m I

SOLAR LIGHT AND HEAT:

THE SOURCE AND THE SUPPLY.

GRAVITATION:

WITH EXPLANATIONS OF

PLANETARY AND MOLECULAR
FORCES.

BY

ZACHARIAH ALLEN, LL.D.

NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON & CO.

LONDON: D. APPLETON & CO., 16 LITTLE BRITAIN.
1879.

PHYSICS

Copyright, 1879,
BY ZACHARIAH ALLEN.

UNIVERSITY PRESS:
JOHN WILSON AND SON, CAMBRIDGE.

1

Q

A 43

PREFACE.

HPHE present work is a sequel to a publica-
tion by the writer, in the year 1851, enti-
tled " The Philosophy of the Mechanics of
Nature, and the source of Natural Motive-
Power." It is designed to eliminate and ar-
range in due order the rudimentary facts and
principles therein detailed, and to show their
harmony with the Laws that control the Material
Universe.

This has necessarily involved further re-
searches into the origin of Molecular Forces,
of Gravitation, and also of Solar Light and
Heat, as immediate sources of Natural Motive-
Power.

The results are now respectfully submitted to
the reader.

PROVIDENCE, R.I., September, 1879.

-i r> *"* ' '

:

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

PAGE

INTRODUCTION i

Definition of Gravitation. — Vague Conjectures of Philoso-
phers.— Cause of Mechanical Motion of Matter immaterial. —
"Incapability of Matter at Rest to put itself in Motion." —
Transmission of mechanical Force by passive Matter — Origi-
nal Knowledge of the Properties of Matter obtained by experi-
mental Investigation. — The Inductive System. — Discordance
of Mechanical, Chemical, and Materialistic Doctrines of the
original Cause of Motion of Matter. — Real Source of natural
Motive-Power.

CHAPTER II.

THE MOMENTUM OF THE PLANETS A SOURCE OF NAT-
URAL MOTIVE -POWER. — ESTIMATES OF PLANETARY
FORCES, MAGNITUDES, AND REVOLUTIONS 12

Multitudes of Suns and Worlds. — Orbital Momentum of the
Earth. — Swift Motion of Planets. — Table of ' comparative
Magnitudes and Velocities of Planets. — Popular Ideas of the
Reasons for the Revolving 'Movements of the Planets; as for
producing Day and Night for Animal Refreshment, Seed-time
and Harvest. — Utilization of an universal Electric Ether for
diffusing the Impulses imparted to the swiftly revolving Plan-
ets.— The Phenomena of the Movements of Matter on the
Earth's Surface are producible by the mechanical Impulse
imparting Rotation to one Cylinder of a Holtz's Electrical Ma-
chine opposite to the other; a Movement analogous to the
Rotation of the Earth opposite to the Globe of the Sun. —
Electric Vibrations of Nerves. •

vi CONTENTS.

CHAPTER III.

PAGE

ALL SPACE, NOT OCCUPIED BY OTHER MATTER, is OCCU-
PIED BY A UNIVERSALLY DIFFUSED AND INVISIBLE
ELECTRIC MEDIUM 23

Original Discovery of the Existence of the Electric Ether. — It is
the general Medium for transmitting Mechanical Impulses. —
No void Space in the Universe. — The minute Spaces between
Atoms pervaded by the Electric Ether. — Every Movement of
Molecules and Bodies in the electric Medium disturbs its State
of Rest, and produces its Motion either in Vibrations, or Cur-
rents. When these pass through the conducting sensorial
Nerves of the Eye to the Brain, the Effect is recognized as
Light; when through Nerves of feeling in the Body, it is recog-
nized as Heat. The Movement of a metallic Disc near a Disc
of Sealing-wax excites such dazzling bright Sparks as to have
obtained for this Apparatus the descriptive Name of Electro-
phorus, " Sunshine Producer." — All kinds of Electrical Ma-
chines produce Movements of the Electric Ether, by putting in
Motion grosser tangible Bodies, commonly Cylinders, Globes,
or Magnets arranged to revolve about an Axis, like the Planets.
— Swift rotating metallic Plates of soft Iron : they cut tem-
pered Steel.

CHAPTER IV.

THE PERFECT REGULARITY OF THE DAILY ROTATION OF
THE EARTH SERVES AS THE STANDARD MEASURE OF
TIME, SPACE, WEIGHT, QUANTITY OF MATTER, AND
MECHANICAL FORCE 39

Sub-divisions of Time. — Length of a Day. — Length of a Pen-
dulum. — Rotation of the Earth. — The Foot-pound. — A
Horse-power. — Equivalent of Heat in Foot-pounds.

CHAPTER V.
POPULAR THEORIES AS TO THE SUN . 42

Theory of the Combustion of Gases, — of pounding Meteors, etc.
— The Sun travelling through Space. — The Sun composed of
elementary Substances similar to those of the Earth, as estab-
lished by the Spectrum Analysis. — Thirty-one terrestrial
Metals kaown to exist in the Sun.

CONTENTS. Vll

CHAPTER VI.

PAGE

THE EXCITING CAUSE OF SOLAR LIGHT AND HEAT

TRACED TO THE MECHANICAL FORCE OF THE REVOLV-
ING HEAVENLY BODIES 46

Circulating Currents about the Earth excited by its daily Rotation
convert it into a great Electro-magnet. — The other Planets of
our System are similarly excited. — The Sun, seven hundred-
fold greater than all the Planets, also excited by a swift Rotation
on its own Axis ; thus they are all polarized. — Electric Cur-
rents around the Sun. — Intense electric Excitation of the Solar
Electro-sphere ; analogous to the Aurora Borealis. — Open-
ings at Times through the Electro-sphere, constituting " Spots
on the Sun." — Extent and effects of Solar Spots ; their
Relation to the Movements of Compass-needles. — Planets are
Electro-Magnets. — The Sun a Centre of Reaction ; Analogy
of the " Calcium Light." — Stellar Suns also Centres of Re-
action. — Each Sun represents the Action on the Electric Ether
of all the Planets circling around it. — Heat carried off by
Electric Currents. — Faraday's Metallic Chamber. — The Sun
as a bright and cheerful Dwelling-place. — So long as the
Planets revolve, the Sun will shine.

CHAPTER VII.

ARTIFICIAL EXCITATION OF LIGHT BY MAGNETO-ELECTRIC
MACHINES 55

The excitation of Light by revolving Magnets strictly analogous
to its natural Excitation by the revolving magnetic Planets. —
Magneto-electric Lighthouses in England and France. — Ef-
fects of Electric Light equal to those of Sunshine. — Mechani-
cal Difficulties of Adjustment. — Amount of Motive-power re-
quired. — Conversion of Motive-power into Light and Heat.
— Extent of Electric Light measured by mechanical Force. —
The Solar System a sublime Magneto-electric Machine.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE SENSORIAL NERVES CONSIDERED AS INSTRUMENTAL
TESTS OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE 59

The Sensorial Nerves modify Solar Reaction. — The Signals they
transmit unintelligible to the new-born Child. — Colors, Odors,
Flavors. — Inattention to the true Functions of the Nerves a
serious Obstacle in the Way of Knowledge. — Causes and Effects

viii CONTENTS.

PACK

blended. — Table of different Names given to the same Electro-
Mechanical Action transmitted through the five Sensorial
Nerves. — Imponderable Agents of Nature, so called. — The
Optic Nerves Tests of Heat.

CHAPTER IX.

CORRESPONDING VIBRATIONS TRANSMITTED BY THE
ATMOSPHERIC AND THE ELECTRIC ETHER 63

These are illustrated by the Telephone. — Also by the Voice and
Musical Sounds. — Vibrations converged by Lenses. — Light
and Sound perpetually transmitted. — The differences in Colors
and in Musical Tones due to a varied Rapidity of Vibrations.

— Extent of Vibrations recognizable by the Ear. — Prismatic
Colors. — Table of Vibrations in Chromatic Scale of Colors.

— The cessation of Vibrations of the Electric Ether results
in Silence, Darkness, and Cold.

CHAPTER X.

CONVERTIBILITY OF VIBRATIONS OF HEAT INTO ELECTRIC
CURRENTS 68

Classified as Thermo-Electricity. — A Magnetic Needle is more
sensitive than a Thermometer. — The metallic Bars of aThermo-

• Electric Battery, with Ice applied to one End and a hot Body to
the other, represent the Conditions of the Polar and Equatorial
Regions of the Earth, exciting the flashing Auroral Currents.
— Vibration of Molecules of Mercury in Tubes of Thermom-
eters produces Expansion as a Test of Temperature.

CHAPTER XI.

POPULAR DOCTRINES OF ELECTRIC AND MOLECULAR
VIBRATION, DENOTED HEAT 78

Existing scientific Opinions as to Heat. — Mr. Tyndall gives no
Solution. — Ideas very unsettled. — A Warfare of Molecules. —
" Wild Stone Avalanches." — Table of Dynamic Action of
Molecules. — Continual Vibration of Molecules. — Diffusion of
the Momentum of the Solar System by Electric Currents and
Vibrations. — Rotation of Planets excites Currents. — Currents
counteract Vibrations. — Examples of Currents used to produce
a Vacuum. —The Sun induces Vibrations and causes Rectan-
gular Motion.

CONTENTS. IX

CHAPTER XII.

PACK

ELECTRIC ATTRACTION AND REPULSION (so CALLED) ARE
RESULTANT MOVEMENTS 93

Matter receives and transmits Impulses. — Movements of Com-
pass Needles. — Action and Reaction of Electrodes. — Example
of the Wire-Frame. — Natural Electric Currents. — De la Rive's
Rings. — Professor Barlow's Experiment. — Ampere's floating
Helix Coil. — Movements of Dipping Needles. — Varying Posi-
tions of Dipping Needles. — Action of Terrestrial Currents.

CHAPTER XIII.

THE CONTINUOUS CIRCULATION OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS
ABOUT MAGNETS AND MOLECULES SUSTAINS THEIR
POLARIZATION 104

The Transmission of Electric Currents through Conducting Wires
wound spirally around Bodies produces Electro-magnets. — Tran-
sient Electro-Magnetic Action. — Movements developed by
Currents are not in the Direction of the Currents, but at right
angles to them. — Lateral Movements produced. — Whirling
Movements produced, as of Tornadoes. — The Direction of a
Whirl reversed, by reversing the Direction of the Current. —
Tornadoes produced by Electricity. — Bodies revolved by
Heat. — Light excites Electric Currents. — Vertical Currents
turn Needles. — Artificial Current-changer. — Effect of chang-
ing the Direction of Electric Currents.- — Sudden Reversal of
Currents. — Unstable Electro-static Conditions. — Photographic
Pictures. — Mingled Hydrogen and Chlorine exploded by a
Gleam of Sunshine — Reciprocal Action between Electric Cur-
rents and Magnetic Currents. — The Static Needle. — Magnetic
and Electric co-operation. — Revolving Conducting Wires and
Wheels. — Current-changer. — Six thousand Rotations per
Minute. — Currents and Magnets combined. — Action of Lateral
Currents.

CHAPTER XIV.

DlAMAGNETISM . . . . ' 123

The Circulation of Electric Currents about the Sides, or equato-
rial parts, of Bodies produces Impulses in a Direction at right
angles to that developed at the axial End, or Pole. — While only
a few Substances, as Iron, Nickel, etc., develop permanent Polar
Actions, every Substance manifests Diamagnetic Currents, sim-
ilar to those about the Earth, which produce the horizontal

X CONTENTS.

FAGB

North and South pointing of Compass Needles. — The same
Compass Needle, when transported to either Pole of the Earth,
begins to dip till its Direction becomes perpendicular to the
Earth's Surface at the Pole. — Diamagnetic Currents excite
Heat. — Cause of Internal Heat of the Earth. — Currents about
Molecules illustrated.

CHAPTER XV.

CIRCULATION OFj ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN CLOSED CIR-
CUITS 127

The Tendency of all Fluids put yi Motion is to return to the same
Place, in strict Accordance with the Universal Law of Astron-
omy, in the periodic Return of each Heavenly Body to the
same Place. — Closed Circuits are 'formed by joining the two
Ends of a horse-shoe Magnet by an Armature. — Rings of Vapor
and spherical Bubbles are produced by similar Closed Cir-
cuits.— The Circulation of the Diamagnetic Currents about the
Earth and Moon produces the Electro-Magnetic Action be-
tween them which causes the simultaneous Rise of the Tides
on both Sides of the Earth ; as illustrated by Fig. 49. — The
Librations of the Moon are maintained by the Diamagnetic
Currents from extending so far as to pass beyond the Limits
of the Ecliptic. The Ascent of Sap in Trees by Capillary At-
traction is due to Circulating Diamagnetic Currents.

CHAPTER XVI.

MECHANICAL ACTION CONSIDERED AS A TEST OF ELEC-
TRIC EXCITATION. — POPULAR THEORIES OF ELEC-
TRICITY 138

The comparative Velocity of Transmission of Mechanical Action
by various Substances. — Tenuity and Velocity of Electricity. —
Transmission of Motive Power to a Distance through Con-
ducting Wires for Operating Machinery. — Velocity an Equiva-
lent of Power. — Imaginary Telegraph of Lucretius.

CHAPTER XVII.

EXTENT OF SOLAR ACTION TRANSMITTED TO THE SUR-
FACE OF THE EARTH 150

Effective Power of Sunshine in lifting Water to the Sky as
Vapor. — The ready Excitability of Water resembles that of
Air. — Estimate of the Volume and Force of the Cataract of

CONTENTS. XI

PAGB

Niagara. — Excitability of the Electric Ether occupying the
Spaces between Particles of Water and of other Substances. —
Vibration of Particles of Water. — Vibration of Steam. — Vi-
bration of Air. — Source of Wind and of Water Power.

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE SOLID, LIQUID, AND AERIFORM CONDITIONS OF
MATTER DETERMINED BY THE EXTENT OF ITS MOLEC-
ULAR VIBRATION 157

The Mechanical Force of seven hundred and seventy-two Foot-
pounds excites one Degree of Heat in a Pound of Water. —
Molecular Vibration, constituting Heat, considered as an
Equivalent of Mechanical Action in Foot-pounds. — Latent
Heat of Steam. — To convert one Pound of Ice into Steam
requires thirty Horse-power. — Sudden Disappearance of Heat
from condensing Steam explained. — Electricity in Steamy
Vapors.

CHAPTER XIX.

MATTER. — THE AXIAL AND ORBITAL FORCE OF THE
REVOLVING PLANETS, TRANSMITTED BY THE UNIVERSAL
ETHER, is MODIFIED BY THE MECHANISMS OF SIXTY-SIX
KINDS OF ELEMENTARY MOLECULES 166

Molecules are Machines. — Table of Elementary Substances and
of their Chemical Equivalents. — Relative Weights and Volumes
of Molecules. — Molecular Attractions and Repulsions. — Mo-
lecular Polarizations. — Classification and descriptive Nomen-
clature of Molecules. — Their Ancient Classification.

CHAPTER XX.

FUNCTIONS OF MOLECULES OF OXYGEN, CARBON, HYDRO-
GEN, AND NITROGEN AS ELECTRICAL MACHINES . . . 175

Molecules of Oxygen pre-eminent for Quantity and Power of devel-
oping Electro-magnetic Unions and Separations. — Molecules
of Carbon next in Importance to those of Oxygen ; their pecu-
liar Functions. — Carbonization during Geological Eras — Mol-
ecules of Hydrogen rarely found pure in a Natural State. —
Allied with Oxygen and Carbon it imparts a wonderful Diver-
sity of Properties. — Its relation to Acids and Alkaloids. —
Explosive in union with Chlorine. — Molecules of Nitrogen

xii CONTENTS.

PACK

modify the Intensity of Action and Reaction between all other
kinds of Elementary Molecules. — Its Relations to our Atmos-
phere — Reverse the Proportions of Nitrogen aud Oxygen in
the Air, and Nitric Acid would be produced. — Relations of
Nitrogen to Explosive Substances. — Isomeric Bodies. — Dif-
ferent Results from similar Groupings. — Attempts to convert
Resin into Butter. — Different Kinds of Molecules reflect Vibra-
tions *of Light with different Intensity, corresponding to a
Chromatic Scale of Colors. — On these and the " Frauenhoffer
lines," the Spectrum Analysis is based. — Formation of Mol-
ecules into Crystals. — The Symmetrical Electro-magnetic
Union of Molecules in Inorganic Formations of Crystals is
the Basis of Crystallography. — Cause of Angular Shapes. —
P'orms of Molecules.

CHAPTER XXI.

PECULIAR QUALITIES OF COMPOUND SUBSTANCES DEVEL-
OPED BY VARIOUS RELATIVE PROPORTIONS OF THE

SAME KINDS OF MOLECULES 1 86

Vinegar, Butter, Vegetable Oils, and Fat produced by combining
various Proportions of Carbon and Hydrogen with a constant
Quantity of Oxygen. — The Properties of Drugs and Medicines
developed by varied Molecular Groupings. — Table of Com-
parative Quantities of Elementary Molecules, grouped in the
Organisms of Plants and Animals, forming Albumen, Fibrine,
and Caseine. — Albumen the starting point of Animal Tissues.
— Table showing the relative Proportion of the four Kinds
of Fluid Atmospheric Molecules which enter into the organic
Formations of Food and Fuel.

CHAPTER XXII.
PLANTS AS ELECTRIC MACHINES 191

Matter Organic and Inorganic. — Plants and Animals composed
of Congeries of Tubes. — The Leaves of Plants cover the Sur-
face of the Earth, and are adapted to decompose Water and
Carbonic- Acid Gas : thus they are really Electric Machines.—
Thermo-electric Circuits between Leaves exposed to the Sun
and the Roots buried in the cool, mo'st Earth. — Plants as
Current-changers. — The Organs of living Plants Galvanic
Batteries. — Equilibrium restored by Chemical Decomposition.
- Elementary Molecules of Plants are the same as those com-
posing the Atmosphere and Water. — The two great Processes
in the Growth of Plants. — Leaves are Current-changers.—

CONTENTS. Xlll

* PAGB

Electro-plating of model Germs by the gradual Deposit of
Carbon upon them. — Variety of original Germs ; fanciful
Forms. — Sex in Plants. — Dissemination of Seeds. — Exten-
sion of Roots of Plants. — Electric excitation by Plants. —
Vegetables absorb Carbonic-Acid Gas and give out Oxy-
gen. — Animals absorb Oxygen and give out Carbonic- Acid
Gas. — Plants emit Flashes of Light. — Pouillet's Experi-
ment. — The Growth of Plants a constant Source of Atmos-
pheric Electricity.

CHAPTER XXIII.
ANIMALS AS ELECTRIC MACHINES 200

Electrical Powers . of Animals. — These Powers strikingly mani-
fested by certain Fishes, — as the Torpedo, Gymnotus, etc. —
They develop Electric Sparks and cause Violent Shocks. —
The Electric Discharge of the Gymnotus equal to a highly-
charged Battery of fifteen Leyden Jars. — Electric Excitation
causes Muscular Contraction. — An Electric Eel, in the Royal
Institute, decomposed compound Substances, magnetized Steel
Needles, etc. — Capt. Basil Hall prostrated by a Shock. — A
fine Conducting- Wire rendered red hot. — A Life-guardsman
thrown down. — The Discharges resemble those of an Inter-
mittent Voltaic Battery. — Humboldt's Account of a Conflict
between Electric Eels and Horses. — Luminosity of the Lower
Classes of Aquatic Animals. — Electric Light from the Noc-
tilucae, Acalephae, and Annelidae. — Luminosity of the Glow-
worm. — Electric Power excites Animal Muscular Action. —
Experiments on a Dead Subject. —Muscular Contraction illus-
trated by a Spiral Coil, Fig. 65. — Intermittent Muscular Con-
traction of the Heart, Lungs, and Intestines. — Acidity of the
Juice of the Flesh and Alkalinity of the Blood. — Electric
Conduction by Nerves. — Sensitiveness of Nerves. — Plants
are Mechanisms which, excited by the Solar Rays, produce
Food and Fuel. — Animals are Mechanisms excited by the
Combustion of this Food and Fuel. — Thirteen Ounces of pure
Carbon breathed forth, in Carbonic- Acid Gas, each Day, by a
vigorous Man.

CHAPTER XXIV.

LIFE, — OR MUSCULAR AND NERVOUS ACTION DEPEND-
ENT ON ELECTRIC EXCITATION 214

Differences in the Nerves both Qualitative and Quantitative. —
Peculiar Arrangements of the Organs of the Body. — Distinc-
tive Movements of Molecules. — Rythmic Movements. —

XIV CONTENTS.

Nervous Fibrils of the Eye and of the Ear. — Composition of
the Brain ; four-fifths of it consist of Water. — The Brain an
Electric Organ. — An Acid Fluid exhaled by the Skin, while
the Mucous Membrane is bathed with an Alkaline Fluid. —
The Animal Frame thus placed between a great Acid and a
great Alkaline Envelope. — Circulation in the Arteries. —
Violent Muscular Contractions. — Periodic Molecular Move-
ment. — Voluntary Motions. — Automatic Motions.

CHAPTER XXV.
DEATH, — OR CESSATION OF ORGANIC ACTION .... 226

Cessation of the Continuity of circulating Electric Currents is
the Suspension of Vitality, denoted Death. — The Influence of
the Emotions, Volitions, and Passions in exciting Electric
Action. — A Blow on the Head excites stunning Electric
Action, like a small Lightning Bolt. — Poisons counteract the
regular Circulation of the Currents ; as do also powerful
Chemical Agents. — The Molecules of Hydrogen in the Blood
may unite with the Molecules of Oxygen and form Water. —
The black Carbon thus left free. — Analogous Conditions at-
tending the Yellow Fever. — The Bile and Blood resolved
into Water and Carbon, or Charcoal. — This manifested by
the "black-vomit," peculiar to the Disease. — Organic Decom-
positions. — Miasma, or Malaria, is probably free Nitrogen
from decomposing Animal and Vegetable Organisms. — Its
Inhalation into the Lungs facilitates the Combination of the
Molecules of Oxygen and Hydrogen in the Blood, or its De-
composition, called Blood-poisoning. — When the Vital Elec-
tric Currents cease, the Organic Molecules are restored to
their normal Condition of Carbonic-Acid Gas and Water.

CHAPTER XXVI.

EQUILIBRIUM AND PERIODICITY OF AXIAL AND ORBITAL
REVOLUTIONS ................ 232

Circulation of Electric Currents about Inorganic Bodies. —
Compensating Movements. — Kepler's Laws. — Elliptical Orbit
of the Earth ; how it may be caused. — Experiments of Mayer
and Barlow. — Influence of Terrestrial, Magnetic, and Dia-
magnetic Currents — Ampere's Experiment. — Movements of
the Gyroscope analogous to those of the Earth. — Space about
Molecules. — Molecules Electro-Magnets. — Movements of
Tornadoes. — Electric Chain of the Universe.

SOLAR LIGHT AND HEAT.

SOLAR LIGHT AND HEAT:

THE SOURCE, AND THE SUPPLY.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION.

/^RAVITATION is commonly defined to be
" the force of attraction, by which all por-
tions of matter tend towards each other," leaving
the mechanical cause of this force unexplained.

It was not without reason that D'Alembert
affirmed, " Philosophers are bewildered by the
spectacle of a falling stone." The bewilderment
of the illustrious Newton is manifest on referring
to the earliest edition of his " Principia," in which
he says, " The ultimate particles of matter are
endued with inherent forces, or powers of attrac-
tion and repulsion." Subsequently, in treating of
the universal attraction of gravitation, he says :
" Gravity must be caused by an agent acting con-
stantly, and according to certain laws ; but whether
this agent be material or immaterial, I leave to
the imagination of my readers."

In describing the properties of matter, he after-
ward affirms, as the result of the long-continued

2 VIEWS OF PHILOSOPHERS.

•

observations of -mankind, the following general
law of Mechanical Philosophy : —

" Matter at rest is incapable of putting itself in
motion, or of stopping itself, or turning aside
from a movement in a straight line, when put in
motion."

There being no discovered cause of the move-
ments of atoms and bodies on the earth's surface,
the ancient Greek philosophers — Empedocles,
Epicurus, and Democritus — taught, "The ulti-
mate particles of matter are endued with inherent
forces, or powers." Afterward, for nearly a thou-
sand years, this question attracted little attention,
being of no immediate profit to mankind, until
popularized by the writings of the Latin poet and
philosopher, Lucretius.

The doctrines of heathen philosophers, being
deemed adverse to those of the Mosaic cosmog-
ony, were opposed by ecclesiastical rulers, who
persecuted investigators of physical science. In
the year 1600, they burnt Bruno, in Venice, for
republishing the doctrines of Lucretius, and im-
prisoned Galileo, in the year 1663, f°r teaching
the Copernican theory of the revolution of the
earth about the sun. With the gradual extension
of religious freedom in modern times, philoso-
phers ventured to make researches for the source
of natural motive-power. La Place, Descartes,
Goethe, Darwin, Spencer, Tyndall, Huxley, and
others have published various theories, ascribing

CAUSE OF MOTION NOT MATERIAL. 3

the evolution of molecular actions to self-motive
and self-directive powers in matter, generally
recognized as Materialism. The popular interest
in this theory appears to be due to a desire for
freedom of discussion by the philosophers, who
claim the same privilege of studying the revela-
tions of the Divine will manifest in the laws that
govern the material world, as ecclesiastics enjoy
for studying the revelations of the same- Divine
wilt in the government of the spiritual world.

The theory of the Newtonian Philosophy, teach-
ing the incapability of lifeless matter to put itself
in motion, is discordant with popular chemical and
materialistic doctrines of the existence of inherent
self-motive and self-directive powers in molecules.
This discordance, at the outset, opens the ques-
tion of the original source of natural motive-
power. If, according to the laws of Natural
Philosophy, nothing material can put itself in
motion, it follows as a logical deduction that the
original cause of the motion of matter must be
immaterial. In tracing out the original source of
the movements of all matter in accordance with
the primary law of the incapability of matter to
move itself, Mechanical Philosophy points, as
with uplifted finger, to an immaterial cause, and
affirms the words of the Psalmist : " The heavens
declare the glory of God, and the firmament
showeth his handy work." Consequently, Me-
chanical Philosophy is based on the original

4 INERTNESS OF MATTER.

placing of matter in infinite space by a Placer,
denoted THEOS, in Greek.1

Taking no theories for granted without exam-
ination, our investigations will begin with the
primary axiom of the Newtonian Philosophy,
which affirms

THE INCAPABILITY OF MATTER AT REST TO PUT
ITSELF IN MOTION.

The belief of the incapability of matter to
move itself is confirmed only by negative proof,
because there is no well-authenticated case on
record, from time immemorial, of the self-motion
of any matter. Beginning observations in
early life, children are so accustomed to find

1 The present popular question of Materialism does not appear to be
based on a denial of the pre-existence of a Placer, or THEOS, but on the
mode of the original placing of atoms in the formation of the worlds in
the heavens, and of plants and animals on earth, denoted " Evolution."
Zealous materialists even profess extraordinary reverence toward a
Supreme Placer, by proposing to relieve him of "the labor of an arti-
ficer, working after the human model " six days and resting the seventh,
while making the earth. They suggest the labor-saving plan of prima-
rily endowing atoms with sufficient self-motive and self-directive powers
to move spontaneously, and fit themselves to the right places for form-
ing the earth and producing the Evolution of plants and animals, as
they apparently do in forming symmetrical crystals. As expressly stated
by an eminent materialist in a sensational address delivered at Belfast,
he desires " the right of free discussion, claimed and sustained through
tribulation and anguish, inflicted and endured in darker times than ours,
but always resulting in immortal victories, which Physical Science has
won for the race." He continues : —

"The human mind, with the yearnings of a pilgrim for his distant
home, recurs to the mystery from which it has emerged, so as to give
unity to thought and faith. When this is done, without intolerance and
bigotry, then, casting aside all the restrictions on discussions of mate-
rialism, I affirm this will be the field for the noblest exercise of the facul-
ties of man." "I tell you, finally, Science claims the right of search.

INERTNESS OF MATTER. 5

their playthings remaining at rest where they are
placed, that if found elsewhere they ask, " Who
moved them ? " with the conviction that they
could not have moved themselves. Whenever
any portion of matter is seen in motion, some
external cause of motion is looked for. From
generation to generation, these observations of
the inertness of matter are so uniformly con-
firmed, without a single instance to the contrary,
that the doctrine of the inertness of matter, and
of its incapability to turn aside from a movement
in a straight line, or to stop itself, is adopted as an
axiom of Mechanical Philosophy, for the same
reason that the axiom of its incapability to put
itself in motion is adopted, — a lack of proof to
the contrary. To admit the existence of self-
directive powers in matter, would be equivalent
to admitting that molecules .have volitions and
wills of their own.

The stoppage of bodies in motion is always the
result of a transfer of the motion to other bodies ;
for an impulse of mechanical force is as inde-
structible as the matter to which it is imparted.

The theories of Lucretius and Eruno, of Darwin and Spencer, may be
wrong. Here I should agree with you ; deeming it, indeed, certain that
these theories will undergo modifications. But the point is, whether
right or wrong, we ask the freedom to discuss them." "It is by an
inscrutable mystery that life is developed, species differentiated, and
mind unfolded. In fact, the whole process of Evolution is the mani-
festation of a power absolutely inscrutable to the intellect of man.
As little in our day, as in the days of Job, can man by searching find,
out this power. There is, you will observe, no very rank materialism
here."— TyndaWs Belfast Address.

6 PROGRESSIVE MOTION OF MATTER.

Bodies put in motion in free space continue to
move ; and in limited space they move until they
transfer the action they receive to other matter.
For this reason the axiom is adopted, that " action
and reaction are equal, and in opposite directions,"
representing simply the transfer of an impulse.

The ever onward and straight progressive
motion of matter, in transmitting mechanical
action in free space, is manifested by light from
the remotest visible stars ; which travels continu-
ously in a straight line during a thousand years
or more, before reaching the earth. The con-
tinuous progression of impulses imparted to pas-
sive matter is sportively verified by children, in
setting on end a row of bricks, or blocks, to fall
successively one on another. After thus testing,
on a small scale, the incapability of matter put
in motion to stop itself, the youthful experimenter
is impressed with the conviction that an impulse
imparted by a touch of the finger would continue
travelling around the world and come back to his
finger, were it practicable to extend the row of
bricks sufficiently.

A tidal wave, raised by an earthquake on the
coast of Japan, as stated by Professor Bache,
continued steadily progressing across the broad
Pacific Ocean, and finally dashed against the
coast of America.

The regular diffusion of an impulse of mechan-
ical force is also practically learned by casting

DIFFUSION OF ACTION BY MATTER. 7

pebbles on the mirror-like surface of a calm lake.
The action is diffused in every direction from the
central point, in wave rings, that continue enlarg-
ing successively, until the original impulse "im-
parted by the hand to the pebble spreads to all
the surrounding shores. These illustrations serve
to show that there is no limitation to the diffusion
of an impulse ; as is tested on a sublime scale by the
infinite extent of the transmission of gravitating
force and light throughout infinite space. These
facts, and all other knowledge of the external
world, being obtained by the instrumentality of
the nerves of sensation, there is consequently

SLOW PROGRESS OF SCIENCE BY EXPERIMENTAL
INVESTIGATION.

In Europe, the earliest attempts to learn the
properties of matter were made with crucibles
and alembics, excited by heat to develop re-
actions. So fearful were superstitious people of
the existence of mysterious powers and evil spir-
its in peculiar kinds of substances, that exper-
imenters were obliged to work in secret places
to find out the real properties of matter. So
occult appeared the causes of the behavior of
molecules toward each other in uniting inter-
changeably, and separating, that this new science
was denoted " Alchemy," from the Arabic KIMIA,
a mystery.1

1 Through Arabia and Egypt most of the original mathematical and
chemical sciences of the people of Asia were introduced into Greece

8 SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

BEGINNING OF A REFORM IN THE SYSTEM AND
STUDY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

To check the torrent of popular delusion and
belief in imponderable agents of Nature, and of
self-directive powers in lifeless matter, the philos-
opher Bacon took a bold stand, by publishing a

and Rome. The alchemists long labored to render copper, tin, and zinc
so freely movable by melting in crucibles as to bring forth hybrid species,
including the precious metals, gold and silver.

A Treatise on Alchemy, published in 1591, and "dedicated to the
Queen of England by permission," allures the reader to learn "The
perfectest way concerning the right means of making the philosopher's
stone, aurum potabile, and other useful arts," — all written in poetical
stanzas, describing " the twelve gates of entrance to be passed through
to arrive at these mysteries." Such a work, published under royal pat-
ronage, shows the rude and superstitious state of physical science less
than three hundred years ago.

The liquid distilled from the dripping beaks of alembics containing
wine was supposed to be " the Elixir of life," and was called by French
alchemists Eau de vie; but posterity have realized that it has proved to
myriads the water of death.

When the French experimenters set afloat two magnets on pieces of
cork in a basin of water, and saw them sail toward each other and join
together, they gave to them the name of " aim ants" — lovers — as de-
scriptive of their mutual affection.

In like manner the alchemists, or chemists, in modern phraseology,
unable to comprehend the phenomena of heat, light, and electricity,
ascribed them to " three imponderable agents of Nature ; " to each of
which they gave the same name as to the several effects produced by
them ; thus confusedly blending ideas of the causes and of the effects of
•the action denoted heat, light, and electricity. This erroneous system
is still continued. When a child asks the cause of the beautiful pen-
cillings of glittering frost on the window-panes in a wintry morning,
representing fern-leaves and fanciful figures, the answer to this early
philosophical inquiry commonly ascribes the work to "Jack Frost; " who
is ever afterward remembered as one of the mysterious wonder-working
" Agents of Nature."

A belief in the existence of supernatural agents, also, is early im-
pressed on youthful minds by fairy tales, and by ascribing mysterious
powers to amulets and rings. In the witch scene, in " Macbeth," Shakes-

THE INDUCTIVE SYSTEM. 9

work entitled " Novum Organum," or a new sys-
tematic organization of physical science, based on
facts and reasoning from analogy.

The patient and careful labor requisite for car-
rying out this inductive system, from one verified
fact to another, dispels all romance in the pur-
suit of physical science, and reduces it to a mathe-
matical precision very distasteful to the ardent
and speculative spirit of the age.

With no inducement of pecuniary profit to
tempt students to a laborious course of original
scientific investigations, few can afford the sacri-
fice ; and most prefer to imagine, rather than to
work. Thousands indulge in physical specula-
tions, where one is found plodding slowly by prac-
tical verifications. The imaginative Goethe wrote
on Materialism, commencing with the apology,
that " any theory of the cause of movements of
matter is better than none."

peare represents popular delusions and beliefs in the existence of mys-
terious powers in the various substances added to the bubbling caldron.
Romances continue to fascinate the lively imagination of childhood,
leaving their impress in after life, and preparing the popular mind for
believing in spiritual communications, clairvoyance, and supernatural
powers. So strong was the hold of this popular belief in former days,
that grave ecclesiastics, legislators, and judges established and executed
laws for inflicting the punishment of imprisonment and death on persons
accused of "sorcery and witchcraft." Thousands have been impris-
oned and put to death in Europe for alleged communications with evil
spirits ; and even the stern Puritans of Massachusetts hung numerous
women and men for witchcraft.

All these pernicious results and superstitious fears of evil spirits and
supernatural powers are dispelled by the study of the exact facts of
Natural Philosophy, which demonstrates the passiveness of all matter,
and its subjection to material and mechanical laws.

IO DISCORDANT DOCTRINES.

Impatient of the slow progress in discovering
the cause of the movements of molecules toward
and from one another, an excellent chemist — Pro-
fessor Graham — boldly came forward to settle the
popular chemical theory of the existence of in-
herent self-motive power in molecules, by joining
issue with the mechanical theory of the incapa-
bility of matter to move itself. He asks earnestly,
" Which shall yield to the other?"1

With the hope of harmonizing this discord
between the two sister sciences of chemistry and
mechanics, the writer of these pages devoted much
labor to researches on this subject, and published
the result, in the year 1851, in a treatise entitled,
"The Philosophy of the Mechanics of Nature,
and of the Source and Modes of Transmission of
Natural Motive Power."2

Failing to discover any self-originating cause of
motion in terrestrial matter, the writer was led
on to take a broader view of the passive functions
of our planet, as subordinate to universal laws, and
as being a minute working-part of the mechanism
of the solar system. In the continual swift-revolv-
ing movements of more than one hundred and
fifty great planets and asteroids, there is an actu-
ally existing momentum, or moving force, amply
sufficient to sustain all the relative movements of
terrestrial molecules and bodies, and requiring
only to be traced out in accordance with universal

1 Graham's Chemistry. 2 D. Appleton & Co., New York.

SOURCE OF NATURAL MOTIVE POWER. II

laws of transmission through the medium of a
universally diffused electric ether. With this
great fact before us, of the existence of an infi-
nite extent of natural motive-power in continual
action in the heavens, we may well discard all
speculations on the existence of inherent self-
motive and self-directive powers in lifeless matter,
and also about the mode in which the solar
.system was originally created, and plants and
animals placed on our planet; and turn our at-
tention strictly to the potentialities of this mo-
tive force.

12 MOMENTUM OF THE PLANETS.

CHAPTER II.

MOMENTUM OF THE PLANETS A SOURCE OF NATURAL

MOTIVE-POWER. ESTIMATES OF PLANETARY FORCES,

MAGNITUDES, AND REVOLUTIONS.

" Look downward on that Globe, whose hither side,
With light from hence, though but reflected, shines :
That place is earth, the seat of man."

Milton's Paradise Lost.

JV/TECHANICAL Philosophy, like the angel
described by Milton, lifts the student to
the central orb of the solar system, "the gate
of light," to take a preliminary view of the sub-
lime extent of the universe.

To an observer of our planet, stationed on
the planet Venus, the reflection of sunshine ren-
ders the apparently dull surface of the earth as
brilliant as Venus appears to us in the evening
sky. The magnitude of our earth, great and
important as it appears to us, is only ~ part of
the magnitude of Jupiter, and less than ^ part
of the magnitude of the nearly invisible planet
Neptune, the existence of which was discovered
only a few years ago.

So numerous are the stellar suns to other sys-
tems of worlds in infinite space, that the first
sight of their glorious splendor, revealed by a

MULTITUDE OF SUNS AND WORLDS. 13

modern telescope, overwhelms the observer with
awe and admiration.

Guillemin, an eminent writer on astronomy,
estimates that seventy-seven millions of stellar
suns are visible from our earth by means of
improved modern telescopes. Allowing to each
of these stellar suns the same number of worlds
that revolve about our sun, it is calculated that ten
thousand millions of planetary worlds exist within
the range of telescopic vision from our earth ; and
are therefore included in "our cluster" of worlds
in the heavens. This visible portion of the material
universe suggests the occupancy of infinite space
by similar clusters beyond clusters, in boundless
progression. That our sun and the distant stellar
suns are in rapid motion is verified by observa-
tions of astronomers, who have discovered that
some of them are actually revolving about one
another in double systems, like the great stellar
sun Sirius; which is more than twelve hundred
fold greater than our sun.

The similarity of the construction of the other
worlds in the heavens, and the prevalence of the
same universal laws governing their existence,
are manifest by the recent revelations of the
spectrum analysis. The neighboring planet
Mars is so distinctly seen by modern telescopes,
that the outlines of a geographical map of it
have been delineated, showing continents, oceans,
and snow-white polar regions. These observa-

14 CELESTIAL AND TERRESTRIAL ANALOGIES.

tions confirm a belief that all the planetary
worlds are adapted for abodes of intelligences,
and for promoting the happiness of sentient
beings.

The original placing of the revolving worlds
in the heavens, being ascribed by Mechanical
Philosophy to an immaterial First Cause, is be-
yond the reach of physical investigation; which
therefore begins with the manifest facts at-
tending their actual existence and movements.
It is not necessary for an engineer to know who
invented the steam-engine, or how and when it
was originally made, before he can proceed to
study the general principles that govern its op-
eration. Its actual construction and functions
reveal the science and ability of the maker, and
his purpose.

The mechanism of the solar system being far
beyond the possibility of immediate examination,
Sir John Herschel points out to students " the
surest guide for direction, by reasoning from an-
alogy of celestial to terrestrial mechanics ; " both
being alike governed by universal laws. Professor
Proctor says : " Terrestrial analogies afford a very
sure guide in the midst of the many perplexities,
which the study of the worlds around us presents
to our contemplation." After recognizing the law
that matter put in motion cannot stop itself, the
student realizes that the vast masses of the re-
volving planets serve as balance-wheels to retain

EXTENT OF PLANETARY FORCE. 15

and equalize the transmission of the impulses
originally imparted to them, with amply sufficient
power, if properly transferred, to produce all the
relative movements and states of rest of terrestrial
matter.

ESTIMATE OF PLANETARY FORCE.

The extent of motive -power embodied in a
mass of matter in motion is calculated by multi-
plying the velocity in feet per minute by the
weight in pounds. The resultant force is de-
noted momentum, and is expressed in "foot-
pounds."

The weight of the mass of the earth is esti-
mated at 6,069,005,178,000,000,000,000 tons, in-
cluding the weight of the atmosphere.1

The orbital velocity of the globe of the earth be-
ing 19 miles per second, or 6,019,200 feet per min-
ute, the orbital momentum of the earth is therefore
about 2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (two
octillions) horse-power, according to the Ameri-
can and French system of numeration.2

In addition, there is also to be estimated the mo-
mentum of the rotating force of the globe of the
earth on its axis, 24,000 miles in circumference, with

1 Guillemin's Astronomy, p. 103.

2 It appears that the English system of numeration estimates 1,000,-
000,000,000 (one million millions) as one billion, and each higher denomi-
nation a million times the one preceding.

The French and American system estimates 1,000,000,000 (one thous-
and millions) as one &7/z'0#, and each higher denomination 'a thousand
times the one preceding.

1 6 .SWIFT MOTION OF PLANETS.

a surface velocity of more than 15 miles per
minute at the equator.

It is to be remembered that our earth is one
of the smaller planets, being only -^~ part of the
magnitude of Jupiter, and that there are more
than one hundred and fifty planets and asteroids
all swiftly revolving as working parts of the
mechanism of the solar system.

The vast planet Jupiter, 89,000 miles in diam-
eter, rotates in io}4 hours, and has a surface
velocity of nearly 450 miles per minute.

The annexed table shows the comparative
magnitude of our earth and the other planets of
the solar system, and also their relative veloc-
ities : —

MASSES AND VELOCITIES OF PLANETS.

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1 8 CONSERVATION OF FORCE BY MOMENTUM.

The surface velocity of the rotation of the sun
is about i# miles per second.

The name of " planet " is borrowed from the
Latin word PLANO, — / wander. The planets are
systematic wanderers, continually circling about
a common centre in harmonious order, and with
velocities diminished in proportion to their in-
creased distances therefrom.

The greatest comparative quantity of matter
employed in the construction of a steam-engine
is embodied in the ponderous balance-wheel; in
the momentum of which the impulses imparted
are retained, to be uniformly transmitted. For
the same reason a great quantity of matter is
embodied in the revolving orbs of the planets, to
receive and continuously transmit the impulses
primarily imparted to them as the source of the
natural motive-power, transferred continually by
the medium of a universal ether; which serves as
a substitute for connecting bands and shaftings
in the mechanism of the solar system.

POPULAR IDEAS OF THE REVOLVING MOVEMENTS
OF THE PLANETS.

The supposition generally prevails that the
only design of the rotation of the earth is to
cause the day and night to succeed each other,
for affording timely rest for animal refreshment;
and that the yearly orbital revolutions are de-
signed only to bring about changes of the sea-
sons, with seedtime and harvest.

VIBRATIONS TRANSMIT MUSIC. 1 9

Pythagoras fancifully suggested that the move-
ments of the planets produce harmonious sounds
to time their marches through the sky, with tones
varying in accordance with their greater distances
from the sun. Hence originated the theory of
"the music of the spheres." Job refers to this
idea in the words, " When the morning stars
sang together, and all the sons of God shouted
for joy." Shakespeare recurs to this theory in
" The Merchant of Venice," — " There 's not an
orb of all which thou beholdest, that does not
in its movement like an angel sing." Addison
describes the stars, " For ever singing as they
shine."

The same electric medium, that transmits vibra-
tions as light, transmits musical sounds, as tested
by telegraph wires connected with telephones ;
and were the nerves of the ear as delicately sen-
sitive as the nerves of the eye, we might hear,
as well as see, the heavenly orbs timing their
marches by harmonious measures through the
sky.

UTILIZATION OF AN INVISIBLE MEDIUM FOR TRANS-
MITTING MECHANICAL ACTION.

Two thousand years before Newton suggested
the necessity of a connecting material medium
between the heavenly bodies, to hold them to-
gether in circling orbits, the poet Homer, wit-
nessing the glittering links of lightning suspended

2O VIBRATIONS TRANSMIT IMPULSES

between the dark clouds and the earth, expressed
this idea in Jupiter's address to the council of
gods : —

" Let down our golden, everlasting chain,
Whose strong embrace holds heaven to earth and main."1

The ancient philosophers taught the existence
of an etherial medium occupying the space inter-
vening between the grosser particles of bodies ;
and for many ages after the doctrine was accepted,
and transmitted to later times as " the theory of
phlogiston;" — a term derived from the Greek
PHLOGOS, flame. With modifications, the doc-
trine of a universal ether still prevails, and is
confirmed by the conclusions of the most acute
observers, as well as those of the most profound
intellects of our day.

As to the nature of this ether, all we know is
its capability of transmitting the slightest impulse
of mechanical force. Beyond this, we must make
the same acknowledgment of the limitation of
human powers of perception as Faraday makes
in reference' to the essential nature of all kinds of
matter, when he affirms, " All we know of matter
is its power of transmitting action ; " or, as does
another eminent writer, in treating of molecules
as merely "centres of forces" admitting them to
be too minute to be distinctly recognized.

Passing by, then, all speculations as to the na-
ture and constitution of the universal ether, it is

1 Iliad, book viii.

AND PRODUCE TERRESTRIAL PHENOMENA. 21

sufficient to recognize the fact, that it is so pre-
eminently sensitive to, and active in, the trans*
mission of what men call electric, magnetic, and
galvanic force, that we are well warranted in call-
ing it " electric ether," even if it be not in its
essence what men call the " electric fluid " itself.

Facts demonstrate that the impulse from the
hand, applied to turn the crank of a Holtz elec-
trical machine, disturbs and puts in motion a
material medium, that transmits the impulses it
receives in various ways, even to representing
a little world in miniature. A dawning light
appears, rivalling the splendor of the rising sun.
A breeze from a pointed wire on the conductor
transmits sufficient force to turn a little paper
windmill, and light paper-figures of men and
women are excited to rise up from repose and
dance. Rose-colored coruscations of the aurora
and meteoric shooting-stars are represented in a
glass tube exhausted of air. Flashes like light-
ning, and sounds as of thunder, are produced by
the discharge of a coated jar, and combustibles
are fired. Particles of solid bodies are scattered
into vapors, and those of water decomposed and
reunited, representing chemical action. Even the
mechanical functions of the living human body
are excited by the impulse. For when the ma-
chine puts in motion the electric ether through
the five different arrangements of sensorial nerves,
so as to reach the tribunal of human intelligence

22 ELECTRIC VIBRATIONS OF NERVES.

in the brain, the effect of the mechanical action
imparted by the hand to the cylinder is recog-
nized by as many different names as there are
lines of telegraphic nerves leading to the brain.
An identical electro-mechanical action transmit-
ted through the nerves of the eyes is denoted
LIGHT ; through the nerves of feeling, HEAT ;
through the nerves of the nose, ODOR ; through
the nerves of the tongue, TASTE ; and through the
nerves of the ear, SOUND.

SPACE OCCUPIED BY ELECTRIC MEDIUM.

CHAPTER III.

ALL SPACE NOT OCCUPIED BY OTHER MATTER IS OCCU-
PIED BY A UNIVERSALLY DIFFUSED AND INVISIBLE
ELECTRIC MEDIUM.

TT7HILE it is popularly supposed that a vacuum
results from the exhaustion of the air be-
neath a glass bell by an air-pump, the following
experiment will show that this supposed vacuum is
pervaded by the electric ether: —

A brass knob connected with a conducting wire
is arranged above
another similar
knob, as shown
in Fig. i ; and
the excitation
from an electrical
machine is used
to induce a cur-
rent through the
void space in the
jar. On turning
the crank of the
machine, a cas-
cade of lambent

flames appears Fif. s.

pouring down from the upper knob.

24 NO VOID SPACE IN THE UNIVERSE.

If a long glass tube be used, the coruscations
are extended in rose-colored flashes, resembling
those of the aurora borealis, above the earth's
atmosphere.

By admitting a little air into the tube, to rep-
resent the partial exhaustion of the air in the
upper regions of the earth's atmosphere, the
electric discharge is impeded, and condensed into
balls of fire, resembling meteors, or shooting-stars,
with their minute trains.

These experiments show that there is really no
void space between the worlds of matter in the
heavens, and that there is a connecting material
medium between them, capable of transmitting
mechanical action and reaction with the velocity
of light, as manifest in the continual action of
sunshine and of so-called gravitation, between all
the heavenly bodies.

THE MINUTE SPACES BETWEEN ATOMS PERVADED
BY THE ELECTRIC ETHER.

The reciprocal action between magnets in
space exhausted of air, denoted a vacuum, and
between the component molecules of all solid
and liquid bodies, denoted " molecular force,"
manifests the existence of a material medium
between them, capable of transmitting impulses.
Every disturbance of the relative positions of
adjacent bodies, or molecules, simultaneously dis-
turbs and puts in motion the electric medium

AN ALL-PERVADING ELECTRIC ETHER. 25

intervening between them, as is manifest by strik-
ing two stones together, by abrasion of steel by
a flint or emery-wheel, and by crushing pieces
of quartz, feldspar, and even dry lumps of sugar
in an iron mortar, whereby the interior appears
filled with electric sparks.

Even the aeriform particles of the atmosphere
manifest similar electric excitation when mechani-
cally compressed beneath a piston in a small
cylinder, whereby tinder may be ignited; as was
often done before the invention of friction
matches.

On beholding the bright flashes within a cleft
of dry wood suddenly laid open by his axe, a
pioneer in a Western forest once paused to ex-
press to the writer his belief that " fire exists in
wood, and comes out in burning."

The ready permeation by the electric ether
even of non-conducting
glass, is shown by hold-
ing a plate of glass be-
tween an excited con-
ductor, A (Fig. 2), and
the knob of a conduct-
ing wire, B. As ex-
hibited in the drawing, every electric spark ap-
pears to pass instantaneously through the plate of
glass, as if it were perforated by it.

This experiment illustrates the transmission
of electro-mechanical action through the electric

26 DISCOVERY OF ELECTRIC EXCITATION.

ether pervading the particles of transparent bod-
ies, and confirms the identity of solar light and
of electric action; and shows that the spaces
between the particles of glass are occupied by the
electric ether as a medium of communication.

ORIGINAL SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY OF ELECTRIC
EXCITATION.

The ancient Greek philosophers appear to have
been the earliest to notice and record the exist-
ence of the universal electric medium, and the
mode of its excitation in obedience to mechanical
impulses imparted to it. On rubbing pieces of
amber, bright sparks appeared ; and for this rea-
son the Greeks gave the descriptive name of
ELEKTRON, sunshiny, to this peculiar resinous
substance. This term is borrowed from another
Greek word, ELEKTOR ; which is defined, " The
sunshine that excites men to rise from their beds."
The English term, "electricity," derived from
this Greek word, therefore, literally means " sun-
shine."

Pythagoras taught that this same ELECTOR, or
sunshine, is manifest in the splendor of lightning ;
the heat, or burning power, of which is denoted
KERAUNOS in the Greek.

Hippocrates, another Greek philosopher, taught
" the existence of a universally diffused ether,
which in motion constitutes elementary fire, and
silently actuates and animates all things."

MEDIUM BETWEEN MIND AND MATTER. 27

Still another Greek philosopher, Galen, taught
the subserviency of the electric ether as a gen-
eral medium of communication between material
bodies and the immaterial mind, or soul; and
even between mind and mind. He foreshadowed
modern discoveries in electro-telegraphy in the
following memorable worda : —

" Admitting the soul to be immaterial, it hath
for its immediate tunicle a surrounding ether, or
luciform vehicle ; by the intervention whereof it
moveth bodies, and is reciprocally reacted upon
therefrom. This tunicle of the soul, whether it
be called pure ether, luciform vehicle, or animal
spirit, seemeth to be that which is moved by the
volitions to act on the grosser organs, or muscles,
as may be determined by the soul ; from which
the ether immediately receives impulses, and in
which the original moving power truly and appro-
priately resides."

This supposition of an old philosopher appears
to be verified by every step of progress towards
the mysterious connection between the immaterial
mind and the material mechanism in which it is
temporarily embodied. It is certainly a beautiful
as well as philosophical idea, to imagine the mind,
or spirit, enthroned in " a pure ether," — as if too
refined for immediate contact with the gross mat-
ter of the brain.

This " pure ether, or luciform vehicle," is now
artificially employed in electric telegraphs for

28 MEDIUM BETWEEN MIND AND MIND.

holding communications between mind and mind
all over the earth ; and is naturally employed in
transmitting the twinkling telegraphic communi-
cations which pass between the distant stars and
the earth.

HEAT AND LIGHT TRANSMITTED BY MECHANICAL
IMPULSES IMPARTED TO THE ELECTRIC ETHER.

Every impulse that moves portions of matter
disturbs the surrounding electric medium, and is
transmitted to the human brain through the con-
ducting nerves, to produce sensations of heat and
light when sufficiently intense. Otto Guericke
( the inventor of the air-pump ). and Volta took
the lead in experimentally verifying the fact, that
every movement of one body near another dis-
turbs and puts in motion the electric ether in
both bodies, diffusing the action in various ways ;
as by vibrating undulations of the electric medium
to reach the brain through the sensorial nerves,
recognized as the sensations of light and heat,
and by movements of light bodies, such as pith-
balls, flexible threads, or hairs, gold leaf, &c.
From the ready movement of all such light bodies
used as tests of electric excitation, they are descrip-
tively denoted ELECTROSCOPES ; from the Greek
words ELEKTOR, solar action, and SKOPEO, /
behold.

A simple mode of verifying electric dis-
turbances by the movements of bodies was

MEDIUM OF MECHANICAL ACTION.

29

originally adopted by moving two metallic plates,

held by insulating

glass handles (Fig. 3),

which, after contact

and separation, excite

movements of electro- Fift 3<

scopes.

To intensify the excitation of the plate, a cake
of sealing
wax, c, ex-
cited by fric-
tion with fur,
is commonly
used, as rep-
resented by
Fig. 4. Hold-
ing the plate c
D by the in-
sulating glass Fig. 4.
handle K, and reaching the finger toward the
metallic knob N, a spark is seen to leap through
the air from N to the finger, when the plate D is
brought near and in contact with c ; on lifting
the plate and again bringing the finger toward N,
a similar bright spark leaps back to the plate.

This simple apparatus, by the alternate move-
ment of the upper plate toward and from the
lower plate, produces such dazzling sparks, that
the original inventor gave to it the name of
ELECTROPHORUS ; from ELEKTOR, sunshine, and
PHOREO, 7 bring.

30 MEDIUM DEVELOPING SUNSHINE.

This experiment practically demonstrates that
mechanical action, applied to move bodies toward
and from one another, is capable of producing
light and heat, identical with sunshine.

While the upper plate rests on the lower plate,
the electric ether remains in an electrostatic con-
dition in the plates, developing no action until
they are moved asunder, when a spark is ob-
tainable by lifting the upper plate. This ever-
ready spark may be conveniently employed for
kindling gas-lights, by directing it through the
jet of gas.1

The most regular and systematic mode of mov-
ing bodies, for disturbing and putting in motion
the electric medium, is by axial and orbital revo-
lutions opposite to each other, — as naturally em-
ployed in the daily and annual revolutions of the
planets of the solar system, and in the rotations
of artificial electric and magneto-electric machines.

Every impulse of mechanical force applied to
rotate an inductive electric machine, or a mag-
neto-electric machine, develops the excitation
denoted " electric light and heat," — the equiva-
lent of sunshine. The mechanical force of water-
falls, of the winds and waves of the sea, and

1 The "static'1'' condition of forces is commonly considered to be
their state of absolute rest ; but so far is this idea from being true,
that, on the contrary, a double extent of oppositely directed impulses is
requisite for the counterbalancing of forces. When any disturbance
of the equilibrium is produced, then the predominant force develops a
resultant dynamic action. To these resultant forces may be traced most
if not all of the relative movements of terrestrial matter, as will hereafter
more fully appear.

CONVERSION OF POWER INTO LIGHT, ETC. 3!

animal motive-power, may all be converted into
electrical light and heat by being applied to turn
magneto-electric machines, — such as are used
in modern lighthouses to illumine dark seas and
headlands with the splendor of sunshine. The
mechanical force of the rise and fall of the tides
on sea-coasts is adequate to rotate a sufficient
number of magneto-electric machines to illumi-
nate all the bordering shores ; and that of the
waters of Niagara to illumine the great cities of
the world.

32 ROTATION EXCITES THE ELECTRIC ETHER.

The actual contact and friction of the surfaces
of all bodies excite heat and light, as is familiarly
known; and a similar contact and friction of a
rubber on the surface of rotated cylinders of glass,
sulphur, and resinous substances, were originally
employed for exciting electricity, as represented by
Fig. 5. But the most effective kind of electri-
cal machine is
the invention
of Professor
Holtz, Fig.
6 ; with one
glass plate
revolving op-
posite to an-

Fig.'~ other, without

contact, and with a space of air intervening be-
tween them, as between the earth and the sun.
Rows of pointed wires are arranged in the usual
way to intercept and conduct away the electric
currents. By means of this machine, bright elec-
tric flashes are seen to pass nearly two feet through
the air, in a zigzag course.

Another efficient mode of disturbing and put-
ting in motion the electric ether in currents was
originally devised by Professor Faraday, who had
recourse to the use of excited magnets to induce
excitation of more powerful electric action. He
used a spiral coil of wire to be slipped down
over the pole of a magnet, as shown in Fig. 7,

ROTATION OF BODIES NEAR MAGNETS. 33

with the ends of the wire connected with a gold-
leaf electroscope, D. When the coil E is slipped
down over the pole
of a horse-shoe mag-
net, s, the electric
ether pervading the
spiral coil A, being
put in motion through
the circuit of the wire
ABE, traverses the
strip of gold-leaf be-
tween the two verti-
cal poles of another Fig. 7.
magnet, N s, whereby the flexible gold-leaf is moved
toward the spectator during the continued descent
of the spiral coil A. An opposite deflection of the
gold-leaf occurs on lifting and taking away the
spiral coil. By alternately approaching and with-
drawing the spiral coil of conducting wire, corre-
sponding electric surges move back and forth in
tidal waves, and the gold-leaf swings back and
forth correspondingly.

These movements, being made slowly, are less
effective than when made rapidly, by rotating
the spiral coils inclosing a piece of iron bended
to the same horse-shoe form, as represented in
Fig. 8. The iron is rendered magnetic when the
two ends pass by the opposite poles of a per-
manent horse-shoe steel magnet, N. A wheel
and band, w, are used to increase the velocity

3

34

IRON MOVED NEAR MAGNETS.

of revolutions of the coils inclosing the soft iron
bar B.

Two flexible wires pressing against the arbors
serve to break the circuit for an instant, and to
change the direction of the alternate currents
to a uniform circuit by their adaptations for this
purpose.

Fig. 8.

The rapidly ebbing and returning electrical
surges through the conducting wires, terminated
by handles at H, serve to give a rapid succession
of electric, shocks when held in the hands.

By the instrumentality of these revolving coils
and magnets, several thousand changes of direction
of electric surges are produced per minute, when
numerous magnets are multiplied in the great ma-
chines now employed for producing electric light.
It is practically found that the most powerful elec-
tric excitation is produced by using electro-magnets,
formed of bars of soft iron, with electric currents
circulating around them through spiral coils of

DEVELOPS ELECTRIC EXCITATION. 35

conducting wires wound in the corkscrew form
of a helix. The action of these currents is
more powerful than those about permanent steel
magnets.

Current changers, or commutators, convert
vibrations into continuous currents in closed cir-
cuits, as previously described.

The swift axial rotations of the planets opposite
to the excited globe of the sun, by inducing the
continual circulation of electric currents about
each one of them, convert them all into powerful
electro-magnets. Thus we have a solar system
with a vast central electro-magnet, and one hun-
dred and fifty electro-magnets revolving around it
each rotating on its axis. These act and react on
each other unceasingly, and with intense power, de-
veloping the phenomena of solar light and heat.

THE ROTATION OF ALL BODIES OPPOSITE TO MAGNETS
INDUCES CIRCULATING ELECTRIC CURRENTS.

Glass cylinders are used for exhibiting electric
excitation in preference to metallic plates, because
the particles of this compound substance, like
those of amber and other resins, do not allow of
the speedy diffusion of the excitation in every
direction.

To prove that the rotation of all bodies near
magnets induces the disturbance of the electric
ether, and the transmission of action thereby,
Professor Faraday rotated a copper plate between

36 ELECTRIC EXCITATION BY COPPER PLATES.

the two poles of a horse-shoe magnet, as repre-
sented in Fig. 9. The electric circuit is formed
by connecting wires, w, w, and a galvanometer is
used to indicate the power of the excited current
by the deflection of the magnetic needle.1 Pro-
fessor Faraday says : " When this copper plate

Fig' 9-

was arranged to revolve with its plane at right
angles to the dipping-needle, the electric currents
circulating from east to west about the earth's sur-
face served as a substitute for those circulating
about the poles of the artificial magnet."

Remarking on the results of his experiment,
Faraday says : " This affords an instructive con-
trast with the operation of a common electrical
machine. In the one is used a plate of the best
non-conducting material, and in the other the
most perfect conductor. In the one, insulation
is essential ; in the other it is fatal. In com-

1 Faraday's Experimental Researches.

SWIFT ROTATIONS OF METALLIC PLATES.

37

paring the quantities of electricity produced, the
rotating metallic plate does not at all fall short of
the glass one ; for it produces a constant electric
current capable of turning a galvanometer needle,
which the latter cannot."

The excitation induced by the swift rotation of
a metallic plate directly over, or beneath, a com-
pass needle, even with a non-conducting sheet of
glass intervening, turns the needle as regularly
as if it were fixed on the same axis.

This experiment demonstrates that the circula-
tion of ekctric currents, artificially produced by
the rotation of one body near a-nother, is capable
of transmitting mechanical action even through
non-conducting glass.

Soon after the publication of Faraday's experi-
ment made with the slow motion imparted by
hand, the writer employed water-power to rotate a
metallic plate several thousand times per minute.
An unexpected result occurred on using a circular
disc of soft Russia sheet-iron, when it touched a
steel magnet, as represented in Fig. 10.

At the point of contact, the swift rotation of
the plate excited a steel-bar
magnet to a glowing red heat,
and large steel files yielded be-
fore the rotating disc of thin
sheet-iron, like wax before a
flame. The fused particles fell
on the floor beneath, while the Fig. 10.

38 TEMPERED STEEL CUT.

smooth edge of the plate remained cool and but
slightly abraded.1

1 An account of this experiment was published in 1851, in the " Phi-
losophy of the Mechanics of Nature," p. 310 ; and recently this experi-
ment has been repeated by Mr. Isaac Reese, of Pittsburgh, Penn. An
account of the extraordinary results was given by Professor Hendrick
to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, in the
year 1875. Mr. Reese used a circular disc of malleable iron of the diam-
eter of forty-two inches, and with a velocity of the circumference nearly
five miles per minute. As stated: " Steel bars, hardened and polished,
of the diameter of two or three inches, may be cut off simply by the
overpowering excitation induced by the swift rotation of a thin circular
disc of soft sheet-iron. The best steel was rapidly cut through. Sparks
in a steady stream were thrown off, and particles of steel were found
melted together in a conical shape beneath the machine. While this
fusion of the steel takes place, the disc itself remains but little heated."

The powerful excitation induced by the rotation of one%ody near an-
other in this experiment, shows the superiority of this method of devel-
oping electric excitation to that of Voltaic batteries employed to render
a small wire red hot. The velocity of the equatorial surface of the
earth, continually rotated opposite the body of the sun, is nearly four-
fold swifter than that of the rim of the rotated plate used in the experi-
ment of Mr. Reese.

STANDARD MEASURE OF TIME. 39

CHAPTER IV.

THE PERFECT REGULARITY OF THE DAILY ROTATION
OF THE EARTH SERVES AS THE STANDARD MEASURE
OF TIME, SPACE, WEIGHT, QUANTITY OF MATTER, AND
MECHANICAL FORCE.

measuring time, one rotation of the earth
on its axis is adopted as the unit standard,
denoted a DAY. The minutest subdivision of
time -is 86^ Part °f one rotation of the earth,
denoted a SECOND.

The earth turns on its axis three hundred and
sixty-six times in the period of one orbital revolu-
tion about the sun. While the same spot on the
earth's equator passes under a meridian star
three hundred and sixty-six times yearly, it passes
only 365^ times under the meridian sun. Nearly
one entire day is lost by the circling movement of
the earth around the sun, as occurs when a navi-
gator sails from east to west around the world.
Consequently, each solar day is twenty-four hours
and four minutes long.

A heavy body attached to the end of a rod
exactly 39^ inches in length, forming a pen-
dulum, will make precisely one swing in the
part of one rotation of the earth on its axis.

All bodies used as material measures of length

40 ROTATION OF THE EARTH.

being liable to wear, to expansion, and to gradual
decomposition, it is established by statute law of
Great Britain, that "the length of a pendulum
vibrating in the ^ part of the daily rotation of
the earth, in a vacuum at the sea-level, and in the
latitude of London, at the temperature of sixty
degrees, shall be resorted to for the reconstruction
of the standard brass-measures of the realm, in
case of their destruction or loss."

The unvarying velocity of the daily rotation of
the earth sustains a correspondingly unvarying
excitation of electric currents about it, with conse-
quent uniform electro-magnetic forces of action
and reaction between every particle of the mass.
The extent of the electro-magnetic force of grav-
itation consequently represents the quantity of
particles in a body, as ascertained by counter-
poising weights commonly employed for ascer-
taining the quantity of matter in articles of
merchandise.

The unvarying force of gravitating descent of
one pound thirty-three thousand feet in one min-
ute, or thirty-three thousand pounds one foot
in one minute, is adopted by engineers as the
measure of the power of a work-horse, as esti-
mated in "foot-pounds," and called "one horse-
power."

The foot-pound is now commonly adopted as a
standard unit of all motive-power, even including
that of heat employed for operating steam-engines,
as tested by Mr. Joules. The precise extent of me-

FOOT-POUNDS AN EQUIVALENT OF HEAT. 4!

chanical action requisite to produce the increase of
the vibrations of the electric ether pervading the
particles of a pound of water, to raise its heat one
degree of Fahrenheit's scale, has been ascertained
by Meyer and Joules to be the equivalent of seven
hundred and seventy-two foot-pounds. Instead of
the rotating cylinder of an electrical machine, they
had recourse to rotating a little paddle-wheel in a
box containing a pound of water at the tempera-
ture of thirty-nine degrees of Fahrenheit. In this
way, seven hundred and seventy-two foot-pounds
have been adopted as " the British unit-standard
measure of the increase of one degree of heat in
a pound of water;" and on this basis have been
made useful comparative estimates as to the eco-
nomical employment of fuel for developing heat
as motive-power.

The vibrations of the ether pervading a bar of
steel by the swift rotation of a disc of sheet-iron,
as previously described, would probably develop
one degree of heat in a pound of water, by a force
of seven hundred and seventy-two foot-pounds,
were the disc made to rotate against the poles
of a horse-shoe magnet partially immersed in the
pound of water.

In like manner, the gravitating force of seven
hundred and seventy-two foot-pounds may be em-
ployed to rotate the cylinder of an inductive elec-
trical machine, to test and measure the intensity of
both heat and light by the precise extent of action
employed to produce their development.

42 POPULAR THEORIES.

CHAPTER V.

POPULAR THEORIES AS TO THE SUN.

HpHE cause of solar excitation is commonly
ascribed to the combustion of gases, or
other inflammable substances, such as are used
for maintaining beacon fires. This theory in-
cludes the question of providing a vast quantity
of fuel for supplying such a great conflagration.
Newton suggested that the occasional visits of
comets near the sun might serve for transporting
fuel to sustain the waning supply. Others have
suggested that meteoric showers, by continually
falling on the orb of the sun, might excite it
similarly to the pounding of a bar of iron on an
anvil ; by which process blacksmiths sometimes
kindle their forge fires. This theory opens the
question, " What Cyclops untiringly wields the
meteoric hammers?" The combustion of gases
is also suggested ; for the existence of hydrogen
in the solar orb is indicated by the lines of the
spectrum analysis. But the difficulty in the way
of this theory is the .want of an adequate supply
of free molecules of oxygen, of which eight-fold
more is requisite than of the hydrogen ; with the

THEORIES OF SOLAR HEAT. 43

resulting product by combustion of nine fold of
water. This would finally cover the surface of
the sun with a fire-extinguishing ocean, like three
fourths of our globe covered by seas. Were the
globe of the sun composed of carbon or coal, and
surrounded by an atmosphere of oxygen, the com-
bustion would be terminated by absorbing three-
fold its weight of oxygen, and producing a fire-
extinguishing atmosphere of carbonic acid gas ; the
presence of which, unless there are forest leaves
on the sun as on our earth to absorb it, would,
when increased to only one fifth of the solar at-
mosphere, finally extinguish combustion, if that
atmosphere is like ours.

In the modern invention of fire-extinguishers,
carbonic acid gas in portable cylinders is em-
ployed as the most effective check to confla-
grations.

An astronomer has calculated that to sustain
for a few thousand years the intensity of solar
light and heat, would require a quantity of solid
coal as great as the bulk of the earth.

As the compression of air and other substances
develops heat, some theorists, have suggested this
cause, but without proposing any mode of com-
pressing the solar atmosphere.

In the " Reported Observations " of the total
eclipse of the sun in 1878, President Morton
affirms, that " evidences tend to sustain the the-
ory that the sun's heat is maintained by the im-

44 " FRESH WOODS AND PASTURES NEW."

pact of meteoric matter; and it is possible that
the sun's fires may be fed with partly mineral
matter, and again for considerable periods with
meteorites, highly charged with hydrogen, giving
the sun a far-reaching atmosphere of the ignited
gas."

Professor Proctor, in recapitulating these the-
ories, says : " By all of them the means of sus-
taining the solar excitation would in time be
exhausted." In referring to the pounding of
meteors on the sun as on an anvil, the professor
remarks : " All the uproar on our earth would
be an absolute quiet compared with this; even
including the hideous groanings of earthquakes."
To cheer his audience with the hope of not being
left in the dark by the last fading glimmer of
expiring sunshine, the professor humorously sug-
gests : " Our sun is swiftly travelling through the
space of the heavens, carrying with him all the
planets and comets ; and in the course of his
travels may come to new regions of meteors, as
to * fresh woods and pastures new.' "

Our American astronomer, Professor Young,
modestly says : " What sustains the tremendous
solar heat, I cannot answer."

THE SUN COMPOSED OF ELEMENTARY SUBSTANCES
SIMILAR TO THOSE OF THE EARTH.

The following list of elementary substances ex-
isting in the globe of the sun is given by J. N.

SUBSTANCES COMPOSING THE SUN. 45

Lockyer, so far as completed up to November,
1877, by means of the spectroscope : —

" Sodium, iron, calcium, magnesium, chromium,
nickel, barium, zinc, cobalt, hydrogen, manganese,
titanium, aluminium, strontium, lead, cadmium, ce-
rium, uranium, potassium, vanadium, palladium,
and molybdenum."

He says that " the existence of carbon, silicium,
thallium, chlorine, bromine, and iodine, though not
distinctly confirmed, is probable ; " and adds that,
"out of the fifty-nine metals found on the earth,
thirty-one are known with more or less certainty
in the sun." Professor Proctor says : " The exist-
ence of iron in the solar orb suggests the similar
use of this metal in arts and manufactories as has
been made in the progress of human civilization."

Discoveries of similar elementary substances in
our sun and in other stellar suns render it not im-
probable that all the solar systems are constituted
like our own, with similar molecules and similar
inhabitants, governed by similar material and me-
chanical laws, and confirm the existence of analo-
gies between celestial and terrestrial phenomena.

46 MOTION OF PLANETS EXCITES SUNSHINE.

CHAPTER VI.

THE EXCITING CAUSE OF SOLAR LIGHT AND HEAT TRACED
TO THE MECHANICAL FORCE OF THE REVOLVING
HEAVENLY BODIES.

"DRECEDING investigations show that the
movement of bodies near and about each
other puts in motion the electric ether, which
transmits to the brain, through the nerves of sight
and feeling, the impulses recognized as light and
heat.

As it is impossible to penetrate the remote
regions of infinite space, the natural method of
studying the operation of the solar system is to
reason, by analogy, from terrestrial to celestial
mechanics. This method, as we have stated, has
been sanctioned by the most eminent astrono-
mers. If the mere movement of one disc near
another so develops light as to obtain for a simple
instrument the name of " Electrophorus," or sun-
shine producer, and if the rotation of one cylinder
opposite to another excites a dazzling light, — we
may consider that the swift revolutions of more
than one hundred and fifty great globes about the
sun, seven hundred fold greater than them all, are
similarly employed for the conversion of their me-
chanical force into the light and heat of sunshine.

ELECTRIC CURRENTS AROUND THE SUN. 47

In the operation of an inductive electrical machine,
the disc which is at rest is independently excited
by friction, so that it will react when the other
disc is turned opposite to it. In the operation of
the solar system, instead of an artificial excitation,
as of the disc at rest, the great central orb is ex-
cited by a swift rotation on its axis (with a surface
velocity at the equator of seventy-four miles per
minute), opposite to the several planets, each sim-
ilarly excited by rotation on its axis.

This axial rotation induces electric currents
around the sun, and arouncl each of the planets ;
which thus become polarized.

With the extraordinary magnitude of the cen-
tral orb, combined with its * extreme velocity of
rotation, a correspondingly greater intensity of
electric excitation of the solar electro-sphere is to
be anticipated. These anticipations are confirmed
by the observations of astronomers during total
eclipses of the sun, while the dark disc of the
moon screens its dazzling brightness, and leaves
visible only the extreme ring of light, denoted " a
corona? Observers have described this corona
as exhibiting coruscations, wildly darting off far
beyond the extreme edge of the solar disc, flash-
ing thousands of miles in tongues of flame. This
description corresponds with the flashings and cor-
uscations occasionally appearing in the aurora
borealis above the earth's atmosphere. Between
the luminous flashings over the surface of the

48 EXTENT AND EFFECTS OF SOLAR SPOTS.

sun, at times, are openings that disclose the dark
portions of the globe beneath ; which constitute
"spots on the sun." These openings are con-
stantly varying with a rapidity that only the quick
movements of the electric ether will explain.
"There are instances in which solar spots of fifty
thousand miles diameter are formed in a single
day; and others, where they disappear as sud-
denly. The brightest parts are not stationary, but
fluctuate like electric flashes." It is also found
that "the appearance of solar spots is attended
with extraordinary perturbations of compass nee-
dles all over the earth." This fact shows the
direct relationship and electro-magnetic connec-
tion between the solar excitation and the electric
currents continually circulating about the earth,
which control the movements of all compass
needles.

Modern observers have noticed electrical dis-
turbances, similar to those of the aurora borealis,
above the great planets Jupiter and Saturn, in
duced by their rotations opposite to their numer-
ous moons. Mr. Bond, of Cambridge, describes
them as "self-luminous appearances," disclosing
dark openings that reveal the body of the planet,
somewhat corresponding with the spots on the
sun.

That the apparent diameter of the disc of the
sun does not show the true magnitude of the solid
globe beneath its exterior luminous photosphere,

PLANETS ARE ELECTRO-MAGNETS. 49

is manifest from the calculations of the density of
the sun at only one fourth of the density of the
earth. Were our earth measured from the ex-
terior of the luminous coruscations of the aurora
above the atmosphere, its estimated density would
be similarly reduced.

The uniform axial rotations of the planetary
bodies, by determining the regular circulation of
electric currents about each one of them, convert
them all into powerful electro-magnets, with the
consequent development of reciprocal action and
reaction between them all, denoted " the universal
attraction of gravitation."

The swift orbital revolutions of the planets of
our system, and also those of countless worlds
revolving about other stellar suns, in rushing
through the electric ether produce continual vi-
brations, which impinge against the surfaces of all
portions of matter composing the material uni-
verse. The vibratory impulses being imparted
equally in opposite directions against all the ex-
ternal parts of bodies and molecules, neutralize
each other, and consequently molecules exist in an
electrostatic condition. By diminishing the vibra-
tory impulses against one side of a molecule, it is
ready to yield instantaneously to the predominant
impulses against the opposite side, with a quick
resultant movement resembling an " inherent
self-motive power" in lifeless molecules. This
explanation confirms the definition of molecules

- *

50 THE SUN A CENTRE OF REACTION.

given by Buscovich, a^ being " centres of forces ; "
which they really are while subjected to the vibra-
tions of the electric ether equally on all sides.

The great central orb of the solar system sim-
ilarly serves as a centre of forces, against which
impinge the vibratory impulses of the universal
electric ether, excited by the orbital revolutions of
the planets. From this central point of reaction the
vibrations of the electric ether, continually beating
against it, are reflected back in sunshine like sur-
ges from a rock in mid-ocean, leaving its surface
covered with sparkling foam. Without a point of
reaction, there can be no action. Action and re-
action are always equal and in opposite directions.
The sun serves as a point of reaction, like the
lump of lime placed in front of a pale jet of oxy-
hydrogen flame, which by its reaction develops
the intensity of the vibrations of the flame, and
produces the dazzling " calcium light." The sim-
ilar reflection of the vibrations excited by the or-
bital planetary force, we call sunshine.

The reaction from a fine platinum wire is used
to develop the intense action of voltaic batteries
and magneto-electric machines. The molecules
of z.fine wire are insufficient to conduct the whole
force of the electric current, and its action is thus
resolved into light and heat. By making a break
in a conducting wire transmitting a powerful vol-
taic or magneto-electric current, the particles of
intervening air and of the all-pervading electric

STELLAR SUNS CENTRES OF REACTION. 51

ether receive the impulses,*and become points of
reaction in vibrations of brilliant light and in-
tense heat.

These analogies teach us to regard the central
orb of the solar system as the point of reaction,
representing the action imparted to the universal
electric ether by the combined force of all the
magnetic planets circling around it.

As similar centres of reaction, all the stellar
suns serve to reflect the vibrations imparted to
them by the surges of the electric ether, put in
motion by the orbital revolutions of planets
around each of them. The very fact of the shin-
ing of each star in the evening sky is the strong-
est possible proof of the existence of worlds
revolving around it, as the exciting cause.

The suggestions of the popular authors before
cited, as to the probable causes of the intense
excitation of the solar orb, leave the whole ques-
tion of the original source of solar splendor un-
solved.

Without an internal source of supply, or some
sufficiently active exterior cause to maintain the
solar light and heat, with such an intense and
unceasing emission of both, it might well be sup-
posed that the solar excitation would at some time
be exhausted, and the orb become the coldest point
in the universe.

The case is very different if we consider the
sun to be passive matter, reacting, as before stated,

52 HEAT CARRIED OFF BY ELECTRIC CURRENTS.

like a piece of lime used for reflecting the brilliant
calcium light, or like the readily conducting char-
coal points, which are not even kindled while used
for the radiating arcs of electric light, rivalling
sunshine. They serve as electrodes, like the solar
orb, passively to receive and transmit electric
excitation. A concave mirror similarly receives
and reflects the light and heat of sunshine, with
sufficient intensity to melt the most refractory
metals, while it remains cold.

The friction of cylinders of electric machines
does not heat them, because the action is speedily
diffused by the current through the rows of pointed
wires arranged opposite to them. In voltaic bat-
teries, the liquids do not become hot by the chem-
ical action of the acids, — the platinum plates and
conducting wires serving to transmit the action
in closed electric circuits or currents. Neither
do the brilliant coruscations of the aurora bore-
alis heat the air or earth beneath them. On the
contrary, the coruscations of the brilliant electric
flashes, and also of lightning from condensing sul-
try vapors in the sky, convert the vibrations of heat
into electric currents, that quickly carry it off.

To test the effects produced by the electro-
static condition resulting from an equal action of
the electric vibrations surrounding a body on all
sides, Professor Faraday made an experiment with
an insulated metallic chamber, into which, whilst
excited by an electrical machine, he entered. He

THE SUN AS A CHEERFUL DWELLING-PLACE. 53

says : " While the exterior was sufficiently excited
to dart off sparks several inches in length from
the outer sides, I could not detect the least
evidence of the existence of any electric action
within the chamber?

Considering the globe of the sun to be in a
highly excited electrical state, corresponding with
the metallic chamber, or with the earth overarched
by the coruscations of the aurora borealis, we may
rationally discard the theory of its being covered
with billows of flaming gases or molten lava,
seething like the crater of a volcano, or that it
suffers the terrible pounding of falling meteors
and asteroids. The great central orb may have
an unvarying temperate clime, exempt from ex-
tremes of summer heat or winter cold, with no
nights of gloom. It may even be a bright and
cheerful dwelling-place, with sunny landscapes ; a
paradise of perennial verdure and ever-blooming
flowers.

If a few small magnets revolved around the axis
of a magneto-electric machine suffice to illumine
more than a thousand square miles of dark head-
lands and waters, — reasoning from terrestrial to
celestial mechanics, how indescribable must be the
magnificence of that lighthouse in the heavens,
whose beams are the result of the combined move-
ments of more than one hundred and fifty vast
magnetic planets revolving around the central orb
of the solar system !

54 WHILE PLANETS MOVE, SUN WILL SHINE.

As long as these mighty planets continue to
revolve, so long will the sun continue to shine.
The question of the source of solar light and
heat is therefore resolved simply into that of the
source of natural motive-power ; namely, the axial
rotation and orbital revolution of the heavenly
bodies.

MAGNETO-ELECTRIC MACHINES. 55

CHAPTER VII.

ARTIFICIAL EXCITATION OF LIGHT BY MAGNETO-
ELECTRIC MACHINES.

"V/TORE than thirty years ago, attempts were
made to utilize the excitation of voltaic bat-
teries for illumination. The subsequent plan of
exciting electric light by revolving magnets has
revived hopes of success. Professor Faraday, the
originator of this mode of producing electric exci-
tation, was employed by the British government
to construct for a lighthouse on the shores of the
British channel a magneto-electric machine, ope-
rated by a steam-engine of three-horse power. A
like machine, afterward placed in a lighthouse on
the opposite French coast, is described as "making
three hundred revolutions per minute, and pro-
ducing a light equal to that of nine hundred Car-
cel burners." " The lines of the spectrum, and the
photographic pictures thereby produced, are equal
to those produced by sunshine."

In this machine, " the heat transmitted by the
electric current through a platinum wire of No.
1 8 gauge and eight feet long, instantaneously
fused the wire. A round file, four inches long
and half an inch diameter, was burnt away in five
minutes."

56 ELECTRIC LIGHTS.

Quite recently, numerous improvements have
been made in the construction and operation of
magneto-electric machines, for a more general
utilization of the electric light.1

The principal difficulty in the practical use of
the electric light is the regulation of its dazzling
brilliancy, which is painful to the eyes, and at-
tended with a contrast of very dark shadows.
To obviate this objection, experimenters have
attempted to soften the brilliancy by reflection
from white ceilings, resembling daylight. An-
other difficulty occurs in the gradual wasting
away of the particles of the carbon points, used
at the break in the circuit; which the electric
flame must leap across, to transmit the vibrations
of light through the electric ether pervading the
particles of air. These points require , to be
moved nearer together by automatic apparatus,
to compensate for their gradual wasting away ;
and when the current is stopped, it is necessary
to reinstate the circuit by a new contact of the
points, and to make a new separation, for a vol-
taic and magneto-electric circuit are alike checked
by a very small interval of space.

In attempting to avoid these difficulties, ingen-
ious experimenters have devised self-regulating

1 A machine exhibited at the Fair of the American Institute in New
York, is described as " producing a single electric circuit for operating
four lamps, each equal to the light of three thousand candles, or two
hundred five-feet gas-burners, requiring for its maintenance a force of
seven-horse power."

MOTIVE-POWER REQUIRED. 57

carbon points, and also the use of a circuit of fine
wires for developing, by their molecular vibrations,
the excitation transmitted through them, in the
phenomenon of incandescence. But these molec-
ular vibrations disintegrate the wires and render
them liquid, or aeriform, and incapable of use. If
the intensity of the electric excitation by magneto-
electric machines were equal to that excited by
rotated inductive machines, this difficulty would
have been obviated, as the latter transmit flashes
through a foot or two of space. The difference
between the extent of motive-power requisite to
operate a magneto-electric machine and a Holtz
inductive machine, is about inversely as the length
of the electric sparks produced by them. A
very slight motive-power operates the inductive
machine, while several horse-power is requisite
to operate magneto-electric machines. A great
amount of mechanical force is necessary to put
the electric ether in motion at the instant the
wires are connected to make the circuit.

This impressive fact affords evidence of the
conversion of mechanical action into light and
heat, and also of the transmission of motive -power
by electric ether with its high velocity, and af-
fords a prospect of utilizing the electric medium
by conducting wires, as a substitute for bands and
shafts in operating machinery at a distance.

The question of cost and conveniency of excit-
ing electric light, not of its efficiency, must event-

58 LIGHT THE RESULT OF FORCE.

ually determine the extent to which it may be
used.

Professor Anthony, of Cornell University, states,
as the result of his experiments in burning kero-
sine oil in lamps, and beneath a boiler for power
to produce a magneto-electric light, that the latter
mode was nearly double in efficiency with the
same quantity of oil. With the cost of machin-
ery and skilled labor to operate magneto-electric
machines, and the inconveniences of employing
motive-power on a small scale, the problem of the
general use of electric light remains to be practi-
cally determined.1

These illustrations demonstrate that light and
heat, constituents of sunshine, are produced by
mechanical impulses imparted to revolve magnets
about a central axis ; analogous to the natural
revolutions of the magnetic bodies of the planets
about the central axis of the solar system, as a
sublime magneto-electric machine in continual
operation in the heavens.

1 In view of the great extent of motive-power requisite to operate
magneto-electric machines, with the minute extent of its sparks, and the
minute amount of motive-power requisite to operate Holtz' electric ma-
chine, with its brilliant sparks leaping one or two feet through the air,
it may be a question for experimental determination whether this mode
of excitation may prove more efficient for illumination with the same
amount of motive-power applied to rotate glass, or ebonite plates.

THE SENSORIAL NERVES. 59

CHAPTER VIII.

THE SENSORIAL NERVES CONSIDERED AS INSTRU-
MENTAL TESTS OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

•

TIpLEMENTARY molecules are classed as sim-
ilar, because they transmit similar reactions
and modifications of the axial and orbital forces,
through the electric ether pervading the nerves
leading to the brain. The planetary force being
the immediate source of this mechanical action,
all we know of molecules is their power of mod-
ifying the action of this force.

The electro-mechanical reaction from molecules
being transmitted through five peculiar arrange-
ments of conducting fibres, denoted " Sensorial
Nerves," the study of the special functions of
these nerves, as instrumental tests of physical
science, is of primary importance to a right in-
terpretation of the action they transmit to the
brain.

The electric signals transmitted through the
sensorial nerves are as unintelligible to a new-
born infant, as are the intermittent clickings, or
the dots and dashes, to a new apprentice in a tel-
egraph office. To ascertain what the flame of a
candle is, an infant attempts to grasp it ; and thus
practically learns the intensity of its vibrations by

6O THEY MODIFY SOLAR REACTION.

the extreme thrill of the nerves of feeling recog-
nized as pain. The conversion of mechanical
action into heat is early learned by the sensation
of warmth felt on rubbing the hands forcibly to-
gether, long before the knowledge is theoretically
acquired. The impression of " seeing stars," pro-
duced by a blow on the head, is another exempli-
fication of the conversion of mechanical action
into light.

The mechanical action of the orbital planetary
force being made manifest by reaction from the sun
as sunshine, we must look to this reaction for the
immediate source of sensation, and of knowledge
.of the world around us. It is narrated in classic
story, that " the rising sun excited the morning
breezes to thrill the chords of the harp of Mem-
non to melodious vibrations." So the exciting
power of the rising sun thrills the nerves of every
living animal, as the attuned strings of a harp.
The vibratory solar reaction is modified by the
lily and the rose, so as to reach the eye in varied
colors ; it is modified by their exhalations, so as to
reach the olfactory nerves as odors ; it is modified
by the juices of plants and fruits, so as to reach
the nerves of the tongue as flavors.

A general inattention to the true functions of
the sensorial nerves, as tests of physical science,
has so blended ideas of mechanical causes and
effects as to be still a most serious obstacle in
the way of knowledge. Identical mechanical im-

ARE TESTS OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

61

pulses are called by as many different names as
there are different lines of sensorial nerves serv-
ing to transmit the action to the brain. This is
exemplified in the following table : —

DIFFERENT NAMES GIVEN TO THE SAME ELECTRO-MECHANICAL ACTION
TRANSMITTED THROUGH THE FIVE SENSORIAL NERVES.

Mechanical action, trans-
mitted by electric ether
through the nerves . .

r of sight,

Of feeling,

Of tasting,

Of smelling,

Of hearing,

Is variously recognized

Light.
Darkness.

Heat.

Cold.

Flavor.

Flavorless.

Odor.
Odorless.

Sound.
Silence.

Colors.

Temperature.

f Various
1 Flavors.

I Various
1 Odors.

j Musical
1 Tones.

From inattention to the functions of the sensorial
nerves, an identical electro-mechanical impulse is
ascribed to three different causes, — Heat, Light,
and Electricity. For ages these have been consid-
ered " Imponderable Agents of Nature," employed
to produce the phenomena appearing on the sur-
face of the world around.

To avoid errors, the student of physical science
requires primary instruction in the use of the
tools he is destined to employ. Because two
different arrangements of nerves — those of the eye
and of the hand — are requisite for holding com-
munication harmlessly and painlessly with heated
and ignited bodies, this is no apology for calling
the cause of these different intensities of excita-
tion by the two different names of " Light " and
" Heat ; " although it is useful to designate the
different effects produced thereby by different

62 OPTIC NERVES TESTS OF HEAT.

names. The gelatinous fibres of the nerves of
feeling in the hand would serve only once for
contact with an ignited body. They would by
that single contact be converted into vapor. To
hold communication with ignited bodies without
pain or injury, there is provided another arrange-
ment of telegraph nerves from the brain to the
retina of the eye ; which is studiously protected
from liability to injury by highly excited bodies.
The ball of the eye is sunk within a socket, cov-
ered by an external shutter adapted to close " as
quick as a wink." The ends of the optic nerves,
denoted the retina, are placed behind a watery
lens, with an aperture arranged to be automati-
cally closed by too intense excitation of light. The
exterior of the eye-ball is also kept constantly
cooled by a trickling fountain of tears.

By these ingenious arrangements, the optic
nerve holds communication with intensely heated
bodies without injury. It may be convenient to
give different names to the sensations produced
by the transmission of electric action to the brain
through different nerves ; but this does not war-
rant us in ascribing the ignition of a fine wire, ex-
cited by the discharge of an electrical jar, to three
different causes, named Heat, Light, and Elec-
tricity. As well might the transmission of electric
action through three different telegraph wires to
;a telegraph office, be ascribed to three different
agents of Nature.

VIBRATIONS OF AIR AND ETHER. 63

CHAPTER IX.

CORRESPONDING VIBRATIONS TRANSMITTED BY THE
ATMOSPHERIC AND THE ELECTRIC ETHER.

TV/TECH AN ICAL impulses imparted to the par-
ticles of air are transmitted in currents as
winds ; and in vibrations, as sounds. Imparted to
the electric ether they are similarly transmitted in
currents and in vibrations. The interchangeable
vibrations and current movements of the electric
and atmospheric ethers are illustrated in the oper-
ation of the Telephone. Impulses of the voice as
words, or musical sounds, excite corresponding syn-
chronous vibrations of the atmospheric and electric
ethers, producing similar vibrations of a metallic
disc connected with telegraph wires, through which
they pass in currents to a second, or terminal, disc.
This last in turn transfers them to the adjacent
particles of air, which vibrate on the tympanum
of the ear. A little bony malleus, hung against
the tympanum like a knocker on a door, intensi-
fies the excitation of the electric ether pervading
the conducting nerve leading to the brain ; where,
as Galen taught, "the spirit enthroned in a pure
luciform vehicle " receives the signals.

When closed circuits are used, the transmis-
sion is by means of currents, which will be here-

64 VIBRATIONS CONVERGED BY LENSES, ETC.

after noticed. The elastic vibrations of the air
and electric ether are thus shown to correspond.
To converge the vibrations of the air, as sounds,
more forcibly against the tympanum of the ear,
ear-trumpets are used.

Concave arched surfaces of domes also reflect
the vibrations of sounds.

To concentrate the vibrations of the electric
ether, as light, more powerfully on the retina of
the eye, the converging lenses of telescopes and
concave reflectors are used. The same elec-
tro-mechanical action that is transmitted to the
eye as light, might serve for a telegraphic com-
munication from the sun, or even from the great
star Sirius, if a thermoscope were placed at the
aperture of the telescope where the eye is usually
adjusted. The light would produce movements
of a magnetic needle, similar to those employed
in Wheatstone's telegraph for transmitting signals
across the ocean.

The electric ether partakes of the passive char-
acter of all matter in its incapability to stop itself
when put in motion. Light and sound are per-
petually transmitted. The continuous progression
of light through infinite space is graphically illus-
trated by an astronomer, who says: " In adjust-
ing my telescope, during the day, toward a remote
hillside, I beheld some boys robbing an orchard.
If that robbery had been committed on a remote
star, and had my telescope been sufficiently per-

MUSICAL TONES. 65

feet, I might have seen the act a thousand years
after it was committed." It would seem that sun-
beams are recording angels.

VARIED RAPIDITY OF VIBRATIONS OF THE ELECTRIC AND
ATMOSPHERIC ETHERS PRODUCE PRISMATIC COLORS
AND MUSICAL TONES.

The principal difference between the transmis-
sion of impulses by the electric and atmospheric
ethers is due to the extreme elasticity and light-
ness of the former, as manifest in the transmis-
sion of a flash of lightning with the velocity of
light (one hundred and ninety thousand miles per
second), while the sound of thunder traverses the
air with the velocity of only eleven hundred and
fifty feet per second.

When vibrations of the air impinge against the
tympanum of the ear less often than twenty-eight
pulsations in a second, each one is distinctly heard;
but when more rapidly repeated, a fresh impulse
is received before the tympanum comes to a state
of rest, — thus producing a continuous humming
sound, until one hundred and twenty-eight vibra-
tions per second are reached. Then the regular
musical tone of the bass note, c, is heard.

By increasing the number of vibrations of the
air from one hundred and twenty-eight to one
hundred and forty-four per second, the next higher
musical tone of the gamut is produced ; and so
on successively, each higher note up to one hun-

5

66 PRISMATIC COLORS.

dred and sixty, to one hundred and ninety-two, to
two hundred and forty, &c., until twenty-five thou-
sand vibrations per second are reached. Then
the tympanum has not time to recoil before an-
other impulse arrives, and the result is a cessation
of tympanum vibration, recognized as silence. So
the excessively intense vibrations of the electric
ether imparted to the retina by gazing at the
dazzling sun produce a silence of vibrations, or
blindness, corresponding with darkness. " Dark
with excess of light."

In like manner, the prismatic or rainbow colors
are produced by a different rapidity of vibration
of the electric ether ; so that the chromatic scale
of musical tones of the gamut, and the chromatic
scale of colors, depend alike on the different rapid-
ity of the vibrations of the atmospheric and elec-
tric ethers.

Instruments have been ingeniously devised for
indicating the number of vibrations per second of
the electric ether, requisite to produce the chro-
matic scale of colors.

As sound moves with the velocity of eleven hun-
dred and fifty feet per second, by dividing this
distance by the number of aerial vibrations in a
second, the length of a vibratory wave is estimated.
The velocity of the ether producing the excitation
of light being one hundred and ninety thousand
miles per second, the length of the waves of colors
is similarly estimated ; as shown in the following

VIBRATIONS PRODUCING COLORS.

67

TABLE OF VIBRATIONS IN CHROMATIC SCALE OF COLORS.

Prismatic Colors.

Number of
vibrations
in an inch.

Lengths of vi-
brations in parts
of an inch.

Vibrations in a
second; English
notation.

RED

•30,180

0.0000256

477 billions

4J,6lO

O.OOOO24O

<o6

YELLOW

A A OOO

O OOOO227

0VJV-' »

ci e

GREEN

47,460

O.OOOO2 1 1

OOJ »
C77

BLUE

cj i 10

622

^4 O7O

o 000018 s

U44 „

6c8

VIOLET

57 AGO

o 0000174

600

i/»W-'

uyy »

The slowest vibrations of the ether are first
recognized as a red color, which corresponds with
the slowest vibrations of the bass note of the musi-
cal gamut ; and the quickest vibrations appear as
the violet hue, which corresponds with the high-
est musical note audible : for, as previously stated,
when the vibrations of the air exceed a certain
limit, the tympanum of the ear has not time to
recoil before a succeeding impulse arrives, and
it remains motionless. So the retina of the
eye ceases to vibrate beyond the limit of the vio-
let, and darkness follows. Darkness and silence
are, therefore, equivalents of the cessation of vibra-
tions of the retina and tympanum respectively ; as
cold is, also, of the cessation of vibrations through
the fibres of the nerves of feeling.

68 THERMO-ELECTRICITY.

CHAPTER X.

CONVERTIBILITY OF VIBRATIONS OF HEAT INTO
ELECTRIC CURRENTS.

n^HE vibrations of the electric ether, consti-
tuting heat, are readily converted into a
current in one determinate direction through the
circuit of a conducting wire, so as to turn the
needle of a galvanometer, by merely arranging in
contact the ends of two bars of metal, one of
them a good electrode, and the other a less free

Fig- ii.

electrode, over the flame of a lamp ; as represented
in Fig. ii. The vibratory movements of the
ether become resolved into one uniform direction
through the most ready conductor, so as to make
a closed circuit; as denoted by the direction of
the arrows. The excitation of the current being
caused by heat, the descriptive name of Thermo-
electricity has been given to this mode of pro-

THERMO-ELECTRIC BATTERY. 69

ducing electric currents. The two kinds of metal
conveniently used for this experiment are anti-
mony and bismuth, or German silver and brass.

Were both bars of equal conducting powers,
the equal resistance of each would counterbalance
the other, and the excitation would take the form
of molecular vibrations of the metals, with their
gradual heating and expansion.

For experimental use, small thermo-electric
batteries are compactly made with little strips
of metal, duly insulated from each
other by intervening varnished
silk; as represented by Fig. 12.
The ends of the conducting wires
are inserted in the screw cups x y, Fis' "'
to lead the currents in a circuit around a galva-
nometer needle. This is so sensitively affected
by the least excitation of heat applied to the con-
joined ends of the combined metallic bars, that
the combination is denoted a Thermoscope; which
is a far more delicate test of heat than any ther-
mometer; ~ of i° of Fahrenheit being sufficient
to move the galvanometer needle. The bars of
antimony and bismuth are insulated from each
other by varnished silk, with their alternate ends
soldered together. This arrangement, for very
delicate experimental purposes, is used at a p
with a reflector, as represented by Fig. 13,
with screens and tubes adapted to exclude col-
lateral radiations. To prevent currents of air, the

70

THERM OSCOPE

y

galvanometer is covered with glass, f, connected
with the apparatus by conducting wires, h g. The
galvanometer needle is suspended by a single

Fig. 13.

flexible fibre of silk. The intensity of the thermo-
electric excitation is denoted by the extent of
divergency of the needle. The heat of the body

ROTATION PRODUCED BY HEAT. 71

of a person approaching within thirty feet of this
instrument, and even of the bodies of insects, of
phosphorescent wood, putrifying fish, &c., are de-
tected by the motion of the needle, as stated by
Nobili and Melloni.

An ingenious experimenter, Dr. Locke, of
Ohio, describes in " Silliman's Journal " a thermo-
scope with a current changer affixed thereto for
reversing the connections, whereby a needle
weighing one and one half ounces was made to
revolve by the heat of his finger, by timely rever-
sals of the currents.

It may seem surprising that the use of a lump
of ice, instead of a lamp flame, will produce
movements of the galvanometer needle. A bat-
tery is made (Fig. 14) by applying a frigorific
mixture on the bars at A, and a plate of heated

iron, E, at their lower ends. On the upper
ends of the metallic wires, packed together
with insulating varnished silk, and inclosed
in a curb, B, is placed pounded ice or snow,
with some salt representing the polar seas; and
beneath the lower extremities of the wires is

72 LIGHT AND COLORS PRODUCED BY HEAT.

arranged the plate of hot iron, E, representing the
torrid region of the earth. With these extremes
of temperature, the excitation is intensified suffi-
ciently to produce bright electric flashes, and
other electric phenomena, corresponding with
those developed by electrical machines. By
transmitting this electric excitation through void
space in a bell-glass, the flashings of the aurora
borealis are represented, as before stated. Be-
tween the polar seas composed of salt water and
ice, and the torrid zone heated by sunshine, there
are north and south currents, above the terrestrial
currents circulating from east to west, which ap-
pear occasionally as " the northern lights " or
aurora, crossing the terrestrial currents, and con-
sequently disturbing magnetic needles on the
earth's surface beneath them. Every local dis-
turbance of temperature of the earth's surface,
by inducing excitation of currents transverse to
those regularly circulating from east to west
about the earth, disturbs and agitates the com-
pass needle.

The following experiment is of practical inter-
est. An experimenter arranged a sheet of copper
and of iron, with one of the ends of each in con-
tact, within the flue from a furnace. The other
end of each plate he connected by a wire, extended
to an office one hundred and fifty feet distant,
making a circuit about a galvanometer needle.
He states that he was thus enabled to know the

RED-HOT IRON ESTIMATED IN FOOT-POUNDS. 73

intensity of heat in the furnace flue, by the move-'
ment of the magnetic needle, which performed the
functions of a thermometer.

This experiment illustrates, on a minute scale,
the frequent movements of compass needles, ob-
servable when sudden changes of temperature are
produced by sunshine and cold storms in adjacent
localities, and more especially while the flashes of
the aurora borealis occur. The eruption of red-
hot lava from volcanoes, and other causes, are
found to produce nearly simultaneous perturba-
tions of compass-needles all over the globe, as
verified in national magnetic observatories.

The ready conversion of heat into electric cur-
rents, that transmit the excitation to remote dis-
tances over the earth's surface, accounts for the
sudden disappearance of heat on the condensa-
tion of steamy vapors of thunder-clouds, and vari-
ous phenomena of " latent heat."

Taking for a basis of calculation the mechan-
ical action of seven hundred and seventy-two
foot-pounds as the equivalent of the molecular
vibration of one pound of water, in raising its tem-
perature one degree from 39° to 40° Fahrenheit,
and estimating the temperature of red-hot iron at
about 1000°, and assuming the increment of heat
in iron to be the same as in water (772 x 1000 =),
77 2,000 foot-pounds may represent the intensity
of molecular vibration of a pound of red-hot iron ;
and may serve also to indicate the extent of me-

74 CHANGES OF COLOR BY HEAT.

chanical force requisite to render a pound of iron
red-hot. The molecular vibrations of the iron
excite vibrations of the electric ether pervading
the particles of surrounding air, and transmit the
impulses to the retina of the eye, producing the
sensation of a red color; and to the nerves of feel-
ing, producing a sensation of heat. In suddenly
cooling hot steel by the process of tempering, the
surface exhibits the changing colors from a white
heat to red, orange, purple, violet, and blue ; the
latter representing the elastic molecular state of
blue watch-springs. These facts indicate that
there is a chromatic scale of molecular vibrations
developing colors, corresponding with those of the
atmospheric and electric ethers developing musi-
cal tones.

The remarkable flitting colors on the surface of
heated steel are due to the gradual union of mole-
cules of oxygen with the carbonized iron. Thus,
metallic oxides serve as pigments, in their peculiar
molecular conditions of union with oxygen and
carbon.

MOLECULAR VIBRATION ADOPTED AS A TEST OF
HEAT.

The vibration of molecules of mercury in the
bulb of a thermometer, and their consequent oc-
cupancy of more space, denoted Expansion, is
adopted as a standard test of heat; precisely as
the extent of reciprocal divergency of the pith-

THERMOMETRIC SCALES. 75

balls of electroscopes is adopted as a standard
test of electric excitation. The extent of mechan-
ical action is therefore the standard test of the
excitation of both heat and electricity. Various
scales of degrees of expansion are adopted in ther-
mometers for measuring the extent of vibration
of molecules produced by heat. Reaumur's ther-
mometer is graduated into eighty equal parts of a
glass tube, ranging between the freezing and boil-
ing points of water, with a minus scale of degrees
extended below the freezing point. The ther-
mometer invented by Celsius has 100° between
the freezing and boiling points, with a similar
minus scale. Fahrenheit, to obtain a greater
range of degrees, adopted the extremely low
temperature produced by a frigorific mixture of
snow, or ice, and salt, as a zero point, with a grad-
uation of 32° to the ordinary freezing point of
water, and 212° to the boiling point.

Different kinds of substances have each a
peculiar extent of molecular vibration, and con-
sequent expansion. Mercury, being the most uni-
form between the freezing and boiling points, is
selected for use in the bulbs of thermometers.

VIBRATION OF THE ELECTRIC ETHER EXCITES VIBRA-
TION IN PARTICLES OF ALL MATTER.

The particles of all kinds of bodies — solid, liq-
uid, and aeriform — are made to vibrate by heat,
and transmit action by means of the electric me-

76 MOLECULAR VIBRATION AS HEAT.

dium pervading the particles of the atmosphere,
so as to reach the nerves of sight,
feeling, and hearing. This is veri-
fied by Trevelyan's experiment with
a semicylindrical piece of heated
brass, B, resting on a piece of cold
lead, L, Fig. 15. The lead being
a slow conductor of heat, the vibrations of the
particles produce a rocking of the brass, B, like a
cradle, and at the same time an audible vibration
of the air, like that of the glass plate of a harmon-
icon. The vibrations produced by combustion of
a jet of gas within a glass tube cause a similar
musical sound.

It is the rapid and violent vibration of the
molecules of hot bodies that causes the stinging
sensations they produce, like those by a blow of a
rod on the skin, with the result of similar con-
tusions and blisters of the epidermis. Scalding
and burning of the skin are wounds produced
by the molecular vibration of heated bodies.

If the vibration of sunshine be intensified by
lenses upon mercury to 680° Fahrenheit, it boils
like water ; and the particles are separated so far
asunder as to occupy more space than an equal
weight of particles of surrounding air, and to as-
cend buoyantly as mercurial vapor. On the con-
trary, if the vibration, or heat, be reduced to 39°
below zero (Fahrenheit), the terrestrial electro-
magnetic currents predominate, polarizing and

SOLID, LIQUID, AND AERIFORM STATES. 77

uniting the molecules of mercury in crystals of
frozen solid metal, resembling silver.

Between 39° and 680° the molecules of mercury
remain in an equilibrial state, wherein neither the
magnetic nor the diamagnetic currents predom-
inate. In this condition of equilibrium, the mole-
cules of mercury have freedom to roll quickly over
one another in the liquid state ; from whence this
metal derives its descriptive name of " quick-
silver."

This example of the solid, liquid, and vapory
conditions of mercury represents the solid, liquid,
and ae'riform conditions of all other kinds of ele-
mentary substances ; including oxygen, hydrogen,
and nitrogen, as experimentally verified by Pictet
and others.

The contraction and expansion of fluids in
thermometers show the alternate predominance
of the electro-magnetic currents induced by the
axial rotation of the earth, and of the magneto-
electric vibrations induced by the orbital rev-
olution.

78 HEAT, ELECTRIC AND MOLECULAR VIBRATION.

CHAPTER XI.

POPULAR DOCTRINES OF ELECTRIC AND MOLECULAR
VIBRATION, DENOTED HEAT.

HE RE are so many theories of heat and light
as sources of motive -power, that our limits
will permit us to notice but a few of the most
recent.

A summary of existing scientific opinions, orig-
inating from distinguished philosophers and chem-
ists, appears to be embodied in a treatise on " Heat
Considered as a Mode of Motion," by John Tyn-
dall.1 Other more definite treatises have been
written at various times, from which this popular
writer has gleaned various views.

He begins the investigation with the following
words : —

"What is the agent by means of which we can over-
power the force of the winds and rivers ? The achieve-
ments of heat by the steam-engine have impressed upon
thinking minds this important question."

He continues : —

"Let us commence our researches with heart and
hope. If we succeed, we shall satisfy, to an extent

1 D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1867.

MR. TYNDALL GIVES NO SOLUTION. 79

before unknown, the love of systematic order and har-
mony, which is implanted in every mind."

The result of his interesting inquiry is the final
conclusion, that " heat is a mode of motion," — a
conclusion anticipated by Bacon more than two
hundred and fifty years ago; who said, that "all
knowledge of heat is limited to ideas of a peculiar
mode of motion, produced by some unexplained
cause." Others have considered the reciprocal
divergency of particles by absorption of heat (de-
noted expansion), to be somewhat analogous to
the swelling of a sponge by the absorption of
water.

As to what moves, or is put in motion, or is the
cause of the motion which develops the phenom-
enon of heat, Mr. Tyndall gives no solution : he
leaves it, as Bacon left it, an " unexplained cause."

To illustrate how heat is produced by motion,
Mr. Tyndall and other chemists refer to the mo-
tion of a hammer in pounding a piece of lead, or
iron on an anvil ; whereby the metal is speedily
rendered hot.

Mr. Tyndall affirms : —

" The dynamic power of heat is due to what is called
chemical affinity, which is a pure attraction of the same
mechanical quality as gravity ; causing every oxygen
atom, in the process of the combustion of a diamond in
oxygen gas, to strike against its surface, and to transfer
its motion, by collision, into the mode of motion we call
heat.

8o "IDEAS VERY UNSETTLED.

" The ideas of the best-informed philosophers are as
yet very unsettled as regards the exact nature of heat.
The great starting-point is to regard heat as motion of
some kind; leaving its more precise character to be
dealt with by other investigators."

The sensation of heat, produced by its action
on the nerves of feeling, he explains in the follow-
ing words : —

" The impression of heat which one receives on enter-
ing the hot room of a Turkish bath, is caused by the
atomic cannonade which is there maintained Against
the surface of the body."1

He further specifies : —

" We are to figure a gaseous body as one whose par-
ticles are flying in straight lines through space ; imping-
ing, like little projectiles, upon each other, and striking
against the boundaries of the space which they occupy.
... So likewise in regard to forming steam : the heat is
consumed in pulling asunder the liquid particles of water,
and in conferring upon them a still greater amount of
potential energy. . . . When the heat is withdrawn, the
vapor condenses, and the particles again clash together
with a dynamic energy equal to that which was employed
to separate them. The heat then reappears. . . .

" The disappearance of heat, which enters bodies
while changing from solids to liquids, and from liquids
to aeriform states, is ascribed to internal work done
among the molecules, — which is latent heat ; the exter-
nal work being denoted sensible heat. . . .

" The percussion of the earth against the central orb
of the solar system would produce an extent of heat
equal to that producible by the combustion of fourteen

1 Heat considered as a Mode of Motion, lecture iii.

"A WARFARE OF MOLECULES." 8 1

globes of carbon, each equal in magnitude to the globe
of the earth."

Mr. Balfour Stewart very graphically describes
the clashing of molecules by chemical affinity, in a
comparison with a conflict between soldiers on a
battle-field ; where many are wounded, and some
" run away, and live to fight another day : " —

" There is a warfare going on in the clashing together
of the molecules, which, although continually maimed,
yet always recover themselves ; until perhaps some effec-
tive blow is struck, which dissevers them from com-
pound substances."

Mr. Tyndall explains the extent of heat de-
veloped by the clashing of molecules in the pro-
cess of combustion of one pound of hydrogen
with eight pounds of oxygen, in the formation of
water, as follows : —

" We find that the concussion of one pound of hydro-
gen with eight pounds of oxygen is equal in mechanical
value to the raising of forty-seven million pounds one
foot high. I think I did not overrate matters when I
previously said that the force of gravity, as exerted near
the earth, is almost a vanishing quantity, in comparison
with the molecular forces developed. Bear in mind, too,
the distances which separate the molecules before com-
bination ; distances so small, as to be utterly immeasu-
rable. Still, it is in passing over these minute distances
that the molecules acquire a velocity sufficient to cause
them to clash together with this tremendous energy. . . .

" After this combination of the molecules of one
pound of hydrogen with eight pounds of oxygen, form-
irig nine pounds of water in the state of steam of 212°,

6

82 " WILD STONE-AVALANCHES."

the particles of steam next fall together by condensation
into liquid water. The mechanical value of this second
act is calculated by multiplying the nine pounds of steam
by 966° of latent heat = 8,694 pounds of water heated i°
of Fah't ; which, reduced to foot-pounds by multiplying
by 772 (Joule's standard), we have 6,711,768 foot-pounds
as the mechanical value of the mere act of conden-
sation. . . .

" The next great fall of our nine pounds of water is
from the state of a liquid to that of solid ice, the mechan-
ical standard value of which act is equal to nine hundred
and ninety-three thousand five hundred and sixty-four
foot-pounds. . . .

" Thus our nine pounds of water, in its original forma-
tion and progress into ice, falls down three great preci-
pices, which may be estimated by the fall of a ton weight
down the first precipice twenty-two thousand three hun-
dred and twenty feet high ; the second, by the fall of a
ton down a precipice twenty-nine hundred feet high ;
and the third fall, by the descent of a ton down a preci-
pice four hundred and ninety-six feet high. . . .

" The number of foot-pounds of mechanical force de-
veloped by the three successive clashings of the one
pound of molecules of hydrogen, and eight pounds of
molecules of oxygen, is thus estimated by the fall of a
ton nearly five miles ; and is equivalent to over fifteen
hundred horse-power."

Overwhelmed by such truly astonishing and
" tremendous " mechanical results, the professor
finally gives utterance to his astonishment in the
following graphic words : —

" I have seen the wild stone-avalanches of the Alps,
which thunder down the precipices with a vehemence
almost sufficient to stun the observer. I have also seen

TABLE OF FAVRE AND SILBERMANN. 83

snow-flakes descending so softly as not to break their
fragile spangles. Yet to produce from aeriform gases a
quantity of that tender material, which a child might lift,
demands an exertion of energy competent to gather up
the shattered blocks of the largest stone-avalanches I
have ever seen, and project them to twice the height
from which they fell." l

Favre and Silbermann have applied the British
thermal unit (seven hundred and seventy -two
foot-pounds), to measure the quantity of heat im-
parted to bodies to change their component par-
ticles from solid to liquid states, and from liquid
to aeriform states, in carrying out the dynamic
theory of heat as " a mode of motion." They give
the following calculation of the extent of action
developed by " the clashing of one pound of mole-
cules of hydrogen with eight pounds of molecules
of oxygen, in the process of combustion, producing
nine pounds of water."

DYNAMIC ACTION OF MOLECULES.

Combustible.

Lbs. of Oxygen.

Lbs. of Atmos-
pheric Air
required for
combustion.

Total Heat
British Units
of 772 Ibs. ea.

Evaporative
Power from

212°.

Units.

Ibs. of Water.

i Ib. Hydrogen Gas

+ 8 = 9lbs.Water.

36 Ibs.

62.032

64-2

i Ib. of Carbon . . .

f + 2.67 = 3-67 )
( Carb. Acid Gas. j

12 „

14.500

15-0

i Ib. Coal Gas ...

+ 3.43 = 4.43 „

*5 43 „

2i,344

22 I

Another chemist explains the clashings and en-
counters of molecules in the following words : —

1 Heat considered as a Mode of Motion, Lecture V. By John Tyn-
dall, F. R. S.

84 PROF. COOKE AND DR. CARPENTER.

" When two molecules come within a certain distance
of each other, a mutual action takes place between them ;
which may be compared to the encounter of two billiard-
balls."

In a recent paper, Professor J. P. Cooke ex-
plains the theory of molecular vibrations in the
following words : —

%

" Conceive what a molecular storm must be raging
about us, and how it must beat against our bodies, and
every other exposed surface. The molecules of our
atmosphere move on an average nearly four times slower
than those of hydrogen under the same conditions ; but
as they weigh about fourteen and a half times more than
the hydrogen molecules, they strike with equal energy.
Do not think the effect of the blows insignificant, be-
cause the molecular projectiles are so small ; for they
make up by their number for their small size. Consider,
for example, that a cubic yard of air contains over two
pounds of molecules, which are vibrating with an aver-
age velocity of sixteen hundred feet a second, equivalent
to that of a cannon-ball of equal weight rushing at the
same tremendous rate. If the movements of the mole-
cules were all turned to one direction, instead of opposite
vibratory directions, even the massy pyramids could not
withstand this destructive violence. In the midst of
this molecular tornado, our preservation depends on the
beating of the storm in opposite directions ; and so pre-
cisely counteracting, that we are wholly unconscious of
the tumult of molecular forces."

These molecular vibrations are discovered by
the microscope continually taking place to such an
extent, that Dr. Carpenter cautions microscopists
not to mistake them for vital forces. The vibra-

CONTINUAL VIBRATION OF MOLECULES. 85

tions of molecules are described as being " an in-
cessant quivering, with so quick a motion as to
render it difficult to follow out the course of any
one single particle, while changing its' direction
fifteen or twenty times a second."

Professor Jevons describes these movements
as " the leaping of atoms, while freely movable
as liquids."

The preceding statements are presented to show
the fact of the continual and rapid vibration of the
molecules of terrestrial matter, which we have as-
cribed to the momentum of the planets.

Every molecule, even of solid bodies, being sur-
rounded by the electric ether, has a certain scope
and extent of vibration, and continually trembles
from the original impress of the Almighty Power,
primarily imparted to the vast orbs of the solar
system.

Each molecule, while subjected on all sides to
equal and oppositely directed vibrations, is held
in an unstable, electrostatic condition. It is ever
ready to yield to the vibrations against one side,
when the counterbalancing vibrations are diverted
from the opposite side.

When the vibratory action predominates against
one side, a resultant movement is so instantane-
ously produced as to resemble inherent self-
motive power in the molecules.

86 VIBRATIONS MODIFIED BY CURRENTS.

DIFFUSION OF THE MOMENTUM OF THE SOLAR SYS-
TEM BY ELECTRIC CURRENTS AND VIBRATIONS.

The vibrations diffused through the universal
electric ether by the orbital revolutions of the
planets, are modified by the currents excited by
their axial rotation.

The various movements of matter on the earth's
surface are produced by modification, by diffu-
sion, and change of direction, of this grand motive-
power. The planets, in rushing through the elec-
tric ether, produce vibrations that are continually
impinging against the surfaces of all molecules and
bodies surrounded and permeated by the ether.
These vibrations, when intervening between two
molecules or bodies, would force them asunder
were they not counterbalanced by vibrations im-
pinging against their outer sides. On bringing
together two molecules, or bodies, they partially
screen one another from the force of the vibra-
tions around them, — as the inner shores of two
adjacent islands in the ocean are screened, leaving
their outer sides subject to undiminished impulses
from the waves. A change of direction in the un-
dulations of the water may be effected by a cur-
rent of wind which drives 'the waves off shore, or,
blowing parallel with the shore, neutralizes their
action upon it.

That the vibrations of water and atmospheric
and electric ethers can be neutralized, admits of

RESULTANT OF CURRENTS AND VIBRATIONS. 87

demonstration. Hold vertically two parallel sheets
of paper, while blowing a current of air from the
mouth between them. The current changes a
part of the atmospheric vibrations at right angles
with the inner surfaces of the sheets of paper to a
corresponding current parallel with their adjacent
surfaces, and thus partially neutralizes their action.
The vibrations against the outer sides of the sheets
of paper, relieved of counteracting force, predom-
inate, and propel the two sheets toward each other ;
producing a resultant movement by the combined
action of the vibrations without, and a current be-
tween them.

A similar resultant movement of two bodies
takes place, by converting the vibrations of the
electric ether between their adjacent sides into
currents, as described in Chapter XII.; whereby
resultant movements of two parallel conducting
wires are produced reciprocally toward each other,
at right angles to the direction of the currents
through them, — exhibiting the phenomenon of
Attraction.

When two surfaces are thoroughly in contact, as
of glutinous, or homogeneous bodies, the vibrations
and currents between their inner surfaces cease,
leaving the vibrations against their outer surfaces
to predominate ; holding them together, and pro-
ducing the phenomena of Adhesion and Cohesion.

The orbital revolutions of the planets transmit
vibrations on a sublime scale through the electric

88 ROTATION OF PLANETS EXCITES CURRENTS.

ether, which pervades infinite space. The axial ro-
tations produce continuous electric currents about
every planet and molecule ; and, modified and com-
bined, these produce all the phenomena of molec-
ular movements and of Universal Gravitation.

As before stated, the vibrations of the electric
ether, excited by all the stellar suns, are trans-
mitted through the earth's atmosphere sufficiently
to act on the retina of the eye as starlight, though
too feeble to act on the nerves of feeling as heat,
or on the tympanum of the ear as sound.

The Telephone transmits synchronous vibra-
tions through the electric and atmospheric ethers.
The vibrations of the air, excited by the human
voice, act on the metallic disc of the Phonograph,
causing a pointed wire to indent a sheet of tin-foil.
The same pointed wire may be made to act as a
pawl and rotate a ratchet wheel, which will turn a
little balance wheel with surprising rapidity ; as
stated by Mr. Edison.

A piston, like the disc of a phonograph, is
acted upon by the atmospheric vibrations (excited
by the planetary force transmitted through the all-
pervading ether), with a force not only sufficient
to indent tin-foil, but equivalent to a continuous
pressure of fifteen pounds on each square inch
on both sides of the piston; which counterbal-
ance each other, and produce no movement, until
the vibrations, impinging against one side of the
piston, are neutralized, or counteracted.

CURRENTS COUNTERACT VIBRATIONS.

Then the continuous vibrations of the air
against the one side of the piston predominate,
and, being relieved from the action of an equal
force on the other side, produce a resultant move-
ment of the piston. Instead of the complex ap-
paratus of an air-pump for producing a vacuum,
a simple plan is employed in the mechanics of
Nature, by merely changing the vibrations im-
pinging directly against the surface of a body
to another direction parallel with the surface.

Jet-pumps constructed on this peculiar principle
are now used instead of air-pumps, to produce a
vacuum for raising water by atmospheric pressure.
A swift current of air, of steam, or of water, in
a jet from the pipe A, will convert the atmospheric
vibrations into a rectilinear current through the
pipe c ; as represented in Fig. 16.

The atmospheric vibrations in the pipe B, im-
mersed in water, are changed from a vertical di-
rection against the
surface of the water
at the lower end of
the pipe B, to a hor-
izontal direction in
the pipe c, parallel
with the surface of
the water. By thus
relieving the water
in the lower end of
the pipe B from ver- fif. 16.

QO CURRENTS PRODUCE A VACUUM.

tical atmospheric vibrations, while their action on
the surface of the surrounding water continues
undiminished, the external vibrations predominate,
forcing the water to ascend in the perpendicular
pipe B, and to flow in a continuous stream from
the end of the pipe c.

A similar arrangement, called " Gifford's
Injector," is now commonly used for feeding
steam-boilers as a convenient substitute for a
forcing pump.1

A beautiful illustration of the impinging of
vibrations against the sides of bodies is seen in
placing a light ball or globe in contact with the
ascending current of a jet oTeau. The ball rises
with the current and clings to it ; being propelled
up as often as it tends to fall. The ascending
stream converts the atmospheric vibrations against
the side of the ball next the stream into paral-
lel currents ; whereby the continuous vibrations
against the outer side of the ball predominate,
and produce a resultant movement of the ball
toward the centre of the stream.

As with terrestrial so with celestial magnetic
currents ; the stronger will always overpower the

1 A simple plan of producing an atmospheric vacuum, as a substitute
for an air-pump, is also used on railroads for operating brakes to check
the speed of locomotives. The blast of a jet of steam over the end of a
pipe connected with a cylinder having two movable pistons, arranged as
air-tight heads, forms a vacuum in the cylinder, that allows the external
vibrations to press simultaneously against both of the movable pistons,
producing their resultant movement toward the middle of the exhausted
cylinder. Rods attached to each of the two piston-heads then draw in the
friction brakes against the rims of the wheels, and check their speed.

SUN INDUCES TERRESTRIAL CURRENTS. 9 1

weaker, causing the latter to conform in direction
about their nearest sides.

According to this law, as the earth turns on its
axis from west to east, and the terrestrial currents
move from east to west, we may draw the inference
that these terrestrial currents are overpowered by
the huge sun-magnet and made to revolve in the
same direction as the solar currents, conforming
in direction about their nearest sides. The solar
currents must therefore move in the same direction
in which the sun rotates on its axis, and determine
the direction of the axial currents and electro-
magnetic polarity of the planets, independently of
the direction of their several rotations.

By changing the position of a bar of iron from
a horizontal to an oblique direction, corresponding
to the dip of a dipping needle, the bar is instan-
taneously rendered an electro-magnet by the ter-
restrial currents.

This bar-magnet will induce corresponding
currents in small pieces of iron, as nails and
screws, which are also attracted reciprocally to-
ward each other.

The facility with which electric currents change
their direction is shown in the artificial current
changer, by which they are reversed several
thousand times a minute.

Vibrations directed obliquely, as well as those
directed vertically, against molecules and bodies,
produce resultant movements at right angles to
their surfaces at the point of impact.

92 VIBRATIONS CAUSE RECTANGULAR MOTION.

A similar resultant movement of molecules and
bodies at right angles to the surface impinged
upon, is illustrated by the parallelogram of forces
in the annexed diagram. Elastic particles moving

obliquely at the angle of
incidence, A, impinge
upon the surface of B, and
rebound at the angle of
reflection, c. The result-
ant movement will be in the direction D B, at right
angles to the surface at the point of impact ; the
angle of incidence being equal to the angle of
reflection, and in an opposite direction.

ATTRACTION AND REPULSION.

93

CHAPTER XII.

ELECTRIC ATTRACTION AND REPULSION (SO CALLED)
ARE RESULTANT MOVEMENTS.

FT is found experimentally that electric currents
transmitted through electrodes in similar di-
rections, produce reciprocal movements toward
each other ; and from each other, when trans-
mitted in opposite directions.

Fig. 1 8 represents two parallel conducting wires,
A B, supported on the
prongs c D E F, and
counterpoised by the
weights b b; so as to
swing toward and from
each other freely as pen-
dulums. Arrangements
of connecting wires are
made to transmit cur-
rents through them at
pleasure, in similar and
in opposite directions.,
The currents moving Fig. is.

along the adjacent wires in similar directions, by a
process of induction, change the vibrations between

94 MATTER RECEIVES AND TRANSFERS IMPULSES.

them into conforming currents parallel with their
surfaces ; thereby partially neutralizing the vibra-
tions against the nearest sides of the wires. The
vibrations impinging against their outer sides
then predominate, and propel the two wires to-
ward each other, — producing the phenomenon
of Attraction.

When the currents move in opposite directions
along the adjacent sides of electrodes, their inter-
ference intensifies the vibrations between them ;
which then predominate over the vibrations im-
pinging against their outer sides, and propel the
two wires from each other, — producing the phe-
nomenon of Repulsion.

Attraction and Repulsion, however diverse the
movements may appear, are alike the resultants
of joint forces, — which act in similar or dissimilar
directions, — and not of a single impulse acting
in one direction.

That one body can intervene and screen
another from the rectilinear transmission of vi-
brations, is manifest by the obstruction of sound
and light incident to such intervention, and by
the production of dull sounds and shadows, si-
lence and darkness.

The intervention of the moon screens a portion
of the earth from the vibrations of light during an
eclipse of the sun.

It is the peculiar function of all matter passively
to receive and transfer impulses ; as is accom-

MOVEMENTS OF COMPASS NEEDLES.

95

plished by the propelled globes of rotating planets ;
which, like propelled rifle-balls, are sped on their
way, transmitting impulses imparted to them, and
executing the will of a calculating intelligence.

The vast universe was propelled into space
by an all-wise and all-powerful Maker; and that
propulsive action, which thrills every world and
molecule, will cease only by the exercise of that
Maker's will.

The governing principle of the material universe
is Propulsion rather than Attraction.

It now remains to investigate the reciprocal
movements of bodies, produced by transverse
electric currents.

How do the currents circulating from east to
west about the earth produce the horizontal
movements of compass needles, turning them
around on their pivots ? By experimental inves-
tigation with conducting wires arranged near one

A 5

8 7 6

Fig. 19

another, in various relative directions, it has been
ascertained that bodies serving as electrodes are
propelled in directions rectangular to the lines of
the currents, as represented in Fig. 19.

96 ACTION AND REACTION OF ELECTRODES.

An extended electric current is represented by
p n. Sections of terminated currents on each
side of / n, and crossing at various angles, are
denoted by the arrows numbered from i to 8.
The several resultant movements are designated
by the short arrows.

Much ingenuity is requisite to render bodies
freely movable while connected with electric ap-
paratus.1

To exhibit the reciprocal action and reaction
between bodies serving as electrodes, and trans-
mitting currents in various relative directions,

an eminent experi-
•*•••• menter contrived

W

- »- a light wire frame,

suspended on pivots
p and N (Fig. 20),
resting in cups con-
taining mercury to
.n insure conduction.
Fig. 20. The lower side of

the frame E w, when arranged parallel with the
conducting wire / n, transmitting currents in the
same direction beneath it, is in its most stable
position of reciprocal attraction. To whatever
position the wire/ n may be turned horizontally,
the under side of the frame will follow it, and
retain the same relative direction.

1 For an account of various original experiments in Electro-dynam-
ics, reference may be had to the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, vol.
xv., p. 93.

NATURAL ELECTRIC CURRENTS. 97

The terrestrial electric currents from east to
west about the earth are represented by the cur-
rent / n, and will cause the wire frame, while
transmitting a current, to turn in a conformable
direction east and west, and to manifest all the
characteristic properties of a compass needle, with
a north and south polarity.

Considering the extended conducting wire/ »,
in Fig. 19, to represent the direction of the terres-
trial currents from east to west, and the diago-
nally directed currents 2 3 4, 6 7 8, the directions
of currents approaching to and receding from the
horizontal terrestrial current, the short lateral
arrows would designate the resultant movements,
— all at right angles to the linear direction of the
short wires, according to principles previously
explained. In Fig. 20, the vertical descent of the
current at E, toward / n, develops the resultant
movement denoted by the short lateral arrow No. 3
in Fig. 19, which tends to swing the end of the
frame E horizontally around ; while the ascent of
the current, at w, represents the relative direction
corresponding with No. 7 in Fig. 19. The result-
ant movement indicated by the short, dotted, lat-
eral arrows, Nos. 3-7, turn it to correspond in
direction with the current p n.

To illustrate the identity of the reciprocal
action between electric currents circulating around
conducting wires, and the natural currents circu-
lating about loadstones, and all other magnetSi

98 DE LA RIVE'S RINGS.

De la Rive contrived to render conducting wires
freely movable, setting them afloat on pieces of

cork, as represented
in Fig. 21. To ex-
cite currents through
the floating wires A B
a, he affixed to their
lower ends zinc plates
opposite to copper
Fis% 2!- plates, and immersed

them in acid in a basin. They then became
electro-magnets. The directions of the currents
are denoted by the arrow heads.

The rings, A B, about which the currents move
in similar directions, sail toward each other;
while the ring a, which transmits the current in
an opposite direction to that about B, is repelled.
It gradually turns around, so that the sides about
which the currents move in similar directions face
each other ; then they are propelled together.

These pieces of conducting wire, while serving
to transmit electric currents, manifest all the
characteristic properties of magnets similarly set
afloat on pieces of cork by the ancient philoso-
phers, as previously described.

Although a compass needle points its poles, or
ends, north and south, apparently crosswise of the
terrestria.1 currents from east to west, yet it is to
be remembered that the electro-magnetic currents
circulate about the axis of a magnet, and not

PROFESSOR BARLOWS EXPERIMENT. 99

longitudinally; so that the terrestrial currents
from east to west, and the currents about the
under side of every compass needle, are finally
brought to move in similar directions.

The phenomenon of terrestrial magnetism is
admirably illustrated by Professor Barlow's in-
vention of winding numerous circuits of insulated

Fig. 22.

conducting wire about a little globe, with a com-
pass needle mounted on top of it, as shown in
Fig. 22. By employing intense battery currents
from a voltaic apparatus, to overpower the ter-
restrial currents, all the phenomena of terrestrial
magnetism are exhibited.

Until the connection of the conducting wire is
made with the voltaic battery, the compass needle
placed on top of the artificial globe takes its usual
north and south direction, pointing to the poles of
the earth ; but as soon as the overpowering battery
current is transmitted through the conducting
wire wound in numerous spiral coils about the
little globe, the compass needle turns and points

ioo AMPERE'S FLOATING HELIX COIL.

steadily to the N and s poles of the artificial globe ;
and faithfully continues to point to them in
whatever direction it may be turned.

To increase the intensity of the electric currents,
Ampere multiplied the number of circuits, by

winding the conducting
wire in a spiral; Fig. 23.
This simple apparatus
develops all the charac-
teristic functions of a
magnetic needle mount-
23. ed on a pivot. One par-

ticular end always turns toward the north pole
of the earth, and when disturbed returns to that
direction. This coil serves to represent the trans-
verse position of the magnetic needle mounted on
the little globe; w represents the cross-section
or end of a conducting wire transmitting a current
in a direction from east to west, corresponding
with the direction of the terrestrial currents. The
battery current through w, being more immediately
powerful than the terrestrial electric current, in
whatever direction the conducting wire w may be
turned in relation to the cardinal points, the float-
ing coil will turn and become arranged with its
underside currents moving in the same direction as
the current in w ; and will always remain stationary
in a position crosswise to the current through w.

If the wire w be held above the spiral coil,
where the circling current is in an opposite direc-

MOVEMENTS OF DIPPING NEEDLES.

101-

tion, the coil is turned around so as to bring the cur-
rent on the upper side in the same direction, and
the ends or poles of the spiral coil are reversed.

The mathematical precision with which the
movements of electrodes conform to the rule
of " reciprocal at-
traction between
similarly direct-
ed currents," is
seen in the pecu-
liar movements of s* x
dipping needles
in arranging their
positions in rela-
tion to the circu-
lation of the ter- Fig. 24.
restrial electric currents, as exhibited in Fig. 24.

The direction of the currents from east to west
about the earth is represented by the arrows, and
also the direction of the currents about the compass
needles ABC; to which spherical outlines are
added, to show the directions of the electro-mag-
netic currents about each of them when transferred
from the earth's equator, at A, toward the pole, at
B and at c. The inclination of the compass
needle, at B, shows the actual movement of a dip-
ping needle ; and the currents about B, and about
the earth in that latitude, as will be manifest on
inspection, are brought to move in similar direc-
tions by the " dip " of the needle. The needle, at c,

102

POSITIONS OF DIPPING NEEDLES.

Fig. 25.

is turned entirely around. The several relative

positions of the dipping
needle are designated in
Fig. 25 by the arrows, ar-
ranged on different parts
of the earth's surface.

That the phenomenon
of magnetism is excited
by terrestrial electric
currents, is verified by
the following experi-
ments. If a bar of iron be held in a horizontal
east and west position, in the line of movement
of the terrestrial currents, as represented at B A
in Fig. 26, and a magnetic needle be brought near

either end of
the bar, an
equal recipro-
cal attraction
takes place be-
tween them.
On lifting the
end A to a
sloping posi-
tion, as repre-
sented by c D, in a line directed toward the north
pole of the earth, the terrestrial currents will in-
duce the circulation of currents about the bar of
iron, c D, and convert it into an electro-magnet ;
with the lower end, c, having the same polarity

Fig. 26.

ACTION OF TERRESTRIAL CURRENTS. IO3

as the end of the needle N. Consequently, as
the N poles of magnets reciprocally repel each
other, the needle is swung around to the position
denoted by the dotted needle N s.

In proportion as the end D is lowered to its
previous horizontal position A B, in an east and
west direction, the magnetic needle swings back,
and is attracted again by either end of the bar,
indifferently.

This experiment shows not only the action of
the electric currents circulating about the earth,
but also the sensitiveness of all bodies and mole-
cules of matter to terrestrial electro-magnetic
excitation, even by slight changes of relative po-
sition in regard to one another, while serving as
electrodes. An iron fire-poker, if it happens to
remain in the inclined position of a dipping needle,
becomes magnetically excited by the terrestrial
currents. The large vertical steel-drills used in
machine-shops are rendered so powerfully mag-
netic, that iron chips cling to them after the drill
has been used.

IO4 POLARIZATION I HOW SUSTAINED.

CHAPTER XIII.

THE CONTINUOUS CIRCULATION OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS
ABOUT MAGNETS AND MOLECULES SUSTAINS THEIR
POLARIZATION.

TT may seem incredible that electric currents,
whereby molecular and magnetic forces are
sustained, can circulate continually about molecules
and magnets ; but this fact is verified experimen-
tally, and the direction of the circulation may be
reversed several thousand times in a minute, with
a corresponding reversal of their poles. By
placing a common steel y^^^XXX^OOOTv
sewing-needle within a ~T r [)(JOO(/0000)^
spiral coil of wire, as in /^^^^^ ^/
Fig. 2 7, the slightest trans- Fig, 27.

mission of electric action through the coil puts in
motion a corresponding circulation of currents
about the steel needle, and renders it permanently
magnetic. That particular end of the needle,
about which the circuit of the current is in the
direction shown at s, being similar to that of the
hands of a watch about a dial-plate, is found to
manifest the peculiar properties of the south pole
of a magnet. Where the current comes out at

CONSTRUCTION OF ELECTRO-MAGNETS. 105

the other end of the spiral coil, about which the
same current appears to circulate in an opposite
direction to the movements of the hands of a watch,
the properties of the north pole are excited. But
these apparent directions depend on the position
of the observer facing one, or the other, end of the
spiral coil. It is a remarkable fact, that the pres-
ence of about one per cent of molecules of car-
bon in iron (constituting steel], imparts to it the
property of retaining the continuous circulation
of electric currents, and renders the compound
substance of steel permanently magnetic. The
wonderful facility with which electric currents
are excited about a steel needle, has rendered this
simple contrivance a very sensitive test of electric
excitation. By connecting the ends of the con-
ducting wire with the metallic roof of a large
building in Washington, Dr. Page found that a
flash of lightning, twenty miles distant, rendered
the needle permanently magnetic. Knives and
steel implements are often rendered magnets in
houses struck by lightning ; and even the direction
of the currents can be ascertained by examining
which end of the steel has the properties of a
south pole : see Fig. 26.

If a piece of iron is substituted for a steel needle,
it is electro-magnetic only while the current cir-
culates around the coil. The conversion of pieces
of iron into powerful electro-magnets is effected
by placing them within spiral coils of insulated .

106 TRANSIENT ELECTRO-MAGNETIC ACTION.

conducting- wires, as in Fig. 28. At the instant
of stopping and of renewing the battery circuit
around the piece of iron inserted in the coil, an

Fig, 2

electric spark is seen to pass between the iron and
adjacent knob, w, showing the disturbance of the
electric ether pervading the particles of iron, and
thus developing the peculiar electric excitation,
denoted " magneto-electricity."

These reciprocal movements of bodies toward
each other, and their union while transmitting
currents in similar directions, result from the
modification of the vibratory impulses against
the adjacent and opposite sides of approximated
bodies ; as previously explained. For this special
reason, the movements developed by electric
currents, it is to be remembered, are not in the
direction of the currents passing over electrodes,
but at right angles to them ; as shown in Fig. 19,
where the actual movements are pointed out by

'•"V

LATERAL MOVEMENTS PRODUCED. 107

the lateral arrows on the sides of the conducting,
wires, 234.

These lateral movements imparted to conducting
wires by the vibrations impinging against their
sides, produce rotations of electrodes when sup-
ported on an axis; as in Fig. 29, where a conducting
wire is shown at No.
3, as connected with
a pivot c, and free to S*\,T

turn around circular- f

ly to the several po-
sitions indicated by /
the dotted lines i v
2 4, up to 8, with " ~ 3~~
another conducting- Fis' 29'
wire, A B, beneath ; which may be considered as rep-
resenting the horizontal terrestrial current from
east to west. The small lateral arrows show the
resultant rectangular movement of the wire 3, in
each of its eight positions relative to A B ; thus the
wire c D 3 will be kept revolving about the pivot c.

To verify the theory that the divergence of
electric currents from a central point at right
angles to another current (Fig. 29), will produce a
revolving motion of the electrode, or conducting
body, Faraday placed a watch-crystal filled with
mercury within a brass cup and in contact with
its rim, which was amalgamated and connected
with the screw-cups ; this brass cup was environed
by conducting-wires, and an electric circuit ar-

108 WHIRLING MOVEMENTS PRODUCED.

ranged to descend vertically to the centre of the

mercury. On transmitting
a voltaic current in this
circuit of screw-cups and
wire to the centre of the
Ft. y,.- glass, a whirl of the mer-

cury is caused by the diverging currents from
the centre, with a centrifugal force that caused its
subsidence beneath the point of the wire, purposely
placed a little below the surface of the mercury.
The currents circulated first about the coil sur-
rounding the mercury, ascended, and then de-
scended to the centre of the mercury, radiating
thence as from the centre c ; Fig. 29. The alter-
nate breaking of the connection of the circuit by
the centrifugal subsidence of the mercury at the
centre of the whirl, and the restoration of the
level consequent on the stoppage of the current,
cause a repetition of this operation intermittently,
as often as the current is restored.

By reversing the direction of the current, the
direction of the whirl is reversed.

The transmission of vertical electric currents
to and fro, between the clouds and the horizontal
currents from east to west about the earth, excites
a revolving motion of the air similar to that of the
mercury, and produces whirlwinds or tornadoes;
which are always attended with electric discharges.
The breeze, or aura, issuing from the point of a
wire on the excited conductor of an electric

TORNADOES PRODUCED BY ELECTRICITY. 109

machine, shows that the air is put in motion by
electric currents.

The uplifting of water by a passing tornado is
called a " water-spout." This effect is illustrated
by holding the finger over a vessel of water placed
on the excited conductor of an electric machine.
The water will rise in spray to meet the finger.

The writer had once an opportunity of witness-
ing, in fearful proximity, the phenomena accompa-
nying the passage of a tornado. An account of
it was given in a letter to Dr. Robert Hare, and
was by him published in the " Transactions " of the
American Philosophical Society, in 1838. This
tornado passed over the south part of the city of
Providence, and across Narragansett Bay. The
central whirl proceeded from west to east through
a calm atmosphere, overturning trees and build-
ings in its path of about one hundred yards in
width. Roofs were uplifted, and the fragments
were scattered through the air like missiles. To
escape them the writer fled to an open field, while
the whirling materials moved on with terrific
force and an appalling roar of crashing sounds.

In passing over the water the inverted cone of
dark mist swerved about like a huge trunk of an
elephant, while the surface of the water beneath it
was upheaved tumultuously. The adjacent waters
foamed like a boiling caldron. At times the dark
misty cone of spray was rendered brilliant with
gleams of lightning, followed by a momentary lull.

no

BODIES REVOLVED BY HEAT.

This spectacle inspired awe, commingled with
admiration of the sublime display of Omnipotent
Power, as graphically described by the Psalmist :
" He bowed the heavens and came down. Dark-
ness was under His feet, and He moved on the
wings of the wind. He made darkness His secret
place, and the pavilion around about Him was
dark waters and thick clouds of the sky."

The intense electric excitation transmitted
through the vortex of a tornado at Wallingford,
Connecticut, is described in a recent account as
follows : " In some mysterious manner, the hay
from a barn, taken up into the air, was set on fire,
and came down all blazing upon the ground."

In the experiment made with the whirling mer-
cury, the direction of the whirl depends on the
ascending or descending direction of the electric
current ; and probably the same law governs the
direction of a whirling tornado.

Further to illustrate the
rotation of a freely movable
conducting wire, or other
electrode, produced by a cur-
rent vertical to the horizontal
terrestrial currents, the slight
excitation of a thermo-elec-
tric current may be used ; as
in Fig. 31, which represents

an arched wire frame, w A E,

^^

Flf' 3I' supported on a pivot at A,

HEAT EXCITES ELECTRIC CURRENTS. Ill

and capable of readily turning around it. A cir-
cuit is formed by a cross-piece, w E, made of some
less freely conducting metal than the arching
piece of wire, for the purpose of determining the
direction of the circulating thermo-electric current
excited by the heat of the flame applied at the
joint w. Were equally conducting metals used,
the vibratory excitation of heat would be extended
by molecular vibration of the wire (denoted " con-
duction of heat"), instead of circulating electric
currents. The excitation from the flame of the
lamp first ascends the readily conducting side of
the arched frame, and descends on the other side,
completing the circuit through the less readily
conducting metal. The ascending current from
w is vertical, and at right angles to the horizontal
terrestrial currents ; and produces a movement of
the frame at right angles to the plane of the
frame (as indicated by the direction of the small
arrow on the conducting-wire No. 7, Fig. 29).
The vertical descending current on the other
side of the frame corresponds with that of the
conducting-wire No. 3 ; and produces a move-
ment in an opposite lateral direction, as denoted
by the small arrow on c D. Both combine to
turn the frame horizontally on its pivot. When
the side E comes over the flame, the heat reverses
the current ; and these alternate reversals keep the
frame continually turning. A similar revolving
motion of a little frame is described by Professor

112 LIGHT EXCITES ELECTRIC CURRENTS.

Crookes, as produced by the action of the light
and heat of a lamp, as well as by that of sun-
shine.

" Four discs, made of light pith, of the size of
a sixpence, balanced on the ends of two straws,
are adjusted to revolve horizontally on a pivot.
The sides of the pith-discs are inclined downwards.
They have one side blackened by plumbago, or
lamp-black, and the other side white." The Profes-
sor says : " When this apparatus is placed under a
bell-glass in a vacuum, it will revolve by the action
of sunlight or of a lamp." There appears to be
an analogy between the revolutions of this frame
and those produced by the lamp in the experiment
described. The difference of colors of the discs,
black and white, corresponds with the difference of
conducting powers of the metals employed in the
thermo-electric apparatus ; and their sides sloping
downward correspond with the vertical sides of
the wire frame. Then, again, the transmission of
the vibrations of the all-pervading electric ether is
more obvious beneath an exhausted bell-glass, than
in the open air; as illustrated by Fig. i, page 23.*

To determine the different action of terrestrial
currents on the vibrations of the electric ether

1 In a treatise on "Light as a Motive Power," p. 55, by R. H.
Armit, R. N., the following explanation is given : " Light has been de-
monstrated to be both a repulsive and attractive force. The resultant
of these forces, as regards the earth, would therefore be,y?;-j/, to hold the
earth grasped within the rays of light, as within a pair of tongs. And,
secondly, these tongs being carried round by the sun in his rotary motion,
an orbital motion is given to the earth, and to all celestial bodies receiv-
ing solar light."

VERTICAL CURRENTS TURN NEEDLES.

impinging against the vertical sides of compass-
needles, and producing rotation, the writer caused
a steel needle to be made, eight inches long, with
a width of three-fourths of an inch, and thickness
of one thirty-second of an inch, balanced on the
point of a sewing-needle, to be mounted either
flatwise or edgewise, at pleasure, as represented in
Fig. 32. It was an-
ticipated that, in ex-
tending the area of
the vertical currents
on the sides of the
needle, a more pow-
erful electro-mechan-
ical action might be
developed, producing
greater oscillations of
the needle. To test this supposition, the magnet
was placed flatwise, with the N pole pointing
south, and then left free to yield to the action of
the terrestrial currents : the number of oscillations
was repeatedly counted, and found to be twenty-
one in 2.75 minutes, before the magnet came to a
state of rest. With the edgewise mounting, it
made twenty-seven oscillations, continuing 3.31
minutes ; being twenty-nine per cent, more in
number, and continuing twenty per cent, longer
in time, notwithstanding the greater resistance of
the air from the broad side of the magnet.

Fig. 32.

114 ARTIFICIAL CURRENT-CHANGER.

• .

EFFECT OF CHANGING THE DIRECTION OF ELECTRIC
CURRENTS.

By artificially changing the directions of electric
currents transmitted through the approximated
sides of bodies serving as electrodes, their recip-
rocal movements toward, or from each other, are
producible at pleasure. This is effected by the
use of a " Current-changer," as in
Fig. 33. Two elastic steel springs,
w w, are severally connected with
Fig' 33> the two poles of a battery circuit,

for transmitting the current first to one half of a
semi-cylindrical clasp s, and then to the other half
successively, by the turning of the spindle A, shown
by a cross-section. The two clasps, s s, are insu-
lated by varnished silk from the spindle, and are
severally connected with the two ends of a con-
ducting-wire by which the direction of the battery
circuit is to be reversed. This device is used as an
automatic current-changer ; and, by its timely rever-
sals from an attractive to a repellent electric force,
a freely movable coil of conducting wire is made to
revolve several thousand turns in a minute.

The instantaneous change of direction of cir-
culating electric currents about bodies and mole-
cules, and consequent instantaneous changes from
reciprocal attraction to reciprocal repulsion, is
shown by the blow of a hammer on a bar of iron,
as indicated in Fig. 34.

SUDDEN REVERSAL OF CURRENTS.

On gradually lifting the iron bar, s, to the
sloping position of the dip
of a dipping-needle, the
circulating currents about
the iron bar, induced by
the terrestrial currents,
are suddenly intensified
by the percussion of the
hammer, and turn the
compass needle rapidly
to the position indicated
by the dotted lines. The
end of the needle, which
was previously attracted
toward the piece of iron,
is suddenly repelled for-
cibly.

This phenomenon
shows an analogy to the sudden reaction devel-
oped between the particles of percussion powder,
commonly used for firing gunpowder. The pres-
ence of molecules of nitrogen, combined with
molecules of mercury, silver, potash, glycerine,
cotton, &c., reduces the compound to an unstable
condition of circulating molecular currents, corre-
sponding with those about the iron in the experi-
ment described. The blow of the hammer of a
percussion lock suddenly determines the reversal
of the molecular currents, with the result of a
violent repulsion between them, and explosive

fig. 34-

Il6 UNSTABLE ELECTRO-STATIC CONDITIONS.

reaction of the combined particles of carbon
hydrogen, in the unstable organic substances of
gun-cotton, nitro-glycerine, gun-powder, &c. A
gleam of sunshine disturbs the unstable electro-
static condition of the nitrate of silver in combi-
nation with molecules of carbon and hydrogen,
in the organic compound substance of paper, col-
lodion, linen, cotton, and even of the hair and
skin ; and changes their molecular groupings and
capability of reflecting light. The molecules of
oxygen and hydrogen in all organic formations
are rendered freely movable by the excitation
of light, when impregnated with the nitrate of
silver, commonly denoted " lunar caustic." The
molecules of hydrogen and oxygen become united
and produce water, leaving the molecules of car-
bon revealed as a negative black, on the surface
of the organic body. The greater or less extent
of carbonization of the surface of white paper,
with the different resulting power of reflecting
light, develops the lights and shades of photo-
graphic pictures, which excite the admiration of
mankind as magical productions of sunbeams.

Photographic pictures are really the results of
the chemical decomposition of organic substances,
corresponding to the decomposition of the human
skin and flesh by nitrate of silver, leaving the black
charcoal, and liquefying the hydrogen and oxygen
into water.

A similar result of the chemical decomposition

MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC CURRENTS. I 1 7

of organic substances is produced without the
intervention of molecules of nitrogen, by intensi-
fying the solar action by a lens on a sheet of white
paper ; which is speedily turned brown and black
by driving off the molecules of hydrogen and
oxygen, and leaving the charcoal.

A remarkably unstable electro-static condition
of molecules of hydrogen and of chlorine exists
when mingled together; which a gleam of sun-
shine disturbs, producing their instantaneous
union with explosive force.

RECIPROCAL ACTION BETWEEN ELECTRIC CURRENTS
AND MAGNETIC CURRENTS.

That there are electric currents continually
circling about the axis of a magnet, as about the
axis of the earth, is proved by its pro- ,,'—>>
ducing the same reaction as if a / \^

spiral conducting-wire were wound lx X/
around it, transmitting a continuous i^U^i
current from a voltaic battery. The >( X

currents circulate in the same uni- %"-iEK JB

form direction about the axis of a \

•---_>-•

magnet ; but they appear to move in . Figf 35.
opposite directions, when a bar-magnet is bended
to the form of a horse-shoe, as represented in Fig.
35. It may be noticed that the currents about
the s pole, when facing the observer, move in the
same direction that the hand of a watch moves
about the dial-plate, and those about the N pole

I 1 8 THE STATIC NEEDLE.

in a reverse direction. These apparently opposite
directions are the results of bending around the
ends. In accordance with the preceding illus-
trations, the two opposite poles develop a recip-
rocal attraction ; for the currents move in similar
directions about their nearest sides. About the
N poles, or the s poles, of two bar-magnets, when
similarly brought near one another, the currents
move in opposite directions, with a consequent
reciprocal repulsion between
them. If two magnetic needles
be fastened together with their
opposite poles adjacent, as
shown in Fig. 36, their recipro-
cal action and reaction neutral-
ize one another, and the terres-
36. trial currents do not turn this

compound needle on its pivot ; hence it is denoted

a STATIC NEEDLE.

In Fig. 35, w, representing the section of a
conducting wire between the two vertical poles,
N s, is propelled by the two combined magnetic
currents in the direction denoted by the arrow, if
the electric current ascends through it, and in the
opposite direction if it descends. So delicate
is the combined action of the magnetic currents
circling between the two poles of a horse-shoe
magnet, that a flexible strip of gold-leaf is used,
as represented between the two poles N s, Fig.
37, for a sensitive test of slight electric currents.

MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC CO-OPERATION. I 19

While an electric current is transmitted through
the flexible strip of gold-leaf, it is
propelled forward or backward,
according to the direction of the
current up or down. This instru-
ment is one of the most available
tests of the slightest transmission
of an electric current. A glass
tube, T, protects it from agitation
by currents of air.

The forcible action developed
between magnetic and electric cur-
rents is most strikingly manifested
by the apparatus of a wheel re-
volving between the two vertical
poles of a horse-shoe magnet ; as
in Fig. 38. By arranging connecting wires in the
base-board, the electric cur-
rent is made to descend from
the axis of the wheel into
conducting mercury in the
trough, to complete the cir-
cuit. A swift rotation of
the wheel is thus produced,
by the action and reaction de-
veloped by the co-operation
of magnetic and electric cur-
rents. The electro-mechan-
ical action is intensified, pro-
ducing very swift-revolving

Fig. 38.

120

REVOLVING CONDUCTING WIRES.

movements, by using numerous circuits of conduct-
ing-wire in an oblong coil between 'the two poles of
a horse-shoe magnet, as represented in Fig. 39, with
the addition of the usual current-changer, com-
posed of two elastic springs connected with the

oblong coil. This current-
changer reverses the direc-
tion of the circuit at every
half-revolution, and thereby
sustains a continuous pro-
pulsion to augment the
electro-motive power. Mr.
Davis says : " This instru-
ment revolves with the
wonderful velocity of more
than six thousand rota-
tions per minute, and pro-
duces a loud humming
sound, audible at a consid-
Fi*- 39> erable distance."

Ampere, De la Rive, Wollaston, and other in-
vestigators in electro-dynamics, suggested various
theoretical relationships of electric
and magnetic currents for produc-
ing resultant movements, which
appear to have been verified with
mathematical precision. Faraday,
with his persevering sagacity, suc-
ceeded, in the year 1821, in exhib-
iting a conducting-wire revolving

Fig. 40.

CURRENTS AND MAGNETS COMBINED.

121

about the pole of a magnet in conformity with the
tangential forces of the circulating currents, as
shown in Fig. 40 ; which represents a conducting-
wire suspended on a loop, transmitting a current
to the mercury in a glass, in which a magnet
is inserted, with a connection of its lower end
with a coriducting-wire, d, to complete the circuit.
The suspended wire revolves about the upper end
of the magnet. If the wire be extended the whole
length of the magnet, the
diamagnetic currents neu-
tralize this action.

He afterward succeeded
in producing the recipro-
cal revolutions of a mag-
net, M, and conducting-
wire w, about one another,
as represented in Fig. 41.
Mercury was used in the
glass for a conductor in
connection with the screw
cup c.

Innumerable other com- Fie- 41.

binations of currents and magnets have been
invented to illustrate the transmission of electro-
mechanical action. Although the principal mag-
netic power is manifested by the poles, or ends,
of magnets, yet a very important action is devel-
oped by the currents circulating about the mid-
dle or equatorial parts, as previously illustrated

122 ACTION OF LATERAL CURRENTS.

by the artificial globe with a magnetic needle
mounted upon it (Fig. 22). This action of lateral
electric currents, transversely to the axial polar
magnetic forces, is denoted Diamagnetism.

DIAMAGNETISM.

I23

CHAPTER XIV.

DIAMAGNETISM.

"\17HILE only a few kinds of elementary sub-
stances — such as iron, nickel, and various
crystals — manifest polarized magnetic force, all
kinds of substances, in-
cluding organized com-
pounds, such as wood,
coal, &c., manifest dia-
magnetism when they are
held between the poles
of a powerful electro-
magnet ; as exhibited in
Fig. 42.

The attraction acting
on the sides of bodies is
commonly exhibited, by suspending them by a
flexible thread between the poles of electro-magnets.
If a silver or copper coin be thus suspended, it is
turned about with the flat sides diamagnetically
fronting the two opposite poles ; while a bar of
iron, nickel, bismuth, and various crystals are
arranged in a longitudinal position between the
two poles.

124 DIAMAGNETIC CURRENTS EXCITE HEAT.

To show the force of the diamagnetic attraction,
experimenters commonly twist the string tightly,
to produce a swiftly-revolving motion, whereby
the suspended body is caused to rotate rapidly,
and is then instantaneously stopped, when it is
brought into a position intermediate between the
two poles, with the flat sides facing each pole. In
accordance with the law of attraction between
similarly-directed currents, this phenomenon ap-
pears to be due to the inductive excitation of
currents about the sides of the coins, correspond-
ing with those excited about the poles of the elec-
tro-magnet.

To test the result of whirling bodies by force
between the poles of electro-magnets after being
thus arrested, an intelligent experimenter fixed
the rotated body on a spindle turned by a driving-
band from a pulley. He discovered that it became
electrically excited, like the pieces of iron rotated
between the poles of horse-shoe magnets, in mag-
neto-electric machines ; which excite the vibratory
movements of the electric ether, recognized as
electric light and heat.

Another experimenter placed some fusible metal
(composed of lead, tin, and bismuth, which melts
at 212° of Fahr.) within a brass tube, and sub-
jected it to rotation between the poles of an electro-
magnet. Without friction, or contact, the rotated
brass case and its contents speedily became so
much excited by this rotation opposite to the

CAUSE OF INTERNAL HEAT OF THE EARTH. 125

magnetic poles, as to melt the compound metal,
which the experimenter poured out on the table
of a laboratory.

This experiment is somewhat analogous to the
rotation of the earth opposite to the two polarized
electro-magnetic bodies of the sun and mpon ;
whereby the internal heat of the earth may be
similarly excited to fuse crystallized rocks into
melted lava, at times poured out from the tubes
of volcanic craters on adjacent table-lands, as the
fusible metal on the table of a lecture-room.

This experiment indicates that the interior mol-
ecules of bodies are excited by their rotation, as
well as the exterior molecules on the surface ; and
that while the orbital revolutions of the planets in-
duce the solar reaction, warming the surface of the
earth, its axial rotation warms the interior, — as
manifested by the eruptions of volcanoes. The
intensity of the excitation of the interior of the
earth is found to be regularly increased about i°
Fahr. for each sixty feet of depth ; so that by very
deep boring for an Artesian well, an abundant
discharge of hot water of the temperature of 1 70°
has been obtained, in a German city, for public
baths. The Geysers amid the frozen regions of
Iceland, and in the valleys of Northwestern Amer-
ica, send forth continually columns of hot water
to great heights.

These facts corroborate the general law of diffu-
sion of electro-mechanical action by the axial and

126 CURRENTS ABOUT MOLECULES.

orbital revolutions of the planets, reaching even
the very centre of the earth.

The circulation of currents about the exterior
of the globe of the earth has been considered by
an eminent philosopher as producing the polariza-
tion of the interior molecules,

as rePresented in Fig- 43;
neutralizing the interior cur-

\ ~ 1 rents in opposite directions

X^v.^y^'^ "N. T

s~*\{ )•/ about their nearest sides, by
clasping them all in one ex-

Figt 43. terior closed circuit, as indi-

cated by the directions of the arrows. With such
unstable electro-static counterbalancings of oppo-
sitely-circulating molecular currents, it may be
readily imagined that a sudden violent explosive
separation of molecules of carbon in gunpowder
and percussion powder may ensue, on breaking
the exterior closed circuit with the blow of a
hammer.

CURRENTS IN CLOSED CIRCUITS.

127

CHAPTER XV.

CIRCULATION OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN CLOSED
CIRCUITS.

"INFINITE rectilinear progression in finite space
being impracticable, there is a necessity for
the recurrence of portions of the electric ether in
circles to. the same place.

A periodical return of the heavenly bodies to
the same place is also the great law of Astronomy ;
and even the atmospheric ether moves in circles,
denoted cyclones. A similar recurrence of the
swiftly-moving electric ether to the same place, in
circuits about the earth and about magnets, is a
law of electro-dynamics.

A remarkable circulation of electric currents is
manifest in the arrangement of conducting mole-
cules, or bodies, to form circuits by rings ; as when
the two ends of a horse-shoe magnet are
connected by an intervening armature
A, as represented in Fig. 44.

In a closed circuit, the polarity dis-
appears ; for there are no longer any
ends, or poles, to the magnet. The ex-
ternal electro-magnetic attraction nearly
disappears from the two conjoined halves Fig 44<

128 CROSS CURRENTS AROUND MOLECULES.

of an electro-magnetic iron ring, represented in

Fig. 45 ; while in the
closed circuit they are
so very powerfully held
conjoined, that weights
of several thousands of
pounds are sustained
thereby. The electro-
magnetic excitation in-
stantaneously disap-
pears from a bar of iron
when the battery circuit
is stopped; but in the
Fig- 4S' closed circuit formed by

the conjoined semi-circles it continues for a brief
time. The union of molecules formed into a ring
serves to sustain a compound circulation of electro-
magnetic currents, as through the string of a circlet
of beads, while simultaneously the electro-magnetic
currents circulate about the axis of each individ-
ual bead. The combined action of these elec-
tro-magnetic currents polarizes electro-magnetic
bodies. The action of the diamagnetic current
around each molecule is exhibited in the sponta-
neou^ formation of rings of vapor floating in the
air, resulting from puffs of smoke, of steam, and
especially from the explosive combination of phos-
phuretted hydrogen ; as represented in Fig. 46.

This self-inflaming gas issues from the beak of
a retort immersed in water, as shown in the figure,

FORMATION OF RINGS OF VAPOR. 129

and takes fire explosively on coming in contact
with the air ; producing a white ring of smoke.

Fig. 46.

The rings successively ascend and buoyantly float
in the air, gracefully waving in unbroken circular
forms. A rod may be passed through them
without breaking the continuity of these closed
circuits.1

The formation of these rings, and of soap-
bubbles similarly floating in the air, and even of
the great planetary globes, is doubtless governed
by the same electro-dynamic principles of closed
circuits, in which the axial magnetic and lateral
diamagnetic actions are combined to produce re-
sultant effects of molecular unions.

1 Helmholtz supposes this vortex-whirl would continue indefinitely
in a frictionless medium ; which he assumes to be the condition of the
space about the planet Saturn, the formation of whose wonderful vapory
rings might be similarly produced and sustained. The writer first saw
the formation of these vapory rings on the simultaneous discharge of
cannon (a/eu dejoie] at the time of celebrating the restoration of peace
between England and America, in 1815. Two of these vapory rings,
while floating in the air, became interlocked like links of a chain, and
were hailed by cheers from the assembled multitude, as an auspicious
omen of union.

9

CLOSED CIRCUITS IN SPHERES, ETC.

The polarity of a body may be determined by
IN the molecular polarizations;
which neutralize each other
>s when alternately arranged, or
co-operate when combined ; as
>s in the two parts of Fig. 47.
is The polar action and the dia-
magnetic action induced by
electric excitation between molecules, sustains
t.he continuous union of the particles, laterally
and longitudinally, about spherical rain-drops,
and in the tenuous film of bubbles, while their
contact facilitates the circulation of electric cur-
rents in closed circuits around the spheres ; as
represented in Fig. 43, p. 126.

While the external closed circuits develop elec-
tric attraction between
the adjacent sides of
two bubbles, A B, by
moving in similar di-
rections, the opposite
directions of the inte-
rior closed circuits may
produce reciprocal re-
pulsion, and bulge out the sides of bubbles to
spheres.

The similar circulation of electric currents in
closed circuits is not limited to the reciprocal ac-
tion and reaction between molecules on a minute
scale, in terrestrial mechanics ; but is extended on

Fig. 48.

CAUSE OF THE TIDES. 131

a sublime scale to develop the electro-mechanical
action and reaction between the earth and moon,
and other heavenly bodies. The circulation of
electric currents in closed circuits may be applied
to explain the

SIMULTANEOUS RISE OF TIDES ON OPPOSITE SIDES
OF THE EARTH.

Previous illustrations show that the globe of
the earth is a powerful electro-magnet, excited by
the paramount electro-magnetic power of the sun,
and with its polarity determined through the solar
action. As stronger magnets determine the di-
rection of electric currents circulating about fee-
bler ones, the earth unquestionably determines
the direction of the currents circulating about its
satellite, the moon, to move in a similar direction
about the side nearest to the earth, as represented
by the arrows in Fig. 49. In
accordance with the principle of
action and reaction between elec-
trodes transmitting currents in
similar and in opposite directions,
reciprocal attraction ensues be-
tween the portion of molecules
constituting the nearest sides of
the moon and the earth ; and re-
ciprocal f repulsion between the Fig- 49-
portion of molecules constituting the side of the
moon nearest to the earth and those constituting

132 ACTION OF EARTH CURRENTS ON MOON.

the side of the earth most remote from the moon.
As electro-mechanical impulses act on individual
molecules to produce movements of masses (the
quantity of molecules in bodies being determined
by their gravitating descent toward the centre of
the earth), the ocean waters, covering the greater
part of the planet, freely yield to the action of the
electric currents where they circulate in similar
directions about the moon and earth, and flow
toward the moon on the side of the earth nearest
thereto ; while at the same time the waters on the
opposite side of the earth yield to the action of
the oppositely-directed currents above described,
and flow away from the moon. In accordance
with general electro-dynamic principles, therefore,
there ensues a simultaneous rise of tides on both
sides of the earth.

The present popular doctrine of tides gives the
following explanation of these phenomena : —

" The simultaneous rise of ocean-waters on opposite
sides of the earth is caused by lunar attraction, which
draws away the solid part of the earth from the fluid
ocean-waters on the farthest side of the globe, and simul-
taneously draws away the waters from the solid part of
the earth on the nearest side." ,

But no reason appears to be given for this dis-
crimination between the gravitating action on solid
and liquid particles, which is equally efficient in
producing the motion of a falling rain-drop and
of a falling stone. The similar action of the

MOMENTUM OF TIDAL CURRENTS. 133

earth's currents on the moon renders it perma-
nently oval, or egg-shaped, as discovered by
improved telescopes ; because that globe has not
a rapid axial rotation like the earth, to vary the
attractive force.

Although the average height of the rise of the
tides is only three or four feet, yet in some localities
they rise thirty or forty feet. This extraordinary
elevation is due to the momentum of tidal currents,
whereby vast masses of ocean-waters are put in
motion, impinging against shelving shores and
narrow bays, and force up the water, as by cur-
rents in hydraulic rams, to considerable heights.

A little additional rise of the tides is produced
by the centrifugal tendency of the ocean-waters
to recede from the centre of the earth, by its
monthly orbital revolution about the common
centre of the moon and earth, while they swing
around each other.1

THE RELATIVE EQUATORIAL POSITIONS OF THE MOON
AND EARTH SUSTAINED BY THE DIAMAGNETIC CIRCU-
LATION OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS.

The northern and southern declinations of the
moon, denoted its librations, affect magnetic nee-
dles, as stated by Professor Bache. This action,

1 The similar centrifugal tendency induced by the daily rotation of the
earth bulges out the equatorial region to thirty miles greater diameter
than the axial measure ; making a rise of nearly twelve feet to the mile
in proceeding from the pole to the equator. The Mississippi River, in
flowing from north to south, recedes from the centre of the earth eight
or nine feet to the mile, and flows by the centrifugal tendency of its
waters.

134

ITERATIONS OF THE MOON.

in addition to the tidal action, demonstrates the
electro-magnetic connection between the earth
and moon.

The extent of the northern and southern libra-
tions of the moon, alternately toward the north

and the south poles
of the earth, is prob-
ably governed by
the equatorial or di-
amagnetic currents,
which restrain the
moon from vibrat-
ing more than about
29° each side of the
equator. In Fig.
50, M represents a
magnet, and c a
helix coil, set afloat like the ring of De la Rive,
with the appended zinc and copper plates im-
mersed in acids. On bringing the magnet toward
the ring-coil, it is found to pass over the magnet,
as the eye of a needle is passed over a thread, and
continues to move over it until the ring arrives at
the middle part of the magnet. There it stops,
and remains permanently at rest. The earth,
being a magnetic body, represents M, and the
currents incident to the circling of the moon
in its monthly orbit around the earth, may repre-
sent the coil of conducting-wire, c. The recipro-
cal action and reaction between the diamagnetic

DIAMAGNETIC CURRENTS. 135

currents may hold the moon to its equatorial posi-
tion in relation to the earth, and prevent its libra-
tion beyond the poles while circling around it.

This diamagnetic action may hold also all the
revolving planets electro-mechanically in their true
axial and orbital positions relatively to the plane
of the ecliptic.

The diamagnetic, or equatorial, currents present
more extensive surfaces for action than the polar
ends of magnets, and have more
effective force. The currents circu-
lating around a bar magnet, and
those circulating around a spiral
coil of conducting-wire wound in the
form of a helix, present toward each
other the greatest possible extent of
surface when the bar is inserted
within the tube of the coil ; as repre-
sented in Fig. 51.

The bar of iron, even with a
heavy weight appended thereto, is
powerfully drawn upward into the . SI.

interior of the helix, and is upheld there without
contact with the coil ; thus exhibiting the most
perfect possible elasticity, by its freely vibrating
movements, — as if actually dancing on the air.
However often the bar with its heavy weight may
be pulled down, it will ascend again, with a per-
fectly free and elastic recoil and very considerable
force.

136 ASCENT OF SAP IN LOFTY TREES.

Some analogy seems to exist between the ascent
of the bar within the tube of the helix coil and
the ascent of sap in the tubular pores of trees ;
and also of fluids in lamp-wicks, porous sponges,
sugar, &c., — in the manner denoted " capillary
attraction." ' •».

The ascent of sap against the action of gravita-
tion to the height of three hundred feet in the
California cedars, may be thus explained. The
force of the absorbent capillary action of sap even
in a humble pumpkin, or squash, has been exper-
imentally proved, at the State Agricultural Col-
lege, Amherst, Mass., to be sufficiently powerful
to upheave a weight of several thousand pounds,
during its growth.

The phenomenon of the elasticity of steel springs
and of woody fibres admits of explanation on this
principle of diamagnetic molecular action ; which
allows of the partial sliding of the particles on one
another with a retraction, like the drawing back
of the iron bar with the appended weight.

The considerable range of action of the diamag-
netic currents, as compared with the polar mag-
netic action, has been resorted to by ingenious
experimenters for utilizing electro-motive power.
To test the efficiency of this plan, the Congress
of the United States was induced to appropriate
twenty thousand dollars for an experimental ma-
chine devised by Dr. Page, thirty years ago. To
produce a direct rotary motion, he used, instead of

DIAMAGNETIC ELECTRIC ENGINE. 137

a straight bar, a semi-circular bar of iron, adapted
to pass through two semi-circular helix coils.

This machine, operated by a voltaic battery, de-
veloped considerable effective power in moving
a locomotive engine on a railroad in Washington ;
but failed to produce mechanical action as cheaply
as by the combustion of coal.

138 TESTS OF ELECTRIC EXCITATION.

CHAPTER XVI.

MECHANICAL ACTION CONSIDERED AS A TEST OF ELEC-
TRIC EXCITATION. POPULAR THEORIES OF ELEC-
TRICITY.

A S of elementary molecules, so it may be said
of the electric ether: all we know of it is its
power of transmitting action. For this special
reason, light and freely movable bodies — such as
feathers, straws, pith-balls, and flexible gold-leaf —
are resorted to for receiving and developing me-
chanical impulses transmitted by the electric ether.
For convenient use two balls are commonly em-
ployed, made of the pith of elder, and suspended
by flexible threads attached to an insulating glass-
handle, as represented in Fig. 52. This simple
apparatus is called an " Electroscope," from two
Greek words signifying " Electricity — I behold ; "
the movements of these balls being considered
equivalent to an exhibition of the transference of
impulses by the electric ether.

On bringing the pith-balls near a piece of amber,
sealing-wax, or other resinous
substance, after putting in mo-
tion the electric ether pervad"
ing it by friction, the balls
are seen to move directly

Pig. 52-

PITH-BALLS AS ELECTROSCOPES. 139

toward the resinous substance, A ; as represented
in Fig. 53. On
impinging against
the excited body A,
the elastic balls re-
bound, and, hav-
ing received excita-
tion by contact, are
repelled therefrom,
and also recipro- Fig-

cally from each other; as represented in Fig. 54.

If the balls, while thus ex- ~
cited and diverging from a
piece of rubbed amber, seal-
ing-wax, or other resinous
substance, are brought near
a piece of glass, or other
vitreous substance similarly
excited by friction, they F<f' 54>

are moved directly toward it, and develop the
phenomenon called attraction.

To explain this remarkable movement of the
excited balls from an excited piece of amber, or
other resinous substance, and their subsequent
movement toward a piece of rubbed glass, or
other vitreous substance, Dufay originated a the-
ory of " the existence of two different kinds of elec-
tricity, in the two different kinds of resinous and
of vitreous substances ; each having self-repellent
powers, and reciprocally attractive powers for the

I4O VITREOUS AND RESINOUS THEORY.

other." The descriptive names of " vitreous " and
" resinous " electricities were accordingly given to
them.

But, after further experiments, it was found
that if a tube of glass be ground to a rough surface
at one end, while the other end is left smooth, and
a rubber be passed over the whole length of it,
the vitreous electricity is manifest only on the
smooth part, and the resinous appears on the
rough part. This showed that a difference of
surface, not of material, determines the difference
of the electricity. Another experiment of friction
of a piece of silk, with one end dyed black and the
other left white, showed that a difference of color
similarly determines the kind of electricity excited.
In this way, a difference of colors is ascertained in
the dark by a difference of mechanical reaction, in
clinging together.

These facts discredited the theory of Dufay.
Professor Faraday instituted a course of experi-
ments for ascertaining if the supposed two kinds
of electricity could be separated ; but the task
proved as vain as an attempt to separate mechan-
ical action and reaction, which are always u equal
and in opposite directions," — precisely like the
phenomena of the two kinds of electrical action
and reaction, denoted resinous and vitreous.

Franklin and Priestley attempted to simplify the
two-fluid theory, by introducing the preserft pop-
ular single-fluid theory, after Gilbert, Newton, and

SINGLE-FLUID THEORY. 141

others had prepared the way. The single-fluid
theory is described in Priestley's " History of
Electricity " as follows : —

" When the equilibrium of the electric fluid, dispersed
through the pores of all bodies, is not disturbed, and
when there is in any body neither more nor less than its
natural share, it does not discover itself to our senses by
any effect. The action of the rubber upon a body dis-
turbs this equilibrium by producing a deficiency of the
fluid in one place, and a redundancy in another place ;
and a mutual attraction of the particles of the fluid is
excited to restore the equilibrium. If two bodies be both
overcharged, the electric atmospheres repel each other,
and both bodies recede from one another to where the
fluid is less dense ; the electric atmosphere carrying the
bodies along with it."

But, unfortunately for this theory, bodies sup-
posed to be devoid of the electric ether, or in a
negative state, are found to repel one another
precisely like those containing an excess, or in a
positive state. This fact discredits the single-
fluid theory.

If the electric ether be a material medium, it
must be subjected like all other matter to the same
mechanical law of "equal action and reaction in
opposite directions." The ether occupying the
surface of the rubber, when put in motion trans-
fers the impulse it receives to the similar electric
ether occupying the rubbed body ; and, being an
elastic fluid, recoils by impact, and verifies the
general mechanical law of the development of two

142 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ELECTRICITY.

equal and oppositely directed movements : as when
a cannon-ball is put in motion in one direction,
an equal motion, or momentum, is imparted to the
cannon in an opposite direction. This simple ex-
planation resolves the mystery of the opposite
movements of bodies toward and from one another
into effects produced by oppositely directed im-
pulses of mechanical force. This is the obvious
way in which every other kind of matter is put in
motion. By roughening one end of a glass tube,
leaving the other end smooth, the same rubber
passed over both surfaces receives different reac-
tions, and the electric ether is put in motion in
opposite directions on the surfaces of the glass
and rubber.

The terms positive and negative are also ap-
plied to denote the two opposite delivering and
receiving ends of electric circuits, or poles of
voltaic batteries ; which are marked as + and — .
The present popular theory of electricity being
based on' the reciprocal movements of bodies
toward and from one another, denoted attraction
and repulsion, it remains to show how these move-
ments are mechanically produced, instead of
ascribing them to self-motive and self-directive
powers inherent in the electric ether, or in other
matter.

In accordance with the reciprocal movements
of portions of matter toward and from each
other, produced by transmitting currents through

MOVEMENT OF PITH-BALLS — HOW PRODUCED. 143

them in similar and in opposite directions, the
following suggestions will tend to explain the
peculiar movements of the pith-balls of electro-
scopes : —

Considering the balls of electroscopes, like all
other portions of matter, to be pervaded and sur-
rounded by the universal electric medium in con-
tinual vibratory motion, and impinging on their
exterior surface equally in every direction, and
as being thus held in an electro-static condition,
— their movements toward and from electrically
excited bodies are produced by disturbing this
equilibrium of the impulses on one side of the
balls, whereby the impulses acting on the opposite
side predominate, and propel the balls in the re-
sultant direction of the impinging impulses. All
mechanical modes of exciting electricity by fric-
tion, or by machines of various kinds, are so many
expedients resorted to for disturbing the electro-
static condition of molecules, or bodies of matter,
and developing resultant movements of them, — as
has been previously described.

The impulse from the
hand, imparted to move
a rubber over a piece of
glass, or sealing-wax, puts
in motion the electric
ether in circulating cur-
rents about them, which
induce the circulation of

144 CLOSED CIRCUIT ABOUT THE BALLS.

currents in similar directions about the nearest
sides of the balls of electroscopes brought near
these excited substances, as represented by B c,
in Fig. 55 ; precisely as an excited magnet in-
duces currents in similar directions about the
nearest sides of pieces of iron, and develops recip-
rocal attraction between them. On coming gently
in contact with the excited body A, an extended
closed circuit is instantaneously made about them
all, as delineated by the arrows in Fig. 56, and

Fig. 56.

conjoins them as one electrode. In this state they
will remain united, if the balls do not elastically
rebound from contact with A, and leave an inter-
vening space between them, — as occurs when the
brass balls rebound from the vibrating sides of the
bells of an electrical chime.

At the instant of the rebound the single closed
circuit is broken, and is resolved into three distinct
closed circuits,- whose currents move in opposite
directions about the adjacent sides of each of the
three balls, B c A, as indicated by the arrows in

ig. 57; with a consequent repulsion between all

TESTS OF ELECTRIC EXCITATION. 145

three of them. If the balls B c, excited by con-
tact with a piece of rubbed amber, A, or sealing-
wax, Fig. 57, and while repelled therefrom after
contact, be brought near a piece of rubbed glass,
they are attracted thereby, because the vitreous
currents circulate in opposite directions to those
about the amber.

Fig- 57-

The reverse direction of the current about the
glass (which takes the place of A) coincides with
the currents about B and c, with the result of
reciprocal attraction between the three.

In tracing out the movements of the balls of
electroscopes toward and from each other, as tests
of electric excitation, it is to be remembered that
the original mechanical causes of their movements
are the axial and orbital revolutions of the planets,
which combine to produce the various resultant
motions of electrodes, — as has been previously
illustrated, — and the revolving movements of
various mechanisms by the reciprocal actions
between different directed currents.1

1 As a further experimental illustration of the combined axial and
orbital revolutions of the solar system, the rotation of the disc of a Gy-
roscope affords an instructive example.

10

146 SPEED OF ELECTRIC ACTION.

VARIED VELOCITIES IN THE TRANSMISSION OF ME-
CHANICAL ACTION.

*

Vibration of light transmitted through the
electric ether in infinite space is found to be
about 190,000 miles per second, being nearly
1,000,000,000 feet per second.

The velocity of vibrations of sounds in air . . 1,150 feet per second.

„ „ „ „ in water . 4,160 „ „

„ „ „ „ in wood . 12,000 „ „

„ „ „ „ iron wire . 15,000 „ „

The velocity of transmission of currents in
closed circuits, through short wires of a large size,
is nearly the same as that of light. The velocity
is greatly diminished in passing through ordinary
telegraph wires. The diminution is nearly in the
ratio of the squares of the increased distances,
and inversely as the size of the conductor. With
a fine wire the current is not only interrupted,
but molecular vibrations are produced so intense
as to disintegrate the wire itself.

It appears, by experiments made by Mr. Walker
of the United States Coast Survey, that the velocity
of the transmission of electric currents between a
telegraph station in Cambridge, Mass., and Phila-
delphia, was about 18,700 miles per second.
Others have calculated a higher velocity. " A
communication by telegraph between Bombay and
London has been made and answered in thirty-
three seconds." " A perceptible portion of a
second is occupied in transmitting a telegraphic
signal across the Atlantic."

ELECTRO-MOTIVE POWER. 147

TRANSMISSION OF MOTIVE POWER TO A DISTANCE
THROUGH CONDUCTING WIRES FOR OPERATING MA-
CHINERY.

Some interesting experiments were made about
thirty years ago for transmitting power from
motors to machines through telegraph wires, as
a substitute for driving-bands, ropes, and lines of
shafting.

A joint-stock company in the city of Providence
attempted to utilize the electric ether as a medium
for distributing motive-power. A steam-engine
was employed to turn a great magneto-electric
machine for putting in motion the electric ether,
and thereby utilizing it effectively at remote dis-
tances. It was supposed that the power of distant
water-falls might be thus rendered available for
workshops in cities ; as the clicking armatures are
practically worked in distant telegraph offices.

The company succeeded so well in utilizing
this mode of transmitting power from the motor
to machines in a workshop, that they were led to
believe they had obtained more power than was
imparted by the steam-engine to turn the magneto-
electric machine ; and that consequently they had
made " a gain of power," and had secured " Per-
petual Motion." But the pockets of the share-
holders, instead of being filled, were drained by
the machine, to which was given the burlesque
name of " Hifalutm."

The labors of this company, however, were not

148 TENUITY AND VELOCITY OF ELECTRICITY.

entirely lost ; for they constructed a powerful mag-
neto-electric machine, for ringing the alarm bells
for the Fire Department in the city of Boston.
This machine was operated by the water-power of
the Cochituate Aqueduct. The electro-motive
power was transmitted through telegraph wires,
detaching weights, which, in descending, rang the
bells for a fire-alarm. In this way originated the
admirable system of Telegraphic Fire-Alarms.

TENUITY AND VELOCITY OF THE ELECTRIC ETHER.

Momentum is the combined force of velocity
and mass. If therefore, as in the electric ether,
there is great tenuity, there must be a compen-
sating increase of velocity to produce a like result.
A swiftly projected cannon-ball is the equivalent
of a ponderous mass with a slow motion. Light
particles of sand driven swiftly against flint glass
rapidly cut away its surface. The hand, by turning
an electric machine, may thereby charge a battery,
whose force will disintegrate steel wire, and send
the light of an electric spark to the distance of the
moon in a second and one third of time. The
voice transmitted through the telephone outstrips
in speed " the winged couriers of the air." Ar-
'chimedes proposed theoretically wondrous things
with his lever, could he but find a fulcrum.1

1 This speed of transmission by electro-magnetic action appears to
have been anticipated by Galen as the medium of communicating
thoughts; and most remarkably by Lucretius, in his treatise " De Natura
Rerum," published before the Christian era. Addisnn gives an inter-

VELOCITY AN EQUIVALENT OF POWER. 149

Were it practicable to employ the same swift
velocity in terrestrial mechanics as in celestial,
and to make use of a thread capable of lifting one
pound with the swiftness of light (190,000 miles per
second), this single thread would serve to transmit
1,800,000 horse-power; being more than sufficient
to operate all the machinery in Great Britain.1

esting extract from the book of Lucretius in "The Guardian," No. 119,
and in " The Spectator," No. 231, as follows : —

" Lucretius gives an account of the correspondence between two
friends by the help of a certain loadstone, which had such a virtue in it
that, if it touched two needles, one of the needles when so touched began
to move, and the other at a great distance moved at the same time, and
in the same manner. The two friends, being each of them possessed of
one of these needles, made a kind of dial-plate, with the twenty-four
letters inscribed thereon, as the hours of the day are marked on a dial-
plate. Then they fixed one of the needles on each dial-plate, in such a
manner as to turn around without impediment over the four-and-twenty
letters. They agreed to separate from one another into distant countries,
and withdraw themselves punctually into their closets at a certain hour
of the day, and to converse with one another by means of their invention.
To write any thing to his friend, he directed his needle to each letter
that formed the words, making a little pause at the end of words and
sentences, to avoid confusion. The friend at the same time saw his own
sympathetic needle moving itself to every letter which the needle of his
correspondent pointed at. By this means they talked together, and con-
veyed their thoughts to one another in an instant over mountains and
seas."

Magnetic needles, mounted as described by Lucretius, are now actu-
ally used in operating Wheatstone's telegraph for transmitting commu-
nications across oceans.

1 The system of high speed for transmitting power from motors to
machines is now introduced with success, and economy in cost of mate-
rial, by substituting light belts and ropes for massive iron shafts. By
doubling the velocity of transmission of action to overcome a uniform
resistance (like that of gravitation) in a given time, a fourfold effect is
produced ; for the double force acts in half the time against half the
uniform resistance. Thus by doubling the velocity of a ball projected
upward, it ascends fourfold higher. On this basis is established the
rule of the increase of effect being produced in the ratio of the squares
of the increased velocities.

I5O EXTENT OF SOLAR ACTION.

CHAPTER XVII.

EXTENT OF SOLAR ACTION TRANSMITTED TO THE
SURFACE OF THE EARTH.

'T^HE exciting forces of the planets being
uniform, produce a corresponding uniform
reaction as sunshine on the surface of the earth.
The reflection and radiation of solar light and
heat from the earth's surface nearly equalize the
degree of excitation in the same localities during
a series of years ; so that the sunshine is not
absorbed permanently within the earth, but is
reflected and radiated, Sustaining the continual
vibration of the surrounding electric ether. The
excess of solar excitation incident on the torrid
zone is diffused by the molecular vibration of the
atmosphere and the ocean-waters toward the
polar regions.

The continual transmission of sunshine to the
surface of our planet during infinite ages, although
reflected and 'diffused throughout space, has left its
impress on the solid rocks by mechanical action
and attrition, caused by vibratory impulses imparted
to the winds and ocean-waves. The rounded peb-
bles and the boulders composing beaches and

POWER OF SUNSHINE IN LIFTING WATER. 151

beds of torrents, and forming strata in the hill-
sides and plains, were sculptured by sunshine.

The power of sunshine is shown in the raising
of waters from the briny seas, to form inland seas
of fresh water, high above the level of the oceans.
In order to appreciate the extent of the hydrau-
lic operations in the mechanics of Nature, we
must attempt to estimate them.1

By concentrating the direct sunshine by lenses
or reflectors on a little boiler, sufficient power may
be obtained to operate a small steam-engine. It
is narrated in history that Archimedes had recourse
to reflecting mirrors for setting fire to a hostile
fleet in the harbor of Syracuse.

By means of steam-engines, man utilizes the sun-

1 During a summer excursion to Niagara, in the year 1841, after
viewing the Falls, the writer became interested to learn the amount of
water-power there developed.

After personally making the attempt to sound the depths of the rap-
ids across the river, and realizing the difficulty and danger by losing an
anchor, recourse was had to the professional services of an engineer in
that vicinity. An accurate survey was then accomplished of the quantity
of water daily flowing in the river. An account and map of this survey
was published in Silliman's "Journal of Science," in April, 1844; being
the first systematic measurement, if not the only one, made of the volume
of water and force of that mighty cataract. By this survey it was found
that 701,000 tons of water per minute are continually pouring over the
precipice of rocks at Niagara, with a nearly perpendicular descent of
1 60 feet, and with a mechanical force of 6,800,000 horse-power.

The whole descent from the level of Lake Erie to the sea being about
563 feet, the force of this stream is 24,000,000 horse-power. To this
is to be added numerous great tributary rivers in its course, and the
descent of the water-fall from lofty clouds in rain-drops. To maintain
the flow of this single river there is employed unceasingly nearly three
hundred millions horse-power, estimated in foot-pounds. This example
affords a faint idea of the extent of solar power constantly exerted in
raising water to irrigate our earth.

152 EXCITABILITY OF WATER.

shine transmitted to the leaves of plants, which
is retained in an electro-static condition in the
organic formations of fuel. The reaction of the
excitation transmitted to this carbonaceous fuel
takes place during combustion.

EXCITABILITY OF THE ELECTRIC ETHER OCCUPYING THE
SPACES BETWEEN PARTICLES OF WATER, AND OF
OTHER SUBSTANCES.

The slightest mechanical disturbance of particles
of water puts in motion the all-pervading electric
ether, which transfers the mechanical action by its
own motion. A basin of water serves as an elec-
trical machine, equally well as the little tank of
water with the paddle-wheel used by Mr. Joule
and others as a test of the electric excitation de-
noted heat.

By merely dashing the fingers into the water, or
by pouring it from one vessel into another, the
excited electric ether causes bubbles to spring up
into beautiful hemispheres, which dance over the
undulating surface.

Every water-fall excites bubbles to spring up as
spray into the air, and reciprocally to repel one
another like the pith-balls of electroscopes. The
minute bubbles form the mists hovering above
cascades, and reflect the sunbeams in overarching
rainbows.

The particles of water, being ever-ready elec-
trodes, and freely movable in a liquid state, yield
to the slightest vibration of the electric ether. It

VIBRATIONS OF PARTICLES OF WATER. 153

is continually changing from a vapory to a liquid
state, and from a liquid to the solid polarized state
of crystals of ice, yielding to the alternate predomi-
nance of the orbital and axial forces in summer
and winter. It is on account of this peculiar ex-
citability that water in continual motion is so
extensively diffused over our planet.

The vibratory movements of the particles of
steam are represented by rapid vibrations of nu-
merous light pith-balls
placed beneath a bell-
glass, and excited by
the electric action
transmitted between
two brass balls ; as in
Fig. 58. The pith-
balls are first impelled

toward the upper brass
ball, and then toward
the lower one, with
such rapidity as to re-
semble a misty vapor
filling the jar.

The similar quick
vibrations of steam
in a cylinder beneath Fi*' s8*

a piston drive out the particles of air therefrom,
and occupy their places, — impinging against the
under side of the piston, and counterbalancing
the force of the particles of air impinging upon

154 VIBRATORY IMPULSES OF AIR.

the upper side. On stopping the vibration of
the particles of steam by a jet of cold water, they
collapse, like the balls of electroscopes when the
excitation is withdrawn. A cubic foot of steam is
thus reduced to occupy the space of only one
cubic inch of condensed water, leaving the remain-
der of the space a vacuum. The cubic inch of
water, and the additional cold condensing water
with the air it contains, is extracted by the air-
pump of a condensing engine, while the vibrations
of particles of the- air continue to act against the
upper side of the piston with a resultant force of
fifteen pounds on each inch.

The vibrating particles of air, put in motion by
the voice, impinge against the little disc or piston
of a phonograph, with sufficient force to indent a
sheet of tin-foil by every vibrating impulse.

The particles of steam are put into similar vi-
bration by the excitation of heat in a furnace
beneath a boiler, with a force acting against the
inner sides of the boiler sufficiently to burst it.

By intensifying the excitation of all organic sub-
stances by heat, the molecules of hydrogen, oxygen,
and nitrogen are made to vibrate to such an extent
as to be driven off, leaving the skeleton of all
organic formations in carbon, with the organic
structure complete, — as manifest in wood charcoal.

By increasing the intensity of vibrations of the
residuary charcoal, they excite by contact the
adjacent molecules of oxygen in the surrounding

SOURCE OF WIND AND WATER POWER. 155

air, sufficiently to become electro-magnetically uni-
ted with them, so as to form carbonic acid gas by the
process of combustion, with the re-development
of the light and heat previously transmitted to the
leaves of plants to consolidate the charcoal.

THE PLANETARY FORCES DIFFUSED BY THE ELECTRIC
ETHER, AS SOURCES OF WIND AND WATER POWER.

To facilitate the general diffusion of vibrations
of sunshine put in motion by the revolving planets,
the four most readily excitable and freely movable
kinds of molecules (oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen,
and carbon), in gaseous states, are selected for the
atmospheric covering of the planet. Three-fourth
parts of the atmosphere are constituted of nitrogen,
combined with nearly one-fourth part of oxygen.
About one per cent of the atmosphere is composed
of molecules of hydrogen and of carbon combined
with oxygen, constituting carbonic-acid gas and
watery vapors. The vibrations of sunshine per-
meate these fluid transparent molecules, and im-
pinge directly on the surface of the earth, without
exciting their molecular vibration to the degree
recognized as heat ; as is manifest by the coldness
of the upper regions of the atmosphere. The
vibratory action impinging on the terraqueous
globe is expended in communicating vibration to
its particles, manifested either as heat, or reflected
as light and colors.

When a portion of air in contact with a vibrat-

156 PLANETARY FORCES EXCITE WIND-POWER.

ing body begins to vibrate also, it occupies more
space than other surrounding particles of air.
Thus rendered specifically lighter, it ascends
buoyantly against the action of gravitation. In
this simple movement the orbital force predomi-
nates. The axial force propels other particles of
air into the places left by the ascending particles ;
and the particles of air thus put in motion impinge
against the outspread sails on the water and on
the land, and render their impulses available as
WIND-POWER.

Beneath the earth's transparent atmosphere,
nearly four-fifths of the planet is covered by seas
and lakes, composed of eight-ninth parts of mole-
cules of oxygen and one-ninth part of molecules
of hydrogen. Particles of water are readily vi-
brated by sunshine, and, expanded into steamy
vapors, they occupy more space than the particles
of air. Rendered specifically lighter than the air
above them, they buoyantly ascend and are wafted
by the winds over the dry lands. After ascending
to the cold upper regions of the sky, their vibra-
tion being diminished, they become polarized, as
minute electro-magnets ; with the result of a recip-
rocal attraction between them, and union in falling
rain-drops, which descend from mountains and hill-
sides, and flow through the vales on- their return
to the sea, and are utilized on their way as WATER-
POWER.

SOLID, LIQUID, AND AERIFORM STATES. 157

CHAPTER XVIII.

' THE SOLID, LIQUID, AND AERIFORM CONDITIONS OF
MATTER DETERMINED BY THE EXTENT OF ITS MO-
LECULAR VIBRATION.

HPHE component particles of the air and waters
are the only substances that are commonly in
a fluid state. Every kind of elementary matter has
been found to be reducible to solid, or crystalline,
formations, by bringing the particles together by
extreme pressure, while their vibrations are reduced
to an extreme degree by frigorific mixtures, as by
contact with frozen carbonic-acid gas, at a temper-
ature of 1 39° below zero of Fahr. The changes of
the seasons produce the various changes of water,
from crystals to liquid and aeriform states. At the
ordinary temperature of the atmosphere mercury
remains liquid, but becomes crystallized, or frozen,
at 39° below zero of Fahr.

All other solid crystalline metals may be deemed
frozen, if they are considered relatively to the
temperature at which their component molecules
become liquefied by heat. As the temperature on
the earth's surface is rarely reduced to 39° below
the zero of Fahr., molecules of mercury, when not

158 VIBRATORY STATES OF MOLECULES.

polarized with molecules of other kinds of element-
ary substances, exist in a liquid state, and are hence
denoted " quicksilver." By artificially intensifying
the vibrations of the molecules of quicksilver to
680° Fahr., they yield to the vibration of the
electric ether intervening between the molecules,
and become expanded and diffused in invisible
vapor, floating in the air like steam.

This example of the three states of existence of
molecules — in solid crystals, in a liquid state, and
in an aeriform state — illustrates the three different
conditions of existence of all other kinds of element-
ary matter ; not even excepting the once termed
"permanent gases" — such as oxygen, hydrogen,
and nitrogen — which have been recently liquefied
and solidified by extreme cold and pressure. The
boiling point of substances, or their evaporable
temperature, appears to indicate the commence-
ment of the extreme molecular vibration, which
separates the component parts of substances be-
yond the range of their reciprocal electro-magnetic
attraction.

As previously described, the vibration of the
molecules of quicksilver increases uniformly from
the freezing to the boiling points ; as is evidenced
by a uniform expansion in the tubes of thermom-
eters. The increase of vibration of water, de-
veloped (as that of all other bodies) by friction
and percussion, has been adopted as a useful test
of the degree of heat producible by a definite

FOOT-POUNDS TEST OF HEAT. 159

amount of mechanical action, estimated in foot-
pounds. Ice may be melted by the excitation of
friction upon its surface ; and water may be simi-
larly heated by friction. In this way, Meyer, Joule,
and other experimenters have demonstrated that
the mechanical force developed by the descent of
a weight of seven hundred and seventy-two pounds
one foot, excites one degree of heat in a pound of
water.

MOLECULAR VIBRATION, CONSTITUTING HEAT, CONSID-
ERED AS AN EQUIVALENT OF MECHANICAL ACTION
IN FOOT-POUNDS.

The increase of the heat of water only one degree,
from 2 1 2° to 21 3°, converts it into steam ; causing
the particles to occupy seventeen hundred fold
more space, against an atmospheric pressure of
fifteen pounds on each square inch of surface. It
has been ascertained also that, after the particles
of water are heated to 212°, nine hundred and
sixty-seven times more heat is required to raise
the same water only one more degree, than will
raise its temperature from 39° to 40°. The sur-
prising extent of latent vibratory action is shown
by multiplying 967 by 772 foot-pounds = 746,524
foot-pounds. The particles of steam, by the in-
tensity of their vibration, displace the particles
of the atmosphere (with its reaction of more than
one ton on each square foot of surface), and occupy
its place.

This 967° of heat remains latent, as tested by

I6O LATENT HEAT OF STEAM.

the mercury in the bulb of a thermometer. The
latent heat of nearly 1000° in steam becomes man-
ifest on its condensation into water, by raising the
temperature of about sixfold its weight of water
from 50° to 2 1 2°.

By this standard of mechanical action for pro-
ducing vibration of particles of water, estimates
have been made, in equivalent foot-pounds, of the
amount of heat required to convert a pound of ice
into steam. Taking as a basis the force required
to raise the temperature of one pound of water i°
Fahr. (Joule's equivalent), the following calcula-
tions have been made : —

To excite vibration of the particles of i Ib. of ice to

the degree of liquidity, requires 110,396 foot Ibs.

To excite i Ib. of water from 32° to 212°, that is,

180° of increase of heat X 772 foot Ibs., requires . 138,960 foot Ibs.

To excite i Ib. of water at 212° into steam, that is 967

X 772 foot Ibs. requires 746,524 foot Ibs.

The total mechanical action of 995,880 foot Ibs.

is therefore the equivalent of the heat requisite to
convert one pound of ice into steam ; which being
divided by 33,000 = 30^ horse power.

This theoretical estimate exhibits the wonderful
extent of mechanical action transmitted by the vi-
bratory motion of the electric medium as sunshine.

The force required to convert one pound of
water from its gases to ice, has been compared to
the descent of a ton down three precipices with a
total fall of 2,850 feet.1

1 " Heat as a mode of Motion," p. 168. The " latent heat of evapora-
tion of I Ib. of water, from and at 212°," is given by Mr. Rankine (Treat-

STEAM-BOILERS ELECTRIC MACHINES. l6l

SUDDEN DISAPPEARANCE OF HEAT FROM CONDENS-
ING STEAM.

Although most of the latent heat of steam
becomes manifest by condensation in the pipes of
a heating apparatus, yet in operating high-pressure
boilers a very sudden and mysterious disappear-
ance occurs ; as is manifest by holding the hand
in front of the steam issuing from a gauge-cock,
with a pressure of seventy pounds to the inch.
About thirty years ago an engineer, in reaching
out his hand to adjust a leaking valve, felt electric
shocks, and saw electric sparks. He narrated the
fact to Mr. Armstrong; who constructed a small
insulated steam-boiler for experimental use, and
in the account of his experiments said : " This
boiler excited tenfold more powerful electricity
than can be produced by any frictional electric
machine hitherto made, giving out sparks more
than a foot long." In this way, steam-boilers
were introduced to professors of science under
the new name of •" Hydro-Electric Machines."
Armstrong and Faraday ascribed the electric
excitation " to the friction of the particles of water

ise on Steam-Engine, p. 300) as "745,812 foot-pounds;" and the "total
heat of combustion of one pound of carbon "as " 11,194,000 foot-pounds."
By this estimate, one pound of coal should evaporate about fifteen pounds
of water. Mr. Rankine adopts the estimate of combustion of one pound
of hydrogen at 14,500 thermal units of 772 foot-pounds = 47,888,704
foot-pounds, — being fourfold more exciting than one pound of carbon.
By ordinary furnaces of steam-engines only a small portion of the theo-
retical power is practically attained.

II

1 62 ELECTRICITY IN STEAMY VAPORS.

against the internal sides of the discharge pipes."
It was affirmed at that time that " evaporation and
condensation of water, independently of friction,
does not produce electric excitation, and we
must look to some other source for the origin of
lightning."

It occurred to the writer that if properly tested,
electric action and reaction being equal, the con-
densing steam out in the air would exhibit this
reaction on pointed wires, like the condensing
vapors of thunder-clouds on lightning rods. He
remembered also that, on the discharge of steam
from volcanoes, lightning amid the vapors is seen
above their summits ; that atmospheric electricity
tips the spears of sentinels on lofty watch-towers ;
while in storms the masts and spars of vessels are
ablaze with the "fires of St. Elmo and St. Anne,"
to the terror of superstitious sailors.

Ijt had long been known, that on holding the
hand in a jet of high-pressure steam from a gauge -

Fig- 59'

ELECTRIC JAR CHARGED BY STEAM. 163

cock, Fig. 59, instead of the sensation of scalding
heat, rather a cooling breeze was felt. The heat
of the steam at 300° Fahr. disappears so instanta-
neously, that a thermometer held in it indicates
only 120° ; showing that 180° of the heat has van-
ished. The question occurred, " What becomes
of all the heat of this discharged steam ? " This
led tq a course of experiments. Forked pointed
wires were arranged on a metallic rod, as at A,
Fig. 59, and the other end of the metallic rod
was then inserted through the cover of the elec-
tric jar B. This apparatus was held in front of the
condensing steam from a boiler, with seventy-five
pounds pressure to the inch. The coated glass-jar
received and retained the electric excitation trans-
mitted from the steam discharged into the open
air. A cold day was selected for more sudden con-
densation of the steam. On holding the pointed
wires in front of the jet of steam, the jar was
speedily charged, and transmitted a shock with a
bright spark, when touched by the finger. The
shocks were not only felt through the arms of
the experimenter, but also through the knees an.d
feet of the bystanders on the brick hearth in front
of the boilers.1

This experiment showed the general diffusion
of the electric excitation through the adjacent air.
The workmen amused themselves in taking shocks,

1 An account of the experiment was published in Allen's " Philosophy
of Mechanics," p. 38, in 1851.

1 64 STEAM-POWER AND ELECTRIC-POWER.

and the involuntary contraction of their muscles
exhibited the actual conversion of steam-power
into animal motive-power. While this was a
virtual repetition of Franklin's experiment for
showing the identity of lightning and electricity
from condensing vapors in the air, it further re-
vealed the identity of the latent heat of steam and
electricity ; and that this motive-power is literally
harnessed to our " Lightning Trains."

The sudden disappearance of the extreme heat
of a sultry summer-day is accounted for by its
conversion into electric action, either by quiet
diffusion, or disruptive flashes of lightning.

AMOUNT OF HEAT INSTANTANEOUSLY DISPERSED
FROM CONDENSING STEAM.

The total heat in a pound of steam would
render a pound of iron red-hot, if it could be trans-
ferred to it. The following calculations may show
the great extent of latent heat suddenly diffused
by the condensation of steam. Estimating the
latent heat (not indicated by the thermometer) of
steam under the ordinary atmospheric pressure to
be about 966°, and the additional heat at 300° (the
heat of steam under the pressure of seventy-five
pounds to the inch), there appear to be 1,266° of
heat embodied in the steam experimented upon.
If from this extent of heat be deducted the resid-
uary heat, as tested by the thermometer held in
the jet from the gauge-cock, at 120° Fahr., there

STEAM-POWER LOST IN ELECTRICITY. 165

disappear in the condensation of this discharge
1,146° of heat. This passes off with the speed of
light to the upper regions of the sky.1

1 These facts should impress on engineers the importance of employ-
ing all available means of preventing the radiation of heat from boilers
and cylinders, by non-conducting materials and steam-jacketing. And
especially should their attention be called to the possible loss of effective
power in working steam expansively, by "cut-off valves" acting at mi-
nute portions of the stroke.

If the whole power of steam of seventy-five pounds pressure is instan-
taneously diffused into electric vibrations and currents, by suddenly
expanding into the open air, it becomes a critical question how far this
expansive system can be carried advantageously, and without loss* by the
conversion into electric currents of the heat of expanding steam. The
sudden disappearance of the vibratory action of heat from steamy vapors
in the sky on a sultry summer-day affords a parallel to the experiment
described. The steam rises rapidly from the surface of the oceans to
the upper sky, and, being there relieved from compression, expands like
the compressed steam discharged from a steam-boiler.

This experiment shows the Protean forms in which the vibration of
heat is diffused, not only through the metallic conduction of cylinders,
pipes, and shaftings connected with steam-boilers and engines, but also
throughout all space. We thus catch a glimpse of the modes in which
the force of the planets is diffused through the universal electric ether,
and learn what an important part this ether plays in transmitting and
modifying their mighty power.

1 66 MATTER, MOLECULES, AND ATOMS.

CHAPTER XIX.

MATTER.

THE AXIAL AND ORBITAL FORCE OF THE REVOLVING

PLANETS, TRANSMITTED BY THE UNIVERSAL ETHER,

IS MODIFIED BY THE MECHANISMS OF SIXTY-SIX

KINDS OF ELEMENTARY MOLECULES.

l^EWTON defines matter to be "An aggrega-
tion of the smallest parts, which are extended,
and strongly connected together by an unknown
power, . . . which it is the business of experimental
philosophy to find out." , "

Professor Faraday describes a molecule as
" something material, having a specific volume ;
upon which were impressed, at the creation, certain
powers, that have given to it from that time to the
present the capability of constituting the different
kinds of substances, whose properties we discover
when a sufficient number of atoms are combined
together into molecular groups. . . . The powers
of matter we know and recognize in every phe-
nomenon of creation ; the absolute matter in
none." ] Buscovich defines molecules to be " cen-
tres of forces."

Molecules are aggregations of atoms into little
masses, as this term literally signifies.

1 London and Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, 1844.

MOLECULES ARE MACHINES. 167

That molecules are essentially different in the
number, groupings, and arrangements of their
atoms, constituting sixty-six kinds of machines, is
manifest by their various weights and magnitudes.
The lightest kind of molecule, hydrogen, has been
registered in tables of chemical equivalents at the
comparative starting point of i ; the next lightest,
carbon, 6 ; oxygen, 8 ; up to a molecule oigold, 1 96 ;
and lead, 207.

Each kind of molecule has a different bulk or
volume, and each is a perfect machine with a
differing atomic structure. Each serves as an
electrode and current-changer, receiving, reflect-
ing, modifying, and changing the direction of the
electric vibrations and currents, continually trans-
mitted through the universal ether.

These molecules, in turn, are electro-magnetically
formed into symmetrical angular crystals, and into
more than two hundred thousand species of mech-
anisms of plants and of animals. The molecules
incorporated into the mechanisms of plants serve
as food, to be re -incorporated into the mechanisms
of living animals, and to vitalize them.

The electric ether being universally diffused,
and pervading freely all bodies, does not admit of
being weighed, as there seems to be no way of
producing an absolute electric vacuum.

The relative weight of each of the sixty-six kinds
of elementary molecules is ascertained ; but the ab-
solute weight of each individual molecule is not as-

168

LIST OF ELEMENTARY SUBSTANCES.

certained, for the reason that a single molecule is too
minute an object to be distinctly seen, or handled.

The following table exhibits a list of the element-
ary molecules, arranged in alphabetical order,
with their relative weights as compared with mole-
cules of hydrogen, adopted as the unit standard
of comparison ; and hence these comparative
weights are denoted "chemical equivalents."

TABLE OF ELEMENTARY SUBSTANCES AND OF THEIR
CHEMICAL EQUIVALENTS.

NAMES.

Abbreviated
Symbols.

New Atomic
Weights.

.y

£ «5

o£

<|

sfc

o

NAMES.

Abbreviated
Symbols.

New Atomic
Weights.

Ijj

<."§>

s£

0

ALUMINIUM . .
ANTIMONY . . .
ARSENIC ....
BARIUM

Al.
Sb.
As
Ba.

27.4

122. 0

75.0
177. 0

13-7

122. 0

75-0

68. c

MANGANESE . .
MERCURY . . .
MOLYBDENUM,
NICKEL

Mn.
Hg-
Mo.

Ni.

55.0
200. o
96.0

CO.O

27.5

1OO.O

48.0

2Q ?

BERYLLIUM, or
GLUCINIUM . .
BISMUTH ....
BORON
BROMINE ....

Be.
Gl.
Bi.
B.
Br

1

j 9-o

209.0
10.9
80.0

4-5
209.0
10.9
80 o

NIOBIUM, or
COLUMBIUM . .
NITROGEN . . .
OSMIUM
OXYGEN •

Nb.
Cb.
N.
Os.

o

r

J94.0

14.0
199.0
16 o

94.0
14.0

99-5
8 o

CADMIUM . . .
CAESIUM ....
CALCIUM ....
CARBON

Cd.
Cs.
Ca.
C.

112. 0

I33-°
40.0

12. 0

56.0
J33-°

2O.O

6.0

PALLADIUM . .
PHOSPHORUS .
PLATINUM . . .
POTASSIUM . .

Pd.
P.
Pt.
K

106.5
31.0
197.4

^Q.I I

53-25
31.0
98.7

CERIUM

Ce.

92.O

46.0

RHODIUM . . .

Rh.

IO4.O

C2 0

CHLORINE . . .
CHROMIUM . .
COBALT
COLUMBIUM, or

Cl.
Cr.
Co.
Cb.

35-5
52-5
59.0

35-5
26.25
29.5

RUBIDIUM . . .
RUTHENIUM. .
SELENIUM . . .
SILICON

Rb.
Ru.
Se.

Si.

85.5
104.0

79-5
28.0

85-5
52.0

39-75

Id. O

NIOBIUM . . .

Nb

J94.o

94.0

As

log o

1 08 o

COPPER ...

Cu

6-3.4

•?i ^

SODIUM

Na

DIDYMIUM . . .
ERBIUM .....

D.
E

96.0

I 12.6

48.0

STRONTIUM
SULPHUR

Sr.

s

87.5

72 O

43-8

FLUORINE . . .
GALLIUM ....
GLUCINIUM, or
BERYLLIUM . .
GOLD

F.

Gl.
Be.
Au

19.0
j 9-°

19.0

4-5
08 o

TANTALUM.
TELLURIUM
TERBIUM . .
THALLIUM .

Ta.
Te.
Tr.
Tl.
Th

182.0
129.0
148.5
204.0

182.0
64.5
74.2
204.0

HYDROGEN . . .

H.

2.O

I.O

TIN

Sn.

118.0

CQ.O

INDIUM . .

In

114. O

TITANIUM

Ti

IODINE
IRIDIIJM

I.
Ir.

127.0
107.2

127.0
98 6

TUNGSTEN .
URANIUM

W.

Ur

184.0

92.O

IRON
LANTHANUM .
LEAD

Fe.
La.
Ph,

56.0
139.0
207.0

28.0
69-5

lO^.C

VANADIUM.
YTTRIUM . .
ZINC

V.
Yt.
Zn.

51.0
92.5

6;.o

5I.O
4625

32-5

LITHIUM ....

MAGNESIUM . .

Li.
Mg.

7.0
24-3

7.0
12.15

ZIRCONIUM . .

Zr.

890

44-75

RELATIVE WEIGHTS OF MOLECULES.

169

The better to adapt the fractional parts of atomic
heights to the standard of a molecule of hydrogen,
the latter has been nominally doubled ; as shown
by the difference in the lists of the old and new
symbols in the foregoing table.

The differences* of atomic weights and magni-
tudes of the several kinds of molecules demon-
strate their existence as varied atomic structures,
or machines ; and their several peculiar functions
are evidences of intelligence in the Constructor
of molecules, rather than in the created molecules
themselves. As Professor Dana sagaciously af-
firms, " Molecular law is the profoundest expres-
sion of the Divine will."

Molecules, although too minute to be separately
weighed and measured, are large
enough to be shadowed by solar
microscopes, while moving on a
sheet of glass in the process of
crystallization.

The relative weights and mag-
nitudes of the several kinds of
molecules are ascertained by de-
composing various compound
substances, such as water, car-
bonic-acid gas, &c. In forming
compounds, molecules are sup-
posed to be coupled together in
pairs. By decomposing a quan-
tity of water, and obtaining .its Fif,

170 MOLECULAR ATTRACTIONS

constituent elements of oxygen and hydrogen in
separate gaseous states, as by a voltameter, repre-
sented in Fig. 60, the oxygen molecules, rising
from one end, or pole of the battery circuit, ascend
into the inverted glass-tube o, and the hydrogen
into the other tube, H. The respective volumes are
indicated by the unshaded portions of the tubes,
and may be severally weighed. In this way the
relative weights and volumes of the oxygen and
hydrogen are ascertained. The molecules of
hydrogen occupy double the space of the mole-
cules of oxygen, and have only one-eighth the
weight.

If the two separated gases be commingled in
one tube, and an electric spark be passed through
them, they become electro-magnetically reunited,
and reproduce water; which weighs as much as
the two separate gases. " Tested by the battery
poles, substances, considered singly, are neither
positive nor negative."

By rendering the molecules of various com-
pound substances freely movable in a liquid state,
and placing therein the ends of a conducting-wire
connected with a voltaic battery, it is found that
one kind of molecules goes to a particular end, or
pole, of the battery circuit, and the other kind of
molecules to the opposite pole, in a systematic
order; commencing with molecules of oxygen,
which stands at the head of the list in affinity for
the positive pole, being electro-negative to all

AND REPULSIONS. 171

other kinds of molecules. Molecules of potassium
and nitrogen go to the negative pole, being ex-
tremely positive.

These orderly unions and separations of mole-
cules, when subjected to excitation between the
two poles of a voltaic battery, show their functions
as natural electrical machines.

By pervading the spaces intervening between
all the particles of bodies, the electric ether diffuses
impulses to every individual part, thus moving the
whole. Consequently the number, or quantity, of
individual atoms in a body is ascertained by the ex-
tent of its gravitating force toward the earth ; this
being determined by the standard test of coun-
terpoising weights. The difference of weights
of the several kinds of elementary molecules indi-
cates the various quantities of matter they sever-
ally contain.

Each kind being propelled toward one of the
two poles of a voltaic battery with a special degree
of force, the different kinds of molecules in com-
pound substances are thus separated from each
other, or decomposed ; as illustrated in the decom-
position of water by the voltameter.

The peculiar order in which each kind of mole-
cule goes to a pole of a voltaic circuit, in a regu-
lar scale of relationship, shows its subjection to
systematic molecular laws.

When the molecules of compound substances
are attracted to opposite poles of a voltaic circuit,

172 MOLECULAR POLARIZATIONS.

they are electro-magnetically separated. Relying
on this law, Sir Humphrey Davy proceeded to
subject some dissolved potash in a saucer between
the two poles of a powerful voltaic battery, and
first revealed the surprising fact that this substance
is an oxide, or rust, of a shining metal resembling
silver.1

Followi-ng out this mode of detecting the exist-
ence of different kinds of molecules in various
compound substances, several important metals
were discovered ; now well known as calcium,
magnesium, aluminium, silicium, &c., — the names
of these metals being borrowed from the names of
the compound substances from which they were
obtained.

To designate the family relationships of certain
kinds of groupings of atoms into metallic mole-
cules,

A CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTIVE NOMENCLATURE
IS INTRODUCED.

To distinguish the newly discovered metals
from the early known metals, a simple nomen-
clature is used, by giving to them the terminal
ium, — as potassium, calcium, magnesium, alu-
minium, &c. The only non-metallic substance
having the terminal ium is selenium.

1 The simple apparatus originally employed in making this memor-
able discovery, was courteously exhibited to the writer by his illustrious
successor) Professor Faraday, at the Royal Institution in London, in
1852, during an interesting visit to that temple, hallowed by many grand
discoveries in Physical Science.

CLASSIFICATION OF MOLECULES. 173

The older known metals are classified in chem-
ical vocabularies by their original Latin names,
all having a terminal in um, — as ferrum, iron ;
argentum, silver ; aurum, gold ; &c.

To the elementary molecules of a doubtful kind
is given the terminal ine, — as chlorine, bromine,
iodine, fluorine, &c.

To designate the unions of molecules in differ-
ent relative proportions, Latin terms and Greek
numerals are used ; as protoxide, deutoxide, or
binoxide, &c. : the highest combining portion of
one kind of molecule with another is designated
by the prefix per ; as the /^r-oxide of iron, per-
oxide of hydrogen, &C.1

In the formation of the atmosphere, which
entirely covers the surface of the planet, and of
the waters beneath it, that cover nearly four-fifths
of the surface of the globe, the four most freely
movable and readily excitable kinds of molecules
are employed, on account of their superior effi-
ciency.

1 The latter compound is water, united with an extra proportion of
oxygen ; similar to the surcharge of soda water with carbonic-acid gas.
A surcharge of water with molecules of oxygen is produced by bringing
steam into contact with particles of air in "surface condensers." This
excess of oxygen being set free by heat in boilers on ocean steamers,
where " surface condensers " are used to obtain fresh distilled water for
supplying the boilers, it is found that the free oxygen rapidly corrodes
the iron plates. This difficulty, which countervails the theoretical ad-
vantage of the use of fresh water in marine boilers, might probably be
obviated by passing the condensed water through a tube containing
waste chips of iron turnings, with which oxygen combines with almost
explosive rapidity. This may be tested by dropping iron filings into
water, containing a surcharge of oxygen, in the state of " peroxide of
hydrogen."

174 ANCIENT CLASSIFICATION.

The ancient philosophers classified the material
world into four elementary divisions, — fire, air,
earth, and water. They taught " the existence of
a universally diffused ethereal medium, pervading
all things, and manifest 3&fire when put in motion."
This ethereal medium they placed at the head of
elementary substances, as occupying all space not
occupied by other matter, and as being in contin-
ual motion.

These unceasing motions we can trace, through
the momentum of the vast solar systems, to the
power of their " Unknown God."

MOLECULES, ELECTRIC MACHINES. 175

CHAPTER XX.

FUNCTIONS OF MOLECULES OF OXYGEN, CARBON, HYDRO-
GEN, AND NITROGEN, AS ELECTRICAL MACHINES.

HPHE molecules of oxygen take precedence of all
others, both in comparative quantity and facil-
ity of motion by excitation. They constitute nearly
half of the matter of our planet, including eight-
ninths of the weight of waters, — one-fourth of the
weight of the atmosphere, — and a large part of the
rocks, sands, and clays. The molecules of oxygen
are kept ever moving in the air and waters, from
region to region over the earth, forming unions
with other kinds of molecules, and dissevering
them ; according to their changing states of exci-
tation, as by sunshine and shade, heat and cold.

Oxygen gas is readily obtained by disuniting it
from other kinds of molecules; as by the decom-
position of water and of various metallic oxides.
For experimental purposes it is commonly pro-
cured by heating chloride of potash in a retort.
The influence of molecules of oxygen in produc-
ing acids, obtained for them their characteristic
name ; from the two Greek words, oxus, acid, and

176 PECULIAR FUNCTIONS OF

GENNAO, I produce. These molecules are distin-
guished for producing light and heat, by uniting
with most other kinds of elementary molecules, as
iron, gold, zinc, &c. ; but more especially with mol-
ecules of carbon. Their rapid electro-magnetic
union with substances used as fuel is denoted
combustion ; a slower union of oxygen with other
substances in voltaic cells, or by fermentation and
putrefaction, is called chemical decomposition.

The molecules of oxygen and hydrogen unite
with intense activity in the process of combustion,
and an equally intense excitation is requisite to
separate them, — as is shown by a voltameter in
the decomposition of water.

To these very important functions of molecules
of oxygen we shall have frequent occasion to re-
cur, in sketching some of the functions of carbon,
hydrogen, and nitrogen, in their various connec-
tions with oxygen, in organic formations of plants
and animals.

MOLECULES OF CARBON.

Next in importance to molecules of oxygen are
molecules of carbon. If the former be deemed
the Jupiter of elementary substances, carbon may
be deemed the Juno.

The molecules of carbon in a diamond, by their

strong electro-magnetic union, overpower the

electro-magnetic unions of all other kinds of mol-

,ecules, which they sever by their cutting points.

MOLECULES OF CARBON. 177

The addition of only one molecule of carbon to
a hundred molecules of iron, carries with it a
peculiar hardness and cutting property by con-
verting the iron into steel, and doubles the value
of the iron, to which it imparts permanent mag-
netic powers. The addition of about fifty per cent
of molecules of carbon to the elements compos-
ing water (hydrogen and oxygen), characterizes
the substance of saps, fruits, and grains serving as
food, to be reorganized into the bodies of living
animals. The very same molecules of carbon,
excited by sunshine on the leaves of plants, carry
with them their tenacious properties in the for-
mation of fibres of hemp, cotton, flax, jute, &c.
Other kinds of merchandise, especially valued for
peculiar characteristics, are composed of carbon in
variously proportioned combination with the three
other kinds of molecules, — oxygen, hydrogen, and
nitrogen. These compounds develop the several
peculiar properties of wood, fruits, grains, grasses,
tobacco, opium, drugs and medicines, food and
fuel.

Carbon united with oxygen, as carbonic-acid
gas, combines with molecules of the metal calcium
in the formation of lime-rocks and marbles, of the
bony skeletons of animals, and even of the trans-
lucent and iridescent pearls. One half the weight
of dried flesh and blood consists of molecules of
pure carbon or .charcoal ; a*s also one quarter of
the weight of all dried wood. This is shown in

178 MOLECULES OF HYDROGEN.

the process of driving off the other three kinds of
molecules by heat.

The extent to which this process of carboniza-
tion has been carried on during the geological
heating of our planet is manifest in the vast beds
of mineral coal, organized by antediluvian sunshine
on the leaves of plants. Indeed, molecules of car-
bon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, combined
by the solar excitation transmitted to the outspread
leaves of plants, constitute the substances most es-
sential for sustaining life, and those whose posses-
sion is prized as individual and national wealth.

MOLECULES OF HYDROGEN.

Molecules of pure hydrogen, in the form of gas,
rarely exist; being generally found in a state of
union with oxygen as water, and with other kinds
of molecules.

It is used in balloons on account of its great
buoyancy. A triple alliance of molecules of
hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon imparts a wonder-
ful diversity of properties to numerous organic
substances, as wood, vegetable oil, animal flesh
and fat, &c.

One of the most remarkable changes in the
properties of hydrogen molecules is their conver-
sion into acids, when united with oxygen ; and
into alkaloids, when combined with nitrogen, — as
in the formation of ammonia.

Equal measures of hydrogen and chlorine gases,

MOLECULES OF NITROGEN. 179

when commingled, form such an unstable mixture
that a gleam of sunshine upon them will cause an
explosion, — like that produced by the union of
molecules of hydrogen and oxygen by an electric
spark.

Numerous changes of characteristic properties
of organic compounds are produced by varying
the proportionate quantities of the molecules of
hydrogen and carbon.

MOLECULES OF NITROGEN.

The molecules of nitrogen are manifestly em-
ployed for partially neutralizing and modifying the
transmission of electro-mechanical action and re-
action between other kinds of molecules. Were
not the atmosphere diluted with three-quarter
parts of molecules of nitrogen, the intensity of the
electro-magnetic attraction of the pure molecules
of oxygen for other kinds of molecules would pro-
duce a conflagration of surrounding bodies. Even
the grate bars of a furnace would burn with a
more brilliant light and intense heat than any
fuel ordinarily consumed therein.

If the proportion of the molecules of nitrogen
and oxygen in the atmosphere — composed, by
weight, of nitrogen seventy-seven and oxygen
twenty-three — be reversed to oxygen seventy-
seven and nitrogen twenty-three, nitric acid
would be developed ; which is the most powerful
re -agent employed by chemists for decomposing
compound substances.

l8o COMBINATION OF MOLECULES.

Organic substances composed of carbon, united
with hydrogen and oxygen in the proportions
constituting water (such as cotton, oil, and animal
fat), if impregnated with nitrogen, produce ex-
plosive substances, — gun-cotton, nitro-glycerine,
dynamite, &c.

A remarkably sudden development of reaction
ensues, when the molecules of nitrogen predominate
in a compound with carbon, — as in prussic, or
hydrocyanic acid, — in the proportions of

NITROGEN 14 = 51.85 by weight 1

CARBON 12 = 44 .55 „ 1 PRUSSIC ACID.

HYDROGEN i = 3.70 „ J

When this unstable compound of prussic acid
is taken into the stomach, the carbon, instead of
being slowly dissolved into chyle by the usual
process of digestipn, unites with the oxygen of
liquids in the stomach with nitrogenous rapidity ;
and, probably reversing the direction of the electric
currents through the sensorial nerves, produces
an instantaneous cessation of nervous sensibility,
and the suspension of the vital powers.1

The presence of the molecules of nitrogen in
the compound substance ammonia (NH3) hastens

1 If the nitrogenous compound of prussic acid be taken into the
stomach in a considerable quantity, a nervous paralysis ensues, until the
blood coagulates and death take$ place ; but if the quantity be small,
only a temporary nervous insensibility follows, — as was verified by the
writer in an attempt to make way with an obnoxious cat. The animal
apparently became dead in an instant, and was decently buried in a dis-
tant ash-pit. After a time, he reappeared on the scene like Banquo's
ghost, and, looking up reproachfully, began to shake off his shroud of
ashes !

DIFFERENCE OF SAME GROUPINGS. l8l

greatly the decomposition of all organic sub-
stances used for fertilizers in agriculture.

«

ISOMERIC BODIES.

Isomeric bodies do not always manifest the
same peculiar properties. The oil of turpentine,
of 'lemon, and of roses, being analyzed, appear to
be composed of the same identical proportions ;
and yet they transmit different reactions through
the sensorial nerves.

Chemists have tried to convert resin into butter
on isomeric principles ; " but the scent of the resin
will hang round it still." Similar attempts con-
tinue to be made to convert oils and fat into
butter.

The reflection of colors from the surface of iso-
meric bodies appears to be remarkably uniform ;
as discovered by Graeby and Silberman, in- substi-
tuting the colors called "Aniline," derived from
coal-tar, for the coloring matter in madder, now
generally used for dyeing cloths red, purple, and
violet.

Not only do different kinds of molecules reflect
vibrations of light with different intensity, corre-
sponding to a chromatic scale of colors, but also
peculiar dark lines, or markings (discovered by
Frauenh offer), on which is now based what is
called " Spectrum Analysis." This is the most
delicate known test for determining the kinds of
molecules contained in compound substances, and

1 82 ELECTRO-POLARIZATION OF ATOMS,

the only test of the composition of the heavenly
bodies. The excitation of the flame of a blow-
pipe, directed upon specimens of metals and ores
laid on a piece of charcoal, affords a beautiful ex-
hibition of colors developed by different kinds of
molecules. The presence of molecules of stron-
tium, copper, soda, &c., modify the vibrations of
light and colors transmitted to the eye.

FORMATION OF MOLECULES INTO CRYSTALS.

The orderly and systematic movements of mol-
ecules during the process of crystallization are
wonderfully displayed by the magnifying powers
of optical instruments. Their shadow.y outlines
appear moving over a white sheet of canvas in
files, like drilled soldiers passing in review. The
gradual evaporation of a liquid solution of salts,
spread on a transparent sheet of glass, brings the
molecules toward each other within the range of
their reciprocal electro-magnetic forces ; when they
successively start forward to their proper places
to form beautiful symmetrical crystals, without any
of the jostlings or mistakes observable in the ranks
at a militia m.uster. So orderly are the movements,
that the molecules seem to be endowed with self-
motive and self-directive powers. Expressions of
surprise and admiration are often heard from
spectators, who for the first time behold the won-
derful automatic movements of molecules in the
process of crystallization.

CRYSTALLIZATION.

18

The symmetrical electro-magnetic unions of
particles of water are familiarly exhibited in the
feathery crystals of fall-
ing snow (Fig. 61). It
will be noticed that the
arrangements of its
molecules are all hexag-
onal. Different kinds
of molecules have other
different and peculiar
arrangements, some of
which are delineated in
Fig. 62, showing their
characteristic forms of
crystalline polarization.
The shapes of crystals
are deemed by chemists Fig- 6l>

to be indications of the peculiar kinds of molecules
distinguishing them.

Fig. 62.

The hexagonal lines of crystals of water are
familiarly seen in the frost-work on window-panes,
produced by the axial rotation that predominates
during the withdrawal of solar reaction in wintry
nights, as previously described. So mathematically

184 CAUSE OF ANGULAR SHAPES.

exact are the polygonal shapes of crystals, that they
appear to be works of art, rather than natural for-
mations. Feeble as may appear the movements
of molecules visible under the microscope, yet the
power that moves them is more forcible than that
of gunpowder ; for the strongest cannon are burst
by the expansion of particles of water, on reducing
the temperature a few degrees below the freezing
point. Thus the terrestrial currents that produce
a change of particles of water into ice-crystals
exceed the force developed by the vibrations
excited by 1000° of heat.

The angular and symmetrical forms of crystals
appear to result from the peculiar shape of each
kind of molecule, these molecules fitting to each
other electro-magnetically according to the angles
of their various sides. A cube is formed by
molecules arranged with rectangular sides, as is
manifest from the cleavages. The various angles
at which they unite may be indicated by sprink-
ling on a loadstone small nails with angular heads.
The sloping sides of the heads are drawn to the
sides of the loadstone, giving corresponding direc-
tion to the nails, which bristle out in various di-
rections, as represented in Fig. 63. l

The polarization of watery sap in the vesicles of

1 A speculative philosopher, the Rev. J. G. McVicar, LL.D., has
fancifully depicted various forms of molecules, adapting them to fit
together in different combinations, — some of these curious forms resem-
bling the hour-glass-shaped waists of the belles of ancient times.

SHAPES OF MOLECULES.

185

the leaves of plants crystallizes it into ice, and

bursts them like bottles
containing freezing
water; as occurs in
autumn through the
waning vibrations of
sunshihe, when the ter-
restrial currents pre-
dominate. The leaves
of evergreens escape
destruction and retain
perennial verdure be-
cause the vesicles are
rilled with unpolarized
oils.

In the preceding figure, ordinary flat-headed
iron tack nails are represented. If the heads are
made of a sloping shape, they are held to the sur-
face in diagonal directions, as if fitted together
by mitre-joints to form hexagonal, octagonal, and
other symmetrical shapes.

63.

1 86

PECULIAR MOLECULAR GROUPINGS.

CHAPTER XXI.

PECULIAR QUALITIES OF COMPOUND SUBSTANCES DE-
VELOPED BY VARIOUS RELATIVE PROPORTIONS OF
THE SAME KINDS OF MOLECULES.

/T*HE following table exhibits the remarkable
difference in the characteristic properties of
well known compound substances, developed by
increasing the number of molecules of carbon and
hydrogen, by pairs, from four to thirty-four, with a
constant quantity of four molecules of oxygen.

VINEGAR, BUTTER, VEGETABLE OILS, AND FAT PRODUCED
BY VARYING THE RELATIVE PROPORTIONS OF CARBON,
HYDROGEN, AND OXYGEN.

No.

Union
Carb.

of Mole
Hydro.

cules of
Oxy.

Compound Substances Produced.

j

4

4

4

Vinegar . .

or Acetic . .

Acid.

2

6

6

4

Burnt Sugar

Meta-cetonic

3

8

8

4

Butter . .

Butyric . .

4

10

10

4

Vegetable Oil

Valerianic .

12

12

4

J J)

Caproic . .

6

»4

14

4

Oenan-thylic

7
8

16
18

16

18

4
4

' "

Caprytic . .
Pelargonic .

9

20

20

4

, ,,

Capric . .

10

_

—

—

ii

24

24

4

Bayberry Tallo

w

Laurie . .

12

26

26

4

Cocoanut Oil

Coconic .

13

2"8

28

4

Nutmeg Oil .

Myristic .

15

32

32

4

Palm Oil .

Palmitic .

16

34

34

4

Animal Fat.

Margaric

The presence of four molecules of oxygen in
each of these groupings appears to determine their
acid property.

VARIED MOLECULAR GROUPINGS.

I87

The grouping of four molecules of carbon with
six of hydrogen and only one of oxygen is essential
to the development of the exciting powers of alco-
hol, which takes precedence of all other substances
for general use in stimulating the vital powers ;
even to the destruction of body and mind. By
increasing the carbon from four to ten, with
eight of hydrogen and one of nitrogen, another
stimulating vegetable substance — nicotine — is
produced.

By combination in other various proportions of
the four kinds of molecules, — carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen, — the peculiar powers of
numerous drugs and medicines are developed, as
shown comparatively in the following table : —

PROPERTIES OF DRUGS AND MEDICINES DEVELOPED BY
VARIED MOLECULAR GROUPINGS.

Mercantile Names.

Carbon.

Hydrogen.

Oxygen.

Nitrogen.

Chem. Names.

OPIUM

QUININE . . .

22

12

2

QUININE.

TOBACCO . . .

IO

8

o

I

NICOTINE.

ALCOHOL . . .

4

6

I

0

ALCOHOL.

This wonderful diversity of characteristic prop-
erties is brought about by varied .combinations of
only a few of the sixty-six different kinds of ele-
mentary molecules. All the various qualities of food
for exciting the vital powers, — of deadly poisons
terminating them, — of salutary drugs and healing
medicines, are developed through the instrumen-

i88

MOLECULAR ORGANISMS

tality of groupings of molecules, as machines for
modifying the excitation and diffusion of elec-
tro-mechanical action induced by the planetary
forces.

COMPARATIVE QUANTITIES OF ELEMENTARY MOLE-
CULES GROUPED IN THE ORGANISMS OF PLANTS AND
ANIMALS.

Constituents of Plants
and Animals.

ALBUMEN.

FlBRINE.

CASEINE.

Plants.
Wheat.

Animals.
Blood,
Eggs.

Plants.
Sap.

Animals.
Muscles.

Plants.

Various
Seeds.

Animals.

Milk and
Cheese.

CARBON

54-71

15.02

7-13
23.14

54.84

I5-83
7.09

22.24

54.60
15.81
7-30

22.29

54o6
15.72
6.90

22.82

54.13
15.67

7.15
23-03

54.96
15.80
7.09

22.24

NITROGEN

OXYGEN. . . . 22.i2\
SULPHUR . . . .37!
PHOSPHORUS, .35!
LIME 307

IOO.

IOO.

IOO.

IOO.

IOO.

IOO.

The vegetable albumen of wheat, constituting
one of the principal kinds of food of man, and the
animal albumen of meat, muscle, and eggs, are
nearly identical.

Albumen — composed of molecules of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, with a little lime,
sulphur, and phosphorus — is first organized by sun-
shine on the leaves of plants into the compound
substances constituting food for animals ; which
is reorganized into living mechanisms. As
affirmed by Liebig, " Albumen is the true start-
ing point of all animal tissues." From albumen
in an egg, all the feathers, bones, flesh, and horny
bill of a complete bird are developed. A little

FORMING ALBUMEN, FIBRINE, CASEINE. 189

iron is present in the blood, serving to impart to
it a red color, and a little silicon and potash are
found in the solid skeleton parts of plants and
animals. These kinds of molecules are scientifi-
cally combined together to form the mechanisms
of living plants, and of the animals in which finite
intelligences on earth for a brief time have local
habitations. The immediate seat of human intel-
ligence, the brain, according to Fremy, is composed
of seven parts of albumen and five of fatty matter,
with a little phosphorus and sulphur, and the
remaining seventy-five parts of water. In this
arrangement of molecules in cells, tubes, and con-
ducting nerves, constituting the brain, human
intelligence is enthroned, and by it receives and
transmits communications from and to the objects
of the external world.

As each individual molecule serves as an elec-
trical machine for developing a peculiar reaction,
so each kind of groupings of molecules similarly
serves to develop a peculiar electro-mechanical
reaction, which constitutes the characteristic prop-
erties of various compound substances.

The annexed table exhibits the proportionate
quantities of each of the four most excitable kinds
of elementary molecules, which are utilized as
food for developing plants and animals, animal
warmth and motive-power ; and also as fuel for
developing heat, light, and the motive-power of
steam.

I9O MOLECULES FORMING FOOD AND FUEL.

RELATIVE PROPORTIONS OF THE FOUR KINDS OF FLUID
ATMOSPHERIC MOLECULES, WHICH ENTER INTO THE
ORGANIC FORMATIONS OF FOOD AND FUEL.

TABLE OF VEGETABLE ORGANIC FORMATIONS UTILIZED AS FOOD

AND FUEL.

Food and Fuel.

Carbon.

Hydrogen.

Oxygen.

Nitrogen.

Ashes,
&c.

Total.

WHEAT

46.10

<;.8o

47.04

2.O7

2.04

TOO

OATS

l?0. 7O

•>
o.oo

77. "?o

•} QO

4-

IOO

DRY HAY

40.

«;.6T

76.71

1.84

6.82

IOO

DRIED POTATOES .

44.

5.80

44.7°

1.50

4-

IOO

DRIED TURNIPS .

43-

5.40

42.30

1.70

7.60

IOO

OLIVE OIL . .

77 21

XL ID

Q 47

BUTTER .

40.

2O

TURPENTINE . . .

8-8.46

11.54

_

•_

IOO

WHALE OIL ....

79-

11.54

9-

-

-

IOO

HOG'S FAT ....

79-

11.54

10.

-

-

IOO

HUMAN FAT . . .

79-

11.54

10.

-

-

IOO

BLOOD, FLESH . .

73-

7-

20.

_

3-

IOO

WOOD, OR LIGNINE
BITUMINOUS COAL

50.
70.

L,

42.
12.50

6.25

5.

IOO
IOO

ANTHRACITE COAL

89.

3-

4-

6.25

3-

IOO

The ashes are constituted of potash, silex, lime,
and sulphur.

PLANTS AS ELECTRIC MACHINES. 19 1

CHAPTER XXII.

PLANTS AS ELECTRIC MACHINES.

TV/TATTER has been classified into two grand
divisions, — ORGANIC and INORGANIC.

By microscopic examination of the structure of
plants, and also of animals, they are found to be
composed of congeries of tubes, resembling the
multitude of pipes in an organ : hence the term,
organic, originated in contradistinction to the
grouping of molecules into crystals by electro-
magnetism, denoted inorganic formations.

The union of molecules by electro-magnetism
in liquid, and aeriform, and various other states,
without any crystalline structure, is designated
AMORPHOUS.

The total number and quantity of organic re-
mains on the surface and in the strata of the earth
are inconceivably great. Nearly half of the earth's
surface is covered with animal and vegetable fos-
siliferous deposits : many of the latter are several
thousand feet in thickness. They abound on
mountains at an elevation of more than sixteen
thousand feet above the level of the sea, — in strata
on the Himalayas and the Andes, — and are found
at the bottom of the ocean at a greater number of

PLANTS AS CURRENT CHANGERS.

feet below its level. There are far more beings
entombed within the earth than are alive upon its
surface.

The name of " Plant " is derived from PLANTA,
the sole of the foot, — as if plants stood on one foot
while holding out their leaves and blossoms ; de-
noted petals, from the Greek PETALOS, outspread.

The leaves of plants over the whole surface of
the earth, while excited by sunshine, like the
excited plates or leaves of a voltaic battery, are
specially adapted to decompose water and car-
bonic-acid gas ; so that plants are really electric
machines.

As the ebbing and flowing tidal waves of the
electric ether, excited by artificial revolving mag-
nets, are converted by " current-changers " into
currents moving in a uniform direction, so there
are over a quarter of a million of different kinds of
natural mechanisms of plants subjected to solar
excitation, which convert the vibrations of light
and heat into thermo-electric currents through
the sap pores, in a circuit between the leaves and
the roots buried in the cool moist earth.

As the plates or leaves of zinc, excited by acids
in the cells of voltaic batteries, remain cool while
converting vibrations into electric currents, so,
during a like natural process, the leaves of all
plants remain cool, while decomposing the car-
bonic-acid gas and water brought to them by
zephyrs and rain-drops as their appropriate food.

ORGANIC FORMATIONS UNSTABLE. 193

Plants being composed of electro-magnetic mol-
ecules are consequently, in their groupings and
masses, electro-magnetic. The organs of living
plants are galvanic batteries, transmitting and
modifying solar vibrations. The excitation of elec-
tricity is going on in every movement of organic
as well as inorganic matter, and a disturbance of
electric equilibrium is continually taking place in
each molecule of the living plant and animal.

By the law of compensating movements a speedy
or gradual restoration of the disturbed equilibrium
is effected, by what is denoted

CHEMICAL DECOMPOSITION.

A chemical analysis of plants shows that their
organic structures are composed of the same ele-
mentary molecules as the atmosphere and water, —
oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen.

The establishment of life-power in connection
with molecules grouped into the germs of organic
formations of plants, may be ascribed to the ab-
solute will of the great First Cause, as it is beyond
the scope of science. " And God said, Let the
earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and
the fruit-tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose
seed is in itself upon the earth ; and it was so."

Observation teaches us that every static and
dynamic condition of the groupings of such mole-
cules, both in plants and animals, is governed by
mechanical laws.

13

PLANTS ELECTRO-PLATED GERMS.

The two great processes in the growth of plants
are the decomposition of carbonic-acid gas, and
the electro-plating of molecules of carbon upon
model germs of new plants.

In electro-plating, the magneto-electric machine
is formed of magnets revolving around a central
axis, with a current-changer annexed. Scientific
knowledge is shown in the construction of the
machine, and artistic skill is required for the pro-
duction of original and beautiful models.

So, in the natural process of electro-plating, the
motive-power is the magneto-electric machine of
the solar system ; the current-changers are the
leaves of plants ; and the original models to be
electro-plated are the embryo germs in seed-
vessels.

The decomposition of carbonic-acid gas, and
the transfer of the carbon, molecule by molecule,
through the liquid solution of sap, into the organic
formations of plants, renders our planet (among
other marvels) a great electro-plating machine,
continually employed in developing the embryo
germs of plants into strength and growth.

Omniscience and omnipotence are manifested
in the original conception and construction, and
in the graceful and elaborate forms of the model
germs.

Plants are found which have received the de-
scriptive names of the bee and fly plants. Others
resemble hoods, helmets, arrow-heads, slippers,

VARIETY OF ORIGINAL GERMS. 195

horsetails, pitchers with nicely fitted lids au-
tomatically opening in wet and closing in dry
weather. On the parched plains of Ceylon,
birds sip water therefrom.

The Passion-flower is so called from a resem-
blance to the sacred emblems of the crucifixion.
Many of these flowers resemble works of art. A
plant in the regions of Panama has the form of
a dove with outspread wings and drooping head,
as represented by the old masters in the baptism of
our Saviour. The cyenoche plant of Surinam has
the graceful outline of a swan, with its curving
neck and swelling breast. One of these flower-
birds shows a head with a white crest curved back,
as if to plume its feathers.

There is no limit to these fanciful forms. The
germs of plants, like those of animals, are devel-
oped by sexual organs of stamens and pistils, and
are classed together in families.

They appear to manifest parental rejoicing on
the birthday of each new-born germ, by hanging
out blossoms, like painted and perfumed banners
pendent from twigs and stems, and resplendent in
the sunshine.

The seeds of certain plants are disseminated by
winds and ^ waters. The cocoanut, a little argo-
naut, provisioned with milk and water for a sea
voyage, freighted with a life of its own, with its
magnetic and diamagnetic currents, impelled by
winds and tides, floats over the water, reaching at

196 SOCIAL CONDITION OF PLANTS.

length some coral island in mid-ocean. Dashed
on the strand by the waves, it is saved from fracture
by its hard covering. The spongy husk absorbs
the rains. The rootlets descend through two ap-
.ertures in the shell ; the sprout ascends through
a third ; and speedily a young palm tree spreads
its broad leaf to the vibrations of the solar light
and heat.

If this incipient palm tree, by its self-directive
powers, anticipates geological formations, provi-
sions its craft for a sea voyage, and takes possession
of an emerging coral isle, it as much surpasses
man in intelligence as in physical growth.

Among the dense crowds of growing plants, as
in the ranks of social life, there is the same aspiring
to overtop each other, the same laying up of little
stores for the future wants of their offspring, and
the same appropriation of them by others, not their
progeny.

Plants extend their roots to reach substances
which are their appropriate food. The molecules
of carbonic-acid gas, in permeating the soil, are
attracted by the negative points of the rootlets, as
by the pole in a galvanic circuit in electro-plating
with molecules of gold or silver. By the continued
deposit of molecules of carbon on the ends of the
rootlets in the direction of the advancing current
of carbonic-acid gas, the accretions naturally take
place in the direction of the decomposing body,
from which the gas issues.

ELECTRIC EXCITATION BY PLANTS. 197

If a body absorbs carbonic-acid gas and gives
out oxygen, it belongs to the vegetable kingdom ;
if it absorbs oxygen and gives out carbonic-acid
gas, it belongs to the animal kingdom. In this
way the difference is tested.

Becquerel says that electric currents may be ac-
tually detected between the parts about the stems
and the opposite parts of various kinds of fruit.

" Certain vegetable organizations, especially those
of an orange color, — such as the mangold, orange
lily, monkshood, and indian pink, — emit at inter-
vals of several minutes two or three flashes of
light in quick succession ; and when several flow-
ers in the same place emitted their light together,
it could be seen at a considerable distance. This
phenomenon was noticed in July and August,
when the sky was clear."

There is no doubt that light is emitted by many
fungi while germinating, and in -some cases to a
very considerable extent. An authentic instance
is recorded, in Gardner's " Travels in Brazil," of a
fungus which grew on the decaying leaves of a
dwarf palm. " The whole plant gives out at night
a bright phosphorescent light of a pale greenish
hue, similar to that emitted by the larger fire-flies.
The light given out by a few of these fungi in a
dark room was sufficient to read by." ]

" No phosphorescence is perceived in the dead
plant." Pouillet also proved experimentally that

1 Carpenter's Physiology.

198 PLANTS EXCITED BY SUNSHINE.

the ordinary processes of vegetable growth are at-
tended with a disturbance of electric equilibrium,
which is manifested when the bodies in which it
takes place are effectually insulated. " Several
pots filled with earth, and containing different
seeds, were placed on an insulated stand in a room,
the air of which was kept dry by quick-lime; and
the stand was placed in connection with a con-
densing electrometer. During germination no
electric disturbance was manifested ; but the seeds
had scarcely sprouted when signs of it were evi-
dent ; and when the young plants were in a com-
plete state of growth, they separated the gold
leaves of the electrometer half an inch from
each other."

It was calculated by him that a vegetating sur-
face of one hundred square metres in extent pro-
duces in a day more electricity than would be
sufficient to charge the strongest battery ; and he
not unreasonably considered that the growth of
plants may be one of the most constant and pow-
erful sources of atmospheric electricity.

The disengagement of vapor from the surface
of the leaves alone would be sufficient to produce
such a disturbance, — as the fluid from which it is
given off is always charged with saline and other
ingredients; and the gaseous changes which are
effected by the leaves upon the oxygen and car-
bonic acid of the atmosphere, may be regarded
as additional sources of its development.

ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN FRUITS. 199

During the various processes of decomposition
and recomposition, which take place in the assimi-
lation of the vegetable juices, we should expect
that electric equilibrium would be constantly dis-
turbed and restored.

" Of this, the following facts, amongst others,
appear to be sufficient evidence. If a wire be
placed in apposition with the bark of a growing
plant, and another be passed into the pith, con-
trary electrical states are indicated when they are
applied to an electrometer. If platinum wires be
passed into the two extremities of a fruit, they
also will be found to present opposite conditions."
"In some fruits, as the apple and pear, the stalk
is negative, the eye positive ; while in such as the
peach and apricot a contrary state exists. If a
prune be divided equatorially, and the juice be
squeezed from its two halves into separate vessels,
its portions will in like manner indicate opposite
electrical states, although no difference can be
perceived in their chemical qualities." ]

1 Annales de Chimie, torn. 57. Carpenter's Physiology, p. 462.

2OO ELECTRIC POWERS OF ANIMALS.

CHAPTER XXIII.

ANIMALS AS ELECTRIC MACHINES.

HPHE extraordinary electrical powers possessed
by certain fishes was noticed in the earliest
records of science, by Aristotle, Pliny, and other
ancient authors. After the discovery of the elec-
trical jar and the shocks produced thereby, the sim-
ilarity of the sensation was so striking as to obtain
for them the name of " electrical " fishes.

In the torpedo, there are a great number of
small membranous cells arranged like those of a
honeycomb, as shown in Fig. 64.

Fig. 64.

These cells are filled with a mucous substance,
and are furnished with tissues of nerves. No use
can be imagined for this peculiar arrangement of
cells, unless it be for the purpose of a galvanic

ELECTRIC POWERS OF THE TORPEDO. 2OI

battery. The electric circuit is directed between
the surface of the belly and that of the back.
It is said that " there are eleven hundred and
eighty-two of these cells in a single organ, all con-
nected by nerves, — which are electrodes, like
conducting wires. When the nerves are cut off,
all transmission of electricity ceases; otherwise
this transmission continues after the heart of
the animal has been cut out and his skin stripped
off."

" The shocks given are subject to the will of
the torpedo ; for he may be touched many times
without giving one. But when irritated, the vio-
lence of the shock will be redoubled."

Electric sparks have been rendered visible by
Matteucci, who applied to the fish two metallic
armatures, having arranged two slips of gold-leaf
very near each other in the connecting circuit.
On irritating the torpedo, a brilliant spark was
seen between them.

" The electrical lobes of the brain of the torpedo
are larger than the whole remainder of that organ ;
and the density of the electrical nerves is greater
than that of the others."

" The electric force is developed in the electric
organ by a disturbance of its equilibrium, conse-
quent upon nervous agency. Such a disturbance
may be conceived to take place in every one of
those minute cells, into which the prism is divided
by transverse partitions. By the multiplication of

2O2 ELECTRIC EXCITATION CAUSES

such cells in each prism, a pile would be pro-
duced, at the two extremes of which the greatest
differences in the electric conditions would be
found ; and the intensity of the discharge would
thus depend upon the number of elements in the
pile ; while its quantity would be proportional to
the multiplication of the separate prisms.

" This is precisely what holds good in Nature ;
for the electric discharge of the gymnotus is far
more intense than that of the torpedo, as might
be expected from the multiplication of its cells ;
so that, according to Professor Faraday, 'a single
medium discharge from this animal gives a shock
equal to that of a battery of fifteen Leyden jars,
containing 3500 square inches, charged to its
highest degree.' Further evidence, that the force
which enables electric fishes to give sensible man-
ifestations of electricity is the same as that which
excites contraction when transmitted to the mus-
cles, is derived from the close conformity between
the conditions under which the two phenomena
respectively occur. The connection of the organs,
specially appropriated to each of these actions,
with the nervous system, — the dependence of their
functions upon the integrity of this connection,
and upon the will of the animal, — the influence
of stimulation applied to the nervous centres or
trunks, — the effect of ligature or section of the
nerve, and the results of poisonous agents, — are
all so remarkably analogous in the two cases,

MUSCULAR CONTRACTION. 203

that it seems scarcely possible to refuse assent to
the proposition, that the nervous power is the
agent which is instrumental in producing both
sets of phenomena." ]

Humboldt2 says that "some of the South
American gymnoti were from five to six English
feet in length, and three and one-half inches in
diameter. The rows of little yellow spots are sym-
metrically arranged along the back, from the head
to the end of the tail, every spot surrounding an
excreting duct. The skin of the animal is coated
with a slimy matter, which, as tested by Volta,
serves to conduct electricity twenty or thirty times
better than water."

Mr. Sidney says of an eel in the Royal Institute
in London : " On giving the animal a good shaking
with the wires he became angry, emitting a dis-
charge which caused an electric spark to pass be-
tween a knob and piece of gold-leaf, which was
partially burned thereby. Compound substances
were decomposed, steel needles were magnetized,
and other phenomena were produced similar to
those presented by a regular galvanic apparatus."
He adds that " Captain Basil Hall was laid pros-
trate on the floor by a shock."

In an experiment made with the same eel, by
Mr. Noad, a fine conducting-wire was made red
hot by the electric discharges. A defiant life-

1 Carpenter's Physiology, pp. 465, 470.

2 Annales de Chimie, torn, n, p. 255.

2O4 ELECTRIC DISCHARGES.

guardsman came down upon the boards with the
clang of cuirass and sabre, to the great amuse-
ment of the spectators.

Faraday, in summing up the powers of electrical
fishes, observes : " I cannot refrain from pointing
out the enormous absolute quantity of electricity
which the animal must put in circulation at each
effort. It is doubtful if any common electrical
machine has as yet been able to supply electricity
sufficient, in a reasonable time, to cause true elec-
tro-chemical decomposition of water; yet the cur-
rent from a fish has done it.

" The electrical discharges, each of which en-
dures for a sensible period of time, resemble more
those of a voltaic apparatus, intermittent in its
action, than those of a Leyden jar, which make
their transit in an instant."

Henry Letheby1 states that " there are arranged
along the interior of the body of the electric eel
two pairs of electric organs, composed of aggre-
gations of regular cells of membranous tissues,
extending obliquely from within outward, and con-
taining a peculiar albumino-gelatinous fluid. The
dimensions of these cells are about two hundred in
the space of an inch. The entire number of cells
in the batteries on both sides is about five hundred
and fifty thousand. There are good reasons for
believing that the brain and spinal cord are the
seat of power, and that the battery is no other

1 Transactions of London Electrical Society, p. 367.

ELECTRIC POWER OF GYMNOTUS. 205

than an apparatus for accumulating that power, as
electricity is accumulated in Leyden jars. The
power exists only during life, and while the brain
is active ; and is voluntary and dependent on the
integrity [perfect conductibility] of the nerves.
Direct irritation of the brain will effect a shock."

Humboldt narrates a conflict he saw in South
America between electric eels and horses driven
into the water among them, purposely to exhaust
their muscular power. " Gradually the impetuosity
of the unequal conflict diminished, arid the ex-
hausted eels dispersed." He adds, "they require
long repose and abundance of food to repair the
loss of galvanic force expended." This illustrates
admirably the parallel between fatigue and en-
feebled power of developing electric action.

In the waning power of muscular action result-
ing from continuous labors of the day, and in the
nightly restoration of this power, accumulated
during the repose of the muscles, we have the ren-
ovation of the exhausted electric excitation that
develops vitality.

Some of the lower classes of aquatic animals
appear capable of exciting electrical luminosity in
a greater or less degree, producing the phospho-
rescence of the sea, seen most remarkably between
the tropics. The excitation from .the wheels of an
ocean steamer causes a wake so brilliant that it
lights up the darkness.

A less intense light is sometimes produced in

2O6 ELECTRIC POWER OF ANIMALS

I

shallow water. We have occasionally seen it in
Narragansett Bay, gleaming with the dip of the
oar, or the paddling with the hand.

The most common source of diffused luminosity
is a minute animal, nearly globular, having the ap-
pearance of a lump of homogeneous jelly, and
provided with a stalk-like appendage. Microscop-
ically, it is found to consist of a sac with definite
walls, having its interior — which is for the most
part filled with fluid — traversed by a network of a
more consistent gelatinous substance, containing
numerous cells ; the size and form of which are
continually undergoing alterations. It has been
proved by Dr. Pring, that water containing nocti-
luccz, when subjected to a magneto-electric current,
after a time gives out a steady and continued
flow of light from the whole of the water ; the
surface of which appeared spangled with number-
less persistent points of light. The light ceases
after a quarter of an hour, and cannot be re-
produced, evidently in consequence of the death
of the animals.

" Of all radiated animals, the acalepha are the
most distinguished for luminosity. The light is
emitted particularly round the tentacula, and from
the ciliated surfaces during the movements of the
animal ; it seems to proceed from a very acrid
mucus secreted from the integument.

"The luminosity in many of the marine annelida
is not a steady glow, but a series of vivid scintil-

FOR EXCITING LIGHT. 207

lations, strongly resembling those produced by an
electric discharge through a tube spotted with tin-
foil ; lasting but an instant, but capable of being
repeatedly excited on irritating the animal.

" In the glow-worm the luminous matter con-
sists of little granules, and is contained in minute
sacs covered with a transparent horny lid."

These sacs are mostly composed of a close net-
work of finely divided tracheae, which also ramify
through every part of the granular substance.
The lid exhibits a number of flattened surfaces,
so contrived as to diffuse light in the most advan-
tageous manner.

That electric currents are excited and trans-
mitted from one part to another of other animals
than electric fishes was long ago incontroverti-
bly demonstrated. The life -power both of plants
and animals modifies the transmission of electro-
dynamic action. All that has been said of the
effects of vegetation in producing a disturb-
ance of electric equilibrium will apply equally to
the nutritive and other processes of animals.
M. du Bois-Reymond, in his researches, has proved
that there are no two parts of the body, except
those which correspond on the opposite sides,
whose electric condition is precisely the same ;
and that the differences between them are greater,
in proportion to the diversity of the vital processes
which are taking place in them, and the activity
with which these are carried on. Donne says

2O8 ELECTRIC POWER EXCITES

that the skin and most of the internal membranes
are in opposite electrical conditions. It has been
found by experiment that galvanism is capable
of performing all the functions 'of the nervous in-
fluence in the animal economy.

So numerous are the muscles in certain classes
of animals, that it seems indispensably requisite
that some general pervading principle, like that
of electricity, should act upon them in aggregated
numbers, as well as singly. It has been computed
that in the animal structure of a single pentecrinis
of the class of zoophytes, " there are more than
one hundred and fifty thousand bones, each having
its appropriate antagonistic muscle. There must
be consequently three hundred thousand muscles
to be operated on by the will of the animal." 1

As myriads of frogs' legs might be simultane-
ously contracted by the transmission of a single
electric current through them all, so might this
array of muscles be similarly acted upon at once,
or in sections, by transmission of electric currents
subject to the will of the animal.

By the transmission of a current from electric
machines through the motor nerves, art may over-
come Nature in controlling animal motive -power,
in despite of an opposing will.

Many years ago, while a youthful student of
anatomy and physiology, the writer witnessed ex-
periments with galvanic batteries, on the motor

1 Owen's lecture on Reproduction.

ANIMAL MUSCULAR ACTION. ^ 2CX)

nerves of a human subject, at a time when they
attracted great attention from their novelty. The
most important nerves were laid bare, and succes-
sively subjected to contact with the connecting
wires of powerful combined batteries. The trans-
mission of the electric current caused the arm of
the subject to be uplifted in a menacing attitude,
as when upraised in life to rob a lonely traveller ;
the fingers to move, and the fist to be clenched.
The breast heaved with a convulsive motion, as if
laboring heavily in an attempt to breathe.

By forming contacts with different nerves of
the face, the muscular contractions exhibited a
fitful display of human passions. The eyebrows
became alternately arched, and drawn down into
a scowl ; the nostrils dilated, the mouth con-
tracted, as if tasting powerful acids. Revenge,
desire, and loathing were so naturally counter-
feited, that it required the stern test of reason
and reflection to dispel the illusion that life had
been restored ; particularly when the eyelid opened
with an apparent expression of surprise at being
recalled to a world from which he had been ex-
pelled with infamy. The electric action was finally
transmitted through the extensor muscle of one
of the retracted legs; when it became instantly
extended, and the foot was thrust violently against
the stomach of a curious youth, who was leaning
over the table with eager attention. He fainted
away on receiving the unexpected kick from a

2IO

MUSCULAR CONTRACTION.

dead man's foot. Then the experiment ended by
applying the battery to revive the muscular action
of the impromptu patient. The blow was a start-
ling demonstration of the efficient energy of elec-
tric currents in developing animal motive-power,
and of the fact that nerves and muscles are
electrodes.

It has been suggested by P. M. Roget, that the
contraction, or shortening, of the muscles may be
the result of the reciprocal attraction which ensues
between two portions of conducting matter serv-
ing to transmit electric currents in similar direc-
tions.

A piece of wire wound in a spiral coil and placed
in the circuit of a galvanic current, becomes instan-
taneously shortened or contracted by the lateral
forces exerted between
each approximated coil,
whenever the electric
current is transmitted
through it. The discov-
ery, by microscopic ob-
servation, of spiral coils
in the cells of plants,
and also of similar ar-
rangements of the fibres
of animal muscles, strongly corroborates this sup-
position. In Fig. 65 the wire coil is suspended
vertically over a glass cup filled with mercury, its
lower extremity just dipping into it. The electric

MUSCULAR CONTRACTION OF HEART. 211

current is transmitted from one of the binding
cups of the base board, up the brass pillar to the
coil and downwards through the coil to the mer-
cury, which is connected by a wire passing out of
the bottom of the cup. While the action is trans-
mitted through the coils of the wire, they are sev-
erally propelled toward each other, whereby the
coil is contracted sufficiently to lift the end of the
wire out of the mercury. At the instant this is
effected the circuit of the current is broken, and
the coil resumes its former length ; the lower end
of the wire drops down into contact with the mer-
cury again, thus renewing the circuit. This oper-
ation being rapidly repeated, the elastic coil is kept
quickly vibrating up and down with a peristaltic or
churning movement, which is sustained as long as
the battery current is transmitted through it.

The peristaltic movement of the intestines dur-
ing the process of digestion, the intermittent spas-
modic contraction of the heart and lungs, and the
irregular and occasional contractions of the mus-
cles may be effected in the same manner. As all
molecules are current-changers, there is no lack
of these perfect little mechanisms to influence the
mechanical action of the opening and closing of the
valves of the heart. They also change and modify
the intensity of the currents and thereby the rapid-
ity and strength of the muscular contractions.

According to Graham's analysis of animal mus-
cle, it appears that the acid phosphate of potash

212 ELECTRIC CONDUCTION BY NERVES.

is an essential salt of the juice of the flesh ; and
that the alkaline salt of the phosphate of soda is
essential to the constitution of blood, to enable it
to perform its functions. Hence it has been con-
sidered that the probable function of the substan-
ces which give acidity to the juice of the flesh
and alkalinity to the blood, is the production of
electric currents. When we see two substances,
one acid and the other alkaline, in opposite neg-
ative and positive conditions, separated only by a
thin membrane permeable to both (by endosmose
and exosmose action), and in contact with muscle
and nervous matter, as observed by Liebig, " we can
easily see how electric currents may arise." ]

The continuous transmission of electric action
must be effected by establishing an electric closed
circuit.

M. du Bois-Reymond discovered and established
the fact that an electric current exists in nerves,
the conditions of which are in most respects simi-
lar to that of the muscular current. A change in
the electric state of muscles takes place in the act
of contraction.

Professor Matteucci first made a frog galvano-
scope. By means of a battery of ten thighs, he
caused a variation of from thirty to forty degrees
of the galvanometer needle. From experiments
with this instrument, he demonstrated that animal
nerves and muscles are electroscopes of the most

1 Carpenter's Physiology, p. 209.

SENSITIVENESS OF NERVES. 213

delicately sensitive character. Were they not
carefully covered up within the interior of the
body, every contact with metals and other sub-
stances, and every change of temperature would
induce muscular contractions and convulsions.
The sensations of a bared tooth-nerve are too
familiar to require description.

The proper electric current of the frog bears
this curious analogy to the electric discharges of
fishes, — that it is not manifest if the connection be
made between corresponding points of the opposite
sides ; but that it shows itself when the communi-
cation is made between points higher or lower in
the body, whether on the same or on opposite sides.

A PLANT is a mechanism immediately excited by
solar rays to produce groupings of atoms into
FOOD and FUEL. An ANIMAL, on the contrary, is
a mechanism excited indirectly by the combustion
of this fuel. A vigorous man breathes forth from
his lungs each day a volume of carbonic-acid gas,
which by analysis is found to contain about thirteen
ounces of pure carbon. This quantity of carbon
is equivalent to an equal weight of pure charcoal
burned daily in his lungs, to develop electric exci-
tation constituting animal heat and animal motive-
power.1

1 For a minute description of the organs of the eye and of the ear see
Helmholtz's profound work on " Sensations of Tone " and " Scientific
Lectures," and Leidy's and Sharpey's editions of Quain's Anatomy, with
illustrations ; also Carpenter's " Comparative Physiology."

214 DIFFERENCES IN THE NERVES

CHAPTER XXIV.

LIFE, OR MUSCULAR AND NERVOUS ACTION

DEPENDENT ON ELECTRIC EXCITATION.

TTELMHOLTZ thus quotes from Johannes
Muller's " Specific Energies of Sense " : —

" ' The difference in the sensations due to the
various senses does not depend upon the actions
which excite them, but upon the various nervous
arrangements which receive them.'

" According to Thomas Young's hypothesis,
there are three kinds of nerve-fibres in the eye
with different powers of sensation for feeling red,
for feeling green, for feeling violet. In reality,
this assumption gives a very simple and perfectly
consistent explanation of all the optical phenom-
ena depending on color. And by this means the
qualitative differences of the sensations of sight
are reduced to differences in the nerves which re-
ceive the sensations. For the sensations of each
individual fibre of the optic nerve, there remain
only the quantitative differences of greater or
less irritation.

" The same result is obtained for hearing, by the
hypothesis to which the investigation of quality
of tone has led us. The qualitative differences

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE. 215

of pitch and quality of tone are reduced to a dif-
ference in the fibres of the nerves receiving
the sensation, and for each individual fibre of the
nerve there remains only the quantitative differ-
ence in the amount of excitement." *

It would seem, on investigation, that this as-
sumption will give " not only a very simple and
perfectly consistent explanation of all optical and
auditory phenomena, but also of the phenomena
peculiar to each individual organ in the human
system."

The organs " belonging to the body, the heart,
intestines, ear, eye, and brain, &c., as well as the
body itself, are individual.

Their individuality consists in the peculiar
arrangements by means of which their distinc-
tive functions are performed. There are not
only nervous but also muscular arrangements,
whose contractility is of vital importance in pro-
ducing the various motions. The nervous force
predominates if delicacy, the muscular if strength,
is to be produced. These varying combinations
of nerve and muscle are molecular arrangements.

All molecules are electro-magnetic. As the
human system is composed of molecules, the
body itself and its molecular groupings into dis-
tinctive organs must also be electro-magnetic.
As each molecule serves as an electric machine
for developing a peculiar reaction, so each kind

l Helmholtz's Sensations of Tone.

2l6 DISTINCTIVE MOVEMENTS OF MOLECULES.

of groupings of molecules similarly serves to
develop a peculiar electro-mechanical reaction,
which constitutes the characteristic properties
of various compound substances.

As before stated, the shapes of crystals are
deemed by chemists to be indications of the
peculiar kinds of molecules fitting to each other
electro-magnetically, according to the angles of
their various sides. Some are hexagonal, some
polygonal, some rectangular, &c. ; each showing
their characteristic forms of polarization, the nor-
mal condition of each being different. In the
formation of crystals we have perhaps a glimpse
of the way in which molecular forces work, and
of the great power requisite to move them.

With the peculiar organization and form of
each kind of molecule there must be, when ex-
cited, a consequent peculiarity of vibration ; and
thus probably are produced the different move-
ments,— as the rhythmic and peristaltic. No
doubt, if not beyond the range of future micro-
scopic vision, distinctive movements will be dis-
covered peculiar to the brain, to the eye, to the
ear, and to the other organs ; and we may yet be
able to detect and recognize the different kinds of
molecules by the individuality of their vibrations.

Molecules are als'o machines for modifying, dif-
fusing, and directing electro-mechanical action.

" An electro-magnet is a magnet whose mag-
netic power subsists during the passage of the

RHYTHMIC MOVEMENTS. 217

current of a voltaic pile, and ceases when the
current is discontinued." s

Molecules of one kind are peculiarly arranged
in a whorl or vortex (the distinguishing charac-
teristic of the heart), producing when in a state
of excitation the rhythmic motion. The less
complicated and simple spirals are probably modi--
fications of the intricate whorl, producing a less
powerful movement.

It is seen that a portion of the muscular fibres
which surround the auriculo-ventricular orifices
of the heart are continuous with the segments of
the valves, and with the chordce tendenece, and
through them with the musculi papillares, the
fibres of which belong chiefly to the innermost
layer. As these spiral electrodes ascend inter-
nally in a direction opposite to that in which
they descend externally, " consequent points or
secondary poles " 2 are produced, and the electric
current transmitted in one direction would cause
the contraction of the musculi papillares, thus
closing the valves of the heart by making the
segments tense ; and, transmitted in the other
direction, would allow the valves to remain open.
" This rhythmic contraction of the muscles is
continually and regularly repeated after short
and equal intervals of repose." Annular fibres
encircle the auricular appendages of the heart

1 Guillemin's Forces of Nature, p. 16.

2 Ibid. Fig. 422, p. 6 1 6.

2l8 NERVOUS FIBRILS OF EYE, EAR, ETC.

from end to end, some longitudinal fibres run-
ning between them.

In the intestines a peculiar molecular arrange-
ment of nerve and muscle is also found, as well
as circular and longitudinal fibres, which are con-
tinuous from the czsophagus to the rectum. This
motion of the intestines is called the peristaltic, or
churning motion ; and without doubt is another
manifestation of the periodic impulse.

The eye is protected by a strong membranous
covering. The rods and cones are its distinctive
molecular arrangement. A single nervous fibril
runs^from each of these cones through the trunk
of the optic nerve to the brain separately from
its neighbors, effecting a direct and continuous
connection with the brain. As this peculiar
molecular arrangement differs from those of the
heart and intestines, we may naturally infer that
the periodic excitation transmitted to the eye
produces there a distinctive motion.

In the ear we find that electric vibrations are
gradually changed into currents by the action of
the ossicles, in passing from the external ear to
the brain, and that the connection is continuous.
These ossicles in the drum, and Corti's rods and
arches in the cochlea, form the peculiar molecular
arrangements of the ear; and we may infer that
the periods of rhythmic flow and rest penetrate
this strange musical gallery, making its chords
respond more quickly and sympathetically to the
electric vibrations that sweep over them.

COMPOSITION OF THE BRAIN.

219

" The action of the voltaic current in the or-
gans of the senses in living beings produces pre-
cisely the sensations belonging to each of them.
By exciting the optic nerves the sensation of
light is produced ; and that of sound, if the nerves
of the ear are touched." x

The brain, according to Vauquelin's analysis, is
composed of

Albumen 7.0

Fatty matter 4.6

Phosphorus 2.0

Sulphur, salts, and acids 6.4

20.0
Hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion constituting water 80.0

1000

The white substance of the brain and nerves
contains nearly seventy-five per cent of water ; the
gray about eighty-five per cent. The proportion
of water is less in the spinal cord, and still less in
the nerves.

This analysis shows that water constitutes four-
fifths of the human brain ; and, as Dr. Hare re-
marks, " this is the best account it has hitherto
pleased God to enable the brain of man to give
of its own constitution."

The four principal parts into which the en-
cephalon is divided are so intimately connected
externally and internally by the white nerve-fibres,
— the white substance consisting of tubular fibres
and the gray substance consisting of angular,

1 Guillemin's Forces of Nature, p. 603.

220 THE BRAIN AN ELECTRIC ORGAN.

round, oval, or fusiform nerve-cells, — that they
constitute but one organ.

From its chemical analysis and molecular ar-
rangements we may assume the distinctive func-
tion of the brain to be that of a voltaic battery.

The marvellous convolutions and s^llc^, or fur-
rows, of the brain may serve as leaves of the bat-
tery ; and they present an extent of surface to the
battery fluid which it would be impossible to
obtain in any other way.

Thus continuity and intensity of electric action
can be effected in a very small space.

The spiral ganglia probably serve as relay bat-
teries. And here again we may conclude that a
gentle, modified, and distinctive periodic motion
is transmitted through these convolutions in har-
mony with the heart-beat, keeping the brain as it
were on the qui vive, a faithful sentinel to the
enthroned will of man.

We may assume, then, that the brain is elabo-
rated for the transmission of electric communica-
tion to and from itself, and to and from each part
of the body ; also that this transmission depends
on the integrity of the nerves, and ceases with
life.

Fluid is essential to a powerful battery current.
It predominates in the brain, eye, ear, and various
other organs ; and in every part of the human body
chemical elements and molecular arrangements,
requisite for the formation and continuance of a

ACID AND ALKALINE STATES. 221

voltaic battery, are found ; and where these exist
voltaic electricity will be produced.

Professor Pepper says T " that it is a remarka-
ble fact that when an acid and alkaline solution
are so placed that their union may be effected
through the substance of an animal membrane,
or indeed any porous diaphragm, a current of
electricity is evolved. Now, with the exception
of the stomach and caecum, the whole extent of
the mucous membrane is, in the human subject,
bathed with an alkaline mucous fluid, and the
external covering of the body — the skin —
is as constantly exhaling an acid fluid. The
mass of the animal frame is thus placed be-
tween the two great envelopes, the one alkaline
and the other acid, meeting only at the external
outlets. This arrangement has been shown by
Donne to be quite competent to the evolution
of electricity."

Electric currents are vibrations moving with
increased velocity, being more or less rapid as
the velocity is accelerated or retarded. Vibra-
tions caused by electric excitation may increase
in velocity to a current, and a current decrease
in velocity to vibrations and to a state of equi-
librium.

In the systemic circulation, the blood is trans-
mitted by the periodic contraction through the
whole vascular system. It is conveyed from the

1 Cyclopaedic Science, p. 287.

222 CIRCULATION IN THE ARTERIES.

left ventricle of the heart by arteries and capil-
laries, and returned by the veins to the opposite
and right side of the heart, and again enters the
systemic circulation. Beside elasticity, arteries
are endowed with a greater or less degree of
contractility, by means of which they can narrow
their calibre.

" Tonicity, or the tonic state, is no doubt a
species of contraction, as well as the more con-
spicuous and powerful action with which it alter-
nates ; but it is employed merely to maintain
equilibrium, not to cause motion, — continuing
during sleep, when volition is in abeyance, and
occasioning no fatigue. When the nerves are
cut it ceases, and the muscles become flaccid." '

There is also, so to speak, a continuous mus-
cular as well as vascular current, caused by a
great number of contractions repeated at very
short intervals, and also excited by periodic con-
traction. Contractions caused by strychnine have
been known to follow each other with such ra-
pidity as to disrupt a muscular fibre, showing
the marvellous force of molecular action.

Wollaston describes a remarkable sound which
is heard when the ear is applied over a muscle
during its action. Roget supposed this " susur-
rus," as he names the sound, was caused by a
sort of peristaltic motion of the fibrils. He sup-
posed, also, that the oscillations of the fibrils and

1 Leidy's Quain, vol. i. p. 328.

PERIODIC MOLECULAR MOVEMENT. 223

the accompanying sound are constant, but that
they are greatly increased during the contraction
of the muscle.1

There is, we may infer, a similar periodic and
continuous excitation transmitted through the
nerve-fibres, though it may not have been de-
tected on account of the delicacy of the molecular
arrangement.

" The cilia, or hair-like processes on the epithe-
lium, execute a lashing motion when not acting
very briskly, but when in a state of very rapid
excitation their motion is like that of the waving
of a field of wheat in the wind, or of swiftly run-
ning water. The undulation — or, as it may be,
the current — always moves in the same direction
in the same parts. The impulse which the cilia
communicate to the fluids, or other matter in
contact, maintains a continuity of motion and
direction. Thus in the wind-pipe the mucus is
conveyed always upward toward the larynx."

We may assume then, from the continuity of
this periodic molecular movement (which is al-
ways in one direction in the same parts), that
the periodic electric excitation, having its prime
impulse in the heart, is transmitted in a closed
circuit through the vascular, nervous, and mus-
cular systems of the human body ; and that the
molecular vibration excited in each individual
organ is distinctively its own.

1 Leidy's Quain, vol. i. pp. 226, 227.

224 VOLUNTARY MOTIONS.

By these continuous and all-pervading 'undu-
lations of the vital current, the friction which
must attend the first movement of every molecule
of matter, however delicately fashioned, must be
prevented, or greatly reduced.

" Some of the voluntary muscles habitually, and
all occasionally, act in obedience to other stimuli.
Striped (or voluntary) fibre-muscles have been
detected in certain parts of the skin, in the hair
follicles, in the internal ear, and in parts which
are not under the direct control of the will." '

The distinction between voluntary and invol-
untary muscles may perhaps be too sharply de-
fined, if it exists at all. Voluntary motions are
effected without any thought of ours as to the
way in which they are to be carried out. Were
we obliged to choose and regulate the machinery
for each voluntary act, our lives would be given
up to the work.

"Will simply determines the result, not the
special movements by which that result is
brought about. The determination of the will is
carried into effect through an intermediate mech-
anism which, without further guidance on our
part, selects and combines the particular muscles
whose contractions are requisite to produce the
desired movement.

"The sensorium or collection of sensory gang-
lia plays, so to speak, upon the cerebrum, send-

1 Sharpey's Quain.

AUTOMATIC MOTIONS. 225

ing to it sensational changes whereby its peculiar
sensation, as an instrument of purely mental oper-
ations, is called forth ; and in return the cerebrum
appears to play downwards upon the motor por-
tion of the automatic apparatus, sending to it
volitional impulses which excite its motorial ac-
tivity. And hence it follows that all the move-
ments which are performed by the instrumentality
of the cerebro-spinal nervous system are in them-
selves automatic ; and that the peculiarity in their
character — whether excitor, motor, consensual,
ideational, emotional, or voluntary — is due to
the speciality of the source and seat of the im-
pulses which respectively originate them." '

We may assume that the continuous periodic
motion is one and the same as the continuous
automatic movement ready to be " played upon "
by the will ; and the " speciality of the source and
seat of the impulses " to be the distinctive nervous
arrangement peculiar to each individual organ.

1 Carpenter's Comparative Physiology, p. 688.

226 THE VITAL CURRENT

CHAPTER XXV.

DEATH, OR CESSATION OF ORGANIC ACTION.

r I ^HE cessation of the continuity of the vital
current is death, in whatever manner it may
be effected. There may be, however, a tempo-
rary suspension and renewal of continuity.

" In the human system extinction takes place
in the following order," in the circuit of the peri-
odic motion : " It begins in the left ventricle and
ends with the left auricle of the heart, — Galen's
itltimum moriens. After most kinds of slow
natural death, the arterial trunks and left side of
the heart are found to be almost or even com-
pletely empty, and the venous arteries to be full
of blood. There are certain kinds of sudden
death in which the vitality of the whole system
appears to be simultaneously destroyed, and the
blood remains in the vessels as it was in the
moment of decease." The muscles of man cease
to be irritable within a few hours after death.

" There is reason to believe that the sympa-
thetic system constitutes the channel through
which the passions and emotions of the mind
affect the organic functions ; and this especially
through its power of regulating the calibre of the
arteries.

INFLUENCED BY EMOTIONS. 22 7

' We have examples of the influence of these
states upon the circulation, in the palpitation of
the heart, which is produced by an agitated state
of feeling; in the syncope or suspension of the
heart's action, which sometimes comes on from a
sudden shock ; in the act of blushing or turning
pale, which consists in the dilatation or contrac-
tion of the small arteries ; and in the sudden
increase of the salivary and lachrymal secre-
tion under the influence of particular states of
mind.

"In asphyxia the deficient supply of arterialized
blood to the brain soon paralyzes its functions;
and the nervous stimulus (electric current) re-
quired for the respiration being withheld, the
movements cease. But if the chest be artificially
inflated and emptied, and the alternate move-
ments be prolonged, vital action may again be
set in motion."

In drowning, the water in the mouth and
throat keeps the oxygen of the air from the
lungs, producing coagulation of the blood, and
consequent cessation of the vital current.

" Kiihne maintains that the albuminoid mat-
ter of muscle, liquid during life, coagulates after
death, and thereby gives rise to the cadaveric
rigidity which then invades the muscles.

" If the cessation of respiratory movements re-
sults, as when narcotism is induced by poisoning
with opium, continuance of vitality may be pro-

228 EFFECT OF THE PASSIONS.

longed by artificial respiration," ' — as also in
drowning.

In death by thirst, the fluids of the body, which
are so necessary to the creation of electricity, are
exhausted and the whole system tortured while
the vital current is gradually arrested.

The excitation of the electric current can be
increased by violent passion to such an intensity
that disintegration and death will ensue, — as a
wire will be disintegrated by a powerful voltaic
current. Joy may kill by an intense electro-
dynamic action. Fear may produce an electro-
static condition, so that the heart ceases to beat.
If this condition continues, the power of recu-
peration is lost, and death ensues.

A blow originates in the will. The result is a
small lightning bolt, transmitted over electrodes,
impinging against another body. No doubt if the
points of contact in the two bodies were visible,
we should see the electric fluid passing from one
to the other. A diminution and even reversal
of its own proper current has been found by
M. DuBois Reymond to follow severe injuries
of the nerves by mechanical, thermal, or chemical
agencies. A sudden blow or shock to the emo-
tional part of our being may arrest the vital cur-
rent, as well as a blow on the physical frame.
Often preceding death the pulse flickers and the
ebbing current of life subsides into scattering
vibrations, before its final equilibrial rest.

1 Ouain's Anatomy.

ORGANIC DECOMPOSITION. 2 29

" The effect of poison on all animals is death ;
but dilution delays the effect, and when carried
further prevents it altogether; and hence it is
probably due to a chemical alteration of the
tissue.

" Chemical action or over-action will destroy
the living tissues of the body," ' and consequently
the continuity of the vital electric current.

The most frequent and powerful source of
electric disturbance is chemical action ; there
being probably no instance of chemical union or
decomposition in which the electric condition of
bodies is not altered. Very many drugs taken
into the system produce disintegration or decom-
position : the hydrogen in the body, leaving the
carbon, unites with the oxygen in the drugs
and organic tissues.

In the work of disorganization nitrogen has
an active part. Its original name was "azote,"
a descriptive term, meaning " against life? Its
influence in facilitating the separation of the
molecules of hydrogen from their union with
those of carbon in organic substances has been
noticed (p. 180), in relation to prussic acid and
other compounds.

The molecules of hydrogen and oxygen com-
posing the blood and flesh of living animals
combine to form water, when brought into con-
tact with molecules of nitrogen in nitrate of

1 Carpenter's Physiology.

230 NITROGEN AS A DISORGANIZED

silver, and leave the black carbon visible on the
surface.1

The impregnation of the blood by molecules
of nitrogen inhaled into the lungs from decom-
posing organic substances (of which it constitutes
a material part) facilitates a similar union of the
hydrogen and oxygen of the blood, in the form
of water, with the evolution of " fever-heat." Thus
the bile and blood, in cases of yellow fever, are
decomposed, and the residuary carbon or char-
coal constitutes the " black vomit." In the chol-
era, a corresponding resolution of the bile and
blood into water is manifested by the profuse
aqueous secretions, and the dark carbon appar-
ent in the collapsed veins.

The large quantity of nitrogen in pure atmos-
pheric air is combined with just a sufficient quan-
tity of oxygen to develop, by the electro-magnetic
union of the latter with the carbon and hydrogen
of the blood, the precise temperature of 98° Fahr.,
marked as " blood-heat."

When the molecules of oxygen are in excess
of that proportion, an over-excitation of the hu-
man system ensues, — such as is caused by nitrous
oxyde, or "laughing-gas." When the molecules

1 Even light induces the electro-magnetic union of molecules of hydro-
gen with those of oxygen, in the organic substances of paper and collo-
dion impregnated with molecules of nitrogen, and converts them into
water ; leaving the carbon, deposited as black charcoal, to form the
shades in pictures produced by photographic processes. The excess of
nitrogen in yeast is the predisposing cause of the decomposing fermenta-
tion of vegetable substances with which it is combined.

ACTION OF NITROGEN AS MALARIA. 231

of nitrogen are in excess of that proportion, a cor-
responding depression of the vital powers takes
place. Indeed, nitrogen in excess, or free nitro-
gen from decomposing animal or vegetable sub-
stances, constitutes the real miasma, or malaria.

Decomposition of 'all organic substances ceases
with a reduction of temperature to that of frost.
This, therefore, brings a cessation of yellow fever
and other diseases springing from such decom-
position.

These molecular actions and reactions in living
animal bodies are governed by the universal laws
of the planetary forces. When these laws are
countervailed from any cause, they produce sick-
ness and disease. The preservation of health
depends on a strict obedience to these laws,
which regulate the circulation of electric currents
through all the conducting nerves. A momentary
deficiency or reversal of these currents, — by ex-
posure to a current of cold air, or by a draught
of cold water, or an excess of excitation by a
draught* of alcohol, — may suddenly terminate
the existence of a human being on earth.

Whatever may be the apparent cause of death,
its real cause is the cessation of the continuity of
the vital current.

Then the axial and orbital forces resume their
sway, and in death the distinctive organs of the
human system are decomposed, and the whole or-
ganism is resolved into the carbonic-acid gas,
water, and nitrogen of which it mainly consists.

232 COMPENSATING MOVEMENTS,

CHAPTER XXVI.

EQUILIBRIUM AND PERIODICITY OF AXIAL AND
ORBITAL REVOLUTIONS.

/CONNECTED with the diamagnetic current
of electro-magnets are consequent polarity,
static and dynamic conditions, or states of rela-
tive equilibrium and activity. These states or
conditions are subject, in the axial and orbital
revolutions, to a law of compensating movements.

" If an axial rotation, as well as a horizontal
rotation, is communicated by an impulsive force,
analysis shows that it may be applied in any
plane intersecting the horizontal in the line of
nodes ; but if applied in the plane of the equator
(where it can communicate nothing but an axial
rotation), or in the horizontal plane, its intensity
must be infinite." *

" When the earth is at one or the other of the
equinoxes, the plane of the equator prolonged
passes precisely through the centre of the sun.
The two poles of the planet are then symmetri-
cally placed with regard to the radiant body." 2
This is a static polarity and dynamic diamagne-
tism.

1 J. G. Barnard, on the Gyroscope, p. 559.

2 The Heavens, p. 118. Guillemin.

KEPLER'S LAWS. 233

11 Newton showed that if the planets move round
the sun describing elliptical curves, according to
laws (the discovery of which is due to Kepler), it
is because they are submitted to a constant force,
located as it were in the sun, — a force the direc-
tion of which is that of a radius vector, or a right
line, which joins the planet and the common
focus."

Is it not possible that the elliptical orbit of the
earth may be produced by the (so-called) repul-
sion of poles of the same name of the sun and
earth, propelling them apart in one direction in
summer, and the (so-called) attraction of poles of
contrary names of the sun and earth propelling
them together in another direction in winter ?

The apsis line connects the aphelion and
perihelion points, and passes through the sun ;
so that the most direct and powerful repulsion
and attraction between the sun and earth occurs
at these points.

Kepler's second law. is thus stated : " In the
motion of a planet around the sun, the radius
vector drawn from the centre of the sun to the
planet sweeps over equal areas in equal times.

" Every planet moves round the sun with varia-
ble velocity, and more rapidly as it approaches the
common focus. The earth, therefore, moves less
quickly during the summer season of the north-
ern hemisphere than during the winter season." x

1 The Heavens, p. 121. Guillemin.

234 EXPERIMENTS OF MAYER AND BARLOW.

There is, therefore, in the heavenly bodies vary-
ing velocity with compensating axial and orbital
movements.

The same laws of magnetic force may be as-
sumed to govern the revolution of the solar system
in its vast orbit around some central sun, "occu-
pying twenty-six thousand years, as govern the
revolution of our earth around its sun. The mar-
vellous magnetic variations and swayings, which
seem at present beyond the power of man's cal-
culation and comprehension, may perhaps some
day be found to coincide with the magnetic laws
of the earth's translation ; with the difference in
the scale of twenty-six thousand years to one.

All terrestrial matter at rest is under the influ-
ence of terrestrial currents. When an over-
powering diamagnetic current is induced around
distinct molecular groupings, or organisms, they
are freed from the earth's directive force, and
become electro-magnets.

To render the needle of a lantern galvanome-
ter more sensitive, Professor Mayer neutralized
the earth's directive action on it, by means of
two large bar-magnets.1

Professor Barlow with a battery current around
an artificial globe overpowered the terrestrial cur-
rents.2

" Ampere constructed a static apparatus, — that

1 A. M. Mayer's The Earth a Great Magnet, p. 266.

2 Experiment described, p. 99, Fig. 22, ante.

AMPERE'S EXPERIMENT. 235

is to say, a magnetic system indifferent to the
action of the terrestrial globe; then causing a
fixed current to act on it, placed horizontally in a
direction perpendicular to the magnetic meridian,
from east to west, he saw that the action of this
current was precisely t{ie same as the action of
the earth." '

At rest, the gyroscope is a grouping of mole-
cules, or a molecular arrangement. Pre-existing
electric currents are present; but, moving in all
directions, they neutralize each other. In order
to bring the gyroscope into an electro-dynamic
condition, a diamagnetic current must be induced
around it sufficiently intense to overpower the
terrestrial currents. This induction can be ef-
fected by whirling the disc, like a humming top,
by a string wound round its axis, in which case
the impulse will soon be exhausted ; or by an elec-
tric current, when a relative continuity of action
can be obtained, better illustrating the effect of
the terrestrial currents. With -the battery an arti-
ficial current changer is used.

" The law controlling the movements of the
gyroscope is as follows: Where a body is acted
upon by two systems of forces, tending to produce
rotations about two separate axes lying in the same
plane, the resultant motion will be rotation about
a new axis situated in the same plane between the
directions of the other two. It is coincident with

1 Guillemin's Forces of Nature, p. 612.

236 MOTIONS OF THE GYROSCOPE

the standard point." The disc and all the con-
nected parts of the gyroscope are free to move in
any direction.
A

66.

If the weight w be placed near the fulcrum c,
so as slightly to underbalance the disc, beside
rotating rapidly on its axis, it begins a slow orbi-
tal revolution in the direction in which the under-

i

side of the disc is moving.

By attaching the arm and counterweight so as
to balance the disc exactly on the pointed stand-
ard, the orbital revolution ceases, while the axial
rotation continues till the impulse is exhausted.

By overbalancing the disc, the horizontal revolu-
tion is persistently maintained, but changed to an
opposite direction, — the direction in which the top
of the disc is turning. During the three changes
the disc rotates in a constant direction.

ANALOGOUS TO THOSE OF THE EARTH. 237

In comparing these two electro-magnets, we find
that the gyroscope, like the earth, has its diamag-
netic current and polarity; its axial and orbital
revolutions ; its compensating movement and rela-
tive static and dynamic conditions ; the symmetri-
cal or equilibrial placing of its axis, answering to
the earth's equinoctial position when the orbital
revolution, of the gyroscope at least, ceases; a
declination of the axis when the orbital revolution
of the gyroscope is in the same direction as the
underside of the disc ; and an upward inclination
of the axis when the orbital revolution is re-
versed and is in the direction of the upper side
of the disc, answering to the perihelion and aphe-
lion positions.

The rotation of both the earth and the gyro-
scope is in a constant direction in the three different
positions of their axes during their orbital revolu-
tions ; and as the gyroscope in opposite positions
of its*axis moves in opposite directions, may we
not infer as a possibility similar movements for
the earth ? '

" Terrestrial analogies afford us a very sure guide
in the midst of many perplexities," and the com-
bined movements of the gyroscope fulfil each
function as completely as the like movements of

1 " To say that the equinox falls back, or retrogrades is the same as
saying that the plane of the equator has varied in position ; and as the
axis of the earth is always perpendicular to this plane, it follows that
this axis has not remained rigorously parallel to itself." — The Heavens,
p. 456. Guillemin.

238 SPACE ABOUT MOLECULES.

the earth ; and we may reasonably assume that
they are governed by the same laws.

The gyroscope seems to be a working model
of all electro-magnets, from the earth to the
minutest molecule.

Ampere's theory teaches " that the electric
currents, to .which magnets owe their properties,
are molecular, — that is, they circulate around each
particle ; " and also, " that magnetic force is in an
eminent degree one of circulation." Molecules,
therefore, are electro-magnets. The diamagnetic
current circulating around each brings with it its
train of sequences.

With such power of locomotion, so to speak, in
every electro-magnet, there must be even around
invisible molecules an invisible or undetected
space existing, through which each little molec-
ular orb is rotated and translated ; and not only
so, but its direction being changed by a more
powerful current, it is often transported afar
through spaces intervening between molecules
varying in size and constitution. They are all
like the great earth-magnet, but in miniature.

Reasoning from analogy may we not assume
that each rotating molecule, body, and solar sys-
tem, while perfect and independent in its indi-
vidual functions, is also in harmony with every
other molecule, body, and solar system, — all be-
ing governed by the same laws, and together
forming a vast, united, and perfect universe?

MOVEMENTS OF TORNADOES. 239 .

" In the great basins of the Rocky Mountains,
tornadoes will spin rapidly on their axes for a
long time, as stationary as a sleeping top." The
tornado has then only an axial rotation, like the
gyroscope balanced on its standard. If the axis
is inclined, it begins an orbital revolution which,
in its slowness compared with the velocity of the
axial rotation, resembles the gyroscope.

" While the motion of translation of the whirl-
wind may be only ten miles or so an hour, its
whirling (axial) velocity is often a hundred miles
or more an hour. They also move in opposite
directions. Two of them were seen to whirl
within fifty yards of each other at one and the
same time, and in opposite directions."

Mr. J. W. Phelps, an eye -witness, describes "a
tornado about fifteen feet in diameter, which had
several small whirls spinning around on its circum-
ference. The whole system together described a
circuit of about one hundred yards across. We
watched it from where it set out, until it returned
to that point again. It might be compared to a
sun with attending planets moving around a
common centre."1

Herschel's theory is " that a periodical return of
heavenly bodies to the same place is the great law
of astronomy," as before quoted. The tendency
of matter " to move in a straight line," asserts

1 The quotations are from " Observations in the Rocky Mountains,"
by J. W. Phelps. 1858-59.

240 ELECTRIC CHAIN OF THE UNIVERSE.

itself only when independent of the circling plan
ets of the solar system ; for certain it is, that all
the visible matter in the material universe is in
volved in the general circular whirls from which
the descriptive name of " universe " is originally
borrowed.

The mechanical action of the revolving heavenly
bodies, transmitted as sunshine to the leaves of
plants, puts in motion circulating currents of the
electric ether and of sap therein ; and, by transfer
as food, also in living animal organisms. At the
instant when the internal circulating currents
cease in these subordinate electrical machines, by
death, the ever-continuing action of the revolving
planets, transmitted as sunshine, again predom-
inates over the constituent molecules of the or-
ganic bodies of plants and animals.

The sunshine that quickens the formation of
vapors into a budding rose, radiant in color and
redolent with fragrance, speedily dissolves the
gathered rose into vapors that float off in the air.
So in the organic formation of man, immediately
after the excited currents of electricity and of
blood cease to circulate " in the inner sanctuary
of life," the vibratory sunshine gradually restores
the constituent molecules to their original state
of invisible gases, floating in the atmosphere.

Thus, finally, modern science confirms the
ancient answer to the question, " What is your

PHYSICAL LIFE A VAPOR. . 241

life ? " by verifying the fact that it is really " a
vapor that appeareth for a little time, and then
vanisheth away."

To this boundary line of Physical Science is
now traced the final connection between mind
and matter, by the electric chain that links to-
gether molecules in organisms and solar systems,
and holds the whole material universe in subjec-
tion to the sceptre of an Immaterial Creator.

FINIS.

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