ee IPD PID DD PID ID PP 2 ZS 2 52 P3339 > Sy 993 DD DD YP] S 2S? SD 35 DD DD SS Ss Se ee eS ee — rae z Zl a>. y aD» S> » 5 > >. aa >» »)» eae a —-— Soe 2 eae 35> DD — ——< tts? Za eee >: << ———* >>> BD >> is> bs — » > E> DP D>» >HI yp Ss SS PSD Sy ED SSS 35> 333-222 > 55395) SD» > es ee oe PDP DIP IS DIDS Ege? Ses ——<—> JP DD >> IP SS Soe ee. et SSS Sea SS aanyrowes v ¥ y UN wi iN oA Obed ee o ~~ y 4 1 vi) Heyy Oe y ) WV i ee DDI y J s ee = a = DD wD»> D> P»»>»» os SS 35D DD D>» 2 »> J y y S y ) =~ 3 / > > ; > 2» SPR Ss > » DBE a PPB y) ) CJ \d 1 Sh A ad Ne) y = De PPPS I> DH Dds D> _ D> yPP)> I> Dy» w) 22 _ PPP >> >>> p>» ss > 2» YD DI > > 3 ae a >>» A aditik gee vy) ay he \ ete " rae OT RY, ie _ AP a atc, tae t, bhp San “ ey 0 1 pay, V Ua tees ; ane rt ee its ‘ (es ya a a Ay a a nee seis ‘Die } nh f " ft ; : "i Phe a» iv bs i sy ha) N AcE eal: SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. MOis Td. ‘* EVERY MAN IS A VALUABLE MEMBER OF SOCIETY WHO BY HIS OBSERVATIONS, RESEARCHES, AND EXPERIMENTS PROCURES KNOWLEDGE FOR MEN.’’—SMITHSON, WASHINGTON: PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 1862. ae a ie ie ey ; \ : alee Ch wenar'y as AE UAB INTHE) ae ire EY VOWEL Tank COPE N TS: Advertisement . A : . ; : 3 C z ; ; ARTICLE I. On Recent IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CHEMICAL Arts. By Pror. JAMES C. Booto and CAMPBELL MorrFit. 1852. Pp. 216. ARTICLE II. Extracts rrom THE PRocEEpINGS OF THE BoARD oF RE- GENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, IN RELATION To THE Execrro-Macyetic TELEGRAPH. (Reprinted from Proceedings of the Board of Regents for 1857.) Pp. 40. ARTICLE III. Caratocur or Portraits or NortH AMERICAN INDIANS, WITH SKETCHES OF SCENERY, ETC. PartnrEep By J. M. SranuEy. Deposited with the Smithsonian Institu- tion. December, 1852. Pp. 76. ARTICLE IV. Catatocur or Norta AmericAN Birps, CHIEFLY IN THE MusEUM OF THE SMITHSONIAN InstITUTION. By SPEN- cer F. Barrp. 1859. First octavo edition. Pp. 24. ARTICLE Y. Caratocureor Nort American REPTILES IN THE MusEUM OF THE SMITHSONIAN InstituTIoN. Part I. Serpents. By 8. F. Bairp and C. Girarp. January, 1853. Pp. 172. ARTICLE VI. Cueck List or THE Suetts or Norra America. Pre- pared for the Smithsonian Institution by Isaac Lra, P. P. CARPENTER, W. Stimpson, W. G. Binney, and TEMPLE PkimE. June, 1860. Pp. 44. PAGE vii vi CONTENTS. ARTICLE VII. Directions ror CoLLEctING, PRESERVING, AND TRANS- PORTING SPECIMENS OF NAtuRAL History. Prepared for the use of the Smithsonian Institution. Third edition. 1859. Pp. 40. ARTICLE VIII. Crrcunar To Orricers oF THE Hupson’s BAy CoMPANY. 1860. Pp. 8. ARTICLE IX. Insrrucrions IN REFERENCE To CoLtEcTING NEstTs AND Eaes or Norta AMERICAN Birps, pp. 22, and 18 wood-cuts. CIRCULAR IN REFERENCE TO THE HIStory or NortH AMERICAN GRASSHOPPERS, pp. 4. CIRCULAR IN REFERENCE TO CotuEctine Nort AMERICAN SHELLS, pp. 4. In one pamphlet of 30 pages. 1860. ARTICLE X. CIRCULAR IN REFERENCE TO THE DEGREES OF RELATION- SHIP AMONG DIFFERENT Nations. By L. H. Morean. Pp. 34. ADVERTISEMENT. THE present series, entitled ‘‘Smithsonian Miscellaneous Col- lections,”’ is intended to embrace all the publications issued directly by the Smithsonian Institution in octavo form; those in quarto con- stituting the ‘Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.” The quarto series includes memoirs embracing the records of extended original investigations and researches resulting in what are be- lieved to be new truths, and constituting positive additions to the sum of human knowledge. The octavo series is designed to con- tain reports on the present state of our knowledge of particular branches of science; instructions for collecting and digesting facts and materials for research; lists and synopses of species of the organic and inorganic world; museum catalogues; reports of ex- plorations; aids to bibliographical investigations, etc., generally prepared at the express request of the Institution, and at its expense. The position of a work in one or the other of the two series will sometimes depend upon whether the required illustrations can be presented more conveniently in the quarto or the octavo form. In both the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, and the present series, each article is separately paged and indexed, and the actual date of its publication is that given on its special title- page, and not that of the volume in which it is placed. In many cases, works have been published, and largely distributed, years before their combination into volumes. While due care is taken on the part of the Smithsonian Insti- tution to insure a proper standard of excellence in its publications, it will be readily understood that it cannot hold itself responsible for the facts and conclusions of the authors, as it is impossible in most cases to verify their statements. JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary S. I. ot) einauil sale vegan ven ibad keg 42 Ketnab obvhajiast ie 9a} Lees eet ; ak Sr bis f q ‘phi as uth vies let pets ki x Rink oe ‘Bl [ : “i stienneyiit ah ae ae. Smithsontan Report. ON RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CHEMICAL ARTS, BY PROFESSOR JAMES C. BOOTH, AND CAMPBELL MORFIT. WASHINGTON CITY: PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 1852. PHILADELPHIA: COLLINS, PRINTER, 705 JAYNE STREET. PREFACE. Tue following Report has been prepared under the direction and at the expense of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, from articles in various Journals of Science and the Arts, published during the last few years, in the English, French, and German languages; and, among these, we acknowledge our indebtedness chiefly to the Chemical Gazette, issued in London, and to the excel- lent Report on Practical Chemistry, by Dr. Elsner, of Berlin. We have freely exercised discrimination in the selection of subjects, and have omitted much that we found on Applied Chemistry, because novel views need in many cases further confirmation to render them re- liable in practice, and, if presented too early to the ar- tisan, may be productive of more evil than good. We have kept in view the benefit of the practical man, the manufacturer or maker, and, while we have not avoided scientific terms when more convenient, we have gene- rally used modes of description intelligible to every one. American Patents relating to the Chemical Arts have been generally omitted, because they are published annually in the Reports of the Patent Office, which are widely distributed throughout the United States, and therefore accessible to all. 4 4 PREFACE. We have confined ourselves to such foreign improve- ments in the Chemical Arts, whether patented or not, as we believed the American artisan might avail him- self of, frequently offering critical remarks on them, and sometimes pointing out where improvements were likely to be made. We trust that the work will prove useful to that por- tion of the public more exclusively interested in the arts, and not less acceptable to men of science, as ex- hibiting the contemporaneous advancement of science and art. J. C. B. and C. M. PHILADELPHIA, JULY, 1851. CONTENTS. PAGE CLASSIFICATION OF THE CHEMICAL ARTS..........0scssscccccesccsccssscccncosecs 9 TABULAR VIEW OF THE CHEMICAL ARTS....... Maaetiossiae sese/sosnideusoressexsioteses 16 I. CALORICS..... DsGarsariosaaheseeasscsvdonenveleres sltocsids cedecicleseneecenedesctess 17-25 PACE UMT MAND WURNAGHSS.cctecctcclecatesecscccdsesedescssccsscdcessecccedcocseve 17 IBUNGORNILC Vesitcsctsaee coucwactsiccdccstccliesssssssitecies soonecsersivecsse cosas 18 Com SRE cosestlatiomadedesclaaliscewcdcsa aSensted aeoussavecsceeahienssveecsees 18 REVEL DELaLOLY HUTMAGCE Na. aeeissweneccevectsrvoasecedeestarascsiscesesses 20 Portables Blast Murnacelscccseagsedescredcesstslesseusisoenesscuserenpess 20 2.1 WARMING AND VENTILATION cs cc0sscncsesissscassscvesissdcesssclecdsevecases 21 SPE VRODEGHIN Maree cc dacsnerccsset dedesctaviccsteccasecdateateseeseeseseaseccesclsas 22 New Composition for Gunpowder..........ssscsseee sessceececeeeeeees 22 Gun-cotton, its Danger......0.....0ceresces BWM Ncaisercoteeeecscedasess 22 PI COMPOSIIONscscrqecsuscaecsataacsekor ee ctocarweccestiacsse 23 Chancoallfor Gunpowder... siccceossccksccotssossncsocdstcs scceseseciess 24 Pun Gs Oey OMe reccloeaeatacelesemctisaciecssaiececiasesieeesdcssccesseesesesleselse . 24 Preventing and Extinguishing Combustion.............000006 cesses PUA AB TASC Sreccencsstiiccssine cos seesesencsinne soteesticuisetoaccccesorasgeslcaceess sevee 26-38 1. VITRIFICATION, OR GLASS-MAKING .......c00csccececs cos eedilenes sees ss 26 Bohemian, Optical, Colored and Aventurine Glass ............ 26 Heematinone and Ruby-glass............sssesseee macease Recnetesits 27 Hydrated (Silicic- Aids... cis0...coresaeieese Gaoecceecs Boscesccacspacsses 28 Artificial Brilliants and Gems............s.ssee0e Safswasciees Seclenniece 28 Grinding and Cuttino Glass. 2c. 1ic0...sssecesceurrs saniscriersae soueese 28 Diamond) Carbon) and Coke... ccsecccstastsaciescsietcacicssecdscsescoos 28 Silly oninio Gasser racdatcadenscassced stcecace ssesieedstececdceabece sts 28 2. SEMIVITRIFICATION, OR POTTERY...........c0000. sa ancapineie ssenjecense 29 Bire-clay, from Husiple Clay iive.c.ccieoesessos ccocveccensocsseasiovaacs 30 HON COMMIME arcastssiscesccccuveeesiuesiets clececciscaces odeicsuenslesc Seow cdseiias 30 HUT SRRTOT RE OTCOLAIN a1: cacasiosocesedciesrtoassqoereonaccwentacessiensves 31 Aventurine Glaze for Porcelain. ...........cccccccioccessiesescsecs ove 31 Redebigmentsator se Orcelaitic.s.cs.sssecacssecetcscsettisesersseciavcese 32 GrayeEnameltor Porcelain: ..ssrasessepvcceescasccarerccocssles ees 33 Cement for Pottery: andiGlagss cs, .c.cclseduecsesteosyracescescncceisce 33 SL MAL DROPLASTICN ccpswosaeciicesesacnuacstineeecriret siecle umosovevecscacdeet . 83 Hiydraniic) Cement,....sscssdcecsenoeticetestaedecrt-csaslsspodacececesponce 34 Plaster MATGeMe 1,0. sn disla needs Adaeae’ goren ts sa) saepdacentsscceneacs 36 A2 5 6 CONTENTS. PAGE Artificial Siliceous Stone............ Rd oaeeaneulectortecswemeciusmeciser 37 Asphalt and Mastic......ccsscccscccceneeessnscsenecnsnecses ses ceseenens 387 Steam Cement..... UL Pcueecyanetsoneciee ee aeedinapenceecusne Messierente 38 TRE MB TAT UIRIGY: cscoccscstecenerestwaeesccseaeabcdocest eocsdensecisecedenncovenb's 89-90 Preparation of Carbonic Oxide........s:eseeeccceecneseeseseesseneenaeeese ces 39 1. PYROMETALLURGY ..... 19 Protosulphate Of IrOn cs. scsssosacceeeccsss =. 100 NCE tbe Ol, Leal vac acmee venpdosnatheecnisite Galan AT Ammonia is now added until the complete separation of the iron, and the potassa and ammonia salts then removed by washing and decantation. Red Pigments for Porcelain.—Salvetat, in his elaborate and valuable paper (Ann. de Chem. et de Phys. 1849) upon the red pigments used in porcelain painting, gives analyses of the celebrated chromatic series known as Pannetier’s. The shades which they impart are said to be unequalled for beauty, brilliancy, and transparency. The series consists of eleven tints, as follows: Orange. No. 1, or Capucin red. No. 2, or blood ge No. 3, or flesh 2 No. 4, or carmine ‘ No. 5, or lake ae No. 6, or pale violet red. NowT, orinony: 6654768 Nos Scor dark’ .7" © No. 9, or very dark violet red. Gray. The flux is the same for all, and consists of silex, borax, and minium. The coloring matter of all but the orange and Nos. 8, 9, 10, is exclusively peroxide of iron; and the modifica- tions of tint are due to a variation of the proportions, and particularly to a difference in the intensity of heat employed. CEMENT FOR POTTERY AND GLASS. 33 The orange contains, in addition to oxide of iron and flux, some oxide of zinc, with traces of alumina; and Nos. 8, 9, and 10 have oxide of manganese as part of their composition. The traces of alumina found in some of them do not act any important part, as its presence is not necessary in the prepara- tion of vitrifiable pigments. These tints are not equally permanent. The strength and blueness of tone increases with the temperature to which the pigment is subjected; the yellow tint predominating at low heats. The greatest purity is insured by using coloring mat- ter prepared so carefully that every particle has been heated, uniformly, to the same temperature. Gray Enamel for Porcelain.—Salvetat (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. xxv. 3842) has given a recipe for a new gray color for porcelain. It is more durable, and more certain and constant in its results, than the usual grays; and, on account of its agreeable tone, greater economy, and facility of preparation, has been introduced into the works at Sévres, as a substitute for iridium gray. It is prepared by mixing together 1 pt. of platinum powder with 3 pts. of glass, formed of 1 pt. sand, 3 pts. minium, and a half part calcined borax. Cement for Pottery and Glass.—W ichter describes a fusible cement for glass or pottery, which consists of 3 pts. red-lead, 2 pts. white sand, and 3 pts. crystallized boracic acid. They are well mixed in powder, fused in a Hessian crucible, poured out on a metallic plate, and ground fine. When used, it is mixed with tragacanth paste and applied to the parts to be joined, and the piece is then heated in a muffle at a low heat, not quite sufficient to melt the enamel. 3. HyDRopPLASTICs, Or making and using mortars, plaster casts, and artificial stone. Under this head may also be included lime and lime- kilns, hydraulic cements, asphalt pavements, and mastic used for coating walls. There is not much of novelty to offer in relation to this subject. 3 34 HYDROPLASTICS. [ HE. C. Morfit gives the composition of a fresh oyster-shell, as follows: WHEE SERN iis Saad 2.25 Organic Matter. (c8h.s ie. deaioes warded sds 0.90 Carbonate of dimiewik S69 Rak orca ine 93.89 Matters soluble in water : Alumina, magnesia, and phosphoric acid Withnlanies neha Alia. een Ae ue AL, Ss 0.70 Chloride of sodium, with traces of sul- phates of soda and lime...............0. 2.20 99.94 Hydraulic Cement.—According to O. Ostermeier (Jahrb. f. Prac. Chem. xiv. 259), when finely powdered marble, lime- stone, or chalk, is mixed to a paste with milk of lime, it har- dens rapidly, like hydraulic lime, has a feeble alkaline reaction, and resists water tolerably well. The mass is plastic and may be used to take large or small impressions. It forms a basic carbonate of lime, or, rather, a hydrocarbonate, which takes up water of crystallization. The analysis of a genuine Roman mortar from Pompeii leads to the inference that the Romans prepared their mortar from a mixture of caustic and carbonate of lime, with the addition of pulverized calcareous spar. Kuhlmann’s essay, in the Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. Nov. 1847, treats of the part performed by potassa and soda in hydraulic cement. He observes that most limestones, of what- ever geological age, contain these alkalies, whence the fertility of a lime soil, and from which we can explain the alkaline efflorescence on newly-constructed walls. He states that a hydraulic cement is made when powdered chalk is moistened with a solution of silicate of potassa (soluble glass); that when exposed to the air, it gradually becomes harder than hydraulie cement; that there is formed some silicate of lime and car- bonate of potassa. When chalk, mixed with water to a dough, is brought in contact with a solution of soluble glass (of soda or potassa), it becomes so hard in a few days as to scratch some marbles, exhibits a close grain, and admits of a fine HYDRAULIC CEMENT. 35 polish. Only 3-4 per cent. of silica, absorbed by the chalk, impart these properties. This material is well adapted to sculpture and various ornaments. Plaster of Paris (sulphate of lime), treated with soluble glass, is similarly silicated, and even plaster casts become hard and smooth on the surface. But the solution must be very dilute, or otherwise the surface cracks and scales off. If the articles to be hardened are to be exposed to the weather, the glass must be made with potassa, and not with soda, as the latter is more apt to effloresce. (See also Journ. Fr. Inst. (8) xvi. 201.) The carbonic acid of the air acts an important part in the induration of these compounds, by abstracting the alkali of the silicate, and thus freeing the silica, which, by contracting, promotes the solidification. Some of the most important principles in Kuhlmann’s essay were published by Fuchs, in his excellent essays on lime and mortar (Erdmann’s Journ. of Techn. Chem. vi.); on the pro- perties and constituents of hydraulic cements (Polytech. Journ. xlix. 271); on soluble glass (Polytech. Journ. xvii. 465), &e. A good essay on the action of carbonic acid in hydraulic cements, by Villeneuve, will be found in the Lond. Journ. Sept. 1850. Prechtel gives the following simple mode of making hy- draulic cement. Common burned lime is slacked with a solution of copperas, instead of with water, and then mixed with sand. (It may also be used without sand.) It hardens readily in the alr or under water, and becomes very hard. Experiments made with it on a large scale proved very satisfactory. When freshly prepared, it has a greenish color, from the segregation of protoxide of iron, passing into peroxide, when its color is yellowish; and to this oxidation Prechtel ascribes its harden- ing property. Sulphate of lime is also formed at the same time, and probably a double carbonate. (Polytech. Notizbl. 1846.) A slag, from an iron furnace, which forms, with lime, a hy- draulic cement, has been found to consist of : 36 HYDROPLASTICS. [ HX. Jacobi. Grashof. SHIGAiG as utenti er na AN as ain 4 40.44 PA Lunt an as isc! sis ede eames Nepales a tists 15.38 Time cacao eee DOME e a banicblie.e 33.10 Protoxide of manganese. 5.80............ 4.40 ee ATION Ss eeosels ee eee Skanes 1.63 Potassalsi ums seaeae Da wees lag 20T Sulphur yee snjelecemeiensevcten CoO ee atee<. 0.76 MOM Ole eeranceces SIEGS From these results, Elsner has deduced the formula 2(3CaQ, $10,+-Al,0,, 8i0,)+3CaO, 28i0,. See essays by Elsner on Puzzolan, &c., in Journ. f. Pract. Chem. 1844-1845, and on slags of blast-furnaces as hydraulic cements, in Verhandl. d. Gewerbv. f. Preussen, 1847. Those slags, decomposable by muriatic acid, are chiefly applicable to cements. The best method of testing them is to pulverize a piece very finely, and pour over it strong muriatic acid. If it become gelatinous in a short time, it is adapted to the pur- pose. A slag which was proved to be good for making the cement, had the composition: Silica, 40.12; alumina, 15.37 ; lime, 56.02; protoxide of manganese, 5.80; protoxide of iron, 1.25; potassa, 2.25; sulphur, 0.70 = 101.51. Plaster, or gypsum, may be boiled or deprived of its mois- ture by highly-heated steam, as described by Violette. (See Lend. Journ. p. 424, 1849.) See the apparatus for charring described in the present Report, under Pyrotechny, which is varied for adaptation to gypsum. Plaster hardened by Salts.—Boiled plaster, when mixed with a solution of alum, becomes remarkably hard, as shown by Elsner, (Verh. d. Gewerby. in Preussen, 1843.) A solution of 1 pt. borax in 9 pts. water has the same effect (Keating.) Gay-Lussac observes that raw, unboiled plaster in fine pow- der becomes similarly hard when mixed with solutions of car- bonate and bicarbonate, sulphate and bisulphate of potassa, and even caustic potassa. Soda salts, nitrate and muriate of potassa, are ineffective. ASPHALT, MASTIC. 3T Artificial Marble.—Bouisson’s patent is only for hardening plaster casts, by immersing them in a solution of alum, after being previously heated to about 84° for several hours. Els- ner observes, from his experiments, that previous heating is wholly unnecessary. Indurated Plaster.—Objects in plaster of Paris may be rendered like marble by coating them, one or more times, as may be necessary, with a liquid prepared as follows: 2 pts. of stearine and 2 pts. of Venitian soap are mixed with 20 to 30 pts. of cold solution of caustic potassa; and after a half-hours’ ebullition, 1 pt. of pearlash is added, and the heat continued for a few minutes. Cold ley in sufficient quantity to produce perfect fluidity is then stirred in, and the liquid set aside for several days under cover. (Archiv. der Pharm. lvi.) Artificial Silictous Stone.—Siemen’s patent, taken out for this purpose, in Bavaria, in 1845 (Kunst u. Gewerbebl. 1847), makes silicious stone in the following manner: 100Ib of caus- tic soda in solution is evaporated to 80 quarts, and 1Ib silica added for every quart. The solution is effected under a pressure of 4-5 atmospheres. This solution, mixed with quartz sand, hardens to a stone which strikes fire with steel. For building- stone, millstones, &c. 1 pt. of the solution is mixed with 2 volumes of fine silica, and to the whole are added 10-15 pts. sand of different degrees of fineness, and sometimes 5-6 pts. coarse sand or gravel in addition. When the stones are air- dried, they are kept for several days in an apartment heated to 104°. They become quite hard in 5-6 days. Asphalt, Mastic.—Asphalt pavements and floors have been successfully tried; roofs of an asphalt mastic have also been tried, and it is also proposed to employ it as a covering for bridges, roads, &e. (Lond. Journ. xxxvi.) The materials usually added to asphalt softened by heat are ground asphalt rock, limestone, sand, &c. Being put on a pavement or floor, in the softened state, the surface may be highly ornamented by inserting pieces or pebbles of various stones of different colors, producing designs in mosaic work, which, when well done, are said to be very durable. The experiment of such D 38 HYDROPLASTICS. [ HE. foot-pavements in Philadelphia have not been very successful ; probably owing to want of experience in those who constructed them, or possibly to some defect in the composition. In some instances, the asphalt covering is worn through in the course of a few years; in others, especially where exposed to the almost constant action of the summer’s sun, the asphalt, be- coming slightly softened, has been gradually pushed down the slope of the pavement, and appeared like a cascade of lava falling over the curbstone. An experiment made by J. C. Cresson, at the Philadelphia gas-works, some years since, with coal tar boiled down to pitch and thickened with sand, seemed to promise success. It was spread on a wooden floor, exposed to the weather and’ traversed frequently by carts, and yet showed few signs of complete abrasion, although subjected to so trying a test. A Steam Cement.—An English cement of this kind, ana- lyzed by Varrentrapp, consisted of 2 pts. litharge, 1 pt. fine sand, and 1 pt. fallen lime. After mixing the powder with oil or varnish, it should be used at once, as it soon becomes hard. It is used for stopping up joints in steam-engines. Ill. METALLURGY. METALLURGY embraces those chemical processes by which metals are extracted from their ores, as well as those by which the crude metal is refined or purified, and may be ex- tended to embrace further operations which have in view the production of alloys, or other modifications, which still present the metallic character. The extension of chemical technology has evolved new processes for extracting metals from their ores, and for producing metallic surfaces and other effects, without the employment of fire, which was an element in for- mer metallurgic processes. These processes being chiefly due to the employment of chemical agents, or the metals them- selves in aqueous solution, a distinct branch of metallurgy has arisen, which we term hydrometallurgy, in distinction from the more ancient pyrometallurgy. We have thrown the metals into groups, dependent on their similar mode of occurrence or similar treatment, beginning with iron, which is the most important, and which is exclusively obtained by the reduction of its oxide. Fuel affords heat for breaking up chemical af- finities already existing in the native compounds of the ores, and is at the same time the reducing agent for oxides. As ores are never found in a pure state, but always accompanied by foreign matter, this matter is removed by the addition of a flux, which fuses with the foreign matter to a glass or slag (cinder), and is then removed from the metal. On ancient metallurgy and mining in Britain, see an article by J. Phillips, in Phil. Mag. April, 1849, and Amer. Journ. (2) viii. 96-102, 258-263. Carbonic Oxide.—Filhol gives a convenient and economical method of obtaining this gas (Journ. de Pharm. et'de Ch. viii. 99), which consists in gently warming a mixture of 1 pt. sugar or starch with 4 pts. by weight of oil of vitriol, and passing the generated gas through milk of lime or potassa, to absorb 39 40 PYROMETALLURGY. [ KEE. carbonic and sulphurous acid. 20 grm. cane-sugar yield 2 litres gas, of which about $ is carbonic acid. We give this method of obtaining carbonic oxide, on account of its import- ance as a reducing agent, in order that experiments may be instituted with it. 1. PYROMETALLURGY, Or the operations upon metallic ores by fire. Tron.—Wrightson’s examinations of ores and iron from Staffordshire, and of the influence of the hot-blast, see in Chem. Gaz. vii. and viii. and Journ. Fr. Inst. (3) xvii. 201. For one of the most able investigations into the operations of the blast furnace, by Bunsen and Playfair, see Journ. Fr. Inst. (3) xvii. 268, 838, 3887; xvilil. 24, 186, 218. On the manufacture of iron in South Wales, see Journ. Fr. Inst. (3) xix. 339. Application of the Waste-gases of Blast-furnaces.—The masterly investigations of Bunsen on the working of blast- furnaces, above cited, have shown, that, under ordinary cir- cumstances, 4 of the heat produced is lost. The use of the waste-gases, proposed and executed in Germany, has been successfully carried out in Pennsylvania and other States, in many furnaces, especially where anthracite is employed, and, we believe, without serious detriment to the working of the furnace ; therefore, with greater economy of fuel, where boil- ers and an engine are employed for blowing. Mr.8. Colwell, of Philadelphia, succeeded so perfectly in abstracting the waste-gases, that, while the furnace was fully charged and doing its usual work below, we have stood upon the charge with impunity, without feeling the heat or observing the stifling sensation of carbonic acid and other gases from the combus- tion. It is surprising, therefore, to observe that the experi- ments in Wales have turned out unfavorably, as reported in the Journ. Fr. Inst. (3) xx. 277, and we think the remarks of a collaborator just. While on this point, we cannot forbear mentioning the white ALKALIMETRIC TEST FOR IRON. 41 deposit (often abundant) formed on the boilers and in the flues from the combustion of the waste-gases. A deposit of this kind, from the Conshohocken furnace of Mr. Colwell, was analyzed in the laboratory of one of us, by Mr. W. Fisher and Mr. J. Colwell, and proved to be almost wholly carbonate of potassa. From the Lebanon furnaces of the Messrs. Cole- man, Mr. W. Fisher reports that the white deposit was chiefly sulphate and muriate of potassa. The quantities deposited may admit of their application in the saline arts. Vanadium in Iron.—Deck and Wohler (Ch. Gaz. vi. 298), who examined the refining slag of Staffordshire, which has the reputation of imparting ductility to iron when mixed with it, found that it contained silicate of vanadic acid with minute portions of molybdenum, chrome, and the usual quantities of silicates and of phosphoric acid. Arsenic in Iron.—Schafhiiutl has shown the almost constant presence of arsenic and phosphorus in cast-iron, steel, and bar-iron, and connects their observation with the late discovery of both these elements in mineral waters, their ochreous de- posits and iron-ores. He attributes the quality of the Dan- nemora iron, and of the Low Moor iron (England) to their content of arsenic, and the quality of some Russia iron to its content of phosphorus. (Journ. f. Pr. Chem. xl. 304.) Alkalimetric Test for Iron.—According to Marguerite (Tech- nologiste, 1846), the iron is dissolved as protoxide, and con- verted into peroxide by a measured quantity of permanganate of potassa of known strength, and the total conversion is known by the liquid assuming a rose-red tint. The test liquid is obtained by fusing a mixture of 1 equiv. chlorate of potassa, 3 eq. caustic potassa, and 8 eq. binoxide of manganese, ex- tracting with a little water, treatment with muriatic acid, until a violet-color appears, and then filtering through asbestus. 1 eq. permanganate of potassa is equal to 10 eq. protoxide of iron. The iron test-liquid is prepared by dissolving 1 grm. pure iron-wire in 20 cubic centimetres pure muriatic acid, dilut- ing with 1 litre water and the permanganate dropped from a graduated tube until the liquid assumes a permanent rose-red p2 42 PYROMETALLURGY. [ HHH. color. The number of measures used corresponds exactly to 1 gm. of iron. The iron-ore to be tested is dissolved in mu- riatic acid, and any peroxide it may contain is reduced to protoxide by adding crystallized sulphite of soda. To this test it may be objected that it is difficult to prepare the permanganate with any degree of uniformity, and that if an excess of sulphate be added, the test-liquid would probably not indicate the amount of iron with exactness. Carbon in Cast, Steel, and Bar-iron.—Karsten has endea- yored to determine the limits in the amount of carbon, which separate cast-iron, steel, and bar-iron from each other, pro- ceeding on the assumption that their characteristic properties are due to their content of carbon. He first determined the carbon in a single cast-iron by various methods, from which it appears that combustion with a mixture of chlorate of potassa and chromate of lead, or separation by chloride of copper or chloride of silver, yielded the best results. In the white iron from sparry ore, the amount of carbon was 5.586. When iron contains as little as 2.3 per cent. carbon, it still exhibits the properties of cast-iron, especially its precipitation of graphite (making gray iron) when cooled slowly. It is not forgeable when containing 2 per cent., and this property seems to begin with a percentage of 1.9, when it forms steel. The steel is not, however, capable of being welded, and is barely capable of it when the proportion is reduced to 1.75. A percentage of 1.4 to 1.5 indicates the maximum of combined strength and hardness. When the quantity is reduced to 0.5 it is a very soft steel, and forms the proper line of demarcation between steel and bar-iron. These limits are higher with a purer iron, and lower when it contains silicium, phosphorus, and sulphur. On the protection of iron from oxidation by coating it, see Journ. Fr. Inst. (3) xix. 209. Reduction of Iron-ores.—Sir F. C. Knowles’ patent for re- ducing iron-ores consists in heating pure ores in retorts, and passing into them carbohydrogen from the coking of bitumin- ous coal, or carbonic oxide from the combustion of coals. The BAR MADE FROM CAST-IRON. 43 ore, when reduced, is transferred to and worked in puddling- furnaces. If steel be the object, the iron is suffered to remain in the retorts a longer time. Although there is every reason to believe that both bar-iron, steel, and cast-iron can be made in this manner, yet we may doubt the economical value of the project, except on a limited scale, for special purposes, and with the best ores. Iron must still be made by the older pro- cesses from poorer ores, which are much more abundant than the richer. For details of the patent, see Journ. Fr. Instit. (3) xx. 65. Cast changed to Bar-iron.—Stirling’s processes for the con- version of cast into bar-iron are deserving of consideration. To a given weight of cast-iron, about 35 to} as much scrap- iron is added, most conveniently by putting the scrap-iron into the hollows, which it is designed to fill by cast-iron run di- rectly from a blast-furnace. The pigs are then puddled as usual, taking care that the whole be thoroughly melted. The stream of cast-iron may also be run upon the hearth of a re- verberatory, containing scrap-iron, heated to a point below welding; the heat is raised until both are incorporated, and the metal is then run into a puddling-furnace. With better qualities of cast-iron, from ;'5 to + of scrap-iron may be used. In order to obtain a malleable iron, harder, less fibrous, and more granular than usual, 4 or 1 per cent. of tin is added to the malleable iron mixtures above described. Bismuth, an- timony, and arsenic will produce a similar effect. Such hard iron is said to work well, while hot, under the hammer, in the squeezer, between the rolls, and in the smithy. Zinc may be employed in the form of calamine. About the same quantity of copper also gives additional hardness to iron. Black oxide of manganese, in the proportion of 3} to 1 per cent. of the mixed malleable iron, gives a more steely character to it, hardening the iron and facilitating the puddling process. (Rep. Pat. Inv. July, 1850.) Bar made from Cast-iron.—Prof. Miller’s (Ch. Gaz. vi.) ana- lyses show that iron made by cementation contains more carbon than good bar-iron, but much less than it did before 44 PYROMETALLURGY. [ HEE. this process. The decrease is not in the (graphitic) carbon insoluble in acids, but in the chemically combined portion. Steel from Cast-iron.—The conversion of cast-iron into steel is desirable, if it can be effected rapidly and economically ; for articles might be cast directly from a blast-furnace or a cupola, and then steeled to a greater or less depth, without altering their form, inasmuch as only a small quantity of carbon, a small percentage of the weight, is required to be removed. For a large number of purposes, this steeling need not proceed to a great depth, especially where toughness of body is not a requisite. Attempts have been recently made to effect this decarbon- ization of cast-iron by burning off a part of the carbon in cast-iron, since it is known that the intermediate qualities of steel between bar and cast-iron are due to its intermediate state of carbonization. Riepe’s process (Lond. Journ. Oct. 1850) is a modification of the process for decarbonizing cast- iron in a puddling-furnace by regulating the heat in the finish- ing process, and adding iron towards the latter part of the process. He also proposes imbedding cast-iron in clay and keeping it at the welding heat of steel, to effect the same pur- pose; and still further, the oxidation of castings by atmo- spheric air. The process of making malleable castings is also based on the same general principle. Such processes, as far as we know, can only produce inferior qualities of steel, al- though they may possibly produce a material having exactly the due quantity of carbon; for as the metal is subjected to a comparatively small amount of working, a considerable propor- tion of the impurities, silicium, phosphorus, sulphur, metals, &e. will remain in the mass and deteriorate the quality of the metal. The superior quality of steel is mainly due to a more or less perfect removal of injurious constituents, while, at the same time, much iron is oxidized and removed. By any of the processes yet known, it is impossible to avoid labor and loss of iron in making steel, and these seem to be in direct pro- portion to the quality of steelto be made. Late examinations ~ by Miller of castings rendered malleable by cementation, GENERAL DIFFUSION OF COPPER AND ARSENIC. 45 (Proc. Brit. Assoc. 1849, Amer. Journ. (2) vii. 276, and Journ. Fr. Inst. (3) xvii. 71), seemed to prove that not only carbon, but even silicium had been extracted. ‘This startling assertion needs further investigation; for, should it be confirmed, the present modes of making bar-iron and steel may eventually give place to, or be modified by, processes of cementation. Steel from Bar-iron.—It would be an important addition to the metallurgy of iron, if we possessed a rapid, economical, and efficient method of partially converting wrought-iron into steel ; for iron may be more conveniently forged than cast into many forms, and, if they were then steeled externally, or at certain required points, would possess a core of tough metal with an exterior capable of being hardened. Hence, patents have issued and processes been proposed to effect this object; but we may conclude that the experiments have not been suc- sessful, since they have not come into general use. Charcoal, mixed with a little borax, salammoniac and saltpeter, has been proposed (Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 26) as a material to imbed articles forged of iron. As prussiate of potash has a marked effect in converting iron into steel, a bed of charcoal imbued with a solution of the prussiate might answer the desired end. The greatest difficulty lies in limiting the depth of the trans- formation into steel, since the depth seems to depend on the length of cementation, so that large and small pieces cannot be cemented at the same time in the same bed. 2. Copper.—This metal, one of the next in value to iron, is chiefly furnished by Cornwall, England, where, as in most other localities, it occurs in the form of pyrites, or sulphuret of iron and copper. ‘The same ore has recently been found at Perkiomen, on the Schuylkill River, near Philadelphia, in a good vein. The native copper formations at Lake Superior are truly gigantic; but if past experience be our guide, they will continue to yield profitably during a lengthened period of time, only when veins of pyrites shall have usurped the deposits of the native metal. Copper and Arsenic, their general diffusion.—(Moniteur Industriel, 1846,—Dingler’s Journ. ciii.) Walchner finds that 4G PYROMETALLURGY. [ MEE. very small quantities of copper and arsenic are contained in all iron-ores, in ochres, ochreous deposits from springs, marls, and meteoric masses. It may be proved by dissolving them in pure muriatic acid, passing sulphuretted hydrogen through the solution to saturation, and suffering the precipitate to settle in a stoppered bottle. See also Buchner, Jr., on the content of arsenic, copper, and tin in the mineral waters of Bavaria. (Gelehrte Anzeigen d. K. B. Acad. d. Wissenschaften, No. 75,1847 ; Schafhiutl Untersuch. d. Eisenerze, Dingler’s Journ. Ixxiv. 303.) : Pelouze’s Alkalimetric Test.—This method, both exact and rapid, depends upon the perfect precipitation of copper from its ammoniacal solution by sulphuret of sodium, and the exact point is indicated by the change from a deep-blue to a color- less solution. One gramme of the substance to be tested is dissolved in 7-8 cubic centimetres of nitric acid, the solution diluted with water, and, after precipitating any silver that may be present with muriatic acid, treated with 20-25 cubic centimetres of caustic ammonia. ; —— 100.0 99.73 99.88 California gold has a dark color, from its light coating of oxide of iron; but when fused, its light color indicates a large percentage of silver. The average fineness of California gold, as determined by some thousand assays at the United States Mint, Philadelphia, is 885 thousandths, or 884 per cent. pure gold, and 115th or 11} per cent. silver, omitting mere traces of other metals. For Iridosmin, see below. The gold production of Russia in 1847 was about 17? mil- lions of dollars, and supposing it to have increased 100 pounds per annum, it would amount to 20 millionsin 1850. The pro- duce of California may be estimated at 50 millions. These numbers being moderate estimates from known returns, the quantity of gold from the new sources of this metal in Russia and the United States was 70 millions, or more than 300,000 troy pounds, in 1850. Extraction of Gold from Ores.—Allain and Bartenbach’s process (Comptes Rendus, 1849) for extracting gold is ap- plicable to all pyritous ores, even when the proportion of noble metal does not exceed two ten-thousandths. For working ore containing this quantity, the expense will be about $40 for every pound of gold obtained. The ore, after being roasted in the air, is powdered, sieved, re-roasted into a red mass, made into paste with sulphuric acid of 66°, and again roasted until the entire cessation of sulphurous fumes. Sulphur, zinc, and copper are thus largely removed. The ore is now reduced to a still finer powder, boiled with dilute oil of vitriol, and the undissolved residue digested in a mixture of 6 pts. muriatic acid of 21° and 1 pt. nitric acid of 36°, diluted with water. Copper and gold are 60 PYROMETALLURGY. [ WHE. then thrown down by iron, the precipitate calcined to oxidize the copper, which is to be dissolved out with muriatie or sul- phuric acid. A better method for pyritous ores is to roast them partially, if not already oxidized, and to melt them in a low blast-furnace, using a siliceous ore as a flux, if necessary. A large portion of oxide of iron will thus be removed, and the gold concen- trated in the remaining sulphuret of iron, which could then be worked by dilute sulphuric acid.—J. CL B. On the use of chloride of lime and hyposulphites, for ex- tracting gold from its ores,.see an essay by Percy, in Phil. Mag. 3 ser. xxxvi. 1-8. Toughening Gold.—W olff proposes, in the Practical Hand- book for Jewellers, to fuse the brittle gold in a new crucible, and when melted to throw in one or two pieces of sulphur of the size of a pea, to shake the crucible a little with the tongs, and to cast it rapidly into a heated mould. He also proposes to render small pieces malleable by coating them with powdered borax, and heating them in the blowpipe flame until the surface commences fusion. Both of these methods are resorted to at the United States Mint, but the choice of either depends upon the nature of the accompanying metals that give the gold its brittle character. When there is a quantity of iron present, the gold is fused with a mixture of sulphur, potash, and soda, which will remove it by making the very fusible mixture of sulphurets of iron and alkali. If tin, arsenic or antimony be present, a good flux is a mixture of borax, soda, and saltpeter, the last for oxidizing the foreign metals into their respective acids, the soda to give base to those acids, and the borax to collect the slag. In both these cases, a sand or clay crucible is preferable to a black-lead pot, in which last the graphite acts reducingly. Where lead is present, this process may partially effect its removal; but it is more completely effected during quartation and by washing the fine gold thoroughly with hot water, after extracting the silver by nitric acid. Another method of re- moving lead would be to fuse the gold with a little saltpeter, SOLUTION OF PLATINUM SAND. 61 borax, and silica, whereby a fusible slag of oxide of lead would result, and might be skimmed from the surface of the gold. Palladium and platinum, not unfrequently present in California gold, are likewise removed by the nitric acid in parting silver from gold. Grains of iridosmin have been observed in Ca- lifornia gold, in distinct particles, even after three or more fusions, and seem to have no tendency whatever to enter into an alloy; but, while casting such gold, these particles collect at the bottom of the pot, from their greater specific gravity, and, by remelting in a small crucible, and carefully casting, they may be obtained mixed with a small quantity of gold. The latter is dissolved by nitromuriatic acid, and the iridosmin obtained pure.—J. CL B. 8. Platinoid Metals.—Platinum is associated with several other metals in the platinum sand which is found in some gold-districts. They have not been found as a distinct deposit in California, but have been observed in the United States Mint in the operations of assaying and parting. These as- sociated metals are palladium, rhodium, iridium, and osmium, to which we must add the lately discovered metal, ruthenium. They have a sufficient resemblance to be classed together, and are obtained by a similar hydrometallurgic treatment. The grains of iridosmin, alluded to under gold, have been quali- tatively examined and found to contain the new metal ruthe- nium, as was observed by Claus in relation to the iridosmin from other localities. Palladium has been observed, and at times in sufficient quantity to render the gold brittle. The quantities of platinoid metals found in the California gold are small, about 14%b of iridosmin having been obtained from about 25 tons of the gold, ;yo00, but the greater part has, of course, passed into the coin, the coarser grains only being left.—J. C. B. Solution of Platinum Sand.—To dissolve it more readily, it is fused with 5 times its weight of zine, and the brittle mass thus obtained is powdered and sifted. It is digested with dilute sulphuric acid to dissolve most of the zine and iron, washed with water, and then boiled with nitric acid, which F 62 PYROMETALLURGY. [ BE. dissolves iron, copper, lead, and palladium. The finely divided platinum in the residue is dissolved by nitromuriatic acid, avoiding an excess of muriatic, which would dissolve too much iridosmin. The usual method requires 8-10 times its weight of nitromuriatic acid. (Hess in Bullet. de l’Acad. de St. Petersbourg.) Palladium.—According to Schmidt and Johnston, it is ob- tained from the gold-ores of Gongo Socco, Brazil, which contain gold, silver, palladium, copper, and iron, by dissolving in nitric acid, which leaves the gold, precipitating silver from the solution by common salt, and precipitating palladium and copper from the last filtrate by metallic zinc. These two metals are then dissolved in nitric acid and an excess of am- monia added, which precipitates the ammonia-palladium salt and holds the copper in solution. By igniting the palladium salt, metallic spongy palladium is obtained, which is condensed by a hydraulic press, and hammered like platinum. 6000 oz. of palladium have been thus extracted. On this method we would observe that, unless the gold contain a sufficient amount of the other metals, these metals cannot be fully extracted. Moreover, it is doubtful whether all of the copper would be extracted from the palladium salt by ammonia; and if pure palladium be required, it would probably be necessary to re- peat the solution in nitric acid and separation by ammonia. 9, Nickel and Cobalt.—These metals being usually found together, and each impairing the other’s qualities, they are separated chiefly by hydrometallurgic treatment, after con- centration by calcination of their ores and fusion. They are usually combined with arsenic, but in Mine a la Motte, Mis- souri, they are either sulphurets or oxides. They are nowhere: abundant. ‘Traces of cobalt, sometimes amounting to 2 and 3 per cent., may be found in nearly all the ores of manga- nese.—J. C. B. 10. Alloys.—Most metals will fuse together and remain united while cooling, and sometimes the compounds offer pro- perties intermediate between those of their constituents. Thus brass is intermediate in color and toughness between copper 9 ALLOYS. 63 and zine; so gold and silver, or either of these, with copper. But, in some instances, the properties of the alloy are different ; thus bronze, although intermediate in color between its con- stituents, copper and tin, presents an extraordinary combina- tion of hardness and toughness. A small quantity of tin, lead, or zine renders gold brittle. By alloying metals, there- fore, we may obtain bodies which, for all practical purposes, are so many new metals. — Bronze.—The following table exhibits the composition of some ancient and modern bronze and bell-metal, according to recent analyses. Analyst. . Ancient Attic bronze 88.46|10.04] 1.50) ... ] ... |... |... | A. Mitscherlich. . Athenian bronze, of the Roman pe- riod G41) 7.05) T6854]! cock |Iiesen diesen lla ccaulmechmid. 3. Athenian bronze../83.62/10.85| 5.53) ... |... |. |... | Wagner. . Coin of a Macedo- nian king S95 Tas ee callin caleve: |p eoel in ssen || SLOUSC. . Coin of Alexander the Great .........|95.96! 3.28] 0.76)... ltrace.|.--» |... | Schmid. . Coin of Alexander the Great 86.76|10.24| 2.31] ... ltrace.| ... |... | Wagner. . Attic coin 87.89|11.58) .... 10. Peet reecu|eeeent lich. : ut SSiSLi OS Glie sells CeeteNees ol decmd sel dt: . Darmstadt chime, B, above first line}73.94/21.67| 1.19/0.17) ... |2.11/trace.| Heyl. . Darmstadt chime, C, treble clef...... 72.52/21.06) 2.14/0.15) ... 2.66)trace. Heyl. See an excellent article on the alloys of copper and tin, in Technologiste, and in the Lond. Journ. Oct. 1850. Speculum Metal.—(Chinese metallic mirrors.)—Copper 80.836 + Lead 9.071 + antimony 8.43 = 98.337. It con- tained no trace of arsenic, exhibited a brilliant polish, and did not tarnish in the air. The presence of antimony is in- teresting, as it is not employed for metallic mirrors, and the above metals will probably be well adapted to the mirrors of telescopes. [ BER. PYROMETALLURGY. f Chinese copper or Packfong, and of German Silver, German Silver.—The following table exhibits the composi- 4 tion o 6 a lig See K ra 8 : 5 o 8 oS E = 3 4 ‘3 a : ee 23 = | Analyst. 3 SN 4 3 A R a i a 1. Chinese copper or Packfong...... 87.54 sets 11.84 | 0.44 | 1.17 | 0.12 | 0.10 ... || 8.57 | Ounen. 2. se Ce ease es 85.09 Sie 9.49 | 1.16 | 4.08 | 0.14 | 0.49 we. || 7.84 oc 3 ass Red No.:1...2.5.;.: 98.49 aoe 1.19 0.01 | 0.14 sa vena |(eSeOL uG 4, se Us Der Suetiacs 97.79 aie 1.85 0.21 | 0.50 : : 8.93 “ 5. ce et Oleananuees 82:21 |. 17.56 | 0.71 0.19 | 0.07 ae : 8.70 bs 6 KC 6 NA ierescse| 02.49-| 80,84 | 0.74 0.40 | 0.07 es 8.45 ie 2 7 KX Ge oy Dutvesanese 97.12 ate 1.84 setae : 0.80 | Lead.|| 8.58 ts a 8 ce Blackish red...... 92.65 Baie 2.11 coo eal BOLLO .. | 0.06 | 5 75 |} 8.70 ee eal go: “ Ge NOOAO MC seus c | OAC [ance EAB a om | MOA ee ee) eon) aes s 10. English German-silver.............. 61.04 | 19.25 | 20.20 —— ae i ra ..» | Elsner. G3 anal: oe Steen Nare cslocene ss 65.24 | 19.52 | 13.00 12.00 2.05 sue) |QURLIYS ne ee sy es cc OS daecameseeset d SiO 28.4 Or; ee CO ice aes Sct soe OPAC tes a @ | 18. Birminghat Eng. ¢* i.cccccc0s8ss- 68.34 | 17.01 | 19.138 re Bee aes sae a8 ... | Louyet. So 1a “ enter tives 62.40 | 22.15 | 15.05 |]... es ao ee ae Fe “ 2 as CO saanienee sctneten 62.63 | 26.05 | 10.85 ee wee ad Ree ne a 6 S Meee See eS eee ~ a0 = > 3° 5 5 3B No. 10 was from Sheffield, England, and characterized by its silvery color and its great elasticity; No. 11 was termed ALLOYS. 65 Chinese silver, and No. 12 exhibited a fine silver-color. Els- ner ascribes the elasticity to the greater content of copper. Nos. 18, 14, and 15, analyzed by Louyet, were used in Bir- mingham for articles to be plated. Malleable Brass.—Elsner (Newton’s Journ.) has prepared malleable brass, by fusing together 60 pts. copper, and 40 pts. zinc. Great care is requisite in the heating, lest too much loss of zinc might ensue, and thus render the process unsuccessful. To obviate this difficulty, he advises the better plan of substituting a proportional mixture of brass for the zinc, and supplying the deficiency of copper. This alloy is close-grained, of spec. grav. 8.44 at 50° F., very tough and malleable when heated. Its hardness = 4. Tungsten and Copper.—Dr. Percy (Ch. Gaz. vi.), who made a series of experiments upon the subject, found that tungsten does not, as was anticipated from its peculiar nature, impart hardness to copper and protect it from oxidation. The essays with brass, German silver, and other metals, gave similar results. Alloy for Bearings of Axles of Locomotives.—An alloy of 85 lead and 15 antimony is recommended to be cast in a box, and then greased in the usual way with soda, tallow, and palm oil. The part did not become warm, and the alloy prevented the lateral vibrations. Alloys for Bearings of Rollers, Turning-lathes, Wagon- boxes, §ce.—For heavy works, Tapp recommends 1b copper, 3% oz. tin, and 44 oz. lead. The copper is first fused, the tin next added, and lastly, the lead; and, before casting, the whole is well mixed. For smaller machinery with hand-power, the best alloy is 73 pts. tin, 18 pts. antimony, and 9 pts. copper. Fenton recommends the following alloy as having proved serviceable for bearings on English railroads: 80 pts. zine, Oo} pts. copper, and 143 pts. tin. It is 40 per cent. cheaper than brass, may be fused in iron pots, and is a good alloy for cocks. See a tabulated view of many alloys, employed in the arts, in different proportions, in the Polytech. Notizblatt, 1847, &. F2 5 66 PYROMETALLURGY. [ HEE. White, Malleable Alloy.—Parkes gives the two following proportions (Rep. of Pat. Inv. July 1845) : 351b zine, 64tb tin, 1416 iron, 2416 copper. 50 66 48 66 1 66 3 6é The iron and copper are first fused together, the tin then added, and lastly the zinc. The flux consists of 1 pt. lime, 1 pt. fluor spar, and 3 pts. salammoniac. It is cast in sand or moulds. Another alloy consists of : 66 zine, O24 tin, 34 antimony. 192 66 192 66 22 66 It is fused with black flux, and, if used for sheathing ships, 3 to 1 per cent. arsenic should be added. The alloy may be rolled cold into thin sheets. Alloys for Dentists—The following proportions are re- commended : Le 2: 3. 4, 5. Golds aasipe oss Lh itinte dee shoul as-cast eaO SILVER Aes vesuteeseieek aes Ses el elie gic red ae oe nn be oc Platimumissavescccronss DN AS Dy ioe ieee aD Palladium jess. <2. tas Seni — ee SIS The gold and silver are first fused, and the platinum and palladium then added. They are fused in small erucibles and require a blast. The solder for these alloys is either pure gold or an alloy of gold and silver. (Rep. of Pat. Inv. 1845, p: 12.) Amalgam for Filling Teeth.—Pettenkofer (Ann. der Chem. und Pharm. 1849) has described an amalgam used by dentists. It is very hard, adhesive, and of a grayish color ; and, owing to the very slight difference of density in the soft and hard state, it occupies the same space when cool as in the plastic state. This latter condition is given by heating the amalgam to nearly the boiling point of mercury, and then triturating it, for some time, in a mortar. After cooling, it is soft and readily worked either with the fingers or tools. In a few hours, it becomes intensely hard. The following is the best process for'the preparation of this amalgam. Weigh out a quantity of pure mercury, dissolve it in aq. s. of hot sul- FRAUDULENT GOLD. 67 phuric acid, and triturate the resulting paste of sulphate with pure, finely-divided copper, diffused in water at 140°-158°. There must be sufficient copper to form a composition of 70 pts. mercury and 30 pts. copper, or enough to reduce all the mercury salt employed, and to alloy the mercury eliminated. After rubbing for some time, the amalgam is to be well washed, pressed in a leather bag, and formed into small cakes for use. Various Alloys.—Stirling forms an alloy of zinc and iron, by throwing a quantity of zinc into a cupola after the metal is run out and the blast stopped, whereby an alloy is formed with the iron still adhering to the sides, fuel, &&. When the alloy contains more than 7 per cent. iron, zinc is to be added to it; when less than 4 per cent., iron is to be added, the best alloy containing from 4 to 7 per cent. iron. This alloy is used for other alloys instead of zinc. An alloy of copper and man- ganese is made by adding to melted copper from 4 to 2 per cent. of black oxide of manganese, or by mixing them before- hand and then melting, keeping the metal in either case covered with a reducing flux. A gold-colored alloy is pro- duced by adding 1 pt. of the zine alloy to 4 pts. of the copper alloy: it is very malleable and ductile, and takes a fine polish. The addition of } per cent of tin hardens the gold alloy, al- though as much as 4 per cent. may be used. To prevent heating by friction, lead may be added to the alloy. An improved German silver is made by melting 10 pts. copper, 2 pts. nickel, and 6 pts. of the iron-zine alloy; or 8 pts. cop- per, 2 pts. nickel, and 4 pts. of the iron-zinc alloy. A much larger proportion of iron-zine renders the metal too hard for rolling, but good for some casting. An excess of copper spoils the color. The nickel and copper are first melted and the zine alloy then introduced under cover of a reducing flux. (Rep. Pat. Inv. July, 1850.) Fraudulent Gold.—When gold of 12 carats or less, is al- loyed with zine instead of silver, it still retains a true golden color, and this property has caused its extensive use in the manufacture of fraudulent jewelry. (Technologiste, 1847.) 68 PYROMETALLURGY. [ HWE. Peruvian Gold Alloy.—According to How (Journ. Pract. Chem. xliii.), the Peruvian gold alloy consists of gold 38.93, silver 54.828, copper 5.80. 11.—A few operations on the metals, connected with the preceding subject, are here thrown together. Metal Pipes and Tubes.—An improvement consists in the em- ployment of machinery for ramming the moulds and cores, and a measured quantity of sand being pressed into each portion of the flask and between the converging sides of the divided core-box, and for forming a core by enveloping a metal rod in a coil of wire upon which the sand is compressed. (Lond. Journ. xxxvil. Aug.) Cleaning Metal Castings.—To cleanse metal castings, they are usually thrown into water acidulated by sulphuric or mu- riatic acid; but as some metal is removed and the surface left rough, the process is objectionable. Thomas and Delisse found by their experiments that if several organic substances were added to the acid water, the scale of dirt and oxide was removed, but the surface of the metal unattacked. Elsner found that tar added to the acid water completely cleansed an iron casting, while another piece of casting in the usual acid water was nearly dissolved. (Technologiste. See also Journ. Fr. Inst. (3) xviii. 49.) Enameled Iron.—After cleaning the surface to be enameled, the enamel is laid on as a paste and burned in under a muffle. F. Walton (Lond. Journ. Arts, 1847) uses three successive layers, which are as often heated in the muffle. The first coat is made by fritting 6 pts. pounded flint-glass, 3 pts. borax, 1 pt. red lead, and 1 pt. oxide of tin. One part of this frit, mixed with 2 pts. calcined and ground bones, is ground fine with water, spread over the metallic surface as a thick paste, dried, and then heated to redness in the muffle. The second coat is made of 32 pts. calcined and ground bones, 16 pts. kaolin, 14 pts. Cornish granite, and 8 pts. potash in solution : the paste thus made is fritted for 2-3 hours in a reverberatory and then powdered. Of this frit 53 pts. are mixed with 16 pts. coarsely-powdered flint-glass, 53 pts. calcined and ground WELDING POWDER. 69 bones, and 3 pts. ignited and ground flints. The mixture is then ground with water, spread over the first coat and burned in. The third and last coat (which is similarly treated) con- sists of 12 pts. powdered feldspar, 43 pts. kaolin, 18 pts. borax, 8 pts. saltpeter, 1} pt. potash, and 14 pt. oxide of tin. Soldering Salt (chloride of zinc and ammonium).—Vessels may be tinned with this salt without previously cleansing their surfaces. It is made by dissolving 11b zinc in muriatic acid, adding 22 pts. salammoniac to the solution, and evaporating to dryness ; the yield is 2}1b of the double salt. To use it, the salt, moistened with water, is brushed on the surface to be tinned, a little solder laid on it here and there, and the surface heated until the solder fuses, when it flows wherever the salt was put, and unites with the metallic surface. (Journ. f. Buchdruckerk. 1847, No. vii.) .Tinning.—According to Becquerel, well-cleansed vessels of iron and copper may be tinned by dipping them into a solution of the double salt of chloride of tin and sodium, at a heat of 160° assisted by contact with zine. Soldering Wrought and Cast-iron.—Filings of soft cast-iron are melted with calcined borax, the mass pulverized and sprinkled on the parts to be united. They are then separately heated and welded together on an anvil by gentle blows. (Journ. Fr. Inst. (3) xviii. 50.) Welding Powder.—To melted borax, ;!, salammoniac is added, the mixture poured on an iron plate, and an equal weight of quicklime ground up with it. Iron ‘or steel to be welded is first heated to redness, the mixture laid on the weld- ing surfaces, and the metal again heated, but far below the usual welding heat. The pieces unite firmly by hammering. (Lond. Builder, 1848.) 2, HyDROMETALLURGY Embraces those processes performed by liquid agents on metals, by which they are procured again from combinations in the metallic state. .Some of these operations are included 70 HYDROMETALLURGY. [ WHR. in Pyrometallurgy, as they constitute some of the necessary steps for extracting metals from their ores and purifying them. The present division embraces all other liquid metal- lurgic processes, especially the wide-spreading branch of gal- vanoplastics, together with etching metals and photography. When we say that carbon is the great reducing agent em- ployed in metallurgy, we refer to its exclusive use from time immemorial in furnaces, both as fuel and a reducing agent; but recent experiments have shown its reducing and decompos- ing power even in solution. Refer, also, to the third division of Chemies for its decomposing power. Deoxidation by Carbon in the wet way.—Schonbein has ascertained that the persalts of iron and the salts of red oxide of mercury may be reduced, by agitating their solutions with finely powdered charcoal (as ignited lamp-black) to salts of protoxide of iron, and of the black oxide of mercury ye- spectively. On the reduction of salts of iron to the metallic state, see Journ. Fr. Inst. (8) xix. 354, and Chem. Gaz. April, 1850. 1. Galvanoplastics.—We have a few points to offer on the general subject of galvanoplastics, by which metals are pre- cipitated in the metallic state by a galvanic arrangement, on surfaces previously rendered conductive. These processes, chiefly confined to gold and silver, are fast replacing the more ancient methods of plating, over which they possess great advantages, economy of time and material, convenience, facility for obtaining plating of any required thickness, &e. Cyanides. Solution of metals in cyanide of potassium.— Elsner has described in the Journ. f. Pract. Chemie, vol. xxxvii. 1846, experiments on the solubility of various metals in cyanide of potassium, the general results of which he thus gives. He found that the metals employed might be divided into two groups: those which do not dissolve, as ‘platinum, tin, and mercury, and those which dissolve. The latter are again divisible into two groups: those dissolving with the decomposi- tion of water, as iron, copper, zine, and nickel; and those unattended by the decomposition of water, as gold, silver, and PLATING BY GOLD OR SILVER. tt cadmium. Solution is effected in both cases by oxygen, but in one it is evolved from water, in the other extracted from the air. A part of the cyanide of potassium is oxidized to potassa (hydrogen escaping when water is decomposed), and the cyanogen, set free, unites with the metal; the metallic cyanide then forms a double salt with cyanide of potassium. Oxide of Gold.—Figuier (Journ. de Pharm. 1847), who tested the several methods of preparing this oxide, now so extensively used in electro-gilding, has determined the best to be as follows. Dissolve 1 pt. gold in 4 pts. aqua regia, evaporate to dryness, redissolve in water, add a little aqua regia to take up the traces of metallic gold and of proto- chloride remaining undissolved. Evaporate again, redissolve in water, and mix with pure potassa perfectly free from chloride, until it gives an alkaline reaction with turmeric paper. Turbidity immediately ensues, when it is mixed with chloride of barium ;—aurate of baryta precipitates as a yellow powder. When the precipitate begins to assume a whitish appearance, the addition of chloride of barium must be discontinued, as all the gold oxide has gone down and the alkali commenced to act upon the baryta of the chloride. The aurate of baryta is then to be washed until the waste-waters cease to be pre- cipitated by sulphuric acid. The aurate is then heated to boiling, with dilute nitric acid, in order to eliminate the oxide of gold. By washing until the water no longer reddens litmus paper, the oxide becomes pure, and must be dried between the folds of bibulous paper by exposure to air. Amalgamated .« Zine.—Stoddard (Silliman’s Journ. 1849) has recommended the following method of amalgamating zine for cylinders for galvanic batteries. The zinc is heated to 450—500° and moistened with a solution of double chloride of zine and ammonium, and mercury immediately dropped over the surface while still moist—the union is complete in a few seconds. 2. Plating by Gold or Stlver.—Both galvanic and other methods are here included, as far as they have been recently improved. — Te HYDROMETALLURGY. [ HEE. Plating in the cold.—Stein (Polytec. Centralbl. 1847) mixes 1 pt. nitrate of silver and 3 pts. cyanide of potassium, adding sufficient water to make a thick paste, and rubs the mixture with a woollen rag upon a clean surface of copper, bronze, or brass. The process gives a bright silver surface, which, however, will not bear violent friction with chalk or tripoli. Roseleur and Lavaux’s method (Liebig and Kopp’s Rep., and Technologiste, 1847) is the use of a bath of 100 pts. of sulphite of soda, containing 15 pts. of silver-salt. Neither of these processes yields very durable coatings. Plating by dipping.—Levol employed solutions of cyanide of gold and of silver in cyanide of potassium, and articles of copper, bronze, and brass, to be gilt, were dipped into the boiling gold solution; but silver could not be gilt in this man- ner, and Levol proposed for it a solution of chloride of gold in sulphocyanide (rhodanide) of potassium. It was, however, shown that silver might be gilt in cyanide of gold and po- tassium, by wrapping it with zine or copper wire, and then dipping it into the boiling-hot solution. Thus, to gild the inner surface of a silver cup, such wire is wound around the interior, and the boiling cyanide solution pouredin. The zine or copper renders the silver more strongly electronegative. A beautiful gilding is obtained by dissolving fine metallic gold in a solution of cyanide of potassium, and the metallic gold is obtained by precipitating its solution by copperas, or by imbu- ing rags with the solution and burning them to ashes. By warming the solution of cyanide of potassium with the latter, the gold is dissolved, and the solution filtered off from charcoal and ashes. Rags imbued with nitrate of silver, and burned, may be similarly used for making a solution of cyanide of silver and potassium. Gilding in Elkington’s Liquid.—Experiments in the Ge- werbe-Institut of Berlin lead to the following proportions as the best for this liquid. Fine gold is dissolved in a sufficient quantity of aqua regia, evaporated to dryness at a gentle heat, and dissolved in 13 pts. water; 7 pts. bicarbonate of potassa FIRE-GILDING OF IRON AND STEEL. 73 are added to the solution, which assumes a greenish color and becomes a little cloudy. Barral (Mémoire sur la Précipitation de Or a)’ Etat Métal- lique, Paris, 1846) gives his experiments; among others, the following. A bright article of silver, connected by copper wire with a piece of copper, which has been ignited and quenched in dilute sulphuric acid, is beautifully gilt, of any desired thickness, in the liquid. The bright article forms the negative, and the dull copper, the positive pole. Brought in contact with zine, the silver is gilt more rapidly, and the action is strongest when the silver is connected with lead. The me- tal serving as positive pole is covered with a strong precipitate of pulverulent gold. By connecting copper with zine, or iron with lead, the former is powerfully gilt. Bright copper is strongly gilt in connection with dull copper (ignited), while the latter is covered with a powdery deposit. Gilding on Iron and Steel.—Elsner showed, in 1841, that steel pens may be heavily gilt, by first removing their blue coating by dilute muriatic acid, and then dipping them into a solution of chloride of gold rendered alkaline by carbonate of soda. Schoppler gives the following method for coating larger articles. (Polytech. Notizbl. 1847.) The surface of iron or steel, being brightened by the file, and coated with lack-varnish, those portions to be gilt are freed from the lacquer, etched by dilute sulphuric acid, dried, and dipped into a very dilute solution of blue vitriol until they are coated with copper. The metal is then dipped into a solution of 100 pts. gold in 13,000 pts. water, to which 370 pts. carbonate of soda are added. The gilding may be polished. Fire-gilding of Wrought and Cast-iron, and Steel.—This operation, readily performed on bronze and copper by amal- gamating their surface, has not been applied to iron, on account of the difficulty of amalgamating its surface; but R. Bittger has contrived the following good method of effecting it. A mixture is made in a porcelain vessel, of 12 pts. mercury, 1 pt. zinc, 2 pts. copperas, 12 pts. water, and 1} pt. muriatic acid of spec. gray. 1.2. The article of iron or steel to be gilded ( 74 HYDROMETALLURGY. [ WHE. is introduced into this mixture, which is then heated to boiling, and in a short time is again withdrawn, covered by a shining coat of mercury. It is now ready to receive the amalgam of gold or silver for the purpose of fire-gilding (Pogg. Annal. 1846). The strongly positive zinc amalgam increases the electric tension between the positive iron and negative mer- cury, so as to cause their union. Gilding Watch-wheels.—Ph. Plantamour prepares an amal- gamating fluid for gilding wheels of watches, which, being alkaline, cleans and amalgamates the wheels at the same time, without injuring the steel pivots. Mercury is dissolved in an excess of nitric acid, and ammonia added to the solution until the precipitate at first formed is redissolved. The wheels being immersed in this solution, the ammonia dissolves fatty matters, with other impurities, from the surface, and the brass is amalgamated. While still moist, the wheels are covered with gold amalgam, put on a drum with holes for inserting the pivots, and gently heated over a spirit lamp, so that the qua- lity of the steel is not impaired. (Comptes Rendus, xxiv. 784.) Stlvering Mirrors.—For Drayton’s original process for sil- vering glass surfaces, see Lond. Journ. xxiv., or Journ. Fr. Inst. viii. 8 ser. His improvements in the same are in the Lond. Journ. for 1849, and Journ. Fr. Inst. 1850. One ounce ammonia, 2 oz. nitrate of silver, 3 oz. water, and 3 oz. spirit of wine are mixed together, allowed to stand for 3 or 4 hours, and then filtered. A quarter-ounce sugar (grape-sugar being preferred), dissolved in a half-pint of spirit of wine diluted with as much water, is added to each ounce of the filtered liquid, and this solution is employed for silvering, the article to be silvered being kept at 160°. Meurer dissolves 5 grs. lunar caustic (nitrate of silver) in a little caustic ammonia, and adds to it a mixture of 1 drop oil of cinnamon, 2 drops oil of cloves, and 1-1} drachms of absolute alcohol. The mixture becomes gradually cloudy, depositing a brown precipitate, which is filtered off, and the clear liquid poured upon a clean glass plate, surrounded with arim. In the course of a few hours, it is covered with a GALVANIC GILDING AND SILVERING. te brilliant white coating of metallic silver. Elsner observes that it is necessary to let the liquid remain until all the brown sedi- ment has separated, in order to avoid spots on the silver surface. Tourasse protects the back of the silver with varnish. The cost is said to be 4 of that of the amalgamated tin, a very thin coating of silver being sufficient. Reichardt dissolves 1 oz. lunar caustic in 2 oz. water, adds 4 0z. caustic ammonia, and 3 oz. strong alcohol containing 30 drops of oil of cassia, filters, and lets the whole stand 3-6 days. The liquid is poured on a glass plate cleaned by potash. He employs the oil of cloves in vapor, by dropping a little into a warmed vessel, which is turned a little to spread the oil, and is then inverted over the glass plate. The coating is made in } hour. Silvering glass by gun-cotton has been effected by Vohl, by dissolving the cotton in caustic potassa, adding a little of nitrate of silver, and then sufficient ammonia to redissolve the oxide of silver, while the whole is kept warm. The whole of the silver is precipitated as a brilliant coating on the sides of the vessel. Other analagous nitric compounds of sugar, manna, and gums produce a like result. (Technologiste, Lond. Journ. 1849, and Amer. Journ. (2) viii. 117.) Speculums.—T. Fletcher’s patent (Ch. Gaz. vi.) for making speculums, is to take a glass which has been silvered as for mirrors, and to coat the metallic side with a varnish composed of 2 oz. shellac, + oz. lamp-black, and 3 pint absolute alcohol as a protective against dampness and the action of acid. As the coating becomes dry, it is dusted over with finely-powdered plumbago, and the glass is then submitted to the electrotype process, by which means a thin coating of metal will be pre- cipitated over the whole back. Galvanic Gilding and Silvering.—(Communicated to Elsner by Mr. Brauns.)—Smee’s battery is best adapted to the pur- pose, as itis simple in construction (consisting of platinized sil- ver-foil, surrounded by an amalgamated sheet of zinc); requires only one liquid (1 pt. sulphuric acid to 8 pts. water); con- tinues long in action, and gives off no gas during the operation. The cells consist of leaden vessels internally pitched. The 76 HYDROMETALLURGY. [ WHE. silver-foil is thus platinized: } oz. platinum is dissolved in nitromuriatic acid, evaporated to dryness, dissolved in 1 qt. rain water, 3—4 oz. oil of vitriol added. The silver-foil, having been dipped for a few moments in strong nitric acid, is hung on the cathode (zinc-pole), and platinum-foil on the anode (copper-pole) of a battery; the silver is covered with a gray coating of platinum. The best silvering liquid is a solution of 1 pt. of the crys- tallized double salt, cyanide of silver and potassium, in 10 pts. water, to which } cyanide of potassium is added, and the whole boiled until it ceases to smell of ammonia. When the double salt alone is used, a platinum anode must be used, for a silver anode becomes coated with cyanide of silver, and impairs the conducting power. But the latter may be employed in the above liquid, because the cyanide of potassium dissolves the cyanide of silver and keeps the surface of the silver anode bright. The exhausted solutions are evaporated to dryness, and to the fusing residue a little saltpeter is gradually added to destroy cyanide of potassium. The gilding liquid is thus prepared. 10 pts. gold are dis- solved in nitromuriatic acid, diluted and filtered to remove the chloride of silver, 3 pts. common salt added, and the whole evaporated to dryness. The residue is dissolved in water, precipitated by an excess of ammonia, the yellowish-brown precipitate filtered, washed, and dissolved in a sufficient quan- tity of cyanide of potassium. An excess of this cyanide is then added, and the liquid is diluted with 64 pts. water. To destroy the cyanate of potassa, it is boiled until ammonia ceases to come off, and then 64 pts. more water are added. If the solution be warmed, the gilding is a beautiful matt. Exhausted gold solutions are evaporated to dryness and may be fused alone, or fused together with silver residues, and the silver extracted from the gold by nitric acid. Galvanic Gilding.—Extracted from an essay by the Duke of Leuchtenberg, in the Bulletin de l’Acad., St. Petersburg, 1847. He draws attention to the special care required to precipitate gold above all other metals, and notices particularly GALVANIC GILDING. Te the following points. We must know the proportion, 1, of gold to the potassa-salts contained in the gold solution ; 2, of the gilding surface to the strength of galvanic current, and the strength of the gold solution; 8, of the surface of the anode to the gilding surface, and to the content of gold in 1 decilitre-solution; 4, of the surface of the anode and of the gilding surface to the strength of the current. The gold solution is thus made. 1 pt. gold is dissolved in aqua regia and evaporated (at a gentle heat) to dryness, the residue treated with an aqueous solution of 1 pt. caustic po- tassa, this mixture then with an aqueous solution of 24 pts. eyanide of potassium, and 1 pt. caustic potassa, and the whole warmed and filtered. He found that, for successful gilfing, the above proportion between the gold and potassa in the solution should remain constant; and if (as when a platinum anode is used) the quantity of gold diminishes by precipitation, the force of the galvanic current must be increased by adding more cells, and increasing the surface of the anode, since this force is di- minished in a dilute solution. The finest gilding is obtained when 1 decilitre of solution contains from 1 to } gramme of gold. A reddish gilding is obtained by diminishing the gal- vanic force, such as lessening the number of cells, or the surface of the anode, or increasing the gilding surface. Leuchtenberg rejects gold and silver anodes, because there is not as much of them dissolved as is precipitated on the cathode, and because they become coated with cyanides. He therefore employs a platinum anode, and determines the con- tent of gold in solution, before and after gilding, by chemical analysis, in order to ascertain how much gold has been pre- cipitated on the cathode. This is done by evaporating a decilitre to dryness, moistening with sulphuric acid, heating to redness, and extracting by water, when metallic gold remains. In the galvanoplastic establishment of St. Petersburg, about 18 tons (363 ctr.) of copper are annually precipitated, 300 pud of silver, and about 601b gold, thrown down in a month. a2 78 HYDROMETALLURGY. [ HEE. The gilding is begun in a solution containing 0.1 gm. gold in 1 decilitre of liquid, and finished in a solution not yet ex- hausted, whereby the beauty of the gilding is heightened. When the solutions have been too dilute, they are evaporated in an iron kettle to dryness, the residue fused in a crucible, and the salts washed out from the metallic gold. Coke-iron batteries are employed, and the electric current so regulated, that an evolution of gas may be perceptible at the anode, but not on the gilding surface. In the latter case, the current is diminished by removing some of the cells, by lessening the surface of the anode, or increasing that of the cathode (gilding surface). Elsner justly remarks, on Leuchtenberg’s method of analyz- ing the solutions to determine the quantity of gold or silver precipitated, that the practical gilder could not execute a fine assay of this kind, and that the simple method of weighing the gold or silver anode before and after use will give a suffi- ciently close determination of the amount of gold expended. Matt Gilding agd Silvering.—According to R. Bottger, a matt silvering is always obtained in a boiling solution of washed chloride of silver, dissolved in cyanide of potassium, by a moderate and constant electric current. A matt gilding is obtained in a boiling solution of ‘ammonia-oxide of gold dissolved in cyanide of potassium, to which a small quantity of potassa has been added. The gilding is still finer when the articles have been previously matt-silvered. (Polytech. Notizbl. by R. Bottger, 1846.) See also Elsner’s experiments on matt gilding with yellow prussiate of potash, in Verh. d. Gewerbfleisses f. Preussen, 1843. Gold and Silver recovered from exhausted Cyanide Solu- tions.—To recover gold and silver from solutions of cyanide of potassium or yellow prussiate of potash, the solutions are evaporated to dryness, heated to redness, and extracted with water, when the metallic gold or silver will remain. Another method is pursued with a potassa solution of the prussiate. A silver solution is heated with muriatic acid under a draft (to carry off prussic acid), and the precipitated chloride well COPPER PRECIPITATED. 19 washed. - 1.17") 1.01. 0.68" -...: coe Silicate of soda....... 1.08} 1.04) 1.28) 0.98] 0.41 Insoluble and sand...| 0.81} 0.81] 0.97! 0.71] 0.25] .... WISER tats ccesscateceeces ae see eel Ys 62.15 Analysis No. 1 is the salt obtained by evaporating the ex- tract of the crude soda to dryness at 212°, and then heating in a calciner, which makes No. 2, soda-ash. Or, the extract is evaporated nearly dry, the mother-liquor drained off from the crystals; the dried residue, 3, is heated in a furnace, 4. By repeated solution, evaporation and calcination of the erys- tals, a better kind, 5, is produced, and by crystallizing the purer kind, soda, 6 results; and when this is calcined, the best product, 7, is obtained. R. A. Tilghman applied the decomposing power of steam to 100 SALINES. [HY. the decomposition of salt, starting from the simple equation NaCl+HO=Na0+HCl, that is, that water and salt, at a high heat, would mutually form caustic soda and chlorohydric acid. This decomposition does take place, but he found that by the assistance of alumina it was more perfect, the soda being retained by the alumina and the acid passing off. The soda is extracted by water from the alumina and the latter used again. Tilghman also prepares Glauber’s salt by heating to redness a mixture of common salt and gypsum, and passing steam through+it, and then extracting by water. The Glauber’s salt, mixed with alumina, is heated to redness, while steam is passed over it, and the soda then extracted from the alumina by water. (Rep. Pat. Inv. 1847.) Testing Bicarbonate of Soda.—Chevalier (Liebig’s Annalen, 1847) detects the presence of neutral carbonate in bicarbonate alkali, by adding starch-sugar to the aqueous solution of the latter, and heating. The mixture yellows or browns if any neutral carbonate is present. The soda obtained from the soda-process is chiefly used for fluxing sand to make glass, for decomposing fats to make soap, or to neutralize acids. The boracic acid of the Tuscan lakes, neutralized by soda, yields the borax of commerce; and phos- phoric acid, from bones, yields phosphate of soda, which is employed in dyeing and calico-printing. B. The muriatie actd obtained as an incidental product in making soda-ash, besides its use for dissolving metallic oxides, is extensively employed in making bleaching salt. When muriatic acid is heated with black oxide of manganese, its hydrogen is oxidized to water by the oxygen of the oxide, and chlorine gas is set free. When this is passed into lime, chlo- ride of lime or bleaching-salt is made, and passed for a long time into a solution of potash, the chlorate of potassa is formed. Chloride of Lime.—According to Méne (Comptes Rendus, 1347), bleaching-salt may be made pure and expeditiously, by satarating slaked lime with water highly charged with chlorine. POTASH. 101 The lime absorbs the chlorine as soon as it comes in contact with the solution; the supernatant water is immediately de- canted and the application of chlorine liquor repeated, as above, several times. By exposure to a gentle heat for a short period, the moisture is driven off, and pure chloride of lime, remains. Chlorate of Potassa.—Calvert’s process (Comptes Rendus, 1850) is to pass a current of chlorine gas through a hot (122°) mixture of 53-6 equivalents of burnt lime and 1 equiv. caustic potassain water. Chloride of calcium and chlorate of potassa are the products. When the solution is saturated with the gas, it is to be filtered, evaporated to dryness, redissolved in boiling water, and allowed to cool. The use of lime saves the great loss of potassa by other processes, 22 pts. of chlorate being obtained from every 10 pts. of potassa employed. 4. Potash is obtained by lixiviating the ashes of trees, evaporating the solution to dryness and calcining the residue. When purer, but more carbonated, it is termed pearlash. New Source of Potash.—H. Wurtz has suggested a method of decomposing green sand, with the view of gaining its potash, by fusing it with chloride of calcium. See Amer. Journ. 2d ser. x. 526, where many experiments are detailed having the same object in view. Potash tested for Soda.—Pagenstecher’s method is as fol- lows (Mittheil. d. Naturf. Gesellsch. in Bern, No. 65). It is based on the fact that a saturated solution of sulphate of potassa can dissolve large quantities of sulphate of soda. About half an ounce of the potash to be tested is poured over with water, treated with sulphuric acid until it has an acid re- action, evaporated to dryness, ignited, and weighed. The pow- dered saline mass is then treated with 6 times its weight of a concentrated solution of sulphate of potassa, stirred, allowed to settle, and the clear liquor drawn off from the sediment by a siphon. After being again treated with a like quantity of the sulphate of potassa solution, the residue is thrown on a balanced filter (the funnel covered with a glass plate during filtering to ayoid evaporation), and when the last drops have 42 ® 102 SALINES. [ iV. passed through, it is weighed moist, then dried at 212° and again weighed. ‘The difference between the two last weights is the water of the solution of sulphate of potassa, which, being of a known strength, gives the quantity of sulphate of potassa it contained. This must of course be subtracted from the weight of the dried residue, and the remainder is the sul- phate of potassa made from the pearlash. If the ash were free from soda, this weight would equal that of the original sulphate evaporated to dryness, but if less, then sulphate of soda has been washed out. From this loss (= L) the car- bonate of soda in the ash may be thus calculated, L.53 71 (NaO,SO,) : 53 (NaO,CO,)::L: 2orr= i Tt must however be observed, that the soda used to adulterate potash usually contains a large percentage of sulphate of soda. Nitre is formed in artificial beds, or in some cases where nitrogenous organic matter is present, together with lime and some potash; but potash is usually added to the beds, or the extract of the soil, containing nitrate of lime, whereby nitrate of potassa is produced. Soda-saltpeter is obtained from At- tacama in Peru. Both nitrates are the source of nitric acid. Anhydrous Nitric Acid.—Deville (Comptes Rendus, 1849) has succeeded in obtaining anhydrous nitric acid by the action of absolutely dry chlorine upon nitrate of silver. It erystal- lizes in brilliant, colorless, six-sided prisms; melts at 85° F. and boils at 113°, and requires to be handled cautiously, owing to its tendency to explode. 5. Alum.—This most important salt to the dyer, calico- printer, tanner, and others, is sometimes observed in nature in an impure state, but it is generally procured from slates, which have originally contained iron pyrites (sulphuret of iron). The pyrites by oxidation form sulphuric acid, which is more or less transferred to the alumina of the slate; and to the extracted sulphate of alumina, sulphate of potassa is added and alum generated. As sulphate of iron is obtained inci- dentally in making alum, it leads us to the metallic salts and pigments, or metallosalines. a VITRIOLS. 103 2. METALLOSALINES. These embrace the preparation of various metallic salts, which are chiefly employed for dyes or making pigments. We may most conveniently divide the subject into the vitriols, or sulphates of iron, copper, zinc, and manganese, with the pig- ments derived from them; the salts and pigments of lead; the prussiates; the chromates, and a few others. 1. Vitriols.—Copperas, green vitriol, or protosulphate of iron, is made directly from sulphuric acid and scrap-iron, or from calcined pyrites, or is obtained in the kindred and con- nected manufacture of alum. These two articles are made on an extended scale in the United States, and but little can be offered that is new in relation to them. Copperas.—It may be freed from lead and copper, and at the same time all peroxide of iron reduced to protoxide, by boiling its solution with good scrap-iron, nails, &c. until it becomes light and green. By evaporating the solution, it then yields bluish-green crystals. The precipitate will contain the copper, lead, &c. (Encycl. Zeitschr. d. Gewerbehandl. 1846.) Preservation of Copperas.—According to Ruspini (Journ. de Chim. Méd. vi.) the protosulphate of iron, when in crystals, may be preserved from oxidation, by pressure, desiccation between the folds of bibulous paper, and, finally, efflorescence in a drying chamber at 86°. It is to be kept in well-stoppered bottles. Oxidation of Copperas.—According to Wittstein (Buchner’s Repert. i.) a solution of 1 pt. protosulphate of iron in 4 pts. water, after 11 months’ exposure in a loosely covered vessel, deposits 2Fe,0,+350,+8HO, and not 2Fe,0,+80,, as is ge- nerally admitted. Sulphate of zine, or white vitriol, is made directly from zinc and sulphuric acid. Manganese vitriol is made directly from black oxide of manganese and oil of vitriol, or it is obtained as a residue in making bleaching-salt from manganese, salt, and oil of vitriol. Blue vitriol, or sulphate of copper, is made 104 METALLOSALINES. [ EV. by the direct action of oil of vitriol and old sheet-copper, or by solution of precipitated hydrate of copper in the acid, or by lixiviating roasted copper-pyrites. Pure Sulphate of Manganese.—Elsner thus prepares it: 1 pt. sulphur is well mixed and heated with 5} pts. binoxide of manganese, so that sulphurous acid escapes, and protoxide of manganese remains. When 2 equiv. of this oxide are treated with less than 2 equiv. of oil of vitriol, so that a por- tion of the oxide remains uncombined, this portion removes all the iron from the sulphate, and gives a good vitriol by solution and crystallization. White vitriol may be similarly made free from iron. (Elsner, in Hoffmann’s Mittheilungen, &c.) It would be better to use a little less sulphur, so as to leave a small part of the manganese in its state of binoxide, that by peroxidizing the iron the latter may be more effectually removed. A good proportion for a good ore (containing but little silica) is 1 pt. sulphur, 6 pts. black oxide of manganese, and 5 pts. oil of vitriol. The same principle has been applied to Epsom salt, by heating the solution with a portion of mag- nesia itself. It is also applicable to solutions of nickel and cobalt. But in all these cases it is necessary that the iron be in the state of sesquioxide, or be brought into this state. Borate of Copper, a green Pigment.—16 pts. blue vitriol, and 25 pts. borax are separately dissolved in water, the solu- tions poured together, and the bluish-green precipitate, washed with cold water, is first dried at common temperature and then by warmth. The dried precipitate is then heated in a hessian crucible to a low red-heat, but not to fusion, and ground. Bolley proposes it for oil and porcelain painting (Bolley, Schweiz. Gewerbebl. 1847, 28). Dr. Elsner remarks that the color varies in different experiments, and that a certain degree of heat is requisite to its production. Blue Sulphuret of Copper.—Alexander and Walter give the following method of preparing it (Buchner’s Repert. d. Pharm. 1847). Black oxide is prepared by precipitating blue vitriol solution by caustic soda or potassa (lime ?), washing it well and drying it. A mixture of 2 pts. of this oxide, 2 pts. ZINC-WHITE. 105 flowers of sulphur, and 1 pt. salammoniac, is heated gently in a porcelain vessel, over coals, until the sulphur inflames ; while burning, the mixture is stirred now and then, covered with a loosely-fitting cove, and removed from the fire for a few moments. A new portion of sulphur and salammoniac, without copper, is added, the cover replaced, and the vessel again heated. After some time the cover is removed, when much sulphur sublimes. As long as it shows a black and not a blue color, sulphur and salammoniac are added, and the vessel heated as before. When finished, it is washed with hot water, then with a little ammonia if oxide of copper be pre- sent, treated with caustic potassa or soda to remove the excess of sulphur, and, finally, washed with water, ground, and dried. Under a polishing tool it shows a beautiful steel-blue streak, and when mixed with size and brushed on paper, a steel-blue lustre on a violet-blue ground. In a medium of oil or varnish it is violet-blue. The following simpler method was contrived in the Gewerbe- Institut of Berlin. Metallic copper is precipitated by zine from a boiling solution of blue vitriol, and the fine powder washed and dried. 51 pts. of this copper, mixed with 3 pts. sulphur, are gently heated in a porcelain vessel, so that the excess of sulphur sublimes, but does not burn. When the heated mixture shows a sandy appearance it is finished, and, on cooling, shows a dark-blue color. The excess of sulphur is removed by potassa, and the residue well washed. If it have not acquired the desired tone, it is again warmed with sulphur, &c. It resists chemical action in a remarkable manner. Winkelblech’s method consists in rubbing together 1 equiv. Jac sulphuris and 2 equiv. metallic copper, reduced from the oxide by hydrogen. Zinc-white.—This pigment, to which attention is now drawn, is either the anhydrous oxide of zinc, or a hydrated oxide, or a hydrate-carbonate of the metal. It possesses a great degree of whiteness, about equal to that of white-lead; a sufficient body, and, what is of great importance, is less liable to tar- 106 METALLOSALINES. LEV. nish than white-lead. Another important advantage cannot be overlooked: its freedom from the noxious character of carbonate of lead on those who employ it. It is less drying than white-lead colors, but in ordér to effect this result in a shorter time, dry sulphate of zinc (white vitriol) may be added to it, or a more drying oil may be employed. It has been too lately introduced to decide upon the relative merits of the several compounds above named, and it is even doubtful which can be produced at the cheapest rate; but it may be safely assumed, from its low equivalent (32.6, H=1), that a given weight of zinc will produce a much larger amount of white pigment than the same weight of lead, with an equiv. = 104. On the other hand, the objections to it are, that it has far less body (covering power) than white-lead, and that it requires a large amount of oil as its vehicle of conveyance to a surface. Durability of Zinc-white.—Lassaigne drew attention, in 1821, to the use of oxide of zinc instead of white-lead as a pigment. He has lately stated that an oil-painting, finished with oxide of zinc, has remained of a pure white to this day. The oil was previously treated with sulphate of zinc to render it more drying. Oxides of Zinc and Antimony, §c.—It has been an object of several patents, of late, to distil ores of zinc and antimony in such a manner that the volatilized and oxidized products, white oxides of antimony or zinc, shall be separately collected and used as pigments. ‘To avoid the cost of first obtaining the metallic zinc and then converting it into oxide, the ores are heated in furnaces of various construction, but so arranged that the products of combustion from the mixed ore and fuel are conducted into condensing chambers, where both metal and oxide are obtained. Notwithstanding the ingenious con- trivances for effecting this result, none have been yet found ‘faultless. One of the late patents on this subject (Lond. Journ. Sept. 1850) subjects copper and other unroasted ores to the action of a blast-furnace, so that the non-volatile pro- ducts are obtained in the furnace, while the volatile are con- densed inchambers. In this manner oxides of zine, antimony, LEAD-PIGMENTS. 107 and arsenic, are obtained from copper and other ores. These mingled ores are hardly likely to yield the several products sufficiently separate and distinct. Rochaz has a good arrangement for making this pigment direct from metallic zinc by combustion. (Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 1.) Fire-clay crucibles are set each in a furnace, so that the fire plays around but not above it. The zinc being thrown in and brought to ignition, the cover of the crucible is removed and a draft of air passes over the crucible, whereby oxide of zine is produced, forming abundant white fumes, which are earried into a large chamber, divided into compartments. The greater part of the oxide settles in these; and to prevent any appreciable quantity from passing off, the last compartment is provided with hanging bands of hemp or other fabric, which may be multiplied without interfering with the draft. He proposes to use the Belgian furnace for distilling metallic zine from its ores, consisting of a stack of many cylindrical retorts, in order to prepare the white oxide from the ore, and varying the arrangement so that the air is admitted to the distilling metal, whereby it is converted into oxide, and condenses in chambers. Several forms of blast-furnace have been proposed, but none have been proved sufficiently to speak of their merits. The native oxide of zinc of New Jersey has been recently employed both for making the metal and zinc-white. The former is less likely to be economically produced than the latter ; and it is stated that the process for the latter is emi- nently successful, as it requires but 2 pts. coal to obtain 1 pt. of the pigment. Judging from the experience in Europe, we must believe this to be a great miscalculation, for it requires some 11 tons fuel to make 1 ton zinc in Belgium and Silesia, and in making the oxide of zinc, the formation of metal must precede it. A case of the peculiar effect of zinc in producing a colic among operatives engaged in making it, is reported in the Comptes Rendus, and although it appears to be less delete- rious than white-lead, yet it shows that its effects on workmen must also be guarded against. 108 METALLOSALINES. [ HV. Compounds of Lead.— When metallic lead is calcined on the hearth of a reverberatory, to which the air has free access, it is converted into litharge, or simple oxide of lead; and when litharge is still further heated in a similar manner, it is converted into a higher oxide, red-lead or minium, or orange- mineral. Litharge, dissolved in vinegar, gives rise to acetate or sugar of lead. White-lead is usually made by putting a roll of sheet-lead into an earthen pot, containing a little vinegar in the bottom, and placing a large number of such pots in fermenting matter, manure, tan, &c. The férmenting matter evolves heat, steam, and carbonic acid, and the heat slowly evaporates the vinegar. This vapor induces the lead to oxidize and form acetate of lead, which is decomposed by carbonic acid as fast as formed, and the acid transferred to the adjoining stratum of metal. In this manner the sheet is corroded through, and becomes carbonate of lead, or white- lead. Various other processes have been proposed, but the old method still retains its place. White-lead.—Gannal gives a method of preparing it from granulated lead by air and water. (Journ. Fr. Inst. 1847.) See a review of the different methods in Journ. Fr. Inst. 1842, vol. iii. 3d ser. p. 30. Disbrow Rodgers’s process (Ch. Gaz. 1850) for the manu- facture of carbonate of lead, consists in exposing thin sheet- lead in a steam-heated chamber, to the joint action of acetic and aqueous vapors, and of carbonic acid gas, generated from fermenting matter contained in vessels beneath. The required temperature is 80° F., and the vinegar is volatilized by the admission of a current of steam. ‘The chamber must be dark | and air-tight, and the fermenting and acid liquors renewed six times during the process, at intervals of two days. The conversion of the lead is completed in two weeks. See Review, as above. White-lead Pigment.—According to Patterson (Ch. Gaz. vii.), if a warm solution of chloride of lead is mixed with clean lime-water, in such proportions that one equivalent of the lead-salt may be made to react upon half an equivalent of PRUSSIATES. 109 lime, all the lead is precipitated as PbCl]+PbO,HO, at 212°, or PbCl]+PbO when dried between 212° and 350°. The great brilliancy and body of this white oxichloride induced the inventor to take a patent for its application as a pigment. An excellent essay on the effects of preparing this pigment on the health of the operative, was made by M. Combes to the Academie des Sciences, and appears as a translation in the Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 184-193. We may state that in most of our establishments in the United States, the corroded sheets of lead are ground in water, whereby the greatest evils of the former mode of dry grinding are avoided. 3. Prussiates.— Yellow Prussiate of Potash is usually pre- pared by heating common pearlash or potash to fusion in an iron vessel, and adding to the melted mass, dried blood, horn- shavings, cracklings, &&. The excess of carbon in the animal matter probably reduces the potassium, while the nitrogen and carbon form cyanogen, which unites with the potassium. The formation of cyanogen, or rather of cyanide of potas- sium, from the nitrogen of the air, in part at least, was clearly shown by Bunsen, in his investigations on the blast-furnace. A patent had been taken out in England for making prussiate from the air and coal, but the process was not successfully carried out. Possy and Bossiére (Comptes Rendus, xxvi. 203) have suc- ceeded in manufacturing yellow prussiate of potash, upon a large scale, by means of the nitrogen of the atmosphere. The daily product of their works, at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, is about 1000 kilogrammes (a ton), at a cost not exceeding .2000 frances ($400) for that quantity. The apparatus, as now constructed, will resist, for several years, the destructive action of the potassa and fire. It consists of a vertical cylinder set in refractory brick-work. The interior diameter of the cylinder is about 18 inches. The height, heated to bright redness, is about 10 feet. The cylinder, being heated to bright redness and charged with lumps of charcoal impregnated with 30 per cent of carbonate of potassa, is kept filled with burned air, which is injected, across a heated channel, by means of a forcing- 110 METALLOSALINES. [EV. pump. In this way the treatment is to be continued for 10 hours, so that the whole mass may be acted upon. As the coal becomes cyanuretted, and is drawn off at the bottom, new supplies must be added at the top. The heated coal is con- ducted along an iron gutter into a reservoir containing pow- dered native carbonate of iron diffused in water. The coal becomes leeched, and the liquor on evaporation will yield crystals of prussiate. Coke gives less product than charcoal; and the presence of even minute portions of water decomposes the cyanide and generates ammonia, thus decreasing the yield of salt. Hxplosion with Red Prussiate of Potash.—During the pre- paration of red prussiate (ferridcyanide of iron) in a chemical work at Berlin, a violent explosion took place, without appa- rent cause, which dashed to pieces the wooden vessels in which the operation was performed, and shook the walls of the building. Fortunately no person was injured. The chlorine was generated in cast-iron vessels, from manganese, salt, and sulphuric acid. Muriatic acid was also evolved, which set prussic acid free from the prussiate solution. Now, an am- moniacal salt is produced by the action of chlorine on prussic acid; and by the further action of chlorine on ammonia, it is probable that the highly explosive chloride of nitrogen was produced. (Berlin: Gewerbe-Industrie und Handelsbl. xx. _ 141.) Cyanide of Potassium.—C. Clemm (Annal. der Chem. u. Pharm. 1xi. 250) gives the following details of Liebig’s method, which should be observed to obtain a white and not dark-gray compound. Yellow prussiate of potash (ferrocyanide of po- tassium) is thoroughly dried by calcination. 8 pts. of this salt are intimately mixed with 3 pts. of fully dry carbonate of potassa in a covered iron crucible, and heated until the fused mass at a dull red-heat appears clear, and, when taken out in an iron spatula and cooled, appears white. The crucible is removed from the fire, gently struck to separate the iron, and its fluid contents (after evolution of gas has ceased) poured through a cullendered iron ladle (previously heated) into a CHROMATES. 111 warm and deep vessel of silver, iron, porcelain, or stoneware, with a smooth inner surface. After cooling, the lower part of the fused mass, containing iron, may be cut off by a sharp tool. If the heat be carried to full redness, the resulting salt will have a gray color, from the separation of carbon through it. To prepare cyanide for galvanic gilding or silvering, both the prussiate and carbonate of potash should be free from sulphate, as the consequent formation of sulphuret injures the color of both gilding and silvering.— Elsner. 4. Chromates.—Chrome yellow and other beautiful pigments and dyes are obtained from the mineral chromic iron, which is, in its purest form, FeO,Cr,O,, which should contain 68 per cent. of oxide of chrome. Mr. T. Garrett analyzed a specimen of the ore from Tyson’s mine, Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, containing 63 per cent., which approached nearer _ to the formula than any published analysis. The ore at this and one or two other places forms solid veins or masses, but a great deal is obtained in the form of sand, by washing the sandy beds of the small streams flowing from a range of serpentine-rock. B. Silliman, Jr., first observed that the green coating on the ore of T'yson’s mine was a hydrocarbonate of nickel. T. Garrett found the same metal in some of the ore where the green coating had been carefully removed, and he has since proved that it contains a trace of tin. Garrett’s analyses were performed in my laboratory, where he is still investigat- ing some of the minerals of the chrome localities. —J. C. B. Jacquelain’s process (Dingler’s Pol. Journ. cvi. 405) for the manufacture of potassa-chromate from the natural chromo- ferrite is as follows. The finely-powdered ore is to be inti- mately incorporated with chalk, and this mixture exposed in strata of 14 inches, for 10 hours, to the heat of a reverbe- ratory furnace. Neutral chromate of lime is thus formed, and the next step is to convert it into bisalt. This is to be done by grinding it, and, while suspended in water, adding a slight excess of sulphuric acid. To separate any protosulphate of 112 METALLOSALINES. [ HV. iron that may be present, milk of lime must be poured in and the whole left to repose. The clear supernatant liquor will, when drawn off, yield bichromate of potassa by double de- composition. This mode is said to be more economical, in time and expense, than the usual method with nitreeand pot- ash, but we must doubt its feasibility. Tilghman’s methods (Rep. Pat. Inv. 1847) differ materially from the foregoing. One requires the ignition of the chromo- ferrite with lime and powdered feldspar. The other proposes its mixture with 2 pts. lime and 2 pts. sulphate of potassa, and subsequent heating on a reverberatory hearth, in contact with aqueous vapor. For the details of the ingenious pro- cesses of this chemist, we refer to the original paper. A new Metal in Chrome-ore.—Ullgren (Vetensk Acad. Forhand. 1850) has given an account of a substance noticed in the chrome iron of Roéros, and which he considers a new metal. Its oxides bear a near analogy to those of iron. Double Chromates.—Schneitzer (Journ. fiir Prac. Chem. xxxix.) has announced the existence of two double chromates. They are both of a beautiful yellow tint, and crystallizable. One, the chromate of potassa and magnesia, made by adding calcined magnesia to a strong solution of bichromate of po- tassa, heating and evaporating to crystallization, has the com- position 2Cr0,,KO,MgO+2Aq. ‘The other, chromate of potassa and ne has the formula 2CrO,,KO,CaO+2Aq. Oxide of Chrome.—Barian (Berz. Jahresb. 1846, 177) pre- pares it by mixing 4 pts. bichromate of potassa with 1 pt. starch, igniting it in a hessian crucible, extracting carbonate of potassa by water, and again igniting the oxide of chrome. If the chrome salt had been free from sulphuric acid, the oxide will be a pure green. If it contain this acid, the salt is pu- rified by crystallization. To test its presence, 1 pt. of the salt is dissolved in water with 5 pts. tartaric acid until car- bonic acid ceases to escape, the solution treated with muriatic acid, and then tested with chloride of barium. Wittstein’s method is to ignite for 3 an hour 19 pts. bi- chromate of potassa and 4 pts. sulphur, to powder the mass ULTRAMARINE. 113 after cooling, and extract it with water. It yields 94 pts. oxide of chrome. (Dingler’s Journ. civ. 158.) 5. Some other pigments are prepared, partly by heat, as sulphuret of arsenic and ultramarine, and partly from solution, as sulphurets of cadmium and of antimony. Of these, we shall only notice the ultramarine, which, having been a valued pigment found in the mineral kingdom, was analyzed, and its composition imitated successfully. It is now made on a large scale, and of very different qualities in regard to color or durability. Ultramarine, Artificial_—Recipes for the preparation of this beautiful blue color have been given by C. Brunner (Pogg. Annal. Ixvii. 541-561); by Priickner (Journ. f. Prac. Chem. xxxill. 207); Dr. Winterfield, in Polytech. Archiv. Mendelsohn, 6th year, 99, 260, 265, Berlin, 1842. Brunner does not think that iron is necessary to produce the blue color, while Priickner and Winterfeld hold that iron is essential to the beauty of the color. Dr. Elsner, in a neat essay (Jour. f. Prac. Chem. xxiv. 385, &c.), showed that the color was due to a small content of sulphuret of sodium with sulphuret of iron, and that neither of these alone could pro- duce it. Rolle, under Dr. E.’s direction, repeated many ex- periments, which strengthened his former conclusion that sulphuret of sodium and iron, though in minute quantity, are absolutely necessary to produce the color. Brunner states that the finest color is obtained by putting a thin layer of flowers of sulphur over a layer of the unfinished blue, and heating gently to volatilize the sulphur, but at the lowest heat required to burn it off. This is repeated 5 or 4 times. It increases 10-20 per cent. in weight. Elsner tried the effect of burning off sulphur repeatedly, but although the color was darkened, it did not improve its tone. Others tried it, with no more success. 3. Fine CHEMICALS AND PHARMACEUTICS. A large number of fine preparations are made, on a larger or smaller scale, for the use of the chemist and the physician, K2 8 114 FINE CHEMICALS AND PHARMACEUTICS. [ HV. and a few for the artisan. They are alkaline, earthy, and metallic compounds, metalloidal compounds, organic acids and alkaloids, &. These may be conveniently divided into inor- ganic and organic. 1. Inorganic Bodies.—We find a few observations in re- ference to some of the metalloids, &c., which are here inserted. Chlorine Preparation.—Over 1 pt. bichromate of potassa in a flask, pour 6 pts. muriatic acid of 1.16, and gently heat the mixture for a few seconds by a spirit lamp. A rapid ac- -tion ensues, resulting in the evolution of chlorine and the formation of water, chlorides of chrome and _ potassium. (Amer. Journ. c. 491.) Quantitative Determination.—Cottereau proposes for this purpose a solution of protochloride of tin (of known content) colored by sulphate of indigo, to which the chlorine-liquid is added until decolorization commences. From the volume of the latter employed, the quantity of chlorine is calculated. The free chlorine changes protochloride into perchloride of tin. Lodine, its Extraction.—Pass sulphurous acid into a mineral water, or other liquid, containing iodine, until it has acquired a feeble odor of the same; then dissolve it in 1 pt. blue vitriol, and, after it, 1 pt. bisulphite of soda; white or rosy subiodide of copper will precipitate immediately by boiling, or in a short time by standing. If the precipitate be mixed with 2 equiv. binoxide of manganese and heated, iodine sublimes. Chloride of Jodine.—Heeren recommends the use of chloride of iodine in photography instead of bromine compounds, which are more subject to alteration, and offers the following method of preparing it. 200 gr. dilute sulphuric acid (1 acid to 5 water) are poured over 100 gy. iodine, and dry chlorine gas passed through until the increase of weight is 66 gr. which must be accurately ascertained. The chlorine should be pre- viously passed over chalk and chloride of calcium to remove water and muriatic acid from it; and the end of the tube conveying the gas should be about a 4 inch above the surface of the liquid. The dark-orange liquid should be kept in a well-stoppered bottle, in a dark place. When used, 1 pt. of the IODIDE OF POTASSIUM. 115 liquid is to be diluted with 52 pts. water, and will last for months. Bromo and Iodohydrie Acids.x—Méne (Comptes Rendus, 1849) gives the following economical, easy, and safe process for making the bromohydric and iodohydric acids, which we take from Silliman, ix. 421. 6 pts. crystallized sulphite of soda are to be moistened with 1 pt. water, and 3 pts. bromine or iodine then added, and heat applied. The gases pass over pure, provided the neck of the retort be loosely plugged with asbestos, to intercept bromine or iodine vapors. The sulphite aids the bromine or iodine in the decomposition of the water, the latter taking the hy- drogen, the sulphurous acid the oxygen. Lodide of Potassiwum.—Criquelion’s method (Journ. de Chem. Med. iv.) is to mix together, thoroughly, 40 pts. calcined lime slaked in water, and 14 pts. iron filings. To this mixture add, during constant stirring, and portionwise, 94 pts. iodine. When the liquid produces only an ochrey stain upon staréhed paper, it is to be filtered and washed, and the filtrate pre- cipitated by carbonate of potassa. Vilter, wash, and evaporate to crystallization. According to Wackenroder, a small amount of sulphide may be found in iodide of potassium by the evolution of sul- phohydrogen with protochloride of tin. Lodide of Lead.—Huraut’s experiments (Journ. de Pharm. 1849) upon the comparative advantages of the several methods of preparing iodide of lead, prove that the nitrate of lead and iodide of calcium afford the best results, both as to quality and quantity. On the Nitrites.—Fischer, in a paper upon the nitrites (Pogg. Ann. Ixxiv.), gives processes for the preparation of several. The potassa nitrite is made by heating the nitrate to redness, separating the nitrate by recrystallization, and the free potassa by acetic acid and alcohol. Magnesian Lemonade.—Massignon prepares citrate of magnesia lemonade (Journ. de Pharm. xii.) by making 5 grm. carbonate of magnesia into a milk with water, pouring it into a 116 FINE CHEMICALS AND PHARMACEUTICS. — [IWV. strong bottle, adding 7 grm. of crystallized citric acid, and corking quickly and firmly. Flavor may be imparted by means of different syrups. Chromie Acid.—Traube recommends the following method of preparing chromic acid. (An. der Ch. u. Phar. xvi.) To heat gently 1 pt. bichromate of potassa, 23 pts. water, and 32 pts. sulphuric acid, decant the liquid from the sulphate of potassa which separates on cooling, and add 4 pts. more of sulphuric acid when the acid begins to separate. The liquid is heated, water being added to dissolve the crystals, then evaporated until a pellicle forms, and set aside to crystallize. The acid, dried on brick or biscuit-ware, may be purified by carefully fusing it, when sulphuric acid and bichromate of potassa form an insoluble salt of oxide of chrome; or by re- solution in water, adding oil of vitriol until a precipitate ap- pears, evaporation and slow crystallization. Qride of Antimony.—Hornung (Journ. de Pharm. 1848) gives the following economical process (a modification of Fre- derking’s) for preparing the oxide of antimony to be used in the manufacture of tartar emetic. Mix together in an iron vessel 15 pts. finely-powdered sulphuret of antimony and 36 pts. sulphuric acid, expose to a gentle heat for 12 to 18 hours, and stir frequently. The mixture thickens at first, but afterwards liquefies upon an increase of the temperature, and finally becomes white; sulphur fuses and separates, and sul- phurous acid fumes are disengaged. The heat and stirring are continued as long as these phenomena continue. When the vapor or gas evolved consists only of sulphuric acid, water is to be gradually added, and the mass washed for the removal of free sulphuric acid. The subsulphate of antimony is to be decomposed. with carbonate of soda, and the resulting oxide of antimony washed. 13 pts. dry greenish-white oxide, soluble in tartaric acid, are thus obtained from 15 pts. sulphuret of antimony. Sulphantimoniate of Sodium.—Van der Corput prepares this (Schlippe’s) salt by intimately mixing together, in powder, 8 pts. effloresced sulphate of soda, 6 pts. sulphuret of an- QUININ. 117 timony, and 3 pts. vegetable charcoal. This mixture is to be heated in a covered crucible, and when the fluid mass ceases to foam, it is to be boiled in a capsule with 1 pt«sulphur and q. 8. of distilled water. The liquor, filtered and left to repose, deposits colorless crystals of 3NaS+SbS,+18HC. (Repert. der Pharm. 1848, and Chem. Gaz. vi. 268.) Black Sulphuret of Mercury.—Vogler (Journ. de Pharm. 1848) prepares this salt more readily than by trituration, as follows. 4 oz. mercury are mixed with 1 oz. sublimed sulphur, washed and sieved, and the whole placed in a capacious glass vessel, and shaken for two hours. After this, another ounce of sulphur is added at intervals, and the agitation continued until every trace of mercury ceases to be visible to the eye. Two more ounces of sulphur are then added, and the mix- ture again shaken until the entire incorporation of the mer- cury with the sulphur, as may be ascertained by the aid of a lens. 2. Organic Bodies.—Some of the most interesting of these, to the pharmaceutist, are the alkaloids, and the volatile liquids chloroform and collodion. Separation of Cinehonin from Quinin.—O. Henry’s process (Journ. de Pharm. 1849) for determining the proportion of cinchonin in sulphate of quinin is based upon the difference in solubility, in cold water, of the acetates of the two alkaloids. 10 grm. of the mixed sulphates are mixed with 4 grm. acetate baryta, triturated with 60 grm. water, slightly acidulated with acetic acid, strained and filtered. Two volumes of alcohol of 30° are added to the filtrate, and then sulphuric acid in ex- cess. After filtration, add ammonia, and boil: the cinchonin precipitates while the quinin remains in the alcoholic liquid. Quinidin.—This new alkaloid, according to F. L. Winck- ler (Buch. Rep. xlviii. 385), occurs, with quinin, in one of the new barks most resembling Huamalies. It is crystallizable, soluble in alcohol, and slightly so in water. Its sulphate is so similar in appearance to the sulphate of quinin, that it is diff- cultly distinguishable from the former. Quinoidin.—After preparing quinin and cinchonin from 118 FINE CHEMICALS AND PHARMACEUTICS. [iV. Peruvian bark, a resinous mass, quinoidin, remains, which has been supposed to be a mixture of resin, &c. with quinin and cinchonin, of a modification of these alkaloids. Roder (Mittheilungen des Schweizer Apothekervereins, i. 31) gives a method by which he obtained upwards of 40 per cent. of quinin, and 10 per cent. of cinchonin, from dif- ferent samples of quinoidin. Of the residue, about 30 per cent. was resin. The process is as follows. A solution of a 4 pt. protochloride of tin, in 2 pts. water, is added to 4 pts. alcohol (.865) holding 1 pt. quinoidin: resin precipitates. Ammonia is poured into the decanted supernatant liquor, and the resulting precipitate drained, washed, dried, and exhausted with alcohol. The treatment is repeated with half the quan- tity of tin-salt first employed, and the clear liquids again precipitated by ammonia. The precipitates, washed, dried, and displaced as before, yield a tincture which, when neu- tralized with dilute sulphuric acid and evaporated, drops crystals of sulphate of quinin. The cinchonin remains in the filtrates from the tin and quinin precipitates. Winckler (Journ. fiir Pract. Pharm. xy. 281) detects the presence of crystallized sulphates of quinin and cinchonin in quinoidin, by the use of hyposulphite of soda, which imme- diately precipitates hyposulphite of quinin, in a white crys- talline form, and hyposulphate of cinchonin as four-sided needles, from their solution in hydrochloric acid. Both salts disengage sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous acid upon treatment with concentrated sulphuric acid. Dilute sulphuric acid converts them into sulphates, with evolution of sulphurous acid and elimination of sulphur. ‘The amorphous alkaloids, or quinoidin, when saturated with muriatic acid, do not yield these precipitates. (Ch. Gaz. vi. 122.) The Bark of Adansonia Digitata.—Dr. Duchassaing, a physician at Guadaloupe, employs this bark with great success in intermittent fevers. (Comptes Rendus, xxvi. and Ch. Gaz. vi.) Itis without action upon the nervous system and improves the digestive powers. It is used in decoction made by boiling 1 oz. of bark in a litre of water, and evaporating to one-third ; STRYCHNIN. 119 and this quantity has served to cure even where quinin had failed. The bark is abundant in the French colony of Senegal. Test for Opium.—Hensler (L’Union Medicale, 1848) pro- poses the following test for the presence of minute quantities of opium, founded upon the property of porphyroxin of being reddened when heated, by dilute muriatic acid. The suspected substance is to be mixed with a small portion of potassa and shaken with ether. Bibulous paper is to be moistened in this solution, and dried after each immersion. Dilute muriatic acid is then applied, and the paper exposed to the vapor of boiling water. If opium be present, the paper acquires a reddish-purple tint. Papaverin.—This new alkaloid, discovered by Merck in opium, has the formula C,,H,,NO,. It forms crystals insolu- ble in water, and more soluble in hot than in cold alcohol, and ether. Its salts are crystallizable. It is prepared by adding soda to a decoction of opium, treating the precipitate with alcohol, and evaporating the strained tincture to dryness. The residue is treated with dilute acid, the liquid filtered, and ammonia added. ‘The resinous precipitate is then to be dis- solved in dilute hydrochloric acid, and acetate of potassa added. The resinous precipitate thus thrown down, after having been washed with water, is then to be acted on with boiling ether, which, on cooling, drops the papaverin in crys- tals. (Liebig’s Annalen, 1850.) Strychnin.—Molyn (Journ. de Chim. Méd. 3) proposes the following method for making pure strychnin. 8 pounds of nux vomica are made into paste, with an equal weight of water, and left to repose, for 3 weeks, in a temperature of 68°-78°. The fermented mass is then pressed and exhausted by three several boilings with water, and the expressed liquids united and evaporated to 12 quarts. 9 oz. lime are next added, and after a repose of 6-8 hours, the mass is‘strained and pressed, and the resulting liquid treated with sulphuric acid to remove lime, filtered, and evaporated to 2 qts. and subjected to a second treatment as before, with 1 oz. lime. The precipitates, after the entire expulsion of all liquid by pressure, are to be dried, 120 FINE CHEMICALS AND PHARMACEUTICS. [ HV. powdered, and digested with alcohol of .935, which removes brucin and coloring matter, and then displaced with spirit of .838. This tincture, relieved of four-fifths of its alcohol by distillation, will drop strychnin in granules, which may be rendered perfectly pure by washing in alcohol of .935 and recrystallization. Thein.—Heijnsius (Scheidk. Onderzoek, and Ch. Gaz. viii.) recommends an easy method for preparing thein by sublima- tion. For this purpose, damaged tea is placed in an iron pot, covered with filtering-paper, and surmounted by a paper cylindric cap. Cautious application of heat insures the suc- cess of the operation. Oenanthin.—A resinous principle, obtained by Gerding (Journ. f. Prac. Chem. 1848) from the plant Oenanthe fistulosa. Its effect upon the system is very decided and powerful, pro- ducing hoarseness and even vomiting, when taken in the dose of a half to one grain. Cedron.—This remarkable substance is, according to Hooker (Lond. Pharm. Journ. x. 344), the cotyledon of the seed of the Simaba Cedron, a plant indigenous to Panama, New Gre- nada. The seed, as well as the bark and wood, are bitter and tonic. So highly is it esteemed by the natives, as an antidote for bites of venomous reptiles, and as a specific in intermittents and diseases of the stomach generally, that it commands, fre- quently, an enormous price. Herran (Comptes Rendus, 1850), who administered it in eight cases, attests its efficacy. He gave it in doses of 5 or 6 gr., mixed with a spoonful of brandy, and at the same time dressed the bitten part with linen saturated with some of the spirituous liquor. After repose, the patient recovered without any repetition of the dose. A similar treat- ment was equally successful in cases of fever, where quinin had failed. Githagin.—A poisonous principle, obtained by Scharling (Central Blatt, 1850) from the seeds of the Aygrostemma Githago, or corncockle. It is a starch-like inodorous sub- stance, soluble in water and dilute alcohol, and insoluble in cther. ANHYDROUS PRUSSIC ACID. 121 Atropin.—Rebourdain (Comptes Rendus, 1850) gives the following process for the ready preparation of atropin. Fresh belladonna leaves are to be bruised, the juice extracted by pressure, heated to 176°-194° F. and filtered. When the filtrate has cooled, 4 grm. caustic potassa and 30 grm. chloro- form per quart are added, and the whole well shaken together. After an hour’s repose, the chloroform, holding in solution the atropin, subsides as the lower stratum, and after decantation of the supernatant liquid, is to be washed repeatedly with water. The chloroform solution is then distilled over a water- bath. The residue in the retort, by digestion with dilute sul- phuric acid, yields the atropin. This solution, on treatment with carbonate of potassa, drops the atropin, which may be obtained in acicular crystal by resolution in alcohol and spon- taneous evaporation. Pyrotartarie Acid.—According to Arppe (Liebig’s Anna- len, Ixv.) pyrotartaric acid may be prepared by distilling together, in a capacious green-glass retort, a mixture of equal parts of powdered crystals of tartaric acid and pumice-stone dust. For 21b acid, the time required is 12 hours. The dis- tillate is to be mixed with water, the supernatant empyreumatic oil separated by the aid of a funnel, and the liquor gently evaporated and set aside. The crystajline mass which forms is to be pressed between paper, and then spread upon papers saturated with alcohol in order to remove the empyreumatic and coloring matters. The product amounts to 7 per cent. of the acid employed. Anhydrous Prussie Acid.—Wohler (Central Blatt, 1850) gives the following process for preparing anhydrous prussic acid. 10 pts. prussiate of potassa, 7 pts. sulphuric acid, and 14 pts. water are mixed together in a retort and distilled over an open charcoal fire. The neck of the retort should be raised to an angle of 45° and occasionally cooled, so as to condense and drive back the aqueous vapor, and thus prevent its passing over into the drying-tube attached, containing the chloride of calcium. Between this latter tube of U shape, there should be another vessel containing a small quantit# of chloride of L 122 FINE CHEMICALS AND PHARMACEUTICS. [ HV. calcium or cyanide of potassium, and both must be sur- rounded with water of 86° F. By enclosing the condenser in a mixture of ice and salt, the acid is made to crystallize. Gallic Acid.—This acid may be made by boiling tannin with dilute sulphuric acid, until the liquid crystallizes om cool- ing. Wetherill (Journ. Pharm. xii. 107) gives 1 pt. sulphuric acid (1.84) to 4 pts. water, as the proper strength of the acid ; and 500 cubic centimetres of this mixture to 50 grm. dry tan- nin, as the best proportions. The product will be upwards of 40 grm. gallic acid. Succinie Acid.—Wackenroder has found that much of the commercial acid is adulterated largely with tartaric acid, drenched with oil of amber. (Archiv. d. Pharm. 1. 280.) Chloroform.—Soubeiran (Comptes Rendus, 1847) proposes to prepare pure chloroform for medicinal purposes, by the following process. 10 pts. of the best chloride of lime are mixed with 60 pts. water, well stirred and transferred to a copper still of at least one-third greater capacity than the volume of liquid, adding 2 pts. alcohol of 0.85. The apparatus being luted tightly is heated by a brisk fire. As soon as the mixture reaches 176° a violent intumescence ensues, when the fire must be immediately removed, to prevent the liquid from running over igo the receiver. This mishap being guarded against by careful management of the heat, the dis- tillate commences to pass over and continues rapidly. When the action becomes slow, the fire must be restirred in order to hasten it. When the distillate ceases to taste sweet, the pro- cess is terminated. The distillate consists of two strata, one dense and yellowish, consisting of chloroform contaminated with alcohol and chlorine; the other is a mixture of water, alcohol, and chloroform, and, after a day, deposits a portion of the latter product. The chloroform is to be decanted, washed by agitation with water, the chlorine removed by a dilute so- lution of carbonate of soda, and then rectified over chloride of calcium in a water-bath. As the operation is more pro- ductive the quicker it is effected, the pulverized chloride of lime should be mixed with hot water. CHLOROFORM. 123 Soubeiran determines the purity of chloroform by means of a test liquid of 40°, or spec. gray. 1.35, made by mixing equal parts of concentrated sulphuric acid and distilled water, and allowing the whole to cool. One drop of chloroform poured into this liquid will sink if it is free from alcohol. Bottcher’s process (Polytech. Notizbl. No. i.) is to distil to dryness, in an iron retort, equal parts of acetate of soda and chloride of lime. A large quantity of dilute acetone and but little chloroform passes over. The distillate is then to be mixed with chloride of lime and again distilled, and the same process repeated a third time, in order to decompose the whole of the acetone. The last distillate is to be rectified over caustic lime. According to Soubeiran and Mialhe (Journ. de Pharm. 1849) there are two kinds of chloroform in commerce. One, the normal chloroform, prepared by the action of hypochlorite of lime upon alcohol; the other made from pyroxylic spirit in- stead of alcohol. The latter (methylic chloroform), though similar in appearance to the former, is less sweet, has a dif- ferent odor, and produces nausea. Its spec. grav. is only 1.415, and its boiling point much lower than true chloroform. These discrepancies do not proceed from any actual difference in the two liquids, but are owing to the presence of a peculiar chlo- rinated oil, obtained in both instances, but readily separable from the normal chloroform. It is to the presence of this oil that the nausea and other ill effects of chloroform in certain instances are attributable, and therefore methylic chloroform is unfit for inhalation, it being impossible to remove all the empyreuma from it. To separate it from normal chloroform, the latter must be distilled, and the process stopped before the end of the operation, in order to prevent the reproduction of the mixture. When chloroform is poured upon a doubled sheet of bibu- lous paper, one portion soaks through, and another, by its rapid evaporation, produces sufficient cold to congeal it into crystals. Alcohol in Chloroform.—Cattel detects the presence of al. 124 FINE CHEMICALS AND PHARMACEUTICS. [ iV. cohol in chloroform by adding one or two crystals of chromic acid to 2 drachms of the suspected mixture. If it contains alcohol, the acid is soon reduced to green oxide. (Journ. de Chim. Méd. iv. 257.) On the tests and purification of chloroform, by Dr. Grego- ry, see Chem. Gaz. viii. 189. The method was afterwards shown to be defective, rendering the chloroform liable to decomposition. Collodion.—Maynard (Silliman’s Journ.) was the first to propose an ethereal solution of gun-cotton as a substitute for adhesive plaster. The ordinary gun-cotton is, however, some- what insoluble in ether. It must therefore be prepared by a special method, known as Malgaigne’s (Lond. Med. Gaz. 1848), which gives a perfectly soluble product. Mix together, in a stone pan, 40 oz. purified nitre in powder, with 60 oz. of sulphuric acid of 66°, and stir in 2 oz. of finely-carded cotton. After 3 minutes, remove the cotton with a glass rod and plunge it into a large volume of water, and renew the washing with fresh water until the removal of all acidity. Press, dry in a warm room, and pull out the wool. 8 oz. of this cotton form, with 125 pts. of rectified ether, a ready solution, which must be diluted with 8 pts. of rectified alcohol and strained through a linen cloth. The liquid is the collodion of the shops, now much used for surgical purposes. It is applied either alone with a brush, or upon a linen cloth. Its adhesiveness is said to be increased by the addition of Venice turpentine. The parts to which it is to be applied must be free from all dampness, as water de- composes the collodion. When containing one grain of morphin to the ounce, it is also a very efficient remedy for the toothache. As the solvent of ethereal extract of cantharides, it is an admirable blistering-plaster. It may be spread on with a camel’s hair pencil. The evaporation of the ether leaves a dry coating in a few seconds; and as soon as the principle of the cantharides begins to act upon the epidermis, the coat- ing rises and forms a blister. If opened at the side, the film BENZOLE. 125 of collodion remains unbroken, and by thus protecting the sore obviates the necessity of dressing it with ointment. Itis a much more active, cleanly, and convenient vesicant than the unguent. cantharid. (Lond. Pharm. Journ. 1850.) Benzole.—This liquid carbohydrogen, so valuable as an economical solvent of caoutchouc, gutta-percha, resins, and other difficultly soluble substances, is readily prepared by Mansfield’s process (Journ. of Chem. Soe. i., and Chem. Gaz. vil.) from coal-tar. The light coal-naphtha, obtained in the early stage of the distillation of coal-tar, is distilled in a metal retort having its head surmounted with a chamber containing cold water, so that the liquids less volatile than water may be condensed and fall back into the retort or into a separate receiver, while those more ethereal pass on in vapor to a condensing vessel kept cool with water or ice. The liquid ceases to pass as soon as the water in the chamber commences to boil, because all vapor volatile below 212° has then been driven over into the con- denser. The distillate is rectified by a second distillation as above, taking care, this time, that the temperature of the water surrounding the head of the still shall not quite reach 176° F., that being the boiling point of Benzole. The dis- tillate obtained before the temperature within the retort has risen to 194° F., is a yellowish volatile oil, which at 4° F. drops one-half of its bulk in crystals. This liquor, by agitation with one-tenth its volume of strong nitric acid for the removal of the oxidable substances, and, subsequently, after separation from the acid, with one-fourth its volume of oil of vitriol, to separate neutral oils, basic, and coloring matters, is prepared for the last distillation. All the distillate obtained below 194° is to be reserved and washed with water, and finally with an alkaline solution. The purifi- cation is completed by congealing it at 4° F. and pressing out the solid portion, filtering, and drying by means of chloride of calcium. The volatility of benzole imparts great value to it as the solvent of resins for forming varnishes, or artificial cuticles in L2 126 FINE CHEMICALS AND PHARMACEUTICS. [ EV. dressing wounds and burns.. Those resins, as copal, &c., which do not dissolve in the liquid, yield readily to the vapor. Air or coal-gas, surcharged with benzole, yields a flame of highly luminous power, and the author has recommended (Ch. Gaz. vii. 188) a system of illumination based upon this property. So also, when mixed in the proportion of one volume to two of alcohol or pyroxylic spirit of .840, it forms an admirable burning fluid. It, moreover, possesses anzesthetic properties. V. KALISTICS. It embraces the ornamenting and modifying of tissues, such as yarns, cloths, horn, ivory, paper, leather, &c., and may accordingly be divided into processes performed on tertile fabrics, yarn, cloth, and on sheet fabrics, paper, leather, gum- elastic ; while a third division embraces the cements and var- nishes employed upon those fabrics. 1. TextTILeE Fasrics Includes the preparation of fibre and dyes, the processes of dyeing and calico-printing. 1. Fibrous substances, such as cotton, wool, silk, &c. are bleached and dyed of various colors, either in the crude state, or as yarn, or woven into cloth. When colored uniformly, throughout, they are said to be dyed; when colored topically, or according to figures and designs, they are said to be printed. The term calico-printing has been applied to topical dyeing, but the general term should be color-printing, since the art consists in the application of colors to textile fabrics of cotton, wool, silk, &c., as well as to wall-paper. Flax and Hemp Ketting.—The process of retting, as usually practised, is objectionable on many accounts; it requires much tyme, the putrefaction disseminates a disagreeable, and, it is believed, a miasmatic odor; and it is moreover very liable to be carried too far, to the injury of the fibre. Poole’s method (Rep. Pat. Iny. 1845) consists in the use of dilute acid to dis- solve the material which glues the fibres together. A bundle of flax or hemp is saturated with water and exposed to the air for 8-9 hours, then again saturated towards evening and ex- posed for the night. The following morning it is put into a vat containing sulphuric acid diluted with 200 pts. water for hemp 127 128 TEXTILE FABRICS. ws (with 400 pts. for flax), and, after a time, is removed and put ona lattice. The operation is repeated in the course of 5-6 hours, and oftener, until the retting is complete, which is indicated by black spots on the stems. It is then rinsed thoroughly in water, passed through a bath of 1 pt. potash in 10,000 pts. water, to neutralize any remaining acid, and, lastly, rinsed in clean water, and dried. Hemp and Linen, with New-Zealand Flax.—New-Zealand flax diminishes the value of cordage, &c. made of hemp or flax, rendering it less durable. Vincent gives the following method of detecting the mixture. (Comptes Rendus, 1847.) Hemp fibre, dipped for a few seconds into nitric acid, is colored pale-yellow, linen not at all, and New-Zealand flax blood-red. A piece of cloth, containing both flax and New- Zealand flax, dipped into the acid, showed red striz in the woof and none in the chain, which was all common flax. To detect Cotton in Linen.—Elsner has published a critical review of the various methods proposed to distinguish cotton and flaxen fibres (Berlin. Industrie u. Handelsbl. xxiv.), the best of which we extract from his report. Stdckhardt ob- served that a flaxen fibre, inflamed in a vertical position, and then extinguished, appeared to be carbonized at that end in a smooth, coherent shape, while cotton, similarly treated, ap- peared to be spread out like a brush or tuft. Elsner observes that it especially occurs when the flame is violently blown out, and that it succeeds with dyed goods, unless dyed by chrome yellow. The potash test ee in putting the fibre into boiling caustic potassa-lye for a couple of minutes, when the flax turns deep-yellow and the cotton is scarcely changed. ‘The test ‘is not reliable. One of the best is the microscopic examination, for when flax is magnified 300 times, it appears like long, compact tubes, with a narrow channel in the centre, while cotton appears to be flattened, ribbon-like cylinders, with a wide channel, and mostly in spiral windings. The test with oil of vitriol is reliable in an experienced BLEACHING. 129 hand, but every trace of weaver’s gum must have been pre- viously removed by boiling with water. The fibres are laid on a plate of glass, and oil of vitriol dropped on it. A single lens is sufficient.to observe the effect. In a short time the cotton fibre is dissolved, the flax unaltered, or only the finest fibres attacked. The oil test is also a good one, and convenient in execution. When flaxen fibres are rubbed up with olive-oil, they appear transparent, like oiled paper, while cotton, under similar cir- cumstances, remains white and opake. Dyed goods exhibit the same, if previously bleached by chloride of lime. Elsner’s method consists in putting the fibres for a few minutes into a tincture of various red dyes, of which cochineal and madder give the most striking results. The tincture is made by putting 1 pt. madder, &c. into 20 pts. common alcohol for 24 hours. In the cochineal tincture, cotton is colored bright- red; flax, violet ;—in madder, cotton becomes, light-yellow ; pure flax, yellowish-red. It is better to employ several of these tests, the microscopic, oil, sulphuric acid, and combustion, rather than to rely upon a single test. Tanning Cotton and Linen.—English and French fisher- men have been long in the habit of tanning their sails, &e. in bark liquors, in order to render them more durable. Millet states that pieces of linen, treated for 72 hours with an oak- bark liquor at 150°, and stretched on frames, remained unal- tered in a damp cellar for 10 years; while untanned linen in the same place and for the same time had entirely rotted. The one frame, also tanned, was perfectly preserved, and the other, untanned, had rotted. It was further shown that linen, which had begun to moulder, might be preserved from further change by being tanned. It seems to be only necessary that the articles should be kept 2 or 3 days in a warm solution of tannin. Sponge may be similarly tanned. 2. Bleaching.—The oldest process of employing sun and dew is still resorted to, but has been almost supplanted by the use of chlorine or chloride of lime. The new and singular 9 130 TEXTILE FABRICS. LV. substance, ozone (singular, because but little understood), seems to possess bleaching properties, and hence we notice it. Ozone.—Phosphorus kept in moist air imparts to it the pro- perty of bleaching various vegetable colors, and when kept too long in this air, their texture is weakened, as in bleaching by chlorine. Such air is termed ozonized air by Schonbein, who first investigated its properties, and called the substance itself ozone. A convenient way of making ozonized air is to cover the bottom of a capacious bottle with water, to set in it a stick of phosphorus, which must rise above the water, to close it loosely with a cork, and place it in a temperature of 60-68°. The air will be ozonized in the course of an hour, may be used, and fresh ozone obtained with the same ar- rangement. Its bleaching effects are due to its large content and loose combination of oxygen, analogous to that of binoxide of hy- drogen, and to that of dilute solutions of chlorine. A color- ing substance is changed in its nature by oxidation, and new colorless compounds formed. Schénbein has further shown its oxidizing effect on protosalts of manganese. By writing with a solution of sulphate of manganese, and putting the dry writing for a short time into a bottle of ozonized air, the writing appears of a brown color, from the formation of per- oxide of manganese. ‘The writing will vanish in sulphurous acid by reduction to protoxide, and will reappear in ozonized alr. Bleaching Sponge.—A fter extracting lime by dilute muriatic acid, and washing with water, it is put into very dilute muriatic acid and,a solution of chloride of lime added, after which it. is rinsed in water and passed through an acid bath. It is ‘then put into very dilute sulphuric acid, containing sulphite of soda, thoroughly washed, pressed out and dried. (Kressler in Journ. f. Chem. u. Pharm. Ixiv.) Bastick, examining the effect of chloride of lime upon starch, sugar, cotton, &c., found that when free lime is pre- sent, formiate of lime is produced; when absent, carbonic acid is generated. (Journ. Pharm. (3) xiv.) It appears then that MORDANTS. TSH where the alkaline base is absent, the decomposition by oxida- tion is more violent: a fact of importance in the use of this bleaching agent. Bristles Bleached.—Winkler and Fink give the following as the best method of bleaching bristles. (Monatsbl. d. Hess- isch. Gewerbver. 1847.) They are first well washed in a solution of soft-soap in luke-warm water, rinsed in cold water, then laid for 2-5 days in a saturated solution of sulphurous acid in water, well washed, and dried. By merely moistening and exposing them to the air, most kinds may be bleached, and still better by moistening them with very dilute sulphuric acid, and sunning them. In the latter case, however, Winkler observed that they were slightly attacked by the acid. 3. Mordants.—Under Chemics, we have seen the preparation of the two great mordants, alum and copperas, together with several others. A few are prepared more exclusively for the dyer, and some by the dyer himself. Persulphate of Iron.—A mixture of powdered copperas and some soda-saltpeter is ignited for a short time in a crucible, and, when cooled, extracted by water. The presence of the sulphate of soda, also formed by the process, does not inter- fere with its employment in dyeing, &c. Elsner properly remarks that this process is not as economical as the older method of heating a due mixture of oxide of iron and oil of vitriol in a cast-iron vessel. It may nevertheless be sometimes convenient to employ it. (Mechan. Mag. 1847.) A good article on the nitrates of iron, Xc., appears in the American Journal, 2d series, ix. 30, by Ordway. Nitrate of Copper.—This salt may be made by mixing 1} pts. powdered blue vitriol with 1 pt. soda-saltpeter, moistening it with water, and heating it in a crucible until the fluid mass begins to evolve red vapors. The solution then made will contain sulphate of soda, which does not injure its value to the dyer. (Mechan. Mag. 1847.) Tin-salt.—C. Nollner proposes (Ann. der Chem. u. Pharm, Ixiii. 120) to adapt stoneware receivers to the retorts in which muriatic acid is generated, and to fill them with granulated 132 TEXTILE FABRICS. [V. tin. The concentrated solution of tin thus obtained is eva- porated in a tin pan, containing an excess of granulated tin ; so that the pan will not be acted on, because it becomes posi- tively, and the granulated tin negatively, electric. All copper present in tke solution is precipitated as a black powder on the granulated tin. Salts of Tin.—Bouquet, in his paper upon the preparation of some protosalts of tin (Journ. de Pharm. xi. 460), gives the following formula for making the sulphate of the protoxide (SnO,S0,). Dissolve recently precipitated protoxide of tin in warm dilute sulphuric acid. Nacreous plates of sulphate separate on cooling. Stannate of Soda.—It is usually made by adding caustic soda-lye to a solution of chloride of tin. Another method, suitable for dyeing and color-printing, consists in heating 22tb caustic soda in an iron crucible to a red-heat, adding 8fb soda saltpeter and 416 common salt, bringing it to fusion, and then adding 10Ib granulated tin. The heat is continued until ig- nition takes place and the mass has a doughy consistence. It may be powdered and used at once, or may be purified by solution in water and crystallization. (Journ. of Arts, 1846.) Arseniate and Stannate of Soda.—Stannate of soda is made as usual from oxide of tin and soda, or tin and nitrate of soda, and dissolved in water until it reaches 50° Twaddle, and about 1iib arseniate of soda (made by fusing together equal parts of arsenious acid and nitrate of soda) is added to a gallon of the hot solution, in an iron vessel over the fire. As soon as a little of the mass taken out congeals at once, the compound is completed. In like manner, phosphate of soda may be added | to the stannate, in order to make phosphate and stannate of soda. (Lond. Journ. Aug. 1850.) Lead Mordants.—The best mordants of lead are: 1. Basic acetate of lead, obtained by digesting litharge in a solution of sugar of lead; 2. Potassa-lime and oxide of lead, obtained by digesting litharge in a solution of caustic potassa contain- ing lime; and, 3. A similar solution with soda instead of po- tassa. All these mordants give a beautiful chrome-yellow. A MADDER. £55 gray is obtained by passing the goods thus mordanted through a solution of sulphuret of calcium; and a deep-black by the same, finishing with iron mordant and campeachy wood. (Technologiste, 1846.) New Mordant.—Broquette’s new method of fixing colors, or his new mordant, is a solution of casein in ammonia, with which the goods are impregnated, and then heated to expel the ammonia and leave the casein on the cloth. He has also employed casein with lime alone, or with lime and ammonia. See Chem. Gaz. vill. 584. 4, Dye-stuffs.—Many experiments have been recently made on well-known dye-stuffs, especially on the invaluable madder, and a few new dyes have been added to the list; but experience alone can prove their durability, beauty, and economy. Madder.—The investigation of this valuable coloring-sub- stance is attended with many difficulties, in consequence of the presence of several different coloring principles, which have some analogy in color, are different in their properties, and yet, according to some observations, one may be trans- . formed into another. It is probable that the substances alz- zarin and xanthin, found some twenty-five years since, were not pure. In 1835, Runge described, in a valuable essay on madder, five coloring principles in it, madder-purple, red, orange, yellow, and brown, and mentioned also two acids, rudi- acie and maddric ; but he viewed the sesubstances solely as a dyer and not as a chemist, leaving the most important part un- done, their more important combinations, transformations, and their composition. Schiel also examined the colors of madder. (See essay in Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm. Oct. 1846.) To prepare madder- purple, water is poured over the ground madder in a wooden vat, suffered to stand for 1 or 2 days, and drawn off. The madder is then pressed, boiled in a copper vessel with a strong solution of alum, and filtered hot. It deposits a reddish-brown substance, which is separated by filtration. Sulphuric acid is added to the red solution, which deposits the purple in 24 hours. ‘The latter is again dissolved in alum and precipitated. M 134 TEXTILE FABRICS. [ Vv. It is then boiled with muriatic acid, washed with cold water, dissolved in alcohol, and the solution evaporated, when it de- posits the pigment. It is, lastly, dissolved in ether several times, and separates from it by evaporation. It is a cherry- red powder, insoluble in cold water, rather soluble in hot, very soluble in alcohol and ether; soluble in alkalies with deep-red color, and reprecipitable by acids. It fuses by heat, and sublimes with partial decomposition, condensing in the form of red needles, which dissolve in alkalies with a violet color. Its composition is expressed in the formula C,,H,,0,.. Both madder-purple and madder-red dissolve in cold oil of vitriol, with a brilliant red color, and are again precipitated unchanged by the addition of 4 its volume of water. Hence, in preparing garancine, the oil of vitriol should be diluted with 4+ its volume of water, which would not dissolve the colors, while it chars the woody fibre. Madder-red is contained in the precipitate which sepa- rates from a cooling decoction of madder. After repeated purification, it is a yellow powder, difficultly soluble in water, readily soluble in alcohol and ether, soluble in potassa with a violet, in ammonia with a red color, sublimes at 437°, and deposits orange-yellow needles. Both the sublimed and the unsublimed appear to have the same composition, expressed by the formula C,,H,O,. The red appears to pass into the pur- ple by taking up 1 eq. water and 5 eq. oxygen. O,,H,O,+ HO+0,=C,,H,,9,,. Schunck performed a series of experiments on madder root, from the aqueous extract of which he obtained alizarin, rudza- cin, a and B resins, a bitter principle rubian, pectic and rubiacie acids, and a dark-brown substance. After thorough extraction by water, and then by hydrochloric acid, which removed lime and magnesia, he obtained by extraction with potassa, alizarin, pectic acid, 8 resin, and probably rubiacic acid. Alizarin has the formula C,,H,O,+38HO, soluble in pure water with a yellow color, in alcohol and ether; soluble in caustic and carbonated alkalies, with a brilliant purple color; the potassa solution is precipitable by alumina, which becomes reddish-purple; by MADDER-LAKE. 135 peroxide of iron, which becomes blackish-purple. It is soluble in sulphuric acid, and reprecipitable by water unaltered; hence its permanency when madder is charred by oil of vitriol. Nitric acid, pernitrate and perchloride of iron convert it into alizaric acid. Rubiacin (probably Runge’s madder-orange) has the formula C,,H,0,,, is slightly soluble in boiling water and in sulphuric acid without decomposition ; in caustic po- tassa with a purple, and in carbonated with a blood-red color ; forms adingy-red precipitate with chloride of calcium, and an orange-colored compound with alumina, which last is soluble in potassa with a purple color. Boiling pernitrate or chloride of iron changes it to rubiacie acid. The resins are slightly soluble in boiling water; the @ resin in caustic and carbonated alkalies with a purple-red color, 8 resin with a dingy-red color. Rubian is the bitter, nitrogenous principle. Schunck believes alizarin to be the active dyeing substance in madder, although he states in one place that rubiacin assists in brightening color when alkali is present. He thinks that the resins impart a yellowish, and xanthin a brown tone to the color. (Ann. Ch. Pharm. Ixvi. 174.) Higgin ascribes some effect to rubiacin and xanthin in dye- ing. He believes that xanthin passes by a kind of fermenta- tion, first into rubiacin and then into alizarin, and that the resins are products of decomposition with boiling water. (Phil. Mag. (8) xxxili. 282.) : Residue of Madder.—Wy dler proposes the following method of using the residue of madder, exhausted by dyeing (Schweizer Gewerbebl. 1847). The pressed residue is mixed with 40 per cent. oil of vitriol, the mixture steamed for an hour, and then washed until the wash-water tests no longer acid. It is said to yield as much color as before. Madder-lake.—A fine madder-lake is thus prepared from an ordinary article, by Kressler. 1 oz. common madder-lake is powdered, treated with 2 oz. strong acetic acid (1.045), stirred frequently, set aside for 12 hours, then diluted with 6—8 pts. distilled water, and filtered. Twice as much boiling water is added to the clear filtrate, and then gradually a dilute 136 TEXTILE FABRICS. [W. solution of carbonate of soda (3-4 oz.) until all is precipitated. The precipitate is filtered, washed, pressed in linen, and dried in the shade. It has arich carmine color, and rubbed on glass with a good oil-varnish, appears as transparent as red glass. Its solution in strong acetic acid gives a beautiful and durable red ink, which does not mould and requires no gum. It may be diluted at pleasure. For the properties of a new dye of somewhat analogous character to madder, we refer to the Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 335. Red Coloring-matter of Rhubarb.—The erythrose of Garot (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim. 1850) is extracted from rhubarb by acting on 1 pt. with 4 pts. of nitric acid. The residue, remaining untouched, is the coloring-matter, and varies in different rhubarbs from 8 to 20 per cent. It is orange-red, soluble in alcohol and ether, and forms with the alkalies red compounds of eminent tinctorial power. It is said to give a dye of much greater brilliancy and stability than that from cochineal. Cochineal.—Warren de la Rue (Chem. Soc. Trans. 1847) thus obtains the coloring-matter. 3Ib powdered cochineal are boiled for 20 minutes in 60 litres distilled water, strained, and poured off clear in3 an hour. It is then precipitated by a solution of acetate of lead previously acidulated by acetic acid (6 pts. acetate, 1 pt. acid), the precipitate washed with boiling water, dried in warm air, and powdered. This yields 17 oz. crude carmine-oxide of lead. The cake is suspended in water, sulphuretted hydrogen passed through, the deep-red solution evaporated ina water-bath, and lastly dried in vacuo. The crude carminic acid contains phosphoric acid, and to purify it, it is dissolved in boiling absolute alcohol, and digested for some hours with carminate of lead. Ether is added to the solution, which precipitates a little nitrogenous matter, and the filtrate evaporated in a retort, and finally dried in vacuo. It is the pure cochineal-red or carminic acid. This substance is a purplish-brown pulverizable mass, transparent under the microscope, of a beautiful red color when finely divided, decomposed by chlorine, bromine, iodine, ROCELLA TINCTORIA. 137 and nitric acid, above 277°. It is soluble in all proportions in alcohol and water; difficultly so in ether, its solution giving an acid reaction. The alkaline earths throw it down of a purplish color; the acetates of lead, copper, zine, and silver, purplish-red. Sulphate of alumina does not throw it down, but upon adding a little ammonia, a brilliant carmine-lake is precipitated. The chlorides of tin do not precipitate it, but impart a rich carmine tint to the liquid. Its formula is C,.H,,0,,- Alkanet.—Bolley gives (Schweizer Gewerbebl. 1847) a method of preserving the tincture of alkanet, which is valua- ble, since alkanet is a costly dye, and its tincture produces a peculiar violet of the fastest character. The method consists simply in the addition of avery little pure muriatic acid to the tincture, a few drops being sufficient for large quantities. Its action is supposed to be its neutralizing a little ammonia, which is the cause of the tincture spoiling; but it is more probable that it combines with the substance from which the ammonia is produced by decomposition. Rocella Tinctoria (Orchil, Cudbear).—Schunck’s examination of this lichen is described in Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm. lxi. 64, &e. The cut lichen is boiled in water for some time, in a spacious vessel, and the yellowish-brown liquid strained. On cooling, white flocks and crystals separate, and when filtered off, washed and dried, are gray. Dissolved in boiling alcohol, a slight-brownish residue remains, and the cooling solution deposits a white crystalline substance, Heeren’s erythrin, Kane’s erythrilin, and Schunck’s erythric acid. It is the most important constituent of the lichen, as it produces the color for which the lichen is gathered. lb lichen yields about 50 grains. It is white, tasteless, soluble in alcohol and ether; 1 pt. dissolves in 240 pts. boiling water, but the greater part se- parates on cooling; it is also more soluble in boiling than in cold alcohol; its solution reddens litmus; it is soluble in caustic and carbonated alkalies, in lime and barytic water, and is again precipitated by acids in a gelatinous form. Its M2 138 TEXTILE FABRICS. [W. tincture is not precipitated by a tincture of acetate of lead, but a solution of subacetate gives a large precipitate. Its solution in ammonia, by exposure to the air, becomes purplish- red. By continued boiling in water it is converted into picroerythrin. Heated on platinum foil, it fuses and burns without residue; heated in a glass tube, it yields first an oily, then a crystalline sublimate of orcin. LErythric acid is the basis, and, according to Schunck, the only basis of all the coloring-matters of the lichens. Its composition is C,,H,,0,.. Picroerythrin is a product of the decomposition of erythric acid, and is the cause of the bitter taste of an extract of lichens. A hot solution of the acid, evaporated, leaves a brown glutinous mass, which becomes solid and crystalline, has a bitter taste, and leaves white picroerythrin when ex- tracted by cold water. Its composition is C,,H,,O,,; and it is formed from the acid by its taking up the elements of 5 eq. water. Extraction of Color from Orchil.—Chandois (Ch. Gaz. vii.) exhausts the lichens by repeated washings with water, and separates the coloring-matter from this liquid by means of ammonia or alkali. New Mode of Testing Indigo.—Reinsch’s new process (Jahrbuch fiir Pract. Pharm.) for testing the coloring power of indigo is said to give accurate results, with greater facility than the usual methods. It consists in the use of a standard solution, made by triturating 1} gr. finely-powdered Bengal indigo, of best quality, with 4 or 5 drops of very concentrated fuming sulphuric acid, and when the mass has become uni- formly brown, adding 15 gr. more of the same acid. The rubbing is to be continued until the mixture turns green, when another 15 gr. of acid is added, and the whole diluted with 150 gr. water. Two uniform cylinders having been previously graduated into 20 equal divisions, one is to receive 15 gr. of the above solution, or more if necessary, to give a light-blue liquid by filling the glass with water. The other cylinder is similarly filled, to determine whether the contents of the two are alike in shade. ‘This being so, one is emptied, and then, WONGSHY. 139 having received 15 gr. of solution of inferior indigo, prepared as above directed, water is to be poured in until it assumes the tint of the standard liquor. The difference in the quantity of water required to produce a uniformity of shade in the two liquids, denotes the ratio of the quality of the indigoes em- ployed. For example, 20 pts. water were used for the stan- dard solution, whereas the same quantity of the indigo under test required only 15 measures to produce the same degree of coloration: therefore the latter contains 25 per cent. (z’pths) less of coloring matter than the former. The author gives the following results of certain essays with solution of best Bengal indigo, = 20. Hensal NG 2. GUAILY.. 6. oos..ded sey en paderese 19 Same Ore Miers Wy Secon oes ese coin c secs 6 DAVIN O: Lo nGUALLY ccc .csscabenemacs ole naideieit 194 SN Oo aiuto Mos oa cain etnamensWise sence ey 183 Coloring-matter of Soorangee.—This material, extensively used by the native Indians asa dye, is imported from Bombay. According to Dr. Anderson, it is the root of the morinda eitrifolia. His examinations (Ch. Gaz. vi.) prove that it con- tains a red coloring principle morindin, extracted by alcohol, which is very similar to madder-purple both in physical and chemical properties and in composition, though differing re- markably as a dye. Its behavior to mordants is given in detail in the original paper. Wongshy.—This new yellow dye, imported from Batavia, according to Stein (Journ. f. Prac. Chem. 1849), consists of the seed-vessels of a plant of the family of gentianx ; by tri- turation with water it gives a reddish-yellow liquid which re- tains its color even when largely diluted. Alcohol acquires by digestion with it a bright-red tint. It yields an orange-color to unmordanted woollen cloth; cottons require to be mor- danted. The color resists the action of soap, but is yellowed by alkalies and reddened by acids, and fades by exposure te light. The details of the author’s experiments are given in the original paper. 140 TEXTILE FABRICS. [V. See a full essay on this material in the Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 265-275. 5. Dyeing.—Some goods will receive a color directly from a solution and retain it, but in most cases it is necessary to impregnate the goods first with a mordant or color-base, and then to pass them through the dye, which adheres to the color-base. We present a few suggestions which have been recently made in reference to dyeing. In place of the cream of tartar used in woollen fabrics, a patentee (Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 385) proposes mixtures of salts and acids, enumerating 8 acids, 4 alkaline chlorides, 3 alkaline sulphates, besides alkaline acetates, nitrates, oxalate, borate, and sulphate of zinc. Out of these twenty salts and their scores of compounds, one may possibly succeed. Recovery of Soap from Scouring—Where large quantities of soap are used, as in scouring wool, cotton, &c., it may be recovered by adding muriate of lime to the wash-water (which is a Solution of soap), and precipitating the salt of lime with the fat acids. The salt, being collected, is easily decomposed by sulphuric or muriatic acid, and the fat acids obtained to be again used in the making of soap. This is the subject of an English patent. See Rep. Pat. Inv. July, 1850. Orchil, Cudbear.—Lightfoot proposes (Lond. Journ. Sept. 1850) preparing vegetable textile fabrics by the Turkey-red preparation (pearlash, olive-oil, and water) by 10-12 paddings, then padding in acetate of alumina or aluminate of potassa, and dyeing in orchil or cudbear. He also proposes impreg- nating the goods with salts of magnesia, lead, zinc, copper, tin, &c., and fixing the base by alkali before printing with orchil or cudbear. The proposition to use cobalt or nickel salts is absurd on account of their cost. Indigo.—According to Chevreul (Comptes Rendus, 1846) indigo is more permanently fixed on woollen goods, dyed in the hot vat, by steaming them, or by a boiling bath of alum and argal, or tin-salt and argal, or by a bran-bath, or, lastly, by a solution of potassa or soda. Red Prussiate of Potash.—Dr. Meitzendorff published an CHROME DYES. 141 essay in the Verhandl. z. Beford. d. Gewerbfl. in Preussen, 1846, on the process of shading with blue on woollen-yarn. Chromate of Lead, as a Gold-yellow for Cotton.—The gold- yellow color with a silky lustre, on cotton-yarn, is prepared by mordanting in a solution of subacetate of lead, and then passing it through bichromate of potassa, acidulated with nitric acid; after thoroughly rinsing in water, it is dipped for a few minutes into an alcoholic tincture of saffron, and dried in the shade without previous washing. (Innerdsterr. Industr. und Gewerbebl. 1847.) Chrome Dyes.—Kurrer (Ch. Gaz. viii. 461, and Lond. Journ. Aug. 1850) has made some valuable contributions to the chemistry of colors, in an essay on chrome dyes. As these latter resist the action of light, acids, and alkalies, they may be considered fast colors. The new methods of preparing the different shades, with the requisite proportions of materials to be employed, are given in the original paper, which may be profitably consulted. Sea-green.—Prepared by dissolving hydrated peroxide of chrome in dilute hydrochloric acid, carefully neutralizing ex- cess of acid with caustic potassa, and evaporating solution to 46° B. The chrome oxide is precipitated from solution of bichromate of potassa by arsenious acid. For cylinder-printing, either starch or gum tragacanth may be used for thickening ; but the gum is preferable, because it gives colors of greater depth and richer tone. The prints are brightened, after being stretched over night in a cool place, by passing them through caustic potash-lye of 2° B., airing, pressing, washing, drying, and, finally, by im mersion in a bath of acetate of copper, rinsing, and drying. Olive.—The addition of catechu-brown to the chloride of chrome, in varying proportions, produces the different shades of olive. R Pearl-gray.—This tint is obtained by a mixture of sulphate of chrome and chrome alum. The prints are finished by im- mersion in milk of lime, rinsing in hot and cold water, and drying. 142 TEXTILE FABRICS. [V. Black Dye for Felt Hats.—The composition of this dye, for which a prize was awarded, is as follows. 1. The felt hat- bodies are first cleaned, and galled by passing them through the following solution, and washing: fustic, copperas, argal, each 8b, are boiled together in water for half an hour. 2. The dye-bath consists of 55Ib campeachy wood, 1316 gum, 3th galls, which are boiled together in water for 3 hours. To produce the black color, 5tb refined verdigris, 21 each of blue vitriol, sugar, and quicklime, are added to the bath. (Bulletin de la Société d’Encouragement, August, 1846.) 6. Color-printing.—The expansion of chemical science and of calico-printing are simultaneous, and must necessarily be so, for this beautiful art includes in it a larger share of the principles and practice of chemistry than any other, or perhaps than all other arts. Little of the experience of the calico- printer is published, except by the issue of his beautifully finished goods, and the cost of that experience is a sufficient apology for his silence. Steam-blue for Printed Goods.—According to Petersen (Polytech. Centralbl. 1847, 14) a topical blue for cotton, silk, wool, &c. is obtained by printing a thickened mixture of prussiate of potash with tartaric or sulphuric acid, and steam- ing. The ferrocyanhydric acid, thus set free, penetrates the fibre, depositing cyanide of iron, somewhat colored, which first assumes a fine color by oxidation in a bath of chromate of potash or chlorine, a blue protopercyanide being formed.. The lively tone of French blue is due to the use of tin-salt together with the others, or to ferrocyanide of tin, which is obtained by adding tin-salt to prussiate of potash. Prussian-blue for Calicoes.—A solution of pertartrate and persulphate of iron is treated with ammonia in excess, and then with yellow prussiate of potash. Cotton is not imme- diately colored when dipped into this solution, but by subse- quent exposure to the air, it assumes a violet-blue, which passes into a beautiful deep-blue when passed through a bath of tin- salt. (Dingl. Journ. xcix. 399.) White Discharge on Indigo.—This is usually effected by INKS. 143 bichromate of potassa and an acid, but is objectionable because the white ground requires cleaning. Mercer (Phil. Mag.) pro- _ poses to effect it by red prussiate of potash and caustic alkali ; for when the former is printed on, and the cloth is then passed through dilute caustic-lye, a brilliant white is discharged. Ammonia-oxide of Copper.—Runge draws attention to the resolution of sulphate of copper in ammonia (Polytech. No- tizbl. 1847), and shows its utility for color-printing, when mixed with decoctions of plants. Thus, catechu gives almost the same brown as chromate of potassa, by fusing 1 pt. ca- techu in 4 pts. water, adding 12 pts. of the liquid ammonia- oxide of copper, and printing with the liquid, thickened with tragacanth. It shows a singular action on the yellow color which separates from a cold infusion of French berries. This color, when treated with the ammoniacal copper, becomes reddish-brown in the course of 6—8 hours, and if then treated with alcohol, the brown copper-salt is left, and a red color dissolved, which yields compounds with alumina of a beautiful red, like those from madder. Pyrophosphate of Copper and Potassa.—Persoz proposes this double salt for calico-printing, as it is decomposed by zine or iron with less facility than any other salt of copper, and as difficulties attend the use of other salts of copper. (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. and Journ. f. Prac. Chem. xli. 361.) 7. Coloring Fluids—We may conveniently embrace under this head various fluid inks, which are liquid dyes; as well printing-inks, which are pasty dyes, printed on from a type or pattern. Black Ink from Logwood.—Boil 125 pts. rasped logwood with so much water that it will yield 1000 pts. of the decoc- tion, and when cold, stir in 1 pt. yellow chromate of potassa. It is a beautiful blue-black, and gives no precipitate. Butif too much chromate be used, or the decoction be too concentrated, a dark precipitate takes place. (Runge’s Grundriss d. Chem. il. 207, 1847.) Being free from acid, it will not corrode steel pens, but it does not write as freely as our most fluid inks, made from nut-galls and copperas. 144 SHEET FABRICS. [V. _ Another ink is made by adding a very small quantity of blue vitriol to a solution of logwood-extract. This is apt to precipitate. Soluble Prussian-blue (a Blue and Black Indelible Ink).— Dissolve in a solution of iodide of potassium as much more iodine as it contains, and pour this solution into one of yellow prussiate of potash, containing as much of the solid prussiate as the whole amount of iodine. Soluble Prussian-blue pre- cipitates and iodide of potassium remains in solution. After filtering, the precipitate is dissolved in water, and forms a blue ink, containing no free acid, and therefore adapted to steel-pens. If the soluble blue be added to common black ink (from galls), the result is a black ink which cannot be removed from paper without destroying it. Indelible Ink.—To remove spots of indelible ink, T. and H. Smith propose moistening the spots for a few moments with moist chloride of lime, which forms chloride of silver, and then dissolving the latter by caustic ammonia. It may be sometimes necessary to repeat the operation. (Chem. Gaz. Sept. 1847.) Cyanide of potassium may also be employed. Printing-ink.—Pratt’s patent consists in the use of rosin- oil, instead of linseed oil, with rosin, yellow soap, &c., in the manufacture of printing-ink. 2. SHEET FABRICS AND Souip TISSUES. Among these are paper, leather, horn, caoutchouc, &c., of which caoutchouc and guttapercha, being new, and presenting remarkable properties, have been most rapidly advanced of all others, during the past few years. Paper.—Amos and Clark claim improvements in the ma- nufacture of paper, whereby, 1. The bluing material is more uniformly distributed so as to equalize the tint on both sides of the paper; 2. The pulp is more expeditiously sifted ; 3. The paper is better dried on the cylinders; 4. The paper is glazed by means of a traversing horizontal table with two or more pairs of rollers. (Lond. Journ. xxxvu. Aug.) TANNING. 145 / Bleaching Paper.—After bleaching the pulp by chloride of lime, small quantities of this salt or chlorine remain in the paper, tending to injure its quality. It is entirely removed by sulphite of soda, which is converted by chlorine and water into muriate and sulphate of soda. Sulphite of lime, or, better still, a stale solution of sulphide of calcium, would probably answer the purpose as well.—J. C. B. Water-proof Paper.—J. Bossy prepares such paper by treat- ing half-stuff alternately with soapsuds and a solution of sul- phate of alumina, which results in producing an aluminous soap inthe pulp. The sheets, after drying, are sized with glue, rosin-soap, &c. (Rep. Pat. Inv. Aug. 1846.) Tracing Paper.—A paper dipped into a thick solution of gum arabic and pressed between two dry sheets, renders the three transparent. When dry, it is every way superior for tracing purposes, as it can be written or painted upon. Like the oiled paper, to which it is every way superior, it impresses the traced lines upon linen or paper. (Chemist, 1850.) Tanning.—The ancient process of tanning requiring a long period of time to produce leather, numerous processes have been latterly set forth, and many of them tried on a working scale, for the purpose of shortening this lapse of time. Al- though the end has been attained in a variety of ways, yet the quality of the leather has proved so inferior, that the slower process is still preferred for the finer qualities. The deterioration has been nearly, but not however quite, in direct proportion to the reduction of time in tanning, so that we may hope that methods will be devised for shortening the time without losing in quality. It is true that we are not thoroughly acquainted with the exact nature and progress of the change which a hide undergoes in its transformation, but we believe, on sufficient grounds, that it consists in the simultaneous metamorphosis of the hide into a gelatinous material and its combination with tannin. In some kinds of tanning, alumina, or an aluminous salt, seems to act the part of tannin. It has been found that an elevated temperature hastens the trans- formation ; that strong liquors, or the injection of liquors by N 10 146 SHEET FABRICS. [v. force, hasten the combination of tannin. The same ends ap- pear to be also attained by the free use of lime, whereby the hide is swelled and its pores opened. ‘The precise action of acid is not well ascertained, except that the process is short- ened. These are the main principles by which a shortened’ process of tanning has been accomplished. Where lime has been freely used, acid liquors generally follow, and the hide is so puffed and porous, that tanning becomes expeditious ; but the hide has been torn and rent asunder, and the organized structure must be necessarily impaired, and the strength and firmness of the leather consequently diminished. It will be observed that in the older processes the change was so slow that the organized structure of the skin was not impaired; that but little matter was removed from the hide, while a quantity was added to it. In accelerating the change, a portion of the matter is removéd by solution while undergoing transformation, before it can unite with, and become fixed by, the tannin. Hence the greater looseness and levity of leather prepared by the more modern and rapid processes. It may perhaps be stated as an ascertained fact, that leaving the side in the vats during two years instead of one, the increase of weight and quality thereby, compensates for the loss of time, by paying a fair interest on the capital invested.— J. CL B. A patentee, in Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 310, proposes a combi- nation of the white leather (alum and salt) process, with the tanning process by means of catechu. Another (Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 819) suggests the use of sulphuret of calcium instead of lime for unhairing. Since liming tends to lengthen tanning, by preventing the more rapid union of tannin with gelatin, Turnbull treats the hides after liming with a concentrated solution of sugar, so that the access of air is prevented during the action of the bark-liquors on the hides, and the formation of gallic acid thereby prevented. In this manner, the same amount of leather is obtained in 14 days from 100Ib oak-bark, as has been heretofore obtained in 18 months from 800tb bark. Tannin.—Kampfmeyer states, as a result of his compa- TANNING. 147 rative experiments with oak-bark, alder-bark, catechu, di- vidivi, that sole-leather tanned with dividivi is, in dry weather, about as good as the oak-tanned, but that in wet weather it is inferior. It may, nevertheless, be used in conjunction with oak-bark. (Verh. d. Gewerbfl. f. Preussen, 1847.) Elsner states that in Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania, the root of the tormentil or septfoil is largely and success- fully employed in tanning, and that its value is shown by chemical analysis, which gives 17 to 34 per cent. tannin in it. The best method of determining, practically, the amount of tannin in a substance is that proposed by Pelouze, which is to hang a strip of hide (freshly deprived of hair and ready for the tan-vat) in a tannic solution, and keep it there until it ceases to increase in weight. This increase is tannic acid, the gallic being left in the solution. Horse-hair, Dyed.—Previous to dyeing, it is cleaned by laying it for 24 hours in soapsuds heated to 130°, turning it repeatedly. For brown, it is laid for 12 hours in a decoction of logwood in lime-water cooled down to 120°, washed and dried. If the brown hair be dipped into water containing a little crystallized tin-salt, it assumes a violet-blue shade. To give a blue color, the hair is first mordanted in a hot solution of 2 pts. alum and 1 pt. argal, wrung out, then passed through water containing a little sulphate of indigo, washed, and dried. For red, it is laid for a } hour in water containing tin-salt, wrung out, laid for 24 hours in a bath prepared by boiling redwood with alum, washed, and dried at a gentle heat. (De- ninger in Monatsbl. d. Gewerbver. f. d. Grossh. Hessen, 1847.) Hair Varnish.—Williams (Monit. Indust. 1848) gives the following recipe for a varnish for converting fibrous materials into “artificial hair.” It is made by dissolving 10-40 pts. hog bristles in 100 pts. linseed-oil varnish. The cloth is to be immersed in the liquid and then dried at a moderate temperature. Horn, Dyed.—To give it the appearance of tortoise-shell, a paste of 2 pts. lime, 1 pt. litharge, and a little soda-lye is brushed on, and, after drying, brushed off again. It is the 148 SHEET FABRICS. [W. same as the Indian hair-dye, and acts by forming sulphuret of lead with the sulphur of horn, producing dark spots, that contrast with the lighter color of the horn. __ Ivory hardened.—It is said that ivory which has become friable by age, will recover its original hardness by being boiled, for some time, in a solution of gelatin. Ivory rendered Soft and Translucent.—This process of Geisler, communicated by Dr. Elsner, is as follows. Small pieces of ivory are laid in strong phosphoric acid (spec. gravy. 1.13) until they become transparent, then rinsed in water and dried in pure linen. When dry, it is translucent, and hard, but softens as often as it is dipped in warm water or milk. The time of immersion in the acid differs with different pieces of ivory. If certain parts are to retain their original charac- ter, they are covered with a varnish before immersion. The acid probably acts by forming an acid phosphate of lime out of the basic phosphate which constitutes ? of ivory. Etching on Ivory.—The ivory is to be covered with wax and the designs traced with a style, and then eaten in by a strong solution of nitrate of silver made by dissolving 6 grm. silver in 80 grm. nitric acid and 150 grm. water. Exposure to light, after the removal of the wax by hot distilled water, will blacken the color of the traces. By substituting gold, platinum, or copper nitrates, other colors may be obtained. Ivory Etched in Colors.—The ivory is coated like a copper plate, with an etching ground, a design graved through the groufid, and then etched by a solution of 120 gr. pure silver dissolved in a fl. oz. nitric acid and diluted with 1 qt. water. In the course of 3 to 1 hour, according to the depth of shade required, the liquid is poured off, the ivory washed, and dried by paper, then exposed for an hour to sunlight, and the ground removed by terpentine. The color is brown or black. Other colors are obtained by nitrate of copper, chloride of gold, or of platinum. Caoutchouwc.—The great expansion which the application of caoutchouc to various fabrics has received within a few years past, is largely, if not mainly, due to the persevering CAOUTCHOUC. 149 industry and ingenuity of Charles Goodyear, of New Haven, Connecticut. During a series of years of patient investiga- tion, he performed numberless experiments with a single object in view, viz. such a modification of caoutchouc, as would ob- viate all objections to its use, all defects in its properties, without impairing, and if possible, by increasing, its valuable qualities. Repeated failure did not discourage him, but seemed to nerve him the stronger in his toilsome pursuit, until at length success crowned his efforts. After he had been engaged some years in these investigations, and had already met with a degree of success which would have satisfied most persons, in the year 1841 he placed specimens of his manu- factured rubber in the hands of one of the writers of this report, for the purpose of testing its properties under chemical agency, in comparison with the native caoutchouc. This writer has known him personally, and been acquainted with his suc- cessive improvements from that period to the present time. His first improvement, which constituted the basis of others, consisted in the discovery by himself, that sulphur, under the influence of a higher temperature than usual, imparted the wished-for properties to caoutchouc, and that when conjoined with oxide of lead, these properties were still further improved. He called the compound Metallic Rubber. All processes for vulcanizing caoutchouc employed in England and on the con- tinent of Europe resulted from this important discovery of Goodyear. A fuller account of the process he pursued, was pub- lished some five years since in the Encyclopedia of Chemistry, to which reference is here made. Many other important im- provements have been made under Goodyear’s direction, both of a chemical and mechanical nature, some of which will doubtless be brought into successful employment, as soon as he conceives them to be sufficiently perfected. The present advanced state of the manufacture of elastic goods leads us to look onward to the time, when the manifold applications of caoutchouc, as a substitute for leather, with or without elasticity,—for various kinds of cloth, whether the coarse cloth of a tent exposed to the weather, or the more delicate fabric n2 150 SHEET FABRICS. [We upon which an engraving is printed,—its application to pur- poses for which no other substance can as well be employed, will all point it out as one of the valuable gifts of the vegeta- ble kingdom to mankind. No important improvement in the method of vulcanizing, or rather sulphurizing, has lately taken place, for the use of bisulphuret of carbon, sulphuret or hypo- sulphite of lead, sulphuret of antimony, &c., are not improve- ments, but rather indifferent variations of Goodyear’s processes. Burk’s process, patented in England, is to mix by grinding or rolling, 15 pts. golden sulphuret of antimony with 100 pts. India rubber, to make up cloth, &c. with this mixture, and then submit it in a boiler under pressure to the temperature of 260° to 280°. It is at least more costly than Goodyear’s process, and its superiority is doubtful. For Hancock’s proposed improvements in caoutchouc, &e. see Lond. Journ. 96-104, 1849. . Kamptulicon.—Lieut. G. Walton, of the British Navy, has proposed a mixture of sawdust. and caoutchouc, under the name of kamptulicon, as a lining for the interior of iron war- vessels. The inventor claims that, from its elasticity, it will immediately collapse when penetrated by a ball, and thus pre- vent the entrance of water. It also deadens concussion, and by its buoyancy will keep a vessel afloat though it should be riddled with shot, and moreover will prevent loss of life caused by splinters. Guttapercha.—This remarkable product, similar in its origin and composition to caoutchouc, differs wholly from it in its external characters, being very solid and unyielding at common temperatures, having something of the character of horn, but being quite plastic at 212°, at which temperature it can be pressed and moulded into any required form, from the simple form of a tumbler or plate, to the richest carving of a picture- frame and the minute lines of a medal. E. N. Kent has ob- served that it dissolves in the oils of terpentine, rosin, tar, guttapercha itself, in tereben and its muriate, but that neither by precipitation nor by evaporation can the solvent be wholly removed from it again. When dissolved in bisulphuret of GUTTAPERCHA. LSet carbon or chloroform, it may be precipitated unaltered by al- cohol. Its solution in 16 pts. of the solvent is with difficulty rendered clear by filtration. See also Vogel’s experiments, in Chem. Gaz. vi. 287. The uses of guttapercha are evidently extending from the beautiful picture-frames, and other articles in bold relief, to more important and widely extended subjects. Its inordinate degree of toughness, with slight elasticity, imperviousness to water, slight alterability by ordinary chemical agents, and the ease with which it may be moulded by heat into any required form, and caused to adhere to itself or to other objects, con- stitute an assemblage of valuable properties which gives it an almost equal position with the most useful materials which man possesses. A comparison of caoutchouc and guttapercha exhibits the wonders of nature in an eminent degree. Both derived in a similar manner from the concrete juices of trees growing together in the same region, both having the same composition, both eminently resisting chemical action in a similar manner, and each dissolving or softening in similar solvents; yet one is exceedingly elastic, and extensible in every direction, yielding to the slightest force but returning to its primary form, the other resists extension powerfully, but possesses a slight elasticity at right angles to its extended surface; one, when heated only to its softening point, becomes very adhesive and gummy, and returns very slowly, in months or years, to its original elastic character, the other, when gently heated, becomes pliant and yielding like wax, and re- tains with unyielding obstinacy, when cold, the impressions it received while warm. We have already witnessed a vast num- ber of applications of caoutchouc, devised by the ingenuity and perseverance of Mackintosh, Goodyear, and others; but we have yet to discover the manifold applications of which the properties of guttapercha convince us this material is sus- ceptible, and we may be assured that neither of them will exhibit their full sphere of utility for a lengthened period of time. Its analogy with caoutchouc will doubtless hasten the development of its usefulness, but the same analogy will also 152 ADHESIVES. [W. retard it in some points, by leading it too closely in the track of that substance, whereas its peculiarities should in some respects open a new path in its applications and mode of application. The properties of guttapercha led early to the proposition to apply it to ships and other apparatus requiring to be water- proof, and Forster suggests an improvement for coating plank (Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 51), for sheathing vessels, Xe. For an account of guttapercha and its applications, see Proc. Brit. Assoc. and London Atheneum, 1849; also Amer. Journ. (2) vil. 276. 3. ADHESIVES. Textile and sheet fabrics, and solid tissues, are either orna- mented or united by varnishes and cements. These have either a resinous basis, or are composed of gums or glue. The solvents for resins are alcohol, or the oils, whether fat, es- sential, or empyreumatic; water is the vehicle for conveying gum and glue. Resins and balsams are first introduced. Copaiva Balsam.—Posselt (Liebig’s Annalen, lxix.) has examined a copaiva balsam, from South America, which is quite distinct from the ordinary kind. It has the same odor, but is lighter colored and more fluid. Spec. grav. 0.94. Be- comes turbid on the addition of potassa solution or of aqua ammonia, but separates in time without having become soapy. In alcohol it is partially soluble, forming a milky liquid. By distillation with water, it yields 82 per cent. of paracopaiva oil (C,,H,), the residuum being a resin, part of which is soluble and the rest insoluble in alcohol. Rosin, or Common Resin.—Louyet (Comptes Rendus, xxiv.) has obtained, by the destructive distillation of the resin of the pimus maratima, two products, one of which he proposes as a substitute for oil of terpentine. One is a fat oil, and the other a very fluid essential oil. The latter, by rectification over lime to separate acetic acid, water, &c., becomes suitable for purposes both of illumination and painting. KH. N. Kent, LACQUER FOR LEATHER. 1538 of New York, whose researches upon this subject have been extensive, proposes an economical mode of bleaching this es- sence, which he has patented. Dammara Resin.—Dulk (Pharm. Cent. Blatt, 1847), who examined this resin, found that it fuses at 165° F. and leaves 3.9 per cent. of ash. It is nearly insoluble in alcohol, potassa, and ammonia, but is taken up entirely by strong sulphuric acid and the fatty oils. Its proximate constituents are dam- maryl C,,H,,, forming 13.5 per cent., soluble in ether; alpha- resin C,,H,,0,, 24.5 per cent., soluble in dilute alcohol and not separating on cooling; beta-resin, 10.5 per cent., soluble in hot dilute alcohol and depositing on cooling; gamma-resin, or dammarylic acid C,,H,,0,, 44 per cent., dissolved by ab- solute alcohol; and epsilon-resin 2 (C,,H,,)+HO = 7.5 per cent. : Gold Lacquer.—3 oz. seed-lac, 1 0z. yellow amber, 1 oz. gamboge, 40 gr. red-wood, 18 gr. saffron, 30 gr. dragon’s blood, 3 oz. pounded glass, 20 oz. alcohol. The powdered substances are dissolved in the alcohol on a sand-bath. The articles should receive two or three coatings, and be dried by a gentle warmth. (Mannheim. Gewerbvereinsbl. 1847, 14.) A collection of recipes for gold lacquer will be found in the Polytech. Centralblatt, and the Polytech. Notizblatt for 1846. Copal Varnish.—See an essay on the different kinds of copal and their behavior to solvents, in Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 194. Brilliant Lacquer for Leather.—Over 4 oz. shellac and 4 oz. lampblack in a stoneware vessel, pour 1416 alcohol (of 80 per cent.), and cover it with a moist bladder. After stand- ing in the cold 24 hours, during which it is often shaken, the bladder is punctured by a needle, the jar put in hot water, frequently shaken, and 4 oz. Venice terpentine added. The lacquer is shaken when used. (Polytech. Notizbl. 1846, 48.) It is recommended as a good varnish for boots, not affect- ing the leather; but repeated applications would tend to crack the leather, from the want of sufficient flexibility in the coating. 154 ADHESIVES. [W. Brilliant Lacquer for Paper and Papier-maché.—38 oz. powdered sandarac are digested on a sand-bath in 12 oz. al- cohol, 2 oz. elemi-resin added, previously fused in an earthen pot, and the whole digested until dissolved. This lacquer is brilliant, and rather durable. A good lacquer for colors is 3 oz. sandarac, 2 oz. mastic, 2 oz. pounded glass, 14 oz. Venice terpentine, and 1tb alcohol. After solution, the varnish is - filtered through felt. It may be colored red by anotto, dra- gon’s blood, or red-wood, yellow by gamboge or turmeric, and green by buckthorn berries. (Polytech. Notizbl.) Ou Varnish.—Liebig’s method of preparing a good varnish is as follows. 116 acetate of lead, 1Ib litharge, and 5 pints water are digested together until the reddish color of the litharge has become white, from the formation of % acetate of lead, and filtered. 20tb linseed oil, containing 1b litharge, is added to the filtrate, exposed to the sun, and frequently shaken, until the varnish has become wine-yellow and clear, when it is filtered through cotton. It dries rapidly. An analogous method for poppy-seed oil prescribes 4 oz. oil, 2 oz. litharge, and 2 pints water, and directs that the liquid should be poured off, 8 oz. of the oil poured on the white basic ace- tate remaining, and exposed to the sun until it has become colorless. Varnish for Patent Leather.—The process followed in France for glazing leather is to work into the skin, with ap- propriate tools, three or four successive coatings of drying varnish made by boiling linseed oil with white lead and litharge, in the proportion of one pound of each of the latter to one gallon of the former, and adding a portion of chalk or ochre. Each coating must be thoroughly dried before the application of the next. Ivory-black is then substituted for the chalk or ochre, the varnish slightly thinned with spirits of terpentine, and five additional applications made in the same manner as before, except that it is put on thin and without being worked in. The leather is rubbed down with pummice-stone powder and then varnished and placed in a room at 90°, out of the way of dust. CEMENT. 155 The last varnish is prepared by boiling }ib of asphalt with 10ib of the drying oil used in the first step of the process, and then stirring in dfb copal varnish and 10fb terpentine. It must have a month’s age before it is fit for use.—Patent Journal. Elastic Varnish.—2 pts. rosin, or dammar-resin, and 1 pt. caoutchouc are fused together, and stirred until cold. To add to the elasticity, linseed oil is added. Another varnish for leather is made by putting pieces of caoutchouc in naphtha until softened into a jelly, adding it to an equal weight of heated linseed oil, and stirred for some time together, while over the fire. Cement for Luting Joints of Steam Apparatus.—Serbat prepared a mastic instead of the red-lead cement used for this purpose, by thoroughly incorporating sulphate of lead, ‘black oxide of manganese, and linseed oil. See Lond. Journ. 1849, 61. For the preparation of a lubricating grease from rosin oil, see the Report on Serbat’s process, in Lond. Journ. 1849, 58. The quantity made by Serbat in 1847 was 805,000tb, which may give some idea of its value. Cement (glue).—Herberger recommends the following as an excellent cement to join metal with glass or porcelain. To 2 oz. glue, dissolved in water and boiled down to a thick solu- tion, are added 1 oz. oil varnish, or # oz. Venice terpentine, and the whole heated to ebullition to incorporate them tho- roughly. The articles cemented should remain 48-60 hours before use. A good cement for glass, porcelain, and pottery, which is not to be exposed to water, is to mix equal parts dry quick- lime and gum arabic, in fine powder, and to moisten the whole with water or white of egg, to make a thick paste. (/sner.) Quicklime and white of egg alone make an excellent cement of this kind; but the diamond cement, a dilute alcoholic solu- tion of fish glue and resin, is far superior, although more costly, and will withstand a considerable exposure to moisture. Emery and sand-paper, being made with glue, which is liable 156 ADHESIVES. [ WV. to become moist and injure the efficiency of the paper, a water-proof adhesive surface is desirable, to which the grind- ing powder may be attached; and for this purpose it has been proposed to use a solution of copal in hot linseed oil, to- gether with Venice terpentine, Venetian red, a little litharge, and caoutchoue. (Lond. Journ. xxxvi.) VI. OLEICS. ALTHOUGH some fatty bodies are very different from others in their chemical nature, and all of them differ from the essential oils, yet being often used in the same branch of manufacture indiscriminately, they may be embraced together as a class. 1. O1ts AND Fats. By far the larger proportion of oils and fats agree in being composed of a fat acid united to a base called glycerin. The three principal acids are stearic, margaric and oleic; when stearate or margarate of glycerin predominate (the compound being called stearin or margarin), the fat is more solid, as tallow, suet, &c.; when oleate of glycerin (called also olein) is in sufficient quantity, the fat is fluid or oily, as olive oil. The chemical connection between margaric acid, which is a solid erystalline fat, and vinegar or acetic acid, and the connection between acetic acid and common alcohol, are pointed out in an essay by one of us, published in the Journ. Fr. Inst. 1848. Now since formic, acetic, and valeric acids can be shown to be derived from wood-spirit, common alcohol, and fousel-oil, which are their respective alcohols, we may infer that the higher fat acids have also their alcohols. The investigations of Brodie in wax seem to point out such alcohols and their acids. The general formula for this fat acid series, the most ex- tended series yet developed in organic chemistry, is C,H,0,, n being an even number (see below). No well-defined con- nection has yet been established between other fat acids not belonging to this group. Cocoanut Oil.—According to Georgey (Ann. der Chem. und Pharm. lxvi.) the butter of cocoa contains the following acids : 0 157 158 OILS AND FATS. [ VI. Da proity ievite cs acseacuctacmrans tec eb cteee C,2H Oy Cap yilic’: -aetasatessncnssmers tec icn ses «ne Cun 70. WApTIG sb seen medcen'sde sete eee eat dnc to se CHO; Pichuric (lauric, laurostearic) ......... CEO; Myristic (probably).cncsemarenss.t ose s0- CFO; Palimitie iw. cac sd. esicok emer c ashok sock C,, HO} The cocinie acid of St. Evre is a mixture of capric and pichuric acids. Stearic Acid.—Gerhardt and Laurent have endeavored to prove (Comptes Rendus, 1849) that the formula for stearic acid is C,,0,,0,; that margaric acid is an isomeric modification of it, and should be called metastearic acid. Oil of the Beaked Whale.—The train-oil of the balena rostrata has recently been examined by Scharling (Journ. f. Prac. Chem. xliii.), who gives it the formula ©,.H,,0,. It consists principally of a liquid fat, free from glycerin, a minute portion of spermaceti and traces of other fats. Its spec. grav. is 8807 at 52°. It burns with a bright flame, and its illu- minating power is in the ratio of 1.57: 1 of common whale oil. It also burns slower and emits less smoke than the latter oil. Bleaching of Oil by Chromic Acid.—Mr. ©. Waitt, Sr. (Newton’s Journ. 1848, and Ch. Gaz. vi.), uses the following method for bleaching dark oils or tallow. To every 3 ton of oil take 1016 bichromate of potassa. Powder the salt, dissolve it in 4 pts. hot water, stir, and carefully add 15tb sulphuric acid, and continue the stirring until complete solution. This mix- ture is then thoroughly incorporated with the melted fat, previously separated from foreign matters by repose and de- cantation. The containing vessels should be of wood, and the temperature about 130° F. When, after much agitation, the liquid fat assumes a light-green color, the bleaching is com- pleted, and 4 buckets of boiling water are then to be added, the whole stirred for five minutes and then left to repose for several hours, when it will be white and ready for use. Mr. Watts, Jr., proposes to recover the chromic acid ad infinitum, and thus render the process very economical, in LUBRICATING OIL. 159 manner as follows. Transfer the green chrome liquor, after the separation of the fat, to a tub, dilute it with water, and then add thick milk of lime until the sulphuric acid is nearly saturated ; leave to repose, decant the liquor from the sulphate . of lime, and carefully add to it another portion of cream of lime until the precipitation of all the green oxide, and the supernatant liquor is clear and colorless. Drain off this liquor, add fresh water, and, after settling, again decant. Repeat this washing, then transfer the precipitate to a red-hot iron slab, and keep it constantly stirred until it changes to a yellow powder. The chromate of lime, thus formed, if de- composed by sulphuric acid in slight excess, yields chromic acid as well suited for bleaching purposes as that from bi- chromate of potassa. Oil-filter.—A good filter is said to be made of fine sand, charcoal, and gypsum; the sand to retain substances sus- pended in it, charcoal to decolorize it, and plaster to remove water. (Journ. de Chim. Med. 1846.) Raw Linseed Oil Decolorized.—A solution of 2tb copperas in 2}%b water is poured into a flask containing 2b linseed oil, and exposed to the sun for several weeks, during which it is frequently shaken. The oil is said to be rendered limpid and colorless, and may be drawn off by a siphon or stoppered funnel. Lubricating Oil.— Many substitutes have been proposed for the more costly oil for lubricating machinery, but hitherto with only partial success. Munkittrick’s patent (Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 98) consists mainly in the addition of caoutchouc to common grease, the former being softened by spirit of terpen- tine; but he also uses other ingredients. For example: 10 galls. water being heated, 11b glue and 10Ib carbonate of soda are stirred in, 10 galls. oil or grease are next added, whereby a quasi soap is formed, and lastly, 41b caoutchouc, softened by terpentine, are incorporated. Boudet (Journ. de Pharm., and Lond. Pharm. Journ. 1850), gives the following as the process by which the French liard, or lubricating fluid, is made. Add 1 pt. finely minced caout- 160 OILS AND FATS. [ WH. chouc to 50 pts. rape-oil, and heat until the mixture is com- plete. A very unctuous oil is thus formed, which remains fluid at freezing temperature, and does not clog the machines, but facilitates the motion of their parts. Fat Oils, to distinguish them.—Ueydenreich proposes (Journ. de Connais. Utiles, 1849) to distinguish these oils from each other by their odor when warmed, their color by contact with oil of vitriol, and their specific gravities. By the first process, the oil is heated in a porcelain capsule over a spirit- lamp, when the peculiar volatile odor of fish, linseed, and other oils may be detected, especially if compared in the same way with the unadulterated oils. For the acid test, 10-15 drops of the oil are dropped upon a piece of glass, underlaid by white paper, and a drop of oil of vitriol is brought in contact with it by a glass rod. If it be rape-oil, a greenish-blue circle is formed around and at a short distance from the drop, while light yellowish-brown striz form towards the centre. The same takes place with oil of black mustard, but 25-30 drops of the oil are required. With whale oil, the color is reddish, after 12-15 minutes violet on the edge, and in 2 hours violet throughout. Olive oil gives a pale-yellow passing into greenish-yellow. Linseed oil is at first dark reddish- brown and then black. 2. Chandlery.—The more solid fat, stearin, is separated from the more fluid olein by pressure, to make stearin-candles, or, the fats being decomposed, the more solid stearic acid is separated from buttery or fluid acids, to make stearic acid lights. Under this head we may embrace spermaceti and wax. There is but little novelty offered on any of these points. Stearin, §¢e.—To separate the solid from the more fluid fat in palm oil, lard, &c., the fats are granulated and pressed cold in bags by a powerful hydraulic press, the olein which flows out being used for soap. The contents of the bags being again granulated, and pressed between warm plates of iron, the balance of the olein with some margarin and stearin is removed. ‘To remove color from the stearin thus obtained, it WAXES. 161 is fused with a very little nitric acid. To remove still further all the olein, Morfit proposed mixing it with a little oil of ter- pentine, and then pressing. See Morfit’s “Chemistry Applied to the Manufacture of Soap and Candles.” According to Heintz (Ber. d. Berl. Acad.) stearin from mutton-suet becomes transparent at 124-126°, but does not fuse before 144°. Candles of Fats and Rosin.—A process is described in the Rep. Pat. Inv. Oct. 1850, for mixing some 20-30 per cent. of rosin with fatty bodies in the melted state, by adding sul- phuric acid gradually, heating it from 12 to 18 hours so as to evolve sulphurous acid, and then submitting the dark-brown crystalline solid to distillation by heated steam. The solid and oily portions are then separated by pressure. Wax, Test of Purity.—To test for the presence of stearic acid, Geith pours over 2 drachms wax 1 oz. lime-water diluted with 1 oz. water. If the acid be present, the liquid loses its alkalinity and remains clear. Buchner proposes fusibility and specific gravity, as an approximate test of the presence of stearic acid or tallow. Tallow fuses at 108°, yellow wax at 142°. (Buchner’s Rep. xliv.) Wazxes.—Our knowledge of the composition and alliances of the waxes has been much enlarged by Brodie’s investiga- tions of common beeswax and Chinese wax. He found com- mon wax to consist of cerotie acid (formerly cerin), soluble in hot alcohol, of the composition C,,H,,0,, therefore of the fat acid series C,H,O,; and of palmitate of meliss-ether (for- merly myricin). By saponifying myricin he obtained palmitic acid and melissin, which last has the formula C,,H,,0, (=C,,H,,,,0,), or that of an alcohol. By the action of lime and potassa on melissin he obtained the corresponding acid, melissic acid C,,H,,0,. Upon examining Chinese wax, he found it to consist chiefly of cerotate of cerote-ether, =C,,H,,0,C,,H,.,0,, for by saponification he obtained cerotic 54-55 acid C,,H,,O,, and cerotin (the alcohol) C,,H,,0, (C,H, ,,0,)- 54°54 (Phil. Mag. Sept. 1848, Amer. Journ. (2) vii. 427.) 02 Ll 162 SAPONIFICATION. [ VE. 2. SAPONIFICATION. Soap-boiling consists in boiling a fat with alkali and water, whereby the fat acid unites with the alkali to form a soap, and glycerin is set free. The soft soaps usually contain the glycerin, but it is removed from the hard soaps, and remains in the saline solution. Soaps retain variable quantities of water, even to 30 per cent. and more, when they appear to be dry. Rosin is usually added to make the common yellow soaps, but it can hardly be called an adulteration, as it pos- sesses some detergent properties. Irish Moss and Salt in Soap.—(Lond. Journ. 1849, 37.) To a strong solution of Irish moss (1tb to 6 galls. water), made by a short ebullition and maceration for several hours, and run through sieves, a quantity of common salt is added, lib to each 4 galls., and stirred until dissolved. One ton of this mixture is combined with 5 tons of soap. The utility of . this compound is not clear. Oily Acids.—When wool is cleaned by alkali in water, a portion of fat is removed, and in order to get the oily acids again from the water, Shearman treats the water with sul- phuric or muriatic acid, heats the fat acid, separated from the liquid, to 212° in a leaden vessel, saturates the free acid with chalk, adds hot water, stirs, and lets it settle for several days, when the fat can be drawn off clear. It may be reconverted into soap by alkali. Perfumery is allied to soap-boiling, which in fact forms part of this art, since one of its most extended applications is to perfume soap. The perfumes are essential oils, some- times solid; usually derived from the distillation of odorous plants or parts of plants. Many of them are simple com- pounds of carbon and hydrogen; others contain also oxygen, and afew sulphur. It is probable that we shall be enabled to make some of them artificially on a large scale ; for through the interesting experiments of Wohler and Liebig, it was shown how oil of bitter almonds was formed; through those of OIL OF RUE. 168 Procter and Cahours, that oil of winter-green could be made artificially, and below is an account of Deville’s having pro- cured oil of lemons from spirit of terpentine. Essential Oils—Van Hess has given the following table of the yield of essential oils, with their specific gravities. The oils heavier than water were distilled by surrounding the still with high-pressure steam; those lighter than water by blowing steam through the vegetable matters. Sp. grav Oleum anisi....... Zi aestnciaa Vesencelecceeateledtocsisatistoerer el yielded 54 02. 0.977 OlsamisivstellaticspA Oi encveseteteivergacecosse sence: sctuisresss CC iOS Con Ono HO Olicalam- sano. Old soilirezs ssc encisencrs susie sapeleasacapeniencs os ce 0.984 L 55ib calamus, of a previous year.... ‘ 12 ‘... 0.956 “ 8dib new calamus ...............seceeeee Comet ie Ceres sO ROU OM Garuts.sccnc- 124%b of last year’s seeds............00 foe OMe OM 2e oe 25tb fresh seeds from the Hifel....... ‘¢ 17 ‘... 0.918 o HF CWt. Saxony SCS ...scerecoornssssere £0) (6) Eee. 0.926 Ol. caryophyll.... 10Ib Amboina cloves, at6distillations ‘“ 31 *... 1.040 re SIP PEOULDONCLOVES: scccnccecceccscaseesee Om Dilnatar eel. 0o0 “6 25tb Dutch cloves, at 8 distillations.. ‘* 74 ‘... 1.033 €¢ A owt. clove-SteMS..........0seceesevessees £016) B68) ..61049 Ol. cass. cinnam.. 4 cwt. bruised cinnamon.............++ CO 26... A030 OMMCHSa tory sorngl Za. mecscsg-recesarslsoresescsjiesececas sess. See One stnwectl Oe Ol. foenic:.......5. OlOiccecseecescesestescesstacertasacsssecses CCAM TER LOGS Ol. junip. bacc... 441b dried ripe berries...............06. Senn (22 665.210.8070 ce 961b fresh <‘ ic mneadeean ie etet asa CC edna! ea OES O2 ee 531b unripe SC omepaidie cates lsh Cre Bal OS O04: Ol. lavendul....... ¢ cwt. dried flowers. ........cscseesceeeee LOE DOOR OO e Artificial Oil of Lemon.—Deville (Comptes Rendus, 1849) has shown that the camphor produced by the action of chloro- hydric acid upon oil of terpentine, when treated with potas- sium, yields an essential oil identical in odor, boiling point, density, and composition, with oil of lemon. Oil of Rue.—Wagner (Journ. fiir Prac. Chem. xlvi.) has proven by experiments that the oil of rue (ruta graveolens) is evolved from cod-liver oil when the latter is acted upon by sulphuric acid, and the resulting purplish mass saturated with alkali or alkaline earth. Wagner does not consider it a pro- duct of decomposition, but adopts the theory of Gerhardt in considering it the aldehyde of capric acid C,,H,,0,, and exist- ps 164 SAPONIFICATION. [ Vi. ing as such naturally in the oil. He draws the inference, therefore, that the SO, combines with the aldehyde, or rather with the oxide of caprinyle C,,H,,0, and that this compound, upon the addition of a base, is decomposed, and aldehyde separates. Castoreum Canadense.—¥. Wohler has by recent examina- tions (Liebig’s Annalen, Ixvii.) confirmed the supposition that the odor of castor is due to the presence of carbolicacid. He also found that it contains salicin and benzoic acid. Carbolic acid is obtained among the products of coal-tar. Adulteration of Attar of Rose.—Guibourt (Journ. de Pharm. 1849), after showing the unreliableness of the physical cha- racters, as a test of purity, because of the readiness with which they may be imitated, proposes three tests for dis- tinguishing the true attar. The usual adulterants are oils of rosewood and geranium. They may be detected as follows : By Iodine.—The suspected attar is placed in watch-glasses, under a bell, along with a capsule containing iodine. The vapors of iodine, after some hours, condense, and form a brown areola upon the oil, if adulterated, but do not change its color, if pure. On exposure to air, the iodine volatilizes, but the color, in either case, remains unaltered. By Nitrous Acid.—This serves only to detect the oil of geranium, to which it imparts an apple-green color; as it tinges the attar and oil of rosewood alike dark-yellow. By Sulphuric Acid.—This reagent turns all three of the oils brown, but the attar retains the purity of its odor, while that of the oil of rosewood is rendered more perceptible; the geranium oil, at the same time, acquiring a strong and un- pleasant smell. Sandal Wood.—According to Meier, there are six different substances in sandal-wood. (Ch. Gaz. vii. and Archiv. der Pharm. lv. and lvi.) 1. Santalic acid, extracted by alcohol, in microscopic prisms of a beautiful red tint, soluble in alcohol and insoluble in water, and forming deep-violet salts with the alkalies. 2. Santalic oxide, also extracted by alcohol; a brownish 4 ILLUMINATING GAS. 165 mass, soluble in alcohol of .863, but insoluble in water and cold ether. 3. Santalide, extracted by water; a dark-red mass, soluble in ether and alcohol of .863, but, when pure, insoluble in water. 4. Santaloide, extracted by water; a yellowish amorphous mass, soluble in cold water and alcohol of .863, but insoluble in ether. 5. Santaloidide, extracted by water; a dark-brown resinous mass, insoluble in water and ether, and only slightly so in cold alcohol. 6. Santalidide, extracted by water; an amorphous brown mass, soluble in water, sparingly so in boiling alcohol of .912, and insoluble in ether and cold absolute alcohol. 3. ILLUMINATION. The fatty bodies and resins of the preceding and present classes, together with bituminous coals, are the sources of ar- tificial light. The fats are generally used as oils, spermaceti oil, whale oil, to be burned in lamps; or the more fluid por- tions of fat, as lard oil, are removed by pressure, and the hard stearin remaining is formed into candles; or a stearic fat is decomposed by alkali and acid, so that stearic acid is obtained to be made into candles. Spermaceti and wax are also burned in the form of candles. Their preparation falls under a pre- ceding division, while under the present we might consider their comparative merits as sources of light; as there is, however, little of novelty to offer in this respect, we confine ourselves to improvements in the gas manufacture, and to what are termed burning-fluids. 1. Illuminating gas is obtained by throwing bituminous coal, grease, or rosin, upon a red-hot surface, whereby it is resolved into new compounds by an internal combustion; into permanent gases; vapors, which condense into aqueous solu- tions and tar; and coke, which remains. The coke is used as fuel; the tar is either distilled to obtain ethereal oils and 166 ILLUMINATION. [ WI. pitch, or burned to make lampblack; the aqueous solutions contain ammonia, and are sometimes used to procure it; the gas is a mixture of carbohydrogens, carbonic oxide and acid, &c. The gas is freed by cooling and by lime from sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic acid, suspended tarry matter, cyanogen, &e. Since the proportion of carbohydrogen determines the illuminating power of gas, and some coals yield too much car- bonic oxide, &c., it has been proposed to pass the gas through volatile, liquid, and solid carbohydrogens, of which it will take up a small quantity and increase its luminosity: this is termed naphthalizing. Quite recently, hydrogen has been used, in a naphthalized condition, but we may doubt its success. Coal Gas.—On the comparative value of the different kinds of coal used for illumination, and on methods for ascertaining the value of the gases, see an article by Dr. Fyfe, in Edin. Phil. Journ. xlv. and in Amer. Journ. 2d ser. vii. 77-86, 157-167. Rosin Gas.—A variation of the manufacture of gas from rosin is patented by Robertson (Lond. Journ. 1849, 37), in which the rosin, mixed with sawdust and alkali (lime, &c.), is charged into iron cases, which are put into a gas-retort and heated as usual. The products of distillation are passed into a second retort filled with lumps of coke, brick, &c., and heated to cherry redness. To make gas alone, these products pass through a third and fourth retort, filled with brick, coke, &c., and are then washed and purified by lime. To obtain partly gas and partly oily matters, the vapors issuing from the first retort, containing coke, &c., are passed through a tank con- taining water, where oily matter deposits, and then through the washer and purifier. The oily products are made into a grease for machinery by mixing it with lime and finely gra- nulated zinc. Or, the oily product may be first distilled with water, yielding a spirit, which, after several distillations with a little lime, becomes colorless and thin, and is used for illu- mination or for a varnish. On water and rosin gas, see an article by Prof. Fyfe, in the Journ. Fr. Inst. (8) xx. 271,.319. PURIFICATION OF GAS. 167 Purification of Gas.—All the sulphuretted hydrogen may be removed from coal-gas by the washers and lime purifier, but a perfect decomposition may also be effected (according to Croll, Lond. Journ. 1849) by passing the gas through a solution of sulphurous acid, whereby water is formed and sul- phur deposited. The excess of sulphurous acid is removed by washers and the dry lime purifier. Lanning’s process (Ch. Gaz. viii.), which has been success- fully carried out at the Chartered Company’s works, is said to remove from illuminating gas every trace of ammoniacal and sulphuretted impurity. The principal agent employed is the carbonic acid of the gas, assisted by a mixture of oxide of iron and chloride of calcium. The latter is made by pre- cipitating solution of chloride of iron with lime or chalk, and adding sawdust to the mass to render it permeable. The pre- cipitated iron becomes peroxidized by the atmosphere during the progress of preparation. In its transit through this mix- ture, the gas loses its impurities in the following manner. The chloride of calcium contained in it acts by its hygroscopic property as an absorbent or solvent, and thus promotes the contact of the foul matters with the disinfecting material. The peroxide of iron takes the sulphur of the hydrosulphuret of ammonia and becomes sesquisulphuret, at the same time surrendering its oxygen to the eliminated hydrogen to form water. The ammonia set free immediately unites with the carbonic acid as carbonate, and this latter salt exchanges bases with the muriate of lime as fast as it is produced. A portion of it, however, forms sulphate with the spontaneously gene- ‘rated sulphuric acid. The mixture may be repeatedly regenerated by exposure to air, and thus made serviceable for new operations. When it becomes surcharged with ammoniacal salt, the latter must be removed by washing with water. In the original mixture, the lime-salt was a chloride, whereas after usage it becomes sul- phate; thus, the sesquisulphuret of iron in contact with air changes into sulphate by the absorption of oxygen, and this sulphate, reacting upon the carbonate of lime thrown down 168 ILLUMINATION. [ VI. from the muriate by the carbonate of ammonia, becomes sub- carbonate, and ultimately sesqui or peroxide of iron. According to the inventor, the sulphuret of carbon is also removed during the operation, and the illuminating power of the gas thus augmented about 8 per cent., with but slight expense for material and a great economy as to wear and tear of apparatus. Gas-lime.—Graham’s examination of gas-lime exposed to the air for a few hours after use, was composed of — Hyposulphite of lime... 0.00.8 12.30 Sulphite BRIE ii aixtedd cy eee ettes anes 14.57 Sulphate REIS Alc eed ceo rane 2.80 Carbonate Beek, Th gga eel Mshe a eel aa 14.48 Caustie lime sens 17.72 Preevsulphar ys 2a as 5.14 Dawe s215 Si ee a a Or Water a5 BO RO Rag 32.28 100.00 In this state it is well adapted to the preparation of hypo- sulphite of soda, for which purpose it is extracted with water, the solution decomposed by carbonate of soda, and evaporated to crystallization. The hyposulphite of soda thus obtained may be used for the daguerreotype, and might possibly be used instead of common salt to extract silver from its ores. By proper calcination, gas-lime may be converted into a mix- ture of nearly equal parts of sulphate and carbonate of lime, in which state it may be employed in agriculture and other arts. (Rep. Pat. Inv. 1845.) Elsner draws attention to its » value for removing hair from hides. Naphthalizing Gas.—Among the many patents for naph- thalizing gas, is one in Lond. Journ. xxxvii. Aug., in which the heat of the burning jet is communicated by metal to a vessel containing a hydrocarbon. The gas, in passing through this vessel, takes with it a portion of the hydrocarbon, passes into a sphere over the jet, where it is heated, and then passes out at the jet. It is supposed to yield a whiter light. There HYDROGEN FOR ILLUMINATION. 169 are other inventions for the same purpose, and doubtless some will be made of great practical value; but it would be much more desirable that gas, capable of yielding the fullest in- tensity of light, should be made at the gas-works. The con- sumer should be saved the trouble of making his own light. Whether there be any advantage in heating gas previous to its combustion in the naphthalizing process or not, we offer a suggestion by way of improvement. ‘The vessel to be heated over the jet might be concave underneath, provided with a tube passing off from the highest point of the concavity into the open air, or chimney, so that it would carry off the products of combustion. The heated vessel might be a double cylinder or a cylindrically wound spiral tube. Hydrogen for Illumination.—Various processes have been devised or adopted for obtaining light by means of hydrogen: and this gas is obtained for the purpose by one of three methods, in each of which cases water is decomposed, by incandescent iron or coal, or magnetic force. 1. Vertical iron pipes are filled with scrap-iron, and heated externally to a high temperature ; steam is introduced, forming oxide of iron and liberating hydrogen, which passes into a gas-holder. In order to reduce the oxide of iron to the metallic state, to be again subjected to the action of steam, carbonic oxide gas is passed through the heated pipes, and becomes carbonic acid, which escapes. The carbonic oxide is obtained by passing the waste gases of the fire through a fire or ignited carbon. Instead of carbonic oxide, carburetted hydrogens may be em- ployed, such as tar, &c. 2. Another method for obtaining hydrogen, mixed with carbonic oxide and other gases, is to pass steam through or- dinary gas-retorts charged with carbonaceous matters, brought to a state of high ignition, whereby these gases are generated together with carbonic acid. A purifier serves to remove the carbonic acid from the combustible gases. 3. By means of a magnetic battery, hydrogen and oxygen are separately liberated from decomposed water. In order to utilize the hydrogen, &c., obtained bv any of Pp 170 ILLUMINATION. [ Vi. these methods, the flame as it issues from a jet may be directed upon a wick of fine platinum wire, whose incandescence will produce the desired illuminating effect. Another method is to naphthalize the hydrogen, i. e. to pass it through a liquid or over a solid hydrocarbon (such as naphtha or naphthalin), or to mix it with the vapor of a hydrocarbon, in all which cases its illuminating property depends on the same causes as in all ordinary cases of combustion for light, viz. the inflamma- tion of hydrogen and the precipitation and momentary in- candescence of carbon in the flame. | 2. Burning-fluids.—These are generally solutions of cam- phine (purified spirit of terpentine) in alcohol, and are burned in lamps constructed for the purpose. Their danger has been pointed out from year to year by one of the writers, in public lectures delivered in the Franklin Institute, in Phila- delphia; yet such is the neatness of these illuminating liquids, their convenience and brilliancy, that they continue to be used until a serious accident awakens the public to a sense of their danger. But the disaster serves only to deter those from their use who were more immediately affected by it. There is no doubt that burning-fluids may be safely used by those who understand the conditions of their explosiveness, or who exercise care in their use; but since their tendency to explo- sion cannot be prevented, and since knowledge and care will not generally attend their use by the public, they should be abandoned. Let us not however abandon the idea of finding a liquid which shall possess the requisite qualities of cleanliness, cheap- ness, illumination, and freedom from danger. Sperm-oil pos- sesses the last two qualities; burning fluids the first three; lard-oil is cheap and free from danger, but is not cleanly, is too liable to congeal in winter, and is apt to clog the wick. Naphtha is very little, if at all, liable to explosion, but it contains an excess of carbon, and it is too apt to smoke when burned in an ordinary lamp. Since sperm-oil has a high illuminating power and is free from danger, we may yet hope to discover a liquid which shall possess these properties to- APPARATUS FOR ILLUMINATION. Vit gether with cleanliness and cheapness combined. May not such a liquid be found among the products from the distillation of coal, to be used either by itself or in conjunction with ¢ other substances ? 3. Apparatus for Illumination.—We have nothing novel to present in relation to lamps and jets, except a remark upon reflectors. Reflectors are found to increase the ordinary effect of a light in proportion to the perfection of their reflecting surface and their approach+o a parabolic form ; but, being constructed of metal, they are expensive. Kempton (Lond. Journ. 1849, 330) proposes making earthenware reflectors of a good form, and then lustring their reflecting surface in the usual manner. Clay-ware is undoubtedly an excellent material for giving a good form to a reflector, as it is readily and cheaply made, and retains its shape tolerably well during burning. But the new method of precipitating silver from solution, with a brilliant surface, might advantageously be substituted for the method usually adopted for lustring pottery with silver. VII. SITEPSICS. THE present class embraces arts which are exclusively con- fined to the preparation of food, or which prepare substances largely used in the preparation and preservation of food, both solid and liquid, and likewise used in the arts generally. 1. PREPARATION OF FARINA AND SuGAR. Flour, starch, and sugars, are employed both as food and in the arts. 1. Starch is extracted from roots, as the potato, arrow-root, or from grain, wheat, rice, corn, by washing over and collect- ing the finely suspended sediment. ‘There are different kinds of starch, but even the same kind, as that obtained from the above-named substances is supposed to be, differs in its pro- perties so far that it is desirable to distinguish one from the other. The form of the grain under a powerful microscope is one mean of distinguishing them, and probably the best. Starch, Wheat and Potato.—Redwood has given the follow- ing method of distinguishing them. If wheat-starch be ground well in a mortar with water, then filtered, and the filtrate tested with tincture of iodine, it strikes a yellow or reddish, but not a blue color, whereas potato-starch, similarly treated, strikes a blue color. Instead of soda-ash liquor to steep grain in, it is proposed to use quicklime and salt. (Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 391.) Amidulin.—Schulze applies this name to a substance of the same elementary composition with starch, and forming the transition substance preceding all the transformations of starch into dextrin. It is perhaps identical in composition with Jacquelin’s amylum granules; is soluble in hot and insoluble in cold water, and reacts with iodine like starch. (Journ. fur Prac. Chem. xliv. and Ch. Gaz. vi.) 172 TESTS FOR SUGARS. ‘ ite Bleaching Gums.—Picciotto describes a process for de- colorizing Arabian gums (Lond. Journ. 1849), by dissolving them in a strong solution of sulphurous acid, distilling off part of the acid, and precipitating the balance by carbonate of baryta, and, after filtering, evaporating to dryness. Or, the gums may be decolorized and cleansed by adding hy- drated alumina to their solution, filtering and evaporating. If the gums are to be used for medicinal or alimentary purposes, the use of baryta is highly objectionable, and in- deed for most purposes the decolorization is a matter of minor importance. 2. Sugar.—When starch is acted upon by sulphuric acid or diastase in water, it is converted into a sugar, called starch- sugar, which seems to be identical with grape-sugar. Cane- sugar treated with acids is resolved into the same kind; but we have not as yet succeeded in producing cane-sugar from grape or starch-sugar. There is room for extended observation in the changes suffered by the sugars, both in relation to science and to practice. Tests for Sugars.—G. Reich thus distinguishes between dif- ferent kinds of sugar. (Gewerbvereinsbl. d. Provinz Preussen, 1846.) If a hot concentrated solution of bichromate of po- tassa be added to molasses (cane-sugar molasses), in a test-tube, and heated to boiling by a spirit lamp, an energetic action takes place between them after removing the flame, until the liquid has assumed a beautiful green color from oxide of chrome, which is rendered more distinct by dilution with water. Starch-molasses produces no change whatever, under similar circumstances. Even when common molasses is mixed with 4-4 starch-molasses, no change is produced, or if it be, it does not exhibit the fine green color of pure cane-molasses. A solu- tion of the bichromate is not acted on by syrup (a solution) of cane-sugar, and hence molasses-sugar shows itself distinct in kind from the two others. . A solution of nitrate of cobalt is, according to Reich, a good mean of distinguishing cane and grape sugars. A strong solution of cane-sugar, treated with fused potassa, heated to p2 174 PREPARATION OF FARINA AND SUGAR. [ VER. ebullition, diluted with water, and then treated with a few drops of nitrate of cobalt solution, yields a bluish-violet pre- cipitate, which after some time has a greenish color. 0.9069 0.8956 0.8840 0.8721 0.8603 5 10 15 20 25 Alcoholometers.—Two instruments have been invented for determining the proportions of alcohol in liquids containing substances in solution which increase the spec. grav. of the liquids, in which case the indications of a hydrometer are not to be relied on. ‘The principle of their use depends upon the lower boiling point of a mixture in proportion to the quantity of alcohol it contains. They are termed Hbullioscopes. The instrument employed by Brossard-Vidal is a large thermome- ter; the mercury in the tube carrying a float, from which a cord passes over a pulley and is counterpoised by a light weight. An index is attached to the roller, which points to degrees on a graduated scale, according as the pulley revolves, 2. e. as the level of mercury alters, when the liquid boils. Conaty’s instrument is a common thermometer, with ascale attached, which directly indicates the proportion of alcohol contained in a liquid into which it is immersed during ebulli- tion. The movable scale may be also adjusted for barometric variation, so that further corrections are avoided. Both in- struments have been reported to the Paris Academy as capable of indicating 1 or 2 per cent. of alcohol in a liquid, but that of Conaty is thought to be the most convenient. (Comptes Rendus, xxvii.) Q 182 FERMENTATION. [ VEE. Ure has constructed an instrument of the same kind, similar in principle to that of Conaty. (Phar. J. Trans. vii. 166.) Dilatometer.—Silbermann (Comptes Rendus, 1848) has in- vented an instrument for determining the relative quantity of each liquid in mixtures of water and alcohol. It is called a dilatometer, and derives its principle from the fact, that the dilatation of alcohol is three and a half times greater than that of water, at temperature from 77° to 122° F. For example, if the bulb of a thermometer-tube be over-filled with alcohol and heated to 122°, it will be seen that the liquid rises in the tube three and a half times higher than would the same quan- tity of water under like circumstances. So, also, any mixture of the two would give a mean point of dilatation, approximat- ing that of the alcohol or water, according as either may preponderate. Thus, by making the water point 0°, and noting severally and consecutively the degree of dilatation of a series of 100 mixtures, commencing with water 99 and alcohol 1, and ending with alcohol 100, water none, a cen- tesimal alcoholometric scale may be graduated so as to show at a glance the proportion of either in any mixture of the two liquids. Other scales may be adopted upon the same principle, to determine the ratios of any other two liquids differing in their degree of dilatation. The dilatometer is particularly applicable for testing wines. The particulars as to its construction and use are given in the original paper. Distilled Liquors and Fousel-oil.—To free them readily from fousel-oil, Peters recommends a hogshead with a false bottom to be half filled with well-ignited charcoal, the top of this to be strewed over with 10tb boneblack, and 5tb black oxide of manganese, and the whole to be filled up with char- coal. The hogshead is to be filled with brandy, whisky, &c., which is to remain in it for 3 days, and then drawn off. That which first runs off cloudy is to be redistilled, but this opera- tion will not be again required. The vessel thus prepared will last 12-15 months. EFFECT OF OAK-CASKS UPON WINES. 183 Butyric Ether.—This ether is used for imitating rum, on ac- count of its agreeable apple-odor. To obtain it dissolved in alcohol, Wohler recommends (Pogg. Ann. xlix. 360) saponifying butter with strong potassa-lye, dissolving this soap in the least amount of alcohol, by the aid of heat, adding to it a mixture of alcohol and sulphuric acid until it has a strong acid reac- tion, and distilling it as long as the distillate possesses the apple-odor. Sulphurie Acid in Wines.—Lassaigne (Ann. de Ch. et de Phys. xxi. 119) proposes avery simple and delicate test of the presence of sulphuric acid in wines. When a piece of white- glazed paper, containing starch, is touched with pure wine and dried at a gentle heat, no spot is produced; but if sulphuric acid be present, even to the extent of zy'55, the spotted portion reddens and becomes brittle between the fingers before the white paper becomes at all colored. Pure wine leaves, by spontaneous evaporation, a violet-blue spot, but if containing 2-3 thousandths of sulphuric acid, a rose-red spot. Effect of Oak-casks upon Wines.—Famé (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim. xii. and Millon and Reiset’s Annuaire, 1849) gives the following conclusions, based upon the results of a series of analyses. 1. That the oak woods used by the coopers for making wine and liquor casks are the same*in composition; though the proportions of the ingredients vary with the place of growth of the tree. 2. That the soluble principles of oak-wood have an appre- ciable action upon liquors, and particularly upon wines. 3. That this action is more evident upon white than upon red wines; more so upon light and delicate than upon colored and coarse wines. 4, That American oak contains less soluble matter than other kinds. 5. That casks made of American, Dantzic, or Stettin oak, have, in general, the least action upon spirituous liquors. The two latter even, sometimes, improve the quality of the wines. 6. That alkalies increase the color and solubility of the ex- 184 CULINARY ARTS. [ VEE. tractive matter of the wood; and the mineral acids, on the contrary, weaken them. Sweetening of Sour Wines.—Liebig (Ann. der Chem. und Pharm. Ixy.) proposes to remove the acidity of sour Rhine wines, by means of a concentrated solution of tartrate of potassa, which precipitates the acid as insoluble bitartrate. The proper proportion of the salt varies with the wines, their age and quality, and must be determined by the intelligence of the operator. This mode is far preferable to neutralization by lime or potassa, as it leaves no salt in the wine to impair its flavor. Malt Liquors.—On the amount of inorganic constituents in ale and porter, see Phil. Mag. xxxiii. 341, and Amer. Journ. (2) vii. 102. 3. CULINARY ARTS. 1. Beverages.—Doubtless the most important of these is water, which we have considered in regard to manufactures under Chemics, and now present it in its character of a beverage. Soft water, taken on shipboard, frequently under- goes several. distinct fermentations, after which it appears to be no longer liable to alteration; but the character of these changes has not been studied. Probably all sweet waters, and perhaps all waters on the globe, contain more or less organic matter, generally a minute quantity, dissolved in them, and the putrefactive processes observed in a ship’s supply of water is doubtless due to this cause; for if caused by other organic matter, the cessation of putrefaction would not be observed, as the same cause would continually present itself. How to remedy the defect is an important question. Perinet has found that binoxide of manganese will preserve the sweetness of water for years. 60 gallons of water, con- taining 3b of the powdered binoxide, remained perfectly sweet and clear for seven years in a wooden vessel. (Journ. de Chim. Medic. April, 1846, 301.) Purification of Sea-water.—According to Cardan, sea-water ACTION OF WATER UPON LEAD. 185. is entirely deprived of its nauseous taste by infiltration through powdered charcoal. A siphon-shaped vessel is recommended —the coal to occupy the long arm. (Lond. Athenzeum, 1850.) Action of Water upon Lead.—Horsford (Procdgs. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences) classifies drinking-waters, as follows : 1. Open waters, as ponds, lakes, and rivers, having their sources in rainfalls and surface drainage. 2. Waters concealed from sunlight, as wells, and certain springs, formed by infiltration through earthy and rocky strata. The latter, except in winter, are colder and contain a greater amount of gases than the former. They also hold, in solution, more inorganic matter, especially nitrates and chlorides, but have less organic matter than open waters. The results of his experiments authorized the following conclusions. That neither dry air, or water freed of air, have any oxidizing influence upon lead; that metal being acted upon proportional to the amount of free oxygen in solution. That the nitrates are partially reduced by lead, and that both they and the chlorides facilitate the solution of the plumbic coating formed in service pipes. That the presence of ani- malcule or vegetable matters does not impart corrosive pro- perties to water; for these substances being most abundant in summer, the oxygen arising from their decomposition (?) is expelled by the natural heat of the water. Moreover, the escape of gas and air is promoted by the presence of insoluble organic matter, whilst that portion of the latter which may be in solution consumes the dissolved oxygen and reduces the nitrates. Organic matter, therefore, rather impairs the solvent action of water upon lead. Lead does not reduce iron oxide, nor is it corroded by alkaline chlorides, in the absence of air. Pure water, as a general rffle, possesses a greater solvent power than when salts are in solution. All natural waters produce more or less corrosion in the interior of lead conduits, but the coating at first formed is entirely insoluble; contact with water and carbonic acid, however, soon increases its state of oxidation, and it then becomes soluble in 7 to 10,000 parts of pure Q2 186 CULINARY ARTS. [ VEE. water. When sulphuric acid, oxide of iron, or organic mat- ters are present, this oxide unites and forms with them a highly protective covering. Paraguay Tea.—A decoction of the leaves of Ilex Para- guayensis is used in South America as a beverage, in place of tea and coffee, and hence its vulgar name of ‘‘ Paraguay tea.” According to Stenhouse and Rochleder (Ann. der Chem. und Pharm. lxvi.) its crystalline principle is identical with caffein, and its acid gives the same reactions as caffeo-tannic acid. Chicory Coffee.-—This article, originally manufactured in Holland, a century since, was first made in France in 1801, by Orban and Giraud. Since then, it has become an important object of commerce; the exports from 1827 to 1836 having reached 458,971 kilogrammes. The home consumption alone amounts to 12,000,000 pounds. It is used alone, or mixed with coffee, to which it imparts a bitter taste, and at the same time, it is said, modifying its stimulant action. It is fre- quently adulterated with coffee-grounds, brick-dust, earthy matters, roasted acorns, corn, haricots, and peas. Of these fraudulent mixtures, those containing starch may be detected by means of iodine-water. The coffee-grounds are recognised by throwing a pinch of the suspected chicory, previously dried, over a water-bath, upon the surface of water; the chicory absorbs water and sinks, the coffee-grounds float. The mode of preparing chicory coffee is, to collect the plant in the spring, and to strip and wash the roots. These roots are then divided into longitudinal strips, which are in turn still further reduced in size by being cut transversely, and dried ina heated chamber. The drying is facilitated by fre- quent stirring, and the root thus prepared takes the name of cossetes. After roasting in cylinders, 2 per cent. of butter is added and the machine rotated several times, in offfler to give lustre and the appearance of coffee to the chicory. Grinding between cylinders, sieving, and coloring with rouge brun de Prusse, complete the operation. On chicory coffee, by Chevallier, see Amer. Journ. 2d ser. vul. 441, and Chem. Gaz. 1849. PREPARATION OF FOOD. 187 Alcoholic Drinks.—Bouchardat and Sandras (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 1847, and Ch. Gaz. vi. 121), with a view of determining the manner in which alcohol is absorbed by and the changes which it undergoes in the system, performed a series of experiments, the results of which go to prove that it is absorbed by the veins, and not by the lacteals; and, ex- cepting a minute portion escaping by the lungs, it is entirely oxidized into carbonic acid and water, either directly or by passing through the intermediate stage of acetic acid. 2. Preparation of Food.—On this subject, much cannot be yet offered by the chemist; but, with his wonted spirit, Liebig has led the way in this branch of the chemical arts. Index of Nutrition.—Dr. A. Veelker’s essay, presented to the British Association at their late meeting (1850), showed that the quantity of nitrogen, considered as an index of the nutritive value of food, had been incorrectly estimated, in con- sequence of a portion of it existing in the form of ammonia. Detection of Corn-meal in Wheat-flour.—La Grange (Journ. de Chem. Med. iv. 539) takes of the suspected matter 2 grm. sifts and places it in a test-tube, and then stirs in 4 grm. nitric acid. After this it is diluted with 60 grm. water, and then a solution of 2 grm. carbonate of potassa in 8 grm. water is added. After the escape of carbonic acid, if there is no corn present, the subsiding flocculse will be yellow; otherwise they will be intermixed with orange-colored particles. This test serves for the detection of as little as 4 per cent. of in- dian-meal. Hlorse-chesnut.—Flandin (Comptes Rendus, xxvii.) proposes to remove the acrid resin and bitter taste of the horse-chesnut, by kneading the powdered kernel with gg to zo of its weight of soda, and then washing out with water. Cooking of Meat.—Liebig’s researches (Ann. Ch. Pharm. Ixii. 257) upon the juices of flesh have furnished valuable results, which are full of general interest, because of their practical application. All the nutritious portions of flesh may be extracted by finely mincing and exhausting it with cold water. The liquid, thus obtained, contains creatin, some cre- 188 CULINARY ARTS. [ VEE. atinin, albumen, coloring matter, inosinates, lactates, alkaline phosphates and chlorides, with other salts. It is to be heated over a water-bath in order to coagulate the albumen, which carries with it the coloring matter. The liquor is then strained, and if the constituents are to be separated, treated with caustic baryta to precipitate free phosphoric acid, which would, other- wise, cause the deposit of a brown sediment during the sub- sequent evaporation. If the liquor is intended for soup, instead of being strained, it may, after maceration in the cold, be gently boiled with the meat for a few minutes, and strained. The clear liquor then only requires seasoning to become pa- latable broth, imbodying all the nutriment of the flesh. The residual meat is sinewy and without taste or nourishment. Gela- tine forms but a very small portion of the dissolved matters ; and Liebig confirms Proust’s view that soup does not derive any taste or nourishing power from it. The flavor is due to the soluble constituents of the meat, which exist in it ready formed, and are not generated during the process of boiling. By a gradual and carefully managed evaporation in shallow pans, the liquor, prepared as above, may be converted into a brown “‘ extract of flesh,” retaining the savory odor of roast- beef. It may be called portable soup, for it can be preserved any length of time, and gives, with 30 pts. water and proper seasoning, a most palatable and nutritious broth. From these facts, it follows that the proper way of boiling meat, so as to insure the retention of its flavor and nutriment, is to plunge it directly into boiling water, and after a few minutes to reduce the temperature of the liquid to 158° by the addition of cold water. The outer portion of the meat is thus hardened, and a gentle simmer, so as to heat the interior to 158°, will coagulate the albumen, enveloping the fibres and also the coloring matter of the blood, without hard- ening the flesh. The nutriment and flavor of the meat are thus preserved unimpaired. According to Liebig, the brine running from meat packed with dry salts, consists mainly of the juice, and that, there- fore, the process of salting lessens its nutritious power. PRESERVATION OF FOOD. 189 Testing Butter for Casein.—Add ether to the butter, con- tained in a flask, and shake them together for some time. The butter is dissolved and the cassein remains. (Archiv. der Pharm. lvi.) 3. Preservation of Food.—This subject has also been but superficially investigated by the chemist. Some of the sub- stances used for preserving food are ice, sugar, alcohol, and vinegar ; but more attention should be given to the preserva- tion of food, by procuring it in a dry state, where chemical action cannot take place. We offer the preservation of milk as an example. Ice.—As this article is now regarded as almost indispensable to health in summer, and as it is unquestionably one of the greatest luxuries, it would be desirable to manufacture it in the season when it is wanted, especially in latitudes and lo- calities where it is not obtained in sufficient quantity in winter and cannot be procured at a moderate cost by importation. Several of the freezing mixtures, formerly used as subjects of pleasing experiment by the chemist, begin to attract atten- tion, as means of economic manufacture of ice in summer. See an article on the subject, in Amer. Journ. 2d ser. vii. 280. Preservation of Milk.—ULouis (Ch. Gaz. vii. 48) renders milk portable without impairing its original sweetness, by mixing it with clarified sugar, 4 oz. to the gallon, evaporating it in shallow pans by steam, and removing it at the solidifying point, and pressing it into cakes. Another method recommended is to curdle the sweetened milk by rennet, and then to separate the solid from the liquid portion, by means of a sieve. The whey is evaporated to dry- ness and the residue mixed, by the aid of heat and a little bicarbonate of soda (1 pt. to 20 pts. of residue), with the curd previously washed and pressed. When the amalgamation is perfect, sufficient tragacanth is added to promote the solidi- fication of the mass. Milk and Cream.—Bethel has obtained a patent (Newton's Journal, 1849) for preserving milk or cream, by first scalding it, and then surcharging it with carbonic acid by means of 190 CULINARY ARTS. [ VEE. a force-pump, and afterwards drawing it off into strong metal barrels. By the aid of a valve-cock attached to a pipe leading to the bottom, the exit of the liquid, as may be wanted, can be managed; the internal pressure of the gas being sufficient to force out the milk. The milk may be placed in the barrels first and the gas forced in afterwards. Products of the Decomposition of Casein.—Iljenko (Liebig’s Annalen, xiii.) has reported the following results of the action of water upon casein. He obtained pure casein by washing fresh cheese with water, dissolving it in soda-lye, skimming off the fat which rose to the surface after repose, precipitating casein from the clear liquid by sulphuric acid, and washing with alcohol and ether. Eight pounds of this casein were mixed with distilled water and exposed to the air at summer heat. After a week, am- moniacal and sulphuretted odors were evolved and continued during the whole process, the liquid remaining alkaline from the commencement to the end of the reaction. The liquid was replaced every four days by fresh water. After ten weeks, the united liquors, after having been tested separately and found to behave alike, were filtered. The casein had decreased in weight considerably during this time. The volatile products of the distillation of this filtrate were volatile oil, butyric, and valerianic acids. The ammonia generated during the putrefactive fermentation, dissolved a portion of the casein. The liquor also contained aposepedin, or oxide of caseum. VIII. BIOTECHNICS. Since plants are modified in appearance and special pro- ducts by the use of manures, and the products of animals are influenced by food and other conditions, the study of these modifying circumstances is an art of the highest importance. To ascertain them to a limited extent, empirical experiment will be of much assistance ; but to determine them more fully, proximate analysis of organized bodies and organic mixtures demands a more thorough elaboration. Quantitative proxi- mate analysis is still in its beginning. After this, or simul- taneous with its development, must be a study of the successive changes experienced by special substances in plants and ani- mals during growth, both in normal and abnormal conditions, under usual circumstances or when subjected to particular chemical influences. We have an ingenious investigation of this kind to report by Fremy. 1. Physiology.— Ripening of Fruit.—Fremy’s investigation of the ripening of fruits has opened a new and interesting field. He calls pectose a substance associated with cellulose in unripe fruits, in carrots, turnips, &c.; it is insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether. It is converted into pectin by heat and dilute acids, or by the ripening of fruits, in which case malic and citric acids produce the effect. When pectin is boiled for some time in water, it is converted into parapectin, of the same composition as pectin, but precipitable by sugar of lead. Parapectin boiled with dilute acids is rapidly changed to metapectin, of the same composition as pectin, but decidedly acid, and pre- cipitable by chloride of barium. Fremy has found a ferment in fruits, and carrots, &c., which he terms pectas, the soluble modification of which is obtained from carrots. Pectas, or cold dilute alkaline solutions, transforms pectin into pectosie acid. The longer action of pectas, or alkalies, or ebullition 191 192 PHYSIOLOGY. [ VEER. converts pectin into pectic acid, which is insoluble in cold water. Continued ebullition of pectic acid in water converts it into soluble parapectic acid, and this is easily changed by dilute acids into metapectic acid. ‘The last acid is also formed by the action of strong acids on pectin, or of an excess of alkali on pectin, pectosic or pectic acid. The following table shows the composition of these bodies and their respective compounds with oxide of lead. Lead-salt. PECLOSEstassne sas. —— se ieevene Pectin. ctatsastaps SE OSC Hy Ore see nie —— Parapectin ...... SHO. CoH Oo) ssc THO, 7 PbO,C. AO: Metapectin...... SHO HO. vests. 6HO, 2PbO,C,,H,,0., Peetosie acid... 5 O,CeH Or c.s. HO, 2Pb0,C,H.07. Pectic acid...... ZHO SC 2 EOL, accre 2PbO,C..n OF Parapectic acid 2HO,C,,H,.0,,....... 2PhO,CH,.0., Metapectic acid 2HO,C, H,0O, ...... ; 2PbO,C, H, O, The above series commences with neutral pectin, and passes through a series of bodies successively more acid, to a strong acid, the metapectic. They either differ from each other by the elements of water, or are isomeric. The changes of the pectin series by water, acids and alka- lies are similar to those which take place in the ripening of fruits. Unripe fruits contain pectose, which is, during ripening, gradually converted into pectin and parapectin, by the action of acids present (malic, &c.); and these are changed by pec- tas into metapectic acid, which unites with potassa or lime. The metapectic acid probably causes the conversion of starch into sugar. Boiling unripe fruits induces a similar formation of pectin, which by the action of pectas is transformed into gelatinous pectosic and pectic acids, forming a jelly. (Ann. d. Ch. u. Pharm. Ixvii.) 2. The Atmosphere.—The presence of carbonic acid in the air has long been known. Its influence on vegetation has been brought out more prominently by Liebig. Many experi- rents seem to determine the presence of ammonia in the air, THE ATMOSPHERE. 198 and its influence on the growth of plants is maintained by Liebig. Future analysis may determine the presence and influence of other matters, which at present elude our analytic methods, or whose presence is only suspected. Marchand found, as the mean of 150 experiments, that 10,000 volumes of air contain 5.1 of carbonic acid. Kemp found that 24,840 cubic inches of air yielded 1.8 milligrammes of ammonia. Greger and Horsford have also found ammonia. The discrepancies in the experiments of Greger, which gave 0.323 grm. ammonia = 0.938 carbonate, and those of Dr. Kemp, determining 3.68 caustic = 10.37 carbonate of ammonia in 1,000,000 grm. of the atmosphere, induced Fresenius to make some essays with a view to the correct decision of the matter. His apparatus consisted of two gasometers, of nearly 2 galls. capacity each, with a collecting apparatus of two flasks, containing 1 pt. muriatic acid of 1.12 and 20 pts. water. The passage of the air was continued, day and night without intermission, for six weeks. The results obtained were .089 ammonia = .285 carbonate during the day, and .169 ammonia = .474 carbonate during the night, in every 1,000,000 grm. 3. Mineral Manures.—That mineral matters in the soil exert an important influence on plants is generally admitted, but which substances are most influential and how far they are beneficial have not been determined. On this head, we call attention to the investigations of G. Magnus, of Berlin. Magnus made a series of careful experiments, during 1849, on the growth of plants (barley having been selected), from which he drew the following conclusions : 1. When mineral matters are not present, the barley attains only the height of 5 inches, and then dies. 2. When a small quantity of mineral matter (different salts) is present, perfect development takes place. 3. If somewhat more mineral matter is present, the plant either grows in a stunted form or is not developed at all. 4. In feldspar alone, barley attains complete development and produces seeds. R 13 194 MANURES. [ WHEE. 5. The progress of growth varies according as the feldspar is used in the state of coarse or fine powder. 6. Manure exerts its fertilizing action also at a distance. It then acts, not only by conveying certain mineral matters to the soil, but its organic constituents also contribute, and that essentially, to the promotion of vegetation. For a more detailed account of Magnus’s experiments, see Chem. Gaz. viii. 261. Common Salt.—The injurious effects of common salt on vegetation were clearly shown in a case reported to the British Association. See Amer. Journ. 2d ser. vil. 299. W. B. Randall (Ch. Gaz. vi.) has proved by experiment that water, containing as much as seven grains of chloride of sodium to the pint, is highly destructive to the weaker forms of vegetation. On the other hand, Dubreuil, Fauchet, and Girardin ex- perimented practically on the effects of common salt on wheat, and found that in the ratio of 6-831b per acre, the straw and grain were both heavier; when more salt was employed, the straw was more influenced than the grain. Persoz found that hortensias flourished far more in an or- dinary soil manured, than the same not manured; the manure being 6ib boneblack, Sib nitric acid, and 1ib phosphate of potassa. A vine manured with Ib silicate of potassa, 3b phosphate of potassa and lime, and an equal weight of dried blood and goose-dung, produced a shoot of more than 11 yds. in a year, while another, not manured, gave a shoot of only A yds.; the former produced on nine shoots 25 bunches of grapes, the latter none. Polstorff (Ann. Ch. Pharm. Ixii. 192) drew the following conclusions from experiments with salts upon barley grown in lead-lined boxes, and in the field: 1. That barley reaches its full development in a soil containing only the constituents of its ashes; 2. That the amount of nitrogen in grain is therefore not dependent on the soil; 3. That mineral manures are ca- pable of producing entirely different results, according to the MINERAL MANURES. 195 form in which their constituents are employed. Excrements gave much more than their ash, when each were employed separately. In the field, he found that ammonia-phosphate of magnesia did not affect the development of the grain, that it injured the formation of the straw, and that mineral manures without ammonia retarded vegetation. Disintegration of Rocks.—Soils being formed by the disin- tegration of rocks, the study of this point is of some im- portance in vegetable physiology. Ebelmen (Comptes Rendus, xxvi. and Ch. Gaz. vi.) gives, as conclusions from a series of analyses, 1. That silicates, which contain no alumina, lose, on disintegration, silica, lime, and magnesia: sometimes the iron disappears with the bases, and at others, remains in the residue as peroxide. 2. Silicates containing alumina and an alkali, and even other bases also, become richer in alumina on disintegration ; and this alumina retains the silicic acid and assimilates water, while the other bases, with a portion of the silicic acid, disappear. In this case, the residue approaches in composition to a hydrated silicate of alumina. W. B. and R. E. Rogers have given the results of a series of experiments (Amer. Journ. 1848) upon the solvent power of pure and carbonated water upon mineral compounds, by which they prove in two ways, Ist, by an extemporaneous method with the tache, and, 2dly, by prolonged digestion at the ordinary temperature, ‘‘the solvent and decomposing power of pure and carbonated water upon all the important mineral aggregates, as well without as with alkaline ingredients.”’ Phosphate of Lime in Basaltic Rocks.—Deck (Chem. Gaz. vi.) has, by recent analyses of some basalts, proved the pre- sence of phosphate of lime in igneous rock, and thereby con- firmed those of Mr. Forbes, in contradiction of those by Prof. Kersten. Artificial Mineral Manures.—Liebig gives the following proportions of salts, as the basis for manures. 1. 24 pts. carbonate of lime and 1 pt. potash (or 1 pt. of a mixture of 196 MINERAL MANURES. [ VERE. potash and soda). The potash usually contains 60 per cent. carbonate, 10 per cent. sulphate, 10 muriate, and some silicate of potassa. 2. Equal parts of phosphate of lime, potash, and soda. The above mixtures are each fused separately in a re- verberatory. According to the peculiar wants of the soil, the proportions given may be varied, and also different substances added, such as plaster, bones, silicated alkali, ammonia, phos- phate of magnesia. According to Stenhouse, the calcareous phosphate may be obtained from urine, as well as from guano and bones, by adding milk of lime, drawing off the liquid from the deposit, and drying the latter. 100Ib urine yield nearly 31b of the precipitate, which when dry contains ? phos- phoric acid, ? lime, &c., and } nitrogenous organic matter. Analysis of Bone-earth.—Heintz’s analyses of bones (Ber- lin. Berichte, 1849) give the following results. Human. Sheep. Ox. Maree Ne eee eee 31.89" 37.51 4000.4 37.46 Moapriesia\s. 0c. eile aactacs OLd G2 0564.0) Oaks SOP or Phosphoric acids... vsc0e. 28:27. 28.00. 3.72964 2562 7.89 Carbonic Eau ene ene B00" RISD ea 00 tah one Water, fluorine, and organic TRACER ee a aoe eae eee ees 30.47. 31.12 ... 26.54... 30.58 Phosphates of Lime.—Reesky’s ee (Caines Ren- dus, xxvi. and Ch. Gaz. vi.) show that the artificial or bone phosphate of lime has the composition 3CaQ,PO,; that the biphosphate of lime is decomposed by alcohol into a phosphate and free acid; but the former is not a neutral salt but a new phosphate 8Ca0,2P0,,4HO. Solubility of Phosphates.—According to Liebig, 1 litre of water saturated with carbonic acid, dissolves 0.6626 grm. of bone-earth, of which 0.500 grm. is deposited by boiling. (Ann. der Chem. und Pharm. lxi.) According to Lassaigne, water with its own volume of carbonic acid, dissolves in the course of 12 hours, at the temperature of 50°, 0.00075 of artificial basic phosphate of lime, 0.000166 from fresh bones, and 0.0003 from bones that had been buried for 20 years. He PHOSPHATOMETRY. 197 states that 40 cub. centimeters water, containing ;'5 their weight of common salt, dissolve 0.0127 grm. basie phosphate of lime; and that salammoniac increases the solubility still further. (Journ. Ch. Med. ili. and iv., Comptes Rendus, and Lond. Journ. 1849.) Crum has observed that 100 pts. of various acids (diluted in the proportion of 1 equiv. acid to 1000 eq. water), dissolve from ? to 14 pts. of basic phosphate of lime. The acids were sulphuric, tartaric, acetic, lactic, malic, hydrochloric, and nitric; the first dissolving the most, the last, the least. (Ann. der Ch. und Pharm.) Acid Phosphate of Lime.—It is some years since this salt was proposed as a manure, and repeated trials since that time have fully demonstrated its efficiency. The simplest method of preparing it is as follows. Bones are thrown into heaps, where they soften by fermentation. They are then covered with half their weight of water in wood or stone vats, and half their weight of oil of vitriol added. The whole passes into a pasty state in the course of 8 or 10 days, when it is mixed with earth, charcoal, or sawdust, to render it pulveru- lent. If it be required to apply the salt in a fluid state to land, the paste is diluted with 100-200 times its bulk of water. Ammonia Phosphate of Magnesia.—Boussingault and Smith propose making this salt from urine, by treating the latter with a solution of sulphate or muriate of magnesia. The ammonia phosphate will separate in the course of a month. They state that 6300 pts. urine gave 46 pts. of the salt, equal to ? of one per cent. It might readily be made in towns and manufacturing establishments ; and while the proposed treat- ment will diminish the disagreeable odor of putrefying urine, it will offer an invaluable manure to the agriculturist. Phosphatometry.—Moride and Bobierre have proposed (Technologiste, 1849) an expeditious method for determining the proportion of phosphates in manures. 1 grm. boneblack or dust, dried at 212°, is to be incinerated and reweighed, so as to estimate the carbon and organic matter by loss. The soluble saline matters are separated from the ash by leeching R2 198 ORGANIC MANURES. [ WEEE. with water, and their amount ascertained by the decrease of weight. The residue, insoluble in water, is then carefully digested in nitric acid, saturated dropwise with aqua ammonia, and when a cloudiness appears, treated with acetic acid to redissolve the suspended phosphate of lime. i A normal liquor is now prepared by dissolving 3.107 grm. of pure acetate of lead in 50 cub. centimeters of water, that amount of salt having been found by experiment to be equiva- lent to 1 grm. phosphate of lime. The liquor must be slightly acidulated with acetic acid, and then poured into a tall glass cylinder graduated into 100 equal parts, so that each degree may represent 1 centigramme of phosphate. The acetic solution of phosphate, prepared as above, is mixed with this liquid until it assumes a yellowish tint, when two-thirds of its volume of alcohol must be added to mitigate the solvent power of the free acid upon the lead phosphate, and the pouring of the test-liquor continued, very carefully, until a drop of the mixture gives the greenish-yellow lead reaction with iodide of potassium. The number of divisions of the normal liquid required to bring it to this point denotes the number of centigrammes of phosphate of lime contained in the solution. 4. Organic Manures.—The feeces of animals alone, or mixed with other organic matter which they cause to putrefy, have been used as manures time out of mind, and their value uni- versally attested. The great influence of their ashes or mineral constituents has been investigated latterly, and has almost led to a disregard of their organic contents, unless in the form of a compound yielding up ammonia to the air. Too much haste has been shown in these conclusions. We report a few examinations of excrements, which are of value inde- pendently of theory. ~~ Human Feces.—Fleitmann, who carefully examined the human feeces (Silliman’s Journ. 1849), found their inorganic contents, as follows: EXCREMENTS. 199 Feces of one Day. Urine of one Day. Nath vada SOONER Ayes 8.9243 MaQ trie awe eiscs: O:01BS) wna ay IOI eget eatiedi ot eid iscesiele 0.7511 TO Maha ailesids. ced. OAH... 2.4823 CxOei Aes GA fave), O:55G6U8 <2 sues 0.2245 MisOpi@soainis sso, D271 8A feadss'ide, 0.2415 Bee is Dele aurosustes en0/0544 tua ye ioh: 0.0048 AG esal ths ass wales $4O:8072 asia. . 1.7598 BOei dey ile. qubides OM29Braits, os 0.3864 iOpus eiitene sola fists 0.0375 s+. 0.0691 D.B48B ces, 14.8438 Composition of Excrements.—The first four analyses are by J. R. Rogers (Ann. Ch. Pharm. lxv. 85), the fifth is by Vohl. CONSTITUENTS. Pig. Cow. | Sheep. | Horse. | Dog. | 100 of flesh excrement yielded water.| 77.13 | 82.45 | 56.47 | 77.25 «dried =“ at212° yielded ash. 37.17 | 15.23 | 13.49 | 13.36 «¢ ash gave matters soluble in WALEE stieadesFadiccsces sameeren nse 9.65] 5.84])17.29) 3.16 ‘«* ash gave matters soluble in hydrochloric acid............. 18.70 | 82.21] .... | 22.59 «¢ ash gave matters soluble in MUUCH CH ACL Oct wa ce cart oiealsele Sis sce Soa ween. (O4S04' | sass ‘¢ ash gave insoluble residue.....| 71.65 | 61.95 | 48.17 | 74.25 Composition of the Ash. POUNSBA scvososes rec deacioessscsseseneeetos Nas 8.60} 2.91] 8.32)11.380} 0.380 Od tercsrccedtcdeecscscaccsssteccstecseseateecs 8.44} 0.98] 3.28] 1.98] 0.44 Tato Sa tesstal adosnicduck sacceseascssoeeee yies 2.03] 5.71|18.15] 4.63 | 33.05 IMIAPIIGSYSiraa esdasu acsincesdeladeacangescecacen’ 2.24|11.47| 5.45] 8.84} 0.09 Oxides of manganese .........s.2...0e00s Sess era |traceee | ee Loot sales Chloride of, SOdiuM.....2.hee-cssevceceee 0.89} 0.23] 0.14] 0.03 Phosphate Of, 10M.. Amount.of butter obtained: 3...-.0...-5-. 05-9. 1,245 * Or 6.65 per cent. of the milk employed. 4. Milk obtained from 4th to Tth Oct............. 42,835 “ Last portions of the milkings..............0.000 8,565 “ Pat ETMOMtATMC Wass ifiad-naactnssees ste ssccesuytosoas C2 Or 7.53 per cent. of the milk used. 5. Milk obtained from 8th to 15th Oct. (inclusive) 85,850 * Last portions of the milkingS...............+000 12,495 “ Butter obtained 189 , ASCOMPOSICION Of: <0csco-0 vorponeae.tnve sects she ic pachchlusematipa copatoanmoesasss 190 Castoreum Canadense ...ss.erececocceeccorscncccscecenscsessecsenesesenecvcns vavcwvers 164 Jast-ir0n, CATDON iN......ssseeecceceecenececesecnsce cesses terseecoseeceen ceases eeeceeee 42 —— changed tO bar ...sccccccssece serseensererneeenecnecerseeeecaes eeeecaeeece 43 Sees Sat Bell eas sececs iuecnwicare sees cseeenctucosupeeasesemate ener 44 Castings, malleable ......cc.sceseeeenees snveecceesesaroceseeneeces seeeaeess seseneecees 43 - Cle aNEdeccss cease scccksarkccsasrececealneesseieensiouinssecpaculnnnivestcdavsivancs 68 GCEAT ON coc se. se cgok dose se taka sees bleswee he deweslensteciessseaivcononsgniagesasennietens pitistis alates 120 Cement for pottery and glass.....cccsssecssacseecnreeeeeseeeeteseecens ane seneeeeeses 338 StCAM JOINES...... cece cee eranee ceneecenscesececveceueeeeren causes sneee 38 Chandlery ........csscees cossessececceecesscaccesecceacescceccnseeeeecesaneane cesee cases 160 Charcoal for gUNPOWEY......cccceeeeeceeeceee cee erceneseeeen neseeeens teseneees cones 23 Cheese, decomposition Of. ......sseceeceeeeceeeeeneee cesses ann ceeeerees sen eecareceuees 190 GH eMICS sc e7o0 voce coleccccsecdecateconctMecns/csesieewaslanetejae enicebepn eunclensptasinens stae 12, 91 Chemicals and pharmaceutics.......scccescnveeceeccrereeeseerere ie cjscaeninee 112-126 Chickory coffee ......... Meweneticeces cH aacaahanelsuslortaenaeeleenaccoeimenaciNasa'ss saaenaa 186 INDEX. 209 PAGE Chlorine, preparation and determination Of.............ss0cce00 cecseeseeeeeees 114 Chloride of lime........ Renemielvaiseia.casis saneniesqaceisesers,sss sciceunaaneraeten ecencies dona 100 VOMING Meme tseccintaces|enccesscc cece paises ive! ncstacctacaacthrs cusecmaaeslva sore 114 Chiloratejofupotassaeeseressclacs darecelsccecnnaeos segeinasicesiocsecsinsseaciesvelnccesivusossee 101 Gialeroloriiy) at eness gees tenets sh seatsoasseacchs sneaes svedee csanenus chip ease wesaah 122 Whromen(GxiGerofascmaeesseewesavctiesigns dseniseedsceeveevace.spesssanccodlardene mec eeles 112 ChromatesmanmiactynagOls.cscssi vere scscvesenecciapewesess scenes secsaseneete 1G MCOWMDLEP SALES ec. cessiszeseatesclesianslesaaelsies ves sedaisinee’nootecuaciccmetcadactes 112 Chromic hacid PreparatlOMidless csia-cecsssicecescsseictacecronvnen ances veseencoeueat 116 CUE OM LCN NG AM GAME pe acstat nce odase wessnesogiwee raeps ersiqeianins esjoss aise seaccesiess 14] CHROME AVES ie tteson sat cowceels stances csocopasinsusesiascasstesens placcedelvecdadaneeasteeuseae 141 Cinnabar. scis.icsccescses tals duisivelncarealansoed laces: caseestasiirenscansindecesaesloreessiessuars 51 OMA CHOW Mes ceesanlacsoasicone on aceasvnseaesiene ces se slicesdsees ecincccisescesnaceevaastecenes oot 117 Clay wares, pottery, &c piseneacienverines esvines esnisesoAqnaseeeast canoe eo NE Gen em aseriencle sees efeaenaclacseccieas enstenjaceatecestencs'sy se croccaccnsecc sau sejsnocenterioes 18-20 Eee eeencsfanp eae toesecessaceasnianonsnctoccesr pier menecee tes Measiesicclecen sere 166-167 Cobalt and nickel........ Map swas(sasescseulesrenmecclaseaerisdusscecs tase atiesuacdecesedberrs 62 Goelimenlepecccudaccnsacass coke cstlevles casaaceis Ves eveciogsulsdenaaceeccocees oedioansoorsemaligo Geen arnmb Rai Cecsc sacs cect wonerose soni adies ovina cee eco Seba saw orcc nies she ound eomesse tonne Wee HeChiCkOnypcucsscssccsasesesecsconaesdcirtvasiesselacescseceschecoreecancsnatedeers 186 WOKO MITSANAVOMOHS taccnoncclesatensslestetsaes-mvs seen Seeseasa cos baaecorar te leneowee ts 28 eee SA oertinasn arias sor anewneaaanesseeonaniaesnien tr sigdatcstacsasandaeducsceetes teak 26 Rp bear apse GI i an wena rans eos ana so metiaaedccys caddarmeoamedeoanapaenbes Sesion 142-148 COM ODIC Tisaccescaciesasccnrals sneasiesipningstege «. 169 Pie MOSM PHILG, OLssOOMesesmcscsmssensascagracnscsiseseccensses conde seacatnarndstewentecn OO MOE sar LUC LAMY RIN AGS lesarspdssonedetacdsectcescieactinacsiicacrcscateas tle studs acenvions 189 MITER SEOW seste sass ests yscnciesccersraseasancaesesacsep-naa ena aneeted ident sey 165-171 Midi Pa GESTCU opasezcersscensaice uadaecciasesaeresiaen car tesinegewecselcegestacsidacesosee conse 138 vec tesa saneniecmasinccclvesesdacclessndssncicensaueauennsiatea Meech Acucaes sells 140 HIE ONCIS CHAT CHONutactascqueccadensiterasctacpracteatacsscnee et avesleseceke . 142 212 INDEX. PAGE Inks indelible ‘and printings 7escocgeis she ccavev ssvveccea'ccds ostecsvecdttentes 143, 144 To dine extraction Of. scescsitessessescccs sees ee eee eheeaeetoe ces evessuceseendnceceacee 114 , photographic use of ............. Roaasteseteeccinesssscse rr oreasecencemscecises 86 SCHL OVIM eS Of 255553 eek cate aaa eee eee eee aan sae Shen de ceca eeoseteneeenen 114 HOdGHY Aric HCIA.s..veccussessecets Mecenatateneenpee sven utciesestetee coctcesteceen tases 115 Todide of potassium on lead ..........ssceeeee ee pomatisiecas deneciocrssoenivscerstscceee 115 Troniores ‘and metal ascssissciteaacsse aces eoateestecat neces eee vaecorcoes cleveetneceees 40 !VANRAOIUM ANG iaTSenTE AM sssssseeiescaer en se oneeetos oebectere ste eeseienee 41 alkalimetric test :ofticcessssscests rghit haa! 0 Seelam 41 oe Peduced ansretortssnsseessceosssessncoete accccsereceetecsssouenccesets 43 = captristeel sand! Darcy esss cides Hee hoe ea eee eee ee eee eee eee 42-45 — MAN DATs SO] CELEA. stistecasg cs ecorereeeen coats ciensuee coeteesecuicesencees 69 PLOLECKEA OME TUShi a easscreivsceeosesavecescosseoetescereteeenctnscecosctnseoss 42 = NCOPP OLED ssassacscoss sadecoccos set csnes abanescacicesdentaes sosaumeeoneraarcoreenees 48 Sea ONAM EMEA s wseNividedkods seceseladeud decd acess cavade dcher Pemba tee ee tee outs 68 5; PerSulphatvelolcjnccccstscwssessos\ssessesssosesescelectesacetooresedenecssssssslens 131 Iyory, hardened; ‘softened, etched} G0: \i5..cccscenwctccocdececesdsdcectecsiossses 148 KAMPTULICONM sootcecesccchecoseatiscerecsns paichsiocate sleceaitensenesewles encecelesmecaites 150 TAA CTOMETRY : 2s occ snsttohivsct Wore ee pe costiuee ilecwectiteacoetecomeare ties cnenacacn cessor 202 MAC QUEL S. 15 He stee sacs Geese Ee Tea NEE SREP UU CA Re enrages 153, 154 Lead, quantity produced in Great Britaim........0....ceccscesccecesceececceo ens 49 =>; ‘alkalimetric) test* fons. iicy late ean elsed capone dacs ua dee eee e eee 49 5 “reduction Im the iweb -wayss./...iovaeeceseuevesvesceresccleavsscuceevelneeoesoes 83 ———" pipe, influence of water Ons: 205004: sua seoievesteccuevneclonee eeceet aeeuseses 185 = EMPTAMENLS ioscossecoscarenecencoscssodccteesee aa enana ten eab een sseeaeneect escheat ets 108 WMOTMANGS' <4. ciereescieescioec tuscccedseccesciccdsedeseeesuorceteerossue sacreeeess 132 ddeadinis coppertand’ 1rons.tsscssstets ssxcsiessse nest esteee ceeeerceteetae centers 83 Leather varnish......... Be rusetscuincesncconecsomeraa ee se eteneuke wetcont eusutclonemcseeciss 154 Demons yoilvolaeiaisse pees sore evan secret eee eae ee oh eeecee senees eneeesceccenseeese es 128 Light, action on starch and iodide of lead............ccscsssecsccencrecee cecers 86 Linen: distinguished from cottomss..2c2 52 cesec. ce ceceneceucceleeseee scuvaciecceaeiece 128 and-cotton tanned sestcseeiess ctesseeaseae cee cea abe cece censoeseneeeneenene 129 inseedtoil*decolorizedictsvssssv. sie sssctsosticscocrieseesescsccicccctsiddestccsesscre 159 WUbTICAtIN DOU aass csseancearace net vetencas cies sswalesietieecesaciaecects secosaceece trate 159 IMIAD DER cartatencactenectacse cates cesceoectanetenes sue henuaicnabslomcetee sooeaeeerens 133-136 Malt lrquorshashestotecest hoses sesset ssn eceeess nc vos susie ceociecomenteceuscecccersceace 184 Maneanesetvitiiolss:sscscnsscssectaanesscssises ses cossctiecsavsnesuceidiesnietiecctessemeere 104 Menures, mineral, influence on plants..........c...c.sccocscsocscececocesoresooees 193 MOPTAMIC Ni shatdensssere seen ceeseesseccaneeetaeees SS FA ee 198 Migat; COOKIN OF is.5 siedeciarsoeeviennscotte cesses ce concsedecusecencnenetaaeetrmostecenertes 187 Mercury ‘Ore’. 26.i. sestansiedeansiesostusceseelccssidciesanese aes Maseotcleteeee axe arcase manent. 51 =, purification ofinipiscisccinsleceaeectic olde ecclesdsen dddvdcs aes eatemees 51 distilled! by steam’ sews cten a acclocsestodccaccnecovesteeecedeesiens 52 s black-sulphuret/ of te atn tues Wye ccoaeeedetan ceeteeaes cles 118 Metallurgy inctctiscasecw..se an ose sdeirebeeseaecosesstecatweneey testeaermtes sees 12, 89-90 INDEX. 2138 PAGE Malic preserviediareccrsrccsitecesce reek cs seve sucsbensnae ctodse atu acodaala cade dulseee 189 ML Gr aTi GSS te Seen EO TENE ISD Tea oes tee caceanltisceteectocsineemsioes 131 SIME Wires eae aea con icceeacltewesencadetaces cae bueaciinenaesemaaenashetelsieey cad 133 NICK KEAN DY COBATTH ae tel ce cas co cues oem cseceesesdeesee couse sccdicenesiteseteaseses 62 BING YAH eueeoneaamunteeetnatst dacs tensecesoesesueusccoues vecserened tee denise ssas 03 INTelIOM Worker csces cesateaecet een os cea ercneCeuaeaeabale weanelssdese seddles cessles secelececee 84 Nitre.. a Eee Ne AUIS NS eT SINR T SRE UN UR! Stee WA Uy ane, ange cuctsaieme aps Nitric aa anhydrous. Merete one catgeseedeasiteciewcs sec muonnertecmacseweneeaml Oe Nitrates.. ara RRR BOR Ere Sian eal yA MANES TTS SAU Saclay acecesiods Saatce sjaasee LO) Nutrition, caalon fie Boe sae NLA U NEN Uae Path wu staatt heces dusines eceleteessiacpeae LOG RRM CN MELEN cetiacoedees cen aartes tice weaeacerssce tecaacese st sost ott decescecelanvenseesweewae” EU Oil, cocoanut.. Ree E GaSe Calo O ROE ES Coos E eee Thee eset eck eiiese et Cote honseedsecteermL OG —,, whale, plenohed:: BAN IaNe Cert ei he KeIE tonto Leet Tek wale eeiodaer cor neosere: OO : Peete eeheyie aie cetsas tel noe irl a REIN RS Le eB 159 ae U DTI CHAIND eaveconcceenec ewe nocsires esta ctescsstesses ic «ce csuaccesescastacesecieg ree TOG Enea UL LES LEU Nese ea ec tee recent cr essiscanad coc cscae ress esnuecieds tawasseoclssaseeveseee LOO =e BV ATMS retiavccrcst verccawsslesucuecesssocnassdietscesduvastisssicssieiesccbaredoiwacoecess LOS DillyAa LAST CONGLEM 4 cecsce ve ceerclesu esses covicen decicseanctencus see sanieceinecscvoesiess MLO OMEWESR eral! Totes ccddcssscacaceslccsestesscseccsccdsccces sanesdavecasiocsese . 163 Oleics.. phd ak ennleGciek o(caemabicessccursscsawacessececcieasons oe "157- 171 Olive ik from: aimomes. sWacsasteseccsactsae teu cnissoeencauece scoeasaestteceonsas Wear (pratt tes pelorsscerecesiecscnsacnesacacssciesaecciecsisescccteanescemicesecdeaceedscccosess ALLO ay ONE PULE ss scene se pecnuenestinn sseciacasaceadaerssecaatssecsieseseicsciasocesecteseeeeees) ace OZO eee eeestlccasonenclsncccciese caalvonaed toencccswense ete roscaise conset cdctcctasssecesse LOO PATUADINMENCXEEACTLOM LOL cssceneweilostecesaydestas ce ade cenevesseesdtesssveeeuesasene 62 EU AMCIIN Ms netwanrctescetonowonsels datessonenerccssastsort cseconvenccecsesoseaavenceawelees nh Papers improved process) Of; Makin.) s..isosccscsescaseccecgtsecceayecoccwsiesosee 144 , bleached, water-proof, Gers. .c. os .soctecssscasseeseosnoes ee ata 145 ENMA CURLY UCM -sedsontevseasesdsaveave suse cjacsesecne tes see ccomueciene seisaatis Reeve stodssdse 186 Partin Spy SULPUUTI Cra Clear clvscecccsteascecssesccvescsnsdescmadscedeciecievenceses 56 MELELCEACI sstacveceatestweunet ccaccsctesecserstlacadadscslattaes taaeaseealsee 57 GG LIMMEMECULCNACIO TOUCH osencsicscocsadeccenestsanscseacsciatesee deceased scviadddvat cartes 191 OMIT Osea eal eactetenccb els sacelcs cca secn meen cat Coca tene cies cnacanoneeer reece esitces 162 Phrarmnicentien Gnd \OMPMICHSs\s)scesecusesalsceketetedecctsecseescenoneesckes 113-126 ADOSPMRLOWMIOL ye ectesstaseess .checdscrwactarssccsssecsnsceriacacteoss tacess soonest 197 Phosphiaterom lime DASaliC POCKSs. ht sc.sccssscecccccoscosas cqesescesoes recess 195 PICOMIPOSILION Ofocuacccesce sonevececodecccssocccecelcssacenadicusans 196 PBOUMDUAVeOLlent sess csicceroscsecres«sesejencs sasasapencciesiansdns 196 aor MA CICS B Deraeecectecactacscccece tascdeccestcoccocestaveneceeasas 197 —————_——_ Magnesia and AMMONIA.............scseeceeserccerescesecnceeserees 197 EHOLOOTA DM yiecarcadteccnestestrroccassieccteccancrscsa sidectanoteccomeaenscatone Batenes 85-90 OU G IAS Ss vesesascvicctcararsicdelesieunstsccstusnacuvacites suatsieceeedsccsevacs 89 PHOLO CT AP MECH AN CLrcastsccocitecsscerrttessecessescenstanccsiovertesusestsrecrscec reeds 87 GHG PEDIC CLABSCSiasswecsseise veer sess seceeceoeesacieseestaraiartresstccsthosedsiae saere, Lae 214 INDEX. PAGE RSE CS vscvecnic ote ciecose sc cujsho ce tee Reston sales os cosas sesh csusaiescecuteeeemses 12, 26-38 Hlaster bowed iby stam. c.rccscrsocceccicnecteppacstesscosless ocakacievscnrsctneueness 86 MAT CCNEO ss scccaresciceccansesncdet ssteacesecsess ses snveescecesectepeassoncie 37, 88 Platini Zig SASS, OCC: sa ceeacse'esehes ess soeasnpesiactas sessiaasachaensnvsbenceinseesanniee 79 AlatiNOld “Metals ..S.aswacsedenecsiosack os donee weamoseececece oss owen csqnseaoanaiencanes 61 Platinumsand:)solutlom; Olic. sessecusscdscenestenasssosseslcovsstecetevssceeamhecnees 61 a MINOW Ba stacenseseslensecaessivedesaveecasecvaselstsesessice hues teeicceuncieserasncrense 66 Plating hy Gip pire cscvecverscenss sacestseecerssroasscecoseclece Sesaces se secatcleceen eres 12 Porcelain, structure and composition Of.............ssssesscsecses cococeecscoeses 30 SC OLONSiad OY ne cassecewes os esee cera Catoetsomeneasins elesionsasusscceeccdentes 32, 33 — COMEN bri ascosccsccccocscestorssnedsecweciorcnesactasessisneosmsadpcconacscleee 155 Portable blast fUrNAce....scrsescccroeceacegsseissencacasssesedesssccoages ses coseecees 20 POET Vw etnascse ct laccssiosestecseinsSecatcsbeatecavenensecsecnstiooaeccccesncscveslensees 29-38 Potash New SOULCECOLaweccsss sess sce vssecccsneeveneecnuesesincsaessnteense taeusoanesss 101 LEsted FOLSOM ss. cavsvecccins occssasiotss code clesncns conlceasaievanserondaseensuacnas 101 PLES CRV ALON OL OOM aces ccc sewecs voc scieco esses oascsnees esata tasenoesacece ceeeeomssnts 189 PARTITION, suiasctalve aoe sescaceisiceoe sions dnoesinosclonsssicasecs ocseceecsscnmanetanccaneee 144 Prussiate of potash, yellow\and Led. ......<.0....cescocessooereoes sosessinee 109, 110 a) TO veces eececesececccccccccaccesecccon crosses consestoepesiane 140 PYUSsian DlUe; TOM CAliCOrwcsevescccevssssstiesscieissesss cse'cccinctexuesigeaaoes satei ees 142 IPLUSSIC ACID) ANNYALOUG. ascheovieassasiecenscensbesine oocstesecievissncpcioneseneneconeanaes 121 RUM POITITECs ssp asescncesiedesess ocoebopacisens niosesaclcseecacsweciessseecsescececsbteees 18 EV POLE CHU Yi iaatet sence cote salscas soln sediacita ve cnlaws\eole etsiecicoisaisatmcsise aoecleaga inte act: 22-25 Pirometallurory:...dcenesaesiccdesdeseswcienssueisdecccteciessaleleden se cossenttuastesancs 40-69 PAV TOLALURLIC NACI Oc sccueceinceseciennens cvocsdeesccmzsccreiesse tec essasjedesesisascseccuceccrs 121 OUGAR TATION (ocscccsccecsesssdavensonsedses «sees detnoonice sess sidesateeen tenance dosiocsses seen 57 Mainin' and {GUINOLIN sss ase cs cieetees sseeeonse rece caceccleessacaensedeeces alesecmeetnees 117 REED, PRUSSTATE OF POTASH cs coscaiarssscisssis sales ccccitivalssieccsrsswenssesesiece avons 140 REL ECLOLS!.Zuccacstansieaveen sts cesibesesalervenaiecupavises sesiee Osos asoensinanie ceapaicneatsjeds as 171 Resin WY AMMAT Accs. cecowe coves clcansinvescelece desist sas Genebeneanvene nacwerceaneene 152 MGVELDELAtOLy, HITNACOscscsccccscsniccesasiesssacjoccccosecsce veloeac cnpertinosesscckaceies 20 Rhibarh, Red) diye yfrOmes succes cossioecdoces ceases -c'sues eemacea devaaciesiesasset happens 136 Rocks, disintegration of, to form soils.........sscssssecssessee cones biolee sciences 195 FROSIN,Y OF COMMON: TESIM eo. ce.caseccicke sas tieossivosssscosacecucate Ye ak ae cattails 152 PASacsscuarcesins ceepetedselsescesioncesues oreslancssslacsvcsissemease caress ener ae naaen 166 HVOSESS Ol Olcassccioatestiiece sluseetiosesccvevecsione cones cussions gener echionenes ia monaeee 164 HUD VA DLASBsasccese seennceser sion sels tidsesvis soceweieeeinoenanociscsciacs a cugciaationseesien teas 27 Rubiagcin and) TUPAC ACI. sessions cacecsaustannesiecdeacias cdeciicecasisndeccamessne . 134 MLE OWL OL. wacacsscsworsersale vesesciessoselsues se te oavaeteesen as cece conenlecoeenpescese «os, 168 Sar, common...... Kusadauvisaasiass wendecsesicosless ease ear sneany seen cenc ones ute eeaetes 97 5 BS MANULO: .sscscscesene Vest cons sviens sop ealscuainoatesiemnswsilcussasease estsnccneteey 193 SalGMeter..... css stcecsaveswawecs cecarspocessscvevescesevtewoadestccdvascemtarcvesenaaeaaes 102 HAN PAPEL: sac-.lcneccescees secmeaese tejetes seus steeecweeemneeee Ssstarnece ganeseenisne 155 Sandal wood..........00. Ledeelanessepodlnuss sep atoasnatedcaeetene eacarhun cleus cemomeriteen 164 DPAPOBIMICATION. .co5cc0re sedentuns cosvestodlessramedemereasrencostes eesemnenr ese ... 162-165 INDEX. 215 PAGE Ned_waten purified foriAnimMicing 7. se... ccccoscscsslecccecececccwowdseecesetet couse. 184 EMV Ga tlOnserencescchacese senicosees ceelsers cosscicscscsccs socseccscnvesesedscs'ss 29-33 Dee tifa peresidieeeceec ston aenes ses tocseosacedonscsseccccestonceessktiercecsesscet 144-152 SHOU caaceeneececatene ten cer ree aree ceaccocn cercascondcnsion seas eecrcatsutenssceguinese asses 49 Silver nexhraceronttroMvOless.ccacecccasevesceslscescdess aces ssaesjeneale seem absiiassas/ests 54 AMEHNOHULCROM SONU ULE cadcscesasec spstarsacadeccas ccsseases sxocesoce Nadeuereelacs 55 —_—— See MMO UOLION er coicusc rune sunt crrosesd soecusacseeacseeunveuets 55, 57 Pa LCRME Mae Meeeteetaca tsi vosseesceloowensene Koonesasivesvenoenitnuceacetiseanaeveutys 58 SURO MRH haere seeetctcereenette cc setsenodatecevierecesseclenstsesesenovesicecsuonsciehtase 72-78 PlassytONVOCN AMON tre cccevnctesceaseasar/setsessatviacenssssccceleesiconesanes 28 TUPEROUM Sate recs emedee eacderaeconcasssiore svcecowescnerccendesisodeisiecn snes 74 Diep sresisstsedece ssuco scar ecdssereciesecreecseysresersiswaterestisrsedvose casceeece 14, 172-190 Hlags of UNN ACES TOL COMENE!sneroeoes svscevese soocaces ecvecceectoecesccs scdeseass 36 SOM pe eccere tone cases ac car ssclecucanapatecustesis cassne'sspivaselacus tise teesee sguadsrssincdare 162 SPPECONVENCU reer manta dices rcee so esWeact o daeciedciet neve cash cueaticusedejes cee cite 140 Nou MsheMANULAe CUTS Ole cee ssateesederssccecaceschsscsesestcsiae ocldecsesescates 98 MplEaY POU ATELO CESLEU si ecs vasehecesdercsicussccsecsPscess/ccssestsciesceeeiceriees 100 Soils, tromidisintepratrom Of TOCKS seine ...: c.ess vacveveaeeseicrssneiessrescasnce 195 NYO Menime ks lbtaceeccte soca acactstacets cacieacioas tieceeleauesseesisvucaciscsncsias lees) avdecrase 69 CHSLLAMN OMDAL ATOM ereacaccdccdess\sdnapestsceccatea esate dactccssoacatees 69 SUOR A GOietasence mcrae lmoaieceee vecnconetiesiescy «ewsereleseucasediealivenedesesicelecveideernes 139 Soluatronbamceteltrationice.cessesscvesesicsesss ess soscse cue soclesesedesoisceoesiadecccdesdtses 92 Speculum: Metals ceciitesecwcseeercecets evscscecs sosocceessseece oedss rocesccuenre 64 WHONe Gm leacleectcssccslecssccocedsossesclucescnccnardeecsenssvececencavenseccsscaisnes 130 Stane atweee eee eee cctleceane etieccos cvese otis or svancect susinrs en lsc ceiss'es ee.sisiavcqc acne 172 Stan ater aiwsotlae-cscrcasscostecoestne enews cos ones coves etodbsceis ccseiccssvandosee 132 SUCMPIGACLU mae se oclsnareatecacceredsasesisnerccecocstecticnsceser ocsrch ance meseenieréuneicns 158 ILCMAT ITM Read ace ee tae eter este cast sh tee Stee colses cae cesilcc voce nsiccisrcaisctseniaeitae ose esse 160 SUERTE cesua chi oseoecslvesseneccicess sas Bere ceca cecscine soe av caivocasiiescieveuectedince 142 GCOMIGUIL Mase as anenar esate scnrenecadstecssecciscacacien sesanacsaclvenetacee erates sees 155 SLCGlACONLENt OL CALDON.«)ccocacese cemeaasecivereecseoscacendoudst/apeaslicemeestesean shies 42 AU OHM CHAU-INODseraesracirecetetcd en saslgss stessscee/s spasiscietyeecisaktsnucceeiacan|ies 44 FOAL =IL OM tes swncseevaciacesiesssecevaisree vedtc rsceauarsenaniaxitnaes Rocce ee suatse 45 DEGHE VAT OL elalasteetteatetedcseac sv eccaccaccanddces betes secheicccses td ecagucwenvactoon cas 37 SRY CMMUnlperstetco ta stansasemenattens svdadMedeaciedslveacenistocanacvieecctcesiesdesereceannss 119 SUGCIIGE AGE Awates tisnddaccvaseoeariedvensisst or cesecchisoweaveccsssscatealesaess evn oele'see 122 DUCA MMUGSUMELGWteeuurdeadcaceesasccesiavce cceceloocseccasinesassieseneeasttarisesersicnssas 173 PMOL Oeeieseeecenicc sonsica ee elacce doses cuceta acute seeancnecessaccledases cede saene 175 PULPeMsotettetedasctsarscdsasedadeaaneides comtcewrcieeserseiisecectlvesese 178, 179 MPLEL MONTE dete cataccwdscscetces tance cacccseisvecseasseesscslepacssewcastoccsesdas 180 Sulphur and sulphuric acid............... Cicsncasmeslacsiarncocen soosiescbaccsvterenecite 94 Sulphuric acid and water, densities! Of .............02.sssosedescoossscssereseecce 96 —__—____——, MEW PF0cess FOF ..........cseecreeecee ceeees cvcece sevens sanacveesece 97 Seal PUUTOUsIACLd, ChYStA IAC, cr52. a cseapsay capers an.ctvancseelssconsassiuentvsn acess 97 Suri ANIM ONIALS/ Ola SODIUM scrssecancviereoencceideovatuastectiacueceetratisqcseas cole 116: SIAISWIEN Gi slacisscinpanisoapianas stacantncagiastaneaen nvod ea sactedaceemtatc eden tie encisencsen sosecers 145 MISPTERTHTNY race cae cles a cocceveccncdpscisdedeeces cceednnteresneerie Radic sloceu ced dad cerelenis 146 216 INDEX. PAGE LCG MATA DUA. oscens sesweessiate dat cossenseee ss esincteess tus sciueencfesesemanets eiedpeese 186 MN Gite aienekiaepacicssoes et since csunionscesisanacesentsoseaciskascs/oes ses sane e cee seeienepeemenene 120 Tin san alysis ol Metallicn sc ccsseesstsiesessuisccreslorser secs ve ueceess ee eueslesorseionenes 50 —— plate ...c.cc0c sececneeee Somcarasentulsedvesienpstblessiecaesarwatesesnastcrsccelercsseessae 51 ———=, AOS Of -sc500% «swrceiccs sons Wajancseisnsle@eleclensceilesssosdcslocesailes doumnenmeweents 64 —=—, COMPOUNS Oks wecsicesccincecas son deciesesme ho ee aewiean/ssaeieees 131-132 Tungsten and coppem alloys. csesusrae electricity through a he- lix surrounding the needle or wire to be magnetized. For the purpose of insulation the needle was inclosed in a glass tube, and the several turns of the helix were at a dis- tance from each other to insure the passage of electricity, through the whole length of the wire, or, in other words, to prevent it from seeking a shorter passage by cutting across from one spire to another. The helix employed by Arago obviously approximates the arrangement required by the theory of Ampére, in order to develop by induction the magnetism of the iron. By an attentive perusal of the original account of the exper- iments of Arago, given in the Annales de Chimie et Physique, vol. XV, 21 1820, page 93, it will be seen that, properly speaking, he made no elec- tro-magnet, as has been asserted by Morse and others; his experiments were confined to the magnetism of iron filings, to sewing needles and pieces of steel wire of the diameter of a millimetre, or of about the thick- ness of a small knitting needle. (See Annales de Chimie, vol. 15, page 95.) Mr. Sturgeon, in 1825, made an important step in advance of the ex- periments of Arago, and produced what is properly known as the electro- magnet. He bent a piece of iron wire into the form of a horseshoe, coy- ered it with varnish to insulate it, and surrounded it with a helix, of which the spires were at a distance. When a current of galvanism was passed through the helix from a small battery of a single cup the iron wire became magnetic, and continued so during the passage of the current. When the current was interrupted the magnetism disappeared, and thus was produced the first temporary soft iron magnet. The electro-magnet of Sturgeon is shown Fig. 4. in figure 4, which is an exact copy from the drawing in the Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c., vol. xlii. By comparing figures 3 and 4 it will be seen that the helix employed by Stur- geon was of the same kind as that used by Arago; instead, however, of a straight steel wire inclosed in a tube of glass, the former employed a bent wire of soft iron. The difference in the arrangement at first sight might appear to be small, but the difference in the results pro- duced was important, since the temporary magnetism developed in the arrangement of Sturgeon was sufficient to support a weight of several pounds, and an instrument was thus produced of value in future research. The next improvement was made by myself. After reading an account of the galvanometer of Schweigger, the idea occurred to me that a much nearer approximation to the requirements of the theory of Ampére could be attained by insulating the conducting wire itself, instead of the rod to be magnetized, and by covering the whole surface of the iron with a series of coils in close contact. This was effected by insulating a long wire with silk thread, and winding this around the rod of iron in close coils from one end to the other. The same principle Fig. 5. was extended by employing a still longer insulated wire, and winding several strata of this over the first, care being taken to insure the insulation between each stratum by a covering of silk ribbon, By this arrangement the rod was surrounded by a compound helix formed of a long wire of many coils, instead of a single helix of a few coils, (figure 5.) , 22 In the arrangement of Arago and Sturgeon the several turns of wire were not precisely at right angles to the axis of the rod, as they should be, to produce the effect required by the theory, but slightly oblique, and therefore each tended to develop a separate magnetism not coincident with the axis of the bar. But in winding the wire over itself, the obliquity of the several turns compensated each other, and the resultant action was at right angles to the bar. The arrangement then introduced by myself was superior to those of Arago and Sturgeon, first in the greater multi- plicity of turns of wire, and second in the better application of these turns to the development of magnetism. The power of the instrument, with the same amount of galvanic force, was by this arrangement several times increased. The maximum effect, however, with this arrangement and a single battery was not yet obtained. After a certain length of wire had been coiled upon the iron, the power diminished with a further increase of the number of turns. This was due to the increased resistance which the longer wire offered to the conduction of electricity. Two methods of improvement therefore suggested themselves. The first consisted, not in increasing the length of the coil, but in using a number of separate coils on the same piece of iron. By this arrangement the resistance to the conduction of the electricity was diminished and a greater quantity made to circulate around the iron from the same battery. The second method of producing a similar result consisted in increasing the number of elements of the battery, or, in other words, the projectile force of the electricity, Fig. 6. which enabled it to pass through an increased number of turns of wire, and thus, by increasing the length of the wire, to develop the maximum power of the iron. 5 To test these principles on a larger scale, the experimental magnet was constructed, which is shown in figure 6. In this a number of compound helices were placed on the same bar, their ends left projecting, and so numbered that they could be all united into one long helix, or variously combined in sets of lesser length. From a series of experiments with this and other magnets it was proved that, in order to produce the greatest amount of magnetism from a bat- tery of a single cup, a number of helices is required; but when a com- pound battery is used, then one long wire must be employed, making many turns around the iron, the length of wire and consequently the number of turns being commensurate with the projectile power of the battery. In describing the results of my experiments, the terms intensity and 23 quantity magnets were introduced to avoid circumlocution, and were intended to be used merely in a technical sense. By the zntensity magnet I designated a piece of soft iron, so surrounded with wire that its magnetic power could be called into operation by an intensity battery, and by a quantity magnet, a piece of iron so surrounded by a number of separate coils, that its magnetism could be fully developed by a quantity battery. I was the first to point out this connection of the two kinds of the bat- tery with the two forms of the magnet, in my paper in Silliman’s Journal January, 1831, and clearly to state that when magnetism was to be devel- oped by means of a compound battery, one long coil was to be employed, and when the maximum effect was to be produced by a single battery, a number of single strands were to be used. These steps in the advance of electro-magnetism, though small, were such as to interest and astonish the scientific world. With the same bat- tery used by Mr. Sturgeon, at least a hundred times more magnetism was produced than could have been obtained by his experiment. The devel- opments were considered at the time of much importance in a scientific point of view, and they subsequently furnished the means by which mag- neto-electricity, the phenomena of dia-magnetism, and the magnetic effects on polarized light were discovered. They gave rise to the various forms of electro-magnetic machines which have since exercised the ingenuity of inventors in every part of the world, and were of immediate applicability in the introduction of the magnet to telegraphic purposes. Neither the electro-magnet of Sturgeon nor any electro-magnet ever made previous to my investigations was applicable to transmitting power to a distance. The principles I have developed were properly appreciated by the scientific mind of Dr. Gale, and applied by him to operate Mr. Morse’s machine at a distance. Previous to my investigations the means of developing magnetism in soft iron were imperfectly understood. The electro-magnet made by Sturgeon, and copied by Dana, of New York, was an imperfect quantity magnet, the feeble power of which was developed by a single battery. It was entirely inapplicable to a long circuit with an intensity battery, and no person possessing the requisite scientific knowledge, would have attempted to use it in that connection after reading my paper. In sending a message to a distance, two circuits are employed, the first a long circuit through which the electricity is sent to the distant station to bring into action the second, a short one, in which is the local battery and magnet for working the machine. In order to give projec- tile force sufficient to send the power to a distance, it is necessary to uso an intensity battery in the long circuit, and in connection with this, at the distant station, a magnet surrounded with many turns of one long 24 é wire must be employed to receive and multiply the effect of the current enfeebled by its transmission through the long conductor. In the local or short circuit either an intensity or a quantity magnet may be em- ployed. Ifthe first be used, then with it a compound battery will be required ; and, therefore, on account of the increased resistance due to the greater quantity of acid, a less amount of work will be performed by a given amount of material; and, consequently, though this arrangement is practicable it is by no means economical. In my original paper I state that the advantages of a greater conducting power, from using several wires in the quantity magnet, may, in a less degree, be obtained by substituting for them one large wire; but in this case, on account of the greater obliquity of the spires and other causes, the magnetic effect would be less. In accordance with these principles, the receiving magnet, or that which is introduced into the long circuit, consists of a horse-shoe magnet surrounded with many hundred turns of a single long wire, and is operated with a battery of from 12 to 24 elements or more, while in the local circuit it is customary to employ a battery of one or two ele- ments with a much thicker wire and fewer turns. It will, I think, be evident to the impartial reader that these were improvements in the electro-magnet, which first rendered it adequate to the transmission of mechanical power to a distance; and had I omitted all allusion to the telegraph in my paper, the conscientious historian of science would have awarded me some credit, however small might have been the advance which I made. Arago and Sturgeon, in the accounts of their experiments, make no mention of the telegraph, and yet their names always have been and will be associated with the invention. I briefly, however, called attention to the fact of the applicability of my experiments to the construction of the telegraph; but not being familiar with the history of the attempts made in regard to this invention, I called it “‘ Barlow’s project,” while I ought to have stated that Mr. Barlow's investigation merely tended to disprove the possibility of a telegraph. I did not refer exclusively to the needle telegraph when, in my paper, I stated that the magnetic action of a current from a trough is at least not sensibly diminished by passing through a long wire. ‘This is evident from the fact that the immediate experiment from which this deduction was made was by means of an electro-magnet and not by means of a needle galvanometer. At the conclusion of the series of experiments which I described in Silliman’s Journal, there were two applications of the electro-magnet in my mind: one the production of a machine to be moved by electro-mag- netism, and the other the transmission of or calling into action power at a distance. ‘The first was carried into execution in the construction ot 25 the machine described in Silliman’s Journal, vol. xx, 1831, and for the purpose of experimenting in regard to the second, I arranged around one of the upper rooms in the Albany Acad- Fig. 7. emy a wire of more than a mile in length, through which I was enabled to make signals by sounding a bell, (fig- 7.) The mechanical arrangement for effecting this object was simply a steel bar, permanently magnetized, of about ten inches in length, supported on a pivot, and placed with its north end between the two arms of a horse-shoe magnet. When the latter was excited by the current, the end of the bar thus placed was attracted by one arm of the horse-shoe, and repelled by the other, and was thus caused to move in a horizontal plane and its further extremity to strike a bell suitably adjusted. This arrangement is that which is alluded to in Professor Hall’s letter* as having been exhibited to him in 1832. It was not, however, at that time connected with the long wire above mentioned, but with a shorter one put up around the room for exhibition. At the time of giving my testimony, I was uncertain as to when 1 had first exhibited this contrivance, but have since definitely settled the fact by the testimony of Hall and others that it was before I left Albany, and abundant evidence can be brought to show that previous to my going to Princeton in November, 1832, my mind was much occupied with the sub- ject of the telegraph, and that I introduced it in my course of instruction to the Senior class in the Academy. I should state, however, that the arrangement that I have described was merely a temporary one, and that I had no idea at the time of abandoning my researches for the practical application of the telegraph. Indeed, my experiments on the transmis- sion of power to a distance were superseded by the investigation of the remarkable phenomena, which I had discovered in the course of these experiments, of the induction of a current in a long wire on itself, and of which I made the first mention in a paper in Silliman’s Journal in 1832, vol. xxu. IT also devised a method of breaking a circuit, and thereby causing a large weight to fall. It was intended to illustrate the practicability of calling into action a great power at a distance capable of producing me- * See the Report of the Committee, page 96, and Proceedings of the Albany Institute, January, 1858. 26 chanical effects ; but as a description of this was not printed, I do not place it in the same category with the experiments of which I published an account, or the facts which could be immediately deduced from my papers in Silliman’s Journal. From a careful investigation of the history of electro-magnetism in its connection with the telegraph, the following facts may be established : 1. Previous to my investigations the means of developing magnetism in soft iron were imperfectly understood, and the electro-magnet which then existed was inapplicable to the transmission of power to a distance. 2. I was the first to prove by actual experiment that, in order to de- velop magnetic power at a distance, a galvanic battery of intensity must be employed to project the current through the long conductor, and that a magnet surrounded by many turns of one long wire must be used to receive this current. 3. I was the first actually to magnetize a piece of iron at a distance, and to call attention to the fact of the applicability of my experiments to the telegraph. 4. I was the first to actually sound a bell at a distance by means of the electro-magnet. 5. The principles I had developed were applied by Dr. Gale to render Morse’s machine effective at a distance. The results here given were among my earliest experiments; in a scientific point of view I considered them of much less importance than what I subsequently accomplished; and had I not been called upon to give my testimony in regard to them, I would have suffered them to remain without calling public attention to them, a part of the history of science to be judged of by scientific men who are the best qualified to pronounce upon their merits. DHPOSITION OF JOSHPH HENRY, IN THE CASE OF MORSE vs. O’REILLY, TAKEN AT BOSTON, SEPTEMBER, 1849. [From the Record of the Supreme Court of the United States.] 1. Please state your place of residence and your occupation; also, what attention, if any, you have given to the subjects of electricity, mag- netism, and electro-magnetism. Answer.—lI begin this deposition with the express statement that I do not voluntarily give my testimony ; but that I appear on legal summons, and in submission to law. Iam Secretary to the Smithsonian Institution, established in the city of Washington, where I now reside. The prin- cipal direction of the Institution is confided tome. As I do not expect to return to Washington until some time in October, I have been called upon to give my testimony here in Boston; on this account I labor under the disadvantage of being obliged to testify without my notes and papers, which are now in Washington. I commenced the study of electro-magnetism in 1827; and since then have, at different times, (until) within the last two and a half years, when I became Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, made original inves- tigations in this and kindred branches of physical science. I know no person in our country who has paid more attention to the study of the principles of electro-magnetism than myself. 2. Please give a general account of the progress of the science of elec- tro-magnetism, as connected with telegraphic communication ; and of any inventions or discoveries in electro-magnetism applicable to the telegraph, made by yourself. Answer.—I consider an electro-magnetic telegraph as one which operates by the combined influence of electricity and magnetism. Prior to the winter of 1819-’20, no form of the electro-magnetic telegraph was 28 possible: the scientific principles on which it is founded were then unknown. ‘The first fact of electro-magnetism was discovered by Oersted, of Copenhagen, durmg that winter. It is this: A wire being placed close above, or below, and parallel to a magnetic needle, and a galvanic current being transmitted through the wire, the needle will tend to place itself at right angles to it. This fact was widely published, and the account was everywhere received with interest. The second fact of importance was discovered independently, and about the same time, by Arago, at Paris, and Davy, at London. It is this: During the transmission of a galvanic current through a wire of copper, or any other metal, the wire exhibits magnetic properties, attracting iron, but not copper filings, and having the power of inducing permanent mag- netism in steel needles. The next important fact was discovered by Ampére, of Paris, one of the most sagacious and successful cultivators of physical science in the present century. It is this: Two parallel wires through which galvanic currents are passing in the same direction, attract each other; but if the currents pass in opposite directions, they repel each other. On this fact Ampére founded his ingenious theory of mag- netism and electro-magnetism. According to this theory, all magnetic phenomena result from the attraction or repulsion of electric currents, supposed to exist in the iron at right angles to the length of the bar ; and that all the phenomena of magnetism and electro-magnetism are thus referred to one principle, namely, the action of electrical currents on each other. Ampére deduced from this theory many interesting results, which were afterwards verified by experiment. He also proposed to the French Academy a plan for the application of electro-magnetism to the transmis- sion of intelligence to a distance; this consisted in deflecting a number of needles at the place of receiving intelligence, by galvanic currents transmitted through long wires. ‘This transmission was to be effected by completing a galvanic circuit. When completed, the needle was deflected. When interrupted, it returned to its ordinary position, under the influence of the attraction of the earth. This project of Ampére was never reduced to practice. All these discoveries and results were prior to 1823. The next investigations relating to the magnetic telegraph were pub- lished in 1825; they were by Mr. Barlow, of the Royal Military Acad- emy of Woolwich, England. He found that there was great diminution in the power of a galvanic current to produce effects with an increase of distance; a diminution so great in a distance of two hundred feet was observed, as to convince him of the impracticability of the scheme of the electro-magnetic telegraph. His experiments led him to conclude that the power was inversely as the square root of the length of the wire. The 29 publication of these results put at rest, for a time, all attempts to construct an electro-magnetic telegraph. The next investigations, in the order of time, bearing on the telegraph, were made by Mr. Sturgeon, of England. He bent a piece of iron wire into the form of a horse-shoe, and put loosely around it a coil of copper wire, with wide intervals between the turns or spires to prevent them touching each other, and through this coil he transmitted a current of galvanism. ‘The iron, under the influence of this current, became mag- netic, and thus was produced the first electro-magnetic magnet, sometimes called simply the electro-magnet. An account of this experiment was first published in November, 1825, in the Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of the Arts in England; and was made known in this country through the Annals of Philosophy for November, 1826. Nothing further was done pertaining to the telegraph until my own researches in electro-magnetism, which were commenced in 1828, and continued in 1829, 1830, and subsequently ; Barlow’s results, as I before observed, had prevented all attempts to construct a magnetic telegraph on the plan of Ampére, and our own knowledge of the development of magnetism in soft iron, as left by Sturgeon, was not such as to be appli- cable to telegraphic purposes. The electro-magnet of Sturgeon could not be made to act by a current through a long wire, as will be apparent hereafter in this deposition. After repeating the experiments of Oersted, Ampére, and others, and publishing an account in 1828 of various modifications of electro-magnetic apparatus, I commenced in that year the investigation of the laws of the development of magnetism in soft iron, by means of the electrical cur- rent. The first idea that occurred to me in accordance with the theory of Ampére, with reference to increasing the power of the electro-magnet, was that of using a longer wire than had before been employed. A wire of sixty feet in length, covered with silk, was wound round a whole length of an iron bar, either straight or in the form of a U, so as to cover its whole length with several thicknesses of the wire. The results of this arrangement were such as I had anticipated, and electro-magnets of this kind, exhibited to the Albany Institute in March, 1829, possessed magnetic power superior to that of any ever before known. The idea afterwards occurred to me that the quantity of galvanism, supplied by a small galvanic battery, might be applied to develop a still greater amount of magnetic power in a large bar of iron. On experiment, I found this idea correct. A battery of two and a half square inches of zinc, developed magnetism in a large bar sufficient to lift fourteen pounds. The next suggestion which occurred to me was that of using a number 30 of wires of the same length around the same bar, so as to lessen the resistance which the galvanic current experienced in passing from the zinc to the copper through the coil. To bring this to the test of experi- ment, a second wire, equal in length to the first, was wound around the last mentioned magnet, and its ends soldered to the plates of the same battery. The magnet with this additional wire lifted twenty eight pounds, or, in other words, its power was doubled. A series of experiments was afterwards made, to determine the resist- ance to conduction of wires of different lengths and diameters, and the proper lengths and number of wires for producing, with different kinds of galvanic batteries, the maximum of amount of magnetic development with a given quantity of zinc surface. For this purpose a bar of soft iron, two inches square and twenty inches long, weighing twenty-one pounds, and much larger than any before used, was bent in the form of a horse-shoe. Around this were wound nine strands of copper wire, each sixty feet long, the ends left projecting so that one or more coils could be used at once, either connected with a battery or with each other, thus forming several coils with several battery connections, or one long coil with single battery connections. The greatest effect obtained with this magnet, using a battery of a single pair, with a zinc plate of two-fifths of a square foot of surface, and all the wire arranged as separate coils, was to lift a weight of six hundred and fifty pounds ; with a large battery the effect was increased to seven hundred and fifty pounds. In a subsequent series of experiments, not published with the preceding, the same magnet was made to sustain one thousand pounds. When a compound battery was employed of a number of pairs, it was found that the greatest effect was produced when all the wires were arranged as a single long coil. I subsequently constructed electro-magnets on the same plan, which sup- ported much greater weights. One of these, now in the cabinet of Princeton, will sustain three thousand six hundred pounds with a battery occupying about a cubic foot of space. It consists of thirty strands of wire, each about forty feet in length. The abovementioned experiments exhibit the important fact that when a galvanic battery of intensity (that is to say, a battery consisting of a number of pairs) is employed, the electro-magnet connected with it must be wound with one long wire, in order to produce the greatest effect ; and that when a battery of quantity, (that is, one of asingle pair,) is employed, the proper form of the magnet connected with it is that in which several shorter wires are wound around the iron. The first of these magnets, which is the one now employed in the long or main circuit of the tele- 31 graph, may be called an intensity magnet; and the second, which is used in the local circuit, may be denominated the quantity. The quantity of electricity which can be passed through a long circuit of ordinary sized wire is, under the most favorable circumstances, exceed- ingly small, and in order that this may develop magnetism in a bar of iron, it was necessary that it should be made to revolve many times around the iron, that its effects may be multiplied; and this is effected by using a long single coil. Hence it will be seen that the electro-magnet of Mr. Sturgeon was not applicable to telegraphic purposes in a long circuit. Previous to making the last experiments above mentioned, in order to guide myself, I instituted a series of preliminary experiments on the conduction of wires of different lengths and diameters, with different batteries. In these experiments a galvanometer, or an instrument con- sisting of a magnetic needle freely suspended within a coil of wire, was first employed to denote, by the deflection of its needle, the power of the current. ‘The result from a number of experiments, with a battery of a single pair, was the same as that obtained by Barlow, namely, that the power diminished rapidly with the increase of distance. With the same battery, and a larger wire, the diminution was less. The galvanometer was next removed, and a small electro-magnet substituted in its place. With a single battery, the same result was again obtained—a great dim- inution of lifting power with the increase of distance. After this the battery of a single pair was removed and its place supplied by one of intensity, consisting of twenty-five pairs. With this the important fact was observed, that no perceptible diminution of the lifting power took place, when the current was transmitted through an intervening wire between the battery and the magnet of upwards of one thousand feet. This was the first discovery of the fact that a galvanic current could be transmitted to a great distance with so little a diminution of force as to produce mechanical effects, and of the means by which the transmission could be accomplished. I saw that the electric telegraph was now prac- ticable ; and, in publishing my experiments and their results, I stated that the fact just mentioned was applicable to Barlow’s project of such a telegraph. I had not the paper of Barlow before me, and erred in attributing to him a project of a telegraph, as he only disproved, as he thought, the practicability of one. But the intention of the statement was to show that I had established the fact that a mechanical effect could be produced by the galvanic current at a great distance, operating upon a magnet or needle, and that the telegraph was therefore posstble. In arriving at these results, and announcing their applicability to the tele- graph, I had not in mind any particular form of telegraph, but referred 32 only to the general fact that it was now demonstrated that a galvanic current could be transmitted to great distances with sufficient power to produce mechanical effects adequate to the desired object. The investigations above mentioned were all devised and originated, and the experiments planned, by myself. In conducting the latter, however, I was assisted by Dr. Philip Ten Eyck, of Albany. An account of the whole was published in the 19th volume of Silliman’s Journal, in 1831, with the exception of the account of the large magnet afterwards constructed at Princeton in 1883, and the experiment mentioned of lifting a thousand pounds with one of my first magnets. While I was engaged in these researches, Professor Moll, of the University of Utrecht, was pursuing investigations somewhat similar, and succeeded in making powerful electro-magnets, but made no discovery as to the distinction between the two kinds of magnets, or the transmissibility of the galvanic current to a great distance with power to produce mechanical effects. In fact, his experiments were but a repetition on a large scale of those of Sturgeon. After completing the investigations abovementioned, I commenced a series of experiments on another branch of electricity closely connected, with this subject. Among other things, I applied the principles above- mentioned to the construction of an electro-magnetic machine, which has since excited much attention in reference to the application of electro- magnetism as a motive power in the arts. In 1832 I was called to the chair of natural philosophy in the College of New Jersey, at Princeton, and in my first course of lectures in that institution, in 1833, and in every subsequent year during my connection with that institution, I mentioned the project of the electro-magnetic telegraph, and explained how the electro-magnet might be used to produce mechanical effects at a distance adequate to making signals of various kinds. I never myself attempted to reduce these principles to practice or to apply any of my discoveries to processes in the arts. My whole attention, exclusive of my duties to the college, was devoted to original scientific investigations, and I left to others what I considered in a scien- tific view of subordinate importance, the application of my discoveries to useful purposes in the arts. Besides this, I partook of the feeling common to men of science, which disinclines them to secure to themselves the advantages of their discoveries by a patent. In February, 1837, I went to Europe; and early in April of that year Professor Wheatstone, of London, in the course of a visit to him in King’s College, London, with Professor Bache, now of the Coast Survey, explained to us his plans of an electro-magnetic telegraph ; and, among other things, exhibited to us his method of bringing into action a second 33 galvanic circuit. This consisted in closing the second circuit by the deflection of a needle, so placed that the two ends projecting upwards, of the open circuit, would be united by the contact of the end of the needle when deflected, and on opening or breaking of the circuit so closed by opening the first circuit, and thus interrupting the current, when the needle would resume its ordinary position under the influence of the mag- netism of the earth. I informed him that I had devised another method of producing effects somewhat similar. ‘This consisted in opening the circuit of my large quantity magnet at Princeton, when loaded with many hundred pounds weight, by attracting upward a small piece of moveable wire, with a small intensity magnet, connected with a long wire circuit. When the circuit of the large battery was thus broken by an action from a distance, the weights would fall, and great mechanical effect could thus be produced, such as the ringing of church bells at a distance of a hun- dred miles or more, an illustration which I had previously given to my class at Princeton. My impression is strong, that I had explained the precise process to my class before I went to Europe, but testifying now without the opportunity of reference to my notes, I cannot speak posi- tively. Iam, however, certain of having mentioned in my lectures every year previously, at Princeton, the project of ringing bells at a distance, by the use of the electro-magnet, and of having frequently illustrated the principle of transmitting power to a distance to my class, by causing in some cases a thousand pounds to fall on the floor, by merely lifting a piece of wire from two cups of mercury closing the circuit. The object of Professor Wheatstone, as I understood it, in bringing into action a second circuit, was to provide a remedy for the diminution of force in w long circuit. My object, in the process described by me, was to bring into operation a large quantity magnet, connected with a quantity battery in a local circuit, by means of a small intensity magnet, and an intensity battery at a distance, The only other scientific facts of importance to the practical operation of the telegraph not already mentioned, are the discovery by Steinheil, in 1837, in Germany, of the practicability of completing a galvanic cir- cuit, by using the earth for completing the circuit, and the construction of the constant battery in 1836, or about that time, by Professor Daniell, of King’s College, London. I believe that I was the first to repeat the experiments of Steinheil and Daniell in this country. I stretched a wire from my study to my laboratory, through a distance in the air of several hundred yards, and used the earth as a return conductor, with a very minute battery, the negative element of which was a common pin, such as is used in dress, and the positive element the point of a zinc wire im- mersed in a single drop of acid. With this arrangement, a needle was 34 deflected in my laboratory before my class. I afterwards transmitted surrents in various directions through the college grounds at Princeton. The exact date of these experiments I am unable to give without reference to my notes. They were previous, however, to the unsuccessful attempt of Mr. Morse to transmit currents of electricity through wires buried in the earth between Washington and Baltimore, and before he attempted to use the earth as a part of the circuit. Previous to this time, and after the abovementioned experiments, Mr. Morse visited me at Princeton, to consult me on the arrangement of his conductors. During this visit, we conversed freely on the subject of insulation and conduction of wires. I urged him to put his wires on poles, and stated to him my experiments and their results. In the course of the years 1836 and 1837, various plans of more or less merit were devised, and more or less fully carried into effect, for applying the principles already discovered to the construction of electro- magnetic telegraphs in different parts of the world, but of these I do not undertake to give any particular account. I would say, however, that of these plans that for which Mr. Morse subsequently obtained a patent was, in my judgment, the best. 3. Please state whether or not you are acquainted with the electro- magnetic telegraph for which 8. F. B. Morse obtained a patent in 1846. If you are, please state whether any, and if any, which of the principles or plans which you have described as discovered, or announced by your- self or others are used in the construction or operation of it. State also what principles used in the telegraph are, so far as you know, original with Professor Morse. Answer.—I am acquainted with the principles and general mode of operation of the telegraph and improvement referred to. The telegraph is based upon the facts discovered by myself and others, of which I have already given an account. The plan which was first described to me in the autumn of 1837 by Mr. Morse, or by Professor Gale, who was associated with him in the con- struction of the telegraph, was to employ a single entire circuit of wire, with an intensity battery to excite the current, and an intensity magnet to receive it and produce a mechanical action, which would work the recording apparatus. Mr. Morse afterwards employed the intensity battery in a long circuit, and an intensity magnet to receive its current at a distant point, and produce the mechanical effect of closing a secondary circuit. ‘The secondary circuit may be either employed to transmit a second current to a distant point and there close a third circuit, and thus continue the line, or for working a recording apparatus in the secondary 35 circuit, or it may be employed without reference to the continuation of the line, as a short local circuit to work a local magnet. In the first case, there must be in the secondary circuit an intensity battery and intensity magnet; in the last case, a quantity magnet and quantity battery are required. I heard nothing of the secondary circuit as a part of Mr. Morse’s plan until after his return from Europe, whither he went in 1838. It was not till long after this that Mr. Morse used the earth as a part of the circuit in accordance with the discovery of Steinheil. I am not aware that Mr. Morse ever made a single original discovery, in electricity, magnetism, or electro-magnetism; applicable to the inven- tion of the telegraph. I have always considered his merit to consist in combining and applying the discoveries of others in the invention of a particular instrument and process for telegraphic purposes. I have no means of determining how far this invention is original with himself, or how much is due to those associated with him. 4. Please state when you first became acquainted with Mr. Morse, and what knowledge he possessed of electricity, magnetism, and electro-mag- netism, and what information you or others communicated to him relating to the telegraph. State, also, all you know of the attempts of himself, and others associated with him, to construct an electro-magnetic telegraph, either from your own observation or from statements made by himself or by others in your presence. State particularly any conversation, if any, you may have had with him in reference to your own discoveries applied to the telegraph. Answer.—Shortly after my return from Europe, in the autumn of 1837, I learned that Mr. Morse was about to petition Congress for assistance in constructing the electro-magnetic telegraph. Some of my friends in Princeton, knowing what I had done in developing the principles of the telegraph, urged me to make the representations to Congress, which I expressed some thought of doing, namely: that the principles of the electro-magnetic telegraph belonged to the science of the world, and that any appropriation which might be made by Congress should be a premium for the best plan, and the means of testing the same, which the ingenuity of the country might offer. Shortly after this I visited New York, and there accidentally made the personal acquaintance of Mr. Morse ;* he appeared to be an unassuming and prepossessing gentleman, with very little knowledge of the general principles of electricity, magnetism, or electro- * This meeting took place in the chemical store of Mr. Chilton, Broadway, New York, and the place and time are both indelibly impressed upon my mind. 36 magnetism. He made no claims, in conversation with me, to any scientific discovery, or to anything beyond his particular machine and process of applying known principles to telegraphic purposes. He explained to me his plan of a telegraph with which he had recently made a successful experiment: I thought this plan better than any with which I had been made acquainted in Europe; I became interested in him, and instead of interfering in his application to Congress, I [subsequently*] gave him a certificate, in the form of a letter, stating my confidence in the practica- bility of the electro-magnetic telegraph, and my belief that the form proposed by himself was the best which had been published. Mr. Morse subsequently visited Princeton several times to confer with me on the principles of electricity and magnetism which might be appli- cable to the telegraph. I freely gave him any information I possessed. I learned in 1837, or thereabouts, that Professor Gale and Dr. Fisher were the scientific assistants of Mr. Morse in preparing the telegraph. Mr. Vail was also employed, but I know not in what capacity, and I am not personally acquainted with him. With Professor Gale I have been intimately acquainted for several years ; he had been a pupil in chemistry of my friend Dr. Torrey, and had studied my papers on electro-magnet- ism, and, as he informed me, had applied them in the arrangement of the apparatus for the construction of Morse’s telegraph. My researches had been given to the world several years before the attempt was made to reduce the magnetic telegraph to practice. Mr. Chilton, of New York, informed me that he had referred Mr. Morse to them previous to his experiments in the New York University. I was therefore much surprised on the publication, in 1845, of a work purport- ing to give a history of the telegraph, and of the principles on which it was founded, by Mr. Vail, then principal assistant of Mr. Morse, and one of the proprietors of his patent, to find all my published researches relating to the telegraph passed over with little more than the remark that Dr. Moll and myself had made large electro-magnetic magnets. Pre- suming that this publication was authorized by Mr. Morse and the proprie- tors.of the telegraph, I complained to some of his friends of the injustice, and after his return from Europe, (for he was absent at the time the book was issued,) I received a letter, copied and signed by Mr. Vail, but written by Mr. Morse, as the latter afterwards informed me, excusing the publica- tion,-on the ground that he (Mr. Vail) was ignorant of what I had done, and asking me for an account of my researches. This letter was addressed to me after the book had been stereotyped and widely circulated. It has * The word subsequently was accidentally omitted in giving my testimony. The omission, however, is of little importance. Tee 37 been translated into French, and, I believe, published in Paris. To the letter I did not think fit to make any reply. I afterwards received a letter from Mr. Morse, in his own name, on the same subject, to which I gave a verbal reply in January, 1847, in Washington. In this inter- view Mr. Morse acknowledged that injustice had been done me, but said that proper reparation would be made. Another issue of the same work was made, bearing date 1847, in which there is no change in the state- ment relative to my researches. About the beginning of 1848, Mr. Walker, of the Coast Survey, in a report on the application of the telegraph to the determination of dif- ferences of longitude, alluded to my researches. A copy of this was sent to Mr. Morse, which led to an interview between Mr. Walker, Professor Gale, Mr. Morse, and myself. At this meeting, which took place at my office in Washington, Mr. Morse stated that he had not known until read- ing my paper in January, 1847, that I had, two years before his first conception in 1832, settled the point of practicability of the telegraph, and shown how mechanical effects could be produced at a distance, both in the deflection of a needle and in the action of an electro-magnet; that he did not know, at the time of his experiments in 1837 that there had been any doubts of the action of a current at a distance, and that in the confidence of the persuasion that the effect could be produced, he had devised the proper apparatus by which his telegraph was put into opera- tion. Professor Gale, being then referred to, stated that Mr. Morse had forgotten the precise state of the case; that he, (Mr. Morse,) previous to his (Dr. Gale’s) connection with him, had not succeeded in producing effects at a distance ; that, when he was first called in, he found Mr. Morse attempting to make an electro-magnet act through a/ circuit of a few yards of copper wire suspended around a room in the University of New York, and that he could not succeed in producing the desired effect even in thes short circuit; that he (Dr. Gale) asked him if he had studied Prof. Henry’s paper on the subject, and that the answer was “‘no;’’ that he then informed Mr. Morse that he would find the principles necessary to success explained in that paper; that instead of the battery of a single element, he should employ one of a number of pairs; and that, in place of the magnet with a short single wire, he should use one with a long coil. Dr. Gale further stated that his apparatus was in the same build- ing, and that having articles of the kind he had mentioned, he procured them, and that with these the action was produced through a circuit of half a mile of wire.* To this statement Mr. Morse made no reply. The * See Dr. Gale’s letter of April, 7, 1856, page 93. 38 interview then terminated, and I have since had no further communication with him on the subjeet. 5. Please state whether or not you ever constructed any machine for producing motion by magnetic attraction and repulsion ; if yea, what was it, and what led to the making of it. Answer.—After developing the great magnetic power of the electro- magnet as already described, the thought occurred to me that this power might be applied to give motion to a machine. The simplest arrangement which suggested itself to my mind was one already referred to, namely, causing a movable bar, supported on a horizontal axis like a scale beam, to be attracted and repelled by two permanent magnets. This could be - readily effected by transmitting through a coil of wire around the suspended bar, a current of galvanism, first in one direction, and then in the opposite direction, the alternations of the current being produced by dipping the ends of wires projecting from the coils into cups of mercury connected with batteries, one oneither side. An account of this was published in Silliman’s Journal, for 1831, vol. xx., p. 340. It was the first successful attempt to produce a mechanical motion which might apparently be employed in the arts as a motive power. This little machine attracted much attention at home and abroad, and various modifications of it were made by myself and others. I never, however, regarded it as practically applicable in the arts, because of the great expense of producing power by this means, except, perhaps, in particular cases where expense of power is of little consequence. 6. Please look at the drawings of the Columbian Telegraph, now shown you, marked G. W. B. and N. B. C., and certified by G. 8. Hillard, Commissioner. Describe generally the apparatus represented and its mode of operation, and state in what respects, if any, it differs from the telegraphic apparatus patented by Mr. Morse. Answer.—I have looked at the drawings, and I find, on examination, that it will be impossible for me to give a definite answer to the question, unless J have more time than is now at my disposal, and the means of examining and comparing the operations of the machines. 7. Please state, if you can, how many original experiments you have made in the course of your investigations in electricity, magnetism, and electro-magnetism. Answer.—The experiments I have mentioned in this deposition fourm but a small part of my original investigations. Besides many that I made ia Albany, which I have not mentioned, since my removal to Princeton, 39 [ have made several thousands on electricity, magnetism, and electro- magnetism, particularly the former, which have more or less bearing on practical applications of this branch of science, brief minutes of which fill several hundred folio pages. Many of these have not been published in detail. They have cost me years of labor and much expense. The only reward I ever expected was the consciousness of advancing science, the pleasure of discovering new truths, and the scientific reputa- tion to which these labors would entitle me. JOSEPH HENRY. Sworn to before me, September 7, 1849. GEO. 8S. HILLARD, Commissioner. PORTRAITS OF NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS, WITH SKETCHES OF SCENERY, ETC., PAINTED BY J, Mo STANLEY. DEPOSITED WITH THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. WASHINGTON: SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. DECEMBER, 1852. <<. s * ee SS ee e PHILADELPHIA: : COLLINS, PRINTER, 705 JAYNE STREET. PREFACE. THE collection embraced in this Catalogue comprises accu- rate portraits painted from life of forty-three different tribes of Indians, obtained at the cost, hazard, and inconvenience of a ten years’ tour through the South-western Prairies, New . Mexico, California, and Oregon. Of course, but a short de- scription of the characters represented or of the leading inci- dents in their lives is given. But even these brief sketches, it is hoped, will not fail to interest those who look at their por- traits, and excite some desire that the memory, at least, of these tribes may not become extinct. J. M. STANLEY. CONTENTS. SEMINOLES, sscccunsotawesiesteec secs GREEKS so ch sii canceneaccnenrcneiepees OHEROKERS eioccesocodeoaerenscctt's CHICKASA WS treneceoreenscsstecicnss POTOWATOMIES ccctascasocossseraue STOCKBRIDGES...ecscdcecccesthoasi's IMIONSERS)ccccosstrccdncssecesceasees TNO WAS scr: tasstacdecscossete=stcs CHIPPE WAS: «.sescececnscestscsscss BIA WARES: sc cascscastecscosecncees IWIBEIATTON ios tcasccessesescoscoetesente SHAWINDES sebettscctewecscvsicvss ss SAGS AND SHORES). csesoseecseesecis BLACK BERT. pecosesscoucssaceet ee QUAPAWS......+- a dae ct ee elo TOWAS)s cavbsserecasteevocccresesccees WicHETAWws, oR PawNez Picts CADDOESS. ak seeemeee rr oeaenateneen IAN ANDARKOES-accecssueccrececene PAGE 5 8 14 26 26 29 30 IWGACOESS cccwouo sence cuindesssuelencte NATCHITOCHES.....0..s00000008 ace MOWIOCCONTESS tse cere cetes ae sce IGE CHIES yaracsesccteers tartesrects COMANCHES, .ccntcssecusevdsas quater IPUBBEOS! sse8 ce seus sloneneeatnee eee WMPOQWAS)..cveccseccteecante cos cne ICVAME DH Ssasetatisesentesseaee aeons CALE APOOWAS)-csesecossesceetnonese CHINOOKS........ soncielaates Mons debe te CLACKMUS ts. ncscescoen semeecers ne WILLAMETTE Farts INDIANS... TLICKITACKS......- eauiececwaee stents WeATTA-WiALTAG A dcuscdeccacsnoeee CAVUSES! s dewisve os ccecuisdnereoncesits INEZ PERCESscccgscetcusesencaieeene PETIOUSES ssc ecsscocsiecssecdeentness SPOKANES soa. ceases certeiees jaeas Stony Istanp INDIANS......... OKANAGANS!. concceosechenescemecene PAGE 50 51 dl 52 53 59 59 59 60 60 61 65 66 72 SEMINOLES. THE Seminoles originally belonged to the Creek family; but, owing to some internal dissensions, they left them and formed a separate and independent band. The Creeks gave them the appellation of Seminoles, which signifies “runaways.” On their removal west of the Mississippi, the government assigned to them a portion of the Creek country ; but being unwilling to come under the then existing Creek laws, they refused to oceupy it, and took up their abode in the Cherokee nation, in the vicinity of Fort Gibson. Here they resided until the spring of 1845, when they met the Creeks in council; and through the exertions of Major Wm. Armstrong, Superintendent of Indian Affairs in the South-west, Gov. P. M. Butler, Cherokee Agent, and Col. Jas. Logan, Creek Agent, their causes of dissatisfaction were removed, and they accordingly took up their abode in the Creek Nation, upon the waters of Little River. i. CO-WOCK-COO-CHEE, or WILDCAT. (Painted Dec. 1842.) A Seminole Chief, and one of the most celebrated of his tribe ; possessed of much vanity and an indomitable spirit, he has won for himself an exalted name and standing among his people. At the outbreak of the Florida War, he was a mere boy; but he shouldered his rifle, and fought with so much courage and despera- tion, that he was soon looked up to as a master-spirit. This gathered a band of warriors about him, who adopted him as their chief leader. At the head of this party he became a formidable enemy of the United States troops, and gave them much trouble during that campaign, and probably would never have fallen into the hands of the whites, had he been able to procure food and ammunition for his band: being reduced to a state of starvation, he was obliged to surrender, and, by treaty stipulations with the United States Government, was with his people removed west of the Mississippi. 5 6 SEMINOLES. 2. AL-LECK TUSTENUGGEE. (Painted Dec. 1842.) This Chief is at the head of the Mikasukie band, and during the Florida War was one of the most active among the Seminoles. During this war, his band perpetrated some of the most cruel mur- ders on record; among them was that of Mrs. Montgomery, who was brutally massacred while riding on horseback, within a short distance of the post, where her husband, Lieut. Montgomery, of the _U.S. A., was stationed. Since the removal of his people west of the Mississippi, they have been quite peaceable, but not altogether con- tented. Great numbers have died from local diseases, and the in- temperate use of whiskey, which they procure on the frontier. He inquired particularly after the health of Gen. Worth, of the U.S. A:, of whom he spoke in the highest terms. He wore many ornaments and articles of dress, the gifts of that distinguished officer. I asked of him the privilege of painting one of his wives. He replied that his women had been hunted through the everglades of Florida until they were unfit to be seen; but whenever they recruited, he would not object to their being painted. De NOKE-SUKE TUSTENUGGEE. (Painted Dec. 1842.) A Seminole Sub-chief of the Mikasukie band. ly Aan ass SOBRE) ARP REE A RE ne duo ber rr eas, TUN ACER eke nN TROND Sep eee hbo stan A eee SMCS R ae ta ee alneas Seaae sess ee AO INUTRTEATE eee SPD ne ERA RRVSTAR UR ION ND Eft ee sauce guane asaece sea eeTee SORES EI TER OD ON: eset cocuesinccisesionticeneccces cecil cecieee sieciecslseisicac(onceciciesLese(asisves ao oO pe IDUTUTOPH Se aetecccctclensceer clescccessaloccs cs\scesincasslascce ccesiseciecs waisleceiesesielnes GOO PR HIS st cercson concciera co cisatnisciveckecsisis nclealacissinclociciieleeeisissivanicloslesslaesteeiecine =I eo OPMMBOMUS erseaceerioneeeslocrcottoci es orcone ncoisstcessojesieisccionecinn smslecesseleelsess co CO GOR TA ccenecnccccocecic om ccccr one cecenciececscecsiccslacciccieseemeleviosiseresiosienlscisisiee BASCANION.. osoese y bo bo £9 OOOO e Cee reese CoH e Hees CHEE ETee FEEEHHEHHEH DEES BHHEEHEEE OEE OO Oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ° e . . . . . . . . . . . BD devsoievenareas lOO aeceesene OS Ae Aer cae aerate aod face ses ece Tate Divert naswhosees indeetroetegecossred LO LSPA OS Sete ee eee ee ee ee otc elie retan cess cinicantodecticccecareniilics HMOROSOMAssessiccaccelccecccuccieccsectacedecseeocccrssesGslsscess FE UA eet te DN eter aie ceca hoa ee dassioecscavechaseneandastlLliO ORE ee eee ee eee ane ata tae ouis Cocbieaisincscesiedsocciesnetacmeseaullladl DP sesee DIETARY EN ete Na nic ata Mab odds acsietieoveyfaedeninek dace vseeneeseunllo VERN OC EUMLL US ee oe eet aoe on ee ios cbse sCijeadissSocontwecsesonenercal) DAT Ty eee eee Meee ee eke cab re casos Seaeaeas cose Saaednossesiecasen oe 123 IMUARVAING Ti Aisentsasicnicnise cdacicsscoleclscsalcceisececsincceeseeelovessecssinse vecisices.s eaaececeliae FAGHAS TOR Ee Re ee eee ee een ce wicd aonb cislsaieesre baweslsceeeiccdontwereaneolco VETER CINTA eee nace re eer aie eae sa oo sls doen oes suegneceneaiusoenlenstecstemeaen ail GELUTAbesisseecae oe NAY so aed Je care ea ve aenaeteem eo etMe ETE OSCEODAL a ccccdeed cceeenacciecsiecnncs Caen Wek d aceasta nae aac aueneae edeesansesesloo SOR IER LARS ae ae a catered Hovde ahoccil ne soe Raoul cen meer etalteasanseesenses LOO ili GEN Asc decccottecte ness 7 CONTENTS. PaGE APPENDIX A.—SPECIES EXAMINED, OF WHICH NO SPECIMENS ARE IN POSSESSION OF THE SMITHSONIAN TINSIDUMUMTO Nie ccicovecee es voce adeeecateeseeese an) APPENDIX B.—SPECIES DESCRIBED BY AUTHORS, BUT OF WHICH NO é SPECIMENS COULD BE OB TANG Beare Ae Gove dencs avs eceosseptiemcnamme alam 2 APPENDIX C.—SPECIES COLLECTED oN THE UNITED STATES AND Mexican Bounpary Survey By Joun H. Cnark AND ARTHUR | Scuort, unpDER Mas. Wo. H. Emory, AND RECEIVED TOO LATE FOR INSERTION IN THEIR PROPER PRNGIRSN tet hcteseiutea cnt cee ee OO APPENDIX D.—InprEx oF SOURCES FROM WHICH THE SPECIMENS HAVE BERN RH GHIEVED s cecescectanceieesn cas soceceatiaes coe acaessc cnenecacis came eee emma eetenetlOz, 3 . APPENDIX E.—InpEx or SraTEs AND TERRITORIES FROM WHICH SPECIMENS HAVE BEEN RECEIVED, ...iccosscsscscocecoocstas saccanacece@sose seal OF AT PHABETICAT: INDE Xteranecnvoccensiocnt craecowndecterncecseeesslesecesieareacemmentianeaes OO) 1. OV ERNAGULAR NAMIMS s:,cccopcisosceslsocivsns secsttecssblccelesoucniceremteee oseeel OD) D SYSTEMATIC, NAMES. ..cscscssoccsscsesvocectescivascsescecesioscoctmmeuenicons soil Ol, PREFACE. In the present catalogue it is proposed to present a systematic ac- count of the collection of North American Serpents in the museum of the Smithsonian Institution. In the Appendix will be found such species not in possession of the Institution, as could be borrowed for description, as well as notes on more or less authentic species of which no specimens could be found. A complete synonomy of all the species has not been attempted, as tending to swell the bulk of a catalogue too much. All those, however, necessary to a proper understanding of the history or cha- racter of the species, have been introduced, and all the Supra quoted have been actually verified by original reference. Owing to the want of osteological preparations, it has been a diffi- cult task to arrange the genera in a natural succession. In many cases forms are now combined which will hereafter necessarily be widely separated. The almost entire deficiency of modern general works upon the Colubride, has also been a serious obstacle to any correct idea-of a natural system. The forthcoming work of M. M. Duméril will undoubtedly clear up much of the obscurity which now exists. But when systematic writers all carefully avoid the subject of the Ophidians, each waiting for the others to make the first step, the attempt to combine genera by well marked, though perhaps arti- ficial points of relation, will it is hoped be looked upon with indul- gence, even after more comprehensive and extended investigations shall render it necessary to break up the combinations here adopted. The collections upon which the original descriptions of the present catalogue have been based are as follows :— Spencer F. Barrp. Species from Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. CHARLES GIRARD. Maine, Massachusetts, and South Carolina. Rey. Cuarzes Fox. Species from Eastern Michigan. Dr. P. R. Hoy. Species from Eastern Wisconsin. Pror. L. AcAsstz. Lake Superior, Lake Huron, and Florida. Vv a PREFACE. Dr. J. P. Kirtianp. Northern Ohio. G. W. Faunestock. Western Pennsylvania. Miss VALERIA BLANEY. LEastern Shore of Maryland. Dr. OC. B. R. Kennerzty. Northern Virginia. Joun H. Crark. Maryland, Texas, New Mexico, and Sonora. Joun VARDEN. District of Columbia and Louisiana. Dr. J. B. BARRATT. Western South Carolina. Miss CHARLOTTE PAINE and Mrs. M. E. Danien. Western S. Carolina. Dr. S. B. BarKER. Charleston, S. C. Prog. F.S. Hotmes and Dr. W. J. Burnerr. South Carolina. R. R. CuyLEer and Dr. W. L. Jones. Georgia. D. C. Luoyp. Eastern Mississippi. Dr. B. F. Soumarp and Cot. B. L. C. Wares. Mississippi. JAMES Farriz. Mexico and Western Louisiana. Carts. R. B. Marcy and G. B. McCietian, U. S. A. Red River, Ark. FERDINAND LINDHEIMER. Central Texas. Cou. J. D. GranaM, U. 8. A. The specimens collected while on the U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, by Mr. J. H. Clark, viz., in Texas, New Mexico, and Sonora. Mas. W. H. Emory. Specimens collected on the U. S. and Mexi- can Boundary Survey, by Arthur Schott, at Eagle Pass, Tex., and by J. H. Clark, in Texas and New Mexico. Gen. 8. CourcHILL, U.S. A. Valley of the Rio Grande. Dr. L. Epwarps, U.S. A. Northern Mexico. Dr. WM. GAMBEL. New Mexico and California. Dr. Joun L. Le Contre. Littoral California. Dr. C. C. Boyt and J. S. Bowman. Central California. Dr. A. J. Skmton. Species collected in California by Henry Moores, Esq. U. S. Exprortine Expepition. Littoral California and Oregon. ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILAD. Various unique specimens described by Dr. Holbrook. Boston Socrery of NaturaAu History. California. SPENCER F. BAIRD, Assist. Sec. S. I. in charge of Museum. Smithsonian Institution, ; January 5, 1858. ee INTRODUCTION. EXPLANATION OF TERMS USED. THE vertical plate is the central one in the middle of the head above, having on each side of it the superciliaries, which form the upper part of the orbit. The two plates behind the vertical are the occipitals ; the pair in front of it, the postfrontals. The prefrontals or anterior frontals are situated in front of the postfrontals; and an- terior to these and terminating the snout is the rostral. The plates immediately in front of the eye are the anteorbitals; those behind it are the postorbitals. In advance of the anteorbital is the oral, be- tween which and the rostral are the two nasa/s, with the nostril be- tween them. The upper and lower labials margin the upper and lower jaws. The temporal shields are situated between the upper labials and the occipitals. The inframazillary or mental scutellze or shields are just within the lower labials. The arrangement on the top of the head of one rostral, two pairs of frontals, one vertical with one superciliary on each side, and one pair of occipitals we have considered as typical or normal, from which but few of the genera described vary. Sometimes one plate occupies the place of the two prefrontals, and in some genera a second median plate is seen between the rostral, frontals, and vertical. On the side of the head we have sometimes but one nasal, and sometimes either the loral or the anteorbitals may be wanting. Where the latter con- dition exists, it is sometimes difficult at first to determine which plate has disappeared. A clue is to be found in the shape of the remain- ing plate ; if this be longitudinal, it is probably the loral ; if vertical, or divided into two or more, one above the other, it is to be con- sidered as anteorbital. The loral belongs to the postfrontals, and the anteorbital to the vertical, the posterior edges in the former and vii vil INTRODUCTION. the anterior in the latter generally ranging. Thus, when the ver- tical plate is very short, the anteorbital is also short or wanting entirely, and the same relation holds good between the loral and postfrontals. The specimen whose measurements are first given, unless stated to the contrary, has served as the type of the description, and the first mentioned species is to be considered as the type of the genus. Of the five numbers given at the end of the descriptions, the first indicates the number of the abdominal scutellee from chin to anus. The second is that of the pairs of subcaudal scutelle ; the third, the dorsal rows or the number of rows of scales around the body (ex- cluding the abdominal series). The fourth number shows the entire length of the animal, and the fifth the length of the tail, in English inches. In referring to the dorsal rows, the exterior one, or that next the scutellze, is considered to be the first, unless the contrary is stated. When there are two numbers separated by the symbol at the be- ginning of the measurements, the first indicates the number of entire abdominal scutellee, the latter of those that are bifid or divided. The subcaudal scutellee are to be considered as divided or in pairs, unless mentioned to the contrary. In enumerating the number of labial plates, those on one side of the jaws only are to be understood, and the terminal and median one on the symphysis of the upper and lower maxillaries is never in- cluded. On the upper jaw that plate is at the end of the snout, and is the rostral. The descriptions are all based on specimens preserved in alcohol, unless otherwise stated. INTRODUCTION. 1x Synopsis OF FAMILIES AND GENERA, AND LIST OF SPECIES OF NortH AMERICAN SERPENTS. Family I1—Croranimpar. Erectible poison fangs, in front. Few teeth in upper jaw. Gslaps FULVIUS CU es cscseceseses ocoeeoses South, Canolimatnvcccs sncescceresess 21 De emeen ce tenere” BY iG yee ese cee MORASS ovchtae ses siccocestecsuse teense 22 Once wt ETISUISH Db sOuiscssrtesvecconcies: Mississippi, Texas.........ccsecees 28 BUTAINIA, B. & G. 1 Butainia saurita, B. & G. ...........Mass., Penna., N. Y., Md., Va... 24 rene ass PALL GVA Go" Giseoaicdsceisesiees WjOWISVAN Dste-s- s-socsas-conte eee eee 25 3. ss proxima, B. & G............. Ark., Texas, New Mexico......... 25 4. ée infernalis, B. & G............ California s.cc.ccccsecrosctenceseescee 26 Bee 7 Ss Pickeringii, Bii& Git-c.-2-s OTe GON -2:.-.-.cerclossssacesencscciecesse 27 6. ae parietalis, B. & G............ TOXOBy cad sceecscoseeceeiccsoneeeencetes 28 ee ace leptocephala,'B. & (Gu... ..-OLe GON ..2. 02.5. .oocncecevenscsene ceeces 29 8. ce sirtalis;, Bs & (G..o.8..sceeusse Me., Mich., N. Y., Penna., Md., Wiass is Gr, MISS. c.coneeremooceses 30 2 i Gorsalis)) Bi & \Gite.cssscre ese Texaisirarcts orcas cteacseclereneeceeerntes 31 Remus’ ordinata, Bi &iGiie.. -ss+: s+ GCOTLID voecerceeeosceececeeseecescn:: 32 le 66 ordinoides, B. & G.......... Californias. cossc- nc eracecteriesssceers 33 INTRODUCTION. xill Page 12.* Butainia radix Bli& G: cr.-..-.--. Wisconsin seeeeee renee eeeees Reassises 3 Hioase a 5 elegans; Ba & Gi. ...ccn.es- --- Califone tee sosmocetoessarl«secs qaceoss 34 Aas ice Vaerans,B: Ob Gi csseesessce: Mex., Call, -Orevone. sc... .sscenssass 85 15.* « MATCI Ana Be eUGerawes ATK. LOXAS Sands essGoissessseciessscs 386 16.. 5° @) Seonemana, B&G... ..cc05... Oregon ..sccccsiae sMeaatales abfes daiiounsos 146 NERODIA, B. & G. 1. Nerodia sipedon, B. & G............. Mich., Mass., Penna., N. Y., Md.. 38 23 “é fasciatai Be GiGi ccsesscssces South Carolinasiccesceduesscsneencs 39 3. se erythrogaster, B. & G...... Was SiC rcesccaccuouedsiese secoecteseres 40 4% 66 Agassizii, B. & G............ WakevHunont jcesscsccnectecres slectees 41 One 66 WOOGDOUSIT GBS SiGrec.. 0. LOX AS m.a2s lacealeonsccionacicloodccbas sless 42 6. cc taxispilota, B. & G.......... GE OT LUaisijccees cegsinanswacenessccaieccens 43 tak 66 Holbrookii, B. & G......... WOUISTANIG.. 2c. saabcocddecee vvesteseesin es 3 8. ce MAZEL is Gieswaescsalsnes ce ss: Massachusetts jascepecsceccenesieases 147 9. ke rhombifer) B2.&. Gists.c.ss AT KANS SS) soccwsscsscis sclesoor siete sees 147 TIO 9 OG transversa, B. & G.......... ATKSNSAB'.cossccsscesssecesies sasatewease 148 REGINA, B. & G. 1. Regina leberis, B. & G............0. 05+ Mich. "OhiosPenngesscccscseeecsecs 45 2. oC TAPIG AWB, Ci Gi tececisccscceisns Benna., (GeOr gia. .catcsrsseessiessseesas 46 one 8 Grahamii, B. & G............ MORRIS sora ccorescecsuetereodsess cosces 47 4% 6 Clare B Gr Gosecetnest cose ACRAGsiiccovatisncescocertiesecocicesececsivacs 48 NINIA, B. & G. | 1.* Ninia diademata, B. & G........... IMe@xICONZ 2) cacsa0 POSER ER Acaveeecaes 49 HETERODON, Beauv. 1. Heterodon platyrhinos, Larr......Penna., Va., 8. C., Ohio, Miss... 51 eae pices cognatus,) Bii& Gaceccss 052s. ORAS eR see eR eR accaneetsoss 54 3. ze Niger. TROOST: tcl. dccsese esses Rennarg 8.00. PVIssy se. cae.ceseses 55 Bae ts atmodes;, B.S (Giieseccks. Gai Say. cacmcserdsciosaces aati testes 57 5. 0 simus, HOLBR.................- S CsA VISBt eceoeseasssteossvarioteas 59 6. “ masicus, B..& Gescccs.. 0s: Ark., Texas, Sonora, Cal......... 61 PITUOPHIS, Hotsr. 1. Pituophis melanoleucus, Houpr...Carolina............ wetdaeer arc eaai es 65 2s 6e Dellon aM Bes Gece ccecssocstces Texas aCaly) SOMOLAscedessacvet eres 66 Bae) EE McClellanii, B. & G......... IATKANIBAB vers aceteinsieceascnsseteccssets 68 4, ee catenifer, B. & G............. California ci ccssscesdesesse on vceete es 69 ge Wilkesii, B. & G............. OTeGON: cv. scsjeceeeriecudnetastsoessctentece 71 Gam sts annectens, B. & G.......... CAITFOTNTAUS sseccscesterceseervecaseene 72 SCOTOPHIS, B. & G. 1. Seotophis alleghaniensis, B. & G...Pennsylvania....... Seraaches eaeedees 73 Dee) we Lindheimerii, B. & G...... MMGRGG csc ccesenecteratacacers cores) 0s 74 Sas oy 8 WUlpinUSs aeons seers ees Mich., Wisc........ Peasuantsroneeses ens 75 XIV INTRODUCTION. Page 4.* Scotophis confinis, B. & G......... Somthy Carolina... smmeosesaneseacss 76 One ee Tastus; (BiG Gitsccccseseseseas IAT KATISHUS scale asics ce seccticctectiless colons 77 6. ce Puttatus), Byes Gasscccccewces SoC aGi osm VLISStisccess euccnesecscwace 78 ite ee Quadrivittatus PBA CiGrecsHOridasncncsccscsecrsioostactcaeesettece 80 Sze Ve IMO Ya Bs Gressseseeescince MOKA Sia astes 0's soncclscanaeeaciecesemors 157 OPHIBOLUS, B. & G. 1.* Ophibolus Boylii, B. & G........... California s.cctesscccsescoreonsesascters 82 Dee nin Ae splendidus, B. & G......... OMONA osc sesce cecisecte teens eecieneie eters 83 3. oe Saya yD imenGerunesssesenete Wars Mises. cAr kee wLeOx is sscsconnese 84 4. ie Petulus) (BY SiGrescsecsscass: SitCEwiVigsecctvsceeeetoceseccsccesiees 85 5. 6 rhombomaculatus!B: GGMGa oe Crsccccecesccscc cece -vissoosrace 86 6. Ob eximius, Bo & Geiieccece ccs Mass’, N@Ye-/Penmnasinn.sossocssstee 87 arse nce CleriCUs MB ARG eecescsere te Vides, MaIseiescemersisccncctsrscteeerise ates 88 8. ce Goliatus BY S Giesssseccss'es: MISSISSIPPI cc! sewscesiecs sen cecievnsesees 89 Oe areas PEWS ce Giese-mereciec-te es SAT Ket TTA, wonsle cestiocacediccose de suisciees - 90 GHORGIA, B. & G. IaiGeoreiay Couper, Bi tGnGiis..csseccses MCOPCIA .cesceceians soweccort eonicedaneeee aoe 2s 6 obsoleta, B.i&'G:..s.2-5.0 MEKABS cscs scccecceueoshesoreestenese ees LOS BASCANION, B. & G. 1. Bascanion constrictor, B. & G.....Penna., Md., Miss., S. C., La.... 93 Daas Fremontii, B: &,Gescssess- Californilals.c.scveosc osiecseeaeer conensee ste) Bee Se PlOsdd, BiG Giiseieccessiessosciose MICH = Penn As oecnseestenescnsacee sets 96 4, ce flaviventris, B. & G......... MexaseOalnecssecseseccrccucseeerseees 96 5 8s WEtUStUS; vB. ColGaecowestes css UA sONCTOME. ccsececioseseer ioteceraces OF MASTICOPHIS, B. & G. 1. Masticophis flagelliformis,B.& G...South Carolina........ 2.00000: 98, 149 2: 6¢ flavigularis, B. & G.......... PORAss PADI, Mrwweteeteuecitencciecs 99 3. 6c MODNION, (BGs Gisvecseccesees Witaltns ccteestetecstesecceecaavsmeeres 101 Aa ec OmMatuS NB Or Ghesscetecsttes MOKAS? sco sdine sleek cotedvetles toceiteeees 102 5. ee Teeniatus Bae Gies.sessee cs California estan. asscseeseencciscomsse 108 Gis 6 i88 ScCHOtHE BAGG. eectecseecn MORAG he ioces cee seaen saan eeaeere ees 160 SALVADORA, B. & G. 1.* Salvadora Grahamice,B. G'G....:SOMOra......ccsccs vsccseese voncaccuaeee 104 LEPTOPHIS, Bett. 1. Leptophis zestivus, Brtt.............Md., Va., S. C., Miss.......00 cose 106 ees Miajalis; BiG Givccccensesces Texas; Arkénucecceccscessieteresean LOG CHLOROSOMA, Wact. 1. Chlorosoma vernalis, B. & G.....Me., Mass., N. Y., Penna., Mich. WAS, MUSSicesncscccssaatenthnsemense 108 CONTIA, B. & G. 1 Contiaymitis,, Be, GiGi. dcctecescciess Cals Oreronccsrecieececressierseseces 110 « INTRODUCTION. sae DIADOPHIS, B. & G. Page 1. Diadophis punctatus, B. & G.......N. Y., Penna., Ga., 8. C., Miss..112 2X86 amabilis, B. & :G.............. Californias iecterertectcecercvosecs ane 113 3.% 66 GOCTIS PB is Gisiccrselsseoss sos MOXAS arcecentenqeteedersscecceiestsess se 114 4oxe ats pulchellusy B: & Ge. .5..-0...- California... ccoseccecionseecccssesces ees 115 Ora a eS reealish B.S Gewe caccecets SONOPA:.sccestesscsserecerasclscacavienisees 115 LODIA, B. & G. if PLOGiaS tenis ec, Girecdsascesesaqccess OLE TONMsecaasacctoacdeocderecsesecetes 116 SONORA, B. & G. 1.* Sonora semiannulata, B. & G.....SOMOra. ...cscecsseseeececvenccsececes ces 117 RHINOSTOMA, Firz. 1. Rhinostoma coccinea, Hoxsr......8. C., Ga., Miss., La......... e000 118 RHINOCHEIUUS, B. & G. 1.* Rhinocheilus Lecontii, BciGress:Californiacsntvcccdsceetseson teckes 120 HALDBEA, B. & G. 1. Haldea striatula, B. & G.............. Vian Sa Ono MISS i csceccceoceetes tees 122 FARANCIA, Gray. fey eatanCia ADACULUS) Di G& Gvesenna coe OrsliGsiccsocssenecceoce tense ssiee esse 123 ABASTOR, Gray. 1. Abastor erythrogramMus, GRAY...Ga .....ssccececccee cvscceces svvceesce vee 125 VIRGINIA, B. & G. 1.* Virginia Valerie, B. & G............ IMS aVidisu ter Grecteceeetstatacecce secs 127 CELUTA, B. & G. Ie Celtitasamoona Be 65G,csccsccssesses Penna., Md., Va., S. C., Miss....129 TANTILLA, B. & G. 1.* Tantilla coronata, B. & G........... IMISBISSIpPlacocsesenccscaremancsereaces 131 Decay mes PY ACUI GH Gisleacss: nsec ses MEX Seriocrciccecsloccensesetdecsooreduraees 132 OSCEOLA, B. & G. 1. Osceola elapsoidea, ei WA racesessccae, Ovs; WLISR: covecedrecevsiccrsteeseees 133 STORERIA, B. & G. 1. Storeria Dekayi, B. & G.............. Wisc., Mich., Ohio, Mass., N. Y., Pa., Md.,8. C., Ga., La., Tex..135 2. & occipito-maculata, B. Me., N. Y., Lake Sup., Wisc., Xvl INTRODUCTION. WENONA, B. & G. Page 1. Wenona p!lumbea, B. & G............ GEC ONY shosedcaseen-cecnsecennee ees 139 2: “ isabella, -BwaniGieivccsecce+es OREGON vac. iesccepvessveresensell 140 RENA, B. & G. 1% Rena’ dulcis; BY& Gi. cieeccscceer ene MEAS teectncces cossncesotedsce ss ctese 142 Dd! 06) gies Ot Graeastce ee teae ae Californias. i.cssssecceocte'teeseeees 148 SUMMARY. Generar MOldiiretcntscccscecesccncte cioscenteccdeurs cacccisnrsiiiseciecesanens 13 ING Wissccsescsisses calves oQnetestensslescosrces eecececetioetesssociees 22 TO tall coaccesesicctac savalessepaeececsiactucrasciasslvecchecoeeceene Species.) SOME... -cesiecscaseocisaceaeceecsassescinorenes cece okacetsieceee 65 INE Wissscccncewssiescecsiesecalesdeeseocscosss/eseceleseactsiecteaeese 54 MNotalines cove ceases cosesuecteceonclonecneeses saneneecornaneee 119 SPECIES NOT SHEN. 1. Toxicophis atrofuscus, TROOST.....TeNNeSSee ...sscccccecececececcen ses 150 2. Coluber testaceus, Sav..............s. FROCKysMits icone cece ccldecieeseearectoe 150 See OMI AVI OOH. 1..cecccejscucsesseesecess IMU SSOUNI. onesies cacleee score seectiors 151 4, ‘ -vyertebralis, BLAINV................California .......0. siteaeebumeceenaes 152 5. ‘* (Ophis) californiz, Buarnv.....California .............00 Reaeeeran 158 6. ‘ (Zacholus) zonatus, BuAINv....California ........... sseseceeecoveee 153 7. $ planiceps, BUAINV........ scsi. Californtalyenccccctenscmcereseceene es 154 8. Charina Bottz, GRAY.........0.sc0.0s: California ilecteddcscecsavacevascene 154 ee ee Seiten Rlozida, B.Ldekr ae 155 mum, Dum. & Bisr. SERPENTS. GENUS CROTALU s,* LINN. Gren. Cuar. Upper surface of head covered with small plates, seale-like, with a few larger ones in front. The tail is terminated by a well-developed rattle. A deep pit between the eyes and the nostrils. Subcaudal scutelle entire. Temporal and labial shields small and convex. 4. Crotalus durissus, Livy.—Head angular. Scales between the superciliaries small, numerous, uniform. Plates above snout, 2 anterior frontal, and 5 postfrontal. Suborbital chain continuous, of large scales. Two rows between this and labials. Labials 12-14 above, 5th largest; 13-15 below. Scales on the back 23-25, all carinated; carination on outer row obsolete. Tail black. Above sulphur-brown, with two rows of confluent brown lozenges. Light line from superciliary to angle of the mouth. Be- hind this a dark patch. Syn. Crotalus durissus, Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 1766, 872.—Gm. Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. xiii. I., III. 1788, 1081.—Honsr. N. Amer. Herp. III. 1842, 9. Pl. i. —Dexay, New Y. Fauna. Pt. III. 1842, 55. Pl. ix., fig. 19.—Srorer, Rep. Rept. of Mass. 1839, 233. Vipera caudisona americana, CatesB. Nat. Hist. Carol. II. 1748, 41. Pl. 1xi. Banded Rattlesnake. Head above covered with small subtuberculous scales. Supercili- aries large. Anterior frontals large, triangular, emarginated behind to receive a series of three small plates. A single subhexagonal plate between the superciliary and anterior frontal. The exterior plate of the posterior frontal row is much the largest, and is in contact with %* The names and characteristics of the higher divisions will be given in the sy- nopsis of species. The figures at the end of the descriptions refer, the Ist to the number of abdomi- nal scutelle ; 2d, to the subcaudal scutelle ; 3d, to the dorsal rows; 4th, to tho total length; and 5th, to the length of the tail. 1 2 CROTALUS. f the superciliaries. A series of three or four larger flat scales extends from the posterior extremity of the superciliary. Scales on the cheeks very large, truncate. Anterior orbitals double; the upper one rect- angular, elongated longitudinally ; separated from the nasal by two small plates. General color above, that of roll sulphur; beneath, whitish yel- low. Along the back is a double series of subrhomboidal blotches, looking as if they had been in contact, and then the line of junction partially effaced for the three or four central rows. The impression conveyed of the color of these blotches is that of coarse mottlings of soot or gunpowder grains, more crowded exteriorly. There are twenty-one of these blotches from the head to the anus, the tail being entirely black. The rhomboids are enclosed within about twelve dorsal series of scales. Directly opposite to these spots on each side is a series of subtriangular blotches similarly constituted as to colour, and extending from the abdomen to about the fifth lateral row, and some six or seven scales long. Anteriorly these are distinct from the dorsal series, but posteriorly they are confluent with them, forming a series of zigzag blotches across the body. The scutellee below show more or less of the grain-like mottlings. Posteriorly the yellow of the body is suffused with darker. There are no markings of lines distinctly visible on the sides of the head. In the centre of the spaces between the dorsal and lateral series of blotches are indications of small obsolete spots; and in some cases the yellow scales external to the blotches are of lighter colour than the rest. Huntingdon Co., Pa. 166. 25.23. 42.5. D.C. Lloyd. Another specimen has the ground-color darker, more brownish yellow. The markings, however, are on the same pattern, except that the line of junction of the blotches is not so much effaced, and the colors more decided. Lateral row of scales smooth, not cari- ated Plates of head similar. Fifteen labial plates, fourth upper one the largest. The blotches are nearly uniform umber-brown, margined with darker; the scales external to which are lighter than the ground-color. Lycoming Co., Pa. 165. 25.23. 25. 33. S. F. Baird. A female from Huntingdon Co., Pa., has the general pattern of the one last mentioned, but a dark brown tint pervades the whole CROTALUS. 3 body, and obscures the pattern of coloration. External row of scales smooth. The inferior orbital chain is composed of scales nearly as large as the two next rows. Huntingdon Co., Pa. ¢ 168. 18.23. 35. 34. 8. F. Baird. In a specimen from Prairie Mer Rouge, La., the general system of coloration is similar; it differs principally in having a reddish brown strip or tint down the back, for a width of some three scales, extending from head to tail. First row of lateral scales smooth. Plates of head as described, except that there are but two plates em- braced between the two postfrontals. ‘The upper jaw pale cream colour, the line of demarcation starting from the anterior canthus, and passing backward to the angle of the mouth, along the edge of the labials, or rather a narrow cream-colored line beginning on the upper labials, at the angle of the mouth, and widening on the fifth plate, encloses the whole anterior portion of the face below the nostrils. The white patch closely mottled with black beneath the eye. A brown patch across and beneath the angle of the mouth, in- terrupted by the white just mentioned. Prairie Mer Rouge, La. 165. 27.25. —— Jas. Fairie. Mississippi. Col. Wailes. 2. Crotalus adamanteus, Beauv.—Head triangular. Two an- terior frontals, connected with superciliaries on each side by two large plates: inside of these a second row; included space filled by small scales. Scales margining superciliaries small; scattered larger ones toward the centre of the intermediate space. Three rows of scales between the suborbi- tals and labials. Suborbitals extending to the middle of the orbit. Labials 15 or 16 above; Ist, 5th, and 7th largest and vertical ;—below, 18; Ist, 4th, and 5th largest. Dorsal rows 27; outer rows obsoletely carinated. Three or four dark rings on tail. Three series of well-defined perfect rhombs, one dorsal, two lateral, separated by narrow lines. Light stripe from su- perciliary to the angle of the mouth.. A second in front of the eye. Syn. Crotalus adamanteus, Beauv. Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc. IV, 1824, 368.—Hotzr. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 17. Pl. ii. C. horridus, Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, ii, 1827, 370. Diamond Rattlesnake. Scales on the cheek smooth. Three rather large plates on the edge of the upper part of the head, between the superciliaries and rostral, inside of which is a second row of three, also larger than the rest. 4 CROTALUS. The two lower rows of lateral scales smooth. Third and fourth very faintly carinated. Scales on the back and sides not conspicu- ously different in size except the lower 2 or 3 rows. Posteriorly, near the tail, all the scales are carinated except the lowest. General color, yellowish gray, with rhomboidal black blotches, lighter in the centre, and with all the angles perfect. Or rather there is a series of dull yellowish lines crossing obliquely from one side of the abdomen to the other over the back, following the oblique series of scales, and occupying generally the posterior half of each scale, the basal portion being black. These lines, of which there are about 36 crossing from each side, from head to tail, (9 on tail,) decussate first on the 5th or 6th lateral row, and then on the back, where they are more or less confluent three or four rows. The rhomboids thus enclosed and crossing the back are generally black for 14 or 2 scales within the yellowish lines, and the most central portion is dark yellowish brown, mottled with darker. The inter- vals on the sides between the lines are mostly dark yellowish brown, minutely mottled with dark brown. These intervals constitute a lateral series of transverse rhomboids, sometimes with the lower angle truncated. Opposite to the dorsal rhomboids is a series of small triangles in the angles of the first decussation. The distance between two parallel transverse stripes generally consists of five rows of scales, occasionally of six. On the sides and posteriorly these markings are more or less in- distinct, though generally recognisable. The tail usually exhibits a good deal of black. The under parts are dull yellowish white, or greenish white, clouded toward the sides with brown. No regular spots visible. The black on the tail does not constitute complete rings, but is interrupted in the middle of the lower surface, and in fact the black patches alternate with each other, and are not opposite. The top of the head is light brown, with occasional black scales. A dull yellowish streak starts at the posterior edge of the supercili- ary plate, and passing obliquely backward, through two rows of scales, extends to the angle of the mouth. A second band starts on the plate in advance of the superciliary, and crossing the anterior orbitals, expands till it involves the 7th, 8th, and 9th upper labials. Inter- val between the first two stripes dark brown. There are also indi- cations of a second vertical light bar in front of the nostril, and two below the pit. Rostral dark yellowish, lighter in the margin. Charleston, S. C. 169. 82.27... 48. 54. Dr. Barker. CROTALUS. 5 3. Crotalus atrox, B. & G.—Head subtriangular. Plates on head; 2 anterior frontals in contact, between these and superciliaries, on side of the crown, 2 imbricated plates. Space enclosed occupied by smaller scales. Superciliaries bordered by a row of larger scales; the anterior much largest. Three rows of scales between labials and suborbitals. Labials 16 above; 1st, 5th, and 7th largest;—15 below, Ist and 8d largest. Dorsal rows 25-27: 2 exterior rows smooth. On the tail 3-6 half rings. Color yel- lowish brown, with a continuous succession of dorsal lozenges, sometimes truncate before and behind; intervals all narrow. A single transverse light line on superciliary. Stripe from superciliary directly to the angle of the mouth. General style of coloration somewhat as in C. adamanteus. Ground- color above dull yellowish brown, with a series of subhexagonai patches from the head nearly to the tail, in an uninterrupted series, separated throughout by narrow lines. We may refer the markings to the intersection of two series of light yellowish lines, about 40 in number, crossing obliquely from each side across to the other, along the anterior half of as many oblique series of scales. The lateral de- cussation is along the sixth row of dorsal scales; on the back, where they cross, the lines are confluent for a breadth of five or six scales, making a series of transverse lines across the back, truncating the obtuse angles of the rhomboids, which would otherwise be produced. Sometimes the acute lateral angle of the rhomboids are also trun- cated. Laterally, the yellowish lines are more or less obsolete, leay- ing a more or less distinct chain pattern. The rhomboids or sub- rhomboids enclosed have a narrow margin of dark brown, lighter toward the centre. In all cases the interval between the successive rhomboids is but one or two half scales in width. The lateral rhom- boids and triangles referred to in C. adamanteus are indicated by two alternating series of dark brown blotches, the first along the 3d and 4th lateral row, opposite the apices of the rhomboids ; the second along the 6th and 7th, and alternating with the same; the spots occupy one scale, or part of four contiguous ones. Space between these rhomboids and the yellowish lines, dull yellowish brown. Be- neath nearly uniform yellowish, slightly clouded on the sides of the scales. On the tail the blotches are confluent into 3 or 6 dark brown half rings, interrupted on the under surface. General distribution of lines on the head much as in C. adamanteus ; a narrow light line from the posterior end of the superciliary backward, directly to the 6 CROTALUS. angle of the mouth; a second from the anterior extremity, nearly parallel with the first, the two enclosing an indistinct patch, and sepa- rated on the labials by 4% scales. There is also a single narrow light line across the superciliary Dervenene to its length, obsolete in old specimens. It may readily be ‘Kainenieued from C. adamanteus by its light color and the truncations of the rhomboids, as well as the general obsoleteness of the lateral markings. The rhomboids are longer in proportion and more rounded. The two lateral rows of scales are smooth, the next two more strongly carinated than in C. adaman- éeus. The 5th upper labial is largest, and transverse ; the rest nearly uniform. ‘The stripes on the side of the head are less distinct. From C. confluentus, it may be distinguished by the greater com- parative size of the interval between the dorsal blotches, especially posteriorly. In C. confluentus, there are two light lines across the superciliary plate, dividing it into three sections, the central rather narrower. Here, too, the posterior facial stripe, instead of passing to the angle of the mouth, goes back of it on the 2d row above the labials, in C. atrox, passing directly to the angle of the mouth. Other important distinctions are seen in the narrower scales of C. confluentus, Ke. From (. lucifer, the more narrow head, fewer and larger inter- superciliary scales, lighter color, arrangement of color along the head, will at once distinguish it. Indianola. 187..23.-25. 33. .3$.. < Col: J. D.'Graham: & 183. 27. 27. 393. 44 a “ 177. 28.25. 36. 48 187. 23.95. 153.1 2 San Pedro, Texas. 177. 28.25. 36. 48. 4. Crotalus lucifer, B. & G. Muzzle broad. Scales between the superciliaries numerous, small, and uniform. Plates on top of head, 4 pre- frontal, 4 postfrontal, or else irregular. Three rows scales between the sub- orbitals and labials. Labials 16 above; ist and 5th largest ;—15 below. Dor- sal rows 25, exterior smooth, 2d and 3d with obsolete carination. Tail, and posterior portion of body with 16 or 17 half rings. A succession of brown dorsal hexagons or octagons, separated throughout by a narrow lighter line. Light stripe from superciliary crosses the angle of the mouth on the 3d and 4th row above labial. Syn. Crotalus lucifer, B. & G. Proc. Acad. Nat. Se. Phila. VI., 1852, 177, CROTALUS. 7 Head very broad anteriorly, outline little tapering. Head above covered with many small tuberculiform scales, showing a substelli- form radiation. Interval between superciliary plates filled with small scales, nearly uniform in size; row bordering the superciliaries very small. Scales in front of the superciliaries variable: in one speci- men there are two rows of four each, of considerable size ; in another they are larger than the rest, but irregular. Scales on the checks large, flat, smooth. Ground-color, light brown above. Along the back a series of subhexagonal or octagonal blotches, formed by a skeleton of dull yellowish, constituting a dorsal chain. The space thus enclosed of the ground-color is margined faintly with dark brown: the width of the interval between the successive blotches is from one-half to one anda half scales. These spots are frequently confluent, two and three running together. Where most distinct the spots are four scales long and eleven wide. On each side of this dorsal series is a second, separated by a single row of scales, the blotches extending from the abdominal scutelle to the 5th or 6th row. These are smaller than the dorsal, and subcircular. Opposite the transverse light bands, and in the open space between four contiguous blotches on the sides, smaller blotches are indistinctly visible. Posteriorly, the spots on the back and sides are confluent and darker; in one specimen form- ing 17 half rings, encircling the back, leaving about 24 dorsal blotches. Abdomen greenish yellow, more or less clouded with brown at the bases of the scales. Head dark brown; a light line from posterior portion of the superciliaries along the 4th row of su- pralabial scales back to the angle of the jaws, on the occiput, where it expands into the color of the under part. Upper labials of the same light color behind, rapidly widening anteriorly so as to include whole front and side of the face, leaving only the top of the head dark. The space about the facial pit darker. The theory of coloration is that of decussating lines, which, when they intersect, unite so as to have the angles of intersection truncated. The species has a general resemblance to C. atrox in the arrange- ment of the blotches, but is darker, and has about 17 dark half rings posteriorly instead of 4 or 5. In @- atrow the head is narrower and more triangular, the space between the superciliaries narrow, amd aceupied by angulated larger scales instead of small tuberculous ones. In ©. atrox, the row bordering the superciliaries is much larger than the rest, and the scales on the top of the head generally more angu- 8 CROTALUS. lated. In C. lucifer, the line on the side of the head, instead of going directly from the posterior end of the superciliary to the com- missures, passes back nearly parallel to the mouth, crossing along the 4th row of scales above the labial. The second line in front of the eye is much wider below in C. ducifer, and the face generally shows more of white, while the dark portions are much darker. A specimen collected in California by Dr. Leconte resembles this, but owing to the imperfect state of preservation, little definite can be ascertained. The dorsal figures are, however, more in lozenges than in hexagons. Color dark. Size, very large. Oregon. 168. 25. 25. 272.3%. (indep.) Expl. Exped. 5. Crotains comfluemtus, Say. Head subtriangular. Plates on top of head squamiform, irregular, angulated, and imbricated; scales be- tween superciliaries small, numerous, uniform. Four rows of scales be- tween the suborbital series (which only extends to the centre of the orbit) and the labials. Labials 15 or 18, nearly uniform. Dorsal series 87-29. Dorsal blotches quadrate, concave before and behind; intervals greater behind. Spots transversely quadrate posteriorly, ultimately becom- ing 10 or 12 half rings. Two transverse lines on superciliaries, enclosing about one-third. Stripe from superciliary to angle of jaws, crosses angle of the mouth on the second row above labial. Rostral margined with lighter. Syn. Crotalus confluentus, Say, in Long’s Exped. Rocky Mts. II, 1828, 48. C. Lecontet, Hattow. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. VI, 1851, 180. This species bears a considerable resemblance to C. atrox, but the body is more slender and compact. Scales on the top of the head anterior to the superciliaries nearly uniform in size. Line of scales across from one nostril to the other consists of six, not four as in C. atroxz. Superciliaries more prominent. Labial series much smaller. Upper anterior orbitals much smaller, as also is the anterior nasal. Seales on the top of the head less carinated. Scales between super- ciliaries smaller and more numerous, five or six in number instead of four. Two lateral rows of scales smooth, first, second, and third gradually increasing in size. Scales more linear than in C. atroz. General color yellowish brown with a series of subquadrate dark blotches, with the corners rounded and the anterior and posterior sides frequently concave, the exterior convex. These blotches are ten or eleven scales wide and four or five long, lighter in the centre, and margined for one-third of a scale with light yellowish. The inter- vals along the back light brown, darker than the margins of the CROTALUS. 9 blotches. Anteriorly the interval between the dark spots is but a single scale; posteriorly it is more, becoming sometimes two scales, where also the spots are more rhomboidal or lozenge-shaped; nearer the tail, however, they become transversely quadrate. ‘The funda- mental theory of coloration might be likened to that of Crotalus adamanteus, viz. of forty or fifty light lines decussating each other from opposite sides; but the angles of decussation, instead of being acute, are obtuse, and truncated or rounded off throughout. Along the third, fourth, and fifth lateral rows of scales is a series of indis- tinct brown blotches covering a space of about four scales and falling opposite to the dorsal blotches: between these blotches, and opposite to the intervals of the dorsal blotches, are others less distinct. Along the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth rows is a second series. of obsolete blotches, each covering a space of about four scales, and just opposite the intervals between the dorsal spots. The dorsal and lower series are separated by an interval of three scales, this interval light brown. Beneath, the color is dull yellowish, and ten or twelve darker half rings are visible on the tail. In point of coloration the principal features, as compared with C. atrox, lie in the dorsal blotches, being disposed in subquadrate spots instead of subrhomboids; the intervals thus forming bands across the back perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. This tendency to assume the subquadrangular pattern has broken up the chain-work into isolated portions, as in Coluber eximius or Crotalophorus terge- minus. The intervals of the dorsal blotches are wide and darker in the middle, while in C. atro« they are narrow, not linear, and uni- color. The sides of the head present the usual light stripe from the posterior extremity of the superciliary ; it passes, however, to the angle of the jaw on the neck, along the second row of scales above the labials. A second stripe passes in front of the eye to the labials, widening there. A small light vertical bar is seen below the pit, and another on the outer edge of the rostral. On the supercili- aries are seen two light transverse lines enclosing a space nearly one- third of the whole surface. In C. atrox there is a single median line. Sometimes, as in C. atrozx, the single blotches on the nape are replaced by two elongated ones parallel to each other. Red River. 180. 27.29. 34. 4. Capt. Marcy. San Pedro, Texas. 181. 28.27. — —- Col. J. D. Graham, Bet. San Antonio 9 9 ; and El Paso. ; 188. 23. 27. 27. 3. “ : 10 CROTALUS. G6. Crotaius molossus, B. & G. Muzzle broad; rostral small. Scales between superciliaries small, uniform, except the two anterior. Two frontal plates, four postfrontal. Two inter superciliary, all in contact. Five rows scales between the labials and suborbital row.. Middle row, not ex- tending beyond the middle of the orbit. Labials 18 above, fifth and sixth largest; 17 below. Dorsal rows of scales 29. Two external rows small. .Tail uniform black. Color roll sulphur, a series of chestnut-brown transverse lozenges, with exterior corners produced to the abdomen. Centres of lozenges with one or two spots. Each scale but one color. A brown patch below and behind the eye. One of the most strongly marked of all the species. Head very broad in front; outline nearly rectangular. Rostral small. Two anterior frontals; behind these four plates, the exterior resting on the superciliary ; behind these two other plates, between and in contact with the superciliaries. Anterior nasal subtriangular. Top of head with numerous smooth subtuberculous scales. Suborbitals large, extending to the anterior canthus. General aspect smoother than in Crotali generally, scales rounded at the posterior apex, carinated but slightly. General color above that of roll sulphur, beneath pale yellowish, posteriorly very faintly clouded with brownish. ‘Tail black. Ante- riorly the scutelle are entirely immaculate. Along the back is a series of transverse reddish or chestnut-brown lozenges embraced in a width of 12 or 14 scales and 4 or 5 scales long, and with the exterior angles produced to the abdomen. These lozenges are frames with the outline generally one scale in width and with the centres of the ground-color; sometimes divided by a median line of brown, so as to show two yellowish spots inside of the lozenges. The scales exterior to the lozenges are rather lighter. Sometimes the brown rings and the lozenges widen at the abdomen and indicate lateral spots of four scales; at others, and especially anteriorly, the rings are obsolete, and the brown is in a dorsal series. In fact, for the anterior fourth of the body we have a dorsal patch of brown, showing alternately at successive intervals one large yellowish spot and then a pair of smaller ones, owing to the confluence of the suc- cessive lozenges. The superciliaries and scales anterior to them, as well as a broad patch below and behind the eye, light greenish brown. Tail uniform dark brown above, paler beneath. Only one button with two necks, no rattle. A remarkable character of this species is that each individual CROTALOPHORUS. 11 scale is of the same uniform tint to its base, and not showing two colours as in other species. Fort Webster, St. Pita rs ene : ca oe ; 187.25. 99. 882.3. Col. J.D. Graham. Genus CROTALOPHORUS, Gray. Gren. CHar. Upper surface of the head covered with nine large plates, as seen in Coluber and allied genera. The tail terminates in a rattle, generally smaller than in Crotalus. A deep pit between the eye and nostril, as in Crotalus. Subcaudal scutellz entire, except a few at the end of the tail, which are bifid. Syn. Crotalophorus, Gray, Ann. Philos. 1825, 205. 1. Crotalophorus miliarius, Horsr.—Twenty-two or twenty- three dorsal rows of scales, all of which are carinated, the lateral and first row but slightly ; a vertebral brownish red line ;. seven series of blotches, one dorsal and three lateral, on each side, the uppermost of which is obsolete and the lowest subject to irregularities. Vertical plate subcordiform, occipi- tal oblong and elongated. A narrow white line commences at the lowest point of the orbit and passes obliquely backward to the angle of the mouth. Sy. Crotalus miliarius, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 372.—Gm. LZ. Syst. Nat. ed. XIII, I, iii, 1788. 1080.—Mmurr. Vers. Syst. Amph. 1820, 156.—Hart. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phila. V, ii, 1827, 370. Hotsr. N. Amer. Herp. II, 1838, 73 Pl. xv. Caudisona miliarius, Waau. Syst. Amph. 1830, 176. Crotalophorus miliarius, Houpr. N. Amer. Herp. 2d. ed. IIT, 1842, 25. PI. iv. Vipera Caudisona americana minor. Catess. Nat. Hist. Carol. II, 1743, 42. Pl. xiii. Ground Rattlesnake. Ground-color dark greyish ash, minutely mottled. A series of thirty-eight to forty-five subcircular dorsal blotches extending from head to tail, dark brown, each with a narrow distinct yellowish border. Interval rather narrower than the spots themselves. A broad band of purplish red passes from head to tail, through the blotches. On each side may be distinguished three series of blotches, the first on the first and second lateral rows of scales and partly on the abdominal scutellze. The second alternating with this on the second, third, fourth, and fifth rows of scales, and opposite the dorsal 12 CROTALOPHORUS. series. The third alternating with the second and the dorsal series, on the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth rows of scales. The latter series is dusky and obsolete; the others are uniform and distinctly black. The shape of the blotches is subjected to some variation according to individuals. Generally subcircular or slightly oblong, they become sometimes a transversely elongated quadrangle, three times as long as wide. Their shape varies according to the region of the body on which they are found. On the anterior third they are subquadran- gular, anteriorly and posteriorly emarginated ; on the middle region they elongate, and toward the posterior third become nearly circular. Backward of the anus the five or six blotches of that region extend on the sides, without, however, meeting on the lower surface. The blotches of the first lateral row are subquadrangular and a little smaller than those of the second and third rows; the blotches of the second row being transversely oblong and largest on the middle region of the body. Side of the head purplish brown. A narrow distinct white line from the lowest part of the orbit passing obliquely backward to the angle of the mouth. Above and continuous with that white line a deep chestnut-brown vitta is observed, of the same length but broader and lined above with a narrow dull yellowish margin. Two undulated dark-brown vittee extend from the vertex to the first dorsal blotch and confluent with it. A double crescentic blotch is observed on the frontal scutellee leaving a transversal fulvous band across the head between the orbits. The color underneath is reddish yellow, mar- morated with brownish black blotches and minute dots. The scales are elongated, carinated, and acute posteriorly. Those of the lateral row are slightly carinated also, but narrower than in C. consors, and more acute posteriorly. Liberty Co., Georgia. 185. 284-5. 28. 15%. 23. Dr. Jones. Charleston, S. C. 136. 22-211, 22.) V7E5 28. Dr. Barker. a 135. 30. 23. 14%. 138. at 6 39. 814-5. 22. 154. 1. Ke & 136. 27. 23. T3ks Le. es : 132. 34. 220 TAS a. a 2. Crotalophorus consors, B. & G.—Twenty-five rows of dor- sal scales, all carinated except the two first rows on either side. Seven series of blotches, one dorsal and three on each side, all very small. A yellowish white line passing from behind the nostril below and behind the eye. CROTALOPHORUS. 13 Resembles C. miliarius in its general appearance, but without the vertebral brownish red line. The ground color is olivaceous brown, the blotches of a deeper brown, encircled with a black fillet margined with a whitish yellow line. There are about fifty blotches in the dorsal series emarginated anteriorly only, thirty of which are trans- versely elongated, very irregular; the twenty remaining ones nearly circular, with regular outlines. The blotches of the lateral rows are comparatively small and of nearly equal size, though sometimes one of either row may appear much the largest. The blotches of the first lateral series are opposite to those of the dorsal and affect the Ist, 2d, and 3d rows of scales and the extremities of the abdominal scu- tellee. The blotches of the second series alternate with these, extend- ing on the 3d, 4th, and 5th rows of scales. The blotches of the third series are obsolete and alternate with those of the second series, and are generally opposite to those of the dorsal series situated in the 5th, 6th, and 7th rows. The upper surface of the head is brown; there are two vittee extending from the vertex along the neck to the first dorsal blotch. A broader and deep chestnut-brown band extends from the eye to the neck. The frontal region is deeper brown than the vertex. A yellowish white line starts from the nostrils near the upper surface of the head, extending backward in passing between the eye and the pit to the angle of the mouth. A vertical whitish bar extends from each side of the pit to the labial. The belly is yellowish white marbled with black transversely oblong patches. The vertical plate is cordiform; the anterior frontal plates proportionally small; the occipital rather broad. The scales of the body are elongated, a little smaller than in C. mi/iarius, but not quite so acute posteriorly. The two lateral and smooth rows are much broader than the rest and conspicuous: most of the scales of these two rows are black, with the posterior edge straw colored, giving the appearance of a succession of distinct crescents. The tail is conical and tapering; the rattle composed of one ring besides the terminal one. Indianola. 147. 33. 25. 184. 24. Col. J. D. Graham 14 CROTALOPHORUS. 3. Crotalophorus tergeminus, Horsr.—Twenty-five rows of dorsal scales, strongly carinated, with the exception of the first row, which is perfectly smooth. Vertical plate subhexagonal, pointed posteriorly. Seven longitudinal series of blotches. A narrow band of yellowish white extends from the pit to the neck in passing close to the angle of the mouth. Syn. Crotalus tergeminus, Say, Long’s Exp. Rocky Mts. I, 1823, 499.— Hart. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. v. iii, 1827, 872. Crotalophorus tergeminus, House. N. Amer. Herp. IIL., 1842, 29. Pl. v. Crotalophorus,- (57.30.30 Ae@ass. Lake Sup. 1850, 381. Pl. vi. fig. 6-8. Prairie Rattlesnake, Massasauga. The ground color above is brown; the blotches are deep chestnut- brown blackish externally, and with a yellowish white margin. The dorsal blotches are thirty-four in number from the head to the region opposite the anus, twenty-six of which are transversely and irregu- larly oblong, anteriorly and posteriorly emarginated—less so, however, posteriorly ; eight are subcircular. Five or six exist on the tail from the anus to its tip, extending on the sides, the last two forming sometimes a complete ring. The next series on either side is com- posed of small blotches, but as intensely colored as in the other series. They alternate with the dorsal ones. They have no regu- larity either in outline or position. The second lateral row is com- posed of the largest lateral blotches. They are transversely oblong or oval on the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth rows of scales, and opposite the blotches of the dorsal series; consequently alternating with the third series above. The first lateral series again is com- posed of blotches intermediate in size between those of the third and second series; they occupy the first and second rows of scales, and extend somewhat to the abdominal scutelle, and alternating with the adjoining sefies. Two undulated vitte extend from the supraorbital plates along the neck to the first dorsal blotch, and often confluent with the latter. A linear vitta margined with yellowish white extends from the posterior edge of the eye to the sides of the neck; the inferior yellow margin is the broadest, and passes from the pit close to the angle of the mouth, turning forward to the middle of the lower jaw, enclosing a semi-elliptical browz. patch. Two elongated yellowish spots may be observed diverging from both sides of the pit to the lip. The cephalic plates are deep chestnut brown; a transverse light brown band extends across the head from one orbit to the other. CROTALOPHORUS. 4% The color underneath is blackish brown intermingled with yellowish. Racine, Wisc. 150. 21.11.25. 293. 23. Dr. Hoy. Grosse Isle, Mich. 186. 81. 29... 19%. 2%. |? Rev. ‘Chas. Hox. Warren Co., Ohio. 141.29. 25. 2, Dr. J. P. Kirtland. on anloo Oo } 9 Og. i) 4. Crotalophorus Edwardsii, B. & G.—Twenty-three rows of dorsal scales ; first and second lateral row smooth. Vertical plate subpen- tagonal, tapering posteriorly. Lateral rows of blotches proportionally very small. The ground-color is yellowish brown with three lateral series of deep chestnut-brown blotches. Two elongated brown blotches ex- tend from the supercilliaries backward. A narrow band of chestnut brown, from the posterior frontal plates, passes over the eyes to the neck, under which a yellowish stripe extends from the nostril to the angle of the mouth. The snout and upper jaw are brown with two yellow fillets diverging from the pit. The lower jaw and chin are mottled with brown and yellow. There are about forty-two dorsal brown and irregular blotches margined with deep black and encircled with a yellow fillet, from the head to. the tip of the tail—the 34th — opposite the anus—the last three passing to the sides of the tail but do not meet below. Subcircular on the posterior half of the body, the blotches on the anterior half are longer transversely than longitudinally ; emarginated anteriorly only. The blotches of the two lateral series are proportionally small. The blotches of the upper series are more or less obsolete and alter- nate with the dorsal ones. ‘Those of the second lateral series are the smallest and alternate also, being of as deep a color as the dorsal ones, but do not extend beyond the anus, occupying the second, third, and fourth rows of scales. The first and lower series affect the first and second rows, and only one scale. The belly is of a light straw color, dotted and sprinkled irregularly with brown. Scales elliptical, subtruncated posteriorly, constituting twenty-three rows, strongly carinated, except the two lateral rows, which are smooth. Head, when seen from above, subelliptical ; vertical plate propor- tionally more elongated than in C. tergeminus. Tamaulipas. — - 143. 28.13.23. 174.24. Dr. Edwards. S. Bank of Rio Grande. 153. 24. 23. 11. 12. Gen. Churchill. Sonora. 145, 26. 23. 84. 14. Col.J.D.Graham. 16 CROTALOPHORUS. 5. Crotalophorus Kirtlandii, Horsr.—Twenty-five rows of dor- sal scales, sometimes only twenty-four, all strongly carinated except those of the first lateral row. Vertical plate rather short and broad. Color in the adult almost uniformly black, with a vertebral series of dusky brown blotches, sometimes very obsolete. Underneath bluish slate, with the pos- terior margin of the scutelle yellowish. Syn. Crotalophorus Kirtlandit, Hotpr. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 31, Pl. vi. Black Massasauga. The scales of the lateral row are as broad or high as long. Those of the second row are but slightly carimated, and distinguished from the next rows above in being broader and regularly elliptical poste- riorly. The carinated scales are elongated, and the narrowest as they approximate the dorsal region. ‘They are posteriorly rounded or subacute. In the young, eight inches and a half long, the ground-color is brown, with a dorsal series of deep brown spots transversely oblong, emarginated anteriorly and pdsteriorly, almost quadrangular on the posterior region of the body and tail; and thirty-four in number from head to tail. There are three lateral series of blotches on each side ; the upper one composed of small and obsolete blotches, alternating with the dorsal ones; the second row is composed of vertically oblong blotches, larger than those of the upper, and a little smaller than those of the lower series. The latter extend partly on the abdominal seutellee, as in C. tergeminus and other allied species. Six or seven rings to the rattle. Warren Co., Ohio. 140.21-4+5.24. 233. 23. Dr. J.P. Kirtland. “ 144, 1945.28. 248. 25. « « 142.17-48.25. 25. 23 « «“ 143.159.2925. 83. #. «“ AGKISTRODON. 17 Genus AG KISTRODON, BeEavy. GEN. Cuar. ° 263.9: 6“ Washington. LOT. LS) 19S) 325° 9: “ Westport, N. Y. Ee RS se « Lancaster, Mass. —- -—- - —- — “ Virginia. —- -—- - _— C. Sanford. 2. Eutainia Faireyi, B. & G.—Body above blackish brown, with three longitudinal stripes of uniform tint. Abdomen greenish white. Stouter than Z#. saurita. Head large. Tail rather less than one-third total length. Syn. Tropidonotus saurita? Scutrc. Ess. Physiogn. Serp. Part. diser. 1887, 321. A dorsal stripe one and two half-scales wide, and one lateral on each side on the 3d and 4th row, of the same color, (greenish yellow.) Scales broader and more rounded than in Z. saurita; head stouter, color different. Differs from /. prowima, in having all the longitu- dinal stripes of the same color; from LZ. saurita in a stouter body, and in having the color below the lateral stripe the same as that above. Body slender, but stouter than in 2. sawrita. The tail is propor- tionally shorter than in /. saurita, but longer than in 7. proxima. Prairie Mer Rouge, La. 178.115.19. 803.10. Jas. Fairie. 66 “ 074.:134.419, 264: 8. c sc 6 1682249) 293° — 6“ 3. Eutainia proxima, B. & G.—Body stoutest of the division. Black above; three longitudinal stripes, the dorsal ochraceous yellow or brown, lateral greenish white or yellow. Total length about three and a half times that of the tail. Syn. Coluber proximus, Say in Long’s Exped. to Rock. Mts. I, 1823, 187. —Hart. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 353. Deep brown almost black above and on the sides; beneath green- ish white. Dorsal stripe on one and two half-rows of scales, ochra- ceous yellow, lateral stripe on the 3d and 4th rows of scales, greenish yellow or white, markedly different in tint from the dorsal. Sides 26 EUTAINIA. of abdominal scutellw, and Ist and 2d dorsal series of the same color as the back. On stretching the skin, numerous short white lines are visible. Occipital plates with two small approximated spots on the line of junction. Orbitals whitish. The greenish white of the ab- domen becomes more yellow anteriorly. In some specimens from along the Rio Grande the dorsal stripe is ochraceous brown. Head more like that of 2. saurita than of FE. Faireyi, while the body is stouter than in either. The subcaudal scales are less nume- rous than in the other two allied species. Resembling 2. Faireyi in color, it is always distinguishable by the stouter body, fewer caudal scales, and dissimilarity of color in the longitudinal stripes. Red Tier 170. 100.19. 33. 9. ee . McClellan. New Braunfels, Texas. 171. 100.19. 25%. 72. F. Lindheimer. Near Indianola. 170:'105. 19. 15%. 4% Col. Graham. & &“ 178. 108019.3 19. 52 oe San Pedro, Texas. 169. 105.19. D42- 4. te Sabinal, New Mex. - -—- -—- — — “ Medina, New Mex. —_ — ——— “ B. Body stouter. Tail shorter. Lateral stripe on the 2d and 3d row of scales. 1. Dorsal rows 19. A, Eutainia infernalis, B. & G.—Most slender of all the species of the section. Head and eye large. Above black: a series of about 110 triangular reddish yellow spots, confluent with the indistinct lateral stripe, itself confluent with the greenish white sides and abdomen. Syn. Coluber infernalis, Buainv. Nouv. Ann. Mus. @Hist. Nat. III, 1834, 59. Pl. xxvi, fig. 3 & 3a. Aspect colubrine, as indicated by Blainville. A vertebral line of yellowish white, cémposed of one and two half-rows of scales, on each side of which is a blackish stripe, not encroaching upon the light colored stripe along the 2d and 384d lateral rows of scales. Above the latter the black is interrupted by about 110 subtriangu- lar spots of reddish yellow or reddish white. Abdomen and exterior row of dorsal scales are greenish white, tinged posteriorly with slate. A minute black spot, more or less covered by the incumbent scutellz i a - EUTAINIA. o7 on each side of each abdominal scale, near the extremity. No occipi- tal spot. The exterior row of dorsal scales is carinated, and larger than the rest, which are about equal. ‘The scales of the slender tail are like- wise carinated. ¥ A specimen collected on Sacramento River by the Exploring Ex- pedition is smaller, but very similar. As usual in small specimens, the black is in the form of isolated spots, confluent above, with an olivaceous brown ground. California. 163. 83.19. 253. 63. Dr. Wm. Gambel. Sacramento River. 170. — 19. 13%. 3%. (ondep.) Expl. Exped. 5. Eutainia Pickeringii, B. & G.—Body slender. Black above, slate-color beneath. Lateral stripe irregular, confluent with the light-colored intervals between the dark spots. This species exhibits great variations in color, principally in re- gard to the amount of black on the abdomen and the extent of the stripes. The most strongly marked specimen is of an intense black, tinged with bluish below. There is a very narrow greenish white vertebral line, beginning at the nape, where it occupies one and two half-scales, and gradually narrows to the carina of the middle dorsal row, becoming obsolete at the anus. The carine of the 2d and 3d rows of exterior dorsal scales show the faint line of greenish white, only perceptible on close observation. The lores, labials, cheeks, and head beneath, greenish white, gradually shading into the blue- black of the abdomen at or about the anterior fifth. Puget Sound, Or. 158. 75.19. 264.63. (ondep.) Expl. Exped. In another specimen, with the general color very dark, the verte- bral line occupies one and two half-scales throughout. The black on each side appears formed by the confluence above of about 76 spots from head to anus, each spot from 1} to 2 scales. long. In other words, there is a stripe of black 54 scales wide on each side of the vertebral line, confluent with which is a series of black spots on each side, as indicated. The lateral stripe is on the 2d lateral row of scales, of a greenish white color, and confluent with the intervals of the spots also of the same color. ‘The stripe is not well defined, but swells and narrows like a knotted cord. Exterior row of dorsal 98 _ EUTAINIA. scales and sides of abdomen deep blue-black, becoming greenish to- ward the middle of the abdomen; anteriorly the color shows more white. Puget Sound, Or. 170. 86.19. 18.43. (on dep.) Expl. Exped. In other specimens the lateral lines are better defined, though al- ways more irregular than usual. Sometimes the color above is more brown than described ; inferiorly, however, there is always a slate- blue tint, especially behind. Puget Sound, Or. 166.87.19. 214. 53. (on dep.) Expl. Exped. Af of LOLS 75519. 226. 255: a «6 In this species the inequality between the exterior dorsal row of scales and the rest is inconspicuous. The former is rather the larger, and little or not at all carinated. The second row is about the same size as the rest. The eyes are larger, and the head shorter than in LE. leptocephala, from the same locality. Collected by the United States Exploring Expedition, and dedi- cated to the discoverer, Dr. Charles Pickering. 6. Eutainia parietalis, B. x G.—Above olive-brown: beneath slate-color. Longitudinal stripes greenish. Spaces about and between the dark spots on the sides, brick red, these colors belonging to the skin, not to the scales. Syy. Coluber parietalis, Say, in Long’s Exped. to Rock. Mts. I, 1823, 186. —Hart. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 349. Body apparently more slender than ZL. sirtal’s. In many respects resembling L. Pickeringtii. The only specimen being a stretched skin preserved in alcohol, the colors are somewhat difficult of definition. Above dark olive, beneath light slate-color, except the inferior sur- face of the head, which is yellowish white. A broad longitudinal dorsal line of one and two half-rows of scales, and an equally dis- tinct one on each side on the second and third dorsal rows, of a greenish slate. The sides of the abdomen and the exterior dorsal row are dark slate-brown. When the skin is stretched, there are seen on each side, between the dorsal and lateral rows, two rows of quadrate black blotches, the first quite distinct, between the third and sixth rows ; the second between the sixth and vertebral line, the spots EUTAINIA. 99 more or less confluent above with each other, and with those on the opposite side; the blotches about one scale apart. The intervals between the blotches of a vivid brick-red, which color, as well as the black, is sometimes seen on the bases of the adjoining scales. None of the short white lines of £. sirtalis are visible. More or less of white on the inferior surface of the tail. The color when living, as described by Say, is black-brown above, beneath bluish green, head beneath white. A vertebral greenish yellow line, and a lateral pale yellow one: about eighty concealed red spots or semifascize on the skin and lateral margin of the scales. Betw. San Antonio &§ El Paso. 157. 78. 19. 36. 8%. Col. Graham. 4%. Eutainia leptocephalia, B. & G.—Scales on the greater portion of tail scarcely carinated. The two exterior dorsal rows on each side unequal, but conspicuously larger than the rest; outer one not cari- nated. Head slender, plane above. Orbitals 8 posterior; 2 anterior. Above light olive-brown, with distinct small brown spots, 130 in a series from head to anus. Exterior row of dorsal scales broader than usual, not carinated ; second smaller, but also broader than usual, and faintly carinated. Top of head nearly plane from occiput to anterior frontals. Head narrow and depressed. Eyes small. Labials narrow. Scales on sides of anus not conspicuously smaller. Color dull light olive-brown or light chocolate, beneath pale green- ish slate: when the epidermis is removed, the subjacent skin of the abdomen is seen minutely punctured and clouded with black, so as to impart this latter color to the whole, except near the edge. Go oa . (on dep.) Expl. Exped. 16 “ 6 149. 66.19. 233. 5. € “é ce “ec 144. 63. 17; 17#.-48. 6 « “ “ 148. — 19. 20. 4. 6 “ §. Eutainia sirtalis, B. & G.—Body among the stoutest of their form. Olivaceous brown above the lateral stripes, sometimes nearly black, beneath them greenish white ; dorsal stripe narrow, encroached upon by the spot; lateral stripes not conspicuous; two or three rows of small indistinct spots, often not perceptible, especially the lower: about 70 from head to anus. Syn. Coluber sirtalis, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 1766, 883.—Gm. Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1107.—Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 352.—StorerR Rep. Rept. Mass. 1839, 221. Tropidonotus bipunctatus, Scuu. Ess. Physiogn. Serp. Part. descr. 1837, 320. Tropidonotus sirtalis, Houser. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 41. Pl. xi. Tropidonotus tenia, Dexay, New Y. Fauna, Rept. 1842, 43. Pl. xiii, fig. 27. Striped Snake. Garter Snake. Color above the lateral stripes dark olive, in old specimens dark brown, beneath greenish white. A narrow, rather indistinct verte- bral greenish yellow line. Three series of small indistinct spots on each side, of about 70 from head to anus. The first series is along the exterior dorsal row, the spots about two scales apart. This is sometimes entirely wanting. The second series is on the 3d, 4th, and 5th-rows from the abdomen; the third upon the 8th and 9th. In many cases the last-mentioned rows have the spots on opposite sides more or less confluent, giving the appearance of a single median series. These rows of spots are sometimes of a dark chestnut-brown, at others nearly black, and often so blended with the olivaceous of the back as to be scarcely discernible. Numerous short white lines visible on stretching the skin. Although the Ist, 2d, and 8d exterior dorsal rows of scales are colored like the abdomen, yet a lighter shade on the 2d and 3d gives indication of a lateral stripe. The bases of the abdominal scales on each side near the outer ex- tremities have a black blotch. There is also the usual double spot on the occiput, not areolated. The dark spotting on the sides be- longs more or less to the skin between the scales, in some cases merely tinging the edges of the latter. EUTAINIA. 31 & 138. — 19. 114. Washington, D. C. See a ah cc St.Lawrence0o.,N.¥. 157. — 19. 15. 84 Dr. Hough. Westport, N. Y. Lo ies80e5 19). 8205. 5R: S. F. Baird. Adirondack Mts.,N.Y.146.— 19. 243. — e ue 151.— 19. 203.— gs as 148.— 19. 143. — ‘S Summerville, N. Y. —-—- —- — — oF Madrid, N. Y. --—- -—- —- = ee Grosse Ile, Mich. —-—- —- — — Rev. Chas. Fox. 66 te Se ie “ ‘“ “ ey S20 pus 4 6c Androscoggin, Me. 155. 66. 19. 213. 44. ©. Girard. Portland, Me. —-—- —- —- — Prof. Caldwell. Clarke Co., Va. 1517 — 19. 26.5 — Dr. Kennerly. “ 160. 56. 19. 183. 32. ie e 145. — 19. 10%. 23. i Centreville, Md. . PL fo: 9 19." FOS 2s. S. F. Baird. Foxburg, Pa. 150: 70. 19.7 242s; oF. te os 147.— 19. 18. 4. te Carlisle, Pa. —-—-—- —- — — i Abbeville, S. C. Lod. Oy I: Dr. Barratt. Anderson, S. C. -—-- - -—- = Miss Paine. Kemper Co., Miss. SON GOD AOS 29'5..6. D. C. Lloyd. Col. P. Force. A very old specimen from Westport, N. Y., (2) has the dorsal line more conspicuous, but still encroached upon by the black spots, (on the exterior half-row.) Bases of all the scales in the exterior row black. Lateral stripe and exterior row bright yellow, and very conspicuous, brighter than the dorsal stripe. Ground-color dark brown. Westport, N. Y. @ 145. 64.19. 34. 7. S. F. Baird. 9. Eutainia dorsalis, B. & G.—Dimensions of JZ. sirtalis. Outer rows of dorsal scales emarginate. Color olivaceous. Dorsal stripe broad, yellow, margined with black. A row of spots above the lateral stripe. A broad dorsal stripe of greenish white very well defined, and covering one and two half-rows of scales, margined on each side for one scale continuously with black. On each side, on the 2d and 5d exterior rows, likewise a broad stripe of the same color. Space be- 39 EUTAINIA. tween the stripes bright olivaceous, in which on each side is indis- tinctly seen a series of rather large spots, about 74 in number from head to anus, and ranged just above the lateral stripe. Abdomen, and below the lateral stripes greenish white, not materially differing from the stripes in color, only rather darker. Sides of abdominal seutellee, and the upper basal edge of the scales in the exterior dorsal row margined with black. A series of black dots on each side of the abdominal scutellee at the base. The scales in the exterior dorsal row acutely emarginated, as are some of those in the 2d row. A specimen collected between Monclova, Mexico, and the Rio Grande, by General Churchill. tio Grande, Texas. 166. 81.19. 253. 64. Gen. S. Churchill. 10. Eutainia ordinata, B. & G.—Olive, with three distinct rows of square dark spots on each side: about 85 from head to anus. Lateral stripe wanting; dorsal, very indistinct. ! Syn. Coluber ordinatus, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 1766, 879.—Gm. Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1097.—Hart. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 349. Tropidonotus ordinatus, Hotpr.-N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 45. Pl. xii. Vipera gracilis maculatus, Catuss. Nat. Hist. Carol. II, 1743, 51. LI. Vipera viridis maculatus, CatesB. Nat. Hist. Carol. II, 1748, 58. LIITI. Garter Snake, or Grass Snake. General color greenish brown or olive. Vertebral yellowish line more or less inconspicuous. Lateral stripe on the 2d and 3d rows of scales very little evident. In fact it might be almost said to be wanting, but for a faint trace. Three series of small square dark blotches on each side, about 85 in number from head to anus. The first is on the outer row of dorsal scales, involving the edges of the contiguous scales, The second on the 4th row; the third on each side of the dorsal stripe, both like the first, involving the edges of, and intervals between the contiguous scales; indeed, on stretching apart the skin, the black spots are seen to be converted into a net- work of black along the skin. Beneath greenish white, with spots of black near each end of the abdominal scutelle. Upper labial plates all prominently edged vertically with black. This species strongly resembles Z. sirtalis, especially the spotted varieties. It may, however, be readily distinguished by the three regular series of tessellated black spots on each side, their promi- EUTAINIA. 99 nence, and their number, about 85, not 70. The lateral stripe is nearly absent, and the dorsal quite indistinct. The lower row of blotches is below and along the place of the lateral stripes. The oc- cipital black patch is much larger than in, Z. sirtalis, and the labials more margined. From 2. Marciana, which it resembles, the want of the light patch behind the mouth, and the different number of dorsal rows will always distinguish it. Riceboro, Ga. 130 °68)-19 292.28. 7. Dr. Jones. Ke 141.5519; * 21 oF: m Georgia. 152. 79.19. 14.8%. Prof. C. B. Adams. Wi. Eutainia ordimoides, B. & G.—A dorsal and two lateral stripes. On each side two series of black spots, about 80 in number; be- tween the lower series reddish brown; between the upper olivaceous. Dor- sal rows 19-21. Body stouter than most species. Exterior row of dorsal scales the larger, carinated. Remaining scales nearly equal. Caudal scales strongly carinated. Syvy. TZropidonotus ordinoides, B. & G.—Proc. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. VI, 1852, 176. A very strongly defined dorsal stripe of a yellowish color, occupy- ing one and two half-scales. A second line less distinct along the 2d and 3d rows from the abdomen. On each side, between the dorsal and lateral stripes, are two series of subquadrate black spots, 80 to 84 in number, arranged alternately, and occupying portions of seve- ral scales; the spots in the lower series larger. Intervals between the lower series of spots occupied by reddish brown scales, in shape and color somewhat resembling the dead leaves of the hemlock, (Abies canadensis). Intervals between the upper series olivaceous brown, more or less blended with the black. Beneath uniform green- ish white, with bases of the scales black, as they are also on the more exterior dorsal rows; this color, however, rarely shows beyond the margin of the incumbent scales. In one specimen, which is much larger than the others, the dorsal spots form a rather narrow margin to the broad dorsal stripe, and are more or less confluent with the ground-color. Space between the lower row of spots pale reddish. Dorsal scales 19. Ninety spots from head to anus. The characters are very aires marked, and easily recognised. 34 EUTAINIA. ees Sele tay (on dep.) California. 161. 67.19. 35%. 73. (84 spots) i Heplaienea San Francisco, Cal. 165. 85.21. 212. 84. He “6 167. 84.19. 283.74. (80spots.) Dr. Leconte. 12. Eutainia radix, B. & G.—General color black, with three nar- row gamboge-yellow lines. Lateral rows of scales broader than usual. The head is shorter than usual with the genus. The exterior row of dorsal scales is very broad, nearly as high as long. The second nearly similar in proportion, (a little longer than high,) but smaller, and yet markedly larger than the third and succeeding rows. Pos- terior angle of the exterior dorsal scales truncated, with the corners rounded off, a character seen to less extent on the second row. The carination of all the scales is greater than usual, and the whole animal has a rougher appearance. Color above deep brownish black, on the sides verging to lustrous anthracite black, especially on the exterior dorsal and sides of ab- dominal scutelle. Beneath bluish black, with minute mottlings of dull gamboge yellowish, which increasing anteriorly becomes uni- form greenish gamboge yellow on the anterior third. A narrow line of black near the posterior edge across each abdominal scutella. A dorsal line of gamboge yellow along the middle of the vertebral row of scales, and one on each side along the 3d lateral row, occasionally involving the lower edge of the 4th row. There are faint indications of the usual black spots where the epidermis has been lost. Racine, Wisconsin. 158. 51.19. 223. 43. Dr. Hoy. 3. Dorsal rows 21. 13. Eutainia elegans, B. & G.—Resembles L. proxima, but be- longs to a different section. Black above, light beneath. A broad ochra- ceous dorsal stripe, with two lateral, greenish white. Dorsal scales 21. Head very short, broad. Upper labial plates highly developed. Eyes small. Exterior dorsal row of scales largest, delicately cari- nated, remainder of equal size. Above deep blackish brown. An ochraceous or dark gamboge-yellow dorsal stripe begins at the occiput, and suddenly widening to the width of 3 or 4 scales, contracts gradu- EUTAINTA. 35 ally to one and two half-rows, at which it continues to the tail. On each side is a well-defined stripe of greenish yellow along the second and part of the third outer row, and contrasting decidedly in color with the vertebral line. The blackish brown color is strongly defined between the stripes, below them the greenish white sides and abdo- men are tinged with brown, (on the exterior dorsal and ends of ab- dominal scutellz.) The bases of the scales on the exterior dorsa: row are black, which sometimes shows when the scales are separated, though usually covered by the incumbent edges. The species is readily distinguished from its nearest analogue, E.. infernalis, by the darker color of the sides, the ochraceous dorsal stripe, smaller head, number of dorsal scales, &c. It has a strong resemblance to #. proxima in distribution of color, but is stouter and shorter, and has the lateral stripe on the 2d and 8d rows, not on the 3d and 4th. El Dorado Co., Cal. 167. 57.21. 284. 44. Dr. C. C. Boyle. A second specimen, belonging to the Boston Natural History So- ciety, has precisely the same markings, although with but 19 dorsal rows. As usual in young individuals, it has black spots along the sides upon an olivaceous ground, with which they are confluent. Above the lateral stripe are seen from 80 to 90 black spots from head to anus, as well as a series of small ones below the line. California. 155. 80. 19. 134. 34. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 14. Eutainia wagrans, Bb. & G.—Above light brown, beneath slate-color. Vertebral light line on a single row of scales. Two series of small black spots, about 100 in number, on each side. Above light brown; beneath slate-color, (sometimes black,) with the margins of the scutellze black. A dorsal line occupying a single row of scales, of a dull yellowish color, the tint occasionally running into the marginal row. On each side of this, two series of small black spots occupying generally a single scale, and varying from 95 to 105, from occiput to anus. The upper series is in the 2d row from the vertebral, the lower in the 7th. Compared with its nearest neighbor, 27. leptocephala, it differs in having the exterior row of dorsal scales large and carinated, the next 86 EUTAINIA. row scarcely if at all larger than the rest. Scales of tail decidedly carinated. Labial plates much developed. It has also 21 rows of dorsal scales, and 106, not 150 spots, in series from head to anus. The head is larger and much arched. The specimen from Puget Sound, may possibly belong to a closely allied species, though it is much like that from California. California. 169.80. 21. 27. 64. (98 spots) Dr. Gambel. Humboldt Ri-)\ _ 5 ‘ 179. 70-80. 21. 12. 3. (100 “ ) J.S.Bowman. ver, Cal. South of Rio Grande, N. 173.90. 21. 153.4. (106 “ ) Gen.Churchill. Mexico. Puget Sound. 161.58. 21. 12§.23. (ondep.) Expl. Exped. 15. Eutainia Marciana, B. & G.—Prominent color light brown; a vertebral paler line and one lateral on each side, more or less indistinct. Three series of square black spots on each side, of about 56-60 in each series, from occiput to anus. Sides of head black, with a crescentic patch of yel- lowish posterior to the labial plates. Three and sometimes four black vittee radiating from the eye across the jaws. A double white spot with a black margin on the suture of occipital plates. The markings about the head are generally very constant and dis- tinct. Viewed laterally, we see first the large dark brown patch at the back part of the head, extending as far back as the posterior ex- tremity of the jawbones. In the anterior part of this patch is seen the crescentic patch (concave before) of yellowish white, with a more or less narrow dark-brown margin anteriorly. The next black band starts from the posterior edge of the superciliaries, and passes ob- liquely downwards and backwards along the posterior edge of the 6th upper labial. Similar black margins are seen on the posterior edges of the 5th and 4th labials, the intervening spaces being yel- lowish white, particularly on the 5th upper labial. Occasionally the posterior margins of the 7th and 3d labials have the black line as well as those mentioned, which frequently extend across to the pos- terior margins of the corresponding lower labials. The white spot on the anterior portion of the occipital suture is always margined with black. The six series of black spots are arranged so as to alternate with each other. The lower or third series on each side is below the indis- tinct lateral stripe. EUTAINIA. 3T The posterior edges of each abdominal scutella shows a black margined spot on each side. The dorsal line is gene- rally a single scale in width, occasionally including portions of the lateral, and itself sometimes encroached upon by the black spots. Each spot is about a scale or a scale and a half long, and about three scales broad. The number in the dorsal series from the head to the Posterior edges of scales very slightly All are decidedly keeled. anus varies from 56 to 60. emarginate, if at all. Red River, Ark. 152. 75. 21. New Braun- (2 felsy Tex ; 153. 75. 21. 6 Hoos woe 2. S 149761. 21. 6c ee te Ls Near San aie eee } T6355. 2h. ac 16085: 21: San Pedro. 156. 78. 21. 6 153. 70. 21. Indianola. 145. 66. 21. d4. 8. bo olco oo Capts. Marcy & eeeBole { McClellan. . 60 F. Lindheimer. 60 6c “ 56 66 cc 5A 6c c 34. 58 “ Col. J. D. Graham. 56 «& 66 . 56 ce 6c 56 6c 6c DT 66 “ 38 NERODIA. Genus NERODMTA, Bainp & Girarp. GEN. CHAR. Body generally stout, and almost all the species at- taining a large size. ‘Tail one-fourth or one-fifth of the total length. Scales carinated. Cephalic plates normal. Anterior orbitals gene- rally 1, occasionally 2; posterior 3, occasionally 2. Last and some- times penultimate abdominal scutelle bifid; subcaudal, all bifid or divided. Dorsal rows of scales 23-29. Abdominal. scutelle 135-154. Subcaudal 66-80. General color, three series of dark blotches on a lighter ground, sometimes almost uniform, brown or blackish. Abdomen unicolor or maculated. Habits aquatic. i. Nerodia sipedom, B. & G.—Head rather narrow, elongated. One anteorbital; three postorbitals. Vertical plate smaller, and occipitals larger than in WV. fasciata. Length of vertical equal to commissural line of occipitals. Inframaxillary plates extending near to posterior extremity of seventh lower labials. Dull brown, with narrow transverse light bands margined with black. Dorsal rows 23. Syn. Coluber sipedon, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 1766, 379.—Gm. Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1098.—Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 351.—Tuomps. Hist. of Verm. 1842, 118. Coluber peecilogaster, Max. Winp. Reise Inn. Nord. Amer. I, 1839, 106. Tropidonotus sipedon House. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 29. Pl. vi. Water Snake. General color dull brown, exhibiting narrow transverse bands of lighter, margined with dark brown or black; these bands generally about half a scale in width, and their margins more or less parallel immediately on the back. This is especially the case posteriorly, where they are usually at right angles to the axis of the body; an- teriorly they are more or less oblique, and widen rapidly towards the abdominal scutellee. Sometimes the general brown hue is so predomi- nant as to render the transverse marks more or Jess obsolete, and the general tint then appears uniform above. The abdomen is always dull yellowish, each scutella with large blotches of light brown, margined with black. NERODIA. 39 Vv In young individuals, and those generally in which the epidermis has been removed, the normal type of coloration is seen to consist of three series of nearly quadrate dark-brown spots, with still darker border, one dorsal, and one on each side. These are so disposed that the two corresponding Jateral spots are opposite the interval between the two dorsal, and thus appear to be connected by a light line. The longitudinal diameter of the dorsal spots, amounting to 3 or 4 scales, is the greater, just the reverse of what is the case with the lateral. Of these lateral spots there are generally about 32 on each side from the head to the anus, the spaces between them being equal to or less - than the spots, (not greater, as in NV. fasciata). While this pattern is generally quite distinguishable on the pos- terior half of the body, anteriorly it becomes confused, the lateral blotches standing opposite to the dorsal, and becoming confluent, so that the back appears crossed by lozenge-shaped blotches extending to the abdominal scutellze, and thus separated on the sides by triangu- lar intervals of a lighter color. Occasionally the color appears to be a dull and rather light brown, with the back crossed by narrow transverse lines, with dark (nearly black, but still not distinct) margins. Small specimens from Framingham and Westport show a larger amount of black on the sides and abdomen. Carlisle, Pa. 14241. 68. 23. 35. 83 8. F. Baird. < 142+1.— 23. — — e a 143-41. 66. 23. — — re c 136-1. 75. 28. 12. 33. . “3 143-++-1.'67. 238. 9. 22. « wh 137-1. 75. 23. 274. 74. ef ef 140+-1. 71. 23. 143. 32. 6 g 141-++1. 80. 23. 26. 72. e Westport, NV. Y. 140-11. 70. 28. 16. 4 os Centreville, Md. 136-+-1. 62.25. — — ee Washington, D.C. 1388+-1. 62.23. 35. 8. sf Framingham, Mass. = — —-—_—- —- — ee Grosse Isle, Mich. 148-+1.— 23. 27. 5%. Rev. Chas. Fox. fe 142-1. 59. 23. 24. 54 i 2. Nerodia fasciata, B. & G.—Head broader behind, and deeper than in JV. sipedon ; hence a greater development of labials, temporals, lorals, and nasals. Three and sometimes only two postorbitals. Vertical plate AO NERODIA. pentagonal, broad. Transversal lozenge-shaped or oblong black patches on the back, tapering on the sides. About thirty oblong or triangular marks of red on the flanks. Dorsal rows of scales 23, sometimes 25. Syn. Coluber fasciatus, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 1766, 378.—Hoisr. N. Amer. Herp. I, 1838, 938. PL. xx. Coluber porcatus, Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 356. Tropidonotus fasciatus, Houpr. N. Amer. Herp. 2d ed. III, 1842, 25. Pl. vy. Head elliptical, tapering on the snout. Dorsal rows of scales 23-25, all carinated ; carinze on the dorsal region very conspicuous. Scales on the outer row broad and rounded posteriorly. Tail one-fourth of total length, very much tapering. Vertical plate elongated, pentago- nal, posterior triangular portion obtuse. Superciliaries very narrow. Two postorbitals and sometimes three. Superior labials 8 in num- ber; 6th and 7th very large. Inferior labials 9 ; 4th and 5th largest. Last abdominal scutella divided. A large temporal shield anteriorly contiguous to the postorbitals. Ground-color above in the adult uniform blackish brown, lighter in the young, which exhibit transverse lozenge-shaped black patches irregularly tapering on the sides. There are from 50 to 38 subtri- angular or vertically oblong red spots extending to the abdominal scutella. The 26th of these red markings is opposite to the anus, and twelve smaller ones may be observed along the tail, gradually diminishing posteriorly. A black vitta extends from the posterior rim of the eye to behind the angle of the mouth, above and below which a light elongated patch tinged with red may be seen. Under- neath reddish white. lLabials dusky, margined with reddish brown. Charleston, S. C. 1324-1. 70. 25. 28. 7. Dr. Barker. “ 130-+1. 41. 23. 40. 63. Acad. Nat. Se. Summerville, S.C. 128+1. 75.23. 21. 54. C. Girard. 3. Nerodia erythrogaster, B. & G.—Head elongated, narrowing forwards; occipital region flattened; convex on the snout. Vertical plate pentagonal, very large, as are also the occipitals. Three postorbitals. An elevated loral. Dorsal rows of scales 23 in number, all very strongly cari- nated. Uniform dark bluish black above, lighter on the sides; a lateral or external band of dull blue extending on the abdominal scutelle. Body be- neath uniform dull yellow, tail bluish. Syn. Coluber erythrogaster, SHaw, Gen. Zool. III, 1804, 458.—Horsr. N. Amer. Herp. II, 1888, 91. Pl. xix. NERODIA. AY Tropidonolus erythrogaster, Houpr. N. Amer. Herp. 2d ed. III, 1842, 33. Pr. viil. Viper a venrre vapret votorrs, CatusB. Nat. Hist. Carol. II, 1742, 46. Tab. xlvi. The head is proporticnally narrow and elongated, flattened above, and convex on the snout. The vertical plate is elongated and sub- pentagonal, broader anteriorly than pusteriorly, with the sides slightly concave. The postorbital plates, proportionally small, are three in number. Loral large and polygonal, higher than long. There are three or four temporal shields very much developed. Dorsal rows of scales 23 or 24 in number, strongly carmated, with the keels on the posterior third of the body, constituting very conspicuous and continuous ridges, the intermediate depressions or furrows giving to the body and tail a canaliculated appearance. The lateral or outer row, however, is but slightly carinated. The tail itself is subconical, very much tapering, forming one-fourth of the entire length. The color, as taken from life, is said to be brick-red above, tinged with green on the sides, and uniform copper-color beneath. Prairie Mer Rouge, La. 154--1. 80. 24. 44. 11}. Jas. Fairie. Biss piri’ ch ls (on dep.) Carolina. 149-1. 23. 505. ee Nat. Se. 4. Nerodia Agassizii, B. & G.—Dorsal rows of scales 23, carinated except the outer row, which is entirely smooth. A second very small ante- orbital; postorbitals three. Color uniform reddish brown above, with obso- lete transverse narrow light bands under the epidermis; yellowish beneath. The vertical plate is proportionally more contracted on the sides than in any of the species of this genus, and also more tapering. The occipital plates are broad and proportionally large. The eyes are rather small, resembling in that respect those of NV. tawispilota, the latter differing however greatly from it in being provided with five more rows of dorsal scales; the scales of the outer dorsal row are proportionally large and perfectly smooth, while these are keeled in the other species. ‘The number of subcaudal scutellee could not be ascertained, as the only specimen at our command is destitute of a tail. The two last abdominal scutellze are bifid. The color, though uniform in the adult, in the immature state is blotched, as in other species of this genus; judging from the trans- 42 NERODIA. verse narrow light bands that may be seen on the back when the epidermis is removed. Lake Huron. 147+2.—23. 24.— (ondep.) Prof. Agassiz. 5. Nerodia Woodhousii, B. & G.—Dorsal rows of scales 25, carinated. Three series of subquadrate black blotches, a dorsal and two lateral, the latter vertically elongated. A double yellow occipital spot. A yellow spot between the superciliaries and vertical plates. A black vitta from posterior rim of eyes to angle of mouth. The head is broad behind, and tapers forwards, very much flattened above. ‘The mouth is very deeply cleft. The labials are nine above and eleven below; the 5th, 6th, and 7th the largest on both jaws. Ground-color dusky, with a dorsal series of subquadrangular black blotches, 37 to 40 in number, separated by a narrow whitish trans- verse line. A lateral series of vertically elongated black blotches, alternating with the dorsal series, with anterior and posterior margins nearly parallel, sometimes tapering downwards and reaching the ab- dominal scutella. The fuscous space between the lateral blotches is wider than that occupied by the blotches themselves. Along the tail, both the dorsal and lateral blotches are small and subeircular. Underneath the color is yellowish, and the scutellz in the young, margined posteriorly with black, while in the adult the middle region of the scutellee is unicolor. The head is brownish black, with a double yellow spot near the commissure of the occipital plates, and two spots of the same color on the commissural line between the vertical and superciliaries. A black vitta extends from the posterior rim of the eye to the angle of the mouth. Indianola. 1441-1.— 25. 273.— Col.J.D. Graham. Betw. Ind. & San ore \ 144-11. 64. 25. 103. 23. 66 Ks 142-+-1.°79. 25. 11. 24. Sabinal, Tex. 144-1-1. 68.25." 13.- 3. “ New Braunfels, Tex. 148-+-1. 68.25. 34. 7}. F. Lindheimer. me 147-L1. 72. 25. 25." 63. “ ef 145-+-1. 70. 25. 17. 44. « NERODIA. 43 o 6. Nerodia taxispileta, B. & G.—Head proportionally small, subtriangular, pointed on the snout. Vertical plate broad, subquadrangu- lar; occipitals small. Two postorbital plates; anteorbital narrow. Dorsal rows of scales 29, allcarinated. Brown, with three series of subquadrangu- lar blackish blotches. Syn. Coluber taxispilotus, Hotpr. N. Amer. Herp. II, 1888, 118. Pl. xxv. Tropidonotus taxispilotus, Houpr. N. Amer. Herp. 2d ed. III, 1842, 35. Pl. viii. The head is proportionally small, conical forwards. The eyes also are small. The vertical plate has the shape of an elongated quad- rangle. The occipital plates are rather small and posteriorly attenu- ated. The anterior frontal plates are small and triangular, the apex of the triangle being directed forwards. There are two large post- orbital plates. The superciliaries are narrow and elongated. Dor- sal rows 29; their scales all carinated. Ground-color reddish brown, with three series of subquadrangular blackish blotches, forty-six in number, the twenty-sixth opposite the anus. ‘They embrace transversely from 7 to 10 rows of scales, and longitudinally three scales on the two anterior thirds of the body, and two scales on the posterior third. The space between the blotches is equal to the blotches themselves. The lateral series are isolated, that is to say, not contiguous to the dorsal series except sometimes towards the origin of the tail and along the latter region. The blotches extend over nine or ten lateral rows of scales, and affect from three to five scales. Hquilateral on the anterior part of the body, they become narrower on the posterior part, and taper upwards. The space between is narrower by one scale. On the tail the dorsal series of blotches has almost entirely disappeared ; now and then an irregular patch may be seen confluent with the lateral series, which remain conspicuous to the very tip of that organ. The lower surface of the body is yellowish white, with irregular deep chestnut-brown patches, the lateral ones contiguous to the lateral series. Riceboro, Liberty Co., Ga. 141-11. 80.29. 86.9. Dr. W.L. Jones. 4%. Nerodia HMolbrookii, B. & G.—Head ovoid or elliptical, nar- rowest on the snout. Vertical plate much longer than in J. taxispilota. Oc- cipitals much larger also. Three postorbitals. Loral higher than long. Dorsal scales in 27 rows, all strongly carinated. Brown, with three series of quadrangular black blotches, the blotches of the lateral series alternat- ing with those of the dorsal. 44 NERODIA. Head and eyes propor Aonally larger than in N. taxispilota. Verti- cal plate subpentagonal, and more elongated than in NV. taxispilota. Occipital plates also much more developed and broader. Inframaxil- lary longer. Proportion between the length of the tail and that of the body about the same as in WV. taxispilota. The rows of scales 27 in number, and carinated ; the scales themselves proportionally much larger than in JV. taxispilota. The lateral row especially differs much in that respect. Ground-color reddish brown, with three series of black subquad- rangular blotches, forty-one in number, the twenty-fifth opposite the anus. They embrace transversely six or seven rows of scales, instead of seven or ten as in JV. taxispilota. Longitudinally they cover three scales on the anterior portion of the body, and two posteriorly as in NV. taxispilota. The intermediate space, however, is greater than the blotches themselves, embracing one scale more. ‘The lateral series are contiguous to the dorsal one, and alternate regularly with it. The blotches extend on seven lateral rows, embracing three scales, while the intermediate space embraces four of them. Beneath yel- lowish white, with small and irregular brown blotches scattered along the sides. Prairie Mer Rouge, La. 144+1.70.27. 35.8. Jas. Fairie. 6 141+-1. 68.27. 33. 7. a REGINA. 45 Genus REGINA, Bairp & Garp. Gen. Cuar. Body slender; tail subconical, very much tapering, forming one-third or one-fourth of the total length. Head conical, continuous with the body, and proportionally small. yes large. Mouth deeply cleft. Labials small. Loral and nasals large. Scales carinated. Cephalic plates normal. Anterior orbitals 2, occasion- ally one ; posterior 2, occasionally 3. Last and sometimes last but one abdominal scutellee bifid or divided. Subcaudal scutellee all divided. Dorsal rows of scales 19-21. Abdominal scutellee 182-162. Sub- caudal 52-86. General color five or more longitudinal dark bands on a lighter ground. Abdomen unicolor, or likewise provided with similar bands. Aquatic. 1. Regina leberis, B. & G.—Chestnut-brown, with a lateral yellow band, and three narrow black dorsal vitte. Abdomen yellowish, with four brown bands, two of which are lateral and two medial. Dorsal rows of scales 19, all carinated. Syn. Coluber leberis, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. x, I, 1766, 216.—Gm. Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1086.—Suaw Gen. Zool. III, iii, 1804, 433. Coluber septemvittatus, Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. IV, 1825, 240.— Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 855; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 118. Tropidonotus leberis, Horpr. N. Amer. Herp. IV, 1842, 49. Pl. xiii.i—DrxKay, New York Fauna, Rept. 1842, 45. PI. xi, fig. 23. Head small, very much depressed, flattened on the region behind the orbit, sloping anteriorly. Vertical plate pentagonal, proportion- ally broad. There are two anteorbitals, the upper one the larger; and two postorbitals, the upper one the smaller. The loral is large and higher than long. One temporal shield only. Upper labials, 8; 6th and 7th largest. Lower labials 10; 5th and 6th largest. Scales regularly elliptical, slightly notched posteriorly, and all of them carinated, gradually diminishing in width from the sides to- wards the middle line of the back. Those of the outer row one-third broader than the rest, and posteriorly subtruncated. 46 REGINA. Ground-color dark chestnut or chocolate-brown above, marked with three narrow black vittee or bands, one covering the medial row of dorsal scales, and two (one on each side) following the fifth row. A lateral yellow band occupies the upper half of the outer row and the whole of the second row, thus broader than the black bands above. Immediately below, and contiguous to it, a somewhat larger brown band covers the lower half of the outer row of scales and the ex- tremity of the abdominal scutellz. The abdomen is yellowish, pro- vided along its middle region with two approximate brown bands, similar though a little narrower, and interrupted by the yellowish edge of the scutellz. The tail beneath is almost rendered uniformly brown by the confluence of the bands. Carlisle, Pa. 144-2. 81..19. 234. 64. 8. F. Baird. ee 142-1. 86. 19. 214. 62. « ec 14211. 71.19, 143. 33. “ 6 145-+1. 78.19. 9%. 2%. “ af 140-++1. 75.19. 8%. 22. 6 Foxburg, Pa. 151+1.— 19. 23. — af Grosse Isle, Mich. 147-11. 64.19. 183.4%. Rev. Chas. Fox. Highland Co., Ohio. 1494-1. 76.19. 11%. 23. Jos. M.D.Mathews Washington, D.C. 141-+1. 81.19. 114. 23. (ondep.) Nat. Inst 2, Regina rigida, B. & G.—Greenish brown above; two deep brown vitte: along the dorsal region. Contiguous edges of the outer row of scales and abdominal scutelle finely margined with brown. The middle region of the outer row like the abdomen, as is that of the second row, but less dis- tinctly. Abdomen reddish yellow, with two series of black spots on the middle region, approaching each other towards the anterior region of the body. Dorsal rows of scales 19, carinated except the outer row, which is smooth. Syn. Coluber rigidus, Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. IV, 1825, 39.— Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. V, 1827, 855; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 118. Tropidonotus rigidus, Hotpr. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 39. Pl. x. Head proportionally larger than in 7. /eberis, much less depressed and shorter on the snout. Its upper surface is flat, the snout convex, the high and large rostral making it less sloping. Vertical plate subhexagonal and elongated. Occipitals truncated posteriorly. Su- perciliaries narrow and tapering forwards. Anterior pair of frontals very small. Two postorbitals of nearly equal size, and two ante- REGINA. AT orbitals, the upper one much larger than the lower. Loral subcireu- lar or oblong. An elongated and narrow temporal shield, followed by two or three smaller. Upper labials 7, 5th and 6th very large. Lower labials 11, 6th and 7th largest. Scales elliptical, narrower along the middle line of the back, carinated, except the outer row, which is perfectly smooth, and furthermore distinguished by the scales having their height greater than their length. The second row is noticeable for its size, and sometimes for its want of carina- tion, which in all cases is obsolete. The ground-color is uniform greenish brown, but each scale on the flanks is provided with a small blotch of deeper brown at its base. The brown vittee of the back cover each one entire row, and the half of the two adjoining rows, separated on the dorsal line by one row and two half-scales of the ground-color. Beneath dull yellowish. Along the middle region of the abdomen there are two series of elongated deep brown blotches approaching each other towards the anterior region and under the tail, sometimes however not extending beyond the anus. Southern States. 135+1. 71.19. 123 Riceboro, Ga. 135-++1. 56.19. 7%. Pennsylvania. 182-1. 52.19. 21. . dt. Rev. Dr. J. G. Morris. 1}. Dr. W. L. Jones. 4. (on dep.) Acad. Nat. Se. 3s Regina Grahamiii, B. & G.—Brown, with a dorsal light band margined on either side with a black line or vitta. A broad band of yellow on the flanks, margined likewise with a black vitta. Abdomen unicolor, yellowish. Dorsal rows of scales 20, all carinated. Head elongated, slender, depressed, and flattened above, slightly sloping on the snout. Occipitals elongated and posteriorly pointed. Vertical plate subpentagonal, narrower anteriorly. Superciliaries proportionally well developed, as also the anterior pair of frontals. Two anteorbitals, lower one a little the larger. Three postorbitals, the lower one very small and almost suborbital in its position. Loral elevated. Rostral well developed. Upper labials 7, 5th and 6th largest. Lower labials 10, 5th and 6th largest. Dorsal rows of scales 20, all carinated. The three outer rows sensibly the largest, and truncated posteriorly, while the remaining ones are tapering. A light-brown band along the dorsal line, covering one and two half-rows of scales. On each side of this a narrow black vitta cover- ing one and a half scales. Next succeed three rows of scales, uni- 48 REGINA. formly brown. Then again, a black vitta covering an entire row of scales, and the edge of the row immediately under it, (the third.) The first, second, and most of the third outer rows of scales are straw-color. This yellowish band extends forwards, passing under the head to the extremity of the snout. A black line is seen run- ning from bebind the neck to the anus, affecting the extremity of the scutelle, and occasionally the lower edge of the outer row of _ scales. The abdomen is uniform light straw-color; a medial nebu- lous blackish band under the tail is observable. Rio Salado, Tex. 161-++-1..57. 20. 102.2. ColoJ. D. Graham. 4, Regima Clarkii, B. & G.—Yellowish brown, with four longitu- dinal bands of deeper brown. Abdomen dull yellow, with two clouded brown bands dotted with black. One anteorbital. Dorsal rows of scales 19, all carinated. This is the largest species of the genus. Head elongated, conical from occiput to the extremity of the snout, depressed above, subcon- cave on the occipital region, slightly sloping on the snout. Cephalic plates very much developed. Vertical subpentagonal, broader anteri- orly, though slightly tapering. Anterior pair of frontals quite large. Three and sometimes only two postorbitals, variable in comparative size; when there are three, the lowermost is suborbital. One ante- orbital, large. oral well developed, longer than high. Upper labials 8, 5th and 6th largest, the latter very large. Scales of the body elliptical, rounded posteriorly. Outer row somewhat’ larger than the rest, and very slightly carinated. Color of head dirty brown, occipital and temporal region blackish. Each of the four longitudinal bands of deep brown covers two rows of scales. The intermediate yellowish brown spaces embrace each two rows of scales also, except the dorsal one, which has three rows. Each of the abdominal clouded bands embraces one-fourth of ab- dominal space, inside of which is left a yellow space one-fourth of the width, and exteriorly another yellow space one-eighth of the width of abdominal space. The tail beneath is blackish, owing to the confluence of the abdominal bands, interspersed with yellowish macule. Indianola. 18241. 57.19. 313. 6%. Col. J. D. Graham. 79 ce cc A ce “c E 66 NINTIA. 49 Genus NENEA, Bairp & Girarp. GEN. CHAR. Head elongated, ovoid, distinct from the body. Cephalic plates normal. ‘Two nasals. A large loral produced into the orbit between the anteorbitals, which are two in number. Two postorbitals. #Scales all carinated. Subcaudal scutellee bifid. Ninia diademata, B. & G.—Body above deep chestnut; on the middle of each scale an elongated yellowish spot. A yellow occipital blotch Abdomen yellowish, with a medial brown band. Dorsal scales in 19 rows. The vertical plate is hexagonal, as broad anteriorly as long; an- terior angle very obtuse; posterior angle acute. The occipitals are very much developed, rounded exteriorly and posteriorly, angular anteriorly. The postfrontals are likewise remarkable for their great development; they are obtusely quadrilateral, being somewhat longer than broad. The prefrontals are proportionally reduced, angular, broader outside. The rostral is broad and well developed. The nostril opens through the middle of the posterior margin of the pre- nasal, and is seen from above; the postnasal is subquadrilateral, higher than long. The loral occupies a large portion of the face; it is angular in shape, and behind extends to the orbit between the anteorbitals. The lower anteorbital is subtriangular, resting on the 4th upper labial, contiguous to the commissure of the 3d; the upper anteorbital is regularly quadrangular, and visikle from above. There are two postorbitals, subquadrangular in shape. The superciliaries are rather small, narrow, and elongated. Anterior temporal shield very large, the rest resembling scales. The eyes are proportionally large and circular. The mouth deeply cleft. Upper labials 6; 5th largest. Lower labials 6; 4th largest. Body subcylindrical, deeper than broad; tail very slender and tapering, about one-third of the total length. The scales are all cari- nated, and constitute 19 rows, the outer row considerably larger, the rest diminishing towards the back. Postabdominal scutella appa- 4 50 NINIA. rently entire; the shrunken state of the specimen did not allow a satisfactory examination to be made. The ground-color of the head and body above is a deep chestnut. On the posterior part of the head is a yellow ring, sending a narrow stripe along the upper, labials to the orbit. Hach scale is provided on its middle with a narrow and elongated yellow dot, very conspicu- ous on the outer row of scales, giving at first the impression of a narrow vitta along the sides. The exterior edge of the abdomen is of the same color as the back. ‘The abdomen is yellowish; a medial chestnut band extends from the head to the tip of the tail, interrupted only by the narrow yellowish margin of the scutelle themselves. Orizaba, Mex. 1386. — 19. 83. 23. Jas. Fairie. HETERODON. 51 Gexus HE TERODON, Pat. vz Beavv. Gen. CHar. Body short, stout, tail shart. Head, neck, and body capable of excessive dilatation. Posterior palatine teeth longer. Head broad, short; outline of mouth very convex, on a single curve. Orbit enclosed by a continuous chain of small plates, the circle com- pleted above by the superciliaries. Rostral prominent, its anterior face very broad, and turned up; its ridge above sharp. Behind it a median plate, either in contact with the frontals or separated by small plates. Frontals in two pairs. Nasals two. Loral one or two. Dor- sal rows of scales 25-27, carinated? Abdominal scutellee 125-150, posterior bifid. Subcaudal scutellee all bifid. Colors light, with dorsal and lateral darker blotches, or else brown, with dorsal transverse light bars. Sometimes entirely black. The species exhibit a very threatening appearance when alive, in flattening the head, hissing violently, &c. but are perfectly harmless. Syn. Heterodon, Pau. DE BEAU. in Latr. Hist. Nat. des Rept. IV, 1799. A. Azygos behind the rostral, in direct contact with the frontals 1. HMeterodon platyrhinos, Larr.—Occipitals and vertical longer than broad, about equal in length. Centre of eye anterior. Dorsal rows 25, all carinated, the outer sometimes smooth. Keels of the scales extending to their tips. Scales on the back quite linear anteriorly, posteriorly they are much broader. Color yellowish gray, or brown, with about 28 dark dor sal blotches from head to anus, and 15 half-rings on the tail. One or two lateral rows. Beneath yellowish. A dark band across the forehead in front of the vertical, continued through the eye to the angle of the mouth. Syn. Coluber heterodon, Daup. Hist. Nat. Rept. VII, 1799, 158. Pl. Ix. fig. 28.—Say, Amer. Journ. of Sc. I, 1818, 261.—Hart. Journ. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. V, 1827, 357; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 120. Heterodon platyrhinos, Larr. Hist. Nat. Rept. LV, 1799, 82, fig. 1-3. —Hoxpr. N. Amer. Herp. II, 1828, 97. Pl. xxi; and 2d ed. IV, 1842, 67. Pl. xvii. Hog-nose Snake; Blowing Viper. 52 HETERODON. Vertical plate hexagonal, narrower behind; longer than broad; ~ angles all distinct, lateral outlines straight. Postfrontal large, the lateral angle extending down to the loral; the two postfrontals separated anteriorly by the azygos or postrostral. Prefrontals smaller, entirely separated by the azygos. Rostral with the out- line spherical angled, subacute at the apex, its upper surface com- pressed into a sharp ridge, which, prolonged backwards between the nasals and the prefrontals, connects with the azygos. This is linear, subpentagonal, acute-angled behind, where it wedges between the postfrontals. Superciliaries large. Scales behind the head distinctly carinated. Eye large. Line connecting tip of rostral with the postinferior corner of the last labial passes over the lower part of the eye. A triangular nasal, with the corners rounded, joined by its apex to the exterior angle of the postfrontals. Nostrils valvular, situated entirely in the posterior nasal, the anterior edge formed by the anterior nasal. Labials 8 above, 6th largest, the 3d to the 6th in contact with the suborbitals: two large temporal shields above the three posterior labials. Centre of the eye anterior to the middle of the chord connecting the apex of rostral and posterior end of labials and over the middle of the 5th labial. Outline of upper jaw convex. Lower labials eleven. Body stout and short. Tail very short, and rapidly tapering, rather thicker than the thinnest part of the body. Dorsal rows 25. Scales all distinctly carinated, (including those on the back of the head,) except the outer row, which is either perfectly smooth, or pre- sents very obsolete carination. The ridges on the 2d row much less distinct than the rest. Color reddish brown above, with dark blotches. A series of 28 quadrate, dorsal, uniform black blotches from head to anus, each from 2 to 3 scales long, and 7 to 9 wide, separated by regular brown- ish yellow intervals of 13 to 2 scales. The blotches anteriorly are nearly square, posteriorly they are transversely elongated. Opposite the intervals, and, indeed, bounding them on either side, is a second series of small circular blotches on the 4th to the 8th lateral rows, and separated only by a narrow interval from the corner of the dor- sal blotches. Sometimes there are faint traces of small blotches be- tween the upper lateral series. Intervals between the lateral rows of blotches yellowish or reddish brown, darker than those on the back ; outer dorsal rows greenish or yellowish white. On the tail there are 15 black half-rings, interrupted on the subcaudal scutelle, FF Ly HETERODON. oo the scales on the tail larger than on the greater part of the body. In young specimens is distinetly visible a second series of still smaller blotches, below the one just mentioned, there being two of these op- posite each one of the former, and placed on the 2d, 3d, and 4th exterior rows. Beneath greenish yellow, with obsolete greenish brown blotches, indistinctly visible through the epidermis, some- times more conspicuous in young specimens. There is a transverse black or dark bar on the forehead, crossing the posterior half of the postfrontals, involving only the anterior edge of the vertical, and the anterior corners of the superciliaries. Behind this a dark patch, with its anterior margin a little back of the middle of the vertical, and involving the adjoining margin of the superciliaries and occipitals, together with the greater portion of the occipitals ; sometimes with a light spot in the middle: the light space included between the two patches appears to extend continu- ously backwards to the neck; above a dark vitta from the back part of the orbit to the posterior labial, itself a continuation of the frontal vitta. An elongated narrow vertebral spot behind the junc- tion of the occipitals, and generally isolated from them, on each side of which is a similar patch widening behind. This species is subject to great variations of color. Sometimes the sides of the dorsal blotches pass insensibly into the ground-color, so as to become transverse bands. At others they are light internally, with a narrow margin of black. Occasionally there is much black on the abdomen (in young specimens). The ground-color varies from gray to bright yellow, and sometimes even red. It may also happen that, by the confluence and extension of the darker margins, we have light bars on a dark ground, as on a specimen from the Scioto valley, Ohio, where, with the other characters similar, the color is of a dark brown above and on the sides, with transversely quadrate brownish ash-colored spots along the back, some one and a half or two scales long, 9 or 10 wide, and at intervals of about three scales. Of these spots there are 28 from head to anus, and about 9 on the tail, where they form half rings, with intervals a little larger than them- selves. Carlisle, Pa. 129-+-1. 53. 25. 28. 6. S. F. Baird. is 123-+-1. 49. 25. 243. 5. A Clarke Co., Va. 148-++1. 46. 25. 19. 23. Dr.C. B. Kennerly. & 12741. — 25. 11. 2 a Anderson, S. C. —- =| Miss C. Paine. 54 HETERODON. Mississippi. ? 135-41. 51.25.1402 14. ° DrsB. F. Shumard) Ke ? D. C. Lloyd. tae ins aii (on dep.) Scioto Valley, Ohio. 148--1. 45. 25. 26. 4. i Dr. J.P. Kirtland. 2, Heterodon cognatus, B. & G.—Vertical longer than occipi- tals. Dorsal rows of scales 23-25; outer smooth; next scarcely carinated. Seales of the rest with keels extending to their tips. Scales broader than in preceding. Disproportion between scales of the back, before and behind, not conspicuous. Light chestnut, with 20 yellow blotches from head to anus, and 9 on the tail. Beneath yellow. Vertical plate pentagonal, elongated. Frontals moderate, of nearly the same length. Azygos rather broad, similar in its relations to that of HZ. platyrhinos. Rostral quite fully developed. Occipitals small, less than in H. platyrhinos. Scales back of head distinctly carinated. Centre of eye above the middle of the 5th Jabial. Orbital chain of 10-11 plates. Loral rather large, triangular. Nasals moderate. Labials 8. Penultimate rather longer than high. Scales diminishing in width towards the back, although not be- coming as linear as in ZZ platyrhinos. Scales on the hinder part of back scarcely wider than those in front. Color above light chestnut, with transverse, sometimes more or less oblique, dorsal bars between the 7th exterior rows. These bars are bright yellow, tinged with brown in the centre, and with a darker marginal shade of the ground-color. Of these bars there are 28, from head to tail, the 20th opposite to the anus, each about ten scales long, about nine broad, and separated by intervals of from four to six scales. The proportional difference between the two colors in the tail is much as in H. platyrhinos. Color beneath clear dull yellow. Exterior dorsal scales mottled brownish yellow, more or less spotted and margined with brighter yellow. On separating the skin a dark spot is seen at each end of the dorsal patches, between and around which the color is yellow. Head olivaceous yellow, with the usual markings of the genus obsolete. An elongated black patch behind the angle of the jaws on each side. Somewhat similar to H. platyrhinos, but the scales anteriorly are wider, nor is there that disproportion between the scales on the back before and behind. The occipitals are shorter. From H. atmodes, the narrower intervals between the caudal light band, the scales cari- HETERODON. 55 nated on the back of head as well as elsewhere to the tip, the more prominent rostral, (the line from the tip to the lower posterior angle of the last labial passes over the eyeball,) &c. will at once distin- guish it. A much mutilated, but much larger specimen from New Braunfels agrees with this, although the rostral is proportionally less; in other characters it is very similar. The intervals between the light bars, and the sides at their extremities are, however, much darker. A small specimen from Indianola has much the same distribution of color as described in the young 7. platyrhinos. The principal dif- ferences are seen in the larger head, stouter body, shorter occipitals, narrower dark line across the superciliaries and vertical, broader scales anteriorly, &c. The ground-color is mottled chestnut, with subquad- rate brown blotches, indistinct at the outer edges, a circular dark spot opposite each light dorsal interval, like the dorsal series surrounded by a lighter areola; beneath each dark spot a pair still smaller. Below greenish white, blackish posteriorly, with narrow blotches of black in front. Distinct patch from eye to the last upper labial. Indianola. 130-+-1. 58. 23. 26.6. Col. J.D. Graham. = 129-E 1. BIS 25. V1. 2. . New Braunfels, Tex. 1244-1. 56. 25. 27. 6. F. Lindheimer. 3 Eieterodon niger, Troost.—Vertical plate as long as the oc- cipitals. Rostral prominent. Dorsal rows of scales 25, the exterior smooth, the 2d row obsoletely carinated, the rest with the scales distinctly carinated, the carinz extending quite to the tip. Uniform black above, slate-color beneath. Syn. Vipera nigra, Caruss. Nat. Hist. Carol. II, 1748, 44. Pl. xliy. Scytale niger, Daup. Hist. Nat. Rept. V, 1799, 342.—Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 867; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 180. Coluber cacodemon, Suaw, Gen. Zool. III, 1802, 377. Pl. cii. Coluber thraso, Haru. Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 120. LHeterodon niger, Troost. Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N. York, III, 1836, 186.— ? Horse. N. Amer. Herp. Ist ed. II, 1838, 105. Pl. xxiii; and 2d ed. III, 1842, 63. Pl. xvi. Black Viper; Spreading Adder. Postfrontals large, extending to the loral. Prefrontals smaller. Azygos rather large, separating the prefrontals entirely, and the postfrontals anteriorly: in a line with the rostral. Rostral 56 HETERODON. broad. Keel acutely distinct. Scales on the back of head keeled, though obsoletely in those next to the occipital plates. The line from tip of snout to lower angle of posterior labial, crosses the lower part of the eye, whose centre is a little in advance of the middle of this line. Orbital chain of 9 plates. Loral triangular, truncated above. Nasals rather large, less developed than in HZ. platyrhinos. Upper labials 8; 3d—6th in contact with suborbitals. Centre of eye above the juncture of the 4th and 5th. Scales distinctly carinated, except the outer row, which is smooth, and the second, on which the carination is very obsolete, sometimes quite smooth. All the scales diminish gradually to the back, where they are quite linear; posteriorly, however, they are broader. Color above and on the sides entirely dull black, beneath rather light slate-color, shading into milk-white on the chin and on the edge of the upper labials. The exterior rows of scales shade gently from the color of the back to that of the belly. The Heterodon niger bears quite a close relationship in the cha- racter of the plates and scales to H. platyrhinos, from which the principal difference lies in the color. Although this species greatly resembles in color the black variety of H. atmodes, they may be readily distinguished. The rostral of H. niger is well developed, high, broad, and with the dorsal carina acute and well marked. The carination on the scales back of the head is delicately distinct, as also upon the other scales, the keel extending to the very tip. The scales on the back are linear and narrow, but become much broader in pro- portion towards the tail. The occipitals are longer, and the head in front of the eye longer in proportion to the part behind it. No bands - evident, even obsoletely. The other differs in all these respects: rostral low, and the keel more rounded; scales on back shorter, and anteriorly rather broad, and the disproportion with those posteri- orly much less conspicuous; carine not extending to the tip; faint bars seen indistinctly across the black of the back, Xe. Carlisle, Pa. 2 140-+1. 49. 25. 36.6. 8. F. Baird. Specimens from the South differ simply in being rather darker on the sides and beneath. Abbeville, S. C. 145+1. — 25. 26.— Dr. J.B. Barratt. Kemper Co., Miss. 126-1. 58. 25. 28. 53. D. C. Lloyd. ray HETERODON. 57 4. Heterodon atmodes, B. & G.—Vertical plate longer than oc- cipitals, which are small, and as broad aslong. Azygos in contact with the frontals. Rostral low, obtuse, and very little prominent. Eye more an- terior. Dorsal rows 28 or 25. Outer row smooth, 2d and 3d very obso- letely carinated. Scales broader, smoother, and more rounded than in H. platyrhinos. Keel not extending to the tip. Black, with 18 transverse yel- lowish bands on the body, and 7 on the tail; the dark intervals much broader than the light bands, sometimes entirely black. Vertical plate hexagonal, narrower behind, and more elongated than in H. platyrhinos ; lower than the occipitals. Postfrontals large, extending down to the loral. The anterior frontals rather larger than in H. platyrhinos, separated by the azygos and rostral. Rostral small, moderately recurved, much smaller and less conspicuous than in H. platyrhinos. Superciliaries long, narrower than in ZH. platy- rhinos. Scales on back of the head broad, flat, carination very obso- lete. Imaginary line connecting tip of rostral, and posterior angle of last upper labial passes entirely below the eye, whose centre is an- terior to the middle of this line. Hye large, its centre above the middle of the 4th labial. Loral nearly square, rather narrower above. Nasals small, which with the less development of the rostral brings the eye more forwards. Labials 7 above. Owing to a greater development of the suborbital series, (of 9 plates,) the labials are lower than in H. platyrhinos. The posterior upper angle of the 2d labial, as well as the 3d, 4th, and anterior upper angles of the 5th, are in contact with the suborbitals. The difference from 7. platy- rhinos in this respect is caused by the much greater size of the 2d or 3d labials, the first being much smaller than all the rest. Dorsal rows of scales 23; exterior smooth, 2d and 3d very obso- letely carinated, rest of scales more so, but in all cases less distinctly than in ZZ. platyrhinos. The keel on each scale does not extend to the tip, but becomes obsolete at a point from the tip of one-half to one-fifth of the length; while in ZZ platyrhinos it extends very nearly, if not entirely to the extreme tip, especially on the back. The seales also are broader and more oval. The tail is slenderer and more tapering than in H. platyrhinos, and is not as thick as the posterior part of the body. Color above lustrous pitch-black, crossed by 18 transverse light yellow bands, from head to anus, and 7 on the tail; sides mottled with black and yellowish. Beneath yellowish, blotched with black. 58 HETERODON. The pattern of coloration is probably similar to that of H. platy- rhinos, except that the outer edges of the dorsal blotches are confluent with the irregular markings of the sides, instead of being quite dis- tinctly defined. Occasionally black blotches opposite the transverse light marks are evident. The light bands are sometimes interrupted and sometimes oblique; their extent is about the same as in J. platyrhinos. The black intervals between these light bars are much longer than in HZ platyrhinos, occupying from 5 to 6 scales anteri- orly, and on the tail from 6 to 7. The light bands may have been orange in life. On the side of the head is a broad distinct black stripe from the posterior part of the eye to the posterior end of the truncated Jast labial, and continuous with an obscured black band across the forehead, on the posterior half of the postfrontals. Lower jaw and sides of head blotched with black. Georgia. 131-1. 56. 23. 25.5%. Prof. C. B. Adams. A young specimen, apparently of this species, has the head much more depressed than in individuals of HZ. platyrhinos of the same size. The general color above is lead-gray, with transverse bands of lighter gray on the back, margined by dark chestnut, which shades gradually into the gray. The other features are well preserved, except that the rostral, as usual in young specimens, is higher. Charleston, S.C. 187-+1. 54.25. 123.1%. Dr.S. B. Barker. Another larger specimen has the lateral spots rather more distinct. The dorsal bands are pale rose-color, (in alcohol). It agrees in the shorter occipitals, smaller number of bands, less carinated scales, lower rostral, Xe. | Charleston. 141-+-1. 49. 25. 17. 23. C. Girard. A large specimen from Charleston agrees in its external anatomy, but at first sight appears entirely black above, and of an irregular slate-color beneath. On a closer examination, however, the trans- verse bands are obsoletely visible, especially towards the tail. Traces of the markings on the head may likewise be distinguished. Per- haps often confounded with the true H. niger. Charleston, S.C. 187-+1. 53.23. 26.44. Dr.S. B. Barker. &. ES HETERODON. 59 B. nasal plate, with the nostril in the centre. One loral. One ante- orbital; two postorbitals. Eyes very large. Mouth deeply cleft. Tail slender, between $ and + of total length. Scales all perfectly smooth. Postabdominal scutella bifid. Subcaudal all bifid. Uni- color. Syn. Chlorosoma, Waau. Nat. Syst. der Amph. 1830, 185. Chiorosoma vermalis, B. & G.—Uniform green, darker above, lighter beneath. Dorsal scales in 15 rows. Syn. Coluber vernalis, Dekay, Mss.—Hanrt. Journ. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. V, 1827, 861; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 124.—Srormr, Rep. Rept. Mass. 1839, 224.—Horpr. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 79. Pl. xvii.—DeKay, N. York Fauna. Rept. 1842, 40. Pl. xi, fig. 22.—Tuomps. Hist. of Verm. 1842, 117. Green Snake. Head proportionally long, ovoidal, slightly swollen on the tem- poral region. Snout rounded and projecting considerably over the lower jaw. The rostral plate shows but little from above. Outlines of frontals rounded, prefrontals proportionally large, and more than half the size of the postfrontals. Vertical hexagonal, elongated, posteriorly more tapering than anteriorly; sides slightly concave. Occipitals large, subangular. Superciliaries quite large, broader pos- teriorly than anteriorly. Postorbitals two, subquadrangular; lower one resting on the commissure of the 4th and 5th upper labials. - Anteorbital angular above, rounded below, with anterior margin con- vex. Loral angular, longer than high, and proportionally well de- veloped. Nasal elliptically elongated, with nostril in the middle. Three temporal shields, well developed; anterior one elongated, largest. Cleft of mouth curved or undulated. Upper labials 7; CHLOROSOMA. 109 4th largest; 5th and 6th nearly equal to the 4th; 3d and 4th be- neath the eye, forming the inferior part of the orbit. Lower labials 8; 5th largest; the three anterior and three posterior ones quite small. Posterior pair of mental scutella longer and slenderer than the anterior pair, extending much beyond the 5th lower labial. Body elongated, subcylindrical, a little deeper than broad, covered with smooth subhexagonal or subelliptical scales, constituting 15 longitudinal rows, the outer row broader than the rest, which di- minish towards the middle line of the back. ‘The tail is very much tapering, pointed, and forming about 4 or } of the total length Dark green above, lighter on the flanks; yellowish white beneath. Westport, N.Y. 9 138+1.79.15. 18. 54. 8. F. Baird 137-E fk 74. bo. 17.5 i x 132+1. 94.15. 174. 64. éé Lebanon Sp.,N.Y. — — 15. 15. 5. Wm. B. Parker, ou — — 15. 15. 6. a Carlisle, Pa. 130-+2. 92.15. 18%. 6%. 8. F. Baird. ee 130+1.— 15. 113. 4. ee Racine, Wise. 128-+-1. 85.15. 124. 44. Dr. P. R. Hoy. Portland, Me. — — 15. 193. 53. Prof. Caldwell, ie — — 15. 18. 53. es Cambridge, Mass. 138+1. 79.15. 188. 53. J. H. Richard Ee i DE, Oz. TS: C. Girard 2? Mississippi. 138-++-1. 69.15. 203.— Dr. B. F. Shumard 110 CONTIA. Genus CON THA, Barp & Grrarp. Grn. Coan. Head ovoidal, and with the body much depressed, rather short, with the snout truncated. Cephalic plates normal. One nasal. Nostril in its middle. One loral. One anterior and one postorbital. Eye small. Mouth moderately cleft. Scales smooth. Postabdominal scutella bifid. Subcaudal all divided. Contia mitis, B. & G.—Deep chestnut-brown above, with two longi- tudinal light bands, one on each side of the back, below which is a series of black dots. Scales minutely dotted with black. Anterior half of the scu- telle black; posterior half light yellow. Dorsal scales in 15 rows. Head almost as deep as the body, snout protruding over the lower jaw, and obliquely truncated. Vertical plate hexagonal, sides nearly parallel, posteriorly very acute. Occipitals elongated, trun- cated posteriorly, slightly convex exteriorly. Postfrontals large and angular. Prefrontals subangular, much smaller. Rostral well developed, broad, but slightly produced between the prefrontals. Nasal quadrangular, longer than high, with nostril in the middle, a little nearer the anterior than posterior edge of the plate. Loral elongated and quadrangular, situated above the 2d labial. Ante- orbital angular and elevated, situated above the 3d labial. Post- orbital angular, larger than the anteorbital, situated above the commissure between the 4th and 5th labials. Superciliaries propor- tionally small and oblong. A large and angular elongated temporal shield. Upper labials 7; anterior and posterior ones smaller; 3d and 4th beneath the eye; lower labials 7, 4th largest. Posterior pair of mental scutellee very small. Two scutellz on each side, along the 5th, 6th, and 7th infralabials. Body slender, subcylindrical, broader than deep. Scales propor- tionally large, subelliptical, posteriorly rounded or subtruncated. Those of the exterior row conspicuously broader. Tail short, coni- cal, and tapering. CONTIA. LEI The lighter bands of the back cover the 4th exterior row of dorsal scales; the series of black dots is immediately beneath on the 3d row of scales. Tip of scales of exterior row black. Head above black- ish brown, beneath mottled with black, on a yellowish green ground. The abdomen is regularly and transversely barred with black and light yellow. San Jose, Cal. 167-+1. 31.15. 128. 1,%. Dr. John L. Leconte. California. — —-— 4 §. (ondep.) Expl. Exped. Oregon. 15411. 35.15. 8. 1,5. Dr. Avery J. Skilton. 112 DIADOPHIS. Genus DEABDOP HIS, Bamp & Gmarp. Gen. CHAR. Head subelliptical, elongated, depressed, distinct from the body. Cephalic plates normal. Two postorbitals, and two anteorbitals. A well-developed loral. Two nasals; nostril between. Hyes large. Mouth deeply cleft. Body slender, subcylindrical ; tail tapering. Scales smooth, disposed in 15 or 17 rows. Postab- dominal scutella bifid. Subcaudal all divided. Unicolor above, and generally with a light ring on the occipital region. Abdomen lighter, unicolor, or punctate. A. An occipital ring. Eye above the 4th and 5th upper ladials. Dorsal scales in 15 rows. i. Diadophis punctatus, B. & G.—A yellowish white occipital ring. Body bluish black above; yellowish orange beneath, with a medial series of spots, sometimes absent. ‘Tail beneath unicolor. Dorsal scales in 15 rows. Syn. Coluber punctatus, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 1776, 376.—Gm. Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1089.—Harz. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 854; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 117.—Srorzur, Rep. Rept. Mass. 1839, 225.—Hopr. N. Amer. Herp. 2d ed. III, 1842, 81. Pl. xviii. Spiletes punctatus, Swains. Nat. Hist. of Fish. Amph. & Rept. II, 1839, 364 Calamaria punctata, Scuu. Ess. Phys. Serp. Part. descr. 1837, 39. Ring-necked Snake. Head very much depressed, flattened above ; snout rounded, and overlapping the lower jaw. Vertical plate subpentagonal, tapering backwards, posteriorly acute. Occipitals large, elongated, subangu- lar. Prefrontals irregularly rounded, posterior pair twice the size of the anterior. Rostral broad, but low. Nasal plates large, nostril intermediate. Loral quadrilateral. Two anteorbitals, inferior one narrow and the smaller. Superciliary well developed, broader pos- teriorly than anteriorly. Two postorbitals, inferior one very small, situated above the junction of the 5th and 6th upper labials. Tem- poral shields conspicuous, anterior one larger and elongated. Upper DIADOPHIS. 118 labials 8; 7th the largest, 4th and Sth forming the lower part of the orbit. Lower labials 8; 5th the largest. Two pairs of mental scutella, extremity of the posterior pair extending beyond the 5th lower labial. Body slender, subcylindrical; tail tapering. Scales subelliptical ; outer row but slightly larger. Occipital ring of the width of two scales, sometimes narrower. Upper labials yellowish, like the lower jaw and inferior surface of head and abdomen. A series of dark sub- triangular spots along the lateral margins of the scutellee, and in con- tact with the dark color of the flanks. Abdomen either unicolor or provided with series of similar dark spots along its middle region, from the anterior third of the body to near the anus. The spots some- times elongate transversely in the shape of bars across the abdomen. Carlisle, Pa. 148+-1. 538.15. 13%. 3. S. F. Baird. AE 158+-1. 50. 15. 13. 23. 66 Y 158+-1. 52,15. 14. 3. 66 cu 148-+-1. 44.15. 114. 24. 66 Foxburg, Pa. 1614-1. 56.15. 144. 82 66 Pittsburgh, Pa. 159-+1. 50.15. 158. 34. 6 French Creek, Pa. 157+2. 36.15. 1384. 24. & Lebanon Sp., N.Y. — — 15. 5. 18 Wm. B. Parker. Georgia. _ 141-41. 48. 15. 104.2%. Maj. J. Le Conte. Riceboro, Ga. 145+-1. 36.15. 10. 13. Dr. W. L. Jones. A specimen from Anderson, 8S. C., exhibits a somewhat slenderer head, and a narrower and more elongated vertical plate. Anderson, S. C. 155-+1. 44.15. 143. 24. Miss C. Paine. Another very young specimen from Mississippi has a shorter head, and a vertical plate proportionally much broader and shorter. Mississippi. — — 15. 5. 1. Dr. B. F. Shumard. B. An occipital ring. Eye above the 3d-and 4th labials. Dor- sal scales in 15 rows. 2. Diadophis amabilis, B. & G.—Body above deep blackish brown; beneath yellowish white, with crowded small black spots. Occipital ring narrow. Dorsal scales in 15 rows. Head, body, and tail very slender; head flattened above; body subcylindrical; tail subconical and tapering into a point. Vertical 8 114 DIADOPHIS. plate subpentagonal, less tapering posteriorly than in D. punctatus, and subacute. Occipitals narrow and elongated. Frontals as in D. punctatus. Superciliaries narrower, and nearly of the same width throughout their length. Upper labials 7; 6th largest. Lower labials 8; 5th largest. Scales rather short, subelliptical, consider- ably larger on the sides than on the back, especially the outer row. Color of the abdomen extending to the outer row of scales, the pos- terior portion of which alone is black. Numerous small spots are scattered all over the lower part of the body, from the head to near the end of the tail. The upper surface and sides of head, as well as the labials of both jaws and chin, are blackish brown. The abdomen, in life, is in all probabilities purplish, judging of it from traces of that color left beneath the tail of one of the specimens preserved in alcohol. San Jose, Cal. 182-1. 59.15. 1 ui — — 15. 9 bole . 2%. Dr. J. Li. Leconte. Oe ce me bo 3. Diadophis docilis, B. & G.—Body above uniform ash-gray; yellowish white beneath, spotted with black. A proportionally broad yel- lowish white occipital ring, margined with a narrow black line. Dorsal scales in 15 rows. Head narrower than in D. amabilis. Vertical plate subpentago- nal, elongated, sides nearly parallel to the point where it enters be- tween the occipitals. Prefrontals and eyes proportionally much smaller than in D. amabilis. Body very slender, covered with pro- portionally large scales. Head above blackish brown. Upper labials and head beneath yellowish, mottled with black. Occipital ring yel- lowish white, covering the length of three scales. The anterior black margin passes to the black spots along the labials. Small black spots are irregularly scattered all over the abdomen; they form one series on each side, along the exterior and posterior margin of the scutellee, to the tip of the tail. All the scales are uniform ash-gray, but when examined closely’ they appear punctured with minute black dots. The bases of the scales are black when stretched apart. The tail beneath is almost unicolor, exhibiting but very few dots. R. San Pedro of R. Grande, a 1938-11. 57. 15. 11%. 24. Col.J.D. Graham. Devil’s River. DIADQPHIS. 115 A. Diadophis pulchellus, B. & G.—Body above greenish brown, the scales minutely dotted with black. Beneath deep orange-red, with small black spots irregularly scattered all over, from head to near the end of tail. Occipital ring broad, margined anteriorly and posteriorly with a narrow black line. Dorsal scales in 15 rows. Head small, body proportionally long and subcylindrical ;_ tail conical, and very much tapering. The vertical plate is subpentago- nal, and still less tapering, and less acute than in the preceding species. Superciliaries as in D. amabitlis. Scales subelliptical, elongated. Outer rows larger than the rest, which diminish towards the dorsal line. The bright color of the abdomen extends to the two external rows of scales, which are unicolor, the spots of the abdomen scarcely passing beyond the scutellz, although a series of very small spots may be followed along the upper edge of the 2d dorsal rows of seales close to the color of the back. The upper labial and lower jaw are yellowish white. El Dorado Co., Cal. 203--1. 60.15. 143.28. Dr. C. C. Boyle. ©. No occipital ring. Eye above the 3d and 4th labials. Dorsal scales in 17 rows. 5. Diadophis regalis, B. & G.—Body above uniform greenish ash ; beneath light yellow, scattered all over with small black spots. No oc- cipital ring. Dorsal scales in 17 rows. Head proportionally short and broad behind; head less depressed than in the preceding species, though flattened above ; snout rounded. Kyes very small. Vertical plate subpentagonal, tapering posteriorly. Superciliaries narrower anteriorly. Body long and subcylindrical. Scales proportionally large and elongated, in 17 rows; those of the outer row conspicuously broader. The upper and lower jaws and inferior surface of head maculated with black, on a light ground. Color of the abdomen extending to the outer row of scales, which are dotted with black posteriorly. The black spots on the abdomen ex- tend considerably beyond the anus. Sonora, Mex. 237-++1. 58.17. 22%. 34. Col. J. D. Graham. 116 LODIA. Genus LO DIA, Bairp & Girarp. GEN. CHAR. Head ovoidal, distinct from the body. Two vertical plates; a small anterior one being situated between the postfrontals immediately in advance of the vertical proper. Two nasals. Loral entering into the orbit; above it one anteorbital. Postorbitals two. Superciliaries elongated and well developed. Mental scutellee one pair. Eyes proportionally large, circular. Scales smooth. Post- abdominal scutella bifid. Subcaudal, all in pairs. Lodia tenuis, B. & G.—Body dull brown above, bluish on the sides, with a longitudinal lighter stripe on each flank. Abdomen lighter; bases of scutelle bluish. Tail beneath unicolor, with an external series of bluish spots. Dorsal scales in 15 rows. Syn. Calamaria tenuis, B. & G. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. VI, 1852, 176. Vertical plate hexagonal, as broad anteriorly as posteriorly, An- terior vertical ovoidal or subelliptical, intermediate between the post- frontals, which are angular and extend to the sides of the head. Prefrontals subtriangular, about half the size of postfrontals. Rostral broad and well developed. Occipitals subangular externally, propor- tionally large and elongated. Nasals large, nostrils in the middle, between both plates. Loral large, polygonal, elongated, situated above the commissure of the 2d and 3d upper labials, entering into the orbit as an inferior anteorbital. A quadrangular superior ante- orbital, enclosed between the postfrontal, superciliary, and loral. Two angular postorbitals, inferior one resting on the commissure of the 4th and 5th labials. Superciliaries oblong. Temporal shields conspicuous, anterior one elongated and largest. Mouth deeply cleft. Upper labials 6; the three posterior ones a little larger than the three anterior. Lower labials 6; 4th largest. Mental scutelle one pair. Body slender, subcylindrical; tail short, conical, and tapering. Scales proportionally large, rhomboidal, smooth, forming 15 dorsal rows; outer row but slightly broader than the rest. Puget Sound, Or. 150-+-1. 83. 15. 84. 14. (on dep.) Expl. Exped. SONORA, 117 Genus SONORA, Barro & Girarp. » Gen, Cuan. Head continuous with the body, very much nar- rower on the snout. Cephalic plates normal. Vertical plate narrow anteriorly. Superciliaries proportionally large. One loral. One anteorbital and three postorbitals. Two nasals. Eyes proportionally large. Scales smooth. Postabdominal scutella bifid. Subcaudal, divided. Sonora semiannulata, B. & G.—Body above annulated with jet black; tail completely annulated; intermediate space wider, orange-red on the dorsal region, greenish on the sides, with bases of scales blackish. Dor- sal scales in 15 rows. Snout subquadrangular, elongated. Vertical plate widening pos- teriorly to the occipitals. Occipitals elongated, margin irregular. Postfrontals angular, not reaching the orbit. Prefrontals trapezoidal, two-thirds of the size of the postfrontals. Rostral very much de- veloped. Nostrils in the middle, between the two nasals. Loral elongated, horizontal, angular. yes circular. Superciliaries angu- Jar, lozenge-shaped. Anteorbital one, subcrescentic, narrow, resting on the third upper labial. Postorbitals three, angular, upper one largest, produced between the superciliaries and occipitals, and touch- ing slightly the vertical. Three temporal shields, anterior one largest, and angular. Mouth deeply cleft, undulated. Upper labials 7; nearly equal in size; first and last smallest. Inferior labials 8 ; 4th largest. Body subcylindrical, covered with smooth scales, pro- portionally broad, and forming 15 rows, outer row but slightly broader. Tail tapering to a point. Body above crossed with transverse jet-black bars, 25 from head to anus, extending between and involving the exterior rows, becom- ing narrower on the flanks: along the back 3 to 4 scales long. Space between the bars above orange-red, one scale wider than the black bars ; on the sides greenish, with the base of the scales black- ish. On the tail 6 black rings, continuous all around, covering 2 to 3 scales ; intermediate space red-orange, 4 or 5 scales wide. Beneath uni- form dull green, the black bars of the body not touching the scutellze. Sonora, Mex. 149-+-1. 39.15. 94.1%. Col. J.D. Graham 118 RHINOSTOMA. Genus RH ETNOSTOMA, Frizz. Gen. CHar. Head small, subconical, pointed, continuous with the body. Rostral large, prominent. ‘Two pairs of frontal plates. Vertical cordiform. One nasal; nostril in the middle. One loral. One anterior and two postorbitals. Superciliaries very small. Eyes small, over the 3d upper labial. Mouth small. Scales smooth, in 19 rows. Postabdominal scutella entire. Subcaudal scutellee bifid. Syn. Rhinostoma, Firz. N. Class. Rept. 1826, 29. Rhinostoma coccinea, Ho1sr.—Body yellowish red (said to be crimson in life), crossed by pairs of black rings, enclosing each a yellow one. Syn. Coluber coccineus, Buum. in Licht. and Voigt, Magaz. V, 1788. PI. v. —Gm. Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1097.—Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat: Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 356; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 119. Heterodon coccineus, Scuu. Ess. Phys. Serp. Part. deser. 1837, 102. Pl. ii, figs. 15 and 16. Rhinostoma coccinea, Houser. N. Amer. Herp. IIT, 1842, 125. Pl. xxx. Scarlet Snake. Body slender, cylindrical, tense, and rigid. Dorsal scales rhom- boidal, rather elongated. Vertical plate very large, cordiform or sub- hexagonal, almost as broad anteriorly as long; obtuse angled before, acute angled behind; the two outer sides short, parallel. Occipitals large, a little longer than the vertical. Postfrontals large; prefrontals much smaller. Rostral projecting forwards, acute, causing the snout to be pointed, not recurved nor compressed into a ridge as in Heterodon. Eye small, its centre over the 3d labial, and over the middle of the commissure. Postorbitals two; anteorbital one. The superciliaries are very small and narrow, in one specimen looking like an upper postorbital. One line of temporal shields. Loral small. One nasal; nostril situated in its centre, with a rounded groove to the lower edge, sometimes to the upper, apparently separating two nasals. Upper labials 6, the 3d constituting the greater portion of the orbit RHINOSTOMA. 119 below, with the lower postorbital resting upon it: all the labials nearly equal in size; 4th and 5th largest. Lower labials 8, 5th largest. The back and sides are embraced by about 20 elongated longitu- dinal black rings (the 16th opposite the anus), their anterior and posterior sides on the dorsal line, their lateral resting on the outer dorsal row. Across the back the black is well defined and continu- ous, about two scales long; on the sides, however (from the 1st to the 3d rows), the black is interrupted more or less, sometimes re- duced to a few scattered scales. The intervals between the succes- sive rings are yellow, with the centres of the scales dusky (they sometimes have only a narrow margin of yellowish), and on the sides may be seen a distinct rhomboidal black spot opposite each dorsal light interval. This is sometimes broken up, and confused with the black of the rings on the sides. The large spaces enclosed by the rings themselves are yellowish red (said to be crimson in life), six to nine scales long, and about thirteen wide: they are variable in length, being larger at about the anterior third than elsewhere. Beneath uniform yellowish white. The first ring crosses just behind the occipital plates, and in front of it isa narrow black band crossing the middle of the occipitals, from one angle of the mouth to the other, sometimes connected with the first ring by a narrow black line. Rest of the head yellowish. Another specimen has 26 rings, the 20th opposite the anus, ri Anderson, S. C. £69035) 190 Dig 2 Miss C. Paine. Riceboro, Ga. 166. 45. 19. 18%. 24. Dr. W. L. Jones. Mississippi. — —— — — Dr. B. F. Shumard. Jax Ie oo A specimen from Prairie Mer Rouge has the whole lower wall of the orbit constituted by the 3d labial, with both anterior and pos- terior orbitals resting upon it. The vertical is more elongated. The anterior dorsal ring, instead of being continuous, is divided an- teriorly, and the ends, after approximating, are bent back on the oe- cipitals, and extend to the eye. The snout, too, seems rather more pointed. Prairie Mer Rouge, La. 166. 56.19. 13%. 24. Jas. Fairie 129 RHINOCHEILUS. Gexus RHE NOCHEILWS, Barr & Girarp. Gren. CHAR. Head subelliptical, pointed on the snout, and sepa- rated from the body by a contracted neck. Rostral plate large, but not prominent above. ‘Two pairs of frontal plates. Vertical hex- agonal. ‘Two nasals; nostrils Intermediate. One loral. One an- terior and two postorbitals. Superciliaries large. Eyes also large, over the 4th and 5th upper labial. Mouth large. Scales smooth, in 23 rows. Postabdominal scutella entire. Subcaudal scutellee all un- divided. Rhinocheilus Lecontei, B. & G.—A dorsal series of quadrate black blotches, with the intermediate spaces of the same size, and pale red. Flanks variegated with yellowish and black; beneath lighter, unicolor. Head distinct from the body; broad behind, nearly flat above. Vertical plate hexagonal, elongated, largest anteriorly, the lateral edges tapering, and constituting the longest sides of the figure. Superciliaries quite large. Occipitals subangular, proportionally small. Prefrontals large compared to the postfrontals. Rostral prominent forwards, rounded beneath, tapering upwards. Eyes large, over the junction of the 4th and 5th upper labials, about opposite the middle of the commissure. Postorbitals two, lower in notch be- tween the 5th and 6th labials, although resting more on the latter. Anteorbital large, resting on the 4th labial, the 4th and 5th labials constituting equally the inferior part of the orbit. Loral elongated, horizontal, trapezoidal, well developed. Nasals apparently double, perhaps a single one very much excavated. Two temporal shields between the occipitals and labials. Labials 8 above, 7th largest; 8 below, 5th largest. Dorsal rows of scales 23, all per- fectly smooth; scales rhomboidal, nearly equal, but rather narrow above. Abdominal scutellze 206; posterior one entire. Subcaudal scutellz: 40, all entire. RHINOCHEILUS. Lat The body is crossed by about 33 quadrate black blotches, the 27th opposite the anus. These are nearly of the same length, and of the same distance apart throughout, four scales long, and extending be- tween the second external rows, where their sides are rather rounded or angulated. “he black is very deep, and continuous on the four or five central rows of scales, whence to the flanks it is varied by having the centres of each scale reddish yellow. The intervals between the blotches are exactly the reverse ; above they are uni- form pale red, and on the sides the centres of each scale are black. Sometimes scattered black scales may be observed on the back in the light spaces. Beneath yellowish white, unspotted. The two outer rows of scales of the same color, but with a short black bar extend- ing from the middle of each light and dark space, perpendicularly to the abdomen, the extreme edge of which is sometimes involved. The head and half its length behind are black, spotted with yellowish on the sides. The snout and labials yellowish, the plates margined with black. San Diego, Cal. 206. 40. 23. 21.2%. Dr. John L. Leconte. 122 HALDEA. Genus HAL DEA, Barrp & Grirarp. GEN. Cuar. Head elongated, ellipsoid, distinct from the body. Prefrontal plate single. Postfrontals large, entering ¢ogether with the loral into the orbit, thus suppressing the anteorbitals. Postorbital one. Two nasals. Eyes proportionally large, circular. Scales cari- nated. Postabdominal scutella bifid. Subcaudals divided. Unicolor. HMaldea striatula, B. & G.—Grayish brown above, soiled yellow beneath, (said to be reddish gray above, and salmon-colored beneath, in life). A narrow light chestnut band across the middle of the occipitals, spreading over the angle of the mouth. Dorsal scales in 17 rows. Syv. Coluber striatulus, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 1766, 375.—Gm. Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1087.—Harwt. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 854; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 117. Calamaria striatula, Scuu. Ess. Phys. Serp. Part. descr. 1837, 43.—Housr. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 123. Pl. xxix. Brown Snake. Vertical plate elongated, hexagonal. Occipitals proportionally very long, subround exteriorly. Prefrontal subtriangular. Portion of postfrontals seen from above, oblong, dilated on the face, and ap- proximating the postnasal and upper part of the orbit. Rostral tapering upwards. Nostril opening in the posterior margin of the prenasal plate. lLoral elongated, situated above the 2d and 3d labials, and forming, with the postfrontal, jhe anterior part of the orbit. Hyes circular. Superciliaries proportionally large. One angular postorbital, elevated, the fourth labial forming the lower portion of the posterior part of the orbit. Temporal shields of medium size. Mouth deeply cleft. Upper labials 5; 4th and 5th very large. Inferior labials 6; 5th disproportionally the largest. Body slender, subcylindrical ; tail short, and very much tapering. Scales lanceolated, in 17 rows, all carinated, very narrow along the back ; outer row conspicuously broader, with an obsolete carination. Richmond, Va. 128-412 36. Lin 98. 1s: C. W. Keesee. ee 129+.1. 37.17. 74.18 a Charleston, S. C. 126-L1..46. 17. 94.1%. | Dr..S: B. Barker. os 123-11. 46.17. 7%. 13 cs Kemper Co., Miss. 125-++1. 44.17. 82. 13 D.C. Lloyd. FARANCIA. 128 Genus FARANCHEA, Gray. GEN. CHAR. Head subelliptical, elongated, slightly distinct from the body. Prefrontal plate single. One nasal, grooved beneath the nostril. No anteorbital; postfrontal and loral constituting the an- terior portion of the orbit. Two postorbitals. Eyes rather small. Scales smooth. Postabdominal scutella bifid. Subcaudal in pairs. Syn. Farancia, Gray, Zool. Misc. 1842, 68; and Catal. of Snakes in Brit. Mus. 1849, 74. Farancia abacurus, B. & G.—Body and head above bluish black, with subquadrate red spots on the flanks. Abdomen red, with transverse or alternating bluish black irregular spots. Dorsal scales disposed in 19 rows. Syy. Coluber abacurus, House. N. Amer. Herp. I, 1836, 119. Pl. xxiii. Homalopsis Reinwardtii, Scuu. Ess. Phys. Serp. Part. descr. 1837, 357. Hydrops Reinwardtii, Gray, Zool. Mise. 1842, 67. Hydrops abacurus, Dum. & Brier. Erp. Gen. —— Tab. 65. Helicops abacurus, House. N. Amer. Herp. 2d. ed. III, 1842,111. Pl. xxvi. Farancia Drummondi, Gray, Zool. Misc. 1842, 68. Farancia fasciata, Gray, Catal. of Snakes, Brit. Mus. 1849, 74. Red-Bellied Snake; Horn Snake. Vertical plate subhexagonal, elongated, sides nearly parallel, pointed posteriorly. Occipitals elongated, angular, posteriorly taper- ing. Postfrontals subangular, entering in the orbit. Prefrontal angular, well developed. Rostral much broader than high, concave beneath. Nostril in the middle of the nasal plate, visible from above. Loral elongated, horizontal, forming together with the postfrontal, the anterior part of the orbit. Eyes circular. Superciliaries sub- angular, elongated, well developed. Two angular postorbitals, upper one largest, lower one resting on the commissure between the 4th and 5th labials. One pretemporal shield, large, and four smaller ones. Upper labials 7; 5th and 6th slightly larger. Lower labials 8, 4th largest; the two posterior ones scale-like. Mental scutellae two 124 FARANCIA. pairs, nearly equal in length, posterior pair more tapering. Body subcylindrical, opalescent; tail proportionally short and conical. Scales perfectly smooth, rhomboidal; outer row somewhat broader than the rest. The five medial rows smaller. Color uniform bluish black above. On the two outer rows the ground-color assumes the shape of vertical bands, from one and a half to two scales broad, leaving an intermediate space from two to three scales wide, which is red in life, and dull yellow in spe- cimens preserved in alcohol. Both the red and bluish black extend on the abdomen, the former being the ground-color, and the vertical bands of the flank confluent on the middle of the abdomen, either directly opposite or alternating. Anderson, S. C. 171+2. 47.19. 818.58. Miss C. Paine. Prairie Mer Rouge, La. 178+-2. 47.19. 304. 78. Jas. Fairie. tf 1738-2. 47.19. 16. 23. ae & —- —-1) — — “ «“ DEUS les RG) ee Le “ ABASTOR. 125 Gexus ABAS TOR, Garay. Gen. Cuar. Head subconical, continuous with the body. Cepha- lic plates normal. Vertical plate elongated. One nasal, grooved beneath the nostril. No anteorbitals. One loral together with the postfrontals constituting the orbit anteriorly. Two postorbitals. Eyes of medium size, circular. Scales smooth. Penultimate and last abdominal scutella bifid. Subcaudal all bifid. Syn. Abastor, GRAY, Catal. of Snakes in Brit. Mus. 1849, 78. Abastor erythrogrammus, Gray.—Bluish black, opalescent, with three longitudinal lines of dull yellow (red in life). Abdomen dull yellow (flesh-colored in life), with a series of bluish-black spots on each side. Dorsal scales in 19 rows. Syn. Coluber erythrogrammus, Davup. Hist. Nat. Rept. VII, 1799, 93. Tab. 83, fig. 2.—Hozrpr. N. Amer. Herp. Ist ed. I, 1836, 115. Pl. xxii. Helicops erythrogrammus, Wau. Nat. Syst. Amph. 1830, 170.—Hotzsr. N, Amer. Herp. 2d ed. III, 1842, 107. Pl. xxv. Homalopsis erythrogrammus, Botn, Isis. 1827, 551. Abastor erythrogrammus, GRAY, Catal. of Snakes in Brit. Mus. 1849, 78. Vertical plate subhexagonal, long, maintaining its width posteriorly to the point where it enters between the occipitals. Occipitals long, anteriorly and posteriorly angular, rounded exteriorly. Postfrontals polygonal, entering into the orbit. Prefrontals proportionally small and subtriangular. Rostral very broad. Nostril in the middle of the nasal, with a groove beneath. Eyes very large. Loral narrow, forming with the postfrontals the anterior portion of the orbit. Su- perciliaries large, elongated, sides undulated. ‘Two rounded post- orbitals, lower one smallest. A very long temporal shield extending backwards beyond the occipitals, and two or three smaller ones, scarcely distinguishable from the scales. Mouth deeply cleft. Upper labials 7, 6th larger; lower labials 7; 4th larger. Two pairs of 126 ABASTOR. mental shields, posterior pair smallest, extending backwards beyond the 4th inferior labial. Scales subrhomboidal, smooth, constituting 19 longitudinal rows; outer rows considerably larger, the other nearly equal amongst themselves, except the second row, which is somewhat larger. Ground-color above bluish black. Dorsal longitudinal red line narrow, embracing only the medial rows of scales, extending from the occipitals to a little way beyond the anus. On each side of this there are three rows of scales of the ground-color. Then a longitu- dinal red line, broader than the medial one, though covering only one row of scales, then again three rows of the ground-color. Of the remaining two outer rows of scales, the outermost is uniform red- dish yellow, and the bases of the scales of the second row have a spot of bluish black. Beneath, two series of bluish black subelliptical and transverse spots, one spot on the exterior third and anterior margin of each scutella. The plates of the head are narrowly mar- gined with yellow. The labials are yellow, with a central black spot. Southern States. (?) 182+-1. 87.19. 153. 23. . Rev. J. G. Morris. ee 185+1.— 19. 143. f. ve Savannah, Ga. 179+1. 41.19. 10. 13. R. R. Cuyler. Ke 179-+-1. 37.19. 10. 13. : VIRGINIA. 197 Genus VER GUNWIOA, Bairp & Girarp. Gen. Cuar. Head subelliptical, detached from the body. Cepha- lic plates normal. Two nasals; posterior one not invaded by the nostril. Postfrontals and loral entering into the orbit, and suppress- ing the anteorbitals. Two postorbitals. Mental scutellee two pairs. Eyes of medium size, circular. Scales smooth. Postabdominal scutella bifid. “Subcaudal all divided. Virginia Valeriz, B. & G.—Yellowish or grayish brown above, with minute black dots irregularly scattered, or constituting two series. Beneath lighter. Dorsal scales in 15 rows. Vertical plate hexagonal, more or less elongated; occipitals ob- Jong, exteriorly rounded. Postfrontals irregularly angular, produced into the orbit. Prefrontals subtriangular, proportionally small. Rostral narrow, and tapering upwards. Nostrils in the middle of the posterior margin of the prenasal. Loral elongated, forming to- gether with the postfrontals, the anterior portion of the orbit. Eyes circular. Superciliaries rather large, oblong, elongated. Postorbitals two (angular), lower one between the 4th and 5th labials. Mouth deeply cleft. Upper labials 6, 5th largest; inferior labials 6, 4th largest. Temporal shields four or five, well developed. Body slen- der, subcylindrical, flattened beneath; tail very short, diminishing very rapidly towards its acute tip. The scales are subrhomboidal and perfectly smooth; the two outer rows considerably broader than the rest, then diminishing gradually towards the middle line of the back. Ground-color uniform yellowish or grayish brown; dull yellow beneath. Minute black dots are in most cases scattered along the upper part of the body, forming sometimes two longitudinal series. Along the middle of each scale is a faint light line, which makes the 128 VIRGINIA. body appear as if striated. On the outer rows this light line is broader, and appears as a succession of oblong spots. Kent Co., Md. 127-41. 25 Maryland. 122-11. 36. Washington, D. C. 123-+1. 25. ee 125-41. 24, 128+-1. 25. Ue 125+1. 29 Anderson, 8. C. 125-1. 27. is 118-+-1. 25. rage oy 15. 15. 15. 15. LD. 15. 15. 3, 1. Miss V. Blaney. 7s. 13. Prof.C.B.Adams. 73. 1. (ondep.) J. Varden. 84. 1t. &“ 10%. 14. 6 oF. 14. “ 84. 1}. Miss C. Paine. Teer UG ‘“ CELUTA. 129 Genus CE LW TA, Barren & Girarp. GEN. CHAR. Head elongated, subelliptical, continuous with the body. Cephalic plates normal. Vertical broad. Superciliaries very small. One nasal, nostril in the middle. No anteorbital. Orbit formed chiefly by the loral, which is large, and slightly by the post- frontals. Scales smooth. Postabdominal scutella bifid. Subcaudals divided. Unicolor. Differs from Brachyorrhos in having two pairs of frontals, and smooth scales. Celuta ameena, B. & G.—Above uniform chestnut-brown, opa- lescent; light yellow (bright salmon-color in life) beneath. Dorsal scales in 13 rows. Syy. Coluber ameenus, Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. IV, 1825, 237. —Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 855; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 118.—Svorer, Rep. Rept. Mass. 1839, 226. Calamaria amena, Scuu. Ess. Phys. Serp. Part. descr. 1837, 31. PI. i, figs. 19 and 20. Brachyorrhos amenus, Houser. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 115) Pl. xxvii. Ground Snake; Worm Snake. Head very small; vertical plate hexagonal, nearly as broad as long. Prefrontals angular, one-third the size of postfrontals, which are likewise angular, and enter posteriorly into the upper portion of the orbit in front. Occipitals proportionally large. Rostral broad, and well developed. Nasal single, nostril in the middle of the an- terior half. A large loral forming with the postfrontal the anterior part of the orbit. A quadrangular and elevated postorbital. Super- ciliaries very small and narrow. Snout protruding. Eyes circular, over the commissure of the 3d and 4th labial. Upper labials 5, 5th largest. Inferior labial 6, 3d largest. Temporal shields well de- veloped. Body very glossy, subcylindrical. Tail short, tapering into a point. Scales rhomboidal, broad, all perfectly smooth. Outer row somewhat larger. Postabdominal scutella bifid. 9 1380 CELUTA. The specimen figured by Schlegel, and which he had from Ten- nessee, exhibits only one pair of frontal plates, whilst the numerous specimens from the eastern part of the United States, examined by us, are all provided with two such pairs. Of two specimens from Missssippi, one corresponds exactly with the figure given by Schlegel, whilst the other has three frontal plates, a posterior pair, and the right plate of the anterior pair. This circumstance has warned us against distinguishing, for the present, a western species from an eastern. Schlegel had ten individuals in his possession, but we are not told whether they all agreed together, as no importance is given by that author to the presence of one pair of frontals only. Should all the western specimens agree in the deficiency of the prefrontals, this. would undoubtedly become a character of some importance. Carlisle, Pa. 128-+-1. 80. 13.. 119%. 18. S. F. Baird. 120-+-1. 36.13. 8%. 14. € ae ESI 129. 13. tO ae: & ¥ 120---1. 38. 13.., 62." 17: Foxburg, Pa. T19-- 126. 18... 728. Ee Washington, D.C. 181-+-1. 28. 18. 103. 1%. J. Varden. Mount Vernon, Pa. 129+-1. 27.18. 12. 12. W. B. Parker. Clarke Co., Va. 131-+1. 24.18. 1013.1%. Dr. C. B. Kennerly. Anderson, S. C. 131-L1. 28.18. 10%. 1,5 Miss C. Paine. E 126520 27 doe LOR ES: gs a 130-4-15:26..1385." 10d: 13: 66 Mississippi. 120-++1. 33.13. 83. 113. Dr.B.F.Shumard. ee 121-+1. 35. 13. 83. 14. oc TANTILLA. 131 Genus TAN TILLA, Bamp & Girarp. Gun. CHAr. Head slender, continuous with the body. Cephalic plates normal. Postfrontals proportionally large, separated from the labials to which they approximate, between the postnasal and ante- orbital. Two nasals, nostrils in the anterior plate. No loral. An- terior orbital one; posterior one or two. Eyes below the medium size. Body slender, subcylindrical; tail tapering. Scales smooth in in 15 rows. Postabdominal scutella bifid. Subcaudal all divided. Unicolor. 1. Tantilla coronata, B. & G.—One anteorbital, two postorbitals. Body uniform reddish brown; head deep chestnut-brown, with a black band across the neck above, in advance of which is a narrow lighter space. Snout prominent. Vertical plate hexagonal, anteriorly and pos- teriorly acute. Occipitals slender, rounded exteriorly. Postfrontals angular, excluded from the orbit, though extending on the sides of the head. Prefrontals triangular. Rostral proportionally broad. Nostrils situated on the posterior margin of the prenasal plate, and visible from above. Postnasal elongated, contiguous anteriorly to the anteorbital plate, and above to the postfrontal. No loral plate. Eyes rather small, circular. Superciliaries proportionally large, angular. Anteorbital one; postorbitals two, all angular. A large pretemporal shield, and two smaller ones behind. Mouth deeply cleft. Upper labials 7; 7th the largest; 3d and 4th beneath the eye. In- ferior labials 7; 4th the largest. Mental scutellze one pair. Body slender, tail rather short, tapering into a point. Scales subelliptical, considerably broader in outer row. Ground-color of body uniform reddish brown; light beneath. Head deep chestnut-brown; upper part of neck with a blackish brown half-ring, covering 3 scales in length, between which and the head a narrow space of the ground-color exists, across the tip of the occipitals. Kemper Co., Miss. 143-1. 85.15. 82. 1,5. D. C. Lloyd. 132 TANTILLA. 2. Tantilla gracilis, B. & G.—Anterior and postorbitals one each. Color uniform greenish brown above, lighter beneath; head darker. Vertical plate subhexagonal, much shorter than in 7” coronata. Postfrontals separated from 2d upper labial by the postnasal. Nostril in the postmargin of the prenasal. Hyes very small and circular. Superciliaries proportionally smaller and narrower than in 7’. coro- nata. One anteorbital and, one postorbital, both angular. Mouth deeply cleft. Upper labials 6; 5th and 6th equally larger than the rest; 3d and 4th beneath the eye, entering slightly into the orbit anteriorly and posteriorly. ‘Temporal shields two, narrow and elon- gated. Body slender and subcylindrical, covered above with sub- rhomboidal or elliptical and smooth scales, constituting 15 rows ; outer row but slightly larger than the three or four succeeding rows. Tail very slender. Ground-color uniform greenish brown, lighter beneath. Head darker. Indianola. 12941. 45.15. 74.18. Col. J.D. Graham. 6“ aa ee Se 66 OSCEOLA. 133 Genus OSCEOLA, Bairp & Gimarp. Grn. Cuan. Head subelliptical, distinct from the body. Cepha- lic plates normal. ‘Vertical hexagonal. Postfrontals very large, ex- tending to the upper labials, and suppressing the loral. Two nasals, with nostril intermediate. One anterior and two posterior orbitals. Mental scutellee 2 pairs. Eyes large. Body slender, subcylindrical. Tail tapering. Scales smooth. Postabdominal scutella entire. Sub- caudal bifid. Osceola elapsoidea, B. & G.—Body red, crossed by pairs of black rings enclosing each a white one. Scales disposed in 19 rows. Syn. Calamaria elapsoidea, Housr. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 119. Pl. xxviii. ; Snout projecting over the lower jaw; mouth deeply cleft. Verti- eal plate hexagonal, longer than broad anteriorly. Occipitals large, elongated, and angular. Postfrontals very large, extending to the 2d upper labial. Prefrontals proportionally well developed and tra- pezoidal. Rostral very broad. Nostrils very large, occupying the whole inner margin of the nasals, and visible from above. Ante- orbital narrow, resting on the 3d labial. Middle of the eye over the commissure of the 8d and 4th labial. Two angular postorbitals, in- ferior one situated on the commissure, between the 4th and 5th labials. One large temporal shield, anterior, several posterior ones smaller. Upper labials 7, 6th largest; inferior labials 7, 5th largest Body subcylindrical, deeper than broad; tail forming about the eighth of the total length. Scales rhomboidal, perfectly smooth, constituting 19 rows; the outer row slightly broader than the rest. Ground-color brilliant red above, fading below, annulated with 15 pairs of jet-black rings from head to anus, and three pairs on the 134 OSCEOLA. tail, each pair enclosing a white ring. Head from the eyes to the snout red, vertical plate maculated with black. A black bar across the occipitals to the temporal shields, and another on the neck, between which a yellowish ring, narrow above, and spreading over the angle of the mouth, post upper labials and inferior surface of the head. The black rings cover from two to three scales, and the inter- mediate white, one scale. The red spaces between the black em- brace from 4 to 7 scales. The black rings taper towards the sides, whilst the white ones are spreading. Charleston, S. C. 175. 44. 19. 17%. 23. Dr. S. B. Barker. In a specimen from Mississippi there are 21 pairs of black rings from the head to the anus, narrower than in the specimen from Oharleston, and interrupted on the abdomen. The intermediate white is of about the same width in each. On the tail there are 5 pairs of black rings, all the rings at the same distance apart, and equal in width to their interspaces. Mississippi. 180. 54. 19. 17. 23. Dr. B. F. Shumard. STORERIA. 135 Genus STORERIEIA, Bamop & Giranp. Gen. Cuar. Head subelliptical, distinct from the body. Cephalic plates normal. Loral plate absent. Orbitals, two posterior; one or two anterior. Nasals two, rather large. Body small, scarcely ex- ceeding a foot in length, subcylindrical ; tail comparatively short, tapering. Dorsal scales 15-17 rows, all carinated. Abdominal scutellaee 120-140; posterior one bifid. Subcaudal, all divided, from 41 to 51 in number. Color brown, with two dorsal dotted lines. 1. Storeria Dekayi, B. & G.—One anterior and two posterior orbitals. Dorsal rows 17. Gray or chestnut-brown above, with a clay- colored dorsal band, margined by dotted lines. A dark patch on each side of the occipital; a dark bar between this and the eye, and two below the orbit. Syn. T'ropidonotus Dekayi, House. N. Amer. Herp. II, 1842, 538. Pl. xiv. —Dexay, N. York Fauna. Rept. 1842, 46. PI. xiv, fig. 30. Tropidonotus ordinatus, Storur, Rep. Rept. Mass. 1839, 223. Body rather thick in the middle, tapering to the tail and head, both of which are small and slender. Eyes small. Nostril princi- pally in the prenasal. Seven upper labials on each side. Lower labials seven, of which the 4th and 5th are very large, extending quite to the mental. A second plate parallel with the 6th, rather longer. Exterior dorsal row of scales largest, rest diminishing gra- dually to the back. Color grayish brown, sometimes chestnut-brown above and on the sides, with a dorsal stripe extending from occiput to the end of the tail, of a decidedly lighter tint, and about three and two half-scales in width. This is bordered along each outer edge by a,series of rounded brown dots, occurring at intervals of about two scales; of these there are about 70 pairs from occiput to anus. Each dot occu- pies generally a single scale, but is sometimes seen on the skin on each side. On separating the scales, the skin on each side of the 4th lateral row of scales exhibits a second series, similar to and 186 STORERIA. alternating with the first. A third series opposite to the first and alternating with the 2d, is seen along the 2d row, and there are even traces of a fourth between the abdominal and first dorsal series. Of - these only the first-mentioned series is visible under ordinary circum- stances, and is generally only to be made out on separating the scales, the color only occasionally being shown on their margins. The first pair of dots just behind and across the angle of the jaw is enlarged into a crescentic patch, concave before. A second narrow vertical patch of black across the sides of the head, anterior to a point half- way between the first and the eye; this sometimes interrupted in the middle. The posterior margins of the 3d and 4th (sometimes the 2d) labials black, showing two vertical lines below the orbit. Plates on top of head mottled chestnut-brown. 4 Color beneath grayish white, with one or two black specks near the exterior edge of each scale. Tail unicolor. In some specimens the brown of the sides increases in depth to the dorsal stripe. In some, too, a transverse bar connects the lateral spots across the back. In a very young specimen from Grosse Ile, the colors are dark chestnut above, with the interval between the occipital patches and the cephalic plates and orbit white, crossed by a vertical black line on the angle of the mouth. Length 43 inches. Racine, Wisc. 1281.47.17. 18. 28. DE. B.ckoy: Grosse Ile, Mich. 1252-1550. 17. 82.012. Rev. Chas. Hox. Cleveland, Ohio. 131+1. 48.17. 113. 24. Dr. Kirtland. Westport, IV. Y. 128-1. 61.17. 10%. 2%. S. F. Baird. Harrisburg, Pa. 120-1. 17. 78. 2¥- y Framingham, Mass. 127-+-1. 45.17. 114. 24. - Pittsburgh, Pa. — —— — — G.W. Fahnestock. Washington, D. C. 129-+-1. 41.17. 12. 24. 8S. F. Baird. Anderson, S. C. 120+1. — 17. 93. 34. Miss C. Paine. ae 130-+-1. 47. 17. 124. 24. “ Georgia. 136-+1. 49.17. — — Major Leconte. New Orleans. ? 124 er 46 ty. TT. Oe: J. Varden. New Braunfels, Tex. — — — F. Lindheimer. STORERLA. 137 2. Storeria occipito-maculata, B. & G.—Orbitals 1, two an- terior, two posterior. Dorsal scales in15 rows. Above gray, or chestnut- brown, sometimes with a paler vertebral line; beneath red or salmon-color. Three distinct light colored spots behind the head, and a smaller one on the 4th or 5th upper labial. Syn. TZropidonotus occipito-maculatus, Storer, Rep. Rept. Mass. 1839, 230. Coluber venustus, Hattow. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. III, 1847, 274; and vol. IV, 1849, 245. Nostril almost entirely in the prenasal plate, in some cases the postnasal not entering at all into it. Five to six upper labials, increasing in length posteriorly, lower labials 6 to 7, similarly con- stituted. Vertical plate hexagonal, shield-shaped. Muzzle rather broad, eyes larger than in S. Dekay?. Color above light chestnut-brown, sometimes chestnut-gray, at others olivaceous: a paler vertebral line from occiput to end of tail, about three scales in width; on each side of this may be seen a series of minute brown spots, produced by the brown bases of the scales in the 3d row on each side from the central series. Sometimes the brown covers the whole scale, and gives rise to two dorsal lines; at others it is almost entirely wanting, and this, connected as it gene- rally is with a less distinct vertebral band, gives the impression of a uniform tint above. Upper margin of the exterior dorsal lines brighter yellowish, giving the effect in some cases of a lateral narrow light line. Abdomen in life salmon-color, in alcohol whitish yellow, with the sides finely mottled with dark-brown, sometimes obsoletely, at others constituting very distinct bands. These generally do not encroach upon the dorsal scales. Occasionally, however, the middle of the exterior row of scales exhibits a dark stripe. Immediately behind the occipital plates, and on the median line, is seen a dull salmon-colored blotch, on each side of which, over the angle of the jaws, is a similar smaller one. The intervals between these blotches sometimes darker. A small salmon-colored spot on the 4th or 5th upper labial, behind the orbit. Plates on the top of the head blotched with darker. Lower jaw minutely dotted with brown. Description of a living specimen caught at Westport, N. Y., Au- gust, 1847.—‘“‘Iris dark chestnut, Father lighter above and ex- ternally. General color above dull chestnut-brown. Attentively examined, however, when wet, there is seen a faint dorsal stripe of 158 STORERIA. lighter color, bordered by a line on each side of darker, which fades off to the abdominal scutellz until the color is the same as the dorsal line, or even lighter. Behind the head are three light yellowish brown occipital spots. Whole under parts, except the chin or throat, bright brick-red. Chin and throat white, mottled finely with gray and black, like pepper and salt. An irregularly defined stripe of the same mottling along the sides, from head to anus, crossing the ab- dominal scutellee near the outside.”—S. F. Baird, Mss. Westport, N.Y. 12441. 438.15. 94. 12. 8S. F. Baird. Portland, Me. —- — —- — — Prof. Caldwell. Lake Superior. —- —-—- —— Prof. Agassiz. Racine, Wise. —- —-—- —— Dr. P. R. Hoy. Foxburg, Pa. —- —-—- —— S. F. Baird. Madrid, N. Y. 128-++-1. 50. 15. 11. 23. E. A. Dayton. Pittsburgh, Pa. —- —- —- —— G. W. Fahnestock. Pottsville, Pa. —- — — —— Mr. Sheafer. Charleston, S. C. —- —- —- —— Dr. S. B. Barker. Anderson, S. C. —- -—--—- —-— Miss C. Paine. (Feorgia. —- -—--—- -— Major Leconte. A very strongly marked variety, which the condition of the speci- mens does not allow us to characterize or determine as a species, is seen in individuals from Charleston and Anderson, S. C., in which the body is dark slate-blue, except the middle third of the abdomen, which is yellowish white. The dorsal lines of black dots are visible through the ground-color; the lateral lighter line is scarcely per- ceptible. The three occipital spots, and that on the labials, are distinct. Charleston, S. C. — — — — —Dr.8.B. Barker. Anderson, S. C. 125-++1. 53.15. 84. 23. MissC. Paine. ( Dr Bek: Near Mammoth Cave, Ky. 118-++-1. 47.15. 84. 2. \ Shamnsnd Another variety is seen in a specimen from Pittsburgh, Pa., where, in addition to the coloration just mentioned, the vertebral stripe is light chestnut, contrasting strongly with the ground-color. . WENONA. 13 Ne) Genus WENOWNA, Bairp & Gimarp. Gen. Cuan. Head small, conical, slightly swollen on the tempo- ral region, though not separated from the body by a contracted neck. Snout protruding beyond the lower jaw. Mouth moderately cleft. Hyes very small. A broad and short vertical; two or three pairs of frontals. Occipitals very small, the size of the superciliaries. One nasal, a posterior one; nostril between it and the prefrontals, which extend over the place occupied elsewhere by the prenasal. Loral united with postfrontals or separated. One very large anteorbital ; two or more postorbitals. Numerous small temporal shields. Scales very small, lozenge-shaped, smooth, in 45 dorsal rows. Postab- dominal scutella not divided. Subcaudal all entire. Unicolor. Tail proportionally short, stout, terminating blunt. Syn. Wenona, B.& G. Proc. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. VI, 1852, 176. 1. Wenona plumbea, B. & G.—Uniform bluish lead-color \above ; uniform yellowish white beneath. Three pairs of frontal plates. Middle pair united with the loral, and thus extending to the labials. Labials not entering into the orbit. Dorsal scales in 45 rows. Syn. Wenona plumbea, B. & G. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. VI, 1852, N76. Upper surface of head slightly convex, snout rounded and pron\i- nent. Vertical plate as broad as long, obtuse angled anteriorly, rounded posteriorly. Postfrontals small and triangular, the smallest of all the frontals. Middle frontals subangular, transversely elon-\ gated, reaching the labials at the commissure of the 2d and 34, \ occupying the place of the loral. Prefrontals angular posteriorly, | rounded anteriorly, reaching the first labial, and occupying the place of the prenasal. Rostral broad and large. Postnasal subtri- angular, elongated, apex directed backwards. Nostril vertically elongated, situated between the lateral expansion of the prefrontals and the postnasal. Occipitals quite small, and united in one plate, eo 140 WENONA. perhaps accidentally. Anteorbital subpyramidal, apex reaching the upper surface of head, touching the vertical, and produced between the superciliaries and postfrontals. Superciliaries subquadrangular, more developed on the surface of the head than in the orbit. Three postorbitals, with rounded margins, upper one slightly the largest, situated near the upper surface of head, and might be considered as a second superciliary. Two suborbitals; anterior larger, sub- hexagonal, situated above the commissure between the 4th and 5th labials; posterior rounded, oblong, above the posterior half of the 5th labial. Temporal shields numerous and small, scalelike. Cleft of mouth slightly arched upwards. Upper labials 9; three anterior ones much higher than the rest; 5th broadest, none reaching the orbit. Lower labials inconspicuous; three anterior ones the largest. Body subcylindrical, deeper than broad; abdomen comparatively narrow. ‘Tail short, thick, blunt at its extremity. Scales small, irregular, subelliptical, or sublozenge-shaped ; on the outer row very large proportionally, higher than long. In the 2d row the scales are still larger; but in the remaining rows they become uniformly small, scarcely diminishing towards the middle line of the back. On the tail, hovrever, they are somewhat larger. Puget Sound, Or. 206. 87.45. 173. 24. (on dep.) Expl. Exped. 2. Wenona isabella, B. & G.—Uniform isabel-color above, dull yellovy beneath. Two pairs of frontal plates. An angular loral. Upper 4th end 5th labials entering into the orbit. A small anterior vertical be- tween the postfrontals. Dorsal scales in 45 rows. f3yn. Wenona isabella, B. & G. Proc. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. VI, 1852, 176. Upper surface of head flat, snout subtruncated. Vertical broader jjhan long, rounded posteriorly. A small second vertical between the postfrontals. Occipitals united in one small narrow plate. Two pairs of frontals only; postfrontals much larger, subrounded, forming on the right side a continuous plate with the loral, whilst on the left side the loral is distinct from the postfrontal which itself is angular. Prefrontals subangular, extending to the first upper labial, and occu- pying the place of the prenasal. Rostral broad, obtuse angled above. Anteorbital pyramidal, extending to the surface of the head, pro- duced between the postfrontals and superciliary, and touching the vertical. Superciliary proportionally larger than in W. plumbea, e A WENONA. 141 irregularly rounded. Three subangular and polygonal postorbitals. Numerous temporal shields of the size of the postorbitals, and but slightly larger than the scales. Cleft of mouth horizontal. Upper labials 9; the 5 anterior ones higher, the 4th and 5th entering into the orbit. Lower labials 10; the 4 anterior ones larger than the rest, which, as in W. plumbea, are not conspicuous. Body subcylindrical, deeper than broad; abdomen narrow. Tail short and thick, blunt posteriorly. Scales as in W. plumbea, only proportionally smaller. Puget Sound, Or. 210. 34.45. 154. 2;'5. (on dep.) Expl. Exped. 16 142 RENA. e Genus R EWA, Barren & Girarp. Gen. CHAr. Head slightly depressed and continuous with the body. Snout blunt and rounded, overlapping considerably the lower jaw. A large rostral plate. One nasal. A pair of fronto-nasals. One eye shield, or ocular. A pair of parietals. A pair of postparietals. Medial row of scales extending over the head to the rostral. Nostrils lateral, oblong, situated between the nasal and fronto-nasal. yes not conspicuous. Mouth inferior, semilunar. 1. Rena dulcis, B. & G.—Reddish brown above; reddish white be- neath. Fifteen rows of scales. Body depressed. Eye shield separated by a small plate from the series representing the vertical. Body slender, elongated, rather stouter posteriorly than anteriorly, depressed, broader than deep. ‘Tail very short, subconical, bluntly terminated, about 5), of the total length. Rostral rounded, taper- ing, separating the fronto-nasals for nearly their whole length. Fronto-nasals proportionally large, tapering upwards, and undulat- ing. Nasal subtriangular, nostril situated on the middle of its upper margin, close to the fronto-nasal. Hye shield large, elevated, irregu- larly oblong, extending to the top of the head from the margin of the jaw. Parietal and postparietal similar, transversally elongated, the postparietal somewhat larger. Four shield-shaped scales in a longitudinal series between the postparietals, parietals, eyeshield, fronto-nasals on each sides, and the rostral in front, occupy the place of the vertical. On the crown, and just above the eye-shield, is a small semilunar plate, separating it from the series just described, and probably the homologue of the supraorbital. The margin of the upper jaw is formed in front by the rostral; on the sides next to the rostral by the nasal, behind which is a subquadrangular, obliquely ele- vated labial, limited above by the fronto-nasal, and posteriorly by the eye-shield, which enters likewise in the upper labial series. Pos- terior to the eye-shield is a subtriangular labial at the angle -of the jaw, approximating above the parietal, and limited behind by the RENA. 143 postparietal and the beginning of the scales. Inferior labials four, similar to the scales under the throat. The scales present a great uniformity throughout the whole length of the body; a little smaller beneath than above. Between San Pedro and Camanche: Speiays es length 7%. tail ;45. Col. J. D. Graham. 2. Rena humilis, B. & G.—Uniform chestnut-brown, lighter be- neath. Scales in 15 rows. Body cylindrical. The eye-shield in contact with the longitudinal series on top of the head. Body oe slender and cylindrical. Tail short, conical, tapering, not acute, ;/; of the total length. Head less depressed. Eyes and nostril more ena than in the preceding species. No supraorbitals. Postparietals much smaller than the parietals. Scales on the abdo- men larger than on the back. Valliecitas, Cal. length 6. tail 4. Dr. John L. Le Conte. mt Wh Li me APPENDIX A. SPECIES EXAMINED, OF WHICH NO SPECIMENS ARE IN POSSESSION OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Crotalus oregonus, Hoisr.—Grayish ash above, with narrow lighter lines decussating, so as to form dorsal and lateral rhomboids, with the angles all sharp and well defined, and their margins within the light lines, black. Beneath black. The dark postocular vitta passes above the labials without coming into the edge of the mouth. A light line across the head through the middle of the superciliaries. Syn. Crotalus oregonus, Houpr. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 21. PI. iii. The only known specimen of this strongly marked species, and the same as that upon which Dr. Holbrook based his description, is too much shrivelled to admit of accurate description. In its general features it has a close resemblance to C. adamanteus, like it, having the back crossed by decussating light lines, enclosing transversely elongated rhomboids, with all the angles sharp and well defined. Of these rhomboids there are about 82 from head to anus. The general color is grayish ash, the decussating lines being of a lighter tint of the same. Along the margins of the lozenges, and just within the light lines, is a black border. Scutellae black, with ash- colored margins, the width of the ash-color diminishing from the head to the tail. There is a narrow, well-defined line across the head, just above the middle of the eye, which then appears to be continuous along the edge of the superciliaries to the angle of the jaw. A second white line starts between the nostril and the eye, and, passing back under the eye, strikes the edge of the mouth at the 10 145 146 APPENDIX A. 7th labial, and extends along to the angle of the mouth: the ends of the anterior lines on opposite sides scarculy appear to meet on the top of the head. The vitta between these two light lines is dark ash, margined with black, and passes back above the labials to the angle of the mouth. The space in front of the second line is black, except a short narrow line produced along the labials anteriorly as a branch of the line in front of the eye. Edges of the nostril light. The animal is quite young, there being but a single button. An important feature of distinction from C. adamanteus is seen in the fact that the dark line on the side of the head passes above the labials to the angle of the mouth, instead of passing very directly down to the edge of the mouth, considerably anterior to the angle. The sharpness and close approximation of the rhomboids distinguish it from the other Western species. The head is much longer in pro- portion than in C. lucifer. From the collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila- delphia. Columbia River. 177. 22. — 124. 13. Thomas Nuttall. Eutainia concinna, B. & G.—Dorsal rows of scales 21, all cari- nated. Black, with a dorsal light stripe, and the usual lateral stripes re- placed by a series of distinct salmon-colored spots. Syn. Tropidonotus concinnus, Hattow. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. VI, 1852, 182. Head small; body rather stout. Outer row of scales higher and larger than the rest, which are nearly equal. Above intense black, with a dorsal greenish white line one and two half-scales wide, and extending from head to tip of tail. On each side is a series of verti- cally elongated distinct spots of a reddish salmon-color, and 75 in number, between the head and anus. They occur on the 2d to the 6th rows of scales, and are half a scale long, the same color being visible on the adjoining skin. The dark intervals are one scale longer than the spots themselves. Beneath greenish black, tinged with white anteriorly. Whole head reddish yellow, tinged above with brown. A near relative of our Lutainia Pickeringii. Belonging to the Academy of Natural Sciences. Oregon. & 168. 85. 21. 26. 74. Dr. B. F. Shumard. APPENDIX A. 147 Nerodia niger, B. & G.—Head ellipsoid, anteriorly blunt, flattened above. Vertical plate very long, subhexagonal, slightly concave on the sides. Three postorbitals. Loral and nasals proportionally large. Dorsal scales in 23 rows. Color nearly uniform dark-brown on the back, macu- lated on the flanks and abdomen. Syn. Zropidonotus niger, Houpr. N. Amer. Herp. IV, 1842, 37. Pl. ix. Water Adder. Body more slender, and head larger than in JV. sipedon, though provided with 23 rows of scales, all of which are carinated. The scales of the outer row, however, are very large, proportionally more so than in WV. sipedon, the nearest relative of this species. The pre- frontals are triangular. The vertical plate is more elongated than in NV. sipedon, whilst the occipitals are smaller. The nasals and loral are also larger, as are the labials, though their number is the same in both species. The prefrontals are triangular. Ground-color chestnut-brown, with the scales streaked with black on the dorsal region, whilst the flanks are mottled, so as to appear darker. ‘The head beneath, and the middle of the abdomen on the anterior portion of the body are yellowish. The sides of the abdo- men, and posterior portion of body and tail, are densely maculated with black, almost entirely black beneath the tail. From the Cabinet of the Academy of Natural Sciences. Massachusetts. 141+-1. 66.23. 283.6%. Dr. D. H. Storer. Nerodia rhombifer, B. & G.—Vertical plate elongated, narrow, sides nearly parallel. Dorsal scales 27; scales all carinated. Postorbitals two on one side, three on the other. Labials 8, 6th highest. A dorsal series and a lateral on each side of quadrate blotches; the alternating blotches of opposite sides connected across the back by dark lines passing into the dorsal series. Syn. Tropidonotus rhombifer, Hattow. Proc. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. VI, 1852, 177. Ground-color light brown, or when the epidermis is removed, bluish ash. The dorsal dark spots are 50 in number from the head to the tip of the tail, the 35th opposite the anus. The lateral bars alternate with the preceding: they extend between the edges of the 148 APPENDIX A. abdomen and the 9th or 10th rows of scales, and are about one and a half scales long, separated by intervals of 22 or 3 scales. The dark bars crossing the back obliquely, and connecting the alternating bars of opposite sides by their decussation and slight confluence, form the dorsal series of blotches. These lines are about half the width of the vertical bars, appearing like their bifurcations. They divide the back into a succession of transversely elongated hexagons of the ground-color. The dark markings are confined to the skin and the basal halves of the scales, the tips of these in all cases being of the ground-color. Beneath yellowish white, blotched along each side with darker. Collected by Dr. 8. W. Woodhouse, on the Arkansas river and its tributaries, near the northern boundary of the Creek nation, and in possession of the Topographical Bureau. Arkansas River. 1414-1. 70.27. — — Dr. 8. W. Woodhouse. Nerodia transversa, B. & G. Syn. Tropidonotus transversus, HALLow. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. VI, 1852, 177. Owing to the imperfect condition of the specimen upon which this species was founded, it has been impossible to determine its true af- finities (except the generic), although strongly suspecting it to be the same, or at least very similar to V. Woodhousti, B.& G. If they be the same, the name of Dr. Hallowell will of course have priority, although neither the description nor the present condition of the spe- cimen afford conclusive proof on this point. Dr. Hallowell’s descrip. tion is as follows :—‘ Head large, swollen at the temples, convex posteriorly, flattened between the orbits, depressed in front; a series of subquadrate dark-colored blotches, thirty-six or thirty-seven in number, along the back; a transverse row of oblong bars along the sides, their upper margins alternating with the inferior margins of the dorsal blotches; scales strongly carinated, 25 rows; abdominal scutelle 144; subcaudal 78. “ Dimensions. Length of head 12 lines; greatest breadth 7; length of body 1 ft. (Fr.) 5 inches, 7 lines; length of tail 6 inches; total length 2 ft. “ Habitat. Creck boundary, found near the banks of the Arkan- sas and its tributaries.” Topographical Bureau. . APPENDIX A. 149 Masticophis flagelliformis, B. & G. A young individual in the cabinet of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and labelled ‘ Coluber reticularis, Daup.,” present the following characters, after long preservation in aleohol :— Above white, with a series of transverse dark bars across the back, extending from head to tail, about two scales long, and crossing from one side of the abdomen to the other. There is a faint indication of darker lateral lines extending through the centres of the lateral rows of scales. Beneath white, with two series of brown dotted lines ex- tending from the chin for about one-fourth of the length. Plates on the top of the head yellowish, with darker margins. South Carolina. ——17. 19. 43. Acad. Nat. Se. APPENDIX B. SPECIES DESCRIBED BY AUTHORS, BUT OF WHICH NO SPECIMENS COULD BE OBTAINED. i. Toxicophis atrofuscus, Troost.—Body above dusky, with light rhomboidal dorsal blotches of smoky gray, disappearing entirely near the tail, which is black. Syn. Toticophis atrofuscus, Troost. Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. Y. III, 1836, 190. Acontias atrofuscus, Troost. ibid 180. Trigonocephalus atrofuscus, Houpr. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 43. PI. ix. “Upper part of the head dark-brown, bordered with gray, which becomes lighter behind the eyes, with a dark longitudinal spot reach- ing from the orbit to the tympanal bones. Upper lip white, termi- nating near the tip in gray. Body dusky, variegated with brown spots of smoke-gray ; broadest on the back, and disappear on the tail, which is black. Throat marked with black and white, the latter color predominating ; belly irregularly spotted with black and white, darkest towards the tail, and in all parts the white is minutely dotted with black.’”’—Holbrook. Tennessee. 133. 25-+-18. — 25. 32. Dr. G. Troost. The species probably belongs really to the genus Aghistrodon, Beauv. 2. Coluber testaceus, Say.—‘‘ Body above pale sanguineous or testaceous; beneath sanguineous, immaculate.”—Say. Syn. Coluber testaceus, Say in Long’s Exped. Rocky Mts. II, 1823, 48.— Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 848; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 118.—Hoxsr. N. Amer. Herp. II, 1842, 63. Pl. xiii. 150 APPENDIX B. 151 “ Head subovate, elongated, the snout produced slightly and rounded. The form of the head, as well as the plates that cover it, and the disposition of the eyes and nostrils, appear in the preserved specimen to be precisely similar to those of Coluber constrictor. The body is long and slender, and is covered with large, smooth hex- agonal scales above, and with broad plates below. The tail is long and slender. The whole upper surface of the animal is pale brick- dust color, the abdomen and below brighter red.””—Holbr. Rocky Mts. 198. 80. — 62. — Thos. Say. The figure represents the postabdominal scutella as divided. The species perhaps belongs to the genus MJasticophis, more dorsal rows being represented than probably belong to it. It may prove to be Masticophis flavigularis, B. & G. 3. Coluber Sayi, Scut. (non Hotsr.)—General color reddish orange, with a dorsal series of transverse blotches, forming bands towards the pos- terior region of the body. Flanks mottled or maculated. Syn. Coluber Sayi, Scuu. Ess. Phys. Serp. Part. descr. 1837, 157. Coluber melanoleucus var. Say.—Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 360; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 123. “‘This species is beyond all dispute one of the handsomest of the genus (Coluber), and as well characterized by the shape of its snout and the plates of its surface as by the beautiful reddish yellow tint predominant over all the regions of the body. The back, however, is of a deeper chestnut-brown, in the midst of which the ground-color appears in the shape of numerous transverse and oval blotches : these two tints constitute towards the posterior region broad and alternat- ing bands, extending to the inferior surface. The anterior region is deeper in color, spotted or maculated with black like the abdomen, or else exhibiting large patches of this same tint. ‘The head is distinct from the neck, and covered with plates, the vertical of which is a spherical triangle almost equilateral; the oc- cipitals are noticeable for their small size; the labials are large, and margined with black, but are not to be distinguished from the scales of the body, which are lanceolated, provided with a carina, and dis- posed in 26 rows. “There are three postorbital plates and but one anteorbital, pre- ceded by a very small loral. The snout is conical, and terminated 152 APPENDIX B. by a plate, which has the shape of a prominent nose, on each side of which are the nasals. Our specimen has two pairs of postfrontals disposed on a single transverse row. “The bones which constitute the skull are stouter than in the other species of Coluber. The tympanum is longer, and the nasals elongated. The intermaxillary is very depressed. The teeth are all of the same length.””—Schlegel. The specimen described was brought from the Rocky Mountains by Mr. Say, and presented to M. Schlegel by Charles L. Bonaparte. Missouri. 991. 5d 25: =~ about:4 feet: The species here referred to belongs undoubtedly to the genus Pituophis. The general system of coloration, the peculiar shape and structure of the snout, and the presence of two pairs of postfrontal plates, are characters which this genus alone possesses in the manner just described. As to Say’s variety of Coluber melanoleucus, as given by Harlan, it is introduced into the synonymy with some doubt. 4. Coluber vertebrahis, Buainv.—“ Reddish yellow or pale red, marbled with deep brown, forming a dorsal united series in the shape of a succession of sections of fish vertebra, becoming isolated and more apart towards the posterior region.” Syn. Coluber vertebralis, Buarnv. Nouy. Ann. Mus. d’Hist. Nat. IIT, 1834, 61. Pl. xxvii. figs. 2, 2a, and 2b. “Body elongated and slender anteriorly; head small and com- paratively distinct; snout pointed; tail short, conical, and pointed. Nostrils lateral, small, circular, between the two nasal plates. Hyes large, lateral, almost entirely surrounded with the orbital plates. Cephalic plates: two prefrontals and two postfrontals ; two lorals superposed. ‘Two anteorbitals and three postorbitals. Abdominal scutella: 245; subcaudal 64. Scales rather small, lozenge-shaped, smooth, imbricated.”’ California. —-—- —- — M. Botta. This species is not without a certain resemblance to Pituophis. The chained dorsal blotches, the acute head, prominent snout, and presence of two lorals, the upper one resembling in shape and posi- APPENDIX B. 155 tion an exterior pair of postfrontals, are the characters which lead us to this belief. Its generic affinities, however, cannot be determined without specimens in hand. The smooth scales would militate against the supposition of its being a Pituophis. 5. Coluber (Ophis) Califormia, Brainv.—< Yellow, lighter be- neath, darker above, with six longitudinal bands more or less effaced, and more or less anastomosed, of a black color, the upper ones broader and often united.” Syn. Coluber (Ophis) Californix, Buainv. Ann. Mus. d’Hist. Nat. III, 1834, 60. Pl. xxvii. figs. 1, 1a, 1b. “ Body of ordinary form and medium length; head proportionally large, depressed; snout short and obtuse. Tail rather short, conical, and pointed. Nostrils lateral, oval, between the two nasal plates, contiguous to the frontals. Eyes of medium size, lateral. Cephalic plates. Two prefrontals and two postfrontals; one loral; one ante- orbital and two postorbitals. Scales rather small, lozenge-shaped, imbricated, and perfectly smooth.” California. —--—-—-_—- -— M. Botta. 6. Coluber (Zacholus) zonatus, Buainv.—“ Reddish white, en- tirely annulated with deep black, with two half-rings of the same color on the head.” Syn. Coluber (Zacholus) zonatus, Buainv. Nouv. Ann. Mus. d’Hist. Nat. Ill, 1834, 61. “ Body cylindrical, back depressed, subcarinated, suddenly attenu- ated posteriorly, and but slightly anteriorly. Head small, tetragonal, with an obtuse and thick snout; tail short, small, and very much tapering, about 4 of total length. Nostrils lateral, large, infundi- buliform, in the midst of the two nasal plates. Eyes large and late- ral. Mouth deeply cleft; anus very far back. Cephalic plates: two prefrontals and two postfrontals; one loral, very small; one anteorbital and two postorbitals, very small. Scales rather large, rhomboidal, subimbricated, increasing in size from the back towards the sides, subconvex and perfectly smooth.” California. —-—-——_—- — — M. Botta. 154 APPENDIX B. 4. Coluber planiceps, Briarny.—‘ Uniform reddish above, of a soiled white beneath, with a black patch on the occiput and the beginning of the neck.” Srv. Coluber planiceps, Buainv. Nouv. Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. IIT, 1834, 62. Pl. xxvii, figs, 3, 3a, 3b. “ Body slender, rather elongated, cylindrical; head small, de- pressed, but little distinct; snout short and elliptical; tail rather long, slender, and very much tapering, } of the total length. Nostrils lateral, very small, situated in the middle of the nasal, which is elon- gated and single. Eyes of medium size. Mouth broad, consider- ably cleft; anus far back. Cephalic plates: two prefrontals and two postfrontals. No loral. One anterior and one postorbital. Ab- dominal scutella 184, beginning at some distance from the head. Subcaudal 56. Scales broad, convex, very smooth, opalescent, ob- liquely imbricated.” California. —-—-— M. Botta. Genus CHAR UNA, Gray. Gen. CHar. Resembles Wenona in general shape and appear- ance, and bears with it many affinities in structure. There are two lorals instead of one; three anteorbitals instead of one; three super- ciliaries instead of one; and the subcaudal scutellz much narrower, and more elongated transversely. The comparison of specimens will no doubt show other generic differences inappreciable by the de- scriptions. Syn. Charina, GRAY, Catal. of Snakes in Brit. Mus. 1849, 115. 8. Charina Botte, Gray.—Body cylindrical, blunt at each end; pale yellow; back and tail darker. Syy. Charina Botte, Gray, Catal. of Snakes in Brit. Mus. 1849, 1138. Tortric Botte, Buainv. Nouy. Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. III, 1834, 57. PI. Xxvi, figs) 1, 1a, 1b. APPENDIX B. 15 wo Genus OPH THALMIDEION, Dum. & Birr. Gen. Coan. Head more or less depressed, covered with plates ; rostral plate recurved under the snout, the tip of which is rounded, and extending to the upper part of the head in the shape of an oval cap. An anterior frontal plate. A frontal proper. A pair of su- praoculars. A pair of pariectals; no interparictals, or one only. A pair of nasals. A pair of fronto-nasals. A pair of oculars. A pair of preoculars. Nostrils hemidiscoid, opening under the snout, one to the right, the other to the left, between the nasal and fronto-nasal. Eyes lateral, more or less distinct. Syn. Ophthalmidion, Dum. & Brpr. Erp. Gen. VI, 1844, 262; and Catal. Rept. Mus. d’Hist. Nat. II, 1852, 201. 9. Ophthalmidion longissimum, Dum. & Bisr.—Tail double the length of the width of the head, cylindrical, straight, rounded at the tip, and provided with a small spine. Nasal plates in the shape of little subrec- tangular bands, placed longitudinally on each side at the inferior part of the rostral. Oculars in vertical subhexagonal bands, less developed than the preoculars, and showing the eyes but slightly through. Head yellow- ish, the whole body of a grayish tint. Syn. Ophthalmidion longissimum, Dum. & Bier. Erp. Gen. VI, 1844, 263 ; and Catal. Rept. Mus. Hist. Nat. II, 1852, 201. N. America. Collected by Comte de Castelnau. Florida. ? ? The following species given by Schlegel in his Hssaz as North American, cannot be admitted into our fauna without further evi- dence. CalaMaria MelaAMOCe PMala,..........ccccevees Surinam & Philada MVC OMOM CLOUT Asner ecccces sooner ottisevsvdesecdscssiocesseetasetesscacosenes DL DTLAd a, Hierpetodryas Margaritiferuss.................ccccecees New Orleans. Her petOdryaSs CUPSOD. .............ccc6. cccces cesses ceccncces seeeee New York. DryOpWis CAtesDOe L...........cccccccececceeeeeceneenene ces Southern States. BPADSERS AMMMN UND NG. oo nies = sores edhe vanes aconasiens onayed syeohe Delta of Miss. HTOMALOPSIS CAMPTMICAUAA...........ccccccccscsececsey cosceeees New York. Homalopsis plicatilis, Var............cccccsseeeees see New Orleans. AP PE Nipt XC. SPECIES COLLECTED BY JOHN H. CLARK AND ARTHUR SCHOTT, on THE U. S. anD Mexican Bounpary SuRVEY, UNDER MAJ. Wo. H. Emory, U. 8. A., AND RECEIVED TOO LATE FOR INSER- TION IN THEIR PROPER PLACES. BH. Crotalus AtrOX, B. & G.wccccserccieesscsessses soossesen sesseeese Page 5 Pecos, Tex. —— 15. 35. 28. John H. Clark. Eagle Pass, Tex. — ee LL DO, DE. Arthur Schott. 2. Toxicophis pugnax, B. & G...........seecees Riassessceeness Page 20 Eagle Pass, Tex. 188. 48. 25. 28. 43. Arthur Schott. BS. Blaps temere, Bik G......ccucccssscccessovsvecss sernsvsesserrasess Page 22 The ground-color of the present specimen is red, the same as in Elaps fulvius; the fact of its being fawn-colored in the specimen de- scribed above must be attributed to the action of the preserving fluid. The specimens here referred to are of a greater size, but ex- hibit all the other characters by which we have distinguished this species from Klaps fulvius. San Felipe, Tex. —-—— —— John H. Clark. Eagle Pass, Tex. —-——_—- —>— Arthur Schott. 4, Eutainia Marciama, B. & Goo... cesses eee eens Page 36 Eagle Pass, Tex. —-—-— Arthur Schott. 156 APPENDIX C. 157 5. Heterodom masicus, B. & Goi....cccccs cceeccessseeees teneeeees Page 61 Specimens of this species vary in the number of small postrostral plates. In some there are only three or four, in others a larger num- ber. Sometimes, instead of a single series of median dorsal spots, there are two, in close contact, and more or less confluent. The nar- row light line across the middle of the superciliaries and the high labials are still highly characteristic. _ Pecos, Tex. 130+-1. 40.23. 143. 28. John H. Clark. cs 141-+4-1. 29. 23. 203. 23. 3 és 141+-1. 87. 23. 233. 34. x Eagle Pass, Tex. 14441. 88.28. 264. 33. Arthur Schott. G. Pituophis belloma, B. & Gu... cesses cee esseeeeseeeeees Dage 66 Presidio del Norte, Mex. 248. 51. 82. 513. 6. John H. Clark. 4%. Scotophis Emoryi, B. & G.—Head rather narrow; vertical plate elongated. Eye large. Median six or eight scales only carinated; very slightly. Dorsal rows 29. Above ash-gray, with a dorsal series of trans- verse brown blotches, on each side of which are two others of smaller size; indistinct traces of a third. 1. Implements for skinning . , > . 2 2. Preservatives . ° . > > > * § III. Skinning and stuffing animals . , , p ° 7.2 Birds a. c . 2. Mammals . ° 3. Reptiles . e 4, Fishes ° : § IV. Preserving in liquids, and by other modes besides skinning 1. General Remarks 2. Vertebrates — . 3. Invertebrates . § V. Embryos . . ° § VI. Nests and eggs. . § VII. Preparation of skeletons SiVILE Plants: 4. 3 ° . ° . a c . ° 6 . , e ° e e e » e » e e ® ° e ’ ° e e 2 2 § IX. Minerals and fossils . . > ° » ‘ . § X. Minute microscopical organisms . write . § XI. Marine invertebrates ' : ; ° = ‘ COLLINS, PHILADELPHIA: PRINTER, 705 JAYNE STREET. ca os 12 16 16 16 17 ay 21 22 23 25 25 27 28 29 30 31 32 35 36 37 INTRODUCTION. In the present pamphlet (prepared under the direction of Pro- fessor Baird with the co-operation of several naturalists) will be found brief directions for collecting and preserving objects of Natural History, drawn up for the use of travellers and others who may desire elementary instruction on this subject. The gene- ral principles involved are so simple as to enable any one, with but little practice, to preserve specimens sufficiently well for the ordinary purposes of science. In transmitting specimens to the Smithsonian Institution, re- course may be had, when practicable, to the facilities kindly authorized by the War, Navy, and Treasury Departments, in the annexed letters. Parcels collected in the vicinity of military posts in the interior, may usually be sent down to the coast or the fron- tier in returning trains of the Quartermaster’s Department. While waiting for opportunities of shipment, packages can generally be deposited in custom-houses, or public stores. Where it is not convenient or practicable to make use of government facilities, the ordinary lines of transportation may be employed. When there is time enough to communicate with the Institution, instructions will be supplied as to the most eligible route; if not, then the cheapest but most reliable channel should be selected. In every case the parcels should be addressed to “the Smithsonian Institution, Washington,” with the name of sender and locality marked on the outside. Full directions for packing specimens will be found in the pamphlet. Collections in Natural History, as complete as possible, including the commonest species, are requested from any part of the country ; as also lists and descriptions of species, notes of habits, &c. For all assistance which may be rendered either in gathering specimens, or in aiding in their transportation, full credit will be given by the Institution in the annual reports to Congress, cata- logues and labels of collections, and in other ways. JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary Smithsonian Institution, War DEPARTMENT, Washington, January 17, 1852. Smr: In reply to your letter of the 7th inst., asking whether authority can be given to the officers of the Quartermaster Department to receive and transmit specimens of Natural History for the use of the Smith- sonian Institution, I have the honor to inform you that directions have been given through the Quartermaster-General to furnish the facilities you ask for, whenever it can be done without expense to the United States. Very respectfully, your obedient servant, C. M. Conran, Secretary of War. Prof. Jos. Henry, Secretary Smithsonian Institution. Navy DEPARTMENT, February 21, 1853. Str: Authority is hereby given to you, to apply to the commanding officer of any vessel of war, or to any naval storekeeper of the United States, for facilities in transporting packages and specimens of Natural History intended for the Smithsonian Institution, and such officers are hereby required to furnish such facilities when asked for, provided they can be afforded without inconvenience to the public service and without expense to the United States. I am, very respectfully, your obedient servant, Joun P. Kennepy, Secretary of the Navy. Prof. J. Henry, Secretary Smithsonian Institution. TREASURY DEPARTMENT, January 25, 1854. Siz: In reply to your communication of 13th inst., I have the honor to state that collectors of the customs, commanders of cutters, and other officers of this Department, are hereby authorized and required to receive into buildings or vessels under their control, any packages intended for the Smithsonian Institution, and to transport or transmit the same towards their destination, whenever this can be done without inconvenience to the public service and without expense to the United States. Iam, very respectfully, your obedient servant, JAMES GUTHRIE, Secretary of the Treasury. Prof. JosepH Henry, Secretary Smithsonian Institution. 31. GENERAL REMARKS.* THE general principle to be observed in making collections of Natural History, especially in a country but little explored, is to gather all the species which may present themselves, subject to the convenience or practicability of transportation. The number of specimens to be secured will, of course, depend upon their size, and the variety of form or condition caused by the different features of age, SeX, Or season. As the object of the Institution in making its collections is not merely to possess the different species, but also to determine their geographical distribution, it becomes important to have as full series as practicable from each locality. And in commencing such collections, the commonest species should be secured first, as being most characteristic, and least likely to be found elsewhere. It is a fact well known in the history of museums, that the species which from their abundance would be first expected, are the last to be received. : In every little known region the species which are the commonest, are rarest elsewhere, and many an unscientific collector in Texas, Mexico, the Rocky Mts., and elsewhere, has been surprised to find what he considered the least valuable species in his collection (owing to the ease with which they had been obtained in numbers), more prized by the naturalist than the rarities, which were in fact only well known stragglers from more accessible localities. The first specimen procured of any animal, however imperfect, should be preserved, at least until a better can be obtained. Where a small proportion only of the specimens collected can be transported, such species should be selected as are least likely to be procured in other localities or on other occasions. Among these may be mentioned reptiles, fishes, soft insects, &c.; in short, all such as require alcohol for their preservation. Dried objects, as * This chapter is intended especially for the guidance of travelling parties by land, and embraces many points referred to subsequently at greater length. 6 skins, can be procured with less difficulty, and are frequently col- lected by persons not specially interested in scientific pursuits. In gathering specimens of any kind, it is important to fix with the utmost precision the localities where found. This is especially desirable in reference to fishes and other aquatic animals, as they occupy a very intimate relation to the waters in which they live. The surest way of procuring the smaller mammals, as rats, mice, &e., is by setting traps in places where such animals may be ex- pected to resort. A common mouse trap placed near the runs of meadow mice and baited with corn, potato, cheese, or other attractive substances, will often reveal the existence in numbers, of species whose presence was previously unknown. Corn shocks, stacks of hay, piles of rails, wood or stones, old stumps or logs, when overturned or removed, will often exhibit these mammals in greater or less number. They are also often turned up by the plough, spade, or pick. Wolves, foxes, bears, and in fact most mammals can be obtained by placing strychnine on their favorite food. There are two principal methods of preserving mammals; one by skinning, the other by throwing entire into alcohol. The skin, when removed from the body, as directed hereafter, may be pre- pared dry with arsenic, or placed in spirits ; or if the animal be of small size, it may be thrown entire into alcohol, but an incision should always be made into the abdomen to facilitate the entrance of the liquid. The skin of the belly should also be separated from the subjacent walls of the abdomen. For purposes of examination it will be more convenient to have the skull removed entirely from the skin, when this is to be prepared dry ; but care should be taken to attach corresponding marks to the two, so that they may be readily referred one to the other. The skull may then be pre- served by boiling, or by cutting away the muscle, and drying, or by immersion in alcohol; in any case great care should be taken not to cut or mutilate any part of the bone, as its value would thereby be impaired. Separate skulls in any number, are always desirable. Where several specimens of a species are collected, the skulls of some may be left attached to the skin. It will be well to preserve specimens of the smaller species, both as dry skins, and in alcohol. It is very important to have the locality of specimens care- fully noted and transmitted; and if possible, the date of capture, 7 and notes of habits and peculiarities. The sex, and color of the iris may likewise be indicated, and if not too much trouble, the following measurements in the case of skins of mammals: Ist, Length of head to the occiput; 2d, Length of head and body to the root of the tail; 3d, Length of tail from root to end of verte- bre, and 4th, Length of tail from root to the end of the hairs. In many eases it is very difficult to preserve skins of the larger mammals, owing to the amount of arsenic required, the length of time needed for drying the specimens, or the inconveniently large bulk they occupy. All these objections may be readily obviated by the use of a fine powder composed of two parts of alum and one of saltpetre, intimately mixed.* Every portion of the fresh skin should be well covered with this mixture, to which some arsenic may be added, the powder being forced into every corner. It may be most readily applied by means of a tin dredging box and after- wards rubbed in. If the skin be perfectly fresh, it may be folded up, without any stuffing, shortly after application of the powder, and packed away; it will be better, however, to allow it to dry partially, although it should be folded up before losing its flexi- bility. The skin should always be taken, when possible, from a recently killed animal, and the preservative applied at once. Skins prepared in this way will relax sufficiently for mounting by soaking a few hours in cold water. Any fat, blood or muscle, which may be attached to the skin, should be carefully removed before the preservative is applied, the surface being kept at the same time moist and fresh, in order that the powder may more readily adhere. © The first coat may be ap- plied when the skin is inverted, and the hair inside; it should, after a little while, be returned to its natural condition, and a second quantity of the powder added. The skin should be folded up something like a coat, the hair side outward; the head, feet and tail, properly adjusted. In small specimens, the folding may be omitted, and the skin kept in a flat- tened state. In animals less than a fox, a little stuffing may be used to fill out the head, and a small portion placed in the skin and legs. As little, however, should be used as possible, as it is an important object to diminish in every way the bulk of the prepara- * The use of this mixture was first suggested to the Smithsonian In- stitution by Mr. John G. Bell, of New York. 8 tion. No wrinkles, however, or unnecessary folds should be left in the skin. In skinning the larger animals, the skull may generally be re- moved entirely, and thus the labor of preparation greatly reduced. In this case the skull can be cleaned separately, by boiling until the flesh becomes soft and easily removed, or the raw flesh may be cut away, the brain extracted, and the skull dried rapidly by ex- posure to the air and sun. It can at any time afterwards be cleaned more perfectly. The preservation of the skull is a matter of the highest importance. Skins of large animals may readily be converted into pliable leather, by rubbing on salt, alum and soft soap, continuing the operation for a considerable length of time. When the skin be- comes nearly dry, it should then be pounded or rubbed all over, until the desired softness is obtained. The: skeletons of all kinds of mammals, even of the commonest species, should be collected. These may be roughly prepared by cutting away the meat, and allowing the bones to dry in the air. The skeleton may be dismembered, and the ribs separated from the vertebre. The bones of each leg should, however, be left attached to each other, if possible. The skull may be cleaned by boiling. Where there is an opportunity, it will be well to soak the bones in water for a few hours to remove the blood. A perfectly dry skin will keep very well without any application of preservative material, provided the insects are excluded. To this end each specimen may be separately enveloped in paper. Tobacco leaves in layers between skins, and covering them, will be a sure protection against most adult insects; and in the absence of tobacco, any highly pungent or odoriferous substance, as the arte- misia or sage, and larrea of the western plains, may be employed. In preparing skins of any kind, it is a matter of prime import- ance not to use any animal substance, as wool, hair, or feathers, for stuffing. Skins of mammals and birds, especially if at all greasy and not thoroughly freed from muscle, are very liable to the attacks of small beetles, as Dermestes, &c., when boxed up for any length of time, especially in the field, and valuable collections have frequent- ly been entirely destroyed by them in less than a month. An occasional examination should therefore be made of such collec- tions. Whenever possible, it will be well to envelop each speci- 9 men completely in paper or cotton-cloth. The greatest care should always be taken to keep from such collections any uncleaned skulls or bones, wool, hair, loose feathers, or unpreserved animal matter of any kind. If necessarily kept in the same boxes with skins, skulls, even if apparently quite clean, should be separately and closely wrapped up so as to prevent the access of insects to them. It must be borne in mind that it is the larve of these insects that do the mischief, and that a single female gaining access to a specimen may lay eggs enough to do a vast amount of injury when developed. Where danger is apprehended to large skins, or where they have been already attacked, a quantity of arsenic may be boiled for a time in water, and after the free arsenic is strained out by means of a cloth, the liquid may be applied to the fur or wool by means of a watering-pot. The ears, lips, orbital region, and nose may be well moistened by an alcoholic solution of corrosive sub- limate. A tincture of strychnine is said, however, to keep off in- sects much better than anything else. (See also page 22.) In passing through the breeding grounds of birds, attention should be paid to securing abundant specimens of nests and eggs. When possible, the skin of the bird to which each set of eggs may belong should be secured. Further directions in regard to nests and eggs will be found hereafter. Skins of all the species of birds in each locality should be collected. A series of birds in alcohol will also be very desirable. A great obstacle in the way of making alcoholic collections while on a march has been found in the escape of the spirits and the friction of the specimens, as well as in the mixing up of these from different localities. All such difficulties have been successfully ob- viated by means of the following arrangement: Instead of using glass jars, so liable to break, or even wooden kegs, so difficult of stowage, a square copper can should be procured, having a large mouth with a cap fitting tightly over it, either by a screw or other- wise. The can should be inclosed in a wooden box, or may be made to fit into a division of a leather pannier, to be slung across the back of a mule. Several small cans, in capacity of from a half to one-third of a cubie foot, or even less, will be better than one large one. Small bags of musquito netting, lino, crinoline, or other porous material, should be provided, made in shape like a pillow- case, and open at one end; these may be from six to fifteen inches 10 long. When small fishes, reptiles, or other specimens, are pro- cured in any locality, they may be placed indiscriminately in one or more of these bags (the mouths of which are to be tied up like a sack or pinned over), and then thrown into the alcohol. Pre- viously, however, a label of parchment, or stout writing paper should be placed inside the bag, containing the name of the locality or other mark, and written in ordinary ink or pencil. The label, if dry before being placed in the bag, will retain its writing un- changed for a long time. The locality, or its number, should also be coarsely marked with a red pencil, on the outside of the bag, or a second piece of numbered parchment pinned on. This, if dry when pinned, will swell so as to be in no danger of being lost off. In this way, the specimens, besides being readily identified, are preserved from rubbing against each other, and consequent injury. Still farther to facilitate this object, an India-rubber gas-bag may be employed to great advantage, by introducing it into the vessel, and inflating until all vacant space is filled up by the bag, and the consequent displacement of the spirit. When additional specimens are to be added, a portion of the air may be let out, and the bag afterwards again inflated. In the absence of these arrangements a quantity of tow, cotton, or rags, kept over the specimens, will be found useful in preventing their friction against each other or the sides of the vessel. The tin cans with screw caps for preserving meats and vegetables from the atmosphere, and now so universally used, may be employed as a substitute for the copper tanks, as being cheaper and more easily obtained. The most useful sizes are a quart and half gallon. Care must, however, be taken not to crowd too many specimens in the cans, to have them full of alcohol, and to change the spirit at least once. The larger snakes should be skinned, as indicated hereafter, and the skins thrown into alcohol. Much space will in this way be saved. Smaller specimens may be preserved entire, together with lizards, salamanders, and small frogs. All of these that can be caught should be secured and preserved. The head, the legs with the feet, the tail, in fact, the entire skin of turtles may be preserved in alcohol; the soft parts then extracted from the shell, which is to be washed and dried. Reptiles are to be sought for in different localities: those covered with scales can generally be readily observed: the naked skinned ‘11 ones are generally more or less concealed. Tree frogs will be found in early spring by the side of small streams or ponds in the woods or meadows. Salamanders are found under logs or bark in damp woods, or under flat stones near or in the water. Every stream, and, indeed, when possible, many localities in each stream, should be explored for fishes, which are to be preserved as directed. For these, as well as the other alcoholic collections, the lino bags are very useful. The stomachs of fishes and other vertebrates will often be found to contain rare animals not otherwise procurable, and should be carefully examined. Great attention should be paid to procuring many specimens of the different kinds of small fishes, usually known as minnows, shiners, chubs, &c. Among these will always be found the greatest variety of species, some never exceeding an inch in length. These fish are generally neglected under the idea that they are merely the young of larger kinds; even if they should prove to be such, however, they will be none the less interesting. Different forms will be found in different localities. Thus the Ltheostomata, or Darters, and the Cott’, live under stones or among gravel, in shallow, clear streams, lying flat on the ground. Others will be dislodged by stirring under roots or shelving banks along the water’s edge. The Melanure, or mud-fish (a few inches in length), dwell ¢z the mud of ditches, and are secured by stirring up this mud into a thin paste with the feet, and then drawing a net through it. The sticklebacks and cyprinodonts live along the edges of fresh and salt water. The Zygonectes swim in pairs slowly along the surface of the water, the tip of the nose generally ex- posed. They generally have a broad black stripe on the side. By a careful attention to these hints, many localities supposed to be deficient in species of fishes will be found to yield a large number. After the death of a mammal or bird, or after the skin has been prepared a short time, lice will be seen on the surface, generally near the head. These should be carefully preserved on small pa- pers and marked, separately, with the name or number of the spe- cimen to which they belong. The alcohol used on a march may be supplied with tartar emetic. This, besides adding to its preservative power, will remove any temptation to drink it on the part of unscrupulous persons. Insects, excepting the Lepidoptera, and those covered with hairs 12 or scales, can be readily preserved in alcohol. Small bottles should be used for the purpose. Crabs and small shells, and aquatic ani- mals generally, may, likewise be treated in the same manner. It is not usually possible to collect minerals, fossils, and geo- logical specimens in very great mass while travelling. The fossils selected should be as perfect as possible ; and especial care should be paid to procuring the bones and teeth of vertebrate animals. Of minerals and rocks, specimens as large as a hickory-nut will, in many cases, be sufficient for identification. . Where collections cannot be made in any region, it will be very desirable to procure lists of all the known species, giving the names by which they are generally recognized, as well as the scientific name, when this is practicable. The common names of specimens procured should also be carefully recorded. All facts relating to the habits and characteristics of the various species of animals, however trivial and commonplace they may seem, should be carefully recorded in the note book, especially those haying relation to the peculiarities of the season of repro- duction, &c. The accounts of hunters and others should also be collected, as much valuable information may thus be secured. The colors of the reptiles and fishes when alive should always be given, when practicable, or, still better, painted on a rough sketch of the object. LIST OF APPARATUS USEFUL FOR TRAVELLING PARTIES. 1. Two WOODEN CHESTS; OR TWO LEATHER PANNIERS supplied with back strap for throwing across a mule, when the transporta- tion is entirely by pack animals. One of these is intended to con- tain the copper kettles, and their included alcohol, together with the nets and other apparatus; the other to hold the botanical apparatus, skins of animals, minerals, &c. These, when full, should not weigh more than one hundred and fifty pounds the pair. Where the transportation is by wagons, the kettles may be carried in stout wooden chests, about two feet long, one foot wide, and one foot high outside, made of inch stuff. Two half-inch partitions inside may cut off spaces at each end large enough to receive kettles six inches broad, leaving an intermediate space of nine inches for the accommodation of nets, ete. It will be found very convenient to have a chest fitted with trays dropping in from 13 above, to carry more readily and securely skins of birds, small mammals, eggs, etc. 2. Two COPPER KETTLES in one of the panniers or chests, to contain the alcohol for such specimens as require this mode of preservation, viz: Reptiles, fishes, sometimes birds, small quadru- peds, most insects, crabs, and all-soft invertebrates. 3. HALF A DOZEN OR MORE TIN PRESERVING CANS, of different sizes, from pint to gallon. These may replace the copper cans, though they are not so durable. Many of the ordinary stores of the expedition may be cargied in these cans, which, when emptied, can then be used for preserving specimens. 4. AN IRON WRENCH to loosen the screw-caps of the copper ket- tles when too tight to be managed by hand. 5. Two INDIA-RUBBER BAGS, One for each kettle. These are in- tended to be inflated inside of the kettles, and by displacing the alcohol cause it to rise to the edge of the brass cap, and thus fill the kettle. Unless this is done, and any unoccupied space thus filled up, the specimens will be washed against the sides of the vessel, and much injured. 6. SMALL BAGS MADE OF LINO, MUSQUITO-NETTING, OR COTTON, of different sizes, and open at one end. ‘These are intended, in the first place, to separate the specimens of different localities from each other; and, in the second place, to secure them from mutua, friction or other injury. These bags may be respectively 7 x 3 inches, 11 X 5, and 15 X 7: of the latter size one-third as many as of each of the others will be sufficient: about 100 may be taken in all. The number or name corresponding to the locality is to be marked on the outside with red chalk, or written with ink on a slip of parchment, and dropped inside. The specimens are then to be placed in the bag, a string tied round the open end, or the end pinned up, and the bag thrown into alcohol. A piece of parchment may also be pinned on the outside, so as at the same time to close the mouth of the bag by folding over once or twice. The ink of the parchment must be dry before the slip is moistened in any way, N. B. All mammals, and fishes and reptiles over five or six inches in length should have a small incision made in the abdomen, to facilitate the introduction of the alcohol. Larger snakes and small quadrupeds, too large to preserve entire, may be skinned, and the skins placed in alcohol. The skin covering the belly in tho mammals should always be loosened from its adhesion to the walls of the abdomen, to prevent the hair from coming out. 14 7. Prncrts for marking the bags. 8. PARCHMENT to serve as labels for the bags. This may also be cut up into strips, and fastened by strings to such specimens as are not suited for the bags. Leather, kid, buckskin, &c., will also answer as substitutes. 9. FISHING-LINE AND HOOKS. 10. SMALL sEINEs for catching fishes in small streams. The two ends should be fastened to brails or sticks (hoe-handles answer well), which are taken in the hands of two persons, and the net drawn both up and down stream. Fish@s may often be caught by stirring up the gravel or small stones in a stream, and drawing the net rapidly down the current. Bushes or holes along the banks may be inclosed by the nets, and stirred so as to drive out - the fishes, which usually lurk in such localities. These nets may be six or eight feet long. 11. Pocket ScOOP-NET; AND CASTING-NET. 12. Atconot. About five gallons to each travelling party. This should be about 95 per cent. in strength, and medicated by the addition of one ounce of tartar emetic to one gallon of alcohol, to prevent persons from drinking it. 13. ARSENIC in pound tin canisters. This may be applied to the moist skins of birds and quadrupeds, either dry or mixed with alcohol. Arsenical soap may also be used. 14, ALUM AND SALTPETRE, finely powdered and intimately mixed in the proportion of two parts of the former, and one of the latter. Ten or fifteen pounds may be taken, to be used in the preparation of large skins. It can best be carried in the tin preserving cans, with screw caps, and applied from a small tin dredging box. 15. TARTAR EMETIC for medicating the alcohol as above. 16. Some DRACHM BOTTLES OF STRYCHNINE for poisoning carni- vorous animals—wolves, foxes, bears, ete.—and for protecting cer- tain parts of skins from insects. 17. Some cAMPHOR. 18. Corron or Tow for stuffing out the heads of birds and mammals. To economize space, but little should be put into the bodies of the animals. The skulls of the quadrupeds, except very small ones, may be removed from the skins, but carefully preserved with a common mark. 19. Paper for wrapping up the skins of birds and small quad- rupeds, each separately. The paper supplied for botanical pur- poses will answer for this. 15 20. A BALL OF STOUT COTTON TWINE. 21. A SHEET OF PARCHMENT. 22. BUTCHER KNIFE, SCISSORS, NEEDLES, AND THREAD, for skin- ning and sewing up animals: also, some papers of COMMON PINS. 23. BLANK LABELS of paper with strings attached for marking localities, sex, &c., and tying to the legs of the dried skins, or to the stems of plants. The name of the expedition and of its com- mander may be printed on the upper margin, and of the collector at the right end of the lower. 24. Porrrotio for collecting plants. 25. Press for drying plants between the blotting-paper. Pres- sure is applied by straps. 26. VERY ABSORBENT PAPER for drying plants. 27. SvIFFER PAPER for collecting plants in the field. The same paper may be used for wrapping up skins of birds and quadrupeds, as well as minerals and fossils. 28. SMALL BOTTLES with wide mouths for collecting and pre- serving insects, ete. They should always be properly corked be- forehand; 2 and 4 oz. are convenient sizes. Homeopathic bottles may also be added to advantage. 29. GEOLOGICAL HAMMER. 30. DoUBLE-BARRELLED GUN AND RIFLE; also shot-belt, powder- flask, powder, shot, percussion caps, and wadding. 31. Frne snor for small birds and mammals. Numbers 8, 6, and 9, or 10, are proper sizes; the latter should always be taken. 32. A PocKET CASE of dissecting instruments will be very con- venient. 33. BLOWPIPE APPARATUS for mineralogical examinations. 34. PockeET VIAL for insects. 35. Borris or eruer for killing insects. 36. Insect Pins, and apparatus for capturing insects. 37. CORK-LINED BOXES. 38. Pockrer noTE-BooK. The kind made of what is called me- tallic paper, with which a pewter pencil is used, is much the best, as not liable to being defaced. Every specimen should have its number, beginning with 1, marked on the label or object itself, and entered in the record, and but a single series for those dried and in alcohol. The different parts of the same object should have a sin- gle, common number, as a skin and its skull or skeleton; a bird and its nest or eggs, etc. Where several specimens of one locality are 16 enclosed in bags, however, a single number will suffice, unless some particular reference is to be made to any one of them. All notes of habits, ete., are to be made in the note-book; but the date, locality, and sex should be marked in addition on the label of the specimen. ¢ Il. INSTRUMENTS, PRESERVATIVE MATERIALS, &c. 1. IMPLEMENTS FOR SKINNING. The implements generally required in skinning vertebrated ani- mals are: 1. A sharp knife or a scalpel. 2. A pair of sharp- pointed scissors, and one with strong short blades. 3. Needles and thread for sewing up the incisions in the skin. 4. A pair of spring forceps, rather sharp pointed, for adjusting the skin and feathers of birds, especially about the head, and for other purposes. 5. A pair of long forceps for introducing cotton into the neck of animals, ete. 6. A hook by which to suspend the carcass of the animal during the operation of skinning. To prepare the hook, take a string, of from one to three feet in length, and fasten one end of it to a stout fish-hook which has had the barb broken off. By means of a loop at the other end, the string may be suspended to a nail or awl, which, when the hook is inserted into the body of an animal, will give free use of both hands in the operation of skinning. 2, PRESERVATIVES. The best material for the preservation of skins of animals con- sists of powdered arsenious acid, or the common arsenic of the shops. This may be used in two ways, either applied in dry pow- der to the moist skin, or still better mixed with alcohol or water to the consistency of molasses, and put on with a brush. Some camphor may be added to the alcoholic solution, and a little strych- nine will undoubtedly increase its efficacy. There are no satisfac- tory substitutes for arsenic; but, in its entire absence, corrosive sublimate, camphor, alum, &c., may be employed. Many persons prefer the arsenical soap to the pure arsenic. This is composed of the following ingredients: arsenic 1 0z.; white soap 1 0z.; car- bonate of potash 1 drachm; water 6 drachms; camphor 2 drachms. Cut the soap into thin slices, and melt over a slow fire with the water, stirring it continually: when dissolved, remove from the fire 17 and add the potash and arsenic by degrees: dissolve the camphor in a little alcohol, and when the mixture is nearly cold stir it in. The proper materials for stuffing out skins will depend much upon the size of the animal. For small birds and quadrupeds, cotton will be found most convenient; for the larger, tow. For those still larger, dry grass, straw, sawdust, bran, or other vege- table substances, may be used. Whatever substance be used, care must be taken to have it perfectly dry. Under no circumstances should animal matter, as hair, wool, or feathers, be employed. The bills and loral region, as well as the legs and feet of birds, and the ears, lips, and toes of mammals, may, as most exposed to the ravages of insects, be washed with an alcoholic solution of strychnine applied with a brush to the dried skin; this will be an almost certain safeguard against injury. @ III. SKINNING AND STUFFING. 1. BIRDS. Whenever convenient, the following notes should be made pre- vious to commencing the operation of skinning, as they will add much to the value of the specimens :— 1. The length, in inches, from tip of bill to the end of the tail ; the distance between the two extremities of the outstretched wings; and the length of the wing from the carpal or first joint. The numbers may be recorded as follows: 44, 66, 12 (as for a swan), without any explanation ; it being well understood that the above measurements follow each other in a fixed succession. These numbers may be written on the back of the label attached to each specimen. 2. The color of the eyes, that of the feet, bill, gums, membranes, carancles, &e. 3. The date, the locality, and the name of the collector. 4. The sex. All these points should be recorded on the label, Immediately after a bird is killed, the holes made by the shot, together with the mouth and internal or posterior nostrils, should be plugged up with cotton, to prevent the escape of blood and the juices of the stomach. A long narrow paper cone should be made; the bird, if small enough, thrust in, head foremost, and the open 2 18 end folded down, taking care not to bend or break or bend the tail feathers in the operation.* When ready to proceed to skinning, remove the old cotton from the throat, mouth, and nostrils, and replace it by fresh. Then take the dimensions from the point of the bill to the end of the tail, from the tip of one wing to that of the other, when both are ex- tended, and from the tip of the wing to the first or carpal-joint, as already indicated. A recent author recommendst that the girth of the bird be taken before skinning, by means of a band of stiff paper passed round the middle of the body over the wings, and pinned in the form of aring. It is then slipped off towards the feet, and after the skin is prepared, is replaced, the stuffing inserted being enough to keep it from falling off. The exact circumference of the original bird can thus be readily maintained. In fact, the ring may be slipped on before the stuffing is commenced, and enough cotton inserted to fill out the shoulders within the paper. After these preliminaries, make an incision through the skin only, from the lower end of the breast bone to the anus. Should the intestines protrude in small specimens, they had better be ex- tracted, great care being taken not to soil the feathers. Now proceed carefully to separate the skin on each side from the sub- jacent parts, until you reach the knee, and expose the thigh when, taking the leg in one hand, push or thrust the knee up on the abdomen, and loosen the skin around it until you can place the scissors or knife underneath, and separate the joint with the accompanying muscles. Place a little cotton between the skin and body to prevent adhesion. Loosen the skin about the base of the tail, and cut through the vertebre at the last joint, taking care not to sever the basis of the quills. Suspend the body by inserting the hook into the lower part of the back or rump, and invert the skin, loosening it carefully from the body. On reaching the wings, which had better be felaxed previously by stretching and pulling, loosen the skin from around the first bone, and cut through the middle of it, or, if the bird be small enough, separate it from the next at the elbow. Continue the inversion of the skin by drawing * Crumpled or bent feathers may have much of their elasticity and original shape restored by dipping in hot water. t Davies’ Naturalist’s Guide. Edinburgh, 1858, page 19. 19 it over the neck, until the skull is exposed. Arrived at this point, detach the delicate membrane of the ear from its cavity in the skull, if possible, without cutting or tearing it; then, by means of the thumb-nails, loosen the adhesion of the skin to the other parts of the head, until you come to the very base of the mandibles, taking care to cut through the white nictitating membrane of the eye, when exposed, without lacerating the ball. Scoop out the eyes, and, by making one cut on each side of the head, through the small bone connecting the base of the lower jaw with the skull, another through the roof of the mouth at the base of the upper mandible, and between the jaws of the lower, and a fourth through the skull behind the orbits, and parallel to the roof of the mouth, you will have freed the skull from all the accompanying brain and muscle. Should anything still adhere, it may be removed sepa- rately. In making the first two cuts, care must be taken not to injure or sever the zygoma, a small bone extending from the base of the upper mandible to the base of the lower jaw-bone. Clean off every particle of muscle and fat from the head and neck, and, applying the preservative abundantly to the skull, inside and out, as well as to thé skin, restore these parts to their natural position. In all the preceding operations, the skin should be handled as near the point of adhesion as possible, especial care being taken not to stretch it. Finely powdered plaster of Paris, chalk, or whiting, may be used to great advantage by sprinkling on the exposed surface of the carcass, and inside of skin, to absorb the grease and blood. An excellent suggestion of Mr. Davies, the author just quoted, in the case of greasy, fatty, or bloody specimens, is to have strips of calico or cotton cloth, and to baste them on the inside of the skin along the edges of the incision, so that they may project a little beyond the feathers. This will be exceedingly effectual in keeping the feathers clean. The cloth should be applied as soon as the edges of the first incision are raisedsenough to admit of it. This will answer the additional purpose of preventing the stretch- ing of the skin. The next operation is to connect the two wings inside of the skin by means of a string, which should be passed between the lower ends of the two bones forming the forearm, previously, how- ever, cutting off the stump of the arm, if still adhering at the elbow. Tie the two ends of the strings so that the wings shall be kept at 20 the same distance apart as when attached to the body. Skin the leg down to the scaly part, or tarsus, and remove all the muscle. Apply the arsenic to the bone and skin, and, wrapping cotton round the bone, pull it back to its place. Remove all the muscle and fat which may adhere to the base of the tail or the skin, and put on plenty of the preservative wherever this can be done. Lift up the wing, and remove the muscle from the forearm by making an incision along it. In many cases, the two joints may be exposed by carefully slipping down the skin towards the wrist-joint, the adhesion of the quills to the bone being loosened: this is, however, scarcely an advisable method. It is perhaps generally better to clean the forearm from the inside before tying the wings. The bird is now to be restored to something like its natural shape by means of a filling of cotton or tow. Begin by opening the mouth and putting cotton into the orbits and upper part of the throat, until these parts have their natural shape. Next take tow or cotton, and after making a roll rather less in thickness than the original neck, put it into the skin, and push firmly into the base of the skull. This can best be done by means of long forceps. By means of this, you can reduce or contract the neck if too much stretched. Fill the body with cotton, not quite to its original dimensions, and sew up the incision in the skin, com- mencing at the upper end, and passing the needle from the inside outwards; tie the legs and mandibles together, adjust the fea- thers, and, after preparing a cylinder of paper the size of the bird, or using one previously prepared as suggested on page 18, push the skin into it so as to bind the wings closely to the sides. The cotton may be put in loosely, or a body the size of the original made by wrapping with threads. If the bird have long legs and neck, these had better be folded down over the body, and allowed to dry in that position. Economy of space is a great object in keeping skins, and such birds as herons, geese, swans, &c., occupy too much room when outstretched. In some instances, as among the ducks, woodpeckers, &c., the head is so large that the skin of the neck cannot be drawn over it. In such cases, skin the neck down to the base of the skull, and cut it off there. Then draw the head out again, and, making an in- cision on the outside, down the back of the skull, skin the head. Be careful not to make too long a cut, and to sew up the incision again. 21 The sex of the specimen may be ascertained after skinning, by making an incision in the side near the vertebra, and exposing the inside surface of the ‘‘ small of the back.” The generative organs will be found tightly bound to this region (nearly opposite to. the last ribs), and separating it from the intestines. The testicles ot the male will be observed as two spheroidal or ellipsoidal whitish bodies, varying with the season and species, from the size of a pin’s head to that of a hazel-nut. The ovaries of the female, consisting of a flattened mass of spheres, variable in size with the season, will be found in the same region. Some writers advise a very careful cleaning out of the skull, without cutting away any of the bones, so that the skin, if other- wise useless, will at any time furnish a skull for the osteological series. This, however, requires so much more time, that it can scarcely be done on a journey, and a skull can generally be better obtained from another specimen, too much shot, perhaps, to be skinned. The breast bone with its attachments, of at least one specimen of each species, should be cleaned and preserved. For transportation, each skin of mammals as well as of birds should, when possible, be wrapped in paper, or else arranged in trays lined with cotton, and the interstices filled with the same material. 2. MAMMALS. The mode of preparing mammals is precisely the same as for birds, in all its general features. Care should be taken not to make too large an incision along the abdomen. The principal difficulty will be experienced in skinning the tail. To effect this, pass the slipknot of a piece of strong twine over the severed end of the tail, and, fastening the vertebre firmly to some support, pull the twine towards the tip until the skin is forced off. Should the animal be large, and an abundance of preservative not at hand, the skin may remain inverted. In all cases, it should be tho- roughly and rapidly dried. Further remarks on this subject will be found in the introductory chapter. The tails of some mammals cannot be skinned as directed above. This is particularly the case with beavers, opossums, and those species which use their tail for prehension or locomotion. Here the tail is usually supplied with numerous tendinous muscles, which 22 require it to be skinned by making a cut along the lower surface or right side, nearly from one end to the other, and removing the bone and flesh. It should then be sewed up again, after a previous stuffing. for the continued preservation of hair or fur of animals against the attacks of moths and other destructive insects, it may be satu- rated with a solution of arsenic in water to be strained and applied rather warm. A little strychnine added will be of much service. A free use of tobacco scraps among skins, though no security against the attacks of insects, will be of use. Kreosote is also an excellent remedy, though a disagreeable one. The Persian Insect powder (made from the leaves and stems of Pyrethrum, and form- ing the basis of the so-called magnetic powders of Lyon and others), when fresh, will also keep off insects. Perhaps none of these remedies, including ether, chloroform and turpentine, will kill larvee; they may repel the .perfect insect, but when the eggs are laid, there is scarcely any remedy except exposing the skins to a temperature a little below that of boiling water for ten or twelve hours, and thus drying up the egg or grub. The best plan there- fore will be to keep the skins clean, and not packed too tightly, and in close fitting drawers or trays. (See also page 8.) 3. REPTILES. The larger Zizards, such as those exceeding twelve or eighteen inches in length, may be skinned according to the principles above mentioned, and then dried, although preservation in spirit, when possible, is preferable for all reptiles. Large frogs and salamanders may likewise be skinned, although cases where this will be advisable are very rare. Turtles and large snakes will require this operation. To one accustomed to the skinning of birds, the skinning of frogs or other reptiles will present no difficulties. The skinning of a snake is still easier. Open the mouth and separate the skull from the vertebral column, detaching all sur- rounding muscles adherent to the skin. Next, tie a string around the stump of the neck thus exposed (see figure), and, holding on by this, strip the skin down to the extremity of the tail. The skin thus inverted should be restored to its proper state, and then put in spirit or stuffed, as convenient. Skins of reptiles may be stuffed 23 with either sand or sawdust, by the use of which their shape is more easily restored, or they may be simply flattened out. Turtles and tortoises are more difficult to prepare in this way, although their skinning can be done quite rapidly. ‘‘The breast- plate must be separated by a knife or saw from the back, and, when the viscera and fleshy parts have been removed, restored to its posi- tion. The skin of the head and neck must be turned inside out, as far as the head, and the vertebre and flesh of the neck should be detached from the head, which, after being freed from the flesh, the brain, and the tongue, may be preserved with the skin of the neck. In skinning the legs and the tail, the skin must be turned inside out, and, the flesh having been removed from the bones, they are to be returned to their places by redrawing the skin over them, first winding a little cotton or tow around the bones to prevent the skin adhering to them when it dries.’—RiIcHARD OWEN. Another way of preparing these reptiles is as follows: Make two incisions, one from the anterior end of the breastplate to the sym- physis of the lower jaw, and another from the posterior end of the breastplate to the vent or tip of the tail; skin off these regions and remove all fleshy parts and viscera without touching the breastplate itself. Apply the preservative, stuff, and sew up again both inci- sions. ‘“‘ When turtles, tortoises, crocodiles, or alligators, are too large to be preserved whole in liquor, some parts, as the head, the whoie viscera stripped down from the neck to the vent, and the cloaca, should be put into spirit or solution.”—-R. OWEN. 4, FISHES. As a general rule, fishes, when not too large, are best preserved entire in spirits. 24 Nevertheless, they may be usefully skinned and form collections, the value of which is not generally appreciated. In many cases, too, when spirit or solutions cannot be procured, a fish ney be pre- served which would otherwise be lost. 7 There are two modes of taking the skin of a fish: 1. The whole animal can be skinned and stuffed like a bird, mammal, or reptile. 2. One-half of the fish can be skinned, and nevertheless its natural form preserved. Sharks, skates, sturgeons, garptkes or garfishes, mudfishes, and all those belonging to the natural orders of Placotds and Ganoids, should undergo the same process as given above for birds, mammals, and reptiles. An incision should be made along the right side, the left always remaining intact, or along the belly. The skin is next removed from the flesh, the fins cut at their bases under the skin, and the latter inverted until the base of the skull is exposed. The inner cavity of the head should be cleaned, an application of pre- servative made, and the whole, after being stuffed in the ordinary way, sewed up again. Fins may be expanded when wet, on a piece of stiff paper, which will keep them sufficiently stretched for the purpose. A varnish may be passed over the whole body and fins, to preserve somewhat the color. In the case of Otenodds, perches, and allied genera ; and Cycloids trouts, suckers, and allied genera; one-half of the fish may be skin- ned and preserved. To effect this, lay the fish on a table with the left side up; the one it is intended to preserve. Spread ont the fins by putting underneath each a piece of paper, to which it will adhere on drying. When the fins are dried, turn the fish over, cut with scissors or a knife all around the body, a little within the dorsal and ventral lines, from the upper and posterior part of the head, along the back to the tail, across the base of the caudal fin down, and thence along the belly to the lower part of the head again. The dorsal, caudal, and anal fins, cut below their articula- tions. This done, separate the whole of the body from the left side of the skin, commencing at the tail. When near the head, eut off the body, with the right ventral and pectoral fins, and pro- ceed by making a section of the head and removing nearly the half of it. Clean the inside, and pull out the left eye, leaving only the cornea and pupil. Cut a circular piece of black paper of the size of the orbit and place it close to the pupil. Apply the preserva- tive, fill the head with cotton as well as the body. Turn over the 25 skin and fix it on a board prepared for that purpose. Pin or tack it down at the base of the fins. Have several narrow bands of paper to place across the body in order to give it a natural form, and let it dry. The skins may be taken off the board or remain fixed to it, when sent to their destination, where they should be placed on suitable boards of proper size, for permanent preserva- tion. Such a collection of well-prepared fishes will be useful to the practical naturalist, and illustrate, in a more complete manner, to the public the diversified forms and characters of the class of fishes which specimens preserved in alcohol do not so readily show. These skins may also be preserved in alcohol. @1V. PRESERVING IN LIQUIDS, AND. BY OTHER MODES BESIDES SKINNING. 1. GENERAL REMARKS. The best material for preserving animals of moderate size is alcohol. When spirits cannot be obtained, the following substi- tutes may be used :— I. Goapsy’s Sotution.—A. The aluminous fluid, composed of rock salt, 4 ounces; alum, 2 ounces; corrosive sublimate, 4 grains ; boiling water, 2 quarts. B. Zhe saline solution, composed of rock-salt, 8 ounces; corrosive sublimate, 2 grains; boiling water, 1 quart. To be well stirred, strained, and cooled. II. A strong brine, to be used as hereafter indicated for Goadby’s Solution. III. Jn extreme cases, dry salt may be used, and the specimens salted down like herring, &c. The alcohol, when of the ordinary strength, may be diluted with one-fifth of water, unless it is necessary to crowd the specimens very much. The fourth proof whiskey of the distillery, or the high wines, constituting an alcohol of about 60 per cent., will be found best suited for collections made at permanent stations and for the museum. Lower proofs of rum or whiskey will also answer, but the specimen must not be crowded at all. To use Goadby’s Solution, the animal should first be macerated for a few hours in fresh water, to which about half its volume of 26 the concentrated solution may then be added. After soaking thus for some days, the specimens may be transferred to fresh concen- trated solution. When the aluminous fluid is used to preserve vertebrate animals, these should not remain in it for more than a few days; after this, they are to be soaked in fresh water, and transferred to the saline solution. An immersion of some weeks in the aluminous fluid will cause a destruction of the bones. Specimens must be kept submerged in these fluids. The success of the operation will depend very much upon the use of a weak solution in the first instance, and a change to the saturated fluid by one or two intermediate steps. The collector should have a small keg, jar, tin box, or other suitable vessel, partially filled with liquor, into which specimens may be thrown (alive if possible) as collected. The entrance of the spirit into the cavities of the body should be facilitated by opening the mouth, making a small incision in the abdomen a half or one inch long, or by injecting the liquor into the intestines through the anus, by means of a small syringe. After the animal has soaked for some weeks in this liquor, it should be transferred to fresh. Care should be taken not to crowd the specimens too much. When it is impossible to transfer specimens to fresh spirits from time to time, the strongest alcohol should be originally used. To pack the larger specimens for transportation, procure a small keg, which has been properly swelled, by allowing water to stand in it for a day or two, and from this extract the head by knocking off the upper hoops. Great care must be taken to make such marks on the hoops and head as will assist in their being replaced in precisely the same relative position to each other and the keg that they originally held. At the bottom of the keg place a layer of tow or rags, moistened in liquor, then one of specimens, then another of tow and another of specimens, and so on alternately until the keg is entirely filled, exclusive of the spirit. Replace the head, drive down the hoops, and fill completely with spirits by pouring through the bung-hole. Allow it to stand at least half an hour, and then, supplying the deficiency of the liquor, insert the bung and fasten it securely. An oyster-can or other tin vessel may be used to great advantage, in which case the aperture should be soldered up and the vessel inclosed in a box. A glass jar or bottle may also be employed, but there is always a risk of breaking and leaking. The specimens may also be transported in the copper 27 vessels referred to on pages 9 and 138, and also in the tin pre- serving cans. In the absence of tow or rags, chopped straw, fine shavings, or dry grass may be substituted. It will conduce greatly to the perfect preservation of the speci- mens, during transportation, if each one is wrapped up in cotton cloth, or even paper. A number of smaller specimens may be rolled successively in the same wrapper. In this way, friction, and the consequent destruction of scales, fins, &c., will be prevented almost entirely. The travelling bags described on p. 13 will answer the same purpose. Should the specimens to be packed vary in size, the largest should be placed at the bottom. If the disproportion be very great, the delicate objects at the top must be separated from those below by means of some immovable partition, which, in the event of the vessel being inverted, will prevent crushing. The most im- perative rule, however, in packing, is to have the vessel perfectly full, any vacancy exposing the whole to the risk of loss. It is sometimes necessary to guard against the theft of the spirit employed by individuals who will not be deterred from drinking it by the presence of reptiles, &c. This may be done by adding a small quantity of tartar emetic, ipecacuanha, quassia, or some other disagreeable substance. The addition of a little arsenic will add to the preservative power of the spirit. A small quantity of soap is said to have a remarkable effect in preserving the color; a little saltpetre appears to have also the same effect. 2. VERTEBRATES. Mammals and birds should always have an incision made in the abdomen to admit the spirit. In the former the skin on each side of the cut should also be raised or separated from its attachment to the subjacent walls, to prevent the hair from coming off. Where several specimens of a kind are preserved it will be well to remove the intestines entirely from some of them, to insure their sound preservation. Fishes over five or six inches in length should also have the abdominal incision. Specimens with the scales and fins perfect should be selected, and, if convenient, stitched, pinned, or wrapped in bits of muslin, &c., to preserve the scales; placing them in the lino bags will answer the latter object. In general, fishes under 28 twelve or fifteen inches in length should be chosen. The skins of larger ones may be put in liquor. It is important to collect even the smallest. The same principles apply to the other vertebrata. The smallest and most delicate specimens may be placed in bottles or vials, and packed in the larger vessels with the other specimens. 3. INVERTEBRATES. * Insects, Buas, &c.—The harder kinds may be put in liquor, as above, but the vessel or bottle should not be very large. Butter- flies, wasps, flies, &c., should be pinned in boxes, or packed in layers with soft paper or cotton. Minute species should be care- fully sought under stones, bark, dung, or flowers, or swept with a small net from grass or leaves. They may be put in quills, small cones of paper, or in glass vials. They can be readily killed by immersing the bottles, &c., in which they are collected, in hot water, or exposing them to the vapor of ether. Large beetles, however, can generally only be killed by piercing with some poi- sonous solution, as strychnine. When possible, a number of oz. or 2 oz. vials, with very wide mouths, well stopped by corks, should be procured, in which to place the more delicate invertebrata, as small crustacea, worms, mollusea, &e. It will frequently be found convenient to preserve or transport insects pinned down in boxes. The bottoms of these are best lined with cork or soft wood. The accompanying figures will ex- plain, better than any description, the particular part of different kinds of insects through which the pin is to be thrust; beetles (Fig. 1) being pinned: through the right wing-cover or elytra; all others through the middle of the thorax, as in Fig. 2. The traveller will find it very convenient to carry about him a vial having a broad mouth, closed by a tight cork. In this should be contained a piece of camphor, or, still better, of sponge soaked in ether, to kill the insects collected. From this the specimens should be transferred to other bottles. They may, if not hairy, be killed by immersing directly in alcohol. * A separate pamphlet in reference to collecting insects will be pub- lished by the Institution, and a special chapter on marine invertebrates will be found at the end of the present work. 29 A lump of camphor may be placed in a piece of cotton cloth and pinned firmly in the corner of the box containing dried insects, for the purpose of preventing the ravages of larve. A few drops of kreosote occasionally introduced will also answer the same purpose. Fig. 2. Sea-urchins and starfishes may be dried, after having been pre- viously immersed for a minute or two in boiling water, and packed up in cotton, or any soft material which may be at hand. The hard parts of coral, and shells of mollusca may also be pre- served in a dried state. The soft parts are removed by immersing the animals for a minute or two in hot water, and washing clean afterwards. The valves of bivalve shells should be brought to- gether by a string. Wingless insects, such as spiders, scorpions, centipedes or thou- sand-legs, earth-worms, hair-worms, and generally all worm-like animals found in the water, should be preserved in alcoholic liquor, and in small bottles or vials. @ V. EMBRYOS, Much of the future progress of zoology will depend upon the extent and variety of the collections which may be made of the embryos and fetuses of animals. No opportunity should be 30 ‘ omitted to procure these and preserve them in spirits. All stages of development are equally interesting, and complete series for the same species would be of the highest importance. Whenever any female mammal is killed, the uterus should be examined for em- bryos. When eggs of birds, reptiles, or fish are emptied of their young, these should be preserved. It will be sufficiently evident that great care is required to label the specimens, as in most cases it will be impossible to determine the species from the zoological characters. Whenever the abundance of specimens will warrant it, as many as fifty eggs of the same kind of bird, in different degrees of deve- lopment, may be collected, care being taken to crack the egg at the blunt end, to facilitate the entrance of the spirit. @ VI. NESTS AND EGGS.* Nothing forms a more attractive feature in a museum, or is more acceptable to amateurs, than the nests and eggs of birds. These should be collected whenever they are met with, and in any number procurable for each species, as they are always in demand for pur- poses of exchange. Hundreds of eggs of any species with their nests (or without, when not to be had) will be gladly received. Nests require little preparation beyond packing so as to be secure from crumbling or injury. Each one should be placed in a box or ring of paper just large enough to hold it. The eggs of each nest, when emptied, may be replaced in it and the remaining space filled with cotton. Eggs, when fresh, and before the chick has formed, may be emptied by making small pin-holes on opposite sides, and blowing or sucking out the contents. Should hatching have already com- menced, an aperture may be made in one side by carefully pricking with a fine needle round a small circle or ellipse, and thus cutting outapiece. The larger kinds should be well washed inside, and all allowed to dry before packing away. If the egg be too small for the name, a number should be marked on it with ink corresponding to a memorandum list. Little precaution is required in packing, beyond arranging in layers with cotton and having the box entirely * A separate pamphlet has been published by the Institution in regard to the collecting of nests and eggs. * 31 filled. It is always better to wrap each-egg in a loose coat of cotton before arranging in layers, and they should be packed in small wooden boxes. Cracked eggs should have strips of tissue paper pasted over the line of fracture; or the crack may be painted over with collodion while the sides are pressed together. The parent bird should be secured, and either skinned entire or the head and wing kept to identify the species. The eggs of reptiles, provided with a calcareous shell, can be prepared in a similar way. The eggs of fishes, salamanders, and frogs may be preserved in spirits, and kept in small vials or bottles. A label should never be omitted. @ VII. PREPARATION OF SKELETONS. Skulls of animals may be rapidly prepared by boiling in water for a few hours. A little potash or lye added will facilitate the removal of the flesh. Skeletons may be roughly prepared in the field by skinning the animal and removing all the viscera, together with as much of the flesh as possible. Whenever practicable, they should be allowed to soak a few hours in water to extract the blood. The bones should then be exposed to the sun or air until completely dried. Previously, however, the brain of large animals should be removed by separating the skull from the spine, and extracting the brain through the large hole in the back of the head. The head may be cleaned by boiling. In case it becomes necessary to disjoint a skeleton, care should be taken to attach a common mark to all the pieces, especially when more than one individual is packed in the same box. Skulls and skeletons may frequently be picked up, already cleaned by other animals or exposure to weather. By placing small animals near an ant’s nest, or in water occupied by tadpoles or small crus- tacea, very beautiful skeletons may often be obtained. The sea- beach sometimes affords rich treasures in the remains of porpoises, whales, large fishes, as sharks, and other aquatic species. Although, to save time and opportunities in the field, it is usually necessary to prepare skulls by boiling in water, as just ex- plained, the process is sometimes apt to leave the bones colored, or even somewhat greasy. The best method of preparing skulls 32 and skeletons for a museum is undoubtedly, after cutting away the greater mass of flesh, that of macerating, or allowing them to remain in cold water until the decaying flesh separates from the bones. At first, the water, as it becomes charged with blood, is poured off and replaced by fresh; after this is repeated for a time, the flesh becomes bleached, and the bones may then be suffered to remain as long as necessary (sometimes for weeks), removing the specimen from time to time and scraping off the softening flesh. After this has been all removed and the bones well scrubbed under water with a stiff brush, they should be soaked a little longer to remove any remnant of infiltrated blood. During these operations, care must be taken not to injure or separate any of the ligaments. Shreds of tendon may be cut off with a sharp knife or pair of scis- sors. The ligaments may then, according to Kyton,* be converted into a tough, leathery substance by immersion in a liquid prepared by making a saturated solution of common alum and, when cold, diluting it with an equal quantity of water, and adding half an -ounce of common salt for every half pound of alum. If the bones are free from blood, twenty-four hours’ immersion will be sufficient; large birds or other animals may require nearly a week. When removed from the solution, the bones must be washed under a cur- rent of water, or in a basin, and then allowed to dry in any desira- ble position. It is important, in preparing skeletons, not to allow the flesh to dry too soon on the bones, or, at least, to allow them to soak in water for a time before drying, as the subsequent operations will be rendered much easier. Greasy skulls or bones can be readily cleaned by immersion in ether for a length of time. The ether should be kept in a tight jar, and every precaution taken to prevent undue proximity to a light or the fire, the vapor being exceedingly explosive. A sim- pler method consists in boiling them in a large quantity of water, having a little potash added. @ VUI. PLANTS. The collector of plants requires but little apparatus ; a few quires or reams of unsized paper, of folio size, will furnish all that will be * Ibis, I, 1859, 55. 33 needed. The specimens as gathered may be placed in a tin box, or, still better, in a portfolio of paper, until reaching home. About forty or fifty sheets of the paper should be put into the portfolio on setting out on an excursion. Put the specimens of each species in a separate sheet as fast as gathered from the plant, taking a fresh sheet for each additional species. On returning to camp, place these sheets (without changing or disturbing the plants) between the absorbent drying papers in the press, and draw the straps tight enough to produce the requisite pressure. The next day the driers. may be changed, and those previously used laid in the sun to dry ; this to be continued until the plants are perfectly dry. If paper and opportunities of transportation be limited, several specimens from the same locality may be combined in the same sheet after they are dry. Place in each sheet a slip of paper having a number or name of locality written on it corresponding with a list kept in a memoran- dum book. Record the day of the month, locality, size, and cha- racter of the plant, color of flower, fruit, &c. If the stem is too long, double it or cut it into lengths. Collect, if possible, half a dozen specimens of each kind. In the small specimens, collect the entire plant, so as to show the root. In many instances, old newspapers will be found to answer a good purpose both in drying and in keeping plants, although the unprinted paper is best—the more porous and absorbent the better. When not travelling, pressure may be most conveniently applied to plants by placing them between two boards, with a weight of about 50 lbs. laid on the top. While on a march, the following directions for collecting plants, drawn up by Major Rich, are recommended :— Have thick cartridge or envelop paper, folded in gzarto form, and kept close and even by binding with strong cord ; newspapers will answer, but are liable to chafe and wear out; a few are very convenient to mix in with the hard paper as dryers. This herb- arium may be rolled up in the blanket while travelling, and placed on a pack-animal. The specimens collected along the road may be kept in the crown of the hat when without a collecting-box, and placed in paper at noon or at night. Great care should be taken to keep the papers dry and free from mould. When there is not time at noon to dry the papers in the sun, they should be dried at night by the fire, when, also, the dried specimens are 3 34 placed at the bottom of the bundle, making room on top for the next day’s collection. A tin collecting-box is very convenient ; plants may be preserved for two or three days in one if kept damp and cool. It is also convenient in collecting /and-shells, which is generally considered part of a botanist’s duty. A collector should also always be provided with plenty of ready-made seed-papers, not only for preserving seeds, but mosses and minute plants. Many seeds and fruits cannot be put in the herbarium, particularly if of a succulent nature, causing mouldiness, and others form irregularities and inequalities in the papers, thus breaking specimens and causing small ones and seeds to drop out. Fruits of this kind should be numbered to correspond with the specimen, and kept in the saddle- bags, or some such place. It is necessary, in order to make good specimens, to avoid heavy pressure and keep the papers well dried, otherwise they get mouldy, turn black, or decay. The seeds and fruits of plants should be procured whenever practicable, and slowly dried. These will often serve to reproduce a species otherwise not transportable or capable of preservation. On board ship, it is all-important to keep the collections from getting wet with salt water. The papers can generally be dried at the galley. The whole herbarium should be exposed to the sun as often as possible, and frequently examined, and the mould brushed off with a feather or camel-hair pencil. In collecting alge, corallines, or the branched, horny, or cal- careous corals, care should be taken to bring away the entire specimen with its base or root. The coarser kinds may be dried in the air (but not exposed to too powerful a sun), turning them from time to time. These should not be washed in fresh water, if to be sent any distance. The more delicate species should be brought home in salt water, and washed carefully in fresh, then transferred to a shallow basin of clean fresh water, and floated ont. A piece of white paper of proper size is then slipped underneath, and raised gently out of the water with the specimen on its upper surface. After finally adjusting the branches with a sharp point or brush, the different sheets of specimens are to be arranged be- tween blotters of bibulous paper and cotton cloth, and subjected to gentle pressure. These blotters must be frequently changed till the specimens are dry. 35 @ IX. MINERALS AND FOSSILS. The collections in mineralogy and paleontology are, amongst all, those which are most easily made; whilst, on the other hand, their weight, especially when travelling, will prevent their being gathered on an extensive scale. All the preparation usually needed for preserving minerals and fossils consists in wrapping the specimens separately in paper, with a label inside for the locality, and packing so as to prevent rubbing. Crumbling fossils may be soaked to advantage in a solution of glue. Melted wax also answers an admirable purpose in the case of bones. Fossils of all kinds should be collected. Minerals and samples of rocks are also desirable. The latter should be properly selected, and cut to five by three inches of surface and one to two inches thick. The vertebrate fossils of North America are of the highest in- terest to naturalists. These are found in great abundance in the regions known as “‘ Mauvaises Terres,” or ‘‘ Bad Lands,” and occurring along the Missouri and its tributaries, White River, Milk River, Platte, Eau qui Court, &c. The banks and beds of these and other streams likewise contain rich treasures of fossil bones. Similar remains are to be looked for in all caves, peat bogs, alluvial soil, marl-pits, fissures in rocks, and other localities throughout North America. Single teeth, when found, should be carefully preserved. The floor of any cavern, if dug up and carefully examined, will generally be found to contain teeth, bones, &c. These, however similar in appearance to recent or domesticated species, should be carefully preserved. Specimens ought to be tightly packed up in boxes, taking care that each one is wrapped up separately, in order that the angles or any crystalline surfaces should not be destroyed by transportation ; their value depending upon their good condition. The same pre- cautions will be required for corals. The interstices between the specimens, in the box or cask, may be occupied by sand, shavings, hay, cotton, or other soft substance. Sawdust is considered ob- jectionable on account of its settling too much. It is absolutely essential that no cavity be left in the vessel or box. 36 ¢ X. MINUTE MICROSCOPIC ORGANISMS. It is very desirable to procure specimens, from many localities, of the various forms of microscopic animals and plants, not only on account of their intrinsic interest, but for their relation to im- portant general questions in physical and natural science. These will almost always be found to occur in the following localities :— 1. In all light-colored clays or earths, as found in peat bogs, meadows, soils, &e., particularly when these are remarkably light. 2. In the mud from the bottom of lakes and pools. A small handful of this mud or of the confervoid vegetation on the bottom, if dried without squeezing, will retain the Diatomacee and Des- midiex. 3. In the mud (dried) from the bottom and along the margins of streams in any locality. The muds from brackish and from fresh waters will differ in their contents. 4. In soil from the banks of streams. The surface and subsoils should both be collected. 5. In the soundings brought up from the bottom of the sea or lakes. These should be collected from the greatest possible depths. If an armature be used to the lead, it should be of soap rather than fatty matter, as being more readily removed from the organ- isms. The mud which adheres to anchors, to rocks, &c., below high-water-mark, as well as below /ow-water, should also be care- fully gathered. 6. In bunches of damp moss from rocks, roofs of houses, trees, about pumps, Xe. 7. In the deposits in the gutters and spouting of roofs of houses. 8. In the dust which at sea collects upon the sails or deck of vessels. When not in sufficient quantity to be scraped off, enough may be obtained for examination by rubbing a piece of soft clean paper over the surface affected. Specimens of all these substances should be gathered, and, when moist, dried without squeezing. The quantity may vary from a few grains to an ounce, depending on the mode of transportation to be adopted. very specimen, as collected, should have the date, lo- cality, depth below the surface, collector, $c., marked immediately upon the envelop. It is also desirable to collect filterings from river, brackish, and 37 sea-waters. To do this, take a circular piece of filtering-paper, six inches or thereabouts in diameter (blotting-paper will answer if the other cannot be procured). Pass a quantity of the water, varying with its turbidity from a pint to a gill, through the paper, and allow this to dry. Mark the paper or its envelop with the amount of water passed through, date, place, &c. It is desirable to have specimens thus prepared for every locality and for every month in the year. They may be sent, as well as light packages of dried muds, &e., by mail, and should be transmitted as speedily as possible. Unless the operation can be performed by an expe- rienced hand, the weighing may be dispensed with. When the water of lakes and ponds has been rendered turbid by minute green or brown specks, these should be gathered by filtration through paper or rag, which may then be dried, or, still better, this matter may be scraped off into a small vial of alcohol. 2 XI. ON THE COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES.* CLASSIFICATION.—The animals inhabiting the sea, excluding the fishes and other vertebrates, may be divided, for convenience, into groups, as follows: Ist. CRUSTACEANS, including crabs, hermits or soldier crabs, lobsters, dangoustes, cray-fish, camerones, shrimps, prawns, sand-hoppers, beach-fleas, whale-lice, sea-creepers, pill- balls, fish-lice, sea-spiders, water-fleas, gill-suckers, and other para- sites on fish, also barnacles. 2d. ANNELIDS, including all kinds of sea-worms, some of which hide among seaweed and pebbles, but most of which live in mud or sand, many having tubes. 3d. CEPHALOPops, or cuttle-fishes and squids. 4th. Nakep Mou.uscs, or sea-slugs. 5th. SHewys, both bivalve and univalve. 6th. Tunt- CATES, vulgarly called ‘‘ sea-squirts,” consisting simply of leathery balls or sacks of various shapes, with two apertures, often occurring in compound forms. ‘th. Bryozoans, or those minute coral-like ‘incrustations found on seaweeds, stones, and old shells. 8th. Hono- THURIANS, those worm-like or slug-like echinoderms like the biche- le-mer or trepang. 9th. EcHINI, sea-eggs or sea-urchins, most of which resemble chestnut burrs, being covered with spines. 10th, AsTeERIAS and star-fishes of all kinds. 11th. Potyps, including * Prepared by Mr. Wm. Stimpson. 38 corals and corallines, and those minute animals from which the meduse are developed. And 12th. Sponaes. Localities AND Stations.—Where the retreat of the tide is sufficient, the sea-shore always affords the best field for the col- lector, and the specimens generally increase in number and interest in proportion as we approximate to low-water-mark. Neverthe- less the whole area should be searched, as each species has its peculiar range, and many forms can live only where they are ex- posed to the air for a greater part of the time each day. The ground may be either muddy, sandy, weedy, gravelly, stony or rocky, and the animals inhabiting each kind of ground will be found to be more or less peculiar to it, and rarely to occur on the others. Sand and mud are, however, so similar in character that their denizens are nearly the same, though some prefer the clearer waters which flow over sand, to the turbid tide which deposits mud. But few specimens will be found on the surface of such ground, although the little pools lying upon it should be scooped with the dip net for shrimps, ete., but it is only by the spade that its true riches can be developed. By digging in spots indicated by small holes, a great number of worms, boring crustaceans, and bivalves may always be found. Weedy ground is so called from the abundance of eel-grass and sea-weed which covers it. These weeds should be examined carefully for small shells and crustaceans ; perhaps the best method of doing this being to wash quantities of the weed in a bucket of water and examine the sediment. Gravelly ground is not generally very rich in animal life, but will repay an examination, as small crabs are fond of lurking among the pebbles. Stony ground is by far the richest of all. Wherever there are stones, particularly flat ones, about large enough to afford a mode- rate degree of exercise to a common sized man in turning them over, there the zoologist can never fail to fill his basket and bottles; for beneath these stones myriads of rare and beautiful species retire for moisture and protection during the retreat of the tide. Rocky ground should be searched chiefly in the pools and crevices. Littoral or sea-shore investigations should be carried on not only in the bays, harbors, and creeks, but on the ocean beach, in each locality, to get at a true idea of its fauna, as the respective animals will be found different. Drepoina.—A large proportion of the marine invertebrates never approach the shore closely enough to be left exposed by the tide, 39 and these can only be obtained with certainty and facility by means of the dredge. This consists of a rectangular frame of iron, the longer sides of which are sharpened in front and beveled outward a little. Along the back of the frame holes are perforated for the attachment of a fine meshed net, and to the short sides handles are hinged, which may be folded down in packing. There should be a ring at the end of each handle, and through these rings the rope may be passed when the handles are raised, which will be found a simple and sufficiently safe method of fastening the dredge for use. A weight should be attached to the rope two or three feet in front of the dredge, which is useful in sinking and keeping it in proper position when operating in deep water. On each of the longer sides of the frame there should be a leather flap, attached, for the protection of the net. The following are convenient di- mensions for the apparatus: Frame, a, a, 20 inches long by 10 inches broad, of bar-iron, 14 inches wide and one-fifth of an inch thick. Handles, 6, 6, each 17 inches long, of half-inch rod-iron. Bag, e, three feet long, of mesh as fine as can be got, and strong twine ; size of aperture rather larger than that of the frame. Rope, ec, 20 to 200 fathoms to suit the depth of water. Weight, d, 5lbs.; an iron window-weight answers the purpose, and is much cheaper than lead. The dredge should be carefully cast mouth-downward, that the tail of the net may not foul the handles or scythes. No precise directions can be given as to the amount of scope of warp to be let out ;—about twice the depth of water is generally sufficient, but this should be diminished or increased in proportion as the dredge nips too hard or slides too easily over the ground, which may be readily determined by feeling the rope. The dredge is liable to be caught on rocky bottoms. When the check is felt, it is usually only necessary. to heave in a portion of the warp, but sometimes the boat must be put about and run in an opposite direction. All bottoms should be searched with the dredge, but gravelly and shelly ground will be found most productive. The boat may 40 be propelled by sails if sufficient care be taken to graduate the amount of canvas to the strength of the wind, in order that the dredge may move slowly over the bottom. Oars are safer, if the force is at command; and ina tide-way, the tide alone may move the boat with sufficient power, the rope being made fast amidships, or towards the bows, according to the strength of the current. Dredging may be carried on at all depths inside of 200 fathoms. INSTRUMENTS FoR CoLLEctiIna.—For shore collecting, a broad flat basket, with jars or tin-cans, of various sizes, for the smaller and more delicate animals, which should be brought home in sea- water. 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