-

HMING FOR PROFIT

SOILS
AND SOIL

ANAGEMENT

K D. GARDNER

1 — Residence. 2 — Poultry-house. 3 — Milk-house. 4 — Silo. 5 — Dairy-barn.
6 — Horse-barn. 7 — Storage for crops. 8 — Farm machinery. 9 — Shop and garage.
10 — Corn crib. Orchard on left, garden to right.

FARMING FOR PROFIT

SOILS AND
SOIL CULTIVATION

A NON-TECHNICAL MANUAL ON THE
MANAGEMENT OF SOIL FOR THE PRODUC-
TION AND MAINTENANCE OF FERTILITY

BY

FRANK D. GARDNER

PROFESSOR OF AGRONOMY, PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE
AND EXPERIMENT STATION

ASSISTED BY

R. U. BLASINGAME

Professor of Agricultural Engineering
Alabama Polytechnic Institute

THE JOHN C. WINSTON COMPANY

PHILADELPHIA CHICAGO

-AG, JCULTURE DEI

Copyright, 19 18, by
THE JOHN C. WINSTON COMPANY

Copyright, 1916, by
L. T. MYERS

PREFACE

This book is written for amateur as well as professional farmers and
will also be of interest to students of agriculture and prospective farmers.
It makes a popular appeal to all men engaged in farming and is designed
to be a handy reference work on soils, their classification and treatment
and the proper adaptation of crops with a view to preserving and increasing
the fertility of the soil and producing the largest and best yield in point of
quality.

Ages of farm experience and a few generations of agricultural research
have given us a vast store of practical knowledge on tilling the soil and
raising crops. This knowledge is scattered through many different volumes
on different phases of the subject, in experiment station bulletins, agricul-
tural journals and encyclopedias. The important facts on which the most
successful farming is based are here brought together in orderly and
readable form. Not only are directions given for the management of the
soil but the best types of farm buildings and equipment are fully described
and illustrated, including farm machinery of the latest type, farm sanita-
tion, drainage and irrigation.

The subject-matter is arranged in two parts of a number of chapters
each, and by referring to the Table of Contents any subject may be
quickly found. References are freely given at the close of each chapter.
Each chapter has been prepared by a specialist in the subject presented.
The name of the author appears at the beginning of each chapter. Those
unacknowledged have been prepared by myself.

The illustrations have been secured from many sources. Due credit
has been given these.

Special acknowledgment is due the publishers of this volume and the
other volumes in the series for their conception, and for many helpful
suggestions in the presentation of its subject-matter.

Acknowledgment is also due Professor E. L. Worthen and Professor
R. S. Smith, both of The Pennsylvania State College, for helpful suggestions
and criticisms on soils and crop rotations. I wish also to especially acknowl-
edge the valuable editorial assistance of my wife in the preparation of the
manuscript.

41 ' FRANK D. GARDNER.

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CONTENTS

PART I. SOILS AND SOIL MANAGEMENT

Chapter 1. SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND CROP^ADAPTATION 15

Soils are permanent — What farmers should know — The" science of the soil — How
soils are formed — Weathering and disintegration — Decomposition — What is the
soil — The soil solids — The soil fluid — Gases of the soil — Soil classification-^-Soil
surveys— -Soils of the United States — Classification by texture-yCrop adaptation —
Summary of soil adaptedness — Eastern soils not worn out-^-Soil adaptation of six-
teen crops common to Northeastern States — Soil adaptation of the leading crops
of the North Central Region, South Central and South Atlantic Coast Region,
Plains and Mountain Region, Pacific Coast Region — Aids to the solution of soil
problems.

Chapter 2. PHYSICAL,"CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES 33

Texture of soil — Water-holding capacity of soils — Water movement in soil — Absorp-
tion of fertilizers — Plasticity and ease of cultivation — Texture affects crop adapta-
tion— Texture affects tillage — Structure of the soil — Granular structure—Granula-
tion improved by organic matter — Good tilth important — Solubility of soil
minerals — Rate of solubility depends on texture and kind of minerals— ^Soil bacteria
increase solubility — Rapid solubility results in loss of fertility — Chemical composi-
tion of soils — Availability important — Elements essential to plants — Soil bacteria-
Bacteria make plant food available — Nitrogen increased by bacteria — Bacteria
abundant near surface.

Chapter 3. FERTILITY AND HOW TO: MAINTAIN 44

Fertility defined — Vegetation an index to fertility — Drainage reflected in character
of vegetation — Lime content and acidity related to plants — Vegetation and alkali —
Color of soil related to fertility — Maintenance of fertility — Fertility lost by plant
removal — Loss by erosion — Preventing soil erosion — Farming systems that main-
tain fertility — Deep plowing advisable — Tillage is manure — Rotations are helpful —
Rotations reduce diseases — Cover crops prevent loss of fertility — Legumes increase
soil nitrogen — Drainage increases fertility — Manure is the best fertilizer — Commer-
cial fertilizers add plant food only — The limiting factor — Fertility an economic
problem.

Chapter 4. COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 54

Object and use of commercial fertilizers — What are commercial fertilizers — Where
are fertilizers secured — Carriers of nitrogen — Phosphorus — Potassium — Forms of
fertilizer materials — Relative value of fertilizer ingredients — The composition of
fertilizers — What analyses of fertilizers show — JCommercial vs. agricultural value of
manures — Mechanical condition — High-grade vs. low-grade fertilizers — Use of
fertilizers — Value of crop determines rate of fertilization — Valuable products
justify heavy fertilization — Character of fertilizer related to soil — What the farmer
should know — How to determine needs of soil — Effect modified by soil and crop —
Which is the best fertilizer to use — Needs of different soils — Crop requirements^
Fertilizers for cereals and grasses — Legumes require no nitrogen — Available forms
best for roots — Slow-acting fertilizers suited to orchards and small fruits — Nitrogen
needed for vegetables — Fertilizers for cotton — Miscellaneous fertilizer facts — Effect
of fertilizers on proportion of straw to grain — Principles governing profitable use of
fertilizers — When to apply fertilizers — Methods of application — Purchase of fertili-
zers— Home mixing of fertilizers.

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8 CONTENTS

Chapter 5. BARNYAIyD, STABLE AND GREEN MANURES 76

Mamire'ari important farm asset — As a source of plant food — Physical effect of
manures — Biological effect of manure — The value of manure — Horse manure —
Cattle manure — Hog manure — Sheep manure — Poultry manure — Miscellaneous
farm manures — Value of manure influenced by quality of feed — Amount and char-
acter of bedding affects value of manure — Methods of storing and handling — Losses
of manure — Experimental results — How to prevent loss — Absorbents vs. cisterns —
Sterilization — Reinforcing of manures — Economical use of manure — To what crops
should manure be applied — To what soils should manure be applied — Climate
affects decomposition — Eroded soils most in need of manure — Rate of application —
Methods of applying manure — Top dressing vs. plowing under — The parking
system — Distribution of benefits.

Green Manures.

When is green manuring advisable — Objections to green manuring — Principal
green-manuring crops.

Chapter 6. LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 97

Soils need lime — Lime content of soils — How soils lose lime — Lime requirements
of soils — Crops require lime — Tolerance to acidity — Lime as affecting growth of
plants — Sources of lime — Forms of lime.

Functions of Lime.

Lime as plant food — Chemical action of lime — Physical effect of lime — Lime affects
soil bacteria — Lime corrects soil acidity — Sanitary^ effect of lime — Injurious effect of
lime — Rate of application — Time of applying — Frequency of application — Methods
of applying — Relative values of different forms of lime — Mixing with manure and
fertilizers — Experimental results — Spreading lime — Slaking lime — Crushing vs.
burning lime.

Chapter 7. SOIL WATER, ITS FUNCTIONS AND CONTROL 112

Amount and distribution of rain — Amount of water necessary to produce crops —
Transpiration by plants — Forms of soil water — Capillary water — Gravitational
water — Hygroscopic water — Water affects temperature of soil — Water storage
capacity of soils — Moisture conservation — Removing excess of water.

Land Drainage.

Drainage increases warmth and fertility of soil — Improves health conditions — Open
vs. underground drains — Quality of tile — Cost of tile and excavating — Depth and
frequency of drains — Grades, silt basins and junctions — The outlet — Size of tile.

Chapter 8. GENERAL METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT 124

Objects of tillage — Plowing — Time of plowing — Depth of plowing — Subsoiling —
Disking — Harrowing — Planking or dragging — Rolling — Character of seed-bed —
Cultivation and hoeing — Control of weeds — Soil mulches — Soil erosion — Soil
injury — Time and intensity of tillage are economic factors.

PART H. FARM BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT

Chapter 9. FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES AND GATES 139

The Farm Residence.

Barns.

Bank barns — Dairy barns — Storage capacity — Floor space and arrangement —
Stable floors — Lighting — Ventilation — Conveniences — Silos.

Out Buildings.

The implement house — Corn cribs — Hog houses — Poultry houses — Milk houses
— Ice houses — Roofing — Use of concrete — Lightning rods — Fences and gates.

Chapter 10. FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 161

Advantages of farm machinery — Tillage machinery — Cultivators — Seeding
machines — Corn planters,

CONTENTS 9

Harvesting Machinery.

Mowing machines — Self-rake reaper — Self-binder — Corn harvesters — Threshing
machines — Corn shelters — Silage cutters — Manure spreader — Milking machines
— Spraying machines — Tractors — Farm vehicles — Hand implements — Tools —
Handy conveniences — Machinery for the house — Buying farm machinery — Care
of machinery — Condition of machinery — Utilizing machinery — Cost of farm
machinery — Duty of farm machinery.

Chapter II. ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS FOR THE FARM 189

The Real Power for the Farm.

Gas engine principles — Vertical and horizontal engines — Ignition — Cooling system
— Lubrication — Gas engine parts — Governors — Gas engine troubles.

Transmission of Power.

Shafting — Speed of shafting — The size of pulleys — Kind of pulleys — Straight and
crown faces — Covering steel pulleys — Pulley fasteners.

Belts and Belting.

Advantages of belts — Disadvantages — Essentials of a belt — Leather belts — Rubber
belts — Belt slipping.

Water Motors.

Overshot wheels — Undershot wheels — Breast wheels — Impulse water motors —
Turbine wheels — The hydraulic ram.

The Farm Tractor.
The size of tractors — Tractor efficiency — Type of tractor.

Chapter 12. FARM SANITATION 204

Lighting.

Kerosene lamps — Gasoline lamps — Acetylene gas — Electrical lighting.
Heating — Ventilation — Water supply — Sewage disposal.

Chapter 13. FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION 211

Land Drainage.

Co-operation — Tile drains — Running the levels — Establishing the grades — Small
ditching machines — Size of tile.

Irrigation.

Water rights — Co-operation — Sources of water — Dams and reservoirs — Methods
of transmission — Losses in transmission — Head gates — Preparing land for irriga-
tion— Farm ditches — Distributaries — Distributing the water — The check system —
Duty of water — When to irrigate — Irrigation waters — Alkali troubles.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PLAN FOB A FARMSTEAD (Color Plate) Frontispiece

PAGE

ROCK WEATHERING AND THE PROCESS OF SOIL FORMATION 16

THE SOIL PROVINCES AND SOIL REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES (Color Map) . . 20

THE SOIL SEPARATES AS MADE BY MECHANICAL ANALYSIS 21

INSPECTING AND SAMPLING THE SOIL 22

A SOIL AUGER 32

RATE AND HEIGHT OF CAPILLARY RISE OF WATER IN SOILS OF DIFFERENT TEXTURE 34

THE EASE OF SEED-BED PREPARATION DEPENDS ON CONDITION OF SOIL 37

SOIL FERTILITY BARREL 50

SOIL FERTILITY PLATS 52

EFFECT OF TOP DRESSING MEADOWS WITH COMMERCIAL FERTILIZER 64

EFFECT OF FERTILIZERS ON THE GROWTH OF SWEET CLOVER 65

EFFECT OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZER ON WHEAT ON A POOR SOIL 67

SOIL FERTILITY PLATS 70

MODERN CONVENIENCE FOR CONVEYING MANURE 83

PILES OF MANURE STORED UNDER EAVES OF BARN. 85

SPREADING MANURE FROM WAGON, OLD WAY 88

THE MODERN MANURE SPREADER 92

RYE TURNED UNDER FOR SOIL IMPROVEMENT 95

THE GROWTH OF RED CLOVER ON AN ACID SOIL AS AFFECTED BY LIME 99

BEETS GROWN WITH AND WITHOUT LIME 101

THE OLD WAY OF SPREADING LIME 107

A MODERN LIME SPREADER IN OPERATION 108

A LIME CRUSHING OUTFIT SUITABLE FOR THE FARMER 109

DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM LIMEKILN 110

MAP SHOWING MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL FOR ALL PARTS OF THE UNITED STATES 112

EFFECT OF LITTLE, MEDIUM, AND MUCH WATER ON WHEAT 115

ORCHARD WELL CULTIVATED TO PREVENT EVAPORATION 118

WATER ISSUING FROM AN UNDERGROUND DRAIN 122

A DEEP TILLING DOUBLE-DISK PLOW 125

A BADLY ERODED FIELD 127

DETAILS OF A GOOD SEED BED 130

TERRACING AS A MEANS OF PREVENTING EROSION 132

ANOTHER WAY TO STOP EROSION 133

AN ATTRACTIVE FARM HOUSE 140

PLANS OF A FARM HOUSE 141

A GOOD TYPE OF BARN 142

INTERIOR OF A Cow STABLE 143

ECONOMICAL AND PRACTICAL MANURE SHED 144

PLANS FOR A CIRCULAR BARN 145

CROSS-SECTION SHOWING VENTILATION AND STABLE FLOOR OF CONCRETE 146

ENSILAGE CUTTER AND FILLER 147

A GOOD IMPLEMENT SHED 149

PLAN OF CONCRETE FOUNDATION OF CORN CRIB 150

INTERIOR OF DOUBLE CORN CRIB 151

Two VIEWS OF IOWA GABLE ROOF HOG HOUSE 153

A CONCRETE BLOCK ICE HOUSE 154

How TO CONSTRUCT A CONCRETE WATER TANK 155

A "T" CONNECTION FOR HEAVY WIRE LIGHTNING RODS 156

A GOOD TYPE OF FARM FENCE 159

A GOOD TYPE OF WALKING PLOW 161

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12 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

ONE TYPE OP SULKY PLOW 162

AN ADJUSTABLE SMOOTHING HARROW 163

SPRING TOOTHED HARROW 163

DOUBLE DISK HARROW 164

A CORRUGATED ROLLER 165

A HOME-MADE FLANKER 166

A MUCH USED FORM OF CORN CULTIVATOR 167

A WHEELBARROW SEEDER IN OPERATION 168

THE USUAL TYPE OF GRAIN DRILL WITH SINGLE DISK FURROW OPENERS 169

A GOOD CORN PLANTER 170

CORN HARVESTER WITH BUNDLE ELEVATOR 172

A MOWING MACHINE WITH PEA VINE ATTACHMENT 173

AN UP-TO-DATE THRESHING MACHINE 175

FOUR-HOLE MOUNTED BELT CORN SHELLER WITH RIGHT ANGLE BELT ATTACH-
MENT 176

MILKING MACHINE IN OPERATION 178

A POWER SPRAYER ROUTING ORCHARD PESTS 179

A COLLECTION OF USEFUL HAND IMPLEMENTS 180

INTERIOR OF A WORKSHOP WITH A $25 OUTFIT OF TOOLS 181

HOME-MADE BARREL CART FOR HAULING LIQUID FEED 182

HOME-MADE DUMP CART TO MAKE STABLE WORK EASIER 183

A WASHING MACHINE SAVES MUCH HARD WORK FOR THE HOUSEWIFE 184

WHERE DO You PREFER TO KEEP YOUR IMPLEMENTS? UNDER THE SKY? . . 185

SECTIONAL VIEW OF A FOUR-CYCLE VERTICAL GAS ENGINE 188

SECTIONAL VIEW OF A TWO-CYCLE ENGINE 190

SECTIONAL VIEW OF A FOUR-CYCLE HORIZONTAL GAS ENGINE 191

THREE H. P. GAS ENGINE OPERATING BINDER 193

ENGINE OPERATING PUMP JACK 195

PELTON WATER WHEEL 199

TURBINE WATER WHEEL 199

THREE-PLOW TRACTOR IN OPERATION 200

HACKNEY AUTO-PLOW 201

PLOWING ON A LARGE SCALE (Color Plate) 202

CREEPING GRIP TRACTOR 202

MOR-LITE ELECTRIC PLANT 204

ELECTRIC LIGHTING PLANT FOR FARM HOUSE 205

MODIFIED KING SYSTEM OF VENTILATION 206

A PNEUMATIC WATER TANK 207

FAIRBANKS-MORSE WATER SYSTEM FOR FARMS AND SUBURBAN HOMES 208

THE KAUSTINE CLOSET 209

GRADING THE DITCH AND LAYING TILE 212

A Low PRICED TILE DITCHER 213

THE DITCHER IN OPERATION 214

DELIVERY GATE TO FARM LATERAL 218

THE V-CROWDER is EXCELLENT FOR MAKING THE FARM DITCHES 218

CANVAS DAM TO CHECK WATER 219

ORCHARD IRRIGATION BY FURROW METHOD 220

CELEBY UNDER IRRIGATION, SKINNER SYSTEM 221

PART I
SOILS AND SOIL MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER 1

SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND CROP ADAPTATION

The thin layer of the earth's surface known as the "soil and subsoil"
supports all vegetation and makes it possible for the earth to sustain a
highly developed life. The prosperity and degree of civilization of a
people depend in a large measure on the productivity and utilization of
this thin surface layer of the earth's crust. From it come the food supply
and the materials for clothing and to a considerable extent the materials
for housing of mankind.

Soils are Permanent. — The soil is indestructible, and according to the
great laws of nature, it should be capable of supporting generation after
generation of men each living on a slightly higher plane than the pre-
ceding. This necessitates a system of agriculture that is permanent,
and one that will foster and maintain the productivity of the soil. Each
man who owns and cultivates land owes it to his fellow-men to so cultivate
and fertilize the soil that it will be left to his successor in as good or even
better condition than it was during his occupation. In return, his fellow-
men should make it possible for him to secure a living without resorting
to soil robbery. A faulty system of soil management that permits a
decline in soil productivity will ultimately be just as injurious to the men
indirectly dependent upon the soil as it is to those actually living on the
land.

The soils of the United States and Canada are a great asset, and
one over which man has relatively large control. Intimately associated
with this great asset are two other resources, namely, the atmosphere
that envelops the earth and the sunshine that reaches it. Little can
be done, however, to control these assets, but with the surface of the earth
man can do much as he pleases.

What Farmers Should Know. — Every farmer should have a thorough
knowledge of the soil on his own farm. In this and following chapters,
the soil and its properties as related to the business of farming will be
discussed chiefly from the standpoint of the farmer. The practical farmer
expects cash compensation for the intelligent care he gives to his land.
He should be able to distinguish between the essentials and non-essentials
in the science of the soil. He should know that all soils may be made
productive, but this cannot always be done at a profit. Soils on which
men, by the exercise of intelligence and reasonable industry, cannot
make more than a meager living, should not be cultivated. They should
revert to nature or be devoted to forestry. There is some land that has
been cleared of its virgin growth and come under the plow that should

3 (15)

16

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

never hare been fii,r)rtied.': /Triers are farms, once productive, that have
been robbed of fertility arid neglected until they are no longer fit for
occupation. There are also some types of farming in some localities,
once profitable, that are not paying under the changed economic con-
ditions. These are some of the more acute problems that call for a fuller
knowledge of the soil than we have previously possessed. The following
chapters in Part I will deal with the essentials in a non-technical manner.

ROCK WEATHERING AND THE PROCESS OP SOIL FORMATION.*

It is hoped it may all be profitable reading for any one engaged in the
business of farming.

The Science of the Soil. — In recent years science has been directed
towards the soil in search of new truths. The reasons for methods of
tillage, crop rotations, use of manures, need for lime and many other
things have been explained. Soils are being classified and mapped. Crop
adaptation is being studied. Field experiments with fertilizers and cul-
tural methods are being conducted extensively in every state in the Union.
As a result of all this activity, much progress has been made and we now
have a voluminous literature relating to the soil. The subject is recognized
as vital to successful farming everywhere, because the soil is the founda-
tion of all agriculture.

Courtesy of E. P. Dutton & Co. , New York City. From " The Soil," by Hall.

SOIL CLASSIFICATION 17

How Soils are Formed. — Many agents are active in the formation
of soils. Among these may be mentioned changes in temperature, the
mechanical action of wind and water, the solvent action of water, and
the action of bacteria, fungi and the higher forms of plants.

The manner of formation gives rise to two general classes of soil
known as (1) residual soils and (2) transported soils. Residual soils are
those formed from rocks like those on which they rest, while transported
soils are those carried some distance either by the movement of glaciers,
or by moving water in the form of streams and tides, or by the action of
the wind.

Weathering and Disintegration. — Rocks absorb more or less water.
Low temperatures cause a freezing of the water, which exerts a pressure
approximating one ton per square inch. This ruptures the rocks, and the
process repeated many times every year gradually reduces the portion
subjected to these changes in temperature to fragments. Little by little
rocks are thus reduced to soil. On the immediate surface the change in
temperature between night and day causes expansion and contraction
which also tends to sliver off particles of rock. The movement of soil
particles as the result of wind and rain also tends to wear down the surface
and break off minute particles that contribute to the process of weather-
ing and disintegration.

In addition to this the vegetation which gradually secures a foothold
develops into larger plants, the roots of which penetrate the crevices,
exerting a pressure which still further moves and often ruptures the already
weakened rocks or fragments thereof. In this way, through generations,
the soils are gradually formed and become incorporated with the decom-
posed vegetation that gradually accumulates on and near the surface.
As a further aid to the process of weathering and disintegration we find
numerous worms and insects that burrow into the soil, living on the organic
matter and living plants. These not only move particles of soil from
place to place but carry the organic matter down into the soil.

The rain which falls upon the soil is also a factor in soil formation.
When thoroughly wet the soils expand and when quite dry they contract
and little fissures open in the surface. A succeeding rain washes the fine
surface particles and organic matter into the fissures and causes a gradual
mixture of these two essential parts of the soil solids.

Decomposition. — The processes of weathering and disintegration
result in a change in the physical properties of the soil without necessarily
changing the character of the compounds. Decomposition, on the other
hand, generally results in the formation of new compounds. The proc-
esses of decomposition are technical and we will not undertake to discuss
them.

What is the Soil? — The soil consists of three principal parts, namely,
solids, a liquid and gases. The solids consist of the minerals and the
organic matter mingled with them. The liquid is the soil water in which

18 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

is dissolved small quantities of various soil solids. The gases consist
chiefly of the air intermingled with various quantities of other compounds,
such as carbon dioxide, marsh gas, etc.

The soil and subsoil include all material to the depth to which plant
roots distribute themselves. It, therefore, constitutes a wide range of
material, both in depth and character. It may be deep or shallow, loose
or compact, wet or dry, coarse or fine in texture, having all degrees of
variation in its physical, chemical and biological properties.

The Soil Solids. — The solid part of the soil consists of the minerals
and organic matter. In practically all soils the minerals form ninety-five
per cent or more of the solids. The exception to this would be the peat
and muck soils, which may contain as much as eighty per cent or more
of organic matter. The mineral matter of the soil consists chiefly of the
minute particles or fragments of the mother rock from which the soil has
been derived. In case of residual soils this will correspond in a large
degree to the rock formation generally found beneath the soil and subsoil
at varying depths. In transported soils the mineral particles, having been
transported either by water, glaciers, or wind, may have come from dif-
ferent sources, and will generally show a greater diversity in character.
It is significant, however, that the minerals of all soils contain all the
essential mineral elements for plant growth, although these may vary
widely in their relative proportions.

The minerals of the soil are sparingly soluble in the soil water and the
solubility is influenced by a number of factors that will be discussed in a
subsequent chapter. It is fortunate that this solubility takes place very
slowly, otherwise soils would be dissolved and disappear in the drainage
waters too rapidly, and the waters of the earth would become too saline
to be used by plant and animal life. Loss of the mineral constituents
takes place by leaching. The drainage waters from land always contain
a very small quantity of many of the elements of which the soil is com-
posed. Nitrogen, the most valuable decomposition product of the organic
matter of the soil, is most rapidly leached away in the form of nitrates.
Likewise, lime slowly disappears from the body of the soil. Limestone
soils, formed from the disintegration and decomposition of limestone
rocks, sometimes ninety per cent or more carbonate of lime, generally
contain not more than one-half of one per cent of carbonate of lime. The
rate of leaching corresponds in a large measure to the rainfall of the region.
In regions of sparse rainfall very little leaching takes p'ace, and the soil
solution frequently becomes so concentrated that the soils are known as
alkali soils. Such soils are either bare of vegetation or produce only crops
that are tolerant of alkali. The soils of arid regions are as a rule very
productive when placed under irrigation.

The Soil Fluid. — This consists of water in which is dissolved minute
quantities of the different minerals of the soil together with organic prod-
ucts and gases. The soil solution moves through the soil by virtue of

SOIL CLASSIFICATION 19

gravity and capillarity. The water from rain passes downward by gravity.
The rate of downward movement depends on the size of the little passage-
ways through the soil. In fine-textured, compact soils it is often very
slow. The depth to which it penetrates depends upon the character of
the subsoil or underlying strata. It is frequently intercepted by impervi-
ous layers, and consequently in times of excessive rainfall the soil becomes
saturated and water accumulates on the surface. It then seeks an escape
by passage over the surface and often carries with it portions of the soil,
thus becoming a destructive agent in soil formation. In dry periods the
surface of the soil loses its water through direct evaporation and through
the consumption of water by the plants growing in the soil. This should
be replaced by the water in the subsoil which returns to the surface by
capillarity. The distance through which capillary water will rise is
measured by a few feet. The height of rise is greatest in case of fine-
textured soils, but in this type of soil the rate of movement is slowest.
The rate of movement in sandy soils is much more rapid, but the height
of rise is much less.

Gases of the Soil. — The soil atmosphere consists of air and the gases
resulting from decomposition of the organic solids in the soil. The domi-
nant gas is carbon dioxide, which, dissolved in water, increases the solvent
action of the water and helps to increase the available plant food. The
movement of the gases in the soil is affected by changes in temperature
which cause an expansion and contraction of their volume. It is also
affected by the movements of soil water. As the water table in the soil
is lowered air enters and fills up all spaces not occupied by water. The
movement is also facilitated by changes in barometric pressure and by
the movement of the air over the surface of the soil. Just as a strong wind
blowing over the top of a chimney causes a strong draft in the chimney,
so does such a wind cause a ventilation of the soil and increases the cir-
culation of the air within the soil.

The roots of most economic plants require oxygen and this is secured
in properly drained and well aerated soils from the soil atmosphere. When
soils are filled with water the plant roots have difficulty in getting the
required supply of oxygen and the growth of the plant is retarded. A
proper aeration of the soil is necessary to the development of microscopic
organisms that live in great numbers in the soil and play an important
part in making available the mineral constituents necessary for the higher
forms of plants. It is essential that farmers understand the movement
of water and air in the soil in order that they may do their part in bringing
about that degree of movement that is essential to the highest productivity
of the soil. Drainage, cultivation and the judicious selection of the crops
grown are some of the means of influencing the movement of water and
air in the soil.

Soil Classification. — Science is classified knowledge. In order that
there may be a science of the soil it becomes necessary to classify soils.

20 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Such a classification should meet the needs of an enlightened agriculture.
The first classification of the soils of the United States and Canada to be
put into extensive use was that devised by the Bureau of Soils of the
United States Department of Agriculture, and used extensively in the
soil survey of the United States during the past sixteen years. This
classification is based upon factors that can be recognized in the field, and
has for its ultimate aim the crop adaptation and management of the soil.

Soil Surveys. — "A soil survey exists for the purpose of defining,
mapping, classifying, correlating and describing soils. The results ob-
tained are valuable in many ways and to men of many kinds of occupation
and interests. To the farmer it gives an interpretation of the appearance
and behavior of his soils, and enables him to compare his farm with other
farms of the same and of different soils. The soil survey report shows
him the meaning of the comparison and furnishes a basis for wrorking out
a system of management that will be profitable and at the same time
conserve the fertility of his soil. To the investor, banker, real estate
dealer or railway official it furnishes a basis for the determination of land
values. To the scientific investigator it furnishes a foundation knowledge
of the soil on which can be based plans for its improvement and further
investigation by experiment. To the colonist it furnishes a reliable
description of the soil."

Soils of the United States. — "For the purposes of soil classification
the United States has been divided into thirteen subdivisions, seven of
which, lying east of the Great Plains, are called soil provinces, and six,
including the Great Plains and the country west of them, are known as
regions.

"A soil province is an area having the same general physiographic
expression, in which the soils have been produced by the same forces or
groups of forces and throughout which each rock or soil material yields
to equal forces equal results.

•"A soil region differs from a soil province in being more inclusive.
It embraces an area, the several parts of which may on further study
resolve themselves into soil provinces.

"Soil provinces and soil regions are essentially geographic features."*
The soils in a province are separated into groups. Each group constitutes
a series. A soil series is divided finally into types. The type is deter-
mined by texture. The texture may range from loose sands down to the
heaviest of clays.. All types in a soil region or province that are closely
related in reference to color, drainage, character of subsoil and topog-
raphy and are of a common origin, constitute a group or series of soils.
A soil type is, therefore, the unit in soil classification. "It is limited to a
single class, a single series and a single province.""

Cassification by Texture. — The soil type of a particular series is

* That which is enclosed in quotation marks is quoted from U. S. Bureau of Soils Bulletin No. 96*
" Soils of the United. States."

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

21

based on soil texture and is determined in the laboratory by separating
a sample into seven portions, or grades. Each portion contains soil
particles ranging in diameter between fixed limits. This process consti-
tutes a mechanical analysis. In such an analysis the groups and their
diameters are as follows:

Groups.

Diameter in mm.

Number of Par-
ticles in 1 Gram.

1. Fine gravel

2 000-1 000

252

2. Coarse sand

1 • 000-0 . 500

1,723

3. Medium sand

0 500-0 250

13 500

4. Fine sand

0 250-0 100

132 600

5. Very fine sand

0 100-0 050

1 687 000

6. Silt

0 050-0 005

65 100 000

7. Clay

0 005-0 000

45 500 000 000

Fifteen types of soil are possible within any soil series. The relative
proportions of the several soil separates, given in the table above, de-
termine the type. The twelve most important of these are known as

Per Cent of Gravel, Sand.Silt, and Clay in 20 Grams of Subsoil.

Gravel

1.03

2-1

mm.

Coarse
sand

3.26

Medium
sand

9.92

Fine
sand

22.62

Very fine
sand

45.47

Silt

10.41

Fine
silt

1.36

.01-005
mm.

Clay

2.32

.OOS-.OOOI
mm.

DIAMETER OF THE GRAINS IN MILLIMETERS.

THE SOIL SEPARATES AS MADE BY MECHANICAL ANALYSIS,
SHOWING THE MAKEUP OF A TYPICAL SoiL.1

coarse sand, medium sand, fine sand, coarse sandy loam, medium sandy
loam, fine sandy loam, loam, silt loam, clay loam, sandy clay, silt clay and
clay. They range from light to heavy in the order named, and, except

* Courtesy of Orange Judd Company. From " Soils and Crops," by Hunt and Burkett.

22

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

as influenced by presence of organic matter, their water-holding capacity
varies directly with the increase in fineness of texture, the sand having
the smallest water-holding capacity and the silty clays and clays the largest.

In classifying soils in the field the soil expert determines the type by
the appearance and feel of the soil. He takes numerous samples which
are sent to the laboratory where they are subjected to a mechanical analysis
in order to verify his judgment and field classification.

The accompanying map shows the extent and location of the several
soil provinces and regions in the United States.

Crop Adaptation. — That certain soils under definite climatic conditions
are best adapted to certain plants is obvious to anyone who has studied

INSPECTING AND SAMPLING THE SOIL.

different soils under field conditions. The marked variation in the char-
acter of vegetation is often made use of in defining the boundaries of soil
types and soil series. Adaptation is also manifest in the behavior of
cultivated crops. Among our well-known crops tobacco is the most
susceptible to changes in character of soil, and we find that a specific
type of tobacco can be grown to perfection only on a certain type of soil,
while a very different type of tobacco demands an entirely different type
of soil for its satisfactory growth. The red soils of the Orangeburg series
in Texas will produce an excellent quality of tobacco, whereas the Norfolk
series with gray surface soil and yellow subsoil, occurring in the same
general locality, gives very unsatisfactory results with the same variety of
tobacco. This difference in the tobacco is not due to the texture of the
soil, since soil of the same texture can readily be selected in both of these
series. The most casual observer cannot fail to distinguish the difference
between the Norfolk and Orangeburg soils, as manifested chiefly in their
color.

SOIL CLASSIFICATION 23

The question of crop adaptation, therefore, becomes exceedingly
important, and success with a crop in which quality plays an important
part will be determined to a large extent by whether or not it is produced
on the soil to which it is by nature best adapted.

Variety tests of wheat afford further illustration of crop adaptation.
In Illinois the wheat giving the highest yield on the black prairie soil of
the central and northern part of the state is Turkey Red, but this variety
when grown on the light-colored soil in the southern part of the state
yielded five bushels per acre less than the variety Harvest King. It is
evident, therefore, that if Turkey Red, which was demonstrated to be
the best variety at the experiment station, had been planted over the
wheat-growing region of the southern part of the state, farmers of that
region would have suffered a considerable loss. In Pennsylvania and
North Carolina Turkey Red has been grown in variety tests, and found
to be one of the lowest yielding varieties. For example, the yield in North
Carolina, as an average of four years, was only 8.4 bushels per acre as
compared with 13.5 bushels for Dawson's Golden Chaff. At the Pennsyl-
vania Station the yield for two years was 26.5 bushels per acre for Turkey
Red and 37.5 bushels for Dawson's Golden Chaff.

Similar observations have been made relative to varieties of cotton
and varieties of apples. There is no doubt but that the question of varie-
tal adaptation, with reference to all of the principal crops, is important,
and it should be the business of farmers in their community to ascertain
the varieties of the crops grown which are best adapted to local conditions.

Dr. J. A. Bonsteel, born and reared on a New York farm, and for
fifteen years a soil expert in the U. S. Bureau of Soils, prepared for the
Tribune Farmer in the early part of 1913 a series of articles on "Fitting
Crops to Soils." The following is a portion of his summary and is a
concise statement of the soil adaptation of the fifteen leading crops in the
northeastern part of the United States.

"Summary of Soil Adaptedness. — Summarizing, briefly, the facts
stated in the articles and derived from a large number of field observations
made in all parts of the northeastern portion of the United States, we see :

" First. — Clay soils are best suited to the production of grass. They
are suited to the growing of wheat when well drained and of cabbages
under favorable local conditions of drainage and market. Oats may be
grown, but thrive better upon more friable soils.

" Second. — Clay loam soils are especially well suited to the growing
of grass, wheat, beans and cabbages, the latter two only when well drained.

"Third. — Silt loam soils produce wheat, oats, buckwheat, late
potatoes, corn, onions and celery. The last two crops require special
attention to drainage and moisture supply to be well suited to silt loam
soils.

"Fourth. — Loam soils, which are the most extensively developed of
any group in the Northeastern states, are also suited to the widest range of

24: SUCCESSFUL FARMING

crops. These are wheat, oats, corn, buckwheat, late potatoes, barley, rye,
grass, alfalfa and beans.

" Fifth. — The sandy loam soils are best suited for the growing of
barley, rye, beans, early potatoes, and, under special conditions of loca-
tion near to water level, of onions and celery.

" Sixth. — Sandy soils are best adapted to the early potatoes grown
as market garden or truck crops, and to rye.

"This summary takes into consideration only the texture of the
soil and its adaptations under fair conditions of drainage, organic matter
content and average skill in treatment.

"Yet the articles have called special attention to certain other
features than those of soil texture. Otherwise, the specific naming of the
different loam soils would not have been given.

"The noteworthy lime content of the soils of the Dunkirk, Ontario,
Cazenovia, Dover and Hagerstown loams has been made evident as a
basis for the profitable growing of alfalfa, since the plant is known to be
particularly sensitive to the amount of lime contained in the soil.

"Similarly the production of the late or staple potato crop has been
noted upon soils which are particularly well supplied with organic matter
as in the case of the Caribou loam and the Volusia loam. Other loams
and silt loams produce good crops of potatoes upon individual farms
where there is an unusually good supply of organic matter in the soil,
but not on portions of the other types not so well supplied. Good organic
matter content is rather a general characteristic of a good potato soil and
is found on the types named.

"Beans may be grown upon a large number of different soils if the
farmer is satisfied with average crops. But the best bean crops are secured
from soils which are well supplied both with organic matter and with lime.
Hence, the Clyde loam and clay loam and the soils of the Dunkirk series
are among the best bean soils.

"It is still impossible to state precisely what varieties of the different
crops are best suited to a particular soil, yet I hope to see the time when
there will be special breeding of staple crops to meet the different con-
ditions which prevail upon different soils. Some time there will be strains
of wheat, of corn, of oats, of alfalfa and of other field crops which have
been developed for generations upon a specific type of soil and which
excel all other strains of the crop for that soil. This is inevitable in time,
since the characteristics of plants may be fixed by growing them under
the same conditions of soil and climate for many plant generations.

"There are certain broad generalizations in crop adaptation which
are very generally known, but may profitably be stated again.

"The friable loam is the great soil texture of the temperate, humid
regions, possessing the broadest crop adaptations, and usually the mcst
permanent natural fertility of all soils.

"As any departure is made from the loam texture there is a restriction

SOIL CLASSIFICATION 25

in the number of the different crops which may be grown upon this type,
and frequently in the yields of the common crops, which may be expected,
The crop range in number of kinds best grown usually decreases in both
directions, becoming decidedly limited at a rapid rate in the case of more
sandy soils, and at a less rapid rate in the case of the clay loams and clays.
This expresses moisture control. It has been more difficult to control
moisture in the sandy soils than in the clay loams and clays. Irrigation
is the answer to the difficulty with the sands, and drainage with the
clays.

" Leguminous crops of all descriptions are particularly favored by
a high lime content in both soil and subsoil.

" Soils well supplied with organic matter atone for some other soil
deficiencies in texture and structure.

" Compacted layers of any kinds beneath the surface soil are un-
favorable to crop production. This applies to compacted subsoil, due to
shallow plowing, as well as to actual ' hard-pan/

"Good soil management always increases the range of crops which
may be grown as well as the amounts harvested. Man's ingenuity may
be used profitably to overcome nature's deficiencies.

"Eastern Soils Not Worn Out. — Finally, I wish to state as a result
of years of observation under widely varying circumstances of soil study
and of farming:

"I. That the soils of the Northeastern states are in nowise 'worn out'
or seriously depleted of anything essential to good crop production with
the local exception of organic matter in the surface soil.

"II. That the majority of soils of the Northeastern states are capable
of producing average crops or greater if given fair treatment, especially
when the proper crops for the climate and the soil are selected for plant-
ing and others are discarded.

"III. That soils which have been called 'worn out' have frequently
revived within a period of five years or less of good farming methods,
until their yields equaled or exceeded any production before known upon
that soil.

"IV. That the best methods of crop growing and of soil management
now practiced by the best farmers of the Northeastern states would, if
made general in their application, more than double the total cropping
ability of the improved lands now in use.

"V. That the market facilities of the Northeastern states are now
and will continue to become more and more favorable to the intensive
use of land and to the man who uses each acre for the crop or group of

crops best suited to his soil and climate.

*********

"To the young farmers who are to carry on the great work of redeem-
ing land and of feeding people I have just one more thing to say. Study
the fundamental principles, which are true in Asia or the United States;

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

true today and for the centuries to come; true for all crops and for all
seasons. The details of modifying these principles of agriculture, ex-
perience alone can teach you."

SOIL ADAPTATION OF FIFTEEN CROPS COMMON TO NORTHEASTERN STATES.

CROPS.

SOILS BEST SUITED To.

WAYS OF MODIFYING SOILS
TO FIT CROPS.

FERTILIZERS TO APPLY.

Wheat.

Clay and silt loams containing
considerable lime. Surface soil
friable. Subsoils of same nature,
but heavier and more compacted.

Use manure liberally. Practice
rotation with leguminous crops.
Apply moderate amounts of lime.

Principally phosphatic fertilizers
containing small amounts of nitro-
gen and potash.

Oats.

Wide adaptation. Loams or
heavy loams rather fine in texture
best. Avoid dry sands. Plenty
of humus desirable.

Apply manure to crop preced-
ing. Turn under green manure.
Plow only moderately deep. Seed
early in spring. Prepare land
thoroughly.

Always use some form of phos-
phate, preferably acid phosphate
or basic slag. Use small amounts
of potash, usually muriate.

Rye.

Well-drained, sandy loams give
the longest, brightest straw and
largest crops of grain. Will do
fairly well on lighter and poorer
upland soils.

Smaller amounts of humus ne-
cessary. Will grow on more acid
soils than wheat or oats. Fine
general utility crop.

About same as wheat. Little
lime needed.

Barley.

Well-drained fertile loam. Inter-
mediate between rye and oat soils.
Heavy loams give best yields.
Sandy loams give brighter grain.
Avoid clay on account of lodging
and too light sand because of
drought.

Requires moderate amount of
humus. Avoid too rich soils on
account of lodging. Good drainage
essential.

About same as oats.

Buck-
wheat.

Moderately friable loam, under-
lain by compacted but well-drained
loamy subsoils.

Will do well on rather poor, thin
hill lands, because of power to
loosen pulverized soil. Prepare
land thoroughly, providing organic
matter. Good drainage necessary.

Complete fertilizer.

Potatoes.

Sandy or sandy loam preferably
for early crop. Silt loam or loam
best for late. Avoid clay and clay
loams.

Thorough drainage essential.
Abundant organic matter needed.
Grow in rotation and turn under
green manures.

Apply large amounts of f ertilizer
high in potash. Small amounts
of nitrogen for late crops. More
on sandy soils. Avoid liming im-
mediately ahead of potatoes.

Corn.

Loam or silt loam, with heavier
subsoil at least ten inches below
surface. Where seasons are short,
sandy or gravelly loams give larger
yields, because of earlier maturity.

Well-drained, moisture-holding
lands. Turn under good grass sod
or preferably clover sod. Apply
barnyard manure to previous crop
if possible.

Use 200 to 500 Ibs. of fertilizer
containing 3 to 4 per cent of nitro-
gen, 8 to 12 per cent phosphoric
acid, 3 to 4 per cent potash.

Clover
and
Timothy
Hay.

Loam or clay loam best. Heavy
soils retain moisture best. Avoid
too compacted clays or hardpans.
Timothy: Loam or well-drained
clay loam or clay.

Use stable manure on preceding
crop. Apply lime in mcst cases.
See that both surface and subsoil
are well drained. Prepare land
very thoroughly for seeding.

Stable manure best fertilizer;
100 to 300 Ibs. an acre of complete
fertilizer. High in nitrogen (8 to
10 per cent). Gives good results.

Alfalfa.

Very fertile, well-drained, alka-
line soils. Strong loams contain-
ing limestone best. Avoid shallow
soils and hardpans near surface.

Drain soil thoroughly. Stand-
ing water fatal to alfalfa. Apply
lime liberally. Inoculate soil.

Top dress with stable manure or
with 300 to 400 Ibs. of acid phos-
phate or 400 to 600 Ibs. basic slag,
or 200 Ibs. or more of steamed bone
meal an acre.

Beans.

Wide range of soils. Best re-
sults on types not more coarse
grained than sandy loam or more
compacted than clay loam. Lime-
bearing soils best.

Must be well drained and well
supplied with organic matter. If
soils do not contain limestone give
moderate application of lime.

Fertilize with 200 to 300 Ibs. an
acre of mixture containing 2 per
cent nitrogen, 8 to 12 per cent
phosphoric acid, 4 to 6 per cent
potash. Use stable manure.

Apples. Fairly deep, well-drained loams
and clay and silt loams with fair
i proportion of sand in surface soil.
! A heavy subsoil retentive of mois-
j ture, but not impervious to water.

I

See that soils are thoroughly
drained. Apply moderate amounts
of manure. Plow under legumin-
ous cover crop. In general civo
thorough cultivation in early part
of the season.

Depends on soils and variety.
On heavier soils none may be needed
except stable manure, which is al-
ways best. Experiment with com-
mercial fertilizers.

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

SOIL ADAPTATION OF FIFTEEN CROPS COMMON TO NORTHEASTERN STATES (Continued).

CROPS.

SOILS BEST SUITED To.

WATS OF MODIFYING SOILS
TO FIT CROPS.

FERTILIZERS TO APPLY

Cabbage.

Heavy loam or silt loam, with
retentive subsoils. Muck soils
generally well suited if not too
loose.

See that soil is well supplied
with organic matter. Apply lime
liberally to surface of soil. Grow
crop in rotation.

Apply complete fertilizer, high in
potash and moderately high in
nitrogen, in liberal amounts.

Celery.

Muck soils best adapted. Silty
river flood plains and silty or fine
silty uplands, high in organic mat-
ter, will do.

Soil must be moist, but well
drained and well supplied with or-
ganic matter. Lime and salt both
affect celery favorably.

Fertilize heavily with stable man-
ure where possible. Large amounts
of commercial fertilizer, rich in
nitrogen, can be applied profitably.

Onioas.

Sandy loam just above water
level, protected from overflow and
well supplied with moisture.
Strong, well-drained muck land
tilled two or three years.

Must be well drained. Large
amounts of organic matter neces-
sary. Lime gives good results.
Crop rotation or alternation desir-
able.

Stable manure and high grade
commercial fertilizers must be abun-
dantly supplied for continued large
yields.

Tobacco.

Many grades of soil from light
silt to heavy loams suitable, de-
pending on grade of leaf desired.

Must be well drained. High in
organic matter. Very thoroughly
prepared soil and constant cultiva-
tion necessary.

Depends on kind of soil and type
of leaf being grown. Usually re-
quires large amounts of potash de-
rived from sulphate. Liming
usually thickens leaf and makes
it harsh.

Following the plan of Dr. Bonsteel, the author has gone carefully
through the soil literature of the United States and summarized the crop
adaptations, the means of modifying soils and the fertilizers to apply
to them. This is given for the leading crops by regions as follows: (1)
The North Central region, covered mostly by the Glacial and Glacial
lake soils lying between Pennsylvania and the Dakotas, and north of the
Ohio and Missouri Rivers; (2) the South Central and South Atlantic
Coast region, comprising Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia,
Kentucky and the Cotton Belt; (3) the Plains and Mountain region west
of the 97th meridian of longitude; and (4) the Pacific Coast region, in-
cluding the three coast states and most of Nevada.

The following is a summary of the leading crops adapted to soils of
the North Central region:

Sand. — Good for very early truck and small iruits; fair for sugar
beets and poor for small grains. May be kept in grass to prevent drifting.

Sandy Loam. — Good for tobacco, truck, apples, beans, root crops,
fruit, and fair for hay, small grains and corn.

Loam. — Good for general crops, truck and fruit.

Silt Loam. — Finest corn soil ; good for small grains, hay, fruit, tobacco
and heavy truck, such as cabbage.

Clay Loam. — Best wheat soil; good for corn, oats, rye, barley, grass,
clover, alfalfa and fruit.

Clay. — Good for hay, small grains, export tobacco, some fruit and
small fruit. (For continuation see next page.)

The following is a summary of the leading crops adapted to soils of
the South Central and South Atlantic Coast region:

Sand. — -Adapted to earliest vegetables, some fruits and some varieties
of grapes. Small grains may be grown, but do better on heavier soils.

28

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

SOIL ADAPTATION OF THE LEADING CROPS OF THE NORTH CENTRAL REGION.

CROPS.

SOILS BEST SUITED To.

WATS OF MODIFYING SOILS
TO FIT CROPS.

FERTILIZERS TO APPLY.

Corn.

Loam or silt loam. Deep soil
with heavy subsoil. For short
season, sandy loam.

Well -drained moisture -holding
lands. Turn under good grass or
clover sod. Apply barnyard man-
ure.

Phosphoric acid and legumes.
Use lime on sour soils.

Wheat.

Clay or silt loam. Deep soil
well supplied with humus. Sub-
soil, heavier clay.

Rotate with legumes and hoed
crops. Add organic matter as
manure or green manure when
available.

Small to moderate amounts of
fertilizers high in phosphoric acid,
and with small amounts of nitrogen
and potash. For western portion,
phosphoric acid only.

Oats.

Any soil but light sand. Loam
or silt loam best. Good supply
of humus desirable.

Should follow hoed crops, usu-
ally corn. Prepare seed bed by
.disking, seed early, drilling prefer-
able.

Manure or fertilizer should be
applied to preceding crop. On
poor soils, small amounts of phos-
phorus and nitrogen may be used.

Rye.

Sandy loam or loam; must be
well drained.

Good crop for poor land; will
stand considerable acid.

About same as wheat. Does not
need much lime.

Barley.

Loam to clay loam. Clay causes
lodging. Heavy soils give larger
yields; light soils brighter straw.

Moderate amounts of humus.
Must be well drained. Too rich
soils will cause lodging.

About same as oats.

Buck-
waeat.

Loam with well-drained loamy
subsoil.

Good pulverizer, hence will do
well on rather poor soil. Good
drainage essential. Add organic
matter.

A minor crop, seldom fertilized.
Small amounts of complete fer-
tilizer advised for poor soils.

Potatoes.

Sandy loam or loam; avoid
heavy soils.

Fall plow; use winter cover crop
and turn under. Grow in rota-
tion. Thorough drainage needed.

Do not lime immediately before
potatoes. Apply fertilizer high in
potassium.

Hay,
Clover,
Timothy.

Wide variety of soils. Loam to
clay loam best.

Drain land, top dress with man-
ure; small applications spread
uniformly.

Top dress beginning of second
year with small amounts of com-
plete fertilizer high in nitrogen.

Alfalfa.

Rather heavy soil but must be
deep and well drained.

Plow deep and inoculate soil.

Use good supply mineral fertilizer
and lime.

Beans.

Sandy loam and clay loam best.

Apply manure and drain.

Moderate amounts complete fer-
tilizer high in phosphoric acid and
potash. Apply lime.

Apples.

Loamy soil best; must be quite
deep and well drained. Avoid
poor air drainage.

Sow to cover crop, preferably
to legume in fall; plow under in
spring and cultivate clean during
early summer.

Depends on soil. On good soils,
none needed for several years. Ex-
periment.

Heavy
Truck-
Cabbage,
Celery, etc.

Heavy loams or muck soils, high
in organic matter.

Use plenty of stable manure.

Complete fertilizer high in nitro-
gen. Also lime.

Other
Truck-
Lettuce,
Radishes,
etc.

Light soils, sandy for very early
markets; sandy loam and loam
for later crops.

Must be prepared to irrigate
sand. Apply lots of manure.
Rotation desirable.

High grade complete fertilizer.
High nitrogen content for leaf
crops, as lettuce.

Tobacco.

For "bright" cigarette tobacco,
sand; for wrapper, sandy loam;
for filler and export grade, heavier
soils.

Prepare soil thoroughly and cul-
tivate frequently. Must have high
organic content and be well drained
for best results.

Avoid lime, as it thickens leaf.
Kind of fertilizer depends on the
soil. Usually large amounts of
potassium sulphate.

Plums,
Cherries,
Small
Fruits.

Sand and sandy loam. Provide
for good air drainage in order to
avoid danger from frost.

Use leguminous cover crops for
winter. Clean cultivation in sum-
mer.

Varies with soil and location.
Experiment.

Sandy Loam. — " Bright" tobacco, mid-season truck, peanuts, forage
crops and cotton and small grains to some extent.

Loam. — Cotton, tobacco, main crop truck, corn, small grains, sugar

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

29

caixe, fruit and small fruit, legumes for hay or cover crops, rice and nursery
stock.

Silt Loam. — Cotton, tobacco, truck for canning, corn, small grains,
hay and pasturage, tree and small fruits.

Clay Loam. — Cotton, export tobacco, corn, small grains, very good
for grazing, fruit, rice, flax, hemp, etc.

Clay. — Rice, sugar cane, export tobacco, forage crops, hay and fruit.

SOIL ADAPTATION OF THE LEADING CROPS OF THE SOUTH CENTRAL AND SOUTH ATLANTIC

COAST REGION.

CROPS.

SOILS BEST SUITED To.

WATS OF MODIFYING SOILS
TO FIT CROPS.

FERTILIZERS TO APPLY.

Cotton.

Loam or silt loam.

Fall plow, cultivate frequently,
rotate with legumes.

Add manure and other forms of
organic matter. Complete fertilizer.

Corn.

Any soil but very light sand and
heavy clay. Best on loam.

Plow deep and rotate.

Complete fertilizer high in phos-
phoric acid. Also plenty of organic
matter. Add lime.

Tobacco.

Varies with kind of tobacco
grown. (See North Central Re-
gion.)

Frequent, careful cultivation and
cover crop in winter to prevent
erosion. Rotate with legume.

Do not lime light tobacco. Avoid
muriate of potash in fertilizer.

Sugar
Cane.

Loam to clay; best on clay
loam. Soil must be rich.

Drain when needed; add or-
ganic matter.

Heavy complete fertilizer.

Truck.

Sand for extra early, loam for
main crop.

Must be well drained and have
abundant supply of humus.

High grade complete fertilizer.

Rice.

Clay or clay loam; heavy sub-
soil essential.

Must be able to flood at proper
time and drain at proper time.

Plow deep and add lime.

Peaches,
Plums,
Cherries,
Small
Fruits.

Sand or sandy loam.

Use cover crops to prevent
washing, legumes best.

Varies with location, climate and
crop. Experiment.

Forage
Crops-
Millet,
Sorghum,
etc.

Clay loam or clay.

Plow deep, use winter cover
crop.

'Complete fertilizer and manure,
or green manure.

Grapes.

Varies with variety from sand
to clay.

Add organic matter.

Varies with soil. Experiment.

Peanuts.

Annual
Legumes,
Cowpeas,
Soy Beans,
etc.

Sandy loam.

Organic matter and fall plowing.

Mineral fertilizers.

Sandy loam to clays.

Plow deep, give good cultiva-
tion. Good for interplanting with
cotton or corn.

Mineral fertilizers and lime.

Plains and Mountain Region. — Most of this region is semi-arid to
arid and used largely as pasture, but where transportation and water are
available, very good crops may be grown by the aid of irrigation. The
following is a summary of the leading crops adapted to soils of the Plains
and Mountain region:

Sand. — Is the predominating soil and care must be taken to prevent
its drifting. It gives fair crops of truck, fruit, cotton, Kaffir, sorghum,
wheat, oats and hay.

30

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Sandy Loam. — Does not drift quite so badly. On it may be grown
truck, fruit, cotton, Kaffir, sorghum, milo, sugar beets, wheat and alfalfa.
It also gives good pasturage.

Loam. — Is about the most productive soil. It is good for broom-
corn, sorghum, milo, truck, sugar beets and, hi the South, cotton. In the
Central States small grams and forage crops; and in the North, wheat,
oats, flax and millet.

Silt Loam. — Is not quite so good as loam, but is used for about the
same crops.

Clay Loam. — Is very hard to handle and not very productive. It is
used for general crops and special local crops.

Clay. — Very hard to manage to prevent puddling. It is used to some
extent for general crops, but chiefly for grazing.

SOIL ADAPTATION OF THE LEADING CROPS OF THE PLAINS AND MOUNTAIN

REGION.

CROP%.

SOILS BEST SUITED To.

WATS OP MODIFYING SOILS
TO FIT CROPS.

FERTILIZERS TO APPLY.

Cotton.

Loam.

Irrigate.

Manure and complete fertilizer.

Corn,

Loam to clay loam.

Plant with lister. Manure,
cultivate frequently.

Fertilizer seldom used.

Small
Grains.

Silt loam.

Add organic matter.

Fertilizer seldom used.

Hay and

Pasturage

Most any soil with enough
water.

Do not pasture too closely or
when wet.

Sugar
Beets.

Sandy loam and loam.

Irrigate, plow deeply and give
clean cultivation.

Complete fertilizer.

Forage
Crops-
Kaffir,
Sorghum,
Millet.

Loam best, but will grow in wide
range of soils.

Plow deeply, give thorough cul-
tivation. Do not plant too early.

Alfalfa.

Sandy loam to clay.

Plow deeply; irrigate. Seed and]
light crops of hay produced with-
out irrigation.

Pacific Coast Region. — This region is in most places almost arid.
With the aid of irrigation it becomes one of the garden spots of the coun-
try. The following is a summary of the leading crops adapted to soils of
the Pacific Coast region:

Sand. — Used for early truck, figs, stone fruits, citrus fruits and some
of the small fruits. It requires large amounts of water and frequent
cultivation to conserve moisture.

Sandy Loam. — Used for most of the fruits grown in this region, also
grapes, small fruits, alfalfa and, to some extent, general crops. This soil
is quite light and requires much the same care as sand.

Loam. — Used for fruit, late truck, small fruit, grapes, hops, hay and
general crops.

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

31

Silt Loam. — Used for fruit (including citrus fruit), small fruit, heavy
truck, English walnuts.

Clay Loam. — Used for fruit, small fruit, truck for canning, and general
crops. This soil is much used in southern California for citrus groves and
lima beans.

Clay. — Grains and hay, some heavy truck and tree fruit.

SOIL ADAPTATION OF THE LEADING CROPS OF THE PACIFIC COAST REGION.

CROPS.

SOILS BEST SUITED To.

WATS OP MODIFYING SOILS
TO FIT CROPS.

FERTILIZERS TO APPLY.

Truck.

Sandy loam for early; silt or
clay loam for late.

Add lots of organic matter.

Depends on crop and soil.

Fruit.

Any soil; loam or silt loam best
for most fruits.

Practice clean cultivation to pre-
vent evaporation. Add organic
matter.

Varies with kind of fruit.

Grapes.

Sandy loam or loam.

Same as for fruit.

Complete fertilizer.

Small
Fruit.

Sandy loam to silt loam.

Same as for fruit.

Experiment.

English
Walnut.

Silt loam.

Cultivate clean in dry season,
but grow cover crop in rainy sea-
son, and plow under.

General
Crops —
Grains,
Hay.

Any of the heavier soils.

Give soil thorough preparation
before planting and cultivate wher-
ever possible.

Complete fertilizer.

Aids to Solution of Soil Problems. — The soil survey conducted by
the Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agriculture, in
co-operation with the various state departments of agriculture or agri-
cultural experiment stations, is now extended into many counties in every
state. Two kinds of surveys have been made: (1) that known as the
reconnoissance soil survey, in which detailed mapping is not undertaken
(it consists chiefly in mapping the soil series) ; and (2) a detailed county
survey showing the location and extent of each soil type. The results
of this work are issued as government reports, accompanied by colored
maps outlining the soils. In these reports the soils are fully described
and their crop adaptations stated. Much other valuable data pertaining
to agricultural conditions, climate and soil requirements are also given.
These reports are available to all farmers living in the districts in which
the surveys are made. They may be secured either through the local
senator or representative, or directly from the National Department of
Agriculture. In some cases the state experiment station or state depart-
ment of agriculture will be able to supply them.

The detailed county surveys will enable any one in such an area to
ascertain the types of soil on his farm. If there is any doubt in this partic-
ular on the part of the farmer, he can submit samples of his soil to his
state experiment station, and by giving the exact location of his farm,
the authorities at the station w;ll be able to advise him not only as to the

32 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

type of his soil, but in a general way can give him facts concerning crop
adaptation and the treatment most likely to bring good results.

Samples of soil should accurately represent the field from which
taken. Samples should be taken to the depth cf plowing in not less than
ten places in the field. These may be put together and thoroughly mixed.
A pound of this mixture sent to the experiment station
by parcel post will meet the requirements. It is frequently
desirable also to send a sample of the subsoil. If there is
no great hurry it will be better to write to the experiment
station first and ask fcr instruction on collecting and send-
ing samples.

The soil auger is most convenient for taking soil
samples. It consists of an ordinary 1 3/2-inch weed auger
having the shank lengthened and the threaded screw and
sharp lips removed. Any blacksmith can do the wrork in a
few minutes. The accompanying figure shows a three-foot
auger with gas pipe handle. For a farmer's use the wooden
handle will serve just as well. If an auger is not availa-
ble, a square-pointed spade will serve very well for taking
samples. Dig a hole to the depth of plowing, having one
perpendicular side, then cut from the perpendicular side a
slice of uniform thickness from top to bottom. This re-
peated in ten or more places in the field will give a sample
representing the soil accurately.

Because of the difficulty on the part of the experiment
station authorities in giving definite advice at long range,
A SOIL AUGER. l SOme of these institutions now employ experts who travel
about the state, inspect farms and consult with farmers rela-
tive to their soil problems as well as other problems of the farm. By
such inspection these men are able to advise more definitely than can be
done by letter.

In the last few years another innovation for the benefit of the farmers
has been introduced, namely, the providing of the county farm adviser,
who is located within a county permanently and who soon becomes familiar
with the agricultural problems of his restricted territory. Through these
sources the farmer can always secure able assistance in the solution not
only of his soil problems, but of all problems that concern his business.

REFERENCES

"Soils: How to Handle and Improve Them." Fletcher.

"Soils." Lyon and Fippin.

"Soils." Burkett.

Pennsylvania Agricultural Expt. Station Bulletin 132. "Soils of Pennsylvania."

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 228. "Farm Crops."

Farmers' Bulletin No. 494, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "Lawn Soils and Lawns.

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Co., N. Y. From " How to Choose a Farm," by Hunt.

CHAPTER 2

PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES

Texture of Soil. — Texture pertains to the size of the mineral particles
that make up the body of the soil. In the laboratory, texture is deter-
mined by a mechanical analysis. This is described in Chapter 1. The
clay portion of a soil will range anywhere from a fraction of one per cent
to as high as fifty per cent of the body of the soil. The particles of clay
are so small that they can be seen only by the use of a high-power micro-
scope. When clay is thoroughly mixed with water the particles will
remain in suspension for several days. It is this clay that is chiefly re-
sponsible for the turbid condition of the streams of water flowing from
the land after heavy rains. Clay, when thoroughly wet and rubbed
between the thumb and finger, has a smooth, greasy feel.

The silt may also range from a very small percentage to sixty per
cent or more of the body of the soil. It forms the group of particles next
larger than clay. It produces practically no perceptibly gritty feel when
wet and rubbed between the thumb and finger. Silt particles will remain
in suspension in water for only a short time, seldom more than one-half
hour.

The various grades of sand consist of particles very much larger than
those of either clay or silt, and can be seen with the naked eye. The per-
centage of sand in soils like that of clay and silt varies between wide
ranges. Sandy soils may contain seventy-five per cent to ninety per cent
of the different grades of sand. All of the sandy soils give a distinctly
gritty feel when the wet soil is rubbed between the thumb and finger.

Water-Holding Capacity of Soils. — The texture of the soil is very
important and determines in a large degree the water-holding capacity
of the soil, the rapidity of movement of water and air in the soil, the
penetration of plant roots, ease of cultivation and, above all, the crop
adaptation of the soil. Texture is determined by the relative amounts of
the particles that fall into the several groups mentioned. The textural
effect is modified by the structure of the soil (discussed later) and its
content of organic matter.

The larger the proportion of fine particles, such as clay and silt, the
greater is the surface area of these particles in a unit volume of soil. In
a well-drained soil all gravitational water passes away and only capillary
water is retained. This capillary water consists of very thin films of water
adhering to the surface of the soil particles and surrounding them in such
a way as to make a continuous film of water in the soil. Through this
continuity of the film, water moves by capillarity from a point where the

(33)

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

films are thickest to a point where they are thinner, tending alwrays to

equality in the thickness of the
film, but gradually becoming thin-
ner as the distance from the
source of water increases.

It is evident, therefore, that
the fine-textured soil wrill hold
much more water than the one
consisting largely of sand. Such a
soil can supply crops wTith more
water than a sandy soil, and such
a soil is adapted to grass, wheat
and other plants having fibrous
roots that do not penetrate to
great depths.

If a glass tumbler is filled
with water and emptied, a thin
26 DATS ^m °^ *^e li^id adheres to the
26 •« surface. This will equal only a
?6 !! fraction of one per cent of the
10 •< weight of the tumbler. If the
tumbler can be pulverized into a
very fine powder and the particles
saturated with water and allowed
to drain, they may hold water to
the extent of ten to fifteen per
cent of the weight of the glass.
This change in the water-holding
power is the result of pulveriza-
tion and especially of the increase
of the exposed surface which is
brought in contact with the liquid.
The finer the degree of pulveri-
zation the larger the percentage
of water the glass particles will
retain. So we find that soils of
very fine texture will scmetimes
hold as much as forty per cent

RATE AND HEIGHT OF CAPILLARY RISE OF of their weight of water while
WATER IN SOILS OF DIFFERENT TEXTURE. l some of the coarse, sandy soils

will not hold more than four or

five per cent of their weight of water. This water-holding capacity of
the soil is also modified by its content of organic matter. Organic matter

» Courtesy of The MacmiUan Company, N. Y. From " Soils," by Hilyard.

PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL 35

will absorb from two to four times its own weight of water. The sponge
best illustrates the capacity of organic matter to absorb and hold water.

Water Movement in Soil. — The movement of water in the soil is
influenced chiefly by soil texture. In soils of coarse texture the water
moves very freely. Drainage is rapid and the soils dry soon after rains
so that tillage operations may soon be resumed. On such soils there is
generally little loss of time during the period when they need tillage.
On very heavy soils, that is, on those consisting chiefly of clay and silt
particles, the movement of water within the body of the soil is exceedingly
slow. Drainage is difficult, and where the land is level and the sub-
stratum is dense, underdrainage is often required in order to make the
soils productive. In sandy soils the rainfall penetrates and descends
rapidly through the soil body. In this kind of soil leaching is rather
rapid. Rain penetrates heavy soils very slowly, and if the rainfall is rapid,
its passing from the surface of the soil causes severe erosion. Further-
more, a large proportion of the rainfall is thus lost and in no way benefits
the growing plants. On the part of the farmer it therefore becomes
essential so to plow and cultivate the fine-textured, heavy soil as to in-
crease its penetrability and facilitate the movement of air and water and
the penetration of roots as much as possible. In case of the very sandy
soil it is often advisable to do just the reverse. Applications of lime,
which tend to cement the particles together, and of organic matter to fill
up the interspaces, and compacting the soil by rolling to reduce the spaces,
are often resorted to. Where land has a high value it may even pay to add
clay to a sandy soil in order to improve its physical properties. On the
other hand, it may sometimes pay to add sand to a very heavy, clay soil.
Such practice, however, is justifiable only in case of land of high value
when used for intensive cropping.

Absorption of Fertilizers. — The absorptive power of the soil is also
proportional to the surface area of the particles within a unit volume.
Soils of fine texture are, therefore, capable of absorbing and holding much
larger amounts of fertilizers than those that are sandy. This is very
important in connection with the application of fertilizers. It is also
true that the soil absorption is much stronger for some substances than it
is for others, and this will often determine the time of application of fertil-
izers. The absorptive power of the soil is less marked for nitrogen, either
as ammonia or nitrates, than it is for either potash or phosphorus. Con-
sequently, nitrogenous fertilizers should be used in quantities just suffi-
cient to meet the needs of the crop, and applied just preceding the time
at which the crop most needs it. In view of this fact, surface applications
of nitrogen are often effective, since the downward movement of the
material in the soil soon brings it into the region of root activity.

Potash and phosphorus are, however, absorbed and held much more
tenaciously by the soil particles, and are not subject to severe loss by
leaching. Liberal applications of potash applied to the surface of the

36 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

soil to which large amounts of water were applied by irrigation were found
to have penetrated to a depth of only about three inches in the course of
as many months. This suggests that such fertilizers should be distributed
in that zone of the soil where root activity is most marked, in order that
the plants may utilize the fertilizer as fully as possible. All of this has a
bearing upon the fertilizer practices which will be discussed in a sub-
sequent chapter.

Plasticity and Ease of Cultivation. — Soils of fine texture are very
plastic when wet, and clay soils in this condition tend to adhere to cul-
tural implements, wheels of vehicles and the feet of animals. Such soils
should not be tilled when they are wet. The movement of the soil par-
ticles upon one another when in this condition causes them to be cloddy
and hard when they dry out. It furthermore gives rise to what is known
as puddling, and prevents the free movement of water and air through
the soil. This is well illustrated by a clay road in the spring when wagcns
pass over it and form ruts while it is in a wet condition. These ruts will
often become filled with water, which escapes only by evaporation, none
of it finding its way through the soil below. The fine-textured soils,
when not well supplied with organic matter, tend to run together and
become very compact and difficult to cultivate. This condition can be
alleviated to a certain extent by avoiding tillage operations when too wet,
and also by the application of organic matter in the form of manure or
green manuring crops. Likewise, this condition is improved by the
application of lime, which causes a flocculation of the soil particles; that
is, causes them to gather into little groups with larger spaces between
these groups.

The sandy soils and those containing a liberal amount of sand are
less affected by rains, are more easy of cultivation and do not call for as
great precautions in their tillage. Such soils when wet do not adhere to
cultural implements and the feet of animals as do the heavy soils, and the
roads made of such soil are often as good or better immediately after rains
than they are when in a dry condition.

Texture Affects Crop Adaptation. — Heavy clay soils and those con-
taining large amounts of silt are generally best adapted to the grasses such
as timothy, blue grass, orchard grass and redtop, and to wheat, rye and
what is commonly known as the heavy truck crops, such as cabbage,
tomatoes and asparagus. The soils known as loam, which are of medium
texture, are better adapted to such crops as corn, oats, barley, buckwheat,
peas, beans, clover and potatoes. The soils of light texture, known as
fine sand and sandy loams, are also well adapted to potatoes, beets and
all tuber and root crops, and are also extensively used for the early truck
crops, such as spinach, lettuce, early potatoes, early peas, etc. Some of
the very lightest sands, such as are found in certain parts of Florida, are
especially adapted to the growing of pineapples. In general, the poma-
ceous fruits, such as apples and pears, will do well on fairly heavy soils,

PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL 37

while the stone fruits, such as peaches, cherries and plums, succeed better
on soils that are lighter in texture and better drained. In fact, peaches
will often succeed admirably on shaly ridges and mountains in the Pied-
mont Plateau.

Texture Affects Tillage. — Soil texture so influences the cost of tillage
that it often determines the crop to be grown. Crops that require a great
deal of tillage and hand work, such as sugar beets, are more economically

grown on soils of light texture, because of the greater ease of weeding and
tillage. Even though these light soils under intensive cultivation may
require considerable expenditure for fertilizers, the additional cost thus
entailed is generally more than offset by the saving in labor.

Structure of the Soil.— The structure of the soil pertains to the
arrangement of the soil particles within the body of the soil in much the
same way that the arrangement of the bricks in a building determines
the style of architecture. In all soils of fine texture it is good soil manage-
ment to strive to obtain a granular structure. This consists of a grouping
of the soil particles into small groups or granules. A good illustration oi

1 Courtesy of Doubleday , Page & Co., Garden City, N. Y. From " Soils," by Fletcher.

38 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

a granular structure is found in what is known as buckshot land. Such
a soil when plowed breaks up into small cubical fragments an eighth of
an inch to a quarter of an inch in size. The granular structure facilitates
the circulation of the air and soil moisture, permits easier penetration by
plant roots and lessens the difficulty of cultivation.

Granular Structure. — The granular structure may be improved by
tillage. Every time the soil is plowed, cultivated, disked or harrowed,
it is pulverized and broken up into particles, each formed of a larger or
smaller number of grains. Granular structure is also improved by good
drainage. When the body of the soil is saturated or completely filled with
water the soil particles move with little resistance and tend to arrange
themselves into a compact mass. This fact is taken advantage of in
filling excavations, and when the soil is returned to the excavation water
is turned into it in order that it may settle compactly, so that when once
filled no depression will occur at the surface. Soils that are thoroughly
underdrained seldom, if ever, become saturated, so that there is no
opportunity for the soil particles to arrange themselves in this ccmpact
mass. Consequently, a soil of this character when once drained gradually
assumes the granular structure through plowing and cultivation, together
with the penetration of the roots of the plants and the work of insects and
worms. This is further facilitated by the thorough drying of the soil in
periods of prolonged drought.

The process of alternate freezing and thawing also has an influence
on structure. As the water in the soil solidifies it expands and causes
an elevation of the soil, making it more porous. As it thaws and the water
again becomes liquid the soil does not fully return to its original position,
and consequently its tilth is improved.

Granulation Improved by Organic Matter. — Granular structure is
also improved by the addition of organic matter to the soil either as barn-
yard manure or the residues of crops turned under. The organic matter
incorporated with the soil occupies spaces that would otherwise be occupied
by soil particles, and upon its gradual decay it leaves small cavities which
separate small groups of soil particles. Plant roots are also influential
in improving the structure of the soil, first, by an actual moving of the
soil particles due to the enlargement of the roots as they grow; and,
second, by the gradual decay of these roots, which leaves minute channels
in the soil through which air and water find free passage. Earthworms
open channels of considerable depth, and also incorporate in the soil the
organic matter upon which they live.

Good Tilth Important. — It is common to speak of the soil as having
a good or poor tilth. A soil in good tilth means that it is in good physical
condition, or that it has a granular structure that makes it the best pos-
sible home for the plants to which it is adapted. The degree of granu-
lation desired will be determined to considerable extent by the character
of crop that is planted. Corn and potatoes, demanding a rather open

PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL 39

soil, call for a loose seed-bed in which granular structure is accentuated.
Wheat, rye, clover and the grasses, on the other hand, demand a rather
compact, fine-grained seed-bed, and, therefore, do not demand an equal
degree of granulation.

Solubility of Soil Minerals. — Plants take their mineral food only
when it is in solution. This necessitates a degree of solubility of the
essential plant food minerals that will meet the maximum needs of the
plants. The solubility of the soil particles depends upon a number of
factors, and is a rather complex process. In pure water the solubility is
very slight, but as the water of the soil becomes impregnated with car-
bonic acid gas, organic compounds and mineral compounds, these all
exert an influence on the degree of solubility of other mineral constituents.
Solubility is also markedly influenced by temperature. This fact is well
recognized by the housewife, who by heating dissolves sugar in water
until it becomes a syrup; so the solubility of the soil minerals is increased
by a rise in soil temperature.

Rate of Solubility Depends on Texture and Kind of Minerals. — The
rate of solubility is approximately in proportion to the surface of the
particles on which the solvent acts. Consequently, we find as a rule
larger amounts of plant food in solution in soils of fine texture than we do
in soils that are coarse in texture. This doubtless accounts for the practice
of the more extensive use of fertilizers on sandy soils. It is also true that
the different minerals have varying degrees of solubility, some being far
more soluble than others. The limestone particles in a soil mass are
much more readily soluble than the quartz, and, consequently, lime
disappears from the soil. Plant roots also have an influence upon solu-
bility by means of certain excreta given off by the roots. Since, therefore,
carbon dioxide, organic compounds and plant roots increase the solu-
bility of the soil particles, it is plain to be seen that the incorporation of
organic manures with the soil and the production of good crops tend
always towards a more productive soil, except in so far as the minerals of
the soil are exhausted through plant removal.

Soil Bacteria Increase Solubility. — The bacteria of the soil are also
instrumental in increasing the solubility of the soil minerals. Since, for
their greatest activity, bacteria require proper sanitary conditions, such
as aeration, a neutral soil medium and organic matter as their food, it
will be seen that fertile soils encourage increased numbers of bacteria,
which in turn make for increased fertility. It is, therefore, essential for
the tiller of the. soil to understand the various factors which enter into
soil productivity, and to perform his part in encouraging the development
of those which are beneficial and discouraging those which may be de-
structive.

Rapid Solubility Results in Loss of Fertility. — The rate of the solution
of soil minerals should not far exceed the needs of the crops grown, lest
there be an unnecessary loss of plant food through leaching and the con-

40 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

sequent hastening of the impoverishment of the soil. Except in very
sandy soils, in the practice of bare fallowing of soils, and in the Southern
states where land is left without cover-crops, there is very little danger,
however, in this regard.

Chemical Composition of Soils. — The soil has long been an intricate
problem for the chemist. Many years of research have been spent in an
endeavor to determine through chemical analysis not only the composition
of the soil but its power to produce crops and its need for fertilizers. The
chemist has little difficulty in determining the absolute amounts of the
essential plant food constituents in the soil, although the process is rather
long, tedious and costly. Unfortunately, such analyses seldom indicate
the relative fertility of different soils, and tell us comparatively little as
to the present fertilizer needs of them. The chemist has also endeavored
to devise methods of analysis that will determine the amounts of avail-
able plant food present in the soil. For this he has used different solvents
of varying concentrations in an endeavor to imitate the plant in its ex-
traction of the elements from the soil. So far, however, such methods
have met with comparatively little success, and we are, therefore, obliged
to conclude that, as a rule, a chemical analysis of the soil is of very little
help to the farmer. This statement admits of certain exceptions. If the
analyst finds that the total potash or phosphorus content of a soil is very
small, it at once indicates that this soil is either immediately in need of
the deficient element or soon will become so. It is also true that, when
the physical conditions of the soil are good, the drainage satisfactory and
unusually large amounts of the essential elements are present, the soils
are, or may easily be made, productive without the addition of plant
food.

The above statements should not be construed to mean that the
chemist should cease to put forth his best efforts in the solution of un-
solved soil problems; but in its present status, it is not worth while for
the farmer to ask for a complete chemical analysis of his soil, or to go to
the expense of having a commercial chemist make such an analysis for
him. Chemical analyses are useful and helpful to the scientist and soil
expert, and are to be encouraged as a help in the advancement of our
knowledge of soils.

Availability Important. — In the majority of cases it is important
that the farmer know how to increase the availability of plant food in
the soil. This question has been partly analyzed in the preceding topic
on solubility of soil minerals. In general, however, the farmer may
increase availability by deep plowing, thorough tillage, the incorporation
of organic matter and soil drainage. The best measure of soil fertility
or available plant food is the growth that plants make upon any particular
soil. Not only is the degree of growth an indication of fertility, but like-
wise the color of the plants, the manner of growth and the proportion of
vegetative parts to seeds or fruits are often indicative of the presence or

PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL 41

absence of particular elements. The first essential to profitable crops is
the production of a healthy and vigorous plant. Added to this is a high
degree of fruitfulness. A deficiency in phosphorus may not prevent a
satisfactory development of the plant, but may seriously curtail the pro-
duction of seed. This is often illustrated in the case of wheat which
makes a rank growth of straw and a comparatively small yield of wheat.
The absence of available nitrogen is often indicated by the yellow color
of the foliage.

The form in which the elements are combined may influence the
quality of the product. This is illustrated in tobacco when the applica-
tion of muriate of potash causes a poor burning quality of the leaf that is
to be used for cigars. Better results with a cigar tobacco are secured
when the potash is applied in the form of sulphate or carbonate. Further-
more, the essential plant food constituents dominate in the development
of certain parts of the plant or in the performance of certain vegetative
functions. For example, potash is believed to be largely instrumental
in the development of starch, and fertilizers for starch-producing plants,
such as potatoes, generally contain a high percentage of potash. It is
believed also that the color of fruits is controlled to a certain extent by
the presence or absence of certain essential elements, such as potash or iron.

Elements Essential to Plants. — The essential elements of plant food
may be grouped as follows: First, those obtained from air and water,
consisting of oxygen, hydrogen and carbon; second, those constituents
that are frequently deficient in soils and are supplied through the use of
commercial fertilizers, namely, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium; the
third group is not likely to be deficient as elements of plant food. These
consist of calcium, magnesium, sulphur and iron. In this group calcium
and magnesium in the carbonate form may become so deficient that soils
become sour, in which case the practice of applying lime is advisable.
The five other elements commonly present and fitting into a fourth group
are silicon, aluminum, sodium, chlorine and manganese.

Soil Bacteria. — Bacteria are microscopic plants. They are composed
chiefly of protoplasm, and differ from higher plants in that they contain
no chlorophyll. Bacteria are generally single-celled, and they are so
small that it would require about one and one-half millions brought to-
gether in a mass in order to be visible to the naked eye. These small
plants are omnipresent. Soils are teeming with millions upon millions of
them. They are present in the air and in the water of the lakes and
rivers, and occur on all vegetation and are present in the foods we eat.
These minute organisms were unknown until the high power microscope
was invented a comparatively short time ago. They play a very important
part in all life processes. More than a thousand species of bacteria have
already been identified and described, and new species are being discovered
every day.

Bacteria Make Plant Food Available. — The bacteria of the soil are

42 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

of great importance in preparing plant food for our ordinary farm, garden
and orchard crops. They are instrumental in making nitrogen available
for higher plants. They also bring about availability of the mineral
constituents of the soil. It is essential for the farmer to understand that
the bacterial flora of the soil is important, and that the multiplication of
these bacteria is generally to be encouraged. It is also well to know
that there are two great classes of bacteria: first, those that thrive best
in the presence of plenty of air, from which they obtain oxygen; and
second, those that thrive best with little air and even in the total absence
of oxygen. These classes are spoken of as aerobic and anaerobic bacteria,
respectively. The first class, or those thriving best with plenty of air,
are made up generally of the beneficial forms, and these dominate in the
more productive soils. They require for their life and rapid multiplica-
tion food in the form of organic matter, although many forms live directly
on the mineral elements of the soil. They need moisture and are dormant
or may die when the soil remains long in a very dry condition. They
must have air and this is facilitated by the tillage of the soil.

Nitrogen Increased by Bacteria. — Soil bacteria have no greater
function in soils than the conversion of organic nitrogen into ammonia,
nitrites, and finally nitrates, thus making the nitrogen available for higher
plants. Nitrogen is the most expensive element that farmers have to
purchase in a commercial form. It costs about twenty cents per pound, or
three times as much as granulated sugar. Nitrogen is present in the air
in great quantities, and it is chiefly through various forms of bacteria
that the higher plants are able to secure the necessary supply. Among
the bacteria instrumental in this process are the numerous species that
are found in the nodules on the roots of the various leguminous crops.
For ages legumes, such as clovers, have been recognized as beneficial to
the soil, as shown by the increased growth of the non-leguminous crops
that follow. Not until the discovery of these bacteria in the nodules on
the roots of legumes (about one-fourth century ago) was it understood
why legumes were beneficial.

The species of bacteria that occur in the nodules on the roots of one
leguminous crop is generally different from that occurring on a different
leguminous crop, although there are a few exceptions to this rule. The
same species of bacteria occur on the roots of both alfalfa and sweet
clover, but a different species is characteristic of red clover, and one species
cannot be successfully substituted for another. It is, therefore, essential
to use the right species when attempting to inoculate soil artificially for
a particular leguminous crop. The different species of bacteria for the
leguminous crops will be discussed under each of those crops in chapters
which follow.

There are also species of bacteria living in the soil, not dependent
directly upon legumes, which have the power of abstracting free nitrogen
from the air and converting it into forms available for general farm crops.

PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL 43

Bacteria Abundant Near Surface. — The soil bacteria are most abun-
dant in the plowed portion of the soil. Their numbers greatly diminish
as the depth increases, and disappear entirely at a depth of a few feet.
It is generally believed that direct sunshine is destructive to practically
all forms of bacteria. Consequently, we find few living bacteria immedi-
ately at the surface of a dry soil. In the practice of inoculating soils,
therefore, it is recommended that the bacteria be distributed on a cloudy
day or in the morning or evening when there is little sunshine, and that
the inoculation be at once thoroughly mixed with the soil, by disking or
harrowing.

Barnyard manures are always teeming with myriads of bacteria, and
the practice of applying such manure adds many bacteria to the soil.
Bacteria are most active during the warmer portions of the year, and most
of them are dormant when the temperature of the soil falls below the
freezing point. Those instrumental in nitrification are very inactive
when the soil is cold and wet and become exceedingly active in mid-sum-
mer when the temperature of the soil is comparatively high, when plant
growth in general is most active and when nitrogen is most needed by
gro wing crops. This is a fortunate coincidence, since it enables the higher
plants to utilize the nitrates made available at that particular season by
bacteria. If nitrification through the bacteria were equally rapid during
periods when farm crops made little growth, a great loss of nitrogen would
occur through leaching of the soil. The freezing of the soil does not destroy
bacteria, as a rule, but simply causes them to be temporarily dormant.

REFERENCE
"The Soil." HaU.

CHAPTER 3

FERTILITY AND How TO MAINTAIN

Fertility Defined. — The fertility of a soil is measured by its capacity
to produce an abundant growth of the crops to which the soil and climate
of the region are adapted. Fertility is not dependent upon a single factor,
but requires the presence and co-ordination of a number of factors acting
in unison. The fertility of the soil is, therefore, dependent, first, upon
the presence of a sufficient supply of the necessary plant-food elements
in an available form; second, upon an adequate water supply to convey
these elements in solution to the roots of the plants; third, upon suf-
ficient warmth to promote plant growth; fourth, upon the presence of
sufficient air to meet the needs of the roots for oxygen. A fertile soil
will, therefore, generally consist of the ordinary soil minerals reduced to
a fine state of subdivision, incorporated with more or less organic matter,
and containing a sufficient supply of air, water and soil bacteria.

Vegetation an Index to Fertility. — The best index to soil fertility is
the growth and condition of plants produced by the soil. On a virgin
soil, either in timbered regions or on the prairies, the species of plants
and their conditions of growth have long been recognized as indications
of the character and value of the soil. In general, such trees as apple,
ash, basswood, black walnut, burr oak, crab-apple, hard maple, hickory
and wild plum, are indicative of good soil. On the other hand, where
beech, chestnut, hemlock, pine or spruce dominates the forest growth, the
soils are likely to be comparatively poor. White oak and beech are fre-
quently found growing together in considerable abundance. If the white
oak predominates the soil may be considered fairly good, but if beech
predominates it may be looked upon with suspicion, and will probably
prove to be a poor soil.

Herbaceous plants in the same manner are a good indication of the
fertility of the soil. For example, in regions where alfalfa, Canada thistle,
bindweed, clover, corn, cockle-burr, Kentucky blue grass, quack grass,
ragweed and wheat grow well, the soils are generally found to be fertile.
On the other hand, the predominance of buckwheat, Canada blue grass,
the daisy, five-finger, oats, paint-brush, potatoes, redtop, rye, sorrel and
wild carrot, indicate soils relatively poor.

In general, legumes indicate a good soil, although in case of the wild
legumes there are some exceptions to this. Soils on which the grasses
predominate are generally better than those given over largely to the
growth of sedges. The sedges in general indicate wet soils. Golden-rod
is a common weed having a wide habitat. It grows on both poor and

(44)

FERTILITY AND HOW TO MAINTAIN 45

good soils. The character of growth of this plant will suggest whether
or not the soil is good or poor. On good soil it will have a rank and
vigorous growth. The same may be true with other plants, but where
nature is allowed to run her course and the law of "the survival of the
fittest" has free sway, those plants naturally best adapted to the region
are the ones which will ultimately predominate.

It should not be understood that any one species of plant should be
relied upon to indicate whether or not a soil is good or poor, but when
one takes into consideration all the vegetation present, one can then judge
quite accurately as to the relative strength or fertility of the soil. .

Drainage Reflected in Character of Vegetation. — The condition of
the soil with reference to drainage is, of course, a modifying factor. Swamp
soils, for example, are adapted only to those plants that can grow in the
presence of an excess of moisture. So long as soils are in a swampy con-
dition they are unsuited to agricultural crops, and in that condition may
be considered unproductive. A good system of artificial drainage may
change the whole aspect and cause them to be transformed into highly
productive farm soils. Indeed, the establishment of a drainage system
under such conditions would ultimately cause the disappearance of the
native vegetation and encourage the encroachment of an entirely dif-
ferent set of plants. Then, again, climate is a modifying factor, and
certain plants are found in regions of continuous warm climate that are
not found where cold winters prevail.

Lime Content and Acidity Related to Plants. — The predominance of
chestnut trees as above indicated suggests a poor soil and one low in lime
content. Chestnut trees are not found on limestone soils, and the lime-
stone soils in general are considered among the most fertile. Such plants
as the huckleberry, blueberry, cranberry and wintergreen are seldom found
on soils well supplied with lime. Redtop, while often indicative of a poor
soil, will grow luxuriantly on a fertile soil. It is also very tolerant of soil
acidity and an excess of moisture. It has a wide adaptation and is often
grown as a hay crop on poor soils.

The presence of an abundance of sorrel, plantain and moss in culti-
vated fields is indicative of the condition of the soil, although it may have
no relation to the soluble plant food present. Such plants generally indi-
cate an acid soil, and call for the application of lime to encourage the
growth of clover. Sorrel, like clover, is generally benefited by lime, but
it is more tolerant of soil acidity than clover, and on an acid soil the clover
disappears and the sorrel takes its place. Red clover is less tolerant of
soil acidity than alsike clover. Many farmers make it a practice to mix
these two species of clover. On neutral soils the red clover will always
dominate and the alsike will scarcely be noticeable. But if the acidity
of the soil approaches the limit for red clover, then the alsike will pre-
dominate, and this predomination is very noticeable when the crop comes
into blossom.

46 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Vegetation and Alkali. — In the irrigation districts of the semi-arid
regions of the United States the character of vegetation often enables
one to determine at a glance whether or not the soils are too alkaline for
the production of staple crops. This fact is taken advantage of and serves
as a great aid to the soil expert in the mapping of alkali soils. The pre-
dominance of sage bushes and rabbit's foot indicates freedom from alkali,
while such plants as greasewood, mutton sass and salt grasses show at
once that the soils are highly impregnated with alkali salts.

Color of Soils Related to Fertility. — Another index to soil fertility is
the color of the soil. It cannot always be explained just why a certain
color is indicative of fertility or otherwise, but there seems to be a com-
paratively consistent relationship between color and degree of fertility.
Nearly all black soils are fertile, while those that are of an ashy hue or
have a yellowish cast are generally poor. The chocolate-colored soils, the
red soils and those of a brown color are, as a rule, fairly fertile. The
farmer, as well as the soil expert, soon learns that color is a good index
relative to soil fertility.

It is wise, however, to look further than merely on the surface of
the soil or the character of the vegetation. Subsoil is also very important
in connection with fertility. There are regions where the surface soil is
black and where the subsoil immediately beneath is of a light-colored, tena-
cious clay, so nearly hardpan that the soils are not productive for any con-
siderable range of general farm crops, although they may be well adapted
to grass.

Maintenance of Fertility. — Soils are permanent. They constitute the
most important asset of the nation. Their maintenance through rational
systems of farming is essential. Nature has made for increased soil fer-
tility, but unfortunately the occupation of the soil by man has often
resulted in soil robbery and a decline in productivity. This serious fault
should be remedied.

Fertility Lost by Plant Removal. — Loss of soil fertility by plant
removal is legitimate. Such loss must ultimately be replaced, either by
the return of the residues of crops thus removed in the form of unused
portions or by-products and the excreta of the animals that consume the
crops, or by the purchase of the different elements in commercial fer-
tilizers. In rational systems of farming the removal of plant food through
the removal of crops is not to be considered undesirable, and such removal
should result in sufficient profits to enable the soil loss to be replaced at a
cost less than the profits received through the crops grown. In the pre-
ceding chapter we found that of the mineral elements potassium and phos-
phorus are the only ones likely to become exhausted to such a degree as
to necessitate replacement. As a matter of fact, potash occurs in large
quantities in most soils, and the problem of the future seems to be largely
the adoption of methods that will bring about its availability. Many
soils, however, contain phosphorus in such small amounts that in a short

FERTILITY AND HOW TO MAINTAIN 47

time the supply will be so nearly exhausted as to necessitate the return of
this element to the soil in some commercial form. In some soils it is
already necessary for most profitable crop production.

Loss by Erosion. — The loss of soil fertility by erosion is more serious
than the loss by plant removal. In this way there is not only a loss of
plant food but a loss of a portion of the soil body itself. The millions of
tons of finest soil particles and organic matter carried annually to the
ocean by the rivers of the United States are a monument to careless soil
management. This waste may be witnessed everywhere. The removal
of the most fertile part of the soil is not only a loss to the soil, but is often
a menace to navigable streams which are filled up with this material. An
enormous expenditure on the part of our national government is necessary
in dredging them out and making them again navigable. This erosion
also becomes a menace to our great city water supplies, necessitating ex-
pensive filter plants to remove the suspended matter and purify the water.
It also frequently does damage to other land subject to overflow, and on
which the deposits may be left.

The great problem, therefore, seems to be the control of the rain that
falls upon the land. A portion of this may pass over the surface, carrying
with it small amounts of the surface, which in the course of time has been
largely exhausted of plant-food elements. This loss should be accom-
panied by a renewal of the soil from below. The addition of new soil
below should keep pace with the removal from the surface if permanent
soil fertility is to be maintained. The remainder of the rainfall should
find its way into the soil. A portion of this may pass off into the drainage
waters, removing certain soluble material that without such drainage
might accumulate in the course of centuries to the detriment of plant
growth. Another portion should return to the surface, bringing with it
the soluble constituents of the soil and leaving them near the surface for
the use of growing plants.

Preventing Soil Erosion. — Water escaping from the soil by means of
underdrainage never carries with it any of the soil material other than
the slight portions that are soluble. It is, therefore, essential to establish
systems of farming that will enable a large proportion of the rainfall to
penetrate the soil; and to remove the excess of water by underdrainage
when nature fails to provide such a system. Erosion may be largely pre-
vented on most farms by deep plowing and by keeping the soil covered
as much as possible with growing crops or their remains. Deep plowing
encourages an increased penetration of the rainfall and, therefore, reduces
the amount passing over the surface of the soil. The presence of growing
plants retards the movement of surface water and holds back the soil
particles. An abundance of roots in the soil helps to hold it together and
prevent erosion. The application of barnyard and green manures
also retards erosion. In some places terracing the soil to prevent
erosion becomes necessary, but it is a costly and cumbersome method

48 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

and not to be recommended where other and cheaper methods can be
used.

Lands that are steep and subject to erosion should be kept covered
with vegetation as fully as possible. Such lands should not be plowed
in the fall and allowed to lie bare through the winter.

Farming Systems that Maintain Fertility. — Systems of farming which
provide for a return of the largest possible proportion of the plant-food
constituents removed in crops are those that most easily maintain the
fertility of the soil. It is, therefore, evident that livestock farming in
general is least exhaustive of soil fertility, provided the excreta of the
animals are carefully saved and returned to the soil. In the rearing of
animals for meat, about ninety per cent of the plant food consumed by
the animals is voided in the liquid and solid excreta. If this is carefully
saved and returned to the soil, depletion of soil fertility will be exceed-
ingly slow.

In dairy farming, where the milk is sold, a somewhat larger propor-
tion of the plant food elements is sold from the farm. Even here the
total amount is relatively small, and may be offset by the plant food in
concentrates purchased for the dairy. If the milk is fed to pigs and
calves and only the butter is sold, the exhaustion in the long run will be
no greater than in meat production. It is, therefore, evident that the
type of farming is closely related to the maintenance of soil fertility, and
those types which permit a maximum sale of cash crops cause the largest
direct removal of plant food from the farm. All types of livestock farm-
ing, therefore, come closest to maintaining permanent fertility.

In new countries it is not an uncommon practice for farmers to dump
the manure from stables into a nearby stream in order to get rid of it.
It is also a common practice to burn stacks of straw and the stubble of
the field in order that the soil may be freed of rubbish and easily plowed
and cultivated. Such practices are to be condemned, for in the long run
they encourage soil depletion. Where land is cheap and fertile and labor
expensive, the immediate returns from applying manure may not justify
the cost of its application, but in a long term of years it will prove profit-
able. A farmer should be far-sighted enough to calculate what the result
will be in the course of a lifetime. There should be more profit in the
removal of fifty crops in as many years where fertility has been main-
tained or increased, and where the crop yields have increased, than there
is in the removal of fifty crops with a constantly decreasing yield. In the
first case the land is left in good condition for the succeeding generation;
in the second case, in bad condition.

Deep Plowing Advisable. — Fertility of the soil is generally improved
by increasing the depth of plowing. It is a common observation that in
regions of good farming where farmers are prosperous, the soil is generally
plowed to a depth of seven to ten inches. In many portions of the South
we find the one-mule plow that barely skims the surface of the soil, and

FERTILITY AND HOW TO MAINTAIN 49

accompanying this we have the unsuccessful farmer. Plowing is an expen-
sive operation. It is estimated that the power required annually to plow
the farm land of the United States exceeds that used in the operation of
all the mills and factories in the country.

There is a limit to the profitable depth of plowing, and numerous
experiments indicate that it is seldom profitable to plow deeper than
eight to ten inches. There doubtless are some exceptions to this found in
case of the production of intensive crops or the occasional deep plowing
for the preparation of a deep-rooted crop like trees or alfalfa. Deep plow-
ing increases fertility by increasing the area of pulverized soil in which
the roots of the plants find pasturage. Such plowing increases the aera-
tion of the soil, encourages the multiplication of bacteria to a greater depth
in the soil, and results in increased availability of plant food. Deep plow-
ing also incorporates the organic matter applied as manure or as the stubble
of the preceding crop in a deeper stratum of soil, thus increasing its water-
holding capacity. Deep plowing also increases the penetration of rainfall
and provides for greater storage of it. This provides a larger water supply
for the growing crops in periods of drought.

Tillage is Manure. — Cultivation of the soil, and especially the inter-
tillage of crops, such as corn, potatoes and truck crops, aids in maintaining
fertility: first, by conserving soil moisture; second, by more thorough
aeration of the soil; third, by a fuller incorporation and distribution of
the organic matter with the mineral matter; and fourth, by the destruc-
tion of weeds which consume plant food and water to the detriment of
the crop grown.

Rotations are Helpful. — Crop rotations also help to maintain fertility.
By means of rotating crops the soil may be occupied for longer periods of
time than when one crop is planted year after year on the same soil. The
roots of different crops, having very different habits, occupy somewhat
different zones in the soil. A shallow-rooted crop may be advantageously
followed by a deep-rooted one. One takes the major portion of its plant
food from near the surface and the other from a somewhat lower stratum.
All crops do not use mineral constituents in the same proportion. One
which demands large amounts of nitrogen may appropriately follow one
which has the power of gathering nitrogen from the air. For example,
corn appropriately follows clover, the corn benefiting by the nitrogen left
in the soil by the roots and stubble of the clover crop.

Rotations Reduce Diseases. — Rotations also make for fertility by
checking the epidemics of plant diseases and the depredations of insects.
As a rule, a plant disease is common only to one crop and where that
one crop is grown year after year on the same soil the disease increases
until finally the crop must be abandoned. Many of the insect pests of crops
either live permanently in the soil or have but little power of migration.
These likewise prey upon certain crops and do not bother others, and the
rotation of crops prevents serious injury by them. While these do not

50

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

add plant food to the soil, their absence increases the growth of crops,
which means the same thing.

Cover-Crops Prevent Loss of Fertility. — Cover- or catch-crops may
be grown greatly to the benefit of the soil. Cover-crops consist of any
suitable plants occupying the soil when the money crop is not in pos-
session. They make growth during the cool season of the year, take up
plant food as it is made available, and hold it in plant form, where it may
be returned to the soil when such a crop is plowed under. In this way

it prevents the loss of
soil fertility by direct
soil leaching and con-
verts mineral plant
food into an organic
form which upon decay
is more readily avail-
able than it previously
was. Such a crop also
adds organic matter to
the soil, increasing its
power for holding water
and being generally
beneficial. Good ex-
amples of cover-crops
are crimson clover or a
mixture of rye and
winter vetch seeded in
corn late in the sum-
mer and occupying the
soil during the winter. Such crops do not at all interfere with the
growth and maturity of the corn. They make most of their growth in the
late fall and early spring and may be plowed under in ample time for plant-
ing a crop the following year. Such crops are adapted especially to the
South, where the winters are mild and freezing of the soil is slight, while
erosion and leaching are marked. This practice is quite common with
truck farmers, as cover-crops may be seeded after the removal of a truck
crop.

Legumes Increase Soil Nitrogen.— Of all the crops instrumental in
increasing soil fertility, none equal the legumes, for these alone have the
power, through the instrumentality of bacteria residing in the nodules
on their roots, to extract free nitrogen from the air. While such crops
are richer in protein than the non-legumes, yet at the same time they leave
in the roots and stubble a large amount of nitrogen which is available
for non-legumes. A crop rotation which does not have at least one
leguminous crop every four or five years is decidedly faulty.

1Coxirtesy of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station.

SOIL FERTILITY BARREL.1
Illustrating the limiting factor in crop production.

FERTILITY AND HOW TO MAINTAIN 51

Drainage Increases Fertility. — Fertility is increased by drainage,
especially underdrainage, which lowers the water table, increases aeration,
and causes plant roots to go deeper in the soil. The amount of plant
food that plants can secure is approximately proportionate to the volume
of the soil to which they have access. Drainage virtually deepens the
soil.

Manure is the Best Fertilizer. — Manures increase fertility by the
direct addition of plant food and by increasing the organic matter of the
soil. Manures increase the water-holding capacity of the soil, improve
its physical condition, introduce various forms of bacteria and encourage
the multiplication of desirable bacteria.

Commercial Fertilizers Add Plant Food Only. — Commercial fertilizers
increase fertility by the direct addition of the plant food elements they
contain, but, as a rule, have very little if any other effect. Commercial
fertilizers are expensive and call for an intimate knowledge of the require-
ments of the soil and the form and availability of the constituents in the
fertilizer. The factors above mentioned in relation to soil fertility will
be more fully discussed under the several chapters pertaining to them,
which follow.

The Limiting Factor. — There is always a limiting factor in crop pro-
duction, and it is the business of the farmer to ascertain his limiting
factor or factors. In many cases the limiting factor in the growth of a
crop will be the supply of water. This may be a deficient supply or it
may be an excess. If water is the limiting factor it may be due to a low
rainfall during the crop season and the low storage capacity of the soil.
The farmer has no control over the rainfall, but he should endeavor to
increase the water storage capacity of his soil by such means as are
economical. Deeper plowing, the addition of organic matter, thorough
tillage to conserve soil moisture or the application of water in the form
of irrigation are all of them means to such an end. If the limiting factor
is due to an excess of water, thus preventing plant growth, the problem
becomes one of land drainage and the removal of the water.

The limiting factor may be a deficiency in phosphorus. This being
the case, it is important that the farmer know the truth in order that he
may supply the deficiency by the application of a phosphatic fertilizer.
When the limiting factor or deficiency has been supplied, something else
may then become a limiting factor. For example, the limestone soils of
Pennsylvania are generally deficient in phosphorus. Such soils, when
cropped with a four-year rotation of corn, oats, wheat and mixed clover
and timothy, will show a steady decline in crop yields if no manures or
fertilizers are applied. Experiments with fertilizers on limestone soil and
for the crops mentioned show that when nitrogen alone is applied it has
no effect. Potash applied alone is likewise ineffective. When phosphorus
is applied there is a marked increase in the yield of crops. Phosphorus,
however, will not fully maintain the fertility of the soil. Its yield will

52 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

decline, but not so rapidly as when nothing is applied. When the need
for phosphorus is met, then potash becomes the limiting factor, and large
applications of potash may be used in connection with phosphorus with
profitable returns. In this way there will always be a limiting factor in
crop production. The farmer should ascertain the limiting factors in
his crop production, and then supply them most economically. He may
find that there are several limiting factors, and that these will vary from

SOIL FERTILITY PLATS, PENNSYLVANIA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

On left, 200 pounds per acre muriate of potash every other year.
In center, dried blood containing 24 pounds nitrogen and dissolved bone-black con-
taining 48 pounds phosphoric acid.

On right, dried blood containing 24 pounds nitrogen, muriate of potash 200 pounds.

time to time; so the problem of soil fertility is a never-ending problem
with which the farmer will always have to contend.

Fertility an Economic Problem. — Soil fertility is a problem of far-
reaching economic importance. The principal items of expense in general
crop production are labor of men and horses, equipment, seeds and land
rental. These cost no more for a productive acre than for one of low
productivity. In fact, the productive soils are generally plowed and
cultivated at less cost of time and energy than those of low productivity.
Every hundredweight of product over that required to meet the cost of
production is profit.

REFERENCES

"Conservation of Natural Resources." Van Hise.
"Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture." Hopkins.
"Soil Management." King.
"First Principles of Soil Fertility." Vivian.

FERTILITY AND HOW TO MAINTAIN 53

"Soils and Soil Fertility." Whitson and Walston.

"The Fertility of the Land." Roberts.

Kentucky Agricultural Expt. Station Bulletin 191 . "Teachings of Kentucky Agricultural

Expt. Station Relative to Soil Fertility."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

342. "Conservation of Soil Resources."

406. "Soil Conservation."

421. "The Control of Blowing Soils."

446. "The Choice of Crops for Alkali Land."

CHAPTER 4

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

A careful study of the condition of farming in the United States shows
that the supply of barnyard and stable manure is not adequate to main-
tain the fertility of the soil. The need for commercial fertilizers is, there-
fore, apparent and real, although the amount required in conjunction
with natural manures may be comparatively small.

It is desirable to use commercial fertilizers on many farms and the
practice is becoming more general each decade. This is but natural,
since there is a constant flow of soil fertility towards the cities. The
rapid increase in the city population and the consequent increase in food
consumption at those points cause a constantly increasing drain upon the
soil fertility of the farms.

Object and Use of Commercial Fertilizers. — The object of manuring
the soil, whether with stable manure, green manure or commercial fertil-
izers, is to increase its crop-yielding capacity. In order to justify the
practice the resulting increase in products must be more than sufficient
to offset the cost of manures or fertilizers applied. This increase need
not necessarily be secured the first year after the application, but should
be secured in the current and succeeding crops, and should give a net
profit on the capital and labor so expended.

The first noteworthy use of commercial fertilizers in the United States
was in 1848. In that year, there was imported 1000 tons of guano. This
was followed the succeeding year by twenty times that quantity. From
that date the importation steadily increased until 1880, when it reached
its maximum and began to decline because of a failing supply of guano.
Other materials, such as sodium nitrate from Chile and the potash salts
from Germany, have taken the place of the guano. These, together with
the development of our phosphate mines, the use of cottonseed meal and
the utilization of slaughter-house by-products, have met the continually
increasing demand for commercial fertilizers by our farmers. According
to census reports, the expenditures for fertilizers in the United States
during the past four census-taking years have been as follows:

Year. Value.

1879 $28,500,000.00

1889 38,500,000.00 •

1899 54,750,000.00

1909 112,000,000.00

There seems to be little doubt but that this rate of increase in the
use of fertilizers will continue for some time to come. The subject is one

(54)

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 55

of much economic importance to farmers, and one which has received
much time and attention on the part of investigators in the agricultural
experiment stations of all the older agricultural states. Agricultural
literature now contains a vast amount of data setting forth the results of
experiments with fertilizers on different types of soil and for different
crops, but there is still much to be learned relative to the subject. We
will always have an acute fertilizer problem. This is due to the constantly
changing conditions of the soil, resulting primarily from changed agri-
cultural practices and especially from the treatment of the soil, which
will gradually change its relationship to crops.

What are Commercial Fertilizers? — In discussing the subject of
fertilizers the terms manures, complete and incomplete manures, fertil-
izers, chemical fertilizers, commercial fertilizers, natural fertilizers, arti-
ficial fertilizers, indirect fertilizers, superphosphates, etc., are used, and
there is often misunderstanding of the meaning of some of these terms.
Fertilizers are first divided into natural and artificial. The former in-
clude all the solid and liquid excrement of animals and green manuring crops
when plowed under for the benefit of the soil. Artificial fertilizers include
all commercial forms of fertilizers. These are sometimes called prepared
fertilizers and chemical fertilizers, but are becoming more generally known
as commercial fertilizers. A complete fertilizer contains the three essential
plant-food constituents, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. An in-
complete fertilizer contains only one or two of these. All animal manures
are complete fertilizers. Green manures are likewise complete.

A fertilizer is said to be indirect when it contains none of the essential
plant-food elements, but in some way acts on the soil so as to increase the
availability of plant food in the soil or increase crop growth. Lime,
gypsum, salt and numerous other substances have been found to have
this action and would be classed as indirect fertilizers.

The terms high-grade and low-grade are also applied to fertilizers.
These terms, however, are not well defined. High-grade fertilizers gen-
erally contain large amounts of plant food per ton, while low-grade fer-
tilizers contain relatively small amounts. Another distinction that is
sometimes made is that fertilizers manufactured out of high-grade con-
stituents, such as nitrate of soda, acid phosphate and muriate or sulphate
of potash, are considered high-grade fertilizers regardless of the percentage
of the elements. A high-grade fertilizer always costs more per ton than
a low-grade one, but it is generally true that the elements in such a fertil-
izer come cheaper to the farmer than they do in a low-grade material.
Whether it is more economical to purchase high-grade or low-grade material
is an important question, but the answer is not difficult. All fertilizers
should be bought on the basis of their content of available plant food, and
it is merely a problem in arithmetic to calculate the relative cost of the
elements in different grades of fertilizer.

Where are Fertilizers Secured? — Fertilizer materials are to a large

56 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

extent gathered from different parts of the world, and are either treated
to increase availability or combined into mixed fertilizers before being
offered to the farmer. Fortunately the fertilizing element most needed
in the soils of the United States and Canada, namely, phosphorus, is
secured chiefly from extensive deposits of phosphate rock in Florida,
South Carolina and Tennessee and a few other states. This supply is
supplemented to some extent by bone phosphate, which comes chiefly
from the slaughter-houses of the country; also by basic slag, a by-
product of steel manufacture.

The potash salts are secured almost exclusively from the extensive
potash mines in Germany. Potash salts come to us in different forms.
Most of them have been manipulated and more or less purified. The
one most extensively used is known as muriate of potash and is a chloride
of potassium (KC1). Sulphate of potash and carbonate of potash are
used to a somewhat less extent. In addition to these we have some of the
crude potash salts, such as kainite and manure salt. A comparatively
new source of potash suitable for commercial fertilizers has been found in
the extensive kelp groves in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of the United
States and Canada. As yet these have not been extensively used as a
commercial source of potash.

Nitrogen is available chiefly in the form of nitrate of soda, which
comes from Chile. We also have sulphate of ammonia, an extensive by-
product from coke ovens and from the manufacture of artificial gas. As
yet the nitrogen escaping from coke ovens is not all transformed into
sulphate of ammonia. There are also organic forms of nitrogen, chief of
which are cottonseed meal, dried blood, tankage, fish scrap, guano, castor
pomace, together with small amounts of horn, hair, feathers and wool
waste.

Carriers of Nitrogen. — Nitrate of soda (NaNO3) contains 15 per
cent of nitrogen. It is readily soluble in water, and nitrogen in this form
is immediately available for plants. It should be applied in small quan-
tities and not long prior to the time plants most need their nitrogen supply.

Sulphate of ammonia (NH4)2SO4 contains 20 per cent of nitrogen.
Like nitrate of soda, it is quick acting, but for most crops the ammonia
must first be converted into the nitrate form before it can be utilized.
Some crops, however, can utilize ammonia as such. Sulphate of ammonia
is not leached from the soil quite as rapidly as nitrate of soda, but never-
theless it should not be applied in larger amounts than are necessary,
nor far in advance of the needs of the crop.

Cottonseed meal is another source of nitrogen which is extensively
resorted to in the cotton belt. It contains from 3 to 8 per cent cf nitrogen,
with an average of about 6.8 per cent. It is not wholly a nitrogenous
fertilizer, since it also contains an average of 2.9 per cent phosphoric
acid and 1.8 per cent potash. The nitrogen in cottonseed meal being in
an organic form, is rather slowly available. Availability is gradually

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 57

brought about through decomposition. The nitrogen thus resulting is,
therefore, distributed through a considerable period of time. It is often
used as a part of the nitrogen supply for crops with a long growing season.

Dried blood is also an organic source of nitrogen, containing on an
average 10 per cent of this element. It is easily decomposed and some-
what more available than nitrogen in cottonseed meal.

Tankage contains nitrogen in variable quantities, ranging from 5 to
12 per cent. It may also contain from 7 to 20 per cent of phosphoric
acid. The nitrogen in tankage is slowly available.

Forms of nitrogen that have more recently found their way into the
market are cyanamide and lime nitrate. These are manufactured prod-
ucts in which the nitrogen is secured directly from the air through certain
chemical and electrical processes. The nitrogen in these forms is not
so available as that in nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia, although
it is considered more readily available than most of the organic forms.

Phosphorus. — This constituent is available in the form of acid
phosphate, which contains 14 to 16 per cent of phosphoric acid or 6 to 7
per cent of phosphorus. Mcst of the phosphorus is in an available form.
Acid phosphate is made by treating a given bulk of finely pulverized
phosphate rock with an equal weight of crude commercial sulphuric acid.
The reaction that takes place makes the phosphorus available. It is
this material that is chiefly used in the manufacture of complete com-
mercial fertilizers. Phosphoric acid costs from four to five cents per
pound in acid phosphate, depending on location and size of purchases.
(As this goes to press, prices have advanced 25 to 30 per cent. This
advance is probably temporary.)

There is now an increased tendency to make direct use of the raw
rock phosphate in a finely pulverized form. Such rock contains the
equivalent of 28 to 35 per cent of phosphoric acid, but it is in an insoluble
form and can be economically used only on soils that are well supplied
with organic matter or in conjunction with barnyard or stable manure
and green manure crops. The general use of raw rock phosphate has not
been advisable on the soils of the eastern and southern part of the United
States. On the other hand, the raw rock phosphate has given good results
on the prairie soils of Indiana, Illinois, Iowa and some other states.
The cost of phosphoric acid in this form is equivalent to two cents per
pound or a little less.

Basic slag, sometimes known as Thomas Phosphate, is a by-product
of steel mills which is finely ground and used as a source of phosphorus.
It is similar to raw rock phosphate, slightly more available and contains
the equivalent of 15 to 18 per cent of phosphoric acid.

There are two types of bone meal on the market, raw bone and
steamed bone. The raw bone is fresh bone which has been finely ground.
Raw bone contains about 20 per cent of phosphoric acid and 4 per cent
of nitrogen. Bone which has the fat and gelatin removed by extracting

58 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

with steam contains only about 1 per cent of nitrogen and 22 to 23 per
cent of phosphoric acid. The steamed bone is more finely ground than
the raw bone, and since the fat and gelatin are removed it decomposes
more rapidly and is, therefore, more readily available as plant food.
While the phosphorus in both forms of bone is largely insoluble, it is never-
theless more readily available than that in rock phosphate.

Potassium. — Muriate of potash (KC1), the chief source of potash,
contains the equivalent of about 50 per cent of potash (K20). It is the
most common purified potash salt, consisting chiefly of potassium chloride.
It is a very satisfactory source of potash for all crops excepting tobacco
and potatoes. This form, on account of its contents of chlorine, causes
a poor burn in tobacco used for smoking purposes. The chlorine is sup-
posed to be slightly detrimental to starch formation, and for this reason
the sulphate and carbonate of potash are considered superior for potatoes.

Potassium sulphate also contains the equivalent of 50 per cent of
potash (K2O). Kainite a low-grade material- contains about 12 per
cent of potash.

Wood ashes are aiso a source of potash. They contain about 6 per
cent of this constituent, together with about 2 per cent of phosphoric
acid and a large amount of lime. The availability of the potash in ashes
is rated as medium.

Forms of Fertilizer Materials. — It is the common experience of
farmers and investigators that the different carriers of nitrogen, phos-
phorus and potassium behave differently on different soils, in different
seasons and with different crops. Most fruit and tobacco growers
recognize the difference in the different forms of potash although it is
not clearly understood why these differences occur.

Under present fertilizer regulations dealers are required to state
only the percentage of the plant-food constituents in the fertilizers they
offer for sale. It would be a wise provision if in addition to this they
were required to state the source of the constituents as well as the per-
centage. This is especially important as relates to nitrogen, which varies
widely in its availability, depending on its source. Many materials
containing essential elements are nearly worthless as sources of plant
food because the form is not right. Plants are unable to make use of
these materials because they are unavailable. Materials that do not
show wide variation in composition and in which the constituents are
practically uniform in their action, may be regarded as standard in the
sense that they can be depended upon to furnish practically the same
amount and form of a constituent wherever secured. Among such standard
materials may be considered nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, acid
phosphate, muriate of potash, sulphate of potash and carbonate of potash.

Relative Value of Fertilizer Ingredients. — A practical point, and one
of importance to the farmer, is a reliable estimate of the relative value
and usefulness of the various products that enter into commercial fertil-

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 59

izers. The relative rate of availability of a constituent in one carrier as
compared with its availability in another is the point at issue. This
determines the advantage or disadvantage of purchasing one or the other
at ruling market prices. As yet definite relative values for all fertilizing
materials have not been worked out. Furthermore, it is recognized that
they never can be worked out for conditions in general, because of the
wide latitude in the conditions which affect availability. This problem
is attacked by what is known as vegetative tests; that is, tests which
show the actual amounts of the constituents taken up from various sub-
stances by plants when grown under identical conditions. With nitrog-
enous fertilizers, for example, the results so far obtained indicate that
when nitrogen in nitrate of soda is rated at 100 per cent, that in blood
and cottonseed meal are equal to about 70 per cent, that in dried and
ground fish and hoof meal at 65 per cent, that in bone and tankage at 60
per cent, and for leather and wool waste may range from as low as 2 per
cent to as high as 30 per cent.

The Composition of Fertilizers. — In the purchase of mixed fertilizers
consumers should demand that they be accompanied by a guarantee.
This is essential because the purchaser is unable to determine the kind
and proportion of the different materials entering into the mixture, either
by its appearance, weight or smell.

At present most of the states have on their statutes, laws regulating
the manufacture and sale of commercial fertilizers. These require that
the composition be plainly stated on the original packages of fertilizer.
The law also provides for the analysis of samples collected at any point
and the publication of these analyses either by the state departments or
by the state experiment stations. Such publications set forth the name
of the brand of fertilizer and the name of the dealer or manufacturer,
together with a statement of the analysis as given by the manufacturer
as compared with that found by the official analysis. Infringements of
the law relative to its provisions call for punishment generally by fines.
Under such a system of regulation there is now little danger of the farmer
being cheated in the purchase of fertilizers so far as their composition is
concerned.

What Analyses of Fertilizers Show. — The difference between a good
and inferior fertilizer is shown by a chemical analysis, providing it is
carried far enough to show both the amount and form of the constituents
present. An analysis of a fertilizer which shows that the nitrogen is
present chiefly as nitrates, the phosphorus as acid phosphate and the
potash as muriate of potash at once stamps such a fertilizer as being
made up of high-grade materials. On the other hand, if the nitrogen is
found largely in an organic form and the phosphorus in an insoluble form,
it is evident that the materials used are low-grade forms, and result in
a slow-acting and sometimes unsatisfactory fertilizer.

Commercial vs. Agricultural Value of Manures. — Agricultural value

60 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

and commercial value as applied to fertilizers are not synonymous and
should not be confused. The agricultural value is measured by the value
of the increase in crops secured through the use of the fertilizer. The
commercial value is determined by the trade conditions. It is based
upon the composition of the fertilizer and the price per pound of the
different forms of the several constituents that enter into it. Commercial
value is merely a matter of arithmetic. Agricultural value varies greatly
and depends upon a number of factors, among which the knowledge of
the farmer plays no small part.

Mechanical Condition. — The mechanical condition of a commercial
fertilizer deserves consideration by the farmer. The degree of pulveriza-
tion controls the rate of solubility to no small extent. The finer the
pulverization the more thorough can be the distribution made in the soil.
The greater the number of points at which there are particles of fertilizer
in the soil, the more rapid will be the solution and the diffusion cf the
plant-food material. Mechanical condition is also import-ant frcm the
standpoint of distribution through fertilizer drills. The material should
be in what is known as a drillable condition. It should not only be
thoroughly pulverized, but also should be sufficiently dry to feed through
the mechanism of the drill at a uniform rate. Wet, sticky material clegs
up the drill and causes faulty distribution.

High-Grade vs. Low-Grade Fertilizers. — Thousands of tons of low-
grade fertilizer are bought by farmers because the price is low, when, as
a matter of fact, the same money invested in a lesser amount of high-
grade fertilizer would have given them better results. Low-grade fertil-
izers, as a rule, contain varying amounts of filler or inert matter. This
sometimes constitutes as much as one-half the weight of the fertilizer.
It costs just as much to provide bags and handle this material as it dees
the more active portion. Furthermore, the farmer pays for the bags
and freight on this worthless material. At the same time, he hauls it
from the railway station to his farm, unloads it and afterwards applies
it to his fields with much more expenditure of time and effort than would
be required for a smaller amount of high-grade material containing equally
as much plant food.

Use of Fertilizers. — The most economical use of commercial fertil-
izers is secured only when a systematic crop rotation is practiced and
the soil is maintained in good physical condition and well supplied with
organic matter and moisture. The soil should contain sufficient lime to
prevent the accumulation of acids, so that legumes such as clover will
thrive. Every crop rotation should have a suitable legume occurring
once every third to fifth year. The presence of legumes will lessen the
necessity for nitrogen in the fertilizer. It is estimated that nitrogen can
be secured through the growing of legumes at a cost of approximately
four cents per pound, whereas it costs fifteen to twenty cents when pur-
chased in a commercial form.

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 61

Value of Crop Determines Rate of Fertilization. — Crops arc divided
into two classes with reference to the use of commercial fertilizers. The
first class includes those crops having a comparatively low money value,
such as hay and the general grain crops. Because cf the low money value
it is possible to apply only small amounts of fertilizer profitably. It is
also necessary that the crops use as large a proportion of the applied
material as possible. The cropping system should be arranged so as to
utilize the residues of previous applications. As a rule it is wise to pur-
chase very little nitrogen for such crops, since their needs can generally
be met by growing suitable legumes in the rotation. In the temperate
climate of the United States and Canada, east of the 100th meridian, red
clover is the crop best adapted for this purpose, although there are other
clovers and annual legumes that may meet local conditions better. In
the southern part of the United States cowpeas, soy beans, Lespedeza
clover, crimson clover and some other legumes are best suited for this
purpose. West of the Mississippi River alfalfa will pretty fully meet the
needs of the soil for nitrogen. Ordinarily it will be grown several years
in succession.

Valuable Products Justify Heavy Fertilization. — The second class
of crops includes those having a high money value per acre and for which
large applications of high-grade fertilizers may be economically used.
Among such crops may be mentioned tobacco, cabbage, early peas,
spinach, asparagus and even early potatoes. Because of the high money
value of these crops a larger investment in fertilizers may be more than
paid for, even though the percentage increase in yield is no greater than
when fertilizers are applied to crops of low money .value. In growing
early truck crops, especially when grown along the lower portion of the
Atlantic seaboard or in the southern states, the truck farmer who can get
his product into the northern markets earliest is the one who receives
the fancy prices. Such markets call for products of high quality, and
quality in many cases is determined by the rate of growth. In such
crops as lettuce, radishes, spinach, etc., succulence and tenderness of the
product are essential. These qualities, together with earliness, are often
determined not only by the time of planting and the character of soil on
which the crops are grown, but also by the character of the fertilizer used.
We, therefore, find such farmers using fertilizers that are readily soluble
and well supplied with available nitrogen. Nitrogen tends to accelerate
vegetative growth and to give quality to early vegetables. It is not
unusual to find truck farmers applying as much as a ton per acre of a
high-grade fertilizer. The crop grown may use a comparatively small
portion of the constituents applied. This calls for a rotation of crops on
the part of such a farmer so that other and less valuable crops may follow
and be benefited by the residual effect of the fertilizer.

A strict classification of crops into the two classes mentioned is
impossible. Conditions which would place a crop in one group in one

62 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

locality may place it in the other group in a distant locality. The high
price of a crop is in some cases determined by location. For example,
the early strawberries and early potatoes of the South that reach northern
markets very early are often worth five to ten times as much per unit as
are the late strawberries and late potatoes grown in the North and at some
distance from markets.

Character of Fertilizer Related to Soil. — In general, fertilizers that
stimulate the production of seeds and fruit should be used on rich lands.
On poor land the elements that force vegetative growth combined with
those that mature fruit may be used. High-grade phosphates in a readily
available form hasten maturity and increase the proportion of fruit.
This is well illustrated in the fertilizer plats at the Ohio and Pennsylvania
Experiment Stations. As the oats and wheat approach maturity on
these plats the visitor is at once impressed with the earlier period of
ripening of those grown on plats treated with acid phosphate. Nitrogen
tends to a prolonged growth of the crop and retards maturity. The
grain on the plats treated with liberal applications of nitrogen matures
a week or ten days later than on the phosphate-treated plats.

In the use of fertilizers one should distinguish between a large in-
crease of crop and a profitable increase, and this will be determined chiefly
by the value of the crop grown. In general there will be an increase in
yield accompanying an increase in the amount of fertilizer used, but it
is a fact that the first unit of application, that is, the first two hundred
or four hundred pounds per acre, will give a relatively larger return than
the second or third unit, and there will always be a place where an added
unit will give a return, the value of which will be no greater than the
cost of the unit of fertilizer. It is most profitable to stop before one
reaches this point in the application of fertilizers.

Finally, the purchaser of fertilizers should bear in mind that the
composition of the fertilizer and availability of its constituents, its
mechanical condition, the economy of its purchase and application are
all factors that bear directly upon the economy of its use. This calls for
a knowledge of the requirements of the soil and the crops grown.

What the Farmer Should Know. — Commercial fertilizers are valuable
mainly because they furnish nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. In
some cases they may act as stimulants, but their chief function is to
supply available plant food. The returns will be approximately in pro-
portion to their content of such constituents, when the selection is so
made that it meets the needs of the soil and crops to which applied. The
agricultural value of these constituents depends largely upon their chem-
ical form, and these forms must be contained in products of well-defined
character and composition. They may be purchased as such from both
dealers and manufacturers. The farmer may put them together in pro-
portions to meet his own needs, if he is competent to do so.

The farmer should know the deficiency of the soil on his farm. He

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 63

should also know the requirements of the plants with which he deals.
He may secure these facts in a general way from the state experiment
station, but the details can best be ascertained by actual field tests by
the farmer himself on his own farm. Such tests do not necessitate carefully
laid out plats of a definite size. Farmers, as a rule, do not have the time
and patience to do much experimenting, neither do they have the train-
ing, experience and facilities for such work; but any farmer may make
a fair comparison of two or more kinds of fertilizers, or he may test the
efficiency of any fertilizer ingredient, such as nitrogen, potash or phos-
phorus, on his soil. This can be done by applying a different character
of fertilizer through his fertilizer drill, whether it be attached to the corn
planter, the potato planter or to the grain drill, to a definite number of
rows running clear through the field. This, if marked at one end of the
field by stakes, is easily and readily compared at harvest time with the
rows on either side treated with the usual fertilizers or in the usual way.
Much can often be determined by observation, but more definite results
are obtained by measuring the product of a certain number of rows
specially treated, as compared with an equal number adjacent treated in
the usual way.

A rapid growth and a dark-green color of foliage indicate the presence
of an ample supply of nitrogen in the soil. If the rank growth is accom-
panied by a watery appearance it suggests a deficiency of phosphoric
acid. If plants make a stunted growth under normal conditions of sun-
shine, temperature and water supply, and mature unduly early, it indicates
sufficient phosphoric acid in the soil, and suggests that nitrogen or per-
haps potash may materially improve the crop. Potash fertilizers are of
special benefit in case of tobacco, beets and the legumes.

The user of commercial fertilizers should place his main dependence
upon those that have given him best results. New brands or modified
mixtures should be tried on a small scale and in an experimental way
until it has been demonstrated that they are better and more economical
to use than his old standby. Emphasis should also be placed upon the
importance of a systematic use of fertilizers. This can be accomplished
through a definite cropping system and a definite scheme of manuring
and fertilizing worked out in such a way as best to meet the needs of the
soil and crops. It should take into account the fullest possible utilization
of the home and local supplies of manure. For example, it is found that
the general farm crops in Pennsylvania are most frequently grown in a
rotation consisting of corn, oats, wheat and two years of mixed clover
and timothy hay. On limestone soils such crops call for a scheme of
treatment about as follows: For the corn, 6 to 10 loads of manure per
acre should be applied and supplemented with 200 pounds acid phos-
phate; to the oats following the corn, no fertilizer except when the soil is
poor, in which case 150 to 200 pounds per acre of acid phosphate may be
used; to the wheat, 350 pounds per acre of acid phosphate, 100 pounds

64 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

muriate of potash and 50 pounds of nitrate of soda should be applied;
the clover following the wheat calls for no fertilizer, but the timothy
during the second year the land is in grass may be profitably treated with
a complete fertilizer consisting of 150 pounds of acid phosphate, 150
pounds nitrate of soda and 50 pounds muriate of potash, applied broad-
cast early in the spring just as the grass starts to grow. Such a scheme
of treatment makes a place for all the manure on the average farm and
provides for the application of the fertilizer where it will be most fully
used and give the largest returns.

A similar scheme of treatment will be found to fit various localities

EFFECT OF TOP DRESSING MEADOWS WITH COMMERCIAL FERTILIZER.

On left, average yield, 2060 pounds cured hay per acre.
On right, average yield, 3637 pounds cured hay per acre.

Grass on right, top dressed early each spring with 350 pounds per acre of 7-7-7
fertilizer. Average of four consecutive years.

in all states. The details will be determined by local conditions, and
frequently they have already been worked out for various localities either
by the experiment station of the state or by farmers. It is, therefore,
important that every farmer become informed on the best practice for
his locality.

How to Determine Needs of Soil. — The fertilizer needs of a soil are
best determined by applying to the soil and for the crops grown different
kinds and combinations of fertilizers. This puts the question directly
to the soil, and the crops give the answer by their growth and condition.
Such soil tests with fertilizers have proven more practicable and satis-
factory than any others thus far devised. A chemical analysis of the soil

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

is thought by many to enable the farmer or the soil expert to judge as to
the character of the fertilizer needed. This, however, is not the case,
and such chemical analyses are as a rule of very little help in this respect.
The chief difficulty with this method lies in the fact that such analyses
do not determine the availability of the plant food present. Another
method which is fairly satisfactory is to make pot tests with the soil in
question and for the crops to be grown. Such tests may frequently be
completed in a shorter period of time than can field tests. They are not,
however, so satisfactory as field tests because the crops are not grown
under field conditions.

EFFECT OF FERTILIZERS ON THE GROWTH OF SWEET CLOVER.

Soil from virgin cut-over land in Pennsylvania.
Ca — Lime. N — Nitrogen. P — Phosphorus. K — Potash.

Effect Modified by Soil and Crop.— -The fertilizer to be used is deter-
mined both by the needs of the soil and the crop grown. A commercial
fertilizer is beneficial chiefly because of the plant-food elements it supplies.
Its best action is accomplished when the soil is in good physical condition
and when there is a good supply of moisture and organic matter. The
effect of a fertilizer under one set of soil conditions may be reversed when
the conditions are materially changed. Under favorable conditions,
for example, nitrification in the soil might proceed with sufficient activity
to supply a certain crop with all the nitrogen needed for normal growth.
The following season being cold and accompanied by an excess of moisture
might result in slow nitrification, and this might materially diminish the
growth of the crop. In one case nitrogen in a readily available form

66 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

would be much more beneficial than in the other. In the same way the
results obtained on one farm might not be duplicated on the adjacent
farm, although the soil is of the same formation and type, difference in
the previous cropping or management of the soil being responsible for the
difference in results.

Which is the Best Fertilizer to Use? — This question is a pertinent
one, and is often asked by practical farmers. A definite answer can seldom
be given. The consumer of fertilizers can best answer it by tests such as
above suggested. In a general way, however, the consumer should
select those fertilizers which contain the largest amount of plant food
in suitable and available forms for the least money. Until a rational
scheme of fertilizer treatment has been established it is safest to depend
upon high-grade fertilizers used in rather limited amounts. Low-grade
materials and elements in slowly available form may prove cheaper for
certain soils and crops, but their use involves a larger risk, especially
for the farmer who is not well informed on the subject. For soils poor in
humus, nitrogenous fertilizers will generally be advisable. For those
well supplied with humus, phosphates and potash generally give best
results.

Needs of Different Soils. — Since the fertilizer is determined by both
soil and crop, the needs of the soil can be determined only in a rather
general way. There is no definite statement that will hold under all
conditions. A particular soil type in one locality may be greatly bene-
fited by a certain fertilizer, while the same type in another neighborhood
may have quite a different requirement.

Heavy soils generally respond to phosphates. Sandy soils are more
likely to need potash and nitrogen, while clay soils are generally well
supplied with potash. There are some exceptions to this rule.

Experiments at various experiment stations show that soils vary
widely in their fertilizer requirements. The results in one locality may be
inapplicable in another. Acid soils respond to application of lime and
generally to available phosphates. Marshy soils, especially those con-
sisting chiefly of muck or peat, are generally in need of potash and seme-
times phosphoric acid and lime. The prairie soils are as a rule deficient
in phosphorus, and on such soils the insoluble phosphates are economically
used. The need for lime is frequently determined by the failure of clover
and the encroachment of sorrel and plantain. Potassium is likely to be
needed in soils that have long been exhaustively cropped, especially if
hay and straw have been sold from the land as well as the grain.

Crop Requirements. — Crops differ in their fertilizer requirements.
This difference is due to the purpose for which the crop is grown, to the
length of the growing season required by the crop, and to the period of
the season when it makes its chief growth; also to the composition of the
crop. It is also influenced by the character of the root systems. Plants
which grow quickly generally need their food supply in a readily available

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

67

form. Those which grow slowly and take a long time to mature can
utilize the more difficultly available forms of plant food. These facts
explain why plants differ in their requirements.

Fertilizers for Cereals and Grasses. — The cereals and grasses (Indian
corn excepted) are similar in habits of growth and are distinguished by
having extensive, fibrous root systems. They require comparatively
long periods of growth, and this enables them to extract mineral food
from comparatively insoluble sources. As a rule, however, these crops
make the major portion of their vegetative growth during the cool part
of the growing season. During this period nitrification is comparatively
slow; consequently, such crops need readily available nitrogen and respond
to fertilizers containing some nitrogen. This demands the application

EFFECT -OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZER ON WHEAT ON A POOR SOIL.
A complete fertilizer on the left, no fertilizer in center.

of nitrogen in a readily available form, preferably just at the beginning
of vegetative growth in the spring.

Legumes Require No Nitrogen. — The clovers, peas, beans, vetches
and in fact nearly all the crops that belong to the family of legumes have
the power under proper soil conditions to utilize free nitrogen from the
air; consequently, such crops require no nitrogen in the fertilizer. They
use relatively more potash than most other forage crops; consequently,
the mineral fertilizers with a rather high proportion of potash are generally
most beneficial. Corn is a rather gross feeder, and since it makes the
major portion of its vegetative growth in the warmer portion of the grow-
ing season when nitrification is especially active, it seldom pays to apply
much nitrogen to it. Furthermore, corn is able to make use of relatively
insoluble phosphorus and potash.

68 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Available Forms Best for Roots. — Root and tuber crops are generally
regarded as a class that, because of their habits of growth, are unable to
make extensive use of the insoluble minerals; hence, their profitable growth
requires plenty of the readily available forms of fertilizing constituents.
Nitrogen and potash are especially valuable for mangels and beets, while
phosphates and potash together with small amounts of nitrogen are
generally used for both white and sweet potatoes.

Slow-Acting Fertilizers Suited to Orchards and Small Fruits.—
Orchard trees are as a rule slow growing and do not demand quick-acting
fertilizers. In old orchards that are large and are top dressed it may,
however, be good practice to use the readily soluble forms of plant food in
order that it may be carried into the soil by rainfall and brought in contact
with the zones of root activity. Where orchards are manured from the
beginning, and especially where they are inter-tilled, barnyard manure and
the more difficultly soluble forms of fertilizers may be economically used.

The fertilizer requirements of small fruits are similar to those of
orchard fruits. As a rule smaller fruits make a more rapid growth ; con-
sequently, heavier applications of soluble fertilizing constituents may
be used.

Nitrogen Needed for Vegetables. — The market garden crops, and
especially those grown for their vegetative parts, demand rather liberal
applications of available nitrogen. The higher the value of the crop
per unit of weight, the larger are the applications of nitrogen that may
be used economically. In such crops as early cabbage, beets, peas, etc.,
earliness and quality are of prime importance. To be highly remunerative
such crops must be harvested early; in other words, they must be forced.
At this period of the year decomposition processes in the soil are not
especially active. For this reason an abundance of available nitrogen is
demanded.

Fertilizers for Cotton. — Perhaps no crop has been subjected to more
experiments with fertilizers than cotton. Cotton is a plant that responds
promptly and profitably to judicious fertilization. Such fertilization
should hasten the maturity of the crop. This tends to increase the
climatic area in which cotton may be grown. In recent years it has be-
come of great importance in connection with the cotton boll weevil.
This insect multiplies rapidly throughout the season, its numbers becoming
very great in the latter part of the season. It feeds on the cotton bolls.
When the bolls are matured early, the insects being less numerous at that
season, a larger proportion of the bolls escapes infestation than when they
mature late. The most judicious proportions of nitrogen, soluble phos-
phoric acid and potash in a complete fertilizer for cotton has not been
determined with entire accuracy. Those for Georgia are nitrogen 1,
potash 1, phosphoric acid 3J; for South Carolina, nitrogen 1, potash |,
phosphoric acid 2}; and for general use nitrogen 1, potash 1, phosphoric
acid 2f or 3 will perhaps approximate reasonable accuracy.

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 69

The amount of fertilizer which may be profitably used varies widely
with the season, nature of soil and other circumstances. On an average
the maximum amounts indicated for Georgia are nitrogen 20 pounds,
potash 20 pounds, phosphoric acid 70 pounds; those for South Carolina,
nitrogen 20 pounds, potash 15 pounds, phosphoric acid 50 pounds.

Miscellaneous Fertilizer Facts. — Wheat, to which a moderate
amount of manure has been applied, will not need additional nitrogen.
In most cases the manure can be profitably supplemented with phos-
phoric acid, and on some soils a small amount of potash may be included.
When the wheat field is seeded to clover and grass which is to be left
down for hay, the phosphoric acid and potash in the fertilizer should be
increased somewhat.

Oats as a rule receive no commercial fertilizer. On soils low in fertil-
ity small applications of readily soluble nitrogen and phosphoric acid
applied at seeding time are advisable. Winter oats, grown mostly in the
South, are generally fertilized with light applications of phosphorus and
potash when seeded in the fall, and are top dressed with nitrate of soda
in the spring.

For tobacco, barnyard manure occupies a leading position as a fer-
tilizer, both because of its cheapness and effectiveness. When manure
is not available in sufficient quantities commercial fertilizers are frequently
resorted to. In fact, the manure is often supplemented with commercial
fertilizers. This crop generally requires a complete fertilizer. Cotton-
seed meal is frequently used as a source of nitrogen for tobacco. How-
ever, manure is not used for bright tobacco and only very small amounts
of cottonseed meal are used.

When nitrogen is required by a crop having a long growing season
it is generally advisable to combine it in two forms, one readily available
as nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia, the other in an organic form,
as dried blood or cottonseed meal. Where nitrate of soda is depended
upon entirely, two or more applications may be given during the growing
season. This is applicable to open, leachy soils, but is not essential on
heavy soils.

Effect of Fertilizers on Proportion of Straw to Grain. — The pro-
portion of straw to grain is influenced by season, soil and character of
fertilizer. At the Pennsylvania Experiment Station, in a test extending
through many years, it was found that for twenty-four different fertilizers
applied there were produced 52 pounds of stover for each 70 pounds of
ear corn. The average proportion for seven complete fertilizers was 55.4
pounds stover to 70 pounds corn. Barnyard manure gave 47.6 pounds
stover to 70 pounds corn, while a complete fertilizer containing dried
blood gave 58 pounds stover to 70 pounds corn. In case of oats, the
largest relative yield of straw was from barnyard manure. The average
for twenty-four different fertilizers was 45 pounds straw per bushel of
oats. The average for seven complete fertilizers was 42 pounds straw

70

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

per bushel of oats. In general, the proportion of straw will be increased
by an abundance of nitrogen, while the proportion of grain will be increased
by liberal supplies of phosphoric acid.

This is a matter of considerable practical importance in the growing
of both oats and wheat. There is often such a marked tendency for these
crops to produce vegetative growth that the straw lodges before maturity.
This makes harvesting of the crops with machinery difficult. It smothers
out the clover and grasses that are sometimes seeded with them. Lodging
also prevents satisfactory filling of the heads of grain and maturing of

SOIL FERTILITY PLATS, PENNSYLVANIA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

On left, 320 pounds land plaster.
Center, no fertilizer.

On right, dissolved bone-black, containing 48 pounds phosphoric acid and muriate
of potash 200 pounds.

the kernels. A properly balanced fertilizer or the proper proportion of
available constituents in the soil for these crops, therefore, is essential.

Principles Governing Profitable Use of Fertilizers. — Definite rules
relative to amount and character of fertilizer for soils or crops cannot be
laid down, but there are certain principles that should always be taken
into consideration in connection with the use of fertilizers. In general,
the higher the acre value of the crop grown the larger the amount of fer-
tilizer that can be profitably used. This is a principle that will hold even
though the same percentage increase from a definite investment in fer-
tilizer is secured.

Another principle which always holds is that each additional unit of
fertilizer gives a smaller increase in crop growth than the preceding one;
consequently, the lower the money value of the crop the smaller the

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

71

amount of fertilizer that can be profitably used. This principle is well
illustrated in an experiment with fertilizers used in different amounts on
cotton at the Georgia Experiment Station. In this experiment a fertilizer
valued at about $20 per ton was applied in amounts valued at $4, $8
and $12 per acre respectively. As an average of three years with these
applications the increase in lint and seed, respectively, resulting from the
applications were valued at $10.11, $15.69 and $21.17, the percentage of
profit on the investment in fertilizers being 153, 96 and 76 for the three
amounts respectively. These results coincide with the principle above
stated. In the above experiment the increase in yield of seed cotton for
400 pounds of fertilizer was 281 pounds. The increase for 800 pounds
was not twice 281, which would be 562, but was only 436 pounds. The
increase for 1200 pounds was not three times 281, which would equal 843,
but was only 588 pounds. The smallest amount of fertilizer produced
the largest return on the capital invested in fertilizer, although the largest
amount made the largest aggregate profit. In this case each $4 invested
brought a return greater than the actual investment, and it is evident
that it might have been possible to add another $4 worth of fertilizer
and still further increase the total profit per acre, although the percentage
return on the investment would have been reduced still further. The
fertilizer, however, is only part of the investment, since the rent of land
and cost of labor and seed are comparatively large items.

If a planter has $1400 to invest in the growing of cotton and the rent
of land, seed, labor and every expense connected with the cost of culti-
vation and picking aggregated $28 per acre, he can plant fifty acres. If
his profit without fertilizer is $3 per acre, it will aggregate $150, or lOf
per cent on the investment. On the basis of the above experiment and
with the same capital, how much will he be justified in reducing his acre-
age in order to purchase fertilizers?

By inspection we find:

Acres.

Cost of
Growing
One Acre.

Total
Cost.

Profit
per Acre.

Total
Profit.

Per Cent
on
Investment.

50

$28 00

$1 400 00

$3 00

$150 00

10 7

43 75

32 00

1 400 00

9 11

398 56

28 4

38 9

36 00

1,400 00

10 69

415.84

29.7

35

40.00

1,400 00

12 17

425.00

30.3

The increased cost per acre represents the addition of fertilizers to the
amount of $4, $8 and $12 and is justified up fco the $12 limit where the
maximum profit of $425 is secured. By growing 35 acres well fertilized,
his percentage profit on capital invested is 30J instead of lOf where no
fertilizer was to be used.

When to Apply Fertilizers. — The time at which to apply commercial
fertilizer will be determined by the needs of the crop, kind of fertilizer,

72 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

rate of application, character of soil and subsoil, convenience of the farmer
and the economy in applying. Plenty of plant food should be within
reach of the plants when growth is rapid. Fertilizers that are readily
lost by leaching should not be applied long before needed. Heavy applica-
tions may be divided into two or three portions and applied as needed.
On heavy soils with retentive subsoils leaching is slight. On sandy soils
it may be pronounced. As a rule it will be economy to apply small and
moderate applications of fertilizer just prior to or at seeding time. Most
planting and drilling machinery is now supplied with fertilizer attach-
ments. These provide for the proper distribution of the fertilizer at the
time of seeding or planting without much additional labor. So long as
the amount which is distributed in the immediate vicinity of the seed is
not sufficient to interfere with germination and early growth, the method is
satisfactory. If the concentration of the soil solution in contact with
seeds equals the concentration within the cells of the seeds, they will be
unable to absorb water from the soil. This may prevent germination and
cause the seed to rot. For this reason it is never wise to apply large
applications in this way. Such applications should be applied seme
time in advance of seeding or planting in order that the fertilizers may
have become uniformly disseminated through the soil. Another method
in common use is to broadcast a portion of the fertilizer and mix it with
the soil by harrowing. The remainder is then applied through the fertil-
izer attachment of the seeding machinery. As previously noted, soluble
nitrates may be advantageously applied just at the time when the growing
crop is most in need of available nitrogen. This is especially applicable
on sandy, leachy soils. So far as danger of loss is concerned, the potash
and phosphorus may be applied at almost any time.

Readily soluble fertilizers are preferable for the top dressing of grass
land, and should be applied very early in the spring, just as the grass is
starting to grow. Early application is necessary because the growth
demands it early in the season, and also because the fertilizer must be
carried into the soil by rains in order to be brought into contact with the
roots.

Organic fertilizers, and especially manure, are best applied seme
time in advance of seeding. The early stages of decomposition frequently
give rise to deleterious compounds. These should have time to disappear
before the crop is started.

Methods of Application. — The manner of applying fertilizer depends
on a number of conditions, especially the kind of fertilizer, the amount
to be used, the character of the crop and the method of its tillage. It is
a good practice to distribute the potash and phosphoric acid in that portion
of the soil where the root activity of the crop grown is most abundant.
In case of inter-tilled crops this will generally be in the lower two-thirds
of the plowed portion of the soil. The surface two inches are so frequently
cultivated during the early period that roots are destroyed. At other

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 73

seasons it is likely to be so dry that roots cannot grow in it. Plant food
does little good so long as it remains at the surface. It is not so essential
to put the soluble nitrates in this lower zone because there is a great
tendency for them to pass downward in the soil.

Where very small applications are used it is often thought advisable
to deposit the fertilizer with the seed or plant in order that it may have
an abundance of plant food at the very outset. This method stimulates
the plant in its early stages of growth. It is probably more applicable
to crops that are seeded or planted very early when the ground is cold
and bacterial activity is slow.

In the cotton belt there are two methods of applying fertilizers.
Experiments at the Georgia Experiment Station have shown that the
method known as " bedding on the fertilizer" has given better results
than applying the fertilizer through the fertilizer drill at time of seeding
cotton. In the first method the fertilizer is distributed over the bottom
of a furrow in which the cotton is planted one week or ten days later.
The second method deposits the fertilizer in close proximity to the seed
at planting time. As an average of four years the per cent profit on the
investment in fertilizer was 48 when applied with the seed and 90 when
" bedded on the fertilizer."

Purchase of Fertilizers. — The concentrated high-grade fertilizer
materials necessarily command a higher price than low-grade materials
and those containing small amounts of plant food. As a rule the high-
grade materials are the cheapest. The inexperienced farmer is too much
inclined to purchase fertilizers chiefly on the ton basis, without regard to
the amount or form of plant-food constituents they contain. He should
bear in mind that he is not buying mere weight, but that he is paying for
one or more of the plant-food constituents, and those fertilizers that
are richest in plant food will generally supply these ingredients at the
lowest cost per unit. This is obvious from what has been previously
said relative to the costs of manufacturing, handling and shipping fer-
tilizers. It is well also to consider the relative economy of retail versus
wholesale rates on fertilizers. The more hands a fertilizer passes through
the greater will be its cost when it reaches the consumer. Each dealer
must of necessity make some profit on his transaction. Small shipments
and small consignments call for higher freight rates and additional labor
in making out bills and collecting accounts. These all entail increased
expense.

There is now an increased tendency on the part of farmers to co-
operate in the purchase of fertilizers. As a rule the character of fertilizer
that best meets the needs of a farmer in a particular locality will in general
be a good fertilizer for his neighbors. It is possible for neighbors to com-
bine and purchase their fertilizers in carload lots directly from the manu-
facturer, saving the profit of the middleman and getting carload freight
rates which will very materially reduce the cost of the fertilizers laid

74 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

down at their railway stations. Such co-operation in buying will gen-
erally lead to a discussion of the merits of the different brands of fertilizers,
and in this way the purchase is generally based upon the combined
judgment of the co-operating farmers instead of on an individual farmer.
If by chance a diversity of crops and soils of the neighborhood is such
that different brands are required, there will be no difficulty in having
several brands shipped in the same car.

It is also wise to purchase early and avoid the rush which often
causes a delay in shipments in the rush season. Then, too, early orders
enable the farmer to plan more definitely relative to his fertilizer needs
and give more careful consideration to the brand most likely to meet his
needs. In this way he is enabled to receive and haul his fertilizer to his
farm at a time when the field work does not demand the time of himself
and teams.

It is also well to consider the relative advantages of buying mixed
fertilizers as compared with the unmixed goods. In the nature of things
the manufacturer with his well-equipped plant should be able to mix
fertilizers more thoroughly and economically than the farmer. This,
however, is not always done, since the farmer can frequently utilize labor for
mixing fertilizers when it would otherwise be unemployed. The advantages
of buying unmixed goods are that the farmer can make the mixture
that in his judgment will best meet his needs. He may not be able to
secure on the market just such a mixture. Furthermore, it will enable
him to make different mixtures and try them on his soil and for his crops
with the view of gaining information relative to the character of fertilizer
that will best meet his future needs.

Home Mixing of Fertilizers. — The home mixing of fertilizers demands
on the part of the farmer a fair knowledge of fertilizers and the needs of
soils and crops. Without this, he had probably best depend upon ready
mixed goods such as are recommended for his conditions. Furthermore,
much will depend upon whether or not he can purchase a fertilizer the
composition of which, in his judgment, is what he should have, and also
whether or not there would be much saving in buying unmixed goods
when the additional labor of mixing is taken into account. Such a practice
is likely to be economical only when the fertilizers are used rather exten-
sively. Where only a few hundred pounds are used by the farmer it will
generally not be advisable for him to attempt to mix his own fertilizer.

So far as the mechanical process is concerned, fertilizers can be
mixed by the farmer on the farm very satisfactorily. It does not require
a mechanical mixer, although this may be economical when it is done on
a large scale. When the unmixed goods are in good mechanical condition,
as they should be, definite weights or measures of the different constitu-
ents may be placed on a tight barn floor and shoveled over a number of
times until the mixture takes on a uniform color. It is advisable to empty
not more than 400 to 600 pounds at one time. It can be more thoroughly

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

75

mixed in small quantities. A hoe and square-pointed shovel are best
suited for the mixing. A broom and an ordinary 2 by 6 foot sand screen
with three meshes to the inch are all that are necessary. This assumes
that the fertilizer comes in bags of definite weight, and that by putting
in one bag of one ingredient and two or three of another, etc., a proper
proportion can be secured. Greater exactness can, of course, be obtained
by using platform scales and weighing roughly the amounts of the different
kinds that are brought together. It is suggested that the most bulky
ingredient be placed at the bottom of the pile and the least bulky on top.
After it is mixed with a shovel and hoe it should be thrown through the
screen. This removes all lumps and perfects the mixing. The lumps,
should there be any, should be crushed before they are allowed to go
into the next mixing batch. After thorough mixing the material will be
ready to return to the bags. It can be hauled to the field when needed.

It is well to remember that most fertilizers absorb moisture, increase
in weight and later on dry out and become hard. It is, therefore, wise
to keep them in a building which is fairly dry.

The following list of fertilizer materials, together with the per-
centage of the several ingredients which they contain, is given as an aid
to those making home mixtures of fertilizers:

LIST OF MATERIALS USED IN HOME-MIXING OF FERTILIZERS.*

Name of Material.

Nitrogen,
per cent.

Phosphoric
Acid,
per cent.

Potash,
per cent.

Availability.

Nitrate of soda

15

o

o

Very quick

Sulphate of ammonia. . .

20

o

o

Quick

Dried blood

10

o

o

Medium

Tankage (meat)

7 4

10

o

Slow

Tankage (bone)

5

15

o

Slow

Ground bone

2.5

23

o

Slow

Acid phosphate, 14 per cent
Acid phosphate, 12 per cent

0

o

14
12

0

o

Quick
Quick

Dissolved bone-black

o

15

o

Medium

Basic slag

0

15

o

Slow

Rock phosphate

0

18-30

o

Very slow

Muriate of potash

0

0

50

Quick

High-grade sulphate of potash. . . .

0

0

50

Quick

Kainite. . .

o

o

12

Quick

Wood- ashes

0

2

6

Medium

REFERENCES

"Manures and Fertilizers." Wheeler.
"Fertilizers." Voorhees.
"Fertilizers and Crops." Van Slyke.

New York Expt. Station Bulletin 392. "Fertilizer Facts for the Farmer."
South Carolina Expt. Station Bulletin 182. "Potash."

Texas Expt. Station Bulletin 167. "Commercial Fertilizers and Their Use."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

" Incompatibles in Fertilizer Mixtures."

398. "Commercial Fertilizers in the South."

* From the Farmers' Cyclop-dia.

CHAPTER 5

BARNYARD, STABLE AND GREEN MANURES

Barnyard and stable manure consists of the solid and liquid void-
ings of the farm animals mixed with various kinds and amounts of bedding.
The term stable manure designates manure just as it comes from the
stable in its fresh state. Yard manure applies to that which has accu-
mulated or been kept for some time in piles in the barnyard. Fresh
manure means that which is only a few hours or, at most, a few days old.
The term rotted manure is used to designate that which has gone through
considerable fermentation and is more or less disintegrated. The term
mixed manure applies to that of the different species of farm animals
when brought together in the same manure heap.

Manure an Important Farm Asset. — The manure of farm animals is
the most valuable by-product of American farms. Numerous tests and
analyses have been made to determine the amount and composition of
both the liquid and solid excrements for different classes of farm animals.
The average yield of fresh manure and its content of essential plant-food
constituents, together with the yearly value of these, is given in the fol-
lowing table for different classes of animals. The calculations in this
table are based on the composition of the solid and liquid excrements
given in a subsequent table in this chapter. The plant-food constituents
are valued as follows: nitrogen eighteen cents a pound, phosphoric acid
four cents a pound, potash five cents a pound.

AVERAGE YIELD AND YEARLY VALUE OF FRESH MANURE OF FARM ANIMALS,
EXCLUSIVE OF BEDDING.

Kind of Livestock.

Amount
of
Manure
Yearly,
pounds.

Pounds of Ingredients Yearly.

Yearly
Value.

Nitrogen.

Phosphoric
Acid.

Potash.

Cow. .
Horse

28,000
15,000
3,000
1,140
30

124.
96.
14.4
11.02
.414

50.
42.
9.54
4.75
.15

132.
81.
11.4
9.88
.123

$30.92
23.01
3.54
2.67
.087

Pig

Sheep

Poultry

The following table gives the numbers of the different classes of farm
animals in the United States according to the census of 1910, together with
the calculated value of manure for each class, the calculations being based
upon the valuation of manure given in the preceding table. In case of
cattle, the valuation has been reduced, the reduction being based on the

(76)

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 77

relative numbers and values of milch cows as compared with all other
cattle.

ANIMALS IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1910 AND ESTIMATED VALUE OF
THEIR MANURE.

Class.

Number of
Animals.

Value of Manure.

Per Head.

Total.

Horses

27,618,242
63,682,648
59,473,636
55,868,543
295,880,000

$23.00
23.00*
3.54
2.67
.087

$635,219,566.00
1,464,700,904.00
210,536,671.00
149,169,010.00
25,741,560.00

Cattle (all kinds)

Swine .

Sheep and goats

Poultry

Total value

$2,485,367,711.00

Manure is valuable because: (1) it contains the three essential ele-
ments of plant food, namely, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium; (2)
it furnishes organic matter which is converted into humus in the soil and
materially improves the physical condition, water-holding capacity and
chemical and bacterial activities in the soil; (3) it introduces beneficial
forms of bacteria in the soil and these multiply and become increasingly
beneficial as their numbers increase.

As a Source of Plant Food. — The composition of manure varies with
the kind of animals producing it, the age of animals and the amount
and quality of the feed they consume. The manure consists of the solid
excrements and the liquids or urine. These differ in their composition.
The urine is the most valuable part of the excreta of animals. The aver-
age mixed stable and barnyard manure contains approximately ten pounds
nitrogen, six pounds phosphoric acid and eight pounds potash in each ton
of manure. The solid portions consist chiefly of the undigested portions
of the food consumed, together with the straw or bedding that has been
used in the stables. The solid portions contain approximately one-third
of the total nitrogen, one-fifth of the total potash and nearly all of the
phosphoric acid voided by animals. The urine contains about two-thirds
of the total nitrogen, four-fifths of the potash and very little of the phos-
phoric acid. The elements found in the urine are insoluble. They are
not immediately available as food for plants, but become so more quickly
than the constituents in the solid portions.

Of the nitrogen in barnyard manure, that in the urine will be most
readily available; that in the finely divided matter of the feces will be
more slowly available; and that in the bedding will be most slowly avail-
able. For this reason the availability of the nitrogen in manure when
applied to __tbe soil is distributed throughout a comparatively long period.
Availability will vary greatly with the nature and treatment of the manure.

* Estimated ralue based cm relative numbers and values of milch cows and all other kinds of cattle,

78 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Experiments at several experiment stations show that the nitrogen in
manure is much less readily available than that in either nitrate of soda or
sulphate of ammonia. Because of this fact, barnyard manure when used
for certain truck crops is sometimes supplemented with available forms of
nitrogen. In such cases it is not advisable to mix the chemical forms of
nitrogen with the manure. Such mixture is likely to result in a loss of
available nitrogen through denitrification in the manure pile. It is best,
therefore, to apply the chemical form of nitrogen by itself, preferably
some time after the manure has been applied.

Physical Effect of Manures. — Barnyard and stable manure improves
the physical condition of heavy soils by increasing their tilth and making
them easier to cultivate. It improves loose, sandy soils by holding the
particles together and increasing the water-holding capacity. It, there-
fore, has the reverse effect on these two extremes of soil.

Manure tends to equalize the supply and distribution of water in
the soil and renders the soil less subject to erosion and injury by winds.
Experiments conducted by Professor King at the Wisconsin Experiment
Station show that manured land contained eighteen tons more water per
acre in the upper foot of soil than similar land unmanured, and thirty-
four tons more in the soil to a depth of three feet.

Biological Effect of Manure. — Farm manures introduce into the
soil a variety of bacteria and ferments. These help increase the supply
of available plant food. Barnyard manure sometimes causes denitrifi-
cation in the soil. By this process, nitrogen is set free in a gaseous form
and may escape. This is likely to be most serious as a result of changing
nitrates in the soil into other forms and therefore reducing the available
nitrogen supply. Experiments show that this occurs only in exceptional
cases and generally when unusually large applications of manure have
been made. On the other hand, experiments in considerable number indi-
cate that applications of manure may actually favor nitrification and aid
in the formation of nitrates. At the Delaware Experiment Station it
was found that soil liberally manured and producing hay at the rate of
six tons per acre contained several times as many bacteria as were found
in the same soil which had but little manure and was producing hay at
the rate of about one ton per acre.

The Value of Manure. — The value of manure depends: (1) upon
the class of animals by which it is produced; (2) upon the age of the
animals producing it; and (3) upon the character of feed from which
produced. Animals that are used for breeding purposes or for the pro-
duction of milk or wool retain a larger proportion of the plant-food con-
stituents of the food they consume. This will be found in their products,
whether it be the young animals to which they give birth or the milk or
wool produced by the cow and sheep respectively. Young animals that
are making rapid growth use a portion of the plant-food constituents,
and this is built into the tissues and bones of such animals. Old animals

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 79

that have ceased to grow and animals that are being fattened void prac-
tically all of the plant-food constituents in their excrements. For this
reason the manure from different classes of animals varies considerably
in its plant-food constituents.

Mature animals, neither gaining nor losing in weight, excrete prac-
tically all of the fertilizer constituents in the food consumed. Growing
animals may excrete as little as 50 per cent of such constituents. Milch
cows excrete 65 to 85 per cent; fattening and working animals 85 to 95
per cent. As regards the value of equal weights of manure under average
farm conditions, farm animals stand in the following order : poultry, sheep,
pi^s, horses, cows. At the Mississippi Experiment Station young fatten-
ing steers excreted on an average 84 per cent of the nitrogen, 86 per cent
of the phosphoric acid and 92 per cent of the potash in the food consumed.
At the Pennsylvania Experiment Station, cows in milk excreted 83 per cent
of nitrogen, 75 per cent of phosphoric acid and 92 per cent of the potash
of their food. The amount of manure produced per thousand pounds of
live weight of animals also varies with the class of animals, as well as
with the methdd of feeding and the character of the feed consumed. Sheep
and hogs produce the smallest amount of manure, but yield manure of
the greatest value per ton. Cows stand first in the amount of manure
produced, but rank lowest in the quality of manure.

Horse Manure. — Horse manure is more variable in its composition
than that of any other class of farm animals. This is due to the fluctua-
tion in the amount and character of the feed given to the horse, depend-
ing on whether he is doing heavy or light work, or whether he is idle.
Horse manure is drier than that from cattle, and generally contains more
fibrous material. It ferments easily, and is, therefore, considered a hot,
quick manure. When placed in piles by itself it ferments rapidly and
soon loses a large part of its nitrogen in the form of ammonia. Because
of its dry condition and rapid fermentation the temperature of the ma-
nure pile becomes very high, causing it to dry out quickly. This results in
what is commonly called fire-fanging. To prevent this, horse manure
should be mixed with cold, heavy cow or pig manure, or the piles of horse
manure should be compacted and kept constantly wet in order to reduce
the presence of air and consequent rapid fermentation. The quality of
horse manure makes it especially valuable for use in hotbeds, for the
growing of mushrooms and for application to cold, wet soils. Horse
manure is more bulky than that of any other class of farm animals and
weighs less per cubic foot.

Cattle Manure. — Cow and steer manure contains more water than
that from other domestic animals. It is ranked as a cold manure, and
has the lowest value, both from the standpoint of its plant-food con-
stituents and its fertilizing value. The average cow produces 40 to 50
pounds of dung or solid manure, and 20 to 30 pounds of urine per day.

Hog Manure. — The manure from hogs is fairly uniform in its com-
7

80

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

position, and is considered a cold, wet manure. It ferments slowly.
Hogs of average size produce 10 to 15 pounds of manure daily, and the
manure is somewhat richer than that from the preceding classes of animals,
chiefly because swine are fed more largely on rich, concentrated foods.

Sheep Manure. — Sheep manure is drier and richer than that from
any of the domestic animals except poultry. It ferments easily and acts
quickly in the soil. It keeps well, however, when allowed to accumulate
in pens where it is thoroughly tramped by the animals. It is especially
valuable for use in flower beds or for vegetables where quick action
is desired. An average sheep produces about four to five pounds of
manure daily.

Poultry Manure. — Poultry manure is the richest of farm manures.
It is especially rich in nitrogen, which is due to the fact that the urinal
secretions are semi-solid and are voided with the solid excrements. It
ferments easily, giving rise to the loss of nitrogen, and is very quick act-
ing when placed in the soil. It keeps best when maintained in a fairly
dry condition, and should be mixed with some absorbent or preservative.
Ground rock phosphate, gypsum or dry earth are good materials for this
purpose. Mixing with slaked lime, ashes or any alkaline material should
be avoided. These cause a liberation of ammonia, resulting in a loss of
nitrogen.

The following table gives the average total production of solid and
liquid excrements per year of the different classes of animals, together with
their percentage of water, nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash.

AVERAGE YIELD AND COMPOSITION OF FRESH EXCREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS.*

Dung — Solid Excrements.

Excreted
per Year,
pounds.

Water,
per cent.

Composition.

Potash,
per cent.

Nitrogen,
per cent.

Phosphoric
Acid,
per cent.

Cows

20,000
12,000
1,800
760
30

84.0
76.0
80.0
58.0
48.6

0.30
0.50
0.60
0.75
1.38

0.25
0.35
0.45
0.60
0.50

0.10
0.30
0.50
0.30
0.41

Horse

Pigs

Sheep

Hen

Urine — Liquid Excrements.

Excreted
per Year,
pounds.

Water,
per cent.

Composition.

Potash,
per cent.

Nitrogen,
per cent.

Phosphoric
Acid,
per cent.

Cows

8,000
3,000
1,200
380

92.0
89.0
97.5
86.5

0.80
1.20
0.30
1.40

Trace
Trace
0.12
0.05

1.4
1.5
0.2
2.0

Horse

Pies

Sheep

* This table taken from Volume Five, Fanners' Cyclopedia.

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES si

Miscellaneous Farm Manures. — In addition to the manure from farm
animals there is a variety of materials that may be available as manure
on many farms. It is well to utilize these as far as possible. Among
those most commonly met with are night-soil, leaf-mould and muck or
peat. Night-soil is best used when mixed with some good absorbent,
such as loam, muck or peat, and composted. Muck and peat are terms
used to designate accumulations of vegetable matter that are frequently
found in marshes, swamps and small ponds. Such material varies greatly
in its composition, and is especially valuable for its content of nitrogen,
and for its physical effect upon the soil. Leaf-mould pertains to decayed
accumulations of leaves frequently found in considerable quantities in
forested areas. It is especially valuable for some classes of garden truck
and flowers, but is ordinarily too costly because of the difficulty of gather-
ing it in any considerable quantities.

Value of Manure Influenced by Quality of Feed. — The plant-foe d
content of manure is almost directly in proportion to the plant-food
constituents contained in the feeds from which it comes. Thus, con-
centrated feeds high in protein, such as cottonseed meal, wheat bran
and oil cake, produce manure of the highest value. Ranking next
to these are such feeds as alfalfa and clover hay and other legumes.
The cereals, including corn and oats together with hay made from
grasses, rank third, while manure from roots is the lowest in plant-
food constituents and fertilizing value. Not only will the plant-
food constituents be most abundant in the manure from the concen-
trates, but it is likely also to be more readily available than that produced
from roughage.

These facts are important in connection w\th the selling of cash
crops and purchasing such concentrates as cottonseed meal and bran.
One who buys cottonseed meal as a fertilizer gets only its fertilizing value.
If it is purchased for feeding purposes, one may secure both its feeding
value and practically all of its manurial value. The relative price, there-
fore, of cash crops and purchased concentrates as feed is only one phase
of the exchange problem. Such concentrates produce manure having a
much higher value than that from the cash crops. This should be con-
sidered in connection with the exchange.

The table on next page shows the pounds of fertilizer constituents
in one ton of different agricultural products. It indicates the exchanges
which might, therefore, be effected with advantage.

The feeding value of a ton of wheat bran does not differ materially
from that of a ton of shelled corn. The difference in its feeding value
affects the nutritive ratio rather than the energy value. By exchanging
one ton of corn for an equal weight of wheat bran, there would be a gain
to the farm of 21 pounds of nitrogen, 46 pounds phosphoric acid and 24
pounds of potash, as shown by the above table. At usual prices for the
fertilizer constituents, this gain would amount to not less than $6 worth

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

of plant food. With an exchange of milk or potatoes for similar con-
centrates, the gain would be still more striking.

Amount and Character of Bedding Affects Value of Manure. — Straw
is a by-product on most farms, and is best utilized as bedding for animals.
In this way the plant-food constituents are not only all returned to the
soil from whence they originally came, but the straw becomes an absorb-
ent and prevents the loss of the liquids in the manure. Straw utilized
in this way is probably more valuable than it would be if applied directly

MANURIAL CONSTITUENTS CONTAINED IN ONE TON OF VARIOUS FARM PRODUCTS.

Manurial Constituents.

Farm Product.

Nitrogen,
pounds.

Phosphoric
Acid,
pounds.

Potash,
pounds.

Timothy hay

19 2

7 2

25 2

Clover hay . .

39 4

8.0

35 0

Alfalfa hay

53 2

10.8

49 2

Cowpea hay

49 6

13.2

47 2

Corn fodder, field cured.

17.2

7.2

21 4

Corn silage

8.4

2.4

6.6

Wheat straw

8.6

2.6

14.8

Rye straw

10.0

5.8

15.8

Oat straw

13.0

4.4

24.4

Wheat .

34 6

19 2

7 0

Rve .

32 4

16 2

10 4

Oats

36 2

15 4

11 4

Corn

29 6

12 2

7 2

Barley

39 6

15 4

9 0

Wheat bran

51 2

58 4

31 4

Linseed meal

108 6

37.6

26.2

Cottonseed meal . .

142 8

61.8

36.4

Potatoes

7.0

3.2

11.4

Milk

10.2

3.4

3.0

Cheese

90.6

23.0

5.0

Live cattle

53.2

37.2

3.4

as such to the soil. In the manure it is intermingled with the solid and
liquid excrement, and inoculated with the bacteria in the voidings of
animals, which facilitates its decomposition in the soil. Straw contains
less plant food than an equal weight of dry matter in manure. An
abundance of straw, therefore, used as bedding tends to dilute the ma-
nure and slightly reduce its value per ton. This, however, is not a logical
objection to its use on the farm, although it might become so on the
part of the farmer who is purchasing barnyard manure from outside sources,
providing, of course, that no distinction in price is made in accordance
with the concentration or dilution of the manure.

Some farmers use a great abundance of straw for bedding their ani-
mals. It is not, however, deemed good practice to use more than is suf-
ficient to keep the animals clean and absorb and retain all of the liquids.

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 83

A superabundance of bedding gives rise to a bulky, strawy manure that
must be used in large quantities in order to be effective, and frequently
results at the outset in denitrification and unsatisfactory results.

MODERN CONVENIENCE FOE CONVEYING MANURE FROM STALLS TO MANURE SPREADER.1

In a general way, it is estimated that the amount of bedding used
for animals should equal approximately one-third of the dry matter con-

ABSORBENT CAPACITY OF 100 POUNDS OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS WHEN AIR DRY

Nature of Absorbent.

Liquid Absorbed,
pounds.

Wheat straw

220

Oat straw

285

Rye straw

300

Sawdust ....

350

Partly decomposed oak leaves

160

Leaf rakings

400

Peat

500

Peat moss

1 300

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

84

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

sumed. This, however, will vary greatly, depending on the absorbent
power of the bedding used and the character of the feed the animals
receive. It will also depend on whether or not the absorbent material
is thoroughly dry when used. When bedded with ordinary oat and wheat
straw, it is estimated generally that cows should each have about 9
pounds of bedding, horses 6j pounds and sheep f pound. The table on
preceding page shows the 'approximate absorbent capacity of various
materials used as bedding.

The figures in the table are only approximate, and will vary con-
siderably under different conditions. They are supposed to represent
the amount of liquid that will be held by 100 pounds of the substances
mentioned, after twenty-four hours of contact.

Aside from the absorbent power of bedding, its composition is also
of some importance, and the following table gives the average fertilizer
constituents in 2000 pounds of different kinds of straw.

FERTILIZER CONSTITUENTS IN 2000 POUNDS OF VARIOUS KINDS OF DRY STRAW.

Nitrogen,
per cent.

Phosphoric Acid,
per cent.

Potash,
per cent.

Wheat

11 8

2 4

10 2

Wheat chaff

15 8

14 0

8 4

Oats

12 4

4.0

24 8

Rye .

9 2

5 6

15 8

Barley

26.2

6.0

41 8

Barley chaff

20.2

5.4

19 8

Buckwheat hulls

9.8

1.4

10.4

Methods of Storing and Handling. — The value of manure is also
determined by the manner in which it is stored, the length of time it
remains in storage and its manipulation in the storage heap. Manure
is a very bulky material of a comparatively low money value per ton.
Its economical use, therefore, demands that the consequent labor be
reduced to the minimum, especially in those regions where labor is high-
priced. Where manure is to be protected from the elements, it calls for
comparatively inexpensive structures for the purpose.

When different kinds of animals are kept, it is advisable to place all
the manure together so that the moist, cold cow and pig manure may
become thoroughly mixed with the dry, hot horse and sheep dung. In
this way each class of manure benefits the other. Where the manure
is deposited in a barnyard in which the animals run, the swine are fre-
quently allowed to have free access to the manure pile, from which they
often get considerable feed which would otherwise be wasted. Such
feed consists of the undigested concentrates fed to the horses and cattle.
Swine thoroughly mix the different kinds of manure, and when it is thor-
oughly compacted by the tramping of the animals, fermentation is reduced

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 85

to the minimum. If it is protected from rains and sufficient absorbent
material has been used in the bedding, loss is comparatively small.

When horse manure is placed by itself, it ferments very rapidly and
soon loses its nitrogen. Such fermentation can be materially reduced by
compacting the manure pile thoroughly and applying sufficient water to
keep it constantly wet. This same rapid decomposition and loss of nitro-
gen will take place in case of mixed manures if they are neither compacted
n:>r wet, although loss will not be so rapid.

The use of covered barnyards for protecting manure has in recent
years met with much favor in some portions of the country.

Losses of Manure. — A practice too common in many sections is to

PILES OF MANURE STORED UNDER EAVES OF BARN, SHOWING
How Loss TAKES PLACE.1

throw the manure out of stable doors and windows, and allow it to remain
for a considerable length of time beneath the eaves of the barns. This
not only exposes it to direct rainfall, but also subjects it to additional
rain collected by the roof of the building. Under these conditions the
leaching of the manure and the consequent loss is very great. Where
manure piles remain long under these conditions, it is sometimes doubtful
whether the depleted manure is worth hauling to the field. Certainly
this is a practice to be condemned. Both the mineral constituents and
organic matter are carried off in the leachings.

Experimental Results. — Experiments at the Cornell Experiment
Station where manure remained exposed during six summer months
showed a percentage loss for horse manure as follows: gross weight 57

1 Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N. Y. From " Soils," by Fletcher.

86 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

per cent, nitrogen 60 per cent, phosphoric acid 47 per cent, potash 76
per cent; for cow manure the loss was: gross weight 49 per cent, nitro-
gen 41 per cent, phosphoric acid 19 per cent, potash 8 per cent. The
rainfall during this period was 28 inches. This shows an average loss
for the two classes of manure of more than one-half in both weight and
actual plant-food constituents.

By similar observations at the Kansas Station, it was found that
the waste in six months amounted to fully one-half of the gross weight
of the manure and nearly 40 per cent of its nitrogen.

The New Jersey Experiment Station found that cow dung exposed
to the weather for 109 days lost 37.6 per cent of its nitrogen, 52 per cent
of its phosphoric acid and 47 per cent of its potash. Mixed dung and
urine lost during the same period of time 51 per cent of its nitrogen, 51
per cent of phosphoric acid and 61 per cent of potash. Numerous other
experiments along the same line could be cited, giving essentially the same
results. These experiments leave no doubt as to the large loss incurred
in negligent methods in the management of manure, and emphasize the
importance of better methods of storing manure.

The estimated annual value of the manure from all animals in the
United States as given in the table in the first part of this chapter is
$2,485,367,711. There is no means of ascertaining what proportion of
all manure is deposited where it can be collected. For present purposes
we will assume that one-half of it is available for return to the land.
Assuming that one-third of this is lost because of faulty methods of stor-
age and handling, the loss from this source would be valued at $414,-
227,952. The enormous loss sustained by American farmers through
negligence in the care, management and use of manure emphasizes the
importance of the subject and the great need of adopting economic methods
in its utilization.

How to Prevent Loss. — Some of the methods of preventing loss
have already been suggested. Under most conditions this is best accom-
plished by hauling the manure soon after its production directly to the
field. This has become a common practice in many localities. It is
economical from a number of viewpoints. It saves labor, obviating the
extra handling incurred when the manure is first dumped in the yard
and afterwards loaded on wagons to be taken to the field. It keeps
the premises about the barns and yards clean at all times; reduces offen-
sive odors due to decomposition of manure; and reduces in the summer
time breeding places for flies. The most important saving, however, is
in the actual value of the manure, which in this way has sustained no loss
due to decomposition and leaching.

Absorbents vs. Cisterns. — Losses frequently occur both in the yard
and stable, due to a direct and immediate loss of the liquid portions of
the manure. This is overcome either by the use of an ample supply of
absorbent in the way of bedding or by collecting the liquid manure in a

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 87

cistern. The cistern method of saving liquid manure is of doubtful econ-
omy in this country. The expense of cisterns and the trouble of hauling
and distributing, together with the care which must be exercised to pre-
vent loss of nitrogen by fermentation of the liquid when it stands long,
are all valid objections to such provisions. It is possible under intensive
farming and with cheap labor that liquid manure might be thus saved
and utilized for crops that respond to nitrogenous fertilizers. Best results
with manure demand that the liquid and solid portions be applied together.
It is the consensus of opinion that the best general practice is to save the
liquid by the use of absorbents.

Since nitrogen frequently escapes as ammonia, certain absorbents
for gases, such as gypsum, kainite, acid phosphate and ordinary dust,
have been recommended. As direct absorbents, however, these are of
doubtful value, although some of them are effective, first, in reducing the
fermentation, and second, in actually reinforcing the manure by the addi-
tion of plant-food constituents.

Sterilization. — Preservatives have also been suggested in the nature
of substances that will prevent fermentation and thus reduce losses.
Bisulphide of carbon, caustic lime, sulphuric acid and a number of other
substances have been tested for this purpose. However, anything that
will prohibit fermentation destroys the bacteria of the manure, and such
destruction may more than offset the saving in plant-food constituents.
Furthermore, most of these materials are rather costly, and the benefits
derived are not equal to the expense incurred.

Reinforcing Manures. — A number of substances have been used to
reinforce manure. The one most beneficial and economical is either acid
phosphate or rock phosphate. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that
phosphorus is the element most frequently needed in the soils, and that
manure is inadequately supplied with it. The following table, showing
results obtained at the Ohio Experiment Station by reinforcing manure
with different substances, gives direct evidence as to the relative merits
of such substances:

VALUE OF MANURE, AVERAGE 15 YEARS. — Rotation: Corn, Wheat, Clover (3 Years).

Treatment.

Nothing.

Gypsum.

Kainite.

Floats.

Acid
Phosphate.

Return per ton:
Yard manure

$2.55

$3.04

$2.93

$3.54

$4.10

Stall manure

3.31

3.56

3.97

4.49

4.82

It is evident from the above table that all the materials used have
more or less increased the value of the manure, as determined by the
value of increase in crops obtained from each ton when applied once in a
three years' rotation of corn, wheat and clover. The value per ton of

88

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

manure is based on 'the average farm price of the crops produced. It is
also evident from the table that stall manure gave in every instance a
larger return per ton than did yard manure, and that floats and acid phos-
phate proved by all odds the best reinforcing materials. While acid
phosphate reinforcement gave the largest return per ten of manure, the
floats proved about equally profitable from the investment standpoint.

In localities where phosphorus is the dominant soil requirement, the
reinforcement of manure with acid phosphate at the rate of about forty
pounds to each ton of manure is a most excellent practice. The manner
of applying the phosphate may be determined by conditions. It will
frequently be found convenient to apply this material to the manure in

SPREADING MANURE FROM WAGON, OLD WAY.1

the stalls or stables each day at the rate of about one pound for each
fully grown cow, horse or steer, and in lesser amounts for the smaller
animals. There is probably no place in which the raw rock phosphate
is likely to give better results than when used in this way as a reinforce-
ment to manure.

Economical Use of Manure. — The most economical use of manure
involves a number of factors. It is the opinion of both chemists and
farmers that manure and urine should be applied to the soil in its fresh-
est possible condition. If this is true, manure should be hauled from the
stable or barnyard to the field as soon as it is made. As previously indi-
cated, this method reduces to the minimum the cost of handling and has
several additional advantages. Well-rotted manure may be more quickly
available to plants, less bulky and easier to distribute, and weight for

i Courtesy of Dpubleday , Page & Co., Garden City, N. Y. From ' ' Soils," by Fletcher,

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 89

weight may give as much or larger returns than fresh manure. There
are, however, only a few conditions under which its use can be superior
to that of using fresh material. The rotted manure may be used for
intensive crops when availability is important, and especially on land
where weeds, entailing hand work, become a serious problem. In fresh
manure the weed-seeds that may have been in the feeds are likely to be
largely viable, and give rise to trouble in the field. Thorough fermenta-
tion generally destroys the viability of weed-seeds in manure.

To Which Crops Should Manure be Applied? — Next to tune of haul-
ing may be considered the crops to which manure can be most advan-
tageously applied. Direct applications of fresh manure are thought to
be injurious to the quality of tobacco, to sugar beets and to potatoes.
It should, therefore, not be applied to these crops directly. It may be
applied to the crop preceding, or decomposed manure may be used. As
a rule, manure should be applied directly to the crop in the rotation
having the longest growing season, or the greatest money value. For
example, in a rotation of corn, oats, wheat and mixed grasses, corn not
only has the longest growing season, but also the greatest food and cash
value. It is, therefore, considered good practice to apply the manure
directly to the corn. Since the benefits of manure are distributed over
a number of years, the crops which follow will benefit by its residual
effect.

To What Soils Should Manure be Applied? — Character of soil may
also determine where the manure should be applied. If mechanical con-
dition is a prime consideration, fresh manure may be applied to heavy,
clay soils and well-rotted manure to light, sandy soils. On the other
hand, the sandy soils in a favorable season are more likely to utilize coarse
manure to advantage than heavy soils. In such soils decomposition will
proceed more rapidly, thus rendering available the plant-food constituents
of the manure. On sandy soils manure should be applied only a short
time before it is likely to be needed, in order to prevent the danger of loss
by leaching. On heavy, clay soils the benefits from applying fresh manure
are likely to be rather slight the first year, because of slow decomposition
of the manure. This, however, is not serious, because in such soils the
plant food as it becomes available is held by the soil with little or no
loss.

Climate Affects Decomposition. — Climate may also be a factor in-
fluencing the use of fresh manure. In a warm, damp climate it matters
little whether the manure is fresh or well rotted when applied. Under
such conditions decomposition in the soil is sufficiently rapid to make
fresh manure readily available. The character of season may also be a
factor determining the relative merits of fresh and rotted manure. In
a very dry season excessive applications of fresh manure show a tendency
to burn out the soil, and this is more marked in light, sandy soils than in
the heavy soils. Furthermore, heavy applications of strawy manure

90

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

plowed under when the soil is dry will destroy the capillary connection
between the upper and lower soils, thus preventing a rise of the subsoil
water for the benefit of the newly planted crop. This occasionally results
in a crop failure and the condemnation of the use of fresh manure.

Eroded Soil Most in Need of Manure. — In a general way, any kind
of manure should be applied to those portions of the farm the soil of which
is most in need of manure. Marked differences in the organic content
of the soil in different parts of fields are often manifest. This most fre-
quently is the result of slight erosion on the sloping portions. It is a good
practice to apply manure to these portions in an effort to restore them
to their original fertility. Such areas without special attention tend to
deteriorate rapidly. The addition of manure improves the physical con-
dition of the soil, increases its absorptive power for rain and lessens
erosion. In this way, not only is the soil benefited, but deterioration
through erosion is checked.

Rate of Application. — The rate of applying manure is also important
and will determine the returns per ton of manure. Farmers in general
do not have sufficient manure to apply in large quantities to all of their
land. This gives rise to the question as to whether or not heavy appli-
cations shall be used on restricted areas and for certain crops, or whether
the manure shall be spread thinly and made to reach as far as possible.
Some German writers speak of 18 tons per acre as abundant, 14 tons as

VALUE OF MANURE. AVERAGE 30 YEARS.
Rotation: Corn,* Oats, Wheat,* Clover, Timothy (Four Years).

Treatment, One Rotation.

Value of
Four Crops.

Return per Ton
of Manure.

Return per Ton
over 12 per Acre.

Nothing

$60.02

Manure 12 tons

88 91

$2.41

Manure 16 tons

89 62

1.85

$0 18

Manure 20 tons

92.68

1.63

.33

Manure 12 tons and lime 2 tons

92.22

2.68

moderate and 8 tons as light applications. They recommend 10 tons
per acre for roots, 20 tons per acre for potatoes. In England, at the
Rothampsted Experiment Station, 14 tons yearly for grain was considered
heavy. In New Jersey 20 tons per acre for truck is not infrequently
used. Such applications are, however, unnecessarily large for general
farm crops and for the average farm.

At the Pennsylvania Experiment Station the average results for a
period of thirty years in a four-crop rotation when manure was used at
the rate of 12, 16 and 20 tons per acre during the rotation, show that the
largest return per ton of manure was secured with the lightest application.

* Manure applied to these crops only.

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 91

The manure in this case was applied twice in the rotation; 6, 8 and 10
tons per acre to the corn, the same amounts to the wheat and none to either
the oats or grass.

The returns per ton of manure are based on a valuation of crops
as follows: Corn 50 cents a bushel, oats 32 cents a bushel, wheat 80 cents
a bushel, hay $10 a ton, and oat straw, wheat straw and corn stover $2.50
per ton.

A similar experiment at the Ohio Experiment Station covering a
period of eighteen years has also shown the largest return per ton of
manure in case of the smaller applications. The results are given in the
following table:

VALUE OF MANURE. AVERAGE 18 YEARS.
Rotation: Corn,* Oats, Wheat,* Clover, Timothy (Five-year Rotation).

Treatment, One Rotation.

Return per Ton
of Manure.

Return per Ton
over 8 per Acre.

Manure 8 tons

$3.17

Manure 16 tons

2.41

$1.75

Rotation: Potatoes, Wheat, f Clover (Three Years).

Treatment, One Rotation.

Return per Ton
of Manure.

Return per Ton
over 8 per Acre.

^lanure 4 tons

$3 47

IVlanure 8 tons

2 58

$1.69

Manure 16 tons ....

2.15

1.72

Manure 8 tons

3.30

Methods of Applying Manure. — A uniform rate and even distribution
of manure are essential. This can be most economically effected by the
use of a manure spreader. It does the work better than it can be done
with a fork, and at a great saving of labor. While a manure spreader is
rather an expensive implement, it will be a paying investment on any
farm where 60 tons or more of manure are to be applied annually. It is
a common practice in most parts of the country to apply manure to a
grass sod and plow it under. In many cases manure is also applied to
corn land and land that has been in small grain, to be followed by other
or similar crops. While it is the consensus of opinion that the manure
applied in this way will give best results, there is some question as to
whether or not more of it should not be applied in the form of a top
dressing.

Top Dressing vs. Plowing Under. — At the Maryland Experiment

* Manure applied to these crops only.

t Manure applied to wheat, except in second 8 tons application, which went on potatoes.

02

-

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago.
(92)

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 93

Station both fresh and rotted manure were applied before and after
plowing. For fresh manure the average of two crops of corn showed
a gain of 10.9 bushels per acre in favor of applying after plowing. For the
wheat which followed the corn the gain was two bushels per acre. Where
rotted manure was compared in the same way there was practically no
difference in the yield of corn, and about one bushel gain for wrheat in
favor of applying after plowing. In this experiment the fresh manure
under both conditions and for both crops gave yields considerably above
that produced by the rotted manure.

Another experiment in which the manure was plowed under in the
spring as compared with plowing under in the fall gave results with corn
and wheat favorable to plowing under in the spring. This is in harmony
with the preceding experiment, and suggests that manure applied to the
surface, and allowed to remain for some time in that position, benefits
the soil and results in a better growth of crops than when it is plowed
under immediately. The subject is one worthy of further consideration
and experimentation. It is not an uncommon opinion, however, among
practical farmers that top dressing with manure is more beneficial than
plowing it under, and it is quite a common practice to top dress grass
lands and wheat with manure.

In the South, where manure is very scarce, it is frequently applied
in the hill or furrow at planting time. This entails a good deal of hand
labor, but it is probably justifiable where labor is as cheap as it is there.
The manner of applying small applications concentrates the manure in
the vicinity of the plants and stimulates growth during the early portions
of the season.

The Parking System. — The cheapest possible way of getting manure
on the land is by pasturing the animals, or allowing them to gather their
own feed. This, of course, is an old and universal practice in case of
pastures, and is becoming more popular as indicated by the practice of
hogging off corn, and other annual crops. This is spoken of as the park-
ing system. It has a disadvantage that in certain classes of animals the
manure is not uniformly distributed. It is more applicable for sheep and
swine than it is for the larger animals.

Distribution of Benefits. — The benefits of manure are distributed
over a number of years. This often gives rise to difficulty in case of the
tenant farmer who rents a farm for only one year and without assur-
ance that he will remain for more than that length of time. He hesi-
tates to haul and apply the manure, knowing that his successor will receive
a considerable part of its benefits. Under average conditions it is esti-
mated that the first crop after manure is applied will receive about 40
per cent of its benefits; the second crop 30 per cent; the third crop 20
per cent; and the fourth one the remaining 10 per cent. This distribution
of the benefits of manure is used in cost accounting in farm crops. The
accuracy of the distribution is doubtless crude, and would vary greatly

94 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

for different crops and different soils, and would also be influenced by the
character of the manure and its rate of application.

GREEN MANURES

Green manuring consists of plowing under green crops for the benefit
of the soil. The practice results in increasing the organic matter in the
soil. If legumes are used for this purpose the nitrogen content of the
soil may also be increased. Preference should be given to legumes for
this reason. The choice of a crop for green manuring purposes will depend
on a number of factors. Other things equal, deep-rooted crops are prefer-
able to those having shallow root systems. Plants with deep roots gather
some mineral constituents from the subsoil and upon the decay of the
plants leave them in the surface soil in an organic form. Deep-rooted
plants are also beneficial because they improve the physical condition of
the subsoil. In general, crops that will furnish the largest amount of
humus and nitrogen-bearing material for the soil should be selected.

When is Green Manuring Advisable? — The practice of plowing
under crops for the benefit of the soil is not justified in systems of live-
stock farming where the crops can be profitably fed and the manure
returned to the soil. There are many localities, however, where the farm-
ing systems are such that but little manure is available to supply the
needs of the soil. Under such conditions green manuring crops are often
resorted to with profit. They are especially to be recommended in case
of sandy soils low in organic matter, and for heavy scils in poor physical
condition. In addition to serving the purposes above mentioned, green
manuring crops, if properly selected, occupy the soil at seasons when it
would otherwise be bare of vegetation and subject to erosion. They also
prevent the loss of nitrogen by leaching. This is later made available for
other crops as the green manures decompose in the soil.

Green manuring is most applicable on fruit and truck farms. It is
quite extensively practiced in orchards during the early life of the trees.
It is also economical in the trucking regions where the winters are mild.

Objections to Green Manuring. — The objections to green manuring
lie chiefly in the fact that green manure crops are grown and plowed
under for the benefit of the soil and no direct immediate return is secured.
The green manuring crops generally take the place of money crops.
When it is possible to grow legumes and feed them to livestock with profit,
the stubble and roots of such crops, together with the manure which
they will afford, make possible nearly as rapid improvement of the soil
as is the case when the whole crop is plowed under. Whether or not a
green manuring crop should be fed or plowed under must be determined
by the cost of harvesting and feeding, together with the cost of returning
the manure, as compared with the returns secured in animals or animal
products in feeding it.

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 95

Principal Green Manuring Crops. — The principal crops grown in
the United States for green manuring purposes are red clover, alfalfa,
alsike clover, crimson clover, cowpeas, Canada peas, soy beans, vetch,
velvet bean, Japan clover, sweet clover and bur clover. In addition to
these, beggar weed, peanuts and velvet bean are also used in the South.
These are all legumes, and are decidedly preferable to non-legumes under
most conditions where green manures can be used. In the North, where
the winters are severe, rye and occasionally wheat are used for this pur-
pose. Buckwheat, which is a summer annual, is also sometimes used.

RYE TURNED UNDER FOR SOIL IMPROVEMENT.

When heavy green manuring crops are turned under allow two weeks or more to
elapse before planting succeeding crop.

The characteristics and the requirements for these crops will be dis-
cussed in Part II of this work.

On poor soils lime and the mineral fertilizers may be used with profit
in the production of a green manure crop. This will stimulate the crop
to a greater growth, and when it decays in the soil the elements applied
will again become available for the crop that is to follow.

The composition of the legumes used for green manuring varies con-
siderably, depending upon local conditions, character of soil and the stage
of maturity when plowed under. The table on next page shows the com-
position as determined by the average of a number of analyses, and gives
the fertilizing constituents in pounds per ton of dry matter for both tops
and roots in the crops indicated.

In connection with the analyses as shown in this table, it should be
borne in mind that all of the mineral constituents come from the soil,
and that it is not possible to increase these by the growing of green manur-

8

96

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

ing crops. The only possible benefit in this respect is the more available
form that may result as the green manuring crops decompose. The only
real additions to the soil will be in the form of organic matter and nitrogen.
It is, therefore, essential to select those crops that will give the largest
increase in those two constituents.

FERTILIZING MATERIALS IN 2000 POUNDS OF DRY SUBSTANCE.

Plant and Part.

Nitrogen,
per cent.

Phosphoric Acid,
per cent.

Potash,
per cent.

Alfalfa, tops

46

10 8

30 4

Alfalfa, roots

41

8 6

9.6

Cowpeas, tops

39 2

10 2

38.6

Cowpeas, roots

23 6

11

23.2

Crimson clover, tops

42 6

12 4

27.

Crimson clover, roots

30

9.4

20.4

Common vetch, tops

59 9

14.2

53.7

Common vetch, roots

43 8

15.8

23.6

Red clover, tops

47

11.6

42.8

Red clover, roots

54 8

16.8

16.4

Soy bean, tops

43 6

12.5

33.6

Soy bean, roots

21.

6.8

13.4

Velvet bean

50 2

10 6

76.8

The cultivated crops, such as corn, potatoes, tobacco, cotton and
some of the heavier truck crops, generally follow a green manuring crop
to better advantage than crops that are broadcasted or drilled and do
not require cultivation. It is good practice to plow under green manur-
ing crops two weeks or more in advance of the time of seeding the crop
which is to follow. Lime applied to the surface before the crop is turned
under will tend to hasten decomposition and neutralize acids which are
generally formed. The more succulent the crop when turned under, the
greater the tendency to acid formation.

REFERENCES

"Fertilizers and Manures." Hall.
"Farm Manures." Thome.
"Barnyard Manure, Value and Use." Edward Minus, Dept. of Agriculture, Cornell

University, Ithaca, N. Y.

Michigan Expt. Station Circular 25. "Composition and Value of Farm Manure."
Michigan Expt. Station Circular 26. "Losses and Preservation of Barnyard Manure."
Ohio Expt. Station Bulletin 246. "Barnyard Manure."
Purdue Expt. Station Bulletin 49. "Farm Manures."

CHAPTER 6

LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS

Soils Need Lime. — Lime is an essential element of plant food. Many
plants are injured by an acid condition of the soil. Soil acidity is most
cheaply corrected by one of the several forms of lime. The beneficial
effects of liming have been demonstrated by the agricultural experiment
stations in a dozen or more of the states. Observations by farmers in all
of the Eastern and Southern States, and in the Central States as far west
as the Missouri River, show that on many of the farms soils are sour.
This sourness of the soil is due to a deficiency of lime, and often occurs
in soils originally rich in lime.

Lime Content of Soils. — Soils vary greatly in their original lime
content. Some have very little lime to begin with. Others, such as the
limestone soils, are formed from limestone rocks, some of which were
originally more than 90 per cent carbonate of lime. The lime content of
soils is determined by treating them with strong mineral acids. This
removes all of the lime from the soil, and the content is then determined
chemically. The following table shows the lime content of a number of
typical soils in different parts of the United States:

LIME CONTENT (CACO3) PER ACRE 7 INCHES OP SOIL IN SOME TYPICAL SOILS
OF THE UNITED STATES.

Soil Type.

State.

Production.

Lime Content,
pounds.

Leonardtown loam

Maryland

Very low

2,500

Orangeburg sandy loam

Alabama ....

Low

3,500

Orangeburg fine sandy loam

Texas

u

4650

Cecil clay

North Carolina

ti

5000

Norfolk loam ... .

Maryland

ii

8,575

Oswego silt loam. .

Kansas

1C

14,275

Hagerstown loam

Tennessee

Medium

14,275

Miami sand

Ohio

u

34,650

Miami silt loam

\Visconsin

High

32 500

Porters black clay

Virginia

59 250

Marshal loam .

Minnesota

66,750

Podunk fine sandy loam . . .

Connecticut

83,575

Fresno fine sandy loam

California

125,250

Huston clay

Alabama

1 000 750

How Soils Lose Lime. — The greatest loss of lime from the soil is
due to leaching. Lime is slowly soluble in the soil solution, and is carried
downward by the gravitational movement of the soil water. The rate
of loss of lime in this way depends both upon the rate of solubility and

(97)

98 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

the rate of underground drainage. The fact that drainage waters and
well waters in all regions where lime is abundant in the soil are highly
charged with it is an indication of the readiness with which lime is lost
from the soil in this way.

In limestone soil regions the water generally finds its way into under-
ground drainage channels, and few surface streams occur. Very little
of it passes over the surface. This explains why limestone soils become
deficient in lime. The presence of an abundance of humus in the soil may
retain lime in the form of humates, and reduce its loss.

Lime is also removed in farm crops. The amount of removal in this
way depends on the yield and character of crops removed, together with
the amount that is returned in manures and other by-products. Legumes
contain much more lime than non-legumes, and, therefore, cause a more
rapid reduction in the lime of the soil.

Lime Requirements of Soils. — The character of vegetation is a good
index to the lime requirement of soils. When red clover fails or when
alsike clover does better than red clover, it indicates a sour soil. The
presence of redtop, plantain and sorrel also indicates a sour soil. In
traveling over the country from the Missouri River to the Atlantic sea-
coast, the acidity of the soil is indicated by the presence of these weeds.

Farmers who are troubled with failure of clover and by the encroach-
ment of the above-mentioned weeds, may feel reasonably sure that their
soils need lime. If these signs leave doubt in the mind of the farmer, he
can further test his soil by the use of neutral litmus paper. Five cents
worth of neutral litmus paper purchased at the drug store will enable him
to make tests of many samples of soil. This is conveniently done by
collecting small samples of soil to the usual depth of plowing at a number
of points in the field in question. The soils should be made thoroughly
wet, preferably with rain water or water that is not charged with lime.
A strip of the litmus paper brought in contact with the soil and allowed
to remain for fifteen or thirty minutes will turn red if the soil is sour.
The intensity of the change of color will in a measure indicate the degree
of sourness.

Upon request, most of the state experiment stations will test repre-
sentative samples of soil and advise concerning their lime requirements.
The laboratory method determines approximately the amount of lime
required to neutralize the soil to the usual depth of plowing.

Crops Require Lime. — Some crops are more tolerant of soil acidity
than others. Of our staple farm crops, common red clover is about the
least tolerant of such a condition. The staple crops that draw most
heavily on the soil for a supply of lime are those first affected by soil
acidity. They are also the least tolerant of soil acidity, and are usually
most responsive to applications of lime. The clovers contain much more
lime and magnesia than the cereals and grasses. The following table
gives the average lime and magnesia content as carbonates in a ton of

LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS J)9

the more general farm crops. Notice the large amounts in clover and
alfalfa. Common red clover contains more than alsike clover. It is less
tolerant of soil acidity than the latter.

AVERAGE LIME AND MAGNESIA (EQUIVALENT TO CACOs AND MaCOs) IN 2000 LBS.

OF THE FOLLOWING CROPS.
(Calculated from von Wolff's Tables on the Basis of 15 per cent Moisture.)

.Produce.

Calcium
CaCOs.

Magnesium
MgCOs.

Total.

Timothy hav

6 00

2.77

8 77

Wheat (grain and straw)

6.50

6.23

12 73

Corn (grain, cobs and stover)

8 68

8.66

17.34

Oats (grain and straw)

10.40

9.00

19.40

Clover hay (alsike)

49 00

21 47

70 47

Clover hay (red) .

73 00

27 01

100 01

Alfalfa hay

91 00

13 16

104 16

Pounds of Carbonates as

Tolerance to Acidity. — Numerous tests at the Pennsylvania Experi-
ment Station show that when the lime requirement of the soil is 1500 to
1700 pounds of burnt or caustic lime per acre seven inches of soil, red

THE GROWTH OF RED CLOVER ON AN ACID SOIL AS AFFECTED BY LiME.1
A sour soil is unfriendly to clover. Lime will overcome the difficulty.

clover fails. This is equivalent to from 2700 to 3000 pounds of carbonate
of lime or crushed limestone. A lime requirement of 500 to 1000 pounds
per acre does not seriously interfere with the growth of red clover. In
ordinary farm practice the acidity seldom becomes sufficiently marked to
affect noticeably the cereals and grasses, although these may be indirectly

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station.

100

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

affected by the failure of clover. On experimental plats where ammonium
sulphate has been used, the acidity has become so marked that all of the
crops in the rotation are directly affected. The degree of tolerance of
these crops is in the following order: oats, wheat, corn and red clover; the
last being the least tolerant of soil acidity.

At the Rhode Island Experiment Station, Wheeler has made extensive
tests of the tolerance of plants to soil acidity, and the relative benefits of
applying lime. The following table shows the plants falling into three
classes: first, those benefited by lime; second, those but little benefited
by lime; third, plants usually or frequently injured by lime.

LIME AS AFFECTING GROWTH OF PLANTS

Plants Benefited by Liming.

Alfalfa
Asparagus
Balsam

Eggplant
Elm, American
Emmer

Peanut
Pepper
Plum (Burbank-Japan)

Barley

Gooseberry

Pumpkin

Beets (all kinds)

Hemp

Quince

Beans

Kentucky Bluegrass

Raspberry (Cuthbert)

Bush

Kohl-rabi

Rhubarb

Golden Wax

Lentil

Salsify

Horticultural Pole

Lettuce (all kinds)

Salt-bush

Red Valentine

Linden, American

Sorghum

Cabbage

Martynia

Spinach

Cantaloupe

Mignonette

Squash

Cauliflower

Nasturtium

Summer

Celery

Oats

Hubbard

Cherry

Okra (Gumbo)

Sweet Alyssum

Clover

Onion

Timothy

Red

Orange

Tobacco

White

Pea

Turnip

Alsike

Canada

Flat

Crimson

Common

Swedish

Cucumber

Sweet

cJpland Cress

Currant

Pansy

Wheat

Dandelion

Parsnip

Bent, Rhode Island

Carrot

Chicory

Plants but Little Benefited by Liming.

Corn, Indian Rye

Redtop Spurry

Plants Usually or Frequently Injured by Liming.

Apple*
Azalea f
Bean

Velvet

Castor

Birch, American White
Blackberry
Chestnut f
Cotton

Cowpea*

Cranberry

Flax

Grape, Concord*

Lupine

Phlox (Drummondi)*

Peach*

Pear*

Radish

Raspberry
(Black-cap)

Rhododendron f

Sorrel
Common
Sheep

Spruce, Norway

Tomato*

Zinnia*

* These under certain conditions are benefited by liming,
t These have not been tested at the Rhode Island Station.

LIME AND OTHER S O I L A M E'W D ME N T S 101

Crops benefited by lime were not only: .increased' kj.js&ei :bajpt were
ready for market earlier than where lime was omitted. Tobacco was
improved in the character of its ash by the use of lime.

Lime is most beneficial in promoting the growth of legumes. This
results in building up the nitrogen supply and general fertility of the soil.

Sources of Lime. — The principal source of lime is in the limestone
rocks and deposits that occur in great abundance in many sections of the
country. There are probably no states in which limestone formations
do not occur, although there are sometimes considerable sections including
a number of counties in which limestone deposits are not accessible.

Deposits of marl occur in certain localities. They vary greatly in
composition and lime
content. Marl is gen-
erally in good physical
condition for applica-
tion to the soil, and
some of it contains
phosphorus and pot-
ash.

Oyster shells that
accumulate in large
quantities in sea-coast
localities where oyster
farming is carried on
forms another valua-
ble source of lime.
Wood-ashes are about
one-third actual lime.
Three tons of wood-
ashes are, therefore, equal to one ton of pure burnt lime. Unleached ashes
contain 5 to 7 per cent of potash, and 1 to 2 per cent of phosphoric acid,
which materially increases their value for use on land. When ashes are
leached, most of the potash is lost, but the lime content is somewhat
increased.

There are a number of forms of spent lime, which is a by-product of
different manufacturing establishments that use lime. Among these
may be mentioned dye-house lime, gas-house lime, lime from tanneries,
waste lime from soda-ash works, and waste lime from beet-sugar factories.
The value of these varies widely, and it is impossible to make a definite
statement concerning their value. They can frequently be secured at no
cost other than* the hauling. Whether or not they are worth hauling
depends upon circumstances. Frequently, they contain much water,
are in poor physical condition and will be more expensive in the long run
than to purchase first-class lime in good mechanical condition. Their

lCourtesy of International Agricultural Association, Caledonia, N. Y.

BEETS GROWN WITH AND WITHOUT LiME.1

102 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

value cVitf be ciro crmiru-d curly by examination by the chemist or by actual
field test.

Gypsum or land plaster is frequently used on land, and while it will
supply calcium as a plant food, it has little or no effect in correcting soil
acidity.

The rock phosphates and Thomas slag, used as sources of phosphorus,
contain considerable lime, and their liberal use may obviate the necessity
for applying lime to the soil.

Forms of Lime. — Lime (CaO) does not occur in nature. It is pre-
pared by heating limestone (CaCO3) in kilns; 100 pounds of pure lime-
stone thus heated loses 44 pounds of gas known as carbon dioxide (COs),
and results in 56 pounds of lime. This 56 pounds of lime may be slaked
with water and will combine with enough water to make 74 pounds of
hydrated lime. Therefore, 1120 pounds of pure lime equals 1480 pounds
of pure hydrated lime, which equals 2000 pounds carbonate of lime or
pure pulverized limestone. When lime and hydrated lime are exposed
to the air they slowly combine with the carbon dioxide of the air until
finally reverted to the original form of carbonate -of lime. The only
difference between the original lime rock and completely air-slaked lime
is that of fineness of subdivision, the one being in the form of large rock
masses and the jother a very fine powder. It is this fine state of sub-
division that makes air-slaked lime valuable to apply to the soil. If the raw
limestone could be made equally fine it would be just as good as air-slaked
lime for the same purpose. If used in generous amounts it need not be
so fine as air-slaked lime, but in order to be prompt and effective, pulver-
ized limestone should be so fine that 90 per cent will pass through a 100-
mesh screen. Where abundant and cheap, larger amounts of coarser
material may be used because of the considerable amounts of finely divided
active material it carries. The coarse portion may become available in
later years. Lime is generally sold in one of five forms: ground lime-
stone, freshly burnt or lump lime, ground burnt lime, hydrated lime and
air-slaked lime. Some deposits of lime are nearly pure carbonates of lime,
while others contain much magnesia and are known as dolomite. The
presence of magnesia slightly increases the neutralizing power of a given
weight of lime.

FUNCTIONS OF LIME

Lime as Plant Food. — The absence of lime prevents a normal develop-
ment of plants. Lime is, therefore, essential as a plant food. Most
soils contain sufficient lime to meet the food requirements of plants.
Some soils, however, may contain so little, or it may be so unavailable,
that plants that are hungry for lime may surfer from a lack of it.

Chemical Action of Lime. — The chemical effect of lime on most
soils is of minor importance. It varies somewhat with the form in which
it is applied to the soil. Freshly burnt or caustic lime is the most active

LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 103

form. It may combine with certain soil elements liberating other elements
such as potash, and making them available for plants. Lime in the pres-
ence of soluble phosphates will readily combine with them, forming
tricalcium phosphate. This will prevent the phosphates from uniting
with iron and aluminum, which gives rise to compounds less available to
plants than the lime phosphates.

Physical Effect of Lime. — Clay soils are frequently improved in
physical condition by the liberal application of lime. Freshly burnt lime
is the most active form for this purpose. Lime causes a flocculation of
the clay particles and increases the porosity of the soil. Lime, therefore,
facilitates drainage, makes cultivation easier, causes an aeration of the
soil and makes possible a deeper penetration by plant roots. On sandy
soils burnt lime may tend to bind the particles together. This may or
may not be desirable. When applied for its physical effect it is usually
best to apply air-slaked lime or finely pulverized limestone to sandy soils,
and to use freshly burnt lime on heavy, refractory soils well supplied with
organic matter.

Lime Affects Soil Bacteria. — Certain species of bacteria are instru-
mental in the change of ammonia and inorganic forms of nitrogen to
nitrates. This process is known as nitrification, and is promoted by the
presence of lime in the soil. The process not only makes the nitrogen
available, but gives rise to the development of carbon dioxide, which in turn
acts upon inert plant food and makes it more readily available to plants.

Lime is also beneficial to the several forms of micro-organisms that
reside in the tubercles on the roots of all legumes. This may explain why
legumes are generally more benefited by lime than non-legumes.

Lime Corrects Soil Acidity. — In the vast majority of instances the
chief function of lime is to correct soil acidity. Lime corrects acidity by
combining with the acids formed and giving rise to neutral salts. It will
seldom pay to apply lime to the soil for purposes other than this. The
amount of lime to apply is, therefore, determined chiefly by the degree
of acidity of the soil. In practice it is found advisable to apply more than
actual lime requirements indicated by chemical methods. This is advis-
able because in practice it is impossible to distribute lime thoroughly
and uniformly and secure its thorough mixture with the soil. Because
of this lack of uniformity in distribution some of the lime applied will be
ineffective and portions of the soil will not be brought in contact with
lime. It is not always necessary to make the soil neutral, since most
crops, even the most sensitive crops, will grow fairly well in the presence
of small amounts of acids.

Sanitary Effect of Lime. — The decomposition of organic matter in
the soil often gives rise to products that are injurious to plant growth.
While these generally disappear in time, the presence of lime often corrects
the difficulty at once. It is also believed that plant roots excrete injurious
substances. Lime neutralizes these objectionable substances.

10-4 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Lime also affects plant diseases. It lessens the injury of club root,
which is often serious in case of turnips, cabbages and other cruciferous
plants. It is found to be effective in reducing soil rot of sweet potatoes
and checking the root diseases of alfalfa. On the other hand, lime tends
to favor the development of potato scab, providing the germ of this
disease is already in the soil. In this case it encourages the disease and
becomes a menace rather than an aid. For this reason, lime is seldom
recommended for potatoes. If applied in a crop rotation which contains
potatoes, it is advisable to apply it just after the potato crop rather than
before.

Injudicious Use of Lime. — The injudicious use of lime may prove a
detriment. Lime is not a fertilizer. To depend on it alone will result in
failure. In the failure to recognize these principles lies the truth of the
old saying, "Lime and lime without manure makes both farm and farmer
poorer."

The excessive use of burnt lime may bring about the availability of
more plant food than can be utilized by crops, and cause a rapid loss of
it, in which case soil depletion is hastened. It is, therefore, good farm
practice to use medium to small quantities at intervals of five or six years.
Little is to be gained by applying more than is sufficient to meet the present
needs of the soil from the standpoint of neutralizing its acidity.

Rate of Application. — The amount of lime to apply varies with the
kind of lime, the requirements of the soil and the frequency of its applica-
tion. If a soil is a tenacious clay and physical improvement is desired,
an application of two or three tons of burnt lime per acre may be profitable.
Ordinarily, lime is applied to correct acidity and make the soil friendly
to clover and other plants. The equivalent of one to one and one-half
tons of burnt lime per acre applied once in each crop rotation is usually
a maximum amount. In some instances 1000 pounds per acre will
accomplish the desired result. The equivalent of 1000 pounds of burnt
lime is between 1300 and 1350 pounds of slaked lime, or a little less than
one ton of finely pulverized raw limestone. Unusually large applications
have emphasized the wastefulness of such applications so far as the needs
of the soil and crops are concerned, through periods of five to six y ears.
Large applications may last much longer, but they are more wasteful of
lime, and result in capital being invested without returns.

Small applications are advised for sandy soils. On such soils the
carbonate form is to be preferred. Wood-ashes, because of the form of
lime and the content of potash, is advised for sandy soils.

Time of Applying. — Lime in any form may be applied at any time of
the year. In general farm practice it is advisable to apply lime when men
and teams are available for its hauling and distribution with the minimum
interference with other farm work. There are some minor precautions,
however, in this connection. It is never advisable to apply caustic lime
in large amounts just prior to the planting of the crop. At least ten days

LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 105

or two weeks should intervene between time of application and planting
of the seed. The caustic effect may injure the young plants. In the soil
lime is converted to the carbonate form and the caustic properties soon
disappear.

Lime should usually pave the way for clover. It is well to apply
lime a year or more before the seeding of clover. If this has not been done,
it may be put on the land when the seed-bed is being made for the wheat,
oats or other crop with which clover is to be seeded. The advantages of
applying a year or two in advance of clover lie in the very thorough
mixture of lime and soil resulting from the plowing and tilling of the soil.

Frequency of Application. — The frequency with which lime should be
applied depends upon the character of the soil, the rate of application,
the length of the crop rotation and the character of the crops grown.
It may also be affected by climatic conditions and soil drainage. With
good drainage and heavy rainfall the losses of lime will be large, while
under reverse conditions they will be comparatively small. In crop
rotations five years or more in length, one application at an appropriate
place in each rotation should be sufficient. For shorter rotations one
application for each two rotations may meet the needs. On soils that are
extremely acid and where lime is scarce and high-priced, it may be desir-
able to make small applications at frequent intervals until the lime require-
ment of the soil is fully met. Sandy soils call for light applications at
rather short intervals. On clay soils larger amounts can be used and the
intervals lengthened.

Method of Applying. — Lime should be applied after the ground is
plowed and thoroughly mixed with the soil by harrowing or disking.
The more thoroughly it is mixed with the soil the better and quicker the
results will be. It should never be plowed under, because its tendency
is to work downward rather than upward in the soil. Apply lime with
a spreader after the ground has been plowed. Do not drill lime in with
seeds, nor mix it with commercial fertilizer, nor use it in place of fertilizer.
Apply lime to meet the lime requirements of a soil, and when this has been
done use manure and commercial fertilizers in the ways that have been
found profitable for the crops which are to be grown, regardless of the
fact that lime has been applied.

Relative Values of Different Forms of Lime. — The neutralizing effect
of the different forms of lime is given under the carriers of lime on a pre-
ceding page. The question of relative money values, however, is a matter
of arithmetic, and involves not only the first cost of unit weights of the
different forms of lime, but includes freight rates, cost of hauling and
the work of applying it to the land. In this connection the purity of the
product must always be taken into account. Impurities entail the
expense of freight and hauling of worthless materials, and increase the
cost of the active portion of the lime. The cost of lime in any locality
will depend largely on the presence or absence of limestone or some other

106 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

form of lime, together with the actual cost of quarrying, crushing or
burning, as the case may be.

The following figures, as given by Mr. J. H. Barren in the Tribune
Farmer, show the relative cost of equivalent amounts of three forms of
lime applied to the land in southern New York. This will serve as a
method for any region.

1 ton burnt lime at railroad station $4 . 00

Hauling 1 . 00

Cost of applying 1 . 50

Total cost per acre $6 . 50

The high cost of applying is on account of having to slake the burnt
lime before it is applied, together with the difficulty in applying it in that
form.

2640 pounds hydrated lime (equivalent to 1 ton burnt lime),

at $7.00 per ton $9.24

Hauling, at $1.00 per ton 1 .32

Applying, at 75 cents per ton 99

Total cost per acre $11 . 55

The increased cost per acre in using this form is due to the relatively
high first cost of hydrated lime and to the additional expense of hauling
650 pounds of water content in the hydrated lime.

In case of ground limestone we have the following:

3570 pounds ground limestone (equivalent to 1 ton burnt lime),

at $4.00 per ton $7 . 14

Hauling, at $1.00 per ton 1 .78

Applying, at 75 cents per ton » 1 . 33

Total cost per acre $10. 25

The above costs are probably considerably above the average for
most localities where lime is not too inaccessible. The relative cost of
ground limestone as compared with the burnt lime is also rather high.

It is good business to purchase that form which supplies the greatest
amount of active lime for the amount of money involved, providing the
mechanical condition is satisfactory. In this connection it should be
borne in mind that no matter in what form lime is applied to the soil, it
soon reverts to its original form of carbonate of lime. The advantages
in using slaked burnt lime lie chiefly in the extreme fineness of subdivision
and the possibilities of more thorough distribution in the soil.

Mixing with Manure and Fertilizers. — Caustic forms of lime should
not be mixed with either manure or fertilizers. Such forms in the presence
of nitrogenous materials cause a loss of nitrogen in the form of ammonia.
In the presence of soluble phosphates they cause a reversion to insoluble
forms. It is best, therefore, to apply lime in advance of applying fertil-

LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 107

izers, and mix it with the soil by disking or harrowing. In case of manure
.which is plowed under, the application of lime may follow that of manure,
being applied preferably after plowing.

The pulverized raw limestone may be applied with manure, or at
the time of applying fertilizers, without injurious results.

Experimental Results. — Experiments with lime at many experiment
stations and on all kinds of soils show that it makes little difference what
form is used, so long as it is applied in sufficient quantities to meet the
lime requirements of the soil, and is thoroughly and uniformly mixed with
the soil. At the Penn-
sylvania Experiment
Station finely crushed
limestone in each of
three field tests ex-
tending over a num-
ber of years has
proven slightly better
than equivalent
amounts of burnt
lime. Extensive pot
experiments at the
same experiment sta-
tion have shown that
finely pulverized lime-
stone IS equally ^ as After slaking, the piles are uniformly spread over
prompt and effective the surface.
in correcting soil

acidity and promoting the growth of clover as equivalent amounts of
caustic lime. While these tests are favorable to pulverized limestone,
they are not all sufficiently decisive to justify its use at a dispropor-
tionate price. If two tons of ground limestone cost much more than
one ton of burnt lime, one would ordinarily not be justified in using the
former.

Where lime must be shipped some distance, the more concentrated
forms are usually the cheaper.

Spreading Lime. — The practice most common in the Eastern States
is to place small piles of burnt lump lime at uniform intervals over the
field, the amount in each pile and the distance between piles determining
the rate of application. If the lime is to be spread promptly, about one-
half pail of water should be applied to each pile, and then covered lightly
with earth. This facilitates slaking, and the lime will be ready for dis-
tribution in a comparatively short time. In other instances the piles
are allowed to remain without either wetting or covering with earth
until weather conditions bring about complete slaking, Long periods of

1 Courtesy of W. N. Lowry, Student

THE OLD WAY OF SPREADING LIME.

108

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

rainy weather frequently prove disastrous by puddling the lime and causing
it to get into bad physical condition.

Another method is to place the burnt lump lime in large stacks at the
end of the field, and allow them to remain for several months until air
slaked. From these stacks the lime is hauled either by wagon, manure
spreader or lime spreader, and applied to the field. When the lime con-
tains lumps the manure spreader gives best results in distribution. By
screening, a lime spreader or fertilizer spreader with large capacity may be
used with good results. Whatever method is used, an effort should be
made to obtain uniform distribution at the desired rate at the minimum
cost of time and labor. When slaked lime is spread with the lime spreader,

A MODERN LIME SPREADER IN OPERATION.1

a canvas may be attached to the spreader which will reach to the ground,
and by tacking a strip at the lower edge to cause it to drag on the ground,
the disagreeable effect of the dust is largely overcome. Goggles for the
eyes and a wet sponge for the mouth may prevent some of the disagree-
able effects to the operator.

In the central states where pulverized raw limestone is extensively
used, both manure spreaders and lime spreaders are found satisfactory
in its distribution. One successful farmer finds that the work is most
cheaply and effectively done by using a short-tongue distributor hitched
close behind a wagon loaded with limestone. The limestone is shoveled
into the distributor as the load is drawn across the field. On loose, plowed
earth four horses are required to pull the load. In this way there is no
extra handling of the lime, and the distribution is completed as soon as
the wagon is unloaded. Many others have had good results with the
manure spreader. Several methods have been practiced with this machine.

i Courtesy of The Webb Publishing Company, St. Paul, Minn. From "Field Management and Crop
Rotations," by Parker.

LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 109

Some apply the lime and manure together. When the limestone is to be
applied at the rate of three tons per acre, 600 pounds on each load of
manure in case of ten loads of manure to the acre, gives the desired amount.

Another method is to put a layer of straw in the bottom of the manure
spreader, set the spreader for its minimum rate of distribution, and load
in the amount of lime that will give the desired rate of application. For
distribution at the rate of three tons per acre, this will generally require
not more than one ton.

Slaking Lime. — Lime in large quantities may be satisfactorily slaked
by applying about two and one-half pails of water to each barrel of lime

A LIME CRUSHING OUTFIT SUITABLE FOR THE FARMER.1

as it is unloaded in the field. Eventually the whole stack should be
covered with soil. In a few days all of the lime will be thoroughly slaked,
and in a fine, dry condition suitable for spreading.

Crushing vs. Burning Lime. — The use of finely pulverized raw lime-
stone has created a demand for machinery for crushing lime rock. There
are now on the market quite a number of portable machines suitable
for farm use. In some localities where limestone is easily accessible it
can be quarried and finely pulverized with these machines at a cost of
$1 to $1.50 per ton. This puts it within the reach of farmers at a mod-
erate price.

Lime is burnt in several ways. The simplest way on the farm is
to make a stack of lime rock with alternating layers of wood or coal.
This is built in a conical form with an intake for air at the bottom and
an opening at the top for ventilation. The stack is covered with earth
and the fire lighted.

1 Courtesy of New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. Bulletin 400.

110

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

More effective burning is secured by burning limestone in a kiln
constructed of stone or masonry. In either case the cost per ton of burn-
ing varies with the cost of fuel, the price of labor and the accessibility of

DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM LIMEKILN. 1

A — Cross section, showing layers of rock and coal. B — Longitudinal section,
showing side hill used as back wall. C — Ground plan, showing trench and grate.
D — Completed kiln, walled in and plastered with mud.

limestone. The minimum cost for burning, including quarrying, labor
and fuel, will be about $1.75 per ton of burnt lime. In many cases it
will cost much more.

REFERENCES

Alabama Expt. Station Bulletin 95. "Lime as a Fertilizer for Oats."
Iowa Expt. Station Bulletin 151. "Lime as a Fertilizer on Iowa Soils."

iFrom Farmers' Bulletin 435, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 111

Iowa Expt. Station Bulletin 2. "Bacteriological Effects of Lime."

New Jersey Expt. Station Bulletin 210. "Lime as a Fertilizer for Clover and Oats."

Ohio Expt. Station Bulletin 279. "Lime as a Fertilizer."

Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 131. "Use of Lime on Land."

Rhode Island Expt. Station Bulletin 49. "Methods of Applying Lime."

Rhode Island Expt. Station Bulletin 58. "Lime with Phosphates on Grass."

Rhode Island Expt. Station Bulletin 160. "Lime with Nitrogenous Fertilizers on Acid

Soils."

Tennessee Expt. Station Bulletin 96. "Effect of Lime on Crop Production."
Tennessee Expt. Station Bulletin 109. "Lime as a Fertilizer on Tennessee Soils."
Virginia Expt. Station Bulletin 187. "Lime as a Fertilizer on Virginia Soils."
Wisconsin Expt. Station Bulletin 230. "Lime as a Fertilizer on Wisconsin Soils."
Pennsylvania State Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 261. "Sour Soils and Liming."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 101. "Lime Sulphur Wash."
Farmers' Bulletin, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 435. "Burning Lime on the Farm."

CHAPTER 7
SOIL WATER, ITS FUNCTIONS AND CONTROL

Water is the most abundant substance in nature. It is necessary
to all forms of life. An abundant supply of moisture in the soil at all
seasons of the plant's growth is essential to a bountiful harvest. Sixty
to ninety per. cent of all green plants consist of water. About forty per
cent of the dry matter is made from water which unites with carbon to
form the structure of the plant. Water is the necessary vehicle which

MAP SHOWING MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL FOR ALL PARTS OF THE UNITED STATES.*

carries plant food to the plant, and causes it to circulate from one por-
tion of the plant to another. When there is a deficiency of water in the
soil, plant growth is checked. If the deficiency becomes sufficiently
marked, plant growth ceases entirely.

Amount and Distribution of Rain. — All water comes from rains and
melting snows. An acre inch of rain makes 113 tons of water. To
supply the equivalent of one inch of rainfall by artificial means at 10
cents per ton of water would cost $11.30 per acre. Ten inches of rain-

1 Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N. Y. From "Soils," by Fletcher.

(112)

SOIL WATER 113

fall at the same rate would cost $113 per acre. From this it can be readily
understood that artificial means of supplying plants with water must be
done at a very low cost, otherwise it will not prove profitable.

The amount of rain in any region is important in connection with
crop production. In all regions where the annual rainfall averages less
than twenty inches, failures from insufficient moisture in the soil are
frequent. The distribution of the rain is quite as important as the total
annual rainfall. That which falls during the crop-growing season is more
important than that which comes in the non-growing season. Conse-
quently, there are regions of comparatively low rainfall where the dis-
tribution is so favorable that crop failures are infrequent. In other
localities a large part of a good annual rainfall may come in the non-
crop-growing season, and as a result, crops frequently suffer from drought.
In moving from one region to another it is well to study the average rain-
fall and its distribution.

Amount of Water Necessary to Produce Crops. — In the processes of
plant growth the amount of water transpired or given off by plants is
many times greater than that used in the plant tissues. Investigations
in different parts of the world and at several of the American experiment
stations show that in plant growth the amount of water required to pro-
duce a pound of dry matter ranges from 200 to 700 pounds. This amount
must actually pass through plants. Each ton of dry matter in alfalfa
takes 700 tons of water. Each ton of dry matter in wheat required about
400 tons of water; in oats, about 500 tons; and in corn, about 300 tons.
To produce three tons of alfalfa in one season requires from 16 to 17
inches of rainfall, all of which must pass through the plants. A 20-bushel
crop of wheat would require about 6 inches, and 40 bushels of oats 6|;
while 50 bushels of corn would require about 8J inches of rainfall. For
crops of the yields mentioned there should be more rainfall during the
growing season than above indicated, because of the loss of water by direct
evaporation from the soil, plus additional amounts that may flow from
the surface if the rain falls rapidly, together with some that may pass
through the soil into the underdrainage.

Transpiration by Plants. — Transpiration, or the amount of water
that passes through the plant and is evaporated from the surface of the
leaves, varies greatly in different localities, and is influenced by a num-
ber of factors. Transpiration takes place most rapidly during the day-
time and in the presence of plenty of sunshine and warmth. During the
night-time it is reduced to a very small amount. Transpiration is increased
with a reduction of the humidity of the air, with rise in temperature and
with intensity of sunshine. It is also increased with an increase in the
movement of the air. An increase in plant food tends to decrease it, as
does also a rapid growth of the plant. Transpiration is more rapid in the
presence of an abundance of soil moisture than it is when the soil is dry.

Experiments at the University of Illinois by Dr. Hunt showed ar

114 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

increase per acre in the dry matter in corn amounting to 1300 pounds in
one week in July. On the basis of requiring 300 pounds of water for
each pound of dry matter, the consumption of water by the growing corn
in one week would equal 1.72 inches of rain. This, of course, is for a single
week in the height of the growing season, but it shows the large amount of
rainfall required to meet fully the needs of a large and rapidly growing
crop. It should emphasize the importance of storing in the soil the largest
possible amount of available water to tide over periods of deficiency
in rainfall.

Forms of Soil Water. — Water exists in the soil in three forms: (1)
gravitational water, or that which is free to move through the soil under
the influence of gravity; (2) capillary water, or that which is held against
the force of gravity by capillary power or, as it is sometimes called, sur-
face tension; (3) hygroscopic water, or that which adheres to the soil
particles so firmly that it will not be given off, even when the soil becomes
dry. Not all of the water in the soil is available for plants. Very few of
our economic plants use any of the gravitational water of the soil, except
as it may rise by capillarity and be used from the capillary store which
it replenishes. It is also certain that plants cannot benefit from the
hygroscopic water of the soil, because they are unable to get it from the
soil particles by which it is so tenaciously held in this form. The capil-
lary water is, therefore, the one form that is of importance in plant
growth. The relative amounts of the three forms of water in the soil
depend on a number of factors.

The amount of pore space in soils ranges from 35 to 60 per cent of
the volume of the soil. When there is no underdrainage and a super-
abundance of rain this space may become fully occupied with water to
the exclusion of air. The soil is then said to be saturated. If rains cease
and underdrainage is established, the gravitational water will escape by
means of the drainage channels. The amount which will escape in this
way is determined chiefly by the texture of the soil and the percentage
of pore space in it. The larger the pore space, the greater the amount of
water that will escape in this way; the finer the texture of the soil, the
larger the amount held by capillarity and the less the amount that will
escape by drainage.

Capillary Water. — This is the important portion of the soil water
supply. It is the form on which plants wholly depend for their water
supply. Plants cannot exhaust from the soil all of the capillary water,
because a portion of it will be too tenaciously held by the soil particles to
be removed by the plant root hairs. The optimum, or most favorable
percentage of water in the soil for plants, differs for different crops. Such
crops as corn and potatoes do best with a moderate percentage of water
in the soil, which gives opportunity for plenty of air. Such plants as
timothy, redtop and other grasses do best when the percentage of water
in the soil is somewhat higher. Field experiments have shown that when

SOIL WATER

115

the water content of the soil is increased 25 per cent above the optimum
percentage, plants begin to suffer as a result of too much moisture, and
when the moisture falls 25 per cent below the optimum, they suffer from
drought.

The amount of capillary water in the soil is determined chiefly by
its texture. The following table shows the percentage of water held by
soils ranging in texture from coarse sand to clay, when subjected to a

EFFECT OP LITTLE, MEDIUM, AND MUCH WATER ON WHEAT.1

centrifugal force 2940 times that of gravity. A coarse sand held only
4.6 per cent of moisture, while clay held 46.5 per cent or ten times as
much. The water held under natural conditions by the several classes
of soil given in the table would be much larger, but the relative amounts
wTould be the same.

CAPILLARY MOISTURE IN SOIL.

Class.

Percentage of
Clay in Soil.

Percentage of Moisture
Retained against Force
2940 Times that of
Gravity.

Coarse sand

4 8

4 6

Medium sandy loam

7.3

7.0

Fine sandy loam

12 6

11 8

Silt .

10 6

12 9

Silt loam

17 7

26 9

Clay loam

26 6

32 4

Clay

59 8

46 5

Capillary water is also influenced to some extent by the structure of
the soil, and to somewhat greater extent by its content of humus or

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "Principles of Irrigation Practice," by Widtsoe.

116 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

organic matter. Soils of fine texture and those having plenty of organic
matter hold the largest amount of capillary water, and are able to with-
stand periods of drought better than those with a lesser capacity.

Plant roots move toward the water supply in the soil, and as they
withdraw water from the soil particles, water moves to those points by
capillary action to replace that removed. The rate of capillary move-
ment is slowest in soils of fine texture, and is most rapid in sandy soils.
The distance through which capillary power acts on the other hand is
least in sandy soils, and greatest in soils of fine texture. We find, there-
fore, that plant roots are most extensive in sandy soils and extend to
greater depths in search of a water supply.

Gravitational Water. — Since gravitational water is but little used by
plants, it becomes a menace in soils more often than a benefit. Over large
areas of comparatively level land where there is an abundant rainfall, it
often becomes necessary to remove the gravitational water by means of
various forms of drainage. The movement of gravitational water within
the soil depends chiefly on the texture and structure of the soil. The
amount that needs to be removed under agricultural conditions depends
chiefly on the rainfall of the region and the amount that escapes over the
surface of the land. The depth to which this gravitational water should
be removed will be determined chiefly by the character of crops to be
grown. Seldom is it advisable to place underdrains for this purpose at
a depth of less than three feet. For deep-rooted crops, such as alfalfa
and orchard fruits, four feet and sometimes more is advisable.

While this form of water may be injurious to upland plants, when
it exists at a depth of from four to six feet below the surface it does no
harm and serves as a reservoir from which water may be drawn by cap-
illarity to meet the losses above by evaporation and plant removal.

Hygroscopic Water. — The water which is held by the soil when a
thin layer is spread out and allowed to become air dry is called hygro-
scopic moisture. When this soil is placed in an oven and heated to the
temperature of boiling water for several hours, it loses its hygroscopic
water and becomes water free. The amount of this form of water held
by soils varies directly with the texture of the soil and may amount to
as much as 16.5 per cent in case of clay, while in a muck soil it may be
as high as 50 per cent. The percentage of hygroscopic water will also be
influenced by the temperature and humidity of the air with which it comes
in contact.

Water Affects Temperature of the Soil. — A requisite degree of warmth
in the soil is essential to physical, chemical and biological processes that
make for soil fertility. Warmth is essential to the germination of seeds
and growth of plants. The chief source of warmth in the soil is from the
sun. The rapidity with which a soil warms under the influence of the sun
depends more largely on its water content than on any other factor.
One pound of water requires four times as much heat to increase its tern-

SOIL WATER 117

perature one degree as would be required by an equal weight of soil. An
excess of water in the soil, therefore, greatly lessens its rate of warming.
In wet soils much evaporation of water takes place at the surface. It
requires more than five times as much heat to transform one pound of
water from liquid to vapor as it does to raise the temperature of an equal
weight of water from the freezing to the boiling point. In other words,
the heat consumed in the process of evaporation is sufficient to cause a
change of 900 degrees in temperature in an equal volume of water. This
fact emphasizes the importance of removing surplus water by means of
drainage, instead of allowing it to evaporate from the surface of the soil.
An amount of evaporation sufficient to maintain a proper soil tempera-
ture in prolonged heat periods may be desirable, but excessive evaporation
is undesirable in temperate latitudes, especially during the early grow-
ing season. Reduced temperature as the resul ; of such evaporation often
causes disaster during the seeding cr planting seascn and retards the
early growth of crops.

Water Storage Capacity of Soils. — Since the rains of summer are
rarely fully adequate to meet the needs of growing plants, it is essential
to increase the storage capacity of the soil as far as possible. For this
purpose, the chief agencies are plowing, methods of tillage and the use
of organic manures. Deep plowing and the incorporation of organic
matter to the full depth of plowing will increase very materially the
capacity of the soil for water. In conjunction with this, the soil should
be so cultivated that it will receive the rainfall and thus have an oppor-
tunity for holding it. This means the maintenance of a porous surface
so that rainfall will not escape over the surface until the soil has become
filled with water.

Those crops endowed with the power of deep-root penetration, such
as alfalfa, can draw their moisture from greater depths in the soil than
shallow-rooted crops. In regions of low rainfall this amounts to the
same thing as increasing the storage capacity of the surface portion of
the soil.

Moisture Conservation. — The practical conservation of soil moisture
is effected chiefly by preventing direct evaporation from the surface of
the soil, and also by exterminating all foreign plants in the nature of
weeds that tend to rob the crops of their moisture supply. Evaporation
is most economically reduced to the minimum by surface tillage and the
establishment of an earth mulch. The earth mulch to the depth of two
or three inches is formed by periodic cultivation or a stirring of the surface
of the soil so as to break the capillary action with the soil immediately
beneath. The efficiency of such mulches depends largely on the perfec-
tion with which they are made. A surface mulch to be effective should
consist of rather finely pulverized loose soil. This becomes dry to such
an extent that the soil moisture film is discontinuous and water ceases to
rise to the immediate surface. In this condition, any loss that takes place

118

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

must result from the escape of water within the soil pores. A little loss
will take place in this way. Such mulches must be renewed at intervals
more or less frequent, depending on the rainfall and the rapidity with
which the surface soil may become compacted'. In the. absence of rains,
a well-established mulch will last for a long time. On the other hand,
a comparatively light rain will spoil the mulch and establish capillary
connection with the soil below.

Mulches of straw, manure and other organic materials are some-
I

ORCHARD WELL CULTIVATED TO PREVENT EVAPORATION.*

times used. These are very effective, but are often expensive. Such
mulches are most common in orchards in case of small fruits, straw-
berries, and sometimes for potatoes and tomatoes.

Where green manuring crops which are to be followed promptly
with money crops are used, it is well to take the precaution to plow these
under before they have thoroughly exhausted the moisture supply of the
soil. Precaution should also be taken in plowing under green manure
crops and barnyard manure to avoid possibility of cutting off the capil-
lary connection between the plowed and unplowed portion of the soil.

Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "Principles of Irrigation Practice," by Widtsoe.

SOIL WATER 119

Removing Excess of Water. — Excess of soil water pertains only to
that above described as gravitational water. This may be removed by
deep, open drains and by underdrains. Methods of drainage will be dis-
cussed in another topic.

On comparatively levei lands where surface water often accumulates,
its escape may be encouraged by so plowing the land that it will lie in slight
ridges and continuous depressions. If the depressions have a continuous
fall, all of the surface water will slowly escape from the land into natural
drainage channels and without causing erosion.

Excess of water is sometimes removed by the use of crops, although
this does not pertain to gravitational water. In most localities it is desir-
able to have the growth of orchard trees cease as the season draws to a
close, in order that the wood may harden and withstand winter freezing.
For this purpose orchards are frequently planted with crops that draw
heavily on the soil moisture for the purpose of so exhausting it that the
growth of the trees will be checked. This serves not only a good purpose
with reference to the condition of the orchard, but produces organic
matter that may be plowed under for the benefit of the soil and the trees.

LAND DRAINAGE

A wet soil is cold and late. It can seldom be plowed and tilled at
the proper time. Most farm crops do not make satisfactory growth in a
wet soil, and, therefore, it seldom pays to farm such land.

Wet lands, when drained, are generally above the average in fertility.
Money invested in drainage seldom fails to bring good returns. In many
cases the increase in crops, following drainage, has paid for its cost in
one year.

Drainage Increases Warmth and Fertility of Soil. — When an excess
of soil water is removed through underground drains it permits the soil
to warm up rapidly under the influence of the sun; lengthens the growing
season; increases the number of days during which the soil is in good
condition to plow; increases aeration of the soil; encourages the deep
penetration of the roots of plants, and as a result makes the plants
resistant to drought. Drainage is, therefore, the first essential to soil
fertility.

Improves Health Conditions. — Drainage also improves health con-
ditions. The drainage of large areas of swampy land in the vicinity of
populous districts has often been undertaken for this purpose alone and
without any regard to the increased agricultural value of the land. Large
portions of the prairie region when first settled were sufficiently wet to
furnish abundant breeding places for mosquitoes. The great numbers of
mosquitoes were not only a great annoyance, but were responsible for
thousands of cases of malaria, which greatly reduced the health and
efficiency of people living in that region. Tile drainage that has been so
extensively established in most of that region has practically abolished

120 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

breeding places for mosquitoes, and caused their disappearance to such a
degree that malaria is now practically unknown in that region.

Open vs. Underground Drains. — The gravitational water in the soil
may be lowered to the depth of two or three feet below the surface by
open drains, but the same can be more economically effected by the installa-
tion of underground drains. Open drains waste much land, the ditches
are subject to erosion and their presence interferes with cultural opera-
tions. They are also expensive to maintain, because of the necessity of
annually cleaning them.

Underground or tile drains are more effective than open ones. They
waste no land, require practically no outlay for annual maintenance, do
not interfere with cultural operations and are permanent. The cost of
excavating for underground drains is less than that for an equal length
of open drains, because in the former very narrow trenches are excavated
which are filled as soon as the tile is in place.

Quality of Tile. — Burned clay pipes are almost universally used for
soil drains. They are made in sections, from 12 to 24 inches long, having
an internal diameter ranging from 3 to 16 inches. Since the installation
of underground drainage is to be permanent, care should be exercised in
the selection and purchase of the tile. Only the straight, well-burned
tile should be used. A well-burned tile is generally dark in color, and
gives a decided ring when struck with a light metal. Formerly it was
thought that such tiles should be quite pervious to water, but it is now
understood that the openings at the joints are ample to admit the water
from the soil as fast as it can reach the lines of tile.

Cost of Tile and Excavating. — The cost of installing underground
drainage depends on the cost of the tile laid down on the land, the fre-
quency of the underground lines of drainage as determined by the per-
meability of the soil to water, together with the cost of digging the trenches
as determined by the ease or difficulty in excavating the soil. The cost
of the tile will vary with the locality, the freight charges and the distance
they must be hauled. In general, the price of the tile per 1000 feet F. O. B.
cars, at the factories, will be as follows:

Size. Price.

3 inch.. . $10.00-$12.00

4
5

6

7

8

10

12

15.00- 20.00
20.00- 27.00
27.00- 35.00
36.00- 50.00
45.00- 60.00
60.00-110.00
90.00-150.00

The cost of digging the trenches will vary greatly with the character
and condition of the soil to be excavated, the skill of the digger and the
prevailing cost of labor in the locality. Deep trenches cost relatively
more to excavate than shallow ones, because the trenches must be wider

SOIL WATER 121

at the top to accommodate the workman, and the earth in the bottom of
the trenches is more difficult to remove. Where the soil is free from
stones and hardpan, trenches are frequently excavated to the depth of
three feet, and the tiles placed ready for filling the trenches, at a cost of
thirty cents per linear rod. Below the depth of three feet and up to five
feet, excavating under similar conditions will cost about one cent per
inch per rod.

Depth and Frequency of Drains. — The depth at which to place the
tile drains will be determined by the class of crops to be grown and the
character of the subsoil. Three feet in depth is considered ample for
most farm crops, but for orchards, alfalfa and especially deep-rooted
crops, a depth of four feet is preferred. There are many localities, how-
ever, where the impervious character of the subsoil is such that tiles can
be placed only twenty-four or thirty inches deep, and permit the water
to enter. Even under these conditions, tile drainage is generally advisable.

The distance between lines of drain will depend chiefly on the char-
acter of the soil, with special reference to its permeability to water. A
soil and subsoil that is sandy or loamy in character will frequently be
satisfactorily drained with lines of tile 200 to 300 feet apart. On the
other hand, a dense clay will sometimes necessitate the lines of drains
being placed at intervals of not more than 30 to 40 feet. This, of course,
makes underdrainage much more expensive than in the former case.
The deeper the tile is placed the farther the lines may be apart.

Where land to be drained is uniformly wet, the gridiron or regular
system is to be preferred. The irregular system will answer the purpose
for the drainage of wet spots or sloughs. The main lines should follow
approximately the natural depressions or water courses, while the laterals
may run up and down the slopes. Rather long parallel lines are more
economical than short ones with numerous branches.

Grades, Silt Basins and Junctions. — All lines of underdrainage should
be laid with uniform grades. If the topography of the land necessitates
a change in the grade, in which the grade in the lower portion of the line
is less than in the upper portion, a silt basin should be placed at the point
where the change of grade takes place. When the reverse is true, a silt
basin is not necessary. Where laterals enter a main or sub-main which
has a lesser fall than the laterals, silt basins should also be installed.
Laterals should enter the main above the center of the pipe, rather than
below it. All junctions should be made at an angle of about forty-five
degrees up-stream. A fall of one foot in one hundred feet is considered
a heavy grade. A fall of one inch in one hundred feet will give good
results, although more fall than this is better. In the level prairie sections
of the country hundreds of miles of tile are laid with a grade of only one-
half inch in one hundred feet, and where great care is exercised in laying
the tile, difficulty has seldom been encountered.

On level land a fair grade may be obtained by gradually lessening

122 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

the depth of the tile from the lower to the upper end of any branch. In
a drainage line 1200 feet in length a fall of one inch in each hundred feet
may be obtained by having the lower end of the line 3J feet below the
surface of the ground, and the upper end 2J feet below the surface, even
though the land along this line is absolutely level.

The Outlet. — The first essential for a satisfactory system of under-
ground drainage is a good outlet. The outlet must be the lowest point
in the whole drainage system, and water should seldom, if ever, stand
above the opening of the tile.

The outlet of the main should be protected by a screen in such a way
that rabbits and other animals cannot enter. At the outlet the tiles are

subject to freezing more than elsewhere in the
system, as a result of which they may be
broken. It is well to provide for this by
using a wooden box, or an iron pipe as a
substitute for the earthen tile. This should
extend back from the opening six or eight
feet to a position where it will not become
frozen.

Size of Tile. — The size of the main

"^ rv^'F^Stotlir^^ ^' outlet or line is determined by the area to
be drained, together with the water-shed
contributary to it. Not only must we
WATER ISSUING FROM AN figure on removing all of the rainfall that
UNDERGROUND DRAIN.* descends directly on the land to be drained,

but we must also calculate on the amount

of water that reaches such land from adjacent higher land, whether
as surface wash or underground seepage. The maximum amount of
water necessary to remove from the land in order to effect satisfactory
drainage will depend chiefly on the rainfall likely to occur in short periods
of time during the growing season. It will seldom be necessary to provide
for the removal of more than one-half inch of water in twenty-four hours.
On this basis a system of tiles flowing at full capacity will remove rain-
fall at the rate of fifteen inches per month. This is much in excess of the
usual rainfall in any part of the country. The removal of one-quarter
inch of rainfall in twenty-four hours will generally provide adequate drain-
age. The size of tile required to accomplish removal of water at the
above mentioned rate will be determined largely by the grades that it is
possible to secure. The size of tile required is given in the chapter on
"Drainage and Irrigation."

» Courtesy of Orange Judd Company. From " Soils and Crops," by Hunt and Burkett.

SOIL WATER 123

REFERENCES
"Dry Farming." MacDonald.
"Dry Farming." Widtsoe.
" Dry Farming." Shaw.
Kansas Expt. Station Bulletin 206. "Relation of Moisture to Yield of Wheat in

Kansas."

Nebraska Expt. Station Bulletin 114. "Storing Moisture in the Soil."
Utah Expt. Station Bulletin 104. "Storage of Winter Precipitation in Soils."

CHAPTER 8

GENERAL METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT

The art of soil management consists in so manipulating the two
million pounds of soil constituting the average plowed portion of each
acre, that it will give the largest returns without impairing the soil. The
best chance of attaining success in the art of soil management is in the
hands of the man who best understands the principles underlying it.
The art of soil management is the result of more than 4000 years of accumu-
lated experience, while the science is very much a matter of yesterday.
It is not to be expected that science will revolutionize the art, but it will
explain why many operations are performed and will also suggest improve-
ments in the manner of performing them. There are no definite rules
relative to methods of soil tillage. The best way of performing a certain
operation of soil tillage at any particular time and place is generally a
matter of judgment on the part of the farmer. Accuracy in judgment
on his part is greatly strengthened through knowledge of the underlying
principles.

Objects of Tillage. — The chief objects of tillage are: (1) to improve
the physical condition of the soil; (2) to turn under plant residues that
have accumulated at the surface and incorporate them with the soil; (3)
to destroy weeds; and (4) to provide a suitable seed-bed.

In recent years great changes have taken place in the methods of
tillage, due chiefly to the invention and use of labor-saving implements.
In this connection it is well to know the approximate duty of the cultural
implements that are available. In a general way the duty of a cultural
implement is obtained by multiplying the width in feet which it covers in
passing over the field by 1.4. For example, a 12-inch plow will plow, on
an average 1.4 acres of land per day. A harrow 6 feet in width would
harrow 8.4 acres. The duty will vary somewhat with conditions, such
as speed in process of operation, the length of day and percentage of
time when not in actual operation. With good fast-walking teams and
implements of light draft, the acreage covered per day may be somewhat
increased. On the other hand, if much time is lost, if the teams are slow
or if implements are of heavy draft, the acreage will be reduced. These
facts are important in connection with determining the extent of equip-
ment required to perform satisfactorily the operations on a farm of given
size.

Plowing. — Plowing is the most expensive tillage operation in con-
nection with crop production. For this reason it is important to know
when it is necessary to plow the land and how deep it should be plowed,

124

METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT

125

since both depth and frequency of plowing bear directly on the cost of
the operation. Mold-board and disk plows are used for this purpose.
Either of these implements turn the soil, pulverize it and cover rubbish.
The implement to be preferred is determined largely by the character of
the soil and its condition. Disk plows work best in rather dry soil. Mold-
board plows are much more extensively used and will work under a wider
range of soil conditions. The form of the mold-board plow varies con-
siderably, and different forms are applicable to different purposes and
different soils. The sod plow has the minimum curvature and inverts

A DEEP TILLING DOUBLE-DISK PLOW.1

the furrow slice with the least pulverization of the soil. The stubble or
breaking plow has much more curvature of the mold board, and gives
more thorough pulverization of the soil. The greater the curvature of
the mold board and the more thorough the pulverization of the soil as a
result of it, the heavier will be the draft. Sharpness of the share and
smoothness of the plow surface tend toward lightness of draft. The
presence of roots and stones may somewhat increase the draft of plows.
The texture, structure and physical condition of the soil, especially with
reference to its water content, greatly influence draft. The soil plows

-1 Courtesy of The Spalding Tilling Machine Company, Cleveland, Ohio*

126 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

most easily when it is in a fairly moist condition and most easily pulver-
ized. The draft of the plow will be increased both when the soil is too
wet and when it is too dry.

Coulters and jointers are both attached to plows to influence draft
and improve the character of plowing. Coulters are for two purposes:
(1) those which cut the roots separating the furrow slice from the unplowed
land, and (2) those which cut vines and rubbish, preventing their dragging
across the plow standard and clogging the plow. Rolling coulters are
best for the latter purpose, while standard cutters may be equally as
good for cutting the roots in the soil. The chief object of the jointer is
to push the surface rubbish into the furrow so that it will be more com-
pletely covered. Sulky plows are often used instead of walking plows.
The chief advantage in the sulky plow is in reducing the labor of the
plowman and in more effective plowing. It is claimed that sulky plows
reduce the draft of the plow by relieving the friction on the bottom and
land side of the furrow. Under most favorable conditions there may be
a slight reduction in draft, but under average conditions the weight of
the sulky and the plowman more than offset the reduced friction.

Plowing at the same depth many years in succession often gives
rise to a compacted layer just below the depth of plowing, known as plow
sole or hardpan. This is a fault which may be avoided by changing
slightly the depth of plowing from year to year. The plowman often
looks with pride on what may be poor plowing. The furrow slice should
not be completely inverted like a plank turned the other side up, but one
furrow slice should lean against the previous one in such a way that the
rubbish will be distributed from a portion of the bottom of the furrow
nearly to the surface of the plowed ground. At the same time a portion
of the furrow slice should be in direct contact with the soil below. This
permits good capillary connection for a portion of each furrow slice.
When there is an abundance of rubbish to be turned under, it is often
wise to disk the land before plowing. This loosens the surface of the soil
and causes some mixture of it with the rubbish. When plowed under
in this condition it does not form so continuous a layer to cut off capillary
water from below. Disking in advance of plowing in case of rather com-
pact soil also facilitates the pulverization of the furrow slice and results
in a better pulverized seed-bed.

Time of Plowing. — The best time to plow depends on many conditions.
There is no particular season that will be better than other seasons under
all conditions. The old maxim, "Plow when you can/' is a good one to
follow. Plowing done in the fall or early winter lessens the rush of work
in the following spring, and under most conditions fall plowing gives
better results than spring plowing. Fall plowing in temperate latitudes
subjects the exposed soil to the elements and results in destruction of
insects and a thorough pulverization of the soil, due to freezing and thaw-
ing. Fall plowing should neither be harrowed nor disked, but left in a

METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT 127

rough condition in order to collect the rains and snows during the winter.
This will result in storage of the winter rainfall and prevent erosion,
unless by chance the land is steep and rains are very heavy. Under the
latter conditions it may not be wise to practice fall plowing. In warmer
latitudes plowing may be done during the winter, and when land is plowed
in the autumn it should be seeded with a cover crop to prevent erosion.
In the Northern states and Canada fall plowing is generally recommended,
but in the South spring plowing is considered preferable. Spring plowing,
unless it be very early, should be harrowed soon afterward in order to

A BADLY ERODED FiELD.1
Damage of this character reflects no credit on American agriculture.

conserve soil moistures. Generally it will be found good practice to
harrow towards the close of each day the land that has been plowed during
the day. If the soil is rather dry and weather conditions very dry, it may
be better to harrow it each half day. In case of sod and compact soil,
disking in advance of plowing is advised.

Depth of Plowing. — The depth of plowing is determined by the
character of the soil and the kind of crop to be grown. In general, fall
plowing should be deeper than spring plowing. Deep-rooted crops call

1 Courtesy of United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Soils. From " Soil Survey of Fair-
field County, South Carolina."

10

128 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

for deeper plowing than shallow-rooted ones. For corn, potatoes and
heavy truck crops, deep plowing is generally advised. For oats, barley,
flax, millet and other spring annuals, shallow plowing generally gives as
good results as deep plowing, and at a less cost. In the long run, deep
plowing for most soils is to be recommended. Deep plowing increases
the depth of soil from which the mass of plant roots draw moisture and
plant food; it increases the water-holding capacity of the soil; it incor-
porates the organic matter to a greater depth in the soil; it enables the
soil to receive and hold the rainfall, thus reducing erosion.

Where shallow plowing has been the practice, the depth of plowing
should be increased gradually, one-half inch to one inch each year, until
the desired depth has been obtained. This gives better results than
increasing to the full depth at once. On virgin land with deep soil shallow
plowing during the early years of cultivation may give as good results
as deep plowing. Much depends on the nature of the soil, and wherever
the soil at the depth of six to ten inches is compact, deep plowing and the
incorporation of organic matter will improve it.

Subsoiling. — Subsoiling pertains to loosening the subsoil below the
usual depth of plowing. Subsoil plows are constructed to run to a depth
of sixteen to eighteen inches, with a view of loosening and slightly lifting the
subsoil. It is neither turned nor brought to the surface. Such a practice
is even more expensive than plowing and, consequently, more than doubles
the cost of the preparation of the land for crops. While it may prove
beneficial, many tests indicate that* the practice does not generally pay
for the expense involved. Doubtless much will depend upon the value
of the land, the character of subsoil and the nature of the crops to be
grown. On valuable land having impervious subsoil, and for high-
priced crops, it may frequently pay. How long the benefits from sub-
soiling will last is determined by the rapidity with which the soil returns
to its former compact condition. Heavy rains and thorough saturation
with water often soon overcomes the benefits of subsoiling. As a general
practice, subsoiling is not to be recommended. It might prove beneficial
in semi-arid regions as a means of increasing the water storage capacity
of the soil to tide over long periods of drought. In such regions the bene-
ficial results are likely to be more lasting than where the rainfall is heavy.
Both in practice and theory deep plowing is preferable to subsoiling.

Disking. — There are two forms of disk harrows: (1) having a solid
disk, and (2) having a serrated disk and known as the cutaway disk.
The latter is generally lighter than the former, is adapted to stony and
gravelly soil and for light work. The full disk is more generally used,
although in double disks both the full disk and the cutaway disk are
sometimes combined in the same implement. The disk harrow stirs
the soil to a greater depth than do most other forms of harrows. It is
especially useful on land that has been plowed for some time and has
become somewhat compacted. Fall plowing and early spring plowing,

METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT IL><)

when being prepared for medium to late planted crops, should generally
be gone over once or twice with the disk.

A large portion of the spring oats in the Central States are seeded
on land prepared by the use of the disk and harrow, and without plowing.
The disk is the most effective implement in the preparation of the seed-
bed for oats. This method of preparing the land enables farmers to
accomplish early seeding on a large scale. Early seeding of oats is impor-
tant in connection with good yields.

Harrowing. — There are many forms of harrows varying in style of
teeth, number of teeth, weight and adjustment. The steel frame harrow
with levers to adjust the teeth, built in sections that are joined together,
is generally preferred. The size or width of the harrow is usually deter-
mined by the number of sections it has. It is an implement of light draft,
and to be effective should be used in the nick of time. Repeated harrow-
ing is often advised (1) for the purpose of maintaining a surface mulch
to conserve moisture, and (2) to destroy weeds just as they start growth.
The spring-toothed harrow is effective in stony and gravelly soil, and
tends to loosen the soil more than the spike-toothed harrow. The former
is best for destroying weeds and loosening the soil, while the latter is
preferable for soil pulverization and for covering small seeds that are
broadcasted, such as clovers, grass seeds and the millets. While the
harrow is generally used just prior to seeding and planting, it is found
to be a good practice to harrow such crops as corn and potatoes after
planting, and sometimes even after they are up. Such harrowing is often
fully as effective in destroying weeds and pulverizing the soil as a good
cultivation would be. It is much more rapidly and cheaply done than
cultivating.

Planking or Dragging. — The plank drag is a cheap implement con-
sisting of three or four two-inch planks fastened securely together with
the edges overlapping. These may be eight to twelve feet in length.
It is used for pulverizing clods and smoothing the surface of the ground.
It is an effective implement to use where fine pulverization of the surface
is desired, and works satisfactorily when the soil is rather dry.

Rolling. — The roller serves two chief purposes: (1) to compact the
soil, and (2) to pulverize clods. The weight and size of the roller are
important in this connection. Soil compacting calls for considerable
weight, while pulverization demands a roller of comparatively small
diameter. In recent years the corrugated roller with a discontinuous
surface has come into use and is thought to be superior to the old style.
It compacts the soil and yet leaves some loose soil at the surface, thus
lessening direct evaporation. The roller should be used only when the
soil is in dry condition and when it is desirable to encourage capillary
rise of water and establish conditions favorable for the germination of
seeds that lie near the surface of the soil. Rolling is most frequently
resorted to in preparing the seed-bed for winter wheat. This crop calls

130

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

for a compact and well-pulverized seed-bed. In the winter wheat regions
the soils are frequently dry at the time winter wheat should be seeded.

A roller known as the subsurface packer has come into use in the
semi-arid regions. This implement, consisting of a series of heavy disks,
is so constructed as to compact the soil to a considerable depth, leaving
two or three inches of loose scil at the surface. It encourages capillary
rise of water without encouraging surface evaporation.

DETAILS OF A GOOD SEED BED.1

Character of Seed-Bed. — The ideal seed-bed is determined by the
character of crop to be grown. Wheat, rye, alfalfa, the clovers and most
small seeds call for a finely pulverized, compact seed-bed. If these con-
ditions are combined with a good supply of moisture these crops will
make a prompt and satisfactory growth. Such crops as corn and potatoes
call for a deep, loose seed-bed, and do not demand the same degree of
pulverization of the soil as the crops above mentioned. Oats and barley
do best with a fairly loose and open seed-bed, but demand fairly good

i Courtesy of The Campbell Soil Culture Publishing Co. From "Wheat," by Ten Eyck.

METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT 131

pulverization of the soil. As a rule, all small seeds need a seed-bed that
has been thoroughly well prepared, while larger seeds, and especially
those of crops that are to be inter-tilled, may be planted with less thorough-
ness in seed-bed preparation. The after-tillage will often overcome a
lack of previous preparation.

An even distribution of seed, especially when it is sown broadcast,
is essential. This, together with uniformity in germination, makes for
perfection in stand of plants. The character of seed-bed is important in
this connection. A well-prepared seed-bed facilitates a good stand,
while a poorly prepared one often does just the reverse.

Cultivation and Hoeing. — Cultivation and hoeing pertain wholly to
inter-tilled crops, such as corn, potatoes, beets, tomatoes, cabbage and a
great many other garden crops. As a rule, cultivation should be sufficiently
frequent during the early stages of growth to maintain a satisfactory
soil mulch and destroy all weeds. This is best accomplished by cultivating
or hoeing at just the right time. Weeds are easily destroyed when quite
small. One cultivation at the right time is more effective than two or
three cultivations when weeds have become large. As a rule, little is to
be gained by inter-tillage when there are no weeds and when there is a
satisfactory soil mulch. The frequency of cultivation is, therefore, largely
determined by these factors. Ordinarily, nothing is to be gained by
cultivating deeper than necessary to destroy weeds and maintain a good
soil mulch. Two to three inches in depth is generally sufficient. Deep
cultivation frequently destroys roots of the crop cultivated, much to its
detriment.

Throughout most of the corn belt shallow and level cultivation is
practiced. This seems to give better results than deeper cultivation or
the ridging of the soil by throwing the earth toward the corn plants.
Ridging the soil causes rain to flow quickly to the depressions midway
between the rows, and encourages soil erosion. Level cultivation with
numerous small furrows close together encourages more thorough pene-
tration of the rain. Level cultivation makes the seeding of oats easy, as
it generally follows the corn with no other preparation than the disking
of the land.

Control of Weeds. — The time of plowing and the frequency and
character of cultivation are related to the growth and eradication of
weeds. Weed-seeds turned under to the full depth of plowing frequently
lie dormant until the ground is again plowed and they are brought near
to the surface. On spring-plowed land it is generally advisable to allow
time for the weed-seeds to germinate, after which the small weeds may be
destroyed by harrowing. Then crops may be planted with comparative
safety so far as weed competition is concerned. In case of late plowing,
it is advisable to plant or seed very promptly after the land is plowed in
order that the crops may get ahead of the weeds.

Weeds are a great menace to crops, and especially to those that do

132 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

not fully occupy the ground in their early periods of growth. Weeds
compete with the farm crop plants for plant food and moisture. Where
they have an equal start, they will frequently exterminate the crop
unless removed promptly by cultivation. Weed destruction is most
economically accomplished by hoeing and cultivating as soon as weeds
have begun to grow. WTien such measures have been neglected and the
weeds get a good start, it requires much more labor for their extermination.
Soil Mulches. — Aside from the soil mulch mentioned under the
topic of cultivation and hoeing, mulches of straw, manure and other
organic substances are resorted to in exceptional cases. These serve

TERRACING AS A MEANS OF PREVENTING EROSION. l

both to conserve soil moisture and to keep down weeds. They therefore
obviate the necessity for hoeing and cultivating. Such mulches encourage
capillary rise of soil moisture to the immediate surface of the ground.
Furthermore, upon the decay of the mulch, organic matter and plant
food are added to the soil. Such mulches are applicable only under inten-
sive systems of farming and where the materials may be secured without
too great cost.

Soil Erosion. — Soils are eroded by the rapid movement of both wind
and water. Wind erosion occurs most extensively in the sandy regions

i From Year-Book, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1913.

METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT

133

of the semi-arid belt, especially in western Kansas and Oklahoma. Such
soil destruction calls for surface protection, either by a continuous covering
of plants, or by such methods of cultivation as will prevent the movement
of the surface soil. In those regions it is recommended that the plow
furrows be at right angles to the prevailing direction of the wind, and
that the drill rows of grain be likewise at right angles to the wind. Mulches
of straw, especially in the wheat regions where straw is abundant, are also
recommended. Such straw may be rolled with a subsurface packer to
prevent its blowing from the soil. Under such conditions the surface
soil should not be made too fine.

In the South and in southern Illinois, Iowa and Missouri, soils erode
badly as result of the movement of rain water. Such erosion often results

ANOTHER WAY TO STOP EROSION.*

in deep and destructive gullies. These cause a direct loss of soil, and are
barriers to continuous cultivation in the fields in which they occur. Such
erosion should be prevented by every possible means before it proceeds
far. Gullies may be stopped by the use of brush, weeds, straw and stone.
These materials should be anchored in the gullies in such a way as to
encourage them to fill with soil again. Deep plowing and the use of
green manures, which encourage penetration of rains, help to overcome
this erosion. Terracing the soil may be resorted to as a last means of
preventing erosion.

Soil Injury. — Soils are frequently injured by plowing and cultivating
when they are too wet. Heavy soils are more susceptible to such injury
than those of a sandy nature. Such injury is often difficult to overcome.
It gives rise to a puddled condition of. the soil. When plowed, it turns

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company.

134 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

up in hard clods which are difficult to pulverize. In this condition it
requires more labor to prepare a seed-bed than if it had not been so injured.

Soils are often seriously injured by the tramping of livestock. It is
unwise to allow stock to run in the fields when the soil is in a very wet
condition. Hauling manure or loads of any kind across the field when
the soil is too wet often results in injury to such an extent that the
tracks of the wagon may be seen even after the land has been plowed and
cultivated.

Time and Intensity of Tillage are Economic Factors. — The time
to plow, disk harrow and cultivate is important in connection with the
cost of the operations. It is essential to perform these tillage operations
when the soil is in the best possible moisture condition. This enables
the farmer to accomplish the desired result with the minimum amount
of labor; consequently, his force of men and teams is able to properly
care for the maximum acreage. It is easier and much less expensive to
stir the soil at the right time and thus prevent bad physical condition
than it is to change the bad physical condition to a good condition. A
great deal of labor is required to reduce a hard, cloddy soil to a finely pul-
verized condition. As above indicated, time of cultivation in connection
with weed destruction is important. The farmer who is foresighted and
plans his work in such a way as to avoid undue rush at busy seasons will
be the one to accomplish the various cultural operations with the minimum
amount of labor.

The intensity of tillage will be determined by a number of factors,
such as the price of land, the cost of labor and the value of the product
grown. With cheap labor, high-priced land and a valuable product,
intensive methods of tillage are applicable. On the other hand, when
labor is expensive, land is cheap and products are of low value, extensive
methods of tillage must be applied. It is wise to keep the soil occupied
as fully as possible. This is accomplished by crop rotations and a succes-
sion of crops, one following another, throughout the growing season, so
that at all times plants will be occupying the soil and gathering plant
food as it becomes available.

The saving and utilization of all the manures produced on the farm
is essential in this connection. It is more profitable to grow a full crop
on five acres than it is to produce one-half a crop on ten acres.

In general, soil utilization and management call for a thorough under-
standing of the underlying principles and the adoption of methods of
handling that accomplish good results without undue expense. Those
practices which are injurious and those which do not make for mainte-
nance of fertility should be avoided.

METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT 135

REFERENCES

"Principles of Soil Management." Lyon and Fippin.

"Crops and Methods of Soil Improvement." Agee.

"Soils." Fletcher.

"The Soil." Hall.

"Soils." Burkett.

Michigan Expt. Station Bulletin 273. "Utilization of Muck Lands."

Missouri Expt. Station Circular 78. "Control of Soil Washing."

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 180. "Soil Erosion in the South."

PART II
FARM BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT

(137)

CHAPTER 9

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES AND GATES

Farm buildings should be located and constructed with a view of
meeting the needs of the farm and farmer's family. They should harmonize
with the natural surroundings and have sufficient room for the housing of
the farm animals, equipment and the storage of forage, grain and such other
crops as may be grown. The number, character and size will be determined
by the size of the farm and the type of farming. They should be as fully
adapted to the type of farming as possible. Upon the plan of the farm,
the arrangement of the farmstead and its position on the farm depends
to a large extent the farmer's success.

The Farm Residence. — With some farmers the housing of the live-
stock is considered of more importance than the housing of the farmer and
his family. Where capital is very limited and the farmer is accustomed to
an exceedingly simple life, this may prove advantageous for a short time,
in order to get a start. At the present time and in most localities, the
housing of the farmer and his family properly receives first consideration.
The farm residence should be the most important building of the farm.
It should occupy a conspicuous place in the farmstead and bear a convenient
relationship to the other buildings of the farm. There is more latitude
relative to the direction the farm house should face than there is in case of
the city house. This feature should be carefully considered in the construc-
tion of the house, the position of verandas and the location of the living
rooms. Size of windows and the entrance of sunlight should also be con-
sidered in this connection.

The foundation and the roof of the house are two important features.
These should be constructed with reference to durability and strength as
well as appearance. The height of the house or the height of the rooms
may be increased with little additional cost, since this will increase the cost
of neither foundation nor roof. There is little excuse, however, for tall
houses in the country. Land is cheap and comparatively low structures
harmonize better with country surroundings.

It pays to paint a farm residence thoroughly immediately after its
construction, and to re-paint whenever paint is needed. Paint lengthens the
life of a house and makes it warmer. Light colors are generally preferred
for country dwellings. The smoke and dirt which make bright colors
impracticable and expensive in cities are not present in the country. Such
colors harmonize with the green foliage that should surround a country
residence. On new lumber, the first or priming coat should be mixed very
thinly and applied promptly after the house is constructed. At the time

(139)

(140;

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES

141

of priming, the boards should be reasonably dry in order that the paint may
enter the wood and fill any cracks that are present. It should be worked
well into the wood with the brush and allowed to become thoroughly dry

PLANS OF FARM HOUSE.

FIRST FLOOR PLAN

In warm weather the dining table is set in the screened porch, convenient to
the kitchen. During the winter one end of the living-room takes the place
of a dining-room.

SECOND-' FLOOR PLAN

There are three good bedrooms on the second floor, and the end
ones have cross ventilation through the gable windows.

before the second coat is applied. The second coat should be somewhat
thicker, smoother and of the proper color. A third coat will generally be
required, but the application should be deferred from three to six months.

142

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

This allows time for the second coat to become hard and any small cracks
that may open in the meantime by shrinking of the boards will be filled
with paint.

Whether the farmer does his own painting or hires it done, it is gener-
ally advantageous for him to purchase his own paint, and to be careful to
select durable materials. A high grade paint is usually the most econom-
ical in the long run, and may be bought ready-mixed from any reliable
dealer.

BARNS

The principal barn of the farm is second in importance only to the
house. In case of noted livestock breeders or some large stock farms, the

A GOOD TYPE OF BARN.1

barn becomes the most important structure on the farm. The prime
requisites for a good barn are convenience, especially in arrangement,
comfort for the animals, ample storage room for feed, proper light and
ventilation, and durable but not expensive construction.

Whether all livestock on the farm should be housed in one structure
or in several structures must be determined by the kind and number of
stock reared. It is generally advisable to house the cows in a separate
structure. The noise and odor of swine is detrimental to both the yield
and quality of milk. Swine should not be kept in the main barn. If horses
and cows are stabled in the same structure, they should have separate
compartments. It will frequently be convenient to house the cows in the
basement and the horses on the floor above them, This is the usual

Courtesy of Wallace 'a Farmer, DCS Moines, Iowa.

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES

143

arrangement in case of bank barns. Where all stock is on the same floor,
cows should be in an extension to the main structure. This should be only
one story in height with no storage above.

Bank Barns. — The chief advantage in the bank barn is in the ease
with which materials are stored by driving the loaded wagons onto the upper
floor. This obviates the necessity of hoisting materials to the height
necessary in the other forms of barns. The ideal location for the bank barn
is on a southern slope, thus facing the barn toward the south with exercise
yards also to the south. When so situated the more elevated land to the

INTERIOR OF Cow STABLE.!

north brings the north wall of the stable below the surface, thus protecting
the stable from cold north winds. The chief objection to the basement
barn lies in its lack of light and thorough ventilation. This, however, may
be largely overcome by not setting the basement too low in the earth and
by providing plenty of windows, especially in the east and west walls.

Dairy Barns. — Great improvement has been made in the housing of
cows, and much attention is now given to the health of the animals and the
production of clean milk, low in its content of bacteria. Best dairymen
demand that the cow quarters shall be separated entirely from those of all

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "Crops and Soil Management," by Agee.

144

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

other stock. The structure should be narrow, housing not more than two
rows of cows. The walls, floor and ceiling should be smooth and easily
cleaned. For this reason concrete floors that can be frequently washed are
preferred. Such floors do not absorb liquids, and if properly cleaned,
avoid the objectionable odors so common in stables writh wooden or earth
floors. Milk is the most widely used uncooked food, and those producing
market milk need conditions approaching the ideal for cleanliness in order
to secure a high-grade product. Furthermore, the modern dairy cow is
bred and fed for efficiency in milk production. This often taxes her health
and shortens her life. It calls for the best sanitary surroundings to over-
come this drawback.

Storage Capacity. — The storage portion of the barn should connect
with one end of the cow barn and should have posts of ample height to store

a year's supply of
roughage and con-
centrates for the
dairy herd. It
should be moder-
ately narrow and
have sufficient
length to meet the
storage require-
ments. The hay
chutes and feed
bins should be
conveniently
placed and con-
nected with the
cow stable by suit-
able carriers, con-
veyed on overhead
tracks.

Silos. — Silos
will generally be

needed and may be connected with the cow stable through a portion of the
storage barn. This prevents the silage odor from permeating the stable and
contaminating the milk. It is usually considered best to have the storage
structure extend east and west. This permits the cow stable to extend north
and south, thus admitting sunshine from both the east and west, enabling
it to sweep across all the floor surface during the day. When there is one
extension it should connect near the center of the storage barn. When
there are two they should connect one at each end of the storage structure,
thus leaving an open and protected court between the two cow stables.
Floor Space and Arrangement. — The width of the cow stable should
be 36 feet and of sufficient length to accommodate the desired number of

ECONOMICAL AND PRACTICAL MANURE SHED.

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES 14i

PLAN FOR A CIRCULAR BARN. FLOOR PLAN.1

cows. The two rows
of cows face each other
with a spacious feed
alley between. Ma-
nure alleys of requisite
width are located be-
tween the gutters and
the outside walls. The
width and depth of
manure gutters, the
form of feed troughs
and the kind of stan-
chions, together with
many other details,
may be obtained from
bulletins on this sub-
ject.

Stable Floors.—
Floors that absorb
urine and are difficult
to clean should be
avoided in cow stables.
Of all floor materials

within reach of the average dairymen, concrete holds first place. It is
durable, non-absorbent and can be disinfected without injury. Its chief

objection is hardness
and smoothness; the
former may be partially
overcome by the liberal
use of bedding. Pre-
cautions should be taken
when making the floor
to leave its surface
slightly roughened with-
out interfering with the
ease of cleaning. Con-
crete conducts cold
more freely than other
floor materials. For
this reason it should be
underlaid with eight
inches or more of rather
coarsely broken frag-
ments of rock. The
conductivity may be

ELEVATION PLAN.'

i Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer, Philadelphia, Pa.

146

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

still further reduced by Introducing a thin layer of asphalt or other
non-conducting material an inch beneath the surface of that portion of
the floor on which the cows he.

A four-inch thickness of concrete is sufficient. The usual proportion
of materials are 1 part of cement, 2J/2 parts of sand and 5 parts of crushed
stone by measure. Screened gravel may be substituted for the stone, or
good bank gravel may be used unscreened. Screening is to be preferred,
unless the proportion of fine material and gravel is about 1 to 2. A bag of
cement is equal to 1 cubic foot. The concrete should be laid in sections,
similar to the manner of constructing walks. This provides for seams at
reasonable intervals and allows for shrinkage without cracking the cement.
Lighting. — Plenty of light is essential in all portions of a stable where
animals are kept or work is performed. Its absence is net only incon-
venient, but allows the unobserved accumulation of dust and bacteria.

Not only should there be good light, but
direct sunshine should also be admitted as
much as possible on account of its sanitary
effect. The size and location of the win-
dows should permit an abundance of both
light and sunshine and provide as great a
distribution of the latter as possible. North
and south windows are not as effective in
this respect as those on the east and west.
Windows in cow stables should be screened
against flies.

Ventilation. — Fresh air is as essential
to the health cf cows as it is to man. It
is necessary to have much better ventilation
in cow stables than in dwellings, because
[ of the number of animals within a given

space and the rapidity with which the air becomes charged with carbon
dioxide and moisture from the lungs of the cows. Not only is ventilation
necessary for this reason, but it also sets up currents of air that convey
dust and bacteria from the barn.

The King system of ventilation is the one generally used in barns.
It is described in the chapter on "Farm Sanitation.'

Professor King, in his book on Ventilation says, "A cow requires six
full pails of pure air each minute of the day and consumes twice the weight
of air that she does of food and water combined." This gives a basis
for calculating the volume of air required daily by each cow, and is used
in determining the number and size of ventilating flues necessary.

Conveniences. — The tendency of the times is toward the saving of
labor. This should be seriously considered in connection with the arrange-
ment of the stable and the conveniences that should be therein. Canvas
extensions to both hay chutes and ventilators are convenient. The former

CROSS-SECTION, SHOWING VENTI-
LATION AND STABLE FLOOR OF
CONCRETE.

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES 147

prevents the distribution of dust from hay while feeding. These exten-
sions for both hay chutes and ventilators may be folded and hung against
the wall or ceiling so as not to interfere with the stable work.

Closets for harness should be provided. They will prove economical
in keeping the harness clean and preserving it. In some instances, a
small room in which to hang, clean and repair harness is advantageous.

It will pay to have water delivered by pipes directly to the barn. If
it has considerable pressure, a hose can be used in washing the walls and

ENSILAGE CUTTER AND FILLER. l

floor of the cow stable. This will necessitate a drainage pipe leading from
the stable floor to a suitable outlet.

Silos. — Silos have come into quite general use as a means of storing
roughage for cows, steers and sheep. The product of an acre of land can
be stored in less space when made into silage than when cured in any
other way. Hay stored in the mow will take up about three times the
space and cornfodder about five times the space of the same quantity of
food material placed in the silo

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago.

148

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Corn can be made into silage at less cost than when cured as fodder.
There is not only a saving of time, but there is less waste of the crop and
it goes to the feed trough in a succulent and more digestible condition
than when dry. Crops may be put into the silo under weather conditions
that will not make possible the harvesting for putting in the shock or mow.
The silo enables the farmer to keep more stock on a given area of land,
and is a step in the direction of greater intensity.

There are many forms of silos, but the essential of a good silo is a
strong, durable, tight wall that will permit of thorough settling of the
stored material. Silos of the circular form are preferred. The greater
the depth, the more compactly the material settles, the better it keeps
and the larger the quantity that may be stored in a unit of capacity. The
monolithic concrete silo is coming into extensive use. It is fireproof, and
when properly constructed should last many years. Its first cost is a
little greater than a good wooden silo, but it should prove cheaper in
the long run. Concrete blocks and tiles are also used for silos and have
proven both satisfactory and durable.

The size of the silo will depend on the number of stock to be fed out
of it and the length of the feeding period. In northern latitudes this
period is seldom less than 200 days. It is usual to feed cows 30 to 40
pounds of silage daily. On the above-mentioned basis, 3 to 4 tons per
animal will be required. These figures give a rough basis for calculating
the amount of silage required and the capacity of the silo to construct.
It is estimated that there should be fed from the surface of the silage about
two inches daily in order to prevent the material spoiling. A feeding
period of 200 days would, therefore, call for a silo 400 inches in depth,
or about 35 feet deep. Silos are often constructed to a greater depth.
The following table gives the height and inside diameter of silos in feet,
together with the capacity of silage in tons. This will be helpful in connec-
tion with determining the size to build.

Inside Diameter of Silo.

Height of Silo,
fppt

10 Feet.

12 Feet.

14 Feet.

15 Feet.

16 Feet.

18 Feet

20 Feet.

Tons.

Tons.

Tons.

Tons.

Tons.

Tons.

Ton-.

20

26

38

51

59

67

85

105

21

28

40

55

63

72

91

112

22

30

43

59

67

77

97

120

23

32

46

62

72

82

103

128

24

34

49

66

76

87

110

135

25

36

52

70

81

90

116

143

26

38

55

74

85

97

123

152

27

40

58

78

90

103

130

160

28 ....

42

61

83

95

108

137

169

29

45

64

88

100

114

144

178

30

47

68

93

105

119

151

187

31 .

49

70

96

110

125

158

195

32

51

73

101

115

131

166

205

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES 149

It should be borne in mind that the deeper the silo the more compact
the silage becomes and the greater the weight per cubic foot. In silos of
ordinary depth the weight ranges from 30 to 50 pounds per cubic foot,
depending on the position in the silo. On an average, a cow requires
one cubic foot of silage daily.

Details concerning the construction of different forms of silos may
be secured from bulletins issued by a number of state experiment stations
and also by the manufacturers of cement.

OUT-BUILDINGS

The out-buildings of the farmstead, consisting of sheds, cribs, milk
house, pig houses, poultry houses and other minor buildings, should be

A GOOD IMPLEMENT SHED.1

grouped with "reference to accessibility and appearance. It is worth
while in this connection to consider the possibility of fire and fire protection.
The Implement House. — The first essentials of a good implement
house are a good, dry floor and a roof and walls that will keep out rain
and snow. It should have sufficient strength to withstand winds, ample
size for the storage of all machinery without taking much of it apart and
freedom from interior posts or obstructions. Such a building need not
be expensive. In fact, it should not be expensive if it is to prove a profit-
able investment. If a comfortable workshop is provided in one end of
it where odd jobs of repairing can be done and where a stove can be installed
so much the better. Such a provision encourages the proper repair and
care of the tools and makes this work possible in weather unsuited to
outside work.

1 Courtesy of Wallace's Farmer, Des Moines, Iowa.

150

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The building should have several wide, rolling doors, and in most
instances should be provided with eave-troughs to conduct the water
away from its foundation.

Corn Cribs. — The essentials of a good corn crib are a good foundation
and a good roof, together with ample capacity and convenience for filling
and emptying it To this might be added protection of grain from the rav-
ages of vermin, especially rats and mice. Where much corn is grown,
the double crib is preferred. The usual width of each crib is eight feet and
the length is made to conform to the amount of corn raised. The advan-
tage of the double crib is that one or more loads may be driven under
shelter and unloaded in stormy weather or at leisure. The driveway, after
husking time, may be utilized for storing farm wagons or farm implements.
Since corn dumps and elevators have come into quite
general use, corn cribs are constructed much taller than
formerly. This is economical, since the capacity is materi-
ally increased without enlarging either the foundation or
the roof, which are the most costly parts of the structure.

PLAN OF CONCRETE FOUNDATION FOR CORN CRIB.1

A— 2 * x 6 " j oist. B— 2 * x 6 " sill. C— Anchor bolt. D— Terra
cotta ventilator. E — Concrete. F — Broken stone.

Extending the posts and walls from four to eight feet adds very little
to the cost in proportion to the increased capacity.

Concrete floors are coming into general use for corn cribs. These
are so constructed as to afford no harbors for rats and mice. It is neces-
sary to provide against dampness in such floors by thorough drainage
about the walls or by building them up on a considerable thickness of
coarsely broken stone. It is also advisable to provide floor ventilation
by the use of hollow terra cotta tiles laid in the concrete. The accom-
panying sketch shows the construction of such a floor. It will be noted
that bolts % inch in diameter are set in the concrete to a depth of 4 inches,
a 3-inch washer being on the inserted end. The thread end should project
above the concrete sufficient to pass through a 2-inch sill and allow a
good washer and tap to be attached. The sill fastened in this way holds
the crib secure to its foundation.

i Courtesy of Wallace's Farmer, Des Momes. Iowa.

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES 151

Hog Houses. — The profitable production of swine demands dry,
sanitary, comfortable housing. Warmth is also essential, especially at
the time of farrowing. Early pig production is impossible without warm
shelter. The hog house should be conveniently located, but should take an
inconspicuous position in the group of farm buildings. Whether the house
is stationary or movable, it should be well ventilated and admit plenty
of sunlight. The movable type of hog house is coming into quite general
use, and has several advantages over the stationary one. In case of disease
the houses may be disin-
fected and moved to new
lots, thus escaping the
infected ones. They are
also very convenient
where pasture is depended
upon and is changed from
year to year. To be
serviceable, such houses
should be suited to all
seasons of the year.
During the summer they
should be open and afford
shade. During the win-
ter or the farrowing season

I

they should be closed and
still admit direct sunlight.
The accompanying illus-
trations show two views of
the Iowa gable roof hog
house. This house meets
the requirements named.
A bill of material
and estimate of cost of
this type of individual
house is as follows:

INTERIOR OF DOUBLE CORN CRIB.1

BILL OF MATERIAL AND ESTIMATE OF COST.2
THE IOWA GABLE ROOF HOUSE.

1 piece 4" x 4" x 16' for runner, fir, 21| board feet, at $55 per M $1 . 17

4 pieces 2" x 12" x 12' for floor, No. 1 white or yellow pine, 96 board feet, at

$30 per M 2.88

1 piece 2" x 4" x 8' for floor stiff eners, No. 1 white or yellow pine, 5 5 board feet,

at $28 per M 15

3 pieces 2" x 4" x 8' for rafters, No. 1 white or yellow pine

1 piece 2" x 4" x 8' for girt, No. 1 white or yellow pine

1 piece 2" x 4" x 10' for ridge, No. 1 white or yellow pine

2 pieces 2" x 4" x 10' for plates, No. 1 white or yellow pine

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer, Philadelphia, Pa,
- Courtesy of Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station,

152 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

2 pieces 2" x 4" x 8' for studs,* No. 1 white or yellow pine.

O

2

82 f board feet, at

$28 per M ' '....' $2.32

1 piece 1 " x 4 " x 1 2' for brace, No. 1 white or yellow pine, 4 board feet, at $30 per M . 12
5 pieces 1" x 10" x 16' shiplap for ends and sides, No. 1 white or yellow pine*. .

I piece 1 * x 8" x 8' No. 1 white or yellow pine

3 pieces I" x 10" x 10' No. 1 white or yellow pine, 97 board feet, at $30 per M 2.91

II pieces 1" x 10" x 8' shiplap for roof, white or yellow pine, 72| board feet, at

$30 per M ". 2.21

3 pieces 1* x 4" x 16' for bottoms, 16 board feet, at $30 per M 48

12 eye-bolts at 5 cents 60

8 U-bolts at 8 cents 64

5 pairs 12-inch strap hinges at 22 cents 1 . 10

1 pair 8-inch strap hinges at 18 cents 18

1 door pull 10

1 wire for holding door open 10

12.5 pounds nails at 4 cents 50

0.6 gallon to paint double coat 150 square feet, at $2 gallon 1 .20

Cost of material $16.66

Labor, 15 hours at 25 cents 3 . 75

Total cost $20.41

Further details of this and other forms of movable hog houses may
be found in Bulletin 152, Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa.

Poultry Houses. — The poultry house should be well lighted and ven-
tilated. The walls should have only one thickness of boards. Double
walls afford a harboring place for lice. In cold climates, the boards may
be covered on the outside with prepared roofing. This will make a fairly
warm house. Chickens can stand much cold if protected from drafts.
The interior walls should be smooth and occasionally whitewashed. Good
perches should be supported from the rafters and in such a way as to
prevent harboring places for lice. A concrete floor is durable, sanitary
and easily cleaned. Ventilation may be provided by substituting a muslin-
covered frame for one or more of the windows. These may be hinged
at the top so as to be swung up out of the way in warm weather. Perches
should be at least twelve inches apart and on the same level, otherwise,
there will be crowding on the higher perches. A good dropping board
should be beneath the perches, and the droppings should be frequently
removed with a hoe or scraper. The perches should be in the warmest
and lightest part of the house. The nests should be removable and should
rest on supports in the darkest portion of the house. If the dropping
board is not too low, some of the nests may be beneath it.

Milk Houses. — No matter what type of dairying the farmer follows,
if he has many cows, a milk or dairy house becomes a necessity. Milk
is easily contaminated by dust and by absorbing odors. It should, there-
fore, be kept in a pure, clean place. The milk house should not open

* If the sides of the house are built higher than speciHed to allow of large doorway for tall swine, make
due additions in lumber,

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES 153

directly into the cow stable. The size and equipment of the house will

depend on the amount of milk and the manner of disposing of it. When

the milk is made into butter or cheese, the size of the house should be

sufficient for the proper installation of the separator, churn, butter worker

and for the storage

of utensils and

butter. If steam

or gasoline power

is used, it should

be located outside

and a shaft or

steam pipe extend

into the dairy

house. Steam has

the advantage of

affording heat for

warming water

and for sterilizing

utensils.

The walls of the
building should be
constructed with
reference to keep-
ing as uniform a
temperature as pos-
sible. These may
be of concrete.
The floors should
always be of con-
crete.

Ice Houses. —
Ice is essential to
the proper hand-
ling of milk dur-
ing the summer
months. Every
dairy farm should
have an ice house.
In good-sized
dairies a thousand

pounds of ice per cow yearly is required to cool the milk. In smaller
dairies the waste would be greater and proportionately more per cow
would be required.

So far as possible the ice house should be located in the shade. It
should have double walls and be sufficiently large to store the required

1 Courtesy of Agricultural Experiment Station.

Two VIEWS OF IOWA GABLE ROOF HOG HousE.1

154

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

amount of ice and allow a space of twelve inches between the walls and
ice, which should be filled with sawdust or other non-conducting material.
Fifty cubic feet should be allowed for each ton of stored ice. The doors
should close tightly to exclude air. Windows are unnecessary. A venti-
lator should be provided at the roof to allow the escape of vapors.

Wooden structures, because of the continual dampness of the wood,
are short lived. For this reason ice houses of concrete blocks or hollow
tile are preferable. They keep the ice well and are much more durable
than wood.

Roofing. — Wooden shingles have long been the chief roofing material.
They embody lightness, ease of construction, good appearance and, when
made of the right kind of wood and properly treated or painted, are reason-
ably durable. It is
folly to put thirty-
year shingles on
with five-year
nails. The new
process nails rust
out more quickly
than the type
made in former
years. It is,
therefore, recom-
mended that good
galvanized wire
nails be always
used for shingles
of any material
that is reasonably
durable.

Slate and tile
roofing are much
heavier than wood

shingles, but when of good quality are more durable and generally of better
appearance. They have the advantage of affording fire protection from
sparks and cinders falling on the roof. Any kind of shingles demands a
roof of ample pitch to make them durable. If the roof is too flat, more
water is absorbed, snow is held, and consequently decay occurs more
rapidly.

There is now on the market prepared roofing of many types, much
of which is cheaper and more easily placed in position than slate, tile or
shingles. The type of building and its permanence should in large measure
determine the kind of shingle. Heavy, expensive roofing is out of place
on a cheap, temporary building.

i Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer, Philadelphia.

A CONCRETE BLOCK ICE HOUSE. l

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES

155

Use of Concrete. — Concrete is durable, easily cleaned, simple of
construction and finds many good uses on the farm. It makes excellent
foundation for all kinds of buildings, is well suited for silos, outside cellars,
water troughs, walks, feeding floors and stable floors. The essential in
concrete constructions consists in the use of clean sand and gravel, mixed
in the proper proportions with a good quality of cement. The greater
the strength required and the more impervious the structure is to be, the
larger should be the proportion of cement. For building foundations
and walks, the 1 : 2J^ : 5 mixture is used. Where more strength is required
the 1:2:4 mixture is preferred. Strength is further increased by iron
or steel reinforce-
ment. All over-
head work — water
tanks, silos, bridges,
etc. — calls for rein-
forcement, the ex-
tent of which will
be determined by
the strain to which
the structure is to
be subjected. The
reinforcing material
should be placed
where it will be
mosteffective. Con-
crete is most dura-
ble if allowed to dry
slowly. It should
never freeze until
thoroughly dry.

Watering
troughs should have

thick walls and the sides and ends should be sloped on the inside to lessen
the danger of bursting by freezing water. It is safest to provide a means
of draining the water off during cold periods. The accompanying sketch
shows the foundation, drainage pipe, forms and reinforcement necessary
in the construction of a concrete water tank.

Both wooden and metal forms are used. The latter are preferable in
the construction of silos and round water tanks. Metal forms, when used
repeatedly, are cheaper than wooden ones. They leave a smoother concrete
surface than wooden forms. The latter should be soaped or greased on
the surface next to the concrete to prevent the material sticking to the
forms. Wooden forms should also be sprinkled with water before being
filled with concrete, lest they absorb water from the mixture too rapidly.

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer, Philadelphia.

How TO CONSTRUCT A CONCRETE WATER TANK.1

156

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The concrete materials should be thoroughly mixed and enough water
used so that the mixture will flow slowly. The smaller the forms into
which it is placed, the more liquid it should be. Where much work is to
be done, mechanical mixers facilitate the work and do it more thoroughly
than can be done by hand. In the absence of a mechanical mixer, a
strong, tight board platform, about 8 by 10 feet in dimension, is convenient
on which to do the mixing. A square-pointed shovel, a rake and two or
more hoes may be advantageously used in mixing the material. If run-
ning water is not available, water in barrels or a tank should be convenient
to the mixing board. The cement usually comes in bags of 100 pounds
each, equal to one cubic foot. Bottomless boxes for measuring sand and
gravel are most convenient. They should be constructed of a size suitable
for a bag or two-bag mixture of the proportions desired.

One desiring to build should first estimate the cubic space to be
occupied by concrete. This known, the amounts of sand, gravel and

cement can be easily esti-
mated. For a 1:2:4 for-
mula, the cement required
will equal .058 times the cubic
feet in the structure. For the
1 : 2J/2 '• 5 formula, it will be
.048 times the cubic feet in
the structure. The amounts
of sand and gravel will be
relatively as much more than
the cement as the formula
specifies.

A "T" CONNECTION FOR HEAVY WIRE Plans and specifications

LIGHTNING RODS.* for structures of different

kinds may be obtained from

any cement manufacturing company, as well as from bulletins of many
of the state experiment stations and from the United States Department
of Agriculture.

Lightning Rods. — The larger buildings of the farm group should
be protected with lightning rods. The building most likely to be struck
by lightning is the barn. Observations show that many barns with entire
contents have been burned as the "result of lightning. The greatest danger
occurs for one or two months immediately after filling the mows with hay.
This is due to the accumulation of moisture from the newly-made hay.
This moisture fills the peak of the loft, often escaping through the cupola,
and increases the conductivity of the air, and in case of a passing thunder-
storm attracts the lightning.

Investigations during recent years by insurance companies show that
properly installed lightning rods are quite effective as protection against

iFrom Farmers' Bulletin 367, U. ?. Dept. of Agriculture.

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES 157

lightning. Eight years' investigations in Iowa show $4000 worth of dam-
age done to rodded buildings as compared with $340,000 damage to
buildings having no rods. In Canada and Michigan investigations show
similar results. Professor Day, of the Ontario Agricultural College, states
that out of $1000 worth of damage by lightning to unrodded buildings,
$999 would be saved if the buildings were properly rodded.

Effective lightning rods for a barn may be installed without much
cost. The expensive copper rodding and elaborate system of points and
insulators formerly used by lightning rod companies are not necessary.
The essentials of a rodding system are metal rods of any good conducting
material, sufficiently large to carry a heavy charge of lightning. These
should have good contact with moist earth at all times. It is, therefore,
well to have the lower ends buried to a depth of three feet or more. On
the ends should be a coil at least a foot in diameter. The rods should
extend one up each side of the building and over the roof, connecting
with a horizontal rod extending along the entire length of the ridge. There
should be perpendicular extensions to the horizontal ridge wire at intervals
of 15 to 20 feet. These need not be more than 18 inches in length and
should be sharpened at the upper end. A terminal point should extend
above each cupola, ventilator and chimney on the structure.

No. 3 and No. 4 double galvanized iron telegraph wires make good
lightning conductors. The wire may be fastened directly to the building
by staples or by means of small wooden blocks and screw eyes. Blocks
\]/2 inches thick, 2J^ inches wide and 4 inches long may be nailed to the
side of the buildings and roof at intervals of ten feet or less. The wire can
be passed through the eyes screwed into these blocks. The vertical wires
and terminals may be connected with the horizontal ridge wire by means
of galvanized T's.

The quality and type of rodding system should conform to the nature
and character of the building. An attractive system of rodding adds
much to the appearance of the building.

Fences and Gates. — The need for farm fences is probably less than
formerly. The chief purposes are for the confinement of stock and poultry
and for ornamentation. The extensive use of farm machinery and the
adoption of systematic crop rotation have reduced the number of fields
on the average farm. The increase in the price of land has reduced the
acreage used as pasture. As a rule, highway fences, except where pastures
border the road, may be omitted. Nothing mars the appearance of a
farm more than an untidy fence grown up with weeds. The farmer is
benefited and the appearance of the farm improved if unsightly fences
are removed and the fields cropped to the border of the road.

The type of fence selected depends much on the service to be rendered.
A hog-tight fence is cheapest and most effective when constructed of
well-galvanized woven wire. The posts should not be too far apart and
the bottom wjre should be fastened close to the ground at intervals suffi-

158 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

ciently frequent to prevent hogs from springing it and crawling beneath.
Woven wire 36 inches high is sufficient to turn the hogs. If the fenced
field is to be used for cattle or horses, two barbed wires may be placed
above the woven wire. With a little additional expense, a fence 48 or 52
inches high may be secured which will turn all kinds of stock. A single
strand of barbed wire, three inches above the top of the woven wire will
prevent horses reaching over and stretching the fence.

The top wire of a 48 or 52-inch fence should be of No. 9 wire. Wires
below this may be of No. 10 or No. 11 material. Perpendicular wires
are sometimes even smaller. The lighter wires are less durable and more
easily stretched and broken; consequently, it is economy to pay more for
the fence and secure a heavier wire. This is especially true if the fence
is to be permanent. For temporary fences to be moved from time to
time, the lighter wire is more easily handled and stretched.

Stone fences, plank fences and hedge fences, once thought desirable,
are now seldom advisable and will not be discussed.

Wooden posts will probably continue to be extensively used, but are
being replaced to some extent by metal posts and reinforced concrete
posts. Metal posts should be set in concrete. Both metal and concrete
are somewhat more expensive then wooden posts and have not been used
sufficiently long to determine extent of their durability. Much greater
durability is claimed for them than 'for wooden posts. The chief advantage
of the wooden posts is in the ease with which the wire may be fastened
to them.

Red cedar posts are to be preferred, chiefly because of their straight-
ness and long durability. Next to red cedar comes the black or yellow
locust, catalpa and white oak. Many other kinds of wood may be used.
The kind to select depends chiefly on the cost, together with the feasibility
and cost of treating the posts to increase their durability. For permanent
fences, the best posts are usually the cheapest. Posts of short duration
must be replaced frequently, and this adds much to the upkeep cost of
the fence.

It generally pays to treat the bottom ends of posts with creosote.
The material for this purpose will cost from four to eight cents a post,
depending on size. The outfit for treating consists of a metal tank suffi-
ciently large to hold a number of posts, under which a fire may be built
and the creosote heated to about 220° F. The well-seasoned posts should
remain in the solution two or three hours, after which they are put into
cold creosote for an hour or two. Only the lower three feet of the posts
need be treated. Posts decay most rapidly at or just beneath the surface
of the soil. Such treatment is claimed to add ten to fifteen years to the
usefulness of ordinary soft wood posts.

Every farmer should have a wood lot that will supply posts for the
farm. Trees cut for posts should be cut the last of July or during August.
Trees felled at this time need not be cut into posts at once. In fact, it

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES 159

is an advantage to let them lie until the leaves draw the water from the
sap, thus leaving the starch to preserve the wood. At a convenient season
the trees may be cut into posts and the posts set on end to further cure.
Posts cut in this way last much longer than when the trees are cut in
the winter or spring.

The interval between posts in fence construction depends on the
size of the posts, the depth to which they can be conveniently set, the
weight or strength of the wire and the strain to which it will be subjected.

A GOOD TYPE OF FARM FENCE. l

It will often prove economical to alternate small posts with large ones.
With exceptionally good strong posts, the intervals may be as much as
from 25 to 30 feet. The usual distance, however, will be from 15 to
20 feet.

Woven wire should be stapled to the posts so that the wire will move
freely beneath the staple. With barbed wire the staples may be driven
tightly so as to prevent the wire from slipping. The length of the staples
used and the number per post depend on the hardness of the post and
the number of wires. With woven wire it will usually be sufficient to
staple alternate wires at each post, although the top and bottom wire
should be stapled at every post. When so stapled, the staples should

1 Courtesy of The American Steel and Wire Co.

ICO SUCCESSFUL FARMING

alternate on the intermediate wires. For example, the second wire from
the top should be stapled to the first, third and fifth post, while the third
wire should be stapled to the second, fourth and sixth post, etc.

Woven wire calls for the strongest and best braced end and corner
posts. This permits stretching the wire tightly, thus increasing its effi-
ciency. These posts should be set to a depth of four feet in the ground,
have cross pieces on the bottom to prevent them pulling up and be securely
braced and anchored as shown on preceding page.

It pays to provide substantial, durable gates of light material that
may be easily opened and closed. The style of gate should conform to
the fence. There are on the market comparatively cheap, tubular, framed
woven-wire gates that are light, neat and durable. They may be easily
attached to wooden posts. If wooden gates are preferred, 1 x 4-inch
material, well braced, is generally better than heavier material. The
weight and strength of material, however, will depend on the strain to
which the gate is likely to subjected.

REFERENCES

"Successful Houses and How to Build Them." White.

"Farm Structures." Ekblaw.

"The Care of a House." Clark.

South Dakota Expt. Station Bulletin 154. "Pit Silo."

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins:

207.
220.

Ice Cold Storage on the Farm: How to Provide."
'Lightning Rods: How to Install on Farm Buildings."

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

367. 'Lightning and Lightning Conductors."

387. 'Preservative Treatment of Farm Timber."

403. 'Construction of Concrete Fence Posts."

405. 'Cement Silos."

438. 'Hog Houses."

457. 'Reinforced Brick Silos."

461. 'The Use of Concrete on the Farm."

469. 'The Plaster Silo."

474. "Use of Paint on the Farm."

475. "Ice Houses."

574. "Poultry House Construction."

589. "Home-Made Silos."

623. "Ice Houses and Their Use on the Dairy Farm."

CHAPTER 10

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS

During the past century the invention and introduction of farm ma-
chinery and implements has almost revolutionized methods of farming. The
great change from the simplest of tools to the almost perfect farm machines
has had a marked effect upon the life of the farmer. It has shortened his
hours of labor, increased his efficiency and brought to him better wages.
It has reduced the necessity of brute strength and increased the demand

A GOOD TYPE OF WALKING PLOW.1

for a better developed intellect. Mechanical ability is now an essential
in farming.

Advantages of Farm Machinery. — Farm machinery has decreased the
percentage of people living upon farms in North America. In 1800, 97 per
cent of the people lived on farms. In 1850 this proportion had decreased
to 90 per cent. In 1900 it was 36 per cent and is now about 33 per cent.
At the present time one-third of our population produces the bulk of food
supplies and the raw materials for clothing. Consequently the remaining
two-thirds are free to engage in constructive work for the advancement of
the race.

This decrease in the proportion of people on farms has been accom-
panied by a great increase in production per capita. In 1800 in the United

1 Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N. Y. From "Soils," by Fletcher.

(161)

162

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

States 5.5 bushels of wheat were produced per capita. In 1850 it had fallen
to 4.4. About this time improved harvesting and threshing machinery was
developed and the production per capita increased rapidly. In 1880 it
was 9.16 bushels per capita, and in 1915 it was 10 bushels per capita.

Although the wage of farm labor has doubled or trebled, the cost of
production has decreased. The amount of labor required to produce a
bushel of wheat by hand implements was a little over three hours.
Improved machinery has reduced it to less than ten minutes.

Machinery has also improved the quality of farm products. Short-
ening the time of operations enables the farmer to plant his crops at the

proper time, thus
insuring full ma-
turity. Shorten-
ing the harvesting
period enables
him to gather the
crop when fully
matured and with
the minimum loss.
Tillage Ma-
chinery. — The
plow takes first
rank in tillage im-
plements. It is
estimated that
more power is
required to plow
the fields of North
America than is
used in all the fac-
tories. While the
plow is a very old

implement, the steel plow, the sulky plow and the disk plow are implements
of recent development. These are modified in form and construction to
adapt them to different kinds of soil and the power available for doing the
work. The mold-board plow is most universally used. It should be highly
polished and kept reasonably sharp in order to perform its work with the
minimum power. Rolling coulters, standing coulters and jointers are
attached to more completely cover trash, prevent clogging or reduce the
draft.

Disk plows are adapted to a dry soil and to land heavily covered with
vegetation. They have been recently modified so that one disk follows
the other in such a way that it increases the depth of plowing to 12 or 14
inches and mixes the subsoil with the surface soil.

ONE TYPE OF SULKY PLOW.1

1 Courtesy of The Janesville Machine Company, Janesville, Wis.

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 163

AN ADJUSTABLE SMOOTHING HARROW.1

Mold-board plows are made in sizes ranging from 6 inches to 18 inches.
The 12 and 14-inch sizes usually prevail. Where larger plows are needed
gang plows are substituted. A gang plow of two 12-inch bottoms will turn
25 to 26 inches of soil at one passage of the plow and generally requires four
good horses. It is essential to have the center of draft fall directly back of
the center of the team, otherwise there will be a side draft that will increase

SPRING-TOOTHED HARROW.1

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago, 111.

164

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

the draft of the plow. This necessitates adjusting the team, and if five
horses are used better results will be secured by placing two in the lead and
three in the rear, rather than five abreast.

Next in importance to the plow comes the harrow. The leading forms
of harrows are the smoothing harrow, the spring-toothed harrow and the disk
harrow. There are a number of forms and many makes of each. The steel-
frame smoothing harrow, made in moderate sized sections, with levers to
adjust the angle of the teeth, is most efficient. The teeth should be sharp

DOUBLE DISK HARROW.1

in order to do effective work. They should be held in place by clamps that
do not easily loosen. When one side of the teeth is badly worn, they may
be turned half way around and a new surface brought into use.

The spring-toothed harrow is made with both wooden and steel frames.
The better forms also have either adjustable runners or wheels to regulate
the depth of harrowing and to hold the teeth out of the ground in passing
from one field to another. Without these adjustments, the harrow may be
turned upside-down when taken from shed to fields or from one field to

* Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago, 711.

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS

another. This form of harrow is adapted to stony land, for the destruction
of weeds, for a thorough loosening of the soil and for covering broadcasted
seeds rather deeply.

Disk harrows are made in two forms: the full disk and the cutaway
disk. The former is most extensively used, while the latter is best adapted
to stony land and for light work. Double disks frequently combine both
forms. They provide for the use of large teams and increased rapidity of
work without increasing man labor. Disks of the several forms are used,
especially for pulverizing the soil. They should generally be followed with
a smoothing harrow. Disks are generally best adapted for preparing the

A CORRUGATED ROLLER. 1

seed-bed on fall plowing or early 'spring plowing. They are also extensively
used in preparing corn land for the seeding of spring oats without plowing.
The disks of these harrows should be kept sharp to do effective work. This
is especially true when there is trash on the surface of the soil. The depth
of disking is adjusted by the angle at which the disks are set. Levers are
provided for setting at different angles. A disk truck reduces the weight
on the horses' necks, and is generally advised.

On most farms a combination of the three forms of harrows above
mentioned is advantageous.

Under this heading should also be mentioned the roller and the drag.
The chief purpose of the former is to compact the soil and crush clods.

1 Courtesy of The Dunham Company, Berea, Ohio. From pamphlet "Soil Sense."

166

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Seldom should the soil be rolled, except when very dry. Under these condi-
tions it brings the moisture nearer the surface and helps to germinate newly
planted seed. The roller is most frequently used in preparing the soil for
seeding winter wheat. Rollers of large diameter compact the surface soil
without much pulverizing effect. Those of smaller diameter have more
pulverizing effect.

The drag or planker is a cheap implement, usually home-made. It
is generally constructed of four 8 or 10-inch planks. These are fastened
together with two or three cross pieces, to which the planks are securely
nailed or bolted in such a way that one plank overlaps the next about
one inch. The width may vary from eight to twelve feet. Such a drag
requires two or three horses, depending on length. For light work it
may be loaded with stones or bags of earth. For heavier work the
operator may ride upon it. The drag pulverizes the surface soil, fills

up depressions and levels the
surface. It is most effective
when the surface soil is rather
dry.

Cultivators. — There are
numerous forms of cultivators
requiring from one to four
horses, depending on size.
These are used for many of
the truck crops, for orchards
and for general farm intertilled
crops such as corn, cotton,
A HOME-MADE FLANKER. * cane> potatoes, etc. Cultiva-

tors are made both for riding

and walking. The number and form of the shovels are determined by
the crop to be cultivated and the character of the soil. The size and
prevalence of weeds and grass are also determining factors. The large
single and double shovels formerly used have largely given place to
smaller shovels, disks and sweeps. The small shovels and sweeps are
designed for shallow tillage, and are extensively used for both corn and
cotton. Such cultivators do little damage to the roots of the crop, make
an effective soil mulch, and, if used in the nick of time, destroy all small
weeds.

The disk cultivator is better suited for larger weeds and for throw-
ing the earth either to or from the plants.

Numerous forms of hand cultivators are available for garden work.
There are also several forms of one-horse cultivators extensively used on
truck farms.

The weeder consists of numerous flexible teeth and is designed to
break the soil crust and destroy very small weeds when the plants to be

1 Courtesy of Orauge-Judd Company, N. Y. From "Soils and Crops," by Hunt and Burkett.

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 167

tilled are small. A variety of tillage implements is advantageous, and
the selection should meet the needs of the owner.

Seeding Machines. — Until within the last century much of the
sowing and planting of seeds was done by hand. Recently the broad-
cast seeder has taken the place of broadcasting by hand, and the drill
and planter have supplanted hand planting of seeds either in hills or rows.
The end-gate seeder, used extensively for seeding oats, and the knapsack
seeders, used for grasses and clovers, are an improvement over hand
seeding, but are subject to much the same defects as hand seeding. The
speed of the distributor, the weight of the seed and the condition of the

A MUCH USED FORM OF CORN CULTIVATOR. l

wind all affect the distance seed will be thrown. Great care is, there-
fore, necessary in the spacing of the passages back and forth across the
field in order to avoid uneven seeding.

Broadcast seeders with long hoppers carried on two wheels give
much better results than the sorts above mentioned. They are provided
either with the agitator feed or the force feed. The latter is the more
satisfactory. The former has a revolving agitator that passes over each
opening from which seed issues and prevents stoppage. The rate of seed-
ing is controlled by adjusting the size of the openings in the bottoms of
the hoppers. The seed either falls on a vibrating board or passes through

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago, 111,
40

168

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

fan-shaped spouts that distribute it evenly over the ground. The wheel-
barrow seeder used for grasses and clovers has the same arrangement, but
is usually without the vibrating board or spouts.

Seeders of the same form, provided with a force feed, are most satis-
factory. The force feed can be set to seed at any desired rate and makes
uniformity reasonably certain.

Broadcast seeders are sometimes attached to disk harrows. The
seed may be sown either in front of or behind the disks. In cne case it
will be rather deeply covered; in the other it will lie on top of the ground
and the disk must be followed with a harrow to cover the seed.

Grain drills came into use to some extent in England soon after
1731, at which time Jethro Tull advocated a system of seeding and tillage

called " Horse Hoeing
Husbandry." In the
United States drills
worthy of mention
were not perfected
until after 1840.
Drills are more expen-
sive than seeders, are
heavier of draft and
seed more slowly. As
they have become per-
fected they have dis-
placed broadcast
seeders to a large
extent. The chief ad-
vantage lies in a uni-
form depth of planting
that may be controlled
to suit the kind of seed

and the condition of the soil. This insures more perfect germination and
requires less seed than when broadcasted. Nearly all wheat is now drilled,
and the best farmers also drill oats, rye and barley. Even alfalfa and the
clovers are now being drilled with good results.

There are now several forms of furrow openers for drills. The hoe
drill was the first to be developed. It has good penetration and works
well on clean land, but clogs badly in trash. The shoe drill was next
to be developed, but has not been so extensively used as the hoe. Disk
furrow openers are of more recent use and both single and double disks
are used. They are especially good in trashy ground. Press wheels are
sometimes provided to follow the disks and compact the soil over the
$eed. Covering chains are also used, their sole purpose being to insure
covering all of the seed. The several forms of furrow openers are provided

1 Courtesy of Lowery's Summer School Report.

A WHEELBARROW SEEDER IN OPERATION. x
An even distribution of grass seed is secured by its use.

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 169

with a tube through which the grain passes, and these are connected
with the seed box by flexible tubes either of rubber or of steel ribbon.
Spaces between furrow openers vary from 6 to 9 inches, 7 inches being
the most common distance.

Drills are provided with both fertilizer and grass-seed attachments
if desired.

The drill compels the farmer to put his land in good condition before
seeding and this is another of its advantages. For cats, the drill has
very little advantage over broadcasting in wet seasons. On an average,
however, drilling oats has increased the yield about three bushels per
acre. It will save from one-half to one bushel of seed to each acre.

Grass and clover generally do better with drilled grain than with
that broadcasted. The drill should be run north and south so the sun

THE USUAL TYPE OF GRAIN DRILL WITH SINGLE DISK FURROW OPENERS. l

can get into the grass. With winter wheat, north and south drill rows
generally hold snow better and heave less than rows running east and
west. All seed used in drills should be thoroughly cleaned to avoid clog-
ging and insure even distribution. Care should be exercised to adjust
the furrow openers so that the seed will be deposited at the most desir-
able depth. The smaller the seed, the shallower it should be covered.
Seed may be covered more deeply in a dry, loose soil than in a wet,
compact one.

Corn Planters. — These are strictly an American invention and have
been developed within the last sixty years. They have reached the high-
est stage of development of any of the seeding machinery. The corn crop
is so important and is grown on land of such high value that the impor-
tance of accuracy in planting is greater than with the small grains. The

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago, IU.

170 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

tillage demanded by this crop makes it essential that the rows be straight,
and in case it is check-rowed, that the hills be reasonably compact.

The dropping device should be carefully adjusted and the plates
selected to drop the desired number of kernels. It pays to grade the
seed for uniformity in size. No device can do perfect work with seed
corn, the kernels of which vary greatly in size. There are two forms of
plates: the round-holed plate and the edge-selection plate. Whichever
form is used, the adjustments should be such that the kernels of corn
will not be broken.

A GOOD CORN PLANTER.1

There are four forms of furrow openers for corn planters, viz., the
curved runner, the stub runner, the single disk and the double disk.
Each has its advantages, depending on character and condition of soil
and presence or freedom from trash. Whatever form is used, the seed
should be deposited at a uniform depth and properly covered.

There are several forms of planter wheels. Their purpose is three-
fold: (1) to support the frame of the machine, (2) to cover the corn, and
(3) to compress the earth about it. A solid wheel is made both flat and
concave on its surface. The concave surface is superior, because it more
completely closes the furrow and leaves the track slightly higher in the
center than at the sides. The open wheel is also used. This leaves a

Courtesy of Emerson-Brantingham Implement Company, Rockford, III. From pamphlet "A
Book About Emerson Planter, "

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 171

narrow ridge of loose earth directly over the corn. This prevents crust-
ing of the soil directly over the seed in case rains follow planting.

Check-rowers are attached to corn planters for the purpose of having
the corn plants in rows in both directions. This provides for cross culti-
vation and is desirable on weedy soil. There are two forms of check-
rowers, one in which the wire enters the device on one side of the planter
and is left on the ground on the opposite side, where it is gathered up by
the planter upon its return. In the other form the wire remains on the
side of the planter next to the planted portion of the field. In the first
form, the knots on the wire are twice as far apart as the hills of corn,
each knot dropping two hills as it passes through the mechanism. In
the second form the distance between knots on the wire is the same as
the distance between hills.

The best planters are so constructed that the distance between fur-
row openers and wheels can be adjusted. The adjustment generally ranges
from 3 to 4 feet in width. On good soil, corn is generally planted with
rows 3J feet apart.

The seed boxes should have tight covers with good latches. The
boxes should be hinged so that they can be inverted to change the plates
without removing the corn. This also provides for the quick removal of
corn when one wishes to change from one variety of seed to another.

HARVESTING MACHINERY

In no phase of farm activity has there been a greater saving of labor
than through the introduction of improved harvesting machinery. In
less than three-quarters of a century this phase of farm work has passed
from the use of the cradle by which two men by long hours of back-
breaking work could cut and bind an acre and a quarter of grain in a
day, to the eight-foot self-binders, by which one man and three horses
can cut and bind fifteen acres in a day. Not only is much more accom-
plished, but the work is better done.

Mowing Machines. — The side-cut mowing machine, in spite of its
side draft, has not been displaced by the direct cutting machine. . The
two-horse mowing machine with a six-foot cutting bar is generally preferred.
While there are a number of makes of mowing machines, selection should
be made to fit the character of work to be done. The machine should be
no heavier than is required for the work it is to do. The important parts
of the mowing machine are the cutting device, consisting of the cutting
bar, guards and sickle, and the transmission gearing which transmits the
power of the team from the wheels to the cutting device. Ample adjust-
ment should be provided for regulating the height of cutting and also
for quickly elevating the bar to avoid obstructions in the field.

It is important to keep all bearings tight and thoroughly oiled.
This increases the length of life of the machine and promotes efficiency.
The sickle knives should be kept sharp and should be held firmly against

U72)

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 173

the ledger plates. Damaged plates or badly worn and broken knives
should be promptly replaced by new ones.

The Pittman bearings are the ones most likely to become loose. This
will give rise to pounding, which will wear the bearings rapidly. The
bearings of the Pittman at both the sickle head end and the Pittman crank
end should, therefore, be of easy adjustment.

Self-Rake Reaper. — This machine soon followed the improvement
and development of the modern mower. It was extensively used for a
short period, but was soon displaced by the self-binder. The self-rake
reaper is still a desirable machine fcr harvesting such crops as flax, buck-
wheat and clover for seed. These crops, when harvested, cling together

A MOWING MACHINE WITH PEA VINE ATTACHMENT.1

and there is little advantage in having them bound into bundles. This
machine, therefore, does the work of harvesting these crops at less initial
cost of machine and a further saving in twine. Since the mowing machine
and the modern self-binder are both required on most farms, the self-
rake reaper is now generally dispensed with, unless the acreage of the
above-mentioned crops is large.

Self -Binder. — This machine has been developed since 1875, and is
now almost universally used in harvesting small grains. There are a
number of different makes, but the most satisfactory ones are built prin-
cipally of steel, combining strength with lightness of weight and durability.
The essential parts consist of the cutting device, the elevators and the

1 Courtesy of F. Blocki Manufacturing Company, Sheboygan, Wis.

174: SUCCESSFUL FARMING

binding apparatus. To these may be added the reel with its several
adjustments and the bundle carrier. There are numerous details which
will not be described here. The precautions advised relative to the
working parts of the mowing machine apply with equal force to the self-
binder. Various parts of the binding apparatus must work in harmony
and be so timed that each part will do its work at exactly the right moment.
In order to operate the self-binder satisfactorily, one should understand
the working of the various parts and be capable of adjusting them.

The canvas elevators should be neither too tight nor too loose to insure
good work. They should be loosened when the machine stands in the
field over night. If rain threatens, it is wise to remove them or cover the
machine to keep them dry. Their usefulness will be greatly lengthened by
removing them from the machine, rolling them so mice cannot enter the
folds and storing in a dry place at the close of the harvesting season.

The best way to keep the self-binder in first-c'ass condition is to oil
all wearing parts as soon as the harvest is over and store the machine
under shelter at once. If work is not rushing at this time, repairs should
be made while the farmer knows how the machine has been running and
what parts need repairs. If these precautions are not taken, three or
four times as much labor will be required to remove the rust and get the
machine to operating smoothly the following season.

One should always have on hand a small supply of knife blades and
rivets, extra links for the chains that are likely to break and a few extra
small bolts and taps. It is essential to have with the machine suitable
wrenches, pliers, a cold chisel, screwdriver and hammer. The frequent
oiling of all bearings is necessary.

Corn Harvesters. — The modern corn harvester is the outgrowth of
the self-binder. It combines the same principles in both cutting and
binding apparatus. The apparatus for conveying the stalks to the binder
is very different from that of -the self-binder. The various parts of the
machine are much stronger than those of the self-binder, in order to
handle heavy green corn without straining or breaking the machine. It
is designed to cut one row of corn at a time and is now extensively used in
cutting corn for the silo as well as cutting more mature corn for shocking
in the field.

This machine costs equally as much as the self-binder, and is an eco-
nomical investment where there are twenty acres or more of corn to be
harvested.

Threshing Machines. — The modern threshing machine has reached
a high stage of development and does all the work of separating the grain
from the straw, cleans the grain of chaff and foreign material, delivers the
grain to bag or wagon and the straw to stack or mow without its being
touched by the hands of man after it is forked from the wagon to the self-
feeder and band cutter.

Since the average farmer does not own a threshing outfit, it is not

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 175

necessary for him to understand the details of it. Threshermen would
not be satisfied with the brief description that space will permit in this
chapter. They can secure ample information from the threshermen's
books published by threshing machine manufacturing companies.

The clover huller is a modified threshing machine and is generally
owned and operated for a community by the owners of a general thresher
or corn-sheller outfit.

Small threshing machines are manufactured for individual farmers,
and may prove economical for farmers in the eastern section of the

AN UP-TO-DATE THRESHING MACHINE.1

United States, where it is the custom to store the sheaf gram in large
barns and thresh it in the winter time. The essential points in operating
the thresher are the speed of the cylinder, which should be uniform, the
setting of the concaves, and the number of teeth in it so as to remove
all grain from the heads, the speed of the fan, and the selection and
adjustment of the sieves, so as to clean the grain without blowing any
into the straw. Rapid and satisfactory work necessitates ample power.
The power may consist of steam, gasoline or electric motors, and should
be adapted to as many other uses as possible.

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago, 111.

176

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Corn Shelters. — In the corn belt, large corn shellers are used for
shelling nearly all corn that goes to market. They are owned and operated
for community work the same as threshers.

Many small hand and power corn shellers are used on farms for
shelling corn for feeding purposes. There are two general forms, viz.,
the spring sheller and the cylinder sheller. All hand shellers are of the
first-named type, but some of the power shellers are of the second type.
The latter are cheaper and of simpler construction, and seldom get out of
order. They break the cobs badly and small pieces of cobs are more
numerous in the corn than when spring shellers are used. For this reason,

FOUR-HOLE MOUNTED BELT CORN SHELLER WITH RIGHT ANGLE BELT ATTACHMENT.1

the spring sheller is considered superior. The unbroken cobs are much
better fuel.

The larger shellers of both types are provided with a cleaning device
which separates chaff, husks and cobs from the shelled corn, and elevators
which elevate both shelled corn and cobs.

In order to do good work, corn should be reasonably dry when
shelled. It is impossible for the sheller to do satisfactory work when
corn is so damp that the kernels are removed with difficulty. Further-
more, such shelled corn will heat or spoil when placed in storage. Corn

1 Courtesy of Sandwich Manufacturing Company, Sandwich, 111.

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 177

shells most easily when the temperature is below freezing, especially if
inclined to be damp.

Silage Cutters. — A silo may now be found on nearly every dairy
farm; consequently, silage cutters are in much demand and have been
greatly improved in recent years. The essential parts cf the silage cutter
are the feeding table, provided with an endless apron which feeds the
corn into the cutting apparatus, the cutter head and the elevator. There
are two types of cutter heads: one with radial knives fastened directly
to the flywheel; the other with spiral knives fastened to a shaft. The
modern elevator consists of a tight metal tube, through which a blast
of air is driven by a fan. This blows the cut corn to the top of the silo,
frequently having an elevation of 40 or more feet. It is a good plan to
have a movable cylinder, either of metal or canvas to descend in trie silo
nearly to the surface of the filled portion. A man in the silo can move
this to any point, thus keeping the surface level and avoiding a separation
of the lighter and heavier portions. This not only saves labor, but pro-
vides for uniform settling of the silage.

The cutter knives should be kept sharp and be carefully adjusted
so as to have a close shearing effect. If they are too loose, the material
will be broken instead of cut, thus requiring more power. If the knives
press against the ledger plate with too much force, there is undue friction
and wearing of the knives.

The cut corn leaves the silage cutter coated with juice, and acids
frequently are developed, thus causing rapid erosion and rusting of all
metal parts. It is, therefore, advised to run a few forkfuls of hay or
straw through the cutter to remove this material, thus leaving it in a
dry condition.

Manure Spreader. — A manure spreader should find a place on every
farm where there are 100 loads of manure to spread annually. It not
only reduces the work of spreading the manure, but spreads it more evenly
and with more rapidity than can be done by hand. Careful experiments
show that light applications of manure for general farm crops bring better
returns per unit of manure than heavier applications. Manure spreaders
make the manure cover more land, thus increasing the returns.

The essentials of a good manure spreader are strength, ample capacity
and an apron that will not clog or stick, together with a beater that will
spread the manure evenly. The machine should be capable of adjustment
so that any desired amount may be applied. The gearing should be cov-
ered so as to protect it from the manure. Spreaders are of heavy draft,
and may be provided with shafts so that three horses may be used.

It saves time to have the spreader so placed that the manure carrier
may be dumped directly into it. When filled, it may be hauled to the
field, the manure spread and the spreader returned for refilling. Good
farmers find it economy to provide a cement floor, slightly hollowed in
the center, on which the spreader stands. This saves the liquid which

ITS

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

may drain from the spreader, and the overflow of manure that sometimes
occurs. If this is covered with a roof the spreader is protected and leach-
ing is prevented. If such a shed is sufficiently large, it may serve as a
storage place when there are no fields on which manure may be spread.

Milking Machines. — These have been rapidly improved within the
last few years, but have not come into very general use. For economical
use, they require power and tubing for suction in addition to the apparatus
proper. They should, therefore, be most economical in large dairies where

MILKING MACHINE IN OPERATION.1

the power can be utilized for other purposes as well. The chief advantages
of the milking machine are the saving of time in milking and cleaner milk.
Cleanliness of milk demands that the apparatus be kept sterilized and
clean. The machine should be washed with soda and hot water and all
metal parts boiled for half an hour. The rubber parts will not permit of
boiling. It is recommended that they be hung in a tank of water con-
taining about 7 per cent of salt and 0.75 per cent of chloride of lime.

The labor saved in milking by the use of the machine may be offset
by the extra work in operating and caring for the apparatus. In large
dairies, where stablemen are required to do no other work, this is not a

1 Courtesy of The College of Agriculture and Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Depart-
ment of Animal Husbandry, Lexington, Ky.

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 179

serious objection, since the average man can feed and care for more cows
than he can milk by hand during the milking period.

Spraying Machines. — On all truck and fruit farms spraying machines
are a necessity. The size and kind of outfit will depend on the size of
business and character of plants to be sprayed. Wherever there are more
than eight or ten acres of orchard, a power sprayer mounted on wheels
is recommended. Those which develop power from the wheels are cheap-
est, but are not so satisfactory for spraying large trees. A high-grade
gasoline engine and a good tank for compressed air provide a uniform
pressure under all conditions. Good work demands a pressure of from

A POWER SPRAYER ROUTING ORCHARD PESTS.

90 to 125 pounds. Good nozzles that will give a fine spray without clog-
ging are essential. There should be an agitator in the receptacle that
holds the spraying material. The hose attachments should be ample in
length to reach all parts of the trees.

Horses attached to the sprayer should be protected by suitable
covering.

For small orchards or for small fruit, the barrel sprayer with hand
pump, mounted on a sled, will serve the purpose. Knapsack sprayers
may meet the needs for garden purposes, and are also useful in connection
with larger outfits. They are suited to spraying the base of trees for
mice, rabbits and borers. They are also good to spray young plants and
for shrubs and bushes around the home.

ISO

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Tractors. — The rapid development of small tractors adapted to a
wide range of uses on the moderate sized to small farm is certain to dis-
place considerable of the horse power within the next decade. The
advantages of tractors lie in the saving of time and in the fact that they
are of little or no expense when not in use. With present prices of horse
feed and fuel for tractors, whether it be coal, crude oil or gasoline, the
traqtor furnishes power at less cost than the horse.

The motor truck is recommended for farmers having much market-
ing to do, especially if the distance from market is great and roads are
suitable for such a vehicle.

A COLLECTION OF USEFUL HAND IMPLEMENTS.1

For a fuller discussion of farm motors and tractors, see the follow-
ing chapter.

Farm Vehicles. — Farm wagons should be selected to suit the char-
acter of work to be done, and be adapted to the character of roads in the
vicinity. Wide tires are recommended for farm use and for dirt roads.
Under most conditions they are lighter of draft and injure roads and
fields less than do the regulation narrow-tired wagons. It pays to buy
the best makes of wagons, to provide shelter for them and to keep both
running gear and boxes well painted.

A low-wheeled running gear on which may be placed the regulation
wagon box or hay rack finds favor on most farms. It saves much
lifting.

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company. N. Y. From "Soils," by Lyon and Fippen.

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 181

A light runabout, suitable for one horse, is useful on nearly every
farm. A carriage or surrey should be provided for the pleasure of the
family.

The automobile is now displacing the carriage or surrey to a con-
siderable extent. It serves for both business and pleasure and is a great
saver of the farmer's time where considerable distance and frequent trips
are involved. The autcmobile costs little or no more than a good driving
team and carriage, and should be less expensive to maintain.

INTERIOR OF A WORKSHOP WITH A $25.00 OUTFIT OF TOOLS. l

Hand Implements. — The number and variety of hand implements
found on a farm will be determined by the type of farming. They will
be most extensively needed on truck and fruit farms. . Several forms of
hoes, suited to the different kinds of work, are necessary. The hand
rake, spades and shovels should be of a type best suited to the work to
be done. It pays to keep hand implements sharp and well polished. One
can not only do more work with a sharp, well-polished hoe than one can
with a dull, rusty one, but pleasure is added to the work.

There should be an ample outfit of barn implements suited to the
kind of feed to be handled and the cleaning of the barn. These should

i From Farmers' Bulletin 347, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

182

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

include suitable brooms and brushes for sweeping dry floors, shovels of
the size and form suited to the kind of floor and also the gutters. Good
currycombs and brushes, always in their place when not in use, insure
better care of the stock.

Tools. — The most used forms of carpenter's tools should be found on
every farm. There should be a small shop in which to keep them and
where they may frequently be used. The ax, hatchet and two or more
kinds of hammers, the cross-cut and the rip saw, a brace and suitable
outlay of bits, and one or more good planes will frequently be needed.
There should also be a suitable collection of files, punches, pliers and
wrenches. Both flat and three-cornered files will be found useful. The

bastard and second-
cut are the grades of
files most needed for
general work. Cold
chisels and a few wood
chisels will also be use-
ful. There are many
other small tools that
can be added to the
outfit as needed. The
extent of the outfit
will be determined by
the extent and charac-
ter of the farm ma-
chinery, the mechani-
cal ability of the
farmer and the accessi-
bility to local repair
shops.

Handy Conveni-
ences.— There are

innumerable conveniences, many of which are home-made, that find much
use on the farm. Among these may be mentioned the various forms of
eveners and double-trees, suitable to three horses or more, and made to
suit the character of machinery on which used.

A pump with hose attachment, fastened to a board, may be placed
across the wagon bed and is very handy in filling barrels from a stream or
shallow well. A derrick of suitable height is useful in the home butchering
of hogs, sheep, calves or beef animals. A hoisting apparatus suitable for
putting hay into the mow or stack should find a place on nearly every farm.
The wagon jack will make the work of greasing wagons and other
vehicles easy.

A hand cart and a wheelbarrow are frequently needed. Suitable

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

HOME-MADE BARBEL CART FOR HAULING LIQUID FEED.1

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 183

carriers operated on tracks in the barns are superior to the wheelbarrow
for conveying feed to mangers and manure to the spreader or manure pit,
but are more expensive.

Standard measures for carrying and measuring grain are always useful.
These may be in the form of good splint baskets or as metal measures
with handles.

Machinery for the House. — The weekly wash for the average farm
family, when done in the old-fashioned way, is a laborious task. It can
be greatly lightened
by the use of the
washing machine,
wringer and mangle
that are operated by
mechanical power. A
laundry, with modern
equipment, is of more
urgent need in the
country than in the
city. Power for such
a laundry may be used
for other purposes,
such as pumping water
for a pressure system,
operating the cream
separator, churn and
possibly a suction
cleaner. There are too
many farmers who are
able to supply such an
equipment who are
content to permit their
wives to do this work
in the old-fashioned
way. It is safe to
predict that if these

duties were to fall to the lot of the farmer himself, he would find a way to
do the work more easily and quickly.

There are on the market many labor-saving household implements,
including power churns, cream separators, sewing machines, meat cutters,
vacuum cleaners, etc. Wherever electricity is available, electric irons and
other electrical devices help to lighten the work.

If water must be pumped or drawn from the well by the housewife,
no reason exists why a pipe could not be extended and a pump placed in
the kitchen or a pump house connected with the kitchen,

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.
47

HOME-MADE DUMP CART TO MAKE STABLE WORK EASIER. 1

184

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Buying Farm Machinery. — The farmers of the United States spend
more than $100,000,000 annually for the purchase of farm machinery.
The average life of such machinery is about ten years. Its durability
could doubtless be much lengthened if it had better care.

It generally pays to buy the best makes of machines, even though
the initial cost is greater than that for cheaper ones. Whether or not
it pays to buy a machine depends on the amount of work for which it
can be used. If the amount of work is small, it is frequently cheaper to
hire a machine than to own one. In some localities the more expensive
machines are owned jointly by two or more farmers.

It requires good judgment to know when to replace an old machine
with a new one. Frequently machines apparently worn out may be
made to work as good as new by replacing badly worn parts. On the
other hand, some machines go rapidly out of date because of important
improvements. A new machine may, the/efore, be purchased to advan-
tage and the old one discarded even
though not worn out. There is a
tendency on the part of too many
farmers to get along with the eld
machine at a sacrifice of much time
spent in continual repairing.

Care of Machinery. — Every farmer
should have a shed ' large enough to
house all his farm implements. This
may be a cheap structure, the two essen-
tials being a dry floor and a good roof.
There should be sufficient room to store
the implements without taking them

all apart. It is well to arrange them in the shed when time is not press-
ing, so that those first needed in the spring are most accessible.

The woodwork of all machinery should be painted whenever it shows
need of it. This should be done in leisure time. All machinery should
be examined and nuts and bolts tightened. The metal parts, such as the
surface of plow bottoms, cultivator shovels, the disks of disk harrows,
drills and cultivators should be greased, either with kerosene and tallow
or cheap axle grease, as soon as their work is done. This prevents rust-
ing and is easily removed when the machine is again needed for use.
Although paint is sometimes used for this purpose, it is not advised, as
it is too difficult to remove.

Condition of Machinery. — Every farmer realizes the importance of
having all machinery and implements in good working order. This
pertains to the adjustment of all complex machinery and applies also
to the adjustment of clevises on plows, so that they will run at the proper
depth. A machine out of adjustment not only does its work poorly, but

* Courtesy of Altorfer Bros., Roanoke, 111,

A WASHING MACHINE SAVES MUCH
HARD WORK FOR THE HOUSE wins.1

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 185

generally requires more power to operate it. Some one has well said,
" Constant vigilance and oil is the price of smooth-running, efficient farm
tools, and to spare either is dangerous as well as expensive." Saws that
will saw, knives that will cut, hammers that will stay on their handles,
are much to be preferred.

Utilizing Machinery. — A full equipment of farm machinery costs so
much that interest and depreciation are a burden for the small farmer.
This may be overcome by joint ownership of the more costly machines.
Large farms can own a complete outfit and utilize it quite fully. The
smaller the farm the greater the machinery cost per acre. On small

WHERE Do You PREFER TO KEEP YOUR IMPLEMENTS? UNDER THE SKY?

farms the use for certain machinery may be so small as to make owner-
ship unprofitable.

The greater the skill and higher the wage of workmen, the greater
the necessity of using the best and most efficient machinery.

For the general farmer tools that are adjustable and can be used
for several purposes are advantageous. A combined spike and spring-
toothed harrow that may be changed from one to the other by the use of
two levers often saves an extra trip to the house or prevents one being
used where the other would have served better. The same principle
applies to cultivators where gangs or shovels can be changed for disks
or sweeps.

Cost of Farm Machinery. — The principal items in the cost of farm
machinery are depreciation, interest on the capital invested; cost of repairs.

1 Courtesy of Wallace's Farmer,

186

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

oil and labor in caring for machinery, together with the proper housing
of it. When these costs are figured on the acre basis the rate varies
inversely in proportion to the acres covered. Low cost, therefore, is asso-
ciated with the fullest possible utilization of the machines. It is signifi-
cant that the high-priced machines are usually those used for the shortest
period.

The method of computing the cost of farm machinery is well illus-
trated in the accompanying table taken from the Tribune Farmer:

TABLE SHOWING METHOD OF FINDING THE COST OF USING FARM MACHINERY.

i

ANNUAI

t COSTS

i

IMPLEMENT.

Date of Purcl

Purchase Pric

Estimated Lif

Actual Life.

Approximate
Average Value
for Life. 13

Five Per Cent
Interes .

Depreciation.

°"'i

s«

1
O

1

t>

w

o"
o>

I

Two two-horse walking
plows
Spring-tooth harrow ....
Spike-tooth harrow
Roller

1902-04
1902
1903
1903

$24.00
14.40
12.00
12 00

16.4
11.4
20.0
15 0

12

$13.00
7.50
6.50
6 50

.65
.38
.33
33

$1.46
1.26
.60
80

$0.95
.33
.25
3 25

$3.06
1.97
1.18
4 38

344
242

78
82

$0.0089
0.0073
0.0151
0 0534

Weeder

1906

9.00

17.5

5 00

.25

.52

.32

1.09

25

0 0436

One-horse plow

1905

7 50

16 4

4 00

20

46

18

84

10

0 0840

Two riding cultivators <

1903
1906

31.00
42 00

13.7

38.00

1.90

5.33

4.30

11.53

154

0.0749

Grain binder

1902

125 00

12 5

64 00

3 20

10 00

2 98

16 18

28

0 5773

Grain drill

1904

70 00

14 8

37 00

1 85

4 73

3 50

10 08

59

0 1710

1904

25 00

21 8

13 00

65

1 15

65

2 45

35

0 0700

Mower

1903

38 00

12 8

20 00

1 00

3 00

1 37

5 37

16

0 3356

Hay rake

1903

18.00

12.8

9 50

.48

1 40

.50

2.38

16

0 1488

Orchard sprayer
Gasoline engine
Harnesses
Wagons, boxes, racks. . .
Hay slings, fork track. . .
Miscellaneous minor
equipment

1908
1908
1902-03
1903
1909

1902

80.00
200.00
83.50
110.25
50.00

386 00

10.0
13.5
16.2
20.5
20.0

10 0

10

42.00
105.00
43.00
58.00
26.00

197 00

2.10
5.25
2.15
2.90
1.30

9 85

8.00
14.83
5.15
5.38
2.50

38 60

5.25
5.10
5.60
4.75
.50

1 38

15.35
25.18
12.90
13.03
4.30

49 83

44

128
3192
250
. 40

78*

0.3490
0.0200
0.0037
0.0521
0.1075

0 6400*

Total cost

$1,337.65

12.7

$695.00

34.77

$105.17

41.16

$181.10

....

Numerous records of the cost of farm machinery show that the
annual cost per farm is about one-quarter of the actual value of the
machinery for the year involved.

Farm surveys in Wisconsin indicate that too many farmers economize
on their farm equipment to such an extent that efficiency is sacrificed and
profits are below what they would be with a more modern and efficient
equipment.

Duty of Farm Machinery pertains to the amount of work each
machine will do daily or for the season. Manufacturing concerns stand-
ardize different operations in their shops as much as possible. This enables
them to estimate very closely the amount of work that can be turned out
in a given time, and makes it possible for them to state to customers when
a stated task can be completed. It is just as essential for the farmer to

* Miscellaneous minor equipment charges nre distributed on the basis of the total productive area of
the farm, 78 acres. In this group all machinery and small tools not specifically mentioned are included.

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 1ST

standardize his various machines in order to know what machinery will
be required for his various operations.

There are many factors influencing the duty of a given machine,
such as the speed of the team, the weather conditions and the condition
of the ground. On an average, the daily duty of a machine in acres is
equal to the width in feet times 1.4. In other words, a 12-inch plow will
average 1.4 acres per day. A 6-foot mower will cut 8.4 acres per day. The
size of fields will also influence the duty, since small fields require more
turning and loss of time.

Careful investigations in Minnesota and Ohio show that in the
former state the acre cost of corn machinery is $1.07, while in the latter
it is only 49 cents. The lower cost in Ohio is due chiefly to the relatively
larger acreage of corn per farm and the fuller utilization of machinery.

REFERENCES

"Farm Machinery and Farm Motors." Davidson and Chase.

Kentucky Expt. Station Bulletin 186. "Mechanical Milker."

New York Expt. Station Bulletin 353.

Ohio Expt. Station Bulletin 227. Circular 98.

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletins: 44, 212.

Farmers' Bulletin 347, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "Repair of Farm Equipment."

GRID VALV£

FUEL RESERVOIR

AUXILIARY RESERVOIR

VALVE ROD
FUEL PIPE

GOVERNOR
GEAR

GOVERNOR
SLEEVE

VVATEI

GOVERNOR
WEIGHT "

PINION

CRANK BASE

FLY WHEEl +

SECTIONAL VIEW OF A FOUR-CYCLE VERTICAL GAS ENGINE.1

»Courtesy of Fairbanks, Morse & Co., Chicago, 111.

(188)

CHAPTER 11

ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS FOR THE FARM

BY R. U. BLASINGAME

Professor of Agricultural Engineering, Alabama Polytechnic Institute

THE REAL POWER FOR THE FARM

The real call of the farm is for power, some means by which the skill of
a single man can direct a force that will do as much work as a score or more
men could do unaided. From plowing to the feed trough, it takes 4| hours
work to raise one bushel of corn by hand. The use of improved machinery
and the multiplicity of power has reduced this figure to 41 minutes.

Various forms of power, such as the treadmill, the sweepmill and the
windmill, have all failed in many respects. Windmills are objectionable
because they are not portable, they are not steady in power and are often
wrecked by the wind. The sweep power is hard to move, cumbersome and
requires the operators to be exposed to many storms.

The steam engine, but for the close attention it requires, might be the
real power needed for farm purposes. Electricity, when correctly installed,
is safe, efficient and convenient, but for farm purposes where all jobs are
not under one roof as in factories, the lack of portability makes it incon-
venient.

The gasoline engine is the only power at the present time that embodies
all the requirements for farm 'purposes. The operator of such power needs
no greater mechanical training than should be necessary to properly operate
a grain binder. If power is needed in the laundry room, a small engine
might easily be transported to run a washing machine. If it is needed in the
furthest corner of the wood lot, it can be conveyed to that place without
a second or third trip for water and coal, as would be required for a steam
engine. In the coldest, driest and calmest weather the gas engine produces
power without delay. It can be obtained in units of from one-half horse
power to any size that might be required for any farm job.

In parts of the West where the gas engine is best known, it is plowing,
harrowing and seeding in one operation by the square mile instead of by
the acre, and is doing the work better quicker and cheaper than it could
be done by horse or steam power.

Gas Engine Principles. — There are two distinct types of gas engines
on the market at the present time which are used for agricultural purposes;
the four-stroke cycle and the two-stroke cycle engine.

The four-stroke cycle or four-cycle engine requires four strokes in
order to get one working stroke. These strokes are as follows : The intake

(189)

190

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

stroke, in which the charge of air and gas is mixed in the right proportions
to give an explosive mixture. The second stroke compresses the charge
of air and gas which was previously drawn into the cylinder. The third
stroke is the working one in which the compressed charge of air and gas is
exploded and the energy hurled against the piston head. The fourth
stroke is the exhaust, or elimination of all the old gases which were burned.
Therefore, the four-cycle engine requires two revolutions of the fly wheel to
complete the four strokes necessary for obtaining power from this type of

engine. The four-
cycle engine requires
two openings which
are provided with
valves held tightly in
place by springs.
These valves are oper-
ated by mechanical
means, although in
some engines the in-
take valve is operated
by suction.

The two-stroke
cycle or two-cycle
engine requires two
strokes of the piston
in securing one work-
ing stroke. Therefore,
this engine theoretic-
ally receives twice the
power per square inch
hurled against the pis-
ton that the four-cycle

SECTIONAL VIEW OF A TWO-CYCLE ENGINE.!

engine does. The
crank case of such an
engine must necessa-
rily be airtight, because the charge of air, or sometimes a mixture of air and
gas, is brought into this part on the up-stroke of the piston and on the down-
ward stroke the burned gas passes out of the exhaust port while the new gas
from the crank case enters the combustion chamber. It is, therefore,
entirely necessary that the crank shaft which runs through the crank case
fit airtight in its bearings. This is a condition which is difficult to maintain,
especially in an old engine. This type of engine does not operate with
valves at the intake and exhaust, but operates with ports or openings which
are opened and closed by the piston passing over them.

About 90 per cent of all the gas engines used for agricultural purposes

1 Courtesy of Ellis Engine Company, Detroit, Mich.

ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS

191

at present are of the four-cycle type; also all but a few of the automobile
engines are of this type. By experience, users and manufacturers have
found the four-cycle engine the most successful.

Vertical and Horizontal Engines. — Either four-cycle or two-cycle
engines may be vertical or horizontal in appearance. The horizontal
engine, especially of the four-cycle type, is much easier to repair than the
vertical one. However, the vertical engine requires less space for its
installation, but may not lubricate as well as the horizontal engine with the
oil flowing from the top of the cylinder.

Ignition. — There are three types of ignition used in gas engine opera-
tion: high tension, low tension and compression ignition.

FUEt PUMP OPERATING ROD

FUEL PUMP lEvER
GOVERNOR SHAFT

ELF STARTES*

SECTIONAL VIEW OF A FOUR-CYCLE HORIZONTAL GAS ENGINE.1

The high tension system requires a current of electricity with a voltage
sufficiently high to cause a spark to jump from one point to another of a
spark plug. This system is used, as a general rule, on high-speed motors.

The low tension system requires a low voltage for ignition of com-
pressed air and gas mixed together in the compression chamber. The spark
is produced by the separation of two points in the cylinder which have been
brought together and caused to separate.

The source of current for these two types of electric ignition may be
from dry or wet batteries or from magnetos. A very successful means of
ignition is the battery to start the engine and the magneto to furnish the
source of current after it is in operation. In no case should any one pur-
chase a modern engine without a magneto. It is not heir to the many

1 Courtesy of Fairbanks, Morse & Co., Chicago, 111.

192 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

diseases which render battery ignition worthless. The most modern
engines do not require batteries even for starting the engines.

Compression ignition is not so common at present in gas engine
operation. It may be found upon several recent crude-oil engines, some
of which are being used very successfully and cheaply for agricultural
purposes. The principle of this ignition depends upon the separation of
the heavy and light gases as the fuel is vaporized and drawn into the
cylinders with the charge of air. In the compression stroke the lighter
gases are ignited by the heat generated by the compression caused by the
advancing piston. The light gases in turn ignite the heavier ones. This
type of engine not only burns a very cheap grade of fuel, but may be
operated with gasoline, kerosene or most any mixture of the fuels used in
internal combustion engines.

Cooling Systems. — When a mixture of gas and air is exploded in a
gas engine the temperature rises to about 3000° F., which would melt
the cylinder of such an engine if a part of the heat was not conducted
away in some manner. Some manufacturers use water, some oil and others
air for cooling gas engines. Also a mixture of several liquids is some-
times used in extremely cold weather to prevent freezing and the conse-
quent bursting of the water jacket. Oil, when used for this purpose,
takes the place of an anti-freezing mixture.

Some engines are cooled by water poured around the cylinder in a
hopper and the heat conducted from the engine by means of evaporation.
Other engines require a circulating pump which causes some liquid to be
circulated through the water jacket and thence over a screen where it
is partially cooled and used again. There are other types of liquid-cooled
engines which depend entirely upon the liquid circulating after the engine
is warm enough to cause convection currents.

The air-cooled engines for agricultural purposes have not proven
altogether satisfactory on account of the small radiating surface; also
the poor material which enters into the make-up in order that it may sell
at a cheap price.

Lubrication. — Graphite is the true lubricant. It is not affected by
heat or cold. The reason it is not used more than it is, is because of
the inconvenience it offers in passing through small openings which are
ordinarily used for oils. A mixture of powdered graphite and oil might
be occasionally placed in gas engine cylinders to aid in lubrication, but
this could not be depended upon entirely because the operator may for-
get when it is time to replace the lubricant.

All bearings may be lubricated with a cheap grade of animal or
vegetable oil, but the cylinders of a gas engine must not be lubricated
with any except the best grade of gas engine cylinder oil. The tempera-
ture in the cylinder of a gas engine is extremely high; therefore, a vege-
table or animal oil would burn and be worthless for lubricating. More
gas engines are sacrificed to the god of friction each year than from any

ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS 193

other legitimate cause. It should be remembered by all who operate
gas engines that oil is cheaper than iron.

The gravity system is the most common means of lubrication. It
consists of a glass cup placed above the highest point to be lubricated.
The splash system is very often used and consists of a crank case filled
with oil to the point that the crank touches the oil at each revolution.
The force feed type of lubrication is very successful; however, it adds a
few more working parts to an engine, which complicates and may cause
an added trouble. There are other systems of lubrication which will not
be mentioned because of the infrequency of their use.

Gas Engine Parts. — The base of a gas engine supports the cylinder
and all other parts of the engine structure. It should be in proportion

THREE H.P. GAS ENGINE OPERATING BINDER.!

to the rest of the engine. The cylinder serves the purpose of a container
and a receiver. It should be smooth and free from irregularities or dark
spots. The cylinder contains the piston and receives the charge and its
walls receive the force of every explosion. The piston transmits the
power to the connecting rod which is similar to the pitman of a mowing
machine. The crank shaft receives the sliding motion from the connect-
ing rod and changes it into rotary motion.

Governors. — There are two distinct types of governors used in gas
engine operation at the present time. The hit-miss governor causes the
exhaust valve to be held open mechanically when the engine begins to
run above speed.' So long as the exhaust valve is held open fresh air is
drawn in and blown out; therefore, no power is obtained. As soon as

1 Courtesy of Fairbanks, Morse & Co., Chicago, 111.

194 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

the engine begins to operate below the rated speed, the exhaust valve closes
and a charge of air and gas is drawn into the cylinder through the car-
buretor. This type of governor, of course, gives an uneven speed, but
it is all right for ordinary agricultural purposes. It would not do for
furnishing electric lights direct from the dynamo, because the lights would
flicker with every variation in speed. This type of engine would do for
charging batteries from which lights may be taken.

The throttle governor regulates the amount of air and gas mixture
which enters the combustion chamber. This is done automatically in
the stationary engines. This type of governor may be relied upon to
give a more even speed than the preceding one, and especially is this true
jf extra heavy flywheels are used.

Gas Engine Troubles. — Gas engine troubles are almost unlimited.
They are generally from two causes: the things we forget and the things
we don't know. Troubles most frequently occur in the ignition system
or from lack of proper lubrication. The first is easily remedied, but the
latter usually means a new part. If dry batteries are used they may
become wet and deteriorate, or a connection may be loose in the wiring.
A drop of oil or water may be over the point of the spark plug. Points
of the spark plug may be too far apart or too close together. There may
be a loss of compression due to leaking valves or piston rings which do not
fit tightly against the walls of the cylinder. Leaking may take place also
around the spark plug or igniter. The mixture of air and gas may not be
proper, in which case, either the gasoline supply is not regular or the air
is not properly supplied. In cold weather the fuel often refuses to
vaporize. Such a condition may be remedied by pouring hot water in the
water jacket in order to warm the cylinder enough for good vaporization.

TRANSMISSION OF POWER

The best farm motor on the market is of no value on the farm unless
the power which it develops is transmitted to some other machine doing
useful work. Power is transmitted by shafting, belts and gear wheels.
While there are other methods of transmitting power, they are only
modifications of these three.

Shafting. — The shafting should transmit to the pulleys which it
carries whatever energy it receives minus the amount consumed by fric-
tion at its own bearings. Shafting should be of the very best material
in order to reduce the friction in the bearings by reducing the size. It
should be absolutely straight, because much power is required to spring
even a two-inch line shaft into line during each of two hundred or four
hundred revolutions per minute. A shaft should be driven from the
center if possible and between two bearings, and transmit its power to a
series of pulleys on either side of the main drive. If possible, heavy shafts
should have their bearings or hangers rest upon posts which are directly
connected with the ground, because there is always more or less "give"

ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS 195

in the average floor, especially if heavy storage should be above. Line
shafting hangers should not be over 8 feet apart and if the shaft is light,
not more than 6 feet apart. The horse power of a good shaft may be
figured in the following manner:

Multiply the cube of its diameter by the number of revolutions per
minute and divide the result by 82 for steel and 110 for iron. In other
words, "The amount of power that can be transmitted by two shafts of
similar quality varies directly with the speed and with the cubes of their
diameters.'

The twisting strain on a shaft is greatest near the main drive; there-

ENGINE OPERATING PUMP JACK.1

fore, the nearer the main drive is to the hanger, the more nearly will
its strain be counteracted. A disregard of any of the above principles
is calculated not only to waste power, but gives an unsteady energy to the
machine driven and affects both the efficiency and life of the machine being
driven by it.

Speed of Shafting. — If only one machine is to be driven by a shaft
the problem of shaft speed is very simple. With the operation of a cream
separator at a speed of 60 revolutions per minute and a wood saw at a
speed of 400 to 600 revolutions per minute as well as other varied speeds,
the problem is more difficult. It is at this point that many very large,
expensive pulleys and a number of very small pulleys upon which belts

1 Courtesy of The Christensen Engineering Company, Milwaukee, Wis.

196 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

do not work very successfully are used. It is best to average all the
speeds of machines and operate a line shaft at a medium speed.

The Size of Pulleys. — From the following formulas and conditions
one may figure the speed or diameter of any given pulley.

With the speed of the driver, the speed of the driven and the diam-
eter of the driver given, the diameter of the driven may be found.

EXAMPLE No. 1.

Diameter of the driver X speed of the driver = Diameter of driyen>
Speed of the driven

EXAMPLE No. 2.
Given the

Speed of the driven X diameter of the driven = Diameter of driyer
Speed of the driver

EXAMPLE No. 3.
Given the

Diameter of the driven X speed of the driven _ gDee 1 Of the ^ '
Diameter of the driver

EXAMPLE No. 4.
Given the

Diameter of the driver X speed of the driver = gpeed of ^ driyen
Liameter of the driven

Kind of Pulleys. — Pulleys on the market at the present time are
manufactured from cast iron, steel, wood and paper. Of these, iron is
the most commonly used. It is more compact than wood and is cheaper
than steel, although wood can stand much higher speed than the average
iron pulley of similar size and design. Wooden pulleys have the advantage
of holding to a belt better than steel or iron, especially if a belt begins to
slip upon the iron pulley, thus wearing its face very smooth. For light
work the split pulley, or the pulley which can be divided into two parts,
is the most convenient upon the market, especially if machines are changed
from time to time for different purposes.

Straight and Crown Faces. — Iron pulleys are usually made crowning
or slightly oval across the face. Where belts do not require shifting, this
form holds belts to place in good shape. If the load is not heavy the
crown pulley does not weaken the belt to a great extent, but with heavy
loads the main strain comes upon the center of the belt and this causes a
stretching and often develops splits.

Covering Steel Pulleys. — If steel pulleys are used and their surface
becomes slick to the point where belts slip badly, they may be covered
with a leather face. This can be accomplished in the following manner:

Clean the surface of the pulley with gasoline and apply a coat of
varnish upon which a layer of soft paper is placed. Upon this paper a
second coat of varnish is applied. A piece of leather belting is cut to fit
the diameter of the wheel and while the varnish is still moist the section

ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS 197

of belting is laced as tightly as possible upon the surface. The size of the
pulley has now been materially changed; therefore, the effect upon other
machines must be corrected.

Pulley Fasteners. — Pulleys may be fastened to line shafting either
by a key fitting into a key seat both in the pulley and the shafting or
by means of a set screw. The set screw arrangement is convenient and
is often used where light work is to be done. The set screw may be a
source of danger, especially in machines run at a high speed and where
they are exposed and likely to catch the clothes of an operator. Also
if the set screw once slips and grooves the shafting, it becomes necessary
to shift the pulley to a new place.

BELTS AND BELTING

About 90 per cent of all the power transmission in the United States
is accomplished by means of belts.

Advantages of Belts. — In the first place, belts are noiseless. Energy
may be transmitted by them at a much greater distance than by direct
gears. There is less risk of accident than by any other means of trans-
mission. They are simple and convenient and are applicable to a great
many conditions. In case of breakage they can easily be repaired, and
in case machines are moved this means of transmission is the most con-
venient. For these reasons belting is especially adapted to farm uses.

Disadvantages. — Belts are expensive because they wear very easily.
They are not always economical of power and unless carefully adjusted
and of ample size they are likely to slip.

Essentials of a Belt. — If a belt has strength, durability, the absence
of stretch and pulley grip, it has four very valuable qualities. Other
qualities, such as flexibility and resistance to moisture, should also be
considered.

Leather Belting. — The oak-tanned leather is the best material for
belting. It has strength and durability, but has a disadvantage in that
it comes to the manufacturer in short lengths and if especial care is not
taken in cementing the ends together, it goes to pieces very early. It has
been found by experience that as high as 25 per cent more power and
greater wear may be obtained from a leather belt by running it with the
grain or hair side next to the pulley. That is to say, there is a rough and
smooth side to leather belts. The smooth side should be run next to the
pulley because this side would crack more readily if placed outward,
especially in passing over smooth, small pulleys.

Rubber Belts. — Rubber belting is manufactured by placing several
layers of cotton duck and rubber alternately together and vulcanizing
the mass into one. The strength of this kind of belt depends entirely
upon the quality of the fabric which goes into its make-up. This belting
has the advantage of being waterproof and may be made endless and in
any length. Endless belts are not always best in a power house where

198 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

every machine and pulley is stationary, because the length may change
slightly with use. For outdoor work where machines may be moved, it
gives excellent service.

Oil of any kind is detrimental to almost every kind of belt, and
care should be exercised to keep rubber belts free from it. Rubber belting
is resistant to steam and is, therefore, used to a great extent in creameries.

Belt Slipping. — All manner of belt dressings should be avoided because
they often contain some material which shortens the life and hardens the
surface of a belt. The hardening of a belt finally causes it to crack. Any
sticky material put upon a belt will cause a loss in power due to an excess
adherence to the pulley. If a large pulley drives a small one, it is best to
pull with the lower side which is kept horizontal and allows the upper
side to sag. This brings a greater surface of the belt in contact with the
pulley.

To twist a belt, as in pulleys to run in opposite directions, often pre-
vents slipping by a greater exposure of the belt to the pulley.

WATER MOTORS

Overshot Wheels. — The overshot wheel receives its power from the
weight of water carried by buckets which are fastened to the circum-
ference of the wheel. The water enters the buckets at the top of the
wheel and is discharged near the bottom. A wheel of this character is
made by placing between two wooden disks a number of buckets or
V-shaped troughs. The wheel may be supported upon a wood or steel
shaft supported on concrete piers. Motors of this type can be built to
operate under falls as low as four feet and may be expected to supply
anywhere from 3 to 40 horse power, depending on the head of the fall
and the water available.

Undershot Wheels. — The undershot wheel is propelled by water
passing beneath it in a horizontal direction, which strikes veins carried
by the wheel. Such wheels are often used for irrigation purposes where
the fall is too slight for other types of wheels. Most of the undershot
wheels have straight, flat projections for veins, but the most efficient
wheels are built with curved projections. This form of water motor
operates satisfactorily where the water current is rather swift and in
places where the volume of water is kept constant. They will not operate
in streams that are ever flooded.

Breast Wheels. — Under conditions where little fall may be procured,
a breast wheel may be employed to develop power from running water.
This type of wheel receives the water near the level of its axis, but in
most features it is similar in its action to the overshot wheel. The veins
may be straight or slightly curved backward near the circumference.

The wheels mentioned above are very awkward and cumbersome
for the amount of power that they are capable of developing. In other
words, they are not what is known as efficient; however, they are cheap

ENGINES MOTORS AND TRACTORS

190

in construction and
often may utilize
water where other
types of more efficient
wheels cannot be
employed.

Impulse Water
Motors. — Impulse
water motors are
provided with buckets
around the circumfer-
ence of the wheel
against which a small
stream of water under
high .pressure oper-
ates. The Pelton
wheel is one of the
most efficient of the
water motors, but re-
quires for successful
operation a head of
water considerably
higher than is required
by most of the other
water wheels. This
type of wheel may be
secured in sizes under
one horse power and
up to several hundred
horse power.

Turbine Wheels.
— The turbine is a
water motor which is
built up of a number of
stationary and move-
able curved pipes. It
consists of the follow-
ing parts:

A guiding ele-
ment which consists
of stationary blades
the function of which
is to deliver the

^1#;

PELTON WATER WHEEL.1

TURBINE WATER WHEEL.2

1 Courtesy of Pelton Water Wheel Company, New York.

2 Courtesy of J. and W. Jolly Company, Holyoke, Mass.

48

1 Courtesy of Advance-Rumely Company, Inc., La Porte, Ind.

200

ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS 201

water to the rotary part under the proper direction and with the proper
speed.

A revolving portion which consists of veins or buckets which are
placed in a certain position around the axis of the motor.

The last two mentioned are the most efficient and up-to-date water
motors on the market. Power obtained in this method is dependable,
inexpensive, safe and sanitary.

The Hydraulic Ram. — This device, although very wasteful of water,
is one of the most economical motors for pumping water. It serves both
as a motor and a pump. It is not only used for furnishing water for the
farm house, barn and dairy, but it is used in many cases for irrigation
purposes. Only about one-tenth of the water passing through a ram

HACKNEY AUTO-PLOW.*

is finally delivered to the water tank. There is a ram on the market
at present which will operate on impure water which may be secured
in large quantities and made to pump a pure supply of water. This is
commonly known as the double-acting ram.

THE FARM TRACTOR

Farm tractors have been placed upon the market in the past in such
large units that they were practical only on extremely large level farms
in the Middle West. This type of tractor is being driven from the field
by smaller and more compact tractors which are finding a place also on
the small farm of 160 acres or less.

The Size of Tractors. — A tractor of less than five tractive and ten-

Courtesy of Hackney Manufacturing Company, St. Paul, Miutt,

202

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

belt horse power has no place under average farm conditions on the small
farm. This size should operate one fourteen-inch or two ten-inch plows.
It should operate a small threshing machine and also the small silage cutter
for silos not taller than thirty feet. This size tractor may operate a line
shaft from which power can be secured for pumping, grinding feed, sepa-
rating cream, churning, for electric lights and for many other farm opera-
tions at one time.

In hilly land where irregular fields are sure to be prevalent and rocky
ledges are very likely to occur, the tractor has little place. As plowing
is the biggest job in farm operation, the tractor should in this case have

its greatest usefulness
and should replace
about one-third of the
horses ordinarily em-
ployed upon the farm.
It generally takes
about one-third less
horse power to culti-
vate, harvest and haul
to market the crop of
any farm than it takes
to plow and prepare
the seed-bed in a thor-
ough fashion. Under
ordinary small farm
operations, the writer
believes that an 8-16-
horse power tractor is
the most economical
size.

Tractor Efficiency.

—The tractor has been used for agricultural purposes long enough for
this fact to become well established; where a tractor of repute is employed,
more depends upon the intelligence of the tractioner than upon the ability
of the machine to do good work. This does not mean that one has to
have a college training in engineering or to be a master mechanic, but one
should know the principles upon which a gas engine operates and the
intelligent remedy of all diseases to which this mechanism is heir.

Type of Tractor. — It has long been proven that a multi-cylinder
engine is the most successful on the road for speed and power and it is
becoming recognized by the best tractor manufacturers that more than
one cylinder is more dependable and gives more constant power than the
one-cylinder type of motor. More cylinders mean more working parts,

CREEPING GRIP TRACTOR.*

I Courtesy of The Bullock Tractor Company, Chicago, Til.

ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS ,203

but it also means that a steady pull may be secured, where with one
cylinder the power is secured in large quantities at fewer intervals, which
is not calculated to give the best efficiency.

The multi-cylinder engine costs more at first, but the efficient service
which it will render will more than compensate for its greater initial cost.

REFERENCES

'Power and the Plow." Ellis and Rumely.
'Agricultural Engineering." Davidson.
'Heat Engines." Allen and Bursley.
'Farm Gas Engines." Hirshfield and Ulbricht.
'Power." Lucke.
,'Farm Motors." Potter.

CHAPTER 12

FARM SANITATION

BY R. U. BLASINGAME
Professor of Agricultural Engineering, Alabama Polytechnic Institute

Farm sanitation ordinarily includes five distinct branches, namely:
lighting, heating, ventilation, water supply and sewage disposal. Following
is a brief consideration of each of the above mentioned:

LIGHTING

There are several sources of light for isolated farm homes at the present
time. They are as follows:

1. Kerosene Lamps. — These are cheap in initial
^4^j cost. The fuel may be obtained at any cross-roads

store. They are quite safe. There are a few dis-
advantages to such a source of light, namely, the
f odor they emit, the soot which they produce and the

Y fact that they burn more oxygen than other forms

of lighting. Lastly, the
light is not a white light.
2. Gasoline Lamps.
• — These may be divided

^jQjBg^liffjiMU into two groups, the cold

process and the hot pro-
cess. The former system
requires a lighter grade
of gasoline for the pro-
duction of light and is
MOR-LITE ELECTRIC PLANTS more expensive to op-

erate. The cold process

lamps are much safer than the hot process lamps which may be operated
with heavier, cheaper gasoline. While cheaper, the latter are more danger-
ous than the former.

3. Acetylene Gas. — This gas is produced by water and calcium
carbide being brought together. The safest system of acetylene lighting
may be had by feeding calcium carbide in small quantities to a large quan-
tity of water. The heat produced is conducted away too fast for any danger
of explosion. While this system is reasonably safe, there have been many
explosions which have cost both life and property. This gas may cause

lCourUsy of Fairbanks, Morse & Co., Chicago, 111.

204

FARM SANITATION

205

death if inhaled. It has a characteristic odor which any one can easily
detect if it is escaping from the system. The light produced from this
system is white and considered excellent.

4. Electrical Lighting. — The lighting of isolated homes by a private
electrical system is generally thought to be an expensive luxury. However,
during the past twenty years the cost of living has increased about 20 per
cent and the cost of farm labor has increased about 35 per cent, but for the

50 Light Plant

ELECTRIC LIGHTING PLANT FOR FARM HOUSE. 1

same period the cost of lighting by electricity has decreased about 85 per
cent. This method of lighting, if correctly installed, is the safest, most
sanitary, most convenient and most efficient of all modern lighting systems.
There are manufacturing companies who are building very successful
private electrical lighting systems for farm homes. These operate on differ-
ent voltages, namely: 30 volts, 60 volts and 110 volts. If the system is to
furnish power for home conveniences such as operating churns, sewing
machines, etc., the writer would recommend the 110-volt system. A
storage battery will supply about two volts of electrical energy; therefore
the 110-volt system would require about 56 cells, whereas, the 30 and 60-

1 Courtesy of Fairbanks, Morse & Co., Chicago, 111.

'206

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

volt systems would operate at a less cost for such equipment. In most
cases these systems receive their power from small gasoline engines; how-
ever, it is becoming popular in mountainous regions to use small streams
to furnish motive power. Where water is used, the storage battery is not
necessary, because water forces through the wheel at a steady rate which
will in turn produce a steady light. This is not true of a small gasoline
engine, although some companies are making very sensitive engine gov-
ernors and heavy flywheels which are calculated to run very smoothly.
Heating. — There are three distinct heating systems from one central

plant, namely: hot air,
hot water and steam.
These systems are used
mostly in extremely
cold countries.

1. The hot-air sys-
tem, if properly in-
stalled, gives the best
ventilation, and in most
cases is the cheapest of
the three. In cold,
windy weather this sys-
tem is rather hard to
control on account of
the leeward side of the
house receiving the
greater part of the heat.

2. The hot-water
heating system is the
most expensive to in-
stall on account of two
systems of piping, one
for feed, the other for
return. It has been

found that the Honeywell generator or the Mercury-Seal system causes
the hot water to flow more rapidly than without, thus increasing the
efficiency of the system.

3. Steam heat is entirely satisfactory. It gives quicker heat, but does
not retain its heat as long as the hot-water system.

Ventilation. — There are two influences which cause ventilation,
namely: (1) the force of the wind, which causes more or less suction from
any opening in a building; (2) the difference in outside and inside tempera-
tures, the warm air inside rising and escaping through any opening, thus
causing ventilation. The "King system" is generally used in farm
buildings at the present time. It consists in admitting fresh air near the

i Courtesy of Louden Machinery Company, Fairfield, la.

CRO5S s5£C770/V OT BARN
rODL A/R DUCTS
IN

MODIFIED KING SYSTEM OF VENTILATION.1

FARM SANITATION

207

ceiling and conducting the foul air from the interior through an opening
sometimes located at the highest point of the building.

Dampers should be placed at the intake and the outlet in order that
this system may be thoroughly controlled. For horses and cows the
area of cross section of outlet flues should not be less than 30 square inches
for each animal when the flue is 30 feet high, and 36 square inches for each
when only 20 feet high. The cross section of the intakes should aggregate

A PNEUMATIC WATER TANK.

approximately the same as the outlets. Ventilating flues should be airtight
and with as few bends as possible.

There is a system of using double sash windows for dairy barns, in
which the top sash is hinged at the bottom so as to permit the entrance of
air when the top of the sash is drawn into the barn a few inches. The air
entering is deflected upward, thus avoiding a draft of cold air upon the
cattle in the barn. This is one of the absolute essentials of a good ventilat-
ing system. Deflectors should be placed at the sides of the windows, which
will also prevent air from blowing directly upon the stock.

Water Supply. — Water can be supplied to a home under pressure from
an elevated tank, also from a pneumatic tank into which water is pumped

i Courtesy of Fairbanks, Morse & Company, Chicago.

208

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

against a cushion of air. An elevation may be procured by placing the
water tank upon a silo, upon a tower or upon a hill. In extremely cold
climates water in an elevated tank is likely to freeze, and in hot climates
it becomes warm and is not palatable. Where it is not too expensive, a
reservoir placed on the side of a hill and well protected supplies water
under pressure at an even temperature the year around. Such an ele-
vation is permanent and the pipes are placed beneath the ground so
they do not freeze. It is considered, after first cost, the most satisfactory

FAIRBANKS-MORSE WATER SYSTEM FOR FARMS AND SUBURBAN HOMES. 1

system of water supply. In recent years the pneumatic tank which may
be buried in the ground or placed in the cellar is considered an excellent
method for supplying water under pressure to the farmstead.

In installing a system of this kind, one should be sure he is dealing
with a responsible company. It is very necessary that the pump supply-
ing the water to this tank should be provided with a small air pump as
well. This will supply air as well as water, thus insuring the air cushion
at all times. Such a system should be operated under about 50 pounds
pressure.

Sewage Disposal. — In some states there are laws which prohibit the
discharge of sewage from even a single house into a stream of any size,

1 Courtesy of Fairbanks. Morse & Company. Chicago.

FARM SANITATION

209

even though the person discharging the sewage may own the land through
which the stream flows. Such a law should not require legal machinery
for its enforcement, but should appeal to the sense of justice and intelli-
gence of all good citizens.

Vital statistics show that the death rate from typhoid fever in New
York State since 1900 has de-
creased in the cities, while it
has remained about constant in
rural districts. This reduction
in the death rate in the cities
may be accredited in large meas-
ure to the unproved methods of
sewage disposal and close atten-
tion to pure water supply in-
tended for human consumption.

It is, therefore, desirable
to purify sewage before its
discharge into any place where
it. may contaminate food or
water intended for human con-
sumption.

The art of sewage treat-
ment when purification is
carried on in septic tanks con-
sists in two distinct forms of
decomposition.

The first form of decom-
position takes place in the
absence of oxygen or air, and
is called anaerobic, or without
air. Under ordinary circum-
stances it is accompanied with

THE KAUSTINE CLOSET. l
A germless water closet.

disagreeable odors. The sec-
ond decomposition process
takes place in the presence of
air and is called aerobic, or with air. It is accomplished without dis-
agreeable odors.

The first treatment consists in allowing the fresh sewage to enter a
water-tight septic tank, and remain for twenty-four or forty-eight hours.
During this period, in the absence of air, the organic matter of the sewage
is broken down into small particles. The purpose of this treatment is to
get the sewage in such a condition that it can be purified No purifica-
tion is accomplished during this process. The secondary treatment con-
sists in exposing the effluent from the septic tank to the atmosphere, wliere

1 Courtesy of The Kaustine Company, Inc., Buffalo.

210 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

the mass of small particles may be oxidized after the water has been
strained from it. This process is accomplished generally in two ways.
First, the effluent from the septic tank is flushed upon filter beds which
are made by excavating in the ground about two feet deep and filling
with sand after placing four-inch drain tile on the bottom. The drain
tile should have an outlet from whence the filtered liquid may escape.
The air and sunshine decompose the organic matter which is left upon
the filter bed. The second method of final disposition of sewage consists
in flushing the sewage from the septic tank into a series of drain tile which
are placed under ground and have a slope of about 1 inch in 100 feet. In
sandy soil about 150 feet of pipe should be allowed for each person living
in the home. In clay soil about 400 feet of pipe should be provided for
each person. It is necessary to ventilate these lines of pipe at intervals
in order that the material left in the pipes after the liquid has escaped
into the soil may be oxidized by the air. The size of the tank should be
determined by the size of the family, allowing twenty-five gallons of water
per day for each person.

By writing the Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C.,
one may receive farmers' bulletins which describe and illustrate different
systems of sewage disposal. It is often thought and sometimes stated in
literature that after sewage has remained in a septic tank for twenty-four
hours it may be dumped into a stream without fear of pollution. This
is absolutely wrong, for the sewage may contain disease germs which are
not affected in the least by the decomposition in the septic tank.

There is a patented sanitary closet which is manufactured by the
Kaustine Company, Buffalo, N. Y., which is giving good satisfaction.
The principle upon which this method of sewage purification operates is
as follows:

The excrement enters a steel tank containing a very strong chemical
which is mixed with water. This chemical destroys all bacteria and odor
and also disintegrates all solid matter to the point that it may be drained
or pumped from the tank and disposed of without fear of contamination.
This tank will hold the sewage produced by a family of five during a
period of six to eight months. The contents of the tank rates high in
fertilizing value.

REFERENCES

"Electricity for the Farm." Anderson.

"Rural Hygiene." Ogden.

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 78. "Ventilation of Farm Buildings."

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 57. "Water Supply and Sewage Disposal for

Country Homes."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Year-Book 1914. "Clean Water on the Farm and How to

Get It."
Farmers' Bulletin 463, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "Sanitary Privy."

CHAPTER 13

FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION

Water is the first, essential to plant growth, and yet either too much or
too little prevents a normal growth of most farm crops. The removal of
water from the soil is known as drainage, while the adding of water is called
irrigation.

LAND DRAINAGE

The need for drainage and the advantages of it are discussed in
Chapter 7. Only the engineering features of it will be discussed here.

Co-operation. — Wherever large tracts of farm land are to be drained,
co-operation among the land owners is necessary for the establishment of
an economic drainage system. The laws of most states provide for an
equitable appraisement of benefits derived by the land owners in a drainage
district and make possible the establishment of the district when the
majority of land owners ask for it.

The first step in the formation of a district is an accurate survey of
the natural water course and an estimate of the size and length cf the
system of open ditches necessary for the proper drainage of the land. The
ditching is generally done by a contractor making a specialty of this kind
of work. His services are secured through the ditch commissioners, three
or more in number, who are elected by the land owners of the district.
Bids are usually let in order to secure competition and get the work dene
at an equitable price.

The dredged ditches, when completed, usually provide each land owner
with an outlet. All subsequent drainage is done by the individual owners,
each for his own farm. The individual farm drainage consists chiefly or
wholly of tile drains that empty into the open ditches.

The old plow-and-scraper method of making ditches is applicable only
when the soil is fairly dry. It will not be described here. Except for
very small jobs, it is more expensive than excavating with one of the
several forms of large ditching machines.

Of the several types of ditching machines, the floating dredge is the
most common and the most successful in level land ancl for large jobs. It
begins at the upper end of the drainage course and works down stream so
that the excavation is always well filled with water and easily floats the
dredge. This style of dredge is adapted to a large channel, varying from
12 to 60 feet in width. The earth is excavated by large scoops on immense
steel arms, operated by steam power. The earth is deposited on either side
of the channel and at a distance of 6 to 12 feet from the edge of it. In the

1 (211)

212

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

absence of stones, roots or other obstructions, ditches may be excavated
at a cost of from 7 to 13 cents per cubic yard. The contract is frequently
made on the basis of material removed.

It is essential that such water courses be made as straight and as deep
as conditions will permit. The straight course makes the shortest possible
ditch and provides for the maximum fall. Good fall and straightness both
accelerate the flow of water and make possible adequate drainage with a
smaller ditch than would be possible with a longer and more circuitous
route.

The ditch embankments, after weathering for a year, may be gradually
leveled down and worked back into the adja-
cent fields by the use of plows and scrapers.
The banks of the ditch need not be as sloping,
as formerly thought, although the slope will
depend on the character of soil. In heavy, ten-
acious soils, a slope of | to 1 is sufficient, that
is 6 inches horizontal to 1 foot vertical. The
fall of the ditch may range from 6 inches to 3
feet or more per mile. With 3 feet of fall per
mile, the velocity of the water will keep the
ditch fairly free from sediment, provided it is
not allowed to become filled with growing grass,
weeds or willows. If these grow in the ditch
during the dry portion of the year, they should
be cut and removed annually. Where the
fall is too great, the banks of the ditch are
apt to erode and cave in. The caved earth
will be carried and deposited in lower portions
of the stream course and cause trouble. The
banks of the ditch should be kept covered
with grass to prevent erosion.

Tile Drains. — The first step in tile drain-
age is an accurate survey of the land to be
drained. This will determine the fall and the best position for the main
drains. It should also include an estimate of the water shed, that is, the
amount of water to be carried away, whether falling on the land to be
drained or flowing on to it from adjacent higher lands. The lines of
drainage should be as straight as conditions will permit. The mains
should be in the lowest portions of the field. Laterals may extend from
them into more elevated portions. In case of very level land, this makes
provision for the greatest possible fall in the drainage lines.

Running the Levels. — This work may be done by the farmer. In
large systems or on very level land, the employment of an engineer is
advised. A farm drainage level that is sufficiently accurate may be pur-

1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 187. . .

GRADING THE DITCH AND
LAYING TiLE.1

a — Depth gauge. b —

Cross piece, cand d — Stakes

driven in ground to give

proper slope to grading line e

f — Hollow tile drain.

FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION 213

chased for about $15. For very small jobs a home-made water level will
serve the purpose. This consists of a section of gas pipe about three feet
long, with a glass tube attached to each end by means of corks or rubber
tubing. The glass tubes should be at right angles to the pipe. When
filled with a colored solution and held approximately level, the operator
sights across the top of the colored solution as it appears in the two glass
tubes.

Establishing the Grades. — The drainage lines are laid out by driving
stakes at intervals of 50 to 100 feet, about 18 inches to one side of the
center of the ditch. These stakes are driven into the ground until the tops

A LOW-PRICED TILE DITCHER.

are only two or three inches above the ground level. By use of the level,
the elevation of each is ascertained. The next step is to calculate the total
fall of the line and determine whether the grade is to be uniform or whether
it must be changed for a portion of the course. This will depend on the
variation in the slope of the surface of the ground. If the slope varies
much, two or more grades may be necessary in order tiiat the drainage pipe
may be placed at the desired depth beneath the surface of the ground. A
single grade may result in the tile being too deep over a portion of the course,
thus necessitating expensive excavating, or it may be too shallow to provide
effective drainage. These difficulties are avoided by suitable changes in
the grade.

Grade stakes projecting about 18 inches above the surface of the
ground are set one beside each of the stakes designating the level. These

214

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

are driven so that the tops are a uniform distance above the bottom of
the ditch as it is to be excavated. This may be 4J feet or any convenient
height. A cord or wire is next stretched tightly over the top of the grade
stakes. By means of a gauge, the ditcher can control the depth of the
ditch. Care should be exercised not to get it too deep, or to make the
bottom wider than necessary.

The sketch on a preceding page shows the method of gauging the
depth, the character of excavation and the position of the tile.

Small Ditching Machines. — These may be used to facilitate the work

THE DITCHER itf OPERATION.

Can be operated by one man and six horses. It will excavate 100 rods of dirt
to a depth of 3 feet daily.

of excavation. They do it more rapidly than can be done by hand and
at less cost. They are adapted only to fairly long courses. It will gen-
erally be necessary to grade the bottom of the ditch by hand.

Size of Tile. — In any system the major portion of the tiles will be
three inches in diameter. All lines not exceeding 500 feet in length and
having no branches entering may be of this size. When such lines exceed
500 feet the lower portion should be 4-inch tile. The capacity of pipes
is in proportion to the square of their respective diameters, plus some-
thing for the relatively lesser amount of friction in the large diameters.
Jn practice, one 4-inch line will accommodate two 3-inch lines. One
8-inch lin<5 will accommodate five 4-inch lines, etc.

FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION

215

The removal of one-quarter inch of rainfall in 24 hours will generally
provide adequate drainage. On this basis the area in acres drained by
given sizes of tile and grades are as follows:

Diameter of Drain.

Grade 1 Inch
to 100 Feet.

Grade 3 Inchea
to 100 Feet.

5 ...

19 1

2^ 1

6 . .

29 9

QQ fi

7

44 1

ejc q

8

61 4

80 Q

9

82 2

108 4

10

106 2

140 6

12

167 7

221 1

16

341 4

449 9

To double the fall for steeper grades than those given in the above table
will increase the carrying capacity of the tile one-quarter to one-third.

IRRIGATION

Water, wisely used, has converted many desert acres into fruitful
fields and orchards. This has made possible thriving settlements in many
parts of the arid West, and encouraged the development of industries
other than agriculture, especially the mining of useful metals.

Water Rights. — In regions of limited water supply, laws for the con-
trol of water become essential. These laws should be understood and
obeyed by all users of water. It is a principle that rather definite shares
in the water supply of a region shall be apportioned to specific areas of
land. When the water supply is insufficient for all available land, priority
of appropriation receives first consideration. A new settler is prohibited
by law from sharing in the water supply at the expense of early settlers.
In many irrigation districts, the extravagant use of water has prevailed.
A more economical use on the part of the older settlers would produce
equally as good crops. In fact, the extravagant use of water is more
often injurious than otherwise.

Co-operation. — This is a necessary feature in most irrigation dis-
tricts, because the water supply must serve the entire community, and in
order to do so most advantageously, co-operative action is called for in
its use and conservation. Co-operation means that the farmers on an
irrigation ditch must take turns in using the water. The larger the volume
of water the shorter the time each may use it and the greater number
of farmers can be supplied. The apportionment of the water should
correspond to the acreage of crops to be irrigated by each farmer. This
rotation of the allotment of water to the farmers on a ditch is advan-
tageous from two standpoints. First, it gives each farmer sufficient water
to cover his land in a very short time, thus economizing on the time spent

49

216 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

in irrigating. Second, it overcomes the loss of water by seepage and
evaporation which takes place when he has a constant small stream.

Sources of Water. — The chief sources of irrigation water are peren-
nial streams, springs and wells. The first named is by far the most
important. The first consideration in the development of an irrigation
supply from a stream is the volume of water carried at all times during
the year; and second, whether or not the water can be brought to the
land to be irrigated at a reasonable expense. This will depend prin-
cipally upon the length of ditch to be constructed and the character of
land that must be traversed by it. In some cases, pipe lines may take
the place of ditches without great additional expense and with much less
waste of water.

The larger the ditch and the more porous the soil through which it
passes, the smaller should be the fall. If, however, the grade is too
small, the ditch must be larger in order to carry the supply of water. In
ordinary soils, a grade of one foot in 600 feet may be given. In clay
soils, it may be increased to two feet in 600 feet. A slow movement of
water in the ditch prevents scouring and encourages the settlement of
fine sediment. This ultimately forms an impervious lining and prevents
seepage.

Springs offer an excellent irrigation water supply, and although the
volume is much less than that from perennial streams, it is subject to less
fluctuation in volume and is consequently more dependable.

Wells form a considerable source of irrigation water supply in many
of the irrigation districts. They are virtually artificial springs secured
by boring deep wells provided with iron casings. In some instances, as
in case of wells that do not flow, and in elevating water from lakes and
streams to land lying above the water level, pumping is resorted to.

Dams and Reservoirs. — Perennial streams are subject to great
fluctuation, due to periodic rains and melting snow. Their direct diver-
sion for irrigation purposes, therefore, fails to utilize much of the water
during high stages. This has led to methods of storing the water to be
used as needed, thus increasing the area irrigated. While dams are neces-
sary for diverting water from streams into canals, much larger and more
expensive ones are required in the building of reservoirs. It is important
to select the dam site with a view of securing the largest possible water
storage capacity with the minimum expenditure for construction. Such
sites are most usually found in the upper courses of a stream where it-
passes through a narrows or canyon. Rocky, impervious abutments to
which to connect the dam are essential. On large projects the reinforced
masonry or concrete dam that will be permanent is advised. The deeper
the water in a storage reservoir the less will be the relative loss by
evaporation.

Methods of Transmission. — The census of 1910 gave an aggregate
of over 125,000 miles of irrigated ditches in the United States. At that

FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION 217

time, less than four per cent of this mileage was lined or otherwise made
impervious to water. A limited amount of irrigation water is conveyed
through pipe lines of different types, of which wood, terra-cotta and
cement predominate. It is important to construct the irrigation ditch
of the proper size to convey the maximum amount of water that will be
available or the maximum that can be used by those who irrigate. In
this connection it is advised to secure the services of an engineer. It
should be understood that the amount of water conveyed depends on the
cross section of the canal and the rate of movement of the water. In a
small ditch capable of carrying 50 miner's inches, a fall of 2 inches to the
rod will give a velocity of 2 feet per second. In a ditch carrying 20 times
as much water, a fall of J inch to a rod will give an equal velocity. Except
in hard clay or a mixture of gravel and clay, a velocity greater than 3
feet per second is likely to cause serious ercsicn. A velocity of 2 to 2J
feet is the maximum that should be permitted fcr ordinary sandy loams
or loams. Where the fall of the land is such as to cause a greater velocity
of the water, checks in the canals should be provided. These may be
wooden dams or obstructions of cobblestones, causing a drop in the water.

In lined canals erosion is overcome and the velocity of the water
may be much greater. Where there is ample fall, such a canal may be
much smaller than an ordinary earth canal. The transmission of water
through pipes has a still greater advantage in this respect and may be
conducted down very steep grades.

Losses in Transmission. — Much water diverted from streams for
irrigation is lost from the ditches by seepage and evaporation, and is
still further wasted by over-irrigation and by allowing the water to pene-
trate the soil beyond the reach of crops. Water lost in these ways often
causes serious damage to the lower lying land in the irrigation district.
Numerous water measurements and experiments have led to a conserva-
tive estimate that not more than 35 per cent of the water diverted from
streams is effective in plant production.

The efficiency of irrigation water can be greatly increased by the
substitution of pipe lines for open ditches and by greater care in the
distribution of water in the fields.

Head Gates. — Head gates are necessary at the point of diversion
from a stream into the main irrigation canal, and also at points along
the main canal at the juncture of laterals. Such gates are usually con-
structed of plank with a gate that slides up and down to control the
volume of water. A simple form is shown in the accompanying illustration.

Preparing Land for Irrigation. — The preparation of the land consists
in clearing it of the native vegetation, which in the arid region is usually
sage-brush, rabbit-bush, cacti and native grasses. Plowing frequently
precedes the clearing operation. This makes easy the gathering and
burning of the vegetation. The plowing and clearing should be followed
by a thorough harrowing, grading and smoothing of the surface. The

218

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

supply ditch should be above the highest portion of the land to be irri-
gated. After the field is cleaned and leveled, farm ditches should be

Gate Partly Open aud Locked

DELIVERY GATE TO FARM LATERAL.*

conducted over the higher portions of it. From these ditches the water
may be conducted to all portions of the land. As far as possible these
ditches should extend along the borders of the fields in order to avoid

Old Wagon Tire

THE V-CROWDER is EXCELLENT FOR MAKING THE FARM DITCHES. l

obstructions to cultivation. When necessary to cross fields with open
ditches, they should be so placed as to avoid as far as possible irregularity
in shape of fields.

1 Courtesy of The McGraw-Hill Book Company, N. Y. From " Use of Water in Irrigation," by Fortier,

FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION 219

Farm Ditches. — The size of the farm ditches will be determined by
the acreage of land irrigated by each, the fall in the ditches and the
amount of water that must be cared for in a unit of time. On uneven
land it is necessary to bridge over the depressions with levees or flumes.
The levee is usually the cheaper, but should be allowed to settle. It will
be subject to wash-outs during the first few years.

Wooden flumes are more satisfactory, but wood soon decays when
used for this purpose. Metal or concrete pipes cost most, but are durable
and generally cheapest in the end. The method of constructing the farm
ditches depends on their size. Most of the work on them may be done
with the plow arid the V-crowder. The crowder makes a ditch with a
triangular bottom. This bottom becomes rounded by usage. It is
important that the ditch be made in the proper place at the outset.
The older the ditch, the more impervious its banks and bottom become
and the more satisfaction it
gives. Leaky ditches may
be greatly improved by pud-
dling the earth of the sides
and bottom. This may be
done by drawing off the
water and driving a flock of
sheep the length of the ditch
while it is muddy. Drag-
ging the bottom with a
brush harrow may be re-
sorted to for the same pur-
pose.

On well-established

ditches the chief items of maintenance are the removal of silt, weeds
and aquatic plants that may grow in them.

Distributaries. — These consist of small wooden, metal or rubber
tubes, imbedded in the bank of the ditch so that the water will pass
through the embankment and be uniformly distributed on the adjacent
land. These need not be permanent, but may be imbedded temporarily,
and moved from field to field as needed. Square boxes, made of lath cut
in half, are cheap, light and serve the purpose as well as more expensive
metal tubes. Being square and rough, they stay in the embankment
better than the smoother metal or rubber tubes.

Small syphons of rubber hose are also used. These obviate the
necessity of disturbing the ditch bank. The chief objection to these is
the starting of the flow of water.

Distributing the Water. — The method of distribution will depend
on the slope of the land, the character of the soil and the kind of crop.
Level land is easily irrigated by flooding the whole surface. This method

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. \V From " Principles of Irrigation Practice," by Widtsoe.

CANVAS DAM TO CHECK WATER.1

220 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

is applicable to the irrigation of alfalfa, grass and small grains. The
surface, however, should be divided into areas that may be covered in a
comparatively short time with the water available. When one area has
received sufficient water, the flow is then directed to the next one, and
so on until the irrigation is completed. If the field to be irrigated is
large, it necessitates a network of ditches or parallel ditches at intervals
of 300 to 400 feet, extending across the field. The distance to which the
water may travel over the surface of the ground depends on the char-
acter of soil and the ease of penetration. The more porous the soil, the
shorter the intervals should be. If the intervals are too long, the soil

ORCHARD IRRIGATION BY FURROW METHOD.1

nearest the ditch becomes over-irrigated before the water reaches the
further portions.

With this method of irrigation the water is generally made to flow
over the embankment by use of a temporary dam. The most convenient
form consists of a strong piece of canvas four or five feet square with one
edge securely nailed to a tough but light piece of wood that will reach from
bank to bank of the ditch. When this is laid in the ditch with the canvas
upstream and a- few shovels of dirt thrown on its edges, it completely
dams the water. It is easily moved from place to place as needed.

All crops planted in rows, such as vegetables, sugar beets, potatoes
and fruit, are generally irrigated by the furrow method. Where the rows
are close together, the furrows alternate with the rows, being midway

i Courtesy of The McGraw-Hill Book Company, N. Y. From " Use of Water in Irrigation," by Fortier.

FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION 221

between them. If they are further apart, as in orchards, two or more
furrows for each row of plants are desirable. The length of furrows will
depend on the character of soil. If very porous, they should not be more
than 300 feet long. In heavy soils, the length may be as much as 600
feet. In this type of irrigation the rows extend at right angles to the
ditches, and the water is most conveniently taken from the ditch by dis-
tributors previously described. It is usually desirable to turn the water
into as many as 50 furrows at one time.

The Check System. — It consists of dividing the field into a number
of small compartments, surrounded by low levees. The water is turned
in these to the desired depth. This gives a rather complete control of

CELERY UNDER IRRIGATION, SKINNER SYSTEM.1

the amount of water applied to each unit of ground. The size of the
checks depends on the slope of the land, small checks being necessary
where the slope is severe. This method is adapted to orchard irrigation.
Where water is conveyed through pipes and there is sufficient water-
head for pipe pressure, spraying irrigation may be resorted to. The
Skinner system is probably the most successful of the several spray
methods. It consists of a series of pipes at intervals of about forty feet,
extending across the field to be irrigated. These are connected with a
water main which is closed by a valve when not in use. The lines of pipe
are supported at a height of about seven feet on posts, in such a way that
the pipes may be turned. The pipes are fitted with small nozzles at
intervals of about three feet. These should be in straight lines. The
water issuing from them under high pressure is thrown a considerable

Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.] ]

222 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

distance in a fine spray. By turning the pipe, the water is directed to
either side of the pipe line at the desired angle.

With the pipes parallel and the supporting posts in line at right
angles to them, cultivation may take place in either direction beneath the
pipes. While this system is rather expensive to install, it is well adapted
to small areas intensively farmed, to truck crops and small fruits. Such
systems are common along the Atlantic Seaboard and in some parts of
the South.

Duty of Water. — This pertains to the area of land that may be irri-
gated with a unit of water, such as a "second foot" or a "miner's inch."
The wasteful methods of irrigating and lack of knowledge on the part
of the farmer result in a low duty. Under favorable conditions the duty
should be about 200 acres for each "second foot." It would seem wise
that the duty of water should be fixed within reasonable limits by some
competent authority for a particular state or irrigation district. Local
conditions, such as rainfall, length of growing season and the intensity of
agriculture, should be taken into consideration in fixing the duty of water.

When to Irrigate. — How often to irrigate and how much water to
apply will depend on local conditions, such as character of soil, kind of
crop and weather conditions. Economy in water as well as the labor of
irrigating, should make the intervals as long as feasible. Water should
be applied until the soil is wet to the full depth to which the roots of the
crop in question penetrate. The deeper the soil is wet, the longer may be
the interval between irrigations. Lighter and more frequent irrigations
penetrate the soil to less depth, increase the labor and result in greater
loss of water by direct evaporation. Water should be applied when the
crops need it and irrigation cease when the need is fully met. Enough
water is better than too much.

Where there is a bountiful winter supply of water and a scant supply
during the summer, winter irrigation is recommended. It stores the soil
with water and lessens the need during the summer.

Water should be applied to crops abundantly when they are growing
most rapidly. Irrigation may be withheld as they approach maturity.

Irrigation Waters. — Irrigation water sometimes becomes so heavily
charged with salts that it proves harmful to tender plants. This con-
dition arises either from concentration through evaporation in shallow
reservoirs or from passing through alkali soil. Along stream courses, the
reckless use of water gives rise to much seepage which returns to the
stream lower down. This frequently becomes so plentiful that it forms a
supply for another irrigation district further down the stream course. Such
water is frequently unsuited for irrigation purposes.

Alkali Troubles. — The rise of alkali is generally caused by over-
irrigation. An excess of water causes the ground water table to rise until
the gravitational water can reach the surface by capillary attraction.
This causes excessive evaporation at the surface of the soil and results

FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION 223

in the accumulation of alkali salts. In time, the concentration will pre-
vent the growth of crops. This can usually be avoided by greater care in
irrigating. Where conditions are such that it cannot be avoided in this
way, under-drainage should be installed. The alkali may now be washed
out of the soil through the underdrains, by flooding the surface with fresh
water. The use of alkali waters also stocks the soil with alkali salts. The
use of such water should be avoided as far as possible, or the difficulty
overcome by drainage and flooding as above mentioned.

REFERENCES

"Practical Farm Drainage." Elliott.
'Principles of Irrigation Practice." Widtsoe.
'Irrigation and Drainage." King.
'Irrigation Institutions." Mead.
'Practical Irrigation." Bowie.
'Irrigation." Newell.
'American Irrigation Farming." Olin.
Utah Expt. Station Bulletins:

115. "The Movement of Water in Irrigation."
118. "Method of Increasing Crop Producing Power of Water."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, O. E. S. Bulletins:

177. "Evaporation Losses in Irrigation and Water Requirements of Crops."
248. "Evaporation from Irrigation Soils."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:
373. "Irrigation of Alfalfa."
371. "Drainage of Irrigated Lands."
392. "Irrigation of Sugar Beets."
394. "Use of Windmills in Irrigation."
399. "Irrigation of Grain."
404. "Irrigation of Orchards."
524. "Drainage on the Farm."
673. "Irrigation Practice in Rice Growing."

698. "Trenching Machinery Used for the Construction of Trenches for the
Drains."

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FEB 15 1933

FED 16 1933

JUL 19 1933
ftUG 8 1933

NOV 28 1«?'

MM* ** T
APR 4 1939

SEP 8 194!

LD 21-507n-l,'3J

YC 65709

\

415293

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY