. George Davipson, of the U. S. Coast Survey, at Naga-
saki in Japan, obtained photographs with the Janssen apparatus
to within 108 or 15° of the actual time of the Ist contact; then
the clouds thickened, and when it brightened again the planet
was 10%, possibly 15%, on the limb of the sun. Measurements of
cusp-distances were made when the planet was half on the disk
of the sun, until near the time of the 2d contact. The 2d con-
tact was observed with the equatorial, and by Mr. TrrrMan with
a smaller telescope, but through clouds. At this and the 3d
contact there were very slight disturbances, no ligament, no band
or black drop, no distortion. Good micrometric measurements
were made of the separation of the limbs and of the horizontal
diameter of Venus. The meridian transits of both bodies were
observed with the transit instrument, and at the same time |
micrometric readings were made by Mr. Tittman with another
instrument for the difference of declination of the upper limbs of
the sun and Venus.

Clouds covered the sun about 10* before and cleared off 5*
after the 3d contact, with the minute cusps of the sun almost
touching and sharply defined ; clouds and rain followed.

About 60 good photographs were taken.

There was no part of the day when the sun was wholly unob-
scured, and the work was often interrupted by clouds. Of these
there were two strata: the upper moderately thin, of cirrus and
cirro-stratus, and persistent; the lower heavy and dense, of
cumuli stratus. When the sun was seen it was through breaks
in this stratum.

At Wladiwostok, Professor Hatt reports that the buildings
were finished and the instruments all mounted by the middle of
October. The final adjustment of the photographic apparatus
was made and regular practice in photography was begun Nov.
8th. The latitude of the station, + 43° 6’ 35.7/’, was deter-
mined by the American method. The difference in longitude
between Wladiwostok and Nagasaki, Japan, was determined
early in November. The values of the magnetic constants were
observed about the same time.

On Dec. 9th, everything was in readiness for observing the
transit of Venus. The Ist and 2d contacts of the planet were

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 33

observed by Professor Hall with the five-inch equatorial, and by
Mr. O. B. Wheeler with the three-inch equatorial. At the time
of contacts the sun was covered with a haze, but the sun and
planet were remarkably steady and well defined. The time of
the third contact was observed by Mr. Wheeler with a good deal
of uncertainty; and with the higher power used by Prof. Hall,
the uncertainty was so great, on account of the faintness of the
objects, that he did not record any time. The last contact was
entirely lost on account of clouds.

It had been found in the preliminary practice that the glass
mirror reflected so little light that, even on clear days, the time
of exposure had to be increased so much, in order to get dense
photographs, that these photographs were apt to be blurred and
of indistinct outline. It was decided, therefore, to make fainter
photographs with sharp edges. On the day of transit the haze
added very much to the difficulty of photographing, and it was
only when the haze lifted and the sun shone out brightly that
photographs could be made. Of these 13 are very good.

Mr. Hinearp followed with remarks on the measurement of
photographs of the sun, and expressed apprehension that the
want of sharply defined outlines would not allow of their being
measured with precision,

83D MEETING. FEBRUARY 27, 1875.
Vice-President Hii@arp in the Chair.
Thirty-seven members and visitors present.
Mr. Hinegarp read a paper—by Mr. M. C. Meras—

ON THE MOVEMENTS CAUSED IN LARGE ICE-FIELDS BY EXPANSION
AND CONTRACTION, AS ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE FORMATION OF
ANTICLINAL AND SYNCLINAL AXES IN GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS,

(This paper is published in Appendix VII. of this Bulletin.)
Prof. C. A. Youna, of Dartmouth College, by invitation, gave

an account of

THE EXPEDITION TO PEKIN FOR OBSERVING THE LATE TRANSIT OF
VENUS,

under the direction of Prof. J. C. Watson. He stated that on

34 BULLETIN OF THE

the whole the expedition was successful, the contacts at ingress
and egress having been observed, and a number of intermediate
measurements made. On account of cloudiness of the weather,
Prof. Young was unable to make observations with the spectro-
scope.

Mr. J. W. PowEtr read a communication
ON THE UINTAH MOUNTAINS,

in which he offered an explanation of the formation of the cafons
in the southwest.

Prof. E. M. GALLAUDET,
Com’r Lester A. BEARDSLEE, U. S. N.,
Mr. A. N. SKINNER,
Mr. Ropert LAWRENCE PACKARD, and
Lieut. C. C. Wotcort, U. 8S. A.,
were announced as having been elected members cf the Society.

84TH MEETING. Marcu 13, 1875.
The President in the Chair.
Forty members and visitors present.

Dr. A. WoetKorr, of Russia, by request of the President,
communicated

>

THE RESULTS OF A RECENT DETERMINATION OF THE ELEVATION
OF THE CASPIAN AND ARAL SEAS,

by Col. Tino, of the Russian Staff Corps.

(ABSTRACT.)

The levelling between the Caspian and Aral Seas was made
in 1874 under the direction of Col. Tillo. It gave 243 feet dif-
ference between the two. The Caspian is considered to be 89
feet below the level of the Black Sea; thus the Aral Lake is 154
feet above the Black Sea. It was also proposed by the former
secretary of the Russian Geographical Society, Wenioukef, to
run a line of levels along the Bosphorus, so as to determine the
elevation of the Black Sea above that of Mermara.

It is probable an expedition will start this year to level the

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 35

country between the Ural Mountains and Lake Baikal. It will
be extremely important in giving us a correct knowledge of the
elevation of a great part of the Asiatic Continent. Barometric
observations are entirely inadequate for this, as we do not know
the normal pressure which must prevail there.

The expedition is again to be conducted by Col. Fillo. Besides
the help afforded by the Geographical Society, there are 7000
roubles of private contributions to the expenses of this work, and
more money is expected.

Dr. WortkorrF also gave an account of

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN PERU, AND OF SOME OF THE
METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS IN THAT COUNTRY,

and stated, in reply to inquiries, that Lake Titicaca is more than
12,000 feet above the sea-level ; that the changes there of mean
diurnal temperature were very small, but there was often a dif-
ference of 40° between the day and night temperatures; and
therefore its vicinity was not suitable for an astronomical observa-
tory.

Mr. Gitu remarked that in Lakes Bacal and Titicaca are seve-
ral species of fish of peculiar types not found elsewhere.

Mr. JosepH HENRY made a communication on

THE GLACIAL THEORY,

remarking that in all theories on the subject, attempts were made
to explain the abnormal cold; but the enormous accumulation
of snow also required explanation. He presented an hypothesis,
which he had adopted many years ago, of extensive outbursts of
submarine volcanoes in the equatorial regions, sending out im-
mense volumes of steam, which, carried to a high elevation and
flowing northward, would be precipitated as snow of an abnor-
mally low temperature. More of this snow falling in winter than
was melted in summer, the accumulation in many successive years
would be sufficient to satisfy the demands of the glacial theory ;
while the power sufficient to move boulders would be produced
by the changes in this accumulation from cracks and fissures, and
their filling up with water subsequently freezing.

The earth in that period, as a whole, may have had a higher
temperature than that which it has at the present time. This
theory rests on a single hypothesis—that of the existence at the

36 BULLETIN OF THE

time of submarine volcanoes which supplied the vapor; the cold
being due to that of the higher atmosphere brought down by the
snow from that region.

He also remarked on the great irregularities, which were pro-
bable. Catastrophes may have occurred when there were sudden
eruptions of vapor, and great geological changes.

Mr. Hixearp referred to the rapid accumulation necessary to
account for animals overtaken and buried in the snow. ‘The ac-
cumulation would be more or less rapid, and the time required
less or greater, as the precipitation in winter exceeded the evapo-
ration in summer.

Mr. Bussuts referred to the very slow changes in the glaciers
of the Arctic regions at the present time.

Mr. Enpuicu spoke of the impossibility of determining whether
the glacial formations were rapid or slow; and of the very long
time required for geological changes.

Reference having been made to the elephants and mammoths
found embedded in frozen earth in Siberia, Mr. Gi~n remarked
that it was not necessary to suppose a warm climate as neces-
sary to their existence, as there were indications that these ani-
mals had become adapted to a quite cold climate; and instanced
lions and tigers, usually regarded as tropical animals, as found
at the present day in the neighborhood of the Amoor River, and
adapted by a vigorous growth of hair to live in cold regions.

He further remarked that from animal remains it would seem
that the preglacial period was warm, and that there followed a
diminution of temperature until a minimum was reached in the
glacial period. In the miocene period there was warm water
and a warm temperature in the north; and there were, doubtless,
gradations while these mammoths existed ; and finally it became
too cold for their existence, and they died out. He concluded
that the transition from the miocene to the glacial period may
have been gradual.

Mr. Datu remarked that the mammoths in Alaska must have
lived through the glacial period. The ice-cliffs in that region
must have been formed in a period of intense cold. Glaciation
was not the same in different regions of the north.

He referred, also, to the source of ivory on the northern coast
of Siberia, remarking that the animals may have been caught in

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 37

ice, but that their being found frozen up at the mouth of a river
did not necessarily indicate glaciation.

Mr. Metres called attention to the fact that the tusks were
found under water, and that the animals may have floated down
in water, instead of having been carried by ice.

Mr. Henry also made a second communication
ON FOG SIGNALS AND ABNORMAL CONDITIONS OF SOUND,

in which he spoke of the great attention which the Light House
Board of the United States had given to fog signals, and men-
tioned the steam-whistle, the trumpet, and the syren, and an
instrument for estimating the intensity and penetrating power
of sound, and the experiments which had been made with them ;
in reference to recent instances of several cases of sibnarinal
phenomena of sound.

(This paper forms part of the Reports of the U. S. Light House Board.)

85TH MEETING. Marcu 27, 1875.
The President in the Chair.
Thirty-two members and visitors present.
Mr. H. B. Euiorr read a paper on
CALENDAR FORMULA,

explaining more particularly and illustrating, by examples, the
following expressions :—
k +m-+d—'Tn=vw, in which
k=y-+#4-+4—c, for the years of old style,
k=y+#+6—2r * is new style.

In these, &, the year number, is, in general, after rejecting the
sevens, the number of the day of the week for a common year of
the preceding December 380, for a leap year of the preceding De-
cember 31, but for the first two months of a leap year must be
diminished by 1; m, the month number, is the day of the week
on which the first day of the month falls in a common year,
which opens on the first day of the week, and is unchangeable ;
2. e., the number will be for

38 BULLETIN OF THE

January 1 May 2 September 6
February 4 June 5 October 1
March 4 July OorT November 4
April 0 or 7 August 8 December 6.

d is the day of the month under consideration; Tn, the largest
multiple of 7 contained in k+m-d; c, the hundreds of the
year; y, the excess above the hundreds; and 7, the remainder
after dividing ¢ by 4.

The general formula may be read thus:—

To the year number add the month number and the day of the
month, and the excess over the largest contained multiple of 7 is
the number of the day of the week.

For years B. C., subtract the given year less one from 2800,
or some multiple of 2800, and use the above expression of k for
either old or new style.

Mr. Frissy and Mr. Git referred to instances where dates
were given both in the old and new styles, the latter stating
that this was usually done in the publications of Russian scien-
tific societies.

Mr. Scuort called attention to the difference of a day in
American and Russian dates in Alaska, the latter being in
advance, the American Sunday corresponding to the Russian
Monday.

Mr. W. B. Taytor gave an account of

A CALENDAR PROPOSED BY A PERSIAN ASTRONOMER IN 1079.

(ABSTRACT.)

There is one calendar scheme not included, I believe, in Mr.
Exvuior’s formule, which appears to me of sufficient interest to
deserve a notice. More than five hundred years before the adop-
tion of the calendar of Gregory, a Persian astronomer, Omar
Cheyam, one of a commission appointed by the Sultan of Kho-
rassan to reform the calendar, proposed (A. D. 1079) a very
simple modification of the Roman or Julian system, by postpon-
ing for one year, every eighth Julian leap year, giving the con-
tinuous succession of seven quadrennial periods, followed by one
quinquennial period. That is to say, the leap vear which hy the
Julian calendar should take place on every 32d year was uni-
formly carried forward so as to fall on every 33d year. This
delay by one year would in four such periods, or in 132 years,

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 39

produce a retardation of leap year by one complete Julian cycle,
equivalent to a suppression of one intercalary day every 132
years; in which period there would be by the calendar of Julius
Cesar 33 leap years, and by the calendar of Omar Cheyam only
32 leap years. I am under the impression that this calendar was
actually adopted by the Persian Sultan, but cannot speak with
confidence about it.

The Julian year of 365 days and 6 hours gains over the tropi-
cal or equinoctial year of 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 49
seconds, an excess of one day in about 129 years, and the beauti-
ful simplicity of Omar Cheyam’s plan depends on the circum-
stance of the number 128 being happily divisible twice by 4. And
thus, while the error of our present calendar (the Gregorian), with
its inconveniently long cycle of 400 years, runs out into an excess
of one day in 3756 years, the error of Omar’s calendar, with its
short cycle of 33 years, amounts to an excess of one day only in
5252 years. That is, it has a clear range of 52 centuries against
the 37 centuries of our Christian calendar. And by reason of the
shortness of the cycle, its evagation or intermediate range of
departure from the true equinoctial points is also, of course, very
much less.

On the whole, I must confess a great admiration for this ex-
tremely simple adjustment, and a decided preference of it to the
system in common use, even when made still more accurate by
the suggestion of Delambre, that one of the Gregorian leap year
days should be omitted on every millennium divisible by 4000.
Even this third approximation, with its cumbrous cycle, would
still leave an error of a deficiency of one day in 216,000 years.

The only consideration that occurs to me as likely to be suggested
in favor of the adopted calendar, is its mnemonic guide to the leap
year by means of the familiar divisor 4. This is a point which,
of course, would have a very different value with different minds.
To the Jew or the Mohammedan, employing a different chrono-
logical epoch, no such advantage is presented. If this mnemonic
have, however, any real importance, it could be equally well
secured by simply omitting one leap year every 128 years. Nor
would this period be practically any more arbitrary than the 400
year cycle; as is well illustrated by the general popular confusion
which took place in the year 1800, when very few persons were
able to say whether it was a leap year or not. The error of this
scheme would be a deficiency of one day in 18,776 years.

The President communicated two letters from Mr. A. C. Ross,
of Zanesville, Ohio,

ON LATENT IMPRESSIONS ON POLISHED GLASS PLATES PRODUCED BY

HEATING THE PLATES IN CLOSE CONNECTION WITH ENGRAVED
METALLIC PLATES ;

40 BULLETIN OF THE

the impression becoming visible when breathed upon. Silver
appears to produce the best impressions, nickel the next, copper
the least. No other metals appear to have been tried. The im-
pressions were generally positive, but a few cases of negative
impressions are described.

Mr. Henry referred to similar experiments made by Mosher
many years ago.

Mr. HENRY made a communication

ON ELECTRICITY ENGENDERED BY THE DRIVING BELT OF THE
MACHINERY FOR VENTILATING THE CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON,

referring particularly to leather belts, and ascribing the electricity
to compression and tension, instead of friction. Large quantity
of electricity, with small intensity, is produced. Protection
against fire from it in cotton factories was effected by interposing
screens of glass. At the Capitol, in Washington, the electricity
was utilized for medical purposes by arranging points and con-
ductors, so as to collect it, and had been effectively applied in
cases of nervous diseases. He found the electricity produced by
the belt was negative.

He also made remarks on the method of lighting gas burners,
by what was by some considered the electricity of the body, but
which was simply the result of the friction of the shoes on the
carpet. The phenomenon had become more common since the
introduction of heated air from furnaces into our dwellings.

Mr. Parker referred to several cases where sufferers had
obtained great relief from the application of electricity at the
Capitol.

86TH MEETING. Aprit 10, 1875.
The President in the Chair.
Forty-eight members and visitors present.

The President announced the election of Dr. RoBERT FLETCHER,
Lieut. Francis V. Greene, U.S. Eng’rs, Prof. Atma H. THomp-
soN, and Hon. SAMUEL SHELLABARGER 2s members of the Society.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 41

Mr. J. EK. Hine@arp gave a detailed

ACCOUNT OF PROGRESS OF THE INTERNATIONAL METRICAL COM-
MISSION,

of which he is a member.

Mr. J. J. WoopWARD read a brief

EXPLANATORY NOTE IN REGARD TO THE DIAGNOSIS OF BLOOD-
STAINS,

by Dr. Jos. G. Ricuarpson, of Philadelphia, from the American
Journal of the Medical Sciences for April, 1875, p. 575, and
said that he had requested permission to read this note, because
in his paper ‘‘On the similarity between the red blood corpuscles
of man and those of certain other mammals, especially the dog,”
etc., read before the Society a few months since, he had criticized
a previous paper by Dr. RicHarpson (see American Journal of
the Medical Sciences, July, 1874, p. 102), and that gentleman
was very anxious that his defence should also be heard by the
Society.

It would be noticed that in the explanatory note just read,
the facts on which Dr. Woopwarn’s criticism was based were
substantially conceded, and Dr. Ricnarpson’s defence hinges en-
tirely on the notion that it was his duty not to state these facts.
This question had been so fully discussed in Dr. Woopwann’s
former paper, however, that he did not think it necessary to say
anything further on the subject at present, except that his views
as then expressed are not modified by Dr. RicHarpson’s note.

Mr. 8. Newcoms, in a communication
ON THE TRANSIT OF VENUS,

gave a summary of the results obtained by the different parties
so far as the reports have come to hand.

,

A memoir of Mr. Ropert Ripeway, entitled
OUTLINES OF A NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE FALCONID&,

was read and commented upon by Mr. Git

(This has been published in the Bulletin of the U. S. Geographical and
Geological Survey of the Territories. Second Series.)

49, BULLETIN OF THE

8itH MEETING. APRIL 24, 1875.
The President in the Chair.
Thirty-eight members and visitors present.
Mr. E. B. Eviiorr made a communication

ON AFFECTED QUANTITIES OF THE FIRST ORDER.

Mr. A. R. Sporrorp read a paper

ON PROPOSED REFORMS IN SPELLING THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

Dr. Asa Gray, of Cambridge, Mass., made remarks on the
genus Torreya, discovered by Mr. Crow near the Chatahoochee,
but found more abundantly near Cedar Bluff, on the A ppalachi-
cola River, and only in these localities. A species of Croonia is
associated with it. Another Torreya is found in Japan, and an-
other Croonia is associated with it.

He also referred to several genera common and peculiar to the
eastern part of America and to Japan, some of which are also
found in California.

Mr. GiLt mentioned several species of fishes and mollusks
common to America, Japan, and China, and referred to the dif-
ference between the fauna of the Pacific slope of the Rocky Moun-
tains and that of the eastern part of North America.

Remarks were also made by Mr. HE. B. Extiorr, Mr. Durrton,
and Mr. ALVORD.

88TH MEETING. May 8, 1875.
The President in the Chair.
Thirty-seven members and visitors present.
Mr. J. E. HitGarp gave an account of experiments on
IRON FACING COPPER PLATES,

at the office of the U. 8. Coast Survey.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 43

Two important results were obtained from these experiments ;
the face of the plate was rendered very much harder than the
copper-plate, permitting ten times the number of impressions to
be taken from it; and second, the plate was rendered, by the
‘Jron-facing” process, permanently magnetic, having a polarity
north and south in the vertical direction of the plate when the
deposit was made.

Remarks were made by Messrs. Durron and E. B. ELLIOTT,
aud by Mr. Henry on the magnetic condition of these plates.

Mr. Durron made some observations on
THE CAUSES OF GLACIAL CLIMATE,

reviewing the various theories, geographical and astronomical,
on the subject; rejecting, after analysis, Mr. Crot’s astronomical
theory as inadequate to account for the observed facts; and pre-
fering Sir Cuarues Lyewn’s geographical theory based on the
distribution of land and water, as meeting the demands of the
question in a more satisfactory manner.

Mr. Tayror, in reply to Mr. Durron, thought that Mr. Crort’s
“astronomical” theory had not been fully presented. That
theory did not assume any diminution of solar heat upon the
northern hemisphere when its winter solstice occurred at aphe-
lion during the period of maximum eccentricity, but merely a
change of distribution of the same annual amount of radiation
received, between a prolonged winter of increased severity, and
a shortened summer of proportionally increased severity.

The great variety of physical results flowing from a slight
annual accumulation of snow in one hemisphere, continuing for
many thousands of years, producing an ice cap many thousands
of feet thick at the pole, and extending probably half-way to the
equator, displacing the centre of gravity of the earth several hun-
dreds of feet northward, occasioning a corresponding overflow of
the Northern Ocean, or an apparent submergence of considerable
portions of the northern continents, affecting the relative force of
the northern and southern trade-winds and a southward pressure
of the thermal equator, a similar change in the ocean currents,
ete., all accord well with the observed conditions of the glacial
epoch, while they all serve to re-enforce and intensify the aggre-

44 BULLETIN OF THE

gate effect. This astronomical fact presents at least a vera causa,
which unquestionably must produce some secular change of cli-
mate.

On the other hand, the ‘‘ geographical” theory so ably urged
by Lyetu is essentially speculative. We know indeed that great
and repeated changes of elevation have occurred in the land, but
that they have occurred in the directions required by the theory
is pure assumption. There is good reason to believe that no
considerable change in the positions of the continents has taken
place since the commencement of the glacial epoch.

Years before Mr. Crouu advanced his theory, there was a grow-
ing opinion among several leading geologists, such as CUMMING,
GOODWIN, AUSTEN, RAMSAY, PAGE, and others, that we had indi-
cations of colder periods of long continuance, in the Mesosoic and
Paleozoic ages; notably in the Cretaceous, and in the Permian,
the Devonian, and even in the remote Cambrian formations.
Such recurrences of what may be called glacial epochs, would of
themselves seem to point rather to cosmical, than to local or geo-
graphical causes. Any considerable change in the latitude dis-
tribution of land and water would, of course, have its effect on
the general local climate; but from the above point of view,
would have to be regarded rather as a perturbing, than as an
originating influence.

Mr. PowE.t continued the discussion, objecting to CRoLL’s
theory, that it unfortunately gave fixed dates, or determinate
periods, which were really as inadequate (in the view of practical
geologists) for the work accomplished and the changes effected, as
was the earlier Mosaic chronology. Mr. P. then gave an account
of his observations on the character and extent of the erosion ex-
hibited in our western river beds, and on the various distributions
of gravels, as furnishing irresistible evidence of the requirement
of far longer periods of time than had ordinarily been assigned
for the formation of such conglomerates.

SO —___—___....___ nee

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 45

89TH MEETING. MAy 22, 1875.
Vice-President H1in@arp in the Chair.
Thirty-eight members and visitors present. ,

The discussion of the
CAUSES OF THE GLACIAL PERIOD

was continued from the last meeting.

Mr. J. W. Powe gave a description of the various gravels
found in the geological formations of our northwestern valleys.
These consisted of shore gravels on sea beds and on lake shores ;
ice gravels, deposited by floating ice and by morains; sub-aerial
gravels formed by living streams; desert gravels and residuary
gravels; pre-quarternary gravels, consisting of shore gravels,
floating ice gravels, sub-aerial gravels modified, and, perhaps,
morainal gravels modified. Without committing himself to
either the astronomical or geographical theory concerning the
origin of these, he argued that when we separate that which is
due to glaciation from that which is due to other causes, the
problem becomes greatly simplified, and there was not required
that great change in the meteorological condition of the earth
which some have supposed.

Mr. Durron replied to certain points made by Mr. TayLor
at the previous meeting in favor of Mr. Crout’s theory, and
argued its rejection on the ground of insufficiency. The changes
in amount and distribution of solar radiation dependent upon the
eccentricity of the earth’s orbit seemed altogether too small for the
very large conclusions that had been drawn fromthem. He had
always supposed that the thermal equator, instead of being shifted
by the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, was dependent upon the re-
lative distribution of land and water upon the earth’s surface. He
passed in review several points in the astronomical theory, and
concluded with saying that the attempt to fix definite limits of
time within which glacial action has taken place must always be
futile, as the idea of indefinite duration of time for the accom-
plishment of these changes was thrust upon the geologist with a
force he could not resist.

46 BULLETIN OF THE

Mr. B. F. Crate, referring to the assumption that the exist-
ence of large tracts of land near the equator had a decisive effect
in increasing the general warmth of the atmosphere, said that
air may rise to 120° Fah. over dry and barren land, and does
not rise much over 80° on the ocean, but a cubic yard of air
heated from 40° to 80° by contact with warm water takes up as
much as (50) fifty heat-units (English), of which thirty-two be-
long to the water vaporized. When the air is again cooled to 40°
the vapor is condensed, and the whole fifty units are given off.

A cubic yard heated from 40° to 120° over a dry surface takes
up only thirty-four units, notwithstanding the higher temperature
attained.

A cubic yard of water heated to 40° takes up (67,000) sixty-
seven thousand units.

The deposition of moisture from air is a more important means
in the distribution of heat than the convection by the air pro-
per; and the supposed existence of large tracts of land about the
equator will be far from conveying the effect which Mr Lyeub
and others have supposed, in giving us a warmer climate. The
conditions, therefore, which seemed more favorable for the exist-
ence of a tropical climate near the poles would be a large equa-
torial ocean, and such a formation of the continents as to draw
the currents of the ocean toward one particular pole.

Mr. Taytor, replying to Mr. Durron, said that the present.
issue, concisely stated, appeared to be, that, while one side would
impugn the sufficiency of the “astronomical” theory, the other
disputed the verity of the ‘‘ geographical.” Mr. T. thought that
one great merit of Mr. Crouu’s hypothesis was that it seemed to
explain a large number of varied, yet correlated, results, cumu-
lative in their effect—from the gradual action of apparently very
small differences as causes. In this it harmonizes admirably
with the “uniformitarianism” which forms the basis of all our
scientific investigations and theories.

In regard to the thermal equator, which is now on the average
a few degrees north of the geodetic equator, it is true, as Mr.
Duron has remarked, that it is greatly influenced by geographi-
cal arrangement. But any conditions which would change the
relative force of the northeastern and the southeastern sets of

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 47

trade-winds, must also affect considerably the position of the
median zone, or the thermal equator. As,to the effect of land
distribution on climate, this latter is perhaps even more controlled
by continental configurations (which determine the deflections of
ocean currents) than by merely areal distributions.

In reply to Mr. Power1t, in whose remarks on the chronology
of post-tertiary erosion Mr. . felt great interest, he would only
say that he did not think that Mr. Crouw’s theory imposed any
such narrow limits of time on the geologist as had been sup-
posed. The variations of orbital eccentricity of our planet, de-
pending on the conjoined action of the larger and nearer planets,
with incommensurable periods, are, of course, very irregular, both
in time and amount; and although they may be said to occur—
roughly at periods of one or two hundred thousand years—yet
the extreme or exceptional ranges of eccentricity (which alone
may be supposed sufficient to produce any very decided results)
are found to occur only at periods of one or two million years
apart. Thus, if we suppose, with Mr. Cro.t, that our last glacial
period, or rather double period, coincided in time with the eccen-
tricities culminating two hundred and ten and one hundred
thousand years ago, the very notable maximum of eccentricity
occurring eight hundred and fifty thousand years ago may repre-
sent, as suggested by Mr. Crout, a glacial period suspected to
have existed in the upper Miocene. The next preceding notable
maximum occurred about two and a half million years ago.

It was erroneous to suppose, as had been intimated, that con-
glomerates alone had been accepted as evidencing past glacial
action. Professor Ramsay, twenty years ago, urged the glacial
origin of the Permian breccias, from the large size of the frag-
ments, from the rarity of rounded pebbles, from the angular and
flat faced form of most of the constituents, and, lastly, from the
polished and grooved surfaces not unfrequently found among
them. }

Mr. Gru said, that, so far as he, a biologist, had to pass on the
question at issue, the 210,000 years plus the antecedent period
of the Pleiocene was sufficient ; it must be remembered, however,
that the animal life of the earth had remained practically un-
changed (except as to geographical distribution of forms) from a
period long antecedent to the glacial epoch. But the fauna of

14

48 BULLETIN OF THE

the Eocene has almost no connection with the present, or with
the Pleiocene. If, then, the period specified was sufficient to
account for the difference between the pre-glacial epoch and the
present, a term of 850,000 years would be entirely insufficient
for the period that must have elapsed since the commencement
of the Tertiary.

90TH MEETING. JUNE 5, 1875.
The President in the Chair.

Twenty-five members and visitors present.

Mr. E. M. GALLAUDET read a paper on
UNCONSCIOUS CEREBRATION,

as evinced by mnemonic action ; citing various instances of per-
sons, scenes, and events suddenly recalled to the mind by per-
ceptions of sight, hearing, or touch, without any exercise of the
will.

Remarks were made by Messrs. Hitagarp, Henry, TAyuor,
and others.
Mr. O. T. Mason exhibited
ARCH HOLOGICAL SPECIMENS,
stone implements of an early age; describing them and others,

and giving a history of their discovery in Porto-Rico.

Mr. Barrp remarked that Mr. Grorcr Latimer, of Porto-
Rico, had made a large collection of such specimens, which he
had bequeathed to the Smithsonian Institution after refusing
$12,000 for them.

Mr. AsapH Hatt made a communication on

APPROXIMATE QUADRATURES ,;

describing the various methods which had been employed in
determining approximately an area comprised between a curve,

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 49

two ordinates, and the intercepted axis of abscisse, showing that
by the methods of Gauss, in which the ordinates are taken at
unequal but selected distances, greater accuracy could be ob-
tained with fewer ordinates, than where the ordinates are taken
at equal distances. In the case of a semicircle the degree of
approximation was twice as great with three ordinates specially
selected, as with five equidistant ordinates. The barometric
curve could be better determined from three observations made
at 3, 4, and § of the interval from sunrise to sunset, than from
five observations at equal intervals during the day.

Mr. B. Atvorp made remarks on

THE MORTALITY AMONG ARMY OFFICERS

during fifty years, from 1824 to 1873, as derived from Army
Registers.

(This paper is published in the Proceedings of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, at its session in August, 1874.)

He also described a proposed plan for government providing
for the life insurance of persons connected with the army.

Remarks were made by Mr. E. B. Exuiorr on the desirable-
ness of extending such a plan to the civil service; and by Mr.
TAYLOR on the policy of government providing for all kinds of
insurance,

91st MEETING. JUNE 12, 1875.
The President in the Chair.

Twenty-eight members and visitors present.

Mr. J. R. HAsTMAN gave an abstract of a paper on
THE COMPARISON OF RAIN-GAUGES AT DIFFERENT ELEVATIONS;

describing observations made at the Naval Observatory in
Washington. Rain-gauges less than 2 inches in diameter gave
unsatisfactory results. During a year those at an elevation of
34 feet from the ground gave 88 per cent. of the amount of rain

50 BULLETIN OF THE

received at an elevation of only 2 feet. The greatest difference
was observed in continued slow rain, when the air was saturated
with moisture; the least difference in sudden showers of short
duration.

Remarks were made by Mr. Henry and Mr. Hitearp, the
former referring to observations made in one of the towers of the
Smithsonian Institution.

Mr. H. B. Evuiorr read a paper on

THE MUTUAL RELATIONS AS TO PRICE OF GOLD, SILVER BULLION,
SILVER COIN, AND GREENBACKS.

Mr. O. T. MAson read a paper on

THE CLASSIFICATIONS OF OBJECTS OF ARCHASOLOGY.

Mr. Giuu called attention to the distinction between arche-
ology and ethnology, and suggested some changes in Mr.
Mason’s classification.

Mr. J. EK. Hinearp gave an account of

THE MEASUREMENT OF A BASE-LINE FOR THE PRIMARY TRIANGU-
LATION OF THE UNITED STATES COAST SURVEY NEAR ATLANTA,
GEORGIA.

Three separate measurements of this line were made; the first
two at low temperatures, the measurements being made in oppo-
site directions, in order to test the effect of slopes upon the per-
formance of the apparatus. The third was made in summer at a
high temperature, in order to test the accuracy of the correction
for temperature. The essential features of the apparatus were
described, and the mode in which compensation of the two
measuring bars for temperature is effected—the system being to
compare these compound measuring bars with a simple standard
bar of iron of six metres in length at the time of measuring the
base, and as nearly as practicable at the average temperature
‘which obtained during the measurement. The mechanical com-
pensation of the bars is thus only required to maintain a nearly
uniform length during the variations of temperature in the
measurement, and the actual length at the mean temperature of
measurement is taken account of by the known dilatation of the

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 51

standard bar. Mr. Hite@arp described the experiments which had
been made for the determination of this dilatation, and exhibited
a diagram showing the great accordance of the results that had
been obtained for determining this essential element, The base-
line in question was nearly six miles in length ; and permanent
monuments having been placed at intervals of about one mile,
the three measurements give eighteen comparisons of measure,
which show in every instance a very close agreement. The
following are the differences of the several measurements of the
entire base-line of 9339 meters from thcir mean, and the mean
temperatures at which they were obtained :—

Diff. of_length ; . —8.1 —0.3 + 8.4 mm.
Temperatures , 5) IIe ZI 44°,7 90°.7 Fahr.

Showing a maximum divergence of the results of about one-
millionth part of the whole length. Mr. Hitaarp claimed, in
conclusion, that no base-line of such length had before been
measured with the same degree of precision and with such
abundant evidence of the same. A full account of this opera-
tion will be published in the Goast Survey Report for 1873.

92D MEETING. OcToBER 9, 1875.
Vice-President Taytor in the Chair.

Twenty-four members and visitors present.

t

Mr. E. S. Hotpren exhibited and made remarks on

TWO DRAWINGS OF NEBULA, MADE WITH THE XXVI.-INCH TELE-
SCOPE OF THE U.S. NAVAL OBSERVATORY, BY MR. I. TROUVELOT,
OF CAMBRIDGE, MASS.

(ABSTRACT.)

Mr. TRovvenor was invited by the Superintendent of the U.
S. Naval Observatory to visit the Naval Observatory, and to use
the xxvi. inch equatorial for the purpose of making drawings of
planets and nebule. Mr. Trouveror was enabled to remain only
from Sept. 21 to Oct. 1, 1875, and hence less time was hestowed
than would be required for a perfectly Satisfactory representation
of any of the objects viewed. N evertheless, good pastel draw-

52 BULLETIN OF THE

ings on a large scale were obtained of, Ist, the planet Saturn ;
2d, of the central portion of the nebula of Orion; and 3d, of
the Horse-Shoe Nebula (G. C. 4403). The scale of the Ist is
about 12 inches to 18”; of the 2d, 1 inch to 32”; of the 3d, 1
inch to 129.3. Of these, the 2d and 3d were exhibited to the
Society. The drawings contain only what was seen certainly,
there being no conjectures recorded; and that of the Horse-Shoe
Nebula is almost entirely satisfactory. ‘The nebula of Orion,
however, must be regarded as a preliminary sketch, as this
object is much too complicated for satisfactory representation in
the limited time at the disposal of Mr. Trouvetot. It will be
corrected during the next opposition.

The method pursued in making the drawing of the nebula
(G. C. 4403) consisted in putting in the stars in the neighbor-
hood of the nebula by means of a glass reticle ruled into squares.
The sides of the squares were about 1’ of are. The entire
number of stars was put in in one night’s work. Mr. HoLpEn
has determined the average error of a star-position, in this
nebula, to be about 7.7 in R. A., and 5”.3 in Declination,
by comparison of 11 of Mr. TrRouveELor’s star-positions with
11 of LAssELL’s (Mem. R. A.S., vol. xxxvi. p. 49). The larger
residual in R. A. is accounted for by the fact that the driving-
clock of the equatorial was not performing well. 'This average
error of a star-position would not be appreciable in any drawing
of the nebula which could be put on an ordinary quarto page.
The stars of the Nebula Orionis were put in from G. P. Bonn’s
catalogue.

Mr. Houpen verified most of the details of the drawings—
especially in the brighter parts of the Horse-Shoe Nebula, where
variation of form may be suspected—and was able to declare
the pastel drawing to be very nearly correct, not only in gene-
ral effect, but as to the important details. A decided difference
exists between some of the previous drawings and this one in the
neighborhood of Lassell’s star No. 1. At present, the brightest
nebulosity follows this star. LAssEeLt, Mason, and others have
drawn it preceding. The great merit of pastel drawings for this
kind of delineation is that changes can easily be made, and that
the effect of nebulous matter can be successfully reproduced.

Remarks were made by Messrs. Corrin and TAytor.

Mr. E. B. Exuiort read the following paper on

MUTUAL RELATION AS TO PRICE OF GOLD, GREENBACKS, SILVER
BULLION, AND SILVER COIN.

Gold Price of Silver Bullion.—Owing to the large demand
for gold, and the corresponding diminution in the demand for

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 53

silver, consequent upon the change by certain continental govern-
ments—Germany and the Scandinavian Governments of Sweden,
Norway, and Denmark—from a silver standard for their money
of account, to a gold standard ; and to the hoarding of gold by
the Bank of France preparatory to its resumption of specie pay-
ments; and, also, to the large production of silver from the
Comstock and other mines of our silver-bearing territories, the
price of- silver, relatively to gold, has been for several years
gradually sinking, until it has reached in the London market,
according to a late cable dispatch, the low point of 554 pence
sterling per standard British ounce (the equivalent quotation in
New York market, for fine bars, being from 1.21 to 1.22 per
ounce), the lowest point of value, relatively to gold, on record in
the history of man,

The price indicates that the ratio of the value of gold to silver,
is as 17 to 1; that is, that the value of gold in the markets of the
world is now seventeen times that of silver of equal weight and
like fineness.’ It follows, as may readily be shown, that the price
in United States gold of the quantity of bullion contained in a
dollar of our new fraction silver is 88.0 cents ; or, conversely,
that what may be termed the silver-bullion price of gold—the
silver unit being 25 grammes nine-tenths fine—is 113.6.

Gold Price of Silver Coin.—The gold price of the United
States silver coin (fractional), which is used as currency—con-
taining to the dollar, when of legal weight and fineness, 25
grammes nine-tenths fine—was quoted on the same day (June 5,
1875), in the New York market, at from 92 to 95 cents, showing
the silver coin price of gold to have been from 105.3 to 108.7;
the difference depending on the quantity of pure metal contained,
as indicated by the date of the mintage and by the degree of the
abrasion of the coin.

Gold Price of Greenbacks.—The greenback price of gold is
now quoted, in the language of the market, at 117, showing the

gold price of greenbacks to be 854.
Greenback Price of Silver Bullion and of Silver Coin.—It

' June 6, 1876. According to the latest quotations in the London
market the price of silver has fallen to 52 pence per ounce of the British
standard of fineness (to wit, 111 fine), indicating that the ratio of the
value of gold to silver is now as 18 to 1.

54 BULLETIN OF THE

follows that, at the present time, the greenback price of silver
bullion—25 grammes nine-tenths fine to the dollar—is 103 (more
exactly, 102.9); the greenback price of silver coin, of the same
weight and fineness, ranging from 107.6 for older and abraded
coins, to 111.1 for coins of the full legal weight.

Exportation of Silver Coin for Melting or Reconage.—
Should the price of greenbacks, relatively to that of silver bul-
lion, advance three per cent., silver coin, even at its minimum
or bullion value, would prove more profitable for circulation as
money than for use in the arts, or for exportation for coinage
abroad.

Exportation of Silver Coin for Use as Money Elsewhere.—
The fractional silver coin of the United States is demanded, in
limited quantities, by certain South American and other countries,
chiefly on this side of the Atlantic, for circulation ; which fact
accounts in part for the higher price which our fractional silver
coin commands in the market compared with bullion. To what
extent this fact will operate—when a liberal supply of coin shall
be issued and thrown upon the market—to retain as now, the
price of coin beyond that of bullion, is, as yet, uncertain.

Effect on the Price of Silver Coin of the Demand for tis Use
at Home as Subsidiary Coinage.—Gold and greenbacks are each
legal tender of payment in all amounts, but United States frac-
tional silver coin is legal tender of payment only in limited
amounts, not exceeding five dollars in any one payment. The
effect of this provision of law is to give to silver coin a value
superior to its intrinsic value as bullion, and to protect it against
remelting at home, and against exportation for melting or re-
coinage abroad.

When greenbacks rule in the market at a lower point than
that of silver coin, such coin will not be in demand at home for
use as money for general circulation, except at the extreme
Southwest and on the Pacific Slope. When, however, green-—
backs command in the market a higher price than silver coin, the
subsidiary silver coin will be in demand as money, but will com-
mand a price above that of its value as bullion.

When greenbacks advance from 854, their existing rate, to 88,
the existing bullion rate (corresponding to a premium on gold of
13.6)—assuming that the relative values of gold and silver remain
unchanged—silver coin will necessarily cease to be profitably

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, | 55

exported as bullion for melting or recoinage, even though—by
virtue of the provision of the law which gives it the character of
a legal tender in limited amounts—it should have no value above
that of the bullion contained.

When greenbacks advance to 92 (corresponding to a premium
on gold of 8.7)—the existing prices of silver coin remaining
unchanged—the less perfect and less desirable silver coins will
circulate, as currency, side by side with the fractional paper cur-
rency.

When greenbacks advance to 95 cents (correspoding to a pre-
mium on gold of 5.3)—the existing prices of silver coin re-
maining unchanged—the new and more perfect silver coins will
circulate, as currency, side by side with our fractional paper cur-
rency.

When greenbacks advance beyond this rate, nearer to a par
with gold, silver coin will supersede greenbacks, and their asso-
ciated fractional paper currency. The intrinsic bullion value of
new silver coins, of legal weight and fineness, is now 88 cents to
the dollar, but their value as coin in the market is 95 cents. The
issuing and placing on the market of the new silver coinage in
considerable quantities, will tend to lower somewhat the price in
the market of these new coins, but will not reduce the price to
the bullion standard. The gold price of greenbacks in the
market, therefore, must advance considerably beyond 88 cents,
the present value of the bullion contained in silver coins of legal
weight and fineness—that is—the greenback price of gold must
fall considerably below 113.6, in order to secure the free and
general circulation of such coins.

The higher price of our fractional silver coin, as compared
with silver bullion, of the same weight and fineness, is due, in
part, to the fact that, in limited amounts (not exceeding $5 in
any one payment), it is, like gold, a legal tender of payment in
the United States, and, in part, to a limited demand for its use
as money in the payment of balances for custom purposes, and
for the settlement of fractional amounts in the payment of interest
on our bonded debt; also, for use in general circulation on the
Pacific slope of the United States and in Texas and certain
other portions of the southwest, where gold is the sole standard,
paper currency not being recognized in trade ; and, also, in cer-
tain South American and other countries.

56 BULLETIN OF THE

The Trade Dollar—its value in Gold and in Greenbacks.—
A word as to the trade dollar. The trade dollar contains of
silver, of the usual standard of fineness of nine-tenths, 420 grains
troy; its weight is, therefore, 16.2791 times that of the gold
dollar.

Its value as bullion when gold is worth seventeen times silver
of the same weight, is 95.78 cents. Its price in the market,
mainly owing to its demand for Oriental circulation, is from 97
to 98 cents gold, or about 2 cents in advance of its value’ as
bullion.

TABULAR STATEMENT.

In the following tabular statement, the dollar of silver bullion,
and the dollar of silver coin, are each assumed to be 25 grammes.
of silver of the fineness of nine-tenths—the same with regard to
quantity and fineness, as that of the legal silver currency (frac-
tional) of the United States :—

Pricts—June 5, 1875.

The gold price of $100 in greenbacks, is. : : - $85.50

The gold price of $100 in silver bullion, is . : a > 88201

The gold price of $100 in silver coin, is from 5 . 92 to 95:

Consequently—

The greenback price of $100 in gold, is : : ei dkile(A(0:

The silver bullion price of $100 in gold, is . 4 : Bi due

, ! ; i We iicorn me. 5 a) WO 7

The silver coin price of $100 in gold, is an ; : 105.3:
Also—

The greenback price of $100 in silver bullion, is . 5 a 0289

f Monet ooh, LLOMI ene ; 5) NOG

Greenback price of $100 in silver ca) He wa
Also—

‘ i } Aas We (\tarapaet » 104.5

The silver bullion price of $100 in silver coin, is ca 108.0

The silver bullion price of $100 in greenbacks, is 5 ° 97.2

Mr. T. N. Giuu read a paper on

THE PROGRESS OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES DURING THE PAST
CENTURY.

(This is published at tength in Harper’s Monthly Magazine, February, 1876.)

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, ST

93D MEETING. OcToBER 23, 1875.
The President in the Chair.
Thirty-two members and visitors present.
Mr. JosepH Henry made further remarks on
SOUND IN CONNECTION WITH FOG SIGNALS,

referring particularly to echo, or reflection of sound, as observed
in experiments under the U. 8. Light-House Board,

(These experiments are described in the Report of the Light-House Board for
1875.)

Mr. W. B. TAytor made a communication on

ACOUSTIC REFRACTION.

(ABSTRACT.)

Sound, though differing from light in the character of its
waves and their order of magnitude, yet moves like light in
radial lines, and, like light, is diverted from its rectilinear course
whenever its waves undergo an unequal retardation or acéelera-
tion.

There are three different methods in which sound-waves passing
through a gaseous medium may suffer such unequal disturbance
of velocity: First, by variations of density in the medium—sound
moving more slowly as the square root of the density, the pres-
sure being the same. Second, by variations of elasticity in the
medium, sound moving more swiftly as the square root of the
elasticity, the density being the same. Third, by variations of
motion or current in the medium—sound travelling (by convec-
tion) faster with the wind by a small percentage according to its
velocity—and conversely.

There is no doubt that light also is liable to all three of these
forms of refraction; as its velocity is necessarily retarded by an
increase of density 1 in the medium, by a reduction of its elasticity,

. and by an adverse motion in the medium.

A fourth cause of velocity disturbance in the case of sound
exists in the temperature of the medium—sound moving more
swiftly in a heated atmosphere, in proportion to the square root
of the absolute temperature. As the only dynamic eficct of heat
on a gas is to increase its elasticity by confinement, if the volume
be constant, or to increase its volume if unconfined, this cause
of acoustic refraction, important as it is practically, may be theo-
retically resolved into one of the preceding conditions.

1. The refraction of sound resulting from differences of density

08 BULLETIN OF THE

was first exhibited by SonpHauss, in 1852, by means of a lens of
carbonic acid gas confined in an envelope of gold-beater’s skin,
or preferably, of collodion film. The wave-fronts of sound (con-
sidered as practically plane surfaces) being centrally retarded in
passing the convex surface of the lens, thus move through and
emerge from the lens with concave surfaces, whose normals con-
verge to a point. A convex lens of hydrogen would cause the
wave-fronts of sound passing through it to emerge (by accelera-
tion) with a convex form—that is, would cause the rays or nor-
mals to diverge—the focus being negative. And to obtain a
positive focus of convergence it would be necessary to make a
hydrogen lens concave. ‘The same effect would be produced on
light by a lens of hydrogen.

2. The refraction of sound resulting from differences of motion
in the air was first suggested by Prof. Stokss, in 1857. As the
advance of sound is always in directions normal to the expand-
ing spheroidal surfaces of instantaneous compression, any defor-
mation of these spheroidal surfaces must correspondingly deflect
the line of successive impacts from the original radial direction.
Winds being usually considerably retarded near the surface of the
earth by frictional resistance, the wave-front of sound moving in
the direction of the wind, is more advanced above than below,
causing the sensible rays to bend downward; on the other hand,
the wave-front is more retarded above than below when opposed
to the wind, causing the rays to bend upward. Prof. Henry was
the first to observe (in 1865) that sound moving against the wind
could be heard aloft after it had ceased to be audible below,
though it was not till some time afterward that he detected the
true cause. Prof. REYNoLDs subsequently (in 1874) independently
verified by experiment the theory of Prof. Sroxss.

3. The refraction of sound, resulting from differences of tem-
perature, was first pointed out by Prof. Reynoips in 1874, who
has shown that various recorded observations on sound very
strikingly establish the indications of theory in this direction.

These last two conditions of acoustic refraction—inequality of
motion in the air and inequality of its temperature—are both
susceptible of very simple quantitative determination, and are
thus shown to be real and efficient causes of many observed re-
sults, and to furnish satisfactory explanations of many hitherto
puzzling phenomena of sound. Various illustrations were given.

Mr. Durton spoke of the rumbling sound of trains on the Alex-
andria Railroad, as heard at the U. 8. Arsenal in this city ; some-
times loud, sometimes moderate, sometimes inaudible; much
louder with favorable than with adverse winds; sometimes, espe-
cially if the air was still, the sound, while inaudible at the ground,
was distinct, or even loud, at an elevation of 40 feet.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 59

He also suggested that diffusion might often compensate for
refraction of sound.

Further remarks were made by Mr. Taytor and Mr. Henry.

94TH Mrrtine. Firra ANNUAL MurtTina, NoveMBER 6, 1875.
Vice-President Taytor in the Chair, |
Twenty-four members present.
The following officers of the Society were elected for the

ensuing year :—

President, JosEPH HENRY.
Vice-Presidents, J. K. Barnes, W. B. Taytor,
J. HK. Hitearp, J. C. WELLING.
Treasurer, PrrEerR PARKER.
_ Secretaries, J. H. C. Corrin, T. N. Grin

MEMBERS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

CLEVELAND ABBE, : N.S. Linco,
S. F. Barrp, S. NeEwcoms,
C. EH. Dutton, O. M. Por,

EK. B. Exwiort, C. A. ScHort,

J. J. WooDWARD.

95TH MEETING. NovEMBER, 20, 1875.
The President in the Chair.
Thirty-nine members and visitors present
Mr. E. B. Exuiorr made a communication on
ADJUSTMENT OF THE CALENDAR :

describing several propositions and attempts to remedy its defects,
and the advantages of alternate months of 30 and 31 days, or

60 BULLETIN OF THE

sextiles of 61 days, in leap years; the last month, or sextile, in
common years to have one day less. He explained and illus-
trated by examples the transition from the present system.

Mr. Corrin suggested that this transition would be sim»lified
by beginning the year one day earlier than at present.

Mr. J. J. WoopwarbD made a communication on
DIFFRACTION PHENOMENA IN THE FIELD OF THE MICROSCOPE :

illustrating by photographs of Frustulia Saxonica thrown upon
a screen, and showing that spurious striz may be produced by
throwing the light obliquely on the object.

(The paper is published in the Monthly Microscopical Journal, December,
1875, p. 274.)
The President read, as his Annual Address,

AN ACCOUNT OF RESEARCHES ON SOUND IN ITS APPLICATION TO
FOG-SIGNALS.

(This forms part of the Report of the U S. Light House Board for 1875.)

96TH MEETING. DECEMBER 4, 1875.
The President in the Chair.
Thirty-five members and visitors present.

The election of Commander HE. P. Luu, U. S. N., as a mem-
ber of the Society was announced.

Mr. JosrEpH Henry read a paper on
HALF-VISION :
describing the phenomena in his own case, and illustrating by a

diagram the luminous circle and colored spectra presented to his
vision.

Mr. Woopwarp followed with remarks on the frequent ob-
servance of half-vision, and the amount of literature on the
subject; describing an injury to his own eyes from the use of the

4

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 61

electric light in illuminating the microscope, the structure of the
eye and optic nerve, and explaining the theory of such abnormal
phenomena.

Mr. G. K. GILBERT made a communication on

RIPPLE-MARKS.

(ABSTRACT.)

Ripple-marks are observed, first, upon dry, shifting sand;
second, on sand under water; third, on sandstone strata. ‘The
third case is the fossil phase of the second.

1. As to their Form.—The ripples on a slab of sandstone are
usually equal, parallel, equidistant ridges, curved over the top,
and separated by curved troughs; and the question has been
raised whether the curvature of the ridges or that of the troughs
is the more acute. Since the stratum which overlies a rippled
sandstone may preserve on its under surface a mould, or reversed
impression, of the rippling, there may be doubt in the case of a
detached specimen whether it exhibits the true ripple or its
mould. From an extended series of observations in Utah, the
speaker concludes that the crests of the ridges are more acute
than the intervening troughs, and that this rule is so little liable
to exception, that it may be used in determining which is the
originally upper surface of a detached or highly inclined bed of
sandstone. An opposite opinion is held by Jukrs (Manual,
1872, p. 168).

2. As to their Cause.—The view is advanced that the ripples
on dry and on wet sand are due to vibrations of air and of water,
and are analogous to, if not homologous with, the accumulations
of sand along the node lines of vibrating elastic plates. We
know from the phenomena of rapids that running water is thrown
into vibration by friction on its channel. We know from the
whistling of the wind that air is given uniform vibration by
friction. Are not such vibrations, arising from the friction of
currents, competent, if constant in position, to produce the phe-
nomena of ripple-marks ? The following facts appear to accord
with this hypothesis: First, the wavelets are, within restricted
areas, sub-equal in all dimensions. Second, in the case at least
of those formed under water, the wavelet does not travel, like a
sand-dune, but is constant in position so long as the conditions
remain unchanged. In one observed instance, the lamination of
strata showed that a set of ripple-marks had held the same posi-
tion while two feet of sediment were accumulated. Third, there
are compound ripplings. In one fossil specimen exhibited to
the Society, the ripples are double, each main ridge being sup-
plemented by a smaller one running along its base. In another

f

62 BULLETIN OF THE

specimen, a system of ridges is crossed at right angles by another
of smaller size, a reticulation being the result.

A different explanation is given by JuKEs (loc. cit.), and by
Dana (Manual, 1874, p. 672).

3. As to their Geological Interpretaiion.—If currents are
adequate to their production, they may be formed at great depth,
and are demonstrative neither of shallow water nor of the prox-
imity of shore, as they are often regarded. They are never found
in shales, while few sandstone series are without them. That is,
they are formed only where the motion of the water is too great
to admit of the accumulation of fine sediment.

Mr. F. W. Putnam, of Salem, Mass., described and explained
Tipples formed by the tide.

Mr. Poweut described various forms of ripple-marks which he
had observed, and remarked that ripple-marks may be formed in
deep water from the motion of waves on the surface, and were
not necessarily an indication of action on a shore.

The subject was further discussed by Messrs. Henry, ABBE,
and GILBERT.

Mr. J. J. WoopwARD made some comments on
THE MICROSCOPICAL STRUCTURE OF WOOL:

reading a report, by Dr. Joun LEeConrx and himself, to the
President of the National Academy of Sciences, on the micro-
scopical examination of many specimens of mixed goods of sheep
or lamb wool, with cow or calf, and other hair, with a view to
determine the proportion of the former. In illustration, he ex-
hibited on a screen 25 photographs of various kinds of wool and
hair.

The examination and report were made at the request of the
Hon. Secretary of the Treasury, in order to determine the rate
of duty on the several kinds of goods.

97TH MEETING, DEcEMBER 18, 1875.
The President in the Chair.

Fifty members and visitors present.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 63

The election of Mr. Epwarp GoopFELLow, of the U.S. Coast
Survey, as a member of the Society was announced.

Mr. J. A. OsBorNneE exhibited and described

A NEW METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENT.

(ABSTRACT.)

A consideration of the effect of climate upon animal life and
well-being will lead to the conclusion that the chief influence
which the elements exert upon the human body is essentially
thermic in its character. The tendency of the actual temperature
of the atmosphere, its humidity and motion, as well as that of
the direct radiant heat from the sun, is to effect a change in the
normal warmth of the body.

No attempt has hitherto been made to give definite expression
to the physio-thermic influence for different places on the surface
of the earth, or for the same place at different times. The in-
strument exhibited for this purpose consists of an isolated cylin-
der of bank-note paper, hanging from a horizontal ring, and con-
taining about three pounds of water raised to the temperature
of the blood. A thermometer is suspended in the water, and, as
the latter cools spontaneously, it is kept in continuous and perfect
agitation by clock-work, so that a true determination of the tem-
perature of the whole mass is constantly indicated. By recording
in seconds the time in which the mercury sinks from degree to
degree, we obtain a series, which, being reduced to a single ex-
pression, will give a number comparable with the loss of heat
sustained by a human being, and proportional to other observa-
tions made with the same or a similar instrument. For it will
be seen that the cylinder and its contents, having a surface
which is slightly moist, is subject to the same influences which
affect a man in the same locality ; and its loss of temperature is
determined by the combined action of radiation, evaporation,
and the convection of its heat by the moving currents of air.

Asan animal has to maintain a constant temperature, losing
as much heat as be makes, an investigation of the external
causes which determine that loss, or tend to retard it, is of pre-
eminent importance.

Having obtained a serviceable value for the aggregate physio-
thermic influence, it was proposed, by the simultaneous use of
pervious and impervious cylinders, placed in and out of the wind,
to analyze this total, and apportion to each of the great factors
its proper share in the production of sensible heat or cold. And,
finally, by an investigation of many such analyses, to establish
an empirical formula by the aid of which existing meteorological
records may be expressed in units of thermic value; thereby, in
the interests of physiology, to extend a knowledge of the climates
of the globe, subjectively considered.

16

64 BULLETIN OF THE

Mr. Hitcarp regarded it a meteorological, and not a physio-
logical, instrument; and spoke of the value of the ordinary
meteorological observations as giving much informacion on
climates of different regions, from which their effects on man
may be deduced.

Mr. Woopwarp doubted the precision of the instrument ex-
hibited; and spoke of the practical difficulty in obtaining homo-
geneous porous-paper, and in constructing several instruments,
which would agree in their indications.

Mr. Groree B. Drxwe tt, of Boston, made a communication on
CYLINDER CONDENSATION, STEAM JACKETS, AND SUPERHEATED
STEAM :
giving an extended abstract of a pamphlet, which he had pub-

lished on these subjects.
Prof. A. M. Mayer, of Hoboken, N. J., made a communica-
tion on

A METHOD OF DETERMINING A DEFINITE INTERVAL OF TIME, AND
ITS APPLICATION TO MEASURING THE NUMBER OF VIBRATIONS
OF SOLID BODIES. i

Mr. Hitaarp and Mr. Harkness participated in the discus-
sion which followed.

98TH MEETING. JANUARY 15, 1876.
The President in the Chair.
Forty-three members and visitors present.
Mr. J. J. Woopwarpb made

REMARKS ON THE PAPYRUS EBERS,

exhibiting and describing two quarto volumes, with colored plates,
of an Egyptian medical work written 1552 years before the Chris-
tian era, and probably the oldest medical work extant. The vol-
umes contained the hieratic text and translations into hiero-
glyphics and German.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 65

Mr. Parker and Mr. Gaze followed with remarks on Egyptian
antiquities.

Mr. E. B. Exuiorr read a letter from Dr. B..A. Gouxp, Di-
rector of the National Observatory at Cordoba, giving an account
of

THE COINAGE OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC,

as established by an act of the legislative body, which went into
effect in October, 1875.

The Argentine peso-fuerte is of the same value as the Japanese
yen; and 1003.08774 pesos-fuertes are equivalent to 1000 dollars
of United States coin, the difference being a little more than 5
of 1 per cent.

Mr. J. W. PowELt made a communication on
SOME TYPES OF MOUNTAIN BUILDING,

describing several characteristic forms in the Park Range, the
Ute, and other mountains in the West, and pointing out marked
differences between these formations and those in the Appalachian
range.

99TH MEETING. JANUARY 29, 1876.
The President in the Chair.
Thirty-five members and visitors present.
Mr. W. H. Datt read a paper on

THE SUCCESSION OF THE STRATA OF THE SHELL-HEAPS OF THE
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS,

(ABSTRACT.)

He showed that the shell-heaps were separated by the strata
of which they are composed into deposits of three successive
periods. The lower stratum being composed of the remains of
echini, eaten by the early inhabitants, he termed the Echinus
Layer, and the period in which it was formed the Littoral Period.
The second, composed chiefly of fish-bones, the Fish-bone Layer,
deposited in the Fishing Period. The upper or Mammalian
Layer, corresponding to the Hunting Period, was chiefly formed

66 BULLETIN OF THE

by the bones of mammals and birds. Over all these lie the much
more modern village sites, very few of which are now occupied.

The first layer might have been deposited in a thousand years.
There is no means of approximating to the age of the subsequent
layers. The Echinus layer contained few and very rude imple-
ments, and a gradual progression was noted in the variety and
finish of the articles found in the successive layers. Only toward
the last are there any signs of the use of houses, fire, or orna-
mental designs. The character of the implements showed that
the early inhabitants used those of a pattern similar to the Eski-
mo, but that these gradually became differentiated into a type
peculiar to the islands. Mr. Daun considered it probable that the
first inhabitants were Eskimo of a low type, forced for protection
from America into the islands, who in their restricted surround-
ings in the course of time developed into a special type without
entirely effacing the traits which link them to the Eskimo, by
language, physique, and fabrications.

In reply to questions, he gave reasons for his supposition that
the inhabitants of the Aleutian Isles came from the Hast.

Mr. Powe spoke of the khiva or underground apartment
found in the remains of dwellings from the Arctic regions, through
California and Colorado, and to the Gulf of Mexico, usually in
the centre of the building, regarding it as the common workroom
or assembly hall of the occupants.

Mr. Mason made remarks on the similarity of instruments and
implements found in Australia, North America, and the Aleutian
Isles, and the probability of there having been great changes in
the bed of the ocean between North America and Asia.

Mr. Emit BEssELts made a communication on
THE HYGROMETRICAL CONDITION OF THE AIR IN HIGH LATITUDES,

discussing observations made at Polaris Bay by the late polar
expedition under Capt. Haut.

100TH MEETING. FEBRUARY 12, 1876.
The President in the Chair.

Thirty-eight members and visitors present.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 67

Mr. G, K. Ginsert made a communication on

THE HORARY OSCILLATIONS OF THE TEMPERATURE OF THE
ATMOSPHERE,

in which he correlated barometric and thermometric changes and
rates of change in observations made at San Francisco and Phil-
adelphia in the equinoctial months of March and September,

Mr. F. F. Jupp made a communication on
THE WATERSHED OF THE ADIRONDACK REGION,

giving results of a survey of the head-waters of the Hudson and
Rackett Rivers by Prof. Farranp N. Brnepior in 1874, and
dwelling particularly on the feasibility and facility of converting
the numerous and extensive lakes in that region into reservoirs,
80 managed as to greatly reduce freshets in the Hudson in the
spring, and supply the deficiency of water in the fall.

Remarks were made by Messrs. Harkness, Henry, POWELL,
and ALVoRD.

Mr. Esa Gray gave an
EXHIBITION OF A TELAPHON,

wnich he had invented, by which musical tones transmitted over
a telegraph wire can be responded to at a distant point. Several
tones of a different pitch were transmitted simultaneously by a
single circuit from one room, and each responded to in another
room by a reed attached to an electric magnet and tuned to the
same pitch. With such apparatus several messages can be sent
at the same time by the same circuit, and at the place of reception
each would be distinguished from the rest by difference of tone
and by being responded to by a magnet whose reed was tuned
to the same pitch as that from which it had come. He stated
that messages had been thus transmitted successfully by a circuit
of 300 miles.

He also exhibited other methods by which the:sounds could be
responded to; in one of which a tune played in one room was
repeated by a diaphragm in another, with which an electrical
connection was made.

68 BULLETIN OF THE

101st MEETING. FEBRUARY 26, 1876.
The President in the Chair.
Forty-one members and visitors present.

The election of Mr. Epwarp J. Farquuar, U. 8S. Patent
Office, Mr. M. H. Dooxirrur, U.S. Coast Survey, and Dr. WiIL-
~1AM McoMorvrig, Agricultural Bureau, as members of the Soci-
ety, was announced.

Mr. W. Hargness exhibited panoramic views and gave de-
scriptions of places visited by the U.S. Steamer Swatara, which
conveyed parties to the Southern hemisphere for observing the
transit of Venus in December, 1874. The places described were
Bahia, Cape Town, and Hobart-town.

Mr. EK. B. Evvuiorr made remarks on

TWO PROPOSITIONS, NOW BEFORE CONGRESS, FOR CHANGING THE COIN
OF THE UNITED STATES,

one proposing a silver instead of a gold standard; the other to
retain the present system, but reducing the standard values ;
neither recognizing progress towards the metric system.

Mr. W. HARKNESS made remarks on

THE METHODS OF MEASURING THE INEQUALITIES OF THE PIVOTS OF
A TRANSIT INSTRUMENT,

briefly describing the methods heretofore employed, and explain-
ing the construction and use of a SPHEROMETER CALLIPER, which
he had devised for the purpose.

102pD MEETING. ~ Marcn 11, 1876.

The President in the Chair.
Fifty-two members and visitors present.

The election of Lieut. Rogers Birniz, U. S. Army, as a
member of the Society, was announced.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 69

Mr. G. K. Gitsert made further remarks on
HORARY OSCILLATIONS OF THE ATMOSPHERE,
concluding that the increase of temperature from 5 A. M. to 3

P. M. was insufficient to account for the higher barometer in
that period.

Mr. J. J. WoopWARD made a communication on
THE MARKINGS ON NAVICULA RHOMBOIDES,

illustrating by photographs magnified on a screen, and showing
how the real markings could be distinguished from the interference
lines produced by oblique illumination of the object.

Mr. W. Harkness continued his description of places visited
while on the Southern Expedition for observing the late transit
of Venus, viz., Crozet’s Island and the Sandwich Islands.

103p MEETING. Marcu 25, 1876.
The President in the Chair.
Thirty-five members and visitors present.
Mr. G. K. Ginpert made a communication on
LANDSLIPS AND LAKELETS,

enumerating the various modes in which lakes originate, and
describing in particular a class which occur on the slopes below
certain high cliffs and depend on the manner in which the hard
capping rock, usually volcanic, is undermined and parts in large
blocks.

Mr. Powe spoke of similar lakes, but in which the upper
stratum was conglomerate instead of voleanic. There were lakes
on the north side of the Uintah Mountains formed in the beds
of old streams by dams of detritus.

Dr. Davip Murray, Foreign Superintendent of Educational
affairs in Japan, gave the Society an account of

THE PROGRESS WHICH HAD BEEN MADE IN EDUCATIONAL MATTERS
IN THAT EMPIRE.

10 . BULLETIN OF THE

(ABSTRACT.)

He first described the ancient system of education which existed
before the recent revolution. It was introduced from China,
which in matters of learning and literature holds to Japan the
position of mother country. ‘The territorial Daimios in many
instances took great pride in the maintenance of institutions of
learning for the benefit of their immediate retainers. In these
institutions the elements of learning, as well as the higher depart-
ments of history and political philosophy, were taught with great
thoroughness. Chinese philosophy, in the works of Confucius,
Mencius, and others, was taught by professors who gave their
lives to the study and elucidation of these great masters.

Along with this literary and philosophical training the Japan-
ese youth were also regularly trained in athletic and military
exercises. Such institutions were maintained usually at the ex-
pense of the Daimios, and were restricted to those who were
subsequently to enter the service of their masters.

Schools for the education of the mercantile, agricultural, and
laboring classes were very common, but were not maintained at the
government expense. Hach district or neighborhood sustained
its own school, and it speaks well for their appreciation of learn-
ing that under this voluntary system almost the entire population
were able to read and write.

In 1872, after the consummation of the revolution which re-
established the unity of the empire, a department of education
was organized for the administration of all matters pertaining to
schools and colleges throughout the empire. Under this depart-
ment the following classes of institutions of learning have been
established :—

1. Elementary Schools.—These are conducted in the Japanese
language, and the prescribed schedule of studies for them corre-
sponds nearly with that of American elementary schools.

2. Normal Schools.—To provide competent teachers for the
elementary schools, government normal schools have been estab-
lished, the graduates from which have been employed in the dif-
ferent provinces to reorganize schools and instruct the teachers
in the performance of their duties.

3. Foreign Language Schools.—In order to raise up a class
of men able to transmute foreign learning into the Japanese
tongue, schools for teaching English and other foreign languages
have been provided by the. government. English thus becomes
to Japan its learned language, as Latin was the learned language
to Europe in the Middle Ages.

4, Colleges aad Technical Schools.—To provide for the higher
departments of learning, colleges conducted in a foreign language
have been organized and are now in successful operation. In
this way excellent instruction may now be obtained in Law and
Government, in Engineering, in Chemical Technology, in Naval

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. (ial

Architecture, in Medical Science, and in Naval and Military Sci-
ences. There is also a provision made by the government to
send abroad choice students who have passed with credit through
the courses of study in the institution at home. They go abroad
to follow up the department of science which they have already
entered upon, and are expected to return and serve the govern-
ment as experts in these branches, or as teachers and professors
in the schools.

There is a very strong public sentiment in Japan in favor of
education, and there is no indication that, in this most important
part of their work in the reorganization of their government, they
are likely to relax in their efforts or fail in ultimate success.

In answer to many inquiries Dr. Murray gave to the Society
much information in regard to the operations now in progress.

Mr. Henry remarked that Dr. Murray has explained the rapid
progress of the Japanese in the last few years. They were not
an uneducated people, though they had arrived at a stationary
condition and were incapable of advance while secluded from
other nations, and yet were prepared to avail themselves of the
progress in education, science, and arts with which they have
lately become acquainted.

Mr. O. T. Mason commenced a communication on

INTERNATIONAL SYMBOLS FOR CHARTS OF PREHISTORICAL
ARCH AOLOGY,

exhibiting charts of these symbols, and explaining them and their
combinations.

104TH MEETING. APRIL 8, 1876.
The President in the Chair.
Forty-six members and visitors present.
Mr. Henry made a communication on
ILLUMINATING MATERIALS,

explaining the adaptation of various kinds for use in Light-
houses, and the investigations and tests which had been made
of their qualities.

72 BULLETIN OF THE

He then introduced Mr. Mason, of Baltimore, who exhibited
apparatus which he had devised for determining the explosive
character of kerosene oils, and made experiments on several sam-
ples, showing the temperature at which the vapor of each would
flash on the approach of a lighted match, and that at which the
oil would begin to burn. The flashiny test gave temperatures
about 20° F. below the fire test, and the latter was several de-
grees below the standard of 110° F., with which the samples
were marked.

Mr. O. T. Mason continued his paper upon

THE INTERNATIONAL SYMBOLS FOR CHARTS OF PREHISTORIC
ARCH MOLOGY.

He said that they sufficiently answered the characters of sim-
plicity, distinctness, speciality, and mnemotechny. As to their
universality, it was necessary for them to be not only universally
legible, but also universally applicable. In this sense they were,
in the first place, restricted to Hurope principally, and even there
failed to mark either a built-up wall, or a place of sacrifice. For
the wall Mr. Mason proposed the sign |—;"], and for a sacrifice
ane In order to make the signs apply to America several addi-
tions would have to be made. ‘To supply the want of a sign for
an ossuary, the symbol grave is taken with a plus in the centre.
A tribal lodge is indicated by the six-pointed star with a plus
inclosed; an animal mound by the mound sign with the plus
inclosed. Mr. Mason concluded by urging geologists of the
National Surveys and others to give a portion of their leisure to
the location and description of the antiquities of our country.

Mr. Powety followed with remarks on the very little know-
ledge that could be gathered from relics; and Mr. GiLt on the
information to be derived from animal remains.

105TH MEETING. APRIL 22, 1876.
The President in the Chair.

Forty-eight members and visitors present.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 73

Mr. W. B. Taywor read a paper on
THE TEMPERATURE OF SPACE.

Mr. Tayror remarked that, although this title was derived from
the illustrious Fourier, and was in general use, it was obviously
not very accurate; and that perhaps the designation ‘‘star-heat”
would be less objectionable, as being the nearest analogue to
star-light.

FourRIER supposed that this temperature could not be much
less than the coldest degree observed in polar regions, and esti-
mated it at —58° F. Porsson, following in his track, adopted
essentially the same views and the same estimate; suggesting,
however, that in the course of one million years the solar system
might have passed from an external temperature of +100° C. to
that of —100° C.—a demonstrably impossible occurrence.
PovuiLteT (in 1838) estimated the “temperature of space at
—224° F. Hopkins (in 1855) placed this temperature as high
as —39° F. And Sir Joan Herscuen (in 1857) made an esti-
mate somewhat lower than that of Pournuet, or —239° F.

Eminent as these names are, their results are very discordant,
and are all based on assumptions of great improbability. Remem-
bering our own equatorial “snow-line,” and our tropical ice-
clouds, at no greater elevation than three or four miles, it seems
quite incredible that in open space, unprotected by any atmo-
sphere, mercury could be melted (at 91,000,000 miles) even under
the direct blaze of the sun. And this is about the temperature
assigned by Hopxrns to star-heat alone.

Mr. Taytor concluded that we have really no reason for sup-
posing that the heat radiated to us from the stars bears any
higher ratio to the heat received from the sun, than star-light
bears to sun-light; and that as the whole amount’of light received
from the stellar vault on both hemispheres does not probably
exceed the ten-millionth of that received from the sun, the heat
being in the same proportion, even Hurscuet’s estimate (the
lowest here cited) must be pronounced enormously too high; and
the star-heat, commonly called the “temperature of space,” can-
not be much above the absolute zero.

Mr. Newcoms followed with some remarks, concurring in these
views.

74 BULLETIN OF THE
Further remarks were made by Mr. Henry.

Mr. J. W. PoweLt made a communication on
MONOCLINAL RIDGES,

of which the following is an abstract.

(ABSTRACT.)

Throughout the Rocky Mountain region there are many con-
spicuous topographic features found on the flanks of great ranges
and elsewhere, known as monoclinal ridges. Such a ridge is
composed of beds dipping in one direction. On the face of the
ridge the escarped edges of the beds are exhibited. On the back
of the ridge, the highest geological bed is found, and often the
slope of the back conforms more or less to the dip of the beds.
But where the dip is great, the higher beds are bevelled toward
the summit of the ridge; where the dip is small the higher beds
are cut through at the foot of the slope, so that lower beds are
revealed, especially in the gulches.

In any region where the beds involved are stratified and dis-
placement is by flexure, and upheaval is faster than atmospheric
degradation, monoclinal ridges appear; such ridges being com-
_ posed of harder beds, while the valley spaces are excavated in
more friable material. Manifestly, all such ridges must face the
axis of upheaval. In somewhat symmetric anticlinals the series
of ridges appearing on one flank is also seen on the other.

Here the genesis of such ridges both in anticlinal and mono-
clinal flexures was explained, and the following law was stated.
As upheaval progresses part passu with degradation, monoclinal
ridges recede from the axis of upheaval with the increase—in the
amplitude of the flexure, and new ridges may appear near the
axial region.

Mr. Powe. then explained the effect faults have in giving
position to the ridges. He first considered the effect of a fault
at right angles to the axis of upheaval, and hence at right angles
to the monoclinal ridge. In such a case, upheaval is arrested on
one side of the fault, but continues on the other, both in anticlinal
and monoclinal flexures. In the arrested portian the ridges cease
to recede from the axis of upheaval, while in the other portion
where upheaval goes on, the ridges continue to recede. By the
fracture the ridge is broken, and by the recession of one part
and non-recession of the other, the ridge is faulted in such a
manner as to give it the appearance of a “ lateral displacement,”
and such phenomena have thus been erroneously explained.

The following law was stated. Where a monoclinal ridge is
broken and one portion carried farther back from the axis of up-
heaval than the other, the faulting is by vertical upheaval, though
the ridges appear to be horizontally displaced.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 15

Mr. Powe.t then explained the effect of a fault oblique to the
axis of upheaval; he then explained the effect of two oblique
faults crossing each other, in all these cases illustrating from
examples in nature. Then he further explained how a ridge that
was simple togopographically might be compound geologically,
being composed in different parts of beds of different geological
horizons.

In the examples considered, those changes in monoclinal ridges
were produced by faults transverse or oblique to the dip of the
beds or the axis of upheaval. Another series of changes are
produced by faults parallel or nearly so to the axis of upheaval.
On either flank of an anticlinal or in a monoclinal, there is a belt
of dipping rocks, which may be denominated as the zone of flex-
ure. It is often observed in nature that displacement proceeds
as flexure along such a zone for a time, and subsequently dis-
placement by flexure ceases, but is continued by faulting, so that
a plane of fracture is found to run along a zone of flexure. If
the plane of fracture is on the side of the zone of flexure nearer
the axis of upheaval, the ridges composed of beds of the lower
geological horizon are lost; if the plane of fracture is on the side
of the zone of flexure farther from the axis of upheaval, the
ridges composed of the beds of the higher geological horizon dis-
appear; if the plane of fracture is midway in the zone of flexure,
the middle ridges disappear.

Often the plane of fracture meanders through the zone of
flexure where the ridges are more or less curved and broken, and
ridges that are simple geographically, are often compound geolo-
gically.

All the monoclinal ridges thus far described, are MonocLinaL
Rupees or UNEQUAL DEGRADATION as distinguished from Mono-
CLINAL RIDGE oF DIsPLACEMENT. The latter have a very differ-
ent genesis from the former. <A long fracture is produced in the
sedimentary beds involved, and on one side of this line the beds
are upheaved—tilted up—so as to produce a ridge with the beds
all dipping in one direction. Often such upheavals are of great
magnitude, producing important ranges. Such a ridge is pro-
duced directly by upheaval, and all ensuing degradation serves
but to obscure the ridge-like character of the mass. Many of
the ranges of the Desert System and Basin System are of this
character.

The whole subject was illustrated by drawings on the black-
board.

From the facts presented, the following deductions were
drawn :—

I. Displacement by flexure is very slow, and where tt appears
as upheaval in relation to the level of the sea is little faster than
atmospheric degradation.

II. Displacement by faulting is very slow, and where it ap-

76 BULLETIN OF THE

pears as upheaval it is but little faster than atmospheric degra-
dation, but such faulting may be parorysmal and intermittent.

Ill. Faults discovered by the posttion of monoclinal ridges
have been erroneously explained as “lateral faults.” The
position of the ridges is in fact due to vertical faults by which
two parts of the same flexure are differentiated, the region
having the greatest amplitude of flecure having its monoclinal
ridges curved farther back from the axis of upheaval.

IV. Jf the rate of upheaval is greatly accelerated, the rate
of degradation is greatly accelerated. If in two parts of an anti-
clinal upheaval, the one has an upheaval exhibiting 10,000 feet,
the other 20,000 feet, the latter, ceteris paribus, will have a
general surface but slightly elevated above the former. In other
words, the rate of degradation is chiefly determined by the rate
of displacement.

Mr. C. H. Durron complimented Mr. Powe tt on the character
of his work, and on the interesting results obtained by him; and
proceeded to remark on some of the peculiar features of the geol-
ogy exhibited in the Colorado region. Not only were these fea-
tures on a scale perhaps nowhere else exhibited—as, for example,
in the range of palpable denudation and erosion, in the channelled
cafons extending for hundreds of miles, and as much as a mile
deep or even more, in the great faults of several thousand feet
displacement, reaching for several hundred miles, etc.; but the
features were more exposed to observation, being less disguised
superficially by vegetation, ete, as if here the geologist had
found nature in her nakedness. Hence this great region was pre-
eminently favorable to geologic study, and permitted results to
be arrived at which elsewhere would require a far longer and
more tedious process of exploration.

Mr. W. B. Taytor remarked that the results brought to view
by Mr. PoweEtt in his extensive researches and ingenious exposi-
tions, appeared indirectly to have quite an important bearing on
the much disputed question of the thickness of the earth’s crust.
He (the speaker) had himself been disposed for some time past
to abandon the idea of a large amount of solidity or rigidity in
the earth, as supported by the plausible mathematical argument
of the distinguished physicist and mathematician, Mr. Hopkins,
and to recur to the earlier conception of a very thin crust resting
upon or enveloping a molten and fluid spheroid. Hvery geologi-

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. Ue

cal consideration with which he was acquainted seemed to him
to conspire in confirming this supposition with a cumulative ag-
gregate of force.

The single fact of stratigraphical folds and faults on so grand
a scale as here displayed, looked almost like a crucial test of the
hypothesis. That faults continuous for one or two hundred miles,
with a throw amounting in some places to several thousand feet,
could take place in a solid mass, or even in a terrestrial crust
indefinitely deeper than such amount of slip, seemed contrary to
all known principles of physics. As this is a subject of great.
interest and of some “ perplexity,” Mr. Taytor said that he would
take the liberty of here personally appealing to Mr. Duron, as a
very able supporter of the Hopkins theory, to help one of the
two out of this dilemma.

Mr. C. E. Durron replied that there were subjects on which
he felt constrained to maintain a perfectly uncommitting silence ;
subjects of such intrinsic difficulty that he could only reserve a
suspended judgment or conception; and he frankly admitted that.
this matter of ‘‘faults” was one of them. He did not, however,
thence feel required to adopt an hypothesis which to him presented
many grave objections, and which seemed in many other respects
so inadequate. The phenomena of volcanoes, for example, were,
he believed, generally held to be quite insufficiently explained by
a thin shell; while the chemical or hydrothermal theory was much
more satisfactory. This was explained by Mr. Durron at some
length.

Mr. C. A. Scuorr remarked, that, inasmuch ag the precession
of the equinoxes was an unquestionable fact, and as HopKrns
and THomson had shown that this was physically incompatible
with a fluid mass of rotation circumscribed by a yielding shell, a
solidified mass of considerable equatorial rigidity seemed to be
necessarily required, and therefore established.

Mr. Taynor in reply said, that, first, with regard to the subject
of voleanoes, he thought that if the assumovtion of a thin crust
did not sufficiently account for all the phenomena, it was at least
not incompatible with them. Taking, for example, the difficulty
often urged of the great inequality of hydrostatic column and

78 BULLETIN OF THE

pressure sometimes exhibited in volcanoes not very far distant
from each other, he did not see why obstructions or even irregular
“cellular” conditions were not quite as reconcilable with a thin
crust, as with a very thick or solid one. He considered the
chemical and hydrothermal theories as supported by very slender
probabilities, and as having altogether the character of pro re
nata speculations.

Secondly, with regard to the ‘‘precession” argument, he had
gradually come to the conviction that we have not at present the
physical data to permit a true mathematical solution of the prob-
lem; and that, however refined and ingenious these attempted
mathematical investigations, they are entirely inconclusive. This
appears to be the judgment of Gen. BaRNnarp in his Memoir on
the subject, published in the Smithsonian Contributions (vol. 19).
The argument, in short, when analyzed, is found to be both irrel-
evant and fatally supererogatory ; it proves entirely too much.
Thus Sir Wini1AmM THomsoy, in reénforcing the view of Mr. Hop-
KINS, requiring as a minimum thickness 1000 miles, has gone
very much further, and has reached the conclusion that if the
earth were a globe of solid steel, it would be subject to solar and
lunar tides, at least half as large as if formed entirely of water ;
and that, accordingly, with even this rigidity, the precession and
nutation would not be more than three-fifths of the amount re-
quired by observation, which is that due to perfect rigidity. Is
not this manifestly an impossible condition ?

Now it must not be forgotten here that the conclusion reached
by Prof. THomson is absolutely incompatible with the same emi-
nent geometer’s discussion of the present interior heat of our
planet, in his most able Memoir ‘On the Secular Cooling of the
Earth,” published only a year earlier. The truth is that in any
very large mass of matter, “solidity” becomes a merely relative
term—cohesion exerting its bond only between adjacent molecules
with a fixed limit of foree—while gravity, the weakest of natural
forces, by pervading all thicknesses, becomes indefinitely prepon-
derant by mere accumulation. The strongest steel wire has not
a tensile modulus of eighteen miles The dynamic rigidity of a
rapidly rotating planet therefore, combined with even a very small
amount of internal friction, must be vastly greater than any static
rigidity of cohesion as known to us could possibly be. An irreg-
ular mass of granite as large as our earth would by ‘‘solid flow”

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 19

assume the spheroidal form of equilibrium almost as perfectly and
as promptly as an equivalent mass of fluid.

Mr. J. W. Powe. remarked that he had studiously abstained,
in every communication he had made to this Society (as the
members will bear witness), from indulging in any speculations
of a general or cosmological character, and had faithfully confined
his remarks to a discussion of the actual facts observed, to the
scale of the phenomena and of the actions involved, and to the
length of time necessarily required therefor. On this mooted
question-—certainly not unimportant to geological principles, he
had secretly his own opinions; and if he must “make a clean
breast of it,” he confessed that he had been slowly driven to the
conviction that the shell of rock we stand and move and live upon
was very thin; he was almost afraid to say how thin he thought
it. Perhaps not more than fifty or sixty thousand feet. Mr.
Powe t further illustrated his idea by the use of the blackboard.

Further discussion of the subject followed.

106TH MEETING. May 6, 1876.
The President in the Chair.
Forty members and visitors present.
Mr. J. J. Woopwarp made preliminary remarks on

THE USE OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN CONNECTION WITH THE MICROMETER
MEASUREMENT OF BLOOD CORPUSCLES.

Mr. Horace Capron read a paper on
JAPAN,

giving an account of his reception, his mission and its objects,
the development of productive and industrial arts in that empire,
and the character and habits of the natives.

Remarks. were made by Messrs. ALvorp, Hincarp, and Dut-

TON.
16

80 BULLETIN OF THE

Mr. G. K. Ginsert made a communication on

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THERMAL SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES.

107TH MEETING. May 20, 1876.
The President in the Chair.
Thirty-four members and visitors present
Mr. JosepH Henry exhibited and described one of
CROOKE’S RADIOMETERS.

He had, however, only received it the day before, and had not
had an opportunity of making any experiments with it except
those of the most obvious character. His object in bringing it
forward at this time was that it would interest the Society, and
he would probably be absent during the remainder of the session.
He thought Mr. Crooxss, like GALVANI, had commenced to in-
vestigate a phenomenon of which the cause was easily recognized,
and ended in discovering a fact of great perplexity, of which the
rationale, he thought, was not readily understood; that it was
not a case of simple collision of elastic bodies in accordance
with the dynamic theory of gases, since the revolution was appa-
rently in the wrong direction.

Mr. W. B Taytor remarked that in regard to this very strik-
ing experiment, he did not see how there could be any serious
doubt as to the character of the energy displayed. All sugges-
tions as to the possible action of “Light” in the case appeared
to him to quite ignore the only just conception or rational defini-
tion of that agency admissible—as the medium of vision. ‘‘ Light”
is obviously a subjective or physiological phenomenon, and not a
dynamic one; merely a peculiar impression of wave-periodicity
on a highly specialized nerve structure. And while we have its
various affections in phosphorescence, fluorescence, polarization,
absorption, and measure its intensity in photometry, yet these
effects all relate to, and terminate in, the seeing eye. And with-
out an eye, there can be no such thing as “light.”

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. sl

The minute wave-motions which result from atomic periods
have, as we all know, a far wider range than that recognized by
sight; and these wave motions are capable, as all know, of exert-
ing a dynamic effect which may be indefinitely accumulated. But
there is no accumulation of “light.” Hence, to speak of the
“mechanical equivalent” of light, or of determining the pressure
of a luminous ray, or of “weighing sunshine,” is simply to misuse
words, and to confound incongruous ideas.

As to the interpretation of this curious and undoubtedly ab-
struse phenomenon, Mr. Taytor thought it to be tolerably well
established that neither attenuated air-currents, nor evaporation,
nor “electricity” had any agency in the case; but that the ex-
planation given by Prof. Dewar, of Edinburgh, and by Mr.
STONEY, was undoubtedly the true one, namely, that the blackened
side of the disks absorbing more heat-motion than the unblack-
ened side, communicated more reactionary motion to the ex-
tremely rarefied air in the small glass chamber. Mr. CROOKES
undoubtedly deserved great credit for the ingenuity and patience
displayed in varying and testing the experiments. The name
“radiometer,” however, he thought unhappily chosen, as it sug-
gested or countenanced the idea that the vanes were acted upon
by the impulsion of radiation; whereas the instrument was really
a differential absorption-scope.

Mr. 8. Newcoms suggested that this part of the question could
very easily be tested by arresting the motion of the vanes (either
by a strong magnet or otherwise), throwing a strong beam of
radiant heat upon the blackened disk, then suddenly cutting off
entirely the source of radiation and removing the detent, to ob-
serve whether any motion occurred. If it should, then evidently
this could not be the effect of direct impulse or momentum from
the radiation.

As to the explanation alluded to by Mr. Taytor, the speaker
understood that Mr. Sronry’s theory, as set forth in the Philo-
sophical Magazine for March and April last, involved a reaction
between the heated disk and the side of the glass chamber, through
the medium of the residual air; this reaction commencing when
the air becomes so rare that the molecules rebounding from the
surface of the vane reach the enclosing chamber without meeting
other molecules. If this explanation be correct, it would follow

82 BULLETIN OF THE

that in a vacuum chamber, above a certain size, the balance disk-
arms should not revolve without increasing the rarefaction.

Mr. Taytor replied that he so understood Mr, StonEy’s expo-
sition, though he had neglected to state it fully.

Mr. F. EF. Jupp made a communication on
THE ADIRONDACK WATER-SHED,

referring particularly to the transformation of the lakes of that. -
region into reservoirs, thus checking the spring freshets in the
Hudson River and its tributaries, and providing a supply of water
in the season of droughts.

Remarks were made by Mr. Hitaarp, by Mr. HopEn in refer-
ence to a Report made by Maj. Farquuar, of the U. S. Engi-
neers, on similar measures for the Mississippi River, and by Mr.
ABBE on the constructions for the same purpose in the Rhine
and other Huropean rivers.

Mr. F. V. GREENE read a paper on

THE DEVIATIONS OF THE PLUMB-LINE AS DETERMINED IN THE
SURVEY OF THE 49TH PARALLEL OF LATITUDE.

Ne paper is published in fnll in No. XL. of the Printed Papers of the
Essayons Club of the Corps of Hngincers.)

(ABSTRACT.)

The object of this paper was to investigate the causes of the
discrepancies between the astronomical and geodetic determina-
tion of points on the 49th parallel of latitude; and it was illus-
trated by maps and diagrams showing the topography and geology,
and the deviation at each station.

This parallel (the International Boundary line) was determined
and marked for 853 32 miles, from the Lake of tne Woods to the
Rocky Mountains: the basis of the determination rested on 47
astronomical stations, at each of which the latitude was observed
with the Zenith Telescope. Adjacent astronomical stations were
connected, and intermediate points of the parallel determined,
by the method of ‘tangents and offsets.” These operations were
explained sufficiently in detail to show that the greatest uncer-
tainty in the astronomical and geodetical determinations at any
one point could not exceed 40 feet, or 0”.4. Yet the observed
discrepancies had an average value of 2”.15, a maximum of 7.28

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 83

and a minimum of 0.15. The first and last stations differed by
0”.05. The extreme range of all the stations was 13”.89.

An effort was then made to see how far these discrepancies
could be accounted for by the local attractions of irregular masses
above the surface of the earth in the vicinity.

The formule given by Clarke in the “ Principal Triangulation
of the Ordnance Survey” were applied in connection with con-
toured maps, to calculate the deflections due to the superincum-
bent masses.

The difference between the observed and calculated deflections
had an average value of 1”.47; ¢. e. about two-thirds of the
observed deflection could not be accounted for by the topography
and must be due to causes underground.

General geological maps were also exhibited, and it was sug-
gested that a large and quite regular deviation at all the stations
for 150 miles in the vicinity of the Red River was due to the
difference in density of the secondary and tertiary formations
crossing the line, obliquely, in that neighborhood.

A short statement of the history of investigations on this sub-
ject, and its bearing on the determination of the figure of the
earth, concluded the paper.

Mr. Hinearp spoke of the large deviations found near the
Pacific coast in the operations of the U. S. Coast Survey.

108TH MEETING. JUNE 3, 1876.
The President in the Chair.
Thirty-five members and visitors present.

Mr E. P. Lunn gave an account of the country traversed by
the late expedition under his command for the investigation of
the route for ‘

THE INTEROCEANIC CANAL THROUGH NICARAGUA.
Mr. J. W. Powett read

A BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE OF MR. A. R. MARVINE.
(This notice is published in Appendix X of this Bulletin.)

Mr. T. N. Gut, in behalf of a committee appointed for the
purpose, reported the following resolutions, which were unani-
mously adopted.

84 BULLETIN OF THE

Whereas, ARCHIBALD R. MARvVINE, late a member of the Phi-
losophical Society of Washington, has been taken from us by
death, and

Whereas, Our late associate by thorough preparation, industry,
and ability had, though young, made interesting and valuable
contributions to human knowledge by original research in geol-
ogy, and thus gave promise of a fruitful scientific career :

Resolved, That we mourn his death as a loss to our Society
and to the scientific world.

Resolved, That we, as members of this Society, tender to his
family our sympathy with them in their sorrow.

hesolved, That a copy of these resolutions be transmitted to
his family by the Secretary.

109TH MEETING. JUNE 17, 1876.
Vice-President TAYLor in the Chair.
Twenty members and visitors present.

The Chair announced the election of Mr. C. ABBE as Treasurer
in the place of Mr. Parker, resigned, and of Mr. AsapH Hah
and Mr. M. C. Meas to fill vacancies in the General Committee
occasioned by the resignations of Mr. PARKER and Mr. Durron.

Mr. THomMas ANTISELL, by request, gave an account of his
visit to Japan, describing the geographical and geological fea-
tures of those islands, their meteorology and climate, the origin
and ethnology of the people, their history and social condition,
their occupations and progress in industrial arts.

e

110TH MEETING. OcToBER 7, 1876.
The President in the Chair.
Thirty-one members and visitors present.

Mr. E. B. Exniorr made some preliminary remarks on
‘“FORCE AND MOMENTUM,”
and ona system of measures depending on the earth’s polar radius.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 85

A conversational discussion followed, in which Messrs. Mason,
WoopwarkbD, Hinaarp, and Taytor participated.

Mr. EK. 8. Houpen spoke of observations of the sun at the U.
S. Naval Observatory in search of the supposed interior planet
Vulcan. These were made for three successive days, chiefly with
the comet-seeker, occasionally with the nine-inch refractor, but
without success.

Messrs. Newcoms and Taynor discussed the theory of Vulcan,
and the probabilities of the existence of such a planet.

Mr. JosrpH Henry described recent experiments under the
direction of the U. S. Lighthouse Board, particularly on the
combination of sounds produced by two syrens of the same pitch,
and which were heard at a much greater distance than one alone;
and the construction of a buoy so as to give sounds by the force
of the waves.

Mr. J. W. Powsut spoke of the requirement by geologists of
more time, less thickness of the earth’s crust, and more contrac-
tion than physicists were ready to allow.

Messrs. Newcoms, Hine@arp, Taytor, and Ginn participated
in the discussion which followed.

1lltH MEETING. OcToBER 21, 1876.
Vice-President WELLING in the Chair.
Twenty-two members and visitors present.
Mr. E. B. Evuiorr made some remarks on
MONETARY STANDARDS ;

referring to recent action of France, Germany, Austria, and
Spain, in limiting the coinage of silver, and restricting the use
of silver coins mainly to a subsidiary currency.

Some discussion followed, chiefly with regard to the large
amount of silver required by Germany at the present time, in
which Messrs. ABBE, NEwcoms, and WELLING participated.

36 BULLETIN OF THE
11271 Merrine. SrxtH ANNUAL MertTine. NovemMBer 4, 1876.
, Vice-President H1LGARD in the Chair.
Twenty-two members present.

The election of Lieut. Commander Francis M. Green, U. 8.
Navy, as a member of the Society, was announced, and the
names of members elected since the last annual meeting were read.

The following officers of the Society were elected for the ensu-
ing year :—
President, - JOSEPH HENRY.

Vice-Presidents, J. K. Barnes, W. B. TAytor, :
J. EH. Hintearp, J. C. WELLING.

Treasurer, CLEVELAND ABBE.

Secretaries, J. H. CO. Corrin, T. N. Grit.

MEMBERS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

S. F. Barren, S. NEwcome,
E. B. Evwtort, O. M. Pos,

ASAPH HALL, C. A. ScHort,
N. S. Lincoty, J. M. Toner,

J. J. WooDwARD.

113TH MEETING. MovemBER 18, 1876.
The President in the Chair.
Thirty-one members and visitors present.
The election of Mr. Luster F. Warp as a member of the

Society was announced.

The President presented to the notice of the Society a speci-
men of fire-proof

PAPER MADE OF ASBESTOS.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 87

He also had read a letter received from Mr. CHarutes G. Borr-
NER, of Vevay, Switzerland Co., Indiana, describing a remarkable

SHOWER OF THE ROCKY-MOUNTAIN GRASSHOPPERS,

Caloptenus spretus, and Caloptenus femur-rubrum, at that
place on the 13th of November last at 64 P. M., continuing till
8 P. M. They came in immense numbers, filling the air and
covering the ground, in some places densely, adhering tenaciously
to clothing on which they lighted, but not lodging on trees or
shrubbery. :

He speaks of the day as having been one of unusual mildness
for this season of the year. The wind oscillated between the
southwest and west, with a velocity of two to three miles an
hour; at 9 P. M. blowing in moderate gusts from the west.

Mr. GILL recognized a specimen presented as a Caloptenus
spretus.

Mr. BE. B. Evuiorr made a communication on

MUTUAL RELATIONS OF GOLD AND SILVER, AND OF PRICES OF
COMMODITIES ;

presenting the following table, condensed from the ‘“ London
Keonomist,” givitg the wholesale prices in gold of leading com-
modities in London and Manchester at different epochs compared
with the average price in 1845 to 1850, just prior to the discovery
and full working of the gold mines of California and Australia.

The commodities were :—

No. 1. Coffee. No. 17, 18. Flax & Hemp. No. 34. Copper.
2-5. Sugar. 19-22. Sheep’s Wool. 35, 36. Iron.
6. Tea. 24. Indigo. 37. Lead.
7. Tobacco. 25-27. Oils. 39. Tin.
9. Wheat. 28, 29. Timber. 42. Cotton Wool. °
10-13. Butchers’ Meat. 30. Tallow. (Pernambuco only).
15. Cotton. 31. Leather. 43. Cotton Yarn.

16. Silk, raw. 44, 45. Cotton Cloth.

88 BULLETIN OF THE

Comparative Statement of Wholesale Prices in London and
Manchester for a series of years, to wit: The averages for
the siz years 1845-50, and selected years from 1851 to Jan.
Ist, 1876, from the “ London Economist,” under the head of
Commercial History and Review, March 11th, 1876, page 37.

PROPORTIONATE Nos,

Tora Inpex No. compared with that.
for 1845-1850.

1845-50. 6 years’ average. 2200. 100.

1851. 1 January. 2293. 104.2
1853. 1 July. 2361. 107.3
1857. 1 July. 2996. 136.2
1858. 1 January. ' 2612. 118.7
1865. 1 January. 3575. 162.5
1866. 1 January. 3567. 162.0
1867. 1 January. 3024. 137.5
1868. 1 January. 2682. 121.9
1869. 1 January. 2666. = PALA
1870. | 1 January. 2682. 122.2
1871. 1 January. 2590. aye
1872. 1 January. 2835. 128.9
1873. 1 January. 2947. 134.0
1873. 1 July. 2914. 132.5
1874. 1 January. 2891. 131.4
1874. 1 July. 2779. 126.3
1875. 1 January. 2778. 126.3
1875. 1 July. 2692. 122.4
1876. 1 January. 2711. 123.2

The table shows an increase in 1858 of 18 or 19 per cent.; in
1868, 1869, 1870, and 1871, years of minimum prices, an increase
of from 18 to 22 per cent.; in 1875, another year of minimum
prices, an increase of 22 to 23 per cent. above the average prices.
in 1845-1850. In some intervening years there were remarkable
fluctuations upwards, notably in 1857, 1865, 1866, and 1873.

Mr. Evxiort argued that these fluctuations were chiefly changes
in the values of commodities due to excessive speculative activity,
while the value of gold continued nearly uniform, as indicated
by the years of normal or minimum prices. He claimed, however,
that the rise from 1845-50 to 1858 was due to the greatly in-
creased production of gold, and consequent diminution of its value.

He gave also a comparison of the relative prices of gold and
silver, showing a relative advance of the latter from 1845-50 to

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 89

1859 of about 5 per cent., a return to the same value in 18738, and
then a decline, very largely augmented in 1875 and 1876, and
reaching @ minimum price in July, 1876, of about 79 per cent.,
compared with the relative value in 1845-50, being a decline of
21 per cent. from that value. From that point, however, it has
again advanced, so that at the present time the relative value of
silver to gold is only 103 per cent. below that of 1845-50.

Mr. Emit Bessets made a communication on
THE LATE ENGLISH POLAR EXPEDITION,

showing the positions reached, the temperatures, limits of ice and
open water observed, and comparing them with the results of other
expeditions. He demonstrated that the meteorological features
exhibited at the winter-quarters of the Englishmen were anoma-
lous, and gave some results of investigations unpublished yet,
being on the change of the temperature of the air with the lati-
tude. He dwelt especially on the tides, stating that the tidal
wave reaching the winter-quarters of the “Alert” and ‘ Discoy-
ery” is not the Pacific wave, as stated in the report of Captain
Narss, but one of different origin.

Mr. Dat stated that, if the assertion of Houghton, who had
examined the tidal records of the English exploring vessels at
Point Barrow, was correct, the tides there were of a simple semi-
diurnal character and quite different from those of Behring Sea
or of the northwest coast of America. He considered it probable
that the Arctic basin to the westward of the Parry Archipelago
has a tide of its own, which, however, was not to be confounded
with that experienced by the Arctic explorers to the eastward,
and which Dr. Bessels had very clearly shown to be derived from
the North Atlantic wave, and in all probability propagated
around the northern coast of Greenland. The speaker considered
it as almost certain that no tidal wave was propagated northward
through"the shallow strait of Behring; particularly as the obser-
vations at St. Paul Island and in Norton Sound indicated that
Behring Sea itself has a peculiar tide which is distinct from that
observed to the southward of the Aleutian Islands.

j

90 BULLETIN OF THE

114TH MEETING. DECEMBER 2, 1876.
The President in the Chair.
Forty-two members and visitors present.

The election of Mr. DAvip Smiru, Engineer U. 8S. Navy, and
Mr. Marcus Baker, of the U. 8. Coast Survey, as members of
the Society, was announced.

Mr. Garrick MauuEry read a paper on
A CALENDAR OF THE DAKOTA INDIANS.

(A photolithograph of the Chart exhibited, with a detailed description and
translation, ts to be published in the Bulletin of the U. S. Geological and
Geographical Survey of the Territories, vol. iii. No. 1, in press.)

(ABSTRACT.)

Painted narratives of tribal and personal events, delineated by
representations of men and animals and other figures, on hides
or bark, are common among the nomadic tribes of North
America. The Eastern Algonquins also used ‘“‘ wampum,” an
arrangement of stringed beads fashioned from shells of different
colors, to note battles, treaties, and other occurrences of moment,
their devices being generally mnemonic only, and seldom sym-
bolic. The Pueblos figured their histories on tablets of wood ;
and the Aztecs and Toltecs have left elaborate records in pic-
ture writing. It is, however, submitted that in the similar pro-
ductions of all of these peoples, before discovered, the obvious
intent was either historical or biographical, that is, to chronicle
events as such, and there was no apparent design to symbolize
occurrences selected without reference to their intrinsic impor-
tance or connection with each other, but merely because they oc-
curred within successive intervals of time, and to arrange them
in an orderly form, specially convenient for use as a calendar and
valuable for no other purpose. The chart now exhibited appears
to be an attempt, before unsuspected, on the part of the North-
western Indians, to form for themselves a system of chronology.

The copy brought by the writer from the Sioux country in
November, 1876, is in two colors, black and red, thegsymbols
covering a yard square of cloth, and purports to be a fac-simile
of the original, which was drawn by and is believed to be still
in the possession of Lone Dog, an aged Indian belonging to
the Yanktonai tribe of the Dakotas, who, in the autumn of 1876,
was near Fort Peck, Montana Territory, and in the then con-
dition of the region was not directly accessible. The authenticity
of the document was verified by separate examination through

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 91

different interpreters of the most intelligent Indians at Fort
Rice, Dakota Territory, and other posts and agencies, eliciting a
nearly complete explanation of the symbols, and the following
account :—Lone Dog has been, ever since his youth, charged
with the duty of deciding upon some event or circumstance
which should distinguish each year as it passed, and when such
decision was made, he marked what was considered by him its
appropriate symbol, upon a buffalo robe kept by himself for the
purpose, then calling together a number of the Dakotas, without
regard to tribes, explained to them the symbol, and what it repre-
sented. This was done annually and formally, but it is under-
stood that the robe was also at other convenient times exhibited
to other Indians, who were thus taught the meaning and use of
the signs as designating the years. The copy actually discovered
was obtained from Basil Clement, a half-breed interpreter, living
in 1876 at Little Bend near Fort Sully, D. T., and, it is under-
stood, is a duplicate of a copy, taken in 1870 or 1871 from Lone
Dog’s tribe, of its condition at that time. This copy the writer
was informed was in the possession of Blue Thunder, a member
of the Blackfoot tribe of the Dakotas, who was in October, 1876,
at Standing Rock agency, D. T.

The symbols on the chart are seventy-one in number, and
designate the seventy-one years, commencing with the winter of
A. D. 1799-1800. It is not yet ascertained whether Lone Dog
had a predecessor in his work from whom he received the earlier
symbols, or whether the essay at chronological tables being first
started when he reached manhood, he gathered the traditions from
his elders, and himself distinguished by signs a number of years
then past.

A suspicion naturally arises that intercourse with missionaries
and other whites first gave the Dakotas some idea of dates, and
awakened in them a sense of want in that direction. The fact
that the calendar begins with a time nearly identical with the
first year of the present century by our computation, may be
due to such influence, or may be a mere coincidence. If mis-
sionaries or traders started any plan of chronology, it is remark-
able that they did not suggest one similar to that common among
themselves, that is, by counting in numbers backward and for-
ward from an era. ‘The chart, however, shows nothing of this
nature. The earliest symbol merely represents the killing of a
small number of Dakotas by their enemies, an event of frequent
recurrencg, and neither so momentous nor interesting as many
others of the seventy-one recorded, more than one of which,
indeed, might well have been selected as a notable fixed point,
before and after which simple arithmetical notation could have
been used to mark the years. The plan actually adopted, to
individualize each year by a specific recorded symbol or year-
totem, according to the decision of a single designated officer and

92 BULLETIN OF THE

his successors, whereby confusion was prevented, was both
original and ingenious, showing more of scientifie method than
has often been attributed to the nomadic tribes. This is also
true of the practical arrangement, by which the distinctly sepa-
rate characters follow from right to left in an outward spiral,
starting from a central point, allowing every date to be deter-
mined by counting backward or forward from any other that
might be known, yet wholly dispensing with the use of numbers
to note the years. It seems unlikely that this device, so different
from that used by the whites, should have been prompted by
them.

A number of the designs on the chart are purely arbitrary,
but the greater part are graphic illustrations, which, indeed, are
used whenever the nature of the event allowed. The appearance
of the smallpox (in 1801), represented by a man figure covered
with red blotches; the first capture of wild horses (in 1812), by
a lasso; the great meteoric shower of Nov. 12, 1833, and several
other symbols, are so suggestive as not to require any assistance
in their interpretation. In the method of selecting occurrences
it is clear that the criterion was not their own importance, but
their character for incident or particularity in connection also
with notoriety. A good example is in the signs for 1806 and
1808. In the first, an Arickaree is killed by a Sioux as he is in
the act of shooting an eagle, and in the latter the Sioux who
killed him is himself killed by the Arickarees. War then raging
between the Dakotas or Sioux, and several tribes, doubtless
many on both sides were killed in each of these years; but there
was some incident and probably much gossip about the Ree, who
was shot, just when in fancied security he was bringing down
an eagle, and whose death was avenged by his brethren the
second year afterwards: hence the selection of these trivial occur-
rences. It would, indeed, have been impossible to have graphi-
cally distinguished by separate signs the many battles, treaties,
- stampedings of horses, eventful hunts, etc., so most of them
were omitted, and other commonly known incidents, of greater
individuality, and better adapted for portrayal, were often taken
for the calendar, though they were of absolutely no national
or tribal consequence. A notable feature of the chart is the
effort of the author to make each symbol, emblem, or character
distinguishable from all the others; and he is unsuccessful in but
two instances, while even in those the error appears due to the
copyist. This feature is not observed in the pictured histories
or biographies found, in which repetitions both of figures and
subjects are frequent.

Mr. Hitearp remarked on the custom, even in the most highly
civilized nations, of fixing dates by special or notable events.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 93

Mr. Powe tt referred to historical charts among the Pueblos,
the interpretations of some portions having been confirmed by
Spanish annals. Pictorial writings have been discovered in Mex-
ico and South America; and SCHOOLCRAFT has published such
writings, found among the Indians of North America. Mr.
Pow. spoke of the mythological character of all these writings,
and the absence of anything mythological, except in one instance
in the drawings exhibited by Mr. Maturry. From his observa-
tions of Indian custom he did not understand how there could
be so many symbols for names of individuals, nor the picturing
of the total eclipse of the sun in 1869 as it actually appears,
instead of the usual mythological representation of a monster
devouring the sun,

Mr. ABBE remarked that he must differ from Mr. Powetr’s
Opinion that it is improbable that any Indians would depict the
solar eclipse of 1869 by any other than a mythological symbol.
He bimself had in August of that year led a party of seven young
men to Fort Dakota, or Sioux Falls City, in order to observe
that eclipse, which purpose was successfully accomplished.

During their week’s Stay at that place they had explained the
eclipse to numerous Sioux, and probably an hundred of those
Indians had occasion to realize that white men knew of the ap-
proaching event, and that to them the phenomenon was no mys-
tery. On the day itself a party of six or seven warriors lingered
about the camp until the progress of the eclipse became evident
to the naked eye, when, all their doubts being dispelled, they
departed with a shrug of the shoulder and “ Ugh! bad medicine.”.

The eclipse, as seen in that high latitude and elevated region,
where the Dakotas roam, was impressive and beautiful in the
highest degree. The stars, which were thus made visible in the
daytime, have been deemed by the Indian chronologist worthy
of marking the year 1869.

Mr. Asse further remarked that the whole of this Dakota
record seemed to him to be eminently practical and truthful, and
free from fancy or mythology; as we might, indeed, expect it to
be when we consider that the compiler was one of the original
geniuses of his race, an innovator upon the ordinary customs of
the Indians, although he may have heard of similar representa-
tions among the Aztecs or the whites. The meteoric shower in

94 BULLETIN OF THE

1833, the comet or meteor in 1821, the horseshoes, lassoes, dis-
eases, etc., are here all truthfully presented in an admirable mat-
ter-of-fact spirit.

He expressed the hope that our western explorers wiil spare
no pains to see and examine the original chart, and learn from
its possessor all they can respecting its origin and design.

Mr. ParkKER gave instances of coincidences of words, ideas,
and superstitions of the Chinese and the American Indians, re-
marking that the investigation of such coincidences might lead
to conclusions respecting the origin of the Indians.

Mr. Git was at a loss to understand why the chart exhibited
should begin with the year 1800.
Further remarks were made by Mr. Ginpert and Mr. Dau.

Mr. AsapH Hawt made a communication on

THE APPEARANCE OF SATURN’S RINGS.

(ABSTRACT.)

In this paper Mr. Hat gave some account of the difficulty
of- correctly delineating the shadows and phenomena attending
the appearance of the rings of Saturn. He has observed the
satellites of this planet with the 26-inch refractor of the Naval
Observatory during the summers of 1875 and 1876; and has paid
particular attention to the appearance of the rings since Septem-
ber, 1875. He stated that he has never seen. the notch in the
outline of the shadow of the ball on the rings, which is so marked
a feature in the picture of this planet made by Mr. TROUVELOT at
Cambridge, Mass., in December, 1874. This outline has always
appeared as having a regular and continuous curvature. Neither
has he ever seen the jagged appearance in the division of the
rings near the ansz.

He then spoke of the following phenomena :—

(1) Although the principal division of the rings has been easily
visible until the present time, no other divisions have been seen.
Slight markings have been noticed in the rings, which may be
caused by other divisions.

(2) The dusky ring has been remarkably bright during the
summer of 1876.

(3) The convexity of the outline of the shadow has always been
seen turned toward the ball of the planet, and not away from it,
asit isusually drawn. Thinking this to be an illusion, Mr. HALL
has tried various ways of dispelling it, but has never succeeded.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 95

Remarks on this paper were made by Mr. Hitaarp and Mr.
HOLDEN.

115TH MEETING. DECEMBER 16, 1876.
The President in the Chair.
Thirty-seven members ead visitors present.

The election of Mr. CHARLES ABIATHER WHITE as a mem-
ber of the Society was announced.

Dr. J. J. Sytvester, of the Johns Hopkins Institute, Balti-
more, made a communication on

SOME RECENT INVESTIGATIONS ON THE THEORY OF INVARIANTS,

giving an account of what had been done in that special field of
research, and of the advances he himself had been able to ac-
complish.

Mr. J. M. Toner read a paper on
THE BURNING OF THEATRES AND PUBLIC HALLS,

with reflections on some of the causes of the great mortality oc-
casionally attending such fires, and suggestions for improved
security to life; with a chronological list of theatres and other
public edifices burned.

(This paper has been printed as a 12mo. pamphlet, Washington, D. C., 1876.)

Mr. E. 8S. Honpen presented a paper

ON REFERENCE CATALOGUES OF ASTRONOMICAL PAPERS AND
MEMOIRS.

(ABSTRACT.)

I have received from my friend HE. B. Knozst, Esq., F.R.A.S.,
of London, an advance copy of his Reference Catalogue of As-
tronomical Papers and Researches, reprinted from the Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society for Nov. 1876, pp.
365 et seq. I desire to call the attention of the Astronomers
and others of the Society to this paper on account of its import-
ance, but specially to make a few remarks upon its accuracy,
which I have been able to test; as well as to say a few words on
Astronomical Bibliography in general.

17

96 BULLETIN OF THE

The subject of Scientific Bibliography in general, has received
much attention, and we have now at our command many works,
some of which are of great importance.

In Astronomy I mention the more important in order of pub-
lication, omitting of course in such an enumeration indices to
periodical literature which are published as supplements to the
periodicals in question, even when they are so valuable as the
indices to the Astronomische Nachrichten, the Coast Survey Re-
ports, etc.

Weiter, J. F.: Bibliographia Astronomica, etc. 1755. 8vo.

This work was undertaken at the instance of Dx L’Istm and is
dedicated to him, and it formed the basis of the Bibliography of
LananpdE. I am not aware of the method of arrangement
adopted.

ScuErBeL, J. H.: Astronomische Bibliographie. 1st part 1784,
2d part 1786, 3d part with Appendices to parts 1 and 2, 1789—
LIS so:

1 have not seen this work, which is not in the library of Con-
gress at present, but from the Introduction to LALANDE’s Biblio-
grapby I learn that it had 800 pages and extended only to 1650,
and that the notes accompanying each entry were very full. It
must be quite complete to 1650, for in the year 1591, in which
LALANDE has three entries, ScuHErBEL has twenty. I infer it is
arranged chronologically.

LAuande, J. DE: Bibliographie Astronomique, etc. 1803. 4to.

This work, in which the bibliographical part occupies above
600 quarto pages, is founded on WEIDLER’S book, already men-
tioned. The titles are arranged chronologically throughout, no
division into subjects being attempted, except in the index, which
is arranged by subjects, and which could be improved. In very
many cases LALANDE has added to the title an abstract of the
contents of the book. Periodicals, as the Philosophical Trans-
actions, for example, have the separate volumes indexed under
the year in which they were published.

Reuss, J. D.: Repertorium Commentationum, etc. Vol. V.
Astronomia. 1804. Ato.

Reuss confined his work to the indexing of the Transactions
of Societies, but these are catalogued from their commencement
to about 1804 (for Astronomy), so that with the Royal Society’s
Catalogue, all Transactions are indexed up to 1863. In Reuss,
however, the arrangement is chronological under various topics,
and not by authors; and some subjects, as Nebule for example,
are not given.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 97

Youna, THos.: A course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy,
etc. 2vols. 1807. 4to.; Vol. II., pp. 87 to 520, consists of a
“Systematic Catalogue of Works relating to Natural Philoso-
phy [Astronomy ], etc.”

The comments by the distinguished author of this Bibliography
will always render this work classic. In some of the depart-
ments of astronomy the catalogue of 53 pages is almost com-
plete to 1800. A most complete index renders it easy of
consultation. 3

Souncke, L. A.: Bibliotheca mathematica: Verzeichniss der
Biicher tiber . . . Astronomie welche in Deutschland und
dem Auslande vom Jahre 1830 bis 1854 erschienen sind.
1854. 8vo.

This work is principally concerned with mathematics, but it
includes a section on Astronomy and Geodesy. The order of
arrangement is alphabetical by authors; books and separately
published memoirs are registered under authors’ names. An
alphabetical index of subjects is added, each subject containing
authors’ names and references to the main body of the work.

Scuumacuer, H. C.: Catalogue des Livres composant la biblio-
theque de feu H. C. Schumacher. Part I. [Mathematics, As-
tronomy, etc.] 1855. 8vo., pp. 147.

This is a catalogue of the best astronomical library ever pos-
sessed by a private individual, and is of value in many cases.
In this connection may be mentioned similar catalogues of the
libraries of astronomers, prepared by the various booksellers, as
those of the libraries of ARGELANDER, OLUFSEN, etc., and also
the periodical subject catalogues of FRIEDLANDER, ASHER & Co.,
K6uteErR and others. These are often quite full.

Orto v. Struve: Catalogus Librorum in Bibliotheca Speculez
Pulcovensis. 8vo. 1858.

This consists of an elaborate catalogue of all the works con-
tained in the unrivalled astronomical library of the Pulkova Ob-
servatory up to 1858. It comprises—

Ist. 4112 titles of works; 7625 volumes.
2d. 143 celestial maps, charts, ete.
3d. 14,634 smaller works, or dissertations.

In this work the memoirs are arranged by subjects and chro-
nologically in each subject, without notes. It was edited by
OrrTo STRUVE with great care, and practically completes the bib-
liography of Astronomy, Mathematics, Geodesy, and allied sci-
ences to the date of publication, and will long remain an acknow-
ledged classic on its subject. It is continued in MS. at the
Pulkova Observatory, and there is reason to hope for the pub-
lication of a supplement shortly.

$8 BULLETIN OF THE

Royau Society or Lonpon: Catalogue of Scientific Papers
(1800-1863). 6 vols. 4to. 1867-1872.

This catalogue, which originated in a communication of Prof.
Henry to the British Association in 1855, is intended to serve
as an Index to the Titles and Dates of Scientific Papers contained
in the Transactions of Societies, Journals, and other Periodical
works which have been published from the beginning of the pre-
sent century to the end of 1863. No separate publications, as
books, are included. It is unnecessary to say that it is practically
indispensable to any course of reading. It is to be continued.

Darsoux and Hovrn: Bulletin des Sciences Mathematiques et
Astronomiques. Periodical. 8vo.
This contains the full titles of books and memoirs on mathe-
matics and astronomy, and in many cases most complete abstracts
of them. It is published serially and still continues.

PoagennorF: Biographisch-Literarisches Handwoérterbuch zur
Geschichte der exacten Wissenschaften, etc. 2 vols. 8vo.
1863.

This work is arranged alphabetically by authors, and is intended
to cover all the important publications of each author, whether
published separately or in the Transactions of Societies. K'ur-
ther, it is intended to cover the publications of the ancients as
well as of the moderns. It is extremely valuable as an extension
of the Royal Society’s Catalogue; and as an independent test
upon it. If but one work of astronomical bibliography can be
owned, this is undoubtedly the one of most general value.

Worr, R.: Sonnenflecken—Literatur, etc.

In the Astronomische Mittheilungen of Wour a regular record
of the literature of sun-spots is kept up, and when this is event-
ually brought together, a very little labor will make it complete.

Wour’s Handbuch der Mathematik, Astronomie, etc., 2 vols.
8vo., 1872, contains also a great number of references arranged
by subjects.

Cart, PuH.: Die Principien der Astronomische Instrumenten
Kunde. 8vo. 1863.

As an Appendix to his Principien, p. 161, Cart gives an
exhaustive catalogue of memoirs, etc. upon micrometers and
micrometer screws, of high importance. This is arranged alpha-
betically by authors.

Cari: Repertorium der Cometen—Astronomie. 8vo. Munich,
1864. pp. 377.

This work contains an account of every comet up to 1864, and
besides giving the various systems of elements, etc., which have

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 99

been deduced, refers to all places in periodical and other litera.
ture where the particular comets are treated of, or where observa-
tions are given, and is a monument of industry and exactness.

WELLER: Cometen-Literatur; in the Anzeiger fiir Kinde der
Deutschen Vorzeit, 1857, No. 10, p. 321; No. 11, p. 359.

This work, which I have never seen, refers to the comets of
1556, 1570, and 1577.

St, PeTerspurG ACADEMY oF ScreNcES: Tableau géneral mé-
thodique et alphabetique des Matiéres contenues dans les Pub-
lications de l’ Académie Impériale des Sciences de St. Peters-
bourg depuis sa fondation 1" partie. Langues étrangéres.
8vo. 1874.

The subject ‘‘ Astronomy” is quite full in this list, as might be
expected, and it is arranged alphabetically by authors.

BreLaiaAN ACADEMY oF Sciences: Bibliographie Académique.
1875. 8vo.

This volume is devoted to bibliography and biography. Each
member of the Academy is mentioned separately and a brief
sketch of his life given, and following this is a list of his papers;
Jirst, those published in the volumes of the Academy; and sec-
ond, those published elsewhere. The first list is complete; the
second quite full. It includes a number of astronomical papers.

ENGELMANN, R.: Literatur der Astronomische Nachrichten, etc.

In his recent edition of the selected works of Brssrn, Dr.
ENGELMANN has collected, after each separate subject, a list of
all the publications on this subject which have appeared in the
Astronomische Nachrichten up to the present date, the whole
constituting a topical index of high value. There are now
three volumes 4to. of Indices to the Astronomische Nachricten,
very full, arranged both by authors and subjects.

The volume and page of KNGELMANN’s BusseEt’s Abhand-
liingen, where these lists are printed, are given below.

Vol. Page. Subject.
I, 83. Comets.
I. 194. Saturn and Saturn’s satellites.
I, 260. Refraction.
I. 316. Aberration, Nutation, and Precession.
IL. 236. Parallax of Stars.
Il. 281, Fundamental Stars; Star Catalogues and Star Charts.
Il. 404, * Mathematics. i
II. 325. Proper Motion, variable proper motion, Double Stars,
Sirius’ companion, etc.
TIL. 138. Geodesy; Longitudes; measurement of an arc of meridian.
III. 286. Pendulums, etc.; Units of mass, etc.; Terrestrial Refrac-
tion, ete.

III. 489. Miscellaneous.

* [I may say here that the bibliography of mathematics in general is
very full, but its consideration is beyond my present purpose. ]

100 BULLETIN OF THE

Knospet, E. B.: Reference Catalogue of Astronomical Papers
and Researches. 8vo. 1876.

(Exhibited to the Society.)

Mr. Kyosen has been for some time engaged in the formation
of an index-catalogue to scientific papers, books, ete. on certain
subjects of stellar astronomy which was intended to be exhaustive
of their literature. ‘The ees chosen were: 1, Double Stars,
- and the theory of Binaries; 2, Variable Stars; 3, Red Stars;
4, Nebule and Clusters; 5, Proper motions of Stars; 6, Parallax
of Stars; 7, Stellar Spectra.

The libraries of the Royal Society, of the Royal Astronomical
Society, and others, were completely indexed as to these tupics,
and that of the British Museum was constantly consulted. Under
each head the titles of periodicals and names of authors are given
alphabetically and in the briefest way; references are made to the
volume and page. The titles of books and of the most important
memoirs are given in full, while the minor papers are referred to
only by volume and page.

Brevity has been studied in every way. In the references to
the Astronomische Nachrichten only the number is given, omit-
ting the column, ete. etc. The Royal Astronomical Society’s
Monthly Notices are in the subject of ‘“‘Double Stars,” where
every volume contains many references, only referred to generally.
In other subjects where the references are more scattered, these
are referred to by title and page.

Double Stars, ete. ercupics 6 pages nearly.

Variable Slars

Red Stars ie
Nebulz and Clusters ‘“
Proper motions nh
Stellar Parallax, ete. ‘
Slar-spectra if

In Double Stars I find more than 700 single references, and the
other subjects are equally full. It is original work, the Royal
Society’s Catalogue being used for verification only. It is brought
up to 1876, and contains above 3000 titles. I have examined
that portion of Mr. KNoBEw’s Catalogue which relates to Nebulz
and Clusters line by line, almost entry by entry, by means of a
catalogue of works on the same subject which I have myself made,
and I have not found in the whole list more than one or two erro-
neous references, and these were not such as would interfere with
the finding of the paper sought for. Only one important paper
is omitted, viz, D’ARrrest’s Siderum Nebulosorum observationes
Havnienses. It has an oriyinal value which must not be over-
looked. It was formed by looking through the works consulted
and extracting what was required, and not by extracting refer-
ences to them from known indexes, such as the Royal Society
Catalogue, and therefore it may appropriately be used as a check

bom COR eS
tol tole

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 101

on all other work of the same kind. Only those who have done
this nature of work know how easily errors may slip in and how
omissions may occur, and the accuracy of this list shows that
extraordinary care has been taken in its compilation. I have
found but one misprint in it, viz., Comptes Rendus, vol. 28, p.
537, should be p. 578. The name of Bopk has been omitted by
the printer.

Houpzn, E.8.: Catalogue of papers and memoirs relating to
Nebulz and Clusters. MS.

(Exhibited to the Society.)

The necessity of supplementing the Royal Society’s Catalogue
of Scientific Papers, which, it will be remembered, is arranged
solely by authors, and only contains papers published in periodi-
eals since 1800, and which excludes books separately published,
was impressed upon me some two years ago when I was endea-
voring to acquire a thorough acquaintance with the literature of
a single subject—that of Nebule and Clusters. I have, as occa-
sion served, prepared such an index catalogue of all papers,
memoirs, and books on these topics, and have arranged the refer-
ences according to authors, alphabetically, giving for each refer-
ence volume and page. Where the title of a book or paper
explains the subject of it, such title is, in general, alone given.
Where a paper is quite important its title is given, and if neces-
sary, a note, more or less brief, expressive of its contents. The
works of the elder Herscuen on these subjects I have analyzed
at considerable length, in order partly to supply the great want
for an edition of his collected works. For papers of minor
interest a reference to the periodical, volume and page is
alone given (no title), and a note of its purport. In addition to
this, and following Mr. Knopen, I have given a very condensed
reference to the papers in each periodical consulted. In this way
a person consulting the catalogue will find all the works of any
author upon the general subject, with brief notes of the contents
of each paper; or again, any person desiring to refer to the va-
rious papers on this subject contained in any serial publication,
as the Philosophical Transactions for example, will find refer-
ences which will save him much time. The index is practically
complete to the present date, and contains perhaps 1000 refer-
ences. It contains also a complete list of all published (and
many unpublished) ie of nebule and clusters. It is evi-
dently of special value only, but knowing the labor it has
already saved to me, I cannot doubt that similar works in other
specialties in Astronomy, like Mr. KNopzt’s for example, will
be of much use.

Mr. E. S. HoxpeEn also made a communication on

102 BULLETIN OF THE

THE SHADOW OF THE BALL OF SATURN PROJECTED ON THE RINGS,

describing experiments made with an accurate drawing of Saturn
and its rings. The line of the projection of the shadow appeared
convex towards the planet, straight or concave according to the
distance of the observer from the drawing. Five persons made
accordant drawings of the appearance, independently of each
other.

Mr. AsapH Hatt made remarks on

A BRIGHT SPOT WHICH HAD RECENTLY BECOME VISIBLE ON THE
BALL OF SATURN.

(ABST RACT.)

Mr. Hatt stated that while observing one of the satellites of
Saturn on Dec. 7th, he noticed a round and well-defined spot on
the ball of the planet. The spot was 2” or 3” in diameter, and
was of a brilliant white color. It was situated a little north of
the rings, and in the direction of declination was near the middle
of the disk. The spot came to the centre of the disk in the
equator of rotation at 6" 18" Washington m.t. The next day
letters were sent to the astronomers of the country, and although
cloudy at Washington, the spot was observed on Dec. 10th by
Professor Maria MitrcHELL at Vassar College observatory; by
Mr. Lewis Boss at Dudley observatory ; by Mr. D. W. Epazcoms
at Hartford, Conn., and by the Messrs. CLArk at Cambridgeport,
Mass. ‘The spot was again observed by Mr. Haun and Mr.
EastTMANn at Washington on Dec. 13th, and by Mr. A. G. CLARK
at Cambridgeport; and again by Mr. Haun at Washington on
Dec. 16th.

From the observations thus far made it appears that the time
of Saturn’s rotation, assuming that the spot has no proper mo-
tion, is 10" 15™.0
This time, as given in the modern text-books, is

LO) Sp USS)
and is said to be Sir W. Herschel’s last and corrected determina-
tion. On the other hand, the time of rotation published by Sir
W. Herschel in the Philosophical Transactions for 1794 is

10" 16™ 0°.44

116TH MEETING. JANUARY 13, 1877.
The President in the Chair.

Forty-nine members and visitors present.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, ° 103

Mr. G. K. GILBERT made a communication on
LAKE BONNEVILLE,

the great fossil lake of Utah. He described an ancient outlet
of the lake at Red Rock Pass near the town of Oxford, Idaho,
by which its waters were discharged into Snake River. Dur-
ing and since the desiccation of the lake, the land which it
covered has been tilted to the northward, in common with the
region of the Laurentian lakes and the eastern and western sea-
boards. He further described a small movement along the line
of the great fault at the western base of the Wasatch Mountains,
by which the altitude of the mountains above the adjacent valley
has been increased at a date far more recent than that of the
ancient lake. (A full account of his observations will appear in
the publications of the U. S. Geographical and Geological Sur-
vey of the Rocky Mountain Region, in charge of Prof. J. W.
POWELL. )

Remarks were made by Mr. ANTISELL on the channel described
by Mr. GILBERT as affording temporary drainage; and by Mr.
ALyorp on the appropriateness of giving to this basin the name
of BoNNEVILLE, who was the first to make a scientific exploration
of this region. Great Salt Lake for many years appeared on
the maps as Lake Bonneville.

Mr. ALEXANDER G. Brett, of Boston, made a communication on
THE TELEPHONE,

which he had invented, exhibiting and describing its construction
and explaining the principles on which it is operated. The sound
of the human voice received on a small plate of thin Russian
sheet-iron was conveyed by a telegraphic wire to a similar ap-
paratus in another room and repeated by the vibrations of a
similar iron plate. He stated that he made use of an undulatory,
instead of an intermittent current, that no battery was necessary,
but that the variations of intensity were produced by the vibra-
tions oi the soft iron plate, varying its distance from the poles
ot an electro-magnetic helix just behind it. He stated that the
experiment had been successfully conducted, where the operator
and hearer were 153 miles apart.

104 BULLETIN OF THE

He referred also to an experiment made by Prof. HENRY many
years ago, where an air played on one piano was repeated by
another on the opposite side of the street, a rod of soft pine in
contact with the sounding-boards of each forming the connection.

Mr. Hincarp and Mr. Henry spoke of the value and aston-
ishing character of Mr. Bell’s discovery and invention.

Mr. Bett having spoken of the difficulty with such conso-
nants as p, t, and &, Mr. Mason suggested that such an instru-
ment, when perfected, might be used in analyzing linguistic
sounds.

117TH MEETING. JANUARY 27, 1877.
The President in the Chair.
Fifty-three members and visitors present.
Mr, B. Atvorp made a communication on

A TRIGONOMETRICAL FORMULA.

Gen. T L. Crinaman, of North Carolina, communicated

FACTS RELATING TO THE FALLING OF WATERSPOUTS IN
NORTH CAROLINA 5

speaking of the large number which had occurred in the southern
and western portions of that State on the elevated plateaus or
mountain sides, particularly in Jackson and Macon counties.
He had visited the localities of fifty or sixty, and described par-
ticularly one in Fish-hawk Mountain, where a large hollow, 75
feet across and in the middle 15 feet deep, had been scooped out
apparently by a sudden fall of a large quantity of water. The
streams of the mountain were suddenly swollen to a destructive
extent.

Mr. ANTISELL described a genuine waterspout, attributing the
phenomenon to warm and cold currents of air in opposite direc-
tions, by friction occasioning electricity ; and made further ex-
planations of such appearances and their mode of formation.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 105

Mr. SHELLABARGER, Mr. G. F. Tatpor, and Mr. Curtis de-
scribed waterspouts or cloudbursts which they had witnessed
among mountains or hills, where the fall of water appeared to be
sudden and great.

Mr. Henry remarked on the necessity of recorded statements
of facts giving fully the attending circumstances, and referred
to the investigations by Espy many years ago, and to a valuable
report on the subject of tornadoes in one of the Reports of the
U. S. Signal Service.

Mr. J. H. C. Corrin made the following remarks on
SUMNER’S METHOD IN NAVIGATION.

To find the longitude of a ship at sea by a chronometer, the
chronometer time of one, or more, altitudes of the sun or other
celestial body is noted, and reduced to mean time at Greenwich,
or other prime meridian, by applying the chronometer correction,
supposed to be known more or less accurately. Navigators
usually stop here with this part of the process. It is better to
go farther and find the hour angle at the prime meridian of the
body observed. This in the case of the sun is the apparent
time, reckoned in A. M. from the lower meridian.

The local hour angle is found from the latitude of the place,
the declination, or polar distance, of the body, and its corrected
altitude. The difference of the local hour angle from that at the
prime meridian is the longitude in time.

The declinations of bodies observed at sea are known far more
accurately than is requisite for navigation. The altitude is always
uncertain, 2’ or more even when very carefully observed, owing
to the variable refraction of the sea horizon. The latitude is the
most uncertain element, as it is brought forward or carried back
by the dead reckoning, from some determination made at a time
several hours distant.

Here, then, is a simple case of finding the locus of an equation
with two unknown quantities; and we may assume values of the
latitude within reasonable limits and compute the corresponding
longitudes. Unless the altitude is very great, or the latitude
very uncertain, it is sufficient to assume two latitudes and find the
corresponding longitudes, ¢. e. determine two points of this line
of position.

106 BULLETIN OF THE

This line is perpendicular to the direction of the object ob-
served. If it be projected on a chart, and lines parallel to it
be drawn on either side at a perpendicular distance equal to the
uncertainty of the altitude, and others at a distance in longitude
from these equal to the uncertainty of the chronometer correc-
tion, the position of the ship will be within the belt delineated ;
and this is as valuable a determination as if the latitude alone,
or the longitude alone, had been found.

Again, from an altitude of the same, or another object, another
line of position may be found and projected on a chart; and one
of the lines being shifted for the run of the ship (including known
currents) in the interval, the intersection of the two gives the
ship’s position both in latitude and longitude. This intersection
is best determined when the azimuths for the two observations
differ 90°. It may be found by computation as readily as by
projection,

If the object is near the meridian, it is better to assume two
or more longitudes and compute the corresponding latitudes.
This, however, was not proposed by Capt. SUMNER.

This method* was first published by Capt. Taomas H. SuMNER
of Boston in 1843. His conception of the problem was purely
geometrical. The sun, or any other body, at a particular instant
is vertical at a place on the earth’s surface, whose latitude is the
declination of the body, and whose longitude is its hour angle at
the prime meridian; and the body will be at the same altitude at
all points of a small circle, whose pole is where the body is verti-
cal, and whose polar radius is the complement of the altitude.
An altitude otf an object, when the latitude and longitude of the
place of observation are unknown, simply determines the position
of such a circle, or a limited portion of it depending on the
accuracy with which the latitude, or the longitude, is known.

This method was strongly commended by some officers of the
U 8. Navy and before 1851 formed a part of the course of naviga-
tion at the Naval Academy Ina few years it was very generally
used in the Navies of the United States and Great Britain, and
has been introduced ina more refined form in the best works on
navigation; but it is not much known in the merchant services of

* A new and accurate method of finding a ship’s position at sea by pro-
jection on Mercator’s Chart, by Capt. THomas H. Sumner; Boston, 1843.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 107

those countries. This is attributable to the rough uncouth form
in which Capt. Sumner has presented it, to the cumbersome method
adopted in his computations, requiring the use of three tables,
instead of one, but more, I apprehend, to his setting it forth
prominently as a method of determining “the true bearing of the
land,” and erroneously giving the idea that the line of position is
directed to, or near, the destined port. This has led to severe
criticisms of the method in nautical magazines, and to its rejection
by the Astronomer Royal of Great Britain, and other mathema-
ticians. The finding the true bearing of any point of the land
is entirely a distinct problem, and should not have been mixed
up with this.

My first use of this method was in December, 1838, in the Gulf
Stream off the coast of North Carolina. Altitudes of the sun at
9 A.M. gave a line of position nearly parallel with the coast, and
thus determined the distance from the land, which at the time
it was most desirable to know. Altitudes at 2 P. M. gave an
intersecting line. In subsequent cruises before 1843, I made fre-
quent use of the method, preferring it as the most convenient
method of finding the latitude of a place by double altitudes, even
in observations with an artificial horizon on shore, and as de-
cidedly the best method if the local time is also to be found.

It surprised me subsequently to find that a method so naturally
suggested, and which would readily occur to any mathematician
who is engaged in navigation, had not been published earlier.
LALANDE, however (Astronomie, Art. 3992 and Abrege de Navi-
gation, p. 68), has given it so far‘as relates to finding the latitude
by double altitudes. *

Lately Sik Wini1AmM Tomson has published Tables for
facilitating Sumner’s Method at Sea (London, 1876). He uses
a method suggested, but rejected, by Capt. Sumner, of finding
one point of the line of position and the true bearing of the line,
which differs 90° from the azimuth of the object. These tables
are ingeniously devised for finding the hour angle and azimuth
from an observed altitude; but it is questionable whether they
facilitate the process. Intelligent navigators will prefer forms
of computation to which they are accustomed: the unintelligent
cannot well be trusted to use them. I think the labor of compu-
tation is greatly overrated.

* CHAUVENET’s Astronomy, vol. i. p. 428.

108 BULLETIN OF THE

I give below an example* of computation in the forms which
American navigators chiefly use. The preparation of the data
and Cols. 1 and 2 belong to the ordinary ‘“‘t¢me sight,” which
is employed daily in finding the longitude by a chronometer.
The only additional work required for Sumner’s method is Col. 3
if two latitudes are used, or Col. 4 if the azimuth is to be found,
together with their results at the bottom of Col. 1. As the sec-
ond latitude is 20’ greater than the first, the corresponding half
sum and remainder will be 10’ greater than those in Col. 1;
but it is not necessary to write them down; and the correspond-
ing logarithms in the two columns can be taken from the table at
the same opening.

The ship is supposed to be in north latitude, and the altitude
of the sun observed in the morning.

Greenwich ap. time 1 2 3 4
by chronometer 2" 54™ 5s P.M Ist lat. 2d. lat. Ist lat.
Corrected alt. of G 299 6/25” 369 30/ 369 50/ 36° 30/

Istlatitude . . 36 30 0 1. sec. 0.09482 .09670 I. sec. 0.09482
@s polar distance 110 26 56 1. cosec. 0.02827 .02827 1.sec. 0.45671

SN BG NG Uo Gals: BQ
Half sum .. . 88 1 40 1. cos. 8.53674 .49841 l.cos. 8.53674
Half sum—alt. . 58 55 15 1. sine 9.93271 .93346 l. cos. 9.71284

2)8.59254 .55684 2)8.80111

Ast local ap. time} 105 28" 435 AH. 1. sine 3 9.29627

PAs re af 10 32 27 l. sine 3 9.27842

1st longitude . . 4 25 22 == 660 20/. 5 W.

2d % AND V38i—=160) 24.) We

Half azimuth of © 75 26 1. cos. 4 9.40056

Azimuth of@. .N.150 52 E.
a ofline .N. 60 52 KE,

The line may be projected by the two positions,
Ist dat, 36° 30/sNasone. 660.2075) We;
Od) 6 SONG DOMIN et Mec GOs reel Viet:
or, by the 1st position, and the direction N. 60° 52° EH.

* Navigation and Nautical Astronomy, prepared for the use of the U. S.
Naval Academy, p. 226, New York, 1866.

+ In Bowprircn’s Table the entire hour angle is given corresponding to
the 1. sine of its half.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 109

Logarithms to four places will usually give all the accuracy
which observations with the sea horizon admit of.

Mr. J. W. PowkELt commenced a communication on

THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS,

1189 MEETING. * Fesruary 10, 1877.
The President in the Chair.
Forty-seven members and visitors present.

The President announced the death of Rear Admiral THEODo-
rus Baiuey, U. 8. Navy, a member of the Society.

Mr. J. S. Binnines made a communication on

BACTERIA AND SPONTANEOUS GENERATION.

(ABSTRACT.)

Several years ago I called the attention of the Society to this
subject, and showed the results of a number of experiments, made
to test the accuracy of the results reported by Dr. BAsrran. His
statements were not confirmed—but the experiments could not be
considered satisfactory on account of the difficulty of preserving
fermentable and putrescible fluids when free access of air is allowed.

This difficulty has been overcome, and the subject of the ‘life
history of microzymes including bacteria, is now attracting much
attention, especially in relation to the causation of disease. I
have recently had the opportunity of examining the results of a
number of experiments made by Prof. JosepH Lister, of Edin-
burgh, a full account of which has not yet been published, and
propose to call the attention of the Society to these and to the
apparatus which he uses. Mr. Lister was a believer in the
teachings of PasTmur, that all fermentations and putrefactions
are due to the presence of living organisms, and on this he based
his method of excluding these organisms from wounds in order
to prevent putrefaction. (His apparatus was shown.)

But in 1871 a paper was published by Dr. BurDEN SANDER-
son which seemed to prove that drying bacteria killed them, and
that therefore the dust of the air contained none of them living.
As this would have affected Mr. Lisrer’s process very much, he
undertook a new series of experiments. (Apparatus shown and

110 BULLETIN OF THE

peculiar difficulties attending experiments with milk, turnip solu-
tion, peas, beans, and hay explained.)

From the results obtained by Mr. Lister, and from those
reported by Ray LaAnkKeEstER of London, and Prof. Conn and
his assistants at Breslau, it may be considered as certain that the
so-called doctrine of spontaneous generation is incorrect, and is
not a permissible theory to invoke to explain the very puzzling
phenomena observed in connection with the development of these
minute organisms.

These organisms may be divided into two classes—those which
seem to be everywhere present, and those which have specific
qualities. (For Ist Class, see Note of M. Marig Davy, Comptes
Rendus, Dec. 27, 1876. For 2d Class, attention is called to
Kocn’s researches on splenic fever and Curtis on diphtheria. )

The classifications of CoHN, BILLROTH, and LISTER are not con-
sidered satisfactory; they deal with these minute organisms as if
they formed an independent class, while really they should be
considered in connection with the minute alez and fungi. To
attempt to distinguish species by the microscope or even by
chemical tests, will fail. The culture test in various substrata is
the only mode of solving the problem.

Mr. J. W. Powe. continued a communication on
THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS,

describing peculiarities of language, theology, religion, mythol-
ogy, treatment of diseases, and nursery tales.

Mr. Gitu called attention to the use of the same terms, in
zoology and linguistics, as generate, differentiate, and specialize,.
but in different senses.

Remarks were also made by Messrs. NEwcoms, WHITE, AN-
TISELL, WARD, and WELLING.

119TH MEETING. Fesruary 24, 1877.
The President in the Chair.
Thirty-six members and visitors present.

The election of Captain WizL1AM NIcHoLson Jerrers, U. 8.
Navy; Commander Monraomery Sicarp, U.S. Navy; ANECITO

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. lll

G. Menocan, Civil Engineer, U. S. Navy; Epwarp Curark,
Architect of the Capitol, and Marttn Francis Morris, as mem-
bers of the Society, was announced.

The President announced the decease within a brief period of
Prof. F. B. Meex, Gen. A. B. Haron, U. S. Army, and Rear
Admiral C. H. Davis, U. 8. Navy, members of the Society ; and,
on motion of Mr. Parker, the President, Mr. Meigs, and Mr.
NEWCOMB were appointed a committee to prepare suitable com-
memorative resolutions respecting them and the late Rear Ad-
miral BAILEY.

Mr. E. B. Evtiorr made
COMMENTS ON THE TELEPHONE,

comparing the instruments and methods of Mr. Gray and Mr.
BELL.

Some discussion followed, in which Mr. Taytor and Mr. Cor-
FIN- participated, from which it appeared that the instrument of
Mr. Gray referred to by Mr. ELtrorr was not that exhibited by
him to the Society February 12, 1876, but one of an earlier con-
struction, and like that of Mr. BExn so far as employing the
vibrations of a thin metallic plate.

Mr. A. F. A. Kine read a paper on
THE CONSERVATIVE ELEMENT IN DISEASE,

defining disease as a ¢ertiwm quid resulting from two factors:
Ist. The impressions of new environing conditions; and 2d. The
responsive changes in the organism following and resulting from
such external stimuli. The new formations, instead of being
destructive, were designed to secure adaptation to the new envi-
ronment. Modifications of the organism, thus originating, were
analogous with physiological formations in the several particu-
lars of (1) having the same design of adaptation to environment ;
(2) in being gradual and latent in their development; (3) in
tending to follow a typical course ; (4) in requiring the same con-
dition to secure their designed completion; and (5) in being
liable to attacks of acute inflammation on exposure of the body to

cold during their evolutica.
18

112 BULLETIN OF THE

Organisms undergoing conservative modification were liable to
fail in reaching the designed completion of adaptive change, from
(1) the environing changes of condition having been exaggerated
in degree; (2) their being inconstant, or vacillating in kind; or
(3) multiplied in number.

Many pathological changes, apparently destructive, might still
be conservative, our lack of knowledge not enabling us to under-
stand how they had contribated to prolong life. Organs of lesser
importance were often impaired in function and structure, to pre-
serve the functional integrity of other organs whose office was
more directly essential to life: e.g. the joint affection in rheuma-
tism served to prolong life, by lessening the labor of the heart
—the latter organ being saved from fatal overwork by the joint
disease restraining motion—especially locomotion—on the part
of the patient.

Diseases sometimes end fatally because the instinctive desires
or cravings that accompany them are disregarded, or their grati-
fication is opposed by medical opinion; when, in fact, they were
the best guides to the hygienic requirements of the body. "The
success attending the permission to drink and bathe during fever
(the new mode of practice) was very striking compared with the
old mode of practice, which forbade, or greatly restricted, drink-
ing, and bathing in cool water.

The subject was discussed by Messrs. Dat, Woopwarp, Tay-
LOR, and FARQUBAR.

Mr. G. K. GiuBert made a communication on
THE STRUCTURE OF THE HENRY MOUNTAINS

in the middle of the Colorado plateau region.

120TH MEETING. Marc# 10, 1877.
The President in the Chair.

Thirty-two members and visitors present.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 113

Mr. S. Newcoms read a paper on
THE COSMOGONY;

reviewing the various speculations on the development of the
solar system, especially those of Kant, La Place, and Herschel;
referring also to the latter’s examination of nebule.

A discussion followed in which Messrs. Powetuu, TAyYtor, AN-
TISELL, Newcoms, H. B. Euuiorr, Marsu, and HEnrRy parti-
cipated.

121st MEETING. Marcu 24, 1877.
The President in the Chair.
Fifty-six members and visitors present.

The election of Mr. Montcomery Meias as a member of the
Society was announced.

Mr. G. K. Giusert continued his communication on
THE HENRY MOUNTAINS,

describing their geological formation, and particularly the peculiar
voleanie structure in some localities, where the lava did not reach
the surface, but was injected between strata and caused a bulging
of those lying above.

(This paper will appear in the Reports of the U. S. Geographical and
Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region.)

Mr. Powe. spoke of other peculiarities of these mountains.

Mr. T. N. Gitt made a communication on

THE RELATIONS AND SEQUENCES OF THE FAMILY CENTRARCHOIDES.

Remarks were made by Mr. Hiuearp and Prof. D. 8. Jorpan
of Butler University, Indianapolis.

Mr. Marcus Baker read the following paper on

THE HISTORY OF MALFATTI’S PROBLEM.

114 BULLETIN OF THE

In the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol.
24, 1864-67, pp. 127-138, Mr. H. F. Talbot inserts a memoir
entitled ‘‘ Recent Researches on Malfatti’s Problem.” After a
brief introduction, in which the problem is given with some rea-
sons why it has proved so interesting, he gives a history of the
problem ; but there are some important papers upon the subject
which Mr. Talbot has overlooked, and in consequence his history
contains some errors. The object of the present paper is to calk
attention to the papers overlooked by Mr. Talbot, and to rewrite
the history of the problem. .

The problem to inscribe in a triangle three circles, each touch-
ing the other two, and also two sides of the triangle, was first
solved by an Italian geometer, Mr. John Francis Malfatti, in
1803, and from his solution being the first that has been given,
the problem is now called Malfatti’s Problem. His solution is.
given in the tenth volume of the Memoirs of the Italian Society
of Sciences. The proof which Mr. Malfatti gave of the correct-
ness of his construction is, according to Mr. Talbot, the follow-
ing: He deduces from his construction a value of one of the
radii of the required circles, and also deduces a value of the same
radius resulting from the conditions of the problem; and these
results being found to be identical, he concludes the correctness
of his construction.

The expressions found by Mr. Malfatti, are the following :—

In a triangle A B C, whose sides are a, 6 and e, call the radius
of the inscribed circle r, the radii of the three circles touching
each other 7,, 7, and 7,3; 7, touching b and c, r, touching c and a,
and r, touching a and b; also call the distances from the centre
of the inscribed circle to the three vertices A, 6 and C, a, 8 and y
respectively. Then we have as the expressions found by Mal-
fatti

any
s—a

miAgY {srt a—pB—y :

27, = — {sr aby ‘

fp

2r, = Js—7—a—8-+y ‘

s—cC

The next writer upon the problem appears to have been Ger-
gonne, who proposed the problem in the first volume of his

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 115

Annales, in 1810. It was not answered by his correspondents,
and accordingly he takes up the problem himself in the second
volume, and gives an analytic investigation; but no simple geo-
metric construction results from his analysis.

Dr. A. L. Crelle, of Berlin, published a trigonometric solution
of the problem in a collection of mathematical problems published
in 1821, in Berlin, and in 1827, Prof. Lehmus, also of Berlin,
published a trigonometric solution of the problem in the second
volume of a course in pure and applied mathematics.

Up to this time, then, viz., 1827, no geometrical proof of the
construction of the problem had appeared.

The next writer upon Malfatti’s problem was Prof. Steiner, of
Berlin. In the first volume of Crelle’s Journal he has a paper
entitled ““Some Geometric Considerations,” which is dated at
Berlin, in March, 1826. In this paper he says, that ‘about
three years since the author of this paper became interested,

accidentally, in the consideration of the problems: First, to de-

scribe a circle tangent to three given circles; second, in Mal-
fatti’s Problem; third, in Theorem, XV, Book IV of the Collect.
Mathemat. of Pappus; and fourth, in several porisms and the
purely geometric considerations of curves and areas of the second
degree. Pappus’s theorem he was familiar with, but without
proof; so also Malfatti’s Problem; of the first, however, he was
acquainted with Vieta’s geometrical solution.”

Further on he adds: ‘The effort of the author was, in the
solution of the different problems with reference to the tangencies
of circles, to find the underlying general principles by which they
were connected.”

Then three paragraphs follow in which the fundamental prin-
ciples of radical axes and centres of similitude are developed,
after which, ‘‘ to show the fruit-
fulness of the preceding theory Fig. 1.
by a suitable example,” this
elegant solution of Malfatti’s.
Problem is given: Bisect the
angles of the triangle, and in
the three partial triangles so
formed inscribe circles. From
the point of tangency m of the
circle M (Fig. 1), with the side

116 BULLETIN OF THE

A B, draw a tangent to the circle L (which will also be tangent
to the circle K), and from the point of tangency / of the circle
L, with the side A OC, draw a tangent to the circle M (which
will also be tangent to the circle K); in the quadrilateral thus
formed, A 1 Om* (which is a cireumscriptible one), inscribe a
circle, and it is one of the circles required; in a similar manner
the remaining circles are found.

The proof of this construction, as also the extension of it
which follows, is omitted, and the expression ‘jedoch ohne
beweis” leaves us in doubt whether he merely omitted the proof,
or whether he had not yet found a proof to omit.

It is proper to add that Steiner does not stop with merely
giving a solution of the problem, but by means of the principles
of Radical Axes, Centres of Similitude, ete., which he had
developed in the preceding paragraphs, he goes further and
solves this more general problem. Three circles in a plane are
given in magnitude and position, describe three other circles
each touching the other two and two of the given circles. And
even this extension is still further extended to the case of three
circles lying not in a plane but upon the surface of a sphere.

After giving the solution of Malfatti’s Problem without the
extension, he adds that the problem by no means admits of
merely a single solution, but that at least thirty-two different
solutions of the problem without the extension seem to be pos-
sible, all similar to the foregoing.

These statements are given without proof, and, so far as known
to the writer, no geometric proof of this solution wilh the exten-
sions of the problem has been given. It is true that one of the
thirty-two solutions has been given by several persons, but no-
where apparently by the methods used by Steiner, unless per-
chance that by Andrew 8. Hart, in Vol. I of the Quarterly
Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, be such.

In the following year (May 2, 1827) Prof. Paucker, of Mitau,
presented to the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg,
a memoir on a question relative to the tangencies of circles, and
the memoir, which covers 84 4to. pages, is almost exclusively
devoted to Malfatti’s Problem. This memoir seems to have
been generally overlooked; at least no reference to it has been

* O is the centre of the inscribed circle, not placed upon the figure.

by

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. HAs

anywhere found, and it is the failure by Mr. Talbot to examine
this memoir that has led him into error in his history.

Professor Paucker first analyzes the problem, and then gives
a solution. The solution which he gives is almost identical with
that given by Steiner. It differs, however, in this: after having
inscribed circles in the three partial triangles (Fig. 1) the
centres of the three circles are joined, two and two, and then
from m a line is drawn through the intersection of K L with
OC, and he then shows that this line will be tangent to the
two circles K and L; whereas Steiner draws a line from m tan-
gent to the circle L, and he says it will be tangent to the circle
K also. This is a slight difference in getting at the same result,
but combined with the dates of their papers, which differ by a
little more than a year, and with the manner in which Prof.
Paucker proves his construction, and also combined with the
fact that he makes no allusion to the work of Steiner, while he
gives due credit to Malfatti, Gergonne, Crelle, Lehmus, and
Tédenat, seems to indicate that he had obtained his results in-
dependently of Steiner.

Prof. Paucker demonstrates the correctness of his construction
by Euclidian methods, making no use of the Modern Geometry,
so called, and goes into the details with much carefulness. He
begins by demonstrating some Lemmas, and in this respect has
been followed by all subsequent writers. His first Lemma is as
follows: If an angle A is bisected
by A M (Fig. 2) and two circles are Fig. 2.
drawn at pleasure, one tangent to
A M and A T, and the other tan-
gent to A M and A T’, and the ae
points of tangency T and T” are Wa
joined, then the cords Té¢ and T’ ?’
are equal. This he readily proves \\
by similar triangles.

In paragraph 13 of his memoir
he demonstrates that if tangents are drawn (Fig. 2) from T to
the circle K, and from T’ to the circle M, these tangents are
equal.

These two propositions are also proved by Mr. Hart in
the first volume of the Quarterly Journal, without reference to
whether it had previously been done.

118 BULLETIN OF THE

Prof. Paucker gives, in addition to the solution of the problem
before mentioned, a second solution entirely independent of the
auxiliary circles, and which results immediately from a theorem
due to Mons. Pierre Tédenat, and which theorem is proven in
hismemoir. He also gives the trigonometric solution as modified
from that of Crelle and Lehmus, and ends with several miscel-
laneous theorems on tangencies. The memoir is very complete
from the standpoint of the old geometry, but the author does not
appear to have had so broad a view as Steiner, and nowhere
goes into the question of how many solutions are possible as
Steiner has done. Nevertheless his paper is one of the most im-
portant contributions to the subject, and one which has nowhere
been found mentioned by any writer upon the subject that has
been consulted.

In 1833, Prof. Zornow, of Kénigsberg, published in Crelle’s
Journal, Vol. X, an algebraic demonstration of Steiner’s con-
struction, and the next year Prof. Pliicker, of Bonn, published
in the same journal a demonstration of the same, partially geo-
metric, but it is only completed by the aid of analysis. His
memoir bears date Oct. 1831, and ‘‘he was, therefore,” says Mr.
Talbot, ‘‘the first who succeeded in demonstrating Steiner’s
theorem.” It would seem, however, that Prof. Paucker, whose
memoir was read before the St. Petersburg Academy, May 2,
1827, is entitled to the credit, as he seems both to have discovered
and demonstrated Steiner’s theorem.

In Hymer’s Trigonometry, published in 1842, a very good
trigonometrical solution of the problem may be found, the results
obtained being the same as those found by Mr. EH. B. Seitz, in
the Analyst, Vol. II, 1875, pp. 74-76.

The next paper of importance seems to have been one by
Prof. Adams, of Winterthur, who published a complete algebrai-
cal investigation of the subject in 1845, in a quarto pamphlet of
26 pages. The pamphlet does not appear to be accessible in
any of the libraries of this city, and the contents of the pamphlet
can only be judged from a brief review of it found in Nouvelles
Annales de Mathématiques, Vol. VIII, p. 62. It is there in-
dicated that the pamphlet consists principally of twelve Lemmas
algebraically proved.

In 1852, Prof. Schellbach, of Berlin, published in Crelle’s
Journal, Vol. XLV, a new solution of Malfatti’s Problem, accom-

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 119

panied with a trigonometric proof, and subsequently the same
construction was extended to spherical triangles.

This makes three entirely different constructions, viz., the one
which Prof Paucker says results immediately from a theorem of
Tédenat’s, and which perchance might be called Tédenat’s con-
struction ; second, Steiner’s; and third, Schellbach’s. A con-
sultation of all the authors referred to would doubtless reveal
others.

A paper by Mr. Andrew S. Hart has been already referred to.
It is important, though brief, as apparently coming nearer in its
mode of thought to the reasoning that led Steiner to the discovery
of the solution than any paper met with.

Prof. Cayley has also written upon the problem. He has a note
on Schellbach’s solution in the first volume of the Quarterly Jour-
nal, and in the Transactions of the Royal Society, Vol. LXX, he
has a memoir entitled ‘Analytic Researches connected with
Steiner’s extension of Malfatti’s Problem.”

Lastly, we come to the memoir of Mr. Talbot, mentioned at
the outset. He says of Malfatti’s Problem that ‘although it is
a question of elementary geometry which can be solved by a
simple and elegant geometrical construction, yet no geometrical
proof has ever been given, as far as I am aware, of the truth of
this construction. * * * I now offer,” he says, “to the
Royal Society a purely geometrical solution of the problem ; and,
for the sake of clearness, I have divided it into several parts,
which I have called Lemmas.” Then follow the Lemmas, of
which there are 11, ‘in the first 9 of which,” he says, “I chiefly
follow Pliicker.” * * * But Lemmas 10 and 11 are original;
at least he believed them to be so.

Lemma 10 is the general case of the first Lemma of Prof.
Paucker, already cited, 7. e., if in Fig. 2, A M is not the bisector
of the angle A then the chords

Te .igt MAT
TD ig = NAC
and this general case is proved by Mr. Hart.

Mr. Talbot’s 11th Lemma is identical with the 13th paragraph
of Paucker’s memoir above cited.

In conclusion it may be remarked that in none of the works
consulted in preparing this sketch has there been found a treat-
ment of the problem in the genera! way in which Steiner handled

120 BULLETIN OF THE

it; and it seems that a complete analysis of the various cases
and solutions for plane and spherical triangles, and for spheres
from a purely geometric point of view, is still wanted.

A list is appended of references to all literature that has been
found containing anything pertaining to Malfatti’s problem.

ApaAms (Carl). Programm der Gewerbschule in Winterthur fir
das Schuljahr, 1848; 4to. 26 pp. 1 pl. Winterthur, 1845.

Das Malfattische Problem neu geldst. 4to.
Winterthur, 1846.

Archiv der Mathematik und Physik u. s. w.
herausgegeben von Johann August Grunert, Greifswald.
Vol. viii., 1846, pp. 451-452.

Nouvelles Annales de Mathématiques. Vol.
viil., 1849, pp. 62-63.

BERNOULLI (Jacob). Opera. 2 v. 4to. Genevae, 1744. See
WOS thy a, BOB

Binper (F.) Das Malfattishe Problem. Programm des Semi-
nars Schénthal. 4to. Tibingen, 1868.

CaTELAN (Eugéne). Note giving solution by Mons. Lechmiitz.
Nouvelles Annales de Mathématiques. Vol. v., 1846, pp.
60-64.

Cayuey (Arthur). On a system of equations connected with
Malfatti’s Problem, and another algebraical system. Camb.
and Dublin Math. Journal, vol. iv., 1849, pp. 270-275.

Analytical researches connected with Steiner’s
extension of Malfatti’s Problem. Phil. Trans. of the Royal
Society, vol. Ixx., 1852, pp. 253-278.

On Schellbach’s solution of Malfatti’s Prob-
lem. Quart. Journ. of Pure and Applied Math., vol. i., 1857,
pp. 219-222.

Criesscu (Rudolf Friedrich Alfred). Anwendung der ellip-
tischen Funktionen auf ein Problem der Geometrie des Raumes.
Journal fiir die reine und angewandte Mathematik, von A. L.
Crelle. Vol. liii., 1857, pp. 292-308.

CreLLE (August Leopold). Sammlung mathemat. Aufsitze
und Bemerkungen. 2 vols. 8vo. Berlin, 1821-1822. See
vol ii.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 121

EpucationaL TiMEs for August, 1868, p. 115, Quest. 2713; also
January, 1875, p. 252.

GERGONNE (Joseph Diez). Annales de Mathématiques Pures
et Appliquées, vol. i., 1810, pp. 196, 343; vol. ii., 1811, p. 60.

Harr (Andrew 8.). Geometrical investigation of Steiner’s con-
struction for Malfatti’s Problem. Quart. Journ. of Pure and
Applied Math., vol. i., 1857, pp. 219-222.

Hymers (John). A Treatise on Trigonometry. 2d ed. Cam-
bridge, 1841, pp. 143-144. Ex. 63.

Lecumurz(*). Annales de Mathématiques Pures et Appli-
quées rédigées par Gergonne. Vol. x., 1820, pp. 289-

Lemus (Daniel Charles Ludolph). Lehrbuch der reinen und
apgewan. Mathematik. in 3 Bden. mit kpfn. in 4to. Berlin,
1827. See vol. ii.

Matratti (Giovanni Francesco). Memoria sopra un _ prob-
lema stereotomico [1802]. Memorie di Matematica e di Fisica
della Societ& Italiana delle Scienze residente in Modena. Vol.
x., part 1, 1803, pp. 235-244.

Martin (Artemas). Proof of Steiner’s solution. Lady’s and
Gentleman’s Diary for 1870, pp. 89-90.

Paucker (Magnus Georg von). Memoire sur une question de
géométrie relative aux tactions des cercles.
Mémoires présentés a l’Academie Impériale des Sciences de
St. Petersbourg par divers Savans. Vol.i., 1831, pp. 503-586.

Puucker (Julius). Das Malfattische Problem.
Journal fiir die reine und angewandte Mathematik, von A. L.
Crelle. Vol. xi., 1834, pp. 117-129.
Uber die Steinersche Verallgemeinerung der Malfattischen
Aufgabe. Same, pp. 356-360.

QuippE (A.). Programm des Friederichsgymnasiums zu Her-
ford fir das Jahr 1849.

Das Malfattische Problem. Beweis der Steiner-

schen Construction. Archiv der Mathematik und Physik u.

s. w. herausg. von J. A. Grunert, Greifswald. Vol. xv., 1850,

pp. 197-204.

* Lechmiitz and Lehmus I suspect to be the same, but have not been
able to verify the fact.

HOY BULLETIN OF THE

SaumMon (George). Conic Sections, 4th ed., 8vo. London,
1863, p. 362.

ScHerriter (August Christian William Hermann). Auflésung
des Malfattischen Problems. Archiv der Mathematik und
Physik u. s. w. herausgegeben von Johann August Grunert,
Greifswald. Vol. xvi., 1851, pp. 424-430.

ScHELLBACH (Karl Heinrich). Hine Lésung der Malfattischen
Aufgabe.
Journal fiir die reine und angewandte Mathematik. von A. L.
Crelle. Vol. xlv., 1852, pp. 91-92.
Hine Erweiterung der Malfattischen Aufgabe. Same, pp.
186-187.
Nouvelles Annales de Math. Vol. xii., 1853, pp. 131-136.

Serrz (Enoch B.) Trigonometrical solution of Malfatti’s Prob-
lem. The Analyst, vol. ii., 1875, pp. 74-76.

Sreiner (Jacob). Einige geometrische Betrachtungen.
Journal fiir die reine und angewandte Mathematik, von A. L.
Crelle. Vol. i., 1826, pp. 161-184.

Taxpor (Henry Fox). Researches on Malfatti’s Problem.
Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Vol. xxiv.,
1867, part 1, pp. 127-138.

TepENAT (Pierre). Annales de Mathématiques Pures et Appli-
quées rédigées par Gergonne. Vol. ii. 1811, pp. 165-170.

Van Swinpen (Jan Hendrik). Elemente der Geometrie aus
dem Hollandischen iibersetzt und vermehrt, von C. F. A. Ja-
cobi. 8vo. Jena, 1834, p. 256, No. 675.

Wirrstrein (Armin).* Geschichte des Malfattischen Problems.
4to. 39 pp., 4 pl. Miinchen, 1871.

ZORER ( ). Programm des Gymnasiums zu Hllwangen.
Tibingen, 1870.

* Since the reading of this paper Prof. E. 5. Holden, of the U.S. Naval
Observatory, has called my attention to the history by Wittstein. While
this is going through the press I have received a copy of Wittstein’s his-
tory of the problem, and from it I extract the titles of several papers
mentioned in it, which papers I have never seen, and incorporate them in
the foregoing list. It may be observed that Mr. Wittstein has, as well as
Mr. Talbot, overlooked Prof. Paucker’s memoir in making up his history.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 123

«

Zornow (Anton Robert). Démonstration de la solution du
probléme de Malfatti, donnée par Mr. Steiner, p. 178, du tome
Calin no:

Journal fiir die reine und angewandte Mathematik, von A. L.’
Crelle. Vol. x., 1833, pp. 800-802.
Nouvelles Annales de Math. Vol. vi., 1847, pp. 346-350.

Mr. Hinearp called attention to a paper on the general prob-
lem of tangencies in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge
by Mr. ALvorp.

122p MEETING. APRIL 7, 1877.
The President in the Chair.
Fifty-one members and visitors present.

Mr. C. Asses, in the absence of Mr. Parker, Chairman, read
the report of the Committee on

THE METEOR OF DECEMBER 24, 1873.

(This report will appear hereafter.)

Remarks were made by Messrs. HinGarD, HARKNEss, and
Corrin, mainly on the difficulty in obtaining trustworthy obser-
vations on meteors, sufficient for determining their apparent paths
and altitudes.

My. B. F. GREENE made a communication on
THE NAVY COMPASS,

exhibiting and contrasting the Liquid Compass now provided,
and such as were in use only a few years ago, and describing the
great improvements which have been introduced, greatly increasing
precision, delicacy, and stability.

Remarks were made by Mr. Harkness, mainly on the device
of Mr. Rircnte for elevating the compasses on board the moni-
tors, and Messrs. Hitaarp, Corrin, F. M. Gremn, ABBE, and
ALVORD.

124 BULLETIN OF THE

123D MEETING. » APRIL 21, 1877.
Vice-President TAYLoR in the Chair.

Mr. A. F. A. Kina, in continuance of his former paper (read
February 24, 1877), presented remarks showing

THE CONSERVATIVE INFLUENCE OF DISEASE AS ILLUSTRATED IN
THE PHENOMENA OF PULMONARY PHTHISIS.

(ABSTRACT.)

Speaking generally, and in conformity with the views pre-
viously presented, he concluded: Ist. That the primary cause
of conservative organic change, was change of environment which
necessitated modification or function. 2d. To prevent such
changes taking place, the natural environment must be continued.
3d. To arrest the progress of commencing modification, the new
environments must be removed—the cld ones restored. 4th. When
this last cannot be done, the structural modifications resulting
from the new environments must be conducted to their designed
completion.

Successfully to carry out this course a knowledge of the adaptive
elationship between the new structures and new environments
must be acquired.

To this end the case selected for study must be a typical and
completed one, characterized chiefly by the qualities of latency
and chronicity—comparative absence of symptoms and slowness
of growth. The points to be ascertained are: Ist. How has the
modified organ been made to differ, in function, from the physio-
logical unmodified organ ? 2d. What environing conditions have
rendered the functional modification necessary or desirable for
the prolongation of life ?

To answer these inquiries, animals of different species and
variety may be studied with a view to discover individuals
whose organs, in their physiological state, resemble those of
the modified human organism. The environments natural to
such animals would necessarily resemble those producing re-
sembling modification in man; hence the cause of the acquired
modification in man would be thus reached.

Again, by studying individuals having structural peculiarities
exactly opposite to those observed in the human specimen, we
learn by contrast what we before learned by resemblance.

In applying this method of study to pulmonary phthisis, after
selecting a “typical” completed case of the disease for special
examination, we find the structural changes to be (chiefly) : dilata-
tion of the bronchi with chronic peribronchitis; thickening and
adhesion of the pleura; obliteration of air-vesicles and capillary
bloodvessels in the lung, the normal lung tissue being substituted
by a hyperplasic growth of connective, or fibrous, or even fibro-

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIE@Y OF WASHINGTON. 125

cartilaginous tissue. These changes are commonly most marked
in the left lung.

On examination, as before directed, we find that animals whose
normal respiratory system more or less resembles, in structure
and function, the respiratory apparatus of the consumptive
patient, are to be found among the different tribes of serpents,
frogs, toads, tortoises, turtles, etc. The natural environments of
these animals were such a¥ to demand of their respiratory organs
only a limited amount of function as compared with those of
man; hence it was inferred that partially similar environments
must have impressed the human individual in whom the chronic
changes of structure, just noticed, were developed, and which he
therefore designated Fibrotic Atrophy of the Respiratory Appa-
ratus.

The conclusion thus reached he considered was sustained by
actual observation in practice. Thus muscular indolence, espe-
cially such as is inseparable from a sedentary life and indoor
occupations or confinement in prisons; and prolonged silence or
vocal indolence, together with persistent mental depression, were
universally acknowled first causes of phthisis; in all of them the
demand for respiratory function was reduced, and the consequent
modification of the respiratory organs was a conservative attempt
to adapt the individual to his unnatural surroundings. Opposite
environments, viz., such as necessitated active locomotive exer-
cise, vocal exercise, and promoted hilarity and mental exhilara-
tion, were admitted prophylactics of consumption. Hence ora-
tors, pedestrians, and pugilists (the latter, however, only prior
to their “retirement from the ring’) were comparatively exempt
from the disease.

Active respiratory function also promoted activity of the por-
tal circulation, and consequently a good digestion, hence the
theory that the disease was due to imperfect assimilation of food
(a theory ably supported by Sir James Clark, Dr. Wilson Philip,
Prof. J. H. Bennett, and others) was admitted only with the
proviso that the impaired assimilation arose from impaired por-
tal circulation consequent upon the restriction of the motions of
the diaphragm and abdominal walls that were inseparable from
a restriction of the respiration.

The fibrotic atrophy of the respiratory system was conser-
vative, considering the environments under the impression of
which it arose, in protecting the individual from fatal hyper-
oxidation of the blood—a condition actually existing during the
first stage of phthisis, as proved by the arguments and experi-
ments of Beddoes, Liebig, Ancell, Simon, Rokitansky, and others.

Mr. Kine concluded his paper with the remark that the views
he had presented were in conformity with the principles of Dar-
Winian evolution. Man had attained his present nobility of
development by successive and gradual increments of functional

126 BULLETIN OF THE

exercise, extending through many centuries. Coincident with
the acquired powers of speech, musical expression, and bipedal
locomotion in the erect posture, the respiratory organs had at-
tained a superior development. But such a high degree of
development could not be maintained without corresponding high
degrees of function; hence functional indolence tended to pro-
duce a retrogressive evolution towards lower forms of animals
from which man had been evolved. Cgnsumption, therefore, was
an attempted adaptive modification of the breathing organs, in
the direction of atrophy, consequent upon the failure of the in-
dividual to perform those exercises by which the highly elabo-
rated respiratory system would be called upon for the full capacity
of its functional play.

Remarks were made by Messrs. WoopwaARD and GILL.

Mr. J. J. Woopwarp read the following paper on

A SIMPLE DEVICE FOR THE ILLUMINATION OF BALSAM-MOUNTED
OBJECTS FOR EXAMINATION WITH CERTAIN IMMERSION OBJEC-
TIVES WHOSE ‘“‘BALSAM ANGLE” Is 90° OR UPWARDS.

Certain immersion objectives are so constructed that they are
capable of admitting rays which enter the front lens at a greater
angle with the optical axis than the limit for dry objectives. That
this is not only theoretically possible, but that such objectives
have been successfully constructed, was several years since de-
monstrated in the Monthly Microscopical Journal, both by Mr.
Keith and myself,* notwithstanding which the contrary has often
since been energetically asserted by writers in the same journal.

Meanwhile, immersion lenses possessed of the excessive angle
in dispute, continue to be put into the market by more than one
maker, and perhaps some of the purchasers wili be interested in
a simple device which I have used for some time with such ob-
jectives to illuminate test-objects mounted in balsam. This
device consists merely of a right-angled prism of crown glass
mounted beneath the stage in such a manner that its long side
can be connected by oil of cloves, or some similar fluid, with the
slide on which the object is mounted. The details of the plan will
be understood from the accompanying diagram, in which the
glass prism is seen in section just beneath the object-slide F, £.

* June, 1873, p. 268; November, 1873, p. 210; March, 1874, p. 119;
September, 1874, p. 124.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 197

Just below it is another right-angled prism, of the same dimen-
sions, made of brass; the section of this prism is indicated by
dark shading in the diagram. The right angles of both prisms

are truncated, and the facets are cemented together in such a
manner that the long sides of the prisms are parallel. The brass
prism slips transversely in a groove in the top of a holder, @,

which is fitted into the substage of the microscope. DD is a
19

128 BULLETIN OF THE

blackened brass screen held in position by two brass arms, one
of which is shown in the figure. This screen is parallel to the
adjacent face of the glass prism, and has in it a small circular
aperture, H, about the size of a large pinhole. The side of the
glass prism next the screen is covered with black paper in which
is a corresponding pinhole. The two pinholes are so placed
that a beam of parallel white sunlight (7) passing through both
will be perpendicular to the side of the glass prism on which it
impinges.

To use this apparatus, it is adjusted in the sub-stage of the
microscope, a drop of oil of cloves is placed on the upper face
of the prism, the glass slide # /, on which the object is mounted
in Canada balsam under the usual thin cover, G, is placed on the
stage, and the sub-stage is racked up until the drop of oil of
cloves is spread out into a thin layer, J. |

The object being thus arranged, it is evident that if a beam
of parallel solar rays (white sunlight), reflected from a plane mir-
ror, be thrown through the two apertures upon the face of the
prism, being perpendicular to that face, it will enter and pass
through without refraction until it reaches the upper surface of
the thin glass cover, G. The parallel rays impinge upon this
surface, as is evident from the construction at an angle of 45°
with the optical axis, OO. If, now, the medium next above the
thin cover, G, be air, this obliquity will be greater than the criti-
cal angle, and total reflection of the rays will take place. If,
however, the medium next-above the thin cover be water, the
obliquity will not be greater than the critical angle. Refraction
having taken place, the rays will enter the water, H, and if an
immersion lens of sufficient angle of aperture be focussed upon
the objects mounted beneath the cover, G, these rays not merely
enter the front of the objective, but will form a well-defined image
of the object on a brightly illuminated field, which will be visible
through the eye-piece of the instrument in the usual way. Of
course it is evident from the diagram that with no dry objective,
or any immersion objective of less than 90° balsam angle, can
anythiag whatever of balsam-mounted objects* thus illuminated
be seen.

* The apparatus can be used, of course, to secure black-ground illumi-
nation of suitable dry objects if they are mounted on the slide instead
of the cover, as is usual.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 129

Immersion objectives may be divided according to their beha-
vior with this apparatus into three classes: Ist. Those with
which, since they do not have sufficient angle of aperture to ad-
mit the illuminating pencil, nothing can be seen, precisely as in
the case of dry objectives. 2d. Those which have sufficient
angle of aperture to admit rays of this obliquity, but are in-
capable of bringing them to an image-forming focus; with these
the field appears well illuminated, but the objects are not well
defined. 8d. Those which not only admit rays of this obliquity,
but form well-defined images with them. ‘To this class belong
not merely immersion objectives with the so-called duplex fronts,
but others; and I may add not merely objectives of American
make, but some constructed by a well-known English house. As
might be expected, the quality of the image formed by the direct
rays of the sun thrown through a pinhole at this excessive ob-
liquity, varies very greatly in different cases. I will state, how-
ever, that I have thus far found at least seven objectives, some
of English, others of American make, which define sufficiently
well under these circumstances to resolve Amphipleura pellucida
mounted in Canada balsam. With the objectives which per-
formed best, the field was of exceeding whiteness and brilliancy,
but by no means dazzling, the frustule undistorted and the striz
clean and black on the white ground, very little color-aberration
being perceived. With other objectives there was more or less
color-aberration and distortion, both which faults were in one
or two cases very conspicuous, although in the part of the frustule
most sharply focussed upon, the strize were handsomely brought
out. The objectives with which I thus succeeded, ranged all the
way from a ith to ,,th immersion. I will add, that the objec-
tives which resolved Amphipleura pellucida under these trying
circumstances, when used in the ordinary way with this or other
test objects, displayed an exquisite perfection of definition, which
it would be hopeless to expect to attain with objectives of less
angular aperture.

- As it is no part of my purpose in this communication to pro-
voke ill-tempered discussion of the merits of individual makers,
I will not append a list ®f the results obtained with the various
immersion objectives I have tried in this way. The apparatus
can be constructed for a few shillings, and those who take the

130 BULLETIN OF THE

trouble to use it will soon see to which of the three classes any
particular objective they may test belongs.

Mr. Woopwarpb also made remarks on

THE RULINGS ON GLASS BY MR. ROGERS, OF CAMBRIDGE,

(ABSTRACT.)

This communication. was a preliminary one. Mr. WoopwaARpD
showed photographs, which he had made, of two of Mr Rogers,
rulings magnified about 1050 diameters, and compared them with
rulings by Powell & Lealand, Nachet and Nobert. The object.
of the photographs was to show the quality of the lines. ‘Those
of Mr.. Rogers appeared to have been ruled with a faulty point,
and were each accompanied on one side by a series of faint
parallel lines. That these were not due to diffraction was de-
monstrated by revolving the ruling (on the stage of the micro-
scope) while the illuminating pencil remained stationary. The
faint parallel lines revolved with the ruling.

The rulings of Nobert were superior in the quality of the lines
to any of the others. The reporter expected to examine more
rulings by Mr. Rogers and others, and would make hereafter a
fuller communication.

124TH MEETING. May 5, 1877.
The President in the Chair.
Thirty-eight members and visitors present.

The General Committee reported the following resolutions
respecting the late Dr. B. F. Craie, which, after appropriate
remarks by Messrs. HENry, Parker, HE. B. Euutorr, Hitearp,
and WoopwarbD, were adopted.

Wuereas the members of this Society have learned with sincere
grief of the death of one of its original members, Dr. BENJAMIN
FAnevuit CraiG, at the age of 49, at his residence in Washing-
ton, on April 10th, 1877, after a very protracted and painful
illness, which he endured with uncomplaining fortitude; there-
fore be it

Resolved, That in considering the death of Dr. Craia, this
Society deplores the loss of a member who was one of its
founders, as well as one of the original members of the scientific

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 131

club to which it owes its origin, a chemist and physicist with
unusually comprehensive. knowledge, an exact experimenter, a
man of absolute probity and uprightness of character, and of
great benevolence of disposition. It is greatly to be regretted
that a mental organization of so high an order, combined with
such admirable personal qualities, was associated with a feeble
physical frame, that wore out when it should have been in its
prime.

Resolved, That the members of the Society tender to the
mother and brothers and sisters of the deceased the assurance of
their deep sympathy and condolence, and that the Secretaries be
requested to transmit to them a copy of these resolutions, which
shall also be entered upon the records of the Society.

Mr. G. K. GInBert made a communication on

A SPECIAL METHOD OF BAROMETRIC HYPSOMETRY.

(ABSTRACT. )

In the determination of altitudes by means of the barometer
there are two chief sources of error. Where, as is the usual case,
it is sought to ascertain how much a barometer read at what is
called the new station is higher than another barometer read
simultaneously at what is called the base station, there are two
important factors of which it is practically difficult to take ac-
count. First, since the air is not in a state of equilibrium, it.
cannot be known that a barometer suspended in the air above
the base station, and at the level of the new station, would record
the same pressure that is observed at the new station; and the
discrepancy between the barometer at the new station and the
barometer in air, measures a factor of the problem, which may be
called the error of gradient. Second, since the temperature of
the air is not constant, and since the air contains unequal pro-
portions of moisture at different times, there is a variation in the
density of the air independent of its pressure; and the differ-
ence between the actual density of the air and a certain as-
sumed density, regarded as normal, measures a factor of the
problem, which may be called the error of density.

The error of gradient will not here be considered.

The error of density is usually sought to be measured by ob-
serving the temperature and moisture of the air at the base and
new stations, but this method is confessedly one of great inaccu-
racy. The observations are necessarily made at the surface of
the ground, where the changes of both temperature and moisture
are so rapid and great that they are not at all comparable with

132 BULLETIN OF THE

the changes which affect the column of air to be measured ;
namely, that column which rests upon the base station and ex-
tends upward to the level of the new station. ‘To obviate this
difficulty, at least two devices have been resorted to. First, by
establishing bases at several different altitudes and referring each
new station to that base which lies most nearly in its own level,
the error, which is proportional to the desired difference of alti-
tude, has been reduced in amount. Second, by using mean
temperatures and mean humidities, in place of those recorded at
the hours of observation, and thus ignoring the small but actual
change of temperature that the column each day undergoes, it
has been found that better results have been obtained than by
the direct use of the coincident observations for density.

In the method which I here propose, no observations are made
of the two factors of temperature and moisture; but their result-
ant, the density, or more strictly a co-efficient of density, is deter-
mined directly. Within or near the district which contains the
new station, I propose to establish two base stations, which
shall be separated as little as possible horizontally, and as much
as possible vertically; £ will then measure simultaneously the
pressure at each of the bases and at a new station; and then,
assuming that the co-efficient of density is unity, will estimate by
the aid of the usual barometric tables the difference of altitude
between the two bases, and the difference of altitude between the
new station and one of the bases. Then, by dividing the esti-
mated difference of altitude of the two bases by their actual
difference of altitude, previously and independently determined,
I will obtain the co-efficient of density, which, being applied to
the estimated difference of altitude between the new station and
one base, will give the required difference of altitude.

This method is especially applicable to a mountain region, in
which the error of density is usually more important than the
error of gradients; and it can be most economically employed
where the number of new stations referable to a single pair of
bases is large. ‘

Mr. Tuomas ANTISELL read a paper, by Prof. C. E. Munrog,
of the U.S. Naval Academy, on

THE ESTIMATION OF MANGANESE AS PYROPHOSPHATE,

(This paper was offered in January, and is printed in the American
Chemist of February, 1877.)

Mr. ANTISELL also made a communication, entitled by him

CHEMICAL REMARKS ON TERRESTRIAL GEOGONY.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 133

125TH MEETING. May 19, 1877.
Vice-President WELLING in the Chair.
Thirty-three members and visitors present.
Mr. 8. C. Busry read a paper on

THE INFLUENCE OF THE CARDIAC AND RESPIRATORY MOVEMENTS
UPON THE MOTION OF THE LYMPH.

(ABSTRACT. )

He admitted the influence of absorption taking place at the
periphery, and of the excess of the arterial over the venous blood
pressure, as factors in promoting the movement of the chyle and
lymph, but denied their predominance; and insisted that the
anatomical arrangement of the lymphatic system, and its con-
nection with the venous system near the confluence of three large
trunks near the heart, antagonized the theories of Flint and
Ricklinghausen. Special attention was directed to the number
and arrangement of the valves in the tubular channel, which not
only prevented regurgitation, but enhanced the influence of the
forces derived from position, pressure of contiguous parts, respi-
ration, and venous current in the large vessels near the heart;
and claimed that the entrance of the thoracic duct into the sub-
clavian vein near the junction of the internal jugular was an
illustration of the principle of Venturi, whereby the more rapid
current of the blood necessarily contributed to the slower current
in the thoracic duct. Then followed the citation of cases of ob-
structive and regurgitant heart diseases, illustrating the effects
of impediments to the circulation upon the movements of the
chyle and lymph, and exhibiting the pathological phenomena
attributable to slowing of the chyle and lymph current. The paper
concluded with a description of the effects of irregular and in-
terrupted respiratory movements upon the motion of the chyle
and lymph, and the importance of preserving the normal pulse-
respiration ratio in the management of pulmonary diseases.

(This paper will appear in full in the September number, 1877, cf the N. O.
Med. and Surg. Journ.)
Mr. ANTISELL continued his remarks on

TERRESTRIAL COSMOGONY.

Mr. Joun ©. Rirny and Mr. Henry Marryn Pavun were
elected, by the General Committee, members of the Society.

134 BULLETIN OF THE

126TH MEETING. JUNE 2, 1877.
The PRESIDENT in the Chair.
Thirty-one members and visitors present.
Mr, B. F. Greene made a communication on

AN ADJUSTABLE BINNACLE FOR THE CORRECTION OF A SHIP’S
COMPASS.

Mr. ANTISELL continued his remarks on

TERRESTRIAL GEOGONY.

127TH MEETING. JUNE 16, 1877.
Vice-President WELLING in the Chair.
Twenty-one members and visitors present.
Mr. ANTISELL, by request, continued his
CHEMICAL REMARKS ON TERRESTRIAL GEOGONY,

describing the successive processes by which the chemical ele-
ments of the original nebulous matter may have combined in
forming the present earth. .

The formation cf the earth was further discussed by Messrs.
Powxr.u, WaArpD, and DooLirrue.

128TH MEETING. OcroserR 13, 1877.
Vice-President H1nGArp in the Chair,
Twenty-seven members and visitors present.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and adopted.

Mr. E. B. Extiorr exhibited a diagram, which he had devised,

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 135

“showing for each year from 1760 to 1876, both inclusive, the
relative value of gold to silver in open market; also, the average
of these rates by periods of five years each ; and compared with
the standard mint ratio of the United States; also with that of
the Latin Union.”

He also made a communication on
OPTIONAL MONETARY STANDARDS,

referring to duplicate and triplicate standards, each alike author-
ized as legal tenders, and either of which may be used at the
option of debtors.

Mr. THEoporE Grit made a communication on
THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE ANTLERS OF THE CERVIDA.

Incited by a recently published article by Prof. Garrop, of
London, on some points in the anatomy of the Ruminants (Proc.
Zool. Soc. London, 1877, pp. 1-18), the author had lately re-
investigated the mode of growth of the antlers of the deer. The
results finally reached may be summarized in the following defi-
nition of antlers :—

Antlers are horn-like appendages of frontal processes, peculiar
to the deer, developed periodically and concomitantly with the
sexual organs, chiefly in the males, either as simple spikes or
with a tendency to bifurcation, especially (but not exclusively)
in the direction of the varying greatest or axial growth.

The modifications of the antlers and their contour in the vari-
ous forms of the family are chiefly dependent on and determined
by the diverse exhibitions of this tendency, and examples of
several kinds are furnished by the genera Pudua, Cervus, Ela-
phurus, and Cariacus.

The branches into which the antlers successively divide in those
deer distinguishable by the complexity of those appendages may
be homologized with each other, and in the interests of a uniform
system of terminology the author proposed the following names
applicable to the chief subdivisions: (1) The simple spikes of
the first year and their after-growths were designated protoceres,
(2) the anterior offshoots of the second year deuteroceres, and the
succeeding (8) third, (4) fourth, and (5) fifth anterior offshoots,

136 BULLETIN OF THE

respectively (3) tratoceres, (4) tetartoceres, and (5) pemptoceres.
The antlers of Cervus, Hlaphurus, and Cariacus were defined
as follows:—

In Cervus, the antlers have the main axis continuous in the
protoceres and incurved backwards, the deuteroceres are pro-
current and developed as ‘‘brow-antlers,” and the tritoceres, the
tetartoceres, and the pemptoceres successively bifurcate with the
protoceres.

In Hlaphurus, the antlers have the main axis continued into
the deuteroceres, which are supra-current and bifurcate into an
anterior larger (and often subdivided) and a posterior smaller
prong, the protoceres are deflected backwards, and the tritoceres
are rudimentary or absent.

In Cariacus, the antlers have the main axis subspirally exeur-
rent into the tritoceres which generally bifurcate anteriorly, the
protoceres are abruptly supra-current from the tritoceres, the
deuteroceres arise from the inner surface of the protoceres near
their bases, and tetartoceres are in some (§ Hucervus) developed,
and in some (§ Cariacus) suppressed.

The duplication of the prongs was not taken cognizance of.

The author remarked that the facts thus summarized would be
found published in more detail in the popular natural history
periodical entitled ‘‘ Field and Forest” for August, 1877.

129TH MEETING. OcTOBER 27, 1877.

Vice-President TAYLOR in the Chair.

Mr. J. HE. HimGarp made a communication on
STANDARD SCALES, OR MEASURES OF LENGTH ;

in which he stated that, having had occasion lately to compare
with each other the two English standard yards, Nos. 11 and 58,
made respectively of bronze and iron, deposited in the office of
United States Coast Survey, they differed by an amount which,
though very minute, was too considerable to be attributed to
original errors of comparison. These two yards were presented
to our Government in 1856 by that of Great Britain as exact

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 137

copies of the restored standard replacing the one destroyed by
the burning of the Parliament building in 1834. The bronze
standard is now found to be shorter than the iron one by about
the quarter of the thousandth part of one inch. On subsequently
comparing the duplicate bronze standard deposited with the
Canadian Government, the same change was detected. This was
referred to the bronze composition being in a state of tension
owing to the varying molecular deportment of the copper, the
zinc, and the tin, of which the alloy was composed, and the annual
oscillations of temperature from summer to winter (amounting
probably to nearly 100 degrees) to which the standards had been
exposed so many times, in the small fire-proof building where
they had been deposited for safe keeping. It was supposed that
the iron standard, from being internally more homogeneous, was
probably the more accurate measure of the two. Reference was
made to various other alloys which had been proposed or em-
ployed; as in the new International standard metre of platinum
and iridium; but the suggestion was offered that all were open to
suspicion. Reference was also made to the employment of a
natural crystal of quartz, 42 inches long, on which it was pro-
posed to mark a standard metre.

Remarks on the communication were made by Messrs. ANTI-
SELL, ELLiorr, and Taynor.

A communication was made by Mr. E. B. Exurorr on
STANDARDS OF TIME—INTERNATIONAL, SECTIONAL, AND LOCAL.

The importance was urged in the first place of fixing more defi-
nitely in the Pacific Ocean, the dividing meridian separating the
adjacent days of the month or week as computed from the eastern
or the western arrival. Behring’s Strait, the treaty boundary
line between Alaska and Eastern Siberia, a meridian about 1684
degrees west from Greenwich, was referred to as a good natural
terminus. The meridian of 180 degrees—some eleven degrees
further west—was also referred to as one commonly used by
navigators.

In this connection some remarks were made on the importance
for railway and telegraphic purposes, of an International standard
combined with sectional standards of time to replace the gradu-

138 BULLETIN OF THE

ated local standards of time. As regards sectional time, it was
suggested that exact hours from Greenwich would be found prac-
tically the most convenient. Thus instead of Philadelphia time,
or St. Louis time, or Denver Mint time, or San Francisco time,
we would have Atlantic slope time to be computed exactly five
hours, Mississippi Valley time exactly six hours, Rocky Mountain
time exactly seven hours, and Pacific slope time exactly eight
hours from Greenwich. This would involve no change in watches
or time-pieces, unless in the modification of the hour index. But
the minute hands would continue in every case to indicate the
actual time correctly,

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 139

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE TO COLLECT IN-
FORMATION RELATIVE TO THE METEOR
OF DECEMBER 24ru, 1873.

(Reap Aprit 7, 1877.)

At the meeting of the Philosophical Society on the 27th of
December, 1873, its attention was called by Dr. Perer PARKER
to a remarkable meteor which occurred on Christmas Eve, who
described it in a note of the 25th December, given in the accom-
panying appendix, No. I.* Other members of the Society had
also witnessed the meteor, and much interest having been awak-
ened, the President, Prof. Henry, suggested that ‘a committee
be appointed to secure all the information possible to be ob-
tained in reference to the unusually bright meteor.” A com-
mittee was accordingly appointed, and they now submit this
report of the manner in which the duty assigned has been dis-
charged, and the results of their labors.

The committee began its labors by the formation of the chart
No. 1, accompanying this report embracing the country south
of the centres of the states of Ohio and Pennsylvania, aud north
of central Georgia, within which region it was presumed the
meteor might have been visible.

The following circular was then prepared and sent to about
five hundred persons, especially to the postmasters and news-
paper editors at county seats, to the colleges, and to meteoro-
logical observers :—

Wasuineron, D. C., Jan. 9, 1874.

Dear Sir: At a recent meeting of the Philosophical Society
of Washington, it was resolved that a committee be appointed
to secure all the information possible to be obtained in reference
to the unusually bright meteor seen throughout this region of the
country at about a quarter before eight on the 24th of December,
or Christmas Eve.

To this end, I can assure you that the Society will highly ap-
preciate your kindness if you will communicate to it such obser-
vations as were made either by yourself or your acquaintances,
or such as may be found in records that are accessible to you,
even if such observations are only of the most general character.

It is considered particularly important that you should give
as detailed answers as possible to the following questions :—

* Owing to its great length this Appendix is not printed. Dr Parker’s
observations are, however, given in abstract in No. 22 of Appendix No. II.
The publication of Chart No. 1 is regarded as unnecessary.

140 BULLETIN OF THE

1. What was the exact time at which its appearance and dis
appearance was noted ?

2, Is the time quoted by you railroad time or local time? if it
is given by a clock that is regulated by a noonday mark,
do you make an allowance for the equation of time as
given in the almanac ?

8. What was the bearing or azimuth of the meteor when first
seen, and when last seen ?

4, What was its apparent angular altitude when first and last
seen ? -

5. What was its apparent angular altitude when at its highest
above the horizon, or how great was its nearest approach
to your zenith, and what was its bearing at that time ? if
you cannot satisfactorily state the angular altitude, give
the distance and height of a tree, house-top, hill-top, or
other object near which it passed.

6. For how many seconds was it visible, and did it appear to
move more rapidly at one part of its path than at
another ?

7. How bright did it appear to be as compared with the bright-
est full moon, or the brightest stars ?

8. Name the stars, if known to you, near which its path lay in

the heavens ?

. Did it appear to be a bright point merely, or to have a sen-
sible size? If the latter, state the apparent shape of the
body, its length and breadth as compared with the diam-
eter of the moon.

10. Describe the colors of the body, and the natufe of its train,

if any appeared in its wake ?

11. How many seconds elapsed after the disappearance of the

meteor before you heard the sound that accompanied it ?

12. Describe as accurately as possible the nature of this sound,

whether it was a single concussion like the discharge of a
cannon, or a series of rolling sounds like the discharge of
artillery or musketry; and if the latter, for how many
seconds did the noise continue audible ?

ite}

In explanation of the above questions, it may be stated that
this meteor is believed to have passed in a westerly direction
through the atmosphere at an elevation of a few miles above the
earth’s surface, and directly over the central portions of Virginia.
Therefore to observers north of this region, as, for instance, at
Baltimore, the meteor appeared some distance to the south of the
observer’s zenith; whilst to more southern observers it appeared
to the north of their zenith, and, for instance, at Charleston, S.
C., must have been seen, if at all, near the northern horizon.

You will confer a favor upon the Society by communicating
this circular letter of inquiry to the people of your neighborhood,
to the more intelligent of your employés, and to all persons of

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 14)

accurate habits of observation, and especially by calling attention
to this matter on the part of editors of local newspapers.

Any information on the subject communicated to the Society
through myself or any member of the committee will be re-
sponded to in due season by the return of a small pamphlet con-
taining a digest of all the information that may be gathered on
the subject.

Very respectfully yours,

CLEVELAND ABBE.

On behalf of the following committee:
Hon. PETER PARKER, W. L. NICHOLSON, CLEVELAND ABBE.

The answers received from these persons, together with copies
of the observations reported by the Smithsonian and the Signal
Service observers, and other information copied from newspapers,
are given in the accompanying Appendix No. I, which contains
all the original documents that we have received relating to the
appearance of the meteor.

Our thanks are especially due to the Postmaster-General, to
the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and to the Chief
Signal Officer of the army for facilities afforded in the prosecution
of this work.

Of the observers themselves, special mention should also be
made of Professor R. L. Brackett, Westminster, Maryland; H.
Inman, of Ellsworth, Kansas; Professor EK. 8. Holden, of the
United States Naval Observatory; L. S. Abbott, Falls Church,
Virginia; the Waterford Literary Society, of Waterford, Vir-
ginia; and §. Simpson, Fairfax Court House, Virginia; all of
whom have put themselves to considerable trouble in order to
materially further our investigation.

Notwithstanding this hearty co-operation, your committee have
to regret that so little has been attained in the way of scientific
exactness in respect to the path and dimensions of the meteor.

A large portion of the territory covered by our inquiries seems
to have been overcast by clouds at the time of the meteor’s pas-
sage, and although observations were indeed reported for about
forty (40) localities, yet most of these (as the Society is well
aware is usually the case) proved quite conflicting, or very indefi-
nite. In the cases especially named above, a comparatively rea-
sonable degree of accuracy was attained by the personal efforts of
our correspondents, and in respect to the observations at Wash-
ington, D. C., by the personal examination of the observers by
members of your committee. It is, in general, evident that
satisfactory investigations of this sort can only be conducted by
personal visitation of various localities by duly qualified indi-
viduals.

With these observations collected, all of which, with a few
exceptions, were received during the year 1874, our investigation
would have closed, and our results would have been reported

142 BULLETIN OF THE

promptly to the Society, had not one of our members been led
to believe that the disappearance of the meteor above Fairfax
County, Virginia, or a little to the southwest thereof, might lead
to the recovery of some fragments.

We have, therefore, for the past two years, sought opportunity
of realizing this hope, which we now reluctantly relinquish, espe-
cially since the individual whose observations and conversation
gave rise to this hope has removed to the State of Michigan
during the past year.

The following general account embraces most of what is de-
ducible from the data that we have collected :—

The meteor appeared on Christmas Eve, December 24th, 1873,
at 7h. 39m. P. M., Washington time; the ‘explosion” was
heard at Washington at 7 h. 42 m. P. M.

In brightness it appeared to all (or nearly all) to exceed the
full moon, and those who looked steadily at it state that the
main body was of a conical shape, moving base forward (one
says apex forward), with a short tail behind. No one speaks of
any train being left behind, such as so often accompanies these
meteors. The prevailing color was, we judge from the descrip-
tions, a bright yellow, but the sparks or flames reported as pro-
ceeding from it were bright red and blue.

It entered the earth’s atmosphere at some point vertically
above the northern part of the State of Delaware, so that its
apparent altitude as seen at Danbury, Conn., was 30°, and at
Washington, D. C., about 45°, and its real altitude, therefore,
above the earth’s surface must have been about ninety miles.

Its path was from this point downward toward a point about
eight miles above Fairfax Court House, Fairfax County, Vir-.
ginia, after which it probably passed but little to the soutiwest
before it disappeared; it may have passed as much as forty miles
further, or to over Rappahannock County in the same State, but
more likely is it that it disappeared when still over Fairfax
County.*

SJIIW O6 LEV

62

Washington. 96 miles. N. part of 160 miles. Danbury, Conn, ~
Delaware.

Its nearest approach to the City of Washington may perhaps
be determined by the length of time elapsing before its sound

* The data recently collected by Prof. Chickering increase the proba-
bility that the meteor passed beyond Fairfax County, and was twenty
miles above the earth’s surface at its nearest approach.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. ~ Abeba

was heard, which was 145 or 150 seconds, corresponding to a
distance of thirty or thirty-one miles. We are disposed to con-
sider the so-called ‘‘ explosion” and subsequent ‘‘ rumbling” not
as due to a definite explosion of the meteor, but as the result of
the concentration at the observer’s ear of the vast volume of
sound emanating, almost simultaneously, from a large part of
the meteor’s path, being, in that respect, not dissimilar to ordi-
nary thunder.

It is evident that the waves of sound starting from that por-
tion of the meteor’s path nearest to the observer would reach his
ear first; thus the observer
at C would hear a violent
sound due to the com-
bined noises of the slight
explosions, whirring, rush-
ing, and snapping, ema-
nating within a portion
of a second from the whole
of the line x y. Sub-
sequently he would hear
the sounds from « x, and
y y,, then those from 2, «x,
and y, y,, etc. The absorption and refraction of sound by the
atmosphere and the progression of the meteor materially affect
this phenomenon.

The dimensions of the cone-shaped meteor were estimated by
Washington observers at about 45’ broad by 75’ long, from
which some allowance is to be made for irradiation; but which
correspond to 2000 and 3400 feet respectively.

By these figures, however, we are not to understand that there ~
necessarily was any solid body of this size. The actual quan-
tity of solid luminous matter producing the appearance of so
large a meteor, as is well known, may have been extremely
small; since the same visible effect would be produced by a
cloud of very small and very bright meteoric particles moving
very rapidly.

Of the actual velocity of the meteor there does not appear to
be any means of forming a reliable determination. It probably
described its entire visible path (of possibly about 120 miles) in
three to five seconds.

For the convenience of those members who may desire to sub-
rait to further study the data we have collected, we submit, in
Appendix No. II, some convenient abstracts of the more import-
ant reports.

In Appendix No. IIf we nave collected the data relating to °
the position of the meteor at its disappearance.

In Appendix No IV will be found whatever seemed valuable
with reference to the sounds heard during or after its passage.

20

144 . BULLETIN OF THE

In Appendix No. V are given in classified arrangement the
observations relating to the appearance of the body and its train.
Besides Chart No. 1, already referred to, we also give in
Chart No. 2* the four sheets of the large Post-Route Map of the
State of Virginia and parts of adjacent States, on which are un-
derscored, in red, the stations from which reports have been

received.
PETER PARKER,
CLEVELAND ase, Committee.
W. L. NICHOLSON,
W asHInGTON, 7 April, 1877.

APPENDIX No. II.
ABSTRACTS OF REPORTS AND LETTERS.

In the following abstracts of the letters and other documents
that have been received relative to the Meteor of Christmas
Eve, the phenomena that were observed have been classified as
follows :—

Time of occurrence.

Duration of the visible flight of the meteor.
Apparent bearing.

Apparent altitude.

Apparent brightness, size, and color.
Interval between the light and the sound.
Nature of the sound.

Sul ON ie COTO

The pages quoted in these abstracts refer to the collection of
original letters in manuscript Appendix No. I.

l.

H. C. Rypvger, Danbury, Fairfield Co., Connecticut, pp. 89 to
93, and 115.

3. Disappeared at south, 573° west ; true bearing.

4, Started at 30°; path inclined 20 or 30° downward to the
right; ended at 5°.

5. White; much brighter than the moon.

a Saw no explosion, heard no sound.

* This chart reduced follows page 161. The stations from which re-
ports have been received are marked upon it.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 145

2.

ANonymous, Mercersburg, Franklin Co., Pennsylvania, pp.
23 to 25.

1. At 7.30 or 7.45 P. M.

2. ‘I'wo or three seconds.

3. First in the east; last in the south,

4. First at 45°; last behind the U. P. Church.

9. Like red-hot iron; round, with train of sparks.

7. Noise accompanying its passage like that of a hissing fire-

cracker, or a loud hiss; no noise or explosion of any
kind at the close.

3.

R. F. Syoppy, Shippensburg, Cumberland Co., Pennsylvania,
p. 39.

Been CEO

8.30 P. M., railroad time.

Not 2 seconds.

First in the east; last in the southwest ?.

Like the sun, and white.

About 2 seconds. .

Rushing noise with rolling sounds like an approaching
thunder-storm.

4.,
W. F. Maptem, Ephratah, Lancaster Co., Pennsylvania, p.
237.
1. 7.47 P. M.
2. 15 seconds.

5.

Pror. G. R. Rossrrer, Marietta College, Ohio, p. 65, could
not learn that it had been seen by any one in that region.

6.
F. A. Curtis, Newark, New Castle Co., Delaware, pp. 1-8,
233, A. and B.

1. A few minutes before 8 P. M., or 7.45 P. M., Philadelphia
railroad time.

2. 30 seconds.

3. It passed very near the moon, a little south.

4 Overhead, a little to the south, “say, 30°”; last lost in
haze near the horizon. ;

5. Much brighter than the moon; a succession of flashes of

white light formed the tail; the head was of different
colors, crimson predominating.

146

J.

BULLETIN OF THE

7.
J. Buack, New Castle, New Castle Co., Delaware, pp.

45-48.

A oS)

7.55 P. M., Philadelphia time.

. 10 minutes.

First in the west; last in the west.

First, 65°; last, 50° or 40°.

Nearly equal to full moon in size and brightness. Burst
into three pieces with a yellow train; head of many
colors, principally red.

Like a subdued rushing sound.

8.

MEsszs. Woop, SMITH, and OTHERS, through R. H. GILMAN,
Milford, Kent Co., Delaware, pp. 79-81.

Se be

Cu GS E— Ise|

Seg ot eC. eee

Between 7.30 and 8 P. M.

First in the south; last at the place where the sun set.
First, 45°; last, 0°.

Noise like distant cannon.

9. .
. H. Gitman, Milford, Kent Co., Delaware, p. 165.
8 P. M.
In the west.

Bright ball; large as one’s head.

10a.

. C. CORRESPONDENT OF BALTIMORE AMERICAN, p. 155.

Teooween Ne

Moved toward the south by west, veering southward.

First altitude was 48°

Grew more brilliant toward the close; encircled with rings.
of green and orange.

. Followed by a sound like 100-pound Parrott conical shells.

10b.

Epiror or BALTIMORE NEWS; CORRESPONDENT P. oF BAL-
TIMORE AMERICAN, Baltimore, Maryland, pp. 153 and 155.

4.
5.
is

Passed under position of the moon.
Three times the size of Venus.
No sound heard.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 147

il.

W. ALLAN, McDonogh’s Institute, near Owing’s Mills P. O.
(12 miles northwest of Baltimore), Baltimore, Maryland, p. 79.

9

3. First in the southwest; last, further west.

4. First, 46°; last, 25°.

5. Shadows overcame moonlight and gaslight ; the diameter
not much less than the moon ; left bright train behind it.

7. No noise heard, °

12.

HK. L. Hunrr, Mattawoman, Charles Co., Maryland, pp. 33
and 34.

1. About 8 P. M.

2. 2 or 8 seconds.

3. First in the southeast; last in the northwest.

vt Just as it disappeared, followed by a rumbling sound like
& the firing of cannon.

138.

R. L. Brackert, Western Maryland College, Westminster,
Carroll Co., Maryland, pp. 247-249, 257-959. Reliable.

3. Some time before disappearance it bore south 30° west; and
by another person, south 33° west, at the time of disap-
pearance ; and by a third, less reliable, 29°.

4. Just before disappearance, 12°.

5. Half size of full moon.

6. 127 seconds.

14.

Pror. R. L. BRAcKETT and OTHERS (Western Maryland Col-
lege), Westminster, Carroll Co., Maryland, pp. 247-949. Less
reliable.

. 1.45, or 7.50 P. M.

4 or 5 seconds.

First in the southwest by west (or 60°).

First 40°.

Much brighter than full moon; of a bluish tint, red, steel-
blue, aud white heat; shape of head an elongated ball,
followed by a bright train.

2 minutes.

. Very distinct, like a cannon discharge, followed by a series

of sounds for two or three seconds,

Or 99 LO

“I op

148 BULLETIN OF THE

15.

M. Suetuman, A. H. Huser, and oruers, Westminster, Car-
roll Co., Maryland, pp. 41-44.
1. About 7.40 P. M., local time
3. Last in the southwest.
5. Brighter than the moon; color soft, silvery, with a bluish
cast.
7. A concussion, producing a slight jarring of the windows.

16.

OC. H. JourDAN and oTuErs (Mt. St. Mary’s College), HEmmitts-
burg, Frederick Co., Maryland, pp. 59-61.

We rte bey Je Jil,
4, South of the zenith.

17.

H. H. Horxins, New Market, Frederick Co., Maryland, pp.
121-123, 165.

1. 8 P. M., railroad time.

2. 6 seconds.

3. First in the southeast, last southwest (?) or south (2).

5. Much brighter than full moon; head 4 diameter of the
moon; color bright-red and yellow.

6. 4 or 5 seconds.

7. Noise like the discharge of a cannon.

18.

W. H. Zimmerman, J. W. GREENWOOD, and OTHERS (Wash-
ington College), Chestertown, Kent Co., Maryland, pp. 83-88.

1. Between 7.30 and 8.00 P. M.
2. 5 or 6 seconds.
4. First 30°; path oblique to the horizon, toward the west by
~ south.
5. Bright as full moon; light white, with a reddish glow;
train about 10° long.

19.

B. HALLowELt and oTHERS, Sandy Spring, 18 miles north of
Washington, Montgomery Co., Maryland, pp. 173, 185-186.

2. 2 seconds. Reliable.

3. South.

4, 50°.

6. 2 minutes. Reliable.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 149

20.

H. C. HauLoweE ct, Sandy Spring (18 miles north of Washing-
ington), Montgomery Co., Maryland, pp. 153, 187, 189.

1. About 8 P. M.

3. First in the south; last, southwest.

4. First, 50°; last, 10°.

5. Body ¢ size of full moon ; of elongated shape, and of intense
greenish-white light, with the head of red and blue, with
scintillations, followed by trail 3° long; shadows over-
came lights in the house.

6. Interval from 14 to 4 minutes.

Noise, a sharp report that shook the windows.

al.

J. A. Hopxins, 121 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D. C.,
pp. 5, 135.

2. 4 seconds.
7. Like rattling of a door.

-~I

22.

Dr. Perer Parker, Corner 11th and Pennsylvania Avenue,
Washington, D. C., p. 19.

Pee ie3s0 eo MM:
5. Wedge-shape, with pale violet point; like a vibrating veii
of light.

23.

H. Inman, Corner of Pennsylvania Avenue and 13th Street,
Washington, D. C., pp. 95-99, 163.

1. 7.42, minus 4 minutes? (7.38 Washington time).

2. 20 seconds.

3. First directly over the Capitol dome [E. 20° S.]; last, due
west.

4, First, about 45°; passed within 5 or 10° south of the
zenith ; disappeared behind a building; altitude less
than 5°.

5. Yellow base, 1$ times the moon’s diameter; length 24
times the moon’s diameter; apex dull; moved with its
base in front.

45 seconds after the disappearance.

A. dull thud.

Suse

24.

Dr. T. H. Gin, Corner of 10th and Canal streets, Washing-
ton, DACs ps Lol:

6. 145 or 150 seconds between the first sight and the explosion.
[ Reliable. }

150

BULLETIN OF THE

° 25.

W. J. McIntire, Corner of 12th and Pennsylvania Avenue,
Washington, D. C., p. 159.

5.

q.

182.

White, hot; front, blue; rear, dark red; general effect blue ;
body well defined, blunt head ; breadth, one moon’s dia-
meter, and length, three moon’s diameter.

Whizzing sound like bombshells.

26.
Isaac Lynou, Farragut Square, Washington, D. C., pp. 179-
(500 Me
3 or 4 seconds. |
Due south; last azimuth 60° west, or a little south of the

Oe 9 0 ko

eu So

J.

moon.

60°; last, 25°.

Bright as a street-lamp at 20 feet; diameter, 4 moon with
tail 3 moons; clear white, with rays of colors.

25 seconds.

Explosion followed by rumbling like thunder; continued
20 seconds.

27.
H. L. Eaaer, New Jersey Avenue and B Street, southeast,

Washington, D. C., p. 227.

lye te

H
pp.

Sects Conon

8.40 or 7.40 P. M.

First, east ; second, west.
Last altitude about 22°.
Pure white.

28.

_ 8. Houpren, U. 8. Naval Observatory, Washington, D. C.,
939-246.

7.40.

About 2 seconds.

Last, south 68° west. Careful determination.

Last altitude, 4° 45’, or less. Careful determination.
More yellow than moonlight, and cast distinct shadows.
No noise heard.

29.

Proressors Newcomp, Hiie@arpd, and Bairp, Washington,
DRCespp. 1995 200: ;

6.

ih

Newcomb estimates it at 1$ minutes; had his eye at
telescope.

Hilgard heard it within a closed room ; Baird heard rattling
of windows at 7.42.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 151

30.

J. D. Mircnenni, A. McLean, and ornHers, Alexandria, Fair-
fax Co., Virginia, pp. 15, 159.

1. From 7.30 to 8 P. M.

3. Westward along King Street, inclining to the south.

4, Directly overhead.

7. Heavy concussion; house trembled.

ol.
L. 8. Assort, Falls Church, Fairfax Co., Virginia, pp. 67—
iy) LO G1 2000.
4, First, 75° south; course west; disappeared at 45°.
5. Round red head, followed by a train and surrounded by
diverging rays, flashing white and very brilliant.
6. Interval very long, from 60 to 90 seconds.
7. Like very heavy cannon, followed for 30 seconds by rolling,

rumbling sounds, fading away in the east, as it came
back on the track of the meteor.

32.

S. Srvpson, J. Mitus, and oruers, Fairfax C. H , Fairfax
Co., Virginia, pp. 251-256.
Tto8 P.M. About 8 P. M.
. 2 or 3 minutes.
. First in the east; last in the west.
+ Hirst, 40° + last, 45°:
. Equal daylight, head brighter than its red tail and broad
as the moon.
. Interval 3 or 4 minutes, or time enough to walk 150 yards.
. First like a cannon, jarring all the houses in this section,
then rumbling for 4 or 5 minutes; dying away in the

east.
33a.
Farrrax Court Howse, Fairfax Co., Virginia, p. 157.

1. About 7 P. M.

5. Bright light.

6. A few seconds.

7. Shock that shook the ground and rattled windows, and suc-
ceeded by a rushing noise as of wind in a forest.

TS

33b. VIENNA, p. 157.

About 7.30 P. M. a loud
clap of thunder and a vivid
flash of light seen in all this
neighborhood.

3c. Fats CHurcg, p. 157.
33d. Lanatey, p. 157.

30e@. LEWISVILLE, p. 157.

152 BULLETIN OF THE

34.
CENTREVILLE, Fairfax Co., Virginia.
4. Said to have exploded in the zenith.

30.

C. GILLINGHAM, Woodlawn, Accotink P. O., Fairfax Co.,
Virginia, p. 165.
ico Osbaeve
. From east to west.
. 45° at its disappearance.
. Exceeded bright coal-oil lamp.
. Short, hard reports like heavy cannon, and continued re-
sounding for considerable time.

TOP we

36.
Epitor oF THE Dispatcn, Richmond, Henrico Co., Virginia,
p. 157.

1. About 7 P. M.
3. Moving from east to west.
4. Directly over the city.

37.
T. Curistran, Richmond, Henrico Co., Virginia, pp. 207-210.

3. First near the northern horizon; did not see the beginning
or end.

4, Last seen at 9° 30’, but did not see the end. Path inclined
10° to the horizon.

5. Brighter than full moon.

38.

Rev. H. BrancuH and oTHERS, between Hamilton and Water-
ford, Loudoun Co., Virginia, pp. 141-150.

Meteor was seen.

39.

WarTeERFoRD Literary Society, Waterford, Loudoun Co.,
Virginia, pp. 3-55.
2. About 5 seconds.
3. First a little north of east; last, southwest.
5. Not quite equal to the moon; brilliant white; pear-shape ;
bluish color.
7. Like train of cars approaching a tunnel.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 153

40.

W. D. Curistran, Appomattox C. H., Appomattox Co.,
Virginia, pp. 171-172.

IP
2.
3.
4,
5.
T.

A

SePa NE

3 or 4 seconds.

First in the north 55° east; last, north 25° east.
First, 40°; last, 20°, behind trees.

2 of the moon.

No sound, unless like a distant gun.

41.

. P. Brown and orHers, Upperville, Fauquier Co., Vir-

ginia, pp. 221-224.

cat Gey CESS)

8 to 8.15 P. M.

3 or 4 seconds.

First, east-northeast; last, east-southeast.

First altitude 70°; last altitude 45°. [Reliable.]
15 seconds.

Like distant cannon, or thunder.

42,

Gores D. Smiru, Marion, Smyth Co., Virginia, pp. 201-206.

3.
4,
5.

1.

First in the east; second, southwest.
First (?) passed near the zenith; last, 30°.
Burst into red, white, blue fragments, at 30° altitude.

6 ‘ No sound.

[This appears to refer to some other, perhaps the 11 P. M.
meteor. |

TR OPO By

6.
1

43.

. EK. Converse, Woodstock, Shenandoah Co., Virginia, p: 2385.

5 NB Zo) Lee
. 8 to 6 seconds.

First, due east; last, in the east.
First, 45°; last 20° or 25°.
Thrice the brightness of the moon ; white ; no special shape.

‘ No sound.
44.,

W. Aterer and G. H. Marner, Ousley’s Gap, Cabell Co.,
West Virginia, pp. 140 and 170.

Ih

Cloudy and nothing seen or heard. (Describes the meteor
of January 6.)

154 BULLETIN OF THE

45.

J. F. Hartarove, Harper’s Ferry, Jefferson Co., West Vir-
ginia, pp. 101-106.

1. 7.45 P.M. (Probably not noted exactly.)

2. Visible during nine breaths (about 30 seconds 7).

3. Observer standing on Shenandoah Street, 100 yards from
the junction of the Shenandoah and Potomac rivers, facing
the southeast ; when first seen, meteor bore a little south
of the Potomac River; it was approaching the earth and
moving southwestward ; when it exploded it bore south-
southwest; did not pass west of the Blue Ridge.

5. Brighter than the moon, and + of its diameter; it cast a
shadow; explosion followed by falling vertical streaks :
color, white and blue.

6. Interval between visible explosion and audible sound, three
breaths (10 seconds).

1. Hissing sound during the whole apparition; explosion
equal to a single concussion of a well-charged musket.

46.

J. J. Barrick, New Creek (Keyser P. O.), Mineral Co., West
Virginia, pp. 49-51.

1. 7.42, railroad time.

2. 5 seconds.

8. Passed near Orion, from alittle north of east to a little
south of west.

4. Greatest altitude equal to altitude of sun at 95 A. M.

5. Well defined ; sensible size equal § of the full moon; light
equal to that of the full moon.

7. No sound; saw it explode; soon afterwards it began to
descend.

47.
J. T. McCreeney, G. H. Prince, and otuErs, Raleigh C. H.,
Raleigh Co., West Virginia, pp. 35 and 57,

1. Nothing seen.
7. Noise heard to the southward, as of distant thunder; re-
marked by many citizens.

48.
J. L. Govunp, Buckhannon, Upshur Co, West Virginia.
1. Few minutes before 8 P. M.
3. First, in the east; second, east, 5° north.
4

. First, 40 or 50°; second, 20° or less; path downwards
' and inclined 8° to the north of the prime vertical circle.

C. H. J. Rawuine, Wheeling, West Virginia, p. 195.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 155

49.

1. Nothing seen or heard.

APPENDIX No. IIL

POSITION OF THE METEOR AT ITS DISAPPEARANCE,

Observations relating to the end of the visible path of the Meteor.

The following notes give all the information that has any claim
to accuracy with reference to the place of disappearance of the

meteor.

(The longitudes here given are supposed to refer to

the dome of the Capitol at Washington.)

STATION NO.

(1).

(6).
Ci:
(9).
(aly:

(18).

(21).
(23 ).

H. C. Ryder, lat 41° 207, long. 3° 35’ BK.

Meteor disappeared at altitude 5°, bearing 8. 65° W.,
as measured with compass, and allowing for varia-
tion.

F, A. Curtiss, lat. 39° 38’, lone. HE. 1° 20’.

Disappeared in the haze in the 8S. W. horizon.

J. J. Black, lat. 39° 40’, long. H. 1° 24’.

Burst in three parts at a zenith distance 40° toward W.

R. H. Gilman and others, lat. 38° 56’. long. H. 1° 38’.

Disappeared where the sun set (or 8. 68° W.).

Wer Allan, lat: 302)2t long: E07 lo:

Altitude 25° when it disappeared [possibly hidden by
trees ].

R. L. Brackett, lat. 39° 35/, long. Ey0°57;

Disappeared at alt. 12°, bearing S. 30° W. by theodo-
lite, as observed by Mr. Middleton.

Disappeared bearing 8. 33° W., as observed by Mr.
White.

Disappeared bearing 8S. 29° W., as observed by Mr.

H. C. Hallowell and others, lat. 39° 9’, long. H. 0° 2’,
elevation 600 feet.

Disappeared in S. W. about 10° above the horizon.

Mrs. J. A. Hopkins, lat. 38° 54’, long. W. 0° 0’.

Disappeared bearing 8. 88° 15’ W.

H. Inman, lat. 38° 54’, long. W. 0° V’.

Was standing at the corner of Penn. Avenue and

156

(35 ).

(37).

BULLETIN OF THE

Fourteenth Street; saw meteor disappear behind
some trees and buildings at an altitude less than 5°,
bearing directly W. (Three estimates and measure-
ments respectively gave 8. 89° W., and N. 88° W.,
and due W.).

J. H. L. Hager, lat. 38° 54’, long. 0° 0’.

Disappeared nearly due W.

E. S. Holden, lat 38° 54’, long W. 0° 2.5/.

Disappeared bearing 8. 68° W., alt.4° 45’ or less.

J. D. Mitchell and others, lat. 38° 48’, long. W. 0° 3’.

Passed directly overhead westward, or 8. 8. W., and
disappeared.

L. 8. Abbott, lat. 38° 53’, long. W. 0° 13’ [14 miles
W. of Falls Church ].

Disappeared in W. quietly and instantly, at alt. 45°.

Joseph Mills, near Fairfax C. H., lat. 39° 41’, long.
WG OL

Disappeared in W. at alt. 45°.

Anonymous, Centreville, Fairfax County, Va., lat. 38°
40’, long. 0° 26’ W.

Meteor well seen, and exploded in the zenith. [This
may mean that the meteor passed through the zenith,
and that an explosion was afterwards heard. |

C. Gillingham, Woodlawn (4 mile S. W. of Mt. Ver-
non), Accotink, Fairfax County, Va., lat. 379° 42’,
long. 0° 18’ W.

Passed from E. to W.; disappeared at alt. 45°.

T. Christian, Richmond, Henrico County, Va., lat. 37°
32’, long. 0° 24’ W.

The path was westward and downward; inclined 10°
to the horizon; was last seen at alt. 9° 30’; did not
see the end.

W. D. Christian, Appomattox C. H., Appomattox
County, Va., lat. 837° 20’, long. W. 19 51”.

First seen bearing N. 55° H., alt. 40°; last seen be-
hind trees N. 25° H., alt. 20°.

A. P. Brown and others, Upperville, Fauquier County,
Va vat: 38° 590 lonos We 0S a3

First seen alt. 70°, bearing considerably N. of E.; last
seen alt. 45°, bearing considerably S. of E.

G. D. Smith, Marion, Smyth County, Va., lat. 36° 487,
long. W. 4° 31’, elev. 2400 feet.

Meteor burst into fragments at alt. 30° in the E.
[This may have been the 11 P. M. meteor. ]

T. E. Converse, Woodstock, Shenandoah County, Va.,
lat. 38° 50°, long. W. 1° 31".

First seen at alt. 45°, bearing due H.; last seen alt.
20° or 25° in the EH.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 157

(45). J. F. Hartgrove, Harper’s Ferry, Jefferson County,
West Va, lat. 39° 18’, long. W. 0° 43’.
First seen bearing EH. 10° S., rapidly approached the
earth, and exploded bearing 8. S. W.? (or S. ?)
(46). J. I. Barrick, New Creek (Keyser P. O.), Mineral
County, West Va., lat. 39° 27’, long. W. 1° 55/.
Observed at 7h. 42 m. railroad time. First alt. 18°,
bearing , saw it explode.
(48). J. L. Gould, Buckhannon, Upshur County, West Va.,
lat. 38° 56’, long. W. 3° 9’.
Looking H. observed meteor falling from alt. 60° to
alt. 20° or less; path not vertical, but deflected 8°
northward.

APPENDIX No. IV.
THE SOUNDS ACCOMPANYING AND FOLLOWING THE METEOR.

One of the most interesting subjects in connection with such
large meteors relates to the sound, as of an explosion, that is
frequently observed, and which generally reaches the observer at
a considerable interval of time after the body has disappeared
from view.

It is not, however, necessary to assume that an actual explo-
sion must have occurred at some portion of the meteor’s path.
The correct explanation of the phenomenon is undoubtedly found
in the fact that, besides the rushing of air and the singing or
whizzing of a revolving projectile, there is a series of small
noises of the nature of explosions, and like the snapping, hissing,
and crackling of a wood fire, or soft coal fire, attending the burn-
ing of the outer surface of the meteor.

Owing to the rapid movement of the body, these noises are
produced in a few seconds, and, as it were, almost simultaneously,
from one end to the other of a line many miles in length.

Now, if the observer be so situated that the noises from a large
portion of the path reach him, almost simultaneously he will
hear one loud noise attended by a succession of rapidly dimin-
ishing sounds.

The problem, in fact, is precisely similar to that which has ex-
cited so much interest in Optics, namely, as to the effect of the
movement of the observer and the source of light upon the
apparent color and intensity.

So far as concerns the acoustic problem, it has been theoreti-
cally investigated by Hotvos [Poggendorf, Annalen 1875, clii.,
p-. 535].

158 BULLETIN OF THE

This author has shown that his theoretical formule agree
closely with the results of experiments made upon rapidly-moving
railroad trains. We have, however, in the case of a meteor, far
greater relative velocities than any that have been artificially pro-
duced for experimental purposes, and had we any accurate mea-
surements, we might be able to learn something with regard to
the accuracy of theoretical investigations, or might possibly learn
something with regard to the absolute intensity of the. individual
noises occurring at the surface of the meteor.

Failing to obtain accurate data, we may remark that it re-
quires only comparatively feeble noises distributed along the
entire path of the meteor in order to produce, by their concen-
tration at the observer’s station, a sound equal to that of loud
thunder.

In the following table we have collected most of the data
relating to the noises that accompanied the meteor.

The following report to have heard no sound :—

(1). Danbury, Connecticut.

4), W: F. Madlem, Ephratah, Pennsylvania.
5). G. R. Rossiter, Marietta, Ohio.

6). F. A. Curtis, Newark, Delaware.

b). Anonymous, Baltimore, Maryland.

1). W. Allan, Owing’s Mills, Maryland.

6). C. H. Jourdan, Emmittsburg, Maryland.
8). W. H. Zimmerman, Chestertown, Maryland.
2). G. D. Smith, Marion, Virginia.

3). T. E. Converse, Woodstock, Virginia.
6). J. J. Barrick, New Castle, West Virginia.

Besides these, many others who heard no sound
are omitted, since others from the same places heard
the sounds distinctly, as described in the following
abstracts :—

(2). Mercersburg, Franklin Co., Pennsylvania.

Noise accompanying its passage like a hissing fire-
cracker. [Similar reports with reference to other
meteors have usually been considered as an illusion
on the part of the observer, as was probably the
case also on the present occasion. ]

(3). Shippensburg, Pennsylvania. :

Interval 2 seconds; rushing, rolling sound, like an
approaching storm.

(7). New Castle, Delaware.

Subdued rushing sound.

(8). Milford, Delaware.
Explosion like a distant cannon.
(10a). Baltimore? Maryland.

Followed by sound like that of 100-pound Parrott

conical shell.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 159

(12). Mattawoman, Maryland.
As it disappeared, followed by a rumbling sound.
(18, 14, 15). Westminster, Maryland.

Interval of 127 seconds; noise like a cannon, jarring

the windows, followed by a series of rumblings.

(17). New Market, Maryland.
Interval of 4 or 5 seconds; sound like a cannon.

(19, 20). Sandy Spring, Maryland.

Interval, 2 minutes; sharp report like a cannon,
shaking the windows.

(21 to 29). Washington, D. C.

At 7.42 P. M. an explosion similar to a heavy
cannon, shaking windows and doors, at an interval
after the disappearance of the meteor, variously esti-
mated ; the most accurate observation being that of
No. 24, T. H. Gill, which gives from 145 to 150
seconds ;_ the explosion was followed for 20 seconds,
or more, by a rumbling noise.

(30). Alexandria, Virginia.
Heavy concussion; house trembled.
(31). Falls Church, Virginia.

Interval, 60 to 90 seconds; noise like heavy cannon,
followed for 30 seconds by rumbling, fading away
in the east.

(32 & 33a). Fairfax Court House, Virginia.

Concussion that shook the ground; interval a few
seconds (possibly 45 seconds, according to Mr. 8.
Simpson), followed by rumbling, rushing noises.

(33 b,c, d, e). Vienna, Virginia.
Like loud clap of thunder.
(34). Centreville, Virginia.
Explosion in the zenith.
(35 ). Accotink, Virginia.
Short, hard report, like heavy cannon.
(36 & 87). Richmond, Virginia.
Shook the ground and rattled windows.
(39). Waterford, Virginia.
Noise like train of cars.
(41). Upperville, Virginia.
Interval of 15 seconds; sound like distant thunder.
(45). Harper’s Ferry, West Virginia.

During the whole apparition a sound like a sky-
rocket, but twice as loud; after an interval of 8
breaths (equal to 20 seconds), came an explosion
like a well-charged musket.

(47). Raleigh Conrt House, West Virginia.
Sound like that of distant thunder, to the southward.

21

160 BULLETIN OF THE

APPENDIX No. V.

CLASSIFIED RESUME

Of the particular observers’ remarks as to the meteors’ apparent
size and shape, its brightness relative to the full moon, the
color of the body or forward portion, and that of the tail, or
following part.

The numbers attached to these remarks respectively refer to
the several individual abstracts of this Appendix (No. I1), be-
ginning on page 144.

Apparent size and shape:

STATION NO,
Houalstoufulliemo ome egy orice cope een aera Ci, Ti)
Two-thirds diameter of full moon.,........... (40, 46)
Headwhalt diametenrotygy il sey uerticioninctrtcer @3
“one-fourth diameter of full moon........ (17, 45)
“one-sixth ff a i and of
elongatedidonm .). ./:)). semeee cee (20)

‘“« three times size of planet Venus........ (10d)
Wedge-shaped, with pale violet point......... (22)
Pear-Shape dieu nr veolats nis’. ol olavelevne atelchauever aateks (39)

Base 45’, moving forward ae

Length 15! t eee eee nese essa (28)

Base 30’
SURE QU OUR Seo eee eRe RCo Gcbuno: (25)

Base 15’ 5

Length 90’ 5 oer er et eer eee oe ees wa ee eee we we eevee (26)

Brightness relative to full moon :
Brightness greater than that of full moon (1, 6, 14, 15, 17, 37, 45)

ts Cqualstopnmllpm oon eye rescerereaie (7, 18, 46)
i not quite equal to full moon........ 39)
a threeitimesitha tion so) eee. (43)
Color:
NOME QW sacose (1, 2 as red hot iron, 3 like sun, 27, 43)

s light white, with reddish glow ........ (18)

o clear white, with rays of colors........ (26)

a white, or soft silvery, with a bluish tint (14, 15)

- brilliant whitesstail@bluishé). 22. eee 8 (89)
General color: white and blue............... (45)
Bodye yellow apex diulllietysererer tists oi) aetroeierere (23)

yellower than moonlight.............. (28)

a predominant color red (or crimson) (6 crimson, 7 red)

os brighti7ed and wellonuie rs i\-..in sions 1

Round red head, with diverging or flash-
ing rays from it, of a white color (31)

2

g

g
se
?
2.
Lo
op
w

} OBSERVED PATH oF METEOR ;

OF

Dk

N CHRISTMAS EVE
Same D EC, 24% 1873

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\ UNITED STATES 0F AMERICA.

OVER A PART OF THE

SCALE
50

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i e 25 75 19OMiLES
a 4

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24% 1873

OVER A PART DF

DEC,

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TATES OF AMERIC.z

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 161

Bod ye mnednand Dlwen. Nv. 45 4 eee eee (20)
ecueral Coloribiee.| .\.\ meg 1. (25)
Tail (or train):
Brightitrain followingys/).))0 00) eee (11)
Klongated ball, followed by a bright train... . (14)
RaitaboutlO, longi asic ol heen (18)
Train white, but not so intense as the rays di-
Verging trom) they Mead) We c i) te ne vain (31
Drain of sparkee hy Me Mle) ace (2)
Successive flashes of white light............ (6)
Tail 3° long, greenish-white............... 20)

130TH MEETING. 7TH ANNUAL MEETING. NovVEMRER 10, 1877.
Vice-President Hinearp in the Chair.
Twenty-three members present.

The names of members elected since the last annual meeting
were read.

The election of officers for the ensuing year was conducted in
accordance with the rules, with the following result:—

President, Jcsepu Henry. (Unanimously. )

Vice-Presidents, J. K. Barnes, W. B. TAYLOR,
J. E. Hingarp, J. C. Wetzina.

Treasurer, CLEVELAND ABBE.
Secretaries, J. H. C. Corrin, T. N. Grit.
MEMBERS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.
THOMAS ANTISELL, Stmon NEwcome,
K. B. Evuiort, J. W. Powe,
Asapu Han, ©. A. ScHort,
N.S. Lincoty, J. M. Toner,

J. J. Woopwarp.

Standing Committees, appointed by the General Committee.

On Communications, J. J. W ooDWARD,
J. E. Hinearp.

On Publications, S. F. Barrp, T. N. Grin,
J. H. C. Corrin, C. Appz.

162 BULLETIN OF THE

131st MEETING. NOVEMBER 24, 1877.
The President, JosepH Henry, in the Chair.
Thirty-six members and visitors present.

The PRESIDENT read his annual address, as follows :—

GENTLEMEN, MEMBERS OF THE
PHILOSOPHICAL SocIETY OF WASHINGTON.

I BEG leave to tender you my sincere thanks for the honor you
have conferred upon me, and the good feeling you have mani-
fested towards me, by my re-election as President of this Society.
I say the good feeling which you have manifested towards me,
because I know that there are many of your members who can
much more efficiently discharge the duties of the office than I can,
I may, perhaps, be allowed to say, without the charge of undue
egotism, that I have never occupied any position for which I
have been voluntarily a candidate. The several offices of honor
and responsibility which I now hold, no less than nine in number,
have all been pressed upon me without solicitation on my part,
and I now begin to feel that, in view of that peculiarity of human
nature so admirably exhibited in the character of the Archbishop
of Granada, that I ought to diminish the number of my responsi-
bilities, gradually leaving to others the honor and the toil of
office. It is, therefore, with no feigned hesitation that I again
accept the re-election to the position to which your kindness has
called me.

I have, however, taken from the first a deep interest in the
Society, knowing that it is intimately connected with the intel-
lectual development of the City of Washington, and that it has a
reflex influence upon every part of the United States. It tends
to keep alive an active spirit of scientific advancement, not only
to diffuse a knowledge of the progress of discovery among its
members, but also to stimulate by friendly criticism and cordial
sympathy to new efforts in the way of explorations into the un-
known.

While but comparatively few qualifications are necessary for
admittance, yet no person is elected who is not supposed to have
at least a high appreciation of science; has some familiarity with
its principles, and is capable of doing something in the way of
promoting the objects of the Association.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 163

The general mental qualification necessary for scientific ad-
vancement is that which is usually denominated ‘‘common sense,”
though, added to this, imagination, invention, and trained logic,
either of common language or of mathematics, are important ad-
juncts. Nor are objects of scientific culture difficult of attain-
ment. It has been truly said that the “seeds of great discove-
ries are constantly floating around us, but that they only take root
and germinate in minds well prepared to receive them.”

The preparation, however, is not difficult, and many possess
the requisites in an eminent degree who are not aware of the fact.
Genius itself has been defined as a mind of general powers deter-
mined, enthusiastically it may be, on one pursuit.

The method of discovery or scientific observation is not diffi-
eult. There is a story in a work, entitled “ Evenings at Home,”
which produced an indelible impression on my mind. It is en-
titled ‘‘ Hyes and no Hyes,” and related to two boys who started
on a walk during a warm summer afternoon. On their return,
one was fatigued, dissatisfied, having seen nothing, encountered
only dust and heat, while the other was charmed with his walk,
which had been over the same ground, and gave a glowing ac-
count of the objects which he had met with, and of the reflections
which were awakened by them. On this story, De la Béche has
founded a work, entitled “ How to Observe in Geology,” which I
would commend to the attention of every member of this Society,
while I sugzest that good service would be done to the advance
of knowledge were a similar work published relative to all
branches of science.

The first requisite for an observer is, that his mind should be
actively awakened to the phenomena of nature with which he is
surrounded. Thousands of persons of excellent mental capacity
pass through the world without giving the slightest attention to
the ever-varying exhibitions which are presented to them. The
sun rises and sets, the seasons change, the heavens every night
present new aspects, but these to them are matters of course ;
they excite no interest, and it is only when some extraordinary
phenomenon occurs, such as the blazing comet or the startling
earthquake, that their attention is arrested. Another requisite is
the power of the perception of truth, which enables the observer
to recognize and define with unerring accuracy what he has seen
without any tinge of color from @ priori conceptions. Still an-

164 BULLETIN OF THE

other is the faculty of eliminating accidental conditions from
those which are essential : and further, the characteristic of perse-
verance is indispensable.

The fields of scientific labor may be divided into two classes,
viz.: those which relate to the empirical observation of facts, and
those which refer to the systematic series of investigations rela-
tive to the law or cause of special phenomena. As illustrations
of the first class are the facts of the phenomena of the physics
of the globe, those of ordinary meteorology and natural history;
while, as examples of the second, we have the phenomena of
chemistry, physics, and astronomy.

The remarks which I have previously made relate principally
to the former. In order to elucidate the method of investigation
in the latter case, I will suppose the existence of a new pheno-
menon which is unconnected with any of the present generaliza-
tions of science, but of which it is desired to discover the law or
the facts with which it is associated. Such facts standing alone
form no part of science; they are usually discovered in the course
of investigations, and are of great importance in pointing out
fields of new research which promise an abundant harvest.

The first step in the investigation is to reproduce the phenome-
non; the next, is to form in the mind a provisional hypothesis
as to its cause, and in the choice of this we are governed by
analogy. For example, if it appears to resemble some of the phe-
nomena of electricity, we assume that it is produced by electri-
city ; we next endeavor to ascertain by what known action of
electricity such an effect could possibly be produced; for this
purpose we invent an hypothesis, or imagine some peculiar action
of electricity sufficient to produce the effect in question: we ther
say to ourselves, if this be true, it will logically follow that a
specific result will follow if we make a certain experiment: the
experiment is devised and tried, but no positive result is obtained.
In order to this negative result, the logical deductions must have
been in error, or the experiment must have been defective, or the
hypothesis itself erroneous.

We examine each of the two former steps, and finding nothing
amiss in them, we conclude that the hypothesis was not true:
another hypothesis is then invented, another deduction inferred,
and another experiment made; still no result is obtained. At
this stage of the research the inexperienced investigator is prone

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 165

to abandon the pursuit; not so he who has successfully attempted
to penetrate the secrets of nature. Undeterred by failure, he
changes from time to time his hypotheses, makes new guesses, and
again repeats the question as to their truth by means of experi-
ment, until at length nature, as if wearied by his solicitations,
grants him a new and positive result; he has now two facts, and
an hypothesis to explain them; from this hypothesis he makes a
new deduction, which is also tested by a new experiment; but
now, perhaps, he obtains a result, which, although of a positive
character, is not what he expected. He has, however, made an
advance; he has three facts and an hypothesis to explain two of
them. Im this case he does not usually abandon his preconceived
idea, but modifies it until it includes the new fact. With the
hypothesis thus improved, he deduces, it may be in rapid suc-
cession, a number of new conclusions, the truth of all of which is
borne out by the results of the experiments. The investigator
now feels that he is on the right track; that the thread of Deda-
lus is in his hand, and that he will soon be in the full light of
day, but usually the escape from the labyrinth is not so easy.
In the height of his successful career, it not unfrequently hap-
pens that a result is obtained diametrically opposed to his pre-
vious generalization, which conclusively forces upon his mind the
conviction that he is still far from attaining his end; that he has
not yet seized upon the fundamental principle of the phenomena,
which have grown into a class under his hands.

At this stage of the inquiry, his self-esteem is much depressed,
he throws aside for a while his apparatus, refers to his library for
new suggestions; the subject, however, is not discharged from
his mind; it still goes with him, and is perpetually recurring ; it
is mingled with his dreams, and is seen associated with the
every-day occurrences of life, until at len¢th, in some happy mo-
ment of inspiration, it may be after refreshing sleep, the truth
flashes upon him: he catches a more extended conception of the
relations of the phenomena; a more comprehensive hypothesis
is suggested, from which he is enabled to deduce in succession a
large number of new conclusions to be submitted to the test of
experiments. These are all found to yield the expected results,
and the generalization which has thus been obtained is more than
an hypothesis. It is entitled to the name of a verified theory.
The investigator now feels amply rewarded for all his toil, and

166 BULLETIN OF THE

is conscious of the pleasure of the self-appreciation which flows
from having been initiated into the secrets of nature, and allowed
the place not merely of an humble worshipper in the vestibule of
the temple of science, but an officiating priest at the altar.

In this sketch which I have given of a successful investigation,
it will be observed that several faculties of the mind are called
into operation. First, the imagination, which calls forth the forms
of things unseen and gives them a local habitation, must be active
in presenting to the mind’s eye a definite conception of the modes
of operation of the forces in nature sufficient to produce the phe-
nomena in question. Second, the logical power must be trained
in order to deduce from the assumed premises the conclusions
necessary to test the truth of the assumption in the form of an
experiment, and again the ingenuity must be taxed to invent the
experiment or to bring about the arrangement of apparatus adapt-
ed to test the conclusions.

These faculties of the mind may all be much improved and
strengthened by practice. The most important requisite, how-
ever, to scientific investigations of this character, is a mind well
stored with clear conceptions of scientific generalizations and
possessed of sagacity in tracing analogies and devising hypo-
theses.

Without the use of hypotheses or antecedent probabilities, as
a general rule no extended series of investigations can be made
as to the approximate cause of casual phenomena. They require
to be used, however, with great care, lest they become false
guides which lead to error rather than to truth.

It is not enough for a physical investigation that we have the
simple idea, which may be embodied in a mathematical equation,
—we must see clearly, with the mind’s eye, the operations in
nature, and how the phenomena are produced in accordance with
the well-known laws of force and motion.

As an illustration of what I have said, as wel! as an original
scientific communication, I may be allowed to present in this con-
nection an account of some observations in which I have been
engaged during the past summer; and which are an extension of
the investigation of the phenomena of sound in its application to
fog-signals, of the progress of which I have given an account at
different times to the Society.

This year, my attention was called to a special phenomenon

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 167

observed for several years past on the coast of Maine, which has
been classed among those to which the term ‘‘abnormal phe-
nomena of sound” is applied. In August, 1873, this was par-
tially examined, and the result published in the Light-House
Report for 1874. In order to investigate it further, I associated
myself with Gen. J. C. Duane, Engineer of the ist Light-House
District; Commander H. F. Picking, Inspector of the same Dis-
trict; Mr. Edward L. Woodruff, Assist. Engineer of the 3d Dis-
trict; and Mr. Chas. Edwards, Asst. Engineer of the Ist District.

The phenomenon to be investigated was exhibited in connec-
tion with the fog-signal at a station called Whte-Head, on the
coast of Maine, at the entrance of Penobscot Bay; it was
reported as having been frequently observed by the captains of
the steamers plying between Boston, and New Brunswick, and
had also been witnessed on two d:fferent occasions by officers of
the Light-House Establishment.

The phenomenon, as reported by these authorities, consisted in
hearing the sound of a ten-inch whistle distinctly as the station
is approached, till within the distance of from four to six miles,
then losing it through a space of about three miles, and not hear-
ing it again until within about a quarter of a mile of the instru-
ment, when it suddenly becomes audible almost in its full power.

This phenomenon, according to the statement of the keeper of
the light-house station, is noticed whenever the vessel is ap-
proaching the station from the southwest, and the wind is in the
same direction. It is especially observed during a fog, when the
warning of the signal is most wanted, and which in this locality
is always accompanied by a wind from the south or southwest.

Our first object was to verify the phenomenon, and for this
purpose we steamed to the southwest, directly against the wind,
which was blowing at the time at about the velocity of ten miles
per hour; this fortunately happened to be the direction of the
wind during which the phenomenon was most frequently observed.
The whistle was sounded every minute by an automatic arrange-
ment, and the time at which the several blasts were given could
be noted from the vessel by the puffs of steam emitted by the
whistle. As we increased our distance from the signal, the sound
very slightly diminished in loudness, until the distance was about
a half mile, when it suddenly ceased to be heard, and continued
inaudible for about a mile farther, when it was faintly heard and

168 BULLETIN OF THE

continued to increase in loudness until we reached the distance
of four miles; at this point it was heard with such clearness that
the position of the station could be readily located in the densest
fog, but on proceeding still farther in the same direction it gradu-
ally diminished and was finally again lost.

As a second experiment we retraced the same line back to the
station, and observed the same phenomena in a reversed order.
The sound was heard the loudest at a point about four miles
from the station, and after that diminished and became inaudible
through a space of about two miles, and then suddenly burst
forth nearly in full intensity at a distance of a quarter of a mile,
and continued loud until the station was reached.

Now, for the investigation of this phenomenon, we may assume
provisionally that it is due to a peculiar condition of the atmo-
sphere, either as to heat, pressure, or moisture, or a combination
of all of them, which existed at the time in that part of the track
of the steamer which may be denominated “the region of silence.”
But if this were true, such a condition of the atmosphere ought
to be indicated by ordinary meteorological instruments. To test
this, the temperature of the air was noted through the whole
space by an ordinary thermometer, and also its pressure by means
of an aneroid barometer, but no variation was observed in these
instruments in passing through the air along the path of the
vessel.

To complete this series of observations, however, the indi-
cations of a delicate hygroscope should have been noted. Unfor-
tunately we were not provided with an instrument of this kind;
the fact however that the phenomenon was frequently observed
during a fog, or while the air is uniformly saturated with moist-
ure, indicates that the phenomenon is not due to a difference of
moisture in the region of silence. Indeed, it is sufficient to re-
member that a wind was blowing at the rate of ten miles an
hour, to be convinced that an isolated portion of air could not
remain in a fixed position, even for an instant.

Another hypothesis might be assumed,—that the apparent
silence was caused by the transverse reflection, in some way, of
sound from the shore, but there was nothing in the configuration
of the land which favored such an hypothesis. ‘The only ex-
planation which presented itself was that of the upward refraction
of sound, an hypothesis which has been found fertile in new re-

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 169

sults in previous investigations of the same subject. To test
this, and to ascertain the dependence of the phenomenon on the
wind, the position of the focus or the origin of the sound was
changed. For this purpose, the whistle of the steamer was
sounded, while a portion of the observing force was placed at
the station; by this arrangement it was found that while the
vessel, in reference to the sound of the signal at the station,
passed through a region of silence, the observers at the station,
who gave attention to the sound from the steamer, heard no in-
terruption of the signal. This experiment was repeated each
way, going to and coming from the station.

From this result it appears that the sound going with the wind
was heard from every point on its course, while the sound moving
against the wind was suddenly lost at a given point and not re-
covered again until a distance had been traversed by the vessel
of more than a mile. This result was in strict conformity with
the theory of refraction;—in the case of the sounds travelling
against the wind, the upper part of the wave would usually be
more retarded than the lower, and consequently the sound wave
would be thrown upward, above the head of the observer. Ata
given altitude this difference of velocity would cease and by the
tendency of sound constantly to spread, the sound wave would
again reach the earth.

But, to test this still farther and to show that the locality was
not an essential condition of the existence of the interval of
silence, the experiment was repeated on the opposite side of the
station, so that the sound from the fog-signal would move in the
direction of the wind. Part of the observers were placed at the
station and the other part remained on board the vessel; both
instruments were sounded, the one in the intervals of the sound-
ing of the other.

In this case the sound from the fog-signal was continuous to
those on board of the vessel through a distance of over four niles,
and could probably have been heard many miles farther, but the
progress of the steamer in that direction was stopped by the land,

From the report of the observers at the station it appeared that
as the vessel passed into the distance but one blast was heard
during its whole course. In this case (as in the preceding
experiment of sailing to the southwest) the sound moving against
the wind was refracted upward, and as the whistle was but six

170 BULLETIN OF THE

inches in diameter it did not give sufficient volume to again
reach the earth by spreading.

In experiments of previous years the fact has been shown that
the sound is heard under certain conditions better when moving
against the wind than in the opposite direction. This was not-
ably the case in the experiments made at Sandy Hook in Sep-
tember, 1874, during which a sound from the west was heard with
the wind about three times as far as a sound from a similar source
was heard from the east, or against the wind; and, again, the
same sound was heard from the west three times as far as from
the east after the wind had settled to a calm; and in a third ob-
servation the same phenomenon was observed after the wind had
increased to a velocity of ten miles an hour from the east.
These effects were afterwards shown to be connected with the
fact that the wind during the whole day was blowing strongly
from the west, and that the apparent changes of the wind were
due to currents at the surface, and thus a sufficient explanation
was given to the phenomena observed.

It would appear, however, from the investigations of last sum-
mer, that the wave of sound, which has been refracted upward,
may descend at a greater distance from its origin than even that
at which sound moving with the wind can be heard; probably
involving a peculiar case'‘of undulating or compound refraction ;
but this requires further investigation.

Each series of observations gives rise to new questions, and
indicates that the subject is one which is rich in new results, Un-
fortunately, however, the observations can only be made by the
aid of steamers; and these, in the Lighthouse service, can only
occasionally be employed in the rare intervals of more impera-
tive duties.

In order, however, to collect data for further use in the expli-
cation of the phenomena, the Light-keepers at Block Island and
Montauk Point (the eastern portion of Long Island) have been
directed to blow the fog-signals for an hour on every Monday
morning, each noting whether he can hear the sound from the
other station; observing, at the same time, the direction of the
wind and the apparent motion of the clouds.

Irom the result of these observations during the year it appears
that the clouds give frequent indications of adverse wind cur-
rents, and that the number of times that the sound has been

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 17k

heard against the wind is greater than the number of times it has
been heard with the wind; a result which, though unexpected,
is not in discordance with previous assumptions.

It will be recollected by the Society that I have, in previous
years, mentioned a remarkable phenomenon, which I have deno-
minated the ‘‘ocean echo.” This has also been observed by the
scientific adviser of the Trinity Board, and is considered by him
as the key of all the abnormal phenomena of sound observed, and
as a special illustration of the truth of his hypothesis that
such abnormal phenomena are produced by invisible clouds of
flocculent atmosphere. The phenomenon in question consists in a
reverberation in the form of an echo from a point in the verge of
the horizon to which the axis of a fog-trumpet is directed.

In regard to this I first adopted the provisional hypothesis
that this was produced by a reverberation from the crests of the
waves of the ocean, but it having been stated that the same phe-
nomenon is exhibited while the sea is smooth, this assumption must
be abandoned, or in some way modified to suit the observed facts.
To test the hypothesis of the -reverberation being due to a re-
flection from an invisible cloud on the verge of the horizon, the
trumpet of the large syren on Block Island was gradually ele-
vated from a horizontal to a vertical position, and while in this
position it was sounded at intervals for several days; but in no
case was an echo heard from the zenith, but in every instance an
echo was returned from the horizon around its whole circumference.

In another experiment with a vertical trumpet at Little Gull
Island, a small cloud, from which a few drops of rain fell on the
area of the base of the Lighthouse, passed directly across the
zenith, and during this passage no echo was observed from the
cloud, although the trumpet directed toward it was sounded
several times in succession.

Again, in order to obtain additional facts in regard to the
nature of this echo, observation was made from a vessel, by
steaming out directly as if into the region of the echo; 7.e, in
the direction of that point in the horizon from which the echo
appeared to emanate.

In this case the loudness of the echo appeared, as we advanced,
to gradually diminish, and to spread itself through a much longer
are of the horizon, while the duration of the echo increased in
time.

172 BULLETIN OF THE

It would follow from this experiment that the echo is not a
reflection from a definite surface, since it would then increase in
loudness as the surface is approached ; but a series of rebounds
from points at various distances.

Another fact of great importance in determining the nature of
the echo is that derived from the observations of the keeper at
Block Island ; he has recorded during the observations of a year,
every Monday, the length of the continuance of the echo, the
state of the weather, the direction of the wind, and the other
meteorological data. From which it is found that the echo is
always heard with the sound of the syren during a wind in any
direction, and of all intensities; but with less duration after the
original blast, during the oecurrence of a very high wind, than in
calmer weather; and, above all, that it is heard equally well
during a dense fog, when evidently the air must be homogeneous
and saturated in every part with vapor.

From these facts it appears to me conclusive that the reverbe-
ration, constituting the ecean echo, cannot be due to invisible
clouds. The only hypothesis which suggests itself to my mind
as a basis of further investigating this subject, is that in the
spread or divergency of the sound the direction of the impulse
turns through an angle of a little more than 90°, so as to meet
the surface even of the smooth ocean in a direction by which it
would be reflected to the ear of the observer, making the angle
of reflection equal to the angle of incidence; although from the
gradual dispersion of sound-beams, the precise equality of these
angles is obviously not very important to the result. ;

On returning from this excursion by the N. Y. Western Rail-
way to the Hudson River at Troy, opportunity was taken to make
some observations on the action of sound in the Hoosac tunnel,
through which I passed, accompanied by Mr. H. L. Woodruff,
on the afternoon of September 7th. Resting at Hast Windsor
near the western outlet, I spent a considerable part of the follow-
ing day in making an examination of the work. Mr. W. P.
Granger, the chief engineer, and Mr. A. W. Locke, his principal
assistant, very courteously furnished a hand-car, and cordially
proffered every facility for making any desired investigations.
This tunnel, as is familiar to most of those present, is nearly
five miles long, rising by an easy grade of 26.4 feet to the mile
from either mouth to about the middle of the tunnel, where it

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. iis

opens into a vertical ventilating shaft through the rock, of up-
wards of a thousand feet in height. The top of this shaft opens
between two ridges of the Hoosac mountain, which rise respec-
tively some 400 and 700 feet higher. From the middle of the
tunnel when entirely clear of smoke, the distant opening at either
end appears as a faint star. The darkness seems oppressive ;
and when a train is passing through, the air becomes so thickly
clouded that the glare of torches cannot be seen at more than a
dozen feet distance.

It had been constantly observed by those employed in the tun-
nel, that during the approach of a locomotive at no great distance,
and a few minutes afterward, the sound of the engine was very
much deadened and obstructed ; so much so indeed, as to imperil
the workmen engaged in lining the top of the tunnel with a brick
arch, who frequently failed to hear the locomotive until it was
close upon them. This obscuration of sound was not unnaturally
attributed to the dense clouds of smoke constantly emitted by the
locomotive: but this explanation can hardly be accepted as the
true one, nor the condition noted, as constituting even an appre-
ciable cause of such acoustic opacity. When we reflect that a
puff of exhaust-steam at high temperature is ejected at about
every four feet of rail traversed by the driving wheels, it is not
difficult to realize that in an atmosphere so systematically made
heterogeneous, there must be a very great amount of dispersion
and absorption of sound waves struggling through such a medium.
This has been well illustrated by the striking experiments of the
distinguished physicist of the Royal Institution. A very simple
method of confirming this explanation, and of eliminating entirely
the effect of the smoke, would be the employment of locomotive
engines driven by the combustion of coke or of charcoal. This
experimental determination of the question did not occur to me
till after we had left the tunnel; but on suggesting it to Mr. A.
W. Locke, the assistant engineer in charge, he very obligingly
undertook the conduct of such an experiment at the earliest con-
venient opportunity. The result has not yet transpired.

When the tunnel was entirely clear, and a gentle current of air
flowing down the central ventilating shaft and out at the two
ends (as is usual in the summer season when the external tem-
perature is higher than the internal), it was observed that a pro-
longed but irregular echo followed any loud noise, such as the

174 BULLETIN OF THE

sudden shutting down of the lid of a tool-chest. The unequal
or somewhat intermittent character of the echo appeared to result
from the irregular surface of the rock forming the walls of the
tube. A somewhat similar echo is sometimes returned from the
dense foliage of trees. It is proper to add that a very percep-
tible echo was heard from the portion of the tunnel lined with
brick. The effect could in neither case be ascribed to any invis-
ible ‘ flocculence,” as the air must have been in a very homogene-
ous condition.

Inasmuch as in such observations the waves of sound are
reflected back to the ear from points at a considerable distance
from their origin, this being especially true of the ocean-echoes,
we are liable to be seriously misled if we rely too confidently on
the experiments of the laboratory ; and form hasty generalizations
from apparent analogies, without carefully considering all the
meteorological conditions by which the rays of sound may be
deflected, distorted, and diverged. It is now well established by
numerous observations and experiments—made independently on
both sides of the Atlantic, that the lines of acoustic propagation
(conveniently called sound-beams) which are sensibly very recti-
linear for the distance of a hundred or two hundred feet, and
which are thus obedient to the katoptric and dioptric laws of
precise focal convergence, by means of solid mirrors and of gas-
eous lenses, are yet at the distance of a few miles so strangely
contorted and aberrant, as seemingly to contradict all the analo-
gies suggested by our experience with the rays of light. It is
the accumulation of comparatively slight divergencies continued
through many thousands of yards, whether under the influence
of constant conditions, or of changing and reversed conditions,
which produces such marked anomalies at the distance of five or
of ten miles, and which makes their investigation as laborious as
it is instructive and important. And not until we have mastered
all the conditions affecting the transmission of sound throughout
its entire sensible range, and have thus become enabled to pre-
dict its true course, and to announce its varying limits of audi-
bility at the earth’s surface, under given circumstances, can we
be said to have perfected the theory of this most interesting and
indispensable agent of communication.

Remarks were made by Mr. ANTISELL.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 175

Mr. Garrick MALLERY commenced a paper on
SOME COMMON ERRORS RESPECTING THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS,

Mr. Atvorp remarked on the disagreement between archzo-
logists and others respecting the origin of the American Indians.

132D MEETING. DECEMBER 8, 1877.
Vice-President HiteGarp in the Chair.
Fifty-six members and visitors present.
Mr. Matuery continued his paper on
SOME COMMON ERRORS RESPECTING THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

(ABSTRACT.)

The traveller Catlin announced in his well-known Letters, dated
1839—*“ the Indians of North America are copper colored
were sixteen millions, and sent that number of daily prayers to
the Great Spirit, and thanks for his goodness and protection.”

The Sioux commission of 1876 urged, as an argument for po-
litical favor, that ‘‘the Indian is one of the few savage men who
clearly recognize the existence of a Great Spirit.”

De Tocqueville remarked of the American tribes—“ there is
no instance on record of so rapid a destruction.”

The joint special committee of the two houses of Congress, in
1867, reported—‘ the Indians everywhere, with the exception of
the tribes within the Indian Territory, are rapidly decreasing in
numbers.”

McKenney and Hall in their magnificent work, published in
1844, declare ‘‘all the tribes with which we are acquainted are
in a state of rapid and progressive diminution.”

One of the latest ethnological writers, Mr. Hubert H. Bancroft,
states in his ‘‘ Native Races,” with philosophic emphasis, ‘“ the
intercourse of civilized with savage people results in the disap-
pearance of civilization or the extinction of the barbaric race,”
and bewails ‘all the millions of native Americans who have per-
ished under the withering influence of Kuropean civilization.”

These quotations exhibit some of the most important current
errors regarding our aborigines. As read, the statements prob-
ably would receive general assent, but they are all seriously
incorrect.

Mr. Catlin’s designation of the color of copper for the Ameri-

22

176 BULLETIN OF THE

can race was by no means original, having been used by many
scientists (who never saw an Indian), in their classifications, some-
times under the less distinctive term red; but the Indians are
neither red nor copper colored, having been first styled so from
the universal use, for personal adornment, by those their discov-
erers first met, of the ochre found in their soil, whereby the skin
remained stained long after the artificial hue had ceased to be
fresh, and, as the brighter imported pigment became accessible to
and greatly preferred by them, the hue of the ruddy metal for
their description might well be amended into that of vermilion. |
It is true that, imitating the designation of their discoverers, the
eastern Indians have called themselves “red men,” but bands
near the Rocky Mountains, who during the present century first
met explorers of HKuropean descent, spontaneously styled the
latter red, to mark the contrast of the sun-blistered faces of their
visitors with their own darker skin. Their real prevailing color
is brown, though with many various shades, some of which are not
distinguishable from those found in other parts of the world, espe-
cially Asia, and there is no more propriety in styling them red than
it would have been for Cesar to have called the ancient Britons
blue, when he noticed that they universally stained their bodies
with woad. Without entering upon a too vast field of discussion,
it may be indicated that the attempt to segregate our Indians
from the rest of the world, by a color classification, has been
even less successful in distinct results than that of craniologists.

To deny that the Indians believed in and worshipped an over-
ruling power (which we have commonly called the Great Spirit
or Manito), seems to be an iconoclastic assault upon a favorite
field of religious illustration, perhaps tending to impair some, how-
ever superfluous, theological arguments. A better acquaintance,
however, with our continent’s traditions, and particularly with
the etymology of its languages, shows that myths have been mis-
understood, and the epithets of divinity mistranslated, when they
have conveyed either the idea of monotheism, or of any personal
and definite God with the attributes given by us to that word or
the Latin Deus. The more learned missionaries are now not only
agreed that a general creator or upholder never existed in aborig-
inal cosmogony, but that the much simpler belief in a single
superhuman great chief or ruler is a modern graft.

The Jesuits in their relations confess that no one immaterial
god was recognized by the Algonkins, the title Manito having
been introduced by themselves in a personal sense, and that of
the head Iroquois deity ‘‘ Neo,” or ‘“‘ Hawaneu,” is asserted on lin-
guistic grounds to be a mere corruption of the French ‘“‘ Diew”
and ‘le bon Dieu.” One of the last claimants for a native god
of causation was a missionary to the Cherokees, who boasted
that he found the word of that language for ‘“‘maker” used as a.
divine title, but, on being cross-examined by Prof. J. W. Power,
he was forced to admit that the word did not mean “maker” in

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, yer

the abstract (which the genius of no Indian tongue could ex-
press), and, from its incorporated pronominal particle, could not,
as used by the Cherokee, signify ‘‘my maker,” but his, 7. e. the
white man’s maker, thus showing only the readiness with which
the latter was admitted into America’s elastic Pantheon. Doubt-
less in councils and other intercourse with Christians, Indian
speakers employed the words Manito, Taku Wakan, and the like,
in a sense acceptable to the kuown prejudices of their interlo-
cutors, but that was through courtesy and policy, much as the
strictest Protestant would once have found it convenient if not
necessary, when at Rome, to speak respectfully of the Pope. The
adoption of expressions as well as of ideas which were under-
stood to be agreeable to or expected by the whites, is well illus-
trated in the use by western Indians of the terms ‘“squaw” and
“papoose,” which are not in their languages, but are mere cor-
ruptions from the Algonkin. As all travellers insisted upon
those words to signify woman and child, the tribes, as successively
met, complied, with the result of a general belief that they were
common to the several native dialects, which is no more true than
if the English terms had been impressed upon them instead of
those equally foreign.

The sixty-three linguistic families on this continent north of
Mexico, some differing from each other in speech more widely
than the Latin from the Teutonic nations, and even rivalling in de-
gree the distinction between Indo-Huropean and Semitic dialects,
naturally present myths greatly diverse, but agree with marked
unanimity in acknowledging no Supreme God, and in dividing
all supra-human power among many personages to be propitiated,
appeased, and utilized. It is true that they did not reach the
advanced culture in which the Greek, Scandinavian, and other in-
heriters of earlier orient folk-lore produced the distinct figures of
Zeus, Thor, Pheebus, Astarte,and Boreas. Scholars have, how-
ever, lately traced these classic personifications of sky, thunder,
sun, moon, and wind, to their rude Aryan or Hamitic originals,
which differ but slightly, save in the tincture of racial idiosyn-
crasy and habitat, from those of our Indians, while we sometimes
strike curious native parallels to the serpent of Midgard and tor-
toise of Vishnu, the bridge of Al Sirat and the Elysian Fields,
the labors of Herakles and doom of Sisyphus, Titanic wars and
Cyclopean struggles.

In the infancy of all races appears what has, with doubtful
propriety as applied to that stage of development, been styled
nature worship, being at first merely an attempt to account for
surrounding phenomena. There could have been no clear con-
ception of the supernatural, because there was yet none of natural
order—no miracle when there was no law to be suspended or
changed. The human mind in its early development tried to
explain the unknown by classification with what was already
known, much as a scientific law is now formulated only after

178 BULLETIN OF THE

proper relegation of ascertained facts to a category of similars,
though among the latter there must be eventual discrimination
between mere homology and true analogy. The savage only
understood human feelings and capacities, and so peopled his
philosophy with imagined actors to perform every operation of
nature beyond his own powers. Thus many forms of being,
motion, and action, became the work of personages with man’s
volition, and differing chiefly from him by greater intelligence,
strength, and size. The polytheism naturally resulting was
not so disgraceful to humanity as has been claimed, for the
methods of modern science have only improved upon the barbaric
or Archaic efforts through greater experience and more careful
restrictive tests to guard against false conclusions from associa-
tion of ideas, and tempting first impressions of cause and conse-
quence. ‘The sequence in mental progress is, lst, Mythology;
2d, Metaphysics; 3d, Positive Philosophy.

It would then have been indeed strange, if the cosmogony and
religion of our native tribes had contrasted greatly with those of
our own ancestors of the stone age to which, of the old world’s
periods, they relatively belong. In fact there is no such contrast.
The Indian filled nature with spirits only in the sense of expla-
nation before mentioned, some one of his Anthropomorphic or
Zodmorphic conceptions to answer the pressing conundrums of
how and why, ever personally accomplishing or acting in all
phenomena whether spasmodic, continuous, or intermittent, with
no relation to any general order, rule, or Providence. We now
account for a thunder-storm by known rules of evaporation and
condensation. ‘he Indian was driven to invent a monstrous dis-
turbing and overshadowing eagle, and he both explained and
symbolized the howling wind by the howling wolf. The Dakota
sees a Wakan not only in every unusual occurrence, but in each
remarkable rock and noisy cataract, and recognizes its divinity
by a tribute of tobacco. Among the Iroquois, their staples,
corn, beans, and squashes, being planted and tended, were col-
lectively the gifts and constant care of the “Three Supporting
Sisters ”»—‘ De-o-hd-ko”’—but any one of the secular oaks and
sequoias, the growth of which is not observed, may have in the
regions where they are found its individual numen. The red tuft
of the woodpecker, the blindness of the mole, the forked tongue
of the snake, and the spark from the flint, each had its storied
cause in the adventures of ancestors and daimons.

It is not correct to call our Indian a Zodloter, except in so far
that his intense study of the habits of animals has individualized
and personified their special characteristics, and that, taught by
fasting visions, he generally adopts some bird or beast in mutual
relation of protection and respect, though not often strictly with
worship. He had no special cult of a living animal, such for
instance as of the bull Apis, but deified its mystical progenitor
or prototype. Michabo, the Great Hare, was to the Algonkins

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 179

their own ancestor, founder of their religious rites, and ruler of
the weather, while the coyote was the parent and benefactor of
the Karoks and other Californians. The rattlesnake was a gen-
eral “grandfather,” and, though greatly feared, was, it is said,
never intentionally killed. Some authors have asserted that fet-
ichism is not found in American religions, but that would only be
true with a narrow definition of fetichism, which is but one form
of animism, and should include all attribution of voluntary power
to inanimate objects, not, as are idols, representative or symbolic,
which is as prominent a feature in Indian as in African mythol-
ogy. Even the most repulsive fetichistie details survive in what
has, foolishly enough, been translated “ medicine,” embracing
charms and amulets, the fossil tooth carried by the Assiniboin,
the tail feathers of the chapparal cock sacred among the Chey-
eanes, stones with vivid spots, colored earth or sand, bones and
ashes of animals, birds and reptiles, deposited in bags with cere-
monial chants and dances, and possessing as used deadly or
Saving virtues. We find here, in short, with new faces, most of
the antique foes of Christianity, e. g. Antientism, hero and astral
worship—sometimes mingled, as when an Iroquois tribe revered
Toskeha, born of a virgin daughter of the moon, as its father
and bestower of fire—metempsychosis of man and beast, appa-
ritions and sorcery, oracle and disease-possession by good and
bad spirits, and the eastern psychopomp has its analogue in the
dog slain, or the bird loosed at the grave. Our Indians, so long
secluded and delayed in their sociological culture, were on their
discovery no better and no worse, religiously, than the population
of what it is the fashion to call Juventus mundi. Referring
then to Mr. Catlin’s pathetic lament, if all the members of their
’ polytheism, or rather polydaimonism, had been addressed on
any day by each native inhabitant of the continent, the list of
prayers would have far exceeded his sixteen millions, but the
multiplication would have been produced by the census of the
divinities as a factor quite as important as that of their wor-
shippers.

This leads us to consider the common belief that the native
population on the arrival of the first colonists was very large, has
been and still is rapidly becoming extinct, and that the cause of
that extinction is an inherent characteristic or defect of the race
rendering impossible its civilization or even existence with civil-
ized environments.

(The part of the paper under this head will be published in the Proceedings of
the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Nushville
Meeting. 1877.)

The conclusions reached are, that the pre-Columbian popula-
tion of the territory occupied by the United States has been wildly
overestimated ; that, while many of its component bodies have

180 BULLETIN OF THE

been diminished or been destroyed by oppression and violence,
their loss has been in large part compensated by gain among
others, that the “blight” and ‘‘ withering,” or ferz nature theory
is proved to be absurdly false, and that, though some temporary
retrogradation must always be expected among individual tribes,
at the crises of their transition from savagery or barbarism to
more civilized habits, yet now the number of our Indians is on the
increase, and will naturally so continue unless repressed by causes
not inherent to civilization, but to criminal misgovernment, until
their final absorption into the wondrous amalgam of all earth’s.
peoples which the destiny of this country may possibly effect.
Neither from views of their physiological, religious, or sociologi-
cal characteristics, should they be regarded as an exceptional or
abnormal part of the human race, or so treated in our national
policy. Only those legislators and officials, who are prepared to:
encourage downright murder, can negiect their duty under the
Satanic consolation of the convenient extinction doctrine. With
continued injustice more Sitting Bulls and chief Josephs, driven
into the last refuge of despair, will require expenditure of blood
and treasure which simple truth and honesty would prevent,
while judicious and consistent treatment would preserve, reclaim,
and elevate a race entrusted to our national honor, which may
with no interminable delay become a valuable element in our
motley community.

Mr. PoweE.u spoke of the greater permanency of the larger
confederacies of the North American Indians; also of the knowl-
edge of medicine attributed to them, and their having poisoned
arrows, as fallacious. They used charms and charmed arrows.
The popular idea of their languages being meagre, and requiring
facial expression to convey their meaning, is incorrect.

Mr. Woopwarp remarked on the danger of generalizing from
one country to another. The South American Indians have poi-
soned arrows.

Mr. Mason spoke of the arrows from blowpipes of the South
American Indians, and of the ‘ black drink” used by them, which
is a purgative and an emetic: also of the immense ancient popu-
lation in the Valley of the Mississippi, as evidenced by mounds,
monuments, and remains. He further remarked that the truth as
to the number of Indians in North America at the time of its
discovery by Europeans was probably between the extreme esti-
mates at first and the subsequent skeptical doubts; but there was
very little ground to stand on, and admitting widely different
speculations.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 18k

Mr. Powrws referred to the mound as being a burial-place for
many generations, and the large number of remains in any of
them as not indicating a large contemporaneous population. He
also spoke of the Pueblos as moving southward to newer, larger,
and better structures, aud that those abandoned should not be

regarded as indications of extermination.

Remarks were also made by Mr. WHITE and Mr. ALVORD.

1383p MEETING. DECEMBER 22, 1877.
Vice-President TAytor in the Chair.
Thirty-four members and visitors present.

The election of Dr. Davip Lowr Huntinapov, U. 8S. A., and
Mr. Henry Rosinson SEARLE, aS members of the Society, was
announced.

Mr. C. A. WHITE made a communication on

SOME PHASES OF THE EVOLUTIONAL HISTORY OF THE NORTH
AMERICAN UNIONIDA.

Remarks were made by Mr. Ginn; Mr. ANTISELL, who objected
to the idea of propagation from salt to fresh water; Mr. GILBERT,
on the accommodation of fresh-water types to brackish water,
instancing fresh-water shells in the brackish water about Great
Salt Lake; and by Mr. Giut, who referred to the existence of
sharks and other salt-water fishes in the fresh water of Lake
Nicaragua.

Mr. AsapH Hatt read a paper on

THE POSITION OF THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF THE APPARENT DISK
OF A PLANET,

giving the method he adopted in measuring the distances of the
satellites of Mars from the limbs of the primary, and reducing
them to the centre.

(This paper appears in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society for January, 1878.)

182 BULLETIN OF THE

Mr. THEODORE GILL made* a communication on
A NEW SPECIES OF CHIMZIRA FOUND IN AMERICAN WATERS.

One of the most unexpected discoveries recently made in
American ichthyology is that of a species of the genus chimera,
of which a specimen has lately been sent to the Smithsonian In-
stitution. It was caught southeast of the La Have bank, in lat.
42° 40’ N., lon. 63° 23’ W., at a depth of 350 fathoms, with a
bait of halibut. An attentive comparison of the specimen with
individuals of the European chimera monstrosa, renders it evi-
dent that it does not belong to that species, but is an entirely

distinct specific form. It may be named chimera plumbea, and
diagnosed as follows :—

Chimera plumbea.

A chimera with the snout acutely produced; the ante-orbital
flexure of the suborbital line extending little above the level of
the inferior margin of the orbit; the dorsals close together; the
dorsal spine with its anterior surface rounded; the ventrals tri-
angular and pointed; the pectuorals extending to the outer axil
of the ventrals; and the color uniformly plumbeous.

By these characters the species is readily separable from the
chimera monsirosa and other species of the genus.

Mr. J. W. PoweEut made remarks on
POISONS AMONG THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS,

regarding the tale of their dipping arrows in deer’s liver poisoned
by the bites of rattlesnakes as a myth. He spoke also of arts
among the South American Indians as derived from a higher
state of civilization than those found among the North American
Indians.

Mr. Woopwarp quoted Dr. Horrman, U.S. A., as having seen
Indians poisoning their arrows in the way described, and as
having been informed by some of them that they carried different
arrows for destroying animals and their enemies.

He also, on the authority of Dr. Cours, U. 8S. A., spoke of
poisoned wounds from arrows of the North American Indians.

* Received by the Secretary of the meeting, December 17.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 183

Mr. PowE.u remarked that they dipped their arrows in blood
and flesh.

Mr. ANTISELL remarked that the Apaches carried poisoned
arrows, obtaining the poison from more southern tribes, who
derived it from the rattlesnakes.

Remarks were also made by Mr. Farquuar and Mr. GILL.

134TH MEETING. JANUARY 5, 1878.
Vice-President WELLING in the Chair.
Thirty-eight members and visitors present.

Mr. Extiorr Covuss, after a few preliminary remarks on the
evidence of

“THE USE OF POISONED ARROWS BY NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS,”

and his own experience and that of others with wounds produced
by them, read a paper on the subject by Dr. HorrmMan, Surgeon
U.S. Army.

Mr. GALE made a communication on
‘“THE CLIMATE OF PLANTS,”

maintaining that each plant has a range of climate within which
it thrives and flourishes, and outside of which is dwarfed or dis-
appears, illustrating by familiar examples.

Mr. ANTISELL gave instances of the disappearance of trees in
some localities not attributable to climate, some of which Liebig
ascribed to changes of soil; for others no satisfactory reasons
had been assigned. He instanced pines on the coast of Califor-
nia, where the denuded soil and greater exposure to winds were
unfavorable to the growth of young plants; and the bamboo on
the northern Island of Japan, which, stinted near the shore, be-
comes more luxuriant as you go inland, and grows well on the

184 BULLETIN OF THE

top and sides of hills, but may flourish less below; vitality di-
minishing by exposure to winds.

Mr. G. K. GinBEeRT made a communication on
A PROPOSED NEW LEVELLING INSTRUMENT

for scientific uses. To the usual combination of spirit level and
telescope, he proposed to add a graduated rod, so attached that
when the rod was adjusted to verticality the optical axis of the
telescope would be horizontal. The rod would extend as far
below the telescope as it did above, and the tripod head would
be pierced to admit. the passage of the rod. In use the instru-
ments would be handled in pairs, each being in turn carried for-
ward past the station of the other. Hach reading would be
reciprocal, the height of the higher telescope being read on the
upper half of the rod of the lower instrument, and the height of
the lower telescope on the lower half of the upper rod. The
mean of the reciprocal readings would need no correction for
curvature of the earth or for normal refraction, and an inspection
of the sum of the reciprocal readings would lead to the detection
of errors arising from mal-adjustment, from mistakes, or from
unfavorable conditions of atmosphere or ground surface. An
important use of the instrument would be for the investigation
of the conditions affecting the precision of levelling, so as to
determine the most favorable weather, the most favorable hours,
and the most favorable character of ground surface.

Remarks were made by Messrs. Corrin, Haun, and Datu, the
latter objecting to the instability of such an instrument even in
light winds.

135TH MEETING. JANUARY 19, 1878..
Vice-President WELLING in the Chair.
Fifty-seven members and visitors present.

The election of Mr. ARNOLD BuRGESs JOHNSON as a member
of the Society was announced.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 185
Mr. J. EH. Hineaxrp exhibited and described an
‘“OPTICAL SALINOMETER,”’

consisting of a prism to contain a saline solution, and a telescope
and micrometer for measuring changes in the index of refraction,
as the strength of the solution is changed. He claimed for it
great delicacy and adaptation to use at sea, as it would not be
affected by the motion of the vessel.

Remarks were made by Messrs. Durron and ANTISELL.

- Mr. J. M. Toner exhibited a malformed dog, only a few days
old, which Mr. Woopwarp described as a monstrosity in excess ;
the forward portion being single, while from the waist down it
was a pair of twins. The middle leg, however, comprised a right
and left leg united under the same integument, and he supposed
that the tail would also, on dissection, be found double. He then
referred to the case of a Portuguese man, well known to the
medical profession, and to a recent paper by RAuUBER.*

Prof. James D. Burier, of Madison, Wisconsin, made a com-
munication on

PREHISTORIC COPPER,

exhibiting a variety of copper implements found in Wisconsin, a
few feet below the surface, and describing their uses and the
localities from which they were obtained.

Remarks were made by Messrs. WHITE and GILBERT, chiefly
on the copper drifts in Iowa and Missouri, derived from the
copper region of Lake Superior; by Mr. Daun on the copper
implements made and used at the present time in Alaska; by
Mr. Powe. on similar implements of stone made and used by
other tribes in North America, and by Mr. Mason on the many
mounds in the region described by Mr. Burier.

* Die Theorin der excessiven Monstra. VircHow’s Archiv, Bd. 71,
1877, 5. 137.

#

186 BULLETIN OF THE

136TH MEETING. FEBRUARY 2, 1878.
Vice-President Taytor in the Chair.
Thirty-eight members and visitors present.

The election of Mr. JAcoB KENDRICK UPTON as a member of
the Society was announced.

Mr. AsapH HALt communicated
THE RESULTS OF HIS SEARCH FOR SATELLITES OF MARS,

and the eventual discovery of the two now recognized, and pro-
posed for the inner satellite the name of 080s, and for the outer
the name of Aecuos. He considered that the great velocity of the
revolution of the former around Mars constituted an objection to
the nebular hypothesis as propounded by La Place.

(Mr. Hall’s paper will appear in the next volume of the Observations of the
Washington Observatory.)

The subject was discussed especially in its relations to the

nebular hypothesis by Messrs. ABBE, TAyLoR, DooLITrLeE, GIL-
BERT, and NEWCOMB.

Mr. LEesteR WARD commenced a communication on

THE NATURAL SYSTEM OF PLANTS.

137TH MEETING. FEBRUARY 16, 1878.
Vice-President WELLING in the Chair.
Thirty-eight members and visitors present.

Mr. Parker, for a Committee appointed at the last meeting
reported the following resolutions, which were unanimously
adopted :—

The Philosophical Society of Washington having heard with
unusual interest the communication of Professor AsapH HALL,
U.S. N., giving an account of his discovery of two satellites of
Mars, therefore,

Resolved, That*this important discovery by one of its members
constitutes an event which not only the Society appreciates, but

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 187

which will also be regarded with interest by the present age, so
distinguished for its steady advance into the realms of the un-
known.

While the members of the Society congratulate Professor Hann
upon the success which has crowned his persevering efforts, and
admire the modesty which characterizes his account of them,
they feel proud to claim him as one of their number.

As every one who makes an important discovery either in the
arts or sciences, beneficial to mankind, stamps a coin that will
transmit his name with honor to future ages, so in time to come
will be perpetuated the name of the distinguished discoverer of
“Aecmos” and ‘ Bd8o06"’.

Resolved, That a copy of the above resolution, engrossed and
signed by the President and Secretaries, be presented to Professor
Hatt, with the request that he will permit his paper to be pub-
lished in the Bulletin of the Society.

Mr. Lester Warp continued a communication on

THE NATURAL SYSTEM OF PLANTS.

\

Mr. ANTISELL made remarks on the proper basis of classifica-
tion; Mr. Wuire on fossil plants; and Mr. Gritz on the cau-
tiousness with which resemblances should be used, though they
may be taken as a guide in first examinations, giving instances
of strong resemblances in animals of different orders, and of su-
perficial resemblance and different anatomical structure.

Mr. G. K. Gingert made a communication on
THE RECENT HISTORY OF THE GREAT SALT LAKE,

giving the evidence, obtained while engaged in investigating the
agricultural resources of Utah, of an increase in the flow of the
streams, and rise and increased area of the lake itself. There
were also annual fluctuations caused by the melting snows in
spring and the heat in summer. He also discussed the causes to
which the progressive rise has been attributed, viz., volcanic
action, change of climate, agency of man. He spoke also of
similar increase in the streams and lakes of Colorado.

Remarks were made by Mr. HayprEn and Mr, Wuirt.

188 BULLETIN OF THE

138TH MEETING. Marca 2, 1878.
Vice-President Hinearp in the Chair.
Fifty-one members and visitors present.
Mr. M. H. DoonirrLe made a communication on
THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS AND THE INNER MOON OF MARS.
(See page 190.)

Mr. W. B. Taytor remarked that the suggestion of meteoric
matter was worthy of consideration; yet, although a vera causa,
it was an insufficient one to produce any sensible effect on the
motions of any of the planets, except perhaps on Mercury. He
also spoke of the inner ring of Saturn as revolving more rapidly
than the planet; also as approaching the planet; and the dusky
ring as also approaching and becoming brighter.

Mr. Hauu questioned this statement, and remarked that micro-
meter measurements of these rings were somewhat unsatisfactory ;
but his own accorded with those of Herschel. Drawings are not
trustworthy for determining changes. He contended that the
motion of the inner satellite of Mars was not in accordance with
La Place’s nebular hypothesis. He also remarked that the mo-
tions of Encke’s comet in some periods indicated a resisting me-
dium; in others not.

The discussion of Mr. G1LBERT’s communication on the recent
history of Great Salt Lake, presented at the last meeting, was
resumed: Mr. Anvorp read a letter on the increase of rain-fall
in that region, and further remarks were made by Messrs. GIL-
BERT, WHITE, and DuTron.

139TH MEETING. Marcu 16, 1878.
Vice-President TAYiLor in the Chair.
Thirty-eight members and visitors present.

The election of Dr. ALEXANDER Y. P. GARNETT as a member
of the Society was announced.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 189
Mr. J. W. PowEu made a communication on
THE LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES,

and expressed the belief that of the whole area of Utah, 2, per
cent. was arable, and 23 per cent. was of use for the growth of
timber; and of the last, almost half was covered with standing
timber more or less scattered, and the remaining portion had been
devastated by fires or otherwise.

The subject was discussed by Messrs. GILBERT, WHITE, CoUEs,
and WARD.

Mr. W. B. Taytor supplemented his remarks of the last meet-
ing by a further discussion of the analogy of the Rings of Saturn,
as to the probable differences of the outer and inner elements,
with the satellites of Mars.

Mr. Hau stated that he had consulted the memoirs of Her-
schel on the Rings of Saturn, and according to that astronomer’s
observations there was no appreciable difference in the periods
of rotation of the outer and inner portions.

140TH MEETING. Marce 30, 1878.
Vice-President TAYLor in the Chair.
Fifty-six members and visitors present.

The death of Mr. FeRDINAND Kamper, a member of the Society,
‘was announced.

Mr. Evisna Foote read a paper on
THE CAUSES OF ELECTRICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THUNDER STORMS,

in which he attributed the electrical phenomena to the condensa-

tion of vapor, and in support of his views, detailed experiments
which he had made.

190 BULLETIN OF THE

The paper was discussed by Messrs. ABBE, ANTISELL, E. B.
Exvuiort, F. W. Cuark, and W. B. Taytor.

Mr. C. A. WHITE made a communication on
ASYMMETRY IN THE FORM OF THE HUMAN CRANIUM,

and exhibited in illustration the imprints of a hatter’s craniometer
made from 200 heads.

The subject was discussed from different points of view by
Messrs. PowseLL, GILBERT, WoopwarbD, GILL, Oris, EH. B.
Evuiort, and HAL.

Mr. M. H. DootitTLE made a communication, supplementary
to that of the meeting of March 2, on

THE INFLUENCE OF AEROLITES ON PLANETARY MOTION,

and stated that Prof. Winchell independently and slightly previ-
ously to himself had arrived at the similar conclusion in part.

(Abstract given below.)
Prof. J. LAwRencE Smitu, of Louisville, Ky., by invitation,
spoke on the subject, and expressed his dissent from the view

that aerolites, strictly so called, could have exercised any appre-
ciable influence on the mass of the earth.

141st MEETING. APRIL 13, 1878.
Vice-President WELLING in the Chair.
Fifty-three members and visitors present.
Mr. M. H. Doonirrie continued his communication on
AEROLITHIC DISTURBANCE OF PLANETARY MOTIONS.

(Assrract of communications on March 2, 30, and April 13.)

The term ‘“‘aerolite” is employed to denote not only meteoric
stones, but also shooting stars, ‘‘cosmical dust,” and whatever
matter is gathered by the sun and planets from interplanetary
and interstellar space.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 191

The periodic time of a planet is given by the formula— ~

mean distance® * constant
muss of sun + mass of planeé.

By aerolithic increase of the mass of the sun, and consequent
auginentation of centripetal force, the planet is drawn inward,
and its mean distance diminished. The periodic time is there-
fore diminished, both by decreasing the numerator and increasing
the denominator of the above fraction.

Aerolithic increase of the mass of a planet has a similar effect ;
and the mean distance is generally still further diminished by
resistance to the motion of the planet. It has been ascertained
by observation that the earth meets more aerolites than overtake
it; and it may reasonably be assumed that the absolute motions
- of all the aerolites encountered by a planet nearly neutralize each
other, and that the resultant effect on the motion of the planet is
nearly the same as if. the entire addition to its mass had previ-
ously been absolutely at rest. In a similar manner these addi-
tions to the mass of the sun diminish the velocity of its revolu-
tion around its own axis.

Similar reasoning is evidently applicable to the case of planet
and satellite. In all these ways the relative velocity of a satellite
in its revolution around its primary is increased as compared with
the velocity of the axial revolution of the latter.

From Dr. von Asten’s computations, it appears that Encke’s
comet encounters an irregular resistance, sometimes returning to
perihelion as if it had encountered no resistance whatever. The
uniform resistance of the luminiferous ether or of a cosmical atmo-
sphere seems therefore to be utterly inappreciable; and it may
be inferred that if there is any such resistance, it is of small im-
portance as compared with aerolithic disturbance.

If the inner moon of Mars was formed from that planet, in
accordance with Laplace’s nebular hypothesis, and has since been
brought to its present position solely or principally by aerolithic
action, it is evident that a very large addition has been made in
that manner to its original mass. It is suggested that the eccen-
tricity of the planetary orbits, and the want of coincidence between
the planes of the orbits and equators of the planets and the plane
of the solar equator, is perhaps better explained by the action of
aerolites than by differences of temperature and density, as sup-
posed by Laplace. These considerations also indicate immense
additions to the original planetary masses. -

It is certain that unmodified meteoric stones form but a very
small part of the accessible matter of the earth; and it may thence
be inferred that by far the greater part of this aerolithic acquisi-
tion was made during an immensely long cosmological period
before the earth solidified into a record-keeping condition. But
it is hardly safe to assume that the chemical constitution of. the
meteoric stones resembles that of shooting stars in general; and

23

Periodic time? =

192 BULLETIN OF THE

the meteoric stones may form but a small part of the entire
ageregate of the earth’s aerolithic acquisitions. There is also
much reason to believe that aerolithic action was vastly more
efficient in the remote past than at present. The quantity of
aerolithic matter capable of furnishing such acquisitions must
have been perpetually diminishing, unless it is infinite; and if it
is scattered through infinite space, it is reasonable to suppose that
the number and quantity of the stars is also infinite. Unless this
infinity is of a lower order than that which represents the quan-
tity of aerolithic matter, the latter must have been perpetually in
process of exhaustion.

Remarks were made by Mr. HARKNEss on the similarity of the
spectra of comets and heated meteoric stones; by Mr. PowELh
on the want of any geological indications of meteoric accumu-
lations; by Mr. Haut on the marked eccentricity of the orbit
of the inner satellite of Mars, while the orbit of the outer satel-
lite is nearly circular; and by Mr. Giupertr and Mr. Avorn.

Mr. EK. B. Extiorr made a communication on a proposed in-
strument which he called

THE TELEPHOTE,

in which, alluding to the fact that the public mind at the present
time was much exercised on the subject of the telephone, an
instrument for the transmission of sound to a distance, he sug-
gested that by the passage of intermittent electrical currents
through rarefied vapor by means of the apparatus known as the
Gassiot or Geissler tubes, the vibrations of the plate may be
made visible, and thus might be applied with advantage for the
benefit of deaf mutes, conveying an intelligent impression of
music, and perhaps speech, to the eye.

Mr. THomaAs ANTISELL made a communication on
TEMPERATURES OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN,

exhibiting charts by which were represented for particular por-
tions of each year the temperature of the water as noted during
fifty trips of one of the Pacific mail steamers between San Fran-
cisco and Yokohama. On the Asiatic side the minimum temper-
ature was 60° in March; the maximum 84° in July. On the
American side the minimum and maximum in the same months

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 193

were 53° and 73° respectively ; a temperature 7° to 14° lower
than on the Asiatic side.

He also pointed out the courses of the Equatorial and Asiatic
currents of the Pacific Ocean, and the indications of a current of
cooler water flowing southward along the western coast of North
America. ®

Mr. Dat made remarks on currents and temperatures in the
Sea of Oskotch and Behring’s Bay and Straits, calling attention
to the shoalness of the latter.

142p MEETING. APRIL 27, 1878.
Vice-President Taytor in the Chair.
Twenty members and visitors present.
Mr. Epaar Frisspy made a communication on

SERIES.

Remarks on the subject were made by Mr. H. B. ELitorv.

Mr. W. H. Datu addressed the Society on

THE RESULTS OF RECENT INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE NATURAL
HISTORY OF THE CHITONIDA,

made independently by Dr. H. von Jhering of Erlangen and him-
self. He summed up the results of each investigator as follows :—

Dr. Von Jhering finds the sexes of all species examined by him
separate; the eggs are impregnated within the body of the parent;
in the species he examined the eggs in the ovary are inclosed in
a sort of follicle which in Chiton squemosus secretes a membrane
like a chorion which is provided with radiating thornlike pro-
cesses. He detects the presence of a dendritic renal organ in
the perivisceral cavity, which is lined with a ciliated membrane
and opens by a duct in the median line below the anus; the mus-
cular fibres are bunches of fibrille invested by a follicular sarco-
lemma, and those of the pharynx, in his opinion, are not striated
in the sense in which those of vertebrates are said to be striated.

194 BULLETIN OF THE

Mr. Datu found the sexes always separated in all the species
examined (belonging to thirty or forty generic or subgeneric
groups), including Chiton Pallasii, which Middendorf had sup-
posed to be hermaphrodite. The ege is impregnated in the ovi-
sac, or oviduct, or both, in several species; whether in all or not
further material was needed to determime; in none of the species.
examined was a chorion discovered; nevertheless it may exist in
some and not in others. Mr. Daun detected the renal organ in
many species, but it was very small, or even perhaps abortive in
some species; he did not discover the excretory external opening,
but had not sought especially for it. An oviduct (or pair of ovi-
ducts) exists demonstrably in some species, having a small plain
opening on each side of the tail of the animal; in others: no ovi-
duct could be discovered, and the small opening was replaced by
a larger fenestrated opening, apparently giving free access to the
water into the perivisceral cavity. From these openings the ergs
had been seen to be ejected by Dr. Carpenter and Prof. Verrall,
and before ejection had developed to such an extent that the em-
bryonic eyes were plainly visible. (See Bulletin Essex Inst. 1873.)

Mr. Dat saw nothing of striated muscular fibre among the
Chitonide dissected. In none of them was a chitinous jaw found,
such as is universal among limpets. The dentition, while differing
in detail in different species, was of similar type in all examined,
and probably in all chitons. A laminated crop exists in most.
species. One peculiarity is notable throughout the group. The
tendency is to degradation of cephalic characters. In embryo
chitons the eyes are well developed and the cephalic portion
largely developed. In adult individuals not only are there no
eyes, but the tentacles common to most gasteropods are absent,
the nerves which are wont to supply these organs with sensibility
are also wanting; there is no jaw, the important centres of cir-
culation, respiration, and reproduction are all posteriorly situated.
As between different genera of chitons, those which have the
rows of branchial tufts shorter than in other genera have the
deficiency in the cephalic end of the row; in Chilonellus, per-
haps the highest form of Chitonide, the branchie are few, large,
and collected in a very short bunched-up row close to and on each
side of the anus.

The chitons go back to Silurian times and (excluding the cer-
riped valves, fish-scales, etc., which have been described by Ku-

PHILOSOPHICAT, SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 195

ropean paleontologists as valves of chitons), all Paleozoic chitons
belong to the group without lamin of insertion to the valves,
Which ‘are typified by the existing Leptochitons of Carpenter,
which are confined to arctic and temperate seas so far as known.

Mr. G. K. Ginzert made a communication entitled

THE WASATCH A GROWING MOUNTAIN.

@

(ABSTRACT.)

In a general way the structure of the Wasatch range is easily
described, for although it is complex in detail there is one feature
which prevails through its entire length, and is always the impor-
tant feature. Everywhere it is bounded on the west by a pro-.
found fault, and the rocks constituting it have a general dip to
the east. The rocks eastward of the fault plane have been uplifted
at several epochs, and have been continuously subjected to erosion,
so that their remnant, which forms the mountain, exhibits but a
small fraction of the entire uplifted mass. Their revealed section
includes, according to Mr. King, ten miles in. thickness of con-
forming strata. The rocks westward of the fault plane are not
in sight, being buried at an unknown depth beneath the debris
worn from the eastward mass. The maximum displacement or
throw of the fault is therefore more than ten miles.

Along the plane of this great fault there have been recent .
movements, and the bluffs or escarpments to which they have
given rise bear such relation to the water-marks produced by
Lake Bonneville (probably a feature of the Glacial Epoch), that
their date is established as post-glacial, or at least post-Bonne-
ville. The movements were not coincident, but were clearly
separated by intervals of time, and the latest one was so recent
that the escarpment it produced has not yet been thrown down
by frost, but stands a grassless cliff of earth.

The total post-Bonneville erosion has not been sufficient to
destroy or even greatly impair the Bonneville terraces. Though
chiefly composed of gravel and earth, they have not been degraded
more than one or two feet at the utmost, and it is safe to say
that the rocky summits of the range itself, exposed to fiercer
storms but opposing them with harder material, have been de-
graded on an average not more than five feet. The total post-
Bonneville displacement, examined for a distance of 125 miles,
averages about fifty feet. The range has therefore been lifted,
with reference to the adjacent valley, an amount ten times as
great as the altitude lost by erosion; and this has taken place in
the latest epoch of geological time—an epoch continuous with
the historic. We may fairly say that at the present time the
causes to which the mountain is due not merely continue, but are
more potent than the causes which tend to obliterate it. It isa
growing mountain.

196 BULLETIN OF THE

Mr. ANTISELL suggested that instead of a rise of the mountain
there was a less degree of subsidence on the one side than on

the other.

SprecraL MEETING. May 14, 1878.
Vice-President Hitearp in the Chair.
Forty-five members present.

The meeting had been called by Vice-President H1nearp, who
with preliminary remarks announced that it was for the purpose
of taking action on the occasion of the death of Professor JOsEPH
HeEwry, President of the Society.

The Secretary of the meeting read a communication from Chief
Justice M. R. Waits, Chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution,
announcing the death of Professor JosEpH Henry, the Secretary
and Director of the Institution, in this city on Monday, May
13th, at 12.10 P. M., and inviting the Philosophical Sotiety of
Washington to attend his funeral on Thursday at half-past four
o’clock in the afternoon.

On motion of Mr. W. B. Taytor, a committee, consisting of
Messrs. W. B. Taytor, WELLING, and GILL, was appointed to
prepare appropriate resolutions.

Remarks on the character and labors of the deceased were
made by Messrs. Hine@arp, JoHnson, TonER, ALVORD, ABBE,
Mason, GALLAUDET, and GEORGE TAYLOR.

The Committee reported the following resolutions, which were
unanimously adopted :—

Resolved, That in the death of Professor JosepH Henry the
Philosophical Society cf Washington is called to deplore the loss
of its venerable and beloved president, who from its first institu-
tion, and subsequently from year to year, has been unanimously
chosen to the position he filled among us, in deference not only

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. oe

to the exalted fame which made him the chief ornament of our
association, but in grateful tribute as well to the varied philo-
sophical learning, the calm, even-balanced judgment, and the
serene wisdom which so admirably qualified him to be the mode-
trator of opinions in a body composed of zealous and independent
workers in nearly every department of scientific research.
Resolved, That while we are called to sit in the shadow of a
great bereavement, which naturally casts its deepest gloom on
those who, like ourselves, were daily admitted to the privilege
of his personal friendship and to the precious opportunities
afforded by his sagacious and logical suggestions and wide eru-
dition, as well as by his ready co-operation in every enterprise
which had for its object the extension of knowledge or the pro-
motion of human welfare, we at the same time feel that we should
be culpably insensible to the surviving radiance of the bright
example he has set us if, even here, in the presence of his un-
filled grave, we did not testify and record our solemn thanks-
giving for the length of days accorded to our revered friend and
illustrious exemplar, permitted as he was to extend his useful
life beyond the period usually allotted to man, and not only fill-
ing that life with abundant labors, which have reflected the
highest honor on science, but also adorning it with the moral
virtues and Christian graces which made him as lovely for the
beauty and simplicity of his nature as he was remarkable for
the strength and dignity of his high and noble character.
Resolved, That when we transfer our thoughts from the pre-
cincts of this Society, within which he has shed so long and so
graciously the mild light of his high and varied intelligence, to
that wider arena in which he moved as minister and interpreter
of nature, plucking out the heart of her hidden mysteries; as
teacher of ingenuous youth, quickening in their minds an ardent
love of knowledge; as apostle of science, deeply imbued with
reverence for his holy calling; as unselfish worker for the
Government, serving it even unto death in so many fields of use-
ful and unrewarded activity; and, above all, when we refer to
his long and beneficent career as Director of the great institution
to which Smirason gave his name, but to which Henry has
given the distinctive direction and specific character which com-
pose the chief element of its glory in the past and constitute the
highest pledge of its usefulness in the future, we are filled with

198 BULLETIN OF THE

admiration, not only for the variety and depth of his lore, and
for the amplitude of the intellectual sympathies which enabled
our honored head to take ‘“‘all knowledge for his province,” but
also for the rare executive talent which, in the sphere of adminis-
tration, fitted him successfully to touch the springs of original
inquiry at almost every point in the wide domains of modern
science.

Resolved, That, as we survey the long and splendid career of
the great philosopher who has just fallen at his post of duty on
the high places of the land, and to whose finished life the seal of
death has now been set, amid the universal regrets of his
countrymen, shared by the civilized world wherever science has
a votary, we shall best prove our love and veneration for his
memory, not by indulging in fruitless repinings, but by borrow-
ing inspiration and incentive from the sublime example left us in
the purity of his life, and in the beneficence of the works which
still follow him, though he has rested from his labors.

Resolved, That, cherishing for his memory a profound admira-
tion and affection, we proffer to his bereaved family our sincerest
sympathy and condolence, and that we will attend his funeral as
co-mourners in a body.

Tt was further

Resolved, That the Secretaries transmit copies of these reso-
lutions to the family of Professor HENRY, and to the Regents of
the Smithsonian Institution.

1440 Murrina. | May 25, 1878.
Vice-President WELLING in the Chair.
Thirty-five members and visitors present.

The election of Mr. WALTER HAYDEN Graves and Mr. JosEPH
Bapeer Martin as members of the Society was announced.

Mr. ALvorp read a paper on

“(MAE INTERSECTION OF CIRCLES AND THE INTERSECTION
OF SPHERES.”?

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 199

Remarks were made by Messrs. BAKER, TayLor, and Hark-
‘NESS.

Mr. Newcoms made preliminary remarks on
THE RECENT TRANSIT OF MERCURY,

describing the optical and physical phenomena as noticed by him-
self and others. He observed the transit with a three-inch tele-
scope, and saw a decided black drop; also a small white spot on
the disk of Mercury, He stated that this transit afforded con-
firmation of Lx Verrier’s conclusion respecting the increased
motion of Mercury’s perihelion.

Mr. Harkness made remarks on the physical phenomena,
stating that he had never seen the black drop, though others
have noticed it.

Mr. Hatt spoke of the results of observations at the Washing-
ton Observatory, and added that observations had been made at
nearly sixty stations; but the first contact was generally lost.
Photographs were taken at Cambridge, Washington, Ann Arbor,
and by a party of French astronomers at Ogden.

145TH MEETING. JUNE 8, 1878.
Vice-President TAytor in the Chair.

Twenty members and visitors present.

Mr. J. W. PowELt made a communication on

THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE.

The subject was discussed by Messrs. WELLING, Taytor,
Warp, Farquuar, and GILL.

Mr. E. B. Exuiorr presented the following communication on

MUSICAL INTERVALS.

200 BULLETIN OF THE

(ABSTRACT.)

Tn the consideration and discussion of musical intervals from
a numerical standpoint, it is not unfrequently more convenient to
compare the logarithms of the ratios than the ratios themselves,
and the simplest form for the logarithmic series to be employed
is the number 2. Octaves, it is well known, progress by integral
powers of 2. Intermediate tones progress by fractional powers
of 2.

In the modern major scale the seven intervals which comprise
the octave, or by which, proceeding from a fundamental the oc-
tave is reached, consist of but three different intervals, known
respectively as the major interval, minor interval, and semi-
interval—the entire octave comprising three of the major, two
of the minor, and two of the semi-intervals, so called.

In the major interval there are eight vibrations of the lower
in the time of nine vibrations of the upper of the two tones
which limit the interval. In the minor interval there are nine
vibrations of the lower to ten of the upper, of the two tones
which limit the interval. In the semi-interval, so called, there
are fifteen vibrations of the lower to sixteen of the upper of the
two tones which limit the interval. Thus making three distinct
ratios of progress, to wit, 2, 4°, 48. The ratio 3 is equivalent
to 2, raised to the power 0.170. The ratio 1 is equal to 2,
raised to the power 0.152. The ratio + is equal to 2, raised to
the power of 0.093.

The advantage of employing the logarithms in place of the
ratios themselves in making comparisons is, that the operation
of comparison is thereby conducted by additions and subtractions
instead of by multiplications and divisions, the former processes:
being obviously the simpler.

The advantage of employing the number 2 as the base of the
system of logarithms, is the well-known fact that octaves progress
by integral powers of 2, hence it is convenient to have the inter-
mediate notes progress by fractional powers of two.

It may be observed that the semi-intervals, so called, are in
fact greater than the half of either the major or the minor inter-
vals. The sum of the logarithms—base 2—of the three major
intervals, the two minor intervals, and the two semi-intervals
(comprising the octave), is necessarily unity:

3 x .170 = 0.510
2 x .152 = 0.304
2x0 doi 0a 86

1.000

Mr. A. Scuort presented an exposition on

A NEW EYE-PIECE FOR OBSERVING PERSONAL EQUATIONS,

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 201

and exhibited the instrument, made by an employé of the U. S.
Coast Survey.

146TH MEETING. JUNE 22, 1878.
Vice-President WELLING in the Chair.

Thirty-five members and visitors present.

Mr. E. B. Ettiorr made a communication on

AN ADJUSTMENT OF THE CARLISLE TABLES OF REVERSIONS AND
ANNUITIES,

reducing the irregularities by means of equations such that the
first and second orders of differences showed no manifest irreg-
ularity.

The subject was discussed by Mr. Woopwagp and others.

Mr. B. Atvorp made a communication on

NEW POINTS RESPECTING THE INTERSECTIONS OF CIRCLES AND
THE INTERSECTIONS OF SPHERES,

relating especially to the number of solutions when the question
is, ‘To draw a circle which shall cut each of four given circles
at the same angle, said angle being unknown ;” also, ‘To draw
a sphere which shall cut each of four given spheres at the same
angle, said angle being unknown,” and the number of solutions.

Mr. HARKNESS made a communication on

THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT AND DETERMINATION OF THE SOLAR
PARALLAX.

147TH MEETING. OctToBER 12, 1878.
-Vice-President Taytor in the Chair.
Thirty-six members and visitors present.

The election of Mr. CHARLES VALENTINE RiLEY, Entomolo-
gist of the Agricultural Department, as a member of the Society,
was announced.

202 BULLETIN OF THE

Mr. S. NEwcoms read a communication on
OBSERVATIONS OF THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, JULY 29, 1878,

remarking on the favorable circumstances for observations in the
mountain regions of Nevada, the extraordinary extension of the
corona and its distribution, and the supposed discovery by Prof.
Watson of two inter-mercurial planets. Another total eclipse is
necessary to verify this discovery.

Remarks were made by Messrs. Frispy and ABBE respecting
their own observations of this eclipse, and by Messrs. lu B.
Eiiotr, Corrin, Farquuar, and Woopwarp, and by Mr. Pauvt,
who gave a short description of his method of obtaining on a
plate of very finely ground glass in the focus of a telescope, a
tracing of the image of the solar corona, showing in its outline
quite a close correspondence to the photographs of long expo-
sure obained at the same time.

Mr. ABBE presented a letter from Mr. Westminister S. AB-
BEY, of New York, inquiring about

A FISH FOUND ON THE.FLORIDA COAST,

Mr. Git stated that the scale and the description showed it
to be the megalops atlanticus or tarpa described by Cuvier, His-
toire Naturelle des Poissons, and by Agassiz in 1857.

Mr. E. B. Evuiorr made a communication on
MERIDIONAL TIME FOR RAILWAY AND TELEGRAPHIC PURPOSES,

proposing the adoption of meridians differing one hour in longi-
tude.

Remarks were made by Mr. Corrin, questioning the conve-
nience of the system for railways and for telegraphic purposes.
The allowance for difference in time is easily made. For rail-
ways the meridian of some prominent place may, and has been,
used for extensive sections of country.

Mr. T. N. Grit made a communication on

THE FAMILY OF CERATIIDS.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 203

148TH MEETING. OcroBER 26, 1878.
Vice-President TAytor in the Chair.

Fifty members and visitors present.

Mr. J. C. WELLING read the following address on the

LIFE AND CHARACTER OF JOSEPH HENRY,

and Mr. W. B. Tay tor gave an historical account of

HIS SCIENTIFIC LABORS.

LIFE AND CHARACTER OF JOSEPH HENRY.

JosePpH Henry was born in Albany, N. Y., on the 17th of
December, 1799. His grandparents on both his father’s and
mother’s side emigrated from Scotland, and landed in this country
on the 16th of June, 1775, the day before the battle of Bunker’s
Hill. At the age of seven or earlier, for what reason is unknown,
he went to live with his maternal grandmother, who resided at
Galway, in the county of Saratoga, N. Y., and his father having
died soon afterwards, he continued to dwell for years -under her
roof. At Galway he attended tne district school, of which one
Israel Phelps was the master, and having there learned how “to
write and cipher, too,” he was placed at the early age of ten in
a store kept in the village by a Mr. Broderick. Receiving from
his employer every token of kindness, and, indeed, of paternal
interest in his welfare, the boy-clerk, already remarkable for his
handsome visage, his slender figure, his delicate complexion, and
his vivacious temper, became a great favorite with his comrades,
who, according to the customs of the village store, were wont to
saunter about the door in summer, and to gather round the stove
in winter for the interchange of such trivial gossip as pertains to
yillage life. Though released at this time for the half of each
day from the duty of waiting in the store, that he might attend
the sessions of the common school in the afternoon, it does not
appear that he had as vet evinced any taste for books, notwith-
standing the fact, as he afterwards recalled, that his young brain
was even then troubled at times with the “malady of thought,”
as he lost himself in the mazes of revery or speculation about
God and creation—‘“ those obstinate questionings of sense and
outward things,” which the philosophical poet of England has

204 BULLETIN OF THE

described as the natural misgivings of a “ creature moving about
in worlds not realized.” ‘Delight and liberty,” as was natural
to a bright boy in the full flush of his animal spirits, still remained
the simple creed of his childhood, until one day his pet rabbit
escaped from its warten, and ran into an opening in the founda-
tion of the village church. Finding the hole sufficiently large
to admit of pushing his person through it, he followed on all fours
in eager pursuit of the fugitive, when his eyes were attracted in
a certain direction by a glimmer of light, and groping his way
towards it, beneath the church, he discovered that it proceeded
from a crevice which led into the vestibule of the building, and
which opened immediately behind a bookcase that had been
placed in the vestibule, as the depository of the village library.
Working his way to the front of the bookcase, he found himself
in the presence of all the literature stored on its shelves, and on
his taking down the first book which struck his eye, it proved to
be Brooke’s Fool of Quality, a work of fiction in which views of
practical life and traits of mystical piety are artfully blended, in-
somuch that even John Wesley was inclined to except it from the
auto-da-fé, which, after the manner of the curate and barber in
the story of Don Quixote, he would have gladly performed upon
the less edifying products of the novel-writing imagination.
Poring over the pages of this fascinating volume, young Henry
forgot the rabbit in quest of which he had crept beneath the
church. It was the first book he had ever read with zest, be-
cause it was the first book he had ever read at the impulse of his
“own sweet will.” Mrs. Browning has told us that we get no
good from a book by being ungenerous with it, by calculating
profits—‘‘so much help by so much reading.”

3 “Tt is rather when

We gloriously forget ourselves, and plunge

Soul-forward, head-long, into a book’s profound,

Impassioned for its beauty and salt of truth—
* Tis then we get the right good from a book.”

Such was the “soul-forward, head-long plunge” which the
boyish Henry now first tock in the waters of romance, rendered
‘only the sweeter to him, it may be, because, without affront to
innocence, they took the flavor of ‘stolen waters” from the stealth
with which they were imbibed. From that time forth he made
frequent visits to this library, by the same tortuous and under-

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 205

ground passage, reading by preference only works of fiction, the
contents of which he retailed to listening comrades around the
stove by night, until, in the end, his patron, who shared in his
taste for such “light reading,” procured for him the right of access
to the library in the regular way, and no longer by the narrow
fissure in the rear of the bookcase.

At the age of fifteen he left the store of Mr. Broderick in Gal-
way, and, returning to the place of his birth, entered a watch-
maker’s establishment in Albany, but finding nothing congenial
to his taste in the new pursuit, he soon abandoned it. At this
time he had formed a strong predilection for the stage. Two or
three years before, while living at Galway, he had seen a play
for the first time, on the occasion of a casual visit-to Albany, and
the impression it made upon his mind was as vivid as that left by
the perusal of his first novel. He described and re-enacted its
scenes for the wonderment of the Galway youth, and now that
he was living in Albany, he could give full vent to his new incli-
nation. His spare money was all spent in theatrical amusements,
until at length he won his way behind the scenes, and procured
admission to the green room, where he learned how to put a play
on the boards, and how to produce the illusion of stage effects.
In the skill with which he learned thus early to handle the appa-
ratus of the stage, we may discern, perhaps, the first faint pre-
lude of the skill to which he subsequently attained in handling
the ‘levers and screws” with which, according to Goethe, the ex-
perimental philosopher seeks to extort from nature the revelation
of her mysteries.

Invited at this period of his life to join a private theatrical
association in Albany, known by the name of “The Rostrum,”
the young enthusiast soon distinguished himself among his
fellow-members of riper years by the ingenuity of his dramatic
combinations, and the felicity of his scenic effects, insomuch that
he was made President of the Society. Meanwhile, the watch-
maker had left Albany, and young Henry, no longer having the
fear of the silversmith’s file and crucible before his eyes, was left
free to follow the lead of his dramatic tastes and aspirations. He
dramatized a tale, and prepared a comedy; both of which were
acted by the association. Indeed, so much was he absorbed in
this new vocation, that our amateur Roscius seemed, according
to all outward appearance, in a fair way of making a place for

206 BULLETIN OF THE

himself among the “periwig-pated fellows who tear a passion to
tatters” on the stage; or, at the best, of taking rank with the
great dramatic artists who, standing’in front of the garish foot-
lights, ‘“‘hold the mirror up to nature,” in a sense far different
from that of the experimental philosopher, standing in the clear
beams of that lumen siccum which Bacon has praised as the
light that is best of all for the eyes of the mind. But in the
midst of these ‘unintelligible dumb shows,” under which the
unique and original genius of Henry had thus far seemed to be
masquerading, we have now come to the time when his mind
underwent a great transfiguration, which revealed its native
brightness, and a transfiguration as sudden as it was great.

Minds richly endowed, if started at first on a wrong track, may
sometimes have, it would seem, an intellectual conversion as
marked as that moral conversion which is often visible in the
lives of great saints. It certainly was so in the case of Henry.
Overtaken in the sixteenth year of his age by a slight accident,
which detained him for a season within doors, he chanced, in
search of mental diversion, to cast his eyes upon a book which
a Scotch gentleman, boarding with his mother, had left upon the
table in his chamber. It was Dr. Gregory’s Lectures on Ex-
perimental Philosophy, Astronomy, and Chemistry. It com-
mences with an address to the young reader, in which the author
stimulates him to deeper inquiry concerning the familiar objects
around him. ‘‘ You throw a stone,” he says, “ or shoot an arrow
upwards into the air; why does it not go forward in the air, and
in the direction you give it? What force is it that presses it
down to the earth? Why does flame or smoke always mount
upward? You look into a clear well of water, and see your own
face and figure, as if painted there; why is this? You are told
it is done by reflection of light. But what is reflection of light?”
etc. ete. These queries certainly are very far from representing
the prudens questio of Bacon in even its most elementary form,
but they opened to the mind of young Henry an entirely ‘new.
world of thought and enjoyment.” His attention was enchained
by this book as it had not been enchained by the fiction of Brooke,
or by the phantasmagoria of the drama.* The book did for him

* He soon became so much interested in this book that its owner gave
it to him, and in token of the epoch it had marked in his life, Prof. Henry
ever afterwards preserved it among the choicest memorials of his boy-

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 207

what the spirits did for Faust when they opened his eyes to see the
sign of the macrocosm, and summoned him ‘to unveil the powers
of nature lying all around him.” Not more effectual was the call
which came to St. Augustine, when, as he lay beneath the shadow
of the fig-tree, weeping in the bitterness of a contrite soul, he
seemed to hear a voice that said to him: “‘ Tolle, lege; tolle, lege,”
and at the sound of which he turned away forever from the Ten
Predicaments of Aristotle, and all the books of the rhetoricians,
to follow what seemed to him the “lively oracles of God.” No
sooner had Henry recovered from his sickness, than, obedient to
the new vision of life and duty which had dawned upon him, he
summoned his comrades of “the Rostrum” to meet him in con-
ference, formally resigned the office of President, and, in a vale-
dictory address, announced to his associates that, subordinating
the pleasures of literature to the acquisition of serious know-
ledge, he had determined henceforth to consecrate his life to ar-
duous and solid studies.

There are doubtless those who, in the retrospect of Prof.
Henry’s youth, as contrasted with the rich flower and fruitage of
his riper years, will please themselves with curious speculations
on what ‘“ might have been,” if his rabbit had never slipped its
inclosure, if there had been no crack in the wall behind the book-
case, or if Gregory’s Lectures had never fallen in his way at the
critical juncture of his life, much as the great mind of Pascal
pleased itself with musing how the fate of Kurope might have
been changed if the Providential grain of sand in Cromwell’s tissue
had not sent him to a premature grave; or how the whole face of
the earth would have been changed if the nose of Cleopatra had
been a little shorter than it was, and so had marred the beauty
of face which made her, like another Helen, the teterrima causa

hood. In the flyleaf of the book the following memorandum is found,
written by Prof. H. in the year 1837: This book, although by no means
a profound work, has, under Providence, exerted a remarkable influence
on my life. It accidentally fell into my hands when I was about sixteen
years old, and was the first book, with the exception of works of fiction,
that I ever read with attention. It opened to me a new world of thought
and enjoyment, invested things before almost unnoticed with the highest
interest, fixed my mind on the study of nature, and caused me to resolve
at the time of reading it that I would devote my life to the acquisition of
knowledge. —Josspu Henry.

24

208 ‘BULLETIN OF THE

belli for a whole generation. Such fanciful speculations, it seems to
me, are well calculated to import into the philosophy of human life,
and into the philosophy of human history, a theory of causation
which is as superficial as it is false. As honest Horatio says to
Hamlet in the play, when the latter proposes to trace the noble
dust of Alexander the Great, in imagination, until perchance
it may be found stopping a bung-hole, I feel like saying in the
presence of such fine-spun speculations, ““’T'were to consider
too curiously to consider so.” ‘The strong intellectual forces
which are organic in a great mind, as the strong moral and po-
litical forces which are organic in society, do not depend for their
evolution, or for their grand cyclical movements, on the casual
vicissitudes which ripple the surface of human life and affairs.
To argue in this wise is to mistake occasion for cause, and by con-
founding what is transient and incidental with what is permanent
and pervasive, is to make the noblest life, with its destined ends
and ways, the mere creature of accident, and is to convert human
history, with its great secular developments, into the fortuitous
rattle and chance combinations of the kaleidoscope. We may be
sure that Henry was too great a man to have lived and died with-
out making his mark on the age in which his lot was cast, what-
ever should have been the time, place, or circumstance which was
to disclose the color and complexion of his destiny. The strong,
clear mind, like the crystal, takes its shape and pressure from the
play of the constituent forces within it, and is not the sport of
casual influences that come from without.

Armed, however, with his new enthusiasm, the nascent philo-
sopher hastened to join a night school in Albany, but soon ex-
nausted the lore of its master. Encountering next a peripatetic
teacher of English grammar, he became, under the pedagogue’s
drill, so versed in the arts of orthography, etymology, syntax, and
prosody, that he started out himself on a grammatical tour through
the provincial districts of New York, and returning from this
first field of his triumphs as a teacher, he entered the Albany
Academy (then in charge of Dr. T. Romeyn Beck) as a pupil
in its more advanced studies. Meanwhile, in order to ‘“ pay his
way” in the academy, he sought employment as a teacher in a
neighboring district school, this being, as he afterwards was wont
to say, the only office he had ever sought in his life; and in th’s
office he succeeded so well that his salary was raised from $8

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 209

-for the first month to the munificent sum of $15 for the second
month of his service! From pupil in the academy and teacher
of the district school, he was soon promoted to the rank of as-.
sistant in the academy, and henceforward had ample means for
the further prosecution of his studies. Leaving the academy,
he next accepted the post of private tutor in the family of the
Patroon in Albany, Mr. 8S. Van Rensselaer; and, devoting his
leisure hours to the study of the higher mathematics, in conjunc-
tion with chemistry, physiology, and anatomy, he at this time
purposed to enter the medical profession, and had made some
advances in this direction, when he was called, in the year 1826,
to embark in a surveying expedition, set on foot under the aus-
pices of the State government of New York, for the purpose of
laying out a road through the southern tier of counties in that
State. Starting with his men at West Point, and going through
the woods to Lake Hrie, he acquitted himself so well in this ex-
pedition that his friends endeavored to procure for him a perma-
nent appointment as captain of an engineering corps, which it
was proposed to create for the prosecution of other internal im-
provement schemes, but the bill projected for this purpose having
fallen through, Mr. Henry again accepted, though with some
reluctance, a vacant chair which was offered him in the Albany
Academy.

In connection with the duties of this chair, he now commenced
a series of original experiments in natural philosophy—the first
connected series which had been prosecuted in this country. Dr.
Hare, indeed, had already invented the compound blowpipe, as
Franklin before him, by his brilliant but desultory labors, had
given an immense impulse to the science of electricity; yet none
the less is it true that regular and systematic investigations, de-
signed to push forward the boundaries of knowledge, abreast with
the scientific workers of Europe, had hardly been attempted at
that era in the United States.

The achievements of Henry in this direction soon began to
win for him an increase of reputation as well as an increase of
knowledge; but in the midst of the fervors which had come to
quicken his genius, he was visited by the fancy (or was it a
fact?) that a few of the friends who had hitherto supported him
in his high ambition were new beginning to look a little less
warmly on his aspirations. Suffering from this source the mental

210 BULLETIN OF THE

depression which was natural to a sensitive spirit, no less remark-
able for its modesty than for its merit, he found solace in the
friendly words of good cheer and hopefulness addressed to him
by Mr. William Dunlap.* While one day making, with Mr.
Henry, a trip down the Hudson River, on board the same steam-
boat, Mr. Dunlap observed in the young teacher’s face the marks
of sadness, and, on learning its cause, he laid his hand affection-
ately on Henry’s shoulder, and closed same reassuring advice
with the prophetic words, ‘‘ Albany will one day be proud of her
son.” The presage was destined to be abundantly confirmed.
Soon afterwards came the call te Princeton College, and, be-
cause of the wider career it opened to him, the call was as grate-
ful to Henry as its acceptance was gratifying to the friends of
that institution. And shortly before this promotion, a new happi-
ness had come to crown his life in his marriage to the excellent
lady who still survives him. _

He entered upon the duties of his new post in the month of
November, 1832, and bringing with him a budding reputation,
which soon blossomed into the highest scientific fame, he became
the pride and ornament of the Princeton Faculty. The prestige
of his magnets attracted students from all parts of the country;
but the magnetism of the man was better far than any work of
his cunning hand or fertile brain. It was in Princeton, as he
was afterwards wont to say, that he spent the happiest days of
his.life, and they were also among the most fruitful in scientific
discovery. Leaving the record of his particular achievements at.
this epoch to be told by Mr. Taylor, who is so well qualified
to do them justice, I beg leave only to refer to this period in
the career of Prof. Henry as that in which it was my good for-
tune to come, for the first time, under the personal influence of
the great philosophical scholar, who, after being my teacher in
science during the days of my college novitiate at Princeton,
continued during the whole of his subsequent life to honor me
with a friendship which was as much my support in every emer-
gency that called for counsel and guidance, as it was at all times
my joy and the crown of my rejoicing.

* This Mr. Dunlap had been the manager of the Park Theatre in New
York, and combined with his dramatic vocation the pursuits of literature
and the painter’s art. He wrote the ‘ History of Arts and Designs in the
United States,’’ a work which was esteemed a standard one at the date
of its first publication in 1834.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. Q11

In the year 1847, when Prof. Henry was in the forty-eighth
year of his age, he was unanimously elected by the Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution as its Secretary, or Director. At that
time the institution existed only in name, under the organic act
passed by Congress for its incorporation, in order to give effect
to the bequest of James Smithson, Esquire, of London, who by
his last will and testament had given the whole of his property
to the United States, to found at Washington, under the name
of the “Smithsonian Institution,” an establishment for “the in-
crease and diffusion of knowledge among men.” It does not
need to be said that Prof. Henry did not seek this appointment.
It came to him unsolicited, but it came to him from the Board of
Regents, not only by tie free choice of its members, but also at
the suggestion and with the approval of European men of science,
like Sir David Brewster, Faraday, and Arago, as also of Ameri-
can scientific men, like Bache and Silliman and Hare. TI well
remember to have heard the late Geo. M. Dallas (a member of
the constituent Board of Regents, by virtue of his office as Vice-
President of the United States), make the remark on 9 public
occasion, immediately after the election of Prof. Henry as Director
of the Smithsonian Institution, that the Board had not had the
slightest hesitation in tendering the appointment to him “as being
peerless among the recognized heads of American science.”

At the invitation of the Regents he drew up an outline plan of
the Institution, and the plan was adopted by them on the 13th
of December, 1847. The members of this Society, living, as
they do, beneath the shadow of the great institution to which
Smithson worthily gave his name and his estate, but of which
Henry was at once the organizing brain and the directing hand
from the date of its inception down to the day of his death, do
not need that I should sketch for them the theory on which it
was projected by its first Secretary, or that I should rehearse in
detail the long chronicle of the useful and multiform services
which in pursuit of that theory it has rendered to the cause of
science and of human progress. And, moreover, in doing so I
should here again imprudently trench on the province assigned to
my learned colleague. But I may be allowed to portray the
method and spirit which he brought to the duties of this exacting
post, at least so far as to say that he proved himself as great in
administration as he was great in original research; as skilful in

212 BULLETIN OF THE

directing the scientific labors of others as he was skilful in the
conduct of his own. Seizing, as with an intuitive eye, the pecu-
liar genius of an institution which was appointed to ‘“ increase
knowledge” and to “ daffuse” it “among men,” he touched the
springs of scientific inquiry at a thousand points in the wide
domain of modern thought, and made the results of that inquiry
accessible to all, with a catholicity as broad as the civilized
world. And the publications of the Smithsonian Institution,
valuable as they are, and replete as they are with contributions
to human knowledge, represent the least part of his manifold
labors in connection with the Institution. His correspondence
was immense, covering the whole field of existing knowledge,
and ranging, in the persons addressed, from the genuine scientific
scholar in all parts of the world, to the last putative discoverer
of perpetual motion, or the last embryo mathematician who sup-
posed himself to have squared the circle.

In accepting a post where he was called by virtue of his office
to fecundate the labors of other men rather than his own, Prof.
Henry distinctly saw that he was renouncing for himself the
paths of scientific glory on which he had entered so auspiciously
at Albany and Princeton. He once said to me, in one of the
self-revealing moods in which he sometimes unbosomed himself
to his intimate friends, that in accepting the office of Smithsonian
Secretary he was conscious that he had “sacrificed future fame
to present reputation.” He was in the habit of recalling that
Newton had made no discoveries after he was appointed Warden
of the Mint in 1695,* and I believe that the remark is histori-
eally accurate, unless we should incline with Biot, against the
better opinion of Sir David Brewster, to place after that date the
“discoveries” which Newton supposed himself to have made in
the Scriptural chronology and in the interpretation of the A poc-
aly pse—discoveries which, whenever made, provoked the theolo- |
gical seoff, as they perhaps deserved the theological criticism of

* The effect of the Wardenship on Newton’s scientific labors may be
seen in the warmth with which he rebuked Flamsteed for purposing to
publish, in 1698, the fact that Newton was then engaged on a revision of
the Horroxian theory of the moon. Newton wrote: ‘‘I do not love to be
printed on every occasion, much less to be dunned and teased by foreign-
evs about mathematical things, or to be thought by our own people
to be trifling away my time when I should be about the King’s business.”’

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 213

the polemical Bishop Warburton. Yet, having convinced him-
self that it was a duty which he owed to the cause of science, to
sink his own personality in the impersonal institution he was
called to conduct, Henry never paused for an instant to confer
with flesh and blood, but moved “right onward” in the path of
duty, with only the more of steadfastness, because he felt that
it was for him a path of sacrifice.

How sedulously he strove to maintain the Institution in the
high vocation to which he believed it was appointed no less by a
sacred regard for the will of its founder than by an intelligent
zeal for the promotion of human welfare, is known to you all.
And the success with which he resisted all schemes for the im-
poverishment of the exalted function it was fitted to perform in
the service of abstract science, is a tribute at once to his rare
executive skill, and to the native force of character which made
him a tower of strength against the clamors of popular ignorance
and the assaults of charlatanism. Whatever might be the con-
sequences to himself personally, he was determined to magnify ts
vocation and make zt honorable. And hence I do not permit
myself to doubt that during the long period of his administration,
as Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, covering a period of
thirty years, he has impressed upon its conduct a definite direc-
tion which his successors will be proud to maintain, not simply
in reverence for the memory of their illustrious predecessor, but
also in grateful recognition of the fruitful works which, in the
pursuit of his enlightened plans, will continue to follow him
now that he has rested from his labors.

The rest into which he has entered came to him in a green
old age, after a life as full of years as it was full of honors. He
was not only blest with an old age which was

serene and bright,
And lovely as a Lapland night,

but he also had that which, according to the great dramatist,
should accompany old age—‘ As honor, love, obedience, troops
of friends.” And the manner of his death was in perfect keep-
ing with the manner of his life. Assured for months before the
inevitable hour came that his days on earth were numbered, he
made no change in his daily official employments, no change in
his social and literary diversions. None was needed. Surprise,
I learn, has been expressed that in the full prospect of death he

914 BULLETIN OF THE

should have “talked” so little about it. But the surprise is quite
unfounded. Prof. Henry was little in the habit of talking about
himself at any time. Yet to his intimate friends he spoke freely
and calmly about his approaching end. ‘Two weeks before he died
he said to one such, a gentleman from New York, to whom he
was strongly attached: “I may die at any moment. I would
like to live long enough to complete some things I have under-
taken, but I am content togo. Ihave had a happy life, and I
hope I have been able to do some good.” In an houtr’s conver-
sation which I had with him, six days before he died, he referred
to the imminence of his death with the same philosophic and
Christian composure. And perfectly aware as he was, on the
day before he died, and on the day of his death, that he had
already entered the Dark Valley, he feared no evil as he looked
across it, but, poised in a sweet serenity, preserved his soul in
patience, at an equal remove from rapture on the one hand, or
anything like dismay on the other. For his friends he had even
then the same benignant smile, the same warm pressure of the
hand, and the same affable converse as of yore. With the
astronomer, Newcomb, he pleasantly and intelligently discoursed
about the then recent transit of Mercury—not unheedful of the
great transit he was making, but giving heed none the less to
every opportunity for the inquiry of truth. Towards the attend-
ants watching around his couch he was as observant as ever of
all the ‘small sweet courtesies” which marked consideration for
others rather than for himself even in the supreme moment of his
dissolution. The disciples of Socrates recalled with a sort of
pathetic wonder at the calm and intrepid spirit of their dying
master, that as the chill of the fatal hemlock was stealing to-
wards his heart, he uncovered his face to ask that Crito should
acquit him of a small debt he owed to Esculapius ; and so in like
manner I recall that our beloved chief did not forget in the hour of
his last agony to make provision for the due despatch of a letter
of courtesy, which on the day before he had promised to a British
stranger.

And so in the full possession of all his great mental powers—in
his waking hours filled with high thoughts and with a peace which
passed all understanding; in his sleep stealing away

“To dreamful wastes where footless fancies dwell,”

and talking even there of experiments in sound on board the

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 215

steamer Mistletoe, or haply taking note of electric charges sent
through imaginary wires at his bidding*—the soul of Joseph
Henry passed away from the earth which he had blessed and
brightened by his presence. He died ten minutes after twelve
o’clock, on the 13th of May, 1878.

From these imperfect notes on the Life of Prof. Henry, I pass
to consider some of his traits and characteristics as a man.

He was endowed with a physical organization in which the
elements that composed it were not only fine and finely mixed,
but were cast in a mould remarkable for its symmetry and manly
beauty. The perfection of his ‘outward man” was not unworthy
of the “inward man” whom it enshrined, and if, as a church
father has phrased it, ‘the human soul is the true Shechinah,” it
may none the less be said that these ‘“fleshly nooks” of ours
never appear to so much advantage as when, transfigured by this
Shechinah, they offer to the informing spirit a temple which is as
stately as it is pure. When Dr. Bentley was called to write the
epitaph of Cotes (that brilliant scholar of whom Newton said
that, ‘if he had lived we might have known something”), the ac-
complished master of words thought it not unmeet to record that
the fallen Professor, who had been snatched away by a premature
death, was only “the more attractive and lovely because the vir-
tues and graces which he joined to the highest repute for learn-
ing were embellished by a handsome person.” The same tribute
of admiration might be paid with equal justice to the revered Pro-
fessor whose ‘‘ good gray head” has just vanished from our sight.

The fascination of Prof. Henry’s manner was felt by all who
came within the range of its influence—by men with whom he
daily consorted in business, in college halls, and in the scientific
academy ; by brilliant women of society who, in his gracious pre-
sence, owned the spell of a masculine mind which none the less
was feminine in the delicacy of its perceptions and the purity of

* Prof. Henry took great delight in the acoustical researches which,
during the closing years of his life, he made at sea, on board the steamer
Mistletoe, while it was in electricity that he won his first triumphs as a
scientific man. That his first love and last passion in science still filled
his thoughts in his dying moments was attested by the words which
even then fell from his lips, in sleep.

216 BULLETIN OF THE

its sensibilities ; by children, who saw in the simplicity of his
unspoiled nature a geniality and a kindliness which were akin to
their own. A French thinker has said that @ mesure gwon a
plus @esprit on trouve qwil y a plus @hommes originaux. It
was the breadth and catholicity of Henry’s intelligence which
enabled him to find something unique and characteristic in per-
sons who were flat, stale, and unprofitable to the average mind.

Gifted with a mental constitution which was “ feelingly alive
to each fine impulse,” he possessed a high degree of esthetic
sensibility to the beautiful in nature and in art. It cannot be
doubted that a too exclusive addiction to the analytic and micro-
scopic study of nature, at the instance of science, has a tendency
to blunt in some minds a delicate perception for the ‘large liv-
ingness” of Nature, considered as a source of poetic and moral
inspiration, but no such tendency could ‘be discovered in the in-
tellectual habitudes of Prof. Henry. To a mind long nurtured
by arts of close and critical inquiry into the logic of natural law
he none the less united a heart which was ever ready to leap
with joy at “the wonder and bloom of the world.” When on the
occasion of his first visit to England, in the year 1837, he was
travelling by night in a stage-coach through Salisbury Plain,
he hired the driver to stop, while all his fellow-passengers were
asleep, that he might have the privilege of inspecting the ruins
of Stonehenge, as seen by moonlight, and brought away a weird
‘sense of mystery ” which followed him in all his after life. Ata
later day, in the year 1870, after visiting the Aar Glacier, the scene
of Prof. A gassiz’s well-known labors, he crossed over the moun-
tain to the Rhone Valley, until, at a sudden turn of the road, he
came full in the presence of the majestic Glacier of the Rhone.
For minutes he stood silent and motionless; then, turning to the
daughter who stood by his side, he exclaimed, with the tears run-
ning down his cheeks: ‘This is a place to die in. We should
go no further.”

And as he rejoiced in natural scenery so also was he charmed
with the beauties of art, whether as seen in “ the well-stained
canvas or the featured stone,” and hence it was that he felt as
much at home in the atelier of the painter or sculptor as in the
laboratory of the chemist or the apparatus room of the natural
philosopher, and exulted as sincerely in the Louvre or the Cor-
coran Gallery of Art as in the cabinet of the mineralogist or the
museum of the naturalist.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, Q17

He was as remarkable for the simplicity of his nature as for
the breadth of his mind and the acumen of his intellect. Those
who analyze the nature and charm of simplicity in a great mind
suppose themselves to find the secret of both in the fact that
simplicity, allied with greatness, works its marvels with a sweet
unconsciousness of its own superior excellence, and it works
them with this unconsciousness because it is greater than it
knows. ‘Talent does what it can. Genius does what it must.
And in this respect, as an English writer has said, there is a
great analogy between the highest goodness and the highest
genius; for under the influence of either, the spirit of man,
“whenever it lifts up its head and shakes its locks,” may scatter
light and splendor around it, without admiring itself or seeking
the admiration of others. And it was in this sense that the
simplicity of Henry’s nature expressed itself in acts of goodness
and in acts of high intelligence, with a spontaneity which hid
from himself the transcendent virtue and dignity of the work
he was doing; and hence all his work was done without the
slightest taint of vanity or tarnish of self-complacency.

As might be expected, he was a fervent lover of the best lit-
erature. His acquaintance with the English poets was not only
wide but intimate. His memory was stored with choice pas-
sages, didactic, sentimental, witty, and humorous, which he re-
produced at will on occasions when they were apt to his purpose.
His familiarity with fiction dated, as we have seen, from early
boyhood, and in this fountain of the imagination he continued
to find refreshment for the ‘wear and tear” of the hard and con-
tinuous thought to which he was addicted in the philosopher’s
study. His knowledge of history was accurate, and it was not
simply a knowledge of facts, but a knowledge of facts as seen in
the logical coherence and rational explanation which make them
the basis of historic generalization. The genesis of the Greek
civilization was a perpetual object of interest to his speculative
mind, as called to deal with the phenomena of Grecian literature,
art, philosophy, and polity.

He was a terse and forcible writer. If, as some have said,
it is the perfection of style to be colorless, the style of Henry
might be likened to the purest amber, which, invisible itself, holds
in clear relief every object it envelops. Without having that
fluent delivery which, according to the well-known comparison

218 BULLETIN OF THE

of Dean Swift, is rarely characteristic of the fullest minds, he was
none the less a pleasing and effective speaker—the more effective
because his words never outran his thought. We loved to think
and speak of him as ‘‘the Nestor of American Science,” and if
his speech, like Nestor’s, “‘ flowed sweeter than honey,” it was
due to the excellent quality of the matter rather than to any rhe-
torical facility of manner.

He was blest with a happy temperament. He recorded in his
diary, as a matter of thanksgiving, that through the kindness of
Providence he was able to forget what had been painful in his
past experiences, and to remember only and enjoy that which
had been pleasurable. ‘The same sentiment is expressed in one
of his letters. Armed with this sunny temper which, like the
dial, ‘‘marks only the hours that shine,” he was in his family
circle a perpetual benediction. And, in turn, he was greatly
dependent on his family for the sympathy and watch-care due
in a thousand small things to one who never “lost the child-
like in the larger mind.” His domestic affections were not
dwarfed by the exacting nature of his official duties, his public
cares, or his scientific vigils. He had none of that solitary gran-
deur affected by isolated spirits who cannot descend to the tears
and smiles of this common world. He was never so happy as
when in his home he was communing with wife and children
around the family altar. He made them the confidants of all
his plans. He rehearsed to them his scientific experiments. He
reported to them the record of each day’s adventures. He read
with them his favorite authors.* He entered with a gleeful spirit

* The following extract from a diary, kept by one of his daughters, is
descriptive of his habits under this head: ‘Had father with us all the
evening. Il modelled his profile in clay while he read Thomson’s Seasons
to us. In the earlier part of the evening he seemed restless and de-
pressed, but the influence of the poet drove away the cloud, and then an
expression of almost childlike sweetness rested on his lips, singularly in
contrast yet beautifully in harmony with the intellect of the brow above.”

Or take this extract from the same diary: “We were all up until a
late hour, reading poetry with father and mother, father being the reader.
He attempted ‘Cowper’s Grave,’ by Mrs. Browning, but was too tender-
hearted to finish the reading of it. We then laughed over the Address
to the Mummy, soared to heaven with Shelley’s Skylark, roamed the
forest with Bryant, culled flowers from other poetical fields, and ended
with Tam O’Shanter. I took for my task to recite a part of the latter from
memory, while father corrected, as if he were ‘ playing schoolmaster.’ ’’

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 219

into all their joys; with a sympathetic heart into all their sor-
rows. And while thus faithful to the charities of home, he
was intensely loyal to his friends, and found in their society the
very cordial of life. Gracious to all, he grappled some of them
to his heart with hooks of steel. The friendship, fed by a kin-
dred love of elegant letters, which still lends its mellow lustre
to the names of Cicero and Atticus, was not more beautiful than
the friendship, fed by kindred talents, kindred virtues, ard kin-
dred pursuits, which so long united the late Dr. Bache and Pro-
fessor Henry in the bonds of a sacred brotherhood. And this
was but one of the many similar intimacies which came to em-
bellish his long and useful career.

His sense of honor was delicate in the extreme. It was not
only that “chastity of honor which feels a stain like a wound,”
but at the very suggestion of a stain it recoiled as instantly as
the index finger of Mr. Edison’s tasimeter at the “suspicion” of
heat. I met him in 1847, when, soon after his election as Secre-
tary of the Smithsonian Institution, he had just been chosen to
succeed Dr. Hare as Professor of Chemistry in the Medical De-
partment of the University of Pennsylvania, at a salary double
that which he was to receive in Washington, and with half the
year open to free scientific investigation, because free from pro-
fessorial duties. It was, he said, the post which, of all others,
he could have desiderated at that epoch in his scientific life, but
his honor, he added, forbade him to entertain, for a moment, the
proposition of accepting it after the obligations under which he
had come to the interests represented by the Smithsonian Insti-
tution. At a later day, after he had entered on his duties in
Washington, and found the position environed with many diffi-
culties, Mr. Calhoun came to him, and urged his acceptance of a
lucrative chair in a Southern College, using as a ground of ap-
peal the infelicities of his present post, and the prospect of fail-
ing at last to realize the high designs he had projected for the
management of the Smithsonian Institution. Admitting that it
might be greatly to his comfort and advantage at that time to
give up the Smithsonian, he declined at once to consider the pro-
posal made to him, on the ground that his “ honor was committed
to the Institution.” Whereupon Mr. Calhoun seized his hand,
and exclaimed, “ Professor Henry, you are a man after my own
heart.”

220 BULLETIN OF THE

When in 1853, and again in 1867, he was entreated to accept
the Presidency of Princeton College, the College of his love, and
the scene of his “‘ happiest days,” he instantly turned away from
the lure, as feeling that he could not love the dear old College
so much if he loved not more the honor and duty which bound
him to the establishment in Washington, with which, for good
or for evil, he had wedded his name and fortune. And in all
other concerns, from the greatest to the least, he seemed like one

“Intent each lurking frailty to disclaim,
And guard the way of life from all offence,
Suffered or done.”’

The “ Man of Ross,” portrayed by the pencil of Pope, was not
more benevolent in heart or act than Professor Henry. His bounty
was large and free. The full soul mantled in his eyes at every tale
of woe, and the generous hand was quick to obey the charitable
impulses of his sympathetic nature. This benevolent spirit ran
like a silver cord through the tissue of his life, because it was
interwoven in the very warp and woof of his being, and because
it was kept in constant exercise. It appeared not only in acts of
kindness to the poor and afflicted, but interpenetrated his whole
demeanor, and informed all his conduct wherever he could be
helpful to a fellow-man. He did good to all as he had opportu-
nity, from “ the forlorn and shipwrecked brother,” who had already
failed in the voyage of life, to the adventurous young mariner
who sought his counsel and guidance for the successful launch-
ing of his ship from its ways. Many are the young men, who,
in all parts of the land, could rise up to-day and call him blessed,
for the blessing he brought to them by the kind word spoken
and the kind deed done, each in its season.

Unselfishness was a fundamental trait in the character of Pro-
fessor Henry, and he made the same trait a fundamental one in
his conception of the philosopher’s high calling. The work of sci-
entific inquiry was with him a labor of love, not simply because he
loved the labor, but because he hoped by it to advance the cause
of truth and promote the welfare of man. He never dreamed
of profiting by any discovery he made. He would not even have
his salary increased, so tenaciously did he hold to the Christ-
like privilege of living among men ‘‘as one that serveth.” This
was a crown which he would let no man take from him. To the

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 221

‘Government he freely gave, in many spheres of public usefulness,
all the time he could spare from his official duties. And it was
in one of these subsidiary public labors, as Chairman of the Light-
House Board, that he contracted, as he believed, the psec:
which carried him to the grave.

A sense of rectitude presided over all his thoughts and acts.
He had so trained his mind to right thinking, and his will to right
feeling and right doing, that this absolute rectitude became a
part of his intellectual as well as moral nature. Hence in his
methods of philosophizing he was incapable of sophistical rea-
soning. He sat at the feet of nature with as much of candor as
of humility, never importing into his observations “ the human
being’s pride,” or the ‘‘ mystical predominance” of an overween-
ing fancy. He was sober in his judgments. He made no hasty
generalizations. His mind seemed to turn on ‘the poles of
truth.”

I could not dwell with enough of emphasis on this. crowning
grace of our beloved friend if I should seek to do full justice to my
conception of the completeness it gave to his beautiful character.
But happily for me I need dwell upon it with only the less of em-
phasis because it was the quality which, to use a French idiom,
“leaped into the eyes” of all who marked his walk and conversa-
tion. Inthe crystal depths of a nature like his, transparent in all
directions, we discern as well the felicity as the beauty of that habit
of mind which is begotten by the supreme love of Truth for her
own sake—a habit which is as much the condition of intellectual
earnestness, thoroughness, and veracity in penetrating to the
reality of things, as of moral honesty, frankness, sincerity, and
truthfulness in dealing with our fellow-men. The great ex-
pounder of the Nicomachean Ethics has taught us, and one of our
own moralists has amplified the golden thesis,* that high moral
virtue implies the habit of “just election” between right and
wrong, and that to attain this habit we need at once an intelli-
gence which is impassioned and an appetite which is reflec-
-tive. And so in like manner all high intellectual virtue implies a
habit of just election between truth and error—an election which
men make, other things being equal, according to the degree in
which their minds are enamored with the beauty of truth, as also
in proportion to the degree in which their appetencies for knowl-

* Dr. James H. Thornwell: Discourses on Truth.

992 BULLETIN OF THE

edge have been trained to be reflective and cautious against the
enticements of error. I never knew a man who strove more ear-
nestly than Henry to make this just election between right and
wrong, between truth and error, or who was better equipped
with a native faculty for making the wise choice between them.
He had brought his whole nature under the dominion of truth-
fulness.

But while thus eager and honest in the pursuit of truth he had
nothing controversial in his temper. It was a favorite doctrine of
his that error of opinion could be most successfully combated, not
by the negative processes of direct attack, rousing the pride and
provoking the contumacy of its adherents, but rather by the affirm-
ative process of teaching, in meekness and love, the truth that is
naturally antagonistic to it. The King of Sweden and Norway
made him a Knight of St. Olaf, but St. Olaf’s thunderous way
of prepagating Christianity—by battering down the idols of Nor-
way with Thor’s own hammer—is not the way that his American
votary would have selected. There was nothing iconoclastic in
Henry’s zeal for truth. He believed that there is in all truth a
self-evidencing quality, and a redemptive power which makes it
at once a potent and a remedial force in the world. Hence he
never descended to any of those controversies which, in the an-
nals of science, have sometimes made the odium scientificum a
species of hatred quite as distinct, and quite as lively, too, as
its more ancient congener, the odium theologicum. When once
it was sought to force a controversy of this kind upon him, and
when accusations were made which seemed to affect his personal
honor, as well as the genuineness of his scientific claims, he re-
ferred the matter for adjudication to the Regents of the Smith-
sonian. Their investigation and their report dispensed him from
the necessity of self-defence. The simple truth was his sufficient
buckler. And this equanimity was not simply the result of tem-
perament. It sprang from the largeness of his mind, as well as
from the serious view he took of life and duty. He was able to
moderate his own opinions, because, in the amplitude of his intel-
lectual powers, he was able to be a moderator of opinions in the
scientific world. You all know with what felicity and intellectnal
sympathy he presided over the deliberations of this Society, com-
posed as it is of independent scientific workers in almost every
department of modern research. Alike in the judicial temper of

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 293

his mind and in the wide range of his acquisitions he was fitted
to be, as Dante has said of Aristotle, ‘the master of those who
know.” ,

And this power of his mind to assimilate knowledge of various
kinds naturally leads me to speak of his skill in imparting it. He
was a most successful educator. He had many other titles of
honor or office, but the title of Professor seemed to rank them
all, for everybody felt that he moved among men like one anointed
with the spirit and power of a great teacher. And he had philo-
sophical views of education, extending from its primary forms to
its highest culminations—from the discipline of the ‘ doing
faculties” in childhood, to the discipline of the “ thinking facul-
ties” in youth and manhood. No student of his left the Albany
Academy, in the earlier period of his connection with that
institution, without being thoroughly drilled in the useful art
of handling figures, for then and there he taught the rudimental
forms of arithmetic, not so much by theory as by practice. No
student of his left Princeton College without being thoroughly
drilled in the art of thinking, as applied to scientific problems,
for then and there he was called to indoctrinate his pupils in the
rationale as well as in the results of the inductive method. And
I will venture to add that no intelligent student of his at Prince-
ton ever failed, in after life, to recognize the useful place which
hypothesis holds in labors directed to the extension of science,
or failed to discriminate between a working hypothesis and a
perfected theory.

Pausing for a moment at this stage in the analysis of Profes-
sor Henry’s mental and moral traits, I cannot omit to portray the
effect produced on the observer by the happy combination under
which these traits were so grouped and confederated in his per-
son as to be mutual complements of each other. Far more sig-
nificant than any single quality of his mind, remarkable as some
of his qualities were, was the admirable equipoise which kept the
forces of his nature from all interference with the normal develop-
ment of an integral manhood. He was courtly in his manners,
but it was the courtliness which springs from ‘high thoughts
seated in a heart of courtesy,” and had no trace of affectation or
artificiality ; he was fastidious in his literary and artistic tastes,
but he had none of that dilettantism which is “fine by defect
and delicately weak ;” he was imbued with a simplicity of heart

25

924 BULLETIN OF THE

which left him absolutely without guile, yet he was shrewd to
protect himself against the arts of the designing; he was severe
in his sense of honor without being censorious; he was benevo-
‘lent yet inflexibly just; quick in perception yet calm in judg-
ment and patient of labor; tenacious of right without being con-
troversial ; benignant in his moral opinions yet never selling the
truth ; endowed with a strong imagination yet evermore making
it the handmaid of his reason; a prince among men yet without
the slightest alloy of arrogance in the fine gold of his imperial
intellect; in a word, good in all his greatness, he was, at the
same time, great in all his goodness. Such are the limitations
of human excellence in most of its mortal exhibitions that tran-
scendent powers of mind, or magnificent displays of virtue exerted
in a single direction, are often found to owe their ‘‘ splendid enor-
mity’? to what Isaac Taylor has called “the spoliation of some
spurned and forgotten qualities,” which are sacrificed in the pur-
suit of a predominant taste, or an overmastering ambition.* The
“infirmities of genius” often attest in their subjects the presence
of a mental or moral atrophy, which has hindered the full-orbed
development of one or more among their mental and moral
powers. But in Professor Henry no one quality of mind or heart
seemed to be in excess or deficiency as compared with the rest.
All were fused together into a compactness of structure and homo-
geneity of parts which gave to each the strength and grace im-
parted by an organic union. And hence, while he was great as
a philosopher he was greater as a man, for, laying as he did all
.the services of his scientific life on the altar of a pure, complete,
and dignified manhood, we must hold that the altar which sanc-
tified his gifts was greater than even the costliest offerings he laid
upon it.
__ It will not be expected that I should close this paper without
referring to the religious life and opinions of Prof. Henry. If in
moral height and beauty he stood like the palm tree, tall, erect,
and symmetrical, it is because a deep religious faith was the
tap-root of his character. He was, on what he conceived to be

* The phrase, as originally applied by Taylor, is descriptive of certain
incomplete ethical systems, but it is equally applicable to certain typical
exemplifications of human character, in which “the strength and the
materials of six parts of morality have been brought together wherewith
fo construct a seventh part.”

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 225

rational grounds, a thorough believer in theism. I do not think
he would have said, with Bacon, that he ‘had rather believe all
the fables in the Legend, the Talmud, and the Alcoran, than that
this universal frame is without a mind,” for he would have held
that in questions of this kind we should ask not what we would
‘‘rather believe,” but what seems to be true on the best evidence
before us. He was in the habit of saying that, next to the be-
lief in his own existence, was his belief in the existence of other
minds like his own, and from these fixed, indisputable points, he
reasoned, by analogy, to the conclusion that there is an Almighty
Mind pervading the universe. But when from the likeness be-
tween this Infinite Mind and the finite minds made in His image,
it was sought, by @ priori logic, or by any preconceived notions
of man, to infer the methods of the Divine working, or the final
causes of things, he suspected at once the intrusive presence of a
false, as well as presumptuous, philosophism, and declined to yield
his mind an easy prey to its blandishments. To his eyes much
of the free and easy teleology, with which an wnder-wise and not
over-reverent sciolism is wont to interpret the Divine counsels
and judgments, seemed little better than a Brocken phantom—
the grotesque and distorted image of its own authors, projected
on mist and cloud, and hence very far from being the inscrutable
teleology of Him whose glory it is to conceal a thing, and whose
ways are often past finding out, because His understanding is
infinite.

As Prof. Henry was a believer in theism, so also was he a
believer in Revealed Religion—in Christianity. He had not
made a study of systematic, or of dogmatic, theology, as they are
taught in the schools, and still less was the interest he took in
polemical divinity, but he did have a theology which, for practical
life, is worth them all—the theology of a profound religious expe-
rience. He was a fresh illustration of Neander’s favorite saying:
Pectus facit theologum. The adaptation of the Christian scheme
to the moral wants of the human soul was the palmary proof on
which he rested his faith in the superhuman origin of that scheme.
The plan had to him the force of a theory which is scientific in
its exact conformity to the moral facts it explains, when these
facts are properly known and fully understood.

Hence he was little troubled with the modern conflict between
science and religion. History, as well as reason and faith, was

926 BULLETIN OF THE

here his teacher. He saw that the Christian chureh had already
passed through many epochs of transition, and that the friction
incident to such transition periods had only brushed away the
incrustations of theological error, and heightened the brightness
of theological truth. In a world where the different branches
and departments of human knowledge are not pushed forward
part passu—where ‘knowledge comes but wisdom lingers”—
he held it nothing strange that the scientific man should some-
times be unintelligible to the theologian, and the theologian unin-
telligible to the scientific man. He believed, with the old Puri-
tan, that ‘“‘the Lord has more truth yet to break out of His holy
word” than the systematic theologian is always ready to admit;
and as the humble minister and interpreter of nature, he was cer-
tain that the scientific man has much truth to learn of which he
is not yet aware. There must needs be fermentation in new
thought, as in new wine, but the vintage of the brain, like the
vintage of the grape, is only the better for a process which brings
impurities to the surface, where they may be scummed off, and
settles the lees at the bottom, where they ought to be. It is
under the figure of a vintage that Bacon describes the crowning
result of a successful inductive process. When this process has
been completed in any direction, it remains for a wider critical
and reconciling philosophy to bring the other departments of
knowledge into logical relation and correspondence with the new
outlook that has been gained on nature and its phenomena.
Erasmus tells us in his Praise of Folly, mingling satire with.
the truth of his criticism, that in order to understand the scholas-
tic theology of his day, it was necessary to spend six-and-thirty
years in the study of Aristotle’s physics, and of the doctrines of
the Scotists. What a purification of method has been wrought in
theology since the times of Erasmus! And for that purification
the Church is largely indebted to the methodology of modern
science, in clearing up the thoughts, and rationalizing the intel-
lectual processes of men. The gain for sound theology is here
unspeakable, and amply repays her for the heavy baggage she
has dropped by the way at the challenge of science—baggage
which only impeded her march, without reinforcing her artillery.
Henee, as a Christian philosopher, Prof. Henry never found it
necessary to lower the scientific flag in order to conciliate an ob-
scurantist theology, and he never lowered the Christian flag in

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. QO

order to conciliate those who would erect the scientific standard
over more territory than they have conquered. He had none of
that spirit which would rather be wrong with Plato than right
with anybody else. He wanted to follow wherever truth was in
the van. But better than most men, I think, he knew how to
discriminate between what a British scholar calls the duty of
“following truth wherever it leads us, and the duty of yielding
to the immediate pressure of an argument.” He saw, as the same
writer adds, that for whole generations “the victory of argument
may sway backwards and forwards, like the fortune of single
' battles,” but the victory of truth brings in peace, and a peace
which comes to stay. He Swept the scene of conflict with the
field-glass of a commander-in-chief, and did not set up his trophies
because of a brilliant skirmish on the picket lines of science. But
he believed in the picket line, and rejoiced in every sharpshooter
who fought with loyalty to truth in the forefront of the scientific
army.

A man of faith, Prof. Henry was a man of prayer. But his
views of prayer were perhaps peculiar in their spirituality. There
was nothing mechanical or formal in his theory of this religious
exercise. He held that it was the duty and privilege of enlight-
ened Christians to live in perpetual communion with the Almighty
Spirit, and in this sense to pray without ceasing. Work was
worship, if conducted in this temper. He accepted all the appoint-
ments of nature and Providence as the expressions of Infinite
Wisdom, and so in everything gave thanks.* He believed that

* The “ sweet reasonableness” into which he had schooled his temper
was manifested by the great trial which befell him in the year 1865, when
the Smithsonian building suffered from the ravages of a fire, which de-
Stroyed all the letters written down to that date by Prof. Henry, as
Smithsonian Secretary, in reply to innumerable questions relating to
almost every department of knowledge. Besides, the Annual Report of
the Institution in manuscript, nearly ready for the press, a valuable col-
lection of papers on meteorology, with written memoranda of his own to
aid in their digest, and countless minutes of scientific researches which
he purposed to make, all perished in the flames. Yet he was more con-
cerned about the loss of Bishop Johns’s library, which had been entrusted
to his care. than about the loss of his own papers and records. Referring
to the latter in a letter written to his friend. Dr. Torrey, a few days after
the fire, he held the following language: “A few years ago such acalamity
would have paralyzed me for future efforts, but in my present view of life
I take it as the dispensation of a kind and wise Providence, and trust that
it will work to my spiritual advantage.’?

¥

228 BULLETIN OF THE

familiarity with the order of nature and scientific assurance of its
uniformity need not and should not tend to extinguish the instinct,
or abolish the motives of prayer by seeming to imply its futility,
but should rather tend to purify and exalt the objects of prayer.
The savage prays to his idol, that he may have success in killing
his enemies. The Hottentot whips and worships his fetich in
blind but eager quest of some sensual boon, that he may consume
it upon his lusts. The prayers of the Vedic Books are the child-
ish prayers of an unspiritual and childish people. “They pray,”
says Max Miller, “for the playthings of life, for houses and
homes, for cows and horses, and they plainly tell the gods that
if they will only be kind and gracious they will receive rich
offerings in return.” And do we, asks the critic of compara-
tive religions, we Christians of this nineteenth century, ‘‘do
we do much otherwise,” if regard be had to the quality of
our petitions? Prof. Henry held that it was both the duty and
privilege of enlightened Christians to “do much otherwise,” by
praying preéminently, if not exclusively, for spiritual blessings.
And hence he held that the highest natural philosophy combines
with the highest Christian faith to transfer the religious thoughts,
feelings, and aspirations of man more and more from things seen
to things unseen, and from things temporal to things eternal.
This view of his had nothing of quietism or of mysticism in it.
Still less was it the expression of an apathetic stoicism. It was
only the philosopher’s way of praying to the great All-Father,
in the spirit of St. Augustine, “ Da quod jubes, et jube quod vis.”

I have made this reference to the opinions of Prof. Henry on
the relations of science to religion, as also on the relations of
natural philosophy to prayer, not only for the light they shed on
the character of the man, but also for a reason which is peculiar
to this Society, and which it may be a matter of interest for you
to know. Immediately after his last unanimous election as the
president of our Society, he communicated to me his purpose to
make the relations of science and religion, as also the true import
of prayer, the subject of his annual presidential address. He
gave me an outline of the views he intended to submit, and L
have here given but a brief réswmé of them, according to my
recollections of the colloquy, which was only one of many similar
conferences previously had on the same high themes. He said
that it would be, perhaps, the last time he should ever be ealled

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 2299)

to deliver a presidential address before the ‘Society he so much
loved, and that he wished to speak as became an humble patron
of Science, believing fully in her high mission, and at the same
time as an humble Christian, believing fully in the fundamental
truths of Revelation. ‘That he was not able to fulfil this purpose
will be as much a source of regret to you as it is to me, but when
I compare the valediction which it was in his heart to utter, with
the peaceful end which came a few months later to crown his days
with the halo of a finished life, I console myself with the thought
that no last words of his were needed to seal on our hearts the
lesson taught by his long and splendid career. Being dead he
yet speaketh.

It is, indeed, the shadow of a great affliction which his death
has cast upon our Society, but the light of his life pierces through
the darkness, aud irradiates for us all the paths of duty and labor,
of honor and purity, of truth and righteousness, in which he
walked with an eye that never blenched and a foot that never
faltered. We shall not see his face any more, beaming with
gladness and with the mild splendor of chastened intellect, but
we shall feel his spiritual presence whenever we meet in this hall.
We shall never hear his voice again, but its clear and gentle tones,
as from yonder chair he expounded to us the mysteries of nature,
will re-echo in the chambers of memory with only a deeper import,
now that he has gone to join the ‘dead but sceptred sovereigns
who still rule our spirits from their urns.”

230 BULLETIN OF THE

A MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY.

A SKETCH OF HIS SCIENTIFIC WORK.*

To cherish with affectionate regard the memory of the venerated
dead is not more grateful to the feelings, than to recall their ex-
cellences and to retrace the stages and occasions of their intel-
lectual conquests is instructive to the reason. Few lives within
the century are more worthy of admiration, more elevating in
contemplation, or more entitled to commemoration, than that of
our late most honored and beloved president—JoserH HENRY.

Distinguished by the extent of his varied and solid learning,
possessing a wide range of mental activity, so great were his
modesty and self-reserve, that only by the accidental call of
occasion would even an intimate friend sometimes discover with
surprise the fulness of his information and the soundness of his
philosophy, in some quite unsuspected direction. Remarkable
for his self-control, he was no less characterized by the absence
of self-assertion. Ever warmly interested in the development
and advancement of the young, he was a patient listener to the
trials of the disappointed, and a faithful guide to the aspirations
of the ambitious. Generous without ostentation, he was always
ready to assist the deserving—by services—by counsel—by active
exertions in their behalf.

In his own pursuits Truth was the supreme object of his re-
gard,—the sole interest and incentive of his investigations; and
in its prosecution he brought to bear in equable combination
qualities of a high order; quickness and correctness of percep-
tion, inventive ingenuity in experimentation, logical precision in
deduction, perseverance in exploration, sagacity in interpreta-
tion. ¢

* A large portion of the following discourse (including nearly the whole
of the section on the “ Administration of the Smithsonian [nstitution,’’)
was hecessarily omitted on the occasion of its delivery.

+ Henry’s tribute to Peltier, seems peculiarly applicable to himself.
“He possessed in an eminent degree the mental characteristics necessary
for a successful scientific discoverer; an imagination always active in
sugvesting hypotheses for the explanation of the phenomena under inves-
tigation, and a logical faculty never at fault in deducing consequences
from the suggestions best calculated to bring them to the test of experi-

4

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 931

EARLY CAREER.

Of Henry’s early struggles,—of the youthful traits which might
afford us clue to his manhood’s character and successes, we have
but little preserved for the future biographer. Deprived of his
father at an early age, he was the sole care and the sole comfort
of his widowed mother. Carefully nurtured in the stringent
principles of a devout religious faith, he adhered through life to
the traditions and to the convictions derived from his honorable
Scottish ancestry.

Asa youth he was by no means precocious,—as seldom have
been those who have left a permanent influence on their kind.
He seems to have felt no fondness for his early schools, and to
have shown no special aptitude for the instructions they afforded.
Like many another unpromising lad, he followed pretty much his
own devices, unconcerned as to the development of his latent
capabilities. The books he craved were not the books his school-
teachers set before him. The novel and the play interested and
absorbed the active fancy naturally so exuberant in youth; and
the indications from his impulsive temperament were that he
weuld probably become a poet—a dramatist—or an actor.

He was however from his childhood’s years a close observer—
both of nature, and of the peculiarities of his fellows: and one
characteristic early developed gave form and color to his mental
disposition throughout later years,—an unflagging energy of
purpose.

About the year 1814, while a boy of still indefinite aims and
of almost as indefinite longings, having been confined to the
house for a few days, in consequence of an accidental injury, his
restless attention happened to be drawn to a small volume on
Natural Philosophy, casnally left lying on a table by a boarder in
the house. Listlessly he opened it and read. Before he reached
the third page, he became profoundly interested in the statement
of some of the enigmas of the great sphinx—Nature. A new
world seemed opening to his “inquisitive eyes. Eagerly on he
read,—intent, to find the hidden meanings of phenomena which
hitherto covered by the ‘‘veil of familiarity” had never excited a
passing wonder or a doubting question. Was it possible ever to
discover the real causes of things? Here was a new Ideal—if
severer, yet grander than that of art. He no longer read with the
languid enjoyment of a passive recipient; he felt the new neces-
sity of reaching out with all the faculties of a thinker, with all the

ence; an invention ever fertile in devising apparatus and other means by
which the test could be applied; and finally a moral constitution which
sought only the discovery of truth, and conld alone be satisfied with its
attainment.’’ (Smithsonian Report for 1867, p. 158.)

5

232 ! BULLETIN OF THE

activity of a co-worker.* For the first time he realized (though
with no conscious expression of the thought) that there is—so to
speak,—an imagination of the intellect, as well as of the emotional
soul ;—that Zruth has its palaces no less gorgeous—no less won-
derful than those reared by fancy in homage to the Beautiful.

The owner of the book observing the close application of the
boy, very kindly presented it to him;7 and the thankful receiver
many years afterward placed upon the inside of its front cover,
the following memorandum :—

“This book although by no means a profound work, has under
Providence exerted a remarkable influence on my life. It acci-
dentally fell into my hands when I was about sixteen years old,
and was the first book I ever read with attention. It opened to
me a new world of thought and enjoyment; invested things before
almost unnoticed, with the bighest interest; fixed my mind on
the study of nature; and caused me to resolve at the time of
reading it, that 1 would immediately commence to devote my life
to the acquisition of knowledge. Ap ydele?

The new impulse was not a momentary fascination. Thence-
forward the novel was thrown aside, and poesy neglected; though
to his latest day a sterling poem never failed to strongly impress
him. As it dawned upon his reason that the foundation of the
coveted knowledge must be the studies he had thought so irk-
some, he at once determined to repair as far as possible his loss of
time, (being then an apprentice to his cousin John F. Doty, a
Watch-maker and Silver-smith in Albany,) by taking evening
lessons from two of the Professors in the Albany Academy ;
applying himself diligently to geometry and mechanics. And
here shone out that strength of will which enabled him to rise
above the harassing obstacle of the res angusta domi. With the
consent of his employer, so soon as he felt able, (although yet a
mere boy,) he managed to procure a position as teacher in a
country school, where for seven months successfully instructing
boys not much younger than himself, in what he had acquired,
he was enabled by rigid economy to take a regular course of
instruction at the Albany Academy. Again returning to his
school-teaching, he furnished himself with the means of complet-
ing his studies at the Academy; ‘vhere learning that the most
important key to the accurate knowledge of nature’s laws is a

* “There is a great difference between reading and study, or between
the indolent reception of knowledge without labor, and that effort of mind
which is always necessary in order to seeure an important truth and
make it fully onr own.” J. Henry. (Agricultural Report of the Patent
Office, for 1857, p. 421.)

+ The title of this book is “Lectures on Experimental Philosophy, As-
tronomy, and Chemistry; by G. Gregory, D.D., Vicar of West-ham.””
12mo. London, 1808. The owner of the book was a young Scotchman
named Robert Boyle; who was one of the boarders at his mother’s honse
in Albany, N. Y.

6

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 933

familiarity with the logical processes of the higher mathematics,
he resolutely set himself to work to master the intricacies of the
differential calculus.

Having finished his academic course and passed with honor
through his examinations, he then through the warm recommen-
dation of Dr. T. Romeyn Beck—the distinguished Principal of
the Academy, obtained a position as private tutor in the family
of General Stephen Van Rensselaer.* As this duty did not exact
more than about three hours a day of his attendance, he applied
his ample-leisure (having in view the medical profession)—partly
to the assistance of Dr. Beck in his chemical experiments, and
partly to the study of Anatomy and Physiology, under Doctors
Tully and Marsh.

His devotion to Natural Philosophy which had only grown and
strengthened with his own growth in knowledge, led him con-
stantly to repeat any unusual experiment as soon as reported in
the foreign scientific journals; and to devise new modifications
of the experiment for testing more fully the range and operation
of its fundamental principles.

Communications to the Albany Institute.—The “ Albany In-
stitute” was organized May 5th 1824, by the union of two older
Societies; with General Stephen Van Rensselaer as its Presi-
dent:+ and young Henry became at once an active member:
though with his modest estimate of his own attainments, he
preferred the part of listener and acquirer, to that of seeming
instructor, till urged by those who knew him best to add his
contributions to the general garner.

Henry’s first communication to the Institute was read October
30th 1824 (at the age of about twenty-six years) and was “On
the chemical and mechanical effects of steam: with experiments
designed to illustrate the great reduction of temperature in steam
of high elasticity when suddenly expanded.”{ From the stop-
cock of a strongly made copper vessel in which steam could be
safely generated under considerable pressure, he allowed an occa-
sional escape; and he showed by holding the bulb of a thermo-
meter in the jet of steam, at a fixed distance (say of four inches)
from the orifice, that as the temperature and pressure increased
within the boiler, the indications of the thermometer without
grew lower ;—the expansion and consequent cooling of the escap-

* Presiding Officer of the original Board of Trustees of the Albany
Academy.

{ The Albany Institute resulted from the fusion of “The Society for the
Promotion of Useful Arts in the State of New York,” organized Feb. 1791
(incorporated April 2nd 1804,) and the “ Albany Lyceum of Natural His-
tory” formed and incorporated April 23rd 1823: of which latter society,
Henry had been a member.

$ Trans. Albany Inst. vol. i. part 2, p. 30.

7

934 BULLETIN OF THE

ing steam under great pressure, increasing in a higher ratio than
the increased temperature required for the pressure. And finally
he exhibited the striking paradox, that the jet of saturated steam
from a boiler will not scald the hand exposed to it, at a prescribed
near distance from the try-cock, provided the steam be sutticiently
hot.*

Prolific and skilful in devising experiments, Henry delighted
in making evident to the senses the principles he wished to im-
press upon the mind. Extending the law of cooling by expansion,
from steam at high temperatures, to air at ordinary temperatures,
his next communication to the Institute (made March 2nd 1825,)
was “On the Production of Cold by the Rarefaction of Air.”
As before, he accompanied his remarks by several characteristic
exhibitions.

‘‘One of these experiments most strikingly illustrated the great
reduction of temperature which takes place on the sudden rare-
faction of condensed air. Half a pint of water was poured into
a strong copper vessel.of a globular form, and having a capacity
of five gallons; a tube of one-fourth of an inch caliber with a
number of holes near the lower end, and a stop-cock attached to
the other extremity, was firmly screwed into the neck of the
vessel; the lower end of the tube dipped into the water, but a
number of the holes were above the surface of the liquid, so that
a jet of air mingled with water might be thrown from the foun-
tain. The apparatus was then charged with condensed air, by
means of a powerful condensing pump, until the pressure was
estimated at nine atmospheres. During the condensation the
vessel became sensibly warm. After suffering the apparatus to
cool down to the temperature of the room, the stop-cock was
opened: the air rushed out with great violence, carrying with it
a quantity of water, which was instantly converted into snow.
After a few seconds, the tube became filled with ice, which almost
entirely stopped the current of air. The neck of the vessel was
then partially unscrewed, so as to allow the condensed air to rush
out around the sides of the screw: in this state the temperature
of the whole interior atmosphere was so much reduced as to
freeze the remaining water in. the vessel.’*>

Although the principle on which this striking result was based
was not at that time new, it must be borne in mind that this

4

* While it requires a heat of 2509 F. to generate a steam-pressnre of two
atmospheres (/. e. one additional to the existing), 250 higher will produce
a pressure of three atmospheres, and 1009 higher, (or 3559 F.) will produce
a pressure of nine atmospheres: the curve (by rectangular co-ordinates
of temperature and pressure) resembling a hyperbola. The increased
velocity at high pressure produces a molecular momentum of expansion
carrying the rarefaction beyond the limit of atmospheric pressure; and in
the case of the exposed hand, the injected air current doubtless adds to
the cooling impression,

t Trans. Albany Inst. vol. i. part 2, p. 36.
8

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 935

particular application, thus publicly exhibited, was long before
any of the numerous patents were obtained for ice-making, not a
few of which adopted substantially the same process.

State Appointment as a Civil Engineer.—Through the friend-
ship and confidence of an influential judge, Heury received about
this time an unexpected offer of an appointment as Engineer
on the survey of a route for a road through the State of New
York, from the Hudson river on the east, to lake Erie on the
west. ‘The proposal was too tempting to his natural proclivities
to be refused; and being appointed, he embarked upon his new
and arduous duties with the zeal and energy which were so pro-
minent a feature of his character. He completed the survey with
credit to himself, and to the entire satisfaction of the Commis-
sioners of the work.*

So attractive appeared the profession of engineer to his enter-
prising disposition, that he was about to accept the directorship
in the construction of a canal in Ohio, when he was informed
that the Chair of Mathematics in the Albany Academy would
soon become vacant, and that his own name had already been
prominently brought forward in connection with the position. At
the urgent solicitation of his old friend and former teacher Dr. T.
Romeyn Beck, he consented with some hesitation to signify his
willingness to accept the vacant chair if appointed thereto.

Election as Professor of Mathematics.—In the spring of 1826,
Henry was duly elected by the Trustees of the Albany Academy
to the Professorship of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in
that Institution. As the duties of his office did not commence
till September of that year, he was allowed a practical vacation of
about five months; which was partly occupied with a geological
exploration in the adjoining counties, as assistant to Professor
Eaton, of the Rensselaer School, and partly devoted to a conscien-
tious preparation for his new position.

In a worldly point of view, this variety of occupation and ver-
satility of adaptation might perhaps be regarded as unfavorable
to suecess. As a method of culture, it was of unquestionable
advantage to his intellectual powers. A hard student, with great
capacity for close application, he accumulated large stores of in-
formation: and in addition to his constant thirst for acqnirement
in different directions, his leisure was oceupied to a considerable
extent with physical and chemical examinations. On the 21st of
March 1827, he delivered before the Albany Institute a lecture
on “Flame,” accompanied with experiments. f

* Ina popular journal (“The Eclectic Magazine’’) it jis stated: “ His
labors in this work were exceedingly arduous and responsible. They ex-
tended far into the winter, and the operations were carried on in some
instances amid deep snows in primeval forests.”’

{ Trans. Albany Inst. vot. i. part 2, p. 59.

9

236 BULLETIN OF THE

Meteorological Work.—-The Regents of the University of the
State of New York, endowed by the State Legislature with su-
pervisory functions over the public educational institutions of the
State, in {£825 established a system of meteorological observation
for the State, by supplying to each of the Academies incorporated
by them, a thermometer and a rain-gauge, and requiring them to
keep a daily register of prescribed form, to entitle them to their
portion of the literature fund of the State. In 1827, the Hon.
Simeon De Witt, Chancellor of the Board of Regents, associated
with himself Dr. '’. Romeyn Beck and Professor Henry of the
Albany Academy, to prepare and tabulate the results of these
observations. The first Abstract of these collections (for the
year 1828) comprised tabulations of the monthly and yearly
means of temperature, wind, rain, ete., at all the stations, an
account of meteorological incidents generally, and a table of
‘“‘ Miscellaneous Observations” on the dates of notable phases of
organic phenomena connected with climatic conditions. These
annnal Abstracts, to which Henry devoted a considerable share
of his attention, were continued throngh a series of years and
were published in the ‘Annual Reports of the Regents of the
University to the Legislature of the State of New Y ork.* The
third Abstract (for 1830) includes an accurate tabulation by
Henry of the Latitudes, Longitudes, and Elevations of all the
meteorological stations; over forty in number.

ELECTRICAL RESEARCHES AT ALBANY; FROM 1827-1835.

Of Henry’s distinguished success as a lecturer and teacher,
in imparting to his pupils a portion of his own zeal and earnest-
ness in the pursuit of scientific knowledge, as well as in winning
their affection and in inspiring their esteem, it is not designed
here to discourse; but rather of his solitary labors outside of his
professional occupation in communicating and diffusing knowl-
edge. Very shortly after his occupation of the academic chair
of mathematics and physics, he turned his attention to the ex-
perimental study of that mysterious agency—electricity. Profes-
sor Schweigger of Halle, had improved on (Hrsted’s galvanic
indicator (of. a single wire circuit) by giving the insulated wire a
number of turns around an elongated frame longitudinally enclos-
ing the compass needle, and by ‘thus multiplying the effect of the
valvanic circuits, had converted it into a real measuring instru-
ment—a ‘‘galvanometer.”}+ Ampere and Arago of Paris, develop-

* Reports of Regents, &e. Albany, vol. i. 1829-1835.

t+ The name of Galvani (as original etOuarar of chemico-electricity)
is usually retained to desien te both the current and its generator; al-
though the chemico-electric pile and battery were really first con rived by
Volta in 1800. In the same manner Oersted is generally accounted the
discoverer of electro-magnetism, although he never devised an electro-

10

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 237

ing (irsted’s announcement of the torsional or equatorial reaction
between a galvanic conductor and a magnetic needle, had found
that a circulating galvanic current was capable not only of de-
flecting a suspended magnet, but of generating maynetism—per-
manently in sewing needles, and temporarily in pieces of iron
wire, when placed within a glass tube around which the conjunc-
tive wire of the battery had been wound in a loose helix; and had
thus created the ‘“‘electro-magnet.”* 'The scientific world was just
aroused to the close interrogation of this new marvel, each ques-
tioner eager to ascertain its most efficient conditions, and to in-
crease its manifestations. William Sturgeon of Woolwich, Eng-
land, had extended the discoveries of Ampere and Arago, by
dispensing with the glass tube, constructing a “horse-shoe” bar
of soft iron (after the form of the usual permanent magnet) coated
with a non-conducting substance, and winding the copper conjune-
tive wire directly upon the horse-shoe; and had thus produced the
first efficient electro-magnet ;—capable of sustaining several pounds
by its armature, when duly excited by the galvanic current. He
had also greatly improved lecture-room apparatus for illustrating
the electro-magnetic reactions of rotations, ete., (where a perma-
nent magnet is employed) by introducing stronger magnets, and
thereby succeeding in exhibiting the phenomena on a larger
scale, with a considerable reduction of the battery power. +

Faraday had not yet commenced the series of researches which
in after years so illumined his name, when Henry published his
first contribution to electrical science, in a communication read
before the Albany Institute, October 10th, 1827, “On some Modi-
fications of the Hlectro-Magnetic Apparatus.” From his experi-
mental investigations he was enabled to exhibit all the class
illustrations attempted by Sturgeon, on even a still larger and
more conspicuous scale, with the employment of very weak magnets
(where required), and with a still further considerable reduction
of the battery power. These quite striking and unexpected results
were obtained by the simple expedient of adopting in every case
where single circuits had previously been used, the manifold coil
of fine wire which Schweigger had employed to increase the sen-
sibility of the galvanometer. He remarks :—

magnet; and appears not fo have been the first even to discover the
directive influence of a current on a magnetic needle.

* Annales de Chin:ie et de Physiqve, 1820, vol. xv. pp. 93-100.

{ Trans. Soc. Encouragement Arts, etc., 1825, vol. xliii. pp. 38-52.
This battery (of a single element) consisted “ of two fixed hollow concen-
tric cylinders of thin copper, having a movable cylinder of zinc placed
between them. Its superficial area is only 130 square inches, and it
weighs no more than 1 Jb. 5 ozs.” Mr. Sturgeon was deservedly awarded
the Silver Medal of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts etel, “ for
his improved electro-magnetic apparatus.” Described also in Thomson’s
Annals of Philos., Nov. 1826, vol. xii., new series, pp. 357-361.

11

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238 BULLETIN OF THE

“Mr. Sturgeon of Woolwich, who has been perhaps the
most successful in these improvements, has shown that a strong
galvanic power is not essentially necessary even to exhibit the
experiments on the largest scale. . . . Mr. Sturgeon’s suite
of apparatus, though superior to any other as far as it goes, does
not however form a complete set: as indeed it is plain that his
principle of strong magnets cannot be introduced into every
article required, and particularly into those intended to exhibit
the action of the earth’s magnetism on a galvanic current, or the
operation of two conjunctive wires on each other. To form
therefore a set of instruments on a large scale that will illustrate
all the facts belonging to this science, with the least expense of
galvanism, evidently requires some additional modification of
apparatus, and particularly in those cases in which powerful
magnets cannot be applied. And such a modification appears to
me to be obviously pointed out in the construction of Professor
Schweigger’s Galvanic Multiplier: the principles of this instru-
ment being directly applicable to all the experiments in which
My. Sturgeon’s improvement fails to be useful.” *

The coils employed in the various articles of apparatus thus
improved, comprised usually about twenty turns of fine copper
wire wound with silk to prevent metallic contact, the whole
being closely bound together. ‘To exhibit for example A mpére’s
ingenious and delicate experiment showing the directive action
of the earth as a magnet on a galvanic current when its con-
ductor is free to move, (usually a small wire frame with its
extremities dipping either into mercury cups, or into mercury
channels, ) or its simpler modification, the “ring” of De La Rive
(usually an inch or two in diameter and made to freely float
with its galvanic element in its own bath,) the effect was
strikingly enhanced by Henry’s method of suspending by a silk
thread a large circular coil twenty inches in diameter, of many
wire circuits bound together with ribbon,—the extremities of the
wire protruding at the lower part of the hoop, and soldered to a
pair of small galvanic plates ;--when by simply placing a tumbler
of acidulated water beneath, the hoop at once assumed (with a
few oscillations) its equatorial position transverse to the mag-
netic meridian. By a similar arrangement of two circular coils
of different diameters, one suspended within the other, Ampere’s
fine discovery of the mutual action of two electric currents on
each other, was as strikingly displayed. Such was the character
of demonstration by which the new Professor was accustomed to
make visible to his classes the principles of electro-magnetism :
and it is safe to say that in simplicity, distinctness, and efficiency,
such apparatus for the lecture-room was far superior to any of
the kind then existing.

* Trans. Albany Institute, vol. i. pp. 22, 23.
12

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 239

Should any one be disposed to conclude that this simple ex-
tension of Schweigger’s multiple coil was unimportant and un-
meritorious, the ready answer occurs, that talented and skilful
electricians, laboring to attain the result, had for six years
failed to make such an extension. Nor was the result by any
means antecedently assured by Schweigger’s success with the
galvanometer. If Sturgeon’s improvement of economizing the
battery size and consumption, by increasing the magnet factor
(in those few cases where available), was well deserving of
reward, surely Henry’s improvement of a far greater economy,
by increasing the circuit factor (entirely neglected by Sturgeon)
deserved a still higher applause.

In a subsequent communication to Silliman’s Journal, Henry
remarks on the results announced in October, 1827 :—‘‘ Shortly
after the publication mentioned, several other applications of the
coil, besides those described in that paper, were made in order
to increase the size of electro-maguetic apparatus, and to
diminish the necessary galvanic power. The most interesting of
these was its application to a development of magnetism in soft
iron, much more extensive than to my knowledge had been pre-
viously effected by a small galvanic element.” The electro-
magnet figured and described by Sturgeon, (in bis communication
of November, 1825,) consisted of a small bar or stout iron wire
bent into a U or horse-shoe form, having a copper wire wound
loosely around it in eighteen turns, with the ends of the wire
dipping into mercury cups connected with the respective poles of
a battery having 130 square inches of active surface. This was
undoubtedly the most efficient electro-magnet then in existence.

In June of 1828, Henry exhibited to the Albany Institute a
small-sized electro-magnet closely wound with silk-covered cop-
per wire about one-thirtieth of an inch in diameter. By thus
insulating the conducting wire instead of the magnetic bar or
core, he was enabled to employ a compact coil in close juxtaposi-
tion from one end of the horse-shoe to the other, obtaining
thereby a much larger number of circuits, and having each circuit
more nearly at right angles with the magnetic axis. The lifting
power of this magnet is not stated, though it must obviously
have been much more powerful than the one described by
Sturgeon.

In March of 1829, Henry exhibited to the Institute a some-
what larger magnet, of the same character. ‘A round piece of
iron about one quarter of an inch in diameter, was bent into the
usual form of a horse-shoe, and instead of loosely coiling around
it a few feet of wire, as is usually described, it was tightly wound
with 35 feet of wire covered with silk, so as to form about 400
turns: a pair of small galvanic plates which could be dipped
into a tumbler of diluted acid, was soldered to the ends of the
wire, and the whole mounted on a stand. With these small

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240 BULLETIN OF THE

plates, the horse-shoe became much more powerfully magnetic
than another of the same size (and wound in the usual manner)
by the application of a battery composed of 28 plates of copper
and zine each 8 inches square.” In this case the coil was wound
upon itself.

Henry’s “Quantity” Magnet compared with Moll’s. —Shortly
after this, Dr. G. Moll, (Professor of Natural Philosophy in
the University of Utrecht,) having seen in Hngland, in 1828
an electro-magnet of Sturgeon’s which supported nine pounds
from its armature, “determined to try the effect of a larger
galvanic apparatus ;” and in a paper published in 1830,* re-

marks: “I obtained results which appear astonishing, and are
as far as the intensity of magnetic force is concerned, altogether
new. I have anxiously looked since that time into different
scientific continental and English journals, without finding any
further attempt to extend and improve Mr. Sturgeon’s original
experiment.” Moll’s horse-shoe formed of a round bar of iron
about 1 inch thick, was about 84 inches in height, and had a
wrapped copper wire of about one-eighth inch diameter coiled
83 times around it. The weight of the horse-shoe and wire was
about 5 pounds; of the armature, about 1} pound; and with a
single galvanic pair whose acting zine surface was about 11
square feet, the electro-magnet supported about 50 pounds. With
cautious additions, the load could be increased to 75 pounds.
An additional galvanic pair of about 6 square feet was applied
without increasing the power of the magnet.+

As soon as the account of Moll’s magnet reached this country,
Henry who had obtained and had publicly exhibited nearly two
years previously, considerably higher results, and who realized
that there was at least one very important difference of construc-
tion between his own magnet and that of the Dutch savant, felt
it a duty at once to publish the details of his own researches, in
a more public form :—which he accordingly did in the January
number of Silliman’s American Journal of Science for 1831;
(then published only quarterly ;) causing a copy of Professor
Moll’s paper, taken from Brewster’s Edinburgh Journal of
Science for October 1830, to be inserted in the same number.
At the conclusion of his own article he remarks: ‘The only
effect Professor Moll’s paper has had over these investigations,
has been to hasten their publication: the principle on which
they were instituted was known to us nearly two years since,
and at that time exhibited to the Albany Institute.”

The magnet which he had subsequently made, consisted of a
cylindrical bar of iron one-half inch in diameter and about 10
inches long, bent into a horse-shoe and closely wound with several

* Bibliotheque Universelle, 1830, cah. 45, p. 19.
} brewster’s Edinburgh Jour. Sci Oct. 1830, vol. iii. n. s. pp. 209-218.
14

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 24]

strands of fine silk-covered wire, each about 30 feet long; which
arrangement when placed in the circuit of a single galvanic pair
whose zine surface was 6 inches by 4 inches (one-sixth of a
Square foot) sustained by its armature ‘“39 pounds, or more than
fifty times its own weight ;” Moll’s highest result (of which he
justly felt proud) being only fifteen times the weight of the
magnet, with Il square feet of zinc surface. While Henry’s
magnet had the practical advantage of being about only one-half
the size of Moll’s—in each dimension, (and therefore about only
one-eighth its weight without wrappings,) yet it supported more
than half his load: (39 pounds to 75 pounds.) Moll had em-
ployed a single copper wire one-eighth inch thick and about 22
feet long: Henry, several strands each about one thirty-sixth
of an inch thick, and 30 feet long ;—the former making 83 turns
around the iron core,—the latter, several hundred turns. But
the most surprising contrast resulting from these differences was
the enormous difference of battery-power applied ; Moll pushing
his up to 17 square feet,—Henry reducing his to one-sixth of one
square foot. With a galvanic element reduced to two and a
half square inches, his magnet sustained 28 pounds; or more
than double the relative duty of Moll’s at its highest power.
The philosopher of Utrecht, though he evidently realized with
him of Albany, the importance of close winding, employed but a
singlelayer of coil. The latter, by means of well-considered trials
had ascertained the great increase of magnetic force resulting
from a succession of coils.

To Henry therefore belongs the exclusive credit of having first
constructed the magnetic “spool” or “ bobbin”: that form of coil
since universally employed for every application of electro-mag-
netism, of induction, or of magneto-electrics. This was his first
great contribution to the science and to the art of galvanic mag-
netization. It may be very confidently affirmed that prior to
1829, no one on either hemisphere had ever thought of winding
the legs of an electro-magnet on the principle of the “bobbin”;
and that not till after the publication of Henry’s method in Janu-
ary of 1831, was it ever employed by any Huropean physicist.

“These experiments conclusively proved that a great develop-
ment of magnetism could be effected by a very small galvanic
element, and also that the power of the coil was materially
increased by multiplying the number of wires, without increasing
the length of each. The multiplication of the wires increases
the power in two ways; first, by conducting a greater qnantity
of galvanism, and secondly, by giving it a more proper diree-
tion; for since the action of a galvanic current is directly at
right angles to the axis of a magnetic needle,—by using several
shorter wires, we can wind one on each inch of the length of the

15

242 BULLETIN OF THE

bar to be magnetized, so that the magnetism of each inch will
be developed by a separate wire: In this way the action of each
particular coi] becomes directed very nearly at right angles to
the axis of the bar, and consequently the effect is the greatest
possible. This principle is of much greater importance when
large bars are used. The advantage of a greater conducting
power from using several wires might in a less degree be ob-
tained by substituting for them one large wire of equal sectional
area; but in this case the obliquity of the spiral would be much
greater, and consequently the magnetic action less.”* Moll’s
single conducting wire of one eighth inch diameter, while there-
fore electrically equivalent to about 20 of Henry’s conducting
wires (of the same length and weight) would be magnetically
inferior thereto—for equal iron cores.

Notwithstanding that Henry’s successes were thus both earlier
and more brilliant than those of Moll, the two names are usually
associated together by European writers in treating of the deve-
lopment of the magnet. +

Among the subsequent experiments on which Henry was en-
gaged at the time of receiving the Edinburgh Journal of Scicnce
containing Moll’s paper, was a series on a much larger maguet,
consisting of a bar of soft iron two inches square (with the
angles rounded) and twenty inches long, bent into a horse-shoe
about nine inches high, and weighing 21 pounds. Its armature—
a piece from the same bar ground to fit truly the ends of the
horse-shoe, weighed 7 pounds. Nine coils of copper bell-wire
each 60 feet in length (making 540 feet in all) were separately
wound on different portions of the horse-shoe. ‘These coils
were not continued around the whole length of the bar, but each
strand of wire according to the principle before mentioned, occu-
pied about two inches, and was coiled several times backward
and forward over itself: the several ends of the wire were left
projecting and all numbered, so that the first and last end of
each strand might be readily distinguished. In this manner was
formed an experimental magnet on a large scale, with which
several combinations of wire could be made by merely uniting
the different projecting ends. Thus if the second end of the first.
wire be soldered to the first end of the second wire, and so on

* Sill. Am. Jour. Sci. January, 1831, vol. xix. p. 402. The three
names—Arago, Sturgeon, and Henry, may well typify the infancy, the
youth, and the mature manhood of the electro-magnet.

+ Faraday in subsequently investigating the conditions of galvanic
induction, referred with approbation to the magnets of Moll and Henry
as best calculated to produce the effects sought. In constructing his
duplex helices for observing the direction of the induced current, he
however adopted Henry’s method by winding 12 coils of copper wire each
27 feet Jong—one upon the other. (Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Nov. 24,1831,.
vol. cxxii. (for 1832,) pp. 126, and 138. Experimental Researches, etc.
vol. i. art. 6, p. 2; and art. 57, p. 15.)

16

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 243

through all the series, the whole will form a continued coil of
one long wire. By soldering different ends the whole may be
formed into a double coil of half the length, or into a triple coil
of one-third the length, etc. The horse-shoe was suspended in
a rectangular wooden frame 3 feet 9 inches high and 20 inches
wide.”

T'wo of the wires (one from each extremity of the legs) being
joined together by soldering, so as to form a single circuit of
120 feet, with its extreme ends connected with the battery, pro-
duced a lifting power of 60 pounds. (zx. 19.) The same two
wires being separately connected with the same battery (forming
a double circuit of 60 feet each) a lifting power of 200 pounds
was obtained: (Hx. 10.) or more than three times the power of
the former case with the same wire. Four wires (two from each
extremity of the legs) being separately connected with the bat-
tery, (forming four circuits,) gave a lifting power of 500 pounds.
(Hx. 12.) Six wires (three from each leg) united in three pairs,
(forming three circuits of 120 feet each,) gave a lifting power of
290 pounds. (Ha. 18.) The same six wires being separately
connected with the battery in six independent circuits, produced
a lifting power of 570 pounds: (Zz. 13.) or very nearly double
that of the same wires in double lengths. When all the nine
wires were separately attached to the battery, a lifting power of
650 pounds was evoked. (x. 14.) In all these experiments
“a small single battery was used consisting of two concentric
copper cylinders, with zine between them: the whole amount of
zine surface exposed to the acid from both sides of the zine was
two-fifths of a square foot: the battery required only half a pint
of dilute acid for its submersion.”

“In order to ascertain the effect of a very small galvanic ele-
ment on this large quantity of iron, a pair of plates exactly one
inch square, was attached to all the wires: the weight lifted was
85 pounds.” (Hx. 16.) This was certainly a very remarkable
result; particularly when compared with Moll’s 75 pounds with
eleven square feet of zine. In order to obtain the maximum
attractive power of this magnet, with its nine coils, “a small
battery formed with a plate of zinc 12 inches long and 6 wide,
and surrounded by copper, was substituted for the galvanie
element used in the former experiments: the weight lifted in
this case was 750 pounds.” (Hx. 15.) This is exactly ten times
the maximum weight supported by Moll’s magnet with a far
greater battery power. In illustration of the feeble power of the
magnetic poles when exerted separately, it was found that with
precisely the same arrangements giving a holding power of 750
pounds to the double contact armature,—either pole alone was
capable of sustaining only 5 or 6 pounds: ‘and in this case we
never succeeded in making it lift the armature—weighing 7

17

944 BULLETIN OF THE

pounds. We have never seen the circumstance noticed of so
great a difference between a single pole and both.”

Henry’s ‘‘ Intensity” Magnet.—But Henry’s remarkable paper
of January 1831 contains still another original contribution to
the theory and practice of electro-magnetics, no less important
than his invention of the magnetic spool. While Moll had
endeavored to induce strong magnetism by the use of a powerful
“quantity” battery, Henry had labored to derive from a mini-
mum galvanic power its maximum magnetizing effect: and in
his varied experiments on these two factors, he discovered very
curious and unsuspected relations between them. A _ great
majority of investigators—after having definitely ascertained
the striking fact of the great inferiority in magnetizing power,
of a single long continuous coil, to a proportionally shortened
circuit of multiple coils——would naturally have been led to
abandon all further investigation of the feebler system. Henry
however recognized in this a field of instructive inquiry: and for
the first time showed that the coil of short and numerous circuits,
least affected by a battery of many pairs, was on the contrary
most responsive to a single galvanic element; while the single
extended coil, least influenced by a single pair, was most excited
by a battery of elements. He appears to have been the first to
form a clear conception of the difference between “intensity”
and ‘quantity ” both in the battery and.in the magnet: a dif-
ference which (as referred to the current), he was accustomed
figuratively to illustrate by the mechanical difierence between
equal momentums of high and low velocity.*

The illustrious Laplace had suggested to Ampere in 1820,—
immediately upon the discovery of the galvanometer, that by
sending the galvanic current through long wires connecting two
distant stations, the deflections of enclosed magnetic needles
wou.d constitute very simple and efficient signals for an instan-
taneous telegraph.f Peter Barlow the eminent English ma-
thematician and magnetician taking up the suggestion, had
endeavored more fully to test its practicability. He has thus

* “Tn describing the results of my experiments, the terms ‘intensity’
and ‘quantity’ magnets were introduced to avoid circumlocution, and
were intended to be used merely in a technical sense. By the intensity
magnet I designated a piece of soft iron so surrounded with wire that its
mavnetic power could be called into operation by an ‘intensity’ battery ;
and by a quantity magnet, a piece of iron so surrounded by a number of
separate coils that its magnetism could be fully developed by a ‘quan-
tity’ battery.” (Smithsonian Report for 1857, p. 103.) Although these
terms are somewhat antiquated, and repudiated by recent writers, they
will be retained in this Memoir, for their convenience.

7 Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1820, vol. xv. pp. 72, 73. Ampére
made the experiment suggested by Laplace, through a long conducting
wire ‘with perfect success.” The length of the wire is not stated.

18

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 245

stated the result: ‘In a very early stage of electro-magnetic
experiments it had been suggested that an instantaneous tele-
graph might be established by means of conducting wires and
compasses. ‘The details of this contrivance are so obvious, and
the principle on which it is founded so well understood, that
there was only one question which could render the result doubts
ful; and this was,—is there any diminution of effect by length-
ening the conducting wire? It had been said that the electric
fluid from a common [tin-foil] electrical battery had been trans-
mitted through a wire four miles in length without any sensible
diminution of effect, aud to every appearance instantaneously ;
and if this should be found to be the case with the galvanic cir-_
cuit, then no question could be entertained of the practicability
and utility of the suggestion above adverted to. I was therefore
induced to make the trial; but I found such a sensible diminution
with only 200 feet of wire, as at once to convince me of the
impracticability of the scheme. It led me however to an inquiry
as to the cause of thig diminution, and the laws by which it is
governed.”’*

Henry in his researches just referred to, (assisted by his friend
Dr. Ten-Eyck,) employed a small electro-magnet of one quarter
inch iron “wound with about 8 feet of copper wire.” Excited
with a single pair “composed of a piece of zinc plate 4 inches
by 7, surrounded with copper,” (about 56 square inches of zine
surface,) the magnet sustained four pounds and a half. With
about 500 feet of insulated copper wire (.045 of an inch in
diameter) interposed between the battery and the magnet, its
lifting power was reduced to two ounces ;—or about 36 times.
With double this length of wire, or a little over 1000 feet, inter-
posed, the lifting power of the magnet was only half an ounce:
thus fully confirming the results obtained by Barlow. With a
small galvanic pair 2 inches square, acting through the same
length of wire (over 1000 feet,) “the magnetism was scarcely
observable in the horse-shoe.” Employing next a trough battery
of 25 pairs, having the same zinc surface as previously, the
magnet in direct connection, (which before had supported four
and a half pounds,) now lifted but seven ounces ;—not quite half
a pound. But with the 1060 feet of copper wire (a little more

* “On the Laws of Electro-magnetic Action.” Edinburgh Philosoph.
Jour. Jan. 1825, vol. xii. pp. 105-113. In explanation and justification
of this discouraging judgment from so high an au hority in magnetics, it
must be remembered that both in the galvanometer and in the electro-
magnet, the coil best calculated to produce large effects, was that of least
resistance; which unfortunately was not that best adapted to a long cir-
cuit. On the other hand, the most efficient magnet ‘or galvanometer was
not found to be improved in result by increasing the number of galvanic
elements. Barlow in his inquiry as to the “law of diminution” was led
(erroneously) to regard the resistance of the conducting wire as increasing
in the ratio of the square root of its length. (p. 111.)

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246 BULLETIN OF THE

than one-fifth of a mile) suspended several times across the large
room of the Academy, and placed in the galvanic circuit, the
same magnet sustained eight ounces: that is to say, the current
from the galvanic trough produced greater magnetic effect after
traversing this length of wire, than it did without it.
Speculating on this remarkable, and at the time, paradoxical
result, Henry suggests in explanation, that ‘‘a current from a
trough possesses more ‘projectile’ force (to use Professor Hare’s
expression,) and approximates somewhat in ‘intensity’ to the
electricity from the common machine. May it not also be a fact
that the galvanic fluid in order to produce the greatest magnetic
effect should move with a smaller velocity, and that in passing
through one-fifth of a mile, its velocity is so retarded as to pro-
duce a greater magnetic action? But be this asit may, the fact
that the magnetic action of a current from a trough is at least
not sensibly diminished by passing through a long wire, is
directly applicable to Mr. Barlow’s project of forming an electro-
magnetic telegraph; * and it is also of material consequence in
the construction of the galvanic coil, From these experiments
it is evident that in forming the coil we may either use one very
long wire, or several shorter ones, as the circumstances may
require: in the first case, our galvanic combinations must consist
of a number of plates so as to give ‘projectile’ furce; in the
second, it must be formed of a single pair.” +
Here for the first time is presented to science the “intensity ”
coil,—a spool of a single fine wire closely wound again and again
upon itself,—with its singular capabilities—not of power, but
(what was never before suspected nor imagined) of subtile ex-
citation from a distant source. Here for the first time is estab-
lished the important principle, that there must be a proportion
between the aggregate internal resistance of the battery, and the
whole external resistance of the conjunctive wire or conducting
circuit; that for a “quantity” magnet of multiple coils (or their
equivalent a large wire of corresponding weight) a “ quantity”
battery of surface, or a single galvanic element is required ;
while for an ‘‘intensity ” magnet of extended continuous fine coil,
an “intensity” battery of many small pairs is requisite :{ with
the further discovery that the electro-motive force of the latter
form enables a very long conductor to be employed without sen-

* Really Laplace’s project ;—not Barlow’s.

f Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. Jan. 1831, vol. xix. pp. 403, 404.

{ ‘For circuits of small resistance, galvanometers of small resistance
must be used. For circuits of large resistance, galvanometers of large
resistance must also be used; not that their resistance is any advantage,
but because we cannot have a galvanometer adapted to indicate very
sinall currents without having a very large number of turns in the coil,
and this involves necessarily a large resistance.’’? Prof. F. Jenkin, Elec-
tricity and Magnetism, 12mo. London, and N. Y. 1873, chap. iv. sect. 8,
p- 89.

20

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 247

sible diminution of the effect.* Professor Moll, the foremost of
Europeans in the chase, and close upon the heels of Henry in one
portion of his researches, produced a powerful ‘“ quantity” mag-
net, but one hopelessly and radically incapacitated from any
such application.

These memorable consequences of careful and judicious ex-
periment, carried on in 1829, and 1830, formed truly a most
pregnant epoch in the history of the infant science; and consti-
tuted a valuable addition to the world’s capital. Their adoption
underlies all subsequent applications of the intermittent magnet,
and is the indispensable basis of every form of the electro-mag-
netic telegraph since invented. They settled satisfactorily (in
Barlow’s phrase)—the “only question which could render the
result doubtful :” and though derived from the magnet, were
obviously as applicable to the galvanometer needle.

It is idle to say in disparagement of these successes, that in
the competitive race of numerous distinguished investigators in
the field, diligently searching into the conditions of the new found
agency, the same results would soon have been reached by others.
For of what discovery or invention may not the same be said ?
Only those who have sought in the twilight of uncertainty, can
appreciate the vast economy of effort, by prompt directions to
the path from one who has gained an advance. Not for what
might be, but for the actual bestowal, does he who first grasps a
useful truth, merit the return of at least a grateful recognition.

If these results apparently so simple when announced by
Henry, have never been justly appreciated either at home or
abroad, no such complaint ever escaped their author. No such
thought seems ever to have occurred to his artless nature. For
him the one sufficient incentive and recompense was the advance-
ment of himself and others in the knowledge of nature’s laws.
With the telegraph consciously within his grasp, he was well
content to leave to others the glory aud the emoluments of its
realization.

In the year 1831, Henry had suspended around the walls of
one of the upper rooms in the Albany Academy, a mile of copper
bell-wire interposed in a circuit between a small Cruickshank
battery and an “intensity” magnet of continuous fine coil. A
narrow steel rod—a permanent magnet—pivoted to swing hori-
zontally like the compass needle, was arranged so that normally
when pointing north, this end remained in contact with one leg
of the soft iron core, while near the opposite end of the compass
needle, a small stationary office-bell was placed. At each exci-

* Beyond a certain maximum length, there is of course a decrease of
power proportioned to the increased resistance of a lony conductor: but
the magnetizing effect has not been found to be diminished in the ratio
of its length.

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948 BULLETIN OF THE

tation of the electro-magnet, the compass needle was repelled
from one leg (by its similar magnetism) and attracted by the
other leg, so that its free end tapped the bell. This simple
device the Professor was accustomed to exhibit to his classes, in
illustration of the facility of transmitting signals to a distance by
the swift action of electro-magnetism.

Henry regarded his “quantity” magnet as being scientifically
more important than his ‘‘ intensity” magnet; and his success in
constructing such, of almost incredible power, caused numerous
requisitions on his skill. In April, 1831, Professor Silliman pub-
lished in his Journal “An Account of a large Electro-Magnet
made for the Laboratory of Yale College,” under his charge.
The iron horse-shoe about one foot high was made from a three
inch octagonal bar 80 inches long; and was wrapped with 26
strands of copper wire each about 28 feet long. When duly
excited by a single galvanic element consisting of concentric
cylinders of copper and zine, presenting about five square feet of
active surface, the magnet lified more than a ton weight. For
reversing the polarity of the magnet, a duplicate battery was
oppositely connected with extensions of the ends of the coils, so
that either battery could be alternately dipped. With a load of
56 pounds suspended from the armature, the poles of the magnet
could be so rapidly reversed, that the weight would not fall.
Professor Silliman remarks of the maker: ‘‘ He has the honor of
having constructed by far the most powerful magnets that have
been known; and his last, weighing (armature and all) but 824
pounds, sustains over a ton ;—which is eight times more powerful
than any magnet hitherto known in Europe.”* And Sturgeon
(the true foster-father of the magnet) thus heralds the Yale Col-
lege triumph: ‘ By dividing about 800 feet of conducting wire
into 26 strands and forming it into as many separate coils around
a bar of soft iron about 60 pounds in weight and properly bent
into a horse-shoe form, Professor. Henry has been enabled to pro-
duce a magnetic force which completely eclipses every other in
the whole annals of magnetism; and no parallel is to be found
since the miraculous suspension of the celebrated oriental im-
poster in his iron coffin.” }

The first Electro-magnetic Hngine.—Among his ingenious
applications of the new power, Henry’s invention of the’ Elec-
tro-magnetic Engine should here be noticed. In a letter to

* Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. April, 1831, vol. xx. p. 201. Relatively,
some of Henry’s smaller magnets were many times more powerful than
this. A miniature one made by Dr. Ten-Eyck under his direction, sus-
tained 200 times its own weight; and one still smaller, sustained more
than 400 times its own weight! (Sill. Am. Jour. Sci. vol. xix. p. 407.)

| Philosoph. Magazine; und Annals, 1832, vol. xi. p. 199.

22

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 249

his friend Professor Silliman, he says: ‘I have lately succeeded
in producing motion in a little machine, by a power which I
believe has never before been applied in mechanics,—by mag-
netic attraction and repulsion.” The device consisted of a
horizontal soft iron bar, about seven inches long, pivoted at
its middle to oscillate vertically, and closely wrapped with three
strands of insulated copper wire, whose ends were made by
suitable extensions to project and bend downward at either
end of the beam in reversed pairs, so as conveniently to dip
into mercury thimbles in connection with the plates of the
battery. Two upright permanent magnets having the same
polarity, were secured immediately under the two ends of the
oscillating bar, but separated from them by about an inch. - So
soon as the circuit was completed by the depression of one end
of the oscillating electro-magnetic bar, a repulsion at this end
co-operating with an attraction at the opposite end, caused im-
mediately a contrary dip of the bar, which by reversing the
polarity of this magnetic beam, thus produced a constant recip-
rocating action and movement. The engine beam oscillated at
the rate of 75 vibrations per minute for more than an hour, or
as long as the battery current was maintained.* This simple
but original device comprised the first automatic pole-changer or
commutator ever applied to the galvanic battery,—an essential
element not merely in every variety of the electro-magnetic
machine, but in every variety of the magneto-electric apparatus,
and in every variety of the highly useful induction apparatus.

In an interesting “ Historical Sketch of the rise and progress
of Electro-magnetic Engines for propelling machinery,” by the
distinguished philosopher James P. Joule, he remarks: “Mr.
Sturgeon’s discovery of magnetizing bars of soft iron to a con-
siderable power, and rapidly changing their polarity by miniature
voltaic batteries, and the subsequent improved plan by Professor
Henry of raising the magnetic action of soft iron,—developed
new and inexhaustible sources of force which appeared easily and
extensively available as a mechanical agent; and it is to the in-
genious American philosopher above named, that we are in-
debted for the first form of a working model of an engine upon
the principle of reciprocating polarity of soft iron by electro-
dynamic agency ”

In Henry’s deliberate contemplation of his own achievement,
his remarkable sagacity and sobriety of judgment were con-
spicuously displayed. Unperturbed by the enthusiasm so natu-

* Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. July, 1831, vol. xx. pp. 340-343,

T Sturgeon’s Annals of Electricity ete., March, 1839, vol. iii. p. 430.
Sturgeon himself the first to devise a rotary electro-magnetic engine,
deserves honorable mention for correcting the statement of an American
writer, and declining his mistaken award by frankly recognizing Henry’s
right to priority. (Annals of Electricity, April, 1439, vol. iii. p. 554 )

23

250 BULLETIN OF THE

ral to the successful inventor, he carefully scanned the capabilities
of this new dynamic agent. Considering the source of the
power, he arrived at the conclusion that the deoxidation of metal
necessary for the battery, would require the expenditure of at
least as much power as its combustion in the battery could re-
fund; and that the coal consumed in such deoxidation could be
much more economically employed directly in the work to be
done.* As the battery consumption moreover was found to in-
crease more rapidly than the magnetic power produced, he was
at once convinced that it could never supersede or compete with
steam.t He believed however that the engine had a useful
future in many minor applications where economy was not the
most important consideration.

When sometime afterward, a friend urged him to secure
patents on his inventions,—the “ intensity” electro-magnet with
its combinations, and the magnetic engine with its automatic
pole-changer, earnestly assuring him that either one with proper
management would secure an ample fortune to its owner, he
firmly resisted every importunity ; declaring that he would feel
humiliated by any attempt at monopolizing the fruits of science,
which he thought belonged to the world. And this aversion to
self-aggrandizement by researches undertaken for truth, was
carried with him through life.

While such disinterestedness cannot fail to excite our admira-
tion, it may perhaps be questioned whether in these cases it did
not from a practical point of view, amount to an over-fastidious-
ness :—whether such legal establishment of ownership, shielding
the possessor from the occasional depreciations of the envious,

* These considerations have been more than justified by later compara-
tive investigat ons. Rankine estimates that the consumption of one pound
of zine will not produce more than one-tenth the energy that one ponnd
of coal will; and that though in the efficient utilization of this energy it
is four times superior, its useful work is therefore less thau half that of
coal; while its cost is from forty to fifty times greater. (The Steam Engine
and other Prime Movers. By W.J.M. Rankine, London and Glasgow,
1859, part iv. art. 395, p. 541.)

+ James P. Joule ‘himself an inventor of an electro-magnetic engine)
in a letter dated May 28, 1839, said: “I can scarcely doubt that electro-
magnetism will eventually be substituted for steam in propelling ma-
chinery.”? (Sturgeon’s Annals of Electricity, vol. iv. p. 135.) This was
some years before he commenced his investigations on the mechanical
equivalent of heat and other motors. He subsequently estimated that
the consumption of a grain of zine though forty times more costly than
a grain of coal, produces only about one-eighth of the same mechanical
effect.

{ This trait calls to mind Faraday’s avowal made nearly thirty years
later, when in a letter to Messrs. Smith and Bentley dated January 3,
1859, (declining the publication of his “ Juvenile Lectures”) he said: ‘‘ In
fact | have always loved science more than money ; and because my occu-
pation is almost entirely personal, I cannot afford to get rich.” (Bence
Jones’ Life of Faraday, vol. ii. p. 423.)

24.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 251

and securing by its more tangible remunerations the leisure and
the means for more extended researches, would not have been to
science more than a compensation for the supposed sacrifice of
dignity by the philosopher.*

Nor did this repugnance to patenting arise (as it sometimes
does) from any theoretical disapproval of the system. On the
contrary, he frequently expressed his strong conviction that a
judicious code of patent laws—if faithfully administered—fur-
nishes the most equitable method of recompensing meritorious
inventors. ‘The institution was a good one—for others.

whe discovery of Magneto-electricity.—From the magnetizing
influence of the galvanic current, physicists were almost inevi-
tably led to expect the converse reaction; and this anticipation
appears to have been coeval with electro-magnetism. As early
as 1820, the illustrious Augustin Fresnel remarked: “It is natu-
ral to try whether a magnetic bar will not produce a galvanic
current in a helical wire surrounding it;” and he made various
experiments to determine a question which was supposed to
involve the soundness of Ampére’s theory. In November 1820,
he announced that though he at first supposed his attempt at the
magneto-electric decomposition of water was partially successful,
he was finally satisfied that no decisive result was obtained. +

Five years later, Faraday attempted the same experimental
inquiry; and among his earliest publications gave an account of
his unsuccessful trials. After describing his arrangements he
says: ‘The magnet was then put in various positions and to
different extents into the helix, and the needle of the galvanometer
noticed: no effect however upon it could be observed. The cir-
cuit was made very long, very short, of wires of different metals
and different diameters, down to extreme fineness, but the results
were always the same. Magnets more and less powerful were
used. . . . Hence it appears that however powerful the
action of an electric current may be upon a magnet, the latter
has no tendency by re-action to diminish or increase the intensity
of the former.’’}

Nor were American physicists discouraged by the records of
repeated failures: and when the great Henry magnet was re-
ceived at Yale College, Professor C. U. Shepard (Chemical
Assistant to Professor Silliman) at once attacked the problem
with this new equipment. He remarks: “As its magnetic flow

* Several hundred patents have since been granted in this country for
ingenious modifications of—or improvements upon the electro-magnetic
telegraph ; and probably a hundred for equally ingenious varieties of the
electro-magnetic engine; all of which would have been tributary to
Henry as an original patentee.

t+ Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1820, vol. xv. pp. 219-222.

t Quarterly Journal of Science, July 1825, vol. xix. p. 338.

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952 BULLETIN OF THE

was so powerful, I had strong hopes of being able to accomplish
the decomposition of water by its means. My experiment how-
ever proved unsuccessful. . . . I hope however to resume
the research hereafter, under more favorable circumstances.’’*

Henry, unsatisfied with past efforts, determined to pursue the
subject in an exhaustive series of experiments; and had reached
some momentary indications of the galvanometer, when his ex-
periments were temporarily interrupted. Meanwhile it was an-
nounced in May, 1832, that Faraday had secured the long sought
prize; though the announcement was brief, and to those eager
for particulars, somewhat disappointing. Henry was accord-
ingly induced to publish in the following number of Silliman’s
Journal (that for July) a sketch of his own trials both before
and after the announced discovery. With reference to Faraday’s
discovery he remarks: ‘‘ No detail is given of the experiments,
and it is somewhat surprising that results so interesting, and
which certainly form a new era in the history of electricity and
magnetism, should not have been more fuliy described before this
time in some of the English publications. The only mention I
have found of them is the following short account from the Annals
of Philosophy for April, under the head of Proceedings of the
Royal Institution.—‘ Feb. 17. Mr. Faraday gave an account of
the first two parts of his researches in electricity ; namely volta-
electric induction, and magneto-electric induction. . ... Ifa
wire connected at both extremities with a galvanometer, be coiled
in the form of a helix around a magnet, no current of electricity
takes place in it. This is an experiment which has been made
by various persons hundreds of times, in the hope of evolving
electricity from magnetism. But if the magnet be withdrawn
from or introduced into such a helix, a current of electricity is
produced while the magnet is ¢n motion, and is rendered evident
by the deflection of the galvanometer. If a single wire be
passed by a magnetic pole, a current of electricity is induced
through it which can be rendered sensible.’

“Before having any knowledge of the method given in the
above account, I had succeeded in producing electrical effects in
the following manner, which differs from that employed by Mr.
Faraday, and which appears to me to develop some new and
interesting facts. A piece of copper wire about thirty feet long
and covered with elastic varnish, was closely coiled around the

* Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. April, 1831, vol. xx. p. 201, foot-note.

+ Philcsoph. Mag. and Annals of Phil. April, 1832, vol. xi. pp. 300,
301. Although Faraday’s first communication on galvanic induction,
and on magneto-electricity, was read before the Royal Society November
24, 1831, the published Transactions for 1832, containing this memoir
did not reach this country till more than a year later: so that the meager
abstract of the Royal Institution Proceedings above given, was the only
notice of this important discovery,—here accessible for many months.

26

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 953

middle of the soft iron armature of the galvanic magnet described
in vol. xix. of the American Journal of Science, and which when
excited will readily sustain between six hundred and seven
hundred pounds. The wire was wound upon itself so as to
occupy only about one inch of the length of the armature, which
is seven inches in all. The armature thus furnished with the
wire, was placed in its proper position across the ends of the
galvanic magnet, and there fastened so that no motion could take
place. The two projecting ends of the helix were dipped into
two cups of mercury, and these connected with a distant galvano-
meter by means of two copper wires each about forty feet long.
This arrangement being completed, I stationed myself near the
galvanometer and directed an assistant at a given word to im-
merse suddenly in a vessel of dilute acid, the galvanic battery
attached to the magnet. At the instant of immersion the north
end of the needle was deflected 30° to the west, indicating a
current of electricity from the helix surrounding the armature.
The effect however, appeared only as a single impulse, for the
needle after a few oscillations resumed its former undisturbed
position in the magnetic meridian, although the galvanic action
of the battery, and consequently the magnetic power still con-
tinued. I was however much surprised to see the needle sud-
denly deflected from a state of rest to about 20° to the east, or
in a contrary direction, when the battery was withdrawn from
the acid, and again deflected to the west when it was re-immersed.
This operation was repeated many times in succession, and uni-
formly with the same result, the armature the whole time remain-
ing immovably attached to the poles of the magnet, no motion
being required to produce the effect, as it appeared to take place
only in consequence of the instantaneous development of the
magnetic action in one and the sudden cessation of it in the
other. . . . From the foregoing facts it appears that a cur-
rent of electricity is produced for an instant in a helix of copper
wire surrounding a piece of soft iron whenever magnetism is
induced in the iron; anda current in an opposite direction when
the magnetic action ceases; also that an instantaneous current
in one or the other direction accompanies every change in the
magnetic intensity of the iron.

“Since reading the account before given of Mr. Faraday’s
method of producing electrical currents, I have attempted to
combine the effects of motion and induction.” No increase of
effect was however observable. On comparing the two methods
separately, it was found that while the sudden introduction of
the end of a magnetized bar within the helix connected with the
galvanonfeter deflected the needle seven degrees, the sudden
magnetization of the bar when within the helix, deflected the
needle thirty degrees. A cylindrical iron bar was made to

27

954 BULLETIN OF THE

rotate rapidly on its axis within a stationary helix, by means of
a turning lathe, but no result followed.

In the following month (June) by employing a horse-shoe
armature (admitting longer coils), Henry succeeded in obtaining
vivid sparks from the magnet. ‘The poles of the magnet were
connected by a single rod of iron bent into the form of a horse-
shoe, and its extremities filed perfectly flat so as to come in per-
fect contact with the faces of the poles: around the middle of
the arch of this horse-shoe, two strands of copper wire were
tightly coiled one over the other. A current from one of these
helices deflected the needle one hundred degrees, and when both
were used, the needle was deflected with such force as to make
a complete circuit. But the most surprising effect was produced
when instead of passing the current through the long wires to
the galvanometer, the opposite ends of the helices were held
nearly in contact with each other, and the magnet suddenly ex-
cited: in this case a small but vivid spark was seen to pass be-
tween the ends of the wires, and this effect was repeated as often
as the state of intensity of the magnet waschanged. . . . It
appears from the May number of the Annals of Philosophy, that
I have been anticipated in this experiment of drawing sparks
from the magnet by Mr. James D. Forbes of Edinburgh who
obtained a spark on the 30th of March:* my experiments being
made during the last two weeks of June. <A simple notification
of his result is given, without any account of the experiment,
which is reserved for a communication to the Royal Society of
Hdinburgh. My result is therefore entirely independent of his,
and was undoubtedly obtained by a different process.”

Henry’s gratification at the acquisition of the new insight into
natural law, quite absorbed all sentiment of personal pride in its
independent attainment; and his appreciation and congratula-
tion of Faraday as the first discoverer of magneto-electricity,
were hearty and unreserved. He was also particular always to
assign to Faraday the first observation of the curious phenomena
of momentary galvanic induction; although himself an inde-
pendent discoverer of the fact.

In the course of these experiments he made a very important
original observation on a peculiar case of self-induction, whereby
he was enabled to convert a galvanic current of ‘‘quantity” into
one of ‘‘intensity.”’ This entirely new result seemed to contra-
dict all previous experience. He thus concludes his paper: “I
may however mention one fact which I have not seen noticed in
any work, and which appears to me to belong to the same class
of phenomena as those above described. It is this:—when a
small battery is moderately excited by diluted acid and its poles

* Philosoph. Mag. and Annals, May, 1832, vol. xi. pp. 359, 360.
28

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 255

(which should be terminated by cups of mercury) are connected
by a copper wire not more than a foot in length, no spark is per-
ceived when the connection is either formed or broken: but if a
wire thirty or forty feet jong be used (instead of the short wire),
though no spark will be perceptible when the connection is made,
yet when it is broken by drawing one end of the wire from its
cup of mercury, a vivid spark is produced. . . . The effect
appears somewhat increased by coiling the wire into a helix: it
seems also to depend in some measure on the length and thick-
ness of the wire. I can account for these phenomena only by
supposing the long wire to become charged with electricity which
by its reaction on itself projects a spark when the connection is
broken.”* This is the earliest notice of the curious phenomenon
of self-induction in an electric discharge.

Election as Professor at Princeton.—The ‘Trustees of the
College of New Jersey at Princeton, were about this time in
search of a Professor to fill the chair of Natural Philosophy in
that College, made vacant by the resignation of Professor Henry
Vethake, w ho had accepted a Professorship of Natural Philosophy
in the recently established University of the City of New York.
Professor Henry had already won considerable reputation as a
lecturer and teacher, no less than as an experimental physicist.
Professor Silliman of Yale College, urging his appointment,
wrote: ‘Henry has no superior among the scientific men of the
country.” And Professor Renwick of Columbia College (New
York) still more emphatically added: “ He has no equal.”

Professor Henry was unanimously elected by the Trustees ;f
and he accepted the appointment: although strongly attached to
his first Academy, endeared to him by early memories, by six
years of successful labors, and by the warm regard of all his
associates. May it not be added that his residence at the capital
of the State of New York, was further endeared to him by life’s
romance,—a most congenial and happy marriage contracted in
1830.

ELECTRICAL RESEARCHES AT PRINCETON: FROM 1833 TO 1842.

In November 1832, Henry left the scene of his early scientific
triumphs, the Albany Academy, and removed to Princeton with
- his family. For a year or two he gave his whole attention and

* Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci., July, 1832, vol. xxii. p. 408.

{1 Dr. Maclean connected with the Faculty of the College of New Jersey
at Princeton for fifty years, and for fourteen years its venerable president,
in his History of the College (2 vols. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1877,) gives a
very interesting account of the appointment and election of Joseph Henry
as Professor of Natural Philosophy in 1832, vol. ii. pp. 288-291.

27

256 BULLETIN OF THE

exertions to the duties of exposition and instruction; and during
Dr. Torrey’s visit to HKurope in 1833, at the Doctor’s request
Professor Henry filled ad anéerim his chair of Chemistry, Miner-
alogy, and Geology. These occupations left him no leisure for
the pursuit of original research. He subsequently gave lectures
on Astronomy, and also on Architecture.

In 1834, Henry constructed for the Laboratory of his College
an original form of Galvanic Battery; so arranged as to bring
into action any desired nuinber of elements, from a single pair to
eighty-eight. Hach zine plate 9 inches wide and 12 inches
deep was surrounded by a copper case open at top and bottom,
and giving thus one and a half square feet of efficient surface.
Eleven of these in eleven separate cells, formed a sub-battery;
and eight of these were grouped together by means of adjustable
conductors, so as to form from the whole a single battery. By
means of a crank and windlass shaft in proper connection, any
one or more of the eight sub-batteries could be immersed or dis-
engaged, and if desired, a single cell could alone be charged. By
another arrangement of adjustable conductors, all the zine plates
could be directiy connected together, and all the copper plates
together, after the pian of Dr. Hare’s “calorimotor” battery;
thus giving the “‘quantity” effect due to a single element of 132
square feet of zinc surface, or of any smaller area desired. As
the author remarks concerning its various arrangements, ‘they
have been adopted in most cases after several experiments and
much personal labor.” A detailed account of this battery was
given in a communication read January 16th 1835, before the
American Philosophical Society (of which he had recently been
elected a member), and was published in its Transactions. *

Meanwhile he had been engaged in his brief intervals of relaxa-
tion from his exacting professional cares during the past year, in
repeating and extending his interesting observations (commenced
at Albany in 1832), on the remarkable intensifying influence of a
long conductor, and especially of a spiral one, when interposed
in a galvanic circuit of a single pair, or a battery of low ‘“‘inten-
sity.” A verbal communication on this curious form of ‘“indue-
tion,” was made to the Society on the same occasion as the
description of his battery, and was illustrated by experiments
exhibited before the Society.

Faraday in his “eighth series of Researches” (read before the
Royal Society June 5th 1834), pointed out very fully the differ-
ing actions of a single galvanic element giving a “quantity” cur-
rent, and of a series of elements giving an “intensity” current:}
thus entirely confirming the results obtained by Henry more than
three years previously.

* Trans. Am. Philos. Soc. vol. v. new series, art. iv. pp. 217-222.
+ Chil. Trans. Royal Soc. June 5, 1834, vol. exxiv. art. 990-994, pp.
445,446. Hxrperimental Researches in Electricity, vol. i. pp. 301, 302.

30

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 257

In the Philosophical Magazine for November, 1834, appeared
a paper by Faraday, “On a peculiar condition of electric and
magneto-electric Induction:” in which he notices as a remark-
able fact, that while a short circuit wire from a single galvanic
element, gives little or no visible spark, a long conductor gives a
very sensible spark. ‘It is however very interesting thus to
observe an original current of electricity having a very low in-
tensity producing ultimately a counter current having an intensity
probably a hundred fold greater than its own, and the experi-
ment constitutes one of the very few modes we have at command
of converting quantity into intensity as respects electricity in cur-
rents.” And he remarks: “Jif the connecting wire be much
lengthened, then the spark is much increased.”*

In this interesting research, Faraday appears to have entirely
overlooked Henry’s earlier labors in the same field;—as contrary
to his usual custom, he makes no allusion to the same results
having been obtained, and published in Silliman’s Journal two
years and a half before.f These observations were made by
Faraday the subject of his ‘ninth series of Researches,” in a
communication “On the influence by induction of an electric cur-
rent on itself:” read before the Royal Society January 29th
1835. In this paper he repeats, that with a single galvanic pair,
a short wire will not give a shock; while the wire surrounding
an electro-magnet will give a shock at each breaking of the cir-
cuit. He found a similar result with the wire helix alone,—with-
out its magnetic core ‘The power of producing these phe-
nomena exists therefore in the simple helix, as well as in the elec-
tro-magnet, although by no means in the same high degree.” With
continuous straight wire of the same length, he obtained a similar
effect, —‘“‘ yet not so bright as that from the helix ” When a short
wire is used, ‘all these effects disappear;” although there is un-
doubtedly a greater ‘‘quantity” of electric current in the shorter
wire; thus giving “the strange result of a diminished spark and
shock from the strong current, and increased effects from the
weak one.” {

While Henry derived only satisfaction from these extended
verifications of his own observations, by one whom he had ac-
customed himself to look up to with admiration and regard, Dr.
A. Dallas Bache, his attached friend, then Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Pennsylvania,—more jealous
than himself of his scientific fame, strongly urged and insisted
that he should immediately publish an account of his later re-
searches. Henry accordingly sent to the American Philosophical

* Philosoph. Mag. Nov. 1834, vol. v. pp. 351, 352.

T Sill. Am. Jour Sci. July. 1832. vol. xxii. p. 408, ahove quoted.

f Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. Jan. 29, 1835, vol. exxv. art. 1061-1067. and
1073, pp. 43-45. Experimental Researches in Electricity, vol. i. pp. 325-328.
This memoir did not reach this country of course till a year later.

258 BULLETIN OF THE

Society a memoir (comprising the details of his recent verbal
communication) ‘On the Influeuce of a Spiral Conductor in in-
creasing the Intensity of Electricity from a galvanic arrangement
of a Single pair, etc.,” which was read before the Society, Keb-
ruary 6th, 1830.

After citing his former paper of July, 1832, the writer remarks
that he had been able during the past year to extend his experi-
ments on the curious phenomenon. ‘These though not so
complete as | could wish, are now presented to the Society with
the belief that they will be interesting at this time on account of
the recent publication of Mr. Faraday on the same subject.” He
then relates that employing a single pair of his battery (com-
prising one and a half square feet of zine surface), he found as.
in his earlier experiment in 1832, that the poles being connected
by a piece of copper bell-wire five inches long, no spark was
given on making or breaking contact. Fifteen teet of interposed
wire gave a very feeble spark; and with successive additions of
fifteen feet, the effect increased until with 120 feet the maximum
spark appeared to be reached, and beyond this there was no
perceptible increase ; while with double this length (or 240 feet)
there seemed to be a diminution of intensity. From various.
trials the inference was drawn that the length required for maxi-
mum effect varied with the size of the galvanic element. Thicker
wires of the same length produced greater effect, depending in
some degree on the size of the battery. A wire of forty feet
when coiled into a cylindrical helix “‘ gave a more intense spark
than the same wire uncoiled.” A ribbon of sheet copper about
an inch wide and twenty-eight feet long, being covered with silk
and coiled into a flat spiral—like a watch spring—(after the plan
of Dr. Richie) gave a vivid spark with a loud snap. When un-
coiled, it produced a much feebler spark. With the insulated
copper ribbon folded in its middle, and the double thickness
coiled into a flat spiral, there was no spark whatever, although
the same ribbon unrolled gave a feeble spark: thus showing that
the induction of the current upon itself was neutralized by flow-
ing equally in opposite directions in the double spiral. With a
larger copper ribbon one inch and a half wide, and 96 feet long,
spirally coiled (weighing 15 pounds) the snap of the spark could be
heard in an adjoining room with the door closed. Want of mate-
rial prevented the result being pushed further, so as to ascertain
the range of maximum effect with this form of conductor. With
increased battery surface, the effect was also increased ; so that
with eight elements of his battery arranged as a single pair (of
12 square feet) the spark on breaking contact “resembled the
discharge of a small Levden jar highly charged.”” With the flat
spiral, no increase of effect was observable on the introduction
of a soft iron core into the axis of the spiral, forming a magnet.
With a, helical or cylindrical coil about nine inches long, enclosing

32 Fj

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 259

an iron core, “the spark appeared a little more intense than
without the iron.” ‘The inference is also drawn ‘from these ex-
periments, that some of the effects heretofore attributed to mag-
neto-electric action are chiefly due to the reaction on each other
of the several spirals of the coil which surround the magnet.”

In these researches it was found that when the two plates of
a single pair were placed even fourteen inches apart in an open
trough of diluted acid, “although the electrical intensity in this
case must have been very low, yet there was but little reduction
in the apparent intensity of the spark.” It was also shown that
“the spiral conductor produces however, little or no increase of
effect when introduced into a galvanic circuit of considerable
intensity.” When for example an “intensity” battery of two
Cruickshank’s troughs, each containing 56 elements was employed
with the larger copper spiral, “no greater effect was perceived
than with a short thick wire :” in either case, only a feeble spark
being given.* An abstract of the results thus announced (and
which were obtained by Henry during the summer of 1834,) was
communicated by Dr. A. D. Bache, as a Secretary of the Ameri-
can Philosophical Society, to the Franklin Journal, in order to
give these interesting facts an earlier currency.t The date of
original discovery was however so well established, that this
friendly effort was scarcely necessary.}

Combined Circuits.—In 1835, or early in 1836, wires had been
extended across the front campus of the College grounds at
Princeton from the upper story of the library building to the
Philosophical Hall on the opposite side, through which signals
were occasionally sent, distinguished by the number of taps of
the electro-magnetic bell, first exhibited five years previously in
the hall of the Albany Academy. It has already been noticed,
that contrary to all the antecedent expectations of physicists,
Henry had established the fact that the most powerful form of
magnet (designated by him the “quantity” magnet) is not the
form best adapted to distant action through an extended eir-
cuit. The ingenious idea occurred to him that notwithstand-
ing this fundamental fact, it would be quite easy to combine
the two systems so as to enable an operator to produce the most
energetic mechanical effects, at almost any required distance.

* Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. vol. v. n. 8. art. x. pp. 223-231.

+ Journal of the Franklin Institute, March, 1835, vol. XV. pp. 169, 170.

t M. Becquerel in his elaborate Treatise on Electricity, in the chapter
on “ The influence of an electric current on itself by induction,” says with
yegard to the increase of tension in a feeble current when passing through
a long spiral conductor, “The effects observed in these circumstances
appear to have been noticed for the first time by Professor Henry.”
(Traité experimental de I’'Electricité et du Magnétisme, 8vo. 7 vols. Paris,
1824-1840, vol. v. art. 1261, p. 231.)

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260 BULLETIN OF THE

It is simply necessary to employ with the distant ‘“ intensity”
magnet an oscillating armature with a suitable prolongation
so arranged as to open and close the short circuit of an ad-
joining ‘‘ quantity” magnet of any practicable power :—a work
which indeed could be accomplished by the mere swing of the
most delicate gaivanometer needle. Professor Henry had con-
structed for his own laberatory a large electro-magnet designed
to surpass the celebrated magnet made foi vale College; and
with it he was enabled to exhibit to his class, by employing a
small portion of his ‘‘ quantity” battery, an easy lifting power
of more than three thousand pounds.* Such was the mechanical
agency he called into action through his telegraphic circuit, by
simply lifting its galvanic wire from a mercury thimble, or by
again dipping it into the same. Although this special com-
bination has not fonnd any important application, its principle
underlies all the various forms and uses of the “relay” magnet
and local battery since employed.

Visit to Hurope.—In order to give Professor Henry a much-
needed rest from his diligent services and close application of
the past four years, the Trustees of his College liberally allowed
him a year’s absence with full salary: thus affording him for
the first time a long coveted opportunity of visiting Europe.

In February of 1837, in company with his valued and faithful
friend, Professor Bache, he arrived in England; where the two
American physicists formed ready and lasting intimacies with
some of the most distinguished worthies of Great Britain.
Everywhere received with courteous and cordial consideration,
they both ever carried with them agreeable memories of their
holiday sojourn abroad.

In London, many pleasant interviews with Faraday, formed a.
memorable circumstance. Wheatstone, then Professor of Ex-
perimental Philosophy in King’s College, was engaged in de-
veloping his system of needle telegraph: and Henry had the
satisfaction of finding that his own early investigations were
recognized and appreciated, and their results successfully
adopted. Wheatstone unfolded freely to his visitors his numerous
projects; and particularly his arrangement of supplementary
local circuit from an additional battery, for sounding an electro-
magnetic signal, by being brought into action by a movement
from the main line circuit.f Henry had then the pleasure of
detailing to him his own similar combination of two electro-

* Tt is said that this magnet has been made to sustain 3500 pounds.

} This was early in April, 1837. (Smithsonian Report for 1857, p. 111.)
Two mouths later, or June 12th, 1837, Wheatstone in conjunction with W.
F. Cooke had secured a patent on his system of telegraph, including the
combination of circuits.

34

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 261

magnetic circuits, experimentally tried more than a year pre-
viously.

Nearly a year was employed in foreign travel, most pleasantly
and beneficially both for mind and body: the greater portion of
the time however being spent in London, in Paris, (where
Henry formed the acquaintance of Arago, Becquerel, De la
Rive, Biot, Gay-Lussac, and other celebrities,) and in Edin-
burgh, where he also found a galaxy of eminent and congenial
minds.

In September of the same year (1837) he attended the meet-
ing of the British Association at Liverpool; where being invited
to speak, he made a brief communication on some electrical
researches in regard to the phenomenon known as the “lateral
discharge :”—a study to which he had been led by some remarks
of Dr. Roget on the subject. ‘The result of the analysis was
in accordance with an opinion of Biot—that the lateral dis-
charge is due only to the escape of the small quantity of
redundant electricity which always exists on one side or the
other of ajar, and not the whole discharge.” Hence we could
increase or diminish the lateral action by any means which affect
the quantity of free electricity:—as by ‘tan increase of the
thickness of the glass, or by substituting for the small knob of
the jar, a large ball. But the arrangement which produces the
greatest effect is that of a long fine copper wire insulated,—
parallel to the horizon, and terminated at each end by a small
ball. When sparks are thrown on this from a globe of about a
foot in diameter, the wire at each discharge becomes beautifully
luminous from one end to the other, even if it be a hundred feet
long: rays are given off on all sides perpendicular to the axis of
the wire :”—forming a continuous electrical brush. It was also
stated ‘that the same quantity of electricity could be made to
remain on the wire, if gradually communicated [by a point]; but
when thrown on in the form of a spark, it is dissipated as before
described :”—as thongh possessing a kind of momentum. When
two or more wires are arranged in parallel lines (in electrical
connection), only the outer sides of the exposed wires hecome
luminous: and ‘when the wire is formed into a flat spiral, the
outer spiral alone exhibits the lateral discharge, but the light in
this case is very brilliant: the inner spirals appear to increase
the effect by induction.” In like manner when a ball was
attached to the middle of a vertical lightning-rod having a good
earth-connection, ‘ when sparks of about an inch and a half were
thrown on the hall, corresponding lateral sparks could be drawn
not only from the parts of the rod between the ground and the
ball, but fram the part above, even to the top of the rod.” *

At the same meeting, before the section on Mechanics and

* Report of Brit. Association, for 1837, pp. 22-24, of Abstracts.
35

962 BULLETIN OF THE

Engineering, Henry gave by request an account of the great
extension of the Railway and Canal systems in the United States:
which was listened to with great attention and interest. Healso
referred to the inland or river navigation in our country,
describing the improvements introduced into our large river
steam-boats, especially on the Hudson river in New York State ;
where the usual speed was fifteen miles per hour or more.*

In November, 1837, Henry returned from his foreign tour
greatly invigorated,—bringing with him some new apparatus:
and with increased zest he re-embarked upon the duties of his
professorship. Continuing his studies of electrical action, he
presented verbally to the American Philosophical Society, Feb-
ruary 16th 1838, a notice of further observations on the “lateral
discharge” of electricity while passing along a wire. going to
show that even with good earth connection, free electricity is not
conducted silently to the ground.

In May, 1838, he announced to the Society the production of
currents by induction from ordinary or mechanical electricity,
analogous to that first obtained by Faraday from galvanism in
1831: and the further curious fact that on the discharge from a
Leyden jar through a good conductor, a secondary shock from a
perfectly insulated near conductor could be obtained more intense
than the primary shock directly from the jar.{

These investigations having in view the discovery of “ indue-
tive actions in common electricity analogous to those found in
galvanism” (commenced in the Spring of 1836), led to renewed
examination of the secondary galvanic current, which since No-
vember 24th, 1831, (or for seven years,) had received no special
attention. Henry’s very interesting series of experiments were
detailed in a somewhat elaborate memoir read before the Ameri-
can Philosophical Society, November 2nd, 1838. Employing
five different sized annular spools of fine wire (about one-fiftieth
of an inch thick) varying from one-fifth of a mile to nearly a
mile in length (which might be called ‘intensity ” helices) ; and
six flat spiral coils of copper ribbon varying from three-quarters
of an inch to one inch and a half in width, and from 60 to 93
feet in length (which might be called “quantity” coils), he was
able to combine them in various ways both in connection and in
parallelism. A cylindrical battery of one and three quarters square

* Same Report, Abstracts, p. 135. It was on this occasion that Dr.
Lardner, generalizing probably from his observations on the Thames,
ventured (not very courteously) to doubt whether any such speed as fif-
teen miles per hour on water, could ordinarily be effected. ( (Sill. Am.
Jour. Sci. Jan. 1838, vol. xxxii. p. 296.) The same authority affirmed
the futility of attempting oceanic steam navigation,

+ Proceedinys Am. Phil. Soc. Feb. 16, 1838, vol. i. p. 6.

+ Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. May 4, 1838, vol. i. p. 14.

36

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 263

feet of zine surface was principally used; and the galvanic cir-
cuit was interrupted by drawing one end of the copper ribbon or
wire over a rasp in good metallic contact with the other pole of
the battery.

From the energetic action of the flat ribbon coil in producing
the induction of a current on itself, it was inferred that the sec-
ondary current would also be best induced by it. With the sin-
gle larger ribbon coil in connection with the battery, and another
ribbon coil placed over it resting on an interposed glass plate,
at every interruption of the primary circuit, an induction spark
was obtained at the rubbed ends of the second coil; though the
shock was feeble. With a double wire spool (one within the
other) of 2650 yards, placed above the primary coil (having about
the same weight as the copper ribbon) the magnetizing effects
disappeared, the sparks were much smaller, ‘“ but the shock was
almost too intense to be received with impunity.” The secondary
current in this case was one of small ‘quantity’ but of great
“intensity.” With a single break of circuit in the primary, it
was passed through a circle of 56 students of his senior class,
with the effect of a moderate charge from a Leyden jar. From
various experiments, the limit of efficient length for a given gal-
vanic power was ascertained; beyond which the induced current
was diminished. Employing a Cruickshank battery of 60 small
elements (4 inches square) he found with the ribbon coil that the
induced currents were exceedingly feeble, but with the long wire
helix as the primary circuit that strong indications were produced.
By the alternations of the ribbon and wire coils, the fact was
established “that an intensity current can induce one of quantity,
and by the preceding experiments the converse has also been
shown that a quantity current can induce one of intensity ;” a
result which has had an important bearing on the subsequent
development of the electro-magnetic ‘‘ Induction-Coil.” With a
long ribbon coil receiving the galvanic current from 35 feet of
zine surface, sensible induction shocks could be felt from a large
annular coil of four feet diameter (containing five miles of wire)
when placed in parallelism at a distance of four feet from the pri-
mary coil: while at the distance of one foot the shock became
too severe to be taken. With this arrangement an induction
shock was given from one apartment to another, through the
intervening partition.

Successive orders of Induction.—When it is considered that
the primary current in such eases has a considerable duration,
while the secondary current is but momentary, being developed
only at the instant of change in the primary, it could certainly
not have been expected that this single instantaneous electrical
impulse of reaction would be capable of acting as a primary
current, and of similarly inducing an action on a third independ-

37

964 ; BULLETIN OF THE

ent circuit: and during the seven years in which galvanic induc-
tion had been known, no physicist ever thought of making
the trial. Theoretically it might perhaps have been inferred,
if such tertiary induction had any existence, as it would be
coincident not with the instantaneous secondary induction, but
with the initiation and termination of such momentary current,
and hence in opposite signs—separated by an inappreciable
interval of time, that the whole phenomenon would probably be
entirely masked by a practical neutralization. The experiments
of Henry fully established, however, the new and remarkable
result of a very appreciable tertiary current. By connecting
the secondary coil with another at some distance from the pri-
mary so as not to be influenced by it directly, but forming
with the secondary a single closed circuit, not only was the
distant coil capable of producing in an insulated wire helix
placed over it, a distinct current of induction at the interruption
of the primary, but sensible shocks were obtained from it. The
experiment was pushed still further; and inductive currents of
a fourth degree were obtained. ‘By a similar but more ex-
tended arrangement, shocks were received from currents of a
fourth, and a fifth order: and with a more powerful primary cur-
rent, and additional ccils, a still greater number of successive
inductions might be obtained. . . . It was found that with the
small battery a shock could be given from the current of the
third order to twenty-five persons joining hands; also shocks per-
ceptible in the arms were obtained from a current of the fifth
order.” As Henry simply remarks: ‘The induction of currents
of different orders, of sufficient intensity to give shocks, could
scarcely have been anticipated from our previous knowledge of
the subject.” By means of the small magnetizing helix intro-
duced into each circuit, the direction of these successive currents
was found to be alternating or reversed to each other.

The concluding section of this important memoir is occupied
with an account of ‘The production of induced currents of the
different orders from ordinary electricity.” An open glass eylin-
der about six inches in diameter was provided with two long nar-
row strips of tin foil pasted around it in corresponding helical
courses, the one on the outside and the other on the inside,
directly opposite to each other. The inner coiled strip had its
extremities connected with insulated wires which formed a circuit
outside the cylinder, and included a small magnetizing helix.
The outer tin foil strip was also connected with wires so that an
electrical discharge from a half-gallon Leyden jar could be passed
through it. The magnetization of a small needle indicated an
induced current through the inner tin-foil ribbon corresponding
in direction with the outer current from the jar.* By means of

* About a year later, the distinguished German electrician Peter Riess,
apparently unaware of Henry’s researches, discovered the secondary cur-

38

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 265

a second glass cylinder similarly provided with helical tin-foil
ribbons in suitable connections a tertiary current of induction
was obtained, analogous to that derived from galvanism. ‘ Also
by the addition in the same way of a third cylinder, a current of
the fourth order was developed.”

Similar as these successive inductions from an electrical dis-
charge were to those previously observed in the case of the gal-
vanic current, they presented one puzzling difference in the direc-
tions of the currents of the different orders. ‘These in the
experiments with the glass cylinders, instead of exhibiting the
alternations of the galvanic currents, were all in the same diree-
tion as the discharge from the jar, or in other words they were all
plus.” On substituting for the tinned glass cylinders, well insu-
lated copper coils, ‘alternations were found the same as in the
case of galvanism.” The only difference apparently between the
two arrangements, was that the tin-foil ribbons were separated
only by the thin glass of the cylinders, while the copper spiral
coils were placed an inch and a half apart. By varied experi-
ments, the direction of the induced currents was found to depend
notably on the distance between the conductors ;—the induction
ceasing at a certain distance, (according to the amount of the
charge and the characters of the conductors,) and the direction
of the induced current beyond this critical distance being contrary
to that of the primary current.* ‘ With a battery of eight half.
gallon jars, and parallel wires about ten feet long, the change in
the direction did not take place at a less distance than from
twelve to fifteen inches, and with a still larger battery and longer
conductors, no change was found although the induction was
produced at the distance of several feet.” With Dr. Hare’s bat-
tery of 32 gallon jars, and a copper wire about one-tenth of an
inch thick and 80 feet long stretched across the lecture-room and
back on either side toward the battery, a second wire stretched

rent induced from mechanical electricity, by a very similar experiment.
(Poggendorff’s Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 1839, No. 5, vol. xlvii. pp.
55-76.)

* The variation in the direction of polarization (without reference to
induction currents) appears to have been first noticed by F. Savary, some
dozen years before. In an important memoir communicated to the Paris
Academy of Sciences July 31, 1826, M. Savary announced that “The
direction of the maenetic polarity of small needles exposed to an electric
current directed along a wire stretched longitudinally, varies with the
distance of the wire :”—the action being found to be periodical with the
distance. M. Savary observed three periods, and also the fact that the
distances of maximum effect and of the nodal zeros “ very with the length:
and diameter of the wire, and with the intensity of the discharge.’’ He
also found that “when a helix is used for magnetizing, the distance at
which the needle placed within it is from the conducting wire. is indif-
ferent; but the direction and the degree of magnetization depends on the
intensity of the discharge, and on the ratio between the length and size
of the wire.” (Brewster’s Edinburgh Jour. Sci. Oct. 1826, vol. v. p. 369.)

39

266 BULLETIN OF THE

parallel with the former for about 35 feet and extended to form
an independent circuit (its ends being connected with a small
magnetizing helix,) was tested at varying distances beginning
with a few inches until they were twelve feet apart: et which dis-
tance of the parallel wire, its induction though enfeebled, still
indicated by its magnetizing power, a direction corresponding
with the primary current. The form of the room did not permit
a convenient separation of the two circuits to a greater dis-
tance. *

The eminent French electrician Becquerel, in a chapter on
Induction in his large work, remarks: ‘ Quite recently M. Henry,
Professor of Natural Philosophy in New Jersey, has extended
the domain of this branch of physics: the results obtained by
him are of such importance, particularly in regard to the intensity
of the effects produced, that it is proper to expound them here
with some detail.” Twenty pages are then devoted to these
researches. +

A memoir was read before the Society, June 19th, 1840, giving
an account of observations on the two forms of induction occur-
ring on the making and on the breaking of the primary galvanic
circuit, the two differing in character as well as in direction. In
these experiments he employed a Daniell’s constant battery of 30
elements; the battery being “sometimes used as a single series
with all its elements placed consecutively, and at others in two |
or three series, arranged collaterally, so as to vary the quantity
and intensity of the electricity as the occasion might require.”
As the initial induction had always been found so feeble as to
be scarcely perceptible, (although in quantity sufficient to affect
the ordinary galvanometer as much as the terminal induction, )
most of the results previously obtained (such as the detection of
successive orders of currents) were derived from the strong in-
ductions at the moment of breaking the circuit. It became
therefore important to endeavor to intensify the initial induction
for its more especial examination : and this it was found could
be effected in two ways,—by increasing the “intensity” of the
battery, and by diminishing within certain limits the length of
the primary coil.

“With the current from one element, the shock at breaking
the circuit was quite severe, but at making the same it was very
feeble, and could be perceived in the fingers only or through the

* Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. vol. vi. new series, art. ix. pp. 303-337. In
the Proceedings of the Society for November 2d, 1838, when this memoir
was read, it is recorded * Professor Henry made a verbal communication
during the course of which he illustrated experimentally the phenomena
couniened in his paper.” (Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. Nov. 2, 1838, vol. i.
p. -) ®

t Traité experimental de l’Electricité et du Magnétisme, vol. v. pp. 87-107.

40

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 267

tongue. With two elements in the circuit the shock at the
beginning was slightly increased: with three elements the in-
crease was more decided, while the shock at breaking the circuit
remained nearly of the same intensity as at first, or was compa-
ratively but little increased. When the number of elements was
increased to ten, the shock at making contact was found fully
equal to that at breaking, and by employing a still greater num-
ber, the former was decidedly greater than the latter, the difference
continually increasing until all the thirty elements were introduced
into the circuit. . . . Experiments were next made to deter-
mine the influence of a variation in the length of the coil, the
intensity of the battery remaining the same.” For this purpose
the battery consisting of a single element “was employed; and
the length of the copper ribbon coil was successively reduced
from 60 feet, by measures of 15 feet. With 45 feet, the initial
induction was stronger than with 60 feet: with the next shorter
length it was more perceptible, and increased in intensity with
each diminution of the coil, until a length of about fifteen feet
appeared to give a maximum result.” At the same time it was
found that “the intensity of the shock at the ending of the bat-
tery current diminishes with each diminution of the length of
the coil. . . . By the foregoing results we are evidently
furnished with two methods of increasing at pleasure the intensity
of the induction at the beginning of a battery current, the one
consisting in increasing the intensity of the source of the elec-
tricity, and the other in diminishing the resistance to conduction
of the circuit while its intensity remains the same.”

Having thus succeeded in exalting the initial induction, Henry
proceeded in his investigation. Distinct currents of the third,
fourth, and fifth orders were readily obtained from it; and as was
anticipated, with their signs (or directions) the reverse of the
corresponding orders derived from the terminal induction. In
other respects “the series of induced currents produced at the
beginning of the primary current appeared to possess all the
properties belonging to those of the induction at the ending of
the same current.”

In the course of these investigations the idea having occurred
_to him ‘that the intense shocks given by the electrical fish may
possibly be from a secondary current,” as it appeared to him
that “this is the only way in which we can conceive of such
intense electricity being produced in organs imperfectly insulated
and immersed in a condueting medium,” he endeavored to simu-
late the effect by arranging a secondary wire coil furnished with
terminal handles, over a primary copper ribbon coil, the two
being insulated as usual. ‘By immersing the apparatus in a
shallow vessel of water, the handles being placed at the two ex-
tremities of the diameter of the helix, and the hands plunged
41

268 BULLETIN OF THE

into the water parallel to a line joining the two poles, a shock is
felt through the arms.”

The former experiment of obtaining an induction shock from
one room to another through a partition, was repeated on a
still larger scale. All the coils of copper ribbon having been
united in a single continuous conductor of about 400 feet in
length, ‘this was rolled into a ring of five and a half feet in
diameter, and suspended vertically against the inside of the large
folding doors which separate the laboratory from the lecture-
room. On the other side of the doors in the lecture-room and
directly opposite the coil was placed a helix formed of upwards
of a mile of copper wire, one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness
and wound into a hoop of four feet in diameter. With this
arrangement, and a battery of 147 square feet of zine surface
divided into eight elements, shocks were perceptible in the tongue
when the two conductors were separated to the distance of nearly
seven feet. At the distance of between three and four feet, the
shocks were quite severe. The exhibition was rendered more
interesting by causing the induction to take place through a
number of persons standing in a row between the two con-
ductors.”

The second section of the memoir is mainly occupied with
details of experiments on the screening effect of conducting plates
(of non-magnetic metals) when interposed between the primary and
secondary coils: showing remarkable contrasts in the “quantity ”
and ‘intensity ” classes of galvanic effects. When the annular
spool or helix (of nearly one mile of copper wire) was employed
with the large spiral coil of copper ribbon, “ the coil being con-
nected with a battery of ten elements, the shocks both at making
and breaking the circuit were very severe; and these as usual
were almost entirely neutralized by the interposition of the zine
plate. But when the galvanometer was introduced into the
circuit instead of the body, its indications were the same whether
the plate was interposed or not: or in other words the galvano-
meter indicated no screening, while under the same circumstances
the shocks were neutralized. A similar effect was observed
when the galvanometer and the magnetizing helix were together
introduced into the circuit. The interposition of the plate en-
tirely neutralized the magnetizing power of the helix (in refer-
ence to tempered steel) while the deflections of the galvanometer
were unaffected.” The induction currents of the third, fourth;
and fifth orders, were found to be of considerable ‘intensity ;”—
magnetizing steel needles, giving shocks, not being interrupted
by a drop of water placed in the circuit between the énds of the
severed wire,—and yet being screened or neutralized by a me-
tallic plate interposed between the coils.*

* Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. June 1840, vol. viii. n. 3. art. i. pp. 1-18.
42

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 269

A continuation of the memoir was read before the Philoso-
phical Society November 20th, 1840, discussing further the
theoretical differences between an initial or an increasing gal-
vanic current, and a decreasing or a terminal current, in pro-
ducing the phenomena of induction. On the same occasion
Henry described “an apparatus for producing a reciprocating
motion by the repulsion in the consecutive parts of a conductor
through which a galvanic current is passing.” About ten years
before, he had devised the first electro-magnetic engine (ope-
rating by intermittent magnetic attractions and repulsions); and
now he had contrived the first galvanic engine, operating by the
analogous intermittent attractions and repulsions of the electric
current. *

In June 1842, he presented a communication to the Society
recounting an investigation of some anomalies in ordinary elec-
trical induction. While with the larger needles (‘‘ No. 3 and No.
4”) subjected to the magnetizing helix, the polarity was always
conformable to the direction of the discharge, he found that when
very fine needles were employed, an increase in the force of the
electricity produced changes of polarity. About a thousand
needles were magnetized in the testing helices in these researches.
This puzzling phenomenon was finally cleared up by the important
discovery that an electrical equilibrium was not instantaneously
effected by the spark, but that it was attained only after several
oscillations of the flow. ‘‘The discharge, whatever may be its
nature is not correctly represented by the single transfer from
one side of the jar to the other: the phenomena require us to
admit the existence of a principal discharge in one direction, and
then several reflex actions backward and forward, each more
feeble than the preceding, until the equilibrium is obtained.”
In every case therefore of the electrostatic discharge, the testing
needles were really subjected to an oscillating alternation of cur-
rents, and consequently to successive partial de-magnetizations
and re-magnetizations. The complications produced by this re-
sidual action, satisfactorily explained for the first time, the dis-
cordant results obtained by different investigators. This singular
reflux of current was ingeniously applied by Henry to explain the
apparent change of inductive current with differing distances.
Should the primitive discharge wave be in excess of the magnetic

* Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. Nov. 20, 1840, vol. i. p. 301.

+ Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. June 17, 1842, vol. ii. pp. 193.—Helmholtz
some five years later (in 1847), but quite independently, suggested “a
backward and forward motion between the coatings’? when the Leyden
jar is discharged. And still five years later (in 1852) Sir William Thom-
son made the same independent conjecture. To F, Savary however is
due the credit of having first thrown out the hypothesis of electrical oscil-
lations, as early as in 1827.

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capacity of the needle at a given position, the return wave might
be just sufficient to completely reverse its polarity, and the
diminished succeeding wave insufficient to restore it to its former
condition; while at a greater distance, the primitive wave might
be so far reduced as to just magnetize the needle fully, and the
second wave, being still more enfeebled, would only partially de-
magnetize it, leaving still a portion of the original polarity; and
so for the following diminished oscillations.

In the course of these extended researches the presence of in-
ductive action was traced to most surprising and unimagined
distances. ‘‘A single spark from the prime conductor of the
machine, of about an inch long, thrown‘on the end of a circuit of
wire in an upper room, produced an induction sufficiently power-
ful to magnetize needles in a parallel circuit of wire placed in the
cellar beneath, at a perpendicular distance of thirty feet, with
two floors and ceilings—each fourteen inches thick intervening.”

“The last part of the series of experiments relates to induced
currents from atmospheric electricity. By a very simple arrange-
ment, needles are strongly magnetized in the author’s study, even
when the flash is at the distance of seven or eight miles, and
when the thunder is scarcely audible. On this principle he pro-
poses a simple self registering electrometer, connected with an
elevated exploring rod.” For obtaining the results above alluded
to, a thick wire was soldered to the edge of the tin roof of his
dwelling and passed into his study through a hole in the window
frame; while a similar wire passing out to the ground, terminated
in connection with a metal plate in a deep well close by. Between
the wire ends within his study, various apparatus, including mag-
netizing helices of different sizes and characters could be attached,
so as to be within the line of conduction from the roof to the
ground. The inductions from atmospheric discharges were found
to have the oscillatory character observed with the Leyden jar;
and by interposing several magnetizing helices with few and with
many convolutions, he was able to get from a needle in the former
the polarity due to the direct current, and in the latter, that due
to the return current; thus catching the lightning (as it were).
upon the rebound.

In examining the ‘lateral discharge” from a lightning-rod in
good connection with the earth, he had often observed that while
a spark could be obtained sufficiently strong to be distinctly felt,
it scarcely affected in the slightest degree a delicate gold-leaf
electroscope. How explain so incongruous a phenomenon ?
Henry detected the very simple solution, by a reference to the
self-induction of the rod,—a negative wave passing followed im-
mediately by a positive wave so rapidly as to completely neutralize
the effect upon the electroscope before the inertia of the gold leaf
could be overcome, while actually producing a double spark (sen-
sibly co-incident) to and from the recipient.

44

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 271

A few months later, ‘‘he had succeeded in magnetizing needles
by the secondary current, in a wire more than two hundred and
twenty feet distant from the wire through which the primary cur-
rent was passing, excited by a single spark from an electrical
machine.”* In this case the primary wire was his telegraph
line stretched seven years before across the campus of the College
grounds in front of Nassau Hall: the secondary or induction wire
being suspended in a parallel direction across the grounds at the
rear of Nassau Hall, with its ends terminating in buried metallic
plates :—the large building intervening between the two wires.

This brilliant series of contributions to our knowledge of a most
recondite and mysterious agent, placed Henry, by the concurrent
judgment of all competent physicists, in the very front rank of
original investigators. His persevering researches in the elec-
trical paradoxes of induction, perhaps more than any similar ones,
tended to strengthen the hypothesis of an etherial dynamic agency ;
although he himself had for a long time been inclined to favor the
material hypothesis.

INVESTIGATIONS IN GENERAL PHYSICS: FROM 1830 TO 1846.

In order to give a proper connection to the experimental in-
quiries undertaken by Henry in various fields, it is necessary to
pause here, and to recur to some of his earlier scientific labors.

Meteorology.—F rom an early date Henry took a deep interest
in the study of meteorology: not only on account of its practical
importance, but from its relation to cosmical physics, and because
from the very complexity and irregularity of its conditions, it
challenged further investigation and stood in need of larger gene-
ralizations. His early association with Dr. T. Romeyn Beck in
the first development of the system of meteorological observations
established in the State of New York, has already been referred
to in the sketch of his ‘Early Career.” This active and zealous
co-operation continued from 1827 to 1852; or as long as he re-
sided in Albany.

In September of 1830, he commenced a series of observations
for Professor Renwick of Columbia College, to determine the
magnetic intensity at Albany. With the assistance of his
brother-in-law, Professor Stephen Alexander, these observations

* Proceedings Am. Phil. Sor. Oct 21, 1842, vol. ii. p. 229.

{ Ina paper “On the Theory of the so-called Tpit lerables” published
sonie years later, in referring to the phenomena of electrical oscillation in
discharge, and of the series of inductions taking place and ‘extending to
a surprising distance on all sides,’’ he remarks: ‘As these are the results
of currents in alternate directions, they must produce in surrounding
space a series of p/us and minus motions, analogous to—if not identical with
undulations.” (Proceed. Amer. Association, Albany, Aug. 1851, p. 89.)

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272 BULLETIN OF THE

were continued daily for two months.* In April, 1831, a second
series of observations was commenced ; in the course of which
his attention was attracted by a great disturbance of the needle
during the time of a conspicuous “aurora” on the 19th of April,
1831. At noon of the 19th the oscillations were found to be
perfectly accordant with previous ones, but at 6 o’clock P. M. a
remarkable increase of magnetic intensity was indicated. At 10
o’clock of the same evening, during the most active manifestation
of the aurora, the oscillations of the needle were again examined.
“‘Tnstead of still indicating as at 6 o’clock an uncommonly high
degree of magnetic intensity, it now showed an intensity con-
siderably lower than usual.” Thus, designating the normal
intensity at the place as unity, at 6 o’clock it had increased to
1.024, and at 10 o’clock had subsided to 0.993, which according
to Hansteen’s observations is the usual relation of maguetie dis-
turbance by an aurora.f An account of these results was com-
municated by Henry to the Albany Institute, January 26, 1832;
and was also published in the Report of the Regents of the New
York University. A little more than a month later (to wit on
March 6, 1832,) he had been able to collate the various published
accounts of this aurora; and he learned ‘the fact of a dis-
turbance of terrestrial magnetism being observed by Mr. Christie
in Kngland on the same evening, and at nearly the same time
the disturbance was witnessed in Albany, and that too in con-
nection with the appearance of an aurora.” This circumstance
led him to make a careful comparison of the notices of auroral
displays given in the meteorological reports in the Annals of
Philosophy for 1830 and 1831, with those of the Reports of the
New York Regents for the same period. ‘ By inspecting these
two publications it was seen that from April, 1830, to April, 1831,

* The needles employed in these observations were a couple received
by Professor Renwick from Capt. Sabine,—one of which had belonged to
Prof. Hansteen of Norway. ‘‘They were suspended according to the
method of Hansteen in a small mahogany box, by a single fibre of raw
ailk. Vhe box was furnished with a glass cover, and had a graduated
are of ivory on the bottom to mark the amplitude of the vibrations. In
using this apparatus, the time of three hundred vibrations was noted by
a quarter-second watch, well regulated to mean time; a register being
mads at the end of every tenth vibration, and a mean deduced from the
whole, taken as the true time of the three hundred vibrations. Experi-
ments carefully nade with this apparatus were found susceptible of con-
siderable accuracy :’’ the individual observations not differing from the
mean number, ordinarily more than one-thousandth. (Silliman’s Am.
Jour. Sct. April, 1832, vol. xxii. p. 145.)

7 Prof. Hansteen has remarked that ‘A short time before the aurora
borealis appears, the intensity of the magnetism of the earth is apt to rise
to an uncommon height; but so soon as the aurora borealis begins, in
proportion as its force increases, the intensity of the magnetism of the
earth decreases, recovering its former strength by degrees, often not till
the end of twenty-four hours.” (Adinburgh Philosoph. Jour. Jan. 1825,
vol, xii. p. 91.)

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 273

inclusive, the aurora was remarkably frequent and brilliant both
in Kurope and in this country; and that most of the auroras
described in the Annals for this time, particularly the brilliant
ones, were seen on the same evening in England and in the State
of New York.” From which he argues that “these simultaneous
appearances of the meteor in Europe and America would there-
fore seein to warrant the conclusion that the aurora borealis can-
not be classed among the ordinary local meteorological phenomena,
but that it must be referred to some cause connected with the
general physical principles of the globe; and that the more
energetic action of this cause (whatever it may be) affects simul-
taneously a greater portion of the northern hemisphere.” *

In attempting to classify and digest the meteorological data
within his reach, Henry became strongly impressed with the
necessity of much more extensive, continuous, and systematic
observations than any as yet undertaken: and he omitted no
opportunities of directing influence upon the minds of our
national legislators, to impress them with the great need—as
well as the practical policy of prosecuting the subject by govern-
mental resources. No one at that day seemed so fully awake
both to the importance and to the methods of prosecuting such
inquiry: and no one more effectually advanced both by direct
and by indirect exertions the wide-spread interest in this study,
than he.

In 1839, while at Princeton, he induced the American Philo-
sophical Society officially to memorialize the National Govern-
ment to establish stations for magnetic and meteorological obser-
vations: a movement which was partly successful, though not to
the extent desired. On the subject of international systems of
observation and register, he justly remarks at a later date: “In
order that the science of meteorology may be founded on reliable
data, and attain that rank which its importance demands, it is
necessary that extended systems of co-operation should be estab-
lished. In regard to climate, no part of the world is isolated :
that of the smallest island in the Pacific, is governed by the
general currents of the air and the waters of the ocean. To fully
understand therefore the causes which influence the climate of
any one country, or any one place, it will be necessary to study
the conditions, as to heat, moisture, and the movements of the
air, of all others. It is evident also that as far as possible, one
method should be adopted, and that instruments affording the
same indications under the same conditions should be employed.
. . . <A general plan of this kind, for observing the meteor-
ological and magnetical changes, more extensively than had ever
before been projected, was digested by the British Association

* Sill. Am. Jour. Sci. April 1832, vol. xxii. pp. 150-155.
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274 BULLETIN OF THE

in 1838, in which the principal governments of Europe were
induced to take an active part; and had that of the United
States, and those of South America, joined in the enterprise, a
series of watch-towers of nature would have been distributed
over every part of the earth.” *

A large collection of original notes of various meteorological
observations,—on magnetic variations, on auroras with attempts
at ascertaining their extreme height, on violent whirl-winds, on
hail-stones, on thunder-storms, and the deportment of lightning-
rods,—unfortunately never published nor transcribed were lost
(with much other precious scientific material) by a fire in 1865.
The phenomena of thunder-storms were always studied by Henry
with great interest and attention. A very severe one which
visited Princeton on the evening of July 14th 1841, was minutely
described in a communication to the American Philosophical
Societv, November 5th, 1841.+

On November 3d, 1843, he made a communication to the
Society “in regard to the application of Melloni’s thermo-electrie
apparatus to meteorological purposes, and explained a modifica-
tion of the parts connected with the pile, to which he had been
led in the course of his researches. He had found the vapors.
near the horizon, powerful reflectors of heat; but in the case of a
distant thunder-storm, he had found that the cloud was colder
than the adjacent blue space.”

On June 20, 1845, he read a paper before the Society on “a.
simple method of protecting from lightning, buildings covered
with metallic roofs ;” urging the importance in suck. cases of
having the vertical rain pipes always in good electrical connec-
tion with the earth, since ‘‘on the principle of electrical induc-
tion, houses thus covered are evidently more liable to be struck
than those furnished either with shingle or tile.” It is of course
necessary to have the metallic roof in good metallic connection
with the gutters and pipes; and the latter may conveniently
have soldered to the lower end a ribbon of sheet copper two or
three inches wide, continuing into the ground surrounded with
charcoal and extending out from the house till it terminates in
moist ground. §

In this paper he incidentally meets the much debated question
whether a lightning-rod is efficient as a conductor by its solidity,

* Agricultural Report of Com. of Patents, for 1855, p. 367.

} Proceed, Am. Phil. Soc. vol. ii. pp. 111-116.

t Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. p. 22.

§ Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. p. 179. Henry appears to have:
been much impressed with the conducting value of the tinned sheet-iron
pipes commonly used as rain spouts, from observing that amid the strange
vagaries of the circuitous path pursued by the lightning (in cases of
houses struck by this destructive agent), the rain pipe was not unfre-
quently selected as part of the route ;—marks of explosive violence being,
exhibited at its lower end, und sometimes at its top as well.

48

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 275

or by its surface only. While he had been able to magnetize
small needles placed transversely to the edges of broad strips of
copper, through which electrical discharges were passed, he could
obtain no sigus of magnetism in needles when placed transversely
near the sides of such strips about mid-way from the edges. In
like manner he failed to discover any action in a small magne-
tizing helix placed within a section of gas-pipe and connected
with it at either end, when transmitting through the system an
electrical spark; while he easily obtained magnetic effects with
a galvanic current passed through the same arrangement.*
From these and other experiments he was led to believe that
mechanical electricity tends to pass mainly along the exterior
surface of a conductor, and accordingly that Ohm’s law of con-
duction is not applicable to mechanical electricity. f

Some popular uneasiness having been excited in 1846, in con-
sequence of telegraph poles being occasionally struck by light-
ning, and of the supposed danger to travellers along hig hways
likely to result therefrom, a communication on the subject ad-
dressed to Dr. Patterson, one of the Vice-Presidents of the
American Philosophical Society, was read before the Society,
and referred to Professor Henry for report. This was in the
very infancy of the electro-magnetic telegraph; as it had not
then been in existence more than a couple of years. Henry
responded in a communication read June 19th, 1846, to the
effect that while telegraph wires as long conductors were emi-
nently liable to receive discharges of atmospheric. electricity
both from charged clouds and from the varying electrical condi-
tion of the air at distant points along the line (as for example
even by afog or precipitation of vapor at one station) as also
from induction at a distance, the danger to travellers along a
telegraph road would be very slight, unless a person should be
standing or passing quite close to a pole at the moment of its
being struck. He however recommended that for the protection
of the poles, they should be provided with conductors. ‘The
effects of powerful discharges from the clouds may be prevented
in a great degree by erecting at intervals along the line and
beside the supporting poles a metallic wire connected with the
earth at the lower end, and terminating above at the distance of
about half an inch from the wire of the telegraph. By this

* In passing a galvanic current through an iron tube, he obtained the
evidence of an induction from both the inside and the outside of the tube,
but in opposite directions.

} This very important question cannot be regarded as even yet de-
cisively settled :—eminent authorities maintaining that electricity on fl .w-
—of whatever origin—observes equally the ratio of proportionality to
area of cross section in the conductor. Probably the law of conductivity
varies with circumstances.

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276 BULLETIN OF THE

arrangement, the insulation of the conductor will not be inter-
fered with, while the greater portion of the charge will be drawn
off. I think this precaution of great importance at places where
the line crosses a river and is supported on high poles. Also in
the vicinity of the office of the telegraph, where a dischage fall-
ing on the wire near the station might send a current into the
house of sufficient quantity to produce serious accidents.”* This
precaution has now been largely adopted, especially on the tele-
graph lines of the central portion of the United States, which are
more liable to the effects of lightning. +

Molecular Physics.—Among other inquiries many original
examinations were made by Henry in the domain of molecular
physics. While Professor in the College of New Jersey in 1839,
his attention was attracted to a curious case of metallic capil-
larity. A small lead tube about eight inches long happening to
be left with a bent end lying in a shallow dish of mercury, he
noticed a few days afterward that the mercury had cisappeared
from the dish, and was spread on the shelf about the other end
of the tube. On a careful examination of the tule by incision,
it appeared that the mercury had not passed along the open canal
of the tube, but had percolated through its solid substance. To
test this, a solid rod of lead about one-fourth of an inch thick
and seven inches long was bent into a siphon form, and the
shorter end immersed in a small shallow vessel of mercury; a
similar empty vessel being placed under the longer end. In the
course of 24 hours a globule of mercury was found at the lower
end of the lead rod; and in five or six days it had all passed
over excepting what appeared in the form of crystals of a lead
amalgam in the upper vessel.{ A long piece of thick lead wire
was afterward suspended in a vertical position, with its lower
end dipping into a cup of mercury. In the course of a few days,
traces of the mercury were found in the rod at the height of
three feet above the cup: thus showing that a metal impervious
to water or oil (excepting under very great pressure) was easily
penetrated to great distances by a liquid metal.

Some years later on a visit to Philadelphia he endeavored with
the assistance of his friend Dr. Patterson (then Director of the
United States Mint), by melting a small globule of gold on a.
plate of clean sheet-iron, to obtain its capillary absorption ; but
without effect ; probably owing to the interposition of a thin film
of oxide. Applying to another personal friend, Mr. Cornelius
of Philadelphia, a very intelligent and ingenious manufacturer
of bronzes, and plated ornaments for chandeliers, ete. to try

* Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc., vol. iv. p. 266.
+ Prescott. Electricity and the Electric Telegraph, 8vo. N. York, 1877,
chap. xxiii. pp. 296, and 411.
t Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc., vol. i. p. 82.
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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. QUT

whether a piece of silver-plated copper heated to the melting
point of silver would show any absorption of that metal, he
learned that it was a common experience under such circumstances
to find the silver disappear; but that this had always been at-
tributed to a volatilization of the silver, or in the workman’s
phrase,—to its being ‘‘burnt off.” At Henry’s request the expe-
riment was tried: the heated end of a silver-plated piece of
copper exhibited on cooling and cleaning, a copper surface, the
other end remaining unchanged. Henry next had the copper
surface slightly dissolved off by immersion for a few minutes in a
solution of muriate of zine, when as he had anticipated, the
silver was again exposed, having penetrated to but a very short
and tolerably uniform distance below the original surface.*

In 1844, he made some important observations on the cohesion
of liquids. Notwithstanding that Dr. Young early in the century
maintained that ‘the immediate cause of solidity as distinguished
from liquidity is the lateral adhesion of the particles to each
other,” and had shown that “the resistance of ice to extension
or compression is found by experiment to differ very little from
that of water contained in a vessel,’”’} all the most popular text-
books on physics continued to teach that the cohesion of the
liquid state is intermediate between that of the solid and the
gaseous states.[ It seemed therefore desirable to test the ques-
tion by some more direct means than the resistance of liquids
contained in closed vessels; and for this purpose Henry em-
ployed the classical soap-bubble. ‘The effect of dissolving the
soap in the water is not as might at first appear, to increase the
molecular attraction, but to diminish the mobility of the mole-
cules.” In fact the actual tenacity of pure water is greater than
that of soap-water.

The first set of experiments was directed to determine ‘the
quantity of water which adhered to a bubble just before it burst.”
The second set of experiments was devised to measure the con-
tractile force of a soap-bubble blown on the wider end of a U
shaped glass tube half filled with water, by the barometric column
sustained in the narrower stem of the tube; the difference of
level being carefully observed by means of a microsccpe. The
thickness of the soap-bubble film at its top was estimated by the

* Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. June 20, 1845, vol. iv. p. 177.

+ Young’s Lectures on Nat. Philos. Lect. 50, vol. i. p. 627.

t “If we attempt to draw up from the surface of water a circular disk
of metal say of an inch in diameter, we shall see that the water will
adhere and be supported several lines above the general surface. This
experiment which is frequently given in elementary books as a measure
of the feeble attraction of water for itself, is improperly interpreted. It
merely indicates the force of attraction of a single filin of atoms around
the perpendicular surface, and not of the whole column elevated.’®
(Agricultural Report for 1857, p. 427. —Paper on Meteorology.)

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278 BULLETIN OF THE

last of the Newton rings shown previous to bursting. The result
arrived at from both sets of experiments was that water instead
of having a cohesion of 53 grains to the square inch (as was
very commonly stated), has a cohesive force of several hundred
pounds to the inch; or that the intermolecular cohesion of a
liquid is fully equal to that of the substance in the solid state.*

In 1846, he presented to the Philosophical Society an epitome
of his views on the molecular constitution of matter; giving the
reasons for accepting the atomic hypothesis of Newton. He
pointed out that the discovery and establishment of a general
scientific principle “is in almost all cases the result of deductions
from a rational antecedent hypothesis, the product of the imagi-
nation; founded it is true on a clear analogy with modes of
physical action, the truth of which have been established by
previous investigation:” and he urged that the hope of further
advancement lies in the assumption ‘that the same laws of force
and motion which govern the phenomena of the action of matter
in masses, pertains to the minutest atoms of these masses.” He
therefore felt ‘‘obliged to assume the existence of an etherial
medium formed of atoms which are endowed with precisely the
same properties as those we have assigned to common matter.”

‘“ According to the foregoing rules we may assume with Newton,
the existence of one kind of matter diffused throughout all space,
and existing in four states, namely the setherial, the aeriform, the
liquid, and the solid.” In referring to this postulated fourfold
state of matter, Henry was accustomed to point out the remark-
able analogy between this conception, and that of the four ele-
ments of the ancients,——fire, air, water, and earth.

‘Tn conclusion, it should be remembered that the legitimate
use of speculations of this kind, is not to furnish plausibie expla-

* Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. April 5, and May 17, 1844, pp. 56,57, and 84,
85. The original notes of these interesting experiments containing the
numerical results obtained under a great variety of conditions, laid aside
for further reductions and comparisons, were destroyed by fire in 1865.
Since the density of most solid substances differs very slightly from that
of their liquid state, being indeed less in many,—unless at considerably
lower temperatures, (as in the case of ice, and most of the metals.) it
appears quite improbable that the difference between solidity and liquidity
could depend in any case ou the degree of cohesion. On the contrary,
the cohesion of water should be sensibly greater than that of ice, since its
constituent molecules are closer together. Of the nature of that ‘lateral
adhesion’? which resists the flow of solids (excepting under the conditions
of great strain—long continued), and whose absence is mark d in liquids
by their almost perfect and frictionless mobility, our present science affords
us no intimation.

+ Two hundred years ago, Newton speculating on the unity of matter,
ventured the suggestion, ‘Thus perhaps may all things be originated
from ether.’?—Letter to the Secretary of the Royal Society—Henry Olden-
burg, January, 1676 (Hist. of Roy. Svc. by Thomas Birch, vol. iii. p. 250).

52

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 279

nations of known phenomena, or to present old knowledge in a
new and more imposing dress, but to serve the higher purpose
of suggesting new experiments and new phenomena, and thus to
assist in enlarging the bounds of science, and extending the
power of mind over matter; and unless the hypothesis can be
employed in this way, however much ingenuity may have been
expended in its construction, it can only be considered as a scien-
tific romance worse than useless, since it tends to satisfy the miud
with the semblance of truth, and thus to render truth itself less
an object of desire.”*

Light and Heat.—Henry also made important investigations
on some peculiar phenomena connected with light and heat.
For the purpose of experimenting on sun light he devised in
1840, a very simple form of heliostat, based on the suggestion
of Dr. Young, whereby the solar ray was received into an upper
yoom in a direction parallel to the earth’s axis, requiring there-
fore only an equatorial movement of the reflector; which was
effected by the aid of a common cheap pocket watch placed ona
small hinged board set by a screw to the angle of latitude. The
mitror mounted on a swivel and properly balanced, presented
no sensible resistance to the running of the watch, which was.
arranged for the 24 hour rotation by a watch-maker of Princeton.
Whe whole cost of the completed instrument (including the time-
movement) was but sixteen dollars. If any particular direction
of the ray was required, it was only necessary to place a stationary
mirror in the fixed path of the ray, adjusted to the desired
angle. fT

In 1841, on repeating experiments of Becquerel and Biot on
‘ Phosphorescence,” he discovered some new characteristics in
the emanation (particularly when excited by electrical light)
which had not before been observed.{ These were more fully
detailed in a communication made to the American Philosophical
Society, in 1843, “On Phosphorogenic Emanation.’’? This phe-
nomenon had been first observed in the diamond, when taken into
a dark room immediately after exposure to direct sun-light, or
to a vivid electric spark; and was afterward observed in several
other substances,—notably in the chloride of ealcium—‘‘ Hom-
berg’s phosphurus.”§ It had aiso been shown by Becquerel that

* Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. Nov. 6, 1846, vol. iv. pp. 287-290.

+ Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. Sept. 17, 1841, vol. bis joy) WUE

+ Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. April 16, 1841, vol ii. p. 46.

§ Homberg’s phosphorus is chloride of calcium prepared by melting
one part of sal ammonia with two parts of slaked lime. Canton’s phos-
phorus is sulphide of calcium formed by a mixture of three parts of
sifted and calcined oyster shells, and one part of flowers of sulphur, ex-
posed for an hour to a strong heat.

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while this phosphorescence may be fully excited in the sensitive
body by rays which have passed through transparent sulphate
of lime, or through quartz, the effect is entirely arrested by a
plate of transparent mica, or glass. Henry by a long series of
experiments greatly extended these lists, including in them a
large number of liquids. He also subjected both the exciting
rays (especially of the electric spark) and the luminous emana-
tion, to various treatment, by reflection, refraction, polarization,
etc. The Nicol prism was found to obstruct this peculiar ex-
citing ray so much as to permit scarcely any impression; but
what was remarkable and unexpected, a pile of thin mica plates
which seemed to cut off entirely the phosphorogenic impression,
was found when placed obliquely at the best polarizing angle, to
distinctly excite a surviving luminous spot. On examination of
the phosphorescence excited by polarized light, no effect was
produced by a rotation of the analyser: “when the beam was
transmitted through crystals in different directions with reference
to their optical axis, no difference could be observed.” The
phosphorescence was completely depolarized, as if taking an
entirely new origin in the sensitive substance: a fact re-dis-
covered by Professor Stokes some ten years later, with regard
to fluorescent emanations.

That the phosphorogenic effect does not depend on a heating
of the substance, appeared to be shown by the fact that “the
lime becomes as luminous under a plate of alum as under a plate
of rock-salt.” The emanation was examined by a prism of rock-
crystal, and by one of rock-salt :—-science had not then the spec-
troscope. While the impression could be readily made by a
reflected beam from a metallic mirror, it failed entirely when
directed from a looking-glass. The luminous effect on the phos-
phorescent substance was found to be defined in location by the
form of the opening made in sheet metal screens. On testing
with different portions of the electric spark by means of a narrow
slit in the screen, the two terminals of the spark were found to
be much more active (as measured by the subsequent duration
of the phosphorescence) than the middle portion. By a suitable
arrangement of double screens with three slits each, he was able
to make simultaneous star-like photographs on the substance, of
the two extreme portions of the spark and of a middle point:
and while the latter point ‘exhibited a feeble phosphorescence
for two or three seconds” only, the two former ‘continued to
glow for more than a minute:” and yet the middle of the spark
appeared to the eye quite as vivid as its extremities. It was
also observed that while a sensitive daguerreotype plate received
no impression from the electrie spark, inversely another similar
plate exposed for several minutes to the direct light of the full

54

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 281

moon received a photographic impression, while the lime simi-
larly exposed, exhibited no phosphorescence. *

Henry was afterward accustomed on the occurrence of a bright
aurora, to expose a sheet of paper written or figured with a
solution of bisulphate of quinia to the auroral light, when the
characters (quite invisible by lamp-light or even by day-light)
would distinctly glow with a pale blue light ;—indicating the
electrical nature of the meteor.

In January, 1845, in conjunction with Professor Stephen Alex-
ander, he instituted a series of experimental observations on the
relative heat-radiating power of the solar spots. On the 4th of
January a large spot through which our terrestrial globe could
have been freely dropped, (having been estimated at more than
10,000 miles in diameter,) favorably situated near the middle of
the disk, was examined with a telescope of four inches aperture.
A screen having been arranged in a dark room, with a thermo-
electric apparatus behind it and having its terminal or pile just
projecting through a hole in the screen, the image of the spot
was received upon it, giving a clearly defined outline about two
inches long and one inch anda half wide. By a slight motion
of the telescope the spot could readily be thrown on or off the
end of the pile as desired. A considerable number of observa-
tions indicated very clearly by the differing deflections of the
galvanometer needle ‘that the spot emitted less heat than the
surrounding parts of the luminous disk.”} <A brief account of
the results obtained by these researches given in a letter to his
friend Sir David Brewster, was read by him at the Cambridge
Meeting of the British Association in June, 1845.{ The deter- -
minations arrived at have been fully confirmed by the later obser-
vations of Secchi and others §

In 1845, he contributed a paper to the Princeton Review, on
“Color Blindness;” which although in the modest form of a
literary review of two Memoirs then recently published, (that of
Sir David Brewster in the Philosophical Magazine; and that of

* Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. May 26, 1843, vol. iii. pp. 38-44. This in-
teresting but obscure subject although apparently connected with the
phenomenon of “fluorescence”? has yet an entirely distinct phase in its
abnormal continuance of luminosity,—similar to the familiar effect of a
thermal impression. It is possible however that the conversion of wave-
periodicity (wave-length), shown by Stokes to be the characteristic of
fluorescence, may require time for its full development.

t+ Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. June 20, 1845, vol. iv. p. 176.

t Report Brit. Assoc. 1846, part ii. p. 6.

§ P. Angelo Secchi—during the years 1848, and 1849, was Professor of
Mathematics at the College of Georgetown, D. C. : and in the preparation
of his “ Researches on Electrical Rheometry’’ published in the third
volume of the Smithsonian Contributions, (art. ii. p. 60,) he received from
Henry the friendly assistance of apparatus and suggestions. He was ap-
pointed Director of the Observatory at Kome, in 1850.

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282 BULLETIN OF THE

Professor Elie Wartman, of Lausanne, in the Scientific Memoirs,)
supplied original observations on this interesting department of
the physiology of vision.

Miscellaneous Contributions.—Henry’s miscellaneous contri-
butious to physical science are so numerous and varied, that only
a brief allusion to some of them can be afforded. In 1829, he
published quite an elaborate “ Topographical sketch of the State
of New York, designed chiefly to show the general elevations
and depressions of its surface.”* And in later years he devoted
much attention to physical geography. He performed at various
times, a good deal of chemical work (chiefly of an analytical
character),—first as Dr. T. Romeyn Beck’s assistant,? and after-
ward independently, as well as mediately in directing his own
pupils and assistants. In 1833, he devised an improvement of
Wollaston’s mechanical scale of the chemical equivalents, for the
benefit of his pupils in chemistry:—a contrivance which was
much used and highly appreciated at the time.

The suggestion had been thrown out by more than one astro-
nomer, that carefully timed observations on characteristic meteors
or ‘“shooting-stars” might be made available for determining
differences of longitude between the stations of observation.{
For many years however the proposition had been generally re-
garded as offering rather a speculative than a practical method of
solving a problem of so great nicety. Henry in concert with his
brother-in-law, Professor Alexander, and with his friend Professor
Bache, determined to ascertain by actual trial the availability and
value of the system. On the 25th of November, 1835, Professor
Bache observing at his residence in Philadelphia (assisted by
Professor J. P. Espy,)—simultaneously with Professor Henry
and Professor Alexander, at the Philosophical Hall at Princeton,
they cbtained seven co-incidences :—the instant of disappearance
of the meteor being in each case selected as the most accurately
attainable epoch. These seven observations (whose greatest dis-
crepancies amounted to but a trifle over 3 seconds) gave a mean
result of 2 minutes 0.61 second (time longitude) differing only

* Trans. Albany Institute, vol. i. pp. 87-112.

7 ‘‘Henry was then Dr. Beck’s chemical assistant, and already an ad-
mirable experimentalist.” Address before the Albany Institute, by Dr.
O. Meads, May 25, 1871. (Trans. Albany Instit. vol. vii. p. 21.)

t{ “The merit of first suggesting the use of shooting stars and fire-balls
as signals for the determination of longitudes is claimed by Dr. Olbers and
the German astronomers for Benzenberg, who published a work on the
subject in 1802. Mr. Bailey however has pointed out a paper published
by Dr. Maskelyne twenty years previously, in which that illustrious
astronomer calls attention to the subject, and distinctly points ont this
application of the phenomena.’ This was dated Greenwich, November
6th, 1783. (L. #. D. Phil. Mag. 1841, vol. xix. p. 554.)

56

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 283

one second and two-tenths from the mean estimate of relative
longitude arrived at by other methods. *

In 1840, Henry gave an account of “electricity obtained from
a small ball partly filled with water, and heated by a lamp.”

In 1848, he read a communication to the Society, ““On a new
method of determining the velocity of Projectiles :” for this pur-
pose employing two screens of fine insulated wire each in circuit
with a galvanometer, and at determined near distances in the
path of the projectile;—whereby the galvanic currents would be
successively interrupted at the instants of penetration. To re-
cord the interval, each galvanometer needle is provided at one
end with a marking pen touching a horizontally revolving cylin-
der, which is divided by longitudinal lines into 100 equal parts,
and is driven by clock-work at the rate of ten revolutions per
second, giving therefore to the interval of passage between two
consecutive lines, the thousandth part of a second.{ Another
still more ingenious method is suggested, whereby the galvano-
meter may be dispensed with: each circuit including an induc-
tion coil, one.end of whose secondary circuit is connected with
the axis, and the other end placed very nearly in contact with
the surface of the graduated paper on the revolving cylinder,
so as to give the induction spark through the paper at the instant
of the interruption of the primary circuits by the projectile pass-
ing through the wire screens. ‘This is really a much neater and
more direct application of the electric interruption than the em-
ployment of a galvanometer needle for making the record. If
desirable, the cylinder may be made to have a very slow longi-
tudinal movement by a screw, so as to give a helical direction to
the tracings; and different pairs of screens similarly arranged at
distant points in the path of the projectile may be employed to
determine the variations of velocity in its flight.§

Henry was always a watchful student of psychological and
subjective phenomena. Witnessing on one occasion the perform-
ance of an athlete before a large assembly, he noticed with a
curious interest the “inductive” sympathy manifested by uearly

* Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. Dec. 20, 1839, vol. i. pp. 162, 163. “ This
appears to have been the first actual determination of a difference of lon-
gitude by meteoric observations.” (L. EH. D. Phil. Mag. 1841, vol. xix.
p- 553.) Several years later (in 1838) similar meteoric observations were
made between Altona and Breslau; and also between Rome and Naples.

t Procecd. Am. Phil. Soc. Dec. 18, 1840, vol. i. p. 323.

{ It appears that Wuieatstone devised his ingenious electro-magnetic
“ chronoscope” in 1840; though he unfortunately published no account
of it till 1845; er two years after the publication by Henry. And this
was called out as a reclamation, on the publication of a similar invention
by L. Breguet, of Paris, in January of the same year.

§ Proceed. Am. Phil. Suc. May 30, 1843, vol. iii. pp. 165-167.

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284. BULLETIN OF THE

every spectator (himself included) in being swayed by a move-
ment as of assistance to the performer. In remarking the impres-
sion of being moved, while steadily watching a series of passing
canal boats,—on each boat reaching a certain point, he referred
the impression (amounting almost to a sensation of movement),
to the relative angle of vision formed by the moving body.

He made a number of experiments on the flow of water jets
under varying conditions: also observations on sonorous flames
when passing into a stove-pipe of eight inches diameter and about
ten feet in length: on the comparative rates of evaporation from
fresh and from salt water: on the slow evaporation of water
from the end of a tube, and the much greater rapidity of evapo-
ration when the tube is open at both ends: extended notes of
which, with a great number of other researches, perished in the
flames.

In 1844, he published a Syllabus of his Lectures at Princeton.
In December of that year he presented to the Philosophical
Society a communication of a somewhat more theoretical charac-
ter than usual,—on the derivation and classification of mechanical
motors. He refers these to two classes ;—the first, those derived
from celestial disturbance (as water, tide, and wind powers),—
and the second, those derived from organic bodies or forces (as
steam and other heat powers, and animal powers). The forces
of gravity, cohesion, aud chemical affinity are not included, since
these tend speedily to stable equilibrium; and they become
sources of mechanical power only as they are disturbed by some
of those before mentioned. It is not the running down of the
water-fall, or the clock-weight, which is the true origin of their
useful work, but the lifting of them up. The same is true of the
power derived from combustion. He then adds that his second
class (the forces derived from the organic world) might perhaps
by a similar process of reasoning be derived from the first class ;
(that of celestial disturbance ; )—regarding ‘animal power as
referable to the same sources as that from the combustion of
fuel,” and the action of the vegetative power as ‘“‘a force derived
from the divellent power of the sunbeam,” being simply a case
of solar de-oxidation. Organism—vegetable and animal, he con-
siders as built up under the direction of a vital principle, which
is not itself a mechanical force. Volcanic power is neglected as
coinparatively feeble and limited, and not practically utilized.*

* Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. Dec. 20, 1844, vol. iv. pp. 127-129. This
appears to be the first—as it is probably the best—analysis of physical
energy, which has beeu proposed, Twenty years later, a similar analysis
(with certainly no improvement in the classification) was adopted by
Prot. Tait, in an essay on * Energy;” (North British Review, 1864, vol.
x!. art. iii. p. 191, of Am. edition:) and by Dr. Balfour Stewart, in his
Elemntary Treatise on Heat, Oxford, 1866 (book iii. chap. v. art. 388, p.
354.)

58

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 285

- This interesting digest presents one of the earliest and clearest
theoretical statements we have, of the correlation and transforma-
tion of the physical forces; including with these the so-called
organic forces.

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

By an Act of Congress approved August 10, 1846, the liberal
bequest to the United States, for the promotion of Science, by
James Smithson of London, England, was appropriated to the
foundation of the Institution bearing his name; the establish-
ment being made to comprise the chief dignitaries of the Govern-
ment as the supervising body, and a Board of Regents being
created for conducting the business of the Institution after com-
pleting its organization. As the testator had bequeathed his
fortune,* in simple terms “for the increase and diffusion of
knowledge among men,” there arose not unnaturally a great
diversity of opinion both among Congressmen, and among the
Regents, as to the most desirable method of executing the pur-
pose of the Will: and the organizing Act was itself a sort of
compromise, after many years of discussion and disagreement in
both branches of Congress. To literary men, no instrument of
knowledge could be so important as an extensive Library :—to
the professional, a seat of education or public instruction—general
or special—supplemented by elaborate courses of public lectures,
appeared the obvious and necessary means of diffusing useful
learning,—to the “practical,” a large agricultural and poly-
technic institute—supplemented perhaps by a museum, was the
only fitting plan of developing the resources of our country :—
to the artistic, extensive galleries of art were the most worthy
and instructive objects of patronage. The Regents sought
counsel from the distinguished and the learned: and several of
them applied to Professor Henry for his opinion. He gave the
subject a careful consideration; and announced very decided
views. As Smithson was a man of scientific culture, a Fellow
of the Royal Society, an expert analytical chemist, and devoted
to original research, Henry held that the language of his Will
must receive its most accurate and scientific and at the same
time most comprehensive interpretation; that the words ‘ in-
erease and diffusion of knowledge among men” were deliberately
and intelligently employed; and that no local or even national
interests were as broad as its terms,—that no merely educational
projects of whatever character, no schemes of material and
practical advancement however useful, could justly be regarded
as fulfilling the obvious intent—expressed by a scientific thinker

* The whole amount of the bequest was a trifle over 100,000 pounds,
or about 540,000 dollars.

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286 BULLETIN OF THE

and writer—first of all the ¢ncrease of knowledge by the promo-
tion of original research,—the addition of new truths to the
existing stock of knowledge, and secondly—its widest possible
diffusion among mankind.*

These wise and far-reaching views exerted a marked influence ;.
and though hardly then in accord with the opinion of the majority,
yet led to his election December 3d, 1846, as the “Secretary”
and practical Director of the infant institution. A second time
was Henry called upon to sever dearly prized associations,—the
prosperous and congenial pursuits of fourteen years within the
classic halls of Princeton. One motive turned the wavering
scale. Here was a rare occasion offered by the enlightened pro-
vision of James Smithson, to secure for abstract science and un-
promising original research, a much needed encouragement and
support; and an obligation upon the scientific few to resist and
if possible prevent the perversion of the trust to the merely
popular uses of the short-sighted many. That years would be
required for shaping the character and conduct of the institution
as he desired, was certain ;—that this could not be effected
without much opposition and various obstacles, he very clearly
foresaw. That during these years of active supervision and
direction, be must abandon all hope of personal opportunity for
original research, he as freely accepted in the expressive remark
made to a trusted friend in consultation on the occasion: “If I
go, I shall probably exchange permanent fame for transient
reputation.”

With the assurance of the Trustees of the College of New
Jersey, that should he fail to realize his programme, or should
he satisfactorily accomplish his apostolic purpose, his chair
should always be at his command, with a hearty welcome back,
Henry, neither spurred by over-confidence, nor depressed with
undue timidity, though filled with anxious solicitude for the
future, accepted the appointment tendered to him. He removed
with his family to Washington, and at once commenced his ad-
ministration of the duties assigned to him by the Regents of the
Institution.

Summoned thus to the occupancy of a new and untried field,
and to the discharge of essentially executive funetions, he from
the first displayed a clearness and promptness of judgment, a
singleness and steadiness of aim, a firmness and consistency of
decision, combined with a practical sagacity and moderation in
adapting his course to the exigencies of adverse conditions, which
stamped him as a most able and successful administrator. With-
out concealment and without diplomacy, his distinctly avowed
principle of action was steadily and patiently pursued. With

* “Pyogramme of Organization,” Smithsonian Report for 1847.
60

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. Q8T

honest submission to the controlling Act of Congress, he made «
as honest avowal of his desire and of his endeavor to have that
legislation modified. Hampered by provisions he deemed un-
wise and injurious, he yet skilfully managed to reconcile
contestant interests, and to secure the,entire confidence and
concurrence of the Regents. Henceforth his purpose and his
effort were to be directed to the unique object of encouraging
and fostering the development of what has so flippantly been
designated “useless knowledge ;”’ and merging self in the com-
munity of physical inquirers and collaborators, to become the
high-priest of abstract investigation ;—prepared to lend all prac-
ticable assistance to that small but earnest band of nature-
students, who inspired by no aims of material utility, seek from
their mistress as the only reward of their devotion, the higher
knowledge of truth.*

Of the two distinct objects of endowment specified by Smith-
gon’s Will,—“ the increase—and the diffusion—of knowledge,”
Henry forcibly remarked: ‘These though frequently con-
founded, are very different processes, and each may exist inde-
pendent of the other. While we rejoice that in our country
above all others, so much attention is paid to the diffusion of
knowledge, truth compels us to say that comparatively little
encouragement is given to its increase.t There is another
division with regard to knowledge which Smithson does not
embrace in his design; viz. the application of knowledge to use-
ful purposes in the arts. And it was not necessary he should
found an institution for this purpose. There are already in
every civilized country, establishments and patent laws for the
encouragement of this department of mental industry. As soon
as any branch of science can be brought to bear on the necessi-

* Henry has finely said: ‘‘Let censure or ridicule fall elsewhere,—on
those whose lives are passed without labor and without object; but let
praise and honor be bestowed on him who seeks with unwearied patience
to develop the order, harmony, and beauty of even the smallest part of
God's creation. A life devoted exclusively to the study of a single insect,
is not spent in vain. No animal however insignificant is isolated; it
forms a part of the great system of nature, and is governed by the same
general laws which control the most prominent beings of the organic
world.’? (Smithsonian Report for 1855, p. 20.)

+ Swainson the Naturalist, the conntryman and friend of Smithson, has
very pointedly marked this recognized distinction. ‘The constitution of
the Zoological Society is of a very mixed nature, admirably adapted
indeed to the reigning taste. It is more calculated however to diffuse
than to increase the actual stock of scientific knowledge.” (Discourse on
the Study of Natural History, Cabinet Cyclopedia, 16mo. London, 1834,
part iv. chap. i. sec. 221, p. 314.) And again: “It is very essential
when we speak of the diffusion or extension of science, that we do not
confound these stages of development with discovery or advancement ;
since the latter may be as different from the former as depth is from
shallowness.”? (Same work, part iv. chap. ii. sec. 240, p. 343.)

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288 BULLETIN OF THE

e ties, conveniences, or luxuries of life, it meets with encourage-
ment and reward. Not so with the discovery of the incipient
principles of science. ‘The investigations which lead to these,
receive no fostering care from Government, and are considered
by the superficial observer as trifles unworthy the attention of
those who place the supreme good in that which immediately
administers to the physical needs or luxuries of life. If physical
well-being were alone the object of existence, every avenue of
enjoyment should be explored to its utmost extent. But he who
loves truth for its own sake, feels that its highest claims are
lowered and its moral influence marred by being continually
summoned to the bar of immediate and palpable utility. Smith-
son himself had no such narrow views.* ‘The prominent design
of his bequest is the promotion of abstract science. In this
respect the Institution holds an otherwise unoccupied place in
this country; and it adopts two fundamental maxims in its
policy ;—first to do nothing with its funds which can be equally
well done by other means; and second to produce results which
as far as possible will benefit mankind in general.”

Congress—naturally with a prevailing tendency to the literary,
the showy, and the popular, had (after eight years of dilatory.
controversy) directed in its organizing Act (sec. 5,) the erection
of a building ‘of sufficient size, and with suitable rooms or halls
for the reception and arrangement upon a liberal scale, of objects
of natural history including a geological and mineralogical
cabinet, also a chemical laboratory, a library, a gallery of art,
and the necessary lecture-rooms.” By the 9th section of the
Act, the Board of Regents were authorized to expend the
remaining income of the endowment “as they shall deem best
suited for the promotion of the purpose of the testator.” Out of
an annual income of some 40,000 dollars, the Regents in full
accord with their Secretary (whose carefully elaborated programme
they officially adopted December 13, 1847,) succeeded in credit-
ably inaugurating all the objects specified in the charter; and
at the same time in establishing the system of publication of
original Memoirs, to which Henry justly attached the first im-
portance.

An incident in itself too slight to produce a visible ripple on
the current of Henry’s life, is yet too characteristic to be here

* Jn regard to the value of scientific truth, Smithson in a communica-
tion dated June 10th 1824, has forcibly expressed his strong “ conviction
that it is in his knowledge that man has found his greatness and his
happiness, the high superiority which he holds over the other animals
who inhabit the earth with him; and consequently that no ignorance is
probably without loss to him. no error without evil.” (Tomson’s Annals
of Philosophy, 1824, vol. xxiv. or new series vol. viii. p. 50.)

T Smithsonian Report for 1853, p. 8.

62

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 289

omitted. Dr. Robert Hare having in 1847 decided upon resign-
ing his Professorship of Chemistry in the Medical Department of
the University of Pennsylvania, (the largest and best patronized
in the country,) the vacant chair was tendered by the Board of
Trustees to Professor Henry. His friend Dr. Hare himself used
his influence to induce Henry to become his successor; particu-
larly dwelling on the large amount of leisure afforded for inde-
pendent investigations. The income of this professorship was
more than double the salary of the Smithsonian Secretaryship.
The position tempting as it might have been under different
circumstances, was however declined. Henry felt. that to leave
his present post before his cherished policy was fairly settled and
established, would be most probably to abandon nearly all the
results of the experiment : and having set before himself the one
great object of directing the resources of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution as far as possible to the advancement of science, in con-
formity with the undoubted intention of its founder, (and as the
execution therefore of a sacred trust,) he resolutely put aside
every inducement that might divert him from the fulfillment of
his task.*

Of the half a dozen objects of attention specified in the 5th
section of the organizing Act, (the various inspiration of dif-
ferent partisans, ) not one directly tended to further the primary
requirement of the Wili :-—-even the Laboratory being avowedly
introduced simply as a utilitarian workshop for mining and agri-
cultural analysis. Regarded as methods of diffusing existing
knowledge they were obviously local and limited in their range :
and as compared with the instrumentality of the Press, were
certainly very inefficient for spreading the benefits of the endow-
ment among men.f

* Some six years later, a somewhat similar temptation was presented.
Yn 1853, on the resignation of President Carnahan of the College of New
Jersey at Princeton, au effort was made to induce the return of Professor
Henry to his academic seat, by a movement to obtain for him the Presi-
dency of the College. Such a token of aflectionate remembrance could
not but be erateful and touching to his feelings; but a sense of obligation
was upon him, not tobe laid aside. He had undertaken a work and a
responsibility which must not be left to the hazard of failure. He declined
the proffered honor—with thanks ; and warmly recommended Dr. Meclean
to the vacant position: who thereupon was duly elected. (Maclean’s
Hist. of College of New Jersey, vol. ii. p. 336.) :

t “The objects specified in the Act of Congress evidently do not come
up to the idea of the testator as deduced from a critical examination of
his will. A library, a musenm, a gallery of arts, though important im
themselves, are local in their infinence. I have. from the beginning
advocated this opinion on all occasions, and shall continue to advocate it
whenever a suitable opportnnity occurs.” (Smithsonian Report for 1853,
p- 122 (of Senate edit.) p. 117. (of H. Rep. edit.) The snperficial pretext
was not wanting on the part of some. that the words “increase and adit.
fusion’’ were not to be taken too literally, but to be considered as the

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Henry with a rare courage dared maintain against most power-
ful influence, that the interests specifically designated must alk
be subordinated to the fundamental requirement, the promotion
of original research for increasing knowledge ; and that this was
amply sustained by the residuary grant of authority to the Re-
gents (under the 9th section of the Act) “to make such disposal
as they shall deem best suited for the promotion of the purposes
of the testator, anything herein contained to the contrary not-
withstanding,” of any income of the Smithsonian fund “ not
herein appropriated, or not required for the purposes herein
provided.” Henry’s carefully studied programme comprised two
sections: the first, embracing the details of the plan for carrying
out the explicit purpose of Smithson; the second, indicating the
proper steps for carrying out the provisions of the Act of Con-
gress. The first and principal section proposed as methods of
promoting research,—the stimulation of particular investigations
by special premiums,—the publication of such original memoirs
furnishing positive additions to knowledge by experiment and
observation as should be approved by a commission of experts
in each case,—-the active direction of certain investigations by
the provision of instruments as well as of the necessary means,
the appropriations being judiciously varied in distribution from
year to year,—the prosecution of experimental determinations
and the solution of physical problems,—-the extension of ethnology
(especially American) aud in general the conduct of such varied
explorations as should ultimately result in a complete physical
atlas of the United States. As methods of promoting the diffu-
sion of knowledge, it was proposed to give a wide circulation to
the published original memoirs or Smithsonian “ Contributions
to Knowledge” among domestic and foreign libraries, institutions,
and scientific correspondents, to have prepared by qualified col-
laborators, series of careful reports on the latest progress of
science in different departments, and to provide facilities for the
distribution and exchange of scientific memoirs generally.

It is unnecessary here to follow closely the slow steps by which
—through all the obstructions of narrow prejudice and ignorant.
misconstruction, of selfish interest and pretended philanthropy,
of friendly remonstrance and hostile denunciation,—the policy
originally maiked out by the Secretary was with unwavering
resolution and imperturbable equanimity steadily pursued, until
it gained its assured success; the vindication and the unpreten-
tious triumph of ‘‘the just man tenacious of purpose.”

The most formidable of the specialist schemes both in Congress

tautology of legal equivalents, applicable to the development of the indi-
vidual mind; since school-boys (if not the pundits) were evidently
capable of an “increase” of knowledge.

64 |

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 291

and elsewhere, was that of the Library faction, which prosecuted
with remarkable zeal and energy, threatened by the acknowledged
ability of its leading advocates to control the action of the
Regents, even to the neglect and abandonment of all the other
interests indicated by the statute. In Henry’s judgment the In-
stitution should possess simply a working library,* an auxiliary
for those engaged in scientific research, a repertory well supplied
with the published Proceedings and Transactions of learned
Societies, but which so far from aiming at an encyclopedic or a
literary character, should be mainly supplementary to the large
National Library already established at the Capital. “The
idea ought never to be entertained that the portion of the limited
income of the Smithsonian fund which can be devoted to the
purchase of books will ever be sufficient to meet the wants of
the American scholar. On the contrary it is the duty of thig
Institution to increase those wants by pointing out new fields for
exploration, and by stimulating other researches than those which
are now cultivated. It is a part of that duty to make the value
of libraries more generally known, and their want in this country
more generally felt.”+

Processes of Divestment.—Henry’s declaration that the mode-
rate means at command were insufficient to support worthily
either a Library, or a Museum, alone, was early justified. The
Library though slowly formed of only really valuable scientific
works, and this largely by exchanges with the Smithsonian publi-
cations,{ in the course of a dozen years amounted to about
50,000 volumes: and the annual cost of binding, superinten-
dence, and the constant enlargement of room and of cases, was
becoming a serious tax upon the resources of the Institution. The
propriety of transferring the custody of this valuable and rapidly
increasing collection to the National Library established by
Congress, was repeatedly urged upon the attention of that body:

* To carry on the operations of the first section a working library will
be required, consisting of the past volumes of the transactions and pro-
ceedings of all the learned societies in every language. These are the
original sources from which the most important principles of the positive
knowledge of our day have been drawn.” (Smithsonian Report for 1847, p.
139, of Sen. ed.: p. 131, of H. Rep. ed.)

t Smithsonian Report for 1858, p. 224, (of Sen. ed.) p. 216, (of H. Rep.
ed.)

+ ‘It is the intention of the Regents to render the Smithsonian library
the most extensive and perfect collection of Transactions and scientific
works in this country, and this it will be enabled to accomplish by means
of its exchanges, which wil furnish it with all the current journals and
publications of societies, while the separate series may be completed in
due time as opportunity and means may offer. The Institution has al-
ready more complete sets of Transactions of learned societies than are to
be found in the oldest libraries in the United States.’? (Smithsonian Re-
port for 1855, p. 29.)

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and by an Act approved April 5th, 1866, such transfer was at last
effected.

“Congress had presented to the Institution a portion of the
public reservation on which the building is situated. In the
planting of this with trees, nearly 10,009 dollars of the Smithson
income were expended.” Ultimately however opportunity was
taken to have the Smithsonian park included in the general ap-
propriation by the Government for improving the public grounds.

The courses of Lectures which were continued from their
establishment in 1849, to 1863, were then abandoned. In con-
formity with the judicious policy entertained from the beginning
not to consume unprofitably the limited means of the Institution
by attempting to do what could be as well or better accomplished
by other organizations, its herbarium comprising 30,000 botanical
specimens and other allied objects, was transferred to the custody
of the Agricultural Department. Its collection of anatomical
and osteological specimens was transferred to the Army Medicat
Museum. And its Fine-Art collections were transferred to the
custody of the ‘“Art-Gallery” established at Washington (with
a larger endowment than the whole Smithsonian fund) by the
enlightened liberality of Mr. W. W. Corcoran.

Such were the successive processes by which much of the early
and injudicious legislative work of organization, intended for
popularising the activities of the Institution, was gradually un-
done; greatly to the dissatisfaction and foreboding of many of
its well-meaning friends. ‘It should be recollected,” said Henry,
“that the Institution is not a popular establishment.’’*

The National Museum.—The last heritage of misdirected legis-
lation—the National Museum, still remains in nominal connection
with the Institution; although Congress has recognized the justice
of making special provision for its custody by an annual appro-
priation ever since its establishment in 1842,—four years before
the organization of the Smithsonian Institution. The Government
collection of curiosities had accumulated from the contributions of
the various exploring expeditions; and Henry from the first, had
objected to receiving it as a donation, foreseeing that it would

* Smithsonian Report for 1876, p. 12. A distinguished politician, now
many years deceased, (an influential Member of Congress—and possible
statesman,) in the confidence of friendship pointed out with emphasis,
how by a few judicious expedients—involving only a moderate reduction
of the income of the Institution, golden opinions might be won from the
press, and the Smithsonian really be made quite a “popular” establish-
ment. Unseduced by these friendly suggestions of worldly wisdom, Henry
astonished his adviser by the smiling assnrance that his self-imposed
mission and deliberate purpose was to prevent, as far as in him lay, pre-
cisely that consummation. Had the philosopher repudiated the * breath
of his nostrils” he could not have been looked upon by the politician, as
more hopelessly demented.

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 293

rove more than “‘the gift of an elephant.”* In his first Report,
He ventured to say: “It is hoped that in due time, other means
may be found of establishing and supporting a general collection
of objects of nature and art at the seat of the general government,
with funds not derived from the Smithsonian bequest.”} In his
third annual Report he remarked: ‘“ The formation of a Museum
of objects of nature and of art requires much caution. With a
given income to be appropriated to the purpose, a time must
come when the cost of keeping the objects will just equal the
amount of the appropriation: after this no further increase can
take place. Also, the tendency of an Institution of this kind
unless guarded against, will be to expend its funds on a hetero-
geneous collection of objects of mere curiosity.” Justly jealous
of any dependence of the Institution, designed as a monument to
its founder, upon the varying favors or caprices of a political
government, or of any confusion between the National Museum,
and its own special collections for scientific study rather than for
popular display, he added: “If the Regents accept this Mu-
seum, it must be merged in the Smithsonian collections. It
could not be the intention of Congress that an Institution founded
by the liberality of a foreigner, and to which he has affixed his
own name, should be charged with the keeping of a separate
Museum, the property of the United States. . . The small
portion of our funds which can be devoted to a museum may be
better employed in collecting new objects, such as have not yet
been studied, than in preserving those from which the harvest of
discovery has already been fully gathered.” Nor was he reconciled
to the gift by the suggestion that a suitable appropriation would
be granted by the National Government, for the expense of its
custody. ‘This would be equally objectionable ; since it would
annually bring the Institution before Congress as a supplicant
for government patronage.”t
In his Report for 1851, he forcibly stated in regard to the
requirements of a general Museum, that ‘the whole income de-
voted to this object would be entirely inadequate :” and he
strongly urged a National establishment of the Museum on a
basis and a scale which should be an honor and a benefit to the
people and their Capital city. ‘Though the formation of a
general collection is neither within the means nor the province
of the Institution, it is an object which ought to engage the at-

* His friend Prof. Silliman in a letter dated December 4th, 1847, wrote:
“Tf it is within the views of the Government to bestow the National
Museum upon the Smithsonian Institution, the very bequest would seem
to draw after it an obligation to furnish the requisite accommodations
without taxing the Smithsonian funds: otherwise the gift might be de-
trimental instead of beneficial.”’

Tt Smithsonian Report, 1847, p. 139, (Sen. ed.), p. 132, (H. Rep. ed.)

t Smithsonian Report for 1849, pp. 181, 182, (of Senate ed.) pp. 173,
174, (of H. Rep. ed.)

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tention of Congress. A general Museum appears to be a neces-
sary establishment at the seat of government of every civilized
nation. . . . An establishment of this kind can only be
supported by government; and the proposition ought never to be
encouraged of putting this duty on the limited though liberal
bequest of a foreigner.”* This project was urged in almost
every subsequent Report.- “There can be but little doubt that
in due time ample provision will be made for a Library and
Museum at the Capital of this Union, worthy of a government
whose perpetuity depends upon the virtue and intelligence of the
people. It is therefore unwise to hamper the more important
objects of this Institution by attempting to anticipate results
which will be eventually produced without the expenditure of its
means.” ‘The importance of a collection at the seat of govy-
ernment, to illustrate the physical geography, natural history, and
ethnology, of the United States, cannot be too highly estimated :
but the support of such a collection ought not to be a burden
upon the Smithsonian fund.”

The popular mind did not however appear to be prepared to
accept these earnest presentations; and in 1858, the National
Museum was transferred by law to the custody of the Smith-
sonian Institution, with the same annual appropriation (4,000
dollars) which had been granted to the United States Patent
Office when in charge of it.

So rapidly were the treasures of the Museum increased by the
gathered fruits of various government explorations and surveys,
as well as by the voluntary contributions of the numerous and
wide-spread tributaries of the Institution, that the policy was
early adopted of freely distributing duplicate specimens to other
institutions where they would be most appreciated and most
usefully applied. And in this way the Smithsonian became a
valuable centre of diffusion of the means of investigation in
geology, mineralogy, botany, zoology and archeology, The clear
foresight which announced that the Museum must very soon out-
grow the entire capacity of the Smithsonian resources, has been
most amply vindicated :§ and to-day a large Government Build-
ing is stored from basement to attic, with boxed up rarities of
art and nature, sufficient more than twice to fill the Smithsonian

* Smithsonian Report for 1851, p. 227 (of Sen. ed.) p. 219, (of H. Rep.
ed.)

+ Smithsonian Report, for 1852, p. 253, (of Sen. ed.) p. 245, (of H.
Rep. ed.)

t Smithsonian Report for 1853, p. 11, (of Sen. ed.) p. 9, (of H. Rep. ed.)

§ Although from the rapid growth of the national collection after it
was transferred to the custody of the Smithsonian Institution, the annual
appropriation of 4,000 dollars by Congress very soon became wholly in-
sufficient to defray even one-half its necessary expenses, it was not till
1871 that the appropriation was raised to 10,000 dollars. In 1872, it was
increased to 15,000 dollars, and in 1874, to 20,000 dollars.

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 295

halls and galleries, in addition to their present overflowing dis-
play. ‘The strong desire of Henry to see established in Wash-
ington a National Museum on a scale worthy of our resources,
and in which the existing overgrown collections might be so
beneficially exhibited, he did not live to see gratified. That the
realization of this wise and beneficent project is only a question
of time, is little coubtful ; and when established, its being and its
benefits will in no small degree be due to him who first realizing
its necessity, and most appreciating its importance, with un-
wearying perseverance for twenty-five years omitted no oppor-
tunity of urging upon members of Congress its importunate
claims.

Meteorological Work.—In the conduct of what were appro-
priately called the “active operations” of the Institution—under
the first section of the programme (in contradistinction to the
local and statical objects of the second section), a rare energy and
promptness were exhibited. The very first Report of the Secre-
tary announced not only the acceptance and preparation for pub-
lication of an elaborate work on explorations by Messrs. Squier
and Davis of ‘“‘Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley,” but
the commencement of official preparations “for instituting various
lines of physical research. Among the subjects mentioned by
way of example in the programme, for the application of the
funds of the Institution, is terrestrial magnetism. . . . Another
subject of research mentioned in the programme, and which has
been urged upon the immediate attention of the Institution, is
that of an extensive system of meteorological observations, par-
ticularly with reference to the phenomena of American storms.
Of late years in our country more additions have been made to
meteorology thaa to any other branch of physical science. Seve-
ral important generalizations have been arrived at, and definite
theories proposed, which now enable us to direct our attention
with scientific precision to such points of observation as cannot
fail to reward us with new and interesting results. It is pro-
posed to organize a system of observations which shall extend as
far as possible over the North American continent. . . . The
present time appears to be peculiarly auspicious for commencing
an enterprise of the proposed kind. The citizens of the United
States are now scattered over every part of the southern and
western portion of Northern America, and the extended lines of
telegraph will furnish a ready means of warning the more north-
ern and eastern observers to be on the watch for the first appear-
ance of an advancing storm.”*

* Smithsonian Report for 1847, pp. 146, 147, (of Sen. ed.), pp. 138, 139,
(of H. Rep. ed.) Prof. Loomis (to whom among others “ distinguished
for their attainments in meteorology” letters inviting suggestions, had
been addressed,) recommended that there should be at least one observing

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An appropriation for the purpose having been made by the
Regents, a large number of observers scattered over the United
States and the Territories became voluntary correspondents of
the Institution. Advantage was taken of the stations already
established under the direction of the War, and of the Navy
Departments, as well as of those provided for by a few of the
States. The annual reports of the Secretary chronicled the
extension and success of the system adopted; and in a few years
between five and six hundred regular observers were engaged in
its meteorological service. The favorite project of employing
the telegraph for obtaining simultaneous results over a large
area was at once organized; and in 1849, a system of telegraphic
despatches was established, by which (a few years later) the in-
formation received in Washington at the Smithsonian Institution
was daily plotted upon a large map of the United States by
means of adjustable symbols. Espy’s generalization that the
principal storms and other atmospheric changes have an east-
ward movement,* was fully established by this rapidly gathered
experience of the Institution; so that ‘it was often enabled to
predict (sometimes a day or two in advance) the approach of any
of the larger disturbances of the atmosphere.” +

Eminently efficient as the enterprise approved itself, increasing
experience served to demonstrate the increasing demands of the
service; and it was seen that to prosecute the subject of meteor-
ology over so large a territory, with the fulness necessary, would
require a still larger force of observers, and a greater drain upon
the resources of the Institution, than could well be spared from
other objects; and as the great value of the system was fully
recognized by the intelligent, the propriety of maintaining a
meteorological bureau by the national support was early pre-
sented to the attention of Congress. This most important depart-

station within every hundred square miles of the United States; and he
sagaciously pointed out that ““ When the magnetic telegraph [then an
infant three years old] is extended from New York to New Orleans and
St. Louis, it may be made subservient to the protection of our com-
merce.” This interesting letter was published in full as ‘ Appendix No.
2,’? to the Report. In 1848, a paper was read before the British Associa-
tion by Mr. John Ball, ‘On rendering the Electric Telegraph subservient
to Meteorological Resear¢éh: in which the author suggested that simulta-
neous observations so collected, might reveal the direction and probable
time of arrival of storms. (Report Brit. Assoc. Swansea. Aug. 1848.
Abstracts, pp. 12, 13.)

* Franklin is said to have been the first who stated the general law,
that the storms of our Southern States move off to the northeastward
over the Middle and Eastern States.

{ Smithsonian Report for 1864, p. 44. An interesting and instructive
résumé of results accomplished within fifteen years was given in this Re-
port, pp. 42-45: and continued in the succeeding Report for 1865, pp.
50-59.

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 297

ment of observation had been advanced by Henry to that position,
in which a larger annual outlay than the entire income of the
Institution was really required to give just efficiency to the sys-
tem. In his Report for 1865, he remarked: ‘“ The present would
appear to be a favorable time to urge upon Congress the import-
ance of making provision for the reorganizing all the meteoro-
logical observations of the United States under one combined
plan, in which the records should be sent to a central depot for
reduction, discussion, and final publication. An appropriation
of 50,000 dollars annually for this purpose would tend not only
to advance the material interest of the country, but also to in-
crease its reputation. . . . It is scarcely necessary at this day
to dwell on the advantages which result from such systems of
combined observations as those which the principal governments
of Europe have established, and are now constantly extending.’*

Five years later, in support of the proposition that the subject
from its magnitude now appealed to the liberality of the nation,
he briefly recapitulated the work accomplished by the limited
means of the Institution. ‘‘The Smithsonian meteorological
system was commenced in 1849, and has continued in operation
until the present time. . . . It has done good service to the
cause of meteorology; Ist in inaugurating the system which has
been in operation upwards of twenty years: 2nd in the introdue-
tion of improved instruments after discussion and experiments:
3rd in preparing and publishing at its expense an extensive series
of meteorological tables: 4th in reducing and discussing the
meteorological material which could be obtained from all the
records from the first settlement of the country till within a few
years: 5th in being the first to show the practicability of tele-
graphic weather signals: 6th in publishing records and discus-
sions made at its own expense, of the Arctic expeditions of Kane,
Hayes, and McClintock: ‘7th in discussing and publishing a
number of series of special records embracing pericds of from
twenty to fifty years in different sections of the United States,—
of great interest in determining secular changes of the climate:
8th in the publication of a series of memoirs on various meteoro-
logical phenomena, embracing observations and discussions of
storms, tornadoes, meteors, auroras, ete.: 9th in a diffusion of a
knowledge of meteorology through its extensive unpublished
correspondence and its printed circulars. It has done all in this
line which its limited means would permit; and has urged upon
Congress the establishment with adequate appropriation of funds,
of a meteorological department under one comprehensive plan,
‘in which the records should be sent to a central depot for reduc-
tion, discussion, and final publication.’ ”+

* Smithsonian Report for 1865, p. 57.
+ Smithsonian Report for 1870, p. 48.

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In 1870, a meteorological department was established by the
Government under the Signal Office of the War Department,
with enlarged facilities for systematic observation: and agree-
ably to the settled policy of the Institution, this important field
of research was in 1872, abandoned in favor of the new organiza-
tion.* Of the voluminous results of nearly a quarter of a cen-
tury of systematic records over a wide geographical area which
have been slowly digested and laboriously discussed, only a
small portion has yet been published. The publication of the
series when practicable, will yet prove an inestimable boon to
meteorological theory.

Although our country can boast of many able meteorologists,
who have greatly promoted our knowledge of the laws of atmos-
pheric phenomena, it is safe to say that to no single worker in the
field is our nation more indebted for the advancement of this
branch of science to its present standing, than to Joseph Henry.
Quite as much by his incitement and encouragement of others
in such researches, as by his own exertions, does he merit this
award. ‘To him is undoubtedly due the most important step in
the modern system of observation,—the installation of the tele-
graph in the service of meteorological signals and predictions. f
While giving however his active supervision to the extensive
system he had himself inaugurated, publishing many important
reductions of particular features, as well as various circulars of
detailed instructions to observers, of the desiderata to be obtained
by those having the opportunities of arctic, oceanic, and south-
ern explorations, directing the constant observations recorded at
the Institution as an independent station, he made many per-
sonal investigations of allied subjects;—as of the Aurora, of
Atmospheric electricity and Thunder-storms, of the supposed
influence of the Moon on the weather,—and coutributed a valu-
able series of Memoirs on Meteorology, embracing a wide range
of physical exposition, to the successive Agricultural Reports of
the Commissioner of Patents, during the years 1855, ’56, 757,

* Ag an illustration of the popular favor in which this Signal service
is held, it may be stated that the annual appropriation by Government
for its support now exceeds not merely the entire Smithsonian income,
but sixteen times that amount; or in fact its whole endowment.

+ “However frequently the idea may have been suggested of utilizing
our knowledge by the employment of the electric telegraph, it is to Pro-
fessor Henry and his assistants in the Smithsonian Institution that the
credit is due of having first actually realized this suggestion. . . . It
will thus be seen that without material aid from the Government, but
through the enlightened policy of the telegraph companies, the Smith-
sonian Institution first in the world organized a comprehensive system of
telegraphic meteorology, and has thus given—first to Europe and Asia,
and now to the United States, that most beneficent national application
of modern science—the Storm Warnings.” Article on ‘Weather Tele-
graphy” by Prof. Cleveland Abbe. (Am. Jour. Sct., Aug. 1871, vol. ii.
pp. 83, 85.)

72

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 299

58, and 1859. Instructive articles on Magnetism and Meteor-
ology were prepared in 1861 for the American Encyclopedia.
And as an illustration of his continued interest in such studies,
one of his latest published papers comprised a minute account of
the effects of lightning in two thunder-storms ; one occurring in
the spring of last year (1877) at a Light-house in Key West,
Florida, and the other occurring in the summer of last year at
New London, Connecticut. *

Archeological Work.—One of the earliest subjects taken
up for investigation by the Institution, was that of American
Archeology ; the attempt by extended explorations of the exist-
ing pre-historic relics, mounds, and monuments, of the aboris
gines of our country, to ascertain as far as possible their primi-
tive industrial, social and intellectual character, and any evidences
ot their antiquity, or of their stages of development. The first
publication of ‘“‘Smithsonian Contributions” comprised in a good
sized quarto volume an account of extensive examinations of the
mounds and earthworks found over the broad valley of the Mis-
sissippi, with elaborate illustrations of the relics and results
obtained: and this volume extensively circulated by gift and by
sale, attracted a wide-spread attention and interest, and gave a
remarkable stimulus to the further prosecution of such researches.
“‘Whatever relates to the nature of man is interesting to the
students of every branch of knowledge; and hence ethnology
affords a common ground on which the cultivators of physical
science, of natural history, of archeology, of language, of his-
tory, and of literature, can all harmoniously labor. Consequently
no part of the operations of this Institution has been more gen-
erally popular than that which relates to this subject.”

Special explorations inaugurated by the Institution, have sup-
plied it with important contributions to archeological informa-
tion, and with the rich spoils of collected relics; which together
with much material gathered from Arctic and from Southern
regions, from Europe, from Asia, and from Africa, fill now a
large museum hall 200 feet long and 50 feet wide, exclusively
devoted to comparative Anthropology and Ethnology. In1868,
the Secretary reported that ‘during the past year greater effort
has been made than ever before to collect specimens to illustrate
the ethnology and archeology of the North American conti-
nent:” and he dwelt upon the importance of the subject as a
study connecting all portions of the habitable earth, pointing
out that ‘it embraces not only the natural history and pecu-
liarities of the different races of men as they now exist upon the

* Journal of the American Electrical Society, 1878, vol. ii. pp. 37-43.
The communication is dated Oct. 13, 1877; though not published till
during his last illness.

t Smitisonian Report for 1&60, p. 38.

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globe, but also their affiliations, their changes in mental and
moral development, and also the question of the geological epoch
of the appearance of man upon the earth. . . . The ethnologi-
cal specimens we have mentioned are not considered as mere
curiosities collected to excite the wonder of the illiterate, but as
contributions to the materials from which it will be practicable
to reconstruct by analogy and strict deduction, the history of the
past in its relation to the present.””*

Two years later he reported: ‘The collection of objects to
illustrate anthropology now in possession of the Institution is
almost unsurpassed, especially in those which relate to the present
Indians and the more ancient inhabitants of the American conti-
tinent.” Deprecating the frequent dissipation of small private col-
lections of such objects at the death of their owners, he forcibly
urges that “the only way in which they can become of real im-
portance, is by making them part of a general collection, care-
fully preserved in some public institution, where in the course of
the increasing light of science, they may be made to reveal truths
beyond present anticipation.” f

In his last Report—for 1877,—just published (and which he
did not live to see in print), he says: ‘ Anthropology, or what
may be considered the natural history of man, is at present the
most popular branch of science. It absorbs a large share of
public attention, and many original investigators are assiduously
devoted to it. Its object is to reconstruct as it were the past
history of man, to determine his specifie peculiarities and general
tendencies. It has already established the fact that a remark-
able similarity exists in the archeological instruments found in
all parts of the world, with those in use among tribes still in a
savage or barbarous condition. The conclusion is supported by
evidence which can scarcely be doubted, that by thoroughly
studying the manners and customs of savages and the instru-
ments employed by them, we obtain a knowledge of the earliest
history of nations which have attained the highest civilization.
It is remarkable in how many cases, customs existing among
highly civilized peoples are found to be survivals of ancient
habits.” He then argues from the significance thus developed
of many trivial practices and unmeaning ceremonies handed
down from immemorial time, the importance to a full compre-
hension of the customs of modern society, of a scientific study
of the myths and usages of ancient peoples. ‘‘ American anthro-
pology,” he remarks, ‘‘early occupied the attention of the Smith-
sonian Institution ;” and alluding to its first published work, he
says ‘from the time of the publication of this volume until the
present, contributions of value have been made annually by the

* Smithsonian Report for 1868, pp. 26 and 33.
+ Smithsonian Report for 1870, pp. 35, 36.

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 301

Institution to this branch of knowledge. ... . The collection
of the archeology and ethnology of America, in the National
Museum, is the most extensive in the world: and in order to
connect it permanéntly with the name of Smithson, it has been
thought advisable to prepare and publish at the expense of the
Smithsonian fund, an exhaustive work on American anthropology,
in which the various classes of specimens shall be figured and
described.”* This great work still remains to be perfected.

Publications.—To attempt the recapitulation of the various
branches of original research initiated or directly fostered by
the Institution, would be to write its history. The range and
variety of its active operations, and the value of their fruits, are
in view of the limited income, and the collateral drains of less
important objects exacted from it, something quite surprising.
Scarcely a department of investigation has not received either
directly or indirectly liberal and efficient assistance: and a host
of physicists in the successful prosecution of their diverse labors,
have attested their gratitude to the Institution, and no less to
the ever sympathetic encouragement of its Director.

Over one hundred important original Memoirs, generally too
elaborate to be published at length by any existing scientific so-
ciety, issued in editions many times larger than the most liberal
of any such society’s issue, most of them now universally recog-
nized as classical and original authorities on their respective
topics, forming twenty-one large quarto volumes of ‘ SmiTH-
SONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE,” distributed over every
portion of the civilized or colonized world, constitute a monu-
ment to the memory of the founder, James Smithson, such as
never before was builded with the outlay of one hundred thou-
sand pounds: and before which the popular Lyceums of our lead-
ing cities, with endowments averaging double this amount, pale
into insignificance.

Such as these Lyceums with their local culture, admirable
and invaluable in their way, but exerting no influence upon the
progress of science, or outside of their own communities, and
scarcely known beyond their cities’ walls,—such was the type of
institute which early legislators could alone imagine. Such as
the “ Smithsonian Institution” stands to-day,—such is the mon-
ument mainly constructed by the foresight, the wisdom, and the
resolution of Henry.t All honor to the Regents, who with

* Smithsonian Report for 1877, pp. 22, 23. Circulars broadly distrib-
uted by the Institution, have served to give desired direction to popular
attention and activity in this field of research; and the extent of co-
operation is such as probably only the ‘‘Smithsonian’’ could have se-
cured, unless by a vastly greater outlay.

+ “It is not by its castellated building, nor the exhibition of the mu-
seum of the Government, that the Institution has achieved its present

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an enlightenment so farin advance of the ruling intelligence of
former days, and against the pressures of overwhelming prepon-
derance of even educated popular sentiment, courageously adopted
the programme of the Secretary and Director they had appointed ;
and who throughout his career, so wisely, nobly, and steadfastly
upheld his policy and his purpose.

Fifteen octavo volumes of ‘‘Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec-
tions” of a more technical character than the “Contributions,”
(including systematic and statistical compilations, scientific sum-
maries, and valuable accessions of tabular ‘‘constants,’’) form in
themselves an additional series ; and represent a work of which
any learned Society or Institution might well be proud. And
thirty octavo volumes of annual Reports, rich with the scattered
thoughts and hopes and wishes of the Director, form the official
journal of his administration.

The Bibliography of Science.—Among the needful prepara-
tions for conducting original inquiry, none is more important than
ready access and direction to the existing state of research in
the particular field, or its allied districts. This information is
scattered in the thousands of volumes which form the transactions
of learned Societies; -and its acquisition involves therefore in
most cases a very laborious preliminary bibliographical research.
To make this vast store of observation available to scientific
students, by the directory of well arranged digests, would appear
to fall peculiarly within the province of an Institution specially
established for promoting the increase and diffusion of knowledge
among men: and was early an object of particular interest to
Henry. In his Report for 1851, he remarked: “One of the most ,
important means of facilitating the use of libraries (particularly
with reference to science,) is well digested indexes of subjects,
not merely referring to volumes or books, but to memoirs, papers,
and parts of scientific transactions and systematic works. As an
example of this, I would refer to the admirably arranged and
valuable catalogue of books relating to Natural Philosophy and
the Mechanic Arts, by Dr. Young. This work comes down to
1807; and | know of no richer gift which could be bestowed upon
the science of our own day, than the continuation of this catalogue
to the present time. Every one who is desirous of enlarging the

reputation ; nor by the collection and display of material objects of any
kind, that it has vindicated the intelligence and good faith of the Gov-
ernment in the administration of the trust. It is by its explorations, its
researches, its publications, its distribution of specimens, and its ex-
changes, constituting it an active living organization, that it has rendered
itself favorably known in every part of the civilized world; has made con-
tributions to almost every branch of science; and brought, more than ever
before, into intimate and friendly relations, the Old and the New Worlds.’”
(Memorial to Congress, by Chancellor 8. P. Chase, and Secretary Joseph
Henry. Smithsonian Report, for 1867, p. 114.)

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 303

bounds of human knowledge, should in justice to himself as well
as to the public, be acquainted with what has previously been
done in the same line; and this he will only be enabled to accom-
plish by the use of indexes of the kind above mentioned.”*

At the time, and for years afterward, one-half of the Smith-
sonian income was diverted by the requirements of Congress
to the local objects of the Tuyceum: and the hopelessness of
attempting a work—additional to that already mapped out,
which would require the united labors of a large corps of well-
trained and educated assistants for many years, and the subse-
quent devotion of the whole available income for many years
following, to complete its publication, was fully realized. The
project however was not abandoned: and in 1854, Henry con-
ceived the plan of taking up the more limited department of
American Scientific Bibliography ; and by the persevering ap-
plication of a fixed portion of the income annually for a suc-
cession of years, of finally producing a thorough subject-matter
index, as well as an index of authors, for the entire range of
American contributions to science from their earliest date. In-
spired with this ambition, he sought to enlist the co-operation
of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, in
procuring with its large resources, a similar classified index for
British and Huropean scientific literature.

The favorable reception of this project, was officially announced
to Henry by the Secretary of the Association, in the transmis-
sion of the following extract from the proceedings of that body
for 1855. ‘A communication from Professor Henry of Washing-
ton having been read, containing a proposal for the publication
of a catalogue of philosophical memoirs scattered throughout the
Transactions of Societies in Hurope and America, with the offer
of co-operation on the part of the Smithsonian Institution, to
the extent of preparing and publishing in accordance with the
general plan which might be adopted by the British Association,
a catalogue of all the American memoirs on physical science,—
the Committee approve of the suggestion, and recommend that
Mr. Cayley, Mr. Grant, and Professor Stokes be appointed a
committee to consider the best system of arrangement, and to
report thereon to the council.”+ The report of this committee
dated 13th June, 1856, was presented to the succeeding Meeting
of the British Association ; in which they take occasion to say:
“The Committee are desirous of expressing their sense of the
great importance and increasing need of such a catalogue.

The catalogue should not be restricted to memoirs in Transac-
tions of Societies, but should comprise also memoirs in the Pro-
ceedings of Societies, in mathematical and scientific journals :”

* Smithsonian Report for 1851, p. 225 (of Sen. ed.), p. 217 (of H. Rep. ed.)
+ Report Brit. Assoc. Glasgow, Sept. 1855, p. Ixvi.

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304 BULLETIN OF THE

etc. . . ‘The catalogue should begin from the year 1800.
There should be a catalogue according to the names of authors,
and also a catalogue according to subjects.”* The Committee
comprising Fellows of the Royal Society of London finally suc-
ceeded in interesting that grave body in the undertaking: and
the result was that greatly to Henry’s satisfaction, the entire
work was ultimately assumed by the Royal Society itself.

In the course of ten years that liberal Society aided by a large
grant from the British Government gave to the world its half
instalment. of the great work, in its admirable “ Catalogue of
Scientific Papers” alphabetically classified by authors, in seven
or eight large quarto volumes. In the Preface to this splendid
monument of industry and liberality, stands the following history
of its inception. “The present undertaking may be said to have
originated in a communication from Dr. Joseph Henry, Secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution, to the Meeting of the British
Association at Glasgow in 1855, suggesting the formation of a
catalogue of Philosophical memoirs: this suggestion was favor-
ably reported on by a Committee of the Association in the fol-
lowing year. . . . In March, 1857, General Sabine, the
Treasurer and Vice-President of the Royal Society, brought the
matter before the President and Council of that body, and re-
quested on the part of the British Association, the co-operation
of the Royal Society in the project: whereupon a committee was
appointed to take into further consideration the formation of
such a Catalogue. . . . No further step was taken by the
British Association or by the Royal Society in co-operation with
that body: but the President and Council of the Royal Society
acting on the recommendations contained in a Report of the
Library Committee dated 7th January, 1858, resolved that the
preparation of a Catalogue of scientific memoirs should be under-
taken by the Royal Society independently, and at the Society’s
own charge.” }

System of Exchanges. —For the diffusion of knowledge among
men, one of the methods adopted by Henry from the very com-
mencement of his administration was the organization of a sys-
tem by which the scientific memoirs of Societies or of individuals
from any portion of the United States, might be transmitted to
foreign countries without expense to the senders: and by which

* Report Brit. Assoc. Cheltenham, Aug. 1856, pp. 463, 464.

+ Preface to Catalogue of Scientific Papers, (1800-1863) vol. i. 1867, pp.
ili., iv. The second and most important division of this great and invalu
able work,—the classified Index to Subjects,—still remains to be accom-
plished. Had the plan adopted been made to include the scientific
memoirs of the two preceding centuries, the value of the compilation
would have been enhanced in a far greater proportion than the additional
expenditure or the increase of bulk.

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 305

in like manner the similar publications of scientific work abroad
might be received at the Smithsonian Institution, for distribution
in this country. This privilege however is properly restricted
to bona fide donations and exchanges of scientific memoirs ;—all
purchased publications being carefully excluded and left to find
their legitimate channels of trade. By an international courtesy
—creditable to the wisdom and intelligence of the civilized
Powers,—such packages to and from the Institution are per-
mitted to pass through all Custom-houses, free of duty; an
invoice of authentication being forwarded in advance. When
it is considered that this large work of collection and distribution
(including the constant supply of the Institution’s own publica-
tions, and the extensive returns therefor of journals, proceedings,
and transactions, for its own library) requires the systematic
records and accounts in suitable ledgers, with the accurate par-
celling and labelling of packages, large and small, to every
corner of the globe, it may well be conceived that no small
amount of labor and expense is involved in these forwarding
operations.* A recognition of the benefits conferred by this
generous enterprise, is practically indicated by the rapid enlarge-
ment of the operations. The weight of matter sent abroad by
the Institution at the end of the first decade, was 14 thousand
pounds for the year 1857: the weight sent at the end of the
second decade, was 22 thousand pounds for the year 1867: and
the weight sent at the end of the third decade, was 99 thousand
pounds for the last year 1877. This admirable system has been
greatly encouraged and facilitated by the most praiseworthy
liberality of the great lines of ocean steamers, and of the lead-
ing railway companies, in carrying the Smithsonian freight in
many cases free of charge, or in other cases at greatly reduced
rates: an appreciative tribute alike to the beneficent services
and reputation of the Institution, and to the personal character
and influence of its Director.t

* It may be stated that the number of foreign institutions and corre-
spondents receiving the Smithsonian publications exceeds two thousand ;
whose localities embrace not only the principal cities of Europe (from
Iceland to Turkey), of British America, Mexico, the West Indies, Central
and South America, and of Australia, but also those of New Zealand,
Honolulu in the Sandwich Islands, twelve cities in India, Shanghai in
China, Tokio, Yedo, and Yokohama, in Japan, Batavia in Java, Manilla
in the Philippine Islands, Alexandria and Cairo in Egypt, Algiers in
northern Africa, Monrovia in Liberia, and Cape Town in southern Africa.
The correspondents and recipients in the United States, are probably
nearly as numerous.

_t “The cost of this system would far exceed the means of the Institu-
tion, were it not for important aid received from various parties interested
in facilitating international intercourse and the promotion of friendly
relations between distant parts of the civilized world. The liberal aid
extended by the steamship and other lines, mentioned in previous reports,
in carrying the boxes of the Smithsonian exchanges free of charge, has been

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“This part of the system of Smithsonian operations has every-
where received the commendation of those who have given it
their attention or have participated in its benefits. The {unstitu-
tion is now the principal agent of scientific and literary com-
munication between the old world and the new. . . . The
importance of such a system with reference to the scientific
character of our country, could scarcely be appreciated by those
who are not familiar with the results which flow from an easy
and certain intercommunication of this kind. Many of the most
important contributions to science made in America have been
unheard of in Europe, or have been so little known, or received
so little attention, that they have been republished as new dis-
coveries or claimed as the product of Huropean research.”* It
would indeed be difficult to estimate rightly the benefit to science
in the encouragement of its cultivators aiorded by this fostering
service. Few Societies are able to incur much expense in the
distribution of their publications ; and hence their circulation is
necessarily very limited. The fractifying interchange of labors
and results, dependent on their own resources, would be ob-
structed by the recurring expenses and delays of customs inter-
ventions, and by unconscionable exactions: and indeed without
the Smithsonian mechanism, nine-tenths of the present scientific
exchanges would be at once suppressed. Let it be hoped that
so beneficent a system will not break down from the weight of
its own inevitable growth.

Astronomical Telegraphy.—Analogous in principle to the
system of exchange, is that adopted for the instantaneous trans-
Atlantic communication of discoveries of a special order. In the
year 1873, in the interests of astronomy (to which Henry was ever
warmly devoted) he concluded ‘‘a very important arrangement
between the Smithsonian Institution and the Atlantic cable Com-
panies, by which is guaranteed the free transmission by telegraph
between Europe and America of accounts of astronomical discov-
eries which for the purpose of co-operative observation require
immediate announcement.” This admirable service to science,
so creditable to the intelligence and the liberality of the Atlantic
Telegraph Companies, embraces direct reciprocal communication
between the Smithsonian Institution, and the foreign Observato-
ries of Greenwich, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and Pulkova. During
the first year of its operation, four new planetoids were tele-

continued, and several other lines have been added to the number in the
course of the year.” (Smithsonian Report for 1867, p. 39.) Notwithstand-
ing this unprecedented generosity, the exchange system has reached such
proportions as to require for its maintenance one-fourth of the entire
income from the Smithsonian fund.

* Smithsonian Repo t for 1853, p. 25, (of Senate ed.)

1 Smithsonian Report for 1873, p. 32.

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 8307

graphed from America, and seven telescopic comets from Europe
to this country.

“ Although the discovery of planets and comets will probably
be the principal subject of the cable telegrams, yet it is not in-
tended to restrict the transmission of intelligence solely to that
class of observation. Any remarkable solar phenomenon pre-
senting itself suddenly in Hurope, observations of which may be
practicable in America several hours after the sun has set to the
Huropean observer,—the sudden outburst of some variable star
similar to that which appeared in Corona borealis in 1866,—un-
expected showers of shooting-stars, ete., would be proper subjects
for transmission by cable.

“The announcement of this arrangement has called forth the
approbation of the astronomers of the world: and in regard to
it we may quote the following passage from the fifty-fourth annual
report of the Royal Astronomical Society of England: ‘The
great value of this concession on the part of the Atlantic tele-
graph and other Companies, cannot be too highly prized, and
our science must certainly be the gainer by this disinterested act
of liberality. Already planets discovered in America have been
observed in Europe on the evening following the receipt of the
telegram, or within two or three days of their discovery ’”*

Official Correspondence.—A vast amount of individual work
having in view the diffusion of knowledge, has been performed
by the correspondence of the Institution; which may be best
described in the language of an extract from one of the early
Reports. “ There is one part of the Smithsonian operations that
attracts no public attention, though it is producing important
results in the way of diffusing knowledge, and is attended perhaps
with more labor than any other part. I allude to the scientific
correspondence of the Institution. Scarcely a day passes in
which communications are not received from persons in different
parts of the country, containing accounts of discoveries, which
are referred to the Institution, or asking questions relative to
some branch of knowledge. The rule was early adopted to give
respectful attention to every letter received, and this has been
faithfully adhered to from the beginning up to the present
time. . . . Requests are frequently made for lists of appa-
ratus, for information as to the best books for the study of special

* Smithsonian Report for 1873, p. 33. In 1876, a stellar outburst in the
““Swan’ observed by Dr. Schmidt of Athens, on the 24th of November,
was announced. Less brilliant than the similar outburst which occurred
in the northern “Crown” in May 1866, it continued to decline through
the month of December, and at the close of the year, had dwindled from
the third to the eighth magnitude. This may possibly be the same “ tem-
porary star”—seen in Cygnus in 1600, and again in 1670: and having
therefore a period of variability of about 69 years.

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308 BULLETIN OF THE

subjects, for suggestions on the organization of local societies,
etc. Applications are also made for information by persons
abroad, relative to particular subjects respecting this country.
When an immediate reply cannot be. given to a question, the
subject is referred by letter to some one of the Smithsonian co-
laborers to whose line of duty it pertains, and the answer is
transmitted to the inquirer, either under the name of the person
who gives the information, or under that of the Institution, ac-
cording to the circumstances of the case. . . . Many of
those communications are of such a character, that at first sight
it might seem best to treat them with silent neglect ; but the rule
has been adopted to state candidly and respectfully the objections
to such propositions, and to endeavor to convince their authors
that their ground is untenable. Though this course is in many
cases attended with no beneficial results, still it is the only one
which can be adopted with any hope of even partial good.’’*

The information given to scientific inquirers has been of an
exceedingly varied and highly valuable character, not unfre-
quently involving a large amount of research from special ex-
perts ; who have been accustomed cheerfully to bestow a degree of
attention on difficult questions thus presented, which would have
been accorded perhaps less ungrudgingly to others than to the
universally honored Smithsonian Director. As t® the pretensions
and importunities of the unscientific,—such is the judgment pro-
nounced after a quarter of a century of laborious experience with
them :

“The most troublesome correspondents are persons of exten-
sive reading, and in some cases of considerable literary acquire-
ments, who in earlier life were not imbued with scientific methods,
but who not without a certain degree of mental power, imagine
that they have made great discoveries in the way of high gene-
ralizations. Their claims not being allowed, they rank them-
selves among the martyrs of science, against whom the scientific
schools and the envy of the world have arrayed themselves. In-
deed to such intensity does this feeling arise in certain persons,
that on their special subjects they are really monomaniacs,
although on others they may be not only entirely sane, but even
evince abilities of a high order. . . . Two persons of this class
have recently made a special journey to Washington, from dis-
tant parts of the country, to demand justice from the Institution
in the way of recognition of their claims to discoveries in science
of great importance to humanity; and each of them has made
an appeal to his Representative in Congress to aid him in com-
pelling the Institution to acknowledge the merits of his specula-
tions. Providence vindicates in such cases the equality of its
justice in giving to such persons an undue share of self-esteem

* Smithsonian Report for 1853, pp. 22, 23, (of Senate ed.)
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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 309

and an exaltation of confidence in themselves, which in a great
degree compensate for what they conceive to be the want of a
just appreciation of the public. Unless however they are men
of great benevolence of disposition, who can look with pity on
what they deem the ignorance and prejudice of leaders of science,
they are apt to indulge in a bitterness of denunciation which
might be injurious to the reputation of the Institution, were their
effects not neutralized by the extravagance of the assertions
themselves.”’*

To the projectors and propellers of Paine electric engines,
and Keely motors, eager for a marketable certificate from such
an authority, Henry would calmly reply: “We may say that
science has established the great fact—without the possibility of
doubt, that what is called power, or that which produces changes
in matter, cannot be created by man, but exists in nature in a
state of activity or in a condition of neutralization; and further-
more that all the original forces connected with our globe, as a
general rule have assumed a state of permanent equilibrium, and
that the crust of the earth as a whole (with the exception of the
comparatively exceedingly small proportion, consisting of organic
matter such as coal, wood, etc.) is as it were a burnt slag, in-
capable of yielding power; and that all the motions and changes
on its surface are due to actions from celestial space, principally
from the sun. . . . All attempts to substitute electricity or mag-
netism for coal power must be unsuccessful, since these powers
tend to an equilibrium from which they can only be disturbed by
the application of another power, which is the equivalent of that
which they can subsequently exhibit. They are however, with
chemical attraction, ete., of great importance as intermediate
agents in the application of the power of heat as derived from
combustion. Science does not indicate in the slightest degree,
the possibility of the discovery of a new primary power com-
parable with that of combustion as exhibited in the burning of
coal. Whatever unknown powers may exist in nature capable
of doing work, must be in a state of neutralization, otherwise
they would manifest themselves spontaneously; and from this
state of neutralization or equilibrium, they can be released only
by the action of an extraneous power of equivalent energy; and
we therefore do not hesitate to say that all declarations of the
discovery of a new power which is to supersede the use of coal
as a motive-power, have their origin in ignorance or deception,
and frequently in both. A man of some ingenuity in combining
mechanical elements, and having some indefinite scientific know-
ledge, imagines it possible to obtain a certain result by a given
combination of principles, and by long brooding over this sub-

* Smithsonian Report for 1875, pp. 37, 38.

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310 BULLETIN OF THE

ject previous to experiment, at length convinces himself of the
certainty of the anticipated result. Having thus deceived him-
self by his sophisms, he calls upon his neighbors to accept his
conclusions as verified truths; and soon acquires the notoriety
of having made a discovery which is to change the civilization of
the world. The shadowy reputation which he has thus acquired,
is too gratifying to his vanity to be at once relinquished by the
announcement of his self-deception; and in preference he ap-
plies his ingenuity in devising means by which to continue the
deception of his friends and supporters, long after he himself has
been convinced of the fallacy of his first assumptions. In this
way what was commenced in folly, generally ends in fraud.””*

Tn looking back upon the struggles, conflicts, and obstructions
of the past, it really seems quite marvellous that so much should
have been accomplished, with so limited expenditure. These
large results are partly due to the admirable method of the Sec-
retary, his clear presage of effects, and his high power of sys-
tematic distribution and appliance; partly to the intelligent zeal
and sympathetic energy of the able assistants whom he had asso-
ciated with him almost from the organization of the institution ;
and partly to the personal magic of the man,—to the surprising
amount of voluntary co-operation he was able to call forth in
almost every direction, by the sheer force of his own earnest in-
dustry, and the contagious influence of his own devotion to the
cause of scientific advancement.

An unwarranted Arraignment.—In 1855, while still with
quiet determination maintaining the fundamental purpose of his
Smithsonian administration against the pressure and opposition
of powerful influences, (the discussion having been even carried
to the halls of Congress,) Henry was made the subject of a
most wanton and ungrateful public attack, in a pamphlet by
Prof. Morse of Telegraph fame, impugning not only his scien-
tifie reputation, but for the first time—the truthfulness of his
testimony given in certain telegraph suits some half a dozen
years previously, in reluctant obedience to legal summons. }
This testimony thus exacted, of course failed to sustain the
complainant’s exorbitant claims to the absolute invention and
ownership of all possible forms of the electro-magnetic telegraph,

* Smithsonian Report for 1875, pp. 39, 40.

+ The Hon. S. P. Chase, while Governor of Ohio, (subsequently Chief
Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States,) in a letter dated
Columbus, Nov. 26, 1856, after reciting his professional connection with
the litigations of 1849, says: ‘‘I remember very well that you were un-
willing to be involved in the controversy even as a witness, and that you
only submitted to be examined in compliance with the requirements of
law. Not one of your statements was volunteered.” ji

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 311

and correspondingly failed to satisfy the cupidity of the actual
prosecutors: and in this remarkable accusation first published
in 1855, could readily be discerned the mercenary inspiration of
interested capitalists and assignees—anxious only to stretch the
monopoly to its extremest grasp. ‘Tio Prof. Morse himself in
his early efforts, Henry had generously rendered every encourage-
ment and assistance; and in his later successes had as freely
extended his congratulations and his testimonials of the prac-
tical merits of his invention. *

To descend to a personal controversy with Mr. Morse, was
utterly repugnant to Henry’s feelings: to permit his serious
impeachment to stand untraversed, appeared scarcely less objec-
tionable. With a calm and self-respecting dignity, Henry simply
presented the published arraignment to the Board of Regents, for

. their consideration and action, with a communication dated
March 16, 1857, in the following terms:

‘““Gentlemen: In the discharge of the important and responsible
duties which devolve upon me as Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution, I have found myself exposed like other men in public
positions to unprovoked attack and injurious misrepresentation.
Many instances of this it may be remembered, occurred about two
years ago, during the discussions relative to the organic policy
of the Institution: but though very unjust, they were suffered to
pass unnoticed ; and generally made I presume no lasting impres-
sion on the public mind. During the same controversy however,
there was one attack made upon me of such a nature, so elaborately
prepared and widely circulated by my opponents, that though I
have not yet publicly noticed it, I have from the first thought it
my duty not to allow it to go unanswered. I allude to an article
from the pen of Prof. S. F. B. Morse, the celebrated inventor of the
American electro-magnetic telegraph. In this, not my scientific
reputation merely, but my moral character was pointedly assailed :
indeed nothing less was attempted than to prove that in the tes-
timony which I had given in a case where I was at most but a
reluctant witness, I had consciously and wilfully deviated from
the truth, and this too from unworthy and dishonorable motives.
Such a charge, coming from such a quarter, appeared to me then
as it appears now, of too grave a character and too serious a
consequence, to be withheld from the notice of the Board of

* “Tt was my wish in every statement to render Mr. Morse full and
scrupulous justice. While | was constrained therefore to state that he
had made no discoveries in science, I distinctly declared that he was
entitled to the merit of combining and applying the discoveries of others
in the invention of the best practical form of the magnetic telegraph. My
testimony tended to establish the fact that though not entitled to the
exclusive use of the electro-magnet for telegraphic purposes, he was en-
titled to his particular machine, register, alphabet, etc. This however
did not meet the full requirements of Mr. Morse’s comprehensive
claim.”

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Regents: . . . and I now embrace the first opportunity of
bringing the subject officially to your notice, and asking from you
an investigation into the justice of the charges alleged against
me. And this I do most earnestly, with the desire that when we
shall all have passed from this stage of being, no imputation of
having attempted to evade in silence so grave a charge shall rest
on me,—nor on you, of having continued to devolve upon me
duties of the highest responsibility, after that was known to sume
of you individually, which if true—should render me entirely
unworthy of your confidence. Duty to the Board of Regents, as
well as regard to my own memory, to my family, and to the truth
of history, demands that I should lay this matter before you, and
place in your hands the documents necessary to establish the
veracity of my testimony so falsely impeached, and the integrity
of my motives so wantonly assailed.”*

Professor Felton, President of Harvard University, Chairman
of the select Committee appointed by the Regents to investigate
the charge, after a careful examination of all the documentary
evidence, submitted a full report, from which it is only necessary
to make the following extracts with reference to the Morse
pamphlet: ‘The first thing which strikes the reader of this article
is that its title isa misnomer.+ It is simply an assault upon
Professor Henry; an attempt to disparage his character; to
deprive him of his honors as a scientific discoverer; to impeach his
credibility as a witness and his integrity as a man. It is a dis-
ingenuous piece of sophistical argument, such as an unscrupulous
advocate might employ to pervert the truth, misrepresent the
facts, and misinterpret the language in which the facts belonging
to the other side of the case are stated. . . . Your committee
come unhesitatingly to the conclusion that Mr. Morse has failed to
substantiate any one of the charges he has made against Profes-
sor Henry, although the burden of proof lay upon him; and
that all the evidence—including the unbiased admissions of Mr.
Morse himself—is on the other side. Mr. Morse’s charges not
only remain unproved, but they are positively disproved.” And
the committee submitted resolutions of condemnation on the one
side, and of respect and confidence on the other, which were
unanimously adopted by the Regents, and made a part of the
permanent record. {

* Smithsonian Report for 1857, pp. 85, 86.

{ “A Defence against the injurious deductions drawn from the Depo-
sition of Professor Joseph Henry, by Samuel F. B. Morse.’’

ft Smithsonian Report for 1857, pp. 89-98. When Prof. Morse in his
letter to Prof. Sears C. Walker, dated Washington, Jan. Ist, 1848, wrote
thus: ‘To Prof. Henry is unquestionably due the honor of the discovery
of a fact in science which proves the practicability of exciting magnetism
through a long coil or at a distance, either to deflect a needle or mag-
netize soft iron ;’? and when again some six years later, the same Prof.
Morse in his pamphlet dated Locust Grove, New York, December, 1853,

86

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 313

Scientific Observatories—One of the objects very dear to
Henry’s heart, was the establishment of a physical observatory
(with a physical laboratory in connection) for the systematic
observation and record of important points in celestial and
terrestrial physics. For the proper maintenance of such an
establishment, he thought an income as large as that of the
Smithson fund, would not be too large: and on two different
occasions he endeavored to enlist the interest of wealthy and
public-spirited citizens in such an enterprise. One of these
was Mr. McCormick of Virginia; and a letter on the subject
was afterward printed (without its address) in the Report for
1870.* The other was Mr. Lick of California: who after some
hesitation, decided in favor of an astronomical observatory.
Another allied object of great interest to Henry—and one re-
quiring as large an endowment—was a well-equipped chemical
laboratory, in which—under judicious restrictions—those really
engaged in original researches, should have liberal facilities of
appliances and needed materials, furnished them. He considered
that an important part of the work to be accomplished by a
physical and chemical laboratory, would be the determination
and tabulation of “The Constants of Nature and Art” with a
much wider range of subject, and on a scale of much greater
completeness and accuracy, than had heretofore been attempted :
and thus might be realized the great work or works of reference,
suggested by Babbage as a scientific desideratum.t Had the
Smithsonian fund been twice as large as it is, both these great
enterprises for the increase of knowledge, would undoubtedly
have been successfully inaugurated by Henry.

Loss by Fire.—Early in the year 1865, (on the 24th day of
January,) the central portion of the Smithsonian Building suf-
fered from a disastrous fire, the effects of which were aggravated
by the extreme severity of the winter cold, which greatly obstructed
the efficiency of the engines brought into action.{ ‘‘ The progress
of the fire was so rapid, that but few of the contents of the upper
rooms could be removed before the roof fell in. The conflagration

wrote: “I shall show that Iam not indebted to him for any discovery in
science, bearing on the Telegraph:’? (p. 9,)—it may be confidently
assumed from his known but singular unfamiliarity with scientific litera-
ture, that equally in either case he but echoed the promptings of others,
and equally in either case in entire ignorance of the real facts. To his
dying day, he probably sincerely failed to apprehend the nature of his
indebtedness to Henry.

* Smithsonian Report for 1870, pp. 141-144.

+ Smithsonian Report for 1856, pp. 289-302.

t The accident resulted from the carelessness of some workmen in the
upper picture gallery, who in temporarily setting up a stove, inserted the
pipe through a wall-lining into a furring space (supposing it a flue), but
which conducted directly under the rafters of the roof.

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was only stayed by the incombustible materials of the main build-
ing :” the flooring of the upper story, forming an iron and brick
vaulting over the lower or principal story. Neither wing of the
building was reached by the fire; and the valuable Library (not
then transferred to the Capitol), and the Museum, fortunately
escaped without injury. The Stanley collection of Indian por-
traits, comprising about 200 paintings, and estimated as worth
20,000 dollars, was entirely destroyed. A fine full-sized copy in
Carrara marble, by John Gott, of the antique statue known as
“The Dying Gladiator,” was crumbled into a formless mass of
stone.

The Seeretary’s office unfortunately fell within the range of
the flames. ‘The most irreparable loss was that of the records,
consisting of the official, scientific, and miscellaneous corres-
pondence; embracing 35,000 pages of copied letters which had
been sent, (at least 30,000 of which were the composition of the
Secretary,) and 50,000 pages of letters received by the Institu-
tion; the receipts for publications and specimens; reports on
various subjects which have been referred to the Institution;
the records of experiments instituted by the Secretary for the
Government; four manuscripts of original investigations, [me-
moirs by collaborators, | which had been adopted by the Insti-
tution for publication; a large number of papers and scientific
notes of the Secretary; a series of diaries, memorandum and
account books.”* This truly ‘“ irreparable loss” of the original
notes of many series of experiments by Henry, of varied cha-
racter, running back for thirty years, kept for the purpose of
reduction and discussion, or further extension (as leisure might
permit) and of which but few had been published even by re-
sults,—was borne by their author with his characteristic equa-
nimity ; and was very rarely alluded to by him, unless when in
answer to inquiries respecting particular points of his researches,
he was compelled to excuse the absence of precise data.

The Lecture Room—a model of its class—entirely burned out
by the fire, was not reconstructed: but the space it occupied on
the upper floor, was with the adjacent rooms (used as the appa-
ratus room, and the art gallery) thrown into one large hall, 200
feet long,—at present occupied as the ethnological museum.
Advantage was taken of the hazard demonstrated by the fire, to
induce Congress in the following year to transfer the custody
of the Smithsonian collection of scientific works to the National
Library: and the propriety of this change was thus defended.
“The east wing of the Smithsonian building, in which the books
were deposited is not fire-proof, and is liable to destruction by
accident or the torch of the incendiary, while the rooms of the
Capitol are of incombustible materials. This wing was more-

* Smithsonian Report for 1865, p. 18.
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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 315

over filled to overflowing; and a more extended and secure
depository could not be obtained, except by another large draught
on the accumulated funds intended to form part of the permanent
capital.”’*

ic

Second Visit to Hurope.—At a meeting of the Board of Re-
gents, held February 3rd, 1870, ‘‘ General Delafield in behalf of
the Executive Committee, stated that they deemed it highly
important for the interests of the Institution in the promotion
of science, and due to the Secretary for his long and devoted
services, that he should visit Hurope to consult with the savans
and societies of Great Britain and the continent ; and he therefore
hoped that a leave of absence would be granted to Professor
Henry for several months, and an allowance be made for his
expenses. On motion of Dr. Maclean it was unanimously Re-
solved, That Professor Henry, Secretary of the Institution, be
authorized to visit Hurope in behalf of the interests of the Smith-
sonian Institution, and that he be granted from three to six
months leave of absence, and two thousand dollars for travelling
expenses for this purpose.” f

it is not necessary here to recount the particulars of this
second visit of Henry to Europe, more fully than in the brief
account given by him in his annual Report. ‘ Before closing
this report, it is proper that I should refer to a resolution
adopted by your honorable Board at its last session, granting
me leave of absence to visit Europe to confer with savans and
societies relative to the Institution, and making provision for
the payment of my expenses. The presentation of this propo-
sition was entirely without my knowledge, but I need scarcely
say that its unanimous adoption was highly gratifying to my
feelings; and that I availed myself of the privilege it offered
with a grateful appreciation of the kindness intended. I sailed
from New York on the 1st of June, returning after an absence
of four and a half months, much improved in health, and with
impressions as to science and education in the Old World, which
may be of value in directing the affairs of the Institution. Al-
though limited as to time, and my plans interfered with somewhat
by the war, I visited England, Ireland, Scotland, Belgium, parts
of Germany and France. But deferring for the present an ac-
count of my travels, and the observations connected with them,
{ will merely state that as your representative, I was everywhere
kindly received, and was highly gratified with the commenda-
tions bestowed on the character and operations of the Institution
intrusted to your care.”{

* Smithsonian Report for 1866, p. 14.
¢ Smithsonian Report for 1869, p. 89.
$ Smithsonian Report for 1870, p. 45.

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316 BULLETIN OF THE

Service on the Light-house Board.—While the whole high
beut of Henry’s mind was rather toward abstract than utilitarian
research, there was no well devised system of practical benefit
for man, that did not command his earnest sympathy or enlist
his active co-operation :—no labor in such co-operation from
which he shrank, if he felt that without the sacrifice of other
duties, he could make such labor useful. On the establishment
of the Light-house Board, in 1852, Henry was appointed as one
of its members; and although his valuable time was already
fully occupied, he consented to serve on the Board, in the hope
of aiding to benefit the interests of navigation. To the require-
ments of his new position, he brought his accustomed energy,
skill, and eminently practical judgment; and soon made his
influence felt throughout the Light-house service.

When the steadily advancing cost of whale oil made it neces-
sary to seek for some more economical illuminant, he attacked
the problem with his habit of scientific method. Colza oil or
rape-seed oil had been used in France with some success; and
efforts were made to introduce its culture and production in this
country. Lard-oil had been tested by Professor J. H. Alexander
of Baltimore, and pronounced by him of very inferior value as an
illuminant. For accuracy of determination, Henry caused to be
prepared at the Light-house Depot on Staten Island, a long
dark fire-proof chamber, and had it painted black on all its
interior surfaces for the purpose of photometric observations.
In ordinary lamps, the colza oil was found to be nearly equal to
whale oil in illuminating power, and lard-oil inferior to it. Pe-
troleum or mineral oil was also tried; but its quality was at
that time too variable, and its use was found to be too dangerous.
Experiment showed that lard-oil had a greater specific gravity
than sperm oil, a less capillarity or ascensional attraction in a
wick, and a less perfect fluidity. The conditions were varied ;
and it was found that with elevation of temperature, the fluidity,
and the capillarity, of the lard-oil increased more rapidly than
those of the sperm oil, until at about 250° F. the former sur-
passed the latter in these qualities. With these results, it became
important to compare the oils in large lamps, such as were actually
required for the lanterns of light-houses. The heat evolved by
the large sized Argand burners, would seem peculiarly to favor
the lard-oil: a few trials, with a proper adaptation of the lamps,
established its supremacy; and conclusively demonstrated—con-
trary to all the laboratory trials of former experimenters, that for
the purpose desired, this contemned article was for equal quan-
tities a more brilliant illuminant than mineral kerosene-oil, or
vegetable colza-oil, or animal sperm-oil, while its market price
was only about one-fourth that of the latter. Against all the
opposition of interested dealers, and prejudiced keepers, the lard-

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 3l7

oil was at once introduced into actual use in the years 1865 and
1866, in all the light-houses of the United States; with an
economy of at least one dollar on every gallon of the hundred
thousand in annual use; that is of 100,000 dollars per annum.

During the progress of these useful labors, no less important
investigations were commenced, on the most efficient forms of
apparatus for acoustic signalling, as the substitutes for light
signals during the prevalence of sea-board fogs. ‘“ Among the
impediments to navigation, none are perhaps more to be dreaded
than those which arise from fogs. . . . The only means at
present known for obviating the difficulty, is that of employing
powerful sounding instruments which may be heard at a suffi-
cient distance through the fog, to give timely warning of impend-
ing danger.’’*

Gun signals were early abandoned, as inefficient, dangerous,
and expensive: inefficient, because of both “the length of the
intervals between the successive explosions, and the brief dura-
tion of the sound, which renders it difficult to determine with
accuracy its direction.” Innumerable projects eagerly pressed
upon the Board by visionary inventors (some of them being
rattles, gongs, or organ pipes operated by manual cranks, many
of them being varieties of automatic horn or whistle operated
by the winds or the waves) were impartially tested, and uni-
formly rejected as wholly insufficient: very few of their projec-
tors having the slightest practical idea of the requirements of
the service. Experiments on steam-whistles of large size and
on horns with vibrating steel tongues or reeds, sounded by steam-
power, or by hot-air engines, varied and continued for several
years under wide changes of conditions, finally determined their
most efficient size and character.t

In 1867, comparative trials were made at Sandy Hook (on
the Jersey shore, at the entrance to Raritan Bay, and to New
York Bay,) with three powerful instruments; a large steam
whistle whose cup was 8 inches in diameter, and made adjust-
able in pitch; a large reed trumpet 17 feet long and 388 inches
in diameter at its flaring mouth, whose steel tongue was 10 inches
long, 23 inches wide, and half an inch thick at its smaller vibrat-
ing end, and was blown by a hot air engine; and lastly a large

* Report of L. H. Board for 1874, p. 83.

{ An enterprising inventor had secured a patent for a metallic com-
pound or alloy for steam-whistles, especially adapted to increase greatly
their power as fog-signals. In vain was he assured that his “ improve-
ment” was a fallacy; that the cylindrical cup of the whistle was not a
bell, but only a resonant chamber; and that its material was compara-
tively unimportant. He was only with difficulty convinced, when Henry
had his whistle formally tested, with a stout cord wound tightly around
its cylindrical surface: when its tone under steam escape was proved to
be as full, as loud, and as penetrating, as with the cord removed.

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siren horn operated by steam at different pressures, the aerial
vibration being produced by the intermittence of a revolving
grating or disk valve in the small end of the horn, driven at high
velocities by the steam engine, and its pitch regulated by the
adjustable speed of the revolving disk. The trumpet or fog-horn
was provided with a series of replaceable steel tongues of diffe-
rent sizes, and the siren was driven at five different pitches of
from 250 to 700 impulses per second, and at steam pressures
varying from 100 pounds to 20 pounds per square inch. For
the purpose of accurate estimation, within short distances, a
phonometer or ‘artificial ear’ was employed, having at its
smaller upturned end a horizontal drum of stretched membrane,
sprinkled with sand, after the plan devised by Sondhauss. Trum-
pets of the same size, were made of different materials, as of
brass, iron, and wood; but these differences were found to exer-
cise little or no influence on the intensity or penetration of the
sound. ‘Trumpets were also made of diiferent shapes, straight
and curved, and square as well as round, with equal lengths and
equal areas of cross section; from whose trials it appeared that
the conical form gave nearly double the distance of action on the
sand of the “artificial ear,” that was given by the pyramidal
form. Such investigations—varied and long-continued, serve to
show the conscientious earnestness with which Henry sought to
give the highest efficiency to the expedients available for the
protection of life and property along our extended sea-coast.
The steam-whistle was found to be less powerful than the
trumpet, with the same expenditures of fuel. Steam whistles
were afterwards tried of 10 inches, 12 inches, and 18 inches in
diameter. The largest size was not found to give results pro-
portioned to its increased consumption; and the 10 or 12 inch
size was regarded as practically the most efficient. The siren
was found to be the most powerful and penetrating of the instru-
ments tested, as it admitted more advantageously the application
of a higher steam expenditure. The best result with this instru-
ment was attained with a pressure of from 60 to 80 pounds, and
at a pitch between 350 and 400 vibrations per second. Under
favorable conditions, this instrument frequently made itself heard
at a distance of fifteen and twenty miles. Henry’s large expe-
rience with the occasional aerial impediments to sound propaga-
tion,* and his strong sense of the vital importance of having
fog-signals recognized at a distance, under the most adverse con-
ditions, led him to favor the introduction of the most powerful
sounders attainable, without absolutely limiting the decision to
their relative economy. Hence he was the first to devise improve-
ments in the siren, and to press its adoption at important or

* An abstract of his elaborate and invaluable researches on some ab-
normal phenomena of Sound—the crowning labor of his life, must be re-
served for a concluding section.

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 319

dangerous stations, notwithstanding its higher consumption of
steam or heat power.*

Partly under the stimulus given to the sale of lard-oil by the
striking proofs of its excellence as an illuminant under favor-
able conditions, furnished by Henry, this article slowly advanced.
in price; though probably not to an extent of more than a fourth
part additional cost. Henry’s energies again were called into
requisition to devise aremedy. Neither gas, nor electricity, the
favorite means of numerous projectors and advisers, appeared
justified, on the score of economy.+ <A new series of elaborate
experiments was undertaken to determine whether mineral oil
(so abundant as to be easily procurable at one-third the cost of
lard oil) could not be made available. The great improvements
introduced into its preparation in later years by high distillation,
seemed to justify the attempt. Not only was a laborious inquiry
into the best conditions of combustion, by precise photometric
measurement required, but for the security of the service, equally
laborious examinations into the best practicable methods of test-
ing, of handling, and of storing this material.{ To secure a

* Major G. H. Elliott, commissioned by the U. 8. Light-house Board to
make a tour of inspection of European Light-house establishments in
1873, in his Report published by the Senate in 1874. says of the British
and French systems, ‘‘I saw many details of construction and administra-
tion which we can adopt to advantage, while there are many in which
we excel. Our shore fog-signals particularly, are vastly superior both in
number and power.” (Report on European Light-houses, p. 12.) “To
the careful and laborious investigations and experiments of the distin-
guished Chairman of the Light-house Board, prolonged through a series
of years, and prosecuted under a great variety of conditions, is largely
to be attributed the acknowledged superiority of our fog-signal service.’”
(Journal of Franklin Institute, Jan. 1876, vol. lxxi. p. 43.)

+ Report of L. H. Board for 1874, p. 11. No agency (for whatever
purpose) has proved so enticing to the half-informed as electricity. For
years past scarcely a month has elapsed without some new form of patent
electric-light, or some marvellous application of electric-lights, being
pertinaciously urged by sanguine ‘reformers’? upon the Light-house
Board for adoption ; some of these ideal schemes being the mounting of
electric-lights on buoys, or on the masts of light-ships, or their suspen-
sion from moored balloons. Many eminently original minds have earn-
estly desired to obtain contracts for supplying all the Light-houses with
oxy-hydrogen lime lights. In a fog, the most powerful electric-light is as
useless as the cheapest kerosene lamp.

t “It has been established that the ordinary fire-test is insufficient as
usually applied, and that an explosive mixture may be formed by con-
fining the vapors given off at a temaperature in some cases twenty degrees
lower than that certified to by the public inspector. That this inquiry is
of great practical importance to the Light-house system, must be evident
when we reflect that means must be devised for testing the oil offered for
acceptance in accordance with contracts ; for storing it; for transporting
it to light-house stations; for preserving it in butts at the stations; and
for the instruction of the keepers in its daily use.” (Report L. H. B.
1877, p. 5.)

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320 BULLETIN OF THE

proper oxygenation in burning, a modification of the lamp was
required. ‘‘It was soon apparent that the use of mineral oil
would necessitate a change of lamps, and attention is now
directed to the perfection of one which will produce the best
results from this illuminant. It is thought that the lamps now
used with lard-oil can be converted at no great expense and
successfully used with mineral oil. Our experiments have shown
that this oil can be more readily used in the smaller lamps; and
it is proposed as soon as suitable ones can be prepared, to put it
into use at such stations of the fifth and sixth order, as may be
thought expedient ; when if it be found satisfactory, an attempt
will be made to substitute it for lard-oil in lamps of the higher
orders.”* ‘This change is proposed entirely with reference to
economy ; for it has been found by repeated experiment, that
while a somewhat superior light may be obtained from a small
lamp charged with kerosene, a larger lamp charged with lard-oii
affords the greater illuminating power. So great is this differ-
ence in lamps of the first order with five wicks, that the rates of
light from kerosene and lard, are as three to four respectively.
Since the safety of the keeper and the continuity of the light are
essential elements in the choice of an illuminant, a thorough
acquaintance with the nature of the substance is essentially
necessary. With a view therefore to the introduction of kerosene,
a series of experiments have been made during the last two
years on the different varieties of this material found in the
market.”

In 1871, on the resignation of Admiral Shubrick, Henry was
chosen as the Chairman of the Light-house Board; and his
energetic labors in behalf of the service, fully vindicated the
wisdom of the choice. Punctual in his attendance on the weekly
meetings of the Board, he inspired others with a portion of his own
zealous devotion. Nor did he fail to urge upon the Government
the constant need and responsibility of maintaining an efficient
establishment. He emphatically declared that “the character
of the aids which any nation furnishes the mariner in approaching
and leaving its shores, marks in a conspicuous degree its advance-
ment in civilization. Whatever tends to facilitate navigation or
to lessen its dangers, serves to increase commerce ; and hence is
of importance not only to the dwellers on the seaboard, but to
the inhabitants of every part of the country. . . . Therefore
it is of the first importance that the signals, whether of light or
sound, which indicate the direction of the course, and the beacons
which mark the channel, shall be of the most improved character,
and that they be under the charge of intelligent, efficient, and

* Report L. H. Board, 1875, p. 6.
| Report L. H. Board, 1877, p. 4.

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 321

trustworthy attendants.”* And rising to a higher argument, he
pointed out that “it is not alone in its economical aspect that a
light-house system is to be regarded: it is a life preserving es-
tablishment founded on the principles of Christian benevolence,
of which none can so well appreciate the importance as he who
after having been exposed to the perils of the ocean—it may be
‘for months—finds himself approaching in the darkness of night
alee shore. But it is not enough to erect towers, and establish
other signals: they must be maintained in an efficient state with
uninterrupted constancy.”

A formal report made to the Hon. Searetary of the Treasury
by the Naval Secretary of the Light-house Board, dated May
21st, 1878, (very shortly after Henry’s death,) simply detailing
for information, the character of his gratuitous services to the
Light-house establishment during a quarter of a century, (and
not intended for the public,) takes the inevitable form of eulogy.
A portion of it is here quoted.

‘As chairman of this committee, Professor Henry acted as the
scientific adviser of the Board. But in addition it was his duty
to conduct the experiments made by the Board, not only in the
matter of original investigation and testing of the material used,
but in examining and reporting on the models, plans, and theories
presented by others to the Board. The value of the services he
rendered in this position is simply inestimable. He prepared
the formula for testing our oils; he conducted the series of ex-
periments resulting in the substitution of lard-oil for sperm oil,
which effected an immense saving in cost; and he also conducted
the experiments which have resulted in making it possible to
substitute mineral oil for lard-oil, when another economy will be
made. His original investigation into the laws of sound have
resulted in giving us a fog-signal service conceded to be the best
in the world. His examinations into the action of electricity,
has enabled the Board to almost completely protect its stations
from the effect of lightning. The result of his patient, con-
tinuous, practical experimentation is visible everywhere in the

* Report of L. H. Board, 1873, pp. 3,4. The coast line of the United
States is far more extended than that of any other nation on the globe.
“‘The magnitude of the Light-house system of the United States may be
inferred from the following facts: from the St. Croix River on the bound-
ary of Maine, to the mouth of the Rio Grande in the Gulf of Mexico, in-
cludes a distance of over 5,000 miles; on the Pacific coast, a length of
about 1,500 miles; on the great northern Lakes, about 3,000 miles; and on
inland rivers about 700 miles; making a total of more than 10,000 miles.
Nearly every square foot of the margin of the sea throughout the whole
extent of 5,000 miles along the Atlantic and Gulf coast is more or less
illuminated by Light-house rays; the mariner rarely losing sight of one
light until he has gained another.” (p. 4, of same Report.)

t Report L. H. B. 1874, p. 5.

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service. No subject was too vast for him to undertake; none
too small for him to overlook. And while he has brought into
the establishment so many practical applications of science, he
has done almost as much service by keeping out what presented
by others seemed plausible, but which on examination proved
impracticable. ;

‘‘Hivery theory, plan, or machine, which was pressed on the
Board, as for the interests of commerce and navigation, was re-
ferred to the committee on experiments, when it was examined
by its Chairman, and was formally reported upon. If it had no
practical value, the report on record simply stated the inexpe-
diency of its adoption: but the Professor often verbally pointed
out to the presenter its fallacy; and sent him away—if not
satisfied—at least feeling that he had been well treated. He
thus prevented not only the adoption of impracticable plans, but
avoided the enmity of their inventors.

‘Professor Henry made many valuable reports, containing the
results of his elaborate experiments into matters which were for-
mally referred to him, which are spread on the records of the
Board; and the reports were drawn in such form that his sug-
gestions were capable of and received practical application. But
in addition to this, he was constantly extending his scientific re-
searches for the benefit of the service in all directions.+ His
summer vacations were as a rule passed in experimentation at
the laboratory of the Establishment at Staten Island, on its
steamers, or at its light-stations, pushing his inquiries to their
last results. To experimentation in the interests of this service,
Professor Henry seemed to give his whole heart. It appeared
as if he never lost sight of the needs of the Establishment, and
as if he never neglected an opportunity to advance its interests.
In addition to his other duties, Professor Henry presided as.
Chairman of the Light-house Board for the last seven years at
its weekly meetings, when he did much to infuse into the different.
members of the Board, his own spirit of labor for, and devotion
to its interests.’’*

Services to the National Government.—The value of Henry’s.
services to the various Hxecutive Departments of our Govern-
ment, faithfully and unostentatiously performed through a long
series of years and a succession of Presidential Administrations,
cannot be estimated, as its history can never be written. What-
ever material for it existed in the form of abstracts of inquiries,
trials, and reports, prior to 1865, unfortunately perished in the

* Huxecutive Documents, No. 94, Forty-fifth Congress, 2d Session, Senate,
pp. 2,3. It is gratifying to know that on the presentation of his report.
and recommendation to Congress, by the high-minded Secretary of the
Treasury, a moderate appropriation in slight recognition of Henry’s ‘“ ines-
timable’’ services was at once passed for the benefit of his bereaved family.

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 323

tire of that year. Whenever in any important case a scientific
adviser could be useful to the proper conduct of a Bureau,
Henry’s reputation generally pointed him out as the most: suit-
able expert and arbiter. On the outbreak of the great civil war,
the number of such references was naturally very considerably
increased. The Departments of War, of the Navy, and of the
Treasury, were besieged by projectors with every imaginable and
impossible scheme for saving the country, and demolishing the
enemy. Torpedo balloons, electric-light balloons, wonderful com-
pounds destined to supersede gunpowder, and revolutionize the
art of war; cheap methods for the manufacture of Government
bonds and paper-money, multitudinous expedients for the pre-
vention of counterfeiting, by devices in the engraving, by secret
markings, by anti-photographic inks, by peculiar textures of
paper,—applicable to coupons, to circulating notes, to revenue
stamps,—each warranted to be infallible,—such were among the
agencies by which patriotic patentees and adroit adventurers
were willing to serve their country and to reap their reward by
the moderate rovalty or percentage due to the magnificence of
the public benefit. Such were among the unenviable tasks of
examination and adjudication accepted by Henry, only from an
intrepid sense of duty.

“The course which has been pursued of rendering the Gov-
ernment in its late trials, every aid which could be supplied by
scientific research, has been warmly approved. As most persons
are probably entirely ignorant of the services really rendered to
the Government by the Institution, I may here state the fact that
a large share of my time, (all indeed which could be spared from
official duties,) has been devoted for the last four years to inves-
tigations required by the public exigencies. Within this period,
several hundred reports, requiring many experiments, and per-
taining either to proposals purporting to be of high national im-
portance, or relating to the quality of the multifarious articles
offered in fulfillment of legal contracts, have been rendered. The
Opinions advanced in many of these reports, not only cost much
valuable time, but also involved grave responsibilities. While
on the one hand the rejection of a proposition would be in con-
travention to the high importance claimed for it by its author, on
the other the approval of it would perhaps incur the risk of the
fruitless expenditures of a large amount of public money. It is
not necessary, I trust, to say that the labor thus rendered was
entirely gratuitous, or that in the judgment pronounced in any
case, no regard was paid to the interested solicitations or per-
sonal influence of the parties concerned: on the contrary it has
in some instances resulted from the examination of materials sold
to the Government, that attempted fraud has been exposed, and
the baffled speculator received his due reward in condemnation
and punishment. These facts it is thought will be deemed a

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sufficient answer to those who have seemed disposed to reproach
the Institution with the want of a more popular demonstration
—but of a really far less useful or efficient aid in the support of
the Government.”*

In the performance of these troublesome and often disagree-
able Jabors, conducted with the single aim necessitated by all his
scientific habits and instincts, it of course resulted that a great
majority of his judgments and recommendations were decidedly
adverse to the hopes and wishes of the aspirants to fame and
fortune. Having once satisfied himself of the frivolity or the
chicanery of an article or project, his decision was inflexible ;
and although importunate appeals to the Department Secretary,
abetted by a prostituted political or other influence, in one or
two instances succeeded in fastening for a time upon the public
Treasury a worthless or a noxious leech, the vast number of
such, excluded from experimental imbibitions by Henry’s critical
supervision, must have been a protection to the public interests.
quite beyond the reach of estimation: while the supplies of honest
contractors awarded their just commendation, and the rare pro-
posals of real merit favorably reported upon, which from a hasty
survey might have been confounded and overlaid with the mass
of untried puerilities, no less served to strengthen and assist the
Government during its years of greatest trial, need, and exhaus-
tion.

From the outset of the unnatural sectional revolt, fully appre-
ciating the vastness of the interests, the sacrifices, and the dan-
gers involved, Henry contemplated the crisis—not with despond-
ency, but with a profound sorrow and solicitude. While his
sympathies and his hopes were all for the preservation of the
national integrity of jurisdiction, he was little given to public
exhibitions of his feelings. Undemonstrative—less from tem-
perament than from the deliberate and habitual subjection of
emotional expression to reason, during those times of feverish
excitement apprehension and circumspection necessarily attend-
ant on the prevalence of a gigantic rebellion (unparalleled in
incentive, in temper, and in magnitude) many of whose leaders
had been among his personal friends, he was not unnaturally
looked upon by many as lukewarm in his patriotism, if not dis-
loyal in his citizenship. ‘To the occasional innuendoes of the
press, he deigned no answers: he was the last man to accord
compliance with the urgency of a popular clamor. And yet
during the entire period of the Southern Insurrection, he was
the personal and trusted friend of President Lincoln.t

* Smithsonian Report for 1864, p. 15.

+ Early in the war (in the autumn of 1861 ,) a caller at the Presidential
Mansion very anxious to see the Chief Magistrate of the nation, was in-
formed that he could not then be seen, being engaged in an important pri-
vateconsultation. The caller not to be repulsed, wrote on a piece of paper

08

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 325

CONTRIBUTIONS TO SCIENCE AT WASHINGTON.

In addition to what may be called the public labors of Henry
so diligently performed in various fields after his advent to the
Smithsonian Institution, it is well briefly to contemplate the
special scientific work he was able to accomplish in the intervals:
of his exacting occupations ; that some estimate may be formed
of the independent value of his later contributions, as well as of
his wonderful industry. While still engaged in his difficult task
of organizing and shaping the policy of the Institution, in 1850,
on taking oceasion to present before the American Association
at New Haven, Conn., a resumé of the electrical phenomena
exhibited by the Leyden jar, and their true interpretation, he
remarked that ‘for the last three and a half years, all his time
and all his thoughts had been given to the details of the busi-
ness of the Smithsonian Institution. He had been obliged to
withdraw himself entirely from scientific research ; but he hoped
that now the Institution had got under way, and the Regents
had allowed him some able assistants, that he would be enabled
in part at least to return to his first love—the investigation of
the phenomena of nature.”*

Thermal Telescope.—Shortly after his establishment at Wash-
ington, he continued a series of former experiments with the
“ thermo-galvanic multiplicator” devised by Nobili and Melloni in
1831; andby some slight but significant modifications of the appa-
ratus, he succeeded in imparting to it a most surprising delicacy
of action. With the thermo-electric pile carefully adjusted at the

that he must see Mr. Lincoln personally, on a matter of vital and pressing
importance to the public welfare. This of course secured his admission
to the presence of Mr. Lincoln, who was sitting with a middle-aged gentle-
man. Observing the hesitancy of his visitor, the President told him he
might speak freely, as only a friend was present. Whereupon the visitor
announced that for several evenings past he had observed a light exhib-
ited on the highest of the Smithsonian towers, for a few minutes about
nine o’clock, with mysterious movements, which he felt satisfied were
designed as signals to the rebels encamped on Munson’s Hill in Virginia.

Having gravely listened to this information with raised eyebrows, but
a subdued twinkle of the eye, the President turned to his companion.
saying ‘‘ What do you think of that ? Professor Henry.” Rising with a
smile, the person addressed replied, that from the time mentioned, he
presumed the mysterious light shone from the lantern of a watchman
who was required at nine o’clock each evening to observe and record the
indications of the meteorological instruments placed on the tower.

The painful confusion of the officious informant, at once appealed to
Henry’s sensibility ; and quite unmindful of the President, he approached
the visitor, offering his hand, and with a courteous regard counselled him
never to be abashed at the issue of a conscientious discharge of duty,
and never to let the fear of ridicule interfere with its faithful execution-

* Proceed. Am. Assoc. 4th Meeting, New Haven, Aug. 1850, p. 378.

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326 BULLETIN OF THE

focus of a suitable reflector, his ‘‘ thermal telescope” when directed
to the celestial vault, indicated that the heat radiated inward by
our atmosphere when clear, is least at the zenith, and increases
downward to the horizon; as was to have been inferred from its
increasing mass: when directed to clouds, they were found tu
differ very widely accordingly as they were condensing or being
dissipated ; some even indicating a less amount of radiation than
the surrounding atmosphere. When directed to a horse in a dis-
tant field, its animal heat concentrated on the pile, was distinctly
made manifest on the galvanometer needle. Hven the heat from
a man’s face at the distance of a mile could be detected; and
that from the side of a honse at several miles distance.* These
and many similar observations demonstrated to sense the induc-
tions of reason, that there is a constant and universal exchange
by radiation in straight lines from every object in nature, follow-
ing the same laws as the palpable emanation from incandescent
bodies ; and that even when the amplitude of the thermal vibra-
tions (equivalent to the square root of their dynamic energy) is
reduced a million fold, its existence may still be distinctly traced.

Henry showed by experiment, that ice could be employed both
as a convex lens for converging heat to a focus, and also as a
concave mirror for the same purpose: a considerable portion of
the incident rays being transmitted, a large portion reflected, and
the remainder absorbed by the ice.

He presented to the American Philosophical Society, a discus-
sion of the problem of the’ suspension of the ball in a water jet or
fountain.

In 1849, for the purpose of estimating the effects of certain
meteorological conditions of the atmosphere, he made some ex-
periments on the lateral radiation from a current of ascending
heated air at different distances above the flame; the latter being
thoroughly eclipsed.

He also experimented on the radiation of heat from a hydro-
gen flame, which was shown to be quite small, notwithstanding
the high temperature of the flame. By placing an infusible and
incombustible solid in the flame, while the temperature is much
reduced, the radiant light and heat are greatly increased {| Re-
sults closely analogous to those he obtained in the differences
between the audibility of vibrating tuning-forks when suspended
by a soft thread, or when rigidly attached to a sounding-board.
These results have also an undoubted significance with regard
to celestial radiations; not only as to the differences between
gaseous nebule and stars or clusters, but as to the differences

* Sill. Am. Jour. Sci. Jan. 1848, vol. v. pp. 113, 114.
{ Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. Oct. 16, 1848, vol. iv. p. 285.
t{ Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. Oct. 19, 1849, vol. v. p. 108.

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 327

between stars in a probably different state of condensation or of
specific gravity.

A few years later, he continued his investigation of this subject
of radiation, more especially with reference to Rumford’s “ Ob-
servations relative to the means of increasing the quantities of
Heat obtained in the Combustion of Fuel :” published in Great
Britain in 1802.* He found that Rumford’s recommendation of
the introduction of balls of clay or of fire brick (about two and a
half inches in diameter) into a coal fire, was fully justified as an
economic measure: more heat being thereby radiated from the
fire into the room, and less being carried up the flue. He also
showed however that for culinary purposes, while the incandes-
cent or heated clay increases the radiation, and thereby improves
the quality of the fire for roasting, it correspondingly expends
the temperature, and thereby diminishes its power for bovling.
“That a solid substance increases the radiation of the heat of a
flame, is an interesting fact in connection with the nature of heat
itself. It would seem to show that the vibrations of gross matter
are necessary to give sufficient intensity of impulse to produce
the phenomena of ordinary radiant heat.”}

In 1851, he read before the American Association at Albany,
a paper ‘On the Theory of the so-called Imponderables :” (mainly
a development of his earlier discussion in 1846, of the molecular
constitution of matter,) in which he forcibly criticised a frequent
tendency to assume or multiply unknown and unrealizable modes
of action: holding that with regard to the most subtle agencies
of nature, we have no warrant by the strict scientific method, for
resorting to other than the observed and established laws of matter
and force, until it has been exhaustively demonstrated that these
are insufficient: and that time has not yet come. The funda-
mental laws of mechanical philosophy “are five in number; viz.,
the two laws of force—attraction, and repulsion, varying with
some function of the distance; and secondly, the three laws of
motion—the law of inertia, of the co-existence of motions, and of
action aud re-action. Of these laws we can give no explanation :
they are at present considered as ultimate facts; to which all
mechanical phenomena are referred, or from which they are de-
duced by logical inference. The existence of these laws as has
been said, is deduced from the phenomena of the operations of
matter in masses; but we apply them by analogy to the minute
and invisible portions of matter which constitute the atoms or
molecules of gases, and we find that the inferences from this as-
sumption are borne out by the results of experience.” He re-
garded the modern kinetic or dynamic theory of gases, by its

* Journal Royal Institution, 1802, vol. i. p. 28.
+ Proceed. Am. Assoc. Providence, Aug. 1855, pp. 112-116. ‘On the
Effect of mingling Radiating substances with Combustible materials.”

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predictions and verifications, as furnishing almost a complete
establishment of the atomic and molecular theory of matter.
Referring to the ingenious hypothesis of Boscovich, he thought
that though well adapted to embrace the two static laws above
mentioned, it did not appear equally well adapted to satisfy in
any intelligible sense the three kinetic laws. He contended that
every attempt at conforming our conception of the ultimate con-
stitution of matter to the inductions of experience, would seem to
conduct us directly to the atomic hypothesis of Newton. A careful
study of the dynamics of the so-called ‘‘imponderables” certainly
tended to their unification. Admitting the difficulty of framing
an entirely satisfactory theory of the resultant transverse action
of electricity, he suggested that a tangential force was not accord-
ant with any inductions from direct experience ; and was incap-
able of direct mechanical realization. Extending the atomic
conception of matter to the etherial medium of space, he con-
cluded by urging “the importance in the adoption of mechanical
hypotheses, of conditioning them in strict accordance with the
operations of matter under the known laws of force and motion,
as exhibited in time and space.”’*

Among the various public Addresses delivered by Henry on
special occasions, reference may be here made to his excellent
exposition of the nature of power, and the functions of machinery
as its vehicle, concluding with a sketch of the progress of art,
pronounced at the close of the Exhibition of the Metropolitan
Mechanics’ Institute, in Washington, on the evening of March
19th, 1858. After representing to his hearers the close physical
analogy between the human body as a moving machine, and the
steam locomotive under an intelligent engineer, he remarked:
“In both, the direction of power is under the influence of an
immaterial, thinking, willing principle, called the soul. But this
must not be confounded as it frequently is with the motive power.
The soul of a man no more moves his body, than the soul of the
engineer moves the locomotive and its attendant train of cars.
In both eases the soul is the directing, controlling principle; not
the impelling power.”

Views of Education.—Another address deserving of special
notice (delivered the following year,) is his introductory dis-
course .before the ‘“ Association for the Advancement of Educa-
tion,” as its retiring President. In this, he maintained that
inasmuch as ‘the several faculties of the human mind are not
simultaneously developed, in educating an individual we ought
to follow the order of nature, and to adapt the instruction to
the age and mental stature of the pupil. Memory, imitation,

* Proceed. Am. Assoc. Albany, Aug. 1851, pp. 84-91.
+ Closing Address Metr. Mech. Inst. Washington, 1853, p. 19
102

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 329

imagination, and the faculty of forming mental habits, exist in
early life, while the judgment and the reasoning powers are of
slower growth.” Hence less attention should be given to the
development of the reasoning faculties, than to those of obser-
vation: the juvenile memory should be stored rather with facts,
than with principles: and he condemned as mischievous ‘‘the
proposition frequently advanced, that the child should be taught
nothing but what it can fully comprehend, and the endeavor in
accordance with this, to invert the order of nature, and attempt
to impart those things which cannot be taught at an early age,
and to neglect those which at this period of life, the mind is well
adapted to receive. By this mode we may indeed produce
remarkably intelligent children, who will become remarkably
feeble men. The order of nature is that of art before science;
the entire concrete first, and the entire abstract last. These two
extremes should run gradually into each other, the course of
instruction becoming more and more logical as the pupil advances
in years.”—‘ The cultivation of the imagination should also be
considered an essential part of a liberal education: and this may
be spread over the whole course of instruction, for like the rea-
soning faculties the imagination may continue to be improved
until late in life.”

Applying this same reasoning to the moral training of youth,
he considered that (as in the intellectual culture) the object
should be ‘‘not only to teach the pupil how to think, but how to
act and to do; placing great stress upon the early education of
the habits. . . . We are frequently required to act from the
impulse of the moment, and have no time to deduce our course
from the moral principles of the act. An individual can be
educated to a strict regard for truth, to deeds of courage in res-
cuing others from danger, to acts of benevolence, generosity, and
justice. . . . ‘he future character of a child and that of
the man also, is in most cases formed probably before the age
of seven years. Previously to this time impressions have been
made which shall survive amid the vicissitudes of life, amid all
the influences to which the individual may be subjected, and
which will outcrop as it were, in the last stage of his earthly
existence, when the additions to his character made in later years,
have been entirely swept away.” Childhood (he intimated) is
less the parent of manhood, than of age: the special vices of the
individual child though long subdued, sometimes surviving and
re-appearing in his ‘‘ second childhood.”

Affirming that culture is constraint,—education and direction
an expenditure of force, and extending his generalization from
the individual to the race, he controverted the idea so popular
with some benevolent enthusiasts, that there is a spontaneous
tendency in man to civilization and advancement. The origins
of past civilizations—taking a comprehensive glance at far dis-

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tant human populations—have been sporadic as it were, and
their prevalence comparatively transitory. “It appears there-
fore that civilization itself may be considered as a condition of
unstable equilibrium, which requires constant effort to be sus-
tained, and a still greater effort to be advanced. It is not in
my view the ‘manifest destiny’ of humanity to improve by the
operation of an inevitable necessary law of progress: but while
I believe that it is the design of Providence that man should be
improved, this improvement must be the result of individual
effort, or of the combined effort of many individuals animated
by the same feeling and co-operating for the attainment of the
same end. . . . If we sow judiciously in the present, the
world will assuredly reap a beneficent harvest in the future:
and he has not lived in vain, who leaves behind him as his
successor, a child better educated—morally, intellectually, and
physically, than himself. From this point of view, the respon-
sibilities of life are immense. Hvery individual by his example
and precept, whether intentionally or otherwise, does aid or
oppose this important work, and leaves an impress of character
upon the succeeding age, which is to mould its destiny for weal
or woe, in all coming time. . . . The world however is
not to be advanced by the mere application of truths already
known: but we look forward (particularly in physical science)
to the effect of the development of new principles. We have
searcely as yet read more than the title-page and preface of the
great volume of nature, and what we do know is as nothing in
comparison with that which may be yet unfolded and applied.”*

Experiments on Building-stone.—In 1854, a series of experi-
ments on the strength of different kinds of building-stone, was
undertaken by Henry as one of a commission appointed by the
President, having reference to the marbles offered for the exten-
sion of the United States Capitol. Specimens of the different
samples—accurately cut to cubical blocks one inch and a half
in height, were first tried by interposing a thin sheet of lead at
top and bottom, between the block and the steel plates of the

* Proceed. Assoc. Adv. Education, 4th Session, Washington, Dec. 28,
1854, pp. 17-3!. The pregnant thought that human civilization is an
artificial and coerced condition, would seem to have a suggestive bearing
on the two great theories of development and evolution, so generally con-
founded by the superficial. What may be called the radical difference
between these two views of organic extension, is that the former assumes
an inherent mysterious tendency to progression, whose motto is ever
“excelsior ;” while the latter assumes a general tendency to variation
within moderate limits in indefinite directions; so that elevation is
no more normal than degradation, and indeed may be regarded as rarer
and more exceptional, since at every upward stage attained by the few,
there are probably more further digressions downward than upward, the
motto being ever “ aptior.”’

104

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 331

crushing dynamometer. ‘This was in accordance with a plan
adopted by Rennie, and that which appears to have been used
by most if not all of the subsequent experimenters in researches
of this kind. Some doubt however was expressed as to the
action of interposed lead, which induced a series of experiments
to settle this question ; when the remarkable fact was discovered
that the yielding and approximately equable pressure of the
lead caused the stone to give way at about half the pressure it
would sustain without such an interposition. For example, one
of the cubes precisely similar to another which withstood a pres-
sure of upwards of 60,000 pounds when placed in immediate
contact with the steel plates, gave way at about 30,000 pounds
with lead interposed. This interesting fact was verified in a
series of experiments embracing samples of nearly all the mar-
bles under trial, and in no case did a single exception occur to
vary the result.

“The explanation of this remarkable phenomenon (now that
the fact is known) is not difficult. The stone tends to give way
by bulging out in the centre of each of its four perpendicular
faces, and to form two pyramidal figures with their apices op-
posed to each other at the center of the cube, and their bases
against the steel plates. In the case where rigid equable pres-
sure is employed, as in that of the thick steel plate, all parts
must give way together. But in that of a yielding equable
pressure as in the case of interposed lead, the stone first gives
way along the outer lines or those of least resistance, and the
remaining pressure must be sustained by the central portions
around the vertical axis of the cube. After this important fact
was clearly determined, lead and all other interposed substances
were discarded, and a method devised by which the upper and
lower surfaces of the cube could be ground into perfect paral-
lelism. . . . All the specimens tested were subjected to this
process, and on their exposure to pressure were found to give
concordant results. The crushing force sustained was therefore
much greater than that heretofore given for the same material.”*

In the same communication, interesting remarks are made on
the tensile strength of materials, particularly the metals. ‘“Ac-
cording to the views presented, the difference in the tenacity in
steel and lead does not consist in the attractive cohesion of the
atoms, but in their capability of slipping upon each other:”
that is on the difference of lateral adhesion of the molecules, as
exemplified in ice and water. <A bar of soft metal—as lead—
subjected to tensile strain, by reason of the greater freedom of
the exterior layers of molecules, exhibits a stretching and
thinning; while the interior molecules being more confined by
the surrounding pressure, are less mobile, permit less elongation

* Proceed. Am. Assoc. Providence, Aug. 1855, pp. 102-112.
105

332 BULLETIN OF THE

of the mass, and are therefore the first to commence breaking
apart. Accordingly on ultimate separation, each fragment ex-
hibits a hollow or cup-like surface of fracture, where the interior
portion of the material has first parted: the depth of the con-
cavity being somewhat proportioned to the malleability of the
substance. ‘‘ With substances of greater rigidity, this effect is
less apparent, but it exists even in iron, and the interior fibres
of a rod of this metal may be entirely separated, while the outer
surface presents no appearance of change. From this it would
appear that metals should never be elongated by mere stretching,
but in all cases by a process of wire-drawing, or rolling. A wire
or bar must always be weakened by a force which permanently
increases its length without at the same time compressing it.”*

Hydrometric Experiment.—A novel project for the rectifica-
tion of spirits by the simple process of static separation of the
alcohol and water by the stress of their specific gravities when
exposed in long columns, produced in 1854 a considerable sensa-
tion. It was alleged that the coercitive compression exerted by
the water in a long hydrostatic column greatly accelerated the
displacement and separation induced by gravitation, and that
only a few hours were necessary to complete the process, if the
column were sufficiently high.

A patent was obtained: affidavits and samples fully attested
the wonderful efficiency of the process; and only the co-operation
of confiding capitalists was required, to realize fabulous profits,
and effect a manufacturing and commercial revolution.

Simply in the interests of truth, Henry undertook the careful
investigation of this surprising pretension. One of the towers of
the Smithsonian Building supplied a convenient well for the
experiment, easily accessible throughout its height. ‘‘A series
of stout iron tubes of about an inch and a half internal diameter
formed the column; the total length of which was one hundred
and six feet. Four stop-cocks were provided; one at the bot-
tom, one about four feet from the top, and the other two to the
intermediate space equally divided or nearly so.” Very careful
hydrometer and thermometer registers were made at increasing
intervals of time, the last being that of nearly half a year: a
portion of the reserved liquor being simultaneously tested. The
result stated, is: ‘There is not the slightest indication of any

* This conclusion is not at all in opposition to the ascertained fact of
the increased strength imparted to an iron rod by thermo-tension, dis-
covered by Prof. Walter R. Johnson.

} An incidental remark in Gmelin’s ‘‘ Handbook of Chemistry’’ seemed
to give some color of plausibility to the scheme. ‘‘ Brandy kept in casks
is said to contain a greater proportion of spirit in the upper, and of water
in the lower part.’? Gmelin’s Handbook, Translated by Henry Watts.
London, 1841, part i. sect. 4,—vol. i. p. 112.

106

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. Boo

difference of density between the original liquor and that from
the top or bottom of the column, after the lapse of hours, days,
weeks, or months. ‘The fluid at the bottom of the tube it must
be remembered was for five months exposed to the pressure of a
column of fluid at least one hundred feet high.” *

Sulphuric-acid Barometer.—In 1856, Henry had constructed
for the Smithsonian Institution, at the suggestion of Professor
G. C. Schaeffer, a large sulphuric acid barometer, whose column
being more than seven times the height of the mercurial column
(about 185 feet) gave correspondingly enlarged and sensitive indi-
cations. Water barometers with cisterns protected by oil, (as that
constructed by Daniell for the Royal Society,) have always proved
instable. With reference to sulphuric acid, “The advantages of
this liquid are: Ist that it gives off no appreciable vapor at any
atmospheric temperature; and 2nd that it does not absorb or
transmit air. The objections to its use are: Ist the liability to
accident from the corrosive nature of the liquid, either in the
filling of the tube or in its subsequent breakage; and 2nd its
affinity for moisture, which tends to produce a change in specific
gravity.” The latter defect was obviated by a drying apparatus
consisting of a tubulated bottle containing chloride of calcium,
and connected by a tube with the glass bottle forming the reser-
voir, which excluded all moisture from the transmitted air. “The
glass tube [of the barometer] is two hundred and forty inches
long, and three-fourths of an inch in diameter; and is enclosed
in a cylindrical brass case of the same length, and two and a
half inches in diameter. The glass tube is secured in the axis
of the brass case by a number of cork collars, placed at inter-
vals.”"+ This barometer continued in successful and satisfactory
use for many years; and had its readings constantly recorded.

Of several of Henry’s courses of experiments, no details have
been published; and his original notes appear to have perished.
In 1861, he made a number of experiments on the effects of
burning gunpowder in a vacuum, as well as in different gases,

“A series of researches was also commenced, to determine
more accurately than has yet been done, the expansion produced
in a bar of iron at the moment of magnetization of the metal by
means of a galvanic current. The opportunity was taken with
the consent of Professor Bache, of making these experiments
with the delicate instruments which had previously been employed
in determining the varying length, under different temperatures,
of the measuring apparatus of the base lines of the United States
Coast Survey.”{ This wonderfully microscopic measuring appa-

* Proceed. Am. Assoc. Providence, Aug. 1855, pp. 142, 143.
| Proceed. Am. Assoc. Albany, Aug. 1856, pp. 135-138.
t Smithsonian Report for 1861, p. 38.

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ratus devised by Mr. Joseph Saxton, was capable of distinguish-
ing by the light-ray index of its contact reflector, a dimension
equal to a half wave-length of average light, or the 100,000th
part of an inch. The long under-ground vaults of the Smith-
sonian building having been selected as a suitable place for the
precise verification of the residual co-efficient of compensated
temperature expansion of the base rods of the Survey, the oppor-
tunity was seized by Henry, at the termination of the investiga-
tion, to apply the same delicate apparatus to the determination
of the polarized or magnetic expansion.

In less than six years from the time of these researches, he
was called on to mourn the death of his life-long intimate and
honored friend, who had always exhibited so fraternal a sympathy
and co-operation with his own varied labors. In consequence of
this event—the death of his friend Professor A. Dallas Bache in
1867, Henry was chosen in 1868, to be his successor as President
of the National Academy of Sciences. At the request of that
body, he prepared a eulogy of his friend the late President, which
was read before the Academy April 16th, 1869. In grateful ac-
knowledgement of the wise counsels and valuable services of Dr.
Bache as one of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for
nearly twenty years, he observed: “To say that he assisted in
shaping the policy of the establishment would not be enough.
Tt was almost exclusively through his predominating influence
that the policy which has given the Institution its present celeb-
rity, was after much opposition finally adopted. . . . Nor
would it be possible for him [the speaker] to abstain from ac-
knowledging with heart-felt emotion, that he was from first to
last supported and sustained in his difficult position by the fra-
ternal sympathy, the prudent counsel, and the unwavering friend-
ship of the lamented deceased.’*

Many minor contributions in various fields of scientific obser-
vation, must here be omitted: but it would be inexcusable, m
this place and on this occasion, to neglect a reference to the
active part he took in the organization and advancement of this
Society ;+ and the unflagging interest ever exhibited in its pro-
ceedings, from the date of its convocation, March 13th, 1871, to
that of his last illness. All here remember with what punctu-
ality he attended the meetings—whether of the executive com-
mittee or of the society, undeterred by inclemencies of the
weather which kept away many much younger members. All

% Biographical Memoirs, Nat. Acad. Sci. vol. i. pp. 181-212. Repub-
lished in the Smithsonian Report for 1870, pp. 91-116. The father of Prof.
Bache—-Richard Bache, was a son of the only daughter of the illustrious
Benjamin Franklin.

+ The Philosophical Society of Washington.

108

9

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 335

here, recall with what unpretentious readiness he communicated
from his rich stores of well-digested facts, observations—whether
initiatory or supplementary, on almost every topic presented to
our notice; how apt his illustrations and suggestions in our
spontaneous discussions; and with what unfailing interest we
ever listened to his words of exposition, of knowledge, and of
wisdom: utterances which we shall never hear again; and which
unwritten and unrecorded, have not been even reported in an
abstract.

Range of information.—It was not alone in those physical
branches of knowledge to which he had made direct original con-
tributions, that the mental activities of Henry were familiarly
exercised and conspicuously exhibited. There was scarcely a
department of intellectual pursuit in which he did not feel and
manifest a sympathetic interest, and in which he did not follow
with appreciative grasp its leading generalizations. Holding
ever to the unity of Nature as the expression and most direct
illustration of the Unity of its Author, he believed that every
new fact discovered in any of nature’s fields, would ultimately
‘be found to be in intimate correlation with the laws prevailing in
other fields—seemingly the most distant.* To his large compre-
hension, nothing was insignificant, or unworthy of consideration.
He ever sought however to look beyond the ascertained and iso-
lated or classified fact, to its antecedent cause; and in opposition
to the dogma of Comte, he averred that the knowledge of facts
is not science,—that these are merely the materials from which
its temple is constructed by sagacious and attested speculation.

Among his earlier studies, Chemistry occupied a prominent
place. The youthful assistant in the laboratory of his former
instructor and ever honored friend, Dr. T. Romeyn Beck, and
later, himself a teacher of the art and knowledge to others, a
skilful manipulator, an acute analyst and investigator of re-ac-
tions, he seemed at first destined to become a leader in chemical
research. Like Newton, he endeavored to Bring the atomic
combinations under the conception of physical laws; believing
this essential to the development of chemistry as a true science.
He always kept himself well informed on the progress of the
more recent doctrines of quantivalence, and the newer system of
nomenclature.

He had also paid considerable attention to geology; with its
relations to paleontology on the one side, and to physical geog-
raphy on the other.

Familiar with the details—as well of astronomical observation

* “A proper view of the relation of science and art will enable him
[the reader] to see that the one is dependent on the other ; and that each
branch of the study of nature is intimately connected with every other.””
(Agricultural Report for 1857, p. 419.)

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336 BULLETIN OF THE

as of the mathematical processes of reduction, he would have
done honor to any Observatory placed under his charge. He
was lenient in his judgment of the ancient star-worshippers ; and
was always greatly attracted by astronomical discoveries.

Well read in the science of Political Economy, he had by
observation and analysis of human nature, made its inductive
principles his own, and had satisfied himself that its deductions
were fully confirmed by an intelligent appreciation of the teach-
ings of financial history. He attributed the lamentable disregard
of its fundamental doctrines, by many so-called legislators, to a
want of scientific training, and consequent want of perception
and of faith in the dominion and autonomy of natural law.

A good linguist, he watched with appreciative interest the
progress of comparative philology, and the ethnologic significance
of its generalizations, in tracing out the affiliations of Huropean
nations. By no means neglectful of lighter literature, he enjoyed
at leisure evenings, in the bosom of his cultivated family, the
readings of modern writers, and the suggestive interchange of
sentiment and criticism. Striking passages of poetry made a
strong impression on his retentive memory ; and it was not un-
usual to hear him embellish some graver fact, in conversation,
with an unexpected but most apt quotation. With a fine esthetic
feeling, his appreciation and judgment of works of art, were
delicate and discriminating.

He held very broad and decided views as to the reign of order
in the Cosmos. Defining science as the ‘knowledge of natural
law,’ and law as th “will of God,” Henry was always accus-
tomed to regard that orderly sequence called the “law,” as being
fixed and immutable as the providence of its Divine Author:
admitting in no case caprice or variableness. The doctrine of
the absolute dominion of law—so oppressive and alarming to
many excellent minds, was to him accordingly but a necessary
deduction from his theologie and religious faith.

The series of meteorological essays already referred to as
contributed to the Agricultural Reports of the Commissioner
of Patents, commences with this striking passage, ‘All the
changes on the surface of the earth and all the movements of the
heavenly bodies, are the immediate results of natural forces
acting in.accordance with established and invariable laws; and
it is only by that precise knowledge of these laws, which is pro-
perly denominated science, that man is enabled to defend himself
against the adverse operations of Nature, or to direct her innate
powers in accordance with his will. At first sight, it might
appear that meteorology was an exception to this general propo-
sition, and that the changes of the weather and the peculiarities
of climate in different portions of the earth’s surface, were of all
things the most uncertain and farthest removed from the dominion

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 337

of law: but scientific investigation establishes the fact that no
phenomenon is the result of accident, or even of fitful volition.
The modern science of statistics has revealed a permanency and
an order in the occurrence of events depending on conditions
in which nothing of this kind could have been supposed. Even
those occurrences which seem to be left to the free will, the pas-
sion, or the greater or less intelligence of men, are under the
control of laws—fixed, immutable, and eternal.” And after
dwelling on the developments and significance of moral statistics,
he adds: “The astonishing facts of this class lead us inevitably
to the conclusion that all events are governed by a Supreme In-
telligence who knows no change; and that under the same con-
ditions, the same results are invariably produced.”*

Organic Dynamics.—The contemplation of these uniformities
leads naturally to the great modern generalization of the correla-
tion of all the working energies of nature: and this to the subject
of organic dynamics. ‘‘ Modern science has established by a wide
and careful induction, the fact that plants and animals consist
principally of solidified air; the only portions of an earthy cha-
racter which enter into their composition, being the ashes that
remain after combustion.” Some ten years before this, or in
1844, (as already noticed in an earlier part of this memoir)
Henry had very clearly indicated the correlation between the .
forces exhibited by inorganic and organic bodies: arguing that
from the chemical researches of Liebig, Dumas, and Boussin-
gault, ‘it would appear to follow that animal power is referable
to the same sources as that from the combustion of fuel :”’T
probably the earliest explicit announcement of the now accepted
view. In the series of agricultural essays above referred to,
he endeavored to frame more definitely a chemico-physical
theory by which the elevation of matter to an organic combina-
tion in a higher state of power than its source, might be ac-
counted for. Regarding ‘vitality’ not as a mechanical force,
but as an inscrutable directing principle resident in the minute
germ—supposed to be vegetative, and enclosed in a sac of
starch or other organic nutriment, he considered the case of
such provisioned germ (a bean or a potato) embedded in the
soil, supplied with a suitable amount of warmth and moisture

* Agricultural Report Com. Pat. for 1855, p. 357.

+ Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. Dec. 1844, vol. iv. p. 129. The admirable
treatise of Dr. Julius R. Mayer of Heilbronn, on “ Organic Movement in
its relation to material changes,’’ in which for the first time he main-
tained the thesis that all the energies developed by animal or vegetable
organisms, result from internal changes having their dynamic source in
external forces, was published the following year, or in 1845. Rumford
nearly half a century earlier, had a partial grasp of the same truth.
(Phil. Trans. R. S. Jan. 25, 1798, vol. Ixxxviii. pp. 80-102.)

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to give the necessary molecular mobility, soon sending a rootlet
downward into the earth, and raising a stem toward the sur-
face, furnished with incipient leaves. Supposing the planted
seed to be a potato, on examination we should find its large sup-
ply of starch exhausted, and beyond the young plant, nothing
remaining but the skin, containing probably a little water. What
has become of the starch? ‘If we examine the soil which sur-
rounded the potato, we do not find that the starch has been
absorbed by it; and the answer which will therefore naturally
be suggested, is that it has been transformed into the mate-
rial of the new plant, and it was for this purpose originally stored
away. But this though in part correct, is not the whole truth:
for if we weigh a potato prior to germination, and wéigh the
young plant afterward, we shall find that the amount of organic
matter contained in the latter, is but a fraction of that which
was originally contained in the former. We can account in this
way for the disappearance of a pari of the contents of the sac,
which has evidently formed the pabulum of the young plant.
But here we may stop to ask another question: By what power
was the young plant built up of the molecules of starch? The
answer would probably be, by the exertion of the vital force:
but we have endeavored to show that vitality is a directing prin-
ciple, and not a mechanical power, the expenditure of which does
work, The conclusion to which we would arrive will probably
now be anticipated. The portion of the organic molecules of
the starch, etc., of the tuber, as yet unaccounted for, has run down
into inorganic matter, or has entered again into combination:
with the oxygen of the air, and in this running down and union
with oxygen, has evolved the power necessary to the organization
of the new plant. . . . We see from this view that the starch
and nitrogenous materials in which the germs of plants are im-
bedded, have two functions to fulfil, the one to supply the pabu-
lum of the new plant, and the other to furnish the power by
which the transformation is effected, the latter being as essential
as the former. In the erection of a house, the application of
mechanical power is required as much as a supply of ponderable-
‘materials.”*

t+ Agricultural Report, for 1857, pp. 440-444. In May, 1842, Dr. Julius
R. Mayer published in Liebig’s Annalen der Chemie, etc., his first remark-
able paper on ‘ The Forces of Inorganic Nature,’’ constituting the earliest
scientific enunciation of the correlation of the physical forces; and (if
we except the work of Seguin in 1839,) of the mechanical equivalent of
heat. (Annalen u.s.w. vol. xlii. pp. 233-240.) In September, 1849,
Dr. R. Fowler read a short paper before the British Association at Bir-
mingham, on “ Vitality as a Force correlated with the Physical Forces.”
(Report Brit. Assoc. 1849, part ii. pp. 77, 78.) In June, 1850, Dr. W. B.
Carpenter presented to the Royal Society a much fuller memoir “ On the
Mutual Relations of the Vital and Physical Forces.’’ (Phil. Trans. &.
S. vol. exl. pp. 727-757.) Neither of these essays accounts for the

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 339

The less difficult problem of the building up of the plant after
the consumption of the seed, under the direct action of the solar
rays, is then considered; the leaves of the young plant absorbing
by their moisture carbonic acid from the atmosphere, which being
decomposed by solar actinism, yields the de-oxidized carbon to
enter into the structure of the organism. ‘All the material of
which a tree is built up, (with the exception of that comparatively
small portion which remains after it has been burnt, and con-
stitutes the ash,) is derived from the atmosphere. In the decom-
position of the carbonic acid by the chemical ray, a definite
amount of power is expended, and this rémains as it were locked
up in the plant so long as it continues to grow.” And thus
under the expenditure of an external force, the plant (whether
the annual cellular herb or the perennial fibrous tree) was shown
to be built up from the simpler stable binary compounds of the
inorganic world, to the more complex and unstable ternary com-
pounds of the vegetable world. ‘In the germination of the
plant, a part of the organized molecules runs down into carbonic
acid to furnish power for the new arrangement of the other por-
tion. In this process no extraneous force is required: the seed
contains within itself the power, and the material, for the growth
of the new plant up to a certain stage of its development. Ger-
mination can therefore be carried on in the dark, and indeed the
chemical ray which accompanies light retards rather than accele-
rates the process.” (p. 446.) This important organic principle
appears to receive here its earliest enunciation.

It was also pointed out that on the completion of the cycle of
growth (however brief or however extended), the decay of the
plant not only returns the elevated matter to its original lower
plane, but equally returns the entire amount of heat energy ab-
sorbed in its elevation: an amount precisely the same, whether
the slow oxidation be continued through a series of years, or a
rapid combustion be completed in as many minutes. “The
power which is given out in the whole descent is according to
the dynamic theory, just equivalent to the power expended by
the impulse from the sun in elevating the atoms to the unstable
condition of the organic molecules. If this power is given out
in the form of vibrations of the etherial medium constituting
heat, it will not be appreciable in the ordinary decay say of a
tree, extending as it may through several years: but if the pro-
cess be rapid, as in the case of combustion of wood, then the
same amount of power will be given out in the energetic form
of heat of high intensity.”

The elevation of inorganic matter (carbonic acid, water, and

amount of building energy displayed in the development of the seed,
under conditions of low and diffused heat: and the expression ‘“ Vital
Force” used both by Fowler and Carpenter, was studiously avoided by
Henry.

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ammonia,) to the vegetable plane of power, introduces naturally
the consideration of the still higher elevation of vegetable or-
ganic matter to the animal plane of power. ‘As in the case of
the seed of the plant, we presume that the germ of the future
animal pre-exists in the egg; and that by subjecting the mass to
a degree of temperature sufficient perhaps to give greater mobility
to the molecules, a process similar in its general effect to that
of the germination of the seed commences. . . . During this:
process, power is evolved within the shell, we cannot say in the
present state of science under what particular form; but we are
irresistibly constrained to believe that it is expended under the
direction again of the vital principle, in re-arranging the organic
molecules, in building up the complex machinery of the future
animal, or developing a still higher organization, connected with
which are the mysterious manifestations of thought and volition.
In this case as in that of the potato, the young animal as it.
escapes from the shell, weighs less than the material of the egg
previous to the process of incubation. The lost material in this
case as in the other, has run down into an inorganic condition by
combining with oxygen, and in its descent has developed the
power to effect the transformation we have just described.”
The consumption of internal power does not however stop
with the development of the young animal, as it does in the
case of the young plant. ‘The young animal is in an en-
. tirely different condition: exposure to the light of the sun is not.
necessary to its growth or its existence: the chemical ray by
impinging on the surface of its body does not decompose the car-
bonic acid which may surround it, the conditions necessary for
this decomposition, not being present. It has no means by itself
to elaborate organic molecules ; and is indebted for these entirely
to its food. It is necessary therefore that it should be supplied
with food consisting of organized materials; that is of complex
molecules in a state of power. . . . The power of the living ani-
mal is immediately derived from the running down of the com-
plex organized molecules of which the body is formed, into their
ultimate combination with oxygen, in the form of carbonic acid
and water, and into ammonia. Hence oxygen is constantly
drawn into the lungs, and carbon is constantly evolved... .
The animal is a curiously contrived arrangement for burning car-
bon and hydrogen, and for the evolution and application of power.
A machine is an instrument for the application of power, and
not for its creation. The animal body is a structure of this
character. . . . A comparison has been made between the work
which can be done by burning a given amount of carbon in
the machine—man, and an equal amount in the machine—steam-
engine. The result derived from an analysis of the food in one
case, and the weight of the fuel in the other, and these compared
with the quantity of water raised by each to a known elevation,

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 341

gives the relative working value of the two machines. From
this comparison, made from experiments on soldiers in Germany
and France, it is found that the human machine in consuming
the same amount of carbon, does four and a half times the
amount of work of the best Cornish engine.”

“There is however one striking difference between the animal
body and the locomotive machine, which deserves our special
attention; namely the power in the body is constantly evolved
by burning (as it were,) parts of the materials of the machine
itself; as if the frame and other portions of the wood-work of the
locomotive were burnt to produce the power, and then imme-_
diately renewed. The voluntary motion of our organs of speech,
of our hands, of our feet, and of every muscle in the body, is
produced not at the expense of the soul but at that of the ma-
terial of the body itself. Every motion manifesting life in the
individual, is the result of power derived from the death as it
were of a part of his body. We are thus constantly renewed
and constantly consumed; and in this consumption and renewal
consists animal life.’”’*

Seven years after the publication of this highly original and
suggestive exposition, (whose topics and line of discussion had
been distinctly formulated and sketched out more than two years
before, at the commencement of the series in 1855,) the eminent
physiologist Dr. Carpenter produced his valuable memoir on the
Conservation of Force in Physiology; in which he for the first
time distinctly affirms the development of vegetative reproductive
energy, by the partial running down of matter to its stabler
compounds,—‘‘ by the retrograde metamorphosis of a portion of
the organic compounds prepared by the previous nutritive ope-
rations :” and also the ultimate return by decay, of the whole
amount of force as well as of matter, temporarily borrowed from
nature’s store. Likewise with animal powers, “‘ these forces are
developed by the retrograde metamorphosis of the organic com-
pounds generated by the instrumentality of the plant, whereby
they ultimately return to the simple binary forms (water, car-
bonie acid, and ammonia,) which serve as the essential food of
vegetables. - . . Whilst the vegetable is constantly engaged
(so to speak) in raising its component materials from a lower
plane to the higher, by means of the power which it draws from
the solar rays,—the animal whilst raising one portion of these to

* Agricultural Report for 1857, pp. 445-449. This important essay it
will be observed, antedates Prof. Joseph Le Conte’s paper “ On the Corre-
lation of Physical, Chemical, and Vital Force,’’ read before the American
Association at Springfield, Aug. 1859, (Proceed. Am. Assoc. pp. 187-203:
and Sill. Am. Jour. Sci. Nov. 1859, vol. xxviii. pp. 305-319,) as well as.
Dr. Carpenter’s second and more mature paper ‘On the application of
the Principle of Conservation of Force to Physiology,” published in
Crookes’ Quarterly Journal of Science, for Jan. and April, 1864, (vol. i. pp.
76-87 ; and pp. 259-277.)

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a still higher level by the descent of another portion to a lower,
ultimately lets down the whole of what the plant had raised.’*
So little was Henry’s earlier paper known abroad, that his name
does not occur in Dr. Carpenter’s dissertation.

With regard to the great biologic question of the past fifteen

_years—the affiliation of specific forms, it was impossible that

Henry should remain an unconcerned observer. Brought up (as
it may be said) in the school of Cuvier, but slightly impressed
with the brilliant previsions of his competitor, Geoffroy Saint
Hilaire, accustomed to look upon the recurrent hypotheses of
automatic development as barren speculations, and beside all
this, ever the warmly attached personal friend of Agassiz,
he approached the consideration of this controverted subject,
certainly with no antecedent affirmative pre-possessions. His
general acquaintance with the ascertained facts of the metamor-
phie development of the individual organism from its origin, as
well as with the remarkable analogies and homologies disclosed
by the sciences of comparative physiology and embryology, served
however in some measure to prepare his mind to apprehend the
significance of the indications which had been so industriously
collected, and so intelligently collated: and from the very first,
he accepted the problem as a purely philosophical one; employ-
ing that much abused term in no restricted sense. With no
more reserve in the expression of his views, than the avoidance
of unprofitable controversies, (though no one more than he—
enjoyed the calm and purely intellectual discussion of an unset-
tled question by its real experts,) he yet found no occasion to
write upon the subject. The unpublished opinions however, of
one so wise and eminent, cannot be a matter of indifference to
the student of nature; and their exposition cannot but assist to
enlighten our estimate of the mental stature of the man, and of
his breadth of apprehension and toleration.

Whatever may be the ultimate fate of the theory of natural
selection, (he remarked in the freedom of oral intercourse with
several naturalists,) it at least marks an epoch, the first eleva-
tion of natural history (so-called) to the really scientific stage :
it is based on induction, and correlates a large range of ap-
parently disconnected observations, gathered from the regions
of paleontology or geological successions of organisms, their
geographical distribution, climatic adaptations and remarkable
re-adjustments, their comparative anatomy, and even the occur-
rence of abnormal variations, and of rudimentary structures—
seemingly so uselessly displayed as mere simulations of a
“type.” It forms a good ‘working hypothesis” for directing

* Quart. Jour. Sci. 1864, vol. i. pp. 86 and 267.
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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 343

the investigations of the botanist and zoologist.* Natural selec-
tion indeed—no less than artificial (he was accustomed to say),
is to a limited extent a fact of observation; and the practical
question is to determine approximately its reach of application,
and its sufficiency as an actual agency, to embrace larger series
of organic changes lying beyond the scope of direct human ex-
perience. It is for the rising generation of conscientious zoolo-
gists and botanists to attack this problem, and to ascertain if
practicable its limitations or modifications.

These broad and fearless views, entertained and expressed as
early as 1860, or 1861, exhibiting neither the zealous confidence of
the votary, nor the jealous anxiety of the antagonist, received
scarcely any modification during his subsequent years. Nor did
it ever seem to occur to him that any reconstruction of his reli-
gious faith was involved in the solution of the problem. So
much religious faith indeed was exercised by him in every scien-
tific judgment, that he regarded the teachings of science but as
revelations of the Divine mode of government in the natural
world: to be diligently sought for and submissively accepted ;
with the constant recognition however of our human limitations,
and the relativity of human knowledge.t Not inappropriately
may be here recalled a characteristic statement of the office of
hypothesis, made by him some ten years earlier: presenting a
consideration well calculated to restrain dogmatism—whether in
science or in theology. ‘It is not necessary that an hypothesis
be absolutely true, in order that it may be adopted as an expres-
sion of a generalization for the purpose of explaining and pre-
dicting new phenomena: it is only necessary that it should be
well conditioned in accordance with known mechanical prin-
ciples. . . . Man with his finite faculties cannot hope in
this life to arrive at a knowledge of absolute truth: and were
the true theory of the universe, or in other words the precise
mode in which Divine Wisdom operates in producing the phe-
nomena of the material world revealed to him, his mind would
be unfitted for its reception. It would be too simple in its ex-
pression, and too general in its application, to be understood
and applied by intellects like ours.”’{

* “In the investigation of nature, we provisionally adopt hypotheses
as antecedent probabilities, which we seek to prove or disprove by sub-
sequent observation and experiment: and it is in this way that science
is most rapidly and securely advanced.” (Agricult. Report, 1856, p. 456.)

y+ With reference to the intimations of the comparative antiquity of
man, Henry quoted with sympathetic approbation the sentiment so Well
expressed by the Bishop of London in a Lecture at Edinburgh, that “‘ The
man of science should go on honestly, patiently, diffidently, observing
and storing up his observations, and carrying his reasonings unflinch-
ingly to their legitimate conclusions, convinced that it would be treason
to the majesty at once of science and of religion, if he sought to help
either by swerving ever so little from the straight line of truth.’? (Smith-
sonian Report for 1868, p. 33.)

$ Proceed. Am. Assoc. Albany, Aug. 1851, pp. 86, 87.

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INVESTIGATIONS IN ACOUSTIGS.

During the last quarter of a century, among the many interests
which demanded and engaged his attention, Henry studied with
much care various phenomena of acoustics, and added much to
our practical as well as theoretical knowledge of this important
instrumentality. In 1851, he read a communication before the
American Association, ‘‘ On the Limit of Perceptibility of a direct
and reflected Sound,” in which he gave as the result of experi-
mental observations, the subjective fact that a wall or other reflect-
ing surface if beyond the distance of about 35 feet from the ear,
or from the origin of the sound, gives a distinguishable echo from
the sound; but that if the ear or the sounding agent be placed
within this distance, the reflected sound appears to blend com-
pletely with the original one. From a number of experiments, he
found that under the same circumstances, this limit of percepti-
bility did not vary more than a single foot; but that under differ-
ing conditions the limit of distance ranged from 30 to 40 feet,
(equivalent to a difference of from 60 to 80 feet of sound travel,)
depending partly on the sharpness or clearness of the sound, and
partly on the pitch or the length of the soniferous wave, which
affected the amount of overlapping of the two series. These re-
sults imply a duration of acoustic impression on the ear of about
one-sixteenth of a second; serving to show that 16 vibrations to
the second must be about the lower limit of a recognizable musi-
cal tone.* As applied to lecture-rooms, he pointed out that the
ceiling should not be more than about thirty feet high, within which
elevation, a smooth ceiling would tend to re-inforce the sound of
a speaker’s voice. f

Many experiments were afterward made on the resonance of dif-
ferent materials, by means of tuning forks. While a tuning fork
suspended by a fine thread continued to vibrate for upward of four
minutes with scarcely any appreciable sound, if placed in contact
with the top of a pine table, the same vibration continued but
ten seconds, but gave a loud full tone. On a marble topped
table the sound was much more feeble, and the vibration continued
nearly two minutes. While the tuning fork against a brick wall
gave a feeble tone continuing for 88 seconds, against a lath and
plaster partition it gave a sound considerably louder but continu-

* This does not seem to agree with results obtained by Savart some
twenty years previously; who concluded from observations with the siren,
“that sounds are distinctly perceptible, and even strong when composed
of no more than eight vibrations in asecond.” (Rev. Encycl. July, 1832.
Quoted in Sill. Am. Jour. Sci. for 1832, vol. xxii. p. 374.) This latter de-
termination is somewhat difficult to reconcile with ordinary observations,
as it is certain that intervals of one-eighth of a second would give a very
appreciable rattle to almost every ear.

| Proceed. Am. Assoc. Cincinnati, May, 1851, pp. 42, 43.

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 845

ing only 18 seconds. Ona large block of soft India-rubber rest-
ing on the marble slab, the vibration was very rapidly extin-
guished, but without giving any sensible sound. This anomaly
required an explanation. By means of a compound wire of copper
and iron inserted into the piece of rubber, and having the extremi-
ties connected with a thermo-galvanometer it was found that in
this case the acoustic vibrations were converted into heat. Sheets
of India-rubber therefore are among the best absorbers and de-
stroyers of sound. A series of experiments was also made on the
reflection of sound, to determine the materials least and those best
adapted to this purpose. A résumé of these researches, having
reference to the acoustic properties of public halls, was read before
the American Association in August, 1856.

In 1865, as Chairman of the Committee of Experiments of the
U.S. Light-house Board, Henry commenced an extended series
of observations on the conduct and intensity of sound at a distance,
under varying meteorological conditions. Well aware that for the
practical purposes of giving increased security to navigation, the
experiments of the laboratory were of little value, he undertook a
number of experimental trips on board sailing vessels, and on
steamers, in order to make his observations under the actual con-
ditions of the required service. As many of his investigations
required intelligent co-operation, and sometimes at the distances
of many miles, he associated with him at different times, among
members of the Light-house Establishment, Commodore Powell,
Commodore Case, Admiral Trenchard, Commander Walker, Cap-
tain Upshur, General Poe, General Barnard, General Woodruff,
Mr. Lederle, and other engineers of different Light-house Dis-
tricts, and outside of the establishment, Dr. Welling and others.

At the outset of his experiments, he found that sound reflectors,
which play so interesting a part in lecture-room exhibitions, were
practically worthless (of whatever available dimensions) for the
purpose of directing or concentrating powerful sounds to any con-
siderable distance. At the distance of a mile or two a large
steam whistle placed in the focus of a concave reflector 10 feet in
diameter could be heard very nearly as well directly behind the
reflector, as directly in front of it. In like manner the direction
of bell-mouths and of trumpet-mouths, was found to be of com-
paratively little importance at a distance; showing the remarkable
tendency to diffusion, especially with very loud sounds. Most of
the observations made on ship-board were afterward repeated on
land; and several weeks were occupied with these important re-
searches.

“During this series of investigations an interesting fact was dis-
covered, namely, a sound moving against the wind, inaudible to
the ear on the deck of the schooner, was heard by ascending to the
-mast-head. This remarkable fact at first suggested the idea that

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sound was more readily conveyed by the upper current of air than
the lower.” After citing observations by others apparently con-
firming the suggestion of some dominant influence in the upper
wind, Henry adds: ‘‘ The full significance however of this idea did
not reveal itself to me until in searching the bibliography of sound,
I found an account of the hypothesis of Professor Stokes in the
Proceedings of the British Association for 1857,* in which the
effect of an upper current in deflecting the wave of sound so as to
throw it down upon the ear of the auditor, or directing it upward
far above his head, is fully explained.”+ A rough attempt was
made in the course of these observations (which were undertaken
at the light-house near New Haven, Connecticut) to compare
the velocity of the wind in the upper regions with that near the
surface of the earth. ‘‘The only important result however was
the fact that the velocity of the shadow of a cloud passing over
the ground was much greater than that of the air at the surface,
the velocity of the latter being determined approximately by run-
ning a given distance with such speed that a small flag was at rest
along the side of its pole. While this velocity was not perhaps
greater than six miles per hour, that of the shadow of the cloud
was apparently equal to that of a horse at full speed.’’} ;

In October, 1867, a series of observations was made at Sandy
Hook (New Jersey) with various instruments. A sound reflector
being employed, the distance at which the sand on the phonometer
drum—carried in front, ceased to move was 51 yards, as compared
with a distance of 40 yards, without the reflector. Ata greater
distance, with a more sensitive instrument, the ratio was very much
diminished. Experiments were also made on the relative distances
at which the trumpet affected sensibly the drum of the phonometer
in different directions, giving as their result a limiting spheroid
whose reach in the forward axis of the trumpet was about double
that in the rear axis, and at right angles to the axis, was about a
mean proportional between the two. With greater distances,
these differences were evidently very much reduced, the radii
becoming more equalized. In the summer of 1871, Henry made

* Report Brit. Assoc. vol. xxiv. 2d part, p. 27.

+ Report of Light House Board, U. 8. for 1874, p. 92.

{ This difference has since been established by a number of independ-
ent observations. Mr. Glaisher from his balloon ascents in 1863-1865,
ascertained that the upper currents of air are frequently five or six times
more rapid than the surface currents. (Travels in the Air, p. 9.) Prof.
Cleveland Abbe remarks: *‘ From seven balloon ascensions made on July
4th, 1871, at different points in the United States, I have deduced the
velocity of the upper currents as about four times that of the surface
wind prevailing.” (Bulletin Philosoph. Soc. Washington, Dec. 16, 1871,
vol. i. p. 39.) And M. Peslin states in general terms: “It is certain
according to all observations made both in mountains and in balloons,
that the force of the wind increases considerably as we ascend in the
atmosphere.’ (Bulletin International de l’Observ. de Paris et de l’ Observ.
Phys. Cent. Montsouris, July 7, 1872.)

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 347

investigations at different light-stations, on our western coast of
California.

The very important observation that a sound could best be heard
at an elevation when the wind is adverse (that is when it blows
from the observer towards the acoustic signal,) and that after it
had even been entirely lost to the ear in such case, it might be
regained in full force by simply ascending to a suitable elevation,
—admitted apparently but one explanation, namely that the line
of successive impulse constituting a sound beam was deflected or
bent upwards by the action of the opposing wind. If—as had
already been shown to be the case sometimes, and as might there-
fore be expected generally,—the adverse wind were assumed to
be a little stronger at the elevation than at the surface such a re-
sult would at once follow. ‘‘ The explanation of this phenomenon
as suggested by the hypothesis of Professor Stokes is founded on
the fact that in the case of a deep current of air the lower stratum
or that next the earth is more retarded by friction than the one
immediately above, and this again than the one above it, and so
on. The effect of this diminution of velocity as we descend toward
the earth is in the case of sound moving with the current, to carry
the upper part of the sound waves more rapidly forward than the
lower parts, thus causing them to incline toward the earth, or in
other words, to be thrown down upon the ear of the observer.
When the sound is in a contrary direction to the current, an oppo-
site effect is produced, the upper portion of the sound waves is
more retarded than the lower, which advancing more rapidly in
consequence, inclines the waves upward and directs them above
the head of the observer.’”*

From several observed and reported cases where the sound of a
fog-signal was exceptionally heard to a greater distance against
the wind than toward the direction of the wind, Professor Henry
for a while hesitated to give the hypothesis of Professor Stokes
an unqualified acceptance; but forced as he was constantly to recur
to it as the only plausible explanation of the ordinary influence of
wind on the transmission of sound, he finally was able to satisfy
himself that even the apparent exceptions to the rule were really
in accord with it. Having more than once observed that when
the upper current of air, as indicated by the course of the clouds,
is in an opposite or different direction from the lower or sensible
wind, the range of audibility is most affected and favored by the
upper current, it was a natural induction to extend such a condi-
tion in imagination to other cases of abnormal behavior of sound.
A large amount of subsequent labor and attention was devoted to
the determination of this important question.

* Report of Light House Board for 1874, p. 106.
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348 BULLETIN OF THE

In 1872 it was observed from on board a steamer approaching
Portland Head station in the harbor of Portland (Maine) that the
fog-signal which had been distinctly heard through many miles,
was lost to the ear when within two or three miles of the point,
that it continued inaudible throughout the nearer distance of a
mile or so, and that it was again heard as the station was neared.
At Whitehead light station on a small rocky island about a mile
and a half from the coast, (being some 65 miles northeast of Port-
land Head,) it was observed on board a steamer approaching the
station during a thick fog, that the signal (a 10-inch steam whistle)
though distinctly heard at the distance’ of six miles or more, and
with increasing distinctness as the steamer advanced, was suddenly
lost at about three miles, and was not recovered until within a
quarter of a mile from the station; the wind at the time being ap-
proximately adverse to the sound. A six-inch steam whistle on
board the steamer was meanwhile distinctly heard at the station
during the whole time of inaudibility of the larger ten-inch whistle,
which had also been sounded without any interruption. This re-
markable phenomenon implied a compound flexure of the sound
beams, and accorded with previous observations made at the same
points by Gen. Duane the engineer in charge of the first and second
Light-house Districts.

In 1873 observations were again made at Whitehead station,
and at Cape Hlizabeth light station, both on the coast of Massa-
chusetts. At Whitehead the steam whistle was heard through a
distance of 15 miles, with a light adverse wind. At Cape Eliza-
beth, with a stronger adverse wind, the siren was heard only about
nine miles.

In 1874, observations were made at Little Gull Island (off the
coast of Connecticut); at Block Island, (off the coast of Rhode
Island); and at Sandy Hook (New Jersey). At Little Gull
Island the sound of a siren was heard against a moderate wind,
only three and a half miles. At Block Island the siren was reported
to have been heard under favoring conditions of wind through a
distance of more than 25 miles. While it was frequently heard at
Point Judith station, and the siren at the latter point was as fre-
quently heard at Block Island, (the distance between the two points
being 17 miles,) it was shown on comparison of records, that the
two instruments had not been heard simultaneously; the wind
when favorable to the one being unfavorable to the other.

At Sandy Hook, for the purpose of making simuitaneous ob-
servations in different directions, three steamers (the tenders of
different light-houses) were employed, with steam whistles specially
adjusted to the same tone and power. ‘The latter quality having
been carefully tested by the phonometer, the three vessels steamed
out abreast on trial; and their whistles sounding in regular sue-
cession ‘‘ became inaudible all very nearly at the same moment.”
One of the vessels being then anchored at a distance from land,

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 349

the two others were directed in opposite courses, one with the
wind, or eastward, the other against it, or westward. In 15
minutes the whistle of the former ceased to be heard, while that
of the latter was very distinctly heard; the anemometer showing
a wind of about six miles per hour. About noon the vessels
changed positions, but the sound from the west continued audible
for about three times the distance of that from the east, though
the wind had declined to nearly a calm or to about half a mile
perhour. In an hourand a half the wind had changed to “within
two points of an exactly opposite direction, blowing from the
indications of the anemometer at the rate of ten and a half miles
per hour.”’? The vessels once more departing, one with the wind,
the other against it, the sound of the whistle coming against the
wind was this time heard for the greater distance, contrary to
expectation. On the following day a number of small balloons
having been provided, a similar series of experiments to that of
the preceding day was made; a station being selected at a greater
distauce from land. On the first trial, with a light wind from the
west of about one and a quarter miles per hour as indicated by the
anemometer, a balloon was set off which continued rising and
moving eastward till lost to sight. Two of the vessels taking
opposite courses as before, gave the sound in the direction of the
wind about double the duration of that coming against the slight
wind. ‘he vessels then changed places in their opposite courses ;
the wind having subsided toacalm. ‘A balloon let off ascended
vertically until it attained an elevation of about 1,000 feet, when
turning east it followed the direction of the previous one. In this
case the sound of the whistle coming from the east was heard
somewhat longer than the opposite one. At the third trial made
after noon, the wind had changed nearly one-third of the circle, its
force being about five miles per hour. The vessels once more
taking their courses with the wind and against it, ‘several bal-
loons set off at this time were carried by the surface wind west-
wardly until nearly lost to sight, when they were observed to turn
east, following the direction of the wind traced in the earlier
observations.” In this case the sound was heard with the wind
very slightly farther than against it. It was thus shown that the
upper current of wind had remained constant throughout the day,
while the changing surface wind was apparently a land and sea
breeze ‘‘due to the heating of the land as the day advanced :”
and the varying bebavior of the sound beams was easily explained
by the varying differences of velocity in their wave fronts at dif-
ferent heights.

In 1875 Henry continued his observations at Block Island (R.
J.) and at Little Gull Island (Conn.). The southern light-house
on Block Island standing on the edge of a perpendicular cliff 152
feet above the sea level, and being itself 52 feet high (to its focal
plane), this point was selected for making investigations on the

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350 BULLETIN OF THE

effect of altitude in modifying unfavorable conditions of audibility.

Observers were accordingly stationed on the beach at the foot of
the cliff, and also on the tower 200 feet above, to record simul-
taneously the duration of the whistle signals of two steamers pro-
ceeding in opposite directions toward the right and the left. The
sound coming against the wind (of about seven miles per hour)
continued audible at the upper station four times longer, (7. e.,
for four times greater distance) than at the lower station. The
sound coming with the wind, was unexpectedly heard at the lower
station for a longer period than at the upper one. Another ob-
servation (with the wind about five miles per hour) gave for the
sound against the wind, rather more than twice the distance of
audibility at the upper station; and for the sound favored by the
wind, a slightly greater distance at the top than at the bottom
station. The next observation gave as before, with the adverse
wind, the advantage of more than double the distance of audibility
to the upper station ; meanwhile one of the observers at the foot
of the cliff, after the sound was entirely lost, managed by climbing
to a ledge about 30 feet above the beach, to recover the signal

quite distinctly, and to hear it for some time. The sound coming
with the wind continued to be heard at both the higher and the

lower stations for precisely the same time, giving on this occasion

no advantage to either. Observations made on board the two
steamers while moving in opposite directions, gave for the sound

travelling with the wind a duration and distance more than five
times that for the sound which came against the wind. Five
similar experiments gave very similar results. The two vessels
moving in opposite courses, each at right angles to the direction

of the wind, gave a very close equality for the reciprocal dura-
tions of the sound. In the following month, similar observations

were made at Little Gull Island, which were very accordant with
those made at the former station. Asa result of plotting the
ranges of audibility in different directions from a given point,

producing a series of circular figures (more or less distorted) of
very different sizes, Henry was inclined to believe that the whole

area of audition is less in high winds thanin gentle winds. These.
investigations as their author well remarks,—‘‘though simple in

their conception have been difficult and laborious in their execu-

tion. To be of the greatest practical value they were required to

be made on the ocean under the conditions in which the results

are to be applied to the use of the mariner, and therefore they
could only be conducted by means of steam vessels of sufficient.
power to withstand the force of rough seas, and at times when

these vessels could be spared from other duty. They also required

a number of intelligent assistants skilled in observation and faith-
ful in recording results.’’*

* Report of the Light-house Board U. 8. for 1878, p. 107.
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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 851

In the summer of last year, 1877, with undiminished ardor, he
continued his observations on sound; selecting this time Portland
harbor, Monhegan Island, and Whitehead light station, on the
coast of Maine, At the latter station, the abnormal phenomenon
of a region of inaudibility near the fog-signal, and extending out-
ward for two or three miles, (beyond which distance the signal is
again very distinctly heard,) had for several years been frequently
observed. This singular effect is noticed only in the case of a
southerly wind when the vessel is approaching the signal from
the same quarter, and consequently with the wind adverse to the
direction of the sound beams, a condition of the wind which is
the usual accompaniment of a fog. The observation showed this
intermediate ‘‘belt of silence” to be well marked on board the
steamer both on approaching the station and on receding from it
by retracing the same line of travel. Meanwhile the intermittent
signal whistle from the steamer was distinctly heard at the station
on both the outward and homeward trips of the vessel, through-
out its course. The next set of observations was made on the
opposite side of the small island, by directing the course of the
steamer northward; and in this case the shore signal was dis-
tinctly heard throughout the trip, while the signal from the vessel
passed through the “ belt of silence” to the observers at the sta-
tion. The hypothesis of a local sound shadow of definite extent,
is excluded by the simple fact that the regions traversed were
entirely unobstructed, the two points of observation—movable
and stationary—being constantly in view from each other when
not obscured by fog. The hypothesis of a stationary belt of
acoustic opacity is equally excluded by the uninterrupted trans-
mission of sound through the critical region in one direction ;
and this too whichever order of observation be selected. So that
in one of the cases the powerful whistle ten inches in diameter
blown by a steam pressure of 60 pounds, failed utterly to make
itself heard, while the sound from a much feebler whistle only six
inches in diameter and blown by a steam pressure of 25 pounds,
traversed with ease and fulness the very same space. The only
hypothesis left therefore is that of diacoustic refraction; by which
the sound beam from one origin is bent and lifted over the observer,
while from an opposite origin the refraction is in a reversed direc-
tion; and such a quality in the moving air is referable to no other
observed condition but that of its motion, that is to the influence
of the wind. Observations were afterward made at Monhegan
Island, on some of the more normal effects of the refraction of
sound by differences of wave velocity, all fully confirming the
supposition which had been so variously and critically subjected
to examination.

The principal conclusions summed up in this last Report for
1877, are: Ist. The audibility of sound at a distance depends

33

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352, BULLETIN OF THE

primarily upon the pitch, the intensity, and the quantity of the
sound: the most efficient pitch being neither a very high nor a
very low one,—the intensity or loudness of sound resulting from
the amplitude of the vibration, and the quantity of sound result-
ing from the mass of air simultaneously vibrating. 2nd. The
external condition of widest transmission of sound through the
air is that of stillness and perfect uniformity of density and tem-
perature throughout. 3rd. The most serious disturbance of the

-audibility of sound at a distance, results from its refraction by

the wind, which as a general rule moving more freely and rapidly
above than near the earth, tends by this difference to lift the
sound-beams upward when moving against the wind, and in a
downward curve when moving with it. 4th. When the upper
current of air is adverse to the lower or sensible wind, or when-
ever from any cause the wind below has a higher velocity than
that above—in the same direction, the reverse phenomenon is
observed of sound being heard to greater distances in opposition
to the sensible wind than it is when in the direction of the surface
wind. 5th. While suitable reflectors and trumpet cones are ser-
viceable in giving prominent direction to sounds within moderate
or ordinary distances, yet from the rapid diffusibility of the sound-
beams, such appliances are worthless for distances beyond amile
or two. 6th. The siren has been frequently found to have its
clearest penetration through a widely extended fog, and also
through a thick snow-storm of large area. th. Intervening ob-
structions produce sound shadows of greater or less extent, which
however at a distance but slightly enfeeble the sound owing to
the lateral diffusion and closing in of the sound waves. 8th. The
singular phenomenon of distinct audibility of sound to a distance
with a limited intermediate region of inaudibility where no optical
obstruction exists, is due sometimes to a diffusion of upper sound-
beams which have not suffered the upward refraction; sometimes
to the lateral refraction of sound-beams or to the lateral spread
of sound from directions not affected by the upward refraction ;
and very frequently to a double curvature of the refracted sound-
beams under an adverse lower wind, by reason of the wave fronts
being less retarded by the lower or surface stratum of wind than
by that a short distance above, and at still greater heights being
again less retarded, and finally accelerated by the superior favor-
ing wind.

These remarkable series of acoustic investigations undertaken
after the observer had considerably exceeded his three score years,
—yperseveringly continued weeks at a time, and sometimes for
more than a month,—-extending through a period of twelve years,
and pursued over a wide and extremely irregular range of sea-
coast, and under great variety of both topographical and meteor-
ological conditions —untiringly prosecuted by numberless sea

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. B0e

trips of 10, 15 and even 20 miles in single stretches, in calm, in
sunshine, in storm, with every variety of disregarded exposure,
form altogether a labor and a research—quite unequalled and un-
approached by any similar ones on record. As a result of so
great earnestness and thoroughness in the conduct of an enter-
prise of so great difficulty, Henry has advanced and enriched
our knowledge by contributions to the science of acoustics un-
questionably the most important and valuable of the century.
By persistent cross-examination of the bewildering anomalies of
sound propagation under wide diversities of locality and eon-
dition, he has succeeded in evolving order out of apparent chaos,
—in reclaiming a new district, now subjected to the orderly reign
of recognized ]Jaw,—and in raising the plausible but long neglected
hypothesis of Stokes into the domain of a verified and fully estab-
lished theory. Only on the subject of the ocean echo had he
failed to reach a solution which entirely satisfied his jadgment ;*
and at the ripe age of four score years he had mapped out a
further extension of his laborious search after truth, when his
beneficent and all unselfish purposes were cut short by death,
With these great labors (a full demand upon the energies of
youthful vigor) fittingly closed the life of one whose long career
had been dedicated to the service of his race,—no less by the un-
recorded incitations and encouragements of others to tie prose-
cution of original research, than by his own earnest efforts on all
convenient occasions to extend the boundaries of our knowledge.
Nor is it permitted us to indulge in vain regrets that thirty years
of such a life were seemingly so much withdrawn from his own
chosen ministry at the altar of science, to be occupied so largely
with the drudgery and the routine of merely administrative duties.
True though it be, that talents adapted to such functions are very
much more common and available than those which form the suc-
cessful interrogator of Nature, who that knows by what exertions
Smithson’s wise endowment was rescued from the wasteful dissi-
pation of heterogeneous local agencies and objects—by what
heroic constancy, and through what ordeals of remonstrance and

* “The question, therefore, remains to be answered : what is the cause
of the aerial echo? As I have stated, it must in some way be connected
with the horizon. The only explanation which suggests itself to me at
present is, that the spread ef the sound which fills the whole atmosphere
from the zenith to the horizon with sound-waves, may continue their
curvilinear direction until they strike the surface of the water at such
an angle and direction as to be reflected back to the ear of the observer.
In this case the echo would be heard from a perfectly flat surface of
water, and as different sound-rays wonld reach the water at different dis-
tances and from different azimuths, they would produce the prolonged
character of the echo and its angular extent along the horizon. While
we do not advance this hypothesis as a final solution of the question, we
shall provisionally adopt it as a means of suggesting further experiments
in regard to this perplexing question at another season.” (Report of
Light House Board, 1877, p. 70.)

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354 BULLETIN OF THE

misconception, of contumely and denunciation, the modest income
of the fund (husbanded and increased by prudent management)
was yearly more and more withdrawn from merely popular uses.
and interests, and more and more applied to its truest and highest
purpose, the fostering of abstract research, the founding of a
pharos for the future,—the “increasing and diffusing of know-
ledge among men,”—who that knows all this, can say that Henry
was mistaken in his devotion, or that his ripest years were wasted
in an unprofitable mission? But in addition to this vast work,—
accomplished as probably no one of his scientific compeers would
have had the fortitude and the indomitable persistence to carry
through, his personal contributions to modern science (as has
been shown) have in the meantime been neither few nor unim-
portant.

One remarkable circumstance relating to Henry’s directorship
of the Smithsonian publications (which have had so wide a dis-
tribution and influence)* must not be here.passed over. Having
himself amidst the absorbing occupations of his position conducted
so valuable original investigations—on the strength of building
materials,—on the best illuminants and their proper conditions,—
and especially in his last great labor on the philosophy of sound,
we should naturally expect to find them displayed in the ‘‘ Smith-
sonian Contributions ;”—where in interest and importance second
to none contained in that extensive and admirable series, these
memoirs would have found their fitting place, and have given
honor to the collection. But as if to avoid all semblance of a
personal motive in his resolute policy of administration, he pub-
lished nothing for himself at the expense of the Smithsonian fund ;
his numerous original productions being given to the public
through the channel of various official reports. And thus it has
occurred that-his writings scattered in the different directions
which seemed to him at the time most suitable, with little thought
of any special publicity or perpetuity, have largely failed to reach
the audience which would most appreciate them. And many of
his most valuable papers—never by himself collected—must be
searched for in unsuggestive volumes of Agricultural or Light-
House Board Reports. f

* ‘The number of copies of the Smithsonian Contributions distributed,.
is greater than that of the Transactions of any scientific or literary
society ; and therefore the Institution offers the best medium to be found
for diffasing a knowledge of scientific discoveries.”’ (Smithsonian Report
for 1851, p. 202.)

+ Many valuable communications made to the American Association,
to the National Academy of Sciences, to the Washington Philosophical
Society, and to other bodies, from rough notes, which their author was
prevented from writing fairly out, by the unceasing pressure of his mul-
titudinous official and public duties, have unfortunately been published
only by title.

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 350

For him it seemed enough that what was once established,
would not be willingly let die; that the medium or the occasion
of communication was of comparatively little consequence, if but
a new fact or principle were thrown into proper currency, and
duly accepted as part of the world’s wealth : and beyond all ordi-
nary men he seemed to feel the insignificance of personal fame as
compared with the infinite value of truth. For such a man the
most appropriate monument would be a full collection of his

writings, produced in a worthy and appropriate style of publica-
tion.

PERSONALITY AND CHARACTER.

Of Henry’s personal appearance, it is sufficient to say, that his
figure, above the medium height, was finely proportioned ; that
his mien and movement were dignified and imposing; and that on
whatever occasion called upon to address an assembly,

“With grave aspéct he rose, and in his rising seemed
A pillar of state: deep on his front engraven
Deliberation sat, and public care.’’

His head and features were of massive mould; though from the
perfect proportion of his form, not too conspicuously so. His
expansive brow was crowned with an abundant flow of whitened
hair; his lower face always smoothly shaven expressed a mingled
gentleness and firmness; and his countenance of manly symmetry
was in all its varying moods, a pleasant study of the mellowing,
moulding impress of long years of generous feeling, and a worthy
exponent of the fine and thoughtful spirit within: wearing in re-
pose a certain pensive but benignant majesty, in the abstraction
of study a semblance of constrained severity, in the relaxation of
friendly intercourse a genial frank and winning grace of expres-
sion. Like his intimate personal friend Agassiz, he seemed to
stand and to move among men as the very embodiment of unfail-
ing vigorous health and physical strength, and only a year ago, he
walked with as erect and elastic a carriage,—with as firm and
sprightly a step, as any one here present.

It is difficult to attempt even a sketch of Henry’s intellectual
character, without allusion to his moral attributes ;—so constantly
did the latter dominate the former. It may be said that the most
characteristic feature of his varied activities was earnestness, and
this as usual was the offspring—as much of a moral as of a mental
purpose.

His mind was eminently logical; and this rational power was
exhibited in every department of his theoretical or his practical
pursuits. He never showed or felt uneasiness at necessary deduc-
tive consequences, if the premises were well considered or appeared
to be well founded. If presented with the problem of an untried

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case,—while avowing the necessity of reserve in predicting results,
he seemed to have an almost intuitive apprehension of the opera-
tion of natural law. If confronted with an unfamiliar phenomenon,
whether in the experience of others, or in his own observations,
his imagination was fertile in the suggestion of test conditions for
eliminating varying influences. While few have ever held the
function of hypothesis in higher estimation as an instrument of
research, no one ever held hypothesis in more complete sub-
jection.

As a lecturer and instructor, he was always most successful.
Free from all self-consciousness,—without attempting oratorical
display, his expositions—in simple, direct, and conversational
language, were so lucid, satisfying, and convincing, that they
enlisted from the start and secured to the close, the attentive ©
interest of his auditors.

In his sympathy with the pursuits of the rising generation of
physicists was ever manifested a disposition to frequent consulta-
tion and interchange of views with them; asif (aware of the usual
tendency to mental ossification with advancing years,) he thus
sought by familiar association to drink at the fountain of perennial
youth. And surely no one was ever more successful in retaining
ife’s coveted greenness in age ;—not more in the geniality of his.
affections and in his undimmed faith, hope, and charity, for man-
kind,—than in his intellectual freedom from undue prejudices, and
in his readiness calmly to discuss or adopt new theories.

And this leads to the reflection that in the seeming contrasts of
his nature were combined qualities which formed in him a resaltant
of character and of temperament as rare as admirable With this
great mobility of aptitude and of circumspection, this adaptability
of mental attitude, he yet possessed an unusual firmness of resolu-
tion. With a manly sturdiness of conviction he presented an un-
varying equability of temper and of toleration; and with perfect
candor as perfect a courtesy. With a characteristic dignity of
figure of presence and of deportment, he preserved an entire free-
dom from any shade of arrogance. With a warm and active
charity, he still displayed a shrewd perception of character; and
while ever responsive to the appeals of real distress, his insight
into human nature protected him from being often deceived by the
wiles of the designing. Intolerant of charlatanism and imposture,
he was capable of exhibiting a wonderful patience with the tedium
of honest ignorance. Possessing in earlier life a natural quick-
ness of temper, and always a high degree of native sensibility, his.
perfect self-control led the casual acquaintance to regard him as
reserved and unimpressible. Of him it may be truly said in
simple and oft-quoted words :

“ His life was gentle; and the elements

So mixed in him, that Nature might stand up
And say to all the world—This was a man!”

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 351

With all his broad humanity, he possessed but little of what is
known as “humor.” He could more heartily enjoy the ludicrous
as drolly narrated by its appreciative victims, than when sarcasti-
cally recited at the expense of another. The sparkle of wit he
fully appreciated provided it were free from coarseness and from
personal satire. From the subordination of his sense of humor to
his native instinct of sincerity, he had no approbation—or indeed
tolerance of “ practical jokes,” holding that the shock to the feel-
ings or to the confidence of the dupe, is far too high a price for the
momentary hilarity enjoyed by the thoughtless at a farcical situa-
tion. Newspaper hoaxes—literary or scientific, in like manner
received his stern reprobation, as uncompensated injuries to
popular trust, and to the cause of popular enlightenment.

Strong in his unerring sense of justice and of right, he allowed
no prospects of personal advantage to influence his judgment in
action, in decision, or ia opinion. He never availed himself of
the opportunities offered by his position, of reaping gain from
profitable suggestions or favorable awards: and he never willingly
inflicted an injury even on the feelings of the humblest. This
was characteristically shown in the pains taken to convince the
judgment of those against whose visionary projects he was so often
called upon to report in the public interests of the Smithsonian
Institution, of the Light-house service, and of the General Gov-
ernment :—often expending an amount of valuable time and of
patience which few so situated would have accorded, or could
have well afforded. And yet on the other hand when himself
the subject of injustice, misconstruction, or abuse, he never suffered
himself to be provoked into a controversy ;—as if holding life too
serious, time too precious, to be wasted in mere disputation
Least of all did he ever think of resorting to retaliatory conduct
or to the expression of opprobrious sentiments. He calmly put
aside disturbing elements, and seemed endowed with the power of
excluding from his mental vision all irritating incidents. In that
benignant breast there harbored no resentments.

To those who knew the man,—to those who have enjoyed the
charm of his more intimate society, and felt the magnetism of his
cheery presence, how poor and insufficient must appear these dis-
jointed outlines of that mental, moral, and spiritual nature, which
always and at every point was so much larger than it seemed.

Less than a year ago, (onthe evening of November 24th, 1877,) he
delivered in this place before this Society his annual address, shortly
after his re-election as its President ;—-an address which as we be-
held the remarkable fulness and freshness of the speaker’s mental
and bedily powers,—we little thought was in reality his vale-
dictory. In it he concisely yet lucidly portrayed for the stimula-
tion of more youthful physicists, the processes and the qualities
necessary for success in original research ;—the awakened attention

13d

358 BULLETIN OF THE

to ‘‘the seeds of great discoveries constantly floating around us,”
—the careful observation, the clear perception of the actual facts
uncolored as much as possible by a prior? conceptions or expec-
tations,—the faculty of persevering watchfulness, and the jude-
ment to eliminate (with all due caution) the conditions which are
accidental,_the importance of a provisional hypothesis,—the
conscientious and impartial testing of such by every expedient that
ingenuity may suggest,—the lessons taught by failure,—the firm
holding of the additional facts thus gleaned, though adverse and
disappointing,—the diligent pondering, and the logical applica-
tion of deductive consequences, to be again examined until as the
reward of patient solicitation, the answer of nature is at last re-
vealed.

“The investigator now feels amply rewarded for all his toil,
and is conscious of the pleasure of the self-appreciation which
flows from having been initiated into the secrets of nature, and
allowed the place not merely of an humble worshipper in the ves-
tibule of the temple of science, but an officiating priest at the
altar. In this sketch which I have given of a successful investi-
gation, it will be observed that several faculties of the mind are
called into operation. First, the imagination, which calls forth
the forms of things unseen and gives them a local habitation,
must be active in presenting to the mind’s eye a definite concep-
tion of the modes of operation of the forces in nature sufficient to
produce the phenomena in question. Second, the logical power
must be trained in order to deduce from the assumed premises
the conclusions necessary to test the truth of the assumption in
the form of an experiment, and again the ingenuity must be taxed
to invent the experiment or to bring about the arrangement of
apparatus adapted to test the conclusions. These faculties of
mind may all be much improved and strengthened by practice.
The most important requisite, however, to scientific investigations
of this character, is a mind well stored with clear conceptions of
scientific generalizations, and possessed of sagacity in tracing
analogies and devising hypotheses. Without the use of hypotheses
or antecedent probabilities, as a general rule no extended series
of investigations can be made as to the approximate cause of casual
phenomena. They require to be used however with great care,
lest they become false guides which lead to error rather than to
truth.”* Who that listened could fail to see that the speaker
was unconsciously giving us precious glimpses into his own expe-
rience?

Less than two weeks after this, he suffered at New York a tem-
porary numbness in his hands, which he feared might threaten a
paralysis; but a subsequent swelling of his feet and hands revealed

* Bulletin Phil. Soc. Washington, Nov. 24,1877, vol. ii. p. 166.
132

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 359

to his physician the nature of his inward disease as a nephritis,
which had been insidiously assailing him before it was suspected,
and had doubtless been aggravated by his unremitting scientific
labors continued as usual through his last summer vacation. Only
a month before he died, he thus described the commencement of his
malady: ‘‘ After an almost uninterrupted period of excellent health
for fifty years, I awoke on the 5th of December at my office in the
Light-house Depot in Staten Island, finding my right-hand in a
' paralytic condition. This was at first referred by the medical
adviser to an affection of the brain, but as the paralysis subsided in
a considerable degree in the course of two days, this conclusion was
doubted, and on’a thorough examination through the eye, and by
means of auscultation, and chemical analysis, Dr. Weir Mitchell
and Dr. J. J. Woodward pronounced the disease an affection of
the kidneys.””*

Aware that his illness was fatal, he yet felt lulled by that strange
flattery of disease when unattended with a painful wasting, into the
thought that he might probably survive the approaching warmer
weather; and fully prepared for death, with the sense of life still
strong within him, he planned what might yet be accomplished.

But with occasional alternations of more favorable symptoms,
with the uremia steadily increasing, his strength slowly declined :
and as he lay at noon of the 13th of last May, [1878, ] with grow-
ing difficulty of breathing—surrounded by loving and anguished
hearts—his last feeble utterance was an inquiry which way the
windcame. With intellect clear and unimpaired, calmly that pure
and all unselfish spirit passed away—leaving a void none the less
real, none the less felt, that the deceased had reached a good old
age, and had worthily accomplished his allotted work.

Great as is the loss we have sustained of ‘‘ guide, philosopher,
and friend,” we have yet the mournful satisfaction of reflecting that
his influence, powerful as it always has been for good, still survives
—in his works, his high example, and his unclouded memory ;—
that our community, our country, the world itself, has been bene-
fited by his existence here; and that as time rolls on, its course
will be marked by increasing circles of appreciation, reverence,
and gratitude, for the teachings of his high and noble life.

* Opening Address, written for the meeting of the National Academy of
Sciences, April 16th, 1878. (Proceed. Nat. Acad. Sct., vol. i. part 2, p.
127.)

133

360

1829.

1830.

1831.

1831.

1831.

1831.

1831.

1832.

1832.

BULLETIN OF THE

LIST OF SCIENTIFIC PAPERS; BY JOSEPH HENRY.

. On the production of cold by the rarefaction of Air: accompanied

with Experiments. (Presented Mar. 2.) Abstract, Trans.
Albany Instetute, vol. i. part 11. p. 36.

. On some Modifications of the Electro-magnetic Apparatus. (Read

Oct. 10.) Trans. Albany Inst. vol. 1. pp. 22-24.

. Topographical Sketch of the State of New York; designed chiefly

to show the General Elevations and Depressions of its Surface.
(Read Oct. 28.) Trans. Albany Inst. vol. i. pp. 87-112.

. First Abstract of Meteorological Records of the State of New

York, for 1828. (In conjunction with Dr. T. Romeyn Beck.)
Annual Report of Regents of University, to the Legislature
of New York.—Albany, 1829.

On the Mean Temperature of Twenty-seven different Places in the
State of New York, for 1828. (In conjunction with Dr. T.
Romeyn Beck.) Brewster’s Hdinburgh Jour. Scvence, Oct.
1828, vol. i. pp. 249-259.

Second Abstract of Meteorological Records of the State of New
York for 1829. (In conjunction with Dr. T. Romeyn Beck.)
Annual Report of Regents of University, to the Legislature
of New York.—Albany, 1830.

On the Application of the Principle of the Galvanic Multiplier to
Electro-magnetic Apparatus, and also to the development of
great Magnetic power in soft iron, with small Galvanic Elements.
Silliman’s American Jour. Scvence, Jan. 1831, vol. xix. pp.
400-408.

Tabular Statement of the Latitudes, Longitudes, and Hlevations,
of 42 Meteorological Stations in New York. Annwal Report
Regents of University to Legislature N. Y. 1831.

Third Abstract of Meteorological Records of State of New York
for 1830. (In conjunction with Dr. T. Romeyn Beck.) Annual
Report of Regents of University, to the Legislature of New
York.—Albany, 1831.

An Account of a large Hlectro-magnet, made for the Laboratory
of Yale College. (In conjunction with Dr. Ten Eyck.) Silli-
man’s Am. Jour. Scz. April, 1831, vol. xx. pp. 201-203.

On a Reciprocating Motion produced by Magnetic attraction and
repulsion. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Scz. July, 1831, vol. xx.’ pp.
340-343. Sturgeon’s Annals of Hlectricity, etc. vol. lil. pp.
430-432.

On a Disturbance of the Harth’s Magnetism in connection with
the appearance of an Aurora as observed at Albany on the
19th of April, 1831. (Communicated to the Albany Institute,
Jan. 26, 1832.) Report of Regents of University, to the Legis-
lature of New York.—Albany, 1832. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sez.
July, 1832, vol. xxii. pp. 143-155.

Fourth Abstract of Meteorological Records of the State of New
York for 1831. (In conjunction with Dr. T. Romeyn Beck.)
Annual Report of Regents of University, to the Legislature
of New York.—Albany, 1831. ;

134

1832.

1832.

1833.

1835.

1835.

1835.

1837.

1838.

1838.

1839.

1839.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 361

On the Production of Currents and Sparks of Hlectricity from
Magnetism, Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sc. July, 1832, vol. xxii.
pp- 403-408.

On the effect of a long and helical wire in increasing the intensity
of a galvanic current from a single element. Silliman’s Am.
Jour. Sct. July, 1832, vol. xxii. p. 408. Becquerel’s Traté
expérimental de |’Hlectricité, etc. 1837, vol. v. pp. 231, 232.

Fifth Abstract of Meteorological Records of the State of New
York. for 1832. (In conjunction with Dr. T. Romeyn Beck.)
Annual Report of Regents of University, to the Legislature
of New York.—Albany, 1833.

Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. No. I. Description
of a Galvanic Battery for producing Electricity of different in-
tensities. (Read Jan. 14.) Transactions Am. Philosoph. So-
ciety, vol. v. pp. 217-222. Sturgeon’s Annals of Electricity,
etc. vol. i. pp. 277-281.

Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. No. II. On the
influence of a Spiral Conductor in increasing the intensity of
Blectricity from a Galvanic arrangement of a single Pair, ete.
(Read Feb. 6.) Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. vol. v. pp. 223-232.
Sturgeon’s Annals of Hlectricity, etc. vol. i. pp. 282-290.
Taylor’s Sccentific Memorrs, vol. 1. pp. 540-547.

Facts in reference to the Spark, ete. from a long Conductor uniting
the poles of a Galvanic Battery. Journal of Franklin Institute,
Mar. 1835, vol. xv. pp. 169, 170. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sct.
July, 1835, vol. xxviil. pp. 327-331.

A Notice of Electrical Researches, particularly in regard to the
“Jateral discharge.” (Read before the British Association at
Liverpool, Sept. 1837.) Report Brit. Assoc. 1837. Part II.
pp. 22-24. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Scz. April, 1838, vol. XXxXiv.
pp. 16-19.

A Letter on the production directly from ordinary Hlectricity of
Currents by Induction, analogous to those obtained from Galvan-
ism. (Read to Philosoph. Society, May 4.) Proceedengs Am.
Phil. Soc. vol. i. p. 14.

Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. No. III. On Hlectro-
dynamic Induction. (Read Nov. 2.) Trans. Am. Phal. Soc.
vol. vi. pp. 303-338. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Scz. Jan. 1840, vol.
XXxVili. pp. 209-243. Sturgeon’s Annals of Hlectricity, etc.
vol. iv. pp. 281-310. ZL. H. D. Phil. Mag. Mar. 1840, vol.
xvi. pp. 200-210: pp. 254-265: pp. 551-562. Becquerel’s
Trawté eapérimental de V Electriceté, etc. vol. v. pp. 87-107.
Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Dec. 1841, 3d_ series: vol.
iii. pp. 394-407. Poggendorff’s Annalen der Physik und
Chemie. Supplemental vol. i. (Nach Band li.) 1842, pp. 282-
312.

A novel phenomenon of Capillary action: the transmission of Mer-
cury through Lead. (Read Mar. 15.) Proceedings Am. Phil.
Soe. vol. i. pp. 82, 83. Silliman’s Am. Jowr. Sez. Jan. 1839, vol.
Xxxviii. pp. 180,181. Bzblioth. Unzverselle, vol. xxix. pp. IB)
176. lLiebig’s Annalen der Chemie, etc. vol. xl. pp. 182, 183.

A Letter on two distinct kinds of dynamic Induction by a Gal-
vanic current. (Read to Phil. Soc. Oct. 18.) Proceedengs Am-
Phul. Soe. vol. i. pp. 134-126.

135

362

1839.

1840.

1840.

1840.

1840.
1841.
1841.

1842.

1842.

1843.

1843.

1843.

1843.

1843.
1844.

1844.

BULLETIN OF THE

Observations of Meteors made Nov. 25, 1835, simultaneously at
Princeton and at Philadelphia, for determining their difference
of Longitude. (In conjunction with Professors A.D. Bache, 8.
Alexander, and J. P. Espy.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. Dec.
21, vol. i. pp. 162, 163. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sez. Oct. 1840,
vol. Xxxix. pp. 372, 373.

Contributions to Hlectricity and Magnetism. No. 1V. On EHlectro-
dynamic Induction. (Read June 19.) Zrans. Am. Phil. Soc.
vol. viii. pp. 1-18. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Scv. April, 1841, vol.
xli. pp. 117-152. Sturgeon’s Annals Hlectricity, etc. vol. vil.
pp. 21-56. L. HE. D. Phil. Mag. June, 1841, vol. xviii. pp.
482-514. Annales de Chim. et Phys. Dec. 1841, 3d ser. vol.
iii. pp. 407-436. Poggendorff’s Annal. der Phys. und Chem.
1841, vol. liv. pp. 84-97.

Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. No. 1 V,—continued.
Theoretical Considerations relating to Electro-dynamic Induc-
tion. (Read Nov. 20.) Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. vol. viii. pp.
18-35.

On the production of a reciprocating motion by the repulsion in
the consecutive parts of a conductor through which a galvanic
current is passing. (Read Nov. 20.) Proceedings Am. Phil.
Soc. vol. i. p. 301.

Electricity from heated Water. (Read Dec. 18.) Proceedings
Am. Phil. Soc. vol. i. pp. 8322-324.

Description of a simple and inexpensive form of Heliostat. (Read
Sept. 17.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soe. vol. ii. p. 97.

Observations on the effects of a Thunderstorm which visited
Princeton on the evening of the 14th of July, 1841. (Read
Nov. 5.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. ii. pp. 111-116.

Résumé des Recherches faits sur les Courants d’Induction.
Archives de I’ Hlectricité, 1842, vol. ii. pp. 348-392.

Contributions to Electricity and and Magnetism. No. V. On
Hlectro-dynamic Induction: and on the oscillatory discharge.
(Read June 17.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. ii. pp. 193-
196.

On Phosphorogenic Emanation. (Read May 26.) Proceedings
Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iii. pp. 38-44. Walker’s Hlectrical Maga-
zine, 1845, vol. i. pp. 444-450.

On a new Method of determining the Velocity of Projectiles.
(Read May 30.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iii. pp. 165-
167. Walker’s Electrical Magazine, 1845, vol. i. pp. 250-352.

Nouvelles Expériences sur |’Induction développée par l’Electricité
ordinaire. (T'ranslated.) Archives de I’ Hlectricaté, 1843, vol.
ili. pp. 484-488.

On the application of Melloni’s thermo-electric apparatus to Me-
teorological purposes. (Presented orally Nov. 3.) Proceedings
Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. p. 22.

Theory of the discharge of the Leyden jar. (Presented Nov. 3.)
Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 22, 23.

On the Cohesion of Liquids. (Read April 5.) Procedings Am.
Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 56, 57. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Scz. Oct.
1844, vol. xlviil. pp. 215, 216.

On the Cohesion of Liquids,—continued. (Read May 17.) Pro-
ceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 84, 85. Silliman’s Am.

136

>

1844.
1844.
1845.
1845.

1845.

1845.

1845.
1845.
1845.
1846.

1846.

1846.

1846.

1846.
1846.
1847.

1847.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 363

Jour. Sct. Oct. 1844, vol. xlviii. pp. 216, 217. L. H. D. Phil.
Mag. June, 1845, vol. xxxvi. pp. 541-543.

Syllabus of Lectures on Physics. Princeton, 8vo. 1844. Repub-
lished in part in Smithsonian Report, 1856, pp. 187-220.

Classification and Sources of Mechanical Power. (Read Dec. 20.)
Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 127-129.

On the Coast Survey. Princeton Review, April, 1845, vol. xvii.
pp. 321-344,

On the relative Radiation of Heat by the Solar Spots. (Read
June 20.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 173-176.
Brief Abstract in Report Brit. Assoc. 1845, Part II. p. 6.
Walker’s Hlectrical Magazine, 1846, vol. ii. pp. 321-324.
Froriep’s Newe Notizen, etc., No. 826, 1846, vol. XXXVIil. col.
179-182. Poggendorff’s Annalen der Physik und Chemie,
1846, vol. Ixvill. pp. 102-104.

On the Capillarity of Metals. (Read June 20.) Proceedings
Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 176-178. Froriep’s Neue Notizen,
etc., No. 825, 1846, vol. xxxvili. col. 167-169. Poggendorff’s
Annalen der Physik und Chemie. 2d supplemental vol. (Nach
Band Ixxii.) 1848, pp. 358-361.

On the Protection of Buildings from Lightning. (Read June 20.)
Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. p. 179. Silliman’s Am.
Jour. Scz. 1846, vol. ii. pp. 405, 406. Walker’s Hlectrical
Magazine, 1846, vol. ii. pp. 324-326. Froriep’s Newe Notzen,
etc., No. 823, 1846, vol. xxxvili. col. 133, 134.

An account of peculiar effects on a house struck by Lightning.
(Read June 20.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. p. 180.
On Color Blindness. Princeton Review, July, 1845, vol. xvii. pp.

483-489.

On the discharge of Electricity through a long wire, ete. (Read
Nov. 7.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 208, 209.
Repetition of Faraday’s Experiment on the Polarization of Liquids
under the influence of a galvanic current. (Read Jan. 16.)

Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 229, 230.

‘Extrait d’une Lettre 4 M. de la Rive, sur les Télégraphes Elec-

triques daus les Etats-Unis de l)Amérique. Bzblioth. Univer-
selle. Archives, 1846, vol. ii. p. 178.

Report on the action of Electricity on the Telegraph Wires: and
Telegraph-poles struck by Lightning. (Read June 19.) Pro-
ceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 260-268. Silliman’s Am.
Jour. Sct. 1847, vol. iii. pp. 25-32. L. H. D. Phil. Mag. 1847,
vol. xxx. pp. 186-194. Agricultural Report, Commr. Pats.
1859, pp. 509-511.

On the ball supported by a water jet. (Read Oct. 16.) Proceed-
ngs Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. p. 285.

On the corpuscular hypothesis of the constitution of Matter. (Read
Noy. 6.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 287-290.
On the Height of Aurore. (Read Dee. 3.) Proceedings Am.

Phil. Soc. vol. iv. p. 370.

Programme of Organization of the Smithsonian Institution. (Pre-
sented to the Board of Regents, Dec. 8, 1847.) Smithsonian
Report, 1847, pp. 120-132.

Article on ‘“‘ Magnetism’ for the Encyclopedia Americana. Hn-
cycl. Amer. 1847, vol. xiv. pp. 412-426.

137

18595.

BULLETIN OF THE

. On Heat.—A Thermal Telescope. Silliman’s Am Jour. Sez. Jan.
1848, vol. v. pp: 113, 114.

. Explanations and Illustrations of the Plan of the Smithsonian
institution. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Scz. Noy. 1848, vol. vi. pp.
305-317.

. On the Radiation of Heat. (Read Oct. 19.) Proceedings Am.

Phil. Soc. vol. v. p. 108.
. Analysis of the dynamic phenomena of the Leyden jar. Proceed-
ings Amer. Assoczatzon. Aug. 1850, pp. 377, 378.

. On the Limit of Perceptibility of a direct and reflected Sound.

Proceedings Amer. Association, May, 1851, pp. 42, 43.

. On the Theory of the so-called Imponderables. Proceedings

Amer. Association, Aug. 1851, pp. 84-91.

. Address before the Metropolitan Mechanics’ Institute, Washing-

ton. (Delivered March 19.) 8yvo. Washington, 1853, pp. 19.

. Meteorological lables of mean diurnal variations, etc. prepared

as an Appendix to Mr. Russell’s Lectures on Meteorology.
Smithsonian Report for 1854, pp. 215-223.

. Thoughts on Hducation; an Introductory Discourse before the

Association for Advancement of Education. (Delivered Dec.
28.) Proceedings Assoc. Adv. Education, 4th Session, 1854,
pp. 17-31.

On the mode of Testing Building Materials, ete. Proceedings
Am. Assoc. Aug. 1855, pp. 102-112. Silliman’s Am. Jowr.
Sct. July, 1856, vol. xxii. pp. 80-38; Smzthsonzan Report,
1856, pp. 303-310.

. On the effect of mingling Radiating Substances with Combustible

Materials: (or incombustible bodies with fuel). Proceedings
Am. Assoc. Aug. 1855, pp. 112-116.

. Account of Experiments on the alleged spontaneous separation of

Alcohol and Water. Proceed. Am. Assoc. Aug. 1855, pp.
140-144.

. On the Induction of Electrical Currents. (Read Sept.11.) Pro-

ceedings Am. Academy of Arts, etc. vol. iii. p. 198.

. Note on the Gyroscope. Appendix to Lecture by Prof. EH. S.

Snell. Smithsonian Report, 1855, p. 190.

. Remarks on Rain-fall at varying elevations. Smthsonzan Re-

port, 1855, pp. 213, 214.

55. Directions for Meteorological Observations. (In conjunction with

Prof. A. Guyot.) Smethsonian Report, 1855, pp. 215-244.

. Circular of Inquiries relative to Harthquakes. Smethsonian Re-

port, 1855, p. 245.

. Instructions for Observations of the Aurora. Smithsonian Re-

port, 1855, pp. 247-250.

. On Green’s Standard Barometer for the Sm. Institution. Smzth-

sontan Report, 1855, pp. 251-258.

. Circular of Instructions on Registering the periodical phenomena
of animal and vegetable life. Smzthsoncan Report, 1855, pp.
259-263.

. Meteorology in its connection with Agriculture, Part I. Agri-
cultural Report of Commr. Pats. 1855, pp. 357-394.

. On Acoustics applied to Public Buildings. Proceedings Am.
Assoc. Aug. 1856, pp. 119-135. Smethsonian Report, 1856,
pp- 221-234. Canadian Journal, 1857, vol. ii. pp. 130-140.

138

1856

1856

1857.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 365

. Account of a large Sulphuric-acid Barometer in the Hall of the
Smithsonian Institution Building. Proceedings Am. Assoc.
Aug. 1856, pp. 135-138.

. Meteorology in its connection with Agriculture, Part. II. Gene-
ral Atmospheric Conditions. Agricultural Report of Commr.
Pats. 1856, pp. 455-492.

Communication to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian In-
stitution, relative to a publication by Prof. Morse. Smethsonian
Report, 1857, pp. 85-88.

1857. Meteorology in its connection with Agriculture, Part III. Ter-

1858

1859
1859

1859.

1859.
1860.
1860.
1860.
1861.
1861.
1861.
1862.

1863.

1864.

1865.

1865.
1865.

restrial Physics, and Temperature. Agricultural Report of
Commr. Pats. 1857, pp. 419-506.

Meteorology in its connection with Agriculture, Part IV. At-
mospheric Vapor, and Currents. Agricultural Report of
Commr. Pats. 1858, pp. 429-493.

On Meteorology. Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, Aug.
1859, vol. iv. pp. 289-291.

. Application of the Telegraph to the Prediction of Changes of the

Weather. (Read Aug. 9.) Proceedings Am. Academy of
Arts, etc. vol. iv. pp. 271-275.

Meteorology in its connection with Agriculture, Part V. Atmo-
spheric Electricity. Agricultural Report of Commr. Pats.
1859, pp. 461-509.

On the Protection of Buildings from the effects of Lightning.
Agricult. Report, Com. Pat. 1859, pp. 511-524.

On the Conservation of Force. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Scz. July
1860, vol. xxx. pp. 32-41.

Circular to Officers of Hudson’s Bay Company (April 20). Smth-
sonian Miscell. Collections, No. 137, vol. viii. pp. 1-6.

Description of Smithsonian Anemometer. Smthsonian Report,
1860, pp. 414-416.

Letter on Aeronautics to Mr. T. 8. C. Lowe. (March 11.)
Smithsonian Report, 1860, pp. 118, 119.

Article on “ Magnetism” for the American Encyclopedia. Edited
by Ripley and Dana. Am. Hncyel. 1861, vol. xi. pp. 61-63.
Article on “ Meteorology” for the American Encyclopedia. Edited

by Ripley and Dana. Am. Encycl. 1861, vol. xi. pp. 414-420.

Report of the Light House Board on the proposed Transfer of the
Lights to the Navy Department. Exec. Docts. 37th Cong. 2d
Sess. Senate, Mis. Doc. No. 61, pp. 2-18.

Introduction to Memoir by Prof. J. Plateau. On the Figures of
Equilibrium of a Liquid Mass, ete. Smithsonian Report,
1863, pp. 207, 208.

On Materials for Combustion in Lamps of Light-Houses. (Read
Jan. 12, before the National Academy of Sciences.) [Not pub-
lished in Proceedings. ]

Report relative to the Fire at the Smithsonian Institution, occur-
ring Jan. 24th, 1865. (In conjunction with Mayor Richard
Wallach.) Presented to the Regents February, 1865. Smth-
sonian Report, 1864, pp. 117-120.

Queries relative to Tornadoes: directions to observers. Smzth-
sonian Miscell. Collections, No. 190, vol. x. pp. 1-4.

Remarks on the Meteorology of the United States. Smthsonian
Report, 1865, pp. 50-59.

139

366

1865.
1866.

1866.

1866.
1866.
1866.
1866.

1867.

1867.
1867.
1867.
1867.
1867.
1868.
1868.

1869.

1870.
1871.
1871.
1871.

1871

1871

PULLETIN OF THE

Remarks on Ventilation: especially with reference to the U.S.
Capitol. Smzethsonian Report, 1865, pp. 67-69.

Report on the Warming and Ventilating of the U.S. Capitol.
(May 4.) Haec. Doc. No. 100. H. of Rep. 39th Cong. Ist
Sess. pp. 4-6.

Report of Building Committee on Repairs to Sm. Institution from
Fire. (In conjunction with Genl. Richard Delafield, and Mayor
Richard Wallach.) Presented to Regents April 28. Smeth-
sonian Report, 1865, pp. 111-114.

On the aboriginal Migration of the American races. Appendix.
to paper by F. Von Hellwald. Smethsonian Report, 1866, pp.
344, 345.

Remarks on Vitality. Smzthsonvan Report, 1866, pp. 386-388.

Meteorological Notes. To Correspondents. Smthsonian Report,.
1866, pp. 403-412.

Investigations in regard to Sound. (Read Aug. 10, before the
National Academy of Sciences.) [Not published in Proceed-
ings.

oe relating to Collections in Archeology and Ethnology.
(Jan. 15.) Smithsonian Miscell. Collections, No. 205, vol.
viii. pp. 1, 2.

Circular relative to Exchanges. (May 16.) Smthsonian Re-
port, 1867, p. 71.

Suggestions relative to Objects of Scientific Investigation in
Russian America. (May 27.) Smithsonian Miscell. Collec-
tions, No. 207, vol. viii. pp. 1-7.

Notice of Peltier. Smethsonvan Report, 1867, p. 158.

Notes on Atmospheric Electricity. ‘To Correspondents. Smeth-
sonian Report, 1867, pp. 320-323.

On the Penetration of Sound. (Read Jan. 24, before the National
Academy of Sciences.) [Not published in Proceedings. |

Appendix to a Notice of Scheenbein. Smethsonian Report,
1868, pp. 189-192.

On the Rain-fall of the United States. (Read Aug. 25, before
the ena Academy of Sciences.) [Not published in Pro-
ceedings.

Memoir of Alexander Dallas Bache. (Read April 16.) Bograph-
ical Memoirs of Nat. Acad. Scz. vol. i. pp. 181-212. Smath-
sonian Report, 1870, pp. 91-116.

Letter. On a Physical Observatory. (Dec. 29.) Smzthsonian.
Report, 1870, pp. 141-144.

Observations on the Rain-fall of the United States. Proceedengs
California Academy of Sciences, vol. iv. p. 185.

Instructions for Observations of Thunder-Storms. Smzthsonzan-
Miscell. Collections, No. 235, vol. x. p. 1.

Circular relative to Heights. For a topographic chart of N.
America. Smithsonian Miscell. Collections, No. 236, vol. x.

il

: Direviene for constructing Lightning-Rods. Smithsonian. Mis-
cell. Collections, No. 237, vol. x. pp. 1-3. Silliman’s Am. Jour.
Sct. Nov. 1871, vol. ii. pp. 344-346.

. Letter to Capt. C. F. Hall, in regard to the Scientific Operations

of the Expedition toward the North Pole. (June 9.) Smth-

sonian Report, 1871, pp. 364-366.

140

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 367

1871. Suggestions as to Meteorological Observations ; during the Expe-
dition toward the North Pole. Smithsonian Report, 1871, pp.
372-379.

1871. Meteorological Notes and Remarks. Smithsonian Report, 1871,
pp. 452, 455, 456, 459, 461.

1871. Effect of the Moon on the Weather. Smithsonian Report, 1871,
pp. 460, 461.

1871. Anniversary Address as President of the Philosophical Society
of Washington. (Delivered Nov. 18.) Bulletin Phil. Soc.
Washington, vol. 1. pp. 5-14.

1872. Remarks on Cosmical Theories of Electricity and Magnetism: an
Appendix to a Memoir by Prof. G. B. Donati. Smthsonian
Report, 1872, pp. 8307-309.

1872. On certain Abnormal Phenomena of Sound, in connection with
Fog-signals. (Read Dec. 11.) Bulletin Phil. Soc. Washington,
vol. i. p. 65, and Appendix ix. 8 pp.

1873. Letter to John C. Green, Esq., of New York, on his establishment
of the “ Henry Chair of Physics” in the College of New Jersey.
Washington Daily Chronzcle, Mar. 21, 1873.

1873. Telegraphic Announcements of Astronomical Discoveries. (May.)
Snmuthsonian Mescell. Collections, No. 263, vol. xii. pp. 1-4.

1873. Remarks on the Light-House Service. Report of Light-House
Board, 1873, pp. 3-7.

1874, Report of Investigations relative to Fog-Signals, and certain ab-
normal phenomena of Sound. Report of Light-House Board,
1874. Appendix, pp. 83-117.

1874. Memoir of Joseph Saxton. (Read Oct. 4.) Béographical Me-
moirs of Nat. Acad. Scz. vol. i. pp. 287-316.

1874. Remarks on Recent Earthquakes in North Carolina. Smithsonian
Report, 1874, pp. 259, 260.

1875. Remarks on the Light-House Service. Report of Light-House
Board, 18%5, pp. 5-8.

1875, An account of investigations relative to Illuminating Materials.
Report of Light-House Board, 1875. Appendix, pp. 86-103.

1875. Investigations relative to Sound. Report of Light House Board,
1875. Appendix, pp. 104-126.

1875. On the Organization of Local Scientific Societies. Smzthsonzan
Report, 1875, pp. 217-219.

1876. Article on “ Fog,” for Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia. Edited
by Dr. Barnard. J. Univ. Cycl. vol. ii. pp. 187, 188.

1876. Article on ‘“ Fog-Signals” for Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia.
Kdited by Dr. Barnard. J. Univ. Cycl. vol. ii. pp. 188-190.

1877. Article on “Lightning” for Jobnson’s Universal Cyclopedia.
Kdited by Dr. Barnard. J. Unzv. Cycl. vol. iii. pp. 32-36.

1877. Article on “ Lightning-Rods” for Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia.
Edited by Dr. Barnard. J. Unzv. Cycl. vol. iii. pp. 36, 37.

1877. Remarks on the Light-House Service. Report of Light-House
Board, 1877, pp. 3-7.

1877. Report of Operations relative to Fog Signals. Report of Light-
House Board, 1877. Appendix, pp. 61-72.

1877. Address before the Philosophical Society of Washington. Bul-
leten Phil. Soc. Washington, vol. ii. pp. 162-174.

1878. On Thunder Storms (Letter Oct. 13.) Journal Am. Electrical
Society, 1878, vol. ii. pp. 37-43.

34

368 BULLETIN OF THE

1878. Letter to Joseph Patterson, Hsq., of Philadelphia, on the “ Joseph
Henry Fund.” (Dated Jan. 10.) Public Ledger and Tran-
script, May 14, 1878. The Press, of Philadelphia, May 14,
1878.

1878. Report on the Ventilation of the Hall of the House of Represen-
tatives. (Jan. 26.) 40th Cong. 2nd Sess. H.R. Report, No.
119, pp. 1-6.

1878. Report on the Use of the Polariscope in Saccharometry. (Feb. 5.)
Mis. Doc. 45th Cong. 2nd Sess. H. R.

1878. Opening Address before National Academy of Sciences. (Read
April 16.) Proceedings Nat. Acad. Scv., vol. i. part 2, pp.
127, 128.

1878. Closing Address before National Academy of Sciences. (Read
April 19.) Proceedings Nat. Acad. Scz., vol. i. part 2, pp.
129, 130.

ADJOURNED MEETING. NovEMBER 2, 1878.
Continued Memorial Meeting.
Vice-President WELLING in the Chair.

’ Mr. Prerer PARKER read the following address commemorative

of
JOSEPH HENBY.

Mr. PRESIDENT AND MEMBERS OF THE
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON:

I desire to say a few words in memory of our lamented Presi-
dent, JosepH Henry. Many have already pronounced his eulogy
and set forth his rare talents and influence upon the world, and I
need not, and could not well were I to attempt it, add to your
appreciation of Professor Henry, his life and character as a
friend, scientist, his eminent services in the department of sci-
ence, and as a Christian the highest type of man. For twenty
years I have been intimately acquainted with Professor HENRY,
and happily associated with him in many ways; for ten years as
a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution. J have never known
a more excellent man. His memory has been much on my mind
since he left us, and I often find myself inquiring how he, and
others like him, are occupied now? His connection with time
is severed, but his existence continues. When I recall the names
of Bacnz, of Paar, of Agassiz, and Henry, and others of sim-
ilar intellect and virtues, I detect myself asking the question, Are
to them all consciousness and thought now suspended by separa-

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 369

tion from the body? Iam reluctant to believe it. But, this I
believe: the Infinite Father’s ways are right.

It seems most providential that Professor Hunry had the op-
portunity and the strength to give in person his last words, a
priceless legacy, to the National Academy of Sciences, and
through that association to the civilized and scientific world.
I refer to his sentiment that “moral excellence is the highest
dignity of man.” The loftiest talent and highest attainments
without this are deficient in that which in the judgment of wise
men and of Infinite Wisdom, is of greatest worth. Was there
ever a man from whom the sentiment could come with a better
grace |

I have heard the opinion expressed, and do not think it extra-
vagant, that the letter addressed by Professor Henry to his
valued friend, Joseph Patterson, emanating from such a mind,
such a man, at the close of a protracted life of singular distinc-
tion, was worth a lifetime to produce. It has been read, probably,
by millions, in various languages, and will be by future genera-
tions. The best tribute we as members of this Society can offer
to the memory of our first President will be to emulate his vir-
tues, and, far as practicable, to imitate his urbanity, his candor,
nobleness of mind and heart, and his Christian character.

Professor HmNRY was not only a man of science, a discoverer
of nature’s latent laws and forces, but a sincere believer in God,
their author, and in His atoning Son. ‘To quote his language,
““We are conscious of having evil thoughts and tendencies that
we cannot associate with a Divine Being, who is the director and
governor of all, or call upon Him for mercy without the inter-
cession of One who may affiliate himself with us.”

I quote in conclusion from the prayer we offered at his funeral,
to which we repeat our sincere Amen. [The lips that uttered
them in one short month became silent in death, and the two
remarkable men, Professors JosepH Hunry and CHARLES Hopes,
closely united in life, were not long divided by death. ]

“We thank Thee, O God, that JosepH Henry was born, that
Thou didst endow him with such rare gifts, intellectual, moral,
and spiritual; that Thou didst spare him to a good old age, and
enable him to accomplish so much for the increase of human
knowledge, and for the good of his fellow men; and above all,
that Thou didst hold him up before this whole nation as such a

370 BULLETIN OF THE

conspicuous illustration of the truth that moral excellence is the
highest dignity of man.”

The following address by Mr. B. AtvorpD was also read :—
JOSEPH HENRY.

On the 13th May, 1878, JosrpH Henry died in this city. No
body of gentlemen have had such opportunities of watching the
recent career of this distinguished man as the members of the
Philosophical Society of Washington. The suddenness of the
event is best realized by us when we recur to the clearness and
firmness of his mind. as evinced in contact with this Society the
whole of last winter. His annual address on the 24th of No-
vember, 1877, was replete with the soundest advice to those who
are entering on scientific investigations. We are struck with the
freshness and elasticity of his mind and temper in his allusion to
the method of scientific observation when he said: ‘There is a
“story in a work entitled ‘Hvenings at Home,’ which made an
“indelible impression on my mind. It is entitled ‘Hyes and No
‘““Hyes,’ and related to two boys who started on a walk during a
“warm summer afternoon. On their return, one was fatigued,
“ dissatisfied, having seen nothing, encountered only dust and
“heat; while the other was charmed with his walk, which had
‘been over the same ground, and gave a glowing account of the
“objects which he had met with, and of the reflections which
““were awakened by them.”

Rarely does it happen that the labors of the scholar and stu-
dent are continued with such undiminished powers up to the age
of eighty. Besides his mental force and vigor, it is necessary to
refer to the equipoise and judicial character of his temperament
and organization. This fairness and careful avoidance of hasty
judgments were important elements in his position as Director
of the Smithsonian Institution. I had corresponded with him
since 1850, for twenty-eight years, and the more we knew of him
the more have all been impressed with his peculiar fitness for his
task in that Institution.

It may be deemed unnecessary to reeur to the amiable traits
of his private character, and to his gentle and unostentatious
demeanor; but in such a position these qualities form an impor-
tant element in public character. Especially did this appear in

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 371

his exemption from dogmatism, so admirably portrayed in the
words of General Sherman,* that he was free from the “arro-
gance of wisdom.” ‘This was aptly said of a man who, if any
in this country, could claim the right to dogmatize.

The generous traits of his character are most vividly shown in
the Report of the Special Committee of the Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution (Annual Report, p. 88, Smith. Inst.,
published in 1858) presented by the late Prof. C. C. Felton on
ithe matters between Samuel F. Morse and Prof. Henry. 1 refer
especially to the letter of the Hon. Charles Mason, Commissioner
of the Patent Office, dated March 31, 1856, stating that he was
induced to grant the extension of Morse’s patent for the telegraph
in “accordance with the express recommendation of Professor
Henry.” It did not require the repeated dogma of the Supreme
Court, that “a principle is not patentable; its practical applica-
tion to some useful purpose constitutes the invention” (Brightly’s
Digest, Vol. I. p. 609; Vol. If. p. 275) to cause Professor
Henry not to stand in the way of patents in such cases. The
bent of his whole life, the acmé of his ambition, the goal of his
unflagging industry, was the discovery of scientific truths, the
extension of the boundaries of human knowledge, and not the
acquirement of wealth. Still it was but just that his brilliant
discoveries in electro-magnetism, so essential in the invention of
the telegraph, should be acknowledged.

His recent investigations and experiments in sound (as we of
this Society have all seen) all bordered on the inventions of the
telephone, the phonograph, and the microphone. One of his most
valuable suggestions was the publication by the Royal Society
of London of the Index of Scientific Papers, recently completed
in nine volumes, the preface to which refers to its origin from the
recommendation of Professor HENRY.

On the 15th of April last, a month before he died, I had a
memorable conversation with him. As he had been denied the
privilege, so long his habit and pleasure, of attending the meet-
ings of this Society, I recounted for his amusement, at his request,
a few of the items of one of our recent meetings, in which the
fact that the motion of the inner satellite of Mars is more rapid
than the motion of the planet, was the topic. And I referred to

* His Address at Princeton, June 19, 1878.

372 BULLETIN OF THE

some of the theories which were in harmony with the Nebular
Hypothesis. He emphasized his firm persuasion that however
we may succeed in elucidating and confirming the Nebular Hy-
pothesis, we do not in any way weaken the necessity of resorting
to a belief and a faith in an Omnipotent First Cause, who chooses
his own devices and methods to create and sustain the machinery
of the Universe. Similar sentiments are forcibly presented in
his remarkable letter of the 12th of April last to a friend in Phil-
adelphia, printed in the appendix to the pamphlet “Jn memoriam
of the funeral services.”

He did not often dwell in public on these topics. No one ever
lived more tolerant in the best meaning of the word than JosEPH
Henry. And no one more clearly discerned the wisdom and
necessity of keeping science and religion in their independent
channels, so that neither should be obstructed. But he never
held that for this purpose it was necessary to lop off, or stunt, or
suppress the delicate tendrils, the emotions and intuitions which
may lead the faithful student to such thonghts.

This association is termed the Philosophical Society. And
Prof. Henry was in the truest and most comprehensive sense a
Philosopher. “Philos,” a lover; “sophos,” wise—a wise lover;
or a lover of wisdom. It is true that the word is generally em-
ployed in reference either to pure and abstract science, or to phe-
nomena and the logical deductions from those phenomena, And
we, here in this Society, mainly dwell on the signal achievements
of Prof. Henry in those domains, and on the traits of his career
and character which have thus made him, emphatically, in the
view of the whole world, a great philosopher. But he did really
attain his very highest position as a philosopher; he was in the
widest sense a lover of wisdom, of truth, and of nature, with
wonderful insight of its entire economy, when he went beyond
the mere cultivation of his logical faculties, and also cherished a
contemplation of his moral and spiritual being, and of all the
ties and elements which environ man in the creation.

Remarks were made-by Messrs. GILL, PARKER, WELLING,
Woopwarp, and Exuiort, chiefly with regard to Professor
Henry on the Darwinian hypothesis and his willingness at an
early period to receive it as a working hypothesis only.

q

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 373

Mr. Nicuouson referred to experiments conducted by him in
1861 under the direction of Mr. Henry on the six metre bar of
the Coast Survey for determining its expansion by heat, and a
series commenced, but not completed, for determining the effect
of magnetism on metallic bars, showing a decided effect.

Mr. Exitott spoke of the interest he manifested in the higher
applications of mathematics especially to electricity, and the
wish on his part to promote the branches of science, with which
he did not profess to be completely familiar.

Messrs. ANTISELL, PARKER, and FArQquHAR spoke of the en-
couragement and assistance afforded by Mr. Henry to young
men in the prosecution of scientific researches.

f
ie

h
AY
mia

‘j

APPENDIX.

NV

ON THE ‘“PRODROMUS METHODI MAMMALIUM”
OF STORR.
By THEODORE GILL.
(Reap OctToBer, 1874.)

In the year 1780, Dr. Gottlieb Conrad Christian Storr, at that
time prorector and a professor of the University of Tubingen,
published a memoir on the classification of the mammals, under
the title ‘““Prodromvus Methodi Manmalivm,’ which has attained
a certain degree of celebrity, and which at the same time is ex-
tremely rare. For nearly two years I endeavored in vain to
obtain this publication, and applied to, or examined the catalogues
of, the libraries of Congress and the Smithsonian Institution, and
the chief libraries of Philadelphia, Boston, and New York, and
also the Royal Society of London, the Zoological Society of
London, and the Linnean Society of London, and in the cata-
logues of none was the work mentioned. Through the Agent of
the Smithsonian Institution in London, application was also made
at the British Museum in order to have it copied, but nothing
was known there of the publication. By a happy chance, how-
ever, a copy of the long desired work was recently procured by
the indefatigable officer in charge of the library of the Surgeon-
General’s office, Dr. John 8. Billings, in a lot of medical theses
purchased by him. It is to be at once noted that this disserta-
tion is a pamphlet of 43 pages and with four tables of classifica-
tion annexed, and it thus corresponds with a publication noticed
in several bibliographies under the title ‘‘ Prodromys Methodi
Mammalivm et Avivm;” it is therefore probable that no other
work with the title just mentioned exists. If conjecture may be
hazarded, it is possible that the somewhat similar title of Iliger’s
work has been confounded with and carried over to the work of
Storr. Storr’s Prodromus is, however (with the limitations here-
after noted), exclusively confined to the mammals, the birds not
being at all considered.

! Storr (Gottlieb Conrad Christian). Propromvs Metnop! MAMMALIVM.—
— | Rectore Vniversitatis magnificentissimo | serenissimo atqve potentis-
simo | dvce ac domino | Carolo | dvee Wvrtembergiz ac Teccize regnante,

rel. rel, | — | Ad institvendam | ex decreto gratiose facvltatis medice

pro legitime conseqvendo | doctoris medicine gradv | inavgvralem dis-
pvtationem | propositvs | preside | Gorrn. Conr. Carist. Storr | medicine
doctore, hvivs, chemie et botanices | professore pvblico ordinario | vni-
versitatis H. T. pro-rectore, | respondente | Friderico Wolffer, | Bohnland-
ense. | — | Tvbinga, d. Jul. MDCCLXXX. | — | Litteris Reissianis.
[4to, 43 pp., 4 tables. ]
(3)

il APPENDIX.

Storr, after general sremarks on methods and classification
(which would contrast rather than compare with the views current
among scientific taxonomists of the present day), discusses the
classification in successively narrowed terms, of the groups in-
cluding the mammals, dividing them as follows :—

(1) The animal kingdom into two agmina; one containing
the Red-blooded Animals (RuBRIsANGUIA), and the other the
White-blooded animals.

(2) The agmen RUBRISANGUIA into two acies: the Warm-
blooded and the Cold-blooded animals.

(3) The actes of Warm-blooded animals into two classes:
Mamaia and AVES.

(4) The class MAMMALIA into three categories or phalanges:
one (PEepata) fitted for locomotion on the land; the second
(PINNEPEDIA) for progression in the water rather than on the
land; and the third (Pinnara) for progression exclusively in
the water.’

(5) The phalanx PEDATA into two cohortes: distinguished, one
by the presence of claws (Cohors Uneautcunata), and the other
by the presence of hoofs (Cohors UNGULATA).®

2“Sedes nimirum hisce animalibus non eadem omnibus facta est:
maxima quidem eorum pars in terra potius vitam agit, quam in aquis, qui-
busdam tamen aquam magis, quam terram, habitantibus, aliquibus &
aequori perpetuo commissis :

Triplict itaque vitae generi haud parcior respondit fabrice mammalium
varietas :

Terrena quidem artuum absolutissima fabrica eminent, qui, ab exortu
liberi, commodeque trunco nexi, multiplici & artificiosissimo perficiendo
motui aptati sunt;

Aquatili magis quam terrestrt vite deditis ninus in artubus habilitatis
est, cum integumentis trunci ultra medietatem includantur, postremique
precipue artus ad imum ventrem revincti, qua parte demum solutiores
prodeunt, apices porrigant ad incessum minus idoneos, ad remigandum
contra magis adaptatos, complanatos, expansosque. Corpus preterea circa
pectus ampliatum, hinc magis magisque extenuatum, sic quoque piscium

quandum habitudinem induit.
* * * * % % *% * * * *

Atque sic mammalium classis in ¢res secedit phalunges.’’ pp. 16, 17.

3 Neque vero hactenus expositis momentis ita exhauriuntur omnes fab-
rice eorum modi, omnisque horum ferax vite generis varietas, ut nnllis
porro locus sit ulterioribus modificationibus, quas vite genus tulerit subinde
magis magisque definitum. Quin ipsa artuum conformatio novo crescentis
varietatis mox exemplo est: Extremi pedatorum mammalium artus corneis
quibusdam muniuntur laminis, que pronti in scutuli uncive incumbentis
[ Unguiculata], vel undequaque circumjecti calceoli [ Ungulata] formentur
modum, plus minus favent, obsunt partium earum expeditis, apto, validove
motui. Respondet autem reliquo vite generi hee quoque artuum fabrica.
Neque adeo repudianda erat dudum adnotata n) unguiculatorum ungu-
latoramque animalium discrepantia, que quippe dignoscendis probe infer-
viat phalangis huius ambis cohortibus: Prima sie unguiculatorum cohors
est, superimpositis, nec circumjectis corneis istis munimentis ad artus
extimos armata; Altera ungulatorum, que velamento tali corneo obducta
atque circumscriptos prodit artuum apices. p. 18.

2)

APPENDIX. iii

(6) The cohortes into respectively three ordines,* distinguished
by modifications of the teeth and digestive apparatus, viz.: (a)
the cohors Unguiculata into the ordines (1) Primates,’ (2) Ro-
sorEs,® and (3) Muricr;7 (0) the cohors Ungulata into the orders®
(1) Jumenra,? (2) Pecora,” and (3) Bentuza.”

(1) The Ordo Primates into two missus, distinguished by
the presence or absence of hands: Missus (I.) Manuati, and
Missus (11.) EManvuati.”

4 Pedatorum mammalium utraque cohors, siquidem instrumentorum
manducationis habeatur ratio, ad hoc momentum ériplicem varietatem ofiert,
unde fot utrique ordines subjiciuntur. p. 21.

6 Primus nune unzguiculatorum ordo ea de cohorte animalia feligit, que
mandueationis apparatu instructissimo ac perfectissimo eminent. * * *
* Primatum nomen primo ordini mammalium Linnzi iam auctoritate con-
ciliatum huic mes methodi mammalium primo eque ordini fervare nullus
dubito, qaum eodem primi loci titulo denominatione ista utar, majorem
licet animalium numerum huie ordini adscisci prolate mez methodi leges
precipiant. Pleraque hujus ordinis animalia sunt carnivora, vel omni-
vora, aliquibus in usum quoque cedit victus vegetabilis, sed fructuum
maxime & universe partium plantarum probe nutrientium. pp. 21-25.

6 Secundus Vnguiculatorum ordo dentaria officina distinguitur ad roden-
dum tam exquisite adaptata, ut rosorum nomine hune ordinem siguare
visum fuerit. pp. 26-27.

7 Terlius unguiculatorum ordo manca dentarii apparatus conditione ag-
noscitur. p. 29.

8 Ungulatornm animalium cohorti tres eque ordines subesse, presignifi-
catum fuit. p. 29.

9 Primus nunc horum ordinum cum primo unguiculatorum ordine com-
mune habet, quod dentium omni genere ambe maxille polleant. * * *
* TJumentorum nomen ordini, qui equum recipit, Linnei olim7r) inditum
auctoritate, conservari etiamnum posse visum fuit. p. 29.

10 Pecorum ordo, ungulatorum alter, satis quoque conspicuo signatus est
nature sigillo, cum maxillarum & ventriculi fabrica, & pabuli conficiendi
modus alius hujus ordinis animalibus, quam cnique alii, obtigerit; Unde
& ruminantium nomine ab antiquissimus temporibus distingui consueve-
runt. p. 29.

" Belluarum indicandus ordo superest, ungulatorum animalium iis dica-
tus, que ad manducationis apparatum non tam perpetua circa genus den-
tium sibi aliud aliudque reservatum fabrice conformitate, quam maxilloso
ore, dentosisque maxillis agnoscuntur; Omnia enim hujus ordinis ani-
malia pregrandes exhibent maxillas, dentibusque plurimum valentes,
quum plerisque angulares dentes soleant in arma excrescere, extra 0S
exserta, vel hiante saltem ore minitantia, feroque aspectu horrorem incu-
tientia, in solitario autem Hydrocheeri genere validorum dentium ingens
numerus memorati dentosarum maxillaram characteris sustineat stabili-
tate. Praterea & corpulentia insigni, immo, si a potiori parte fieri de-
nominationem liceat, immani corporis mole eminent. Victu quidem vege-
Se utuntur at copioso, & qui nutriendi facultate maxime prepolleat.
p. 30.

12 Primatum ordo mox peculiarem artuum difformitatem exhibet: Aliis
enim in manus efformantur artus extimi, remoto & pre reliquis digitis

(5)

lV APPENDIX.

(8) Thetwo Missus into severally three sectiones, distinguished
by various characters.”

(9a) The sections of the missus HUST are differentiated by
the modifications of the members, viz.: Sectio I. PALMARES, with
the genus Homo," Sectio 11. PALMOPLANTARES, with the genera
Sina, Prosinua, Procebus, Tarsius, Lemur: Sectio wt. PLAN-
TARES, with the genera Didelphis and Phalanger.'®

(96) The sections of the missus EMANUATI are characterized
(but erroneously) by the extent to which the feet are applied to the
ground, and severally embrace the following genera,” viz.: Sec-
tio 1. (Nocturni) with nine genera, Vespertilio, Sorex, Talpa,
Hrinaceus, Meles, Gulo, Meillivora’ Ursus, and Nasua : 18 Sec-
tio 11. (Unnamed), with twu coetus; one (Olaces) with the gen-
era Procyon, Canis, and Hyena; the other (Unci) with Felis
alone :”9 Decito TH Verminet), with the genera Viverra, Mustela,
and Luira.

extensili pollice, aliis manuum subsidio orbatis, quibus ceteros ad digitos
adpressus pollex est. Sic ordo hic in missus binos abit, primum quidem
manuatorum, emanuatorum alterum. p. 31.

3 Manuatorum denuo ad ipsum hoc momentum trifaria observatur diver-
sitas, tot exprimenda sectionibus. p. 31.

4 Prima sectio palmares habet, qui ad anteriores artus extimos, palmas
dictos, manuati sunt, non item ad posteriores artus ; Posteriorum artuum
exitremam partem palmis plante nomine opponi, inter Zoologos constat.
p. 3l. -

15 Secunda sectio palmoplantares recipit, quorum & palme manus referunt
& plante. p. 31.

16 Plantares, plantis quidem, neque vero palmis, manuati, sectionem ter-
tiam stabiliunt. p. 31.

7 Hmanuatorum missus trifaria conditione metatarsorum in tres abit sec-
tiones: p. 34.

8 Prostratis & ad humum in incessu applicatis metatarsis prima sectio
distinguitur, cui genera adscribo Vespertilionis a), Soricis, Talpae, Erinacet,
Melis, Gulonis, Mellivorae b), Ursi, Nasuae (c); Quorum quidem animalium
a vitz genere haud alienum nocturnorum nomen videatur. pp. 34-35.

19 Sectio secunda metacarpis atque metatarsis predita subelongatis &
arrectis, tellurem, cum incedit, non his, sed digitorum saltem apicibus,
attingit: Peculiari unguium infra hance sectionem occurente discrepantia
bine eius scissiones stabiliuntur; Quarum prior fixis & patentibus distincta
unguibus, ad hoc momentum potiori ungniculatorum parti similem se
exhibet, tria complectens genera, que hee sunt: Procyon d), Canis, Hy-
aena; Odoratu plurimum valentes bestiz Olaces dici possint.

Mobilibus & retractilibus distincta unguibus altera scissio, cui hamati,
unci inde dicti, ungues sunt, Felis unum genus capit, quod, speciebus licet
ditissimum, diuisionem tamen vix admittere videtur, quum in collatione
horum animalium eiusmodi dotium, que ad docendam generis varietatem
requiruntur, nulla adhuc innotuerit varietas. pp. 35-36.

2” Tertiae sectionis declives in incessu atque accurtati tum metatarsi, tum
presertim metacarpi sunt. Cum elongati atque incurvati corporis & pedum

(6)

APPENDIX. Vv

The other phalanges and orders have no other subdivisions
than into genera, and are, under other names and with some rec-
tifications, except the Pinnipeda, the same as the orders of Lin-
neus. The tables of Storr, copies of which are herewith given,
will convey all necessary information respecting their contents.

The analysis of this classification will show that Storr erred to
a greater extent than Linneus had done in proceeding from the
basis that because modifications had certain evident relations to
the economy of the animal, they were therefore, and to the de-
gree of their physiological influence, of importance in determining
the affinities of those animals. As we will soon see, however, he
greatly improved upon the genera of the systema mammalium
by their limitation to species naturally and more closely allied.

Proceeding as the author thus did from a physiological basis,
the major groups proposed by him cannot be compared strictly
with those at present recognized by naturalists, but, so far as
regards the subordination of recognized categories, the following
names are as nearly synonymic as the nature of the facts will
allow. For it must be further remembered that the term “genus”
has undergone successive restrictions till now it corresponds with
no named section of the older writers, their genera being rather
equivalent—among the mammals at least—with the families of
the moderns. Witlr such qualifications, these are the approximate
equivalents, viz :— ;

1. Agmen, 1. The two agmina are Vertebrates
and Invertebrates.
2. Acies. 2. Theacies are Warm-blooded and
Cold-blooded Vertebrates.
3. Class. 3. Class.
4, Phalanx. 4. Subclass.
5. Cohors. 5. Superorder.
6. Ordo. 6. Order.
7. Missus. Ue
8. Sectio. S| Suborder.
9. Coetus. 9.
10. Genus. 10. Family.
11. Subfamily.
12. Genus.

Although the new genera were not characterized in distinctive
diagnoses, many of the most familiar were first recognized and
introduced into the system by our author. These were, however,
only enumerated, along with the old genera, as the final divisions
of the including groups, and all that was said respecting them
was placed in the form of foot-notes. These foot-notes are here

opa abbreviatorum his animalibus ad perreptanda queque locorum claus-
tra plurimum obtigerit aptitudinis, vermine: generis nomen positum olim
fuit. Tria in hac sectione distinguuntur, Viverrae, Mustelae, Lutrae genera;
Plura etiam deposcere videtur specierum adhuc cognitarum multiplex,
nec tamen satis extricata, nec exhausta varietas.

(7)

4

vi APPENDIX.

reproduced so far as they relate to the newly named or newly

modified genera.

The newly established genera were named respectively (1).
Prosimia (adopted from Brisson and retained for the Lemurs) ;”
(2) Procebus (established for Lemur catta, Linn.);” (3) Tarsius
(universally accepted) ;* (4) Phalanger;* (5) Meles (not com.

21 ¢) Prosimiz nomen a Cel. Brisson introductum iis adhibeo Lemurem.
alias vulgatiori nomine signatis animalibus, que characterem generis re-
vera sustinent, segregaturus ea, que dentium distent fabrica, in generum
limitibus definiendis magni omnino facienda; Nec consanguineus huic
generi Pennanti Lemur flavus videatur, quem alienum quoque udicasse
modo laudatum Schreber (1. c. p. 146) moneo, ne forte solus, nimiove
ductus systematis amore, ita sentire videar. Commodius hance bestiam
censuerim ad tertiam referri emanuatorum sectionem, quorum sic novum
indicaverit cum manuatis vinculum; Ita vero generis peculiaris dignita-
tem sibi vindicaverit. p. 32.

2) Procebi genus statuendum Lemur Catta Linn. postulare visus est,.
dentium quippe fabrica satis a prosimiis distinctus, & reliqua forma mo-
ribusque etiam ab iis non nihil recedens. Singulare animal, cujus plures
nondum species noscantur, genere secerni, nec arcessitum, neque nimis
artificiosum iis videbitur, qui porro circumspicientes nullibi vel generum,
ordinumve, vel classium adeo, imo & regnorum in nature imperio tam
exequatum deprehendant modum, ut specierum quidam numerus ad ge-
nus statuendum necessarius habendus esset. Luculento satis argumento
fuerit humanum genus in species nequa guam dirimendum, vicinum
tamen polymorpho pithecino generi, nec homogeneus inmentorum orda
juxta pecorum ordinem generum feracissimum dignitate sua visus fuerit
excidere, neque demum longe quidem angustior mammalium classis pra
vermium insectorumve numerosa gente nulla habeatur. pp. 32-33.

3 y) Vix alio in genere, quam eo, quod Lemuris signari nomine con-
suevit, tot animalia occurrunt, alienissima licet ingenio, scriptorum tamen
arbitrio intrusa. Quod quidem novo mox specimine exemplum Tarsii
confirmat (J. C. P. Erxleben Syst. Regni Anim. p. 71. Lemur Tarsius.
Lips. 1777. 8.), animalis tarsis elongatis, unde nomen fortitum est, facile
agnocendi, nec tamen ea unive distincti nota, quam pro generis discrimine
docendo neutiquam sufficere, paulatina longitudinis plantarum in genere
rosorum ordini fubiecto obvia progressio commonstrat (P.S. Pallas Nove
Species Quadrupedum e glirium ordine. Erl. 1778. 4. p. 88. & p. 276. Quo
loco idem auctor Tarsium vovat Lemurem spectrum); Sed aliud & grave
quidem discernendi Tarsii generis e dentium diversa fabrica accedit argu-
mentum. Monendumque, dentes huius animalis, ex Oceani indici extremis
insulis oriundi, Belgis nomine macasarico Podje dicti, exploratis pluribus
speciminibus, paulo aliter, quam Jll. Daubenton enumerantur, deseribi
Jil. Pallas (L. cit. p. 275.) ‘ Primores nempe supra infraque tantum binos
maiusculos, obtusos, hinu caninos primarios supra a primoribus, quibus
vix longiores, remotos, infra magnos, primoribus approximatos, tum lania-
rios secundarios minores ubique binos, quorum supra anteriores minores.’””
pp. 33-34,

“* z) Phalanger ad Didelphidis genus, orientalis addito cognomine,
aliis relatus, (P. 8S. Pallas Miscellan. Zoolog Hag. Com. 1766, 4. p. 59.
Erxleben Syst. R. A. p. 79.) tum supra (p. 27s.) memorata dentium con-
ditione singulari, tum & fecundi planta digiti cum tertio coalitu prorsus
peculiari distinctissimus, genus sistit mamifeste satis discrepans, quin
nonnihil anomalum. p. 34.

(8)

APPENDIX. vii

mented upon); (6) Gulo (from Klein and not noted); (7) Melli-
vora (Act. Holm. 1777, t. 4, f. 3: not otherwise referred to);
(8) Nasua;* (9) Procyon;* (10) Glis (not of Erxleben, but em-

2 c¢) Quod Viverris, nasue & narice cognomine adiecto, Linneus
maluit adscribere (Syst. nat. T. L p. 64. 2.3. Holm. 1766. 8), ursini gen-
eris vicinie restituendum animal, at genere tamen, ut & Melem & Gulo-
nem, ab Urso distinguendum esse, tum ex pluribus aliis argumentis, tum
maxime ex dentium pedumque manifesta ad generaliorem quidem modum
cum ursino genere convenientia, eorumdem tamen momentorum ad spe-
cialorem modum sua singulis expensa discrepantia, legitime colligere mihi
videor, nec rationes ceterarum dotium obesse juto. Folliculus certe puto-
rius tum Nasue, tum Melis adstruende cum Viverris consanguinitati
(Blumenbach Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. 8. 96. 97. Gdtt. 1779. 8.)
nullus sufficit, cum nec Viverris omnibus, nec solis competat (Affinitatum
animalium Tab. Praes. J. Herrmanno. Resp. G. C. Wiirz. Argent. 1777 4)-
p. 35.

% d) Multiplice cum aliis comparatione hoc quidem animal obscuratuny
sepius quam illustratum fuit: Tam Prosimiz, tum Cani dotibus quibusdam
simile indicat Jllustrissimus Comes de Buffon (Hist. nat. gen. & part. T.
VIII. le Raton.), qui Melis quoque iunioris formam & staturam in eo dep-
rehendit. Nec. Jill. Daubenton (ib.) dissentit, qui preterea vulpini rostri
urget similitudinem. Meli adeo congener idem fecit animal Anatomic
miscellaneew auctor Major, qui folliculum ei putorium affinxit, ab aliis
scriptoribus reiectum, denuo autem & geminum quidem propositum auc-
tore Erxleben (1. ¢. p. 165), cui visum glandulas Daubentonio adnotatas,
iuxta intestinum rectum sitas, inque hoc, intra anum amplo utrinque
ostio hiantes in folliculos putorios transfigurare. Ad Ursum, nomine
lotoris addito Linneus retulit (Syst. Nat. T. I. p. 70.) ab ipso obser-
vatum descriptumgue animal (Der Kénigl. Schwed. Akad. d. Wiss. Ab-
handl. aus d. J. 1746. B. 9. S. 300 ff. Ilamb. 1753. fed gravia argumenta
opposuit & ipse avtopta Roloff (Mém. de l’Acad. Roi. Ann. 1756. Berl.
1758. p. 149. ss.) Nasu adfine idem animal in patria haberi, commune
utrique Coati nomen (J. de Laét novus orbis Lugd. Bat. 1633, fol. p. 553,
G. Marggravii de Liebstatt. Hist. rer. nat Brasilia Lugd. Bat. 1648. fol.)
indicat. Discrimen data opera exposuit laudatus Buffon (1. ¢.), vixque
alio, quam topographi, errore accidere potuit, ut Linneana huius bestie
descriptio ad Nasuz historiam in opere Buffoniano referretur. Cani, eiusve
speciei, vulpi, analogum domestica quoque compellatio (G. Charleton
exercitationes. Oxon. 1677. fol. p. 15. M. Catesby, nat. hist. of Carolina
&c. app. p. 29. Lond. 173. fol.) pronuntiat, nec valde abludit alia etiam-
num batvis Indiz occidentalis colonis familiaris, qui Boschho en den vocant,
teste Nob. Respondente, cui ibi commomorato notissimum animal fuit. Sed
denominationum, quas aliquando ineptissimus usus fovet, auctoritatem
minus tutam inter alia & Felis nomen Americans eidem animali inditum
commonstrat (J. D. Meyers, Vorstellung allerhand Thiere und ihrer Scelete
Nirnb. 1748, fol. T. IJ. t. 18.). Ex ipsa contemplatione nature huius
animalis manifesta eius cum olacibus necessitudo abunde elucescere vide-
tur; Nec sola argumento fuerit, qua plurimum valet, nasi sagacitas ( Schwed.
Abhandl. a. a. st.), qauum & reliquarum partium ingeniique congruentiz
sat luculenta prestent documenta. Ceterum & idem animal olacum cum
nocturnis adstruit viciniam, cum more quidem reliquorum sui cotus
avimalium subelongatis & arrectis metatarsis gaudeat, nec nisi digitis
tellurem, cum incedit, feriat, at plantis simul ita fabrefactis polleat, ut
gradum sistens, renitensve adpressis firmiter ad humuin talis potentius
se sustinere valeat. pp. 35-36.

35 (9)

vill APPENDIX.

bracing the Myoxi and other forms) ;” (11) Lagomys (an unnatu-
ral and undefined combination of forms with squat bodies, but
typified by species of Arctomys) ;*% (12) Procavia (equivalent to
Hyrax of Herrmann) ;” and (18) Rosmarus.°

New names were also conferred on genera retained with old
limits because they did not come up to the ideas of Storr in re-
spect to purity or aptness. These were, (1) Cataphracius (=
Dasypus, Linn.); (2) Pholidotus (= Manis, Linn.); (3) Aries
(= Ovis, Linn.) ;* (4) Taurus (= Bos, Linn.); and (5) Diodon
(= Monodon, Linn.).”

The elimination of the species necessarily connected new ideas
with the old genera from which they were rejected, and thus the
following were medified, but by implication rather than by distinet
diagnoses: (1) Simza (by the rejection of Prosimia, Procebus,
and Tarsius); (2) Ursus (by the exclusion of Meles, Gulo, and
Procyon); (3) Canis (Hyzna being excluded); (4) Viverra (by
the elimination of the Nasu); (5) Mustela (by the removal of
Gulo); (6) Mus (by the rejection of his “‘ Glires’”? and ‘‘Lago-
myes’’).*8

The other genera were retained from previous authors, viz. :

7 h) Glirium species eodem animo affero, nominibus potissimum JIL.
Pallas usus, qui singula hee animalia ad muris genus revocat: M.
tamaricinus. M. longipes. M. cafer. M. sagitta. M. jaculus. M. nitedula.
M. avellanarius. M. glis. p. 39.

27) Sequuntur in eundem finem nomina specierum, laudato Pallas
pariter ad mures tractarum, que mihi genus constituunt, Logomys, neo
Arctomys dictum, nam Lepori aptius, quam Urso, comparari posse vide-
antur. Dicende species, nominibus Ill. Pallas zque adhibitis, he sunt:
M. arenarius. M. songarus. M. furunculus. M. cricetus. M. accedula. M.
pheus. M. lagurus. M. gregalis. M. socialis. M. ceconomus. M. rutilus.
M. glareolus Schreberi. M. monax. M. marmota. M. empetra. M. arctomys.
M. citillus. M. lemmus. M. torquatus. M. hudsonius. M. talpinus. M. ca-
pensis. M. aspalax. M. typelus. p. 39.

2k) Procavie genus africanum animal constituit, ut patria, sic dotibus
quamplurimis a Cavie genere distinctum, Cavia capensis Ill. Pallas dic-
tum (Spicileg. Zoog. fascic. II. pag. 16, ss. Berol. 1767. 4.). p. 40.

80 q) Rosmari binos in superiori maxilla primores detexit Ill. Schreber
(Sdéugihiere. If. Abtheilung 5. 260.). p. 41.

31 The genera (1) Ovis and (2) Bos were also renamed independently,
many years afterwards, by Rafinesque in accordance with the same prin-
eiples (1) Arzes and (2) Taurus.

% ¢) Vulgari circa huius animalis fabricam errori nimium favere Mono-
dontis nomen videatur. p. 42.

33 9) Murini generis limites qui mihi statuantur, expeditissime speci-
erum brevis recensio explanabit; Sunt he: M. Castoreus (Castor Zibe-
thicus Linn.). M. amphibius. M. arualis. M. agrarius. M. saxatilis. M.
alliarius. M. minutus. M. betulinus. M. vagus. M. striatus. M. rattus.
M. musculus. M. sylvaticus. M. decumanus. M. pylorides. M. caraco M.
soricinus Hermanni. p. 39.

(10)

APPENDIX. ir

(a) from Linneus, the genera (1) Homo; (2) Didelphis; (3) Ves-
pertilio; (4) Sorex; (5) Talpa; (6) Hrinaceus; (7) Felis; (8)
Lutra; (9) Hystrix; (10) Castor; (11) Sciurus; (12) Lepus ;
(13) Bradypus; (14) Myrmecophaga; (15) Equus; (16) Came-
lus; (17) Cervus; (18) Moschus; (19) Sus; (20) Rhinoceros ;
(21) Hippopotamus; (22) Phoca; (23) Trichechus (= Manatus
of later authors) ;3* (24) Delphinus; (25) Physeter; and (26)
Balaena: (b) from Erxleben, the genus (1) Hydrocherus: (c)
from Leske, Lemur (= Galeopithecus, Pallas, and later writers) :*
from Brisson (who was not a binomial writer) the genera (1) Pro-
simia; and (2) Giraffa; and (d) from Steller, Manatus in a mod-
ified form.**

The punctuation, capitalization, and orthography of the origi-
nal are retained in the excerpts here given. The letters in italics
(c, etc.) before the notes are also repeated from the original foot-
notes. The words included in brackets [ ] in the tables are in-
serted by the present writer in explanation of the text.

34 ry) Obscurum animal Dugong [ Trichcchus] dictum, oppido a prace-
dente genere [ Rosmarus] distinctum & nomine distinguendum visum fuit.
p. 41.

35 y) Lemurum nomen, in agilissima adhuc memorata animalcula nullo
modo quadrans, aptius servari animali visum fuit, Lemuris rolantis nom-
ine auctoribus plerisque venienti, peculiaris autem sibi vindicanti generis
locum, cuius characterem paucis at nervose reddidit Cel. Leske (Anfangs-
griinde der Nuturgeschichte. I. Th. p. 121. Leipz. 1779. 8). p. 34

3 s) Stellero memoratum animal Manati quidem nomine signatum
(Nov. Comm. ac. sc. Petropol. T. II. pag. 302), ex descriptione potius ad
pinnatorum relegaverim phalangem. p, 41.

(11)

APPENDIX,

TABVLA GENERALIOR.

Imperii Natvre.
Regni Organici.
Reipvblica Animalivm.
Agminis Rybrisangvivm.
Acies Calidorum.

Classis I. Mammalivm.

CS & cS
& & &
& ae &
# # #
Phalanx I. Phalanx II. Phalanx III.
Pedatorum. Pinnipedum. Pinnatorum.
es
2 oe
# "Ry
& Byp
& as
fe aR
Cohors i. Cohors II.
Vnguiculatorum. Vngulatorum.
ee & ee &
& & & & bk
& & & & & &
& & & ok &
Ordo!l. Ordoll. Ordo III. OrdolI. Ordoll. Ordo Ill.
Primates. Rosores. Mutici. Jumenta. Pecora. Belluz.

(12)

APPENDIX. xi

[PHALANX I. PEDATA.]
[COHORS I—UNGUICULATA.]

TABULA SPECIALIOR A.

§ Sectiol. .
§ [Palmares. 31.]
§
§
§ Missus I. = Sectio II. .
§ Manuati. [Palmoplantares.32. ]

§ §
§ §
§ §

§ § Sectio III. 0
Mammalium [Plantares. 33. ]
Pedatorum
Vnguiculatorum
OFrad tome.

Primates.
§
§ Sectio I.
§ § [Nocturni. 35.]
§ §
§ §
§ § § Coetus I.

§ Missus II. § [Olaces. 35.]
Emanuati. — Sectio II. .
§ §
§ §
Coetus II.
§

(Unci. 36.]
§

§ Sectio III .
{ Verminei. 37.]

(13)

Homo [L.]

Simia [L.]
Prosimia [ Brisson. ]
Procebus [Storr. ]
Tarsius [Storr. ]
Lemur [Leske. ]

Didelphis [L.]
Phalanger [Storr.]

Vespertilio [L.]
Sorex [L.]

Talpa [L.]
Erinaceus [L.]
Meles [Storr. ]
Gulo [Storr. ]
Mellivora [Storr.]
Ursus [L.]

L Nasua [Storr. ]

Procyon [Storr. ]
Canis [L.]
Hyena [Storr.]

Felis [L.]

Viverra [L.]
Mustela [L.]
Lutra [L.]

xii APPENDIX.

TABVLA SPECIALIOR B.

ak Hystrix [L.]
ae

2k
xe Mus [L.]

Castor [L.)

+f Ordo II. Glis [Storr.]

Sciurus [L.]
Fes Rosores.

Mammalium se Lagomys [Storr. ]

Es Cauia [Klein. ]

aiden ta is Procauia [Storr. ]

Vuguiculatoram Lepus [L.]

Bradypus [L.]
Fe Ordo IIt. Cataphractus [Storr. ]
05 wiv wan ies Pholidotus [Storr. ]

Mutici.
“ aay Myrmecophaga [L.}

(14)

_ APPENDIX. xiii

TABVLA SPECIALIOR C.

[COHORS Il—UNGULATA.]

Ordo I.
§ EDS Sete atilve: is Equus [L.]
§ IJumenta.
§ Camelus [L.]
2 Giraffa [ Brisson. }
Mammalium § Aries [Storr. ]

Antilope [L.]
Taurus [Storr. }

Pedatorum mom Ordo Il.

Vungulatorum § Pecora Ceruus [L.]

§ L Moschus [L.]
§
§

§ Sus [L.]
Ordo III. Hydrocherus [Erxl. }
gio Rhinoceros [L.]
Bellus Elephas [L.]

Hippopotamus [L.]

[PHALANX II. PINNIPEDA.]

Phoca [L.}
Mammalia Rosmarus [Schreber. }
Bimniped aires seine ey ie det ble valte\iileti ce)! gre) ais Trichecus [L.]

Manatus [Steller ?]}

[PHLANX III. PINNATA.]

Delphinus [L. }

Mammalia Diodon [Storr. }
Ea Ca alee retiree ilicuiitre iesmietanenvam potas Physeter [L.]
Balena [L.]

4

(15)

VI.
ON THE NUMBER OF WORDS USED IN SPEAKING»
AND WRITING.
By EDWARD §. HOLDEN.
(Reap January 30, 1875.)

The question which I have proposed to myself is to determine
the size of my own vocabulary ; that is, to fix approximately the
number of words of which I may be supposed to be master. ‘To
do this accurately, two things are necessary : first, the collected
works of an author, and second, the time necessary to form a
complete concordance to these. In my own case neither of these
prerequisites is fulfrlled, and indeed, the object of the attempt is
not to fix with absolute certainty the number in question, but
simply to get an approximate solution, and if possible to deter-
mine the limit of error in the result. I approached the subject,
as almost every one will do, with the impression that this voca-
bulary was very small. The only basis for this opinion that I
know of, is a statement of Marsh that an intelligent man will use
in speaking and writing less than 10,000 words. My impression
was, that this number was too small, and it was to determine how
much too small that I undertook the research.

For my purpose I define a word to be a symbol printed in
capital letters in Webster’s Dictionary, edition of 1852.

In turning over the leaves of a dictionary one meets with three
classes of words: Ist, those which one is certain truly belong to
him and are constantly used in writing and speech; 2d, those
which one might use in writing or very formal conversation, but
which it requires a moment’s consideration to determine to include
or not to include in one’s vocabulary ; and 3d, those rare or extra:
ordinary words which one unhesitatingly rejects. It is to be noted,
however, that technical words are not all in this last class, although
a large part of this class is composed of them. For example, the
vocabulary of the geologist contains many technical words which
I never use in writing or speech, and this is true of other specialists;
so that the 3d class of words mentioned above would not include
the same words, by any means, for different members of this Society,

Literary men, however, would probably be nearly unanimous in
their selection of this third class. Perhaps, here is the place to
say that we ought to expect that the vocabulary of a literary man
of even the highest class, like Thackeray, would be smaller than
that of Huxley, for example. In counting the number of words in
the dictionary which are properly to be included as in habitual
use, one’s natural tendency is to include too many of the 2d
class spoken of, that is, too many words whose meaning is per-
fectly well understood, which would be intelligible if met with in
reading, and which yet might not be usedi a lifetime.

(16 )

ii APPENDIX.

I have sedulously endeavored to avoid this tendency ; and, in-
deed, I have gone over many of the pages previously examined,
finding not more than one per cent. of words wrongly marked as
my own.

I will give an account of my method of proceeding, asking
attention to its details. As the basis of the inquiry I chose
the unillustrated edition of Webster’s Dictionary of 18525; un.
illustrated, because the average number of words to a page could
be more easily had, as the page was not broken up by cuts. This
edition contains 1281 pages of defined words. I first proceeded
to find the relative frequency of the various letters of the alpha-
bet as the initial letters of words. This has of course been
often done, but I do not know where to refer to it. The number
of pages devoted to each letter in my edition is as below :—

A 90.6; B69.6; C136.0; D77.8; H 59.9; F 58.7; G 38.3;
He 44.1; 156.3; J 8.2; K6.7; L 40.2; M 58.5; N 19.6; O
27.6; P 106.1; Q 8.0; BR 69.7; S 150.5; T 64.3; U 35.6;
V 20.6; W 83.0; X 0.4; ¥ 2.9; 71.6. The tenths were esti-
mated, he order of frequency as initial letters is then :—

ih Sa Ph Oley 18 cles on 1p GR Ty Be esas o hl;
ile TW, Whe Wey 1s yeh slg ales, Tie 15) Gace VEU SiG ica ks:
O; 19, V; 20, N; 21, J; 22, Q; 23, K; 24, Y; 25, Z; 26, X.
The relative frequency can be deduced from the numbers first
given, and the further consideration that there were 1281 pages
of words in this dictionary.

My next step was to find the average number of words to a
page: to this end I counted—

10 pages in S and found 731 words
10 66 (73 C bc 66 655 (73
10 ae (a3 P ins its 163 66

1 “c bc K 6c 6c 9] 66

l ‘“ “ee Ye (a3 “cc 59 ca

1 “6 6c Z, ‘6 “cc 84 66
33 “ containing 2383“

1 page averages 72.2 words
The book contains 92,488 words.

I then proceeded to count the words that I use in writing or
speaking. This was done rapidly, yet, as I have said, it was en-
deavored to keep out all unusual words except such as I felt that
I had an undoubted right to retain.

Each word which in the text is printed in capitals was counted
once for itself, but each of its meanings was nol counted: except
that a verb whether transitive or intransitive was only once
counted, The counting was not done on a uniform plan; and I
will give each result as it was obtained, in order that a verifica-
tion can be had, if desired.

2 (17)

APPENDIX. lil

I first counted in A, 8, C, P the four letters most frequently
used, then in EH, H, L and others about the mean, and then in
K, Y, Z those which occur rarest as initials.

I. Il. Ill. IV. V.
Letter. Pages of Book. No, of Pages. Total Words. Words used.
4 (¢ zak pp. 1 to 16.6 16.6* 1199 500
1!8 CO OAS 979 eee 455 200
2 | C ) 162) ee ny 300 86
3 12 BQO) & 793 ne 300 107
9 ( F oy alan 463 2% 144 31
10 | M Gi Gl@ 717 2* 145 51
11 I UG 8X0) 82 591 2% 144 44
12 E OB Bed) 384 4% 289 115
13 H Bo BK) 554 4* 289 100
14 L OS Xt) 670 4% 289 110
15 G Ct One 493 2* 145 53
16 U CS TPT) OG) PATTI 2* 144 37
Wee (L NKY se 1248 “¢ «249 2% 145 29
23 K GSB), (02 632 4* 289 102
24 Y 3 UI) bee ah 59 20
25 Z CG NASTY eee Ban 84 14

Total, 4420 1599

N. B. The numbers prefixed to the letters in the first column denote the
order of frequency of those letters as initials.

This would give 33,456 words inmy vocabulary, and this seems
too great. I cannot see, however, how my process is not a fair
one. One point where I may be in fault, may be in the determi-
nation of the total number of words included. At the beginning
and at the end of each letter of the alphabet there is a blank
space, which I have estimated can hardly be more than 15-100
of a page on the average, or 4 or at most 5 pages in all. This
space has been counted as full, and hence we ought to subtract
from 92,488 = the total number of words, about 300 on this
account. Dr. Webster states in his preface to the first edition,
that it contains between 70,000 and 80,000 words; and in the
preface to the edition of 1840 it is stated that ‘‘several thousand”
words have been added. Probably there are at least 90,000 words
included: which would reduce the number of ‘‘ words used,”
slightly. he entire number of words in the latest editions of
Webster’s Dictionary is 110,000, and I am convinced that the
error in the concluded total number of words is not great.

It then becomes important to scrutinize carefully the other
term of the ratio, ¢. e., the number of words marked as used. As
I stated, on examining several pages of words which I marked
as used, I found an error of about one per cent.

Since my first scrutiny I have asked my friend Mr. Farquhar,

* The numbers in column IV, opposite numbers in column III, dis-
tinguished with asterisks, were derived by multiplying such discriminated
numbers by 72.2==the average number of words on a page.

(18)

iv _APPENDIX.

Assistant Librarian in the Patent Office, to count the number of
words which he would use on 8 of the pages previously counted by
me. He has done so, and on pp. 550 to 554 in H, where I find 100
le has marked 142; and on pp. 380 to 384, where I find 115, he
finds 131. This counting and selection was done in the most de-
liberate and critical way, and the excess of his numbers over mine
shows not only that his vocabulary is larger than mine, but it
further shows that my estimate was fairly made; and this is a
point I am very glad to have so clearly established.

I have a letter from the eminent Prof. Whitney, of Yale Col-
lege, on this subject, portions of which I quote: ‘‘I do not see
that your method is not one which should yield a tolerably accu-
rate result, nor am I disposed seriously to question the accuracy
of the result you have reached.” Prof. Whitney refers to Marsh,
Lectures on the English Language, p. 181-2, who says that one
person may be able to wield 50,000 of the 100,000 English words,
but that ‘few writers or speakers use as many as 10,000; ordi-
nary persons of fair intelligence not above 3000 or 4000.”

Since the receipt of Prof. Whitney’s note I have determined
from Mrs. Mary Cowden Clarke’s ‘“‘ Complete Concordance to
Shakspere” the number of words in his vocabulary. Here,
however, we have incomplete data, as ‘all nouns and verbs
spelled alike are placed under the same heading.”

IT find in—
App. 2and 3 86 words. F pp. 258 and 259 27 words.

TO Sui dM OOMNS eis Gel DOG. | LOST Go Daal.
CHS Gu eo laih eat ic eS 88) a an PO OO Malle Ne cs
Dy LES, dO moma as eo S86 fo Mo Siimlia tints
Fier OS CuO TGS ay he DSO SN cl ao Otol Mane
Counting also the words on the 35 pages, 1, 25, 50, 75, 100,
TT Paani 825, 850, I find 926 words.

Therefore 55 pages have 1555 words, or 1 page has 28.3 words.

There are 859.5 pages of such words, and hence Shakspere’s
vocabulary (with the important omission of all verbs which are
spelled like nouns) contained over 24,000 words.

A complete ‘ Concordance to the Poems of Milton” has been
published by Mr. Charles Dexter Cleveland, and I find that on
5 pages of this work there are 562 words, or 112.4 words to a
page. The number of words to each page is quite uniform, so
that five pages give a sufficiently accurate determination. The
results from each page below will show this.

p. 600 108 words.

GO Tne
602). 113)
p.603 114 «

preoaiae tat i

562 ‘ oraverage number of words to a page 112.4,

(19)

APPENDIX. Vv

There are 154.6 of such pages, and hence Milton, in his poems
alone, uses 17,877 words. His prose would yield a much larger
number, as any one who is acquainted with it will at once admit.

I have likewise examined Cruden’s “‘ Concordance to the Eng-
lish Bible,” in the same manner; there are 705.4 pages of
words, exclusive of proper names.

The number of words to a page is somewhat hard to estimate,
but this was done with great care, as below :—

pp. 524-563 = 10 pages contained 42 words.

pp. 602-611=10 “ 107
pp. 672-681—10 “ “ lg)
pp. 828-387 10 ee TOG N ss
pp. 446-455—10 « ce ipa
50 Ses

Therefore 1 page contains 102.2 “

Hence there are 7209 words in the English bible, exclusive of
proper names.

I have likewise treated the ‘Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon
Language” by the Rev. G. Bosworth, LL.D., ete., in “the same
manner. This Dictionary was compiled from the ‘Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle, and therefore contains only words actually used in writ-
ten speech. There are but a few which were not in full use
before A. D. 1100.

In the English Appendix to this work there are 93.8 pages of
English words, each of which has its analogue in Anglo-Saxon.

On p. 524 I find 121 words.
sO OM Sa igs
HE) PAB ZO as
6c p. 5Q7 é6 131 ivy
4 pages contain S03
1 page contains TO)

Hence the Anglo-Saxon vocabulary was 11,913 words; it must
be remembered that this is not strictly a dictionary, but rather a
concordance to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

In Mr. John Camden Hotten’s “ Dictionary of Slang” I find
10,000 words which are, or have been, used in a cant way. As
this is a dictionary, and fortunately not a concordance, it deserves
only this passing mention.

An examination of some of the dictionaries of the dialects of
the various shires of England would be interesting, but it re-
quires more time than I can give to it.

RECAPITULATION.

I. I find among all intelligent people an impression of this
kind: a child uses less than 1000 words, an ordinary man uses
from 3000 to 4000, an accomplished writer about 10,000.

(20)

vi APPENDIX.

This rests, so far as I can determine, upon the statement of
Marsh, already quoted.

II. We have seen that Shakspere has over 24,000, and that
Milton in his poems has over 17,000.

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle contains about 12,000 words, and
the English Bible, which is treating of quite special subjects,
contains over 7000 words.

III. The whole number of words in Worcester’s Dictionary is
104,000; in Webster’s last edition 110,000 (these numbers are
approximate). Many of these, in fact most of the additions since
1840, are technical words, the use of which is quite common
among educated people.

The only conclusion I feel at liberty to draw is, that Marsh’s
numbers are quite too small, and that 30,000 words is not at all
an unusual vocabulary.

The further pursuit of this subject has great interest, but I
feel obliged to leave it, at this point, to the philologists, who are
more peculiarly concerned. I shall hope that this slight paper
may call out remarks from those members of the Society who
are better informed upon this subject than I can be.

Norse.—Since writing the above the Hon. George P. Marsh
has written a letter to the New York Nation, in which he states
that in giving estimates of the vocabularies of men of various
classes he used word ‘‘in the sense in which, in such discussions,
all philologists would agree in employing it,” that is, ‘‘in esti-
mating the number of words I took only the simple or stem and
not the infected forms of the vocables.”

This of course explains the difference between Mr. Marsh’s
estimates and my own conclusions in the preceding paper, but
I have been induced to allow that paper to remain in its pre-
sent form, as it is an attempt to get a practical idea of the
number of words, in the sense in which I use the term, which
are in common use (counting, for example, lover, loveless, and
lovely, as three words, although they have the same ‘simple or
stem”). In this way we obtain a knowledge of the number of
signs for ideas, and the research may be of interest although not
of philological value.

I am the more inclined to leave the conclusions as they are,
as Prof. Hastman, U S. Navy, starting from the same basis, has
fully and carefully confirmed my principal conclusion, viz.: that
many men have vocabularies of over 30,000 words, and he has
shown that the probable error of his estimate is less than one
per cent.

May 30, 1875.

C21)

Vii.

ON THE MOVEMENTS CAUSED IN LARGE ICE-
FIELDS BY EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION, AS
ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE FORMATION OF ANTI-
CLINAL AND SYNCLINAL AXES IN GEOLOGICAL
FORMATIONS.

By MONTGOMERY C. MEIGS.
(PREPARED APRIL, 1869. READ FEBRUARY 27, 1875.)

Hearing the discussion of the National Academy upon the sec-
tion of the Appalachian formations contributed by Mr. J. P. Les-
ley, N.A., I was led to recur to certain phenomena which were daily
presented to my observation during two severe winters spent at
Rouse’s Point on the shores of Lake Champlain in latitude 45° N.

The winters in that region are severe. The thermometer is
frequently below 0 of Fahrenheit for days together. It seldom
descends below —30°, but —18° is a not uncommon temperature.
The lake is fed by streams which rise in the Adirondack and Green
Mountains, deriving their supplies from the heavy snows of those
ranges, where four feet of snow on a level is not uncommon. Its
waters are clear, cold, and still. No current exists to move the
ice, which is produced early and remains late. Its thickness, I
judge, averages about twenty-four inches. The lake is irregular
in form. Its shores and those of the islands it contains are gen-
erally rocky, with some beaches of drift gravel, sand, and boulders.

While at night the thermometer descends to —30°, during the
day the sun’s rays, shining through a dry, clear atmosphere, have
considerable power. The ice, a two feet thick stratum floating
freely upon the quiet water, lies between the water always at 32°
and the air varying from +32° to —30° and further subject to the
action of the direct rays of the sun. Its lower surface must
always retain the uniform temperature of freezing water or melting
ice (+82°). Its upper surface may take any temperature between
+32° and approximately —30°. Asice, when once formed, is sub-
ject to the same laws of expansion and contraction as other solid
bodies, the upper surface contracts under the low nocturnal tem-
perature, producing a tension which is suddenly relieved by ex-
tended cracks. Ona frosty night the great ice fields, 125 miles long
and from 1 to 10 miles in width, are continually cracking with a
rushing or roaring sound, which is one of the striking natural
phenomena of this northern region. A crack sometimes starts
apparently at the feet of a traveller on the ice, and its rushing

(22)

pedo
=e

APPENDIX.

roaring sound will run off till lost in the extreme distance. This
sound is almost continuous in very cold nights, and there must
be millions of such cracks formed.

All these, sooner or later, by the hydrostatic pressure, are
infiltrated with water, which, in the thin fissures, freezes imme-
diately. They can be seen of all sizes from a mere crack to some
inches in width where the ice has parted through its whole thick-
ness and yielded to the contractile effort. When the temperature
rises during the day, this cracking ceases. The ice expands to
suit its increased mean temperature, and its edges encroach upon
the shores more and more day by day. A permanent increase of
size results from the filling of the contractile fissures by frozen wa-
ter, and on all the beaches of the lake a ridge parallel to the shore
is formed above the level of the water of the lake, composed of
sand, gravel, stones, and even large boulders, which are each win-
ter pushed further and further up the beach, until they reach the
limit of the ice edge. This may be likened to a secular variation
or expansion, its period being the existence of the ice field.

The daily expansion and nightly contraction, arising from the
diurnal change of temperature of the ice, gives rise to effects
even more striking and important to the residents on the shores
than this annual variation. The lake is irregular in form. Its
shores, and those of the islands with which it ‘abounds, form wide
bays or lobes of water, separated from each other by narrower
straits, which are limited by opposite advancing or receding
points or reefs of Jand or of rock. One bay or lobe three or four
miles in width and several miles in length will be connected with
the next by a narrower portion, perhaps only a mile in width.
In the contraction and expansion of these great fields the weaker
lines, or lines of least resistance, are across these constrictions, and
it is along these lines, which are the same year after year, that
the principal visible effects of diurnal expansion and contraction
are to be observed. The ice breaks or parts on these lines, some-
times leaving an open crack or line of water several feet in width,
difficult to cross on foot or in the carriole, as the northern sledge
is called. The common winter road of the shore inhabitants is on
the ice; and I have often, at certain well-known points, driving
out early in the morning, found an open crack difficult to pass.
Returning in the evening, after the heat of the day had produced
its effect, the edges ofthe ice would be found to have met and in-
flected either upwards or downwards to such a degree that an axe
would be needed to effect a passage.

This action is to be seen winter after winter at the same places,
and the formation of the ridge or gutter is observed by all, for
all are put to inconvenience and sometimes in peril by their move-
ments. When the edges of the ice fields happen to bend down-
wards under the effecis of expansion, the passage is most danger-
ous, I have seen horses, approaching too near the edge con-

(23 )

ra

APPENDIX. lil

cealed by a thin film of ice which is generally formed over the
exposed water surface, slip into the water and lose their lives.
Such accidents are common, though not often fatal. The horse
is generally choked by a strap round his neck to stop his strug-
gles, and while thus quieted he is dragged out by the efforts of
the driver, and soon recovers on the slacking of the strap.

When the edges of the ice rise a passage is hewn by means of
an axe. Looking at the Appalachian section of Mr. Lesley, it
seemed to me that a section of these ige fields was a model, on a
small scale it is true, yet several miles in length and width, of the
rock strata which are there represented.

The same solid field floating upon a liquid ocean of constant or
nearly constant temperature, exposed now on its upper surface to
the atmosphere and to empty space, but at some former time
covered by many thousand feet in thickness of ice, which has.
eroded the ridges and filled the valleys; in some places crimped
by an evident increase in dimensions, in others forced up into
ridges or depressed into valleys, anticlinal and synclinal axes,
but these greater disturbances occupying only 175 miles of a
cross section or profile 3000 miles in length.

The filling of the ice cracks by water which freezes is repre-
sented by the dykes of igneous or aqueous rock which abound in
the geological profile. All these entered in a fluid condition,
then solidified, and increased the dimensions of the field or forma-
tion.

Changes of temperature, not diurnal as in the ice fields, but.
secular, would produce the ridges and valleys in the rocks as the
diurnal changes produce their models in the ridges and gutters of
the ice fields.

It is well to look for the smallest sufficient cause in reasoning
upon observations of natural phenomena; and as Lyell holds that
most of the changes on the earth’s surface may be accounted for
by causes and operations still seen in action, I have thought it
worth while to record these observations, forced upon my attention
during my daily rides for two seasons upon a frozen lake, as illus-
trating and accounting for a part of the contortions of the earth’s
surface.

Some sketches on the accompanying page illustrate the more
common physical phenomena herein described, :

(24)

lV APPENDIX.

A. Crack in the ice on a cold night or morning.
AIR. —30U° to +320

D. Edge of ice, showing stones and earth driven up the beach.

CC CC CC. Cracks filled with water, and frozen.

26 (25 )

NONE

DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES OF FOSSIL PLANTS
FROM ALLEGHANY CO., VIRGINIA; WITH SOME RE-
MARKS ON TEE ROCK SEEN ALONG THE CHESA-
PEAKE AND OHIO RAILROAD, NEAR THE WHITE
SULPHUR SPRINGS OF GREENBRIER COUNTY, WEST
VIRGINIA.

BY F. B. MEEK.
(Reap June 15, 1872.)

While on a visit last summer at the White Sulphur Springs
of Greenbrier County, West Virginia, I saw, in the possession of
a gentleman near that place, a beautiful specimen of a fossil fern,

that had been found at Lewis’s tunnel, on the Chesapeake and

Ohio Railroad, some six miles southeast of the springs. Being
much impressed with its elegant form, and fine state of preserva-
tion, I concluded to stop at the locality on my return home, with
the view of examining the rocks, and collecting such specimens
as could be found; and, while there, I succeeded in procuring
the species described in this paper.*

The masterly preliminary reports and ‘papers of Prof. William
B. Rogers, on the territory now composing Virginia and West
Virginia, have rendered the grand general features of the geology
of those States so familiar to most scientific readers, that any
extended remarks on that subject are unnecessary here.f For
the information, however, of those who may never have visited
this interesting mountain region, as well as to convey a more
clear idea of the geological horizon of the fossils under considera-
tion, it may be proper, before proceeding to describe these plants,
to state a few of the details of the geology and topography of the
country immediately surrounding the springs, as well as for a few
miles west of the same, and eastward along the railroad to the
locality of Lewis’s tunnel, where these fossils were discovered.

* IT am under obligations to Gen. W. C. Wickham, Vice-President of
C. and O. Railroad, for a letter to the conductors of passenger trains, in-
structing them to stop and allow me to get off at any points I might wish
to examine along the road; alsoto H. D. Whitcomb, Esq., Chief Engineer
of the road, and to Maj. Peyton Randolph, Chief Assistant Engineer, for
accurate maps of portions of the country along the same, and for other
information. I am also indebted to Mr. J. J. Gordon, one of the contractors
of Lewis’s tunnel, and to Mr. Terrence McGlone, for fine specimens of the
fossil plants found at that place.

} It is much to be regretted that Prof. Rogers’s final reports on the
Geology of Virginia, which I understand were prepared in much detail,
were never published.

(26)

APPENDIX. il

In the first place it may be stated that these springs are
situated in a narrow valley, two thousand feet above tide, near
the eastern margin of Greenbrier County, West Virginia, and
also within a few miles of the dividing line between Virginia and
West Virginia. A little to the northwestward of the inclosed
grounds at the springs, which are not situated quite in the lowest
_ part of the valley, flows Howard’s creek, a beautiful, perfectly
clear mountain stream, that runs westward into Greenbrier
River, a tributary of the Great Kanawha. Almost immediately
on the southeast side of the grounds, and at a little greater
distance across the valley to the northwestward, mountains,
clothed with pines and various deciduous trees, rise from twelve
to fifteen hundred feet above the valley; that to the northwest-
ward being composed, at least near its base, of shales and flags
of the age of the Hamilton Group (including the Marcellus
shale) of the New York series; while that on the southeastward,
for five or six hundred feet above its base, is composed of the
same formation, with heavy beds of Chemung strata above, the
whole dipping at a high angle to the southeast, and containing
many characteristic fossils. To the southward Kate’s Mountain
is in sight, at a distance of two miles; while Greenbrier Mountain
bounds the view on the west, within a mile or so of the springs.
Four to five miles to the eastward, the Alleghany Mountains
proper occur, the springs being west of the principal crest of this
range, in the midst of a district abounding in mineral springs of
various kinds and temperatures.

The grandeur of the scenery of this region, its pure mountain
air, always comparatively cool and pleasant during the hottest
part of the season at this altitude, together with the well-known
medicinal properties of its waters, and the elegant and ample
preparations for the accommodation of large numbers of visitors,
render this a delightful place for invalids and seekers of pleasure
and comfort to while away the sultry months of summer.

As stated by Prof. Rogers, these springs issue directly from
a local uplift of rock of the age of the Oriskany sandstone of the
New York series ; but so near the junction of this with the overly
lower black shales at the base of the Hamilton group, as to ren-
der it probable that the water derives its sulphurous properties,
and possibly some of its salts, from the latter.*

* According to Prof. Rogers’s analysis, the solid matter left by the
evaporation of 100 cubic inches of this water, at a temperature of 2120
Fah., was 65.54 grains, composed as follows :— ;

Sulphate of lime 0 : b : . 31.680 grains.
Sulphate of magnesia : ; : . 8.241
Sulphate of soda 3 . . 9 - 4,050 f
Carbonate of lime . 6 ¢ : of wil eayey0) ae
Carbonate of magnesia. : : - 0.506 ne
Chloride of magnesium . 6 : 5) ONO PLL be
Chloride of calcium . 0 . 0.010 mn

Cay

lil APPENDIX.

The exposed portions of the Oriskany beds here are not, as is
often the case further north, composed of sandstones, but consist,
at least mainly, of a rough, yellowish-gray mass of highly cherty
strata, in some parts passing almost into a quartz rock. Although
little exposed at this place, this rock evidently forms almost the
entire bulk of a low hill, or ridge of oval form, and a few hundred
yards in length, included as a part of the north side of the orna-.
mented grounds about the springs. This hill is depressed on
top and covered by a natural growth of shade trees, and has been
tastefully laid out into walks and winding paths, provided with
occasional rustic seats for the accommodation of visitors. Its
summit is perhaps not more than ninety to one hundred feet above
the lowest part of the valley on the north, around which side it is.
more or less precipitous; while to the southward it slopes down
more gradually to the lower parts of the grounds, laid out into:
winding walks and drives, with intervening spaces of grassy
sward, shaded at intervals by clumps of spreading oaks, elms,
and other trees. Along the entire length of its southern slope a

Chloride of sodium . . : : . 0.226 grains.
Protosulphate of iron . . . - 0.069 fs
Sulphate of alumina . 6 0.012 s
Earthy phosphates a trace

Azotized organic matter, blended with a
larger proportion of sulphur, about - 0.005 i
Iodine, combined with sodium or magnesium, a trace.

The volume of each of the gases in a free state in 100 cubic inches of
the water, he found to be as follows :—

Sulphuretted hydrogen
Nitrogen . 6 :
Oxygen . .
Carbonic acid

4 ° tn OLGG
5 : ESS
. ‘ - 0.19
9 weyssod

The water is perfectly clear, and flows copiously; and, although appear-
ing cool to the taste when drank during the warmer part of a summer's:
day, it is, as first shown by Prof. Rogers, properly speaking, a thermal
water, its temperature, though somewhat variable, never being less than
about nine, and sometimes as much as nearly thirteen degrees Fah.,.
above the mean annual temperature of the air at the locality and altitude.
That is, its temperature varies from 61° to 65° Fah. ; while the mean tem-
perature of the air, as determined by seven years’ observations under the
direction of the Smithsonian Institution, at Lewisburg, a few miles west of
the springs and at a little lower elevation, is, Iam informed by Prof. Henry,
52.20 Fah. Most of the mineral springs of this region, especially those
that issue from anticlinal axes of the strata, are, as observed by Prof.
Rogers, thermal waters, from which fact we may infer that they most.
probably arise from considerable depths, and owe their temperature to
the internal heat of the earth.

The White Sulphur is, I believe, the only proper thermal water in the
State, that is at the same time rather strongly impregnated with sulphur.
When freely drank, it acts as a mild cathartic and diuretic ; but its most
valuable properties are its alterative powers in chronic diseases of various
kinds, for the relief of which it has long been celebrated.

(28 )

APPENDIX. iv

continuous excavation has been made to form a terrace, for the
reception of a long row of neat one- and two-story cottages, which
are, at places, almost hidden from view by shade trees.

At the eastern end of this terrace, just behind the cottages, as
well ag along the broad walk winding around that end of the hill,
the dark Devonian shales belonging at the base of the Hamilton
group of the New York series, are seen dipping off at a high
angle to the southeastward. But on following the terrace west-
ward behind the cottages, we soon come to a low nearly con-
tinuous outcrop of the Oriskany beds, dipping at the same high
angle as the shale mentioned, to the southeastward. ‘This rock
can be traced to the west end of the hill on this side, and also
forms high precipitous exposures around its northern side, one
of which has been fancifully called the ‘‘lover’s leap.” At the
western base of the hill, it is likewise again seen in the walk
leading down to the bath-houses, where it presents almost a
flinty appearance. Again it appears just below the principal
spring, some ten or fifteen feet higher than at the bath-houses,
forming the bed of the little stream running from the spring—
being here, in places, whitened by the deposit of hydrated sulphur
left by the water trickling over its surface. The bottom of this
spring is also formed of this rock, and it is a little exposed along
the side of a road, at a somewhat higher elevation, about forty
or fifty yards south of the same.

This last seems to be about the end of the exposed part of this
little uplift of the Oriskany formation here, in a southwestward
direction, the overlying shales being met with in a hill on this
side behind another row of cottages situated along its north-
eastern slope.

A low naked knob, only about twelve feet in height, of the
lower black shales, is also seen on the immediate margin of
Howard’s creek, some sixty or seventy yards west of the springs,
which, as already intimated, are situated at the western and low-
est part of the grounds. This exposure is hardened, contorted,
and crumpled as if it had been kneaded together by some power-
ful agency while in a yielding or semiplastic condition.

Another elevation at the northeast side of the grounds, called
“Prospect hill,” rises gradually to about the height of that
already mentioned on the north, and is also covered by shade
trees and laid out into walks; its southwestern slope being like-
wise occupied by a row of elegant two-story cottages; which,
with those already mentioned, and others on the south side,
surround the central part of the ornamented grounds in which
the large hotel is situated. So far as I could see, this last-
mentioned hill seems to be composed entirely of the shales and
flags of the Hamilton group, of different shades of color.

The exposures here show that the strike of this little uplift of
Oriskany and the overlying shales, is northeastward, and south-

(29)

Vv APPENDIX.

westward, or parallel to the general trend of the ranges of the
whole Appalachian region, as is most generally the case (local
flexures excepted) with the anticlinal axes throughout this dis-
trict.

As there are no corresponding Oriskany beds seen just on the
northwest of this uplift, dipping in the opposite direction, and it
is evident that such material could not have been worn away by
Howard’s Creek, the immediate valley of which directly inter-
venes between this hill and the mountain, composed mainly, if
not entirely, of Hamilton and perhaps Chemung group beds on
that side, it would seem that there may be a slight local inequality
in the elevation of the strata here, along the opposite sides of a
fracture. Whether this axis brings to view the Oriskany beds
further northeastward, along the opposite side of the valley on
the line of strike, I did not ascertain by personal observation,
as I did not examine the mountains in that direction. I infer,
however, from Prof. Rogers’s remarks that it does, and this would
indicate an oblique fracture of these beds, because the valley of
Howard’s Oreek, which crosses the strike obliquely, could hardly
have been cut through such a rock by that stream.

For some time I was unable to find any recognizable fossils in
the Oriskany beds here, though I had seen some obscure casts
and moulds of brachopods in the cherty beds along the little
stream running from the springs. After diligent search, however,
I succeeded in finding, near the bath-house, behind the cottages,
at the west end of the hill above mentioned, imperfect casts of
the well-known Oriskany shells Spirfer arenosus, Meristella lata,
and moulds of Rensselaeria ovoides ?

The deep.cuts of the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad through
the spurs and ridges of the mountains along the south side of the
valley here, afford a very fine opportunity to study the Hamilton.
group shales and more or less slaty beds, which seem to be of con-
siderable thickness, and from near the springs dip at various angles
to the southeastward, excepting where they are locally flexed and
contorted. As the railroad runs close along the south side of
the grounds, some of these deep cuts are within a few hundred.
yards of the hotel. One of these, in a direction nearly south from
the springs, and almost on a line with the strike of the Oriskany
uplift, but at a higher elevation than the nearest exposures of
this rock immediately at the springs, shows the black Hamilton
shale at the bottom, much contorted, with many polished surfaces.
caused by the slipping of one part upon another at the time of the
upheaval, or during other disturbances of the beds. As freshly
laid open by the excavations in progress when I was there, these:
dark shales emitted, under a noon-day sun, a sulphurous odor,
suggesting the probable origin of the sulphuretted hydrogen of
the springs, that have their source, as already stated, near the
connection, of these shales with Oriskany formation.

(30)

APPENDIX. vi

I saw no traces of any kind of organic remains in these lower
dark shales, excepting a few trails, apparently of annelids, but.
they doubtless owe their dark color mainly to minutely com-
minuted particles of organic matter, perhaps chiefly of marine
plants. From their position, however, and general appearance,
there is little or no reason to doubt that they represent the Mar-
cellus shale of the New York series; which, although sometimes |
viewed as a distinct formation, may perhaps be properly con-
sidered a subdivision of the Hamilton group. Here these dark
beds are seen to shade upward into various lighter colored shales,
and flags, presenting different shades of drab, olive, and dull gray, -
and bluish-gray. In some parts there are intercalated layers of
various thickness and harder texture, composed of variable pro-
portions of arenaceous and argillaceous matter. These latter
harder layers are usually of dull gray color, or often on fresh
fractures, bluish-gray, and, as may be seen in other cuts further
eastward and westward, increase in proportion to the more shaly
portions as we ascend in the series. At some places, however,
higher in the series there are seen beds of dark shale. The lighter
colored shaly beds above the lower dark shales are often quite
soft, and are dug out along the railroad in small rhomboid blocks
that soon crumble under exposure to atmospheric agencies.

Fossils seem also to be rather rare here in the lighter colored
beds of the Hamilton group, near the bases of the mountains, in
the immediate vicinity of the springs, but I succeeded in finding,
in some of the harder layers at several places along the cuts of
the railroad, and up the side of the mountain to the southeastward,
casts and moulds of the well-known Hamilton species, Spirifer
mucronatus, and Orthis Vanuxemit, along with Martinia umbo-
nata, Atrypa reticularis, A. aspera, a flattened Strophomena and
a smooth Avicula or Pierinea.

From what has already been said, it seems that there are here
no representatives of the Upper Helderberg limestones or grits
of the New York series; the black shales at the base of the
Hamilton group being found resting directly against and upon
the Oriskany.

West of the Springs, the lower dark shales are seen along the:
base of the mountains for a mile or more, on the right or north-
west side of the valley, dipping at high angles to the northwest-
ward, or at places locally tilted vertically, or variously flexed and
distorted as if by lateral pressure, as well as from upheaval.
The direction of the valley here is southwestward, but within a
short distance its direction becomes nearly east and west, and five
miles below, it curves around more nearly to the north. The rail--
road sweeps around the south side of this curve, cutting through
several spurs and ridges of the mountains on that side of the
valley, at an elevation of some fifty feet above its bottom. Its’
direction for several miles below the springs being very obliquely

(31)

vil APPENDIX.

across the axis of elevation, the cuts continue in the lighter
colored shales and harder layers, which are at places seen contorted
and dipping locally in different directions. As the road curves
around to the northwestward, however, it crosses the strike of
the strata less and less obliquely, so that, although a descending
grade, it rapidly passes from (geologically) lower to higher
strata, as it turns more nearly in the direction of the dip.

I found Hamilton types of fossils for a mile or more below the
springs, but beyond this my examinations in that direction were
not sufficient to determine exactly where the Hamilton ends, in
going down the valley. To the westward, the harder less shaly
beds were noticed to increase, but no very abrupt or strongly
marked lithological changes were observed near the bases of the
mountains, until about four to four and a half miles below the
springs, by the curve of the road, near which point some whitish,
rather coarse sandstone, at places containing pebbles of white
quartz, was seen along the sides of the mountains, in rather massive
beds, dipping at a high angle to the northwestward. Some half
mile or less further on, in a nearly northwestward direction, the
dip brings this sandstone down to the bottom of the valley. A
deep cut at this place, at the entrance of a tunnel some forty
to fifty feet above the sandstone, penetrates hard bluish-gray,
more or less gritty beds, alternating with softer crumbling red-
dish, and, in places, greenish strata, in which argillaceous matter
seems to predominate.* I saw no fossils here, excepting frag-
ments of black vegetable matter, but I was impressed with the
resemblance of these beds, and the red clays some of them form
by disintegration, to some of those seen in the Catskill Moun-
tains of New York, formerly referred to the Old Red Sandstone,
but which, since Col. Jewett’s discovery of Chemung fossils high
in those mountains, have been mainly included in the Chemung
group of the New York Devonian. 1 have the impression, how-
ever, that the beds penetrated by this excavation are at least as
high in the series as the Old Red, or possibly somewhat higher, as
there must be, owing to the dip here, a very considerable thick-
ness of strata between them and the Hamilton group seen further
up the valley. Being at the time in rather feeble health, I did
not attempt to make the necessary examinations to ascertain the
exact limits of the groups here, and only allude to the rocks seen
in this cut, on account of their close similarity in lithological
characters, to those containing the plants described in this paper
from Lewis’s tunnel, about six miles to the southeast of the
springs; especially as the reverse of dip, to the southeastward
from the springs to the last-mentioned locality, would also indi-

* It is probable that these beds and the whitish sandstone seen below
them, owing to the general inclination of all the rocks here, rise to the
summits of the mountains, some miles further eastward, on the west side
of the valley, and nearer the springs, than where I saw them.

(32)

dQ:

PLATE I,

. 1. LEPIDODENDRON SCOBINIFORMIS.
A part of one of the smaller branches, showing the cha-
racter of the surface scars of the same.
\

g. 2, CYCLOPTERIS (ARCH ZOPTERIS) ALLEGHANENSIS.
2a. A part of a frond, natural size.
2b. One of the pinnules magnified, to show the nervation. —

ig. 3. CYCLOPTERIS VIRGINIANA.

3a. Part of a frond, natural size.

3b. Outer extremity of one of the pinne.

3c. One of the pinnules magnified, to show the nervation.

y 4, CARPOLITHES,

PLATE IT.

Fig. 1. Cycnoprsris (ARCH ZOPTERIS) LESCURIANA.
la. A part of a frond, upper side, reduced somewhat more than
one-eighth diameter in size.
1b. One of the pinnules magnified, to show the nervation.
lc. A small part of the rachis magnified, to show its rugose
character,

APPENDIX. viii

cate that the beds at these two excavations occupy about the
same position in the series.

Returning to the springs, which are situated in the axis of
elevation, we find that several deep cuts and tunnels along the
railroad, just east of the same, present fine sections of the Ham-
ilton group shaly beds, with more or less of harder and more
compact gray layers intercalated. The more shaly softer beds
here present the usual light-drab and grayish tints, but at one
place I noticed some very dark shale. Generally fossils seem to
be rare here also, along the cuts of the road, though in some of
the harder more arenaceous beds, within about one mile of the
springs, I found casts of a few Hamilton types.

Between this and Alleghany tunnel, three and a half miles
southeast of the springs by a right line, I only saw the rocks in
passing along on the cars. As already stated, the dip of the
strata east of the springs is to the southeastward, with the excep-
tion of local distortions, apparently all the way to Lewis’s tunnel
and beyond; and as the direction of the road between these two
places is nearly, though not exactly, the same as the dip, in
coming eastward, we ascend again rather rapidly in the series, the
inclination of the strata being at a pretty high angle. With
local exceptions, the beds become less shaly, with a larger pro-
portion of hard layers in coming eastward. At the west end of
Alleghany tunnel, which is seven-eighths of a mile in length, and
at nearly the same actual elevation as the springs, I saw gray
and olive shales, with some more compact arenaceous layers,
tilted and much confused, some parts standing nearly in a verti-
cal posture, as if crowded together by lateral pressure. Similar
shaly beds seem also to occur at some points in the tunnel, as it
has been found necessary to wall up and arch it over with masonry
at places.

At the east end of this tunnel there is a long open cut, with
vertical walls on each side, in which the strata are seen to be
more compact, and show little of the shaly structure. They
generally present a bluish-gray tint on fresh fractured surfaces,
and dip to the southwestward at an angle of from 45° to 50°
below the horizon. Where long exposed to atmospheric agencies,
however, above the cut, on the slope of the mountains, they
weather to a light yellowish-gray color, but sometimes show rusty
surfaces, when broken. At one piace, a little above the east end,
and on the south side of this cut, I found a mould of the ventral
valve of a Spirifer agreeing exactly with that of the more ex-
tended forms of S. mucronatus. Associated with this, however,
were numerous casts of the interior, and moulds of the exterior,
of the Chemung species S. mesacostalis, agreeing in all respects
with the transversely extended variety of that shell, as found in
New York, not only in form, surface markings, and the charac-
teristic mesial rib, but also in having a deep slit in casts of the

3 (33 )

ix APPENDIX:

rostral cavity, left by a prominent, narrow, internal ridge or sep-
tum, similar to that seen in Spiriferina. In the same beds with
these, I also found several casts agreeing well with the Chemung
species Letorhynchus mesacostalis, and Orthis impressa, together
with the Chemung and Hamilton forms Atrypa reticularis and
Martinia umbonata: likewise a small hemispherical Productus,
a small plicated Rhynchonella, and an Avicula or Pterinea, like
A. spinigera.

From such an assemblage of fossils, it can scarcely be doubted
that these beds belong to the horizon of the Chemung group of
the New York Devonian series. It is true, Spirifer mucronatus,
is, I believe, not there known above the horizon of the Hamilton
group, but Prof. Henry D. Rogers states that it occurs in the
Chemung in Pennsylvania, while the associated species form
together a group of fossils nowhere, so far as I am informed,
ever found below the horizon of the Chemung.

About half a mile east of the locality where the above-men-
tioned fossils were found, I collected from loose pieces of fine-
grained, gray, somewhat gritty rock, along the bed of a little
mountain stream, a Schizodus apparently identical with a New
York Chemung species; and from a cut a few hundred yards
further eastward, from a similar rock in place, several bivalves
like Chemung forms, along with casts of the well-known Chemung
species Spirifer disjunctus.

The beds all along here continue to dip at the same high angle
to the southeastward, and become rather more gritty in that
direction; while immediately east of the last-mentioned locality,
small masses of whitish, more or less pebbly sandstone had slidden
from the slope above the road. This material seems, however,
scarcely to form a continuous bed here, but apparently passes
into fine-grained, hard gray rock, nearly or entirely without peb-
bles. This, more or less pebbly and at places whitish grit, is
very probably the same seen dipping to the northwestward, five
miles below the springs on Howard’s Creek, though here it seems
to be much less developed as a distinct mass from the other beds.

At a point some three-fourths of a mile east of the Alleghany
tunnel, exposures were seen along the road, of rather massive
beds of hard, bluish-gray, more or less gritty rock, alternating
with softer crumbling material of brownish color, the whole being
much like the beds seen in the cut five miles below the springs.
At one place, thin local seams of dark shale, and some little coal
were seen intercalated among these rocks. A little east of this
the road curves around to the left, in a northeast direction, and
enters a long open cut, leading to the southwestern end of Lewis’s
tunnel; and it was at the bottom of this excavation that the
plants under consideration were found.

The base of this excavation is here perhaps some twenty odd
feet lower than the exposures containing the thin seams of dark

(34)

APPENDIX. x

shale and coaly matter already mentioned; but I am inclined to
think it very nearly, if not exactly at the same geological horizon,
as the dip of the strata would apparently bring those seams down
to this level. The direction of the cut being more nearly par-
allel with the strike of the strata than the general course of the
road west of this curve, the beds dip more obliquely across the
excavation, and at the point where the laborers were at work
when I was there, a thin seam of black, more or less shaly matter,
containing at places a few inches of coal, was seen passing across
the bottom of the cut. This seam of bituminous shaly matter is
very irregular in thickness, being in some places a foot or more
thick, but soon thinning out to a few inches. The included coal
is also even more irregular, being sometimes several inches in
thickness, and again thinning to a mere streak of black bitu-
minous shaly matter, or sometimes entirely disappearing. _Where
pure and not crushed,* it often presents a somewhat lustrous
appearance like anthracite, but it burns with a bright flame that
shows it to be bituminous or semi-bituminous. Of course it
does not exist in sufficient quantities to be made available for any
practical purposes, but its occurrence here among these older
strata, so far beneath the horizon of the true Coal measures, and
in connection with so many beautiful fossil plants, is, to the geo-
logist, an interesting fact, as it shows that similar physical con-
ditions to those that gave origin to our great widely extended
coal-beds of the later Carboniferous period, prevailed locally
here, at least for a comparatively brief period of time, long
before the true coal-producing epoch.

The plants found associated with this coal occur both in the
more or less dark-colored shaly matter, and in the fine-grained
argillaceous and slightly gritty harder rock just below it, as well
as above. The wonderfully perfect condition of the most deli-
cate fronds of the ferns found here, shows that these plants could
not have been drifted any great distance, by streams or ocean
currents, before being buried beneath the fine sediment now form-
ing the rocks in which they are imbedded, but that they must
have grown at least near the locality where they are now found.
Hence it is evident that while the vast accumulations of sedi-
mentary matter composing these mountain masses, were being
deposited upon a gradually sinking ocean bottom, there were
shores, and perhaps islands near, that supported a growth of
terrestrial vegetation. Indeed it is probable that even at some
of the very spots where the coal is found, the bed upon which it
tests was raised slightly above the surface of the sea, and that
most of the plants of which the coal is formed, as well as those
with which it is associated, may have grown very nearly, or pos-

* Being a much softer material than the hard rocks above and below,
this seam of coal and shaly matter has, at some places, been crushed by
the movements of the beds under tremendous pressure,

(35)

xi APPENDIX.

sibly in some cases exactly where they are now found. Of course
there were many subsequent oscillations of level, by which much
of our continent was sunk deep enough beneath the ocean level,
to receive thousands of feet in thickness, of later deposits, and
again raised to its present elevation.

The walls of the excavation at the bottom of which these plants
were found, are composed of the same fine-textured, more or less
hard, gray and bluish-gray, argillaceous, slightly gritty beds, as
some of those containing the plants, for ten or twelve feet above
the bottom of the cut; and farther up, apparently much the same
kind of rocks continue for thirty or forty feet, alternating with
beds of softer, crumbling, brownish-red material, disposed to form
red clays by disintegration. The nature of the rocks composing
the mountains here, above this last-mentioned horizon, was not
determined by examination; and no organic remains, excepting
those of the plants collected here, were seen at this locality.

About two hundred yards to the northeastward from the point
where the plants already mentioned were taken out at the bottom
of the cut, excavations were in progress in the tunnel, by means
of a vertical shaft sunk on an elevation more than one hundred
feet above the actual horizon of the point where the plants
alluded to above were found. The rock thrown out of this shaft
is a very hard, compact, rather coarse-grained, massive grit, of a
light bluish-gray color, differing from any of the beds exposed
in, or directly over, the cut at the plant locality., It is brought
up from the shaft generally in large, irregular massive blocks, as
blasted from the beds. In these I saw many fragments of stems
and branches of trees, most of which are small, but I obtained
several specimens of moderate size, one of which consists of a
fragment broken at both ends, measuring twenty-two inches in
length, and three to four inches in diameter. Some crushed ex-
amples seen in the rock appear to have belonged to individuals
of considerably larger size. All of these specimens are coated,
as it were, by a bark-like covering of shining coaly matter, while
inside of this nothing but the same hard, gritty material compos-
ing the surrounding matrix occurs. Generally no well-defined
markings are seen either on the surface of this coaly matter, or
on the rock within. On one of the specimens, however, obtained
here, there are pits closely resembling, in size, form, and arrange-
ments, those of the genus Sfigmaria.

The absence of surface markings on most of these specimens is
perhaps due, in part, to the fact that they were drifted and con-
sequently abraded before being deposited here, and in part to the
tremendous pressure to which they have been subjected during
the consolidation of the rock, or its subsequent movements. The
evidences of pressure are seen on nearly all the specimens, which
are usually found crushed and broken, with the surface of the

(36)

APPENDIX. xii

shining coaly covering polished and striated by the slipping of
contiguous portions of the matrix under great pressure.

Owing to the fact that nearly or quite all of the plants I
obtained here in a condition to show their specific characters,
seem to be new species, while no other organic remains of any
kind were observed in these beds during my rather limited ex-
amination, we scarcely have the means of determining their exact
horizon in the series. The affinities of the several species of
ferns found in the bed at the bottom of the cut, at this place,
would, however, favor the conclusion that they belong near the
junction of the Old Red Sandstone and the lower Carboniferous,
but probably in the latter.

That the remains of Chemung types of shells occur at lower
stratigraphical positions at several places between ‘here and Al-
leghany tunnel, has already been stated. There must, however,
be a considerable thickness of strata intervening between these
two points, the dip being all along here, I should think, scarcely
less than 30° to 40° below the horizon, and perhaps at some
points more, to the southeastward. I made no measurements
of distances, angles of dip, or of the thickness of strata (having
no instruments), but the distance between the two tunnels, by the
curve of the road, is, I was informed, about one and a half miles.
A straight line between these two points, however, would not be
in the direction of the dip, but obliquely across the strike, and
something less.

The distance, by a right line, between the locality where I
found the last Chemung fossils, coming eastward, and the point
where the remains of the plants were found in the cut at Lewis’
tunnel, I should think little more than half a mile; and, making
allowance for the direction of this line with relation to the dip,
there would seem to be scarcely less than 1500 feet of strata, and |
possibly more, between the horizons of these two points. How
much if any of this space may be occupied by Chemung rocks
remains to be determined. That the Chemung extends from the
furthest eastward point at which I found its characteristic fossils,
back to Alleghany tunnel, however, where the same types occur,
there can be no doubt, and there appears to be good reason to
believe that there are from 1200 to 1500 feet of these rocks be-
tween these two points. Whether or not the Chemung extends
back into Alleghany tunnel, I did not ascertain. I think it pro-
bable, however, that at least a part of the strata penetrated by
this tunnel belongs to the horizon of the Portage group, because
among the material brought out of its eastern end, I saw many
thin slabs, of bluish and greenish tinge, showing, on their slightly
glazed surfaces, fucoidal markings very similar to Mucoides
graphica, so characteristic of the Portage group in New York.
There is ample space between this point and the White Sulphur

(37 )

Xlil APPENDIX.

Springs, for great developments of the Portage: and Hamilton
groups, if both exist here.

The thickness of the Chemung group was formerly estimated
at about 1500 feet in New York; but from Col. Jewett’s dis-
covery, that a considerable thickness of the strata forming the
Catskill Mountains, that had for a long time been referred to the
Old Red Sandstone, really belongs to the Chemung, we may
perhaps infer that 1500 feet is considerably below the maximum
thickness of the latter formation in New York. Prof. Henry D.
Rogers estimated its greatest thickness in Pennsylvania at more
than 3000 feet.

From all the facts observed, I had at one time supposed that
the plant bed at Lewis’s tunnel holds a position in the upper
part of the Devonian; but as Prof. Rogers informs me that the
Old Red, if it exists there, is probably but little developed, the
position of these plants may be more properly within the inferior
part of the lower or subcarboniferous series.

Fossil Botany not coming within the range of my own especial
department of investigation, my object in studying these plants
was, at first, merely to identify the species, which it was supposed
had probably been described. After making extensive compari-
sons, however, with the figures and descriptions in a large number
of publications, without finding any species agreeing with them,
I arrived at the conclusion that they are new, and decided to
naine and describe them. The specimens, however, have been
submitted to Prof. Lesquereux, and afterwards to Dr. Newberry,
as well as in part (with tracings of others), to Prof. J. W. Daw-
son, of Montreal, all of whom are well known to be high authori-
_ties on fossil botany; and these gentlemen concurred in the
opinion that the species are new; though they differed somewhat
in opinion respecting the generic affinities of the ferns, which
happen to be types standing, as it were) intermediate between
several of the established genera., This peculiarity of these
forms, and the fact that the most important generic character
(the nature of the fructification) can very rarely be seen in speci-
mens of these older types of fossil ferns, render their classifica-
tion difficult, and give origin to conflicting opinions, among the
most careful and conscientious observers, respecting the generic
names under which the species should be ranged.

_ I take pleasure in acknowledging my obligations to Prof.
Dawson, Prof. Lesquereux, and Dr. Newberry, for the sugges-
tions alluded to above, respecting these plants.

LEPIDODENDRON SCOBINIFORME, M.

Pl. I, fig. 1.
Cicatrices of smaller branches moderately distinct, small, or
about 0.14 inch in length, and 0.09 inch in breadth, subovate in
form, or rounded above and tapering toa mucronate point below,

(38 )

APPENDIX. XIV

placed in the usual obliquely ascending rows so as to present a _
quincuncial arrangement, smooth below. Interspaces smooth,
somewhat less than the breadth of the cicatrices, measuring
transversely, and half their breadth measuring in the direction
of the oblique rows. Leaf scars small, placed at the upper end
(and usually a little excentric to the right) of the cicatrices, sub-
rhombic, about as wide as long, with upper side convex in out-
line, the lateral angles rounded, and the base abruptly pointed ;
sometimes with the entire outline subcircular, smooth, or without
any visible vascular pits within.

The above description is taken from a portion of a flattened
branch about an inch and a half wide, showing the cicatrices quite
distinctly. But these markings present a great diversity of ap-
pearances on different portions of the different sized branches and
trunks; and, consequently, the description would not apply to all.
of its parts. In some of the impressions of still smaller branches,
or individuals, the cicatrices are more crowded laterally, more
elongated, proportionally narrower, and, as seen in a cross light,
present a decided elongate-rhombic outline, the interspaces being
proportionally narrow, so as to make the cicatrices appear as if
acutely pointed, both above and below. In this aspect, the leaf
scars are scarcely seen, and the whole surface presents much the
appearance of the figure of Sigillaria Chemungensis, given on
page 275 of the Report on the fourth Geological District of New
York. Even in these specimens, however, when viewed in a
different light, the cicatrices can be seen to be really more or less
rounded above, and the leaf scars obscurely defined. On still
larger branches, the cicatrices become more and more faintly
defined, and the leaf scars proportionally more distinct and more
scattering, so that the surface looks very much like that of a
Stigmaria. In following the markings to larger and larger
branches, or individuals, the cicatrices are seen gradually to be-
come obsolete, and longitudinal ridges begin to be developed. On
fragments, apparently of the trunk of the same tree, these ridges
are found to be from 0.25 to 0.46 inch in breadth, nearly flat (with
sometimes very obscure traces of irregular longitudinal strie),
and separated by narrow irregularly interrupted furrows; while
a single row of the small scars occurs along the middle of each,
separated by intervals of about 0.50 inch. Again other speci-
mens, apparently of portions of the trunk, show the ridges to
have become obsolete or nearly so; but the leaf scars are still
seen, more widely separated, and more obscurely defined. These
longitudinally ridged specimens, therefore, present very nearly
the characters of Sigillaria. Hence, it becomes a matter of
some doubt to which one of the three genera, Lepidodendron,
Stigmaria, or Sigillaria, the species should be referred.

It is true that the specimens seen are not in such a condition
as positively to demonstrate that they all belong to the same

(39)

Xv APPENDIX.

species—that is, no one individual tree has been seen entire, and
showing all of the characters mentioned—but the specimens were
found flattened together in the same matrix, and present such
an uninterrupted series of gradations as to render it impossible
to separate them; and to leave the impression on the mind that
they really belong to the different parts of the same species.

Prof. Lesquereux has also informed me, that after figuring and
describing his Stigmaria minuta, of the Pennsylvania Report,
from the Lower Carboniferous of the State, he found other spe-
cimens clearly showing very similar gradations in the surface
markings, and yet under circumstances rendering it positively
certain that they all belong to one tree.

So far as I have been able to see, the markings on decorticated
surfaces all become nearly obsolete.

In the same matrix numerous very slender grass-like leaves
occur that probably belong to this species. The widest of these
are not more than 0.13 inch in breadth, while some of them can
be traced to a length of more than seven inches, and yet they are
broken at both ends, and appear to be simple and almost of the
same breadth throughout the entire length. They are always
flattened by pressure, and generally show no very well-defined
median vein, but in some cases they appear to exhibit traces of
about four longitudinal lines, or veins. .

STiGMARIA ? (sp. undetermined).

The specimens of this fossil in the collection are more or less
compressed laterally by accidental pressure, and surrounded by a
thin bark-like covering of shining coal. Generally they show
scarcely any traces of surface scars; but one of them about 19
inches in length, with both ends broken away, and measuring at
the larger end (which rather suddenly enlarges), 3, by a little
more than 54 inches in diameter, and at the smaller 2.40 by 4.30
inches in diameter, retains the scars or pits on the decorticated
surfaces, with some degree of distinctness. These are alternately
arranged in obliquely ascending rows, and are simple, vertically
elongated depressions, deepest in the middle, and becoming
rapidly shallower and narrowed to nothing above and below. In
the direction of the spiral rows, as well as transversely, they
measure about 0.40 inch from the middle of one to that of the
next; while the interspaces are sometimes obscurely and irregu-
larly a little wrinkled longitudinally.

The whole interior, within the surrounding bark-like coating
of coal, is merely composed of the hard, rather fine gritty mate-
rial composing the surrounding matrix, and shows no traces:
of an eccentric pith. This latter fact and the rather elongated
form of the surface pits, without any ring or elevated point
within, render it doubtful whether or not this form can be pro-
perly referred to the genus Stigmaria.

(40)

APPENDIX, XVi

The specimens of this species do not occur directly associated
with the other plants described in this paper, but at a somewhat
higher geological horizon, about one or two hundred yards fur-
ther eastward.

CARPOLITHES ¢
Pl. I, fig. 4.

These bodies may or may not be fruits, as they are too im-
perfectly preserved and defined to be satisfactorily determined.
They seem to have been vesicular, or, at any rate, to have pos-
sessed little solid substance, as they are almost entirely flattened
by pressure. As thus seen flattened in the matrix, they most
generally present a spatulate outline, and vary in length from 1
inch to 1.60 inches, and from 0.20 to 0.30 inch in breadth, the
widest part being generally near one end; while the opposite
end is sometimes abruptly pointed, and the other usually more
obtuse, or more or less rounded. They show no surface markings
of any kind.

CycLoPrEeRis? (ARcHmopreris) LEscurtana, M.
ELMS oculas bes

Frond tripinnate,* attaining a large size, primary pinne lance-
ovate or lanceolate in general outline, with a moderately stout,
straight, somewhat rugose rachis. Secondary pinne regularly
alternating, rather approximate, lanceolate, nearly straight or a
little arched upward, with a slender, very slightly flexuous rachis,
that diverges from the secondary one at distinctly less than a
right angle. Tertiary divisions or pinnules regularly alternating,
narrowed below to the short oblique petiole, the lower or inner
ones being deeply divided into from three to five (rarely six)
alternating, moderately divergent, narrow sublanceolate, simple,
or rarely dentate leaflets; upper ones gradually becoming less
and less divided, until they pass into merely slightly dentate, or
simple lanceolate forms that are more oblique to, and slightly
decurrent upon, the rachis. Nervation rather obscure; nerves
not very numerous, moderately diverging, and apparently several
times bifurcating. f

* The descriptions of this and the following species, are drawn up
under the supposition that the largest specimens found are not fronds,
but mere divisions of the same. If they should be found to be entire
fronds, however, of course the description would have to be modified to
correspond, as in that case the species should be described as bi-pinnate,
and the division termed secondary pinna, would be primary, etc.

{ In some of the specimens the upper side of the pinnules can be seen
under a strong magnifier in a cross light, to be covered by numerous
extremely minute, crowded longitudinal striz, apparently independent of
the nervation. These stri# can be traced down the narrowed base, or
petiole, upon and along the rachis.

$7 Cy

XVil APPENDIX.

The specimens apparently belonging to this species before me,
present considerable variations of form and other characters, some
being decidedly narrower, with their pinuez shorter, more distant,
and more oblique, and their pinnules less divided. These, how-
ever, probably belong to different parts of the frond from that
described here as the typical form of the species. Others have
the pinne and pinnules, as well as the subdivisions of the latter,
smaller and proportionally more slender, and presenting a more
delicate appearance throughout. These latter may possibly be-
long to a distinct species, but they agree so nearly in all other
respects with the form described as to leave the impression that
the whole series belongs to one somewhat variable species.

This species has much the aspect of a Sphenopteris, to which
Dr. Newberry thought it might be referred without impropriety.
In this opinion Prof. Dawson was inclined to concur on examin-
ing a photograph of it. On a critical examination of its nerva-
tion, as seen in some specimens sent to him, he writes that he
thinks it belongs more properly to the same group as Archexop-
teris Halliana (= Sphenopteris laxa, Hall), to which I had from
the first supposed it to be related. Prof. Lesquereux, to whom I
showed the specimens, also supposed the species to belong to
Palxopteris of Schimper, which is the same as Archexopteris,
Dawson, the name Palzopteris being preoccupied. Some other
high authorities on fossil botany, however, have arranged similar
forms under the names Asplenites and Adiantites.

From these remarks the student will readily understand that
in the present unsettled state of opinion in regard to the limits
between several of these older groups of fossil ferns, and the
consequent confusion existing in their nomenclature, it is im-
possible to determine beyond doubt under what genus this species
may ultimately have to be ranged, when all of these questions
can be settled. It may therefore have to take the name Sphen-
opteris Lescuriana, or Adiantites (Asplenites) Lescurianus. Or,
possibly, in case the name Paleopieris of Genitz should be found
not to have been based upon a tenable genus, so that Schimper’s
name Palxopteris would have to replace Archxopteris, our species
may have to be called Palzopteris Lescuriana.

Specifically this form will be readily distinguished from Cycl.
(Archxopteris) Halliana, by wanting the row of broad separate
pinnules along its rachis between the pinne as seen in that species,
as wellas by its more divided inner pinnules and more rigid pinne.
Prof. Dawson thinks it more nearly related to his C. (Palzop-
teris\ Rogerst, though, on comparison, he says he finds that the
Rogersi has larger pinne, and more obtuse as well as larger
pinnules, and a somewhat different venation.

(42)

APPENDIX. Xvili

CYCLOPTERIS VIRGINIANA, M.
Bi ig 3 anes

Frond apparently attaining a large size, and probably tripia-
nate. Primary pinnz with a rather stout, rigid, smooth, or
slightly striated rachis. Secondary pinne long lanceolate,
regularly alternating, nearly straight, rather closely arranged,
and standing nearly or quite at right angles to the rachis.
Pinnules more oblique, rather approximate and regularly alter-
nating; lower or inner ones shorter and broader than the others,
abruptly narrowed, or apparently sometimes subcordate at the
base, and attached to the rachis by an extremely short petiole,
more or less distinctly trilobate, the lobes being obtuse, and
broad-ovate in form; succeeding pinnules gradually becoming
five-lobed, more elongated, or obtusely sublanceolate, more ob-
lique, and less abruptly tapering at the base ; beyond these, the
others are less and less strongly lobed, or merely undulated on
the margins, while a few near the extremities of the pinne are
quite simple, still more oblique, and very gradually tapering
to, and more or less decurrent upon, the rachis. Nervation dis-
tinct, nerves slender, palmately spreading, and bifurcating seve-
ral times.

If specimens of this species, like the one figured, are imperfect
primary pinne, and not fronds, it must have been a very large
beautiful fern. It seems to have been much more rare than the
last, as only the two specimens figured occur in a collection, con-
taining fifteen or sixteen more or less imperfect examples of the
last.

Although very distinct specifically from the foregoing, this
seems, like that form, to stand as it were intermediate between
several of the established genera. In some respects it is related
to both Sphenopteris and Cyclopteris, while Prof. Schimper has
included some similar forms in his genus Triphyllcpteris. Still
other high authorities have placed apparently congeneric forms
under the names Adiantites and Asplenites. It is therefore pos-
sible that when the affinities of the ancient types of ferns can be
better understood, and the confusion that now exists in their
nomenclature is corrected, the name of this species may have
to be changed to Sphenopteris or Triphyllopteris Virginiana.
I am not sure, however, that it should not be called Archeopteris
(Palzopteris) Virginiana.

CYcLopreris (ARCHMOPTERIS) ALLEGHANENSIS, M.
Pl. I, fig. 2, a, b.
Frond tri- or bipinnate. Primary pinne (or possibly the

frond) narrow, or apparently lanceolate, with a comparatively
strong, transversely wrinkled, rigid rachis, that is provided

(43)

X1X APPENDIX.

with short, sublanceolate, regularly alternating, rather crowded
pinne, directed nearly at right angles to its sides. Pinnules simple,
alternate, very obtuse, and varying from subcircular to obovate,
those nearest the rachis being sometimes nearly circular, and
connected with the rachis by an extremely short petiole, or almost
sessile ; those further out narrower, more oblique, and tapering
to a narrow base that is more or less decurrent on the rachis;
terminal one sometimes a little larger than the smaller of the
others, and partly confluent with the nearest of the latter.
Nervation moderately distinct; nerves spreading from the base,
and bifurcating two or three times.

This is probably a smaller species than either of the other two
already described, and is very distinct from them both in the
form and simplicity of its pinnules. But the single imperfect
specimen of it figured was found, and it occurred directly asso-
ciated with the others. In the form of its pinnules and their
nervation it resembles Archeopteris (Neeggerathia) minor, of
Lesquereux, but its pinne and pinnules are much more crowded
and shorter.

For the reasons already explained, future corrections of nomen-
clature may require the name of this species ts be written Adzan-
tites (Asplenites) Alleghanensis, or Paleopteris Alleghanensis.

(44)

IX.

ON SOUND IN RELATION TO FOG-SIGNALS, FROM
INVESTIGATIONS UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
THE U.S. LIGHT HOUSE BOARD.

By JOSEPH HENRY.
(Reap Decemser 11, 1872.)

(Before reading this paper Prof. Henry, as President, made the follow-
ing preliminary remarks.)

The Committee of Arrangements have this evening called an
extra meeting of the Society to embrace the opportunity to invite
a few friends to meet Professor Tyndall. They have extended
this courtesy to him as a mark of the high appreciation which
the Society entertains of his scientific labors. As the worthy
successor of Faraday, we recognize him as among the first con-
tributors to the physical science of the day. Although this is an
extra meeting, the proceedings will not differ essentially from
those of ordinary meetings, but will consist in the presentation
of communications purporting to be additions to knowledge, and
in discussions regarding them. We trust that Doctor Tyndall,
and the other invited guests, will join in the discussion, and in
the communication of any facts, which the occasion may recall to
memory, pertaining to the subjects under consideration.

The communication which I propose to make this evening is
brought forward at this time especially on account of the presence
of Doctor Tyndall, he being connected with the Light House
system of Great Britain, while the facts I have to state are con-
nected with the Light House service of the United States, and
must therefore be of interest to our distinguished visitor. The
facts I have to present form part of a general report to be pub-
lished by the U.S. Light House Board.

The Light House Board of the United States has from its first
establishment aimed not only to furnish our sea-coast with all
the aids to navigation that have been suggested by the experience
of other countries and to adopt the latest improvements, but also
to enrich the Light House service with the results of new investi-
gations and new devices for the improvement of its efficiency, or,
in other words, to add its share to the advance of a system which
pertains to the wants of the highest civilization.

Among the obstructions to navigation none are more serious,
especially on the American coast, than those caused by fogs.

Fog, as it is well known, is due to the mingling of warmer

(45 )

il APPENDIX.
rh

air surcharged with moisture with colder air, and nowhere on the
surface of the earth do more favorable conditions exist for pro-
ducing fogs than on both our Atlantic and Pacific coasts. On
the Atlantic the cold stream of water from the polar regions in
its passage southward, on account of the rotation of the earth,
passes close along our eastern coast from one extremity to the
other, and parallel to this but opposite in direction, for a con-
siderable distance is the great current of warm water known as
the Gulf stream. Above the latter the air is constantly surcharged
with moisture, and consequently whenever light winds blow from
the latter across the former, the vapor is condensed into fog, and
since in summer along our eastern coast the southerly wind pre-
vails, we have during July, August, and September, especially on
the coast of Maine, an almost continuous prevalence of fogs so
dense that distant vision is entirely obstructed.

On the western coast the great current of the Pacific, after
having been cooled in the northern regions, in its passage south-
ward gives rise to cold and warm water in juxtaposition, or, in
other words, a current of the former through the latter, and hence
whenever a wind blows across the current of cold water, a fog is
produced.

From the foregoing statement it is evident that among the aids
to navigation fog-signals are almost as important as light houses.
The application, however, of the science of acoustics to the former
is far less advanced than is that of optics to the latter. Indeed,
attempts have been made to apply lights of superior penetrating
power, as the electric and calcium lights, to supersede the imperfect
fog-signals in use. When, however, we consider the fact that the
absorptive power of a stratum of cloud, which is but a lighter fog,
of not more than two or three miles in thickness, is sufficient to
obscure the image of the sun, the intensity of the light of which
is greater than that of any artificial light, it must be evident
that optical means are insufficient for obviating the difficulty in
question.

The great extent of the portions of the coast of the United
States, which is subject to fogs, renders the investigation of the
subject of fog-signals one of the most important duties of the
Light House Board.

In studying this subject it becomes a question of importance to
ascertain whether waves of sound, like those of light, are absorbed
or stifled by fog; on this point, however, observers disagree. At
first sight, from the very striking analogy which exists in many
respects between light and sound, the opinion has largely pre-
vailed that sound is impeded by fog. But those who have not
been influenced by this analogy have in some instances adopted
the opposite opinion—that sound is better heard during a fog
than in clear weather. To settle this question definitely the Light
House Board have directed that at two light houses on the route

(46)

APPENDIX. ili

from Boston to St. John, the fog-signals shall be sounded every
day on which the steamboats from these ports pass the station,
both in clear and foggy weather, the pilots on board these vessels
having, for a small gratuity, engaged to note the actual distance
of the boat when the sound is first heard on approaching the sig-
nal, and is last heard on receding from it. The boats above men-
tioned estimate their distance with considerable precision by the
number of revolutions of the paddle-wheel as recorded by ‘the
indicator of the engine, and it is hoped by this means to definitely
decide the point in question. We think it highly probable that
fog does somewhat diminish the penetrating power of sound, or,
in other words, produce an effect analogous to the propagation
of light. But when we consider the extreme minuteness of the
particles of water constituting the fog as compared with the
magnitude of the waves of sound, the analogy does not hold except
in so small a degree as to be of no practical importance, or, in
other words, the existence of fog is a true but, we think, an insuf-
cient cause of diminution of sound, which view is borne out by
the great distance at which our signals are heard during a dense
fog.

Another cause, which without doubt is a true one, of the dimi-
nution of the penetrating power of sound is the varying density of
the atmosphere, from heat and moisture, in long distances. The
effect of this, however, would apparently be to slightly distort the
wave of sound rather than to obliterate it. However this may be,
we think, from all the observations we have made, the effect is
small in comparison with another cause, viz., that of the influence
of winD. During aresidence of several weeks at the sea-shore, the
variation in intensity of the sound of the breakers at a distance of
about a mile in no case appeared to be coincident with the varia-
tions of an aneroid barometer or a thermometer, but in every in-
stance it was affected by the direction of the wind. The variation
in the distinctness of the sound ofa distant instrument as depending
on the direction of the winD is so marked that we are warranted
in considering it the principal cause of the inefficiency in certain
cases of the most powerful fog-signals. The effect of the wind is
usually attributed, without due consideration, to the motion of
the body of air between the hearer and the sounding instrument: in
the case of its coming towards him it is supposed that the velocity
of the sound is reinforced by the motion of the air, and when in
the opposite direction that it is retarded in an equal degree. A
little reflection, however, will show that this cannot be the cause
of the phenomenon in question, since the velocity of sound is so
vastly greater than that of any ordinary wind, that the latter can
only impede the progress of the former by a very small percentage
of the whole. Professor Stokes, of Cambridge University, Eng-
land, has offered a very ingenious hypothetical explanation of
wind on sound, which we think has an important practical bear-

(47)

iv APPENDIX.

ing, especially in directing the line of research and subsequent
application of principles.

His explanation rests upon the fact that during the passage of
a wind between the observer and the sounding instrument the
velocity of this will be more retarded at the surface of the earth
on account of friction and other obstacles, and that the velocity
of the stratum immediately above will be retarded by that below,
and so on, the obstruction being lessened as we ascend through
the strata. From this it follows that the sound wave will be de-
formed and the direction of its normal changed. Suppose, for
example, that the wind is blowing directly from the observer.
In this case the retardation of the sound wave will be greater
above than below, and the upper part of the wave-front will
be thrown backwards so that the axis of the phonic ray will
be deflected upwards, and over the head of the observer. If, on
the other hand, a deep river of wind is blowing directly towards
the observer, the upper part of the front of the wave will be in-
clined down and towards him, concentrating the sound along the
surface of the earth.

The science of acoustics in regard to the phenomena of sound
as exhibited in limited spaces has been developed with signal
suecess. The laws of its production, propagation, reflection, and
refraction have been determined with much precision, so that
we are enabled in most cases to explain, predict, and control the
phenomena exhibited under given conditions. But in case of loud
sounds and those which are propagated to a great distance, such
as are to be employed as fog-signals, considerable obscurity still
exists. As an illustration of this I may mention the frequent
occurrence of apparently abnormal phenomena. Gen. Warren
informs me that at the battle of Seven Pines, in June, 1862,
near Richmond, Gen. Johnston, of the Confederate army, was
within three miles of the scene of action with a force intended to
attack the flank of the Northern forces, and although listening at-
tentively for the sound of the commencement of the engagement,
the battle, which was a severe one, and lasting about three
hours, ended without his having heard a single gun. (See John-
ston’s Report.) Another case of a similar kind occurred to Gen.
McClellan at the battle of Gaines’ Mills, June 27, 1862, also
near Richmond. Although a sharp engagement was progressing
within three or four miles for four or five hours, the general and
his staff were unaware of its occurrenge, and when their attention
was called to some feeble sound they had no idea that it was
from anything more than a skirmish of little importance. (See
Report of the Commission on the Conduct of the War.) A third
and perhaps still more remarkable instance is given in a skirmish
between a part of the 2d corps under Gen. Warren and a force
of the enemy. In this case the sound of the firing was heard
more distinctly at Gen. Meade’s head-quarters than it was at the

(48)

APPENDIX. v

head-quarters of the 2d corps itself, although the latter was
about midway between the former and the point of conflict. In-
deed the sound appeared so near Gen. Meade’s camp that the
impression was made that the enemy had gotten between it and
Gen. Warren’s command. In fact so many instances occurred
of wrong impressions as to direction and distance derived from
the sound of guns that little reliance came to be placed on these
indications.

In the report of a series of experiments made under the direc-
tion of the Light House Board by Gen. Duane of the Engineer
Corps is the following remark: ‘The most perplexing difficulty
arises from the fact that the fog-signal often appears to be sur-
rounded by a belt varying in radius from one to one and a half
miles. ‘Thus in moving directly from a station the sound is au-
dible for the distance of a mile, is then lost for about the same
distance, after which it is again distinctly heard for a long
time.”

Again, in a series of experiments at which Sir Frederic Arrow
and Captain Webb, of the Trinity Board, assisted, it was found
that in passing in the rear of the opposite side of an island in
front of which a fog-signal was pla ed, the sound entirely dis-
appeared, but by going further off to the distance of two or three
miles it reappeared in full force, even with a large island inter-
vening. Again, from the experiments made under the immedi-
ate direction of the present chairman of the Light House Board,
with the assistance of Admiral Powell and Mr. Lederle, the Light
House Engineer, and also from separate experiments made by
Gen. Duane, it appears that while a reflector, in the focus of which
a steam whistle or ordinary bell is placed, reinforces the sound
for a short distance, it produces little or no effect at the distance
of two or three miles, and, indeed, the instrument can be as well
heard in still air at the distance of four or five miles in the line
of the axis of the reflector, whether the ear be placed before or
behind it. From these results we would iner that the lateral
divergency of sound, or its tendency to spread laterally as it passes
from its source, is much greater than has been supposed from
experiments on a small scale. The idea we wish to convey by
this is that a beam of sound issuing through an orifice, although
at first proceeding, like a beam of light in parallel rays, soon
begins to diverge and spread out into a cone, and at a sufficient
distance may include even the entire horizon.

We may mention also in this connection that from the general
fact expressed by the divergence of the rays of sound, the appli-
cation of reflection as a means of reinforcing sound must in a
considerable degree of necessity be a failure.

By the application of the principle we have stated and the effect
of the wind in connection with the peculiarities of the topography
of a region and the position of the sounding body, we think that not

4 (49)

vi APPENDIX.

only may most of the phenomena we have just mentioned be ac-
counted for, but alsothat other abnormal effects may be anticipated.

In critically examining the position of the sounding body in
the experiment we have mentioned, in which Sir Frederic Arrow
and Captain Webb assisted, it was found that the signal was
placed on the side of a bank with a large house directly in the
rear, the roof of which tended to deflect the sound upwards so as to
produce in the rear a shadow, but on account of the divergency of
the beam this shadow vanished at the distance of a mile and
a half or two miles, and at the distance of gay three miles the
sound of the instrument was distinctly heard. I doubt not that,
on examination, all the cases mentioned by General Duane, with
one exception, might be referred to the same principle, the excep-
tion being expressed in the following remarkable statement in his
report to the Light House Board: ‘The fog-signals have fre-
quently been heard ata distance of ¢wenty miles and as frequently
cannot be heard at the distance of ¢wo miles, and with no percepti-
ble difference in the state of the atmosphere. The signal is often
heard at a greater distance in one direction, while in another it
will be scarcely audible at the distance of amile. For example, the
whistle at Cape Elizabeth can always be distinctly heard in Port-
land—a distance of nine miles—during a heavy northeast snow
storm, the wind blowing a gale nearly from Portland towards the
whistle.”

This is so abnormal a case, and so contrary to generally re-
ceived opinion, that I hesitated to have it published under the
authority of the Board until it could be verified and more
thoroughly examined. In all the observations that have been
made under my immediate supervision, the sound has always
been heard further with the wind than against it. It would
appear, therefore, from all the observations that the normal effect
of the wind is to diminish the sound in blowing directly against it.

There is, however, a meteorological condition of the atmosphere
during a northeast storm on our coast which appears to me to
have a direct bearing on the phenomenon in question. It is this:
that, while a violent wind is blowing from the northeast into the
interior of the country, a wind of equal intensity is blowing in an
opposite direction at an elevation of a mileor two. This is shown
by the rapidly eastwardly motion of the upper clouds as occasion-
ally seen through breaks in the lower.

As a further illustration of this principle I may mention that
on one occasion (in 1855) I started, on my way to Boston from
Albany, in the morning of a clear day with a westerly wind. The
weather continued clear and pleasant until after passing the Con-
necticut River, and until within fifty miles of Boston. We then
encountered a storm of wind and rain which continued until
we reached the city. On inquiry I learned that the storm had
commenced in Boston the evening before, and, although the wind

(50)

APPENDIX. vil

had been blowing violently towards Albany for twenty hours, it
had not reached inwardly more than fifty miles. At this point
it met the west wind and was turned back above in almost a
parallel current. This is the general character of northeast
storms along our coast, as shown by Mr. Hspy, and is directly
applicable to the phenomenon mentioned by General Duane, and
which, from the frequency with which he has witnessed the occur-
rence, we must accept as a fact, though by no means a general
one applicable to all stations. While a violent wind was blowing
towards his place of observation from Cape Hlizabeth, at the sur-
face of the earth, a parallel current of air was flowing above with
equal or greater velocity in the opposite direction. The effect of
the latter would be to increase the velocity of the upper part of the
wave of sound, and of the former to diminish it; the result of the
two being to incline the front of the wave of sound towards the
observer, or to throw it down towards the earth, thus rendering
the distant signal audible under these conditions when otherwise
it could not be heard. I think it is probable that the same
principle applies in other cases to the abnormal propagation of
sound.

For the production of a sound of sufficient power to serve as a
fog-signal, bells, gongs, etc., are too feeble except in special cases
where the warning required is to be heard only at a small dis-
tance. After much experience the Light House Board has
adopted, for first class signals, instruments actuated by steam or
hot-air engines, and such only as depend upon the principle of
resonance, or the enforcement of sound by a series of recurring
echoes in resounding cavities.

Of these there are three varieties. First the steam whistle, of
which the part called the bell is a resounding cavity, the sound it
emits having no relation to the material of which it is composed ;
one of the same form and of equal size of wood produces an effect
identical with that from one of metal. Another variety is the
fog trumpet, which consists of a trumpet of wood or metal actu-
ated by a reed like that of a flageolet. The third variety is called
the siren trumpet, which consists of a hollow drum into one head
of which is inserted a pipe from a steam boiler, while in the other
head a number of holes are pierced which are alternately opened
and shut by a revolving plate having an equal number of holes
through it. This drum is placed at the mouth of a large trum-
pet. The sound is produced by the series of impulses given to
the air by the opening and shutting of the orifices and consequent
rushing out at intervals with explosive violence of the steam, or
condensed air. The instrument, as originally invented by Craig-
nard De la Tour of France, was used simply in experiments in
physics to determine the pitch of sound; but Mr. Brown of New
York, after adding a trumpet to it, and modifying the openings

(51}

Viil APPENDIX.

in the head of the drum and the revolving plate, offered it to the
Light House Board as a fog-signal, and, as such, it has been
found the most powerful ever employed.

In ascertaining the penetrating power of different fog-signals,
J have used with entire success an instrument of which the fol-
lowing is a description. A trumpet of ordinary tinned iron of
about three feet in length, and nine inches in diameter at the
larger end and about an inch at the smaller, is gradually bent so
that the axis of the smaller part is at right angles to the axis of
the larger end; on the smaller end is soldered a cone of which
the larger end is about two inches in diameter. Across the
mouth of this cone is stretched a piece of goldbeater’s skin.
When the instrument is used, the opening on the larger end is
held before the instrument to be tested, the membrane being
horizontal, and the mouth of the trumpet vertical; over the mem-
brane is strewed a small quantity of fine sand which is defended
from the agitation of the air by a cylinder of glass, the upper end
of which is closed by a lens. When the instrument under exam-
ination is sounded, the sand being sufficiently near is agitated, it
is then moved further off step by step until the agitation just
ceases ; this distance being measured is taken as the relative pene-
trating power of the sounding instrument. ‘The same process is
repeated with another sounding instrument, and the distance at
which the sound ceases to produce an effect on the sand is taken
as the measure of the penetrating power of this instrument, and
so on. On comparing the results given by this instrument with
those obtained by the ear on going out a sufficient distance, the
two are found to agree precisely in their indications. The great
advantage in using this contrivance is that the relative penetrat-
ing power of two instruments may be obtained within a distance
of a few hundred yards, while to compare the relative power of
two fog-signals by the ear requires the aid of a steamer and a
departure from the origin of sound in some eases of fifteen or
twenty miles.

(52)

x,

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE OF
ARCHIBALD ROBERTSON MARVINE.

By J. W. POWELL.
(Reap June 3, 1876.)

Mr. ArcuiBatp R. MarvIne was born at Auburn, New York,
Sept. 26, 1848. Whena youth he attended the military school
at Sing Sing, and subsequently the School of Technology at
Philadelphia. Leaving the latter he entered the Hooper Mining
School of Harvard University, from which he graduated in 1870,
when he was appointed instructor in the same school, a position
which he held until July, 1871.

In 1869 Professor J. D. Wuitney, of Harvard University,
conducted a party of students on a trip among the Park Moun-
tains of Colorado for the purpose of making practical studies in
geography and geology. On this trip Mr. Marviner, who was
one of the party, was instructed in both these branches. ‘he
field of study was happily selected, being a portion of the Park
Mountain region including South Park and the lofty mountains
with which it is walled. The geographic features of the region
in its larger outlines are simple. On the north is the great Col-
orado Range, a wilderness of crags and peaks; on the south the
great group of mountains of which Pike’s Peak is the culmina-
tion; on the east the Front Range, a low, broad, flat-top moun-
tain mass; on the west the Park Range.

The Colorado Range along its main course west of Denver
has a north and south axis, but near its southern end it sweeps
westward in a great curve and abuts against the Park Range,
and this southern curve forms the boundary between North and
Middle Parks. Just here where the Park and Colorado Ranges
unite, South Platte River heads in snow banks that even mid-
summer suns cannot destroy, and running eastward at the foot
of the Colorado Range, it breaks through the Front Range by a
deep, narrow cafion set with crags and pinnacles. In the midst
of the Park are low subsidiary ranges chiefly trending north and
south, and between these ranges there are long, narrow valleys
heading in the Pike’s Peak Mountains and stretching northward
to the foot of the great Colorado Range, where the streams that
meander through these valleys yield their waters to the South
Platte.

(53)

il APPENDIX.

The party climbed Pike’s Peak, and, standing on its summit,
the district of country just described—South Park with its moun-
tain walls, its interior ranges, its deep valleys, its wild gorges,
its silver rivers and its crystal lakes, was all before them in one
grand view. In such a field the young men were instructed in
determining latitudes and longitudes, in determining relative
positions by triangulation, and in delineating the more important
topographic features.

But mountains and valleys have something more than positions
and magnitudes to interest the student of nature—they have
structure; and in this structure are revealed the great facts of
geology relating to displacement, degradation, sedimentation,
metamorphism, and extravasation; and the field of study pre-
sented many interesting facts in each of these categories of phe-
nomena. The great ranges stood before them to attest to the
displacement or corrugation of the Harth’s surface in mountain
wrinkles, and these mountains are seen to be but residuary frag-
ments of upheaved masses as plainly giving evidence of degra-
dation as they do of displacement; while the methods of degra-
dation by the wash of rains, by the sapping of cliffs, by the
corrosion of water channels, and by the sculpture of ice, could
be studied on every hand.

To Marvine, the summer’s study was rich in results. He
learned that a mountain was more than a mountain, that it was
a fragment of earth’s history.

In the summer of 1870 Mr. Marvine was appointed assistant
geologist to attend the celebrated Santo Domingo Expedition,
and on his.return he prepared a brief report on the economic
geology of some portions of that island which he visited. This
was published with the report of the Commission of Inquiry to
Santo Domingo by authority of Congress. It was a special and
brief study, and contains little of general interest to the geologist.

In 1871 he received an appointment as astronomer to the
Wheeler Expedition, in which capacity he served for several
months, and then continued several months longer as geologist.
His report on the geology of a district of country through which
he passed, embraced in southern Nevada, northwestern Arizona,
and southern California, has lately been published as one of the
papers in Volume III. of the United States Engineer Reports
of the Explorations and Surveys west of the 100th Meridian,
Lieut. George M. WHEELER in charge. The region of country
studied by Mr. Marvine during these months of field service was .
one of great complexity. On one side of his general route of
travel an extensive series of sedimentary formations are revealed,
embracing Tertiary, Mesozoic, and Paleozoic groups; on the
other, low mountain ranges are seen rising from a desert sea of
sand, the ranges being composed of more ancient sediments and
schists. ‘The former is a portion of the Plateau Province, the

(54)

APPENDIX. lil

latter a portion of the Desert Province. Both the Plateau sedi-
ments and the Desert Range rocks are greatly masked by beds
of basalt and other extravasated material. Back and forth across
the zone separating the plateaus from the Basin Ranges he passed
in long rapid marches, studying now the one, now the other re-
gion, and ever examining the voleanic phenomena by which he
was surrounded, and yet his keen and well-trained eye caught
the more important topographic and geologic features, and he
has given in his report a singularly clear and comprehensive ac-
count of the region when we consider the circumstances under
which it was made. He recognized the principal structural cha-
racteristics of the plateaus, and in some instances the structure
of the Basin Ranges. He recognized that he was travelling on
the border between the two. He discovered the sequence of the
sedimentary groups of the Plateau Province, and collected suffi-
cient paleontological evidence to demonstrate his conclusions.
He closes this report with the following characteristic and vivid
description of the Desert Range Province: “It is a great de-
pressed mountainous region, deeply buried beneath the sediments
which have been eroded from its own mountains by a surrounding
gea. This action has filled the valleys, gradually covered the
foot-hills, and, removing the débris from the mountain bases as
fast as formed, has left their clean and sharp-cut tops projecting
above the surrounding plain without the usual accompaniment of
foot-hills and border region which surround nearly all ranges, the
changes on the contrary from mountain slope to the gentle incline
of the plain being generally very abrupt. The mountains seem
to be of ancient plutonic or metamorphic rocks, or else of lavas;
the former more often forming ranges, of which the majority trend
about northwest and southeast; the latter more frequently occur-
ring as striking isolated peaks. The detrital filling varies from
gravels traceable to the rocks of adjacent hills, to the finest of
alluvium, the dust of which the winds often carry for miles into
Northern Arizona. It is sparsely sprinkled with a dreary vege-
tation, composed principally of scattered individuals of many
species of mimose and of cacti, the most striking of the latter
being the tall and isolated Cereus giganteus.

“To stand on the edge of the Pifial Mountains upon a quiet day
and look off upon these wonderfully silent and arid plains, with
their innumerable ‘lost mountains’ rising like precipitous islands
from the sea, all bathed in most delicate tints, and lying death-
like in the peculiar, intangible afternoon haze of this region, which
seems to magnify distant details rather than to subdue them,
impresses one most deeply. The wonderful monotony seems
uninclosable by an horizon; and one imagines the scene to con-
tinue on the same and have no end. Though the gulf and ocean
are three hundred miles away, yet here is the continent’s real
southwestern border.

(55 )

iv APPENDIX.

“Were the waters of the Gulf of California suddenly changed
to gravel and sand, with its precipitous and rugged mountain
islands left projecting from the surface as now, there would be
so [produced an excellent representation of these deserts, and,
geologically speaking, it is but as yesterday that precisely the
same action was going on over all this enormous area as is now
in progress in the more confined region of the Gulf. The slow
elevation which has in part probably caused the gradual receding
of the waters, may still be extending the area of our continent.”

Up to this time Mr. Marvine’s geological studies had been
somewhat general and desultory—necessarily so from the condi-
tions under which they were made. But in the following summer
he was engaged with Professor PuMPELLY in the Keweenaw Cop-
per Region on the shore of Lake Superior, and his report on this
work was published by authority of the Legislature of Michigan.

His work during this season was confined to a narrow area,
and was special, and is a fine example of painstaking, minute
geological study. It consisted in tracing a series of geological
beds through two or three counties lying along the lake shore.
This was done by careful triangulation and levelling of the gene-
ral area, and the following of the dips and strikes of the beds
and measuring their thicknesses, and by carefully analyzing their
lithologiec and mineralogic constituents. The entire work is pre-
sented in a series of sections and tables carefully and skilfully
arranged, with a general discussion, sufficiently elaborate to set
forth the relations of all the important facts. His work is thus
a fine model for what must be done throughout the Lake Superior
region before any general discussion of the geology of the district
can be made which will have permanent value.

Mr. Maryine thus demonstrated that his experience in the
fragmentary work incident to a geological reconnoissance had
not led to such habits of hasty conclusion as to incapacitate him
for the more thorough work of a geological survey.

Yet up to this time his work was but fragmentary, but in
March, 1873, he was given a position as geologist in the corps
of the U. 8. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Terri-
tories under Dr. HAYDEN.

Daring the following season his field of research embraced the
region of Middle Park in Colorado Territory, including the
mountains by which it is inclosed, and extending eastward to
the Great Plains, embracing an area of about 5000 square miles.
How thoroughly his work was done, how clearly the geography
and geology of the region was set forth in his report, and what
important conclusions he reached in mountain structure and geo-
logical history, can only be fully appreciated by a careful and
thorough reading of his report. It is impossible to understand
a discussion of the geological structure of a region without first
fully grasping the character and magnitude of its geographic

(56)

APPENDIX. v

features. Geology is revealed in topography. The details of
topography may seem simple, and taken severally may be simple,
but in groups they become extremely complex, and few persons
readily comprehend the order and system with which topographic
features are gathered about the great geological structure lines
of aregion. It is easy to be lost in a maze of hills and a con-
fusion of mountain peaks unless the grand topographic forms on
which the hills and mountains are sculptured are seen with a
mental vision that reaches further than the eye. He who can see
a mountain range, or a river drainage, or a flock of hills, is more
rare than a poet. In anatomy there is a place for apophysis and
sinus, for arch and foramen; so in a mountain range there is a
place for peak and valley, a place for amphitheatre and caion,
and the geologist who seeks to reveal the embryology and growth
of a mountain range must first become thoroughly familiar with
its anatomy. A hill may be a hundred or five hundred feet high,
a mountain a thousand or ten thousand feet in altitude, and these
may be interesting facts, but they give no clue to hill or mountain
structure, and have values of the same order as the size of animals
in systematic zodlogy. Not every geologist has been able to
understand the geography of a region studied, and very few
indeed have been able to describe the geography of a district.
Something more is needed than to make mention of mountains
and hills, of valleys and cafions; the order in which they are
arranged must be set forth, and their relations to the general
structure must be explained.

Mr. Marvine went into a region which to the common eye would
seem but a wild confusion of mountains and valleys, of crags and
gorges, but in that single summer’s study he discovered the sub-
lime order in which the mountains and hills and ridges were
placed, and in the first few pages of his report he sets forth this
order in language clear and simple, giving a plain bird’s-eye view
of all that five thousand square miles of mountain crag and cahon
gorge. Then he divides the area into three natural geographic
divisions, and hence geologically distinct; the zone of ridges
separating the plains from the mountains or mountain border
region; the great range and Middle Park. In the first he found
a series of sedimentary groups having a total thickness of more
than 7000 feet, and a natural grouping was first discovered ;
then he studied the overlaps and out-thinnings, the changes in
conditions of sedimentation, the grand displacements due to or-
ographic movements, and the minor concomitant flexures and
faults. All of these facts he presents in orderly arrangement
with appropriate diagrams and sections. His chapter on this
topic is full of facts and yet it never wearies the reader, for every
fact has a meaning. The geological literature of America is
. greatly burdened with inconsequent facts: A geologist repairs
to the field, finds a sandstone, measures it and it is ninety-nine

38 (57 )

v1 APPENDIX.

feet in thickness; the next day he finds a limestone, measures it
and it is a hundred and one feet in thickness. He returns and
reports, and his report has the same value as that of the zodlo-
gist who went into the woods and found an animal with four legs
and a tail, and the tail was four inches long as determined by
_ eareful estimation or barometric measurement. But the thick-
ness of the limestone or the length of the animal’s tail are facts
of very little value except as related to those of greater signifi-
cance.

The geological report which has no reference to geological
structure is dreary reading, and less interesting as a recreation
than a table of logarithms; while the latter has a logical arrange-
ment and may serve some important purpose, and the student
may find a meaning in the figures, the former is purposeless and
meaningless. Some of our geological literature could be burned
and no harm done. O that a pope would rise in the holy. catho-
lic church of geologists—a pope with will to issue a bull for the
burning of all geological literature unsanctified by geological
meaning. Then there would remain the writings of those inspired
with the knowledge that a mountain has structure, that every hill
has an appointed place and every river runs in a channel foreor-
dained by earth’s evolution, and Marvine’s work would be a book
of genesis in the bible of the geological priesthood. To those
members of the Society who have not made a special study of
American geology and its literature, this statement may seem an
exaggerated panegyric; but let him wade by months and years
of study through the volumes of valueless records by which geo-
logical literature is encumbered and then take up MARVINE’S paper
on the Middle Park district and his appreciation will be meagre,
his enthusiasm cold if he does not exclaim that order has moved
on chaos.

In his third chapter Mr. Marvine discusses the structure of the
great Colorado Range. Two great facts appear: first, that the
range is composed of metamorphic schists and granites having a
detailed structure independent of the grand topographic forms
now existing, but related to a topography antecedent to the pre-
sent and which was buried by encroaching waters prior to the
upheaval of what we now know as the great Colorado Range ;
and, second, that the great orographic movements producing the
present grand features of the country brought up once more that
ancient and buried land; and the present drainage system, deter-
mined by these later upheavals, while conforming to the later
structure, was superimposed on the earlier; and his facts are
assembled in such manner in this chapter that his grand conclu-
sions are fully demonstrated.

His fourth chapter is on the Middle Park proper. This is an
exceedingly complex piece of geology, and to properly character-
ize the chapter it would be necessary to substantially reproduce

(53)

APPENDIX. vii

it. The vestiges of earth’s history found here where the sea and
slouds have alternate dominion over the land, are set forth in a
manner simple and perspicuous.

One very important conclusion reached by Mr. MARVINE must
not be neglected, viz., that the ranges about this park were not
upheaved as great appressed folds, but that the upheaval was
along lines by faulting, or narrow zones by abrupt flexure—an
important characteristic of displacement throughout much of the
interior of this contineut—and these facts are eventually destined
to modify if not revolutionize the geological theories concerning
the constitution of the earth.

After the preparation of this report, in the spring of 1874,
Mr. Marvine again returned to Colorado Territory for the pur-
pose of extending his geological studies in the region west of
Middle Park. From my intimacy with Mr. Marvine J know
well with what eagerness he resumed these studies and how
anxious he was to pursue lines of investigation suggested by
facts discovered in his previous work. And so, fired with an
enthusiasm for the discovery of the secrets of the mountains, he
plunged into the wilderness far away from civilization. All that
summer long he toiled, climbing only where the geologist would
climb, seeing only what the geologist could see; and still eager
for more knowledge, he pressed his work until the desolate moun-
tains were mantled with the winter’s snow, and a further study
of geology was impossible; then he returned. But the labor and
hardships of the summer’s travel, though unheeded at the time,
were too great for his physical endurance, and on his return he
was prostrated with the disease that held him in firm grasp for
many long weeks. Slowly during the following spring he par-
tially recovered, and then, although he was not able to work with
vigor, those with whom he was more intimate and who loved to
talk with him on the subjects of his investigation, learned the
great results and significance of the past year’s study. Not
recovering health and strength, he was unable to return to the
field or to prepare the results of his former work for publication ;
still he worked on his map, coloring it for the purpose of showing
the geographic distribution of the geological formations within
his field of study, and this was done with elaboration. Then he
thoroughly arranged and systematized his notes and determined
his plan of discussion. Here his work ended, for health and
strength failed again, and he relapsed into a condition that his
friends soon found was hopeless. On the second of March, in
the city of Washington, Marving, the young, enthusiastic, and
brilliant geologist, died.

Mr. Marvine’s preparation for work as a geologist was very
thorough, and for one of his age, very broad. In chemistry,
astronomy, and physics, his studies had been careful and thorough,
and his grasp of these subjects was comprehensive and firm; but

(59)

viii APPENDIX.

he was especially attracted to chemical physics, and had he lived
to continue his labors as a geologist, his predilection for these
studies would doubtless have greatly modified all his geological
investigations.

Personally and socially his modesty was great, and this trait
of character is evinced in his writings; and those who knew him
intimately loved him for his honesty, a trait of character that
appeared everywhere in his collection of facts and in every step
made toward conclusions, and he leaves behind’ many to mourn
the loss of his genial presence, and the labors of his vigorous and
comprehensive mind.

(60)

INDEX TO NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS.

C. ABBE,

PAGE

18.
24.
27.
62.
82.
85.
93.
123.
123.
139.
186.
190.
196.
202.
202.

Remarks on oceanic surface temperatures and winds.
Remarks on hypsometry and geodesy.

Remarks on Croll’s glacial theory.

Remarks on ripple-marks.

Remarks on reservoirs for regulating Kuropean rivers.
Remarks on silver currency.

Remarks on Dakota calendar. [cember 24, 1873.
Presents report of the Committee on the Meteor of De-
Remarks on Ritchie’s liquid compass.

Report on the meteor of December 24, 1873.
Remarks on the satellites of Mars.

Remarks on atmospheric electricity.

Remarks commemorative of Professor Henry.
Remarks on the observations of the solar eclipse.
Communicates a letter from Mr. W. 8S. Abbey.

Mr. W. S. ApBey (of New York City).

202.

Inquiry concerning a strange fish.

B. ALVORD.

42
49
67
19

103.
104.
123.
175.
SHE
188.
192.
196.
198.
201.
Sie

Remarks on the distribution of fauna.

On the mortality among army officers 1824 to 1873.

Remarks on the regulation of the Hudson,

Remarks on Japan and the Japanese.

Remarks on Lake Bonneville.

On a trigonometrical formula.

Remarks on Ritchie’s liquid compass.

Remarks on the origin of the American Indians.

Remarks on the North American Indians.

Remarks on rainfall in Utah.

Remarks on meteors.

Remarks commemorative of Professor Henry.

On the intersections of circles and of spheres.

On the intersections of circles and of spheres.

Address commemorative of Professor Henry.
(375)

376 INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS.

T. ANTISELL.
PAGE
34, On Japan and the Japanese.

103. Remarks on the outlet of Lake Bonneville
104. Remarks on waterspouts.

110. Remarks on the use of certain terms.

113. Remarks on the cosmogony.

132. Communicates a memoir by Prof. C. E. Munroe.
132. On terrestrial geogony.

133. On terrestrial cosmogony (continued).

134. On terrestrial geogony (continued).

134. On terrestrial geogony (concluded).

137. Remarks on standard measures.

174. Remarks on the President’s Address.

181. Remarks on evolution.

183. Remarks on poisoned arrows.

183. Remarks on the climate of plants.

185. Remarks on optical salinometer.

187. Remarks on the proper basis of classification.
190. Remarks on atmospheric electricity.

192. On the temperatures of the Pacific Ocean.
196. Remarks on growth of mountains.

373. Remarks commemorative of Professor Henry.

S. F. Batrp.
48. Remarks on the Latimer collection from Porto Rico.

M. BAKER.
113. On the history of Malfatti’s Problem.
199. Remarks on intersection of circles and spheres.

H. A. BATEs.
19. On the movement of an attracted particle.

ALEXANDER G. Bet (of Boston).
103. On the telephone.

HK. BESsELs.
36. Remarks on slow changes in Arctic glaciers. [tudes.
66. On the hygrometrical condition of the air in high lati-
89. On the late English Polar Expedition.

J. 8S. BILiines.
109. On Bacteria and spontaneous generation.

INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS. on

Mr. C. G. Borrner (of Vevay, Indiana).
PAGE

87. On a shower of the Rocky Mountain grasshoppers.

S. C. Busy.
16. On the exposure of fruits for sale.
133. On the motion of the lymph.

Prof. J. D. Burier (of Madison, Wisconsin).
185. On prehistoric copper.

H. Capron.
79. On Japan and the Japanese.

J. W. CHICKERING.
17. On the temperatures of the surface water of the ocean.

F. W. CLARKE.
190. Remarks on atmospheric electricity.

General T. L. Ciuinaman (of North Carolina).
‘104. On waterspouts in North Carolina.

J. H. C. Corrin.
99. Remarks on the reformation of the calendar.
52. Remarks on drawings of nebule.
60. Remarks on the adjustment of the calendar.
105. On Sumner’s method in navigation.
111. Remarks on the telephones of Messrs. Gray and Bell.
123. Remarks on observations of meteors.
123. Remarks on Ritchie’s liquid compass.
184. Remarks on a new levelling instrument.
902. Remarks on total solar eclipses.
902. Remarks on uniformity of railway time standards.

COMMITTEE, REPORTS OF.
83. On the death of A. R. MaRvINE.
123. On the meteor of December 24, 1873.
130. On the death of B. F. Craig.
139. On the meteor of December 24, 1873.

196. On the death of JosepH HENRY. [ Mars.
186. On the discovery by Asaph Hall of the satellites of
KE. Cougs. fiSeeAe

183. Communicates a memoir by Dr. Hoffman, Surgeon U.
189. Remarks on the arid region.

378 INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS.

B. F. CRara.

PAGE
46. Remarks on climate and the distribution of moisture.

a. CURTIS.
105. Remarks on waterspouts and cloudbursts.

hk. D. Curts.
24. Remarks on hypsometry and local attractions.

W. H. Dat.
27. Remarks on elevations and depressions in Alaska.
36. Remarks on the mammoths of Alaska and Siberia.
65. On the strata of the shell heaps of the Aleutian Islands.
89. Remarks on the tides of the Arctic basin.
94. Remarks on a Dakota calendar.
112. Remarks on disease.
184. Remarks on a new levelling instrument.
185. Remarks on copper implements used in Alaska.
193. Remarkson currents and temperatures in Behring’s Sea. -
193. On the natural history of the Chitonide.

Mr. G. B. DixweEtu (of Boston).
64. On cylinder condensation, steam-jackets, and super-
heated steam.

M. H. DoontTtTie.
134. Remarks on the formation of the earth.
186. Remarks on the satellites of Mars.
188. On the nebular hypothesis and the inner moon of Mars.
190. On the influence of aérolites in planetary motion,
190. On aérolithic disturbance of planetary motions.

C. BE. Durron.
18. Remarks on oceanic surface temperatures.
22. Remarks on sounds and audition.
26. On the glacial period.
42. Remarks on the distribution of fauna.
43. Remarks on the iron facing of copper plates.
44. On the causes of the glacial climate.
45. Remarks on Croll’s theory of glacial climate.
58. Remarks on audibility of distant sounds.
76. Remarks on the geology of the Colorado region.

J. R. EASTMAN.

PAGE

ithe
ug
185.
188.

INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS. 379

Remarks on the rigidity of the earth’s crust.
Remarks on Japan and the Japanese.
Remarks on an optical salinometer.
Remarks on Great Salt Lake.

92. Remarks on sound and audition.

28.
49.

Remarks on vocabularies.
On the comparison of rain gauges at different elevations.

. HLLIOTT.
oy

_ On the use of metric weights for postal purposes.

_ On the change from the silver to a gold standard.

_ Remarks on a desirable reformation in the calendar.

. On the calendar formule.

On the use of metric weights.

On affected quantities of the first order.

_ Remarks on the distribution of fauna. [perplates.
_ Remarks on the magnetic condition of iron facing cop-
_ Remarks on a government plan of life insurance for its

employés.

- Onthe mutual relations of gold, silver, and greenbacks.
~ On the mutual relations of gold, greenbacks, and silver.
_ On the adjustment of the calendar.

_ Communicates a letter from Dr. B. A. Gould. [States.
. On propositions for changing the coin of the United
. On force and momentum.

. On monetary standards.

_ On the mutual relations of gold and silver, and prices.
ane
113.
130.
134.
135.
137.
137.
190.
190.
192.
ge

On the telephones of Messrs. Gray and Bell.
Remarks on the cosmogony.

Remarks on the late B. F. Craig.

On the relative values of gold and silver.
On optional monetary standards.
Remarks on standard measures.

On standards of time.

Remarks on atmospheric electricity.
Remarks on asymmetry.

On the telephote.

Remarks on series.

380

INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS.

. On musical intervals.

. On an adjustment of the Carlisle tables.

. Remarks on solar eclipse. [ poses.
2. On meridional time for railway and telegraphic pur-
. Remarks commemorative of Professor Henry.

. M. ENpuicu.

31.
36.

On the coloring agent of gems. [ tions.
On the time required for glacial and geological forma-

. J. FARQUHAR.

28.
112.
183.
199.
202.
373.

. Foote.

189.

38.
193.
202.

Remarks on the extension of language.
Remarks on disease.

Remarks on poisoned arrows.

Remarks on the evolution of language.
Remarks on total solar eclipse.

Remarks commemorative of Professor Henry.

On the electricity of thunder-storms.

FRISBY.

Remarks on calendar formule.
On series.
Remarks on total solar eclipse.

. D. GALE.

26.
Zl:

65.
183.

On the wooden pavements of Washington, D. C.

Remarks on the bowlders of Manhattan Island and
Long Island, N. Y.

Remarks on Egyptian antiquities.

On the climate of plants.

. M. GALLAUDET.

48.
196.

23.

24.

On unconscious cerebration.
Remarks commemorative of Professor Henry.

. T. GARDNER.

On elevations in the United States determined by rail-
road levellings.
Remarks on local attractions in hypsometry.

. K. GILBERT.

28,

Remarks on vocabularies,

PAGE

61.
62.
67.
69.
69.
80.
94.
103.
112.
113.
131.
SHE
184.
185.
186.
MS sie
188.
189.
190.
192.
195.

INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS. 381

On ripple-marks.

Remarks on ripple-marks.

On the horary oscillations of atmospheric temperature.
On the horary oscillations of the atmosphere.

On landslips and lakelets. [States.
On the distribution of thermal springs in the United
Remarks on a Dakota calendar.

On Lake Bonneville.

On the structure of the Henry Mountains.

On the structure of the Henry Mountains (continued).
On a special method of barometric hypsometry.
Remarks on evolution.

On a proposed new levelling instrument.

Remarks on copper drifts in Jowa and Missouri.
Remarks on the satellites of Mars.

On the recent history of the Great Salt Lake.
Remarks on Great Salt Lake.

Remarks on the arid region.

Remarks on asymmetry.

Remarks on meteors.

On the Wasatch, a growing mountain.

T. N. Gri.

15.
26.
27.
28.
35.
36.
. Remarks on “old and new style.”
4],
42.
AT.
50.

9
v

On the ‘‘ Prodromus” of Storr. [See Append. No. V.]
On the geographical distribution of mammals. —
Remarks on the faunas of the glacial period.

Remarks on the vocabulary of a zoologist.

Remarks on fish peculiar to Lakes Baikal and Titicaca.
Remarks on the climate of the glacial epoch.

Comments on memoir by Mr. Robert Ridgway.
Remarks on the fauna of Asia and America.
Remarks on the length of the pliocene epoch.
Remarks on the distinction between archzology and
ethnology. [century.

. On the progress of the natural sciences during the past
. Remarks on the information to be gathered from ani-

mal remains. [ vine.

. Presents report of committee on death of A. R. Mar-
. Remarks on the thickness of the earth’s crust.

382

PAGE
87.
94,

110.

118.

126.

135.
181.

182.

183.

186.

190.

199.

202.

202.

372.

@):

1 Oe 185) ANE
15.
65.

INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS.

Remarks on a shower of Rocky Mountain grasshoppers.
Remarks on a Dakota calendar.

On terms used in zoology and other sciences.

On the family Centrarchoides.

Remarks on pulmonary phthisis.

On the morphology of the antlers of the Cervide.
Remarks on evolution.

On a new species of Chimera.

Remarks on poisoned arrows.

Remarks on resemblances in classification.
Remarks on asymmetry.

Remarks on the evolution of language.

Remarks on the Megalops Atlanticus.

On the family of Ceratids.

Remarks commemorative of Professor Henry.
Appendix. On the “ Prodromus” of Storr.

GouLp (of Cordoba, A. R.).
Scientific culture in the Argentine Republic.
On the coinage of the Argentine Republic.

Dr. Asa Gray (of Cambridge, Mass.).

42.

Remarks on the genus Torreya.

Mr. EvisHa Gray (of Chicago).

67.

Exhibition of a telaphon.

B. F. GREENE.

123.
134.

On the navy compass.
On an adjustable binnacle.

F. M. Green.

123.

Remarks on Ritchie’s liquid compass.

i. V. GREENE.

82.

AY WELATE:
ole

48.

94,

102)

181.

On the deviations of the plumb line on the 49th parallel.

[cember, 1874.
On the observations of the transit of Venus, 8th De-
On approximate quadratures,
On the appearance of Saturn’s rings. [rotation.
On a bright spot on the ball of Saturn, and the time of
On the centre of gravity of the disk of a planet.

PAGE

184.
186.
188.
189.
190.
oe
199%

INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS. 383

Remarks on a new levelling instrument.

On the discovery of the two satellites of Mars.
Remarks on the nebular hypothesis.

Remarks on the rings of Saturn.

Remarks on asymmetry.

Remarks on the orbits of Deimos and Phobos.
Remarks on the transit of Mercury.

W. HARKNESS. [interval of time.

64.
67.
68.

68.
69.

193.
OR
192.
199.
199.
201.

Remarks on Mayer’s method of determining a definite

Remarks on the regulation of the Hudson.

On the U. 8S. Expedition to Hobart Town to observe
the transit of Venus.

On the methods of measuring the inequalities of pivots.

On the U. 8. Expedition to Hobart Town to observe
the transit of Venus.

Remarks on observations of meteors.

Remarks on Ritchie’s liquid compass.

Remarks on spectra of comets and meteors.

Remarks on intersections of circles and spheres.

Remarks on the transit of Mercury.

On the velocity of light and the solar parallax.

F. V. HAYDEN. °

187.

Remarks on the recent history of the Great Salt Lake.

J. Henry.

(45).
19.
22.
25.
26.
35.
at.
39.
40.
40.

43.

48

50.

Appendix No. LX. On sound in relation to fog signals.

Remarks on habits of observation.

On audition.

Remarks on early surveys for the Erie Canal.

Remarks on the distribution of mammals.

On the glacial theory.

On fog signals and abnormal conditions of sound.

Communicates two letters from Mr. A. C. Ross.

Remarks on Mosher’s experiments on latent impressions.

On electricity engendered by the driving belt of ma-
chinery. [per plates.

Remarks on magnetic condition of iron facing for cop-

Remarks on unconscious cerebration.

Remarks on rainfall observations in high towers.

384

PAGE

oT.
59.
60.
60.
62.
67.
role
qu
74.
80.
85.
86.
87.
104.
105.
109.
111.
113.
130.
162.

INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS.

On sound in connection with fog signals.

Remarks on acoustic refraction.

On researches on sound in its application to fog signals.
On half vision.

Remarks on ripple-marks.

Remarks on the regulation of the Hudson.

Remarks on the recent progress of the Japanese.

On illuminating materials for lighthouses.

Remarks on the temperature of space.

Exhibition of Crooke’s Radiometer.

On apparatus for fog signals.

Exhibition of a specimen of paper made of asbestos.
Communicates a letter from Mr. C. G. Boerner.
Remarks on the telephone of Mr. A. G. Bell.
Remarks on tornadoes. [ley.
Announces the death of Rear-admiral Theodorus Bai-
Announces the decease of Messrs. Meek, Haton, and
Remarks on the cosmogony. [ Davis.
Remarks on the late Dr. B. F. Craig.

Annual Address of the President.

J. E. HinGarp.

22.
24.
28.
29.
30.
33.
33.
36.
41.
42.
48.
50.
50.
64.
64.

on
$2.

Remarks on sound and audition.

Remarks on hypsometry and local attractions.

Remarks on vocabulary of an Italian opera.

On a proposed reformation of the Gregorian calendar.

Remarks on an improvement in the calendar.

Remarks on the measurement of photographs of the Sun.

Communicates a memoir by M. C. Metcs.

Remarks on the glacial accumulation of snow.

On the progress of the International Metrical Commis-

On iron facing for copper plates. [sion.

Remarks on unconscious cerebration.

Remarks on rainfall observations. (Atlanta.

On the measurement of the Coast Survey base line near

Remarks on meteorology and hygiene.

Remarks on Mayer’s method of determining a definite
interval of time.

Remarks on Japan and the Japanese.

Remark on reservoirs for regulating rivers.

PAGH

83.
85.
85.
92.
95.

104.

113.

123.

123.

123.

130.

136.

185.

196.

196.

INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS. 385

Remarks on deviations of the plumb line.
Remarks on force and momentum.

Remarks on the thickness of the earth’s crust.
Remarks on a Dakota calendar.

Remarks on the appearance of Saturn’s rings.
Remarks on the telephone of Mr. A. G. Bell.
Remarks on the family Centrarchoides.
Remarks on Malfatti’s problem.

Remarks on observations of meteors.
Remarks on Ritchie’s liquid compass.
Remarks on the late B. F. Craig.

On standard measures of length.

On an optical salinometer.

Announces the death of Professor Joseph Henry.
Remarks commemorative of Professor Henry.

Dr. Horrman (Surgeon U.S. A.).

183.

On the use of poisoned arrows by N. American Indians.

EK. 8. Houpen. [(See Appendiaz, p. 16.)

28.
51.
82.

85.
95.
95.
102.

(18).

On the number of words used in speaking and writing.

On two drawings of nebule made by Mr. L. Trouvelot.

Remarks on Major Farquhar’s Report on Reservoirs
for the Mississippi.

On the search for the supposed planet Vulcan.

Remarks on the appearance of Saturn’s rings.

On reference catalogues of astronomical titerature.

On the shadow of the ball of Saturn.

Appendix No. VI. On the number of words used in
spelling and writing.

Mr. Jounson (of

196.

Remarks Pemenemoniive of Prof. Henry.

Prof. D. S. Jorpan (of Indianapolis, Ind.).

113.

Remarks on the family Centrarchoides.

Mr. F. F. Jupp (of ).

67.

82.

WA: Ae.
111.
124.

On the water-shed of the Adirondack region.
On the Adirondack water-shed.

KING.
On the conservative element in disease.
On the conservative influence of disease.

386 INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS,

Mr. Knieur (of Washington, D. C.).

PAGE
28. Remarks on vocabulary of a work on Mechanies.

BH. P. Lut.
83. On the Nicaragua Interoceanic Canal.

G. MAuuery.
90. On a calendar of the Dakota Indians. [ Indians.
175. On some common errors regarding the North American
175. On some common errors regarding the North American
Indians (concluded).

Prof. O. C. Marsa (of New Haven, Conn.).
113. Remarks on the cosmogony.

Mr. Mason (of Baltimore, Md.).
72. On tests for explosive character of kerosene oils.

QO. T. Mason.

48. On archeological specimens from Porto Rico.

50. On the classification of objects of archeology.

66. Remarks on the instruments found in Australia and

Alaska. [archeology.

71. On international symbols for charts of pre-historical

72. Continuation of the preceding.

85. Remarks on force and momentum. [G. Bell.
104. Remarks on an application of the telephone of Mr. A.
180. Remarks on the Indians of America.

185. Remarks on pre-historic mounds in Wiconsin.
196. Remarks commemorative of Professor Henry.

Prof. A. M. Mayer (of Hoboken, N. J.).
64. On a method of determining a definite interval of time.

F. B. Meek. {fossil plants.
(46). Appendix No. VIII. Descriptions of new species of
M. C. MEtas.

22. Remarks on sound and audition.
26. Remarks on the distribution of mammals.
33. On the movements caused in large ice-fields. [See
Appendix No. VII.
37. Remarks on the deposits of ivory in Siberia.
(22). Appendiz. On the movements caused in large ice-
fields by expansion and contraction.

INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS. 387

Prof. C. H. Munroz (of Annapolis).
PAGE
132. On the estimation of manganese as pyrophosphate.

Dr. Davip Murray (of Tokio, Japan).
69. Onthe present progress of educational matters in Japan.

S. NEWcoms.
41. On the transit of Venus.
73. Remarks on the temperature of space.
81. Remarks on the phenomena of the radiometer.
85. Remarks on the probable existence of the planet Vulcan.
85. Remarks on the thickness of the earth’s crust.
85. Remarks on the silver currency.
110. Remarks on the use of certain terms.
113. On the cosmogony.
186. Remarks on the satellites of Mars.
199. On the recent transit of Mercury. [1878.
202. On the observations of the total solar eclipse, July 29, —

W. L. NIcHOLSON.
373. Remarks commemorative of Professor Henry.

J. A. OSBORNE.
63. On a new meteorological instrument.

G. A. OTIs.
190. Remarks on asymmetry.

PETER PARKER.
28. Remarks on ordinary Chinese vocabularies.
30. Remarks on the calendars in use in China.
40. Remarks on the application of electricity to disease.
65. Remarks on Egyptian antiquities.
94. Remarks on Chinese and Indian coincidents.
111. Moves the appointment of a committee on commemo-
rative resolutions.
130. Remarks on the late B. F. Craig. [of Mars.
186. Presents report of committee on discovery of satellites
368. Remarks commemorative of Professor Henry.
372. Address commemorative of Professor Henry.

H. M. Pauvt.
202. Remarks on drawings of solar corona.

39

388

INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS.

J. W. PowEL..
PAGE
28. Remarks on the vocabulary of the Ute Indians.
34. On the Uintah Mountains.
44, Remarks on Croll’s theory of glacial climate.
45. Remarks on the nature and origin of gravels.
62. Remarks on ripple-marks in deep water.
65. On some types of mountain building.
66. Remarks on the Khiva.
67. Remarks on the regulation of the Hudson. ~
69. Remarks on lakes formed by dams of detritus.
72. Remarks on the scanty knowledge to be gathered from
relics.
74. On monoclinal ridges.
79. Remarks on the thickness of the earth’s crust.
83. Biographical notice of A. R. Marvine. [See Appen-
dix No. X.|
85. On the thickness of the earth’s crust.
93. Remarks on a Dakota calendar.
109. On the philosophy of the North American Indians.
110. On the philosophy of the North American Indians
(continued).
113. Remarks on the cosmogony.
113. Remarks on the Henry Mountains.
134. Remarks on the formation of the earth.
180. Remarks on the North American Indians.
181. Remarks on the Indians of North America.
182. On the use of poisons by North American Indians.
183. Remarks on arrows dipped in blood. [ Indians.
185. Remarks on stone implements used by North American
189. On the arid region of the United States.
190. Remarks on asymmetry. —
192. Remarks on meteoric accumulations.
199. On the evolution of language. [ Marvine.
(53). (Appendix No. X.) Biographical notice of A. R.
Prof. F. W. Purnam (of Cambridge, Mass. ).
62. Remarks on ripple-marks formed by the tides.

R. Ripeaway.

Al.

Ou the natural arrangement of the Falconide.

INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS. 389

Mr. A. C. Ross (of Zanesville, Ohio).
PAGE Y
39. On latent impressions on polished glass plates.

S. SHELLABARGER.
105. Remarks on water-spouts and cloud-bursts.

C. A. Scnorr.
38. Remarks on the time reckoning in Alaska.
77. Remarks on the rigidity of the earth’s crust.
200. On a new eye-piece for observing personal equations.

Rev. Dr. C. W. Surexps (of Princeton, N. J.).
15. On the present state of the sciences.

A. N. SKINNER.
25. Remarks on vision, the microscope, ete.

Prof. J. Lawrence Smirx (of Louisville, Ky.).
190. Remarks on aérolites.

A. R. SPorrorp.
42. On proposed reforms in spelling the English language.

O. STONE.
22. On the correction of a comet’s orbit.
30. Remarks on a proposed reformation of the calendar.

Prof. Dr. J. J. Syivester (of Baltimore, Md.).
95. On the theory of invariants.

Mr. G. F. Tausor (of ).
105. Remarks on waterspouts and cloud-bursts.

G. TAYLOR.
196. Remarks commemorative of Professor Henry.

W. B. Tayuor.

5. Remarks on vision, the microscope, ete.

6. Remarks on the distribution of mammals.

7. Remarks on Croll’s theory of the Glacial epoch.

30. Remarks on adesirable change in the calendar. [1079.

38, Remarks on the calendar proposed by Omar Chevam in

43. Remarks on Croll’s astronomical theory of glacial cli-
mate. t [theories of climate.

46. Remarks on the astronomical and the geographical

390

PAGE

48.
49.
52.
57.
13.
76.
ote
80.
85.
89.
85.
111.
112.
113.
137.
186.
188.
189.

190.
IS).
IOS),
203.
230.

INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS.

Remarks on unconscious cerebration. [surance-

Remarks on the policy of government plans for life ir-

Remarks on drawings of nebule.

On acoustic refraction.

On the temperature of space.

Remarks on thickness and rigidity of the earth’s crust.

Remarks on the rigidity of the earth.

Remarks on the phenomena of the radiometer.

Remarks on force and momentum.

Remarks on the theory of Vulcan.

Remarks on the thickness of the earth’s crust.

Remarks on the telephones of Messrs. Gray and Bell.

Remarks on disease.

Remarks on the cosmogony.

Remarks on standard measures. [pothesis.

Remarks on the satellites of Mars and the nebular hy-

Remarks on the nebular hypothesis.

On the analogy between the rings of Saturn and the
satellites of Mars.

Remarks on atmospheric electricity.

Remarks on intersection of circles and spheres.

Remarks on the evolution of language.

Historical account of the scientific labors of Joseph

A memoir of Joseph Henry. [ Henry.

J. M. Toner.

95.
185.
196.

On the burning of theatres and public halls.
On a case of malformation.
Remarks commemorative of Professor Henry.

Mr. Chief Justice M. R. Warrr (of Washington, D. C.).

196. Announces the funeral of Professor Joseph Henry.
L. F. Warp.

110. Remarks on the use of certain terms.

134. Remarks on the formation of the earth.

186. On the natural system of plants.

187. On the natural system of plants (continued).

189. Remarks on the arid region.

199. Remarks on the evolution of language.

INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS. 391

General J. K. WARREN (of U. S. hy Engineer Corps).

PAGE

eile

&

Remarks on changes in drainage system of North
America.

J. C. WELLING.

26.

Remarks on the distribution of mammals.

. Remarks on the method of estimating vocabularies.
. Remarks on silver currency.

Remarks on the use of certain terms. _
Remarks on the evolution of language.

. Address on the life and character of Joseph Henry.
. Remarks commemorative of Professor Henry.

C. A. WHITE.

110.
Me}
181.
185.
mere
187.
188.
189.
190.

Remarks on the use of certain terms.

Remarks on the North American Indians.

On the evolution of the North American Unionide.
Remarks on copper drifts in Iowa and Missouri.
Remarks on fossil plants.

Remarks on the Great Salt Lake.

Remarks on Great Salt Lake.

Remarks on the arid region of the United States.
On asymmetry in the form of the human cranium.

Dr. A. Worrkorr (of St. Petersburg, Russia).

34.

30.

On Col. Tillo’s determination of the elevations of the
Caspian and Aral Seas.
On meteorological observations in Peru.

J. J. WoopwARD.

20.

22.
20.
41.
60.

60.
62.
64.

64.
69.

On the similarity between red blood-corpuscles in
mammals.

Remarks on the human ear.

On the modern microscope, and Nobert’s lines. [stains.

Explanatory note in regard to the diagnosis of blood-

On diffraction phenomena in the field of the microscope.

Remarks on the frequency of half vision.

On the microscopical structure of wool.

Remarks on a meteorological instrument.

On the Papyrus Ebers, written 1552 B. C.

On the markings on Navicula Rhomboides.

392 INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS.

PAGE
79. On the measurement of blood-corpuscles.

85. Remarks on force and momentum.
112. Remarks on disease. ?
126. Remarks on pulmonary phthisis.
126. On a simple device for microscopic illumination.
130. On the rulings on glass, by Prof. W. A. Rogers, of
Cambridge, Mass.
130. Remarks on the late B. F. Craig.
180. Remarks on the American Indians.
182. Remarks on poisoned arrows.
185. Remarks on a case of malformation.
190. Remarks on asymmetry.
201. Remarks on an adjustment of the Carlisle tables.
202. Remarks on total solar eclipse.
372. Remarks commemorative of Professor Henry.

Prof. C. A. Youne (of Princeton, N. J.).
33. On the expedition to Pekin, to observe the transit of
Venus,

al
Mi
vat

mH

BULLETIN

OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

OF

WASHINGTON.

VOre Ti:

NovEmMsBerR 9TH, 1878—June 197u, 1880.

WASHINGTON.
1878-1880.

Lica yee
Gr eT = Tots

PAGH.

I-XV,

155-157.
159-164.
165-196.

CONTENTS.

Constitution, Rules, Officers and Members, April, 1879.
Bulletin of the Philosophical Society.
Standing Rules.
Officers for 1879-1880.
List of Members corrected to July 20, 1880.
List of Recipients of the Bulletin.

Index to Names of Contributors.

CONSTITUTION, STANDING RULES,

LIST OF MEMBERS

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

WASHINGTON.

April, 1879.

ui

CONSTITUTION

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

ArtIcLE I. The name of this Society shall be Tar Put-
LOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

ARTICLE IJ. The officers of the Society shall be a Presi-
dent, four Vice-Presidents, a Treasurer, and two Secretaries.

ArticLE III. There shall be a General Committee, con-
sisting of the officers of the Society and nine other mem-
bers.

ARTICLE IV. The officers of the Society and the other
members of the General Committee shall be elected annu-
ally by ballot; they shall hold office until their successors
are elected, and shall have power to fill vacancies.

ARTICLE V. It shall be the duty of the General Com-
mittee to make rules for the government of the Society,
and to transact all business.

ArTIcLE VI. This Constitution shall not be amended
except by a three-fourths vote of those present at an an-
nual meeting for the election of officers, and after notice
of the proposed change shall have been given in writing
ata stated meeting of the Society at least four weeks pre-
viously.

lv

SA NSD TENG EU aks

FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

NovemBeEr, 1877.

1. The Stated Meetings of the Society shall be held at
8 o’clock P. M. on every alternate Saturday; the place of
meeting to be designated by the General Committee.

2. The Annual Meeting for the election of officers shall
be the first stated meeting in the month of November.
When necessary, Special Meetings may be called by the
President.

8. Notices of the time and place of meetings shall be
sent to each member by one of the Secretaries.

4, The Stated Meetings, with the exception of the annual
meeting, shall be devoted to the consideration and discussion
of scientific subjects.

&. Persons interested in science, who are not residents
of the District of Columbia, may be present at any meeting
of the Society, except the annual meeting, upon Invitation
of a member.

6. Similar invitations to residents of the District of Co-
lumbia, not members of the Society, must be submitted
through one of the Secretaries to the General Committee
for approval.

7. Invitations to attend during three months the meet-
ings of the Society and participate in the discussion of
papers, may, by a vote of nine members of the General

Committee, be issued to persons nominated by two mem-
bers.

Vv

8. Communications intended for publication under the
auspices of the Society shall be submitted in writing to
the General Committee for approval.

9. New members shall be elected by the General Com-
mittee, after having been proposed in writing by at least
three members of the Society.

10. Each member shall pay annually to the Treasurer
the sum of five dollars, and no member whose dues are
unpaid shall vote at the annual meeting for the election
of officers, or be entitled to a copy of the Bulletin. The
names of those two years in arrears will be dropped from
the list of members. Notice of resignation of membership
should be given in writing to the General Committee
through the President or one of the Secretaries.

11. The fiscal year terminates with the 3lst of December
of each year. Members elected after the annual meeting
shall be exempt from the assessment for that year.

12. Members who are absent from the District of Colum-
bia for more than twelve months may be excused from
payment of the annual assessments, in which case their
names shall be dropped from the list of members. They
can, however, on returning to the District, resume their
membership by giving written notice to the General Com-
mittee through the President or one of the Secretaries of
their wish to do so.

13. Elections of officers are to be held as follows :—

In each case nominations shall be made by means of an
informal ballot, the result of which shall be announced by
the Secretary; after which the first formal ballot shall be
taken.

In the ballot for Vice-Presidents, Secretaries, and Mem-
bers of the General Committee, each voter shall write on
one ballot as many names as there are officers to be elected,
viz, four on the first ballot for Vice-Presidents, two on the
first for Secretaries, and nine on the first for Members of
the General Committee; and on each subsequent ballot so
many names as there are persons yet to be elected; and

Av.

vi

those persons who receive a majority of the votes cast shall
be declared elected.

If in any case the informal ballot result in giving a ma-
jority for any one, it may be declared formal by a majority
vote.

14. Any member not in arrears may, by the payment of
one hundred dollars at any one time, become a life member,
and be relieved from all further annual dues and other
assessments.

All moneys received in payment of life membership
shall be invested as portions of a permanent fund, which
shall be directed to the furtherance of only such special
scientific work as may be ordered by the General Committee.

STANDING RULES
OF THE

GENERAL COMMITTEE OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

NovemBeEr, 1877.

1. The President, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the
Society shall hold like offices in the General Committee.

2. The President shall have power to call special meet-
ings of the Committee, and to appoint Sub-Committees.

3. The Sub-Committees shall prepare business for the
General Committee, and perform such other duties as may
be entrusted to them.

4, There shall be two Standing Sub-Committees; one on
Communications for the Stated Meetings of the Society,
and another on Publications.

5. The General Committee shall meet at half past seven
o’clock on the evening of each Stated Meeting, and by ad-
journment at other times.

vil

6. For all purposes except for the amendment of the
Standing Rules of the Committee and of the Society and
the election of members, six members of the Committee
shall constitute a quorum.

7. Proposals of new members may be read at any meet-
ing of the General Committee, but shall lle over for at
least four weeks before final action, and the concurrence of,
twelve of the members shall be necessary to election.

8. These Standing Rules, and those for the government
of the Society, shall only be modified with the consent of
a majority of the members of the General Committee.

RULES

FOR THE

PUBLICATION OF THE BULLETIN
OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

1. The President’s annual address will be published in
full.

2. When directed by the General Committee, any com-
munication may be published in full in an appendix to
the proceedings of any meeting. Proofs will be sent to
the author when it is convenient to do so, and a number
of extra copies, not exceeding fifty, will be supplied to him,
if applied for before the communication is printed.

3. Abstracts of papers and remarks on the same will be
published, when presented to the Secretary by the author
in writing within two weeks of the evening of their deliv-
ery, and approved by the Committee on Publications.
Brief abstracts prepared by one of the Secretaries and

viii
approved by the Committee on Publications may also be
published.

4. Communications which have been published elsewhere,
so as to be generally accessible, will appear in the Bulletin
by title only, but with reference to the place of publication,
if made known in season to the Committee on Publications.

Norr.—The attention of members is specially requested to the 3d and 4th of
the above rules. If those who present communications or remarks will promptly
furnish abstracts or the papers in full, the Bulletin will be more complete, and
can be published with less delay.

ix

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

APRIL 2, 1879.

CLEVELAND ABBE
SYLVANUS THAYER ABERT
Asa QO. ALDIS

BENJAMIN ALVORD
THOMAS ANTISELL

ORVILLE Evtas BABCOCK
SPENCER FULLERTON BAIRD
Marcus BAKER

GEORGE BANCROFT

JOSEPH K. BARNES
Tuomas W. BARTLEY
Henry Hopart Bates
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL
STEPHEN VINCENT BENET
EMIL B&SSELS

JOHN SHAW BILLINGS
WILLIAM BIRNEY

Rogers BIRNIE

Swan M. Burnett
SAMUEL CLAGETT BUSEY

Horack CaPron

THomMAS LINCOLN CASEY

JOHN WHITE CHICKERING
EDWARD CLARK

JOHN HUNTINGTON CRANE COFFIN
E.uiotr Cours

MEMBERS OF THE

ROBERT CRAIG

CHARLES HENRY CRANE
JOSIAH CURTIS

RicHarpD DomInicus Curts

WitiiamM Hearey DaLi

GroRGE DEwsy

Myrick Hascatnt DooLitTrLe

Henry Harrison Coase Dunwoopr
CLARENCE EDWARD Dutton

JOHN Ropit HASTMAN
JoHN EATON

EZEKIEL Brown ELuiorr
Freperic Mituter EnpLicu
CHARLES H]}WING

EDWARD JESSOP FARQUHAR
WILLIAM FERREL

Ropert FLETCHER

Epaar FRISBY

EpwaArp T. FRIsTOR

®

LEONARD DUNNELL GALE
Epwarp MINER GALLAUDET
HENRY GANNETT
ALEXANDER Y. P. GARNETT
GROVE KARL GILBERT
THEODORE NICHOLAS GILL
WILLIAM WHITING GODDARD
GroRGE Brown GOODE
EDWARD GOODFELLOW
HENRY GOODFELLOW
WALTER HAYDEN GRAVES
BERNARD RICHARDSON GREEN
Francts MATHEWS GREEN
FRANCIS VINTON GREENE
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN GREENE
Francis MAcKALL GUNNELL

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

Purser Conover Hains
ASAPH HALL

WILLIAM HARKNESS
FERDINAND VANDEVEER HAYDEN
Henry WETHERBEE HENSHAW
JuLIUS Hrasmus HinGgarp
GroRGE WiLutAM Hitt
EDWARD SINGLETON HoLpEN
Witiiam Henry Hoimes
FRANKLIN BENJAMIN HouGH
Henry W. Howeate

Davip Lows HunriInatTon

THORNTON ALEXANDER JENKINS
ARNOLD BURGESS JOHNSON
JosEPH TABOR JOHNSON
WILLIAM WARING JOHNSTON

ALBERT FREEMAN AFRICANUS KING
JOHN Jay KNox

JONATHAN HomMeER LANE
WitiiamM Lr

NATHAN SmirH LINCOLN
HDWARD PHELPS LULL

GARRICK MALLERY

JOSEPH BapGER MARVIN
Ottis Turton Mason
FrRepDERIC BaupERS McGuire
WiILtiaAM McMurtTRIE
MontGoMERY CUNNINGHAM MeiIGs
MontaoMEeryY MEIcs
ANICETO GABRIEL MENOCAL
WitiiAM MAanusi Mrw
Martin FERDINAND MorrRIs
ALBERT J. MYER

Simon NEwcuMB
WALTER Lams NICHOLSON

v7

xii MEMBERS OF THE

JoHN WALTER OSBORNE
GEORGE ALEXANDER OTIS

Rospert LAWRENCE PACKARD
JOHN GRUBB PARKE

PrrerR PARKER

Henry Martyn Pavs,
ALBERT CHARLES PEALE
OrLANDO MertTcaLFE Por
JoHN WESLEY POWELL
Henry Smiru PrircHerr

CHARLES VALENTINE RILEY
JoHN RopGEers

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN SANDS
JAMES HAMILTON SAVILLE
CHARLES ANTHONY SCHOTT
Tienry RoBINsON SEARLE
SAMUEL SHELLABARGER
JOHN SHERMAN

WILLIAM TECUMSEH SHERMAN
CHARLES Dwicut SIGSBEE
A ARON NICHOLS SKINNER
DAVID SMITH

AInswortH RAND SPOFrFORD

WiILiiAM Bower TAYLOR
ALMON Harris THOMPSON
Davin P. Topp

JOSEPH Mrrepitn TONER
Witi1am J. TwInina

JAcoB KErnprick Upton
GEORGE V ASEY
Lester FRANK WARD

JAMES CLARKE WELLING
Grorce M. WHEELER

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. xiii

CHARLES ABIATHAR WHITH
ALLEN D. WILSON

JAMES ORMOND WILSON
JOSEPH JANVIER WooDWARD

Henry CrisseY YARROW

ANTON ZUMBROCK

Members who have been absent from the District of Columbia for more than
twelve months, and who may on their return resume their membership
by giving written notice to the General Committee through the
President or one of the Secretaries of their wish to do so.

Lester A. BEARDSLEE

Avuagustus Luptow Cask
FRANK WIGGLESWORTH CLARKE

RicHarp CRAIN DEAN
Hucu Ewine
Huisna Foor:

JAMES TERRY GARDNER
Kpwarp Oziet GRAVES

Tsatan Hanscom
Epwin EHusent Hower

Henry ARUNDEL LAMBE JACKSON
REVEL KEITH
Witn1AM Myerrs

CuargLes Henry NICHOLS

XiV MEMBERS OF THE

CHARLES CuristopHnr PARRY
TitTrAN RAMSAY PEALE
BENJAMIN PEIRCE

CHARLES SANDERS PErroE

Henry Reep RATHBONE
CHRISTOPHER RAYMOND PERRY Rop@rrs
Jospepim ApDpIson Rogers

Montgomery SIcaRD
JOHN STEARNS
: ORMOND STONE

WILLIAM CALVIN TILDEN

Francis AMASA WALKER

Junius B. WHEELER

JOSEPH Woop

WILLIAM MaxweEti Woop
CHRISTOPHER CoLumBus Woxcorr

Deceased Members.

THEODORUS BAILEY

SALMON PorTLAND CHASE
BENJAMIN Fanevin Craia

CHARLES Henry Davts
FREDERIC WILLIAM Dorr
ALEXANDER B. Dyer

Amos BEEBE Eaton

JOHN GRAY Foster

JosEPH Henry

F. Kampr

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, XY

OscaR A. Mack
ARCHIBALD RoBERTSON MARVINE
FIELDING BRADFORD MEEK

JOHN CAMPBELL RILEY
GEORGE CHRISTIAN SCHAEFFER
JoHN MayNnarD WoopwortH

Morpecal YARNALL

Members are requested to give notice to one of the Secretaries
of any error in their names, also of any error or change of ad-
dress, or of intention of being absent from the District of Co-
lumbia more than twelve months and wish on account thereof
to be excused from payment of the annual assessment. (Aré.
12 of the Standing Rules.\

BULLETIN

OF

IEE) Ae GOs Ole ISNON I SOC IW Y Oli
WASHINGTON.

149TH MEETING. 8tu ANNUAL Mrrtina, NoveMBER 9, 1878.
Vice-President TAyiLor in the Chair.

Thirty-five members present.
The names of members elected since the last annual meeting

were read.
The election of officers for the ensuing year was conducted in
aceordance with the rules, with the following result :—

President, Simon NEwWcomsB.

Vice-Presidents, J. K. BARNES, W.. B. TAYLOR,
J. EH. Hitcarp, J. OC. WELLING.

Treasurer, CLEVELAND ABBE.
Secretaries. J, Ee Ch Cormm,) TN. Gann:

MEMBERS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

TroMAs ANTISELL, C. KH. Durton,
E. B. Exniort, J. W. Powe tt,
AsapH HAtt, C. A. ScHorr,
W. HarknNgEss, J. M. Toner,

J. J. WooDWARD.

150TH MEETING. NovEMBER 23, 1878.
The President, Mr. Newcomp, in the Chair.

Forty-five members and vjsitors present.

(17)

18 BULLETIN OF THE

The minutes of the last meeting were read and adopted.

The election of Maj. WiLu1am J. Twining, of U. S. Engineers,
and Mr. Davip P. Topp, of the Nautical Almanae Office, as
members of the Society, was announced.

A paper by Mr. HE. 8. Houpsn, entitled

NOTES ON THE BRIGHTNESS AND THE STELLAR MAGNITUDE OF THE
THIRD SATURNIAN SATELLITE, TETHYS,

was read by Mr. SKINNER.
Remarks were made by Mr. ABBE.

Mr. J. J. Woopwarpd made remarks

ON THE APERTOMETER OF PROF. E. ABBE, OF JENA, GERMANY.

(ABSTRACT.)

Mr. Woopwarp exhibited and described the apertometer de-
vised by Professor Abbe, of Jena, for measuring the aperture
of microscopic objectives, and manufactured by Carl Zeiss, also
of Jena. An account of this instrument will be found in the
Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, March, 1878, p. 19.
As the instrument was designed for use on the perpendicular
microscope stands commonly employed in Germany, Mr, Wood-
ward had modified it by mounting the glass disk on a block of
wood 38 inches long by 1.5 wide and .4 thick, and by attaching
springs of thin sheet brass to the two movable indices, the object
being to allow the apparatus to be used on English or American
stands inclined at convenient angles. He praised the ingenuity
of Professor Abbe’s device and the excellence of the workman-
ship of Zeiss, and commended the instrument as affording a con-
venient method of measuring the apertures of objectives by lamp-
light. He still preferred, however, as simpler and more convenient,
the method he had used for several years in measuring such aper-
tures by sunlight. As originally used, this method was described
by him in the Monthly Microscopical Journal, June, 1873, p.
268. The objective was screwed to an opening in the shutter of
the dark room; a parallel pencil of solar light was thrown through
it from behind by a plane mirror, while the front lens of the ob-
jective was in contact with a thin sheet of Canada balsam confined
between two plates of glass, one of them ground. The solar
rays, after coming to a focus in the balsam, diverged, and the
margins of the cone of light could readily be marked with a lead-
pencil on the surface of the plate of ground glass. The angle
formed was afterwards measured with-a protractor, which gave

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 19

the “balsam angle” of the objective. Subsequently, at the sug-
gestion of Mr. Tolles, of Boston, he substituted for the sheet of
balsam a quadrangle of crown-glass ground on one side and pol-
ished on the edges. One of the edges was placed in front of the
objective with which it was connected with the immersion fluid
for which the objective was intended. ‘The solar rays coming
from behind, after passing through the crown-glass front of the
objective, and suffering refraction on entering and leaving the
immersion fluid, resumed in the quadrangle of crown-glass the
direction they had in the crown-glass front. The margins of the
visible cone were marked on the ground glass surface of the quad-
- rangle with alead-pencil, and the angle read by a protractor. The
angle thus measured was of course substantially the angle of the
extreme rays in the crown-glass front. It might be conveniently
called the ‘interior angle” of the objective, with which it would
be identical were it not for trifling differences between the refrac-
tive index of the crown-glass quadrangle and that of the crown-
glass selected for the front of particular objectives. Measured
in this way it was easy to see experimentally that the limit of 82°
interior angle, which Mr. Wenham had assigned to all objectives,
did not practically exist. He himself, Professor R. Keith, and
lately Professor Stokes, of Cambridge, had shown that the rea-
soning on which Mr. Wenham based his assertion was not in
accordance with optical theory. Experimenta! observation indi-
eates that the number of makers who produce objectives with
more than 82° interior angle is increasing. This was the case in
this country, especially with many of the immersion objectives of
Tolles and Spencer; in England, with some of the immersion
objectives of Powell and Lealand, and on the Continent with the
immersion objectives of Zeiss. From the latter maker he had
recently received two of his new oil-immersion objectives, a 3th
and a j4,th. As measured by the glass quadrangle by sunlight,
the 3th had an interior angle of 115°, the 3th of 114°. Mea-
sured by the apertometer of Abbe the results were, as nearly as
could be estimated, identical. Both objectives exceeded a little
the number 1.25 on Abbe’s arbitrary scale, which corresponds to
113° interior angle; but owing to the character of that scale the
exact amount of excess could only be estimated. Mr. Woodward
regarded the adoption of that scale as an unfortunate one. A
simple division of the glass circle into degrees would have been
in many respects more convenient.

t

Mr. J. BE. Hincarp made a communication on

JABLOKOFE’S ELECTRIC CANDLE.

Mr. W. H. Dat commenced a paper entitled

NOTES ON THE MUSEUMS AND ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS OF NORTHERN
HUROPE.

20 BULLETIN OF THE

151st MEETING. DECEMBER 7, 1878.
The President in the Chair.

Fifty-one members and visitors present.

The election of Mr. JoHN WALTER OSBORNE as a member of
the Society was announced.

Mr. Henry REED read a paper on

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF CIVILIZATION.

Remarks were made by Messrs. Woopwarpb, PowELL, Hark.
NESS, HAYDEN, Newcoms, WHITE, CurepMANn, Dutton, ALVORD,
Giut, J. D. Cox, Etutort, Mason, PARKER, and DAuL, gene-
rally controverting views advanced by Mr. Resp.

Mr. AsapH Hau made the following communication

ON THE SUPPOSED DISCOVERY OF A TRANS-NEPTUNIAN PLANET AT
THE U.S. NAVAL OBSERVATORY IN 1850.

In October, 1850, Mr. James Ferguson, Assistant Astronomer
of the Naval Observatory, while observing the planet Hygeia,
observed on four nights an object of the 94 magnitude which
afterwards seemed to have disappeared. A communication on
this subject was made by the Superintendent of the Observatory,
Mr. Maury, to the Secretary of the Navy, and Mr. Maury’s let-
ter, together with Mr. Ferguson’s observations, were published
in Gould’s Journal, Vol. I1., p. 53. Mr. Hind, of London, dis-
cussing these observations, came to the conclusion that the object
observed by Mr. Ferguson was a trans-Neptunian planet, at a
distance from the sun of “more than 137, and a period of above
1600 years.” Gould’s Journal, Vol. II., p. 78.

Recently Professor C. H. F. Peters, Director of the Litchfield
Observatory of Hamilton College, has given this matter a critical
examination, and has found that the true explanation is that Mr
Ferguson made a mistake in observing the difference of declina-
tion, and that by making the proper corrections the whole series
of observations comes into harmony, and the missing object proves
to be a well-known fixed star.

Mr. Hau, on examining the original observing books of Mr.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 1

"

Ferguson, finds that the explanation given by Prof. Peters is
undoubtedly correct. These books show that Mr. Ferguson
made éleven comparisons of the difference of declination, and
that eight of these comparisons were correct, and three erroneous.
For some unknown reason Mr. Ferguson in his reductions changed
the eight correct comparisons to correspond with the three erro-
neous ones, and this arbitrary change produced the mysterious
pseudo-planet.

152p MEETING. DECEMBER 21, 1878.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. W. H. Day continued his communication on
THE MUSEUMS AND ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS OF NORTHERN EUROPE,

describing those at Bremen, Berlin, Gotha, Frankfort-am-Main,
Stuttgart, Bonn, Cologne, Amsterdam, and Paris; also those of
London, Oxford, Cambridge (Eug.), Edinborough, Dublin, and
Liverpool: also answering inquiries made by Messrs. Newcoms,
Powe, Exniorr, and HARKNESS.

Mr. J. W. OsBorNE made a communication on

SUGGESTIONS RESPECTING THE STUDY OF METEOROLOGY IN REGARD.
TO THE CAUSES OF YELLOW FEVER.

Remarks were made by Mr. ANTISELL.

1538p MEETING. JANUARY 4, 1879.
The President in the Chair.
‘'wenty-three members and visitors present.
Mr. A. N. SKINNER communicated

A NOTE ON THE PRECESSION OF STARS IN RIGHT-ASCENSION.

Remarks were made by Mr. NEwcoms.
4]

22, BULLETIN OF THE

Mr. J. J. WoopWaArRD made the following communication
ON A STANDARD FOR MICROMETRY.

Mr. Woopwarp read a letter he had recently received from a
committee of the microscopical section of the Troy Scientific
Association, asking answers to the following questions s—

“1, Is it expedient at present to adopt a standard for microm-
etry?

2. If so, should the English or the metric system be employed?

3. What unit, within the system selected, is most eligible?

4, What steps should be taken to obtain a suitable standard
measure of this unit? :

5. How can this standard micrometer be best preserved and
made useful to all parties concerned ?”

These questions were asked with a view to some action to be
taken on the subject at the meeting of the American Society of
Microscopists to be held in Buffalo during the summer of 1879.
He had made the following reply, with regard to which he invited
comments or criticism by the Society.

I submit the following replies to the questions of your circular
letter of December 2d:—

1. I am in favor of the adoption of a suitable standard for
micrometry by the American Society of Microscopists at their
next meeting.

2. For this particular purpose I think the metric system offers
so many conveniences that I favor its employment.

3. The selection of an eligible unit within the system involves,
it appears to me, two distinct questions: 4. How shall the stage-
micrometer be ruled? #. How shall the measurements made be
expressed in speech or writing?

A. The object of the stage-micrometer is chiefly to give values
to the divisions of the eyepiece-micrometer with the power used
in any given case. It should be long enough to be used for this
purpose with the lowest powers of the compound microscope, and
have a part of its length ruled sufficiently close to answer the
same end with the highest powers. I favor the adoption of a
standard scale a centimetre long ruled in millimetres, and one
of these ruled in hundredths. I have used stage-micrometers
ruled in thousandths of a millimetre, but regard such divisions
as inconyeniently close for this purpose. To measure in thou-

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 23

gandths of a millimetre as the unit, which is very convenient in
a large number of cases, the simplest way is to use a magnifying
power that will make ten divisions of the eyepiece-micrometer
exactly coincide with one-hundredth of a millimetre on the stage-
micrometer. The glass eyepiece-micrometer should have a scale
a centimetre long ruled in one hundred parts. By increasing the
power so that a larger number than ten of these divisions shall
correspond to one-hundredth of a millimetre on the stage-micro-
meter, a unit of any degree of minuteness that may be required
for any special work can be obtained up to the limits of distinct
vision with the microscope.

B. But although I regard the hundredth of a millimetre as a
very eligible dimension for the closest divisions of the stage-
micrometer, when it comes to expressing the results of our mea-
surement in speech or writing, I do not think it is convenient to
use the hundredth of a millimetre as the unit of expression. It
is too large, and the results of too many measurements would
still have to be expressed in decimal fractions. The thousandth
of a millimetre is much more convenient as a unit of expression,
and I would advise that microscopists should agree to call this
dimension a micron, and represent it in writing by the Greek
letter ». This dimension has already been adopted as the unit
of expression by a number of European microscopists, who rep-
resent it by the same Greek letter, but call it a micro-millimetre.
‘The term Micron should, I think, be preferred because well known
to scientific men other than microscopists, having for some time
been used in expressing minute differences by those officially
engaged in preparing standard measures of Jength, and having
been adopted by the International Metric Commission. I think
it running an unnecessary risk of confusion to select any other
than this well-recognized term for the dimension in question.

4 and 5. To obtain a suitable standard stage-micrometer, I
would advise each microscoyical society to select one ruled as
above described, by any peison in whom they have confidence,
and to satisfy themselves by comparison of the several parts with
each other, by means of the same part of the eyepiece-microm-
eter, that the divisions agree among themselves. This is com-
paratively easily done; the real difficulty will be to determine
whether the whole scale is really a centimetre long. To ascertain
this, I would advise each microscopical society to send its stand-

94 BULLETIN OF THE

ard micrometer to the Superintendent of the Coast Survey at
Washington, with the request that he will have it compared with
a recognized standard in the Bureau of Weights and Measures,
and return it with a report of the error, if any. I have reason
to believe that such requests would be promptly and courteously
responded to. Hach society should then preserve the standard
thus obtained for the sole purpose of enabling its members to
compare their stage-micrometers with it. I think this plan much
wiser than to relegate the question to any one of the ingenious
men who are endeavoring in this country, with considerable suc-
cess, to make accurate rulings on glass, and I should anticipate
better results from it than from the appointment of a special
committee of the American Society of Microscopists to prepare
a standard scale.

In conclusion, I readily admit that so long as the Hnglish
microscopists continue to express the results of their measure-
ments in decimals of an Hnglish inch, there will be American
microscopists who will do the same, either for all purposes or for
particular work, and of course it is very desirable that these
measurements also should be accurate. The stage-micrometers.
on this system in the market are usually ruled in hundredths and
thousandths of an inch. The latter divisions are too wide to.
give values to the eyepiece-micrometer with the higher powers,
while the five-thousandths, ten-thousandths, or even finer divisions,
ruled also on some of these micrometers, are inconveniently close.
TI would advise the makers to rule such micrometers four-tenths
of an inch long, divided into hundredths of an inch, one of the
hundredths being subdivided into ten, another into twenty-five
spaces. These latter spaces, each representing one twenty-five-
hundredth of an inch, sufficiently approximate the hundredth of
a millimetre to be used with equal convenience with the higher
powers. The scale on the glass eyepiece-micrometer, used with
these stage-micrometers, should be, if specially made for the
purpose, four-tenths of an inch long, divided into one hundred
parts, each one two-hundred-and-fiftieth of an inch; but these
divisions would so closely approximate those of the metric eye-
piece-micrometer proposed, that it might be used without incon-
venience instead. Where it is thought worth while by a micro-
scopical society to procure a standard scale of this kind, it should
be sent to the Coast Survey office for measurement, as in the:
case of the metric scales.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON 25

Remarks were made by Messrs. Harkness, Enniorr, and
TAYLOR.

Mr. J. J. Woopwarp also made a communication

‘ON THE OIL-IMMERSION OBJECTIVES OF ZEISS, AND ON CONVENIENT
METHODS OF OBTAINING OBLIQUE ILLUMINATION FOR THESE AND
SIMILAR OBJECTIVES.

(ABSTRACT.)

Mr. Woopwarp exhibited and described his sub-stage prism
for the illumination of balsam mounted objects for examination
with immersion objectives whose balsam angle (or preferably
interior angle) is 90° or upwards. It is described in the Journal
of the Royal Microscopical Society, November, 1878, p. 246.
By using a prism of 98° angle instead of a right- angled one,
immersion objectives of less than 90° but more than 82° interior

angle could be satisfactorily illuminated. Both prisms had re-
cently been manufactured without any mounting by G. 8. Wool-
man, 116 Fulton Street, New York. ‘This had the advantage of
economy; but the prism being necessarily attached to the under
surface of the slide by glycerine or oil of cloves, would move with
the object, which was inconvenient. He therefore greatly pre-
ferred the instrument as originally made, although of course the
same results could be obtained by Woolman’s modification, pro-
vided the prism was readjusted each time the object was moved.
He also exhibited and described a more complex apparatus which
he had devised for microphotography, and which enabled him to
register the precise angle of the illuminating pencil employed.
(This apparatus will be described in full and figured in the Jour-
nal of the Royal Microscopical Society during 1879.)

Mr. Woopwarp remarked that although the most oblique pen-
cil an immersion objective can take in is necessary to obtain the
best results on lined test objects, e. g., Amphipleura pellucida
mounted in Canada balsam, this was no longer the case when
direct sunlight was used. In illustration he exhibited a photo-
graph of Amphipleura pellucida taken with about 2700 diameters
by the oil-immersion jth of Zeiss, referred to by him in his
communication of November 23d, when he stated that its interior
angle was 114°. The photographs excelled in definition any
picture of this test he had ever obtained with any objective; and
yet the optical axis of the illuminating lens (a 3-inch objective of
10° aperture which was used without any substage lens or prism)
was only inclined at an angle of 45° to the optical axis of the
microscope. As a further illustration of the difference between
the results obtained by illuminating the microscope by lamp and
sunlight, he exhibited two photographs of Pleurosigma angulatum
taken by the oil-immersion 2th of Zeiss of 115° interior angle,

26 BULLETIN OF THE

One of them showed the well-known appearance of hexagons, the
other the longitudinal diffraction lines produced in the experiment.
devised by Professor Abbe, of Jena. Professor Abbe had found
that if the central part of a high-angled objective be stopped out
by a transverse bar and a frustule of Pleurosigma angulatum exam-
ined, its midrib being parallel to the bar and the light thrown at
right angles to it, the hexagonal markings would be no longer seen,
but instead a series of sharp diffraction lines parallel to the mid-
rib. In their distance apart these markings are so related to the
distance of the hexagons from centre to centre that seven of the
diffraction lines occupy the space of four of the hexagons. By
lamplight, Professor Abbe found that these diffraction lines ap-
peared only on those parts of the Angulatum frustule which were
fused to the glass cover in preparing the specimen; where a film
of air existed between the frustule and the cover they did not
appear. Mr. Woonwarp had found that this was true only for
illumination by lamp; by sunlight the diffraction lines appeared
on all parts of all the frustules. In the photographs which he
exhibited the bcundary of the adherent part of the frustule could
be distinctly seen, and the diffraction lines were equally distinct
on the non-adherent parts. Professor Abbe’s explanation of the
phenomenon was therefore inadequate, as it required the non-
appearance of the diffraction lines on the non-adherent parts by
sunlight as well as by lamp.

The subject was further discussed by Messrs. HARKNESS and
W ooDWARD.

Mr. Asaph Hatt made a communication
ON THE SATELLITES OF SATURN.

(ABSTRACT.)

Mr. Hatt stated that his observation of Hyperion, the faint
satellite of Saturn, made in 1878, indicate that the line of apsides
of the orbit of this satellite has a rapid motion. Probably this
line has revolved at least 180° since the time of the discovery
of this satellite in 1848 by the Bonds and Lassell.

Attention was called to the peculiar relations of the orbits of
Hyperion and of the large satellite Titan, through which Titan .
is able to exert a great influence on the motion of Hyperion.
The motion of the line of apsides of Hyperion will probably fur-
nish an accurate determination of the mass of Titan.

Remarks were made by Messrs. TayLor and NEWCoMB.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 27

154TH MEETING. JANUARY 18, 1879.
The President in the Chair.
Forty-one members and visitors present.

The President referred to the recent memorial services of Prof.
Henry at the Capitol, and stated that an invitation to attend
them had been extended to the Philosophical Society, and that
the Society was represented on the occasion.

Mr. J. W. OsBorNE gave a recapitulation of his communication
made at a previous meeting, on

THE APPLICATION OF METEOROLOGY TO YELLOW FEVER
INVESTIGATIONS.

Remarks were made by Messrs. ANTISELL, ABBE, and Woop-
WARD.

Mr. J. W. Ossorne also made a communication on
A CURIOUS MANIFESTATION OF FORCE BY THE WIND,

exhibiting a distorted wind vane.

Mr. E. B. Exxiorr made a communication on

THE PROGRESS OF INTERNATIONAL COINAGE IN FRANCE AND
AMERICA.

155TH MEETING. FEBRUARY 1, 1879.
The President in the Chair.
Thirty-one members and visitors present.

Medical Director Francis M. Gunneui, U.S. Navy, and Mr.
GEORGE WiLLIAM Hitt, of the Nautical Almanac Office, were
announced as having been elected members of the Society.

Mr. F. M. Enpiicu made a communication

ON SOME INTERESTING CASES OF METAMORPHISM.

28 BULLETIN OF THE

The subject was discussed by Messrs. ANTISELL, WHITE, and
ENDLICH.

Mr. C. E. DutTTon made a communication on

THE GEOLOGICAL CHARACTER OF THE COLORADO RIVER.

Comments were made and questions asked by Messrs. WHITE,
ENpLicH, and HALL.

156TH MEETING. | Frsruary 15, 1879.
Vice-President WELLING in the Chair.
Thirty-eight members and visitors present.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and adopted.

The election of Mr. Brernarp RicHaRD GREEN, Major PETER
Conover Hains, U.S. Engineers, Commander GEorGE Drwey,
U.S. Navy, and Mr. Freperick Borpen McGuimrgE, as members
of the Society, was announced.

Mr. THoMAs ANTISELL read a paper entitled
J
OBSERVATIONS ON CHEMICAL MOLECULAR CHANGES.
Remarks were made and questions asked by Mr. Harxngss,

Prof. F. W. Cuarke, of Cincinnati, Mr. Doouirris, and Mr.
DALL.

157TH MEETING. Marcu 1, 1879.
Vice-President TAaytor in the Chair.
Thirty-eight members and visitors present.

The deaths of Dr. Joun C. Riney and of Prof. MorpEcar
YARNALL, U.S. Navy, members of the Society, were announced.

The election of Lieut. Comr. Cuaruzs DID. Siassex, U. 8. N.,
as a member of the Society, was also announced.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 29

Mr. S. F. Barrp made a communication on
THE ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF THE COD,

describing the measures and process adopted at Gloucester, Mass.,
and the success thus far obtained. A vessel is to be specially
constructed for the Fish Commission, to be used for this purpose.

Mr. EvuioTr made some remarks and inquiries respecting the
extent of the cod fisheries.

Mr. P. H. Dupuey, C. E., made a communication, illustrated
by drawings, on

THE USES OF HIS DYNAGRAPH, AND THE WORK PERFORMED IN
DETERMINING THE RESISTANCE OF RAILWAY TRAINS, ETO.

(ABSTRACT.)

It is an instrument designed for the purpose of determining,
and graphically recording on a continuous sheet of paper, the
resistance to traction of railway rolling stock of all kinds, either
as single cars or in trains; also, testing the resistance to traction
of locomotives of various kinds of wheel base, and also their
capacity; the object being to obtain data from a knowledge of
which the cost of transportation may be reduced, by substituting
facts for mere opinion.

It has several attachments, so that data can be obtained to
solve most of the problems connected with the movement of trains.
The low joints in the rails are also shown at the same time.

The wearing effect on the rails and tires of various kinds of
wheel base of locomotives can also be shown by special experi-
ments. A car is specially constructed for its use; the present
one is 50 feet long by 9 feet 6 inches wide, and has five apart-
ments, viz.: lst. Dynagraph room with bookcase: 2d. Sleeping
room: 3d. Laboratory: 4th. Sitting room; one double overhead
berth, piano, wardrobe, and washstand: 5th. Dining room, con-
taining range, ice box, provision drawers, china cupboard, and
portable table. An aisle on one side of the car permits access
to any apartment. The instrument is placed near the end of the
car in the Dynagraph room.

The car has two 4-wheeled trucks, each with 7 feet wheel base,
all the wheels being turned truly cylindrical. The elliptical
springs in the trucks are quadruplets, so that the car rides very
steadily on most roads. ‘lhe draw-bar is enlarged, and a steel
cylinder 6 inches long and 4 inches internal diameter inserted
instead of the usual fastening. In each end of the cylinder pis-
tons with cup-leather packing are inserted and by means of an-
nular rings both are free to move in, but prevented from moving

30 BULLETIN OF THE

outward; the required movement in use is less than jth of an
inch. The cylinder is filled with oil, and from its centre a pipe
leads to a small piston on top of the instrument on the inside of
the car. Any pressure on the draw-bar either pulling or pushing
is transmitted to the piston (which is held by springs of known
tension), and thence to arms holding the pen which records the
pressure, Inside of the car is a large cast-iron frame, 36 K 40
inches, and 30 inches high, which supports the mechanism to roll
the paper as the car moves, it being driven by positive gearing
from the axle of the car.

The present Dynagraph uses paper 30 inches wide, though by
leaving off some of the attachments, paper 20 inches wide can
be used: it has gearing to represent 400, 200, 100, or 50 feet of
track per inch of paper, as desired: strong Manilla paper, spe-
cially made, is used, and is wound in a continuous sheet of 400
to 500 feet in length on one of the paper drums at either end of
the instrument. These drums are driven by friction and only
serve to wind the paper, keeping it taut as it is fed through the
machine by the steel rolls, either pair being used according to
the direction which the car is running. The rolls make 1,
revolutions for 13,2; inches of paper; this corresponds to 400
feet of track for 1 inch of paper. The rolls are ;,3,5 of an inch
larger in diameter in the centre than at the ecds.

The wheels which drive the mechanism are turned without any
conning, and are 33 inches in diameter. A triple thread worm
on the axle drives a shaft which is connected by three universal
joints with the shafting of the instrument. There are three mitre
gears so arranged with saw-tooth clutches that the paper can
run in either direction, and either pair of feed rolls, also used
at pleasure. Right or left-handed diagrams can be taken, as
desired. There is an integrating attachment which measures
constant areas of the dynamical curve and records them electric-
ally. ‘The electrical recording apparatus has 11 pens: one re-
cords from the clock seconds; one every tenth second, and one
for each minute; one pen records the constant area on the dia-
gram; one pen the amount of water (as measured by a meter)
used by the locomotive, and where consumed; one pen the amount
of coal, and its distribution; one pen the alignment of the road;
one pen the distance as measured by the instrument; one pen the
revolution of the drivers; one pen the velocity of the wind, and
one pen the roads, mile posts, and stations.

In special experiments on trains all the pens are used as de-
scribed, but some of them may be used for other purposes if
desired. In making experiments on single cars we have inside
the larger pistons, smaller ones, so that the same springs give
five times as large a scale as with the large pistons.

Among the many important uses of the Dynagraph has been
the determination of the effect of different classes of locomotive
wheel bases upon the wear of rails and tires of the driving wheels.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 31

It was found that it required more power to push the same Joco-
motive on curves when the wheel base was so arranged that the
front end of the locomotive was free to swing in a cradle of the
truck (as at certain velocities, the centrifugal force would act upon
the locomotive in such a manner that the flanges of the driving
wheels against the rails would guide the engine; the front out-
side driving-wheel flange would be against the outer rail, and the
rear inside driving-wheel flange against the inner rail), than it
did when the same locomotive was so arranged that the front
truck and the rear driving-wheel flange guided the engine. This
is seen practically in its effect upon the wear of rails on different
roads; the outer rail of curves on the B. & O. R.R., P.W. &
B.R.R., N.Y. & H.R. RB. N.Y. C. & H.R. R. R. being
but very little more worn than upon the tangents while upon the
P. R. R. the wear of outer rails on curves has been much more
rapid.

Generally speaking, it has been found to require less coal to run
freight trains at an average speed of 18 to 20 miles an hour, than
from 10 to 12 miles. But few time tables are arranged in accord-
ance with the gradients of the road. On some roads uniform
speed is required over all portions of the road, which practically
lessens the number of cars drawn per train; while if the time
tables were arranged in accordance with the work, from two to
three more cars could be taken on the ordinary trains. The con-
struction of cars for the same purpose is so different in detail,
that their resistance to traction varies; so that it seems impos-
sible to determine anything more than an approximate formula
for general application. Changes are made upon mere opinion,
without a knowledge of facts. In locomotives where perhaps
more pains are taken to systematize matters, we find in those said
to be made from the same drawings, a variation from ten to twenty
per cent. in their capacity. This is a common observation of
engineers and master mechanics, derived from their daily expe-
rience. Some engines will give a very smooth diagram, while
others will show great irregularities (on the same track), due to -
steam admission or counter balance. Hach engineer gives a per-
sonal equation to the diagram. The rate of adhesion varies also
for the same weight in different engines, and is much greater at
slow speeds than at high ones with the same engine.

In drawing freight trains the greatest range of variation in
resistance is due to the wind; stock cars giving the highest rate.
Loaded box cars in trains of twenty to twenty-five cars give on a
level and straight track from four to six lbs. resistance per ton;
while thirty empty stock cars gave 13.20 lbs. per ton on a windy
day. ‘Trains are now limited in length, from the uncertainties
of changes of weather during their transit. As soon as the mat-
ter is more thoroughly understood by the railroad people, I hope
to see trains dispatched in accordance to the Signal Service indi-

38 BULLETIN OF THE

cations. The value to railroad transportation of such knowledge
can hardly be estimated.

Nearly all the experiments are conducted by private individual
enterprise, and few of the important problems of transportation
have been touched. There is so much jealousy that but few care
to know anything about the problems of transportation, as it
more or less affects the opinions of the managers.

From many numerous experiments we have just completed for
one railroad, we have determined the cost of moving a ton of
weight one mile, and plotted the results, showing on some of its
rates it did not get back the cost of simply moving its cars,
engines, and freight, regardless of any interest and cost of
organization.

There are some attachments designed and yet to be added to
the Dynagraph for special experiments.

Mr. ABBE followed with further explanations, and some points
were discussed by Messrs. HARKNESS and DUDLEY.

Mr. C. A. WHITE read a communication on

THE FRESH-WATER SHEIL-HEAPS OF THE INTERIOR RIVERS OF
NORTH AMERICA. ;

Messrs. Barrp, Mason, ABBE, and Girt added information
respecting shell-heaps in other regions, especially near the coasts
of Massachusetts, Maine, and New Brunswick, and discussing
the evidence of cannibalism found in some of them.

158TH MEETING. Marcia 15, 1879.

Vice-President HiteGarp, and subsequently the President,
in the Chair.

Fifty-eight members and visitors present.

Prof. A. WINCHELL, of Syracuse, N. Y., made a communica-
tion on

THE PROGRESSIVE DISPERSION OF MANKIND OVER THE SURFACE
OF THE EARTH,

referring mainly to prehistoric races.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 33

Remarks were made by Messrs. Hingarp, Powrtt, Daun, At-
vorpD, PARKER, Mason, WARD, ABBE, WHITE, GILL, WOODWARD,
HaARKNEss, and WINCHELL, the discussion taking a wide range.

Mr. J. R. HastrMan exhibited and described
A PERSONAL EQUATION INSTRUMENT

devised by him in 1875, and successfully used at the Washington
Observatory in determining the absolute as well as relative equa-
tions of observers with the transit instrument.

Remarks were made by Mr. PAut.

Mr. J. EK. HitGarp exhibited two
PHOSPHORESCENT CLOCKS,

stating that the faces were coated with calcium-sulphide, and that
after exposure to solar light they would remain luminous in the
dark during the greater part of a night.

Mr. ANTISELL explained that a number of sulphides possess
this property of phosphorescence.

159TH MEETING. Maron 29, 1879.
The President in the Chair

Thirty-eight members and visitors present.

Mr. S. Newcoms made a communication on

THE RECURRENCE OF ECLIPSES.

The subject was discussed by Messrs. ABBE and TAYLOR.

Mr. L. F. Warp read a paper on

THE ORIGIN OF THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS.

_ Dr. W. K. Brooks, of the Johns Hopkins University, read a
paper on —

34 BULLETIN OF THE

THE EMBRYOLOGY OF LIOGULA AND THE SYSTEMATIC RELATIONS
OF THE BRACHIOPODS,

and illustrated the comparative characteristics of the Brachiopods
in their embryonic condition with those of the Polyzoans.

160TH MEETING. ApriL 12, 1879.
The President in the Chair.
Fifty-one members and visitors present.
Mr. G. K. GinBrert made a communication

ON THE KANAB BASE-LINE, AND A PROPOSED NEW METHOD OF
BASE MEASUREMENT.

(ABSTRACT. )

Ist. The Measurement of the Kanab Base.

The base lines of the Powell Survey have been measured with
wooden rods. The base at Kanab, Utah, was measured in 1878
with apparatus prepared originally by Mr. A. H. Thompson. The
measurement was performed under the direction of Mr. Gilbert
by Mr. J. H. Renshawe. The apparatus consists essentially of
two 15-foot rods applied to each other, end to end, in alternation.
They are provided with suitable accessories to regulate their
alignment and height, and to record their inclination. They were
compared before and after use with standard steel rods furnished
by the Coast Survey. Two measurements were made, and the
second result was found to exceed the first by 0.84 of an inch.

It has been stated by Mr. Hayden that the results attained
by Mr. Powell by the use of wooden rods are less accurate than
those given by the steel tape (45th Congress, 2d Sess., House
Mis. Doc. No. 55, p. 25). It is desirable to test the truth of
this statement, for if wooden rods do not give greater accuracy
than steel tapes they should be discarded on the score of econ-
omy. A satisfactory comparison of the two methods is not yet
possible for the reason that the results with the steel tape have
not afforded data for the computation of probable error, but a
first impression may be derived from the comparison of the dis-
crepancies between duplicate measurements. The following table
includes the only base twice measured by the Powell Survey,
and the only bases published by the Hayden Survey. The last
column shows the estimated probable discrepancy for a common
distance of 4.3 miles.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 35

Name | Name Approximate | Differences of two Comparative
of | of : length measurements ainaronces
Base line. | Survey. in miles. in feet. i
Kanab Powell 248) 070 07
San Luis* | Hayden 5.4 18 16
Denver* Hayden 6.0 1.798 1.51

There seems nothing in these figures to require a discontinu-
ance of the use of wooden rods.

The Kanab base was divided into 44 sub-equal sections, and
two independent measurements were made of each section. From
the 44 resulting discrepancies the probable error of the whole
measurement was computed and found to be .09 ft. or 1-250,000 .
of the whole length of the base. When a similar test has been
applied to the steel tape, the relative value of the two apparatus
can be better judged.

Unfortunately the fraction 1-250,000 does not represent the
total error of the base line as determined, but only that portion
of the error which depends on the manipulation of the wooden
rods; another portion introduced in the comparison of the rods
with the steel standards is much greater. The latter affects the
value of the Kanab base line, but is independent of the value of
the apparatus.

2d. A proposed New Apparatus and Method.

In some methods of base-measurement a single unit of length
is applied repeatedly. A record is made each time of the position
of the advance end, to which record the rear end is afterward
applied. ‘This is the usual practice when a chain or tape is used,
In other methods two unit measures are used in alternation. One
remains stationary while the other is carried forward, and the
rear end of the moving measure is applied to the advance end of
the stationary. This is the usual practice when wooden or metal-
lic rods are employed. It is now proposed to combine the
method of the single unit and record with the use of the rod.

Where two rods have been used a simple contact of their ends
has been found impracticable, and an observation has usually
been substituted. Where a single unit has been used the record
has been of the nature of an observation and subject to personal
equation. It is proposed to replace the observations by an auto-
matic record.

In the use of two rods it is necessary, for each added unit, to
carry forward two tripods and adjust them in height. It is pro-

* U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey of Colorado, 1876, p. 280.

36 BULLETIN OF THE

posed to carry forward only one tripod for each unit, and to give
it no vertical adjustment.

To execute this plan a novel rod is proposed and a number of
tripods of a novel pattern.

The od. The material is not essential. To the under surface
at each end is attached a steel sphere one-half inch in diameter.
The distance between the centres of the spheres is the unit of
length. Some appliance must be attached for the reading of
inclination.

Lhe Tripods. The head of each is broad, and upon it rests a
free plate bearing a conical socket to receive one of the spheres
attached to the rod. A device is added to lift the plate upon
balls at will, and another device to clamp it.

The Use. Suppose one of the tripods, with clamped plate, to
stand so that the conical socket is in the line of the base. Ano-
ther is placed in advance at a distance approximately equal to
the rod length, and its plate is unclamped. One sphere of the
rod is now placed in the fixed socket and the other in the movable.
The advance end of the rod is aligned. The balls are lifted
under the movable plate for an instant, to substitute rolling for
sliding friction, and relieve all strains. The plate is clamped.
The inclination of the rod is observed. The advance socket has
now become a record of the application of the unit of length.
A third tripod is placed on the line and the rod is carried forward
to repeat the process.

The apparatus is proposed with special reference to the needs
of such work as that of the Powell Survey. It is hoped that it
will combine a high degree of precision with noteworthy rapidity
of manipulation.

The subject was discussed by Messrs. ScHort, ABBE, JENKINS,
Powe tt, and Doouitrie.

Mr. W. H. DALt communicated the results of his observations

on
THE MUSCLES OF THE OYSTER,

and called attention to the existence of a small anterior muscle,
which he considered to be a pedal one.

The subject was commented on by Messrs. WHITE and GILL.

Mr. C. E. Durron commenced a communication on

THE SUCCESSION OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS.

This communication being unfinished when the hour for

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 37

adjournment arrived, the completion of it was postponed to the
next meeting.
The Society then adjourned.

l61sr Mrrrina. APRIL 26, 1879.
The President in the Chair.
Forty-eight members and visitors present.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and adopted.

Mr. J. J. Woopwarp made a communication on
A NEW APERTOMETER FOR MICROSCOPIC OBJECTIVES,
Mr. Durron continued and completed his communication on

the succession of Volcanic Eruptions, reserving his paper for
ublication.

Remarks were made by Messrs. PowE.u, Exuiorr, ANTISELL,
GILBERT, TAyLor, Farquyar, and Osporne.

Mr. O. 'T. Mason made a communication illustrated by im-
pressions of the plates of the lately published works of Dr.
Habel on

THE DECIPHERMENTS OF SOME AZTEC MONUMENTS LATELY
DISCOVERED IN GUATEMALA.

The meeting then adjourned.

162D MEETING. May 10, 1879,
The President in the Chair.
Thirty-eight, members and visitors present.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and adopted.

Mr. J. R. Eastman read a communication on

A PERSONAL EQUATION APPARATUS,
42

BYs) BULLETIN OF THE

This was in the nature of a personal explanation of a former
communication by himself upon the same subject.

Remarks were made by Mr. H1nGarp.

Mr. E. B. En.iort gave a communication on
THE SUBJECT OF INTERNATIONAL COINAGE.

In explanation of the progress lately made towards an inter-
national coinage he referred to the action of the Japanese and
Argentine governments in the adoption of coins of gold, weighing
exactly five grammes, and to the measure moved by Mr. Garnier,
in the French legislature and recommended by a committee of
that body, to coin a gold piece weighing five grammes.

He then explained the so-called Warner bill, or the measure
now pending in the House of Representatives, and showed how
it differed in respect to the coinage of silver from laws now in
force. He then showed by means of a diagram the fluctuations
of the value of silver relative to that of gold since the year 1792.

Remarks were made by Mr. BurcHarp.

Mr. G. K. GinBert made a communication on
AIR CURRENTS ON MOUNTAIN SLOPES.

He stated that in the mountains of the West the air currents
at night usually blow down the slopes; and blow up the slopes
during the day, when the general state of the atmosphere is calm.
He referred to the discussion of this subject by Mr. Loew, who
stated the opposite condition of facts. Mr. Gilbert gave the
results of thirty observations, all of which conformed to the
movement he asserted.

Remarks were made by Messrs. ABBE, ANTISELL, PowsLt,
and NEWCOMB.
The meeting then adjourned.

163p MEETING. May 24, 1879.
The President in the Chair.

Fifty-three members present.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 39
The minutes of the last meeting were read and adopted.

Dr. J. R. M. Irpy, of the Johns Hopkins University, upon
invitation of the General Committee of the Society, read a com-
munication entitled

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE CRYSTALLINE STATE OF MATTER.

He first discussed the nature of crystals and their distinctions
from the other states of matter, and remarked that the crystal is
the most perfect expression of the molecular forces of matter
with which we are acquainted, since it is the state of matter in
which the equilibrium of those forces is least disturbed by heat
motion.

In the second part of the paper Haiiy’s theory of the constitu-
tion of crystals was discussed, its importance insisted upon, and
its reconsideration in connection with all the phenomena of crys-
tals was urged.

In the third part of the paper the theory of Haiiy was applied
to the mineral species calcite. In the case of this mineral—one
of the most Protean in its crystalline forms—the author thought
the results so fully in accordance with the theory that much was
to be hoped from its careful application to other crystals.

Dr. Irpy also adverted to the experiment of Harting, who
produced forms similar to those of the coccoliths obtained from
the ocean depths by treating the albumen of eggs with solutions
of lime.

Remarks upon the paper were made by Messrs. ANTISELL and
NEWCcoMB.

The second communication was by Mr. HARKNEss, upon
THE COLOR CORRECTIONS OF ACHROMATIC OBJECTIVES.

(ABSTRACT.)

Ist. From any three pieces of glass suitable for making a cor-
rected objective, but not fulfilling the conditions necessary for the
complete destruction of the secondary spectrum, it will always
be possible to select two pieces from which a double objective
can be made that will be superior to any triple objective made
from all three of the pieces.

2d. The color correction of an objective is completely defined
by stating the wave-length of the light for which it gives the
minimum focal distance.

40 ; BULLETIN OF THE

3d. An objective is properly corrected for any given purpose
when its minimum focal distance corresponds to rays of the wave-
length which is most efficient for that purpose. For example:
in an objective corrected for visual purposes the rays which seem
brightest to the human eye should have the minimum foeal dis-
tance; while in an objective intended for photographic work the
rays which produce the greatest effect upon silver bromo-iodide
should have the minimum focal distance.

4th. In the case of a double achromatic objective, the second-
ary spectrum (or in other words, the diameter, at its intersection
with the focal plane, of the cone of rays having the maximum
focal length) is absolutely independent both of the focal length
of the combination, and of the curves of its lenses; and depends
solely upon the aperture of the combination, and the physical
properties of the materials composing it.

5th. When the focal curve of an objective is known; and the
relative intensity, for the purpose for which the objective is cor-
rected, of light of every wave-length, is also known; then the
exact position which the focal plane should occupy can be readily
calculated.

Incidentally, it may be remarked that in an objective corrected
for photographie purposes the interval between the maximum and
minimum focal distance is less than in one corrected for visual
purposes. Hence a photographic objective has less secondary
spectrum, and is better adapted for spectroscopic work, than a
visual objective.

Prof. A. Hau read a paper entitled
NOTES ON THE ORBITS OF TITAN AND HYPERION.

He stated that during the past winter he had collated and reduced
all observations of Hyperion (the seventh and faint satellite of
Saturn) that have been made since its discovery in 1848 by the
Bonds at Cambridge, and by Lassel in England. The observa-
tions made in 1848 by the Bonds were not well adaptéd to the
determination of its orbit, since the plane of the orbit was seen:
edgewise. In 1852 the plane of the orbit having opened out,
Lassell made a good series of thirty observations, from which.
Prof. Hall computed a set of elements that fix the position of the
satellite in its orbit with a good degree of certainty for that epoch.
In the year 1875 a series of observations was begun with the
Washington 26-inch refractor and continued to the present time,
and comparing the elements deduced from them for the present.
epoch with those of 1853 it is possible to determine the periodic
time of the satellite and the motion of its apsides. In order to

‘PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 41

determine small inequalities in the periodic time and motion of
apsides, it will be necessary to wait until the orbit is opened out
sufficiently to observe the satellite completely around the planet.
Another result of the observations is that Hyperion has a larger
radius vector or is moving ina larger orbit than that which is
due to its periodic time and Bessel’s mass of Saturn. This he
thinks arises from the action of the large satellite Titan, whose
orbit is very near that of Hyperion, and the two satellites some-
times approach each other very closely.

Prof. Hau remarked upon the great complexity of the Satur-
nian system, ani the relatively great perturbations to which it is
subject from the extreme oblateness of the planet, from the similar
effects of its ring, from the attractions of the satellites upon each
other, and from the attractions of Jupiter and the Sun, thus ren-
dering it a most interesting and instructive subject of contempla-
tion and study.

164TH MeEntina. JUNE 6, 1879.
The President in the Chair.
Fifty members present.-

The minutes of the last meeting were read and adopted.

The proceedings for the evening consisted in the communica-
tions of Messrs. C. V. Ritgy and Simon NEWCOMB.

The first paper by Mr. Ritey was entitled —

PUPATION OF THE NYMPHALIDA.

(ABSTRACT.)

There is no more interesting phenomenon in insect transfor-
mation than the withdrawal of the chrysalis from the shrunken
larval skin and its firm attachment to the button of silk pre-
viously spun by the larva, in those Rhopalocera which suspend
themselves perpendicularly during pupation. For a century and
a half Reaumur’s account, namely, that the soft segments of the
forming chrysalis acted the part of legs by grasping the larval
skin between the sutures, has been accepted and generally
copied. Dr. J. A. Osborne, of Milford, England, first drew at-
tention, two years ago (in Nature, vol. xvi. pp. 502-3), to the
fact that there was a membrane concerned in the act, and Mr.

49 BULLETIN OF THE

W. H. Edwards, of Coalburgh, West Virginia, corroborated Dr.
Osborne’s statement by observations on some of our American
species, recorded in the Canadian Entomologist of last December.
Prof. Riley records the result of a number of observations on
this subject, and thus explains the philosophy of the act which
has so generally misled observers. His studies have been made
principally with the larvae of Vanessa antiopa. The principal
means by which the chrysalis holds on and rises at the critical
moment, is a stout ligament, which is, virtually, the shed intes-
tinal canal; not alone the lining, but the whole organ, which, as we
know, becomes sub-obsolete in the imago state of so many Lepi-
doptera. It is the ilium and colon, more particularly, which are
serviceable, and the ligament holds with such force around the
anus of the cast larval skin that it cannot easily be severed.
The rectum of the nascent chrysalis draws this in, or lets it go,
by peristaltic action of the sphincter muscles, the whole liga-
ment being drawn out as soon as the hooks of the cremaster
reach the silk. In addition to this ligament, which is of a red-
dish color, there are two lateral ligaments, also quite long and
strong, and of the color of the skin, which serve as auxiliaries.
These are the shed linings of the trachez issuing from the last
or ninth pair of spiracles, which in the chrysalis become closed
or blind. These ligaments may be called the tracheal ligaments,
and seem to be somewhat specialized to aid in this important
act. Lastly, there is the membrane proper, referred to by Dr.
Osborne, which is virtually but the anal portion of the skin it-
self, or corium, caught upon the knobs at the end of the ridges
which usually form the ventral part of the cremaster. It consists
chiefly of the skin that lines the region of the rectum and the
anal prolegs, and takes on a more or less bifurcated form from
the pulling power of the knobs during the act of withdrawal
from the larval skin. These ligaments Prof. Riley considers
constant physiological factors in the problem, most necessary in
those species which have the knobs imperfectly developed, and
acting even during the larval molts, and so holding the shed skin of
Lepidopterous larva that it is worked to the anus in a shrivelled
mass, as a stocking is pushed to the toes; whereas, in most other
insects, and especially in those where the metamorphosis is in-
complete and the change in the intestinal canal but slight, the
exuvie are crawled out of rather than worked off, the anal parts
not being held within the end of the molted skin, but really be-
ing the first parts detached. The membrane is a purely me-
chanical factor, and may not always be properly caught and
drawn out. It may also be severed without necessarily causing
the chrysalis to drop. Yet that it is an important aid to the
rising of the chrysalis there cannot be much doubt, and we find,
in the chrysalis of Paphia glycerium for instance, a totally dif-
ferent mechanical provision for clutching the membrane, namely,
a notch between the ridges around the rectum and the base of

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 43

the cremaster proper, in which the membrane may be caught;
the ridges being, in this species, very narrow, smooth, and
shallow, and the ordinary ventral knobs obsolete.

Mr. Newcomp’s communication was entitled

A THERMODYNAMIC THEORY OF THE SPECTRUM.

The subject matter and its discussion were reserved by Mr.
Newcome for publication.

165TH MEETING. JUNE 21, 1879.
The President in the Chair.
Thirty-five members present.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and adopted.

The first paper was by Mr. J. R. Hasrman, entitled

SOME RESULTS FROM THE DISCUSSION OF THE OBSERVATIONS OF
THE TRANSIT OF MERCURY OF MAY 6, 1878.

(ABSTRACT. )

In response to a circular issued from the Naval Observatory,
more than one hundred observations were made and forwarded
to the Observatory, where they have been reduced and discussed,
and will soon be printed.

Fifty-two observations were made of the first contact, eighty-
three of second, eighty-two of third, and eighty of fourth.

In obtaining the final results each observation was assigned
its appropriate weight according to the scale in which three re-
presented the best observation.

Three observations of first, ten of second, ten of third, and
seven of the fourth contact were given the weight three.

The results from the different weights for geometric observa-
tion are

ist contact. 2d contact. 3d contact. 4th contact
heme ss: hems vs: h. m. s. h. m. s.
Weight3 . . . . 22 4 42.0 22 7 42.1 5 35 27.8 Sad 25.7)
a6 lFand ise 50.7 39.5 28.3 17.9
Bi ls Bh wane A 48.4 40.2 28.2 19.8

Assuming that the results from the observations with weight
3 best represent the true phenomena, the difference between the
computed places from the data in the American and English
ephemerides and the observed places are C.—O.

Ad BULLETIN OF THE

Contacts. Amer. Eph. Eng. Eph.
8. 8.
J : : , - + 77 — 29
BE : : 6 - + 84 — 22
TLL eae ee ea eT + 56
TVs cai speach alate cael eT TO +. 65

The attempt by many observers to determine the true time of
contact, by noting the time of similar phases before and after the
true phase, generally failed, as did also the attempt to observe
geometrical contact.

The method which was successful, and which is reeommended
in all similar observations of interior contact, was to observe for
second contact the time when the first flush of light appeared
between the limbs of the sun and planet, or the moment, of the
rupture of the ‘‘black drop.” For third contact the breaking of
the thin line of light between the limbs of the sun and planet or
the formation of the ‘black drop” was taken as the true time of
the phenomenon.

A thorough investigation of the motion of Mercury is greatly
needed, and until this is done no reliable interpretation of these
results can be made.

The differences between the computed and observed places of
Mercury have been ascribed to the action of an intra-mercurial
planet to meteor streams, and to the solar corona. Meteor
streams have never been seen in such a position as to produce
any such action. s

In order to determine the action due to the corona it would
be necessary to know its form, but as spectroscopic analysis,
photographs, tracings of the images in the focus of the telescope,
and naked eye sketches all give widely different limits to its
extension, this solution is out of the question.

Mr. C. V. Rivey then made a commnication entitled

THE ISSUANCE OF SILKWORM MOTHS FROM THEIR COCOONS, AND
SOME STRIKING DEPARTURES FROM NORMAL HABITS IN INSECTS.

The final communication was from Mr. J. W. OSBORNE on

A CASE OF PECULIAR CORROSIVE ACTION ON METALLIC TIN.

The President then announced that, in conformity with a reso-
lution by the general committee, the Society stood adjourned
until the second Saturday in October.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 45

166TH MEETING. OcroBeER 11, 1879.
The President in the Chair
Thirty-eight members and visitors present.
Mr. 8S. Newcoms communicated remarks on

A RECENT VISIT TO CALIFORNIA TO INSPECT A SITE FOR THE NEW

LICK OBSERVATORY.

A discussion followed, which was participated in by Messrs.
ALVORD, HoupEN, and GALE,

Mr. W. H. Dati made a communication on

THE DEEP SEA DREDGINGS IN THE GULF OF MEXICO AND THE WEST
INDIES IN 1873-1878, BY PROFESSORS LOUIS AND ALEXANDER
AGASSIZ AND THE OFFICERS OF THE U. S. COAST SURVEY.

Remarks were made by Messrs. Ginu, Taynor, and Warp.

Mr. E. B. Etutorr made a communication on

LARGE AREA ILLUMINATION BY ELECTRICITY.

The meeting then adjourned.

167TH MEETING. OctToBEeR 25, 1879.
The President in the Chair,
Thirty-seven members and visitors present.
The minutes of the last meeting were read and adopted.

The President announced to the Society the election of
WinrtiaM Francis Rirrer and Lieut. FrepERick CoLuIns,
U.S. Navy, as members of the Society; also the resignation of
Commander Groree Dewey, U. S. Navy.

Mr. C. A. Scuorr made a communication on

THE SECULAR CHANGE IN THE MAGNETIC DECLINATION IN THE
UNITED STATES AND AT SOME FOREIGN STATIONS.

46 BULLETIN OF THE

(AB8TRACT.)

In this paper it is proposed to give a brief account of the pres-
ent state of our knowledge respecting the secular change in the
direction of the magnetic needle, as observed within the limits
of the United States and at some adjacent stations—from the
earliest to the present time.

The collection of the material and its discussion formed part
of the work of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey; the results
have just been published in pamphlet form by the survey office.
This paper contains in fifty quarto pages, first, an explanation of
the secular motion, as compared with other motions to which the
direction of the needle is subject; second, an exposition of the
mathematical treatment for the representation of that motion ;
third, an extensive collection of results of about 525 observations
at 52 stations; fourth, tables of the results of the discussion,
comparison between observations and computations, and con-
cludes with a table of decennial values of the magnetic declination
from the earliest time of record to the present time. It is illus-
trated by a diagram and a chart, the former exhibiting the nature
of the curve which conforms to the secular change, the latter
illustrative of the positions of the line of no-declination at two
epochs and of the region where the needle appears to be at pres-
ent almost stationary; the annual change for 1880 is marked on
it in figures.

The magnetic declination (commonly called the variation of
the compass) varies with respect to space and time. It is a
matter of observation that a magnet, when light and delicately
suspended, is seldom or never at rest, but is always shifting its.
direction, or in a state of oscillation or of tremor, and may be in
a state of sudden changes. These angular motions have been
classified as regular or periodic, and as irregular variations; it
is the first and largest of the periodic motions which claim our
special attention. To distinguish it from other regular oscilla-
tions, a few explanatory remarks touching the principal laws of
changes will suffice. The solar-diurnal variation consists in a
systematic movement of the magnet having for its period the
solar day. Its character is the same for the greater part of the
northern hemisphere, viz.: about the time of sunrise the north
end of the needle is generally found approaching to or near its
most easterly deflection from the average magnetic meridian;
this extreme position to the right is reached about 8 A. M., the
north end then begins to move to the westward and reaches its
opposite extreme position about half-past 1 P. M.; after this
epoch the needle gradually returns to the morning position, un-
dergoing more or less minor fluctuations. ‘The range of motion
is greater in summer than in winter; it is greater in the higher
magnetic latitudes when the horizontal magnetic intensity is less
than in lower latitudes; it is also subject to an eleven year ine-
quality coinciding with the cycle of the sun spots—the greater

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. AT

the spotted surface of the sun the greater the daily range of the
motion of the needle and the less the activity of the sun in pro-
ducing sun spots the less this daily magnetic motion. ‘The angu-
lar range between the eastern (morning) and western (afternoon)
elongations is, for instance, at Philadelphia about 8’ on the ave-
rage of the year, at Key West, Florida, it is about 54’, during
August it is 104 at Philadelphia, and during November but 6’
at the same place, and is nearly double in amount during the
maximum of sun spots as compared with the amount during the
minimum period.

The annual variation is a small periodic change in the declina-
tion of at most 1}’ of are.

The lunar inequalities are still smaller in extent, twice each
lunar day or during 25 solar hours the magnetic needle is found
subject to two oscillations, that is, there are two maxima and
two minima with a range between them of about 27” at Phila-
delphia and 38” at Toronto, Can. These may be compared with
the moon’s tidal action producing two high and two low waters
each lunar day, and the magnetic effect may possibly be due to
change in the lunar gravitation which brings the terrestrial
spheroid twice each day into a state of constraint and release
alternately. Possibly this curious effect as well as the solar ine-
quality may ultimately depend on changes of heat, which is known
to affect the intensity of magnetism.

Magnetic disturbances or storms may occur at any time, though
they cannot be predicted, yet when treated by the established
method they are found subject to various laws. They consist of
sudden and sometimes of great deflections or of irregular wavy
motion and may continue for a day or even for several days; they
are frequently accompanied by auroral lights and by strong elec-
tric earth currents. They likewise depend on the condition of
the sun with respect to spots.

The secular change of the declination is supposed to be of pe-
riodic character, requiring centuries for its full development ; the
motion, may be compared with that of an oscillating pendulum
which comes to rest momentarily at the extreme positions or
elongations and moves fastest midway between. Smaller varia-
tions within the great period have been detected in the direction
of the needle. About the time of the maximum deflection
the magnet appears almost stationary for several years, but soon
a progressive motion commences, and, at first increasing, after-
wards diminishing its rate until the opposite stationary position
is reached and the motion reversed. Possibly this kind of a
“swing” may be repeated. Observation indicates that a com-
plete oscillation requires between 24 and 34 centuries, during
which time the magnet would swing twice through several de-
grees. Thus, at New York city the direction of the needle was
observed to be nearly invariable about 1685, pointing then nearly
9° to the west of north, it then moved easterly and reached its

48 BULLETIN OF THE

easternmost digression about 1797, showing at the time only 4°
west declination. Hver since this epoch the motion of the
north end has been westerly, its present value being nearly 72°
west. The greatest annual change, 5’ nearly, has apparently
been passed. ‘These stationary epochs are different for different
localities, the last one was noted earliest in Maine; later in
Florida and Texas, and it has not yet been attained in California,
where easterly declination is still slowly on the increase. Thus,
the easterly stationary condition was reached at Portland in 1764,
at Boston in 1777, at Washington 1796, at Savannah 1809, at
New Orleans 1831, and at San Blas in Mexico in 1849, EHx-
cepting a certain region along our Pacific Coast, as indicated on
the chart above referred to, the effect of the secular change at
present is to zncrease the west declinations, or, what is the same
thing, to diminish the east declinations. The same seems to
take place in Alaska.

This secular change is conveniently expressed by a circular or
harmonic funetion, viz :-—

D=65+rsin(am+c)+~7,sin(o,m+e)+....

when D = the magnetic declination at any timet
m =the number of years (and fraction) from an adopted epoch
{, = 1850, hence m = ?t — 1850-0.

aa,.... are factors depending on the adopted periods p p,. . .
fe) fe)
so that o = abe a, = BOO ets:
p Pi
r7r,... are parameters andc c,... epochal constants of the

several periodic terms.
6a constant representing the mean or normal direction of the
needle about which the secular motion takes place.

Thus, for each place for which we have a sufficient number of
observed declinations we have to determine four unknown quan-
tities, viz., 5, 7, a and ¢ for the establishment of the first or prin-
cipal term and three for each following term. This is done by
application of the method of least squares, each observation fur-
nishing a conditional equation of the form

0— sD) x sino, mM. Yi COS a Mz. se
supposing a has been suitably assumed and where 6 = 8,+ #
y==rcoscand z—rsince. The process must be repeated for a
value a + da and soon until the sum of the squares of the differ-
ences of the observed and computed values equals a minimum.
The second periodic term may best be established by Cauchy’s
method of interpolation.

The annual change vis found by
v= 60 sin 1° [racos (a m+ ec) + 7,0, cos (a, m+ ¢,) + .-]
expressed in minutes, and maxima and minimaare found by putting
the expression within the brackets equal to zero, from which
equation m can be found. The apparent probable error of an

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 49

observation is deduced from the differences A of the n observed

and computed declinations, and is expressed by aor | OH 2A,
n—Nn,

where n== the number of unknown quantities in the equation
which were found from the observations themselves. The
principal uncertainty in the investigation arises from compara-
tively large observing errors in the older observations and from
the fact that the observations are made at different places in the
same general locality, thus introducing possibly local deflections.
For Philadelphia the deflecting force, when greatest, is estimated
at about ,', of the horizontal force.

To illustrate the above formula we have the expression for the
secular change for New York
D= +6°.43 + 2°.29 sin (1.6 m—5°.5) + 0°.14 sin (6.38 m +
64°) with the following table of observed and computed values,
where + indicates west deflection.

New Yorx. Latitude 40°42/7. Longitude 74°00'0 W. of G.

Year of Observed Computed O—C
Observation. Declination. Declination. or A
1684.5 +8°.75 +8°.80 AOE
1691.5 8 .75 8 .68 + .07
1724.0 Mass 7 .50 lg
1750.5 Gi ow Hush + .52
1755.5 5 .00 5 .46 BSS ALG
1789.5 4°33 A .30 + .03
1824.5 4 .67 4 .64 + .03
1834.5 4 .83 ay ed Ll — .34
1837.5 DEON 5 Bit + .30
1840.6 5 .45 Sivoo a LG
1841.5 6 .10 5 .68 + .492
1844.6 6 .22 DEo2 + .30
1845.7 6 .42 6 .01 + .4]
1846.3 5 .56 6 .05 — 49
1847.8 5 .68 6 .16 —— 148
1855.6 6 .72 OV te ==) Q1
1860.7 O53 V208 — .30
1873.8 eG: ff O + .03
1874.6 +17 .38 +7 62 — .24

Number of observations 19; apparent probable error of an
observation + 15’; time of last stationary epoch, easterly di-
gression, 1797; amount at easterly digression + 4°. 0; annual
change (increase) in 1870 + 2/.4, and in 1880 + 2’.5.

For San Francisco, California, we have the expression D =
— 13°.34 + 3°.23 sin (1.00 m— 130°.3) and the corresponding
values: number of observations 15, probable error of an observa-
tion + 8’, time expected for next stationary epoch, easterly digres-

50 BULLETIN OF THE

sion 1890; declination at that time —16°.6; annual change in
1870 —1’.0, andin 1880 —0’.5. At this place the earliest observa-
tion dates from 1792.9 and the latest 1879.2.

Results similar to the above are given for 52 stations; of these,
several are foreign, viz.; Halifax, N. S.; Quebec, Can., and
York Factory on the Hudson Bay; Havana, Cuba, Kingston,
Jamaica, Rio Janeiro, Vera Cruz, Mex., Mexico City, Panama,
New Granada and Acapulco, San Blas and Magdalena in Mex.;
Kailua, and Honolulu, Sandwich Islands, and Petropavlovsk,
Kamtchatka.

Respecting errors of observations it is estimated that the ob-
servations made by Hudson in 1609 in the vicinity of our coast
and those of Champlain made about the same time may be sub-
ject to a probable error of + 4°. Observations in the 17th cen-
tury were frequently made on board ship in preference to terra
firma, as the land was supposed to attract the needle. The ob-
servations made by Vancouver on the western coast between 1792
and 1794 are subject to a probable error of only += 1°, and this
is about the present limit of uncertainty of observation taken at
sea with the azimuth compass and under favorable conditions,
whereas, with our present portable declinometers the observing
error is below 1’, requiring a station to be occupied several days
in order to eliminate the daily regular and irregular fluctuations
of the magnet from the final resulting direction.

The tables containing the decennial values of the magnetic
declination, as derived from the formule, should not be extended
beyond the limit given to them (1885), though the expressions
may continue to represent the phenomenon, of the cause of which
no satisfactory explanation has ever been offered ; they may also
at any time fail; in fact they need continued attention and adap-
tation for every new observation or development, and this must
continue so long as the process remains a tentative one, and we
are without an adequate theory to guide us.

Remarks upon Mr. Schott’s paper were made by Messrs.
Harkness, ALvorp, and Enutort.

Mr. J. S. Bruuinas, Vice-President of the National Board of
Health, made a communication on

THE WORK OF THE NATIONAL BOARD OF HEALTH,

stating the various subjects to which its inquiries and investiga-
tions had been directed and the progress made.

Remarks were made by Messrs. Mason, OsBornE, ANTISELL,
Nrwcoms, Woopwarp, and Toner, and the discussion extend-
ing to the disinfection of ships.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. ol

Mr. F. M. Gunnen, by request, gave an account of attempts
in the navy to disinfect ships infected by yellow fever, naming
several which had been sent to Portsmouth, N. H., and after the
exposure to the severe cold of an entire winter, on going to a
warm climate, were again visited by the same disease. He
stated also one case where the crew and stores having been re-
moved, the ship was thoroughly steamed, and no cases subse-
quently appeared on the return of the crew.

The meeting then adjourned.

168TH MEETING. NovEMBER, 1879.
The President, Mr. Stmon Newcomp, in the Chair.
Forty-seven members present.
The minutes of the last annual meeting were read and adopted.

The order of proceedings for annual meetings adopted Nov.
2, 1872, by the General Committee, were then read for the infor-
mation of the Society, together with a list of members elected
since the last annual meeting, and a list of the members entitled
to vote at the annual election of officers.

Letters from Messrs. J. H. C. Corvin and Asapn Hatt, de-
clining to accept office under the Society, were then read, and
are now filed in the records of the General Committee.

The Society then proceeded to ballot informally for President
for the ensuing year, Messrs. Paun and Farquyar being ap-
pointed tellers. As a result of the ballot Mr. Simon Newcomer
received a majority of the votes cast, and the informal vote was
declared to be formal and made unanimous.

The next ballot was for Vice-Presidents. Messrs. BARNES,
Taytor, HILGARD, and WELLING, having each received a majority,
were elected, the informal vote being made formal.

In the choice of a Treasurer Mr. CLEVELAND ABBE was elected
unanimously.

The election of two Secretaries then followed, and Mr. Tuxro-
DORE GILL having received a majority vote was clected at the
first ballot. At a second ballot Mr. E. S. Honnen was elected.

The nine members of the General Committee were then bal-

y

52 BULLETIN OF THE

loted for. Upon an informal ballot it appeared that Messrs.
Durron, Euuiorr, Harkness, Powerit, Scuort, Toner, and
Woopwarp had a majority, and on motion they were declared
elected. Upon a second ballot Mr. Garrick MatLuery was
elected, and upon the sixth ballot Mr. W. H. Dauu was elected.

It was then moved by Mr. Hiuearp, and carried, that when
this meeting adjourns it adjourn for two weeks, and that the ad-
journed meeting be regarded as a continuation of the annual
meeting for the purpose of receiving the annual address of the
President of the Society.

The Society then adjourned.

169TH MEETING. NOVEMBER 22, 1879.
The President in the Chair.
Fifty-two members present.
The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and adopted.

The order of exercises for the evening, pursuant to the terms
of the adjournment of the preceding meeting, consisted in the
delivery of the annual Address of the President of the Society.

Mr. Stmon Newcoms, the newly elected President, arose and
stated to the Society that the pressure of other duties had pre-
vented him from preparing an address upon the subject originally
contemplated by him for this occasion.

He regretted this inasmuch as it seemed to him that the sub-
ject was better adapted to the spirit and purpose of an annual
address to a Philosophical Society than the one which he had
finally adopted. The paper chosen for the evening had been
originally prepared with another object in view, but seemed to
him not wholly unadapted to the occasion.

The President then read for his address a paper entitled

THE FUTURE OF THE HUMAN RACE REGARDED FROM THE STAND-
POINT OF EVOLUTION,

which was listened to with great interest and pleasure by the
Society. The paper was reserved by the President for revision.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 53

At the conclusion of the reading the Society adjourned at
9.15 P. M. for the purpose of conversation and social intercourse.

170TH MEETING, DECEMBER 6, 1879.
Vice-President WintraAm B. Taytor in the Chair.
Twenty-four members present.
The minutes of the last meeting were read and adopted.

The Chair stated to the Society that Mr. E. S. HonpEn, who
had been elected at the meeting of November 8th to fill one of
the Secretaryships of the Society, had been compelled to decline
the position on account of the requirements of his professional
duties, and called upon the Secretary, THEODORE GILL, to read
Mr. Holden’s letter of declination. This letter will be found
upon the records of the proceedings of the General Committee of
the Society.

The Chair then announced that, conformably to the provisions
of the Constitution of the Society, the General Committee had
elected Mr. C. EH. Durron to fill the position of Secretary in the
place of Mr. Holden, declined.

The order of exercises for the evening was announced.

1. Mr. J. J. Woopwarp—Some Apparatus recently brought
into use by the Medical Department of the Army for the Exami-
nation of the Eye.

2. Mr. Marcus BAkER—Discussion of a Geometric Problem,
with several solutions.

Dr. Woopwarp then explained to the Society the origin of the
rules recently introduced into the Medical Department of the
Army for the examination and testing of the powers of vision in
recruits. The object of these rules was to obtain sufficiently ac-
curate tests of those powers which enable the examining surgeon
to discriminate between defects which would render a soldier
unfit for the requirements of the military service and those which
were insufficiently serious to cause his rejection.

The apparatus employed consisted first of a pack of test cards
with circular spots on them four-tenths of an inch in diameter

43

54 BULLETIN OF THE

and grouped in the ordinary manner of spots upon playing cards.
The recruit would be required to distinguish readily the number
of spots upon each card at the distance of twenty yards. By
rule of simple proportion this would be equivalent to the recog-
nition of a target three feet square at the distance of six hundred
yards. The second part of the apparatus consisted of an instru-
ment resembling an optometer, having a graduated beam twelve
inches in length, carrying a slide capable of being clamped at
any part of the length. In the holder is the mounting for lenses,
two of which are provided, one of ten inches the other of four
inches solar focus. For measuring myopia and hypermetropia a
smal] card bearing a printed sentence in small type is placed in
the slide which is first clamped at ten inches from the lens. At
this distance the normal eye should be able to read the printed
sentence through the 10” lens, and have its accommodation re-
laxed. By moving the slide nearer to the eye the amount of
myopia can be judged. By substituting the 4” lens and moving
the slide away from the eye beyond the four inch mark, the amount
of hypermetropia can be judged. To ascertain the extent of as-
tigmatism, there is substituted in place of the printed sentence a
small card dial having two pairs of parallel lines crossing each
other at right angles. The dial can be rotated in a vertical plane.
Astigmatism, whenever it occurs, arises from the fact that the
crystalline lens of the eye is not isotropic—different meridians
having different curvatures. If the disc be placed at a distance
from the eyes at which it would be focussed by the meridian of
maximum curvature, and the dial turned so that one pair of lines
is parallel to the plane of that meridian, only one pair of lines
will be visible to the ordinary astigmatic eye. If the dial be
rotated slowly this pair of lines will become indistinct and gradu-
ally disappear. The angle through which the dial is rotated
before the disappearance will vary inversely with the degree of
astigmatism, and thus the amount of rotation becomes a measure
of the degree of astigmatism. This device also indicates the
positions of the meridians of maximum and minimum curvature
of the crystalline lens in the astigmatic eye.

For testing color-blindness, Dr. Woodward exhibited skeins of
colored worsted of all the principal colors and of many tones.
From a confused pile the recruits are required to sort out the
colors into three groups—red, green, and violet. In case of

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 55

color-blindness, the errors committed will determine not only the
existence of the defect, but also the particular colors which the
eye is incapable of distinguishing.

DISCUSSION OF A GEOMETRICAL PROBLEM, WITH BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
NOTES. BY MARCUS BAKER, U. S. COAST SURVEY, WASHINGTON,
D.C.

The problem here discussed, and of which several solutions are
given, is the following :—

In a right-angled triangle there are given the bisectors of the
acute angles: required to determine the triangle.

This problem, like most problems in triangles in which the
bisectors of the angles enter as a part of the data, cannot be solved
by the elements of geometry, 7. e. by the use of the circle and
right line only. We shall give, first, trigonometrical solutions ;
second, algebraical solutions; third, constructions; and fourth,
bibliographical notes.

FIRST SOLUTION.

Let a and g be the bisectors of the angles A and B respeet-
ively: then we have

A B sin A =6 cos (45°-$ A) and AB cos A=acosiA;
whence by dividing, remembering that
cos (45°_$ A) 1+tandA

cost} A S2
B
tan A — l= tan DAs su. 1
oul + tang) (1)
and since
ak
fn 2tan 5A

1—tan?3 A’
we obtain by reduction
tan°LA + tan?2 A + (Z./s—1) tan} A —1—=0 Ae)

from which equation we may find tan $A.

We may, however, obtain Eq. (1) directly from a construction
as follows :—

Prolong AC to E’ making C E’—C 8, and from EK’ draw
EK’ G perpendicular to A HE’: from E draw E F perpendicular to
A E, meeting E’ Gin F; and from C draw C G parallel to E F.
Now the triangle C H’G is equal to the triangle A CE; hence

56 BULLETIN OF THE

OG=EA, and also EF—EA: hence AEF is an isosceles
right-angled triangle and AF—a,y2. Also BDC and AF E’
are similar triangles: whence

BC: AE’::8:01//2.

Fig. 1.

Now when A © radius, or 1, BC tan A and
AK’ =—1-+ tant A: whence

B
tan A == 1+tantA
a ae )

as before.
In this solution we have selected as our unknown quantity

In the above diagram, the symbol & should be a, and (V2 should be ay/2.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. Dil

tan} A. We might obviously have selected any other trigono-
metrical function, but this seems to lead to as simple a result as
any.

If we make sin $ A our unknown quantity our equation will be
4) -5 yay +i fsine a 4 Sv: 2) s2ya)-+2t |
4 ir
| in‘hA— 441+ ee a |
and if we make sec $ A the unknown quantity our equation will

be

| sec’ 4 A 2 (3—4v 8 ) sectt A +2 (6 -— SV 84
2

[ =) sett A —4 ( 1—4V8 a =a) =05

whence it appears that the simplest equation is the one first ob-

tained in which the tangent is made the unknown quantity.
Example.—Suppose a= 40 and 8=50. Then our equation

becomes

tan®3 A + tan?3A-+ (Sy ge 1) apUeG DN ail aes (Ne
whence by Horner’s method
tan 4 A = 0.49788 15817 54736.
Whence Ave 13 2) 03) oly .33
Bi One Oo OS tore
and the sides of the triangle are

@ = 35.8073T7
== 47.407275
¢ = 59.41058.

SECOND SOLUTION.

Let a, b, and ¢ be the sides of the triangle opposite A, B, and
C respectively, and a and § as before; then we have (Fig. e

> cosh A; whence= — 2cos’$A =1+-cos A= 1 inal?
a a” C

therefore

and similarly

58 BULLETIN OF THE

whence
Zor cla 2 Come lene l
a” b “Bp ih as (3)
Again
in &
i= ct B=-cos(is?_fA)—= = LESS

V2 (

whence

an t eae
sin)5 A =

— 5

a2 —cosi A = av 2 6,
B aie

and since sin?4 A -++ cos? 4A = 1,

“= >)
ae oe +2
or
Qa? 26/2adb , 2b?
BO) ee ES eh (4)
B ap a

If now we eliminate b between Eqs. (3) and (4) we have ar
equation from which a may be found.
From (4) we find, , = ae ‘a a / pow} which substitut-
ed in (3) gives after some reduction :
2 (P= Bre es 2may B?—a’
ng at Sue

where m=" 2. This equation finally reduces to
a

(a? —aB/2-+ 87) a —(30°— 3/208 + 26%) ato (iat

2/209) 5 at 2 0. (5)

THIRD SOLUTION.
Revolve the triangles BOE and DOA about BO and AO
respectively so that H falls upon H’ and D upon D’, then
EOB=E’OB=F£'0D'=D’ O0OA—=A OD = 459,
and consequently B O D’ and A O E’ are right-angled triangles :
hence

= =tan}A, or OA = 1+tandA;
whencea = OA (1 + tan}A), (6)

and similarly 6 = OB(1 + tan} B). (7)

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 59

Again, O Asin A =; whence from (6)
a 1-+tandA

= ay

Y sin 5 A
Dray 1 aaaael
Of es TEAS epee and similarly
y sing cos 5 A
Bacal 1
y sin¢B cost B

Fig. 2.

sete oi
Now sin } B = sin (45° —} A) = °82 eS and

A + sin ZA.
/ 2

a
cos $ B= cos (45° —3 A) = dea

whence
is ene f ae tie 1 a 2cos$ A
y¥2 cost}A—sintA cos$A+sinA 2cos?}A—1’

from which we find

and similarly

5 Ab . ak
Since cos $ B = COs) =a sin 4 A

+ c= +2} =. (8)

In this page, and the following, the symbol y (for radius) should read r.

60. BULLETIN OF THE .

This equation involves only y, the radius of the inscribed circle
and the given bisectors of the angles a and 8: hence we may de-
termine y from it. Eq. (8) becomes after a somewhat laborious
reduction

64 (a? —apV/2+ 6°) +87 208 (4 a’ —3/2a8 + 4") x!

+ a’ B*(2e?—aB Y/Y 2+ 28") 7’ —a‘p*—0. (9)

These three solutions just given all involve trigonometrical re-
lations and are therefore properly classed as trigonometric solu-
tions. They may all, however, be made independently of trigo-
nometry. In the following we shall give the algebraical solutions
corresponding to the first and second trigonometrical solutions
together with a third and entirely independent solution.

ALGEBRAICAL SOLUTION.
From Fig. 2 we have
CePA a DICl LOMB OMDas soln:
Cr sO Ce OPAy OMBu snl iT.
from which

OB 2 hop ee On ene a Ee
l+n l+n l+m l+m
AD=cn,CD=an,BE=cm, CKE=—bdm.

Now

a
AINA) SCONES (6) 13201) n= (+ ) I
c ae ore’n ae + ear

i
. BH=OB' + O0A.0 Hore'm=(-t -)'+ a ye

),

whence

Uiern ee i) tor

or

1 - m
m(1—) 2 Ee

Gan: (1 + n)? ~
Againb—-AD+OD=n(c+a)..¢7+n7%(¢4+ar=¢
anda=CHE+BE=—bm+em=mn(c+a)+tem

e 1—mn
=em(ltn Ci i
ey m(1 +n)
Equating these two expressions
l1—mn _1+7n’ 1 ip

AN —n_. 1
DO) poy SEEN ENGL th) eS |
m e190 1+n 1 +m

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 61
substituting in (10) we find after reducing

nm + 7 + (vs2—1)n—1=0 |

(11)
mm + m+ (v8%—1)m—1=0

Ny Aa

It is to be noted that n = DC = tan3 B and m= a = tan
a

4 A, and therefore Eq. (11) corresponds to Hq. (2).

FIFTH SOLUTION.

The fundamental relations between the sides and bisectors are

a __be(a+b+c)(—a+b+¢e)

be
= 2 2 2
==(b UO Nia) pacar ar

(6 +c)?
a = @ $200 oy oe,
And since a? + b? —=c’?
ha 2b Sor oe _1 48
pat ore tt P i 4 f
Whence
ey

as in the second solution, where this relation was obtained trigo-
nometrically. Again

Babin a. 6 a ae aoa
oe a2 (It 0+ 4)=2 ih ea

9 f/V?+ab+0? a+b) a+2ad+ 0? a+b
age et oatmeal, ott aoe
W/V/2ab atod
af @
Again by adding
2 207 a+b
“BP ay oa c + 2.
Whence
ld Fee AE (4)

B ° af a
as previously obtained trigonometrically. The solution is now
completed as in the second solution.

62 BULLETIN OF THE

BIXTH SOLUTION.

Let OE=O EK’ =a (Fig. 2), OD=OD' =Y, A H=a,
and B D =8; the angles marked with a dot are each equal to
45°, and therefore EH’ = a2, and DD’ = yv2.

From similar triangles BO : BD => OE’ : DD’, or
B= Y\28) 2s oe 72.) WVilence

(8 —Yy) y/2 = po. (12)
(a — 2X) £/2 = oy. (13)
From (13)

Le (a—s), and substituting in (12)

Q@
ap
p— Tana (a —) Fito)
Which reduces to
i af
(a-— 2) 9 i (a — 2 x).

Expanding, rearranging, etc., this reduces to

6 B af
a —2acxr? +o (Ggte)*—sy=o (14)

CONSTRUCTIONS.

First Construction.—The equations obtained in the sixth solu-
tion point to a simple construction of the problem, as follows :—
Equations (12) and (13) may be written as follows :-—

x! —ax + Fe y= 0. (15)

8
YS BY oh got = © (16)

And each of these equations is the equation of a parabola. If
these two parabolas be constructed, their intersection will deter-
mine «and y. The position and size of the parabola will readily
appear by transforming co-ordinates. In equation (15) let

r= x! ap Me and
2
ie]
Oem y! + 9.79! then

ea

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 63
and in equation (16) let

yy” +6 OO ig ee aa IL then

The following construction results immediately from the above.
With reference to a set of co-ordinates X A Y construct a new

2
set X’ A’ Y’ such that «— a’ — = and yy eee oe and, ane
w 2/2
f 3
other set X” A” Y” such that #— xe” = — and y — y/! — a
9/2 »)

With the first new set construct the parabola 2’ a y, and

with the second new set construct the parabola y? — —

Fig. 3.

their intersections will determine the segments wx and y, 2.e.,
OF and OD of Fig. 2. The construction is shown in Fig. 3.
Second Construction.—Take a rectangle A OC BD, Fig. 4, and
let AL, BM, the bisectors of A and B, intersect in K; then
AKB=135°. Through B draw B R parallel to AL to meet

64 BULLETIN OF THE

AD in R; then BR==4 L. Hence from data the triangle
B M R is known.

It is well known that 2aBMR+CM. DR-=—rect. A B=
2oBMR+2aCLM. (17)

Fig. 4.

Take BE=BL, AF=AM; then aABKE=aBKL,
SsAKF=aAKM, and aFK EH =aLKM, because the angles
LKM, F KH, are supplementary; therefore (} AM LB =
24AKB; hence by (17) AAKB=3aBMR.

Construction.—Make a triangle B M R, having its sides B M,
BR, equal to the given bisectors, and the angle M B R equal to
half aright angle. On M R draw a semicircle, and construct a
hyperbola having BM, BR, for asymptotes, and such that the
rectangle under the ordinate and abscissa (parallel to the asymp-
totes) is half the rectangle under the given bisectors. Let this
hyperbola cut the semicircle in A; join A B and produce A K
parallel to B R, so that A L —BR; and produce BL, AM, to
meet in C. Then A BC will be the triangle required.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

This problem was proposed in the Ladies’ Diary for 1797, by
Alex. Rowe, and the following year two solutions of it were
given; one by William Burdon and the other by J. Hartley.
Our sixth solution is taken from Mr. Burdon, as published in
Leybourn (Thomas). The Mathematical Questions proposed in
the Ladies’ Diary, etc., 8vo., London, 1817, vol. iii. 328.

Mr. Hartley’s solution is trigonometrical, the unknown quan-
tity being tan 4 A, and his final equation corresponds to equation

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 65

(2), but the mode of obtaining it is not so elegant as that em-
ployed in our first solution.

The problem is proposed as an exercise in Bonnycastle (John).
An Introduction in Algebra, etc., revised and enlarged, by James
Ryan, 4th edition, 12mo., New York, 1829, p. 310. In the key
to the second edition, New York, 1822, pp. 250-251, is a solution
essentially the same as the first one given here.

The problem extended to any triangle was proposed by the
writer in the Analyst, vol. iii, No. 5, Sept. 1876, p. 163, and
solved in the next number, pp. 188-189, by Prof. J. Scheffer. It.
was also solved by Henry Gunder, William Hoover, and the
writer.

The problem not extended was proposed in the Hducational
Times of January 1, 1879, p. 22, question 5866, by Mr. N. H.
Capel; and in the following number proposed by the editor for
construction, question 5885. In the May number, p. 150, a
construction by Mr. R. Tucker was given, which we have here
incorporated verbatim as our second construction.

For the fourth solution I am indebted to my classmate, Prof.
W. W. Beman, of the University of Michigan.

At the conclusion of Mr. Baker’s communication the Society
adjourned.

Jilst MEETING. DECEMBER 19, 1879.
Vice-President Tayior in the Chair.
Thirty-four members present.

The order of exercises for the evening consisted of the follow-
ing communications :—

1. A paper by Prof. CaickErine on the Luray Cave.

2. A paper by Prof. WinL1AM HARKNESS.

3. A communication by Capt. Durron on the Permian Forma-
tion in North America.

The paper of Mr. CuickERING was reserved for publication.

The paper of Mr. HARKNESS was on

{THE NUMBER OF LENSES REQUIRED IN AN ACHROMATIC OBJECTIVE,

66 BULLETIN OF THE

consisting of infinitely thin lenses in contact, in order that, with
any given law of dispersion whatever, the greatest possible
number of light-rays of different degrees of refrangibility may be
brought to a common focus.

For any system of thin lenses in contact we have

1
Fae A, + (w,—1)4,+ (—I)A, + ete. C1)

the number of terms being unlimited. For a dispersion formula
we write
w= @ (2). (2)
The form of @(a) is unknown, but there will be no loss of gener-
ality if it is developed in a series arranged according to the
powers ofa. We, therefore, have
w=a-+t ba™ +ca™ + ea? + etc., (3)
in which a, b, c, etc., are constants, and the number of terms may
be taken as great as is desired.
Let us also put
C = A,(a,—1) +A, (Gh 1) ate Ah (a,— 1) -+ ete.
D=A,b, + A,b, + A, b, + ete. (4)
H=Av,c, + A,c, + A,c, + ete.
F—A,e,+ A,e, + A,e, + ete.
ete. ete. etec.,
the number of these equations, and the number of terms in the
right hand member of each of them, being the same as the num-
ber of terms in the right hand member of (3). Now substituting
for the us in (1) their values in terms of the auxiliaries C, D, H,
etc., of the equations (4), we find
1
iB
Considering 2 as the abscissa, and / as the ordinate, this is
the equation of the focal curve. Its first derivative, with respect
to f and a, is

ia : a

ae — ff? (mDa™—-* + nEHa"—! + ete.), (6)
which, as is well known, expresses for every point of the curve
the tangent of the angle made by the tangent line with the axis
of abscissas. The number of rays of different degrees of refran-

gibility which can be brought to a common focus will evidently

= C + Da™ + Ea" + Fa? + ete. (5)

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 67

be the same as the number of times that the focal curve intersects
the focal plane. But the focal plane is necessarily parallel to
the axis of abscissas; and, therefore, the greatest possible num-
ber of intersections of the curve with the plane can only exceed
by one the number of tangents which can be drawn parallel to
the axis of abscissas. To find these tangents we equate (6) to
zero, and obtain

0 = mDa™— + nEa*—! +. ete. (7)

As » can never be either zero, negative, or imaginary, we have
to consider only the real positive roots of this equation; each of
which corresponds to a tangent. To make the number of tan-
gents as great as possible the quantities D, B, F, etc., must be
independent of each other; which will be the case when the right
hand members of the equations (4) contain as many As as there
are powers of a in the dispersion formula (4). All the terms of
(7) contain the common factor a™—?, Taking it out we have

—mD = nEv—™ + pFyP-™ + etc., (8)
from which it is evident that the number of real positive roots in
(7) will always be one less than the number of powers of a in (3).
Hence we conclude that—

In any system of infinitely thin lenses in contact, the number
of lenses required to bring the greatest possible number of light-
rays of different degrees of refrangibility to a common focus is
the same as the number of different powers of a contained in the
dispersion formula employed.

The method made use of in arriving at this result has been
adopted, because it brings out clearly the geometrical relations
of the problem. The result itself is evident from a mere inspec-
tion of equation (5), which cannot possess more real positive
roots than it has independent auxiliaries D, E, F, ete.

The communication of Mr. Durron
ON THE PERMIAN FORMATION OF NORTH AMERICA

then followed.

Mr. Dutton stated that many geologists have long been in
doubt whether the Permian formation was merely of local occur-
rence in a very few districts constituting a subordinate series
embraced within and forming a part of the closing period of the
Carboniferous series, or whether it was of world-wide prevalence

68 BULLETIN OF THE

and constituted a distinct period by itself. Strata of Permian
age have for a considerable time been known in Kansas and
in Texas, but have not been until very recently satisfactorily de-
termined in other parts of America. ‘There is well known to-
exist throughout the greater part of the mountain region of the
West a series of heavy red sandstones sometimes divisible into
two portions, an upper and a lower, and sometimes inseparable.
The upper part of this series has been assigned with confidence
to the Trias, but the lower part has not had its age satisfactorily
determined, since it has not until recently yielded fossils which
serve to place its age beyond doubt. During the last few
months Mr. Walcott, a young paleontologist employed by the
Geological Survey, has discovered in this formation, at Kanab,
in southern Utah, well marked Permian fossils. The identity of
the horizon from which they were taken, with the lower part of
the Red beds of Colorado and Wyoming, the Uinta Mountains
and New Mexico, and with the ‘“‘ variegated marls” of Newberry
in Arizona, and New Mexico, and with the Shinarump of Powell,
in the vicinity of the junction of the Grand and Green Rivers, is.
already proven beyond controversy. Hence this discovery estab-
lishes for the Permian in North America a general prevalence
and a magnitude of development comparable with the Jurassic

and Trias, and assigns it to the rank of a formation of a high
order.

The meeting then adjourned

172p MEETING. JANUARY 3, 1880-
The President in the Chair.
Forty-four members present.
The minutes of the last meeting were read and adopted.

The order of proceedings for the present evening consisted in

the communications of Messrs. A. GRAHAM BELL, D. P. Topp,
and W. H. DALL.

PHILOSOPHICAL SCCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 69

The first paper was by Mr. Bett on the subject of

BINAURAL AUDITION,

(ABSTRACT.)

While in England, in 1878, it occurred to Mr. Bell that all
the peculiarities of binaural hearing might be produced artificially
by the telephone, as the peculiarities of binocular vision are pro-
duced by the stereoscope.

Two transmitting telephones were arranged so that the dia-
phragms of tke instruments were about as far apart, and occu-
pied about the same position relatively to one another, as the
drum membranes of a person’s ears. These transmitters were
connected by two distinct and independent circuits to two re-
ceiving telephones, which were placed respectively to the right
and Jeft ears of an observer in a distant place.

When sounds were made in the neighborhood of the trans-
mitting telephones the auditory sensations experienced by the
observer in the distant place were of a decidedly novel character.
The direction of the speaker’s voice from the transmitting tele-
phones could be perceived to a limited extent.

Attempts were made to have the observer determine by ear
the exact location of the original sound, with the following
result :—

Imagine the transmitting telephones to be placed in the in-
terior of a globe upon which the usual meridian lines and paral-
lels of latitude are marked so that the axis of the globe passes
vertically through the centres of both diaphragms.

Now, suppose we produce a sound at some point in the neigh-
borhood of the transmitting telephones—we can take its bearings
upon the surface of our globe—we can give as it were the lati-
tude and longitude of the sound.

It was found, as the result of a large number of experiments,
that the distant observer could tell with approximate accuracy
the latitude of the sound, but that he had no idea whatever of the
longitude.

It then occurred to Mr. Bell that the telephone might be used
to test whether the same law held good for direct audition.

A number of telephones were suspended in different parts of a
summer-house, and were connected by independent wires to a
common switch-board, so that any desired telephone could be
instantly connected with a distant rheotome and battery by the
operator at the switch-board.

The rheotome interrupted the battery circuit about one hun-
dred times per second, and a loud musical note was emitted by
the telephone which happened to be in circuit with it.

An observer stationed in the centre of the summer-house was
required to indicate by pointing, the exact location of the tele-
phone from which the sound proceeded. He was not allowed to

44

70 BULLETIN OF THE

move his head, nor to open his eyes, but had to rely entirely
upon the sensations produced in his ears when his head was held
in a fixed position.

The bearings of his hand were taken upon an imaginary sphere
in the centre of which he stood, and the reading was recorded
side by side with the true place of the telephone.

After considerable experiment it was found advisable to use
only one telephone, which was hung up in different parts of the
summer-house during the absence of the observer—as it was
found that the observer soon came to recognize each individual
telephone by the quality or timbre of the sound produced by it
—and that this recognition biassed his judgment regarding the
direction of the sound, —

“Imagine the observer to be facing the north—then the direction
of sounds produced at the easterly or westerly points of the hori-
zon of the ears was always clearly perceived. In proportion as
the angular distance of the source of sound from those points
was increased the readings of the observers became wild, and
when itwas 90° it was not uncommon to make a mistake of 180°
in the direction of the sound.

The general results of all the observations thus seem to agree
very closely’ with those obtained by telephone; but an examina-
tion of the individual records must convince one that an indi-
vidual observer discriminates the direction of a sound to a
much greater extent than that indicated by the experiments first
narrated. Most observers could indicate correctly the direction
of sounds that proceeded from the northerly or southerly points
of the horizon of the ears; few could locate a sound from the
zenith, and none could tell the direction of a sound from beneath.

When a telephone was placed on the ground between the feet
of the observer, and was there caused to sound—he would imme-
diately form a mental conception of the direction of the sound,
and would indicate it by pointing, but he was invariably mistaken.

Mr. Bell stated that he thought that the method pursued would
ultimately lead to valuable results, but that many more experi-
ments were necessary; and the results so far obtained he pre-
sented to the Society in a tabulated form,

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

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72

BULLETIN OF THE

TABLE III.—Direction of sound as determined by
right ear alone.

True
direction
of sound.
INOS dle
ve) —10°
0° “+23
0 —10
+45 +67
0 —23
+90 +67
0 —10
+135 +90
0 0
| +180 —45
} 0 0
—135 —-135
0 0
—90) —90
| 0 0
—45! —23
+90 +90
0 0
—90 —68
| 0 +113

OBSERVERS.
No. 2. No. 3 No. 4 No. 5.
0° go He) ve)
+45 +67 0 +113
45 +23 —23 —23
+90 +67 +67 1.45
—45 +10 —23 —10
+90 +90 +90 +90
—45 4-23 — 45 —10
+90 +90 +90 +90
0 +90 +90 —10
+45 0 0} ae
0 0) 0 0
—67 —9I0 —9I0 +180
0 +10 +10
+180 —90 —90 +180
0 +45 0 +35
—67 —45 —67 0
+390 +90 +68 0
0 0 0 +180
—23 +90 —45 —23
+68 0 +113 +1134

TABLE IV.—Direction of sound as determined by

eee poe cee

eee cee eee

left ear alone.

True OBSERVERS.
direction
of sound.
No. 1 No. 2 No. 3. No. 4 No. 6
0 0 +10 0 —10 —10
0 —67 —67 —45 —23 — 3
0 0 +35 0 —10 +23
+45, +23 +67 +67 +67 0
0 0 23 0 0 —23
-+-90 eS) +113 —67 +157 —135
0 | 0 —10 0 0 —23
135) —113 —113 —67 +135 —113
0 0 —45 +35 +90 —23
+180 —35 —35 0 Y) —A5
—10 —10 —10 —10 —23
135 —113 —67 —45 —45 —67
0 —10 0 |—10 —10 —10
—90 —113 —67 —90 —67 —90
0 —10 —10 —10 0 0
6 —45 —45 —45 —45 —45 —(37/
+90 —10 —45 +45 +90 0
: 0 —90 —45 —45 0 +180
—9I0 +90 0 —10. —45 —Ad5
0 0 0 —157 ie +180

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

73

TABLE V.—Direction of sound as determined by both
ears used simultaneously.

True
direction
of sound.

MG OGa BEB ec 0
IN} 0
Al tivisiocctess 0
AZ. +45
DAI Geeesettess 0
AZ. +90
DAL Gisccracayess 0
AZ. +135
BAU tiasticaitene 0
AZ. +180
Alt, 0
Az. —135
Alt Giese 0
Az. —90
Alt ents: 0
Az. —45

OBSERVERS.
Jo. 1. No. 2 No 3. No. 4, No. 5

0 0 0 —10 a Hs)
0) 0 0 0 +-10

0 | 0 0 —45 0
+23) +30 +30 +67 +60

0 0. HP) —45 = 9)
+90 +90 +68 +-90 +45

0 —10 —10 —10 0
+68 +113 +68 +90 +45

0 0 —22 ——20, —22
0 + 45 +90 +180 +23

—10 0 =—1() —35
—68 —75 —90 —113 —135

0 0 0 0 0
—90 —90 —90 — 90! —90

0 0 0 0 0
—67 —90 —67 —90) —67

TABLE VI.—Direction of sound as determined by both
ears used simullaneously.

True
direction
of sound.

Alt [445
Az. se 0
A Geet -|-45
WA ot aicee eas +45
Alt | 45
ADS Meares +90
JN hedacosoos +45
Az. 6 -+-135
9: \ RAMS SA +-45
Az. +180
EAN tie sieveisiee +45
Az. 560 —135
MAN tester eects +45
AZ. ; —90
JAG eee +45
AZ. 6 —45,

OBSERVERS.
No. 2 No. 3. No. 4. No. 5.
+22 0 +90 -|-45
0 0 0 0
—10 +10 +45 +10
L456 +45 +45) +465
—45 0 -+-10 —22
4-90 +90 +68 +68
492 422 —30 0
+-68 +60 +113 +-150
+80 —i0 -45 \—45
4-23 0 0 +180
+10 +10 35
—-68 —68 —113 —120
4-10 0 +45 —22
—9$0 —90 —90 —90
0 0 +45 0
—45 —90 —45 --45

74

BULLETIN OF THE

TABLE VII.—Direction of sound as determined by both
ears used simultaneously.

True
direction
of sound.

TAN bee ioectlce —45
Az. 0
Alt —45
Az. +45
DAL Secaess —45
Az. +90
Altec esees A)
Az.. +135
Auliteeadevete. —45
UAV Za at a ose +180
JANG eeenes|| 4D
Az. ——1135
Alt —45
AZ. —90
Alt —45
Az. —45

OBSERVERS.
o. 1. No. 2 No. 3. No. 4. No. 5
0 “110 LW +80 —45
0; 0) 0 180 0
0 —23 0 0 —10
As +45 SENN) SS 4.45,
0 —23 0 —23 — 45
+75 +60 +68 +90 +68
—23 —10 —45 —35
+105 +75 601) E120) a etee
0 0 —10 — 45 —45
tLe 551,80) 9 21-1128 1 35 eee
—30 —10 —10 —23
—135 —60 —105 —135 —113
—35 —23 0 —45 —A45
-—90 — 68 —90 —90 —I0
il —45 41.45 +10 0
—45 —45 —68 —45 —45*
TABLE VIII.—Direction of sound as determined by both
ears used simultaneously.
aie OBSERVERS.
direction
of sound.
No. 1. No. 2 No. 3. No. 4 No. 5.
Alte 490 1.45 423 0 490 4.45
J Nie 500.00 bo 0; 0 0 0 0 +180
Alt .|—90 0 +90 0 490 +90
Az. 5| 0 +22 0 0 0 0
FMoccomeeera| 0 Ol eee +10 445 23
Az. 0 0 —A45 258} 4.90 168

Mr. D. P. Topp’s paper was entitled

SOLAR PARALLAX FROM THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT.

(This paper will be found published in full in the American Journal of
Science for January, 1880.)

* This observer was uncertain whether the sound came from a point of
the horizon 450 to the left of the zero point or from one 135° to the left.
After having the sound repeated a number of times he decided upon the

former direction.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 1S

The next communication, by Mr. W. H. DAL, was
SOME RECENT OBSERVATIONS ON MOLLUSCS.

1. He remarked first that he had observed in a species of
Buccinum (B. undatum, L.) that the males were much smaller
than the females. This species is found upon rocky coasts ex-
posed to the action of waves and surf; and the animals in such
situations are usually found inhabiting crevices in the rocks,
where they find protection and shelter from the violence of the
water. In more exposed situations they would not be able to
survive. Prof. E. 8. Morse had published the suggestion that
the small size of the males might be due to a special action of
the natural law of survival of the fittest. In the contracted
crevices of the rocks, the conjunction of the sexes would be much
facilitated if the males were considerably smaller than the females,
and would be much restricted if both sexes were large. Hence,
under such circumstances, the males would oftenest succeed in
obtaining access to the females, and would oftenest propagate,
the result being a tendency to diminution of the males. Mr.
Dall was of the opinion that this explanation was not sustained
when brought into relation with other facts in connection with
habits of the many species of Buccinwm in which the diminutive
size of males is a common fact and is prevalent in species which
inhabit still waters and other places where access to females can-
not be dependent merely upon the small size of the male. He
was of the opinion that a more satisfactory explanation would be
found in the fact that in marine animals great fecundity is neces-
sary to perpetuate the species, and that in order to nourish the
very numerous ova, large ovaries, large organs of nutrition, and,
in general, largeness of the entire organism is requisite in the
females, without any corresponding necessity in the males.

9. Mr. Dall next referred to some observations by Mr. R. P.
Whitfield, of New York, upon some individuals of the species
Limnea megasoma—one of the largest known species of that
genus. The animals were kept in a small tank and propagated.
In the course of several generations a conspicuous diminution in
the size of the individuals was observed. Mr. Whitfield had
merely stated the observation without suggesting the explanation.
Other naturalists, however, had suggested that it might be attri-
buted to the higher temperature of the water in the tank than
that of the water which the animals naturally inhabited. Mr.
Dall thought that a much better explanation was that these Lim-

76 BULLETIN OF THE

mnzas, which are very voracious, could not find their accustomed
amount of food in such a restricted habitation, and were reduced
in size in consequence of their half-famished condition. He
cited other observations upon the lower animals which tended to
confirm the belief that insufficient food, through successive gene-
rations continuously, dwarfs the individuals of a species.

He next remarked upon a characteristic of the genus Pleuro-
tomaria. ‘This species of this genus all have a notch in the
aperture of the trochoid shell, and in some species this notch is
very deeply incised. The function of this notch in the economy
of the animal has been a matter of some doubt. Mr. Dall be-
lieved that its use was to permit the rejection of fecal products
when the animal is retracted into its shell. In many gasteropods
the anus is located in the anterior part of the soma, while in the
Pleurotomaride this orifice is located behind the gills, and
would be covered by the shell when the body is retracted were
not a special modification of the shell-aperture provided.

At the conclusion of Mr. DauL’s communication the Society
adjourned.

173p MEETING. JANUARY 17, 1880.
Vice-President WELLING in the Chair.
Forty-one members present.
The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

The order of exercises for the evening consisted in the presen-
tation of communications from Messrs. M. H. DooLitTir and
W. H. Dat.

Mr. DooLitrie’s subject was
A PILE OF BALLS.

(ABSTRACT.)

Mr. Doolittle’s communication was a discussion of the appear-
ance the sky would present if the stars were of equal absolute
brilliancy, with a relative arrangement in space corresponding to
the centres of balls in a regular pile. The triangular and the
rectangular pile differ in respect to anterior only. The most
convenient Cartesian co-ordinate axes consist of the diagonals of
a square base with a perpendicular thereto. The most conve-
nient unit is equal to radius multiplied by the square root of 2.
Then, the origin being at the centre of a ball, the centres of all

a

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. TT

other balls are determined by the conditions that each co-ordi-
nate shall be an integer, and that the sum of the co-ordinates
shall be an even number. ‘The distance in diameters of any ball
centre from the origin is equal to the square root of half the sum
of the squares of the co-ordinates.

In the most general case, the permutation of the co-ordinates
gives the factor 6; and as the algebraic sign of each co-ordinate
may be either positive or negative, the number of variations for
each permutation is equal to 8. The product 48 is the number
of balls having the same distance and symmetrical arrangement.
In particular cases two or all three of the co-ordinates may be
numerically equal, or one or more of them may be equal to 0,
and the number of such ball centres may be reduced to 6, 8, 12,
or 24. Since a number may be the common sum of different
sets of squares, there may be more than 48 equidistant balls be-
longing to two or more independent symmetrical arrangements.
Thus 50 is the common sum of 9, 16, and 25; of 0, 25, and 25;
and of 0,1, and 49; and there are in all 84 ball centres at the
_ distance of 5 diameters from the origin.

The co-ordinates 0, 1, and 1 give 12 tangent balls, or stars of
first magnitude in the imaginary universe; 0, 0, 2 give 6 of 2d
magnitude; 1,1, 2 give 24 of 3d magnitude; 0, 2, 2 give 12 of
4th magnitude; 0, 1,3 give 24 of 5th magnitude; 2, 2, 2 give 8
of 6th magnitude; 1, 2, 3 give 48 of Tth magnitude, ete.

If the origin be regarded as at the centre of a cube whose
faces are perpendicular to the co-ordinate axes, the 12 stars of
1st magnitude are in the directions of the middle points of the
edges, and the 12 of 4th magnitude in right lines beyond those
of lst magnitude; the 6 of 2d magnitude are in the directions of
the centres of the faces; and the 8 of 6th magnitude are in the
directions of the corners.

The formula A, b, ¢ may appropriately represent one large co-
ordinate and two small ones; and the corresponding constella-
tions consist of octagons around the face-centres, becoming
squares when b is numerically equal to ¢, or when either is equal
to 0. The formula A, B, c, denoting two large co-ordinates and
one small one, corresponds to rectangles about the middle points
- of the edges, becoming pairs when A is numerically equal to B,
or when ¢ is equal to 0. The formula 4, B, C, denoting co-ordi-
nates nearly equal, corresponds to hexagons about the corners,
which are regular when A, B, and C are numerically in arithme-
tical progression, and become triangles when two of the co-ordi-
nates are numerically equal.

Mr. Dauu’s communication On the Boundary Line between
Alaska and British America, having been made on the spur of
the moment to fill an unoccupied hour of the evening, he desired
no further mention than the entrance of the title upon the
minutes of the meeting.

The Society then adjourned.

58 BULLETIN OF THE

174TH MEETING. JANUARY 31, 1880.
The President in the Chair.
Forty-four members present.
The minutes of the last meeting were read and adopted.

The order of exercises for the evening consisted in the reading
of a paper by Capt. C. E. Durron on

THE SILVER QUESTION.

By the Act of February 28, 1878, the Secretary of the Treas-
ury is required to purchase monthly not less than two million
nor more than four million dollars’ worth of silver, and coin the
same into dollars, each dollar weighing 4123 grains, and being
nine-tenths fine. The dollars so coined are declared by the same
law to be legal tender, in any amount, for all debts public and
private, including duties on imports and interest and principal
of the public debt. The Secretary of the Treasury is also au-
thorized and required to issue certificates, payable on demand
in silver dollars, provided that the amount of certificates so issued
shall not be in excess of the silver coin deposited in the Treasury,
and the denominations of the certificates shall not be less than
ten dollars. These also are legal tender to the same extent as
the silver dollars themselves.

There are many careful thinkers who believe that the passage
of the law of February 28, 1878, was ill-advised, and that it
should be repealed, or radically modified. These objections are
met by the reply that the country is now in a highly prosperous
condition, and it would be best to “let well enough alone.” To
this the rejoinder is, that it is certainly best now and always to
let well enough alone, but this aphorism, like many others, is
merely a curt way of begging the question. The real question
which is raised is, whether the present silver law is well enough;
if so, then by all means let it alone; if not, then it should be
reconsidered, and either amended or repealed. The object of
this paper is to inquire whether the silver law is well enough to
remain upon the statute book, or ill enough to demand a recon-
sideration.

Among the causes which tend to promote prosperity is a wise
system of monetary laws. Among those which tend to bring
adversity is an unwise system of monetary laws. The wise sys-
tem, however, will not alone insure prosperity, though it may
go far towards it, and prosperity may come and abide with us
for a season in spite of the bad system which will make itself
felt oniy in the long run by making the adversity, which is sure
to follow, the more severe. If the silver law be a bad law,
therefore, we need not expect to feel its effects sorely during the
flood tide, but we cannot hope to escape its pressure during the
ebb. If it be a bad law the time to amend it is most assuredly

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 79

during the period of prosperity. To amend it undoubtedly will
involve some sacrifice, but a sacrifice made to secure immunity
from the consequences which must inevitably follow the omission
to do the right thing at the right time. It is better to do this
out of our plenty than to wait in order to do-it, or pay the
penalty of not doing it out of our poverty and adversity. If it
be a bad law, then the policy of ‘letting well enough alone” is
as wise as the man we have so often heard of in the story of the
Arkansas Traveller, who would not mend his roof in fair weather
because it give him no trouble, and who could not mend it in the
rain without getting wet and taking cold.

In comprehending the merits of the law of February 28, 1878,
we shall be materially assisted by taking a brief review of the
history of our metallic currency. And this is all the more essen-
tial since the arguments which were employed to sustain its pass-
age had recourse to this same history, and the dollar which that
law ordained is claimed to be the dollar of our fathers, and to
embody a return to the policy, which originated from the wis-
dom of the founders of the Republic, and which has prevailed
without interruption throughout the eventful and glorious years
of our adolescence and early manhood, until it was interrupted
by a stealthy device sprung upon an unsuspecting Congress, and
passed without anybody, except its authors, being aware of its
dangerous nature and iniquitous purpose.

At the close of the War of Independence one of the earliest
subjects to engage the attention of the statesmen and legislators,
who were laying the foundations of a great nation, was a national
coinage and legal tender. The subject was a difficult and deli-
cate one. In the several States there was a sufficiently good
system of weights and measures, which was uniform throughout
all of them. A bushel, a quart, a pound avoirdupois meant the
same thing from New Hampshire to Georgia. But with money
it was very different. The only coins in use were, for the most
part, foreign, of many kinds, and a few colonial coins. In the
moneys of account the same terms were applied to coins or nomi-
nal moneys with widely different significations and values. Four
shillings might signify in New Hampshire the same thing as
twenty to twenty-two shillings in Georgia, provided a definite
understanding could be reached as to the kind of coin to be used
in a given transaction, and discordances only a little less wide
existed between moneys of the same name used in other States.
While all of the nations with which the new States held traffic
had comparatively respectable coinages—some of them very good
ones—America had none, and became the dumping ground of
debased and abraded coins swept out of the circulation of richer
and more populous nations. There was no legal tender, and it was
necessary for contracts to specify in what kind of foreign coin they
should be paid, and should any foreign State see fit to debase its
coins the creditor, unless otherwise specially protected and guar-

80 BULLETIN OF THE

anteed, might be liable to suffer by the debasement. The neces-
sity for a national coinage was apparent, but the difficulties in
the way of establishing it and making it practical were very con-
siderable, and required the greatest wisdom and care in the
framing. The leading statesmen and financiers of that day fully
appreciated them, and displayed great wisdom in dealing with
them. <A careful perusal of the State papers of Robert Morris,
Jefferson, and Hamilton will show that, so far as the general
principles of monetary science are concerned, their knowledge
would compare favorably with that of the ablest financiers of the
present. In truth, they adopted, as fundamental principles, pre-
cisely the same generalizations and formal laws as those which
are now accepted by standard writers and eminent statesmen,
who mould the opinions and direct the monetary policy of Hurope
and America.

The three eminent men just mentioned were at different times
called upon officially to propound a monetary policy, and all
expressed similar views in relation to coinage. The principles
which they laid down may be summarized substantially as fol-
lows :—

1. Gold and silver are the most suitable of all known sub-
stances for use as money.

2. In selecting a unit of money it was important to choose one
which was well known to the people, and assimilated as nearly
as possible to one common unit in general use throughout the
entire country.

3. Gold is most suitable for large money transactions, and sil-
ver for the commoner and smaller transactions.

4. Whether both metals could be used with unlimited legal
tender power, would depend upon certain conditions which could
be determined only by actual experiment. It was recognized
that both metals had their market values, which could not be
controlled or modified by legislation; that an ounce of gold was
worth between 143 to 154 times as much as an ounce of silver;
though the exact ratio, even if it existed, could not be ascertained.

5. If it were desirable to attempt to maintain a coinage of two
metals with unlimited legal tender power for both, and with the
same denominations, it would be necessary that the gold unit
should have precisely the same value as the silver unit; for, if
the value of the one were less than thot of the other, then the
less valuable one would alone be coined and would monopolize
the circulation.

6. But even if the coinage were so regulated that the gold and
silver units should for the time being have equal values, this
equality is liable to disappear in consequence of changes in the
relative market values of the two metals; and whenever such a
change occurs the depreciated metal would alone circulate.

7. The most desirable characteristic of silver and gold ‘our
fathers” believed to be the steadiness of their values. They were

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, Si

aware that they fluctuated somewhat—gold varying less than
silver—but such statistical and historical knowledge as they could
procure led them to believe that the fluctuations were very small
and took place with great slowness. This attribute was a most
estimable one in their opinion; for, they recognized that a metal-
lic currency endowed with legal tender power could not change
its absolute or relative value without modifying the obligations
of contracts. If the precious metals rose, the creditors would
unjustly gain, and the debtors unjustly lose: if they declined,
the debtors would unjustly gain, and the creditors unjustly lose.

8. They believed, on the whole, that the ‘(double standard”
would be, for a time at least, practicable. They believed that the
great steadiness of the two metals would enable them to circulate
together for a considerable time, and if after the lapse of years
a change should have developed in their relative values, their
descendants would perceive as readily as themselves, the nature
of the difficulty, and apply the only possible remedy.

As a matter of fact, our fathers apparently believed that both
gold and silver should be maintained in the coinage with unlim-
ited legal tender power. It is a little remarkable that they no-
where discuss the relative advantages of a bimetallic and mono-
metallic coinage. Probably it never occurred to them that a
question of this nature could arise, and took it for grauted, as all
nations up to that time had. done, that silver was indispensable,
and gold extremely desirable, and hence that both should be used
as unlimited legal tender. It is not difficult, however, to suggest
good reasons for this state of mind. Very few people at that
time were rich enough to be guilty of the extravagance and risk
of carrying such a large sum as ten dollars in their pockets ex-
cept upon rare occasions. Large cash transactions were much
less common than now, and small ones comparatively numerous.
Gold coins would have been inconveniently large in their denom-
inations, or dangerously small in size for the grocery and country
store. For a very poor people silver is unquestionably a far
better and more convenient currency than gold—or rather, it is
better for the primary currency, while gold is of secondary ad-
vantage. Moreover, during those few intervals in which a coin
currency had taken the place of paper, the people had been
accustomed to pass silver coins by tale, while gold, on account
of its great value, had always passed by weight. They were far
more accustomed to silver than to gold, and depreciated paper
was probably more familiar than either. In general the poor
people of nearly every civilized nation at that time used silver
as their principal metallic currency. It is not at all surprising,
therefore, if our fathers never thought of limiting the use of sil-
ver as money.

In selecting a unit there was almost universal approbation of
the idea that it should conform as nearly as possible to the Span-
ish dollar or “piece of eight” reals. Coins of many nationali-

82 BULLETIN OF THE

ties were incommon use. The English denominations of pounds,
shillings, and pence were everywhere employed, but with widely
varying values. ‘There was one coin alone which was everywhere
understood, and which meant the same thing ‘from Maine to
Georgia.” The Spanish dollar alone fulfilled the requirement of
a coin to which all the people of the States were accustomed.
There was, however, some difficulty in determining just what
amount of silver this coin contained. Careful weighing showed
that pieces of the same date and mint varied considerably in
value. It was well known that the quantity of silver had been
intentionally reduced within half a century, the dollar having
contained in 1735 about 387 grains of fine silver, and subse-
quently 374, and then 368 grains, as nearly as could be ascer-
tained. In fixing the coinage in 1792 it was after long discussion
enacted that there should be struck at the mint silver ‘dollars or
units, each to be of the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the
same is now current, and to contain 371, grains of pure, or 416
grains of standard silver.” The fractional coins contained silver
in the same proportions to their nominal values. By the same
act the quantity of gold in the ten dollar piece was fixed at 2475
grains fine, and 270 grains standard. Hence the ratio of the
quantity of gold in a gold dollar to the quantity of silver in a
silver dollar, was about as 1 to 15. The coinage commenced in
1793 and continued until the close of the year 1803, and the total
number of silver dollars struck was less than 1,500,000. From
1804 to 1840 no silver dollars were coined, with the exception of
a few proof specimens. The coinage of half dollars, however,
was much greater; but when their number relatively to popula-
tion is considered, it will still appear very small; and the same
is true of the gold coinage of this period. The reason is not far
to seek. Both gold and silver were driven out of circulation by
paper money.

It is impossible to gain a correct idea of the financial policy
of our government with respect to coinage and of the behavior of
our metallic currency without taking into consideration the salient
facts of our history relating to paper money. It must be con-
fessed that the American people, since early colonial times, have
displayed a most remarkable predilection for bad currency. In
every other civilized nation the evils of irredeemable and redun-
dant paper have for a century and a half been well understood
and fully acknowledged. A resort to it has never been justified
except by speculators and communists, unless as a forced and de-
plorable alternative in time of war. The nations which have
adopted it have felt keenly its evils, and, smarting under them,
have struggled to emancipate themselves from them. Americans
alone have refused to take warning by bitter experience, and
have again and again betaken themselves to this device, some-
times with an excuse but more frequently without a shadow of
a pretext. It has become a firmly settled national habit. Peo-

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 83

ple are accustomed to it so thoroughly that they have contracted
the consequent habit of preferring the very conditions of inse-
curity, reckless waste, and instability of all things financial, to
solid and normal methods of business. As early as 1690 Massa-
chusetts began the issue of bank paper in irredeemable quantity,
and her example was quickly followed by other colonies. <As
fast as one issue depreciated into worthlessness it was followed
by another. Hardly an act of recklessness and folly which can
be attached to such a measure was omitted. The issues were
accompanied by acts making them a legal tender and a forced
circulation, and were followed by arbitrary and even cruel laws
designed to regulate their value. Penalties were fixed for refus-
ing them or for depreciating them, and these were harsh and
even outrageous. Numberless persons were robbed and ruined
without knowing how or why, while others grew suddenly rich,
and it is needless to say that the ones who suffered were those
who had before been honest, industrious, and thrifty, and those
who prospered were chiefly those who had speculated and cheated
successfully. The hard-earned savings of the many were trans-
ferred to the pockets of the few. And then came complaints
and outcries from thousands who had been victimized and who
clamored for redress. Yet the people who had been plundered
were the very ones who, by their votes and through their dele-
gates to the colonial legislatures, had effected the paper issues
and ordained the instrumentality by which they had been ruined
against the protests of wiser and richer men and over the vetoes
of governors who understood and vainly prophesied the disastrous
consequences. When the people had reaped the crop they had
sown and tasted its bitterness, the remedy which they demanded
was more paper money, and more was issued. The result was
perfectly natural. It gave at first some apparent relief, which
was quickly followed by distress greater than before. After
several repetitions of this indulgence ‘our fathers” began to
realize the true cause of the difficulty and attempted to recover
lost ground, but found that the downward road was much easier
to travel than the upward. Good resolutions gave way before
difficulties, and as national calamities are soon forgotten or only
vaguely remembered, and as the sons are ever ready to repeat
the errors of their fathers, the intervals of abstinence were gene-
rally short, and were followed by a relapse into the old vice.
Issue followed issue in dreary succession. Every scheme for
“basing” bank issues which ingenuity and cupidity could devise
to tempt people to accept paper was resorted to, each new plan
professing to avoid the errors of its predecessors and to rest upon
a secure foundation. At length, in 1751, the representations of
the colonial governors and substantial merchants were effectual
in securing an act of Parliament prohibiting all paper issues ex-
cept exchequer bills redeemable in one year with interest, or in
four years in case of war, and the colonies made a more serious

84 BULLETIN OF THE

attempt to return to specie payments. Some progress had been
made, when war with France broke out, and the printing press
furnished the ways and means. Fortunately, the large ransom
paid by the French for the return of Louisbourg put Massachu-
setts in possession of a considerable sum of silver and gold, with
which that colony was enabled to buy up her paper at about
eleven for one, and base her transactions for a time thereafter
upon specie. The interval of specie payments, however, was a
short one; but it was full of instruction, and inculcates a lesson
which mutatis mutandis may be pondered with great advantage
at the present time.

“Scarcely had specie come into circulation in Massachusetts
when it was found that, although the remittance had been in
silver, gold from the West Indies began to stay in the colony.
The question of making it legal tender as well as silver soon
began to be agitated. It circulated of course, not being legal
tender, at its weight. An act was passed in 1762 to make gold
legal tender at 24d. per grain. At this rate it was more profit-
able for the debtor to pay in gold than in silver. The [silver]
currency was depreciated five per cent. by this operation, and, as
Hutchinson declared at the time must follow, this drove silver
out of circulation. Some hints also show that barter currency
was still allowed in the payment of taxes. Silver now became
scarce, and the next stage was a new agitation in 1767 for paper
money.” [Prof. W. G. Sumner, History of American Currency. }

For several years the agitation in favor of paper money in
Massachusetts was not successful. But the other colonies were
flooded with it, and when the war of the Revolution commenced,
Massachusetts was forced to admit the circulation of notes from
other colonies. The principal facts connected with the issue of
paper by the Congress of the Revolution are familiar to all.
When the war came there was scarcely any other currency in use
in the colonies; the specie had flown away to other countries,
and there was apparently no other resource. How far this pro-
ceeding was wise it is difficult at this time to judge. It seems
certain, however, that nothing less than utter desperation can
ever warrant such extravagant use of this expedient as was made
at that time. The needless suffering and cruel injustice which
it inflicted upon the very class which was most patriotic and
deserving passes all estimate. In 1780 it ceased to circulate
from sheer worthlessness, and the scanty supply of coin which
had been hoarded during the paper deluge came forth and took
its place.

In 1781 the Bank of North America was chartered at Phila-
delphia, which issued notes redeemable in specie. This bank
appeared to be solvent, but people had become so distrustful of
paper money that it found difficulty in circulating its notes, until
a long period of maintenance of specie payments slowly created
confidence. The example gave rise to other banks of similar

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 85

nature which issued notes which were redeemable—at least pro-
fessedly—in coin at sight. The Federal Congress refused to re-
charter the Bank of North America in 1788, and similarly re-
fused to charter any other bank, but the State legislatures sup-
plied this deficiency. There was a notable difference between
this mode of sustaining a paper circulation and that which had
prevailed in the colonies. ‘These bank issues were professedly
at least, and at the outset, undoubtedly, based upon coin redemp-
tion on demand. ‘The colonial bank-issues were irredeemable
and based “on wind.” But the State bank system had from the
beginning inherent defects which in time proved to be the source
of evils only a little less serious than those which had beset and
disgraced the colonial system. There was no maximum limit
to the amount of notes which they might issue, and no minimum
limit to the amount of coin which they must keep on hand for
redeeming the notes. These limits rested wholly upon the dis-
cretion and honor of the bankers, and the willingness of people
to accept and pass the notes, and refrain from presenting them.
The result was that many banks pushed their circulation to the
utmost and reduced their specie to the lowest limit they dared
to. Many banks collapsed, leaving millions of worthless notes
in the pockets of the people, and the credit of the best banks
suffered by reflection.

In the mean time it is difficult at present to ascertain with all
desirable exactitude the part which gold and silver performed in
the currency of the country during the first quarter of this cen-
tury. ‘There were very many banks in the New England and
Middle States which were managed by as sound and conserva-
tive a policy as the general system would admit of. In that por-
tion of the country the disease of a rotten currency had greatly
abated and the malady was transferred to the Southern and
Western States. Coin was used in the New England and
Middle States in notable quantity, but paper was still the chief
circulation. The use of coin at all events was sufficient to ren-
der potent and oppressive an evil which had been growing ever
since the first coinage act in 1792, and which had reached serious
proportions in 1820. There was very little gold in the country,
and very little came in from abroad. When the balance of trade
was in our favor the balances were remitted chiefly in silver.
When it was against us a great demand arose for gold to settle
it, and very little gold was procurable. ‘To financiers the cause
oft he trouble was perfectly obvious. A hundred dollars in
gold had by law in America the same debt-paying power as a
hundred dollars in silver. In Europe $100 in gold would pay
as much indebtedness as $106 in silver. No merchant would
send to Europe, if he could help it, $106 when $100 would do
equally well. Nor would an Englishman send £106 worth of
gold to America when £100 worth of silver would be just as good.
Hence we sent to Hurope all the gold we could muster and

45

86 BULLETIN OF THE

Europe sent back silver. The want of gold was a real want.
It was needed to pay domestic exchanges. The extent of mon-
etary transactions had so much increased that silver was too
bulky and inconvenient, not only for the gross transactions and
clearances, but even for many of the smaller local settlements of
accounts. An agitation arose for the restoration of gold to the
currency, and waxed stronger and more clamorous. Nothing,
however, was accomplished by legislation until 1834. The
proper remedy for the scarcity of gold was easy to discern.

When the first coinage act of 1792 was passed, its intention
was to make the bullion values of the gold and silver dollars
equal to each other, and also equal to the old Spanish dollar as
then current. The projectors and authors of that act were fully
aware that with the lapse of time the bullion values of the two
might diverge, and the result would be that the metal of lower
value would monopolize the coin circulation. But they pre-
sumed that their successors would judge for themselves whether
both standards were necessary or advantageous, and would, if
they desired both, again equalize their values by altering the
coinage to conform to the changed market values of the two
metals. In this they were justified by the action of Congress in
1834. The expedient required for bringing back gold must ob- °
viously be either to diminish the quantity of gold in the gold
dollar or to increase the quantity of silver in the silver dollar.
But of which metal should the rating be changed ?

It is well to look carefully into this question, for it involves far
more than appears upon the surface. The answer to this ques-
tion as applied to 1834 is that the rating of gold should be
changed and that of silver preserved. ‘The reasoning upon
which this answer is founded is as follows: Silver was at that
time, “by a large majority,” the coin in daily use. It had been
so for fifteen years. Most of the obligations which had been in-
curred involving the payment or receipt of money, so far as they
involved the functions of coin, meant silver coin. People so
understood and accepted. If dollars were spoken of, they meant
silver dollars or bank paper redeemable in silver dollars. Gold
was out of the question, and banks and merchants never dealt in
gold except with an eye to foreign exchange. To have altered
the rating of silver, therefore, would have altered every time
obligation and every form of valuation. It would have been a
virtual violation of the constitutional provision which prohibits
the passage of any law impairing the obligation of contracts,
On the other hand, no such difficulty or evil attached toa change
in the rating of gold. Possibly a few contracts might have
been running specifying gold coin as the medium of payments,
but they could have been but of small magnitude in comparison
with those which were payable implicitly or explicitly in silver
or its equivalent. Hence an increase in the rating of gold, or,

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, ST

in other words, a diminution of the quantity of gold in the dollar
was resolved on and became a law.

Three years later, in 1837, a revision of the coinage laws was
made in which the quantity of silver in the silver dollar was
slightly increased. ‘he act of 1792 provided for 3714 grains of
fine silver and 416 grains standard ; while the act of 1837 made
it 375 grains fine and 4124 grains standard, which is precisely
the same as the present silver dollar. The last-named act
made no material change in the gold coinage from the act
of 1834. Hence subsequent to 1837 the mint ratio for the
values of the two metals was 1: 16, 2.e., the legal tender
power of an ounce of gold was made equal to that of 16 ounces
of silver very nearly. It is now very generally conceded that
this ratio overvalued gold somewhat and undervalued silver,
and its effect was very speedy. In a few years silver coin be-
came very scarce, while gold became as abundant as could be

expected in a country where the chief currency was paper. So
far as coin became a basis or standard of valuation gold at
length took the place which had formerly been occupied by sil-
ver. Very soon afier 1837 we became a monometallic gold-
using nation by virtue of these changes, though at what precise
period it is difficult to say, but as nearly as can be now inferred,
the change took place about 1840 to 1842.

The discoveries of gold in California and Australia introduced
an important element of disturbance into the relations of gold
and silver. As soon as it became manifest that these rich mine-
ral districts would for an indefinite period yield large quantities
of gold, all students of monetary science foresaw that one effect
would most probably be a gradual fall in the price of that metal
relatively to the price of silver. These anticipations were quickly
verified, and in the course of a few years the value of gold bullion
rated in silver had evidently depreciated. Besides “this cause,
which was of world-wide operation, there was another cause at
work in America which tended to make silver comparatively
scarce, and the silver coins in circulation of inferior quality.
Ever since colonial times Spanish coins had been extensively
used, and the coinage acts of our government had made them
unlimited legal tender. The rating of silver coins in other coun-
tries had become such that America was an exceptionally good
market for them, and they circulated freely for change. They
became much abraded, and no effort had been made to call them
in and recoin them. The national fractional coinage was of full
weight, and also unlimited legal tender. The abraded condition
of the Spanish coins rendered them of inferior value, and by the
well known law they displaced the better coinage of our own
country. By the act of 1853 the fractional silver coins were de-
based. The silver dollar, however, was retained at its full value,
412% grains standard and 375 grains fine, with unlimited legal
tender. The Spanish coins were demonetized in 1857 and under-

88 BULLETIN OF THE

rated, and, of course, they quickly went into the melting pots.
The object of debasing the fractional coins was to keep them in
the country as monéy—to prevent their being exported or melted,
and avoid the expense of coining more to replace those which
might be thus treated. A necessary part of this plan was to
limit their legal tender to small sums, and that the government
should reserve to itself the right to have them struck and monop-
olize the profits arising from the debasement.

The effect of the law of 1853 was simply to establish and in-
troduce a very good fractional currency in the place of a bad one.
It had no other effect, and it does not appear that any other was
contemplated. Probably the real reason for leaving the silver
dollar in statu quo was that the higher and more inexorable laws
of trade had already taken care of it. These laws had expelled
it, and the legislators of 1853 did not see fit to attempt to recall
it. ‘The logic of the Act may be summed up ina very few words.
Silver money—both dollars and fractions—had substantially gone
out of coinage, and Congressmen knew perfectly well the reason
why. They recalled the fractional coins, because they wanted
them. They omitted to recall the silver dollars because they did
not want them. ;

The coinage of silver dollars from 1840 to 1873 was only
$6,595,021, and from 1793 to 1873 the total number coined was
$8,045,838. Of these nearly the whole were exported to the
silver using countries, and it may be said with exactitude that
the silver dollar never formed any appreciable part of our domes-:
tie circulation. Its enumeration in the list of coins of unlimited
tender was practically a dead letter subsequent to 1834, and
probably from a still older date. Gold had completely supplanted
it, and silver had logically and by the force of circumstances.
taken the place of a subsidiary currency with a limited legal
tender.

In 1873, when the prospect of specie payments seemed to take
definite shape in the not distant future, the subject of a revision
of the coinage laws came up as an essential step in the gradual
progress towards that consummation. For eleven years the sole
money of the country in use for domestic purposes was made of
paper, except in California, Oregon, and Nevada. But for for-
eign exchanges, for interest on the public debt, and for duties om
imports, coin had been used, and, it is needless to say, gold coin
only or bullion. Silver had disappeared entirely from use, except
for change in those limited transactions. To whatsoever extent.
coin was used, the only coin was of gold. Premiums were gold
premiums. The measure of foreign exchange was a golden
measure. Silver had dropped so completely out of sight that
it is probable that not one person in a thousand in the country
knew certainly that a silver dollar was’a legal possibility with
unlimited legal tender. Probably not one person in a hundred
then living had ever seen one within twenty or thirty years.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 89

A few merchants in California and New York, however, had occa-
sion to use small quantities of these dollars for export to China,
and to a very small extent to some of the small colonies of the
West Indies, and even to South America. Hence the mint re-
ports show the coinage of a few hundred thousand silver dollars
each year from 1841 to 1873. In revising the coinage laws it
was considered advisable to omit the old silver dollar from the
list of coins and substitute the trade dollar, which was slightly
heavier and more valuable, and which would be received much
more freely by the Chinese, thus giving a good market for some
of the silver from the western mines. The new trade dollars
were made legal tender only to the amount of five dollars, and
thus the silver dollar as money of unlimited tender, and as a
standard of value, disappeared from the statute book.

The amount and energetic character of the denunciation which
has been fulminated against the authors of the action which
definitively abolished the silver dollar is something amazing.
Never was denunciation more unreasonable and unjustifiable.
It was dropped because it was obsolete; nobody had any use
for it except a few merchants dealing with China; and for their
especial accommodation the trade dollar was provided and proved
to be a much more desirable article. Its omission from the list
of coins had at the time no more significance than the omission
to provide for any other thing which had ceased to be functional.
It was said to have been demonetized by stealth. That it
attracted no attention at the time is doubtless true. Why should
it have attracted attention? It had no more importance as to
existing facts than the omission to provide for the coining of old
Hebrew shekels or Roman sesterces. It is said that it ‘“‘took
away a right and a privilege.” What right; and what privilege?
Was it the right and privilege of sending silver to the mint to
be coined into dollars worth three per cent. less as money than
as bullion in order to pay debts with them? A man who wanted
such a privilege or demanded such a right would then have stood
in need of a supervisor.. The mints had been open to the world
for forty years, and it is not probable that a single human being
had in that time sent a pound of silver there to be turned into
dollars for purposes of legal tender. No—: this was not what
was desired. The privilege which was withheld was the pri-
vilege of paying with silver, debts which had been contracted
in gold, after silver had fallen from twelve to twenty per cent. in
value. The equity, morality, and policy of attempting to enforce
such payments will be discussed presently.

The fall in the gold price of silver within the last six years is
undoubtedly the most remarkable event in the history of the
precious metals. The causes are now tolerably well known, viz :
the demonetization of silver by the Huropean nations, the inability
of India to absorb its usual annual supply, and the greatly in-
creased production of the American mines. It is claimed by

90 BULLETIN OF THE

some that gold on the contrary has absolutely risen in price. The
causes which have occasioned the fall of silver have, it is urged,
been inverted as to gold. The change from silver to gold in
Germany and Scandinavia has created an abnormal and great.
demand for the latter metal, and mining statistics indicate a
diminution in the gold yield of America and Australia when the
last ten years are compared with the preceding twenty. It
seems very probable that gold has actually risen. It is, however,
extremely difficult to say how much even very approximately, and
an exact determination of the amount of fluctuation is imprac-
ticable. On the whole, the amount of change in the value of gold
has probably been small while the absolute depreciation of silver
has with equal probability been very great, being represented by
much the greater part of the difference between the former pre-
mium over gold and the present discount, 7. e. between 103 in
1869 and 874 in 1880.

The Act of February 28th, 1878, must ever be regarded by
students of money as one of the strangest and most unjustifiable
actions ever performed by a legislative body in dealing with
monetary affairs. A century ago almost any nation might have
committed an extravagant financial blunder. Sixty years ago
any nation excepting England, France, and Germany might have
fallen into serious error about its money. But that a nation
having so much wealth and intelligence as the United States
should have rushed pell mell into such a trap in the last quarter
of the nineteenth century without the slightest pretext passes
‘comprehension. The Senators and Representatives of Congress
taken as a body are a class of able men, worthy of the great
nation they represent. They passed this act in response to
what seems to have been an overwhelming movement and senti-
ment coming from the masses of voters, and probably felt, inde-
pendently of their own convictions as to the merits of the question
itself, that they were in duty bound to vote upon it in conformity
with the views of their constituents. Most of them however,
probably accepted the popular view of the subject and believed
in it. Yet, that view is antagonized by nine-tenths of the stu-
dents of money and financiers of Hurope and America. Any
writer upon the subject must discuss it with a profound de-
ference for the opinions of our “‘conscript fathers.” Yet in the
two years which have elapsed since that bill was passed, it has
been subjected to careful analysis and criticism, and the general
bearing and effects of the measure have been made much clearer
than they were then. The result of that criticism I believe to
be a clear showing that the act remonetizing silver was unwise,
impolitic, and unless reversed, is now fraught with great im-
pending evil to the country.

The arguments used to sustain the measure were numerous.
The most conspicuous one held up to the év zoaace was the catch-
word of ‘‘the dollar of our fathers.” It would be a needless

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 9]

insult to charge any congressman with believing that the use of
any particular dollar by our great-grandfathers was a reason for
retaining it if the intervening period had brought into use a
better and more convenient substitute. We might as well use
the same argument for re-arming our troops with blunderbusses
and revert to travelling by stage coaches. The dollar of our
fathers was‘a very protean thing, and by far the commonest form
it took was that of paper, the filthiest form of filthy lucre. The
value which they themselves put upon it is best illustrated by
recalling the names they gave it, “wild cat,” “red dog,” ‘coon
box” money. Among the many forms of fossil dollars that of
1837 was selected.

Another argument which was used was that the public debt of
the United States consisted of bonds, which were sold for paper
money at a time when coin was at a very high premium, and that
if they were repaid even in depreciated silver, the bondholders
would receive far more than the first purchasers paid for them;
whereas strict equity would have been more than satisfied if they
were paid in paper. It was admitted, however, that the Act of
March 18th, 1869, declaring that the faith of the United States
was solemnly pledged to their payment in coin, settled the matter
so far as paper was concerned. ‘This resolution was asserted to
have been unwise and unjust, and framed in the interest of bond-
holders at the expense of poorer tax-payers; but it must be rec-
ognized as valid. But it was still left optional with the Govern-
ment to pay its bonds in silver, because the silver dollar was a
lawful coin of unlimited legal tender when that resolution was
passed, and the Government would be unjust to itself and to its
tax-payers if it did not take advantage of the option.

This argument does not fully and fairly state the premises, and
is very wide of the mark in its conclusion. Whatever option
may have remained in 1869 was swept away by the coinage act
of 1873 leaving gold as the only lawful medium of payment.
That option was abandoned because gold was, and for thirty
years had been, the cheaper metal, and the only metal used for
unlimited coin payments. It was abandoned because it appeared
to be valueless. Nobody objected. The bondholders were satis-
fied because they regarded their bonds payable in gold, and ex-
pected nothing better or worse. The Government, which owed
the payments, could not help being satisfied, because it had always
expected to pay them in gold, and silver was the dearer metal.
Soon after came the fall of silver. It was sudden, unexpected,
and unprecedented in amount. In 1877 the cry was raised that
the act of 1873 had taken from the people the advantage of this
depreciation for scaling down their public debt, and a bill was
introduced for the coinage of silver dollars of 4125 grains, with
unlimited legal tender, and containing instructions to the Secre-
tary of the Treasury to pay them out in discharging the coin
obligations of the government. It was at once protested that

92, BULLETIN OF THE

this was practical repudiation. In 1873 silver was demonetized,
and the public debt was ipso facto made payable in gold coin
only. Subsequently millions of this debt changed hands and was
bought from day to day by tens of thousands of ‘innocent third
parties,” who thereby acquired the right to ultimate payment in
gold coin as then current. Millions of the debt were refunded,
the old bonds being redeemed and new ones sold. The face of
the new bonds disclosed a contract to pay coin, and the law re-
cognized no coin except gold. All rational doubt as to whether
“coin of the present standard value” meant gold which was in
universal and exclusive use in all coin transactions, or silver,
which was never used except for export, was put at rest by the
formal abrogation of silver in the regular course of legislation.
At this stage the “Bland Bili” intervenes, and orders the manu-
facture of millions of a new coin having a much less value than
that which the bond specifies, and makes them legal tender for
all debts, public and private. Is it possible for anybody to show
that this is not a repudiation of a portion of the public debt?

As regards those bonds which were refunded after the passage
of the Bland bill, there seems to be no doubt that they are hon-
estly payable either in silver or in gold. It was a clear case of
caveat emptor. The great notoriety given to the discussion of
this measure was abundant notice to all purchasers that the bonds
which they were buying for gold would be liable to redemption
in silver. Still there is a moral taint about even these. The
procedure was a ‘“‘shoving” of a debased standard upon the valu-
ation of a class of securities which every consideration of pru-
dence, sound finance, and far-sighted economy should have induced
Congress to keep up to the best possible standard. The bonds
of the United States are chiefly used for those investments which
ought to be the least liable to fluctuation in value, and the most
sure of full payment without rebate at maturity. To speak more
in detail, they are security for the payment of the notesjof Na-
tional Banks, which are in the pocket of every man who is able
to buy his bread: they are the form which idle funds often take
while waiting for the demands of trade: they are the best and
most proper investment of trust funds and the savings of myriads
of poor people to whom security is of more importance than high
interest: they are the best “ gilt-edged” security for loans by the
deposit of which money can be borrowed at the lowest rate of
interest. ‘To debase the ultimate valuation of these bonds was
to introduce the same vice into them which has heretofore clouded
the name of American finance—paying debts in a bad currency
and instability of value: and the infection was introduced just
where it should have been most carefully fended off.

‘he views which were entertained by the opponents of the
Bland bill as to its tendencies and ultimate effects agreed as to
generalities though differing as to details. It was patent that
unless the Government restricted the coinage and monopolized

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 93

the profits of it, the whole financial fabric of the country would
within a year or so drop from a gold to a silver basis involving
alike all public and private credits. Obligations contracted in
gold or equivalent ereenbacks would be compulsorily paid in
silver, inflicting great damage and loss upon everybody, espe-
cially upon the poorer and less fortunate classes, and opening
chances to shrewd speculators to realize handsome profits out of
the disturbances in nominal values. The men of capital and the
banks would be able to take care of themselves in the main,
though sure to suffer some loss. It is their business to look out
for such disturbances, and being duly warned, would be well
advised as to the means of breaking the force of the blow, though
not avoiding it altogether. But for poor people who earn daily
wages, for the dependent classes in general, and for all people who
do not know how or who cannot provide against such changes,
there would be no escape. Fortunately the proposition was
modified by limiting the coinage to not less than two millions
nor more than four millions per month, and closing the mints to
coinage on private account. This was a saving clause of great
value. It had the effect of postponing the evil day, and it was
hoped that before the egg would have time to hatch people would
take a sober second thought and reverse the plan.

As the Bland bill finally passed, the effects of its provisions
would require time to develop themselves in consequence of these
limitations. Before it can have any serious effect two conditions
must be fulfilled.

Ist. A quantity of silver must be coined large enough to form
an important factor in the total volume of currency.

9d. It must be forced into general circulation.

The quantity of silver required to make the measure effective
is unknown. Much must depend upon the general state of trade
and the demand for money, especially metallic money. At one
period seventy-five or even fifty millions might make it of
serious account, at another two hundred millions might be re-
quired. In general from a hundred to one hundred and fifty
millions might be on the average sufficient to render it a potent
factor.

In order that the Bland bill may become operative the silver
must be forced into circulation. At present only a slight and
inefficient pressure is exerted in that direction, and the circu-
lation is merely nominal. Small amounts are paid out, but they
come back by the shortest route to the treasury. The explana-
tion is very instructive and curious. It is customary to state a
certain law of money in the well-worn adage that “an inferior
currency will if permitted expel a superior one from circulation.”
This is because persons prefer to pay their debts in the cheaper
currency, provided they are perfectly free to do so. The state-
ment presupposes that it is optional with the debtor which of the
two he will pay, and not with the creditor which of the two he

94 BULLETIN OF THE

will receive. Under that assumption the law is undoubtedly
universal. But as the Bland-Allison law now stands the option
is practically reversed. The creditor who presents a draft at
the treasury is left to choose, in greatest part, whether he will
receive silver or gold, and of course chooses gold. Probably
this is the first time in the history of money where an attempt has
been made to put an inferior currency into circulation without
forcing the payee to accept it. Furthermore, the treasury re-
ceives back without limit the silver which it pays out in small
sums. If the law seriously means to put silver into practical
circulation it is evident that it must pay it out forcibly, and
rigorously limit the conditions upon which it will receive it.
Persons who exact payments from the treasury will take all the
gold the treasury will give and leave the silver. They do so
because they prefer gold (or equivalent greenbacks). They
prefer it because silver is sixteen times heavier, and thirty-five
times bulkier; because gold is worth quite as much in the form
of bullion as in coin, while silver is not; because it will pay
foreign debts at its nominal value, while silver will not, and
because it is intrinsically more valuable than silver of like nomi-
nal amount. This may be all wrong, a mere prejudice, it may
bespeak a want of appreciation, etc. etc., but there is no account-
ing for tastes in this world, and the preference is shared by ninety-
nine men out of a hundred who use money. The use of paper
certificates helps the matter somewhat, and the fact that they are
receivable at the custom houses helps it a great deal, but the
objection in part still remains. No man handles a silver certifi-
cate without thinking of the kind of coin in which it is redeem-
able, and he thinks also that he would prefer it if it were re-’
deemable in gold. There is but one way to circulate them, and
that is to force them out and keep them out

It is evident that the Bland bill does not meet the purpose for
which it is designed, and if is to become operative some addi-
tional legislation is necessary. Members of Congress are begin-
ning to perceive this. They attribute the failure to produce the
expected results to sundry causes, one being the discrimination
made by the banks against silver which they regard as contuma-
cious and actuated by a Wall Street prejudice.

But surely a little reflection ought to show the gentlemen who
make this charge, that the prejudices of the banks and bankers
have no more to do with their action in this matter than their reli-
gious or political convictions. It is the business of banks to ad-
vance money, and the particular kind of money which customers
want. Customers prefer greenbacks to silver certificates. If they
cannot get just what they want from the National banks they will
get it somewhere else, provided they can do so on more satisfactory
terms. It is not the banks who primarily give effect to the dis-
crimination, but people who receive money from the banks. Any
attempt to compel or persuade the banks to do otherwise, would

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, 95

be about as politic and rational as to attempt to persuade or com-
pel a commission merchant to mix turnips and potatoes and sell
the whole as potatoes. It was the Government which origmated
and sustains the discrimination, and not the banks. It forcibly
issued paper redeemable in silver dollars only; it issued also
paper redeemable in gold dollars; the people feel if they do not
see the difference; they act accordingly, and the banks are com-
pelled to follow.

To make the Bland bill operative, then, it is necessary for the
Government to take decisive measures to force silver into general
circulation. But when such decisive measures are taken, certain
consequences must follow, which we must endeavor to forecast.
These measures must obviously restrict the right of payees except
the Treasury to demand gold at face value, and sustain the right
of payers to tender silver to everybody except to the government.
But the instant any such action is taken the consequences are
obvious—gold will begin to command a premium, and the moment
it commands a premium, however small, it ceases to be a stand-
ard or common denominator of value. With the lapse of time
the premium of gold will thereafter increase, until it has become
about equal to the difference between the bullion values of gold
and silver in the markets. Thus the enforcement of the circula-
tion of silver will gradually reduce the financial fabric of the
country to the standard of the silver dollar.

But whether the silver is speedily forced into circulation or
not, the continued operation of the Bland bill as now adminis-
tered will have the tendency to bring our money down to the
silver denominator in the course of a few years. True, it may fail
to do so and we may escape, but there is danger of it sufficiently
serious to demand earnest attention. At present there is a golden
tide setting from Europe into this country. The bad crops, the
depression of industry in Europe, and its revival in America with
splendid harvests, have caused a heavy balance of trade in our
favor. That balance is paid in gold because there is a demand
for it here and because Europe has nothing better to send. But
a favorable balance of trade is only an ephemeral state of affairs.
Just as surely as the pendulum now swinging to the right will
in a little time swing back to the left, just so surely will the
balance of trade turn in the opposite direction and the golden
stream will flow back to Europe. In the mean time the Treas-
ury is rapidly piling up useless silver in its vaults. Every silver
dollar put into its strong box represents an equal bullion value
of gold or greenbacks taken out of it. When the balance of trade
turns, gold will be wanted for export. No silver, be it observed,
but only gold. Debts are not paid with silver in Europe. Green-
backs and gold certificates will then be presented at the Treasury
(or bank notes at the banks, which in the end amounts to the
same thing), for redemption in coin; and gold will be demanded.
If the Treasury insists on paying greenbacks in silver, the crisis

96 BULLETIN OF THE

will instantly be precipitated—gold will command a premium over
silver coin, and the premium will increase as gold becomes scarcer.
If the Treasury pays gold freely, how long will it be able to do so,
and will it be able to meet the drain until the tide turns again ?
It will then be burning its gold candle at both ends, paying out
gold for export and at the same time steadily converting its me-
tallic reserves into silver. If it had never embarked upon this
silver escapade, it would have in its vaults an additional amount
of gold or greenbacks equal to the silver it will have purchased
and have an abundant strength to meet the heaviest stress which
could possibly be put upon its gold balance. But under the
continued operation of the present law there will be a powerful
temptation and stress—perhaps anirresistible one—to restrict gold
payments and roll out the hoard of silver coin. With a possible
change of administration with changed financial views, the policy
of paying out silver more forcibly and restricting gold payments
to small amounts may be adopted at any time. A Treasury
which is piling up silver at the rate of three millions a month and
continuing it without limit and unable or unwilling to force it
into currency, is necessarily shifting the centre of gravity as be-
tween gold and silver over towards the silver side and must be
tending towards a silver basis.

The ultimate result then of the Bland bill is to bring the standard
of money (or the common denominator of value, as Prof. Walker
would say) from its present gold value down to the bullion value
of the silver dollar. It is only a question of time, and no very
long time at that. The effect of such a change will be ulti-
mately the same as if a law had been passed debasing the gold
coinage an equal amount—putting, say, one-eighth less gold in
every coin struck at the mint, and making the debased coins legal
tender at their old nominal value. If the proposition had been
made to debase the gold coinage outright from 12 to 15 per cent.,
probably those who voted for the Bland bill would have shrunk
from such an ignominious procedure. And yet how would it
have differed from the law actually passed? Morally and eco-
nomically in no essential respect whatever. Instead of striking
the debased coin in gold they struck it in silver, and that is the
whole difference. The debased gold coins would have been pre-
ferable, for they could have been instantly readjusted to foreign
and domestic trade and retained all the advantages of a gold
currency, while silver is open to objections purely as silver
chiefly arising from the want of adjustment and harmony with
the monetary movements in the nations with which we trade.

The advocates of the Bland bill frequently enlarged upon the
advantage and necessity of a bimetallic standard. They asserted
the probable insufficiency of gold alone to sustain specie pay-
ments and the necessity of calling in silver to co-operate. The
quantity of gold required by the gold-using nations especially
at the present time, they said, was enormous, and they pointed at

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 97

the comparatively limited supply. While the nations of Europe
are shifting to a gold standard, if we also shift from paper to
gold and undertake to redeem our vast volume of paper currency
in that metal, the demand for it will be so great that either we
shall break down in attempting to resume, or if we succeed,
shall run up the price of gold so high that debtors will be ruined
and the existing depression in industry become still more disas-
trous. Hence we must call silver to our aid and adopt a bi-
metallic standard. We shall then have the total body of two
great stocks of precious metals in which to redeem instead of
one.

Before proceeding to discuss this argument it is necessary to
form some conception as to what they meant by the term bi-
metallic standard.

The sense in which political economists employ the term bi-
metallic currency, is that of a currency in which the coinage of
gold and silver is free, and both metals are unlimited legal ten-
der. It happens that there is no problem in the use of money
with which the nations of the world have more experience and
more positive knowledge than the attempt to use a bimetallic
currency in this acceptation of the term. The experience has
ranged through centuries, and up to the most recent times: it is
found among the annals of all civilized nations, and the examples
are exceedingly numerous. The results have been uniformly
failures. Not a solitary exception has ever been known. ‘The
reason is obvious and the explanation perfect. When the law
provides for the coinage and legal tender it fixes at the same
time the relative money values of the two metals, 7. e., declares
how much silver shall be equivalent to a given quantity of gold.
It begins by fixing these relative values at the same proportion
as is found to rule in the markets at the time. But the relative
market value of the two metals is continually changing, while
the mint value cannot be changed without recoinage. And as
soon as a persistent change is developed between the mint ratio
ane the market ratio, it becomes profitable to melt down or ex-
port one of the coined metals which inevitably disappears from
circulation while the other metal remains and alone performs the
function of money. The currency then ceases to be bimetallic
and becomes monometallic. In the fluctuations of the market
prices, the ratio which had formerly been higher than the mint
ratio has become lower. The result was that the metal which
at first disappeared came back, and the metal which at first re-
mained disappeared in turn. Considered with reference to long
periods of years the intended bimetallic currency becomes what
is termed an alternate currency; that is, a currency in which
there is a continuous succession of famines of each metal alter-
nately.

No rational person, however, has ever doubted the necessity
of using both gold and silver as money. ‘The question which

98 BULLETIN OF THE

has arisen is, under what laws and conditions is it possible to
secure the proper use of both? Late in the eighteenth century
financiers and statesmen had learned that such use could not be
secure under existing laws, and proceeded to inquire what uses
it was possible to secure and what laws would effectuate such
uses. England was the first country to put in operation a prac-
tical and successful solution of the problem. Her statesmen
recognized that gold and silver would not circulate together so
long as the coinage of both metals was free, and both were un-
limited in volume and legal tender. She therefore closed her
mints in 1816 to the coinage of silver, leaving the status of gold
unchanged. Silver was coined by the government on its own
account, its volume limited to what was deemed necessary for
purposes of trade, and its legal tender limited to forty shillings.
The plan has worked to her perfect satisfaction ever since, and
her currency is universally admitted to be safe, secure, and con-
venient. She has all the gold and silver she needs, which is
the utmost that can be said in favor of any currency.

The reasons for choosing gold for free coinage were chiefly
two. In the first place, it is important that the money unit
should maintain as nearly as practicable a constant value in
comparison with other commodities, taken as a whole. This
property belongs to gold in a higher degree than to any other
available money substance, and is therefore preferable for fur-
nishing the common denominator of value. In the second place,
the ageregate of large payments require more money than the
aggregate of small ones. Gold is much more convenient and
economical for large payments than silver, and is therefore the
best substance for the principal bulk of a currency. Silver is
utilized to the most advantage when used as the subsidiary of
gold. It should be its servant and not its master.

In order, then, to keep the two metals in constant use, each
performing its own function, it is necessary to lay restrictions
upon the coinage of silver, while gold may be coined without
limit and freely. The quantity of silver must be limited and the
government must monopolize the right to send it to the mint.
It must also be debased in coining it, to prevent it from flying
out of currency whenever the market price of silver is very high.
The question now arises, What quantity of silver should be put
into cireulation ? should it be very large—say equal to the amount
of gold—or very much less? The question which has concerned
the American bimetalists seems to be, What is the utmost amount
of silver which the country can be forced to absorb? In reality
the evident true policy should be to ascertain what is the smallest
amount which can be used without inconvenience; and the same
is true of gold. Money is for the purpose of facilitating ex-
changes. A mechanic who knows that oil is good and useful for
facilitating the movements of machinery, would never undertake
to see how much oil he could use for lubrication, but how little.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 99

In the search for an illustration of the quantity of silver which
a country can absorb, the bimetalists have fixed upon France.
Never was a case more grossly misunderstood and misrepresented.

The function which silver now performs in France may be
made intelligible by the following illustration: Suppose all
our $1, $2, $5, and $10 notes were not in existence, and that the
same amount of one dollar notes were circulating in their place.
Suppose, further, that the promise to pay one gold dollar on de-
mand, instead of being printed on a piece of paper, were stamped
upon a circular piece of silver worth about 81 or 82 cents. In
all essential respects such a currency would correspond to French
silver. The latter is a token currency, circulating at 18 or 20
per cent. above its real value because it is convertible into gold.
The amount, though large, is still limited by stopping the coin-
age, and the quantity in actual circulation is rapidly diminishing,
being gathered into the Bank of France in an enormous hoard.
The French government, however, is firmly resolved on maintain-
ing the gold standard, and the only important difference between
her silver and a redeemable paper currency is that the former
can never depreciate below its bullion value. In no sense can
France be said at present to be employing the bimetallic standard.
Her standard is gold as truly as that of England or Germany.
Her silver is the heritage bequeathed to her from antiquity, and
is now a burden rather than a source of wealth. The present
outlook is that before many years France will become a gold
using nation exclusively, as she is already in chief part. If it
were possible to demonetize silver at once without serious loss
and doing violence to the peculiar habits of her poorer people,
there is little doubt that it would be done.

The Bland bill provides for a silver currency radically different
from that of France. It is caleulated to push the country into a
situation involving not only the difficulties and evils which France
would most gladly escape from if she could, but others far more
serious. The growing spectre of the silver dollar has no limit
fixed to the size which it may reach. No gross sum is named at
which the coinage must stop. These dollars are not convertible
into gold at face value, as the French five-frane pieces are. If it
were not that the volume now out is small, and were they not
receivable in taxes and duties in place of so much gold, they
would be at a discount or gold at a premium.

The question how much silver can our country absorb is one
thing, and the question how much ought it to be made to absorb
is another. The first question can be finally answered only after
trial; the second one has been answered already. It ought to be
made to absorb just as little as it can get along with without
inconvenience. That it might use a considerable number of
silver dollars of the present standard seems probable. They
could perform the function which is now performed by the $1
and $2 notes, but somehow the people seem to prefer the notes

100 BULLETIN OF THE

as a rule, though the coins show a tendency to circulate mode-
rately. [tis not probable, however, that more than 40,000,000
of them could be kept in voluntary circulation, and that number
seems very large.

The common belief which seems to pervade the minds of the
advocates of the present silver policy is, that in the first place we
need an enormous amount of metallic money in this country, and
in the second place that the gold supply is insufficient to meet.
alone this demand for metallic money without increasing greatly
its price and correspondingly disturbing all values.

The natural laws governing the use of money seem at first to
be highly paradoxical. It is a well known fact in the history of
money, that the more abundant the supply the greater is the
complaint of scarcity. This complaint has risen again and again,
and has too frequently resulted in the application of what seemed
at first the normal remedy—an issue of more money by the Gov-
ernment—but which proved to be a source of aggravation, mak-
ing money scarcer than ever and in greater demand. It was so
in the old colonial times, and it has been so in this country ever
since. The same experience has been repeatedly observed in
Europe, where the difficulty is well understood and always
treated with the appropriate remedy whenever it shows a ten-
dency to manifest itself, which is very seldom. The explanation
is not difficult. A little examination shows that the complaint
has always arisen in poorer countries and regions or States less
advanced in material wealth and improvements, and the complaint
has been directed against richer neighbors, who have invariably
been accused of prosecuting a policy designed to monopolize
money at the expense of poorer people. In our own country
there is and always has been unquestionably a dearth of money
in the West and South and a plethora in the Eastern and Middle
States. The want of more money in the West and South is prob-
ably a real want. The cause is that money goes where goods
are for sale and leaves a country where nothing is to be bought.
Once a year for a space of about two months the great harvests
of the West and the cotton crop of the South are ready for the
market, and forthwith the westward and southward bound trains
are laden with money from the Eastern and Middle State banks,
and it is scattered broadcast over a vast expanse of country.
But within a month it is back in the vaults it came from, and for
ten long dreary months the people of those regions are impecuni-
ous again. The money realized for a year’s farming has gone to
pay debts or the annual interest on mortgages and to buy a
year’s outfit of the necessaries of life. In short, money goes
where there are commodities to be bought. The fancy that the
ten months’ scarcity can be relieved by increasing the total vol-
ume of currency is utterly absurd. What have the impecunious
classes to give in exchange for it? or what would they have to
sell which they have not already? and how are they to obtain

.PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 101

their share of the increase? Mr. Weaver’s proposition to make
every tenth or twelfth citizen a creditor of the Government by
Act of Congress, and to issue $500,000,000 of money to pay this
trumped-up indebtedness, would be one way of distributing money,
but how long would it stay in the hands of impecunious people ?
If it had any appreciable value after such a watering, it would
concentrate into the great reservoirs even more voluminously
than at present, and in a month the people who had received it
would be worse off for money and everything which money can
buy than they are at present. What the people of those States
want is capital with organized and diversified industry, and they
have confounded the want of capital and production with the want
of money. If they have the former, money will come fast enough;
and if they have them not, money will not come to them of its own
momentum, nor will it abide with them even though Congress
were to shower down gold upon them.

Tt is the general opinion of financiers that our present currency
is much in excess of our needs, and that the plethora is very in-
jurious in its effects upon trade, the business morals, and material
growth of the country. But whether it be so or not, it would be
immaterial to inquire so long as we are a monometallic gold-using
nation, for under such a regime the quantity of money in the
country would regulate itself far better than any human device
could do—for when money became scarce it would flow in from
abroad, and when it became redundant would go to other coun-
tries. But if we are to be a monometallic silver-using nation it
is otherwise. We are liable at one time to a glut of silver money
and at another to a scarcity, Since the nations with whom we
trade use gold, they would not receive our excess of silver nor
send us theirs at the precise time when such movements would
be most opportune. The self-regulating quality would be want-
ing.

The notion that there is not gold enough in the world is easily
answered. As Mr. David A. Wells remarked: ‘If a single silver
three-cent piece were capable of sufficient divisibility or rapidity
of circulation, it would suffice to effect all the monetary exchanges
of the whole civilized world.” This is but an extreme illustra-
tion of a general truth, which ought to be apparent upon the
slightest reflection. It is a perfectly safe assertion that if the
quantity of gold in the world and the annual supply of it were
one-tenth what they are at present, there would still be enough
of it for all the monetary purposes of the world, and it would serve
those purposes pretty nearly as well as it does at present; the
only notable difference would be that the sovereigns, five-dollar
pieces, and twenty-frane pieces would be inconveniently small in
size, while pieces of larger value would be even more convenient
than now. And if the quantity of gold were ten times as great
as at present, it would be no better for monetary purposes. Why!
here is silver, of which the quantity now in coin is estimated to

46

102 BULLETIN OF THE

be twelve or fifteen times more than that of gold when measured
in pounds, and twenty-five or thirty times more when measured
in cubic inches, and yet the purchasing power of the whole is
actually less! As a monetary medium it is less capable of effect-
ing exchanges than the world’s supply of gold. In short, the
quantity now in the world either of gold or silver has nothing to
do with the question. ‘“‘ Whatever there is, is enough.”

To the assertion that the adoption of the monometallic gold
standard by the United States will increase the demand for, and
consequent price of gold and depreciate the prices of commodi-
ties, the reply is that we have practically the gold standard
already, and very nearly enough metal in the country to maintain
gold payments. During the last three years the influx has been
constant and largely at the expense of the nations of Hurope.
Yet neither has it risen in price nor have commodities depreci-
ated. On the contrary, prices have risen with a rapidity and to
a degree of which our commercial history furnishes few parallels.
If the fifty million silver dollars now buried in the Treasury were
converted into gold, specie payment would be as sure and safe as
it is with the Bank of England. Nor is there reason to fear
that the acquisition of a much larger sum would materially affect
the price of gold or its purchasing power. Prices have been
affected but little by the acquisitions of France and Germany,
which have been much greater in amount than we should have
occasion for. It is true that in the last ten years prices have
fluctuated greatly, but it is clear that the fluctuations have been
almost independent of changes in the precious metals. They fell
in 1873 to 1878 because a time of reckoning, long deferred, had
at last come, and people were more anxious to pay and collect
debts than they were to buy and contract new ones. Prices rose
in 1879 because debts had been liquidated or sponged out in the
courts; people had lived close, were ready to go to work and to
trade with clean slates, and had money and credit enough to
begin buying again. The effect of the rise and fall of the pre-
cious metals was wholly inappreciable—as much so as the rise
and fall of the tides upon the billows of mid-ocean.

The effect of the Bland bill may be thus summarized :—

1. At present it is inoperative, because the silver is not forced
into circulation,

2. It cannot be forced into circulation without being received
at a discount or forcing gold up to a premium and driving it out
of the country.

3. Its present effect is limited to a steady and gradual accu-
mulation of silver in the treasury in the place of gold.

4. The growth of this silver hoard is regular and constant,
and only requires time to become vast in amount. At any time
in the near future a turn in the balance of trade must bring down
upon the treasury a demand for gold to export. If the treasury
pays gold its stock will be soon exhausted, and it will have no-

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 103

thing but silver to redeem its notes with. If it restricts gold
payments the result will be the same—gold will command a pre-
mium, and cease to be a standard of vein or to take part in the
circulation of the country.

5. In general, the effect of the Bland bill is in the end to expel
gold from the country, and bring the money standard down to
that of the debased silver dollar; in short, to make us a mono-
metallic silver-using nation.

We revert, then, to the inquiry with which we started this dis-
cussion. Is the present silver law ‘‘well enough” to require that
it be let alone? It is not well enough, and the time to amend
it is the present. Within a year it is probable that the first crop
will be reaped from our neglect to do so. Several hundred mil-
lions of six per cents. are to be refunded. Perhaps some ‘‘bloated
bondholders” will be insolent enough to demand an understanding
before they buy new bonds, whether they are to be paid principal
and interest in gold coin of the present standard or in the debased
silver dollars. And when the attention of buyers and syndicates
is fairly called to the predicament, they must realize the principle
of caveat emptor.

Upon this communication Mr. DoorirriE remarked that he
believed there was much force in the position taken by the U. 8.
Commissioners at the late International Monetary Conference,
that a combined and general consensus of the great monetary
powers of the world would be able to sustain a constant ratio in
the values of the two metals, and that it seemed to be a wise
policy to promote such action in order to have the entire volumes
of the two metals combined as the basis of values, which would
be far more stable than if it consisted of one metal only.

Mr. E. B. Evtiorr remarked that the view so confidently en-
tertained and proclaimed by certain writers of prominence, both
in this country and Europe, that France, by virtue of its fixed Jegal
ratio of 15} to 1, can control, and for many years has controlled
and determined the current relative value of gold and silver in
the world’s market, is not in accord with fact, and that the con-
clusions based on it are groundless.

It was moved that the discussion of this subject be resumed
at the next meeting, which motion was carried.

)

The meeting then adjourned.

104 BULLETIN OF THE

175TH MEETING. FEBRUARY 14, 1880.
Vice-President TAYLOR in the Chair.
Forty-eight members present.

The Chair announced to the Society the election to member-
ship of Mr. Joun Henry Comstock and Mr. Neen Jenks
Loomis.

The order of exercises, which had been fixed for the evening
according to the terms of adjournment of the preceding meeting,
was a continuation of the discussion of the Silver Question, but
priority was given to a communication by Mr. C. A. WHITE on

THE SUBJECT OF THE PERMIAN FORMATION IN NORTH AMERICA.

Dr. White began by remarking upon the practice of giving to
geological formations names derived from localities where they
had first been found to have peculiar development and import-
ance, like the Silurian and Devonian. In this way the Carbon-
iferous system had derived its name from the fact that in Hurope,
where it was most studied at an early stage of geological science,
it contained coal and carbonaceous shales. The progress of in-
vestigation, however, subsequently led to the conviction that
really less coal is found in the Carboniferous than in other rocks.
In the western portion of the United States, the Carboniferous
formations are, as a rule, quite destitute of coal.

Those rocks which are assigned to the Carboniferous in the
West have, in general, a fauna agreeing with Carboniferous fos-
sils of Europe and eastern America; but it appears that, in some
instances, the fauna found in the lower part of the series in one
locality, have their correlations in the upper part of the series in
another locality. This is explicable upon the assumption that
the physical condition necessary for the development of a faunal
group may have prevailed early in one locality and late in an-
other.

Having in view these considerations, Dr. White then indicated
the three principal subdivisions of the Carboniferous system in
Kurope, viz.:—

1. Permian sandstones and shales;

2. Coal measures, sandstone, limestone, and shales;

3. Lower Carboniferous limestone without coal ;
and adverted to the fact that the two lower divisions are found

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 105

_ in America with the same general lithological characters and many
identical species in the respective members. But the Permian had
not been so satisfactorily established, in America. In Hurope the
Permian is often wanting from its proper place, and its univer-
sality there has been regarded as generally doubtful. Until
1858 it was not supposed to exist, or at least it was not pretended
to have been discovered in America. In 1858 its existence was
announced almost simultaneously in Texas and in Kansas. A
little later Prof. I. O. White announced Permian plants from
West Virginia. These announcements were at first somewhat
eagerly contested, but the discussion fell to the ground as profit-
~ less, with the general impression that the Permian had not been
established. The palzontological difficulties arise from the fact
already noted, that Russian Permian types are found in the
West in the middle and lower Carboniferous; and types which
are low in the series in Europe are found high in the series in
America, while many types are common to all parts of the sys-
tem. There are, however, certain forms which have always been
regarded as distinctly Permian.

Recently Mr. Walcott has brought from southern Utah or
northern Arizona a series of fossils obtained from beds overlying
the Aubrey limestone (= middle Carboniferous or Coal measures).
The beds from which they came are locally named the Shinarump,
and have been doubtfully assigned to the Lower Trias, with a
reservation in favor of the possibility that they might be Per-
mian. These fossils are palwozoic, with the exception of one or
two forms which may be mesozoic. Among them is a species of
Bakewellia, which has never been found above the Permian; and
the group, as a whole, seems to indicate that the beds in question
belong decidedly to that age. Although this discovery would
make these beds and their equivalents throughout the West the
correlatives of the Permian of Europe, it does not follow that the
periods were strictly coéval in the two continents.

Mr. GinsertT remarked upon the relations of these Permian
beds to the Aubrey limestone upon which they rest, and stated
that the contact was frequently, and perhaps generally, uncon-
formable in the vicinity of the locality where these fossils were
found. But no such unconformity had been detected in higher
horizons, and hence no physical break had enabled the separation

106 BULLETIN OF THE

of these Permian beds from the Trias above, though such a sep-
aration was easily made from the strata below.

Mr. Powe remarked that the continuity of these strata with
strata overlying the local Carboniferous of the Uinta Mountains
had been traced out. Mr. Kine had also traced the continuity
of the same beds from the Great Basin through the Wasatch to
the slopes of the Uinta Mountains, connecting the horizon with
that ascertained by Mr. Powell. Thus, the equivalence of the
widely separated exposures of the Great Basin, the Uintas and
Arizona rested upon stratigraphic evidence, independently of
paleontological, and the paleontological evidence now confirmed
the conclusions originally based upon the strata themselves, for
the fossils found by Mr. King were substantially the same as
those found by Mr. Walcott.

Mr. E. J. Fanquyar read a paper

ON A REMARKABLE HAIL-STORM WHICH PASSED OVER MONT-
GOMERY COUNTY, MARYLAND, APRIL 28, 1878.

After remarks on this paper by several members, the brief
time remaining was occupied by Mr. DooLirrLEe in comments
upon some subsidiary points in the paper of Mr. Durron, of
the preceding meeting, and by brief remarks by other members
of the Society.

A general disposition having been manifested to resume the
discussion of the Silver Question, with more time to devote to
argument, it was decided to resume the discussion of it at the
next meeting.

The Society then adjourned.

176TH MEETING. FEBRUARY 28, 1880.
The President in the Chair.
Fifty members present.
The minutes of the last meeting were read and adopted.

Pursuant to the resolution adopted at the last meeting, the
order of proceedings for the evening consisted in a further dis-
cussion of the Silver Question. Prior thereto, Mr. Juvet was

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 107

invited by the General Committee to exhibit to the Society a
Time Globe. This consisted of a terrestrial globe, mounted upon
a stand, and containing within it a driving clock. The winding
stem of the clock-work projected at the south pole, in the form
of the feather of an arrow; and near the south pole was an at-
tachment for accelerating or retarding the movement, so as to
adjust its rotation to the true time. The axis being set at the
same inclination to the local horizon as the axis of the earth,
the globe is in position. The local time and the time of any
other point on the globe is at once read by finding the intersec-
tion of its meridian with the fixed equatorial circle encircling the
globe. Upon this circle the twenty-four hours and minutes are
graduated in inverse order.

The discussion of the Silver Question was then resumed.

Remarks of Mr. H. B. ELuiort.

Mr. Elliott opposed the view advocated by “bi-metallists,” so-
called, that the legal ratio of France alone, or the legal ratios
established by the several commercial countries of the world,
whether independently or in harmony, could govern and fix the
market ratio of gold to silver.

The market ratio was governed by different considerations than
merely legal enactments, granting to any person making payment
of a debt, the option to make that payment either in gold or in
silver, at a fired ratio of valuation. The market ratio is not per-
manently or appreciably influenced by such legal ratios. If the
fixed legal ratio does not conform to the current market ratio,
payments, in whatever metal or commodity made, would be made
on the basis of the relatively over-valued metal as the standard
money of account and payment.

If payments he actually made in the undervalued metal, a pre-
mium will be claimed and assented to equal to the difference
between the legal and the market rates of valuation of the two
metals. The establishment of a legal ratio, in any country, does
not of necessity determine the metal in which payments shall
actually be made; it only determines the metal with reference to
which accounts shall be kept and payments made. If silver be
the relatively over-valued metal, the unit of account (the dollar
for instance) will be referred to the silver unit as the standard
(instead of the gold unit), and vice versa; but payments may be,

108 BULLETIN OF THE

and doubtless extensively will be, made in gold, valued at the
market premium over silver from time to time prevailing.

He read from a publication by Mr. Cernuschi, the well-known
and bold advocate of ‘“ bi-metallism,” so called, claiming that, if
the leading commercial countries of the world can be induced to
unite in the establishment, by statute law, of any fixed ratio of
value, however extreme, between the two precious metals (gold
and silver) as the basis of payment, the metal selected to be
always at the option of the person or party making the payment,
whether this ratio be 10 to 1, 154 to 1, 20 to 1, or in the extreme
case of 1 to 1, the market ratio must of necessity conform to
this conventional ratio; and, in the extreme case mentioned, an
ounce of gold becomes the equal in market value of an ounce
of silver; and, further, taking the ground that, if either of the
two metals should be demonetized—that is, should cease to be a
legal tender—such metal should become valueless. If “‘ interna-
tional legislation” is substituted for the existing systems, “‘ on it
alone,” he says, ‘‘ will depend the relative value of gold and sil-
ver. If the international legislation is mono-metallic, the metal
which is not money, will lose so much of its value as to be no
longer precious. If the international legislation be bi-metallic,
the relative value of gold and silver which it recognizes will re-
main always and everywhere invariable.”

Mr. Elliott, while duly appreciating the boldness of the writer
in following his principles to their legitimate and logical conclu-
sions, dissented from his views.

It was his opinion that, after the proposed enactment of the
fixed ratio by all commercial nations, every debtor will choose to
pay his debt of one thousand dollars (for example) by the deliv-
ery of one thousand ounces of silver, rather than by that of
one thousand ounces of gold. Silver would rule as the standard
of account and of payment; and payments, when made in gold,
would be made at a premium determined by commerce upon the
relatively cheaper silver standard.

The relative market value of the two metals, like the market
values of other commodities, will not conform to any fixed ratio
established by the breath of legislators, but will ever fluctuate,
obediently regardful of the ordinary laws of trade, involving the
familiar elements of supply, demand, and cost of reproduction, as
controlling factors.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 109

Bemarks of Mr. H. N. Burciarp.

Mr. Burchard, in the course of his remarks, first defended the
action of the government in re-establishing the coinage of the
‘standard silver dollar of 4124 grains; and, secondly, discussed
bi-metalism, in respect to the relation between the production of
the precious metals, and their relative use as money by the prin-
ipal nations of the world.

He stated that the coinage of the standard silver dollar was no
violation of the letter or spirit of the refunding law of 1870, under
~which bonds to the amount of $1,492,264,850 have been issued.
That act made all the bonds issued under its authority “ payable
in coin of the present (1870) standard value.” The coin of that
standard was a silver dollar unit of value, of 871% grains of pure
silver as well as gold coins of 23,%,% grains of pure gold to the
dollar. It is a well-settled principle of law and equity, that all
persons contracting with government or municipal authorities are
bound by the terms under which the contract is made, and their
rights are controlled by its provisions. The purchasers of all
_ the refunding bonds issued under the act of 1870 obtained obli-
gations payable at the option of the United States, at their matu-
rity, in silver or gold dollars. The Secretary of the Treasury, in
a letter to Hon. Hugh McCulloch, under date of March 20, 1878,
says: “I doubt if the right of the government to pay the bonds
issued under the Refunding Act in the coin in legal existence at
the date of the act can be questioned or defeated,” and that ‘the
law fixes the terms of the bonds, and not the department or its
agents.”

Even if at the time of the sale of the bonds silver dollars were
not coined, it did not debar the United States from thereafter
coining silver dollars, and with them paying the bonds under the
contract; and if for reasons of public policy it was deemed desir-
able to restore the so-called double standard, and coin the silver
dollars, no legal, equitable, or moral reason, Mr. Burchard in-
sisted, could be advanced for excepting these bonds from pay-
ment pursuant to the terms of the contract. Such had been the
deliberate judgment of Congress, which, early in 1878, by a vote
of 42 to 20 in the Senate, and 189 to 79 in the House, passed
Senator Matthew’s resolution, affirming the legality and honesty
of the coinage and use of the silver dollar in the payment of these
bonds. This action was followed by the passage of the act for

110 BULLETIN OF THE

the coinage of the standard silver dollar, on the 28th of Feb-
ruary, 1878, under which $54,806,050 in silver dollars have been
coined. ‘This in no way appears to have injured the credit of the
government or of the bonds ; the 43 per cent. bonds, then scarcely
above par, are now at a premium of eight per cent., while the 4
per cent. bonds are at a premium that yields but 3,%, per cent. to
the investor.

To show that the act for the coinage of silver dollars was
neither dishonest nor inequitable, Mr. Burchard stated that when
it was passed in 1878, the purchasing power of silver in this coun-
try—measured by the comparative prices of commodities—was
the same as in 1870, when the refunding act was passed. He
stated that a careful examination of the average yearly values of
commodities for the last ten years had been made in the Mint
Bureau, and the results were to be found in the last annual re-
port of the director. The prices ascertained by dividing values
by quantities of eighty leading articles of export, embracing
85 per cent. of the total value of the exports of the United States,
showed an increase from 1870 to 1879, in the purchasing power
of United States notes of 47 per cent., and in gold of 14 per cent.,
and of the latter, since 1873, of over 20 per cent., while the pur-
chasing power of silver in 1878 was at 100, compared with itself
as it stood in 1870.

To show that the amount of the relative quantity or annual
production of gold and silver did not determine their relative
market values, the speaker exhibited upon a chart the annual pro-
duction of the precious metals in successive decades, from 1700
to 1870, and the average market price at Hamburgh for the same
periods. He pointed out the rise in the market value of silver
up to near the close of the 18th century, and that when silver
was being produced relatively to gold in quantities three times
greater than in the preceding half century, the market price of
silver was advancing instead of declining, and that when gold
and silver production had become equal by the decline in the
amount of silver produced, the market value of silver, compared
with gold, had declined instead of advancing.

The only apparent conformity of the law, as claimed, of @
higher relative price for either metal on account of relative dimin-
ished production, the speaker stated to be from 1850 to 1870, but
which he said resulted from legislation which gave an exclusive

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. lil

use of silver in the Orient. In proof of that, he argued the
legislation of different countries had made, and to a large degree
controlled the market rate.

Mr. Burchard showed the legal valuations, from time to time,
of different countries, some of which, as he said, were above, and
some of them at the same time below the market rate; and he
insisted that the facts in the financial history of the past century
seemed to show to him most conclusively that the relative market
rates of silver and gold had been little affected by the cost or
amount of production, but by that legislation which created—
sometimes in one and sometimes in another country—a greater
use of one or the other of the precious metals, and so a greater
or less demand for each.

He further said that the market rate at any place like Ham-
burgh would also be affected, not only by the legal exchangeable
value of the two metals established by the country producing
either, but also by the cost of transportation, time, and risk, in
sending to the country whose legislation had given a greater use,
and consequent demand, for one of the metals; that the changing
balances of trade between countries giving legal preference to
different metals, would affect the demand for each, and therefore
affect the market value, and make fluctuations that, by the adop-
tion of the same legal rate by all the commercial nations, would
disappear.

In further proof that legislation had been the most potent fac-
tor in the past affecting relative value, he pointed out, as shown
by his diagram, that when France, in 1785, adopted the ratio of
153 to 1, the ratio of nearly all the other countries of Hurope was
below 15 to 1, and in England 15.2 to 1; and that after the legis-
lation of France, the relative market value of silver to that of
gold declined to 153 of silver to 1 of gold; and that when England
made operative her law, which made gold the only legal standard
coin, by resuming gold payments, and by reason of her resump-
tion and gold standard legislation, commencing in 1819, and
during the next thirty years drew more gold from other countries
than all the world produced in the period, the market prices of
gold and silver became affected thereby, gold advancing in value,
compared with silver.

The better price for silver after 1850, and to 1870, Mr. Burch-
ard said resulted from the legislation of India, where silver, in

112 BULLETIN OF THE

1835, had been made, and thereafter was the standard and cur-
rency. ‘The increased production of gold augmented the prices
of commodities in America and Europe, the balance of trade set
in largely in favor of Asiatic countries, and silver was in demand,
and was sent where gold had no legal status, and silver, there-
fore, as a consequence of the legislation of such countries, became
comparatively more valuable, and commanded a higher market
price.

Mr. Burchard therefore claimed that it seemed capable of his-
torical demonstration that the fluctuation of the past in the rela-
tive market values of gold and silver had resulted from an
increased or diminished use, occasioned chiefly by legislation.
He said further that, after much consideration of these facts, the
conclusion seemed to him irrefutable that the consent of all na-
tions, embodied in the form of law, to the use of gold and silver
as legal money, at fixed rates of value, would reduce the fluctu-
ations in the relative values of the two metals to a minimum too
insignificant to be regarded; and, in the language of the Secre-
tary to one of our commissioners to the International Monetary
Convention (Mr. Groesbeck), “that if it were possible for the
leading commercial nations to fix by agreement an arbitrary rela-
tion between silver and gold, even though the market value might
vary somewhat from time to time, if would be a measure of the
greatest good to all nations.”

Mr. A. J. Warner, of the House of Representatives, was in-
vited to participate in the discussion; and he remarked upon the
relations of the quantity of gold in use to the price it held when
measured by other commodities. He expressed the conviction
that the acquisition of the necessary amount of gold which would
be required to make us a thoroughly solvent, specie-paying
nation upon a mono-metallic gold basis, would so raise the stand-
ard of value as to entail serious injustice.

Mr. M. H. DoouirrLe called attention to a recent article in
the Adlantie Monthly, which set forth that the future prospects
of the production of the precious metals were indicative of a
diminishing supply of gold, and a very steady supply of silver.

The Society then adjourned.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASILIINGTON. 113

1777Ta MEETING. Marce# 138, 1880.
| The President in the Chair.
Forty-five members present. |
The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

The communication for the evening was by Mr. G. K. GiuBert,
ON THE OSCILLATIONS OF LAKE BONNEVILLE.
The paper was reserved by the author for publication.
Remarks upon this paper were made by Messrs. PowrLi and
Durron and the Society then adjourned.

178TH MeEeErina. Marca 27, 1880.
The President in the Chair.
Thirty-nine members present.
My. EK. B. Evuiorr made a communication upon
THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE GOVERNMENT SINKING FUND,

especially illustrating the difference between the ordinary form of
a sinking fund, and the form adopted for the reduction of the
public debt of the United States.

[Abstract. ]

1. A sinking fund is a fund for the reduction or extinguish-
ment of a public debt. In the case of asinking fund as ordinarily
established, a fixed or constant sum together with interest on a
fund already accumulated, or supposed to be accumulated, is the
annual or periodical contribution to the fund. In the case of the
United States, however, the sum just mentioned as fixed or con- |
stant, is not constant, but is proportioned to the current amount
of the debt, an amount usually diminishing. In the case of the
United States sinking fund the periodical contribution to the fund
is required by law to be applied at once to the purchase and can-
celling of a portion of the out-standing indebtedness bonds; so
that the debt so far as affected by the sinking fund is a constantly
diminishing quantity.

The annual or periodical contribution to the United States
sinking fund is required by law to be one per cent. of the out-

114 BULLETIN OF THE

standing indebtedness together with the interest on the fund sup-
posed to be already accumulated.

2. Had the annual contribution to the sinking fund been a fixed
sum in addition to the interest on the fund, these annual contribu-
tions would have formed a series in geometrical progression of
which the common ratio would be the amount of one dollar for
one year at the rate of interest realized on the investment of the
funds ; but since the contribution instead of being a fixed quantity
is one per cent. of a diminishing quantity in addition to the in-
terest on the fund, the entire annual contribution will constitute a
geometrical progression, in which the common ratio is the amount
of one dollar at a rate of interest one per cent. less than the rate
at which investmenis can be made. For instance, if investments
can be made at the rate of five per cent. per annum the entire annual
contributions will progress at the rate of four per cent.

3. The language of the law is as follows:

Src. 8694, The coin paid for duties on imported goods shall be
set apart as a special fund, and shall be applied as follows:

First. To the payment in coin of the interest on the bonds and
notes of the United States.

Second. To the purchase or payment of one per centum of the
entire debt of the United States, to be made within each fiscal year,
which is to be set apart as a sinking fund, and the interest of which
shall, in like manner, be applied to the purchase or payment of the
public debt, as the Secretary of the Treasury shall from time to
time direct.

Src. 3695. All bonds applied to the sinking fund, and all other
United States bonds redeemed or paid by the United States, shall
be cancelled and destroyed. A detailed record of the bonds so
cancelled and destroyed shall be first made in the books of the
Treasury Department. The amount of the bond of each class that
have been cancelled and destroyed shall be deducted: respectively
from the amount of each class of the outstanding debt of the
United States.

Suc. 8696. In addition to other amounts that may be applied to
the redemption or payment of the public debt, an amount equal to
the interest on all bonds belonging to the sinking fund, shall be
applied, as the Secretary of the Treasury shall from time to time
direct, to the payment of the public debt.

Let Dx denote the amount of the public debt outstanding at any
time (x); and let Fx denote the aggregate amount of the sinking
fund as accumulated to that time:

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 115

Then will
Dz + Fx = a constant quantity,
and therefore

AFz = —aDzr = 0; the symbol a denoting annual increment.
But . AFz = F(@+1)— Fe = .01Dz + .05F x
Therefore,

AF(e-+1) — AF2= .01AD2 + .05aF xr
= — lake + .05aF xz
= .04AF x
and AF(#+1) = AF (1.04)
It follows that
AF(x--n) = AF a (1.04)"
and

oa ——n—1,
F(a+n) — Fe = oFe(i+1.04+1044....104 )
TOA Tl
= are (Gr)

eens Uy = ee eno eee
Aa

To illustrate by a practical example:

Required the period in years necessary to cancel in accordance
with the provisions of law, $750,000,000 of the public debt; the
amount of debt outstanding, (less cash in Treasury) on the Ist of
January, 1880, being $2,011,798,504.87, and the amount of the
sinking fund accumulated up to that date $472,243,622; assuming
the future rate of interest which may be realized on investments to
be five (5) per cent. per annum.

De = 2,011,798,504.87
Fe= 472,243,622.—
and AFa=—.01 Dzx-+ .05 Fx
= 20,117,985
++ 23,612,182
= 43,730,067
and F(v-+-n) —F x = 750,000,000

Therefore 1.04 which equals
04 (F@-+n) — Far) + aF2 _ 73,780,067
AF yx ~ 43,730,067

SAU 13.2993 years.

116 BULLETIN OF THE

If investments and re-investments are to be improved senv-annu-
ally (instead of annually) at tne rate of 5 per cent per annum, the
formula would become

2” 73,730,067

Ta ae Ast cO0BT
and therefore

n = 2208be

.017200

the period required to cancel $750,000,000 of the public debt.

= 13.190 years,

The next communication was by Mr. T. N. Ginn on

SOME REMARKABLE INSTANCES OF INGESTION AMONG FISHES.
[ Abstract. ]

Apocryphal as it may appear, there are some fishes which are
capable of ingesting and stowing away entire, others several times:
larger than themselves. This extraordinary feat is rendered pos-
sible in the first place by the great size of the mouth which is cleft.
far backwards, and in the next by the excessive distensibility of
the stomach and abdominal integuments. The captor seizes the
larger fish by the tail and climbs over it as it were by alternate
movements of the upper and lower jaw, until finally the entire animal
is stored in the stomach. Meanwhile, the stomach and of course the
adjoining soft parts become more and more distended, and hang
down like an enormous sack. The most remarkable examples of
such capacity have been found in the Chiaswodon niger, a species.
related to the cod family, but several others, especially represen-
tatives of the Lophiid and Ceratiid families, are likewise prone to
attack others larger than themselves.

179TH MEETING. APRIL 10, 1880.
The President in the Chair.
Fifty-two members present.
The first communication was by Mr. WiLt1AM HARKNESS

ON THE SOLAR CORONA.
[Abstract. ]

Mr. Harkness’ remarks were based chiefly upon his own obser-

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 117

vations of the total eclipse of 1878, which were made at Creston,
Wyoming. .

One special object on that occasion was to search for lines in the
ultra-violet part of the spectrum. The eye-piece of the spectro-
scope-telescope was removed and a fluorescent eye-piece substituted.
‘The spectrum used was that of the second order, and upon examin-
ing the ultra-violet region prior to totality, it was found remarkably
distinct. During totality, however, neither bright lines nor contin-
uous spectrum were seen. It may be that the corona has no ultra-
violet spectrum, but these observations are not conclusive on that
point. It may be so faint as to have been invisible because of the
great waste of light by the use of a diffraction grating. Probably
it would have been better to have used the first order spectrum
instead of the second, but the knowledge we now possess points to
the conclusion that a crown glass prism would be superior to a
diffraction grating.

Prof. Harkness also described in detail the operations of pho-
tographing the corona during totality. A point which it was desira-
ble to investigate with care was the determination of coefficients to be
used. in formule: expressing the time of exposure of a photographic
dry-plate under such circumstances. If we denote the focal dis-
tance of the camera objective by F; its working aperture by d;
the exposure coefficient by C; and the length of the exposure in
seconds by é, then

In the present instance the negative which had an exposure co-
efficient of 1.505 seems to exhibit nearly or quite all of the corona
which is visible to the naked eye, excepting only the streamers, yet
as the whole series of negatives taken on this occasion, shows that
every increase of exposure produced a corresponding increase in
the size of the image of the corona, there is no certainty that the
final limit was attained. It seems desirable during the next eclipse
to push the coefficient to a value of 5, and greater if possible.
This can only be done with the most rapid portrait lenses, and
Prof. Harxness believed that the objectives employed should have
a ratio of aperture to focal distance of not less than one-fourth to
one-half, But in passing outward from the moon’s limit, the light

of the corona diminishes very rapidly, and hence to depict all its
47

PLS i BULLETIN OF THE

parts, a series of negatives is absolutely necessary, commencing
with very short exposures, and ending with very long ones.

The process of obtaining drawings of the negative was as fol-
lows: First, an enlarged positive was made. Upon this is laid a
transparent gelatine film, and the whole is placed in a strong light.
The details of the image were scratched upon the gelatine film with
a needle-point. The film being removed lead pencil dust is rubbed
into the engraving, and an impression made upon paper. This
picture is a reverse of the proper outlines, but a second gelatine
tracing restores everything to the normal order.

The measurement of the brightness of the corona is surrounded
with difficulties, drawings from photographs are untrustworthy.
Comparison of original negatives would be better, but this is liable
to much uncertainty. If, however, we have for any eclipse a series
of photographs, and also a determination of the total light by
means of a Bunsen photometer, data will have been provided for
an approximate comparison with future eclipses. An application
of this process to the present eclipse showed that the intensity of
the coronal light varied inversely with the square of the distance
from the sun’s limb. Prof. Harkness’ conclusions respecting the
total light of the corona of July 29th, 1878, are as follows:

1. The total light of the corona was 0.072 of that of a standard
candle at one foot distance; or 3.8 times that of the full moon; or
0.0000069 times that of the sun.

2. The photographs show that the coronal light varied inversely
as the square of the distance from the sun’s limb.

3. The brightness of every part of the corona is given quite
approximately in terms of the brightness of the full moon by the

expression

=

B= —— (23’ + 100’ cos 6)

‘

in which h = distance His the sun’s limb in minutes of are and 0 =
the latitude of a point measured from the sun’s equator. For very
small values of h this formula fails. Probably the brightest part
of the corona was about 15 times brighter than the surface of the
full moon or 37000 times fainter than the surface of the sun.

4. The corona of December 22d, 1870, seems to have been 74
times brighter than that of July 29th, 1878.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. » 119

In deducing these results visual and photographic data have
been intermingled as if they were homogeneous. Such a pro-
cedure is certainly open to objection, but it is not likely that it
introduced any error grave enough to impair the value of the
results as first approximations.

The next communication was by the President of the Society
Mr. Suton NEwcoms on

THE PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION.

This paper was reserved by the author. After remarks upon this
communication by Mr. Epwarp Arxinson, of Massachusetts, and
Mr. E. B. Evxiorr the Society adjourned.

180TH MEETING. Aprit 247H, 1880.
The President in the chair.
Forty-three members present.

The order of exercises for the evening consisted in the following
communications: (1) by Mr. A. A. Michelson, U. S. N., on the
modifications to which light is subject in passing through a very
narrow slit; (2) by Mr. EpGar Frissy remarks on the late solar
eclipse observed in California; (3) by Mr. H. M. Pau on earth
tremors, as shown by astronomical observation ; and (4) by Mr. E.
§. Houpen remarks on Gould’s Uranometria Argentina.

Mr. MicHELSON’s communication on

THE MODIFICATIONS SUFFERED BY LIGHT IN PASSING THROUGH A
VERY NARROW SLIT,

was substantially as follows :

When the sun is viewed through a narrow slit, the diffraction
fringes are observed. On making the slit narrower, the following
phenomena are preserted. When the width of the slit is .01™™
the light acquires a faint-bluish tint, and on viewing it with a
Nicol’s prism, traces of polarization are evident. When the light
is faintest, the bluish tint is more marked. When the width of the
slit is .005™™ the blue tint is more marked and the polarization is
quite distinct. When the light is very faint, the tint is deep blue.
When the width is .001™™ the tint changes to violet and the polari-
zation is complete. As the light grows fainter, the violet tint

120 ” BULLETIN OF THE

becomes more marked. If the slit and the Nicol be interchanged,
the same results follow in the same order. (See page 148.)

The experiment may be varied in a striking manner by substitu-
ing a double-image prism for the Nicol, when the two images may
be compared side by side. The experiments are somewhat trying
on account of the faintness of the light. The principal conditions
to be fulfilled are as follows: (1.) The sun is to be viewed through
the slit, the latter being placed as near as possible to the eye. (2.)
The double-image prisin should be used in order to compare the
two images side by side. (8.) The slit should be from .01™™ to
001" in width. (4.) The slit should be as nearly perfect as
possible.

These experiments seem to show, Ist, that light which passes
through a very narrow slit is polarized in a plane at right angles
to the slit ; 2d, that the shorter waves pass through more readily
than the longer.

On this communication Mr. Newcoms remarked that there was
a temptation here to inquire whether the phenomena recited might
not have a bearing upon the unsolved problem of the amplitudes
of luminous vibrations. Mr. W. B. Taytor entertained the view
that these amplitudes were so small that even the narrow slit used
by Mr. Michelson would bear too large a ratio to them to exercise
any appreciable affect. No explanation of the phenomena was
suggested.

Mr. H. M. Paun then remarked on

EARTH TREMORS AS SHOWN BY ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.
[ Abstract. ]

The observations referred to were made with a view of deter-
mining to how great an extent certain localities in the vicinity of
Washington city were liable to tremors during the passage of railway
trains, and they were undertaken in connection with the question
of the selection of a new site for the Naval Observatory. The mode
of inquiry was by observing with a 3% inch telescope the effect of
such tremors upon a basin of mercury in a manner similar to
observations for determining the meridian alignment of transit
telescopes. In these cases the pole star was used. The magnifying
power was about 185. The mercury well was 14 inches by 10:
inches, and the mercury amalgamated with tin, to within about two-

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 121

thirds of saturation. Although no wind was perceptible, the naked
surface of the well was so unsteady as to give no definition, and it
was necessary to cover it with plate glass. Even then a very large
number of images were produced having a checker-board arrange-
ment. By careful manipulation these images were at length re-
duced to rows of points.

Observations were made at the times of passage of trains. At
a distance of 0.29 of a mile, a fast express train produced an
appearance of boiling, the bright points being converted into a
patch of nebulous light. A slow train at the same distance pro-
duced only a radiation from the bright points. At greater dis-
tances, phenomena of somewhat different character were observed.
It appeared, however, that the effects of tremor were not propor-
tional to the distance, which must be attributed to inequalities in
different portions of the earth in their power of transmitting vibra-
tions. At 0.84 of a mile there was only a slight boiling from the
passage of a fast train, and a slight radiation of the points. At
0.94 of a mile, only radiation was observed. At 0.81 of a mile there
was less effect from the fast train than from the slow train at any
of the other localities.

The next communication was by Mr. Epcar F rispy.
REMARKS ON THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JANUARY lira, 1880.
[A bstract. ]

Perhaps the phenomenon of the total eclipse of the 11th of
January, was more interesting on account of its comparatively
negative character than anything else; the central line passed
through the most rugged part of the coast of California: about 150
miles south of San Francisco, it was observed from the top of the
Santa Lucia mountain, a peak about 6,000 feet above the level of
the Pacific ocean, it was of very short duration, only about 30
seconds; one fact all the observers appeared to notice, that was,
as the moon’s limb advanced over the sun, it was a little darker
than the surrounding sky near the sun. During totality it was
hardly as dark as I expected, we could barely discern Jupiter and
Mars, and no fixed stars were visible, a bright concentric corona
was seen round the sun hardly one-third part of the sun’s diameter
in breadth and nearly uniform, but no outer corona and streamers
such as are usually described were visible, probably owing to the
short time of duration of the total phase.

122 BULLETIN OF THE

The last communication was by Mr. E. §. HoLpEn, consisting of
a review of Prof. B. A. Gould’s Uranometria Argentina. This was
the substance of a paper published by Mr. Holden in the Inter-
national Review for April, 1880.

At the conclusion of Mr. Honprn’s remarks, the Society ad-
journed.

18lst Mrerinea. May 8ru, 1880.
Vice President J. E. Hiu@arp in the chair.
Thirty-four members present.

The presiding officer stated to the Society that it was his sad
duty to announce the death of an honored and beloved fellow-mem-
ber Mr. JonarnHan Homer Lang, who died in this city, May 3d,
1880. Having been intimately associated with him for the last ten
years, and having an acquaintance with the facts of his career for
the last thirty years, Mr. Hilgard felt it incumbent upon himself
to take the initiative in commemorating his character before the
Society. Mr. Lane was not personally known to many persons ex-
cept his intimate friends. He was very diffident in manner and
possessed little faculty of speech, though when he spoke, he spoke
with a rare logic which carried conviction. He was born over
sixty years ago in the northern part of New Hampshire. His
father was a farmer, who, though he possessed little wealth, was yet
able to give his sons such education as the neighborhood could
afford. Our lamented associate, through his rare natural gifts,
was able to prepare himself for Yale College, where he graduated
with honor. He obtained the means of subsistence by teaching.
While in college he was noted for the same clear-minded and logical
qualities which distinguished him in after life, and Mr. Hilgard,
had heard his fellow-students testify to the obligations they were
under for the assistance which he had rendered them in their studies,
especially in those involving mathematics and natural science. On
leaving college he became attached to the Coast Survey, where he
rendered valuable service, and soon made his mark by displaying
originality and discriminating judgment.

When the enlargement of the scope and working force of the
Patent Office took place in the year 1846, he was, through the
recommendation of Prof. Joseph Henry, appointed to a position,

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 123

and was honorably associated with what may be called the second
stage of that important bureau—a stage in which many of the
most important inventions of the century were patented and de-
veloped. He remained in that position for about ten years, and
having accumulated some means he was then induced to withdraw,
and act as expert counsellor in patent cases, while devoting much
of his time and means to researches in physical science. He felt
called upon, however, to devote a part of his means to the assis-
tance of two sisters and a brother. He was exceedingly generous
in his disposition, and in erder that he might be able to render
this assistance he refused to marry ; but his generosity was at the
cost of what he valued most, the means and facilities of research.
During the period of his investigations he enjoyed in a high degree
the confidence of Prof. Henry, who gave him warm encouragement.
His experiments were attempts to determine the absolute zero of
temperature by the expansion of gases; but he never published
his results though the experiments were based upon correct prin-
ciples, and must be considered as in the main successful. His
failure to publish them is attributable to a desire to attain further
refinements and closer approximations, and also, in a great measure,
to the exceedingly exacting standard which he always set up as the
criterion of scientific logic.

A few years ago, when Congress authorized the construction of
metric standards, and when the death of Mr. Saxton left a vacancy,
Mr. Hilgard was so fortunate as to secure the services of Mr.
Lane, and retained them until the latter’s death. The report to
which Mr. Lane contributed is not yet printed, but happily it is
completed, and will soon be published.

The quality of Mr. Lane’s mind was truly remarkable. It was
chiefly characterized by an extraordinary precision of thought and
of logic; but it was coupled with a great want of fluency of
speech. It was in his writings that this clearness of mind became
manifest ;—so lucid was it, and so fully were those qualities of
soundness and precision appreciated, that his co-laborers never
thought a difficult induction safe until it had passed through the
alembic of Mr. Lane’s criticism. By others he was no doubt
equally appreciated.

In conclusion, Mr. Hilgard offered the following resolution, which
was unanimously adopted :

Resolved, That the Philosophical Society of Washington place

194 BULLETIN OF THE

on their record an expression of the high esteem in which they
have long held their late fellow-member, JonatHan Homer Lanz,
for his valuable services to science, as well as for his high intellect-
ual and moral character.

Mr. Wiii1am B. Taytor said that though he was unprepared
to pay a just tribute to the memory of our departed associate, he
was impelled to unite with Mr. Hilgard in testifying to his many
noble qualities both of mind and character. From long acquaint-
ance with him and his work, he could fully endorse all that the
last speaker had said. He had rarely enjoyed the privilege of
meeting with a mind so clear, transparent, and logical, or one capa-
ble of such a full apprehension of the principles of science, and
such a keen perception of their consequences. ‘The most striking
quality was the extreme precision of his thoughts, and it had
seemed to him that this very quality may have in a great measure,
led indirectly to the hesitation of speech which characterised Mr.
Lane’s address. Words to him were seldom the exact exponents of
thought, and his care in the selection of language which might ex-
press with precision the tenor of his thoughts, no doubi led to his
hesitation; but whenever difficult and doubtful questions arose, the
clearness of his insight and the soundness of his views were such as
belong to few minds. Not only was he a very fine mathematician,
but he possessed in a high degree the much rarer qualifications
essential to the mathematical physicist.

Mr, CLEVELAND ABBE remarked upon the communication of
Mr. Albert Michelson, made at the previous meeting, as follows:

He believed that an explanation of the phenomena could be
given, and if it be correct, it opens a field of observation as
important as the experiments of Crookes upon the behavior of
gases under an approximate vacuum. ‘The narrowness of the
slit indicates that we have indeed some novel conditions of the
air to deal with. In the present instance, light is not passing
through an ordinary gas, but through the layer of gas, which
according to optical theories, is under a state of stress because it
is contiguous to a solid surface; in short, that layer that produces
ordinary polarization by reflection. This layer is always present,
adjacent to the jaws of the slit, and by narrowing the slit to the ex-
treme limits used by Mr. Michelson, we exclude the great mass of
gas in its ordinary state, and have to do only with the polarizing

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 125

layers. By introducing various gases and liquids between the jaws
of the slit, and by utilizing the influence of electrical or magnetic
stress, or by other devices, the true explanation may be possibly
ascertained.

Mr. Witu1am B. Tayror further observed that the experiments
of Mr. Michelson were certainly very original and beautiful, and
the problem does not seem to be soluble by any known data. Mr.
Abbe’s explanation seemed to be quite plausible. Between the
jaws of a slit only .001™ in diameter, the interval is probably
near the limits of mean molecular excursions, and the condition of
air or any gas under those circumstances would be a novel one to
contemplate. The exclusion of some waves of light observed by
Mr. Michelson might be attributable to the disturbing behavior of
molecules so situated and restricted in their motions.

Mr. J. W. Ossorne stated that when this paper was presented
to the National Academy of Sciences, Mr. Michelson had alluded
to an explanation of similar purport to that of Mr. Abbe, but had
rejected it as being untenable.

The Chair announced to the Society the election to membership
of Dr. Jerome H. Kipper, U.S. N., and Ferpinanp AUGUSTUS
HASSLER.

The first communication for the evening was from Mr. G. K.
GILBERT on

THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF THE BLACK HILLS OF DAKOTA.

[Abstract. ]

Mr. Grupert stated that it had never been his privilege to see
the Black Hills; it had, however, been his duty fo prepare for
publication and edit the work of the lamented young geologist, the
late Henry Newton, which had been left by him in the form of
copious notes and unrevised manuscript. This work is an account
of the geology of the Black Hills derived from Mr. Newton’s
studies while examining that district under the direction of the
Interior Department.

The Black Hills form an isolated district of mountain and
plateau rising out of the great plains of Dakota, and are separated
from other mountain ranges by a wide interval, the nearest being
the Big Horn mountains to the westward. They are thus well

126 BULLETIN OF THE

suited for a monograph, and thus it was that Newton discussed
them.

The general form of the group was exhibited by an illustration
conveying the appearance they might present to the eye of an
observer elevated many miles above the extreme southern end.
The sedimentary rocks from the Potsdam sandstone up to the sum-
mit of the Cretaceous, are flexed upwards towards the hills from all
directions. Upon the western side, the Carboniferous strata after
being flexed upward, flex back to approximate horizontality upon
the summit of the uplift, while later beds are cut off and expose in
succession their upturned edges upon the flanks of the hill region.
The eastern part of the uplift is denuded of even its paleeozoic
beds, and exposes a mass of contorted Archean schists,

The drainage of the entire area is collected into two streams, the
Belle Fourche and the North Fork of the Cheyenne. These
streams cross the south and north extensions respectively of the
Black Hills uplift, cutting profound valleys in so doing. The trib-
utaries of these streams all head around a central axis in the
western or plateau part of the region, and flow thence in all direc-
tions, gradually gathering inte the two forks. It now becomes of in-
terest to inquire how far the positions and courses of these streams
have been dependent upon the deformations which the strata have
undergone, and how far upon antecedent causes. With this view,
streams may be considered as belonging to two classes—I1st. Conse-
quent streams, which result from the formation of the slopes down
which they run, and have had their courses determined by such
slopes. 2d. Inconsequent streams, or those which run independently
of existing slopes or dips, and which could not have been influenced
as to their positions in any very important manner by such slopes.
Again, these inconsequent streams may be subdivided into two
groups. 1st. Those which had their courses marked out prior to
the formation of the structural deformations through which they
run, regardless of the dip or slope of the strata. Such streams
may be called antecedent drainage, having been laid out before the
formation of the uplifts, and having successfully maintained their
prior right of way by cutting down their beds as fast as the obstacles
were elevated athwart their courses, 2d, Inconsequent streams
may have been laid out upon the surface of strata which overlie
inconformably much more ancient beds. The upper strata being
in time denuded, the streams which at first were consequent, cut

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 127

down into these older beds to which their relation becomes an
inconsequent one. These streams may be called superimposed drain-
age.

The creeks that drain the Black Hills constitute a consequent
drainage system of rare perfection. Rising near the center of the
uplift, they follow the direction of the dip on ail sides, and hold in-
dependent courses until they have passed outside the area of dis-
turbance. The symmetry of their arrangement indicates that the
formation of the arch began under water, so that its original sur-
face was not furrowed by a pre-existent drainage, but presented to
meteoric waters, when it was finally laid bare, an even curvature
the slope of which everywhere represented the dip. The creeks
came into existence when the summit of the arch appeared above
the water, and its axial line became at the same time a watershed.
As its slopes gradually emerged the creeks extended their lower
courses, but their upper courses remained the same, and so did the
watershed. With the progressive degradation of the arch, the
creeks have descended vertically from their first position to their
‘present without essential modification of their horizontal relations,
and we have no reason to doubt that the watershed of to-day is
directly beneath the position of the original watershed.

The watershed therefore marks the place of the original axis of
deformation, and as it does not correspond to the present axis of
deformation but lies fifteen miles further west, it is concluded that
the growth of the arch was not uniform, but was at first more rapid
on one side and afterward on the other.

The discovery of this irregularity of movement does not make
the Black Hills displacement an exception, but rather helps to
ally it to the other displacements of the west, the history of which,
as far as known, is never simple.

The rivers which embrace the hills and receive the waters of
the creeks are of more recent date, and are superimposed on the
uplift. After the arch was formed, and to some extent degraded
by erosion, a lake came into existence, which surrounded its base,
and remained long enough to partly bury its flanks with lacustrine
sediments, the sands and clays of the White River Miocene. When
the lake finally disappeared a new drainage system was created on
its bed, and to this system belong the branches of the Cheyenne.
Subsequent degradation has carried away the lake beds from the
immediate vicinity of the Black Hills, but the rivers inaugurated

128 BULLETIN OF THE

on them have persisted. They were consequent to the lake beds,
but they have cut their way down into the upbent rocks, and to
their structure they are inconsequent by superposition.

At the conclusion of Mr. Gilbert’s paper the Society adjourned.

182p MEETING. May 22p, 1880.

The President in the Chair.
Thirty-two members present. |
The minutes of the last meeting were read and adopted.
A paper was then read before the Society by the Rev. J. Owrn
DorsEyY
ON THE GENTILE SYSTEM OF THE OMAHAS.

The Omahas belong to the Dakotan family. That family is
divided into six or seven groups, which are as follows: I. The
Dakota, comprising the tribes of Dakotas and Assiniboins. IL.
The Dhegiha, including the Ponkas, Omahas, Quapaws, Osages,
and Kansas. JII. The Winnebago group, embracing the Winne.
bagoes, lowas, Missouris and Otoes. IV. The Mandan. V. The
Hidatsa and Crows. VI. The Tutelo, nowin Canada; and to these
some add a seventh group, the Kataba of South Carolina.

The Omahas, to the consideration of whom this essay is limited
form a tribe of the Dhegiha group. This group consists of Upper
Dhegiha or Omahas and Ponkas; and Lower Dhegiha or Quapaws,
One and Kansas.

Dhegiha means “belonging to the none of this land.” It
answers to the Otoe, ‘Ciwere, and to the Iowa, ‘Ce‘kiwere.

If an Omaha or Ponka be challenged in the dark when on his
own land, he will reply “I am a Dhegiha.” A Kansas, on his own
land will say, “I am he who is a Dhegiha.”’ But when away from
home, even when on the land of a tribe of the same group, the
man must give the tribal name, saying “I am an Omaha,” “I am
a Ponka,” or “ I am he who is a Kansas.”

Omaha, or rather U-ma*’-ha", means “ up-stream people.” They
say that in former days their ancestors were on the Ohio river.
When they reached the mouth, they crossed the Mississippi. There
the people separated. Some went down the river, and became

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 129

Ugakhpa, Quapaws, or Down-stream people; while the rest travelled
up the Mississippi, and were called U-manhan, or “they who went
against the wind or current.”

While on the hunt in the olden time, and whenever their camp-
ing place was small, the Ponkas encamped in three concentric
circles; and the Omahas, who were a smaller tribe, camped in two
such circles.

Hence, the Dakotas called the Ponkas “The Three Nations,”
and the Omahas “ The Two Nations.” But when they could find
a large camping ground, each tribe had but one circle, as they have
at present.

Diagram No. I1.—THE OMAHA TRIBAL CIRCLE.

Note.—In this diagram the gentes that keep the sacred tents, and those
that hold the seven sacred pipes, are designated by the proper signs.

The Omaha circle is divided into two parts. The five Hanga-
shenu gentes camp in the first, and in the second are the five Ishta-
sanda gentes. The Hangashenu claim to be the superior people.

130 BULLETIN OF THE

Their gentes are Elk, Black-shoulder (a buffalo gens), Foremost (a
buffalo gens), Dhatada (Thunder people?) and Kansas.
The Ishtasanda gentes are—Harth-lodge makers (or Wolf people),
Buffalo-tail, Deer-head (or Deer people), Red dung (a buffalo gens),
and Ishtasanda (a Reptile and Thunder people).

Orgin of Gentes—The Black-shoulder people say that their an-
cestors were buffaloes, who lived in the water. When they came out
of the stream, they made the water muddy, hence the first-born son
is called “ Makes the water muddy.” Having reached the land,
they snuffed at the four winds, and prayed to them. The north
and west winds were good, but the south and east were bad.

The ancestors of the Foremost gens were buffalo, and lived under
the water. They moved about with their heads bowed down and
their eyes closed. By and by they opened their eyes in the water,
hence their first name “ Opening the eyes in the water,” which is
also the birth name of the first-born son. Kmerging from the
water, they lifted their heads and saw the blue sky for the first
time, so they took the name “ Clear sky makers.”

The Ingdhe-zhide or “ Red dung” gens has been so called since
the visit of the seven old men with the sacred pipes. When they
reached the camp of this gens, they found the erect body of a buff
alo, purtly buried in the ground, visible from the flanks up. The
animal had been flayed, and the skin was made into a tent. The
body was bloody and frightful to behold, so the old men passed by
without giving them a pipe.

The only thing pointing to the mythological origin of the Elk
gens is the sacred bag of that people. This bag is the skin of
a prairie-wolf, and contains a clam or oyster shell, the bladder of a
male elk filled with killickinnick, some tobacco leaves, a pipe, a
cedar stick, and a piece of the sinew of a male elk.

Rights and duties of each gens—(a.) Seven have the sacred
pipes: Black-shoulder, Dhatada, Kansas, Wolf or Earth-lodge,
Buffalo-tail, Deer-head, and Ishtasanda.

Elk keeps the war tent, and leads in the worship of the thunder-
god.

Foremost lights the sacred pipes for the chiefs, and keeps the
two sacred tents. He regulates the buffalo hunt.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 131

(b.) Law of membership. A child belongs to the gens of the
father ; hence, half-castes have no status in the gens.

(c.) Law of marriage. A person must marry outside of the
gens, and under certain restrictions which cannot be given in this
paper.

(d.) Law of things prohibited to be touched or eaten. In some
- cases this governs the whole gens, in others, each sub-gens has its
especial taboo. Thus, the Elk people cannot touch or eat any part
of the male elk or deer.

(e.) Religious ceremonies peculiar to each gens or sub-gens—
Among these are the naming of an infant, and the worship of the
thunder-god.

In the Deer-head gens, the first ceremony is conducted as follows:
All the members of the gens assemble on the fifth day after the
birth of the child. Those men belonging to the sub-gens of the
infant cannot eat any thing cooked for the feast, but the men of
the other sub-gentes are at liberty to partake of the food. The infant
is placed within the circle of the gens, and the privileged decora-
tion is made on its face.

Taking some red-clay paint, two parallel lines are drawn across
the forehead, two down each check, one across the face over the
mouth, and one under the mouth; then, with three fingers of the
right hand, red spots are made down the back of the child, at
short intervals, in imitation of the fawn. The child’s breech-cloth
isso marked. On its arms and chest are rubbed stripes as long as
the hand. All of the Deer-head people in attendance, even the
servants, decorate themselves, rubbing the rest of the red paint on
the palms of their hands, they pass their hands backward over
their hair; and they finally make red spots on the chest about the
size of the palms of their hands.

The members of the Pipe sub-gens, and those persons in the
other sub-gentes who are related to the infant’s father through the
calumet dance, are the only ones who are allowed to use the privi-
leged decoration, and to wear fine feathers in their hair. If the
child belongs to the Pipe or Eagle sub-gens, charcoal, blue-clay
and the skin of a wild-cat are placed beside him, as the articles
not to be touched by him in after life. Then they say to him
“this you must not touch; this too you must not touch, and this
you must not touch.” ‘The blue clay symbolizes the blue sky. .

132 BULLETIN OF THE

[Now according to the Iowa myth, the Eagle people came down
from the sky.]

Worship of the Thunder-God.—When the first thunder is_
heard in the spring of the year, Elk invites Bear toafeast. On his
arrival Bear opens the sacred prairie-wolf bag, takes out the pipe ©
and the elk bladder tobacco-pouch, which Elk dare not touch.
Bear then takes some tobacco or killickinnick from the pouch, and |
fills the pipe. The lighted pipe is held up towards the sky, and the
Thunder-god is thus addressed :

“Well! venerable man! by your striking you are frightening us,
your grand-sons who are here. Depart on high.”

Then all present smoke the pipe, and join in the feast. It is
alleged that at the conclusion of the feast the rain always Ga
and the Bear people return to their homes.

(f.) Style of wearing the hair. The boys of each gens are
obliged to wear their hair in a prescribed style. The Buffalo
people have four long locks, two on each side, in imitation of the
buffalo.

The Bird people have four locks, representing the head, tail, and
wings of a bird.

The Turtle people have six locks, in imitation of the head, tail,
and legs of a turtle.

(g.) There are five classes of relationship, as follows: 1. In the
gens; 2. By consanguinity (including the members of other
gentes'; 3. By marriage; 4. By the taboo of the gens or sub-
gens; and 5. By the calumet dance.

(h.) Each gens has a list from which a father is expected to select
the names for his children.

These are called nikie or. sacred names, and generally refer to
some act of the mythical ancestor, or to some part of his body.

There are, in addition to these, seven names sacred above all
others, as referring to the mythical origin of the gens, and which
used to be conferred upon the sons born into each household; and
there were as many similar birth-names for the daughters.

These birth-names should not be confounded with the household
names of the,children.

Peculiar customs of the gens—I give two examples. The Kan-

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 133

sas Wind people flap their blankets to and fro, in order to raise a
wind that will drive away the mosquitoes.

When the corn-fields of the Ishtasanda gens are troubled with a
species of worm, the men proceed as follows:

They heat some grains of corn, and then pound up with this
some of the worms.

They make a soup of the mixture, and when that is eaten, they
imagine that they will have no more trouble.

Diagram No. I1.—THE DHATADA GENTILE CIRCLE.

Let me invite your attention to the correspondence of names of’.
gentes and sub-gentes with those of other tribes in the same family.
The Ponkas have an Osage gens; the Oglala Dakotas have an
Osage section; among the Omahas is a Kansas gens; some of the
Kansas form the Ponka gens; and I have been told that some of

the Wisconsin Winnebagoes call themselves the Omahas.
48

134 ‘BULLETIN OF THE

When a gens assembles in its own circle, the servants are sta-
tioned on each side of the entrance, and the rest of the circle is
divided between the sub-gentes.

Sub-gentes.—Each gens is composed of four sub-gentes, some of
which in turn are divided into four sections; and these sections,
in some cases, are divided into sub-sections.

The Elk sub-gentes are: 1. Elk; 2. Keepers of the war tent;
3. Thunder; and 4. One whose name is unknown to me. The
Black-shoulder sub-gentes are: 1. Keepers of the Pipe (Hagle
people,) or they who eat no red corn; 2. They who touck no char-
coal; 3. They who eat no buffalo tongues, and touch not a buffalo
head ; and 4. The Criers or Heralds.

The Foremost sub-gentes are: 1. They who eat not the sacred
buffalo meat ; 2. Real Foremost, they who eat no buffalo tongues;
3. Servants of the Sacred Tents; and 4. They who touch not
“ Blue skins.”

The Dhatada sub-gentes are: 1. Bear; 2. Bird; 3. Eagle; 4.
Turtle.

Two of the Kansas sub-gentes are: Keepers of the Pipe, and
the Wind people.

The Earth-lodge sub-gentes are: 1. Prairie-wolf and Wolf; 2.
Keepers of the sacred stone; 8. Keepersof the pipe; and 4. They
who touch not the white swan, (this last is not a taboo.)

Two of the Buffalo-tail sub-gentes are: 1. Keepers of the Pipe,
or they who touch not the lowest rib of a buffalo; 2. Keepers
of the sweet medicine, or they who touch not a buffalo calf.

The Deer-head sub-gentes are: 1. Keepers of the Pipe (Kagle
and Thunder people), or they who touch not charcoal, blue clay,
and the skin of a wild-cat; 2. They who touch not charcoal, and
the fat of a deer, and who can not wear deer-skin moccasins; 3.
Deer; and 4. Thunder people.

The names of the four Red-dung sub-gentes are unknown to me,
though I have obtained the names of their chiefs.

The Ishtasanda sub-gentes are: 1. Keepers of the claws of the
wild-cat (Thunder people); 2. Real Ishtasanda or Reptile people ;
3. Keepers of the clam shell or Thunder people; 4. Keepers of
the sacred pipe.

Origin of the sub-gentes—The Eagle people of the Dhatada

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 135

gens are known as “ They who touch not the buffalo head or skull.”
This name originated when the seven old men carried the sacred
pipes around the tribal circle.

DiaaraM No. II].—THE DEER-HEAD GENTILE CIRCLE.

The Eagle people found that they were slighted, and started
away in anger, determined to abandon the tribe. But the old
men pursued them, and handed them a bladder filled with tobacco,
and also a buffalo skull, saying, “ Keep this skull as a sacred
thing.” Hence the name of the sub-gens, and also “ Dried or
withered Eagle,” meaning “ Dried buffalo skull,” the birth-name
of the first-born son.

Rights and duties of sub-gentes.—The second Elk sub-gens keeps
the war-tent and sacred bag, and leads in the worship of the
Thunder-God. The members of the first sub-gens of the Hanga,
or Foremost, keep the Sacred Bark lodge, the most sacred of the
three, which contains the sacred pole of the Ponkas and Omahas.
While they cannot eat the sacred buffalo meat, they can eat the

186 BULLETIN OF THE

tongues. The members of the Real Hanga sub-gens keep the sacred
lodge made of the skin of a white buffalo. This lodge regulates
the buffalo hunt. These people can eat the sacred buffalo meat,
forbidden to the first sub-gens ; but they are not allowed to eat the
tongues.

The members of the Bear sub-gens assist the Elk people in the
worship of the Thunder-God.

The Raccoon section of this sub-gens is called Khu‘ka, because
its members are the singers for those who dance.

The Eagle people keep the sacred buffalo skull, and fill the seven
sacred pipes for the chiefs.

The Pipe sub-gens of the Black-shoulder gens, being Eagle people,
are entitled to use Hagle birth-names, as well as the Buffalo birth-
names of the gens. So the Pipe sub-gens of the Deer-head people
have Eagle birth-names, as well as the Deer birth-names of the gens

The Bird people have a curious custom. When the birds eat the
corn before harvest, the men of this sub-gens, go into the field and
roast several ears of corn, and chew the grains, which they spit
out all around them. They imagine that such a procedure deters
the birds from making further inroads upon the crop.

When there is a fog, the Turtle people draw the figure of a turtle
on the ground. They place at its head, tail, and at each of its feet,
pieces of tobacco, which they cover with small pieces of a red
breech-cloth. This, they say, causes the fog to disappear very
quickly.

The following are sections and sub-sections of sub-gentes.

Those of the Bear are: 1. Black bear; 2. Raccoon or the singers ;
3. Grizzly bear; and 4. Porcupine.

The Bird sub-gens is divided into, 1. BLN? 2. Blackbird ; 3.
Thunder; 4. Owl and Magpie.

The Blackbird sub-sections are: 1. Red-wings; 2. Yellow-heads ;
8. Red-heads ; and 4. White-heads.

The Thunder sub-sections are: 1. Gray blackbird; 2. Meadow-
lark ; 3. Prairie-chicken ; and 4. Swallow.

The Owl sub-sections are; 1. Great Owl; 2. Small Owl; 3. Mag-
pie; and one whose name has not been given me.

It has been suggested that the ten secondary divisions of the
Omahas are tribes, and that what I have termed sub-genies are the
real gentes. But this is inconsistent with the Indian terminology,

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 137

The “ camp-fire,’” whether among the Dakotas, Winnebagoes, or
Omahas, is the “gens.” And among the Omahas this “ camp-fire”’
has another name, Uba/na", meaning “A clump of shoots from a
common stock or root ;” and a sub-gens is styled “ u‘kigdha‘sne ”
(from uga‘sne, to split a log), and denotes “One of the divisions
of the common stock.”

This exhibit of the Omaha Gentile System is far from being
exhaustive.

At each review of the subject new ideas have been suggested, the
correctness or incorrectness of which, I hope, may be revealed by
future investigations.

Mr. J. W. Powrty remarked on this paper as follows :

The great interest in Mr. Dorsey’s discussion of his subject at the
present time arises from the condition of discussions concerning
barbarism. Government has been supposed to have had its origin
in patriarchy, but this view is apparently overthrown by the argu-
ments and discussions of Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, upon kinship
_ which he holds to be the foundation of social organization, and
therefore of government.

Among the North American Indians we find not indeed the
lowest known form of human society but certainly a very primi-
tive one, which exemplifies one of the earliest stages in the progress
of man from barbarism to civilization, and from the researches of
ethnologists in other regions, the general features of this stage of
development appear to have been characteristic of all portions of
the human race. Mr. Dorsey has given an account of the Dakota
nations from which it appears that the gentes originated from the
sub-division of older gentes. Among the Greeks and Romans two
or more very nearly equal bodies constituted the curia or phratry.
This imagined integration of smaller units was supposed to have
arisen from the recognition of the necessity of some larger unit
than the gentes. But among the Iroquois and Dakotas, the phratry
is older than the gens. Here the process is rather one of differen-
tiation. In also appears that the Indian social organization is not
by any means simple, but is very elaborately organized.

In the case of the Wyandottes, the head of the household is a
woman, and the line of descent is through the female. In the
Omahas it is through the male. The Wyandotte gens has at its
head four women who choose a male chief. There are eleven gentes,

138 BULLETIN OF THE

and the council of the tribe is composed of four women and one
male chief from each gens, and this council selects a sachem of the
tribe. The herald of the tribe is the chief of the Wolf clan.

One of the functions of the gentile council is to select names for
the young members of the clan. A list of names is made up, each
being founded upon mythical stories of the bear, wolf, or other
totemic animal, and once a year, at each green corn feast, the coun-
cil meets to make up the list from which the names of children are
selected.

Crime among the Wyandottes is divided into several classes of
which the most important are theft, maiming, murder, and adultery.
The mother punishes the daughter for fornication, or the four
women counsellors condemn the culprit to whipping, or to have the
hair shaved. Adultery is not punished by the husband, since the
wife is not a memoer of his clan, but the punishment is inflicted
by members of her own clan, and consists in cutting off the hair or
the ears, and in disinheritance. Theft must be followed by res-
toration and compensation. Murder is sometimes compounded and
sometimes is punished with death by strangling, or by the toma-
hawk before the council of the tribe. The herald of the Wolf clan
selects one man from each gens, whose duty it is to perform the
execution. Witcheraft is also a crime, and the Indian notions con-
cerning it, bear a striking analogy to those of former generations
of our own race. The accused person has the right of appeal
which is salutory in its nature, consisting of wager or appeal to the
Gods. The Wyandotte appeals to fire, and runs through it first.
from north to south, and then from east to west, and if he is burned
he is guilty.

In the North American Indians the tribal organization had its
origin in government by kinship. In no case does it originate in
patriarchy. The lowest form of organization hitherto discovered is
not found among them. This lowest form is where a body of men
marry a body of women, as among the primitive Australians, and
there are indications that this form of marriage once prevailed
among the North American Indians. Probably the object of it
was for purposes of defence.

Mr. W. B. Taytor suggested that the abstinence of certain
gentes from eating certain animals or parts of animals, may have
had a bearing upon the development of moral sentiments. Where-
ever we find man, we find “taboo.” This may perhaps spring from

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 139

a natural tendency to self-repression, and may lead to a factitious
self-repression.
Mr. Powe held the reverse view.

The next communication was by Mr. O. T. Mason, entitled

COMPARISON OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE WITH THAT WHICH IS SPOKEN
ONLY.

In undertaking the study of any of our aboriginal languages,
one is at once arrested by the difficulty of committing it to writing.
Throughout his investigation he must constantly bear in mind the
fact that the people who used the language had no graphic method
of representing it. This consideration led the writer to inquire
into the real differences that exist between written language and
that which is not yet sufficiently developed to enter the written
siage.

Spoken language is a compromise between the speaker and the
hearer. The former is the creator of language; he is also its des-
troyer. The latteris its preserver. Men may speak as they please,
indeed, they are continually making changes, such as coining terms,
eliding portions of words, etc. This alteration of speech would
go on indefinitely, were it not that the prime object of speaking,
the desire to be understood, brings the speaker under obligation to
the hearer.

Thus spoken language obeys two forces, a centrifugal and a
centripetal, and its condition at any time is the resultant of these
two.

On the other hand, written language is the product of four
agencies—the speaker, the hearer, the writer, and the reader.
Spoken language is addressed to the ear, and obeys the laws of
audition. Written language is addressed to the eye, and is amena-
able to the laws of vision. It will readily occur to one engaged in
the study of language, how much more intelligence it would require
to manage so complex a machine, how liable some of the parts are to
get out of order, and how the constant effort to readjust disturbances
would itself elevate the people using a written language.

This difference manifests itself in the form of language. The
classification of languages into polysynthetic, agglutinated, in-
flected, and monosyllabic, is subject to a higher generalization,
namely, into the unwritten and the written. A people who never

140 BULLETIN OF THE

see their language must necessarily encapsulate their sentences.
But as soon as any one of our Indian languages is reduced to writ-
ing, and the tribe learns to read the printed book, the agglutina-
tion begins to vanish, the elements of the holophrasm segregate,
and a copy of an Indian Bible presents a similar appearance to
an ordinary English book, certainly bearing not a larger propor-
tion of long words than one of Lord Macaulay’s Essays.

Again, written language differs from spoken in its efficiency as
an instrument of thought. As is well known, the roots or funda-
mental forms of language are few in number. The variety of
ideas and thoughts which are in use among a people must be
attained by such devices as the moves in chess, or the combinations
of figures and letters in algebra. These devices are location in the
sentence, collocation in the sentential term, affixes or figures of
addition, figures of subtraction, figures of substitution, metathesis,
intonation and accent, and many others.

As long as a people are in savagery or barbarism, the combina-
tions necessary to supply their wants are within the resources of
memory. ‘There comes a time, however, when advancement must
cease unless memory can be subsidized. Writing, therefore, marks
an important era in the history of culture. It is the product, the
receptacle, and the instrument of thought—just as a vase is the
product of the art of pottery, a receptacle in the art of husbandry,
and an instrument in the art of cookery.

Summing up the differences between languages that are written
and those that are spoken only, the conclusion was reached that in
the evolution of civilization the invention of writing marks as im-
portant an epoch as the acquisition of speech itself.

The Society then adjourned.

183p MEETING. JUNE 57TH, 1880.
The President in the Chair.

Twenty-eight members present.

The first communication for the evening was by Mr. Prerrer
CoLLIER on

SUGAR FROM SORGHUM.

Mr. Collier prefaced his remarks by mention of the earlier at-
empts to obtain sugar from the sorghum plant. Although molasses

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 141

and syrup had been frequently produced, yet the manufacture of
erystallized sugar had not on the whole been attended with much
success. Several years ago, Mr. J. Stanton Gould, of New York,
had suggested that a few systematic and careful experiments ought
to be made, but so far as known, none had been undertaken until
recently. In 1879, the Agricultural Department resolved to ex-
periment in this direction, and obtained seed for four varieties, the
Early Amber, the White Liberian, the Chinese and the Honduras.
These were planted May 15th, and a series of experiments was
made beginning soon after the flower appeared and repeated every
four or five days, until frost appeared in October.

Full details in regard to these experiments will be given in the
annual report for 1879 of the Commissioner of Agriculture. The
following are the more important results :

July 18th. The juice expressed from the Karly Amber contained
four per cent. of crystallizable and 32 per cent. of uncrystallizable
sugar.

August 15th. The juice contained 14.75 per cent. crystallizable,
and 14 per cent. uncrystallizable sugar. The latter proportions
were maintained until heavy frosts in October.

The same results approximately were shown by the White
Liberian upon the same dates.

August 6th. The Chinese variety showed less than two per cent.
of erystallizable, and about five per cent. of uncrystallizable sugar ;
but with the progress of the season, the former gradually increased
and the latter decreased.

The Honduras variety behaved in a manner very similar to the
Chinese, but developed still later, reaching a maximum on the 18th
of October. The general results of these experiments seemed to
show that the failure hitherto to obtain sugar from sorghum was
due to the custom of cutting the canes too early, and before they
were ripe. If they had been permitted to stand as long as possi-
ble, before the inception of change by the action of frost, the
amount of sucrose would have been much greater and the glucose
much less.

142 BULLETIN OF THE

The second communication was by Mr. Witt1am McMurrrig,
ON THE METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE CULTURE
OF THE SUGAR BEET.
Mr. McMurrrte’s paper is to be published in full in the annual
report for 1879 of the Commissioner of Agriculture.

1847Tm MEETING. JUNE 19TH, 1880.
The President in the Chair.
Twenty-six members present.

The President announced to the Society the election as members
of Messrs. C. H. Davis, Z. L. Wurrr, A. W. GREELY, C. E. Ki1-
BOURNE and J. P. Story.

The first communication for the evening was by Mr. D. P. Topp
ON A MECHANICAL ATTACHMENT FOR EQUATORIAL MOUNTINGS
TO FACILITATE SWEEPING IN RIGHT ASCENSION.

The arc of the sector which drives the polar axis is graduated
in hours and parts thereof. Sliding upon this graduation are two
vernier-like pieces, each of which carries a projecting metallic
point. By clamp-screws the verniers may be attached to any
part of the sector-arc. A revolving collar, with a screw for clamp-
ing, surrounds the polar axis adjacent to the sector, and carries a
projecting arm the end of which will just touch both the metallic
points attached to the verniers. An electric apparatus is so dis-
posed that whenever the projecting arm comes in contact with
either point on the verniers, a telegraphic sounder shall beat, or an
electric bell shall ring. In using the device, the two verniers are
set, by means of the sector-graduation, at a distance apart equal to
the length of the zones to be searched. The sector is unclamped
from the polar axis, and connected with the clock, and the latter
set in motion. The telescope is then set upon one end of the zones,
and the projecting arm brought in contact with the corresponding
vernier-point. The collar is clamped to the polar axis in that
position, and the telescope set in declination. As the instrument is
moved back and forth in right ascension, the electric signal will
apprise the ear of the observer whenever the telescope reaches
either limit of the zones.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 143

Mr. Todd’s paper is published in full in the Proceedings of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1880, page 270; also in
the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society for June, 1880.

The second paper was by Mr. THomas Crate on
VORTEX MOTION IN ORDINARY FLUIDS.

This paper is to be published in full in the Proceedings of the
London Mathematical Society.
The third communication was by Mr. Epgar FRispy

ON MAGIC SQUARES.
[Abstract.]

The ordinary idea of a magic square is a square divided up into
a smaller number of squares, with the successive integers placed in
each square in such a way that the sum of the numbers, whether
counted horizontally, diagonally, or vertically, will always be the
same—many very ingenious such squares have been constructed
also squares of squares, magic cubes, and magic circles. I pro-
pose to simply show what I consider the most convenient way of
constructing them when they can be constructed, and pointing out
some of their remarkable properties.

The two which follow are remarkable illustrations of what I will
call unsymmetrical squares :

Fig. 2.

The first square counts 34 the ordinary 10 ways, each small
square of 4 at the corners also counts 34, or the whole square can
be divided into 4 squares each of which counts 34, and the 4

144 BULLETIN OF THE

numbers at the angular points of the square as well as the middle
squares all count the same number 34. There are also in the fig-
ures many more parallelograms whose sum is equal to 34.

In the second figure there are 12 ways in which the 5 numbers sum
up to 65, but beyond this fact there appears to be no special sym-
metrical arrangement of the numbers.

The following figures appear to fulfil the conditions of symmetry.
Fig. 4.

LS | P24 Ne 20h aks

4 |12) 25) 8 | 16

The special characteristic of these two figures is, that any two
figures whatever similarly placed with reference to the centre will
always amount to the same number, in the first to 17, and in the
second figure to 26; hence, in the first figure there will be 8 separate
lines which add up to 17; this of course will only be by consider-
ing 6 and 11 as a different line to 1 and 16, and the same for the
other diagonal. If now any one of these lines is considered as the
diagonal of a parallelogram, and any one of the remaining lines

8x7
2

larly situated with respect to the centre, the sum of the numbers at
the angular points being equal to 34; it will be observed that
these parallelograms include the limiting case when the diagonals
coincide with the two straight lines 1, 6, 11, 16, and 4, 7, 10, 13;
they also of course include the central square and the 4 angular
points of the whole square, besides these 28 there are the 4 squares
into which the squares may be divided also the 4 horizontal and 4
vertical lines and 8 more rectangles, viz: 1, 14, 7,12; 15, 6, 4, 9,
and 6 others from the other sides, making altogether 48 straight

the other diagonal, we shall have = 28 parallelograms simi-

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 145

lines or parallelograms, for which the sum is equal to 34, and the
sum of two figures on the straight line equidistant from the center
Nip

Figure 4, which has the 5 squares on a side, will readily be
perceived to be symmetrical. The sum of two symmetrical num-
bers always being equal to 26, we have of course a great num-
ber of parallelograms, for which the sum of the numbers at the
angular points is always equal to 52, and a number of hexagons
having the sum of the numbers at the angular points equal to 78,
all which have this property that the diagonals joining opposite.
joints will always be mutually bisected at the centre, &e.

The magic square of six on a side cannot be constructed, at least
not symmetrical like these others, this may be shown as follows:

Fig. 5.

If in figure 5 we attempt to fill up the diagonals so that the sum
of the extremes shall be equal to 37, their difference must be an
odd multiple of 5; the only numbers that can fill these conditions
are;

Leow elo 22 20a 8G
Gyal 1G 21263
La. 20) 2231526
LO Sy 19202)

The 2d and 3d, 2d and 4th, and 3d and 4th cannot co-exist,

146 BULLETIN OF THE

therefore the 1st line must be one of the diagonals, and one of the
other three lines the other diagonal.

Making a-+- a’ =b +b’ &c.=37, and putting in the conditions
for a magic square we have:

at+tb+t+c+d= 104, 99 or 94
e+fte+th= 92, 89 or 86
k+1]+m+n= 80,79 or 78
e—h+k—n= £5,10o0rl15
« a—d+l—m= 3, 6or 9
b—ce+f—g= 1, 2or 3

Whence, by addition, 2 (a+ b+e+f+k-—1) = 285, an odd

number, which is impossible.

If we had constructed the square having 4 squares on each side
in a similar way, we should have obtained two solutions, but in one of
the solutions one of the numbers would have been used twice, and
another one not at all, and so, for that reason it would have been
excluded, therefore the one given is the only symmetrical solution ;
but there will be eight ways of arranging it, viz: by beginning at
each corner and filling to the right or left.

The construction is very simple, for of the eight ways of doing
it we will commence one below the middle square and move diagon-
ally to the right, taking care when we get to the bottom to suppose
the whole square moved down and begin again at top; when we go
over to the left, suppose the whole square moved over, &c., begin-
ning again at the right, and, when one square is filled up, move
from there diagonally to the left, or, what amounts to the same
thing, move down two vertically from your last number, the square
will be entirely symmetrical; the sum of any two figures similarly
placed with reference to the centre will be 122. There are many
more interesting features connected with it that I leave to the
reader’s ingenuity to suggest. !

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 147

A square having an odd number of squares on each side can
always be constructed very easily, thus taking 11 on a side as an
example :

Fig. 6.
| 66 |117| 46 |107| 86 | 97 | 26 | 87 | 16 | 77

ee ee ee ee

1 7 | 57 |118) 47 | 108) 37 | 98 | 27 | 88 | 17 | 67 |

eens cee | etre erent | meee | exten | eee | eee | eee | een | Ene

; 68) 8 | 58 | 119} 48 | 109} 88 | 99 | 28 | 78

81 | 81 | 21 | 71 | 11 | 61 | 111) 51 | 101) 41

|92/ 32] 82/22/72) 1 | 62/112] 52 | 102] 4

| 43 | 98 | 33 | 88 | 12 | 73 | 2 | 68 | 1138] 53 | 103]

j104| 44 | 94 | 23 | 84 | 138 | 74| 8 | 64 | 114) 54

} 55 |105| 84 | 95 | 24 | 85 | 14) 75 | 4 | 65 115}

1116| 45 |106| 35 | 96 | 25] 86 | 15 | 76] 5

At the conclusion of Mr. Frispy’s remarks the President an-
nounced that, by resolution of the General Committee, the Society

stood adjourned until the second Saturday in October.

ADDENDUM.

On page 120, line 2, add the following paragraph :

The phenonema scem to be independent of the material of which
the jaws of the slit are composed, for the same results followed in
the case of brass, steel, and obsidian. In the case of the slit made
of obsidian, the effects were a little more marked than with the
metals, which may be attributed to the greater accuracy of the
edges,

148

STANDING RULES.

At the meeting of the General Committee, June 19, 1880, it
was—

Resolved, That the Secretary of the General Committee keep a chrono-
logical register of the elections and acceptances of Members of the Philo-
sophical Society of Washington, showing the date at which each newly
elected member accepts his membership; and that no person be admitted to
_ the privileges of membership until his name is entered thereon as having

accepted the same in writing.

Vide Standing Rules for the Society, No. 9, and Standing Rules
for the General Committee, No. 7.

49

i
edie
fe ;
F

a

a
DCG apres
eel
Ae

o

OFFICERS

OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

Euiuctep November 8, 1879.

PARISH Gea Simon NEwcoms.

Vice-Presidents, ----~- J. K. Barnus, W. B. Taytor,
J. HE. Hitearp, J.C. WELLING.

INPOTSUURGPS, es CLEVELAND ABBE.

SECTELUTIES uae ee C. HE. Durron,* TT. N. Grut.

MEMBERS AT LARGE OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE,

THomaAs ANTISELL, 3 Garrick MALLERY,
J. R. HastMAn. f J. W. PowE tt,

K. B. ELwiort, C. A. ScHort,

W. HarkNEss, J. M. Toner,

J.J. WeooDWARD.

STANDING COMMITTEES.
On Communications, -.---------- ef 2 eee C. HE. Durton,
CLEVELAND ABBE. {

On Publications ._~---- S. F. Barr, || TT. N. Git,

C. E. Dutton, CLEVELAND ABBE.

* Vice HE. 8. HotpEn, resigned. + Vice C. K. Durton.
+ Vice J. J. Woopwarp, resigned. 3 Vice W. H. Datt, resigned.

|| As Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

151

LIST OF MEMBERS

or

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON,

Corrected to July 20th, 1880.

The names of the Founders of the Society, March 13, 1871, are printed
in small capitals ; for other members the dates of election are given.
8 indicates a life member by payment of 100 dollars.

% indicates absent from the District of Columbia, and excused
from dues until announcing their return.

** indicates resigned.

? indicates dropped for non-payment, or nothing known of
him.

+ indicates deceased.

N. B.—It is scarcely possible for the Treasurer to keep a correct record of
those who are absent and excused from paying dues, unless members will
keep him duly notified of their removals.

Tuomas ANTISELL.

@leveland Ab bes 23s ee ee ee 1871, October 29.
Benjamin Alvord ---~-- ------~------------- 1872, March 23.
Nee, Oe AGUS oe eee 1878, March 1.
Sylvanus Thayer Abert------ ------ ------ -- 1875, January 30.
Robert Stanton Avery ------------------- -- 1879, October 11.

SpENCER FULLERTON BAIRD.
JosEPH K. BARNES.
STEPHEN VINCENT BENET.
JOHN SHAW BILLINGS.

OrvillesWlias Babcock 2/222 222 Senate = = 1871, June 9.
Henry Hobart Bates_---------------------- 1871, November 4.
+ Theodorus Bailey ------------------------ 1873, March 1.
Thomas W. Bartley ----------------- ------ 1873, March 29.
Samuel Clagett Busey --------------------- 1874, January 17.
Emil Bessels _----- ---------==-----=- ----=- 1875, January 16.
George Bancroft__~---- -------------------- 1875, January 30.
* Lester A. Beardslee__..-_---------------- 1875, February 27.
Rogers Birnie__---- -------------~--------- 1876, March 11.
IMGrCUSH Bake roel 1876, December 2.
Swan Moses Burnett__+---_----------~- ---- 1879, March 29.
Alexander Graham Bell -----..------------- 1879, March 29.
William Birney ---------------~----------- 1879, March 29.
Horatio Chapin Burchard__.-_..------------ 1879, May 10.

153

154 LIST OF

HoracrE CAPRON.

THomMAS LincoLn CASEY.

7 SaALMon PorRTLAND CHASE.

JOHN HUNTINGTON CRANE COFFIN.
+ BENJAMIN FANEUIL CRaIG.
CHARLES HENRY CRANE.

Richard DomimicusiCuttsesesess ae
BpAoustuis, leases seh Neb Malan) eae ies 1872,
Robert) Craig: ws eee ay 71 a Ses ee 1878,
HOMO bE C Om ep eee ae ec ae Ne re ale Se SLi 1874,
eS eta © asr Gis eles a IT a Re oe 1874,
Johny Wihite Chickering yee seas ee eee 1874,
* Frank Wigglesworth Clarke-_-.---_-_-__- 1874,
SE ayyiatrel (ere Sec oa Se TIGA ea 1877,
Hrederick © ollingswe we eiiben slit anes ieee 1879,
BIRO MMS NG reviice ewan ese ee UAL Meet Oe eae 1879,
John! HenryiComstocks2 2s ea a ee 1880,
WiLitiaM HeaLey Datu.

{ ALEXANDER B. DYER.

Clarencephidwand yD attomye ses se eee 1872,
sped acne a NeRG Ores yUi oval D eye voll Le Ma MI es ep
Henry Harrison Chase Dunwoody ---_-.---- 1878,
ip Glachdlas Isler ID Eye aes ee Ge ee 1874,
jp ddumeroeneney VNU aMiltiewan, ID Yovpres ay a ee he 1874,

My rickprascall) oolittlese ae eaau eee 1876,
EZ (GLE OT: CD) CWC ys ae ee as ee

(Ohopwelkes Is lereys ID Eyles et en ee 1880,
7 AMos BEEBE Eaton.

EZEKIEL Brown ELLiort.

** GrorGE H. ELiior.

JoOhnGRoObieRH as tin amy vue es Wied caer aun 1871,
ToT SAHE ENED CG yeKo Fee) 5 A te 1871,
UiMieckone WEI Neie IDpoyelbola sas 1878,
Charles shying Perey SC EM wes eee 1874,
cade Kibyed awa Dyula sya iD aah ie sayin eel 1874,
PL roy ot a Wt SHE ro c ean Se ade hehe AU aay 1874,
* HLISHA Foore.

(Wailer Mer rela oh Sie fay ee ee ca ene 1872,
df Waar Magy SAREE) a uel La a Spe 1872,
jpoohni Gray) hosters208 ul we eee eee 1878,
AH Avr MEY S GO. C lis ete ae ces i ea ae 1878,
Robertylietchier}is ase ilu ainsi alanine 1878,
Hdward Jessop Harqubart as 2) yee eee 86,
THEODORE NICHOLAS GILL.

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN GREENE.

Henny, Goodtellowees 2s wae nae en eee 1871,
Grove KarliGilberteses seu. ne eee 1878,
Leonard Dunnell Gale______ sat ag Me aL 1874,
Pdiames) Mery .Crarduaery ty a ore ale 1874,
George, Brown Goode means u ais seen 1874,
FPemry; Gam met titers tice 0. Mulls A aa ie Sa ate 1874,
a Nidward) OzieliGrawes! sivii lense Te ene 1874,
Hdwardy Miner Gallaudet) 2a --00 =n 1875,
Rirancis, Vantony Greene ate enue aes auane 1875,
AHFC S Mea tities) Grats © @ rales poe et 1875,

MEMBERS OF THE

1871, April 29.

November 16.
January 4.
January 17.
March 28.
April 11.
April 11.
February 24.
October 21.
November 22.
February 14.

January 27.
April 28.
December 20.
January 17.
January 17.
February 12.
February 15.
June 19.

May 27.
June 9.
March 1.
January 17.
January 17.
May 8.

November 16.
November 16.
January 18.
March 29.
April 10.
February 12.

November 4,
June 7.
January 17.

January 17.
January 31.
April 11,
April 11.
February 27.
April 10.

November 9.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

HdwardiGoodtellow 22 ke nee 1875,
Alexander Young P. Garnett_______ ..__-__-1878,
* Walter Hayden’ Graves. ...--- --_.=.-2+___1878;
* Francis Mackall Gunnell___..._.________ BENS 9}
Bernard Richardson Green_-_-------___ .__- 1879,
William Whiting Godding_--___-_-________1879,
JamesprowardiGonres ase VaN ls See ene 1880,
Adolphus! \WieiGreelymess Sets Sees ee eee 1880,

ASAPH HALL.

WILLIAM HARKNESS.

FERDINAND VANDEVEER HAYDEN.
+ JosEPH HENRY.

JuLius ErRaAsMus H1ILGaRp.
ANDREW ATKINSON HUMPHREYS.

Henry Wi. Howeate 1 Ass os es vee heehee 1873,
Hdweardisingleton Holdenw=s— see eee al 1878,
isaiahpbianscomes = seas aes Los ye seen 1878,
Ha wanswucenesdowells 2.2222 t ee oie 1874,
Henry; Wietherbee) Henshaw: -2-. 2-2. 4-2 1874,
Daviditowe HHuntingdon= 222 sah wee 1877,
George nVWalliamvhilipeeeess =. Sane 1879,
Peter: ConOVe reel ails eee eee ee 1879,
* Franklin Benjamin Hough ---_--_____.__. 1879,
Walliand HennyeH olmess ass ener a 1879,
Herdinand Eelasslen= ewes See eee 1880,
THORNTON ALEXANDER JENKINS.

William Waring Johnston_-___--_-_-______- 1878,
* Henry Arundel Lambe Jackson__-__-___..___ 1875,
AWrlliameNicholson! Jetters!4 2a e esse ea eeee 1877,
Arnold) Burgess: Johnsons. sass eee eee = ene 1878,
Joseph) aber Johnson] ase sae Shes eee e138 79)
Onjeni James! sae ae MIN Ewe csr a cee ae 1880,
Seve Gee iit ns ae Os a ee ae ae 1871,
CUO ea esta el 3S aio < FRA a a 1874,
Albert Freeman Africanus King___-________ 1875,
cp datsigobtaeyoal Ine Wooy opt ae se ee 1875,
Clarencepha no ml ooer steno he panes to seston 1879,
A iccrmcoy ane) 1s Lo RCI e kes pe eee ae WN 1880,
CharlesslivansKallbourne|ea= sess man Manes 1880,
+ JONATHAN HoMER LANE.

Ivana Shoda, Ibyyoveoybo yA 1871,
coe lela dal, IU@Gl\ <oxrele Se ee IRSA
mriStephen: Cy liyfordee aaa se a aoe 1878,
William Lee____-- ey weep re Mere a 2k 1874

Edward Phelps Lul
Hbendienks Woomissoes eet ie ses Le eee! 1880,

} Firtpine BRADFORD MEEK.

MonTGOMERY CUNNINGHAM MEI@s.

ALBERT J. MYER.

eWiilltam Myers? ss eeu tate eos jee peele 1871,
qOscantAly Macks js sseni ce eee see en B72
Walliam), Manuel Mew 28s 2 eee 1873,

December 18.

March 16.
May 25.
February 1.
February 15.
March 29.
March 14.
June 19.

January 18.
June 21.

December 20.

January 381.
April 11.

December 21.

February 1.
February 15.
March 29.
March 29.
May 8.

June 21.
January 30.

February 24.

January 19.
March 29.
January 3.

October 29.
May 8.
January 16.

December 18.

May 10.
May 8.
June 19.

May 27.
October 29.
January 18.
January 17.
December 4.
February 14.

June 23.
January 27.

December 20.

155

156

+ Archibald Robertson Marvine
Fpeames: Wai am )sMolmer; ssa sete eee ae 1874

LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE

January 31.
January 31.

Garrick Mallery, 22 yee eee eee 1875, January 30.
Otis Durtony Mason: 2a 22 sees) eae a eee 1875, January 30.
\uvalllbienan, Wonitometene 0 Be 1876, February 26.
Aniceto/ Gabriel Menocala ===" === =a Sarees 1877, February 24.
MWiarcinghierdmand Morris ess ae eens 1877, February 24.
Milomipxorncieyy Wiles oe 1877, March 24,
Piosephy badgers Mery imeem eee eee 1878, May 25.
Hredene bauders Mic Guinea eee 1879, February 15.
Clay(Ma¢gauley 222 0hs cs [oo ole eee 1880, January 3.

Simon NEWcoMB.

WALTER LAMB NICHOLSON.

21@ han] esmrennyg Nicholsme= sass ee eee 1872,
ChavlessNordhott==s22 2. e 22 ee 1879,

GrorGr ALEXANDER OTIs.
Holo VV avliner OS NOTING oe ores See 1878,

JoHN GRUBB PAREE.
PETER PARKER.

* TITIAN RAMSAY PEALE,
* BENJAMIN PEIRCE.

* Charles Christopher Parry_--.-----...---- 1871,
zoo (Opelika, 12; JER eetOn he 1871,
+i Charles) Sanders (reirce| == se ee S73)
OnlandopWlet callie nto cs aes meen mia meee 18738,

JiohmhVivesley gil: owe lisa eee ee cee ee eee
** David Dixon Porter ._-

Robert Wawrence Packard 2-222 2-2" === 2 22 1875,
leery Wi lewetinyie, Jeb Se 1877,
Jeleroneyy Shao) JENS 1879,
IDwMNel) VY loser IPRCMNHISS — ote ee He 1880,
* Christopher Raymond Perry Rodgers __-_-_- 1872,
* JosephwAddisonshogers ===s === sens 1872,
John ehodgers= asa e ta eae pas SNES 1872,
eenmyalveed wha tin ome meseseeap nena 1874,
PEHEVOLDG Taba pv GOW isp meres ey ane nee ee 1874,
PO Okvanjpolnell Ula Aa 1877,
CharlespValentine vile yee ee eee 1878,
William Francis McKnight Ritter-.-__.___- 1879,
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN SANDS.

+ GEORGE CHRISTIAN SCHAEFFER.

CHARLES ANTHONY ScuHort.

WILLIAM TECUMSEH SHERMAN.

Vawanes Jeleyanvihvorn SeyyWle se es pee ee 1871,
Aunsworthuivandsspottordmss= =a: sees meaes 1872,
ianederic Adolphnsisawiyen== sess a= 1873,
olay S he rr ey ease ay ee 1874,
TP AOU SHEE OOS et oy al eee TI
ged OT O TUBS LOT Cee oe ee ee en 1874,
ayooin, Nien \ Shetewnie~e 1875,
SamieliShellabar sere se eo ane a eee Sips

May 4.
May 10.

December 7.

May 13.
November 17.
March 1.
October 4.
January 17.
April 11.
April 11.
February 27.
May 19.
March 29.
January 3.

March 9.
March 9.
November 16.
January 17.
January 31.
May 19.
November 9.
October 21.

April 29.
January 27.
October 4.
January 17.
March 28.
March 28.
February 27.
April 10.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

David Smith ~

ee eee es, eS ee ee eee

ge Montoomae mye SCAT eee eee eet ees

Henry Robinson Searle

CharlessD wicht Sigsbeeses asa. ae eee

Johnebatten|S tonyees sta tee a 1880,
WILLIAM BoWER TAYLOR.

a \WYalbeyen, Opava Aikebepa ee 1871,
“George ay lorena ts eee 2S. ees 1873,
Joseph Meredith Monen ae ak te ae eae 18738,
AN hooey, sip waeis A Movoranyajsoya ee 1875,
Wailllia mars pahyinim oie ae ee S18,
SD YR save lig era Moye Yi laa en I Ce up ea 1878,
** JacopendriclaW pioneaes-- = ee ees 1878,
GeorgenVasey ice woe ha ee ee ee 1875,
* Junius B. WHEELER.

JOSEPH JANVIER WOODWARD.
WallianiyMaxwellivWVioodmeses 2 2ke he fone 1871,
SR ranCiseAum as ayia lier eee eee ee ee 1872,

Jamon VADRaAoyAOYS ee

james: @larikenVVellin chases ae ee 1872,
James Ormond Willson see sneer ee 1878,
Georco Ne VViheclen 2 ase mes se eases 1878,
+ John Maynard Woodworth---....--.-.---.1874,
MAenw Ds Wilsonene eee eee a ee 1874,
ea @ Wary] CSUN Vice etal teense eee MN ae ea i ate ead Ae 1874,
Joseph Woody sa- caen woe ke eee hee 1875,
* Christopher Columbus Wolcott -.--.----_- 1875,
liege Ibiepalte Weal Boe ee 1876,
CharlessAbiathaniWihites 20-2252 eee ee 1876,
Aepulonwienvy bnibewees ss seen oN eet see ae 1880,
jevlor decal yarn alles eee eee one sneer 1871,
Henry, Crissey, VantOwera ea econ 1874,

December 2.
February 24.
December 21.
March 1.
June 19.

April 29.
March 1.
June 7.

April 10.

November 238.
November 28.

February 2.

June 5.

December 2.
January 27.

November 16.

March 1.
June 7.
January 381.
April 11.
May 8.
January 16.
February 27.

November 18.

December 16.
June 19.

April 29.
January 31.

1875, January 30.

%

157

shy
Haney)

y
i

LIST OF RECIPIENTS

OF THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

2. <-o- Pe

This list is mostly confined to such scientific periodicals, libraries, schools, and other
scientific centres, as are not on the regular distribution list of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution.

Washington, D. C.:

The Office of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

Library of the U. 8. Naval Observatory.

Library of the Surgeon General’s Office.

Library of Congress.

Library of the Patent Office.

Library of the Army Signal Office.

Library of the Engineer Bureau, War Department.

Library of the Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Library of the Geological Survey of the Territories.

Library of the Department of Agriculture.

Library of the Statistical Bureau, Treasury Department.

Library of the Nautical Almanac Ofiice.

Library of the Anthropological, Society of Washington, Smith-
sonian Building.

Library of the Cosmos Club, Corcoran Building.

Library of the National Academy of Sciences, Coast and Geodetic
Survey Building.

Philadelphia, Penn. :

Editor of the Journal of the Franklin Institute
Editor of the American Naturalist.

The Library of the University of Pennsylvania.
The Library of the Academy of Natural Sciences.

Baltimore, Md.:

The Library of the Johns Hopkins University.
Editor of the American Journal of Mathematics.
Editor of the American Journal of Chemistry.

159

160 RECIPIENTS OF THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE

New York, N. Y.:

Editor of the American Chemist.

Hditor of the Scientific American, Munn & Co.

Editor of the Engineering and Mining Journal.

Editor of Van Nostrand’s Magazine, 27 Warren Street.

Editor of the Popular Science Monthly, Appleton & Co., Pub-
lishers.

Library of the School of Mines, Columbia College.

Library of the New York Academy of Science.

Library of the American Geographical Society.

Library of the American Museum of Natural History.

Hoboken, N. J.:
The Library of the Stevens Polytechnic Institute.

Boston, Mass. :

The Public Library of Boston.

The Library of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
The Library of the Boston Society of Natural History.

The Library of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Cambridge, Mass. :

The Library of Harvard College.

The Library of Harvard College Observatory.

The Library of the Museum of Comparative Zoology.

The Library of the Peabody Museum of Archeology.
Kansas City, Kan.:

The Editor of the Kansas Review of Science, Art, and Industry.

Des Moines, Iowa:

The Editor of the Analyst.

New Haven, Conn. :

The Editor of the American Journal of Science and Arts.
The Library of Sheffield Scientific School.

Ann Arbor, Mich. :

The Library of the University of Michigan.
Chicago, Ill. :

The Public Library.
St. Louis, Mo. :

The Library of the Academy of Sciences.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. 161

Cincinnati, Ohio:

The Library of the University of Cincinnati.

San Francisco, Cal. :

The Library of the California Academy of Sciences.

Oakland, Cal. :

The Library of the University of California.

Cordoba, Argentine Republic:
Library of the National Observatory.

London, England :

Hditor of ‘‘ Nature,’’ care of Macmillan & Co.
Editor of The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical
Magazine.

The Geological Magazine, Burlington House.
Popular Science Review.
Chemical News and Journal of Physical Science.
Quarterly Journal of Science.
The Observatory.
The Academy.
The Athenzum. ‘
The Journal of the Society of Telegraph Engineers.
Symon’s Monthly Meteorological Magazine.

The Library of the British Museum.

The Library of the Royal Society.

The Library of the Zoological Society.

The Library of the Linnean Society.

The,Library of the Royal Astronomical Society.

Oxford, England :
The Bodleian Library.

Cambridge, England :

The Philosophical Society of Cambridge.

The Editor of the Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin Messenger of
Mathematics.

Calcutta, India:

Library of the Geological Survey of India,
Library of the Meteorological Office for India.
Library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

162 RECIPIENTS OF THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE

Manchester, England :
The Literary and Philosophical Society.

Edinburgh, Scotland :
The Royal Society of Edinburgh.

Melbourne, Victoria, Australia :

The Royal Society of Victoria.

Sydney, New South Wales, Australia:
The Royal Society of New South Wales.

Dublin, Ireland :
The Royal Society of Dublin.

Montreal, Canada:

The Editor of the Canadian Naturalist.

Toronto, Canada :

The Canadian Journai of Science, Literature, and History.
The Library of the Meteorological Office of the Dominion.

Paris, France :
The Editor of Les Mondes, Revue Hebdomadaire.

a6 Bull. Hebdom. de l’ Assoc. Scientifique de France.

Bf Revue Scientifique.

6 Journal de Physique theorique et appliqué.

oe Annales de Chimie et Physique.

te La Nature.

6 Revue d’ Anthropologie de M. Paul Broca.

UG Journal de Mathematiques pures et appliquées.

ue Bulletin des Sciences, Mathematiques et Astrono-
miques.

ue Journal des Savants.

The Academy of Sciences.
Berlin, Germany :
Editor of Wiedemann’s [ Poggendorff’s] Annalen der Physik und
Chemie.
a Jahrbuch tiber die Fortschritte der Mathematik.
a Die Fortschritte der Physik (Physikalisches Gesell-

schaft. )

ce Der Naturforscher.

6 Zeitschrift der Konigliche Preussischen Statistiches
Bureau.

K. Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

Halle, Germany :
Editor of Die Natur.

Hamburg, Germany.

Library of the Deutsche Seewarte.

Munich, Germany :

163

Library of the Konigliche Baierische Akademie der Wissen

schaften.

Brunswick, Germany :

Editor of Correspondens-Blatt der D. Gesell. fiir Anthropologie.

Carisruhe, Germany :

Editor of Botanischer Jahresbericht.

Christiania, Norway :

Library of the Videnskabs-Selskabet.

Stockholm, Sweden :

Library of the K. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademien.

Kiel, Germany :

Kditor of Astronomische Nachrichten.

Greifswald, Germany :
Editor of Archiv fiir Mathematik und Physik.

Gotha, Germany :

Editor of Petermann’s Geographische Mittheilungen.

Augsburg, Germany :
Editor of Das Ausland.

Brussels, Belgium :
Library of the Academie Royale des Sciences, ete.
Leipzic, Germany :
Editor of Gaea: Natur und Leben.
vs Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie.
Hf Zoologischer Anzeiger.
& Aus der Natur.

es Zeitschrift fur Mathematik und Physik.
Library of the Astronomische Gesellschaft.

164 RECIPIENTS OF THE BULLETIN.

Vienna, Austria:
Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Editor of the Zeitschrift der Oesterreichischen Gesell-schaft fir
Meteorologie.
Milan, Italy:

Reale Instituto Lombardo di Scienze eLettere.

Modena, Italy :

Kditor of the Annuario della Soc. Meteorologica Italiana.

Rome, Italy.

Reale Accademia dei Lincei.

St. Petersburg, Russva :

Imperial Academy of Sciences.

Imperial Library of St. Petersburg.

Editor of the Journal of the Physical and Chemica! Societies.
Dorpat, Russia:

Library of the University.

Geneva, Switzerland :
Kditor of the Bibliothéque Universelle.
Societé de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle.
Hoarlem Holland :

The Editor of Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences, ete.

Copenhagen, Denmark :
Library of the K. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.

INDEX TO NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS

To VouumeE III.

166

Page.
C. ABBE.
Remarks upon ‘ the Michelson Phenomena” ° 124
T, ANTISELL.
Observations on Chemical Molecular Changes 28
Hon. E. ArKinson, (of Massachusetts.)
Remarks upon the Principles of Taxation. : ° 2 119
8. F. Barr.
; On the Artificial Propagation of the Cod. . . 29
M. BAKER.
Discussicn of a Geometrical Problem. 3 6 4 55
A. G. BELL.
On Bin-aural Audition . : ; : 3 2 a 69
J.S. BILLines.
On the Work of the National Board of Health . 0 0 50
Prorxessor W. K. Brooks, (of Baltimore, Md.)
On the Embryology of Lingula and the Systematic Relations
of the Brachiopods . 83
H. N. BuRCHARD.
Remarks on Coinage and the Silver Question 109
J. W. CHICKERING.
On the Luray Cave 65
P. CoLuigEr.
On the Extraction of Sugar from Sorghum . ; 5 140
T. Crate.
On Vortex Motion in Ordinary Fluids . 148

166 INDEX TO VOL. III.

W. H. Datu.

Notes on the Museums and Zoological Gardens of Northern

Europe.

Notes on the Museums and Zoological Gardens of Northern

Kurope, (concluded)
On the Muscles of the Oyster

On the Deep-Sea Dredgings in the Gulf of Mexico and the

West Indies in 1873-78 .

On some recent Observations on Molluscs

On the Boundary Line between Alaska and British America

M. H. Doouitr_e.
On a Pile of Balls . é
Remarks on the Gold and Silver Onetion
Remarks on the Supply of Gold and Silver

Rey. J. O. Dorsey, (of Washington, D. C.)
On the Gentile System of the Omahas .

P. H. Dupuey, C. E., (of New York City.)
On the Construction and Uses of Dudley’s Dynagraph

0. E, Dutton.
On the Geological Character of the Colorado River
On the Succession of Volcanic Eruptions
On the Succession of Volcanic Eruptions (concluded)
On the Permian Formation of North America
On the Silver Question

J. R. EASTMAN.
Exhibition of a Personal Equation Instrument
On a Personal Equation Apparatus

Some Results of the Observations of the Transit of Mercury

of 1878, May 6th
H. B. ELuiort.

On the Progress of International Coinage in France and

America .
On International Coinage ‘
On Large Area Illumination by rina
Remarks on the Relative Value of Gold and Silver
Remarks on Mono-metallism and Bi-metallism

On the Construction of the Government Sinking Fund

Page

108
107
113

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

FP, M. Enpuice.

On some interesting Cases of Metamorphism ¢ ° °
HK. FRisByY.
Remarks on the Total Solar Eclipse of January 11th, 1880 .
On Magic Squares . 4 . : : C ¢ 0 °
G. K. GILBERT.
On the Kanab Base-line and a new method of Base-measuree
ment

On Air-currents on Mountain Slopes : 3
Remarks on the Relations of Permian to other Strata .
On the Oscillations of Lake Bonneville Y :
On the Drainage System of the Black Hills of Dakota

TN] Ginn.
On some Remarkable Instances of Ingestion among Fishes .

F. M. Guyne.u.
On the Disinfection of Ships from Yellow Fever

A. HALL.
On the Supposed Discovery of a Trans-Neptunian Planet in
1850 : :
On the Satellites of Saturn. é : : ; .

Notes on the Orbits of Titan and Hyperion .

W. HARKNESS.
On the Color Corrections of Achromatic Objectives

On the number of Lenses required in an Achromatic Objec-
tive . 6 : : é : : b : :

On the Solar Corona

J. E. Hinearp.
On Jablokoff’s Electric Candle j
Exhibition of two Phosphorescent-dial Clocks

Remarks commemorative of J. H. Lane

H. S. HOLDEN.
On the Brightness of the Third Saturnian Satellite
On Gould’s Uranometria Argentina

Dr. J. R. M. Insy, (of Baltimore, Md.)
Some Observations on the crystalline State of Matter .

167
Page.

27

121
148

34
38
105.
113
125,

116

51

20
26
40

39

65
116

19
33
122

18
122

89

168 INDEX TO VOL. III.

M. JUvVET, ( ) ree
Exhibition of his Time-globe . d 5 5 : ; 106
O. T. Mason.
On the Decipherments of some Aztec Monuments lately dis-
covered in Guatemala. : : i : : : 37
A Comparison of written Language with that which is
spoken only. : : 6 6 : é 5 : 139
Wm. McMourrriz.
On the Meteorological Conditions Affecting the Culture of
the Sugar Beet ; 142
A. A, MicHELson.
On the Modifications suffered by eit in passing through a
very narrow Slit : 3 ‘ 4 119 and 148
S. NEwcomes.
Reference to the recent Services in commemoration of JosEPH
HENRY . : : ‘ : : : : : : 27
On the Recurrence of Eclipses : : ‘ . : ‘ 33
On a Thermo-dynamic Theory of the Spectrum . b : 43
On a recent visit to California to inspect a site for the new
Lick Observatory . ; : ‘ : : ‘ 45
On the Future of the Human Race from the Band sine of
Kvolution : ‘ 5 0 5 0 ° 52
_On the Principles of Taxation . Seat : : ; 119
Remarks on ‘the Michelson Phenomena”’ . : : . 120
J. W. OsBoRNeE.
Suggestions respe¢ting the Study of Meteorology in regard
to the causes of Yellow Fever . F : 5 ; 4 21
On the Application of Meteorology to Yellow Fever Investi-
gations. : : ‘ 4 : : : 9 : 27
On a curious Manifestation of Force by the Wind , 3 27
On a Case of Peculiar Corrosive action on Metallic Tin 3 44
Remarks on ‘‘the Michelson Phenomena’’ . ; : : 1255
H. M. Pauvt.
On Earth Tremors as shown by Astronomical Observations . 120
J. W. PowzELu.
Remarks on the Permian and other Geological Formations . 106

Remarks on Social Organization among the Indians. : 137

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

H. Reep, (of Cincinnati.)
On the Physiology of Civilization.

©. V. RILEY.
On the Pupation of the Nymphalidae
On the Issuance of Silk-worm Moths from their Cocoons

C. A. Scuorr.
On the Secular Change in the Magnetic Declination

A. N. SKINNER.
A Note on the Ptecession of Stars in Right Ascension

WwW. B. Taytor.

Remarks on ‘‘ the Michelson Phenomena ”’
Remarks Commemorative of J. H. Lane
Remarks on ‘‘ the Michelson Phenomena ”’

Remarks on the Development of the Moral Sentiments

D. P. Topp.
On Solar Parallax from the Velocity of Light

On a Mechanical Attachment for Equatorial Mountings

L. F. Warp.
On the Origin of the Chemical Elements

Hon. A. J. WARNER.
Remarks on the Relations of Gold and Silver to Prices

C. A. WHITE.

On the Fresh Water Shell Heaps of the Interior Rivers of
North America

On the Permian Formation in North America

Prorgssor A, WINCHELL, (of Syracuse, N. Y.)
On the Progressive Dispersion of Mankind over the Surface
of the Earth
J. J. WooDWARD.
On the Apertometer of Professor HE. Abbé, of Jena, Germany
On # Standard for Micrometry
On the Oil-Immersion Objectives of Zeiss, and Oblique Mlu-
mination
A new Apertometer for Microscopie Objectives

On Apparatus for the Examination of the Kye

169

Page.

20

41
44

45

33

112

32
104

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