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SOILS LABORATORY
MANUAL AND NOTE BOOK

LIPPINCOTT'S
FARM MANUALS

Edited by K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D.

PRODUCTIVE
SWINE HUSBANDRY
(2nd Edition)
By G. E. DAY, B.S.A.

Ontario Agricultural College
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PRODUCTIVE
POULTRY HUSBANDRY
(2nd Edition)
By H. R. LEWIS, B.S.
Rutgers College, N. J.

$2.00 nei
PRODUCTIVE
HORSE HUSBANDRY
By C. W. GAY, D VM., B.S.A.

University of Pennsylvania
$1.50 net

PRODUCTIVE
ORCHARDING
By FRED C. SEARS, M.S.

Professor of Pomology
Massachusetts Agricultural College
$1.50 net

PRODUCTIVE
FEEDING OF FARM
ANIMALS
By F. W. WOLL, Pu.D.
Professor of Animal Nutrition,

University of California
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COMMON DISEASES
OF FARM ANIMALS
By R. A. CRAIG, D.V.M.

Purdue University

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PRODUCTIVE
SHEEP HUSBANDRY
By W. C. COFFEY, M.S.
University of Illinois
In PREPARATION

a

SOILS LABORATORY
MANUAL AND NOTE BOOK

COMPILED BY

JASPER F. EASTMAN, M.S.

PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, THE NEW YORK STATE SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AT
MORRISVILLE, N. Y.

AND

KARY C. DAVIS, Ph.D.

PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, KNAPP SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE, GEORGE PEABODY
COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENN.

21 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT

PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON
eee le bea NC Onin € OME ANY

COPYRIGHT, IQIS, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

Electrotyped and Printed by J. B. Lippincott Company
At the Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U.S. A.

Bony
©ci.a4i11152
Ao 1

AUG 201915 ae

FOREWORD

This Manual is intended for the use of students studying soils, whether
they be in high schools, agricultural schools, or in colleges. It is believed
that the experimental method of studying soils serves to fix in mind their
characteristics and the principles concerning their best management.

The equipment to be used in performing these exercises is simple and
inexpensive. In a number of exercises suggestions are given for using tin cans
instead of regular soil tubes, and other similar substitutions are possible.

Acknowledgments are due Ginn and Company, Boston, for the use of
certain exercises (4, 17, 25, and 26), somewhat adapted for use here from
“Soil Physics Laboratory Manual,” by Mosier and Gustafson; to Prof. E. O.
Fippin of Cornell University Department of Soil Technology, for the use of
exercises 3, 27, and 29, adapted from his ‘‘ Laboratory Guide in Agricultural
Soils,” used by Cornell students in typewritten form. Many of the publica-
tions mentioned in the reference list have been drawn upon freely for aid.
Obligations are here expressed for the suggestions received from many books

and papers on the subject.
THE AUTHORS

April, 1915.

CONTENTS

PAGE
INSTRUCTIONS CONCERNING LABORATORY WoRK IN SOILS.................000e000 11
Exercise’ 1.—Field Study of the Processes of Soil Formation...................... 13
EpcmR Glen ay ARI SOU AMPEG: via. c <4 %,.0 attire Gece dav Dew dense Wathen so Ped 16
PROROISE BS LUO Ol OU PAINS) 4 i criin eae cubes 62. sdeelns Slaw ee civics dan vet ncaunet Is
HL XWRGISH a4 — COM POsllONvOl OOUSts sao ae Gidke | oe. ode cts on eae ne ae 20
HOR CIN peo. SOU Class ICAON 5 25 hs coed «hice ind pss a Wah Be Se Baad wae dan epee 22
EXERCISE 6.—Volume-Weight or Apparent Specific Gravity....................05. 23
Hos Gls He ef O NS OCLC, CeEAW IU Vise ditoc: stax, s. Sedushouut <lelancous'Saip. ota wae sens inet tho. lee ibs 26
XR CISHME ey ——ELea Vy all GuilbT enti OS. seks «84s <a, o004 Jo vxttodaark he eure N doa we edel 28
PGR CISN. 0. ——Hinectsot Orgamic Matters... cu. ua eclieea.s bd feds cadeds cease we tamed 30
Exercise 10.—Other Effects of Organic Matter............. 0... ccc cece cece ceeeeee oD
Exercise 11.—Influence of Weathering, Organic Matter, Sand and Lime on a Clay Soil 34
EXERCISE 12.—Effect of Lime and Other Chemicals on a Clay Soil.................. 36
EXxeERcISsE 13.—Total Moisture Determination.................. 00.0. c cee ee ce eees 38
Enel yele et — Komen yy IVLOISHUPES, oia.0 -n wed Sk + 44s panda a Ud Sime Sy vadulene dee wana ba 40
BeSeHE Cia teb eA VOTOSCOPIC MIOISGULEs 4 m.c' <2 sce fa... wa PE wed nls 6 o vlhew w alvleve vl ale"S Bawls 42

Exercise 16.—Capillary Rise of Water in Soils of Different Texture................. 44
Exerciss 17.—Effect of Too Much Organic Matter on Rise of Water................ 46

EXERCISE 18.—Percolation of Water Through Soils................... 0.0.0.0. 0 eee 48
OSM UOC OLINAMO Ms) « sd. steals d Hacks cw '6 ¢aiw oS vals scents adaware dea séled need 51
Exercise 20.—Soil Surface and Percolation.............. 0.0... ccc cee eee cence eeee 53
Exercise 21.—Capacity of Loose and Compact Soils to Hold Water................ 55
EXERCISE 22.—Effect of Evaporation on Soil Temperature.....................000- 58
EXERCISE 23.—Value of Mulches in the Retention of Moisture....................5- 60
EXERcIsE 24.—Optimum and Critical Moisture...........0.0. ccc c cee ce eee eceeees 63
Exercisn 25:—Drainage and Soil Temperature. ......0..6. 5500. codecs eedevctsnucs 66
EPGBRGISM 20) COlORaOU, L CMPeratUres 04.4.0. 5 6 do dread ne a ween bad eb awie ee neateaess 68
EPEC L Sage Ol WV CMLGLAEIO IN. 5 scarry, Svein, fuse nic) 2 aAdlace, bie s(x auov0.4 siars"Qlesncdie s-vketual® Qe evetees 71
Exercise 28.—Amount of Organic Matter in Soils............ 00... cc eee eee ee eee 74
EXERCISE 29.—Absorption of Plant Food:by Soils...........0.0..00.00csceuceuncaes 76
PERO tse = LES POs LOnsACICIGY. 4 215.4 55s 9-4 00/00 wv dw ole acarbinye.e «sien 999 a.er8 78
Exercise 31.—Examination of Chemical Fertilizers.................... i here ae 80
BexUie Ey ao UGLY. ONZE TOWING? 5 Gia syria theless « «perk Sldraidpaye S15 Rl ook dims a eee es ane oe

EXERCISE 33.—Examination and Discussion of Tillage Machinery................... 85

i

ie

—

ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG. PAGE
[PRES OTA GR e en Ea ent, eer bine eating ons bya RAR TAS SaaS fee Saori ee 16
2. Kine Typrt or Som SAMPLING MACHINE.......... Spee ET ee eee 16
DE INERORS STORING HOOLLS Hoe Allee sede ae apse ented sno. eer ee ae 18
Ay (PINT MLING@ANS: FOR, USE IN (TAKING Som SAMPDES ... 6.064% 56-08. o08 oe 2. 18
CRE SOLE ANTE DIN Gi WRB ei. cA haere foc S ae cv hdres a dei RO ORCS OCA oe 23
OaebwlVin-INGH “LUBE. WITH SOLID BOTTOM. 2.4 <+ iccs4 ce se see cea.ceee neces tna 23
NNMEN COUR ATH CATING re 2 Marc! 05 PSS a a cst, oe Lights oud abuse. te Sate obarseae 26
i, IDVeecinG! (Q)ianS ikke ae aa oe seer ge ee an eee eno 42
CRMOVIOISHURE-PROOM CHAMBER es, 54 stud as w cst asl e orepere tidlswe. cll Sate Sets ame ate tthac ac 42

10. Hanpy EQuIPMENT TO SHOW RISE OF WATER BY CAPILLARITY................. 44

11. FRAME AND Guass TUBES FOR SHOWING CAPILLARY RISE OF WATER IN DirF-

EEN EMIS OMS Teper ea, A cia aren na sndeccushs sic eM Riche Se are in ee hae 44

Ian CoA VPAIN ZVI Me IEIUA VOOR MIP AINT Scots -2 15:2 oncom aval Aenaes cttad Wael bi a bomeniects Cmte macau eee 44

Sa RG OMADTONE Ole LWB BD rens, 2 stouaet tered fc evaid eX oe cemergrs Spinnin msde Sida meas letecehohevsaches 48

(Ae SUPLOHIe bLOCKs KOR“ USE VIN ELOMDING. (PUBES.<...0.cscee bao ce Seles hee sy 48

15. ANOTHER SimpLE Form or APPARATUS TO SHOW PERCOLATION OF WATER

CRETE OU GET © DL Seme tet eee aa es heen dRy 2 Bho Sh shen s, etvud, dh Sava se CGR e a Ae ala shaaets Se aes 48

GRE OOM ONS SOLE INURE she wlth 4) & aaisihel ds 0 on Ad biel wee Ol eh dag ba Seas oo Matai es Oe 53
17. A Goop Form or CYLINDER FOR MuutcH EXPERIMENTS................00000. 60
18. PreParinGc HIMSELF FOR A SOIL PLOWING CONTEST..............00 0000 eee eee 82
19. Sop Prow Wuicu Dots Not PULVERIZE THE SOIL VERY MucH................ 83

PAD, TSNGE TERETE! TRS CO Nii rE oo ete ee Ee ae eer 84

ile GE NIGITA Teor AOR BOS Hie oT Osis ays fvalic casas ohosells: ilby siete al'ds (os. o ahaa ld ob Sie 8 Gardner ohaenle ead daudeandio ake 84

SOILS LABORATORY MANUAL
AND NOTE BOOK

INSTRUCTIONS CONCERNING LABORATORY WORK IN SOILS

I. Students will be expected to be in the laboratory and ready for work
at the appointed time for the period to begin.

2. A schedule will be found in the laboratory indicating the exercise for
each student or group of students to perform for each period.

3. Students will be held responsible for the breakage of all apparatus.

4, Experiments should be carefully labelled with the owner’s name and
set away before leaving the laboratory.

5. Some of the experiments require a small amount of daily attention.
This must be given in all cases and credit will be allowed.

6. Experiments should be completed promptly and when finished the
apparatus should be cleaned as quickly as possible.

7. Each experiment must be written up promptly after the time that it
is completed.

8. All questions should be clearly and fully answered in the note book.
The report for two experiments should aever be confused—let each be com-
plete in itself. Note books will be graded on correctness of the results of
the experiments, the way in which the experiment is written up, and the
neatness of the work.

9. Before commencing an exercise, read over the object and directions
very carefully. Be sure that you understand clearly what is to be done before
you commence work.

10. The following list of reference books, along with the text-books in
use by the students should be consulted in writing up the results of the
exercises. If possible, they should be on a special shelf in the library.

5
(12) INSTRUCTIONS CONCERNING LABORATORY WORK IN SOILS (Con.)
REFERENCE BOOKS
ST eee ind Po Eee s SemAmeda geome bdo ues Fletcher.
AUS UMA Aeros w ene Grr ommaadononosDos Hall.
Agriculture; Viol: Lei nese ate iets cater Brooks.
Sh aie Pae o A nad se ens oon Umd.go *.... Burkett.
eT hl eae re We cree ane PeaeraS sooo me Sire em ncee ces Hilgard.
Physics of Agriculttres i.< -.scaee< ae sie ecee eer: King.
Soil: Management son rntcarttsjtccte eee seiece rnp King.
Farmers:ot-Horty, Centuries: = 2.52. «vais ele King.
Rocks, Rock Weathering and Soil Formation. . . Merrill.
RocksiandsSoilsticrt-ceace. | Seine eeccieretteus Stockbridge.
Physical Properties of Soil. ........-.4----:-: Warington.
The Mertility, ob the Wand) sewer cere Roberts.
Erriga tion Meri g occas ye cle aie eet etree ote Wilcox.
Soilv@ulttiremVisu alll eice ere rere ceenerene Campbell.
Bieta he swoituel sents Arua eRe Tyan ool ain c Widtsoe.
Engineering for Land Drainage............... Elliot.
Fertilizers and) Crops ic 2. - ates eee VanSlyke.
Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture... ....Hopkins.
onl ey arg Tee oh aide sO cer PER Are ey Crs aula ot Lyon and Fippin.
Bacteria in Relation to Country Life.......... Lipman.
Soils’ofethexUimnitedustatess musts <cstettacrctenae Bulletin 96, U.S.

Bureau of Soils.

“Tf a man can write a better book, preach a better sermon, or make a
better mousetrap than his neighbor, though he build his house in the woods,
the world will make a beaten track to his door.”

CHA ean UNAie ge eee, Le te

EXERCISE 1 (13

FIELD StupY OF PROCESSES OF So1L FORMATION

PLAN

A. Examine a sample of soil and name all of the materials of which it is

composed. How much organic matter is there in this soil?) Show clearly
how this organic matter has been formed. Compare its age with that
of the inorganic matter.

B. Study the work of the various soil-forming agencies which you find and

discuss clearly and fully the part which each of these different actions
plays in the formation of the soil.

1. Moving Ice—Look for deep scratches on the solid rock which forms a

part of the earth’s crust. What is a glacier? How did it act in the
formation of soils in New York?

2. Moving Water—Examine the banks of a brook and find where the land

has been built up on one side and cut away on another. Explain the
smoothness and roundness of the stones and other material in the bed
of the brook. What effect has size upon the way in which the material
is deposited? Walk along the base of a steep hillside and note the effect
of water in bringing down soil. Is this action beneficial or injurious?
Why? How does a water-formed soil differ from that formed bv ice?
How does the water grade the soil according to the size of particles?

3. Chemical Action of Air and Water; Weathering—Why do some rocks seem

4,

5.

6.

to crumble easier than others? Examine an old stone wall. Do the rocks
rest as securely as they did when they were first laid? What has caused
certain rocks to crack open?

Changes in Temperature.—Show clearly how the forces of heat and cold

may cause rocks to crumble.

Action of Living Plants and Animals.—Look for lichens growing upon

rocks. What is the condition of the rock underneath and how do these
plants act as soil builders? Look for the roots of trees growing between
rocks. Discuss. Do you find small roots of plants between layers of
rock? Look for the work of earthworms, also other animals.

Effects of Organic Matter—Examine a piece of iron which has been in a

manure heap or a pile of decaying organic matter. Explain the action.
Examine a swamp and note how it has filled up. How is muck formed?

7. Winds.—Find some soil transported by winds. Is such action beneficial

or injurious at the present time? Give two different kinds of soil which
are formed by the wind and state their location, composition, and agri-
cultural value.

C. Examine surface soil and subsoil. How do they differ? Describe each

carefully.

D. If possible, examine the soil of an old pasture which has never been

plowed. Is the dark-colored surface soil as deep here as on land which
has been cultivated for several years? Why?

(14) EXERCISE 1 (Continvzp)

Notes AND REPORT OF THE STUDY

EXERCISE 1 (ContINvED) (15)

Notes AND REporT OF THE Stupy (Continued)

Grade? on. eee :

©, 16, (0; (0) .0: 1) 9) wie! 6) 6 vaiie. Ve

Date See eee eae

(16) EXERCISE 2

TAKING SOIL SAMPLES

PurposE.—To show students several methods of taking true samples of field

soils.
PLAN

1. Dig a hole with a spade to the depth of one foot (more or less if desired).
Place a folded newspaper or piece of oilcloth to form a pocket in the
bottom of the hole. Then with the spade shave off a uniform slice of
soil from top to bottom of one side of the hole. This slice should be
caught in the paper as it crumbles and should be saved as the sample.
If it is desired to test the soil for moisture content, sample should be

Fic. 1.—Soil auger for obtaining soil samples at different depths. The bit should be about 114 inches
in diameter. This auger may be had in short sections for ease in carrying when travelling considerable
distances.

a

fuside und the ostnder larcer thon the scat of ehe bubes “Tita si eae’ tho raiiiet aie harer cl Gee

soil, and the core of soil is removed from the tube by inverting it. The steel shown at the left is placed in

the tube and may receive the blows of a hammer.
placed promptly in a wide-mouthed bottle or jar. It should be sealed to
prevent the escape of moisture.

2. A common way of taking soil samples where great depth is necessary is
to use a common auger, having an extra long shaft—the bit may be
from one to two inches in diameter. Special soil augers are made for
this purpose (Fig. 1).

3. Soil sampling cylinders are also used for taking field samples (Fig. 2).
They are made of heavy iron or steel tubing, sharpened at one end. Just
back of the sharp edge the opening is slightly constricted to compress
the core of soil so that it may be more easily removed from the tube.
The tube may be driven into the soil by the use of a sledge hammer or axe.

EXERCISE 2 (Continue) (17)

QUESTIONS

1. For what purpose should field samples ever be taken by farmers?

2. Can you devise a method of taking field samples easily where the soil is
stony or gravelly?

3. What may be learned regarding the character of soil while the sample is
being taken?

Note.—All samples should be properly labelled to show from where they were taken,
when, and to what depth.

4. Why is it necessary to take samples from the subsoil as well as the surface
soil?

5. Does soil analysis furnish complete knowledge as to the productiveness
of the soil? Why?

(18) EXERCISE 3

Stupy oF Sort GRAINS
Purpose.—To become familiar with the composition, color, size and the
individual particles in a soil and to see clearly the difference between
various types of soils.

NOT

TAITRU TNR
ATS

pai
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I NTN SAAS) AEN

Hi i

ill
HMPA
\

Fic 4.—Pint tin cans are suitable

ll
aT

Fic. 3.—A suitable form of bin for for use in taking soil samples. The
storing soils in school and college moisture may be held by tightly fit-
laboratories. ting covers.

PLAN *

1. Obtain from the field or from soil supplies in the laboratory, samples of
the following soils: sand, sandy loam, loam, clay and muck (Figs. 3
and 4).

2. Examine these soils with reference to the following points and record
results in the table.

When dry: (a) color, (b)odor, (c) fineness or texture—coarse, medium or
fine.

When moist: (a) color, (b) odor, (c) crumbly or plastic.

*Adapted from Department of Soil Technology, Cornell University.

$2

Smal Sea eal

Sandy loam

EXERCISE 3 (ContiInvED)

Physical Properties of Soils

(19)

Color

Dry Wet Dry

Wet

Texture

Condition

Dry

Wet

—

2.

eS)

4,

QUESTIONS

Compare them with the sample of sandy loam.
How does the muck differ from the others in texture and general appear-

How do the particles in each of the samples differ in color?
Name the first seven according to relative size, stating their diameter in

Examine under the high or low power microscope, samples of fine gravel,
coarse sand, medium sand, fine sand, very fine sand, silt, and clay,
sandy loam and muck. Make drawings of each showing how they differ
in shape and relative size.

(20) ; : EXERCISE 4

COMPOSITION OF SOILS

Purrosr.—To determine the composition of soils by the sedimentation

method.
PLAN *

For this work, samples of at least three widely different soil types common
in the locality should be examined.

1. Place about 10 ce. of the soil to be studied in a dry 100 ec. glass graduate.

2. Fill two-thirds full with water and shake vigorously at intervals for ten
minutes. Allow to stand until the soil has settled. Then estimate as
closely as possible the proportion of the different grades of gravel, sand,
silt and clay which are present.

Repeat this operation with the other samples.

Composition of the Soil

Kind of soil Organic Gravel Sand Silt Clay
matter :

3. Consult the soil survey bulletin (as directed by the instructor) for the
results of a mechanical analysis of these soils. Then plot curves showing
graphically their relative texture and the proportionate amount of the
different groups of separates. Use the chart on page 78 of “Soils” by
Lyon and Fippin as a guide.

QUESTIONS

What is a mechanical analysis of a soil?

How does it differ from a chemical analysis?

. How do the mechanical analyses of soils made by the U. 8. Department
of Agriculture differ from the results of above exercise?

whe

*Adapted from ‘Laboratory Manual for Soil Physics’”—Mosier.

EXERCISE 4 (ContinveEp) (749)

0
| FINE 2 COARSE 3 MEDIUM 4 FINE 5 VERY FINE 6 SILT 7 CLAY
GRAVEL SAND SAND SAND SAND

(22)

EXERCISE 5 | :

SoiL CLASSIFICATION

Purpose.—To enable the student to become familiar with a few common

soil series and types.

PLAN

Describe each area of soil studied according to the following outline:

|

Climate of the section... .. |

Method of formation......

Ist area

| 2nd area 8rd area

Source of material........

Tapographya.- sesse..e6-1

AGU GH ie tess desk She seat |

Color of surface soil... .... |

Color of subsoil. ......

DrAINAGea. Ane eed cacaes

Organve matters. 1. ec |

sime. contents ve secs eee |

Rock: amount, shape, kind |

Arrangement of matter... . |

Strawiledenasesst cre eect

Structure ....

AMEXCUTE RE Wel ied d. eens

{

Complete analysis........ |

Remanksei eee ara |

Namevor-soili...<<..522

,

ce CAS te WON chs

EXERCISE 6 23)

VOLUME-WEIGHT OR APPARENT SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Purpose.—To compare the weight of a tube of soil with the weight of a
tube of water filled to exactly the same height. This result will give
the apparent specific gravity of the soil or the weight of soil compared
with an equal volume of water. If desired the sample may be taken
with a tube shown in Fig. 5.

PLAN

1. Take one of the special tubes which has the opening at the bottom plugged
with a cork stopper and from which the brass strainer has been removed ;
or use a tube with solid bottom as
in Fig. 6. (Schools not equipped
with soil tubes may use tin cans.)

2. Be sure that the tube is dry. Then
weigh it carefully on the balances.

3. Fill the tube with sand to within one
inch of the top, pouring it in loosely.
Weigh carefully on the balances.

4. Empty the soil back into the right
bin and fill the tube again, but this
time compact the soil in the com-
pacting machine. If no compacting
machine is available, pack the soil
by dropping the tube from the

height of five inches five times upon _Fis- 5.—Soil_sam-
pling tube for taking a

c sample of surface soil ;
a book. in an undisturbed con- Fic. 6.—Twelve-inch

5. Repeat this operation for all of the dition—useful in deter- tube with solid bottom,

mining the volume for use in determining

five: soils, recordim= the weights in Weight of soil in its. volume-weight and

i

field condition pore space.
the table.
6. Finally fill the tube with water to exactly one inch from the top and weigh
carefully.

7. If the real specific gravity of these soils is known secure them from the
instructor and then compute the porosity of each. See (3) below.
8. The following formulas may be followed in working out the calculations:

Volume-weight = Weight of a tube full of soil (1)

eae a 2 -Weight.o1 soil. . :
Apparent Specific Gravity = Weight ot Water (2)
a Ap.-Sp: Gr:
P=100—(<p-Sp Gr X100) 8)

(24)

EXERCISE 6 (ContinveEp)

Apparent Specific Gravity

Sandy loam....

Sandisscee oss |

Wt. soil +tube Wt. tube Wt. soil Ap. sp- gr- Porosity

Soil

| pact pact act pact pact

Icoamr 2252225: | |

foonk

a reacts Seo

SSNS SM a

Weight of equal volume of water

QUESTIONS

From the result secured calculate the weight per cubic foot of each of
the soils.

Finally calculate the weight per acre foot.

What is meant by the volume-weight of soil?

Give a definition of specific gravity.

What is the difference between apparent specific gravity and real specific
gravity?

What is meant by porosity?

What is the porosity of the average soil?

State clearly the necessity for pore space in soil.

. What influence has (a) organic matter, (b) texture, (c) structure upon

the porosity of a soil? Upon the weight of a soil? Why?

. Which is heavier, a coarse or a fine soil? Why?
. What does this exercise show concerning the comparative weight and

apparent specific gravity of land recently plowed and land unplowed?

Loose | COm- | Loose ene Loose | Com- | Loose | Com- | Loose -

ih.

EXERCISE 6 (ContTINUED) (25)

Grades, ae see ne ee prec $5
Daitebca crete cg ee Sateen 2
(26) EXERCISE 7

TRUE SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Purposr.—To determine the real specific gravity of any sample of soil.

PLAN

1. Fill a specific gravity bottle with distilled water and weigh it (Fig. 7).
Pour out part of it and add ten grams of oven-dry soil. Heat the content

(os

Fiag. 7.—An accurate scale with agate bearing is a valuable part of the equipment for studying agricultural
soils.

slightly to drive out any air adhering to the soil. Now refill the bottle
with distilled water and weigh again.

2. Divide the loss in weight of water into the weight of soil to find the specific
gravity. Record the results in the following table.

Specific Gravity of Soil Grains

|

Kind of soil Wt. bottle and water, Soil, bottle water | Water displaced Specific gravity

Norr.—Students should, if possible, compare the real specific gravity of sand, clay,
humus soil and others.

QUESTIONS
1. What precaution should you take in the careful performance of this
exercise?
2. Why are specific gravity bottles provided with glass stoppers having small
openings?

psa,

Se

|

EXERCISE 7 (ContINvED) (27)

Give a definition of true specific gravity.

Of what value to the farmer is a knowledge of the specific gravity of his
soil? Would it indicate anything regarding the amount of humus or
the amount of sand?

Name the four principal minerals from which soil has been derived. State
and discuss their specific gravities.

What is the average specific gravity of soil grains?

. Look up the specific gravities of sand, silt, and clay and discuss them.

(28) EXERCISE 8

Heavy AND LIGHT SOILS

Purposr.—To find why certain soils are called “heavy” and others “light.”

PLAN
1. Fill a soil tube or ‘tin can with dry sand, pack well, refill, strike off with
straight edge and weigh. Empty the vessel and weigh it while empty. 2
Record results in the following table.
2. In like manner determine the weights of the same volume of several other
soils. such as black humus soil, heavy clay, and medium loam.

Results °

Kind of soil Wt. tube Wt. soil and tube Wt. soil only

QUESTIONS

Arrange the soils in the order of their actual weights.

Why does the farmer call clay soils heavy soils?

Are the so-called heavy soils really as heavy as sandy soils?
Why are sandy soils spoken of as light soils?

Would humus added to heavy soils make them plow easily?
. What effect would sand have on clay soils in this regard?

wo

oT

(or)

EXERCISE 8 (ContTINUED) (29)

(30) EXERCISE 9

EFFECTS OF ORGANIC MATTER

Purposr.—To study the effects of organic matter in soils.

PLAN

1. Secure directions from the instructor in charge as to where the samples
of soil shall be taken,—one from a plot rather free from organic matter,
the other from sod land or soil otherwise rich in organic matter.

2. Take steel cylinder (Fig. 5), a heavy block of wood and an axe or hammer.
Select a place as free from stones as possible in the cultivated ground.
Carefully drive cylinder into the earth to a depth of seven inches. Dig
out around it with a spade and remove. Transfer the soil from within
the cylinder to an oilcloth or paper and from there to a glass jar. (In
lieu of the cylinder method, samples may be taken with a spade. Equal
volumes may be compared by measurement in tubes or cans filled and
packed equally.)

3. Repeat the same process in the sod land.

4. Bring the samples of soil to the laboratory and weigh each carefully.

5. Weigh out 100 grams of each soil and determine the amount of capillary
water in each.

6. Make the following calculations, using the entire samples, or equal volumes
of each.

Soil | Part of acre | Lbs. of soil Weight of Apparent | Per cent. of
furrow slice sp. gr. capillary water
Cultivated... . |
SOC preg aa- seerse |
QUESTIONS
1. Describe the color and physical appearance of the two soils.
2. Which weighs the more and why?
3. Which do you think would retain the more water?
4. Which soil has the greater apparent specific gravity? Why?
5. Which soil has the greater porosity? Why?
6. Which soil would the farmer consider the more productive?
7. State clearly the influence of constant tillage upon the organic matter in

the soil.

EXERCISE 9 (ConTINUED) (Si)

(32)

EXERCISE 10

OTHER EFFECTS OF ORGANIC MATTER

Purposre.—To study the effects of manure and organic matter on the water-

holding capacity of the soil.

PLAN

Use the following soils: (1) sand; (2) sand with 10 per cent well-rotted

f;

10.

i

manure; (3) sandy loam; (4) sandy loam with 10 per cent well-rotted
manure; (5) muck; (6) sand with 40 per cent muck.

Take six glass or metal percolators (Fig. 13) and in the bottom of each
place a small piece of folded filter paper. If necessary moisten the filter
paper in order that it may cover the bottom opening well.

. In percolator No. 1 place 500 grams of sand.
. Weigh out 450 grams of sand and mix thoroughly with 50 grams of well-

rotted manure. Place in percolator No. 2.

. Place 500 grams of sandy loam in No. 3.
. With 450 grams of sandy loam thoroughly mix 50 grams of manure and

place in No. 4.

. In percolator No. 5 place 500 grams of muck.
. For percolator No. 6 thoroughly mix 300 grams of sand and 200 grams

of muck.

. Make the soil compact by allowing each percolator to drop six times

upon a book from the height of two inches. Be careful to treat each the
same.

. Set glasses underneath each percolator and then add slowly to each

sample 400 cc. of water.

When percolation has ceased measure carefully the amount of water
which has come through. Subtract this amount from the amount of
water which was added. This will give the amount of water held by the
soil.

Record results in the following table.

- EXERCISE 10 (Continvep) (33)

Results
Tandon soil | Grams of water Tons of water held by
held by soil acre 7 in.

Sand with 10 per cent manure ..

AG LOAN ae tail ms «lle uote

Sandy loam with 10 per cent manure |

TAEDA. call aa Re med ce ere

Sand with 10 per cent muck .. |

12. Compute in tons the amount of water held by each mixture for an acre
furrow slice, assuming such an amount to weigh 2,000,000 pounds.

QUESTIONS

1. What is the effect of organic matter upon the structure of the soil and
upon its ability to retain moisture?

2. Why is some of the water which percolated through of a straw color?

3. What does this water contain and what harmful farm practice does it
suggest?

4. How much manure should be applied per acre?

5. Which is the better farm practice, to apply 10 tons of manure per acre
every 4 years or 20 tons every 8 years?

6. Give five distinct benefits from the use of manure.

7. Why is manure beneficial on muck land?

8. State clearly the best method of handling muck for the purpose of improv-
ing a sandy soil. (Brook’s Agriculture, Vol. 1, pp. 90, 91.)

9. How do manure and muck differ in their power to improve the soil?

(34) EXERCISE 11

> ob wb

oe

INFLUENCE OF WEATHERING, ORGANIC MATTER, SAND AND LIME ON
A Cuay SOIL

Purposr.—To determine best system of management for a clay soil.

PLAN *

. Take five of the shallow square pans and weigh into each 400 grams of

\

pulverized clay.

. To pan No. 3 add 100 grs. of muck and mix thoroughly with the clay.
. To pan No. 4 add ten grs. of lime and mix thoroughly.
. To pan No. 5 add 10 grams of sand and mix.

Leave pans | and 2 without addition.
Add water slowly and mix each with a steel spatula to a stiff puddled
condition. Be very careful not to add too much water.

. Take pan No. 1, which contains pure clay, and scratch with a knife blade

to a depth of one-eighth of an inch one-third of the surface, arranging
the scarifications one-fourth of an inch apart in both directions.

On a cold night set the untreated pan No. 2 out-doors and allow it to
freeze solid in its wet state.

Set the other four pans away and allow them to dry out thoroughly.

Later examine the pans and answer the following questions.

QUESTIONS

State the effect of muck, lime, sand and organic matter on the hardness
of a clay soil. Discuss.

Does the sand appear to have improved the tilth of the clay soil? Would
it be profitable farm practice to apply sand to a clay soil? Why?

Does freezing tend to mellow and crumble a puddled clay soil? What
does this indicate as to the time of plowing?

. How are the ice crystals formed?
. What influence do the checks have on the structure of the soil?
. From the results of this experiment outline a system of management for

a heavy clay soil.

. How do commercial fertilizers compare with manure in improving a clay

soil?
What form of lime would give the quickest results on a clay soil? (See
next exercise).

. How many pounds would you use per acre? How should it be applied?

* Adapted from Department of Soil Technology, Cornell University.

on

ban

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EXERCISE 11 (Conrtinvep)

(36) EXERCISE 12

EFFECT OF LIME AND OTHER CHEMICALS ON A CLAY SOIL

Purpose.—To show that some chemical materials cause the soil to become
more mellow and to crumble more easily, while other materials have
the opposite effect.

Flocculation is the collecting together of very fine particles into clots or
granules.

PLAN

1. Powder thoroughly in a mortar four ten-gram samples of clay soil and
place in glass bottles.

2. Fill the bottles about two-thirds full of water.

3. Leave the first untreated but add chemicals to the other three bottles
according to the following table. Pour some of the solution into a beaker
and then measure the exact amount with a graduate.

4. What difference do you notice in the appearance of the solutions in the
four bottles?

5. Examine some of the material from each bottle under a microscope and
make observations.

6. Allow bottles to stand and note time required for the particles to settle.
Clean carefully the beaker and graduate after each solution is used.

Results
Kind of treatment | Appearance after 44 hour | Time required to settle
INGHEeALMEM Gir. te cles aie wad Gam Aral |
20..ce: Givlinaeiwpeten Oe mine beets |
20\.ce. of acid phosphate ...).".0.-2:..-
20:ce;-of nitrate of S004 .<) Sic ee ce |
QUESTIONS

1. What material did you find most effective in producing flocculation?

2. How is a clay soil benefited if its particles are brought together in flakes?

3. What form of lime would act the quickest on a clay soil?

4, What form of lime might be more satisfactory on a sandy soil?

5. How much should be used per acre on a sandy soil and how much on a
clay soil?

6. Under what conditions would lime benefit a sandy soil?

7. Discuss the action of acid phosphate on the soil. Does it cause soils to
become acid? How?

8. What effect has the continuous use of nitrate of soda upon soil structure?

oS

EXERCISE 12 (ContINuED) (37)

(38) EXERCISE 13

TotraL MoistuRE DETERMINATION

Purposs.—To determine the total moisture content of field samples of
different soils.

PLAN

1. Take four pint jars with tight-fitting tops. Secure, either from the field
or greenhouse, according to directions from the instructor, moist samples
of the following soils—sand, loam, clay, and muck. Bring to the lab-
oratory.

2. Secure four round evaporating dishes and after numbering determine their
weight. Next weigh into each a fifty-gram sample of the soil the moisture
-econtent of which is to be determined.

3. Place the samples in a drying oven the temperature of which is slightly
above the boiling point of water and allow to remain for twelve hours.
Later remove to a dry chamber and allow to cool. Weigh as quickly as
possible. Then return to the oven and heat again and reweigh in order
to be sure that all moisture has been driven off.

4. Determine the total moisture by dividing the weight of moisture by
weight of dry soil.

Several samples of soil taken the same day from different fields will enable
the student to determine the relative water-holding capacity.

In making the calculations net weights only must be used. Ehminate the
weight of dish in each case.

Total Moisture

Total water

Soil Week ——— Laer — Dry weight of | Dry weight of | Per cent of
of dish Weight Weight of dish and soil soil moisture

of soil dish and soil

Sand.... |

Loam.....| | |

Glavin. & si |

| | i
Muck..... | |

—

me CO bD

EXERCISE 13 (ContTiInuEp) (39)

QUESTIONS

. Make a drawing illustrating the availability to plants of the three kinds
of water found in field soils.

. State two ways in which soil moisture is lost.

. What proportion of soil water is probably lost by percolation?

. State the methods which may be used to prevent the loss of water.

(40) EXERCISE 14

CAPILLARY MOISTURE

Purpose.—The determination of capillary moisture in samples of field soil.

Capillary moisture is that water which is held in the soil by surface tension
of the soil particles. If soil is exposed to the air it can be entirely evapo-
rated at room temperature.

PLAN

1. Take four pint jars with tight-fitting tops. Secure, either from the field
or greenhouse, according to directions from the instructor, moist samples
of the following soils: sand, sandy loam, clay, and muck. Bring to the
classroom and, using the square soil pans, determine the moisture content
of the soil, as follows:

2. Label with a wax pencil and weigh on the balances the empty pan. Then
immediately weigh into it 100 grams of the moist soil as quickly as
possible.

Do the same with the other soils.

4. Set the pans away carefully and weigh every few days until a nearly

constant weight is reached.

5. At the completion of the experiment carefully preserve these soils and
determine the amount of hygroscopic moisture in them according to
directions as given in the following experiment.

The amount of capillary moisture which has disappeared into the air is indi-
cated by the loss in weight. Calculate the percentage of capillary water,
using the dry soil for the base.

oe

Capillary Moisture

Weight of | Weight, pan Dry weight Dry weight, Loss in Per cent cap-
pan and soil soil only weight illary water
Sandy loam hes
ko ane |
Clavaeiste.
Muck... :.|

EXERCISE 14 (ContInvED) (41)

QUESTIONS

1. Of what use is capillary water for plant growth?

2. Which soil holds the most capillary water, and why?

3. Where does the supply of capillary moisture come from?

4. How does it reach the surface of the soil and how is it lost?

AGT AGG JF eens Ea

Jabs eee = eee es ee

(42) EXERCISE 15

Hyeroscopic MOoIsTuRE
Purposr.—To determine the percentage of hygroscopic moisture in air dry
soils.
PLAN
Number and weigh five evaporating dishes.
Into the above dishes weigh 25 grams of each of the five soils remaining
from the exercise for the determination of the capillary moisture.

iif
2

]

Fie. 9.—Moisture-proof
chamber for use in cooling
oven-dried samples before
weighing. Moisture-ab-

—,

= sorbing chemicals, as strong

E sulfuric: acid, may be

Fic. 8.—Drying oven with top tubes for thermom- placed in the lower part to
eter and gas regulator. insure dryness.

3. Dry these samples in an oven (Fig. 8) which has a temperature slightly
above the boiling point of water.

4. Later cover the dishes and remove from the oven and allow to cool in a
dry chamber (Fig. 9).

5. Weigh rapidly and determine the loss of moisture.

6. Determine the per cent of hygroscopic moisture by dividing the weight
of moisture lost by the weight of oven dry soil.

If possible the degree of humidity of the air in the room should be found on
the day this exercise is conducted. If desired this exercise may be
repeated on very dry and very wet days to determine the variation in
amount of hygroscopic moisture.

EXERCISE 15 (Continvep)

Amount of Hygroscopic Moisture

(43)

Weight of Weight, dish | pry weight resoilvanis | Loss in Per cent

dish and soil . 7 ad E weight hygr-, water
Sand......| |
Sandy loam|
WoamlsoF...-
Clay. | |
Muck |

QUESTIONS

1. Give a definition of hygroscopic moisture.
2. What three factors govern the amount of hygroscopic moisture in the soil?
3. State two possible ways by which this kind of moisture may be beneficial.

(44) EXERCISE 16

CaprLLARY RIsE OF WATER IN SOILS OF DIFFERENT TEXTURE
PurposE.—To determine the influence of the fineness of a soil upon the
speed and total rise of capillary water.

PLAN
Close the ends of the large glass tubes (Fig. 11) by means of pieces of muslin
firmly tied on.

|
mm l it Tm ra ti hn
i aaa bad HM iM ‘aco ral
Fia.11.—Frame and glass tubes for showing capil
lary rise of water in different soils.

Fig. 10 —Handy equipment to show rise
of water by ecapillarity.

Fie. 12.—Galvanized tray or tank to be used with the support fou tubes in showing capillary rise of water.
Also useful for exercise No. 17

2. Hold the tubes in a vertical position and carefully fill with their respective
soils. After filling compact the soil by allowing the tubes to drop from
a distance of four inches four times upon a book.

3. Place the tubes in a supporting frame (Fig. 11) over a rectangular pan of
water, so that the ends are about one-half inch below the surface of the
water (Fig. 12).

This experiment may be set up by the instructor but each student must fill
out the following observation blank for himself as nearly at the time
indicated as possible.

EXERCISE 16 (Conrtinvep) (45)

Rise of Water at Different Periods

Soil 1 hour 1 hour 3 hours 1 day | 2 days | 4 days 6 days 8 days

Tenge ce | |

ia oe ae |

Ope

2 A ee eee

ee =, ;

Oem hs 57 P

QUESTIONS

1. In what soil does the water rise the fastest? The highest?

2. Can you determine upon what factors the capillary rise of water depends?
Give several.

3. Would a moist condition of the soil affect the total rise? Would it
affect the rate?

4. Does capillary movement of water take place laterally? In a test of differ-

ent fertilizers on field plots side by side, what effect would this have?

. What does this experiment teach you concerning soil management and

plant growth?

(46) EXERCISE 17

Errect oF Too Mucu Orcanic MatTTerR on RISE. OF WATER

The water used by plants is conveyed to them largely by means of the process
‘alled capillarity.

Purposr.—To show that certain farm practices may be harmful, cutting off
the water supply to plant roots by a layer of organic matter.

PLAN *

1. Tie a cloth firmly over the ends of two large glass tubes 18 inches long.
Fill to the height of one foot with fine soil, compacted by letting the tube
drop four times on a book for a distance of 6 inches for every 6 inches
of soil put in the tube. s

2. In one tube put about one inch of cut straw or sawdust; in the other about
a half inch of well decayed fine manure. Finish fillmg the tubes with
soil. Place the ends of the tubes in a tray of water and note the rise of
water.

3. In this exercise each student must make daily observations on the heights
of the water in the tubes and note the effect of organic matter on the

rise of water.
Results

Height of water

Soil with fine manure..........

Soil with cut straw .2.:.00.. 0.3.

QUESTIONS

1. In which soil does the water rise the higher and why?
What is the effect of plowing under poorly rotted manure, straw, or a
heavy green crop in the spring?
3. What damage to the ensuing crop might result if a heavy sod were plowed
under late in the spring?
4. Would there be any advantage in rolling the land directly after plowing?
5. What advantage with relation to organic matter does fall plowing have?

bo

*Adapted from Mosier.

XERCISE 17 (ContinvED)

=)

(48)

EXERCISE 18

PERCOLATION OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

Percolation is the passage of water through soils by means of the natural

channels.

Purrose.—To study the influence of texture and structure upon the passage
of water through soils.

Fia.13.—Percolation
soiltube. In comparing
the percolation of water
through several soils
the tubes are placed in

the support block (Fig.

14) and are connected
by rubber tubing at-
tached to the lateral in-
lets. A beakeris placed
under each drainage
tube.

PLAN
1. Take six soil tubes (Fig. 13): fill three of them with the three different
soils to within one-half inch of the overflow pipe, pouring it in loosely.

Fic. 15.—Another simple form of apparatus to show percolation of
water through soils.

2. Fill the other three tubes with their respective soils, packing in the usual
way by dropping or by using the compacting machine.

3. After all the tubes are full place a layer of coarse sand one-half inch deep
over the top of each. This will prevent the water as it flows from dis-
turbing the soil below.

EXERCISE 18 (ContInvep) (49)

4. After placing the tubes in the support block (Fig. 14) connect the tubes
at the top with rubber tubing and place beaker glasses underneath them
to catch the water which comes through.

5. Record the time elapsing after water is turned on until it begins to perco-
late through each tube of soil.

6. Determine the quantity of water draining through each soil in thirty
minutes after it begins.

Notr.—This exercise could be tried with five soils as suggested in Fig. 15.

Percolation of Water Through Soils

Sand Loam Clay
| Loose | Compact | Loose | Compact | Loose Compact
Minutes for percolation to begin | | |
. . | | |
Amount of water percolating in |
ORIN ONUNCCS og che ye eter c ere, < seas. 2
QUESTIONS

1. Upon what two main factors does percolation depend?

2. Would water percolate faster through soil which was dry at first or through
wet soil? Why?

3. What conditions in the soil assist percolation?

4. Is a sandy soil objectionable when percolation is considered?

5. What does this experiment indicate concerning the depth of plowing?

6. Would growing crops be benefited by a loose condition of the surface
soil?

7. Would there be any advantage in fall plowing? Why?

8. Why are clay soils often wet?

9. What does this experiment indicate concerning the comparative depth
at which tile drains should be put in a clay soil and in a sandy soil?

EXERCISE 18 (Conminvrp) —

CTAMSR Oa tet aes oh cat re we Syst

LDS i ee SS ee ER

EXERCISE 19 (51)

CLop FORMATION
Purpose.—To study the clod-forming properties in soils of different kinds.

PLAN

1. Take small samples of each of the available soils of the region; include a
sample of heavy clay soil; also include one mixture of sand with clay and
one of humus and clay.

2. On a mixing board mix each with enough water to make as stiff a “putty
as each sample will make. Roll part of it into the form of an inch marble,
and another part into a half-inch cylinder about four inches long.

3. Make up all the samples as nearly alike as possible. Label each by stippling
a number on each kind. Put the molded samples into cigar boxes or on
shelves to dry for several days.

4. Make studies of the relative breaking powers of these samples, and make
a record of their clod-forming properties.

))

Clod Formation

Kind of soil No. Crushing strength| Breaking strength Remarks

of marbles of sticks

L
|
tiem

Norr.—If instruments are not available for measuring, crushing and breaking strength,
comparisons may be made after breaking with fingers.

QUESTIONS

1. Make a list of the samples in order—the hardest clods first.

2. What interest has the farmer in the clod-forming properties of field soils?

3. Which soils must be handled most carefully after rains?

4. Which are likely to form hard crusts during dry weather if improperly
managed?

5. Which soils will work up into the most perfect seed beds for gardens?

6. Why should clay soils, if plowed rather wet, not be allowed to dry before
harrowing?

7. Give other points in the proper management of clod-forming soils.

ie
eat
rene at

EXERCISE 20

Sort SURFACE AND PERCOLATION

# Ve erie “a $6 20: (6 Ww) vo elie! ce

oo eee Cee Ow

Purpose.—To study the relationship between soil surface and the percolation

of free water.
PLAN

1. Secure three or more small glass tubes of uniform length (about one

foot) and place them in a jar of water deep enough
to fill them to the top. Place the finger or palm of
the hand against the top of the tubes and with the
other. hand remove the bundle of tubes from the
jar of water. Hold the bundle in a vertical position
and note that the water remains in the tubes. Now
remove the hand from the top and see how quickly
the water descends.

2. Fill two soil tubes (Fig. 16) with clay loam, packing

them alike. Set them in a jar of water until satu-
rated. Loosen the surface of one with a kitchen fork;
smooth the surface of the other with the bowl of a
wet spoon to avoid the free entrance of air. Then set
the tubes of soil so as to drain into beaker glasses.
Compare the rates of drainage of free water from
the two tubes as a result of the difference in treat-
ment of the surfaces,

Fie. 16.—Common

soil tube, 2’’ x 12” with
perforated bottom, use-
ful in many exercises.

Surface smooth

Surface stirred

Amount of water in 1 hour..........

Amount of water in 2 days..........

QUESTIONS

1. Why does the exclusion of air at the top of the tubes retard percolation?

2.

3.

4.

5.

the surface tend to exclude the air? Explain.
before they are quite dry enough to plow well?

a loosened surface? Explain.

Does a heavy soil beaten by rain or puddled by free water standing on
What treatment can be given to the surface of field soils after heavy rains
Does a heavy, thick, dry, crust tend to exclude air from the soil more than

Would harrowing tend to let the free water downward? Why?

(54) EXERCISE 20 (ContTiInvED)

6. When air is admitted to the soil in very early spring, what effect does it
have upon the soil temperature? Explain.

7. Inearly spring is it better to allow the surplus water to percolate downward
into the soil or to wait for it to evaporate from the surface? Give reasons.

8. If free water is caused to percolate below the depth of tillage in spring,
what benefit may it have upon crops during subsequent dry weather?

~

Gridevdaeees oe.

EXERCISE 21 (55)

Capacity OF LOOSE AND Compact SoILs To Hotp WATER

Purposre.—To study the influence of the texture and structure of different
soils upon their capacity to retain water.

PLAN

Use four soils—sand, loam, clay, and muck.

1. Select eight soil cylinders (Fig. 16) and place a circular piece of filter
paper in the bottom of each. Number and weigh each cylinder carefully,

2. Fill the first four tubes to within exactly one inch of the top, pouring the
soil in gently so that it will rest in the tube in a very loose condition.

3. Fill the second lot of tubes to within one inch of the top and pack uniformly
by the dropping method or by means of the compacting machine.

4. Weigh and record weights of filled tubes.

5. Place the tubes in a galvanized iron tank and pour water around them
until it reaches the height of the surface of the soil, thus allowing the
water to percolate up through.

6. Let stand until moisture appears at surface of soil in each cylinder, noting
time required for water to come up through.

7. Finally remove the tubes from the tank and, after wiping off all free water
with a cloth, weigh immediately upon balances.

8. Place cylinders in racks where the water may be allowed to percolate out,
and cover top with a glass plate to prevent evaporation.

9. Weigh the cylinders according to the time indicated in the table.

(56) EXERCISE 21 (ContTINvED)

Water Holding Power of Soils

Loose Compact

Sand | Loam | Clay | Muck | Sand | Loam Clay | Muck

INumberol tubers... +2." 0. |

Weiebt of tubes s..cciaie nek |

Weight, tube and soil........

Weight of soles. oe Jean nee

Time for top to become moist

Depth, dry *soil.<........s:.2%

Depth, wet soil..............

Moist weight, tube and soil...

Weight of moist soil.........

Water taken up, grs.........

Water taken up, per cent.... |

Grs. water lost, 1 hour.......

Grs. water lost, 2 days.......

Grs. water lost, 4 days.......

Grs. water lost, 6 days....... |

Total water lost, grs......... | | |

Total water lost, per cent... .

Acre inches water retained... . | | |

QUESTIONS

1. When a soil is saturated does it contain both free water and capillary
water? Give reasons for your answer.

2. What per cent of water was found in each of the soils when saturated?

3. What relation does this proportion bear to the pore space of the soil?

4. What did you observe concerning the expansion of a muck soil when wet?
What does this show concerning the depths at which tile drains should
be placed?

00 <I &

EXERCISE 21 (ContinvEp) (57)

From the results secured, what type of soil would you say would be most
benefited by cultivation?

. Which soils would leach most?
. What effect does rolling have upon soil moisture?
. What effect does fall plowing or early spring plowing have upon soil

moisture?

. Define gravitational water. What are its uses and when is it injurious?

(58) EXERCISE 22

EFFect OF EVAPORATION ON SOIL TEMPERATURE

Purposrt.—To show that soils are cooled when water evaporates from them.

PLAN

. Take two dairy thermometers which agree in their reading. Tie a few

inches of cloth around the bulb of one thermometer and suspend the
lower part of the cloth in a glass of water that is slightly warmer than
the room.

From time to time note the difference in readings of the two thermometers,
and decide how much difference is produced by evaporation of water
from the cloth.

QUESTIONS

. Show the analogy between this exercise and the evaporation of water from

soils.

Would soils be kept cold by water evaporating from them in the spring
of the year?

How many units of heat are absorbed or dissipated by the evaporation
of one unit of water (see any text-book on physics).

Why should farmers wishing to warm their soils in early spring, prevent
the evaporation of water from them? Would harrowing do this?

If harrowing produces a dust mulch and checks evaporation, would the
free water below the surface be held there or tend to find its way down-
ward?

Would the loosening of the surface crust of the soil tend to check down-
ward percolation of soil water or increase it?

. Would the loosening of the soil crust increase or retard the entrance of

warm spring air?

6

a _ EXERCISE 22 (ConTINUED)

yal
oD

(60)

VALUE oF MULCHES IN THE RETENTION OF MOISTURE

EXERCISE 23

B)Rethet eae ara

Purposr.—To determine the loss of water from the surface of a soil by
evaporation and the value of various mulches in preventing this loss.
A mulch is any material placed or created on
the surface of a soil to prevent evapora-

tion.

It may be composed of loose soil

or it may be artificial material, such as
leaves, straw, etc.

cases.

PLAN

1. The cylinders (Fig. 17) will be filled with
loam soil in a moist condition.

2. Treat the surface of the soil in each tube
according to the table.
mulch should be 3 inches deep in all

Fill the outside jacket of the cyl-

inder with water.

3. Weigh each cylinder daily and calculate

the loss of water.

Replace the water

The artificial

| A

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ie

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l

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ni

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HK |

Fic. 17.—A good form of cylinder for

mulch experiments.
from time to time by the side tube.

Water may be added

which has been lost by evap-

oration.
Value of Mulches
Cultivated
Bare | Coarse Fine Cut
sca (Clay, and- a
1 itl J san F |
Sg ae loam’ Ban, lin PADS aNeoe | ee acaor bat 4 in.
| deep deep deep deep
Weight of tubes...... | |

Loss, 1 day ...

Loss, 2 days

ILOSS or GAYS. = wc). 4

Loss, 4 days........

Woassyordays..: st a...% |

TLOSShGsCaiy Sis wee

Loss, 2sweeksi:...5. <..

Total loss, tons, per

acre, per week.....

~

ND or

*

< 90

10.
iL

12.

13.

14.

EXERCISE 23 (ContTINvED) (61)

QUESTIONS

What is the average annual rainfall for the country in which you live?

How many inches of water are used by a (a) 400 bushel crop of potatoes,
(b) 100 bushels of corn, (c) 3.5 tons of hay?

How many inches of water may be lost by evaporation from a bare soil?

Which artificial mulch is the most efficient and which is the least efficient?

How does a mulch prevent loss of water by evaporation?

Which is the more economical, a natural or an artificial mulch?

Which mulch would need renewal the more often, clay or sandy loam,
and why?

Why should cultivation always be done soon after a beating rain?

What is the best depth for cultivation? Why?

What effect will cultivation have on a very wet soil?

What effect do you think mulches would have upon the temperature of
a soil?

What effect would scattering a light coating of manure upon meadows
have upon the grass plants during hot, dry weather?

What influence does rolling have upon the evaporation of water from
soil?

What can you say about the use of corrugated rollers?

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Da tO mr aoe. ctu:

EXERCISE 24 (63)

OPTIMUM AND CritIcaAL MoIsturE

PurposE.—To determine optimum and critical moisture content and amount
of available moisture in different soils.
Optimum moisture content is that amount of water in the soil with which a
plant is able to make its best growth.
Critical moisture content is the minimum amount of water with which a plant
is able to survive.
PLAN

1. Take five one-gallon glass battery Jars (or tin cans) having a small hole
close to the bottom. Into the hole fit a drain tube made of glass tubing
with a glass-wool filter at the inner end, so that it will take liquid from
the lowest place in the jar.

2. Weigh each jar and record weight.

3. Fill each jar to within one inch of the top with soil compacted to a moder-
ate degree. Use the sand, sandy loam, loam, clay and muck.

4. Pour the soil out and mix with water until the soil is in the best possible
field condition. Keep careful record of the amount of water added to
each soil.

5. Fill the jars with the moist soil and weigh.

6. Plant five kernels of corn three-fourths of an inch deep in each jar.

7. Cover the tops of the jars with oilcloth or waxed paper to prevent evapora-
tion until the corn is up.

8. Water them at intervals when necessary, adding enough water so that a
drop or two will be ferced out at the drain. Always add the same amount
of water to each pot.

9, When the corn is a foot high, cease watering and record the number of
days before the plants commence to wilt.

10. Then empty the pots and determine the amount. of capillary moisture
in each soil.

(64) EXERCISE 24 (Continue)

Optimum and Critical Moisture for Corn

Sand

Sandy | Loam Clay Muck
loam

WielohiG,Ole | ales tease ape eae ree ae

Amount of water... oe te he ae

Weight slled (jars. spe ee eee

Per cent. of water...c.2:2 0:

Amount of water added. 2.2:3....... |

Number of days to Wilts oi. cné.ce. ee a a | |

Per cent of moisture in soil at wilting ... | |

QUESTIONS

1. Which of the soils has the largest amount of available moisture?

2. Which soil will store up the largest amount of moisture?

3. If each soil should have the same amount of water to commence with, on
which would the crops wilt the quickest?

4. What is the water content of green alfalfa, corn, turnips, and potatoes?
Of straw, hay, ensilage, and shelled corn?

a

aa.

CISE 24 (ConrinvED)

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(66) EXERCISE 25

DRAINAGE AND SOIL TEMPERATURE
Purposr.—To show the influence of standing water in a soil upon its tem-
perature.
PLAN *

1. Prepare two similar vessels—one water tight and the other with holes to
allow of good drainage at the bottom; these may be two tubs or boxes.
Fill them with the same kind of soil to a depth of six inches.

. Plant an equal number of grains of corn in each box.

Sprinkle equal quantities of water upon cach vessel until it begins to drain
from the box with the perforated bottom. Repeat this as often as is
necessary until the corn is well up.

4. After ten or twelve days insert the thermometers and determine hourly

the temperature of each at 1, 2 and 4 inches in depth.

Co WW

Results

| 1 inch deep | 2 inches deep 4 inches deep

Time | -- - —---
Drained | Undrained Drained Undrained Drained | Undrained

9 o’clock.

11 o’clock |

1 o'clock

3 o'clock

5 o’clock .. |
|

Date of recording thermometer readings.......
No. of plants on drained soil....... On undrained soil

QUESTIONS

Why is there a difference in temperature?

Why are clay soils often cold or colder than sandy soils?

Why does corn often rot in the ground during a wet spring?

Name some of the benefits of drainage to the farmer.

What is the difference between natural drainage and artificial drainage?

Why is the latter necessary and what is the most successful method of
carrying it out?

mn

*Adapted from Mosier.

*

(ConTINUED)

25

\

4

(68) EXERCISE 26

CoLorR AND TEMPERATURE

Purpose.—To determine the effect of color of soil on temperature.
The temperature of the soil influences indirectly the yield per acre.

PLAN *

Secure four wooden boxes approximately 12 inches square by eight inches
deep. Bore holes in the bottom for proper drainage. Fill with a uniform
lot of loam soil to within one-half inch of the top.

Plant corn in one-half of one box at a uniform depth and a like number
of kernels in the other half.

Cover the one-half of the soil with chalk dust or white sand and the other
with lamp black or very dark humus soil. Be careful that the depth of
the seed is the same after these covers are put over the soil.

In each of the other boxes plant equal numbers of wheat, beans and buck-
wheat. Use the same light and dark covering as in (3).

Moisten all the soil equally from time to time.

Place the boxes where the sun will reach all the soil surfaces equally.

Record in the table the number of plants up, in each half box twice a day.

Number of Plants wp Each Morning and Evening

Light soil Dark Soil

Number = eamat = ==

of days
Corn | Wheat Beans Buck- Corn

wheat

Wheat | Beans | Buck-
wheat

8.

oh

| | eo
og Ww touerje ust dies | |
|

Select a clear day and make observations on the temperature of each half
of one box. Insert a thermometer one-half inch, and another four
inches deep, also place one two inches above the surface. Take readings
every two hours and record in the temperature table.

Each student should make observations on all plots and keep results in
tabular form.

*Adapted from Mosier.

EXERCISE 26 (ContInvuep) (69)

Record of Temperature—Thermometer Readings

Temperatures

Location =
of thermometer | | ;
9A-M. 11 a.M. 1 P.M. 3 P.M. 5 p.M.

Light soil
2 inches above....

Y inch in soil.....

4 inches in soil... . | | |

Dark soil
2 inches above....

V6 inch in soil... ..

4 inches in soil... .

QUESTIONS

1. Explain why one soil is heated more than the other.

2. What effect does organic matter have on the color of soil?) Why?

3. On which soil do the plants appear quickest?

4. Which kind of plants show first?

5. Give in their proper order the general dates for planting winter wheat,
spring wheat, corn, mangels, cabbages, oats, potatoes, barley, alfalfa,
clover, beans and other field and garden seeds. State the temperature
at which each of these plants germinates the best.

6. Name six conditions which influence soil temperature.

7. What effect has (a) rolling, and (6) harrowing upon the temperature of
the soil?

8. Show by means of a diagram how the slope of the land may influence the
temperature.

NTINUED)

Bag
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GRiOer. ses...

1D Fi eS, See aa ae

EXERCISE 27 (71)

So1mt VENTILATION

Purpose.—To demonstrate the practical importance of soil ventilation and

joo:

drainage, and to call attention to the manner in which the soil ventilation
may be affected by the structure of the soil.

PLAN*

Secure four round pans about 8 inches deep. (Gallon cans will do.)

Fill two of the pans to within one and one-half inches of the top with
loose clay soil which has a good field condition of moisture. Then plant
twenty grains of corn in each pan by laying the corn on the surface of
the soil and placing an inch of soil over the grains.

Fill the third pan to the same height with the same kind of soil in a very
compact condition. Plant twenty grains of corn in the same manner
as before, except compact the soil over the grains. Prepare soil for Nos.
1 and 3 together.

Avoid puddling by giving plenty of time for diffusion of water. Great
care is necessary to secure the right moisture conditions.

Make a germinating pan of the fourth by filling it half full of sand. Place
twenty grains of corn on the sand and cover with moist filter paper.

Keep the pan moistened as shown in table and cover with oilcloth or waxed
paper until seedlings are well up.

See that the different pans are kept under the proper moisture conditions.

Observe the rate and percentage of germination each day in the shallow
pan.

At the end of ten days examine the pans closely and make the following
observations.

Ventilation and Germination

No. of ; Per cent of | Strength of | Appearance
Treatment of soil | ee :
pan | germination) growth of seedings

Remarks

Soareriee TWOOSGSIMOIStieaw 12 e. oe

-

ree IGOOSE% WEbisgn. 0. )h ea oe ©

Pere ce Compact, moist.......

er Bice Germination pan, moist | |
|

*Adapted from Department of Soil Technology, Cornell University.

(72) EXERCISE 27 (Contrinvep)

“Io

cS OO

QUESTIONS

. What is soil ventilation? :
. What is the effect of compacting the soil on the germination of the seeds?
. What effect did the wet condition of the soil have on the germination and

growth?

. Is either compactness or excess of water likely to occur in sandy soil?
. What would be the effect of tile drainage on soil aération in a heavy clay

soil?

. Name the different forces which serve to change the air in the soil.
. Of what importance is ventilation to the bacteria which live on clover

and alfalfa roots?

_ What relation has ventilation to the decay of organic matter in the soil?
. State clearly why soil ventilation is important.

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(74) EXERCISE 28

AMOUNT OF ORGANIC MATTER IN SOILS

Purrose.—To compare roughly the relative amounts of organic matter in
two different samples of field soils.

PLAN

1. Place a small amount of each soil in an evaporating dish and heat for
‘several hours in an oven in order to drive off hygroscopic moisture.

2. Number and carefully weigh on sensitive balances two or more crucibles
with covers.

3. Place in each crucible ten grams of the previously dried soil and ignite
at a glowing temperature for an hour. Lift the cover occasionally to allow
gases to escape.

4. After the samples have been cooled in a closed chamber, weigh again and
determine the loss of each.

5. The loss in weight of each sample is largely due to the burning away of
the organic matter. A part of the loss is due, however, to the escape of
water, of crystallization, ete.

6. Students having time for extra laboratory practice should test other
samples for organic matter.

Results

| Weight, crucible and soil
Weight - = :
crucible Lat n> | mL as |
Before ignition | After ignition |

|

Soil Loss, grs- Loss, per cent

QUESTIONS

1. Do uplands or lowlands usually contain the most organic matter? Why?

2. Is the percentage of organic matter present in any soil a good indication
of its fertility?

3. Do soils containing much organic matter plow easier or harder than others?

4. What is meant by active and inactive organic matter and what is their
relative importance? Give examples of each.

Cc nI > Or

EXERCISE 28 (ContTINUvED) (75)

What is humus and how does it differ from organic matter?

How much organic matter is there in an acre of normal soil?

Give six of the most important benefits of organic matter.

Show clearly how the supply of organic matter may be maintained in
different types of farming.

(76) EXERCISE 29

ABSORPTION OF PLANT Foop By SOILS

Purposr.—To show the power of soils to absorb soluble food materials and
humus and the influence of lime on this process.

PLAN*

1. Place six glass or metal percolators in the rack in their proper order. Fold
small pieces of filter paper to be carefully inserted in the base of each
percolator.

2. Fill the percolators with soil as follows:

No 1. 400 grams of clay loam.

No. 2. 400 grams of clay loam.

No. 2. 400 grams of clay loam with which there has been mixed 5
grams of lime.

No. 4. 400 grams of sandy loam.

No. 5. 400 grams of sandy loam.

No. 6. 400 grams sandy loam with which there has been thoroughly
mixed 5 grams of lime.

3. Add the following solutions to the designated portions of soil:

Funnels Nos. 1, 3, 4 and 6—300 cc. of manure extract.
Funnels Nos. 2 and 5—300 ce. of potassium permanganate solution.

4. Note carefully the rate of passage of the liquid through different portions
of the soil. Collect and examine the first five cc. of solution that passes
through the stem of each funnei, comparing its color with subsequent
portions of the original liquid, and the different treatments one with

the other. ; oS
Absorption of Plant Food by Soils

| Color of | Color of

|
| Time re-
ee e Soluti earned lst por- latter | Reac-
nile : Lime ee u Ion h for ist tion of | portion | tion, Remarks
sol reatmen reatment | eee Se perco- jofperco- | litmus
drop
late.) Waites)

| cy
No lime Manure extract

Clay loam | No lime) Permanganate

Limed | Manure extract | |

No lime| Manure extract | | |

Sandy loam| No lime’) Permanganate

Limed | Manure extract | | |

*Adapted from Department of Soil Technology, Corne!l University.

to

OS Orr

as
8.

EXERCISE 29 (ContTINUED)

QUESTIONS
What is absorption?
How is the manure extract affected in passing through the soil?
How does lime affect the process?
What is leaching?

. What kind of soil would lose most by leaching?
. Would you follow the same method for applying nitrate of soda on a sandy

soil as on a clay soil?) Why?
Which of the above two soils would be best plowed in the Fall?
What does this experiment teach us?

(77)

Why?

(78) EXERCISE 30

TESTING SOILS FOR ACIDITY

Purpose.—There are three common tests for soil acidity. Any one of these
should furnish fair evidence as to the need of the soil for lime. An agree-
ment of the three tests should furnish conclusive evidence regarding the
condition of the soil. The purpose of this exercise is to familiarize the
student with the manipulation of these tests.

PLAN

Samples of the surface soil and subsoil of a soil well stocked with lime and
samples of acid soils should be supplied. Acid phosphate, lime, fresh
muck, wood ashes, silage, and horse manure also may be tested.

I. Litmus Paper Test.—Take a tumbler with a smooth bottom. By means
of forceps or the tips of the fingers select two pieces of litmus paper, one
blue and the other neutral, and drop into the tumbler. Then cut a disk
of filter paper and place in the bottom of the tumbler over the litmus
paper. On top of this place two or three tablespoonfuls of the moist
soil to be tested. If the soil is not moist enough add a small amount of
rain or distilled water. Take a handful of the same soil and squeeze into
a ball. Break the ball and in the center insert a piece of blue litmus
paper. With both of these tests, if the soil is acid, the litmus paper should
show a decided pink.

Il. Ammonia Test.—Take two tumblers and fill each about three-quarters
full of distilled or rain water. To the first add a few drops of common
ammonia. Then into each tumbler stir a tablespoonful of the soil to
be tested, being careful to use two spoons and keep each in its respec-
tive glass. Stir the contents of each glass thoroughly for three or four
minutes and set aside for a few hours. At the end of that time examine
the contents of each glass. If the soil needs lime the water standing
above the soil in the glass in which the ammonia has been added will
have a dark, reddish-brown or black appearance, while the water in
the other glass will be very nearly clear. On the other hand, if the soil
is well stocked with carbonates of lime or magnesia, the soil water
in both glasses will be entirely clear.

Ill. Hydrochloric Acid Test.—Place a small quantity of soil in an evaporating
dish and pour on this three or four drops of hydrochloric acid. If bubbles
escape it is a sign that there is an abundance of carbonates. If there
is no effervescence the soil lacks carbonates and is probably acid.

EXERCISE 30 (ConrinvEpD)

Color or Action of Indicator

Name of test Surface soil Subsoil Surface soil Subsoil

| | 9 9
| | 2 2

Litmus paper (tumbler). |

= Se a A aL |

Litmus paper (ball)...

Ammonia........-

RO EC eet nx serete a ay std |

Acid..... ee

QUESTIONS
1. What effect have the moist fingers upon litmus paper?

bo

in the soil are acted upon by hydrochloric acid.

brown color?

Write the reaction which occurs when carbonate of lime or other bases

3. Why does the washing of an acid soil in the presence of ammonia have a

4. Why is it necessary to test the subsoil as well as the surface soil?

(80) EXERCISE 31

EXAMINATION OF CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS

Fill a column as nearly as possible for each sample of fertilizer examined.

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 | Sample 4

entilizeree eee el

SOUNCCH EE anrar re
|

Amount of: Nitcogen.

Phosphoric acid... .

Potasheeee.

Lime .
Colort=.

Simellpe vin seas

Taste. .

Crystal, powder. ete.

Deliquescent ........

Keep well

Availability:
Immediately . .....|

@Mnickly: a. 6 en |

Sfowlyioween shen |

Very slowly.........

Gost periton nee

Value per Ib. of:
INiitrO Gem esos, pene tan:

Phosphoric acid... . . |

Otash es ae eer |

Remanksse. ae see eee |

—

a as

EXERCISE 31 (ContTInvEp) (81)

QUESTIONS

How would you distinguish nitrate of soda from muriate of potash?

How does rock phosphate differ from acid phosphate?

Is the phosphoric acid in dissolved bones more available than in acid
phosphate?

How does dried blood differ from tankage?

What is the use of peat or muck in mixed fertilizers and what is its fertility
value?

Is lime a good material to use with mixed fertilizer and why?

(82)

EXERCISE 32

G0; © 0: 0! (8 ey @ (Op Lelie) @\ \¢, ce 9: (0% 9) Ore ete, le) 10.

Stupy OF PLOWING

‘The art of agriculture will never rise higher than the man who manages the land.”

Plowing is the oldest, the most fundamental and far-reaching operation in

soil management.

In perhaps no other farm operation is the character

and skill of a man reflected so strongly as in the furrow which he turns
with his plow. The freshly turned earth, as well as his horses and plow,

are all silent witnesses (Fig. 18).

Se

Fic. 18.—Preparing himself for a soil-plowing contest.

SCORE CARD FOR PLOWING

Pertect

Score |
Giqneeninnd es ne 20 Oe a ee
WhinesOl LUETOWeaee oe etc tee 15 is uae | by
Proper inversion of furrow slice re 7 - i | | a
Soil properly pulverized. ...... 5 me Pei a
Furrow of uniform width...... ..10 | ey hee a.
Furrow of uniform depth...... Is Be Fr i. el
HUnaSHuCOVercd eeer ee wine center: Hepa) = ie Palin
Hndstandcormerserr sec ee eS ae fs |
Handlingteam\: eee 5 ae me es ee ae

i 100 a aot eh ee

Totale 23a ee ee

EXERCISE 32 (ContTInveD) (83)

THE PLOW AS ADAPTED TO PURPOSES

1. Shape of mold board (Figs. 19, 20 and 21)............ 10
2. Selection and adjustment of coulter and jointer........ 15
3 Condition of wearing surfaces and cutting edges..:..2.... 20
4. Adjustment and hitch of plow.............---+++-- pals
15h NNCGTICLS fegey Ooch te CUR ec oe Bee 5
( TDYEDVAF Soo u.d.otee Sy 0 a Sie Cece od age atone etic ir nen eee 5
The Native Power
7, Size and ability of team to do work...............+--- 5
fei: SPBLSWAVEES) omen ed) coded che gun Domi Uec oar 6 on acc One ee acre 5
Condition of Soil for Plowing

9. Soil in proper moisture condition.........---.+.+.+5+- 10
10. Proper depth and width of furrow. .........--+-+++5+- 10
ANGRY weteavs te ol oGlde oh 5 Chat ly eee Cee aceon 100

Texture and condition of soil..........--2 sess ee ee ee nee
WATE VOTAUITTO,. Wit -feteepnetore) «a MP PAE GM. Sacksaaiw ss ais aderhiecere
VOMLAL GC wee eases st eee ener! 2h5,5,8 Mbeya

Fra. 19 —Sod plow which does not pulverize the soil very much. Moldboard long and gently curved

(34) IXERCISE 32 (ContrnveEp)

Fig. 21.—General purpose plow.

ate

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EXERCISE 33 (85)

EXAMINATION AN) DISCUSSION OF TILLAGE MACHINERY

Side hill or reversible
Landside (walking)

PIOWS rece ae Soe tu { Sulky (one way)
Sulky (two way)
Disk
Full disk Spring tooth
IEVATROWSeaterets sae Cutaway Spike tooth
Spading Acme
Meeker
{ Riding
ce 5 Coulter (common)
Cultivatorsiesc 2. 4 Sriketooeh
| Spring tooth
Serre ate ye { Solid Roller Packer and mulcher
Soil Firmers. ..... \ Corrugated roller Planker

QUESTIONS

Make a drawing of a section of each one of these harrows.

When should fall plowed land be harrowed?

When should spring plowed land be harrowed?

If a man could have but one harrow what one should he choose?

Under what conditions would each cne of the disk harrows give the most
satisfactory results?

If a soil on a certain farm is somewhat uniformly a medium loam what
two harrows would be the most economical to purchase?

Describe the work of the Acme harrow.

What type of work leaves the soil the lightest and loosest and which one
compacts it the most?

Which harrow works the soil the deepest?

Which harrow is adapted to the interculture of crops?

Why should harrows be as wide as possible?

What are the advantages of the corrugated roller?

What are the advantages of rolling and when should it be done?

What type of cultivator is the most popular and why?

Make a drawing of the different types of coulters and jointers.used on
plows. State clearly the use and value of each.

What are the advantages of the planker?

Ce
7 4 7 : 7 :
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