JURA

RED DEER

f LocKbnie.

<Juf\A .FOREST,

5"

SOME ACCOUNT

OF

JURA

RED DEER.

H

DERBY:

PRINTED BY FRANCIS CARTER, IRON GATE WORKS.

o v

More, <froun*L is &vciosfd< than is sh**vri litre..

Nzttlicss cLetcuJj is confusing. —

77i^x whtHelslanci contains about 90,00 OAcres

ty

TARBERT,

[ PRIVATE.]

SOME ACCOUNT OF

JURA RED DEER.

Jura Deer are not artificially fed during the winter, it would be
very useful to them, but we do not see how to manage the dis-
tribution of food.

The death rate of Deer probably is higher here than on the
mainland Forests — Ross-shire for example — but no comparison
can be made on equal terms because few old stags exist in Ross-
shire, and hinds are freely shot down there. Statistics of mortality
stand in great need of collection and examination over different
districts.

Regarding the longevity of wild red-deer in Scotland, the facts Age of
related below are instructive. otags.

The late Mr. R. D. Campbell, of Jura, fired at and missed a
well known stag at Torranbuie. This is a place with many
clumps of trees and bushes making brakes and hiding places ;
the feeding is good. Twelve years later Mr. Campbell shot this
stag, and neither he nor the keeper observed any difference in the
head or body of the stag at the end of this period of 12 years ;
he had a fine head. Taking credit for his favoured residence he
could not have been less than 7 years old when first shot at,
consequently he was at least 19 when killed, and in full vigour.

I have a large, strong, and rough head, from a marked stag, A Head
shot on Tarbert sheep ground, one ear was cut off close to the
head by Mr. D. Fletcher. The stag was 16 years old when
killed. He had lost one tooth and was rather lean. Not rarely
old stags are found without any front teeth, it is common to find
them with part of their teeth missing. I never saw a stag with
missing teeth in high condition. I have a fine 14 point head A Toothless
from a stag which had no front teeth ; he was in good feeding I4 Pomter-
ground, and had about half-an-inch of haunch fat,

924739

Wood Stags. l ' l 'Wood Vtags" hJatim^<xcxnsiderably faster than stags on the open
hills; Being strong and heavy beasts, it is possible they maintain
their prime longer than hill stags. The Torranbuie stag might
be considered a wood stag.

An instance of the rapid growth of a well-fed wood stag may
be here given.

A calf stag having lost its mother wandered into the Ardfin
enclosures. This calf used to pasture at will among the crops on
Ardfin farm. He was shot 3oth August, 1872, when 8 years
of age, by mistake, in mist ; his weight proved to be 26 stone
4 pounds, weighed perfectly clean. The head was just what might
be called a good head, but nothing more. No doubt the head
might have improved had the stag lived.

Most of the very best heads in the island have been obtained
from wood stags. There is nothing much better in the large col-
lection of heads at Ardfin than that of a wood stag shot there last
year.

Hill Stags. Mr. Edward Ross thinks hill stags usually attain their prime

when 12 years of age. My observations lead to the same conclu-
sion, they appear to maintain their prime for about 5 years — till
1 7 years old. Individuals no doubt vary in their date of maturity
and decline.

Age of Hind?. Little seems to be recorded as to the longevity of hinds. They
are apparently quite as hardy as stags, they do not fight, they
have no horns to grow, and it must be remembered stags run
down very low in condition every October, which is not the case
with hinds. There can be little doubt that hinds on an average
live longer than stags. The death per centage for hinds is only
one per hundred larger than that of stags in face of the fact that we
never kill old hinds. Although hinds here have most abundant

th h- T thP opportunity to die of old age, dead hinds with missing teeth
are not very common, whereas it is very common to find dead
stags with missing teeth, and to kill stags in that state, as well
as with the whole of their front teeth missing. A complete
mouth must promote longevity.

Husk Parasite The husk parasite cuts off some hinds, the severer frosts

on the mainland perhaps kill these germs, and here deer in
winter eat closer to the ground than on mainland, where they eat
largely the top shoots of long heather. Jura heather will not
generally keep fresh when it is long. Mainland deer scrape the
snow with their feet to get at the long heather. In Jura there
practically is no snow. We believe stags to be more liable to
husk than are hinds, but we are not sure of this.

Twenty-two years ago an observant watcher commenced to
reside at a place (near the Free Church) where deer were then
very scarce, perhaps three or four hinds frequented the place, it
is good feeding and shelter ; a large stock of deer, stags and
hinds, now frequent this place, and those of the best quality.

This bit of ground was cleared of the Laird's stock, 1878.

Age of Hinds
One of these hinds had very peculiar ears, she was rather tame (continued.)

and was seen constantly. Twenty-two years ago she was a large hind
with a good calf at her side. In November, 1889, she broke her
neck by falling down some rocks, she was then looking ragged and
feeble, but had a calf at her side. She reared 20 calves during
the period of 21 years observation, having gone yeld (or lost her
calf) only once during that long period, viz., the year before her
death. She must have been no less than 5 years old when first
observed, for she was then a large hind with a good calf at her
side. Consequently we cannot set her down at less than 26 at
her death. Her last calf died. This hind had a complete set of
teeth. Her calves were good, except the last.

It would seem that healthy hinds, in favourable positions, Hinds

. Fertility very
continue to calve nearly as long as they live. Doubtless in exposed variable.

and unfavourable positions, the result in calves is very much less
satisfactory. Our count of hinds and calves late February, 1890,
establishes this fact, the favourable districts show by far the best
results.

I think we may conclude that wild red-deer occasionally reach
30 years of age.

When hinds are picked for the larder (November and December),
at least 19 out of 20 shot, are in calf, this shows that it is ex-
tremely rare for a good hind to go yeld more than one year at a

Inner.

28 calves to

100 hinds.

Largy.

45 calves to

100 hinds.

Growth of
good hinds.

Count of
Hinds and
Calves,
Feb., 1890,
in Forest.

time, but a good many must be yeld for a year, because on our
best breeding district of Largy, if we can come up with a lot of 20
hornless deer we generally find 2 or 4 adult yeld hinds among
them. No doubt some of these yeld hinds have lost their calves.
The best and sleekest hinds are generally selected, of breeding age.
My impression is, that I never knew a milk-hind shot that did not
prove to be in-calf, happily our experience in this matter is small.
We know less about the fertility of inferior hinds in exposed
places, because we seldom shoot them, but it must be far less than
is current with well conditioned hinds, or else there is an enor-
mous early death rate among their calves. Probably both of
these evils are at work. The subject is treated further on.

It is impossible to doubt that far more calves born to poor
hinds die, than such as belong to well-conditioned hinds.
Inner, our most exposed breeding ground, shows 28 calves alive
February to 100 hinds. Largy, our choicest and best sheltered
ground shows 45 calves to 100 hinds. We reckon as "hinds," the
female deer of i year old and upwards, and it is to 100 of these
our rate of calves is calculated ; we think this method of reckon-
ing less liable to error than an attempt to deduct the yearlings and
2 year old hinds, and to ascribe the calves to the balance left — of
course the calves are due to that balance whatever it may be.
Hinds marry when 28 months old and present the forest with
their first fruits when 3 years old, usually. On favourable ground
a hind probably has the general appearance of being full grown
when 5 or 6 years old.

Hinds do not frequent woods in Ardfin, — only stags do so, but
other Jura woods are frequented by both sexes. Jura is deficient
in woods. The best woods are in Ardfin.

By actual count of the Forest, late in February, 1890, we made
out 957 hinds one year old and upwards, and 355 calves. This is
37 calves to each 100 hinds (one year old and above) on the whole
Forest. The proportion of calves is no doubt larger of late years
than formerly, because better ground has come into use for
breeding. A large portion of the calves must have died,
especially in the nursery, as eight months had elapsed since their
birth. March and April are the only months very fatal to adult

deer. These months are also very fatal to calves. No count
can be accurate and no division of the count into ages, not
even always into sex, of young stock ; though in clear weather
errors as to sex must be very trifling. We had splendid
weather for the purpose, but no doubt some animals escaped
observation ; nor is it a great vault to the imagination to
think occasional confusion arose between calves and year-
lings, calves being 8 months old, and yearlings 20 months old-
The count however was most carefully conducted. If we make
the conjecture that 30 per cent, of the hinds consists of yearlings
and two year old hinds (too young to breed) we are left with 670
hinds of breeding age, and 355 calves — about 54 calves to 100
adult hinds. If we omit Inner, our least fertile district, we shew
66 calves to 100 hinds of breeding age alive in February.

The Four Divisions of the Forest vary much in fertility, as
below ; and the fertility belonging to different years varies very
considerably, as is proved by our death lists.

No. (i) District, Inner. Count 426 hinds (one year old and
above) — 118 calves. The particulars of the Inner count are here

Forest
District I.

Inner,

facing West,
7,000 Acres.

appended : —

Fertility,

39 Hinds 8

Calves.

ii Hinds 3 Calves.

10 Hinds 3 Calves.

28 to 100.

14 „ 3

,,

31

6 ,

15

3 5,

14 5, 4

55

37

5

36

12 ,,

6 „ 2

5)

20

7

14

4 55

16 „ 5

)J

19

6 i

6

4 55

18 „ 6

55

17

4 5

15

6 „

8 „ 4

55

10

4 5

*9

5 »

12 „ 4

55

39 » I0 »

Total : 426 Hinds, 118 Calves.

Many good stags on Inner. Heavily stocked, say 700 deer,
100 to 1000 acres, or i deer to 10 acres.

Fertility, 28 calves to 100 hinds (one year old and above.)

Western exposure, rather flat ground, our most exposed district
A lot of good feeding ground, good shores — grassy and sheltered
— also a good deal of poor exposed ground and some stony hill
tops. Marches with Ardfin sheep ground on South, with Largy

10 Acres to
each Deer.

Say—

117 Stags.

39 Knobbers
426 Hinds.

118 Calves.

700, Total.

on East, and with Scrinadle (at the big Burn) on the North side,
West boundary is the sea.

Inner has always been considered the chief breeding ground
of Jura.

District 2 No< ^ District> Scrinadle. Count 133 hinds (one year old and

Scrinadle, above) 6 1 calves. A good many stags on Scrinadle; small sized

chiefly facing slags chiefly, except near the Inner march. Fairly well stocked,

say 289 deer, 64 to each 1000 acres, or i deer to each 15 J acres.

4,500 Acres.

Fertility,
45 to 100.
154 Acres to
each Deer.
Say—

75 Stags.

20 Knobbers
133 Hinds.

61 Calves.

289, Total.

Mostly Western exposure, part of it rather flat, but a great deal
of high stony ground also. Chiefly heather on this district, but
very nice heather. Very good shores, grassy, sheltered. Shelter
of Big Burn on South, of Glenabatrich Glen on North.

Fertility, 45 calves to 100 hinds (one year old and above).
Marches with Inner to South, Gatehouse (at Glenbatrich river) to
North, with Largy to East, West boundary (N.W. really) is the
sea. Extent, about 4500 acres.

Deer eat a good deal of sea weed on this beat and on other
beats where the shores are favourable. They devour all horns and
bones of dead deer pretty soon, they are not very particular how
soon they begin upon them. I have found a large piece of skin
in a stag's stomach, nearly the size of a pocket handkerchief, and
chewed full of holes ; they begin on the bones while an offensive
odour is exceedingly apparent. I have twice seen stags with large
pieces of skin and leg bone attached entangled in their horns.
One of these bone-carriers was the dread of his friends ; the leg
bones rattled with a terrible noise against his horns, if he trotted
or galloped. Getting our wind, he started off in a hurry, and set
in motion several other stags. These were urged to their utmost
speed by the noise behind them, while the stag that played
" Bones " strained every muscle because he saw the unaccountable
panic of the deer in front. It was a desperate hunt. One of the
front lot, a very fat bald stag, became so exhausted that he broke
away and hid himself, the rest, hunter and hunted, disappeared,
going best pace over a distant sky line. A truly ludicrous

The count of 1891 shows that the Fertility of Scrinadle has
been somewhat overrated.

spectacle. We did not molest the panting hart that hid him-
self.

Forest
District 3.
Gate-house — No. 3 district of Forest. Count 220 hinds (one year Gatehouse,

old and above), 96 calves. Many good stags on Gate-house in

the lower ground, small stags on the parts marching with Serin- East» also
adle. Heavily stocked, about 510 deer, or 73 to 1,000 acres,
or i deer to 14 acres.

Fertility,
Fertility, 42 calves to 100 hinds (one year old and upwards). 42 to 100.

Chiefly Eastern exposure, also Northern, very nice district ;
every kind of ground in it, much good feeding, much good l. Acres to
shelter. Some stony hill tops with small stags, e.g., Eagle Dhu, each Deer.
Ben Vrech. Marches with Scrinadle at Glenabatrich River and
Largy to South, Loch Tarbert and Corrienaheira form the North ^9 Stags.
and West boundary and the fence of Gate-house inclosure, 35 Knobbers
together with the fence of Knock Crome, form the East. Extent _
about 7,000 acres. About 50 Gate-house stags winter in Cor- 510 Total.
rienaheira and Lagg. Corrienaheira would be a natural and very
valuable addition to the Forest (3,500 acres of open ground).

Forest
Largy — No. 4 Forest district. Count 178 hinds (one year old District, 4.

and above) 80 calves This district is chiefly stag ground. Many Largy>

chiefly facing
good stags on Largy. Fairly stocked, say 500 deer or 55 to East.

1000 acres, or i deer to 18 acres. 9,000 Acres.

Fertility, 45 calves to TOO hinds (one year old and above). Very ^ Io I00>
good hinds and calves here, our best.

Eastern exposure for most part, but Largy has every exposure

and every kind of ground, though only one small piece of sea l8 Acres to

each Deer,
shore, in Bay of Small Isles, say a mile of sea shore, of which

deer are very fond. A great deal of good feeding, of shelter, of 183 Stags.
low ground and of high ground. Small stags in the stony tops of 2S Knobbers
Glasven, Unven, and the Paps. Pap Stags are fit to kill ten 8o g*1^8'
days later than the rest. Stags from other districts come to 31 Pap Deer
reside in Largy. In 1878 perhaps Largy bred 20 calves, now

80, capital hinds and calves. Extent about 9,000 acres ; the -

500, Total.

8

most interesting ground in Jura. Marches with Ardfin sheep

ground on South, Inner and Scrinadle on West, Gatehouse on

shews about the North. The track to Glenabatrich is nearly the N. boundary.

ea!hADeert0 The SCa f°rmS a Sma11 part °f the EaSt boundary> together with
fence of Knock Crome, and also the Largy, Manse, and Keills
enclosures. The ridge of the island running N. and S. divides
Largy from Inner. 28 knobbers were counted on Largy,
February, 1890.

I append particulars of Largy count.

Hinds.

Calves.

Knob'rs

Hinds.

Calves.

Knob'rs

Hinds.

Calves.

Knob'rs

34

12

7

3

3

.

13

8

0

9

3

2

5

3

2

IO

5

I

3

3

O

4

2

I

21

7

3

5

3

I

3

2

O

IO

7

0

2

i

I

7

4

0

5

6

o

2

o

I

24

16

8

2

Total, 1 60 hinds, 80 calves, 28 knobbers.

Acres, and
2,000 Deer
on it.

Fertility of
West is 32 t.o
100.

Inner and
Scrinadle.

Fertility of
East is 44 to
100,

Gatehouse
and Largy.

Infertility of
Inner.

Eighteen hinds were shot on Largy, before this count was
taken. We have allowed for all hinds shot, in our calf estimate.

It therefore appears that 559 hinds (one year old and above)
brought 179 calves on West side of Forest — Inner and Scrinadle
(alive late Feb. 1890), whereas it appears that 398 similarly aged
hinds brought 176 calves on East side of Forest — Gatehouse and
Largy. This is a great contrast in fertility. The extent of the
whole Forest is about 27,500 acres.

Hitherto Inner has been regarded as the chief calf nursery, but
we now see that only half the Forest-reared calves are born on the
West side, and that Inner produces just one-third of the Forest-
born calves. It is likely Inner rears many inferior calves.
No doubt the Inner hinds ought to be picked over, to take
off the worst of them. Inner deer eat a good deal of sea
weed ; it is probably useful and wholesome for them. Sheep
do the same, also horses, etc. A fine stag was found dead

there in 1888, with the skull of a calf firmly fixed in his
mouth. We have found deer choked with bones several times,
nearly always stags. It is often said only hinds eat bones or
horns ; of course this is an error, like many more things that are
" often said " about deer. Both sexes chew bones freely.

Probably, as in the human species, females are more dexterous
than males.

The bark, so-called, of a suspicious hind is an ominous sound,
only too well known to the deerstalker. I never saw or heard
any reference to the fact that stags occasionally bark just as
loudly and persistently as hinds ; the result of course is equally
disastrous. I only recall four such occasions, and therefore
conclude the performance is rare.

Count of Ardfin (March, 1890) 118 hinds (i year old and sheepground,
above) 45 calves. Should have been counted same day as Ardfin.
Inner, but was not. This, however, is of little importance.

Fertility. 37 calves to 100 hinds of i year old and
above.

Ardfin is bounded, say half of it, by the sea, except on go g
North side, where it marches with Inner and Largy ; not a great 118 Hind,
extent of good shores. About 9,500 acres of unenclosed
ground, is naturally good deer ground, having a considerable ^oo Sheep,
extent of woods, perhaps towards 500 acres, and good ground Sa^ ^ Acres
of all kinds. A considerable portion of Ardfin breeding stock
resides above the Ferry ; this is ground not much superior to
Inner, it is the most exposed part of Ardfin, Western exposure.
If stags had the Ardfin woods undisturbed, a number of splendid
wood stags would get together there ; the woods hold a few stags
now, and, as it is, 8 stags are yearly shot on Ardfin for the larder,
which have probably averaged about 15 stone, clean. 21
knobbers were counted on Ardfin. Cattle are about to make
way for more sheep on Ardfin, probably a change for the worse
as respects deer. The average weight of Ardfin stags has fallen
off lately. Ardfin stags are not often picked for their heads.

Tarbert is about 24,000 acres, including Corrienaheira (3,500 farbert
acres of unenclosed ground). 91 stags were counted in 1880, Sheep ground

10

also 324 deer without horns — say 226 hinds, 26 knobbers, 72
calves; total, 415, for Spring stock of 1880. Tarbert lies to
North of Forest. Ardlussa lies again to North of Tarbert.
Ardlussa belongs to Mr. W. Macfarlane, who is the best of good
neighbours. Precipitous shores on Ardlussa, a large stock of sheep
and we suppose a fair stock of deer. We estimate Tarbert to
contain say 310 hinds (i year old and above), and say 114 calves
24,000 Acres jf ^ calves to 100 hinds. Tarbert is very healthy ground, plenty
Say 5 acres to of shelter and feeding, and good shelving shores on West side.
a Sheep. Tarbert runs from sea to sea, East and West, and would make
an excellent Forest ; deer eat a good deal of sea-weed there.
Probably 37 calves to 100 hinds is an over estimate for Tarbert.
Mr. Fletcher burns Tarbert very freely. We now follow his
advice and example by burning the Forest much more freely
than we used to do.

In July, 1890, the count of Tarbert stags was 158. We will
therefore take the number for 1889 as 145 stags. Hence,
including Forest, Tarbert and Ardfin, we reckon by count
(stags counted July, 1889 — hinds, etc., Feb.> 1890) the whole
oTl)eerStOCk stock of deer to have been, August, 1889—
August, 1889. 759 gtags (2 years oM and aboye)<

1345 hinds (i year old and above).
496 calves
170 knobbers

Total... 2770 Deer. This must be an under-estimate.

Same date we estimate—

male s°ex. 759 stags> T7° knobbers, and 247 stag calves— **s* males.

Also female. i $9$ hinds and hind calves — 1593 females.

The sexes appear to be equally divided at birth, but we fancy
the mortality of stags from an early age may be slightly in
excess of that of hinds.

classing In a general count of all hornless beasts, all over the place, we

hornless Deer. thjnk the result comes out two-thirds hinds (i year old and
above). Take say 37 calves to result from each 100 hinds, in

II

Feb., 1890. Take one-third of these calves and consider that
to be the number of knobbers.

Forest count of hinds 957 1890 Forest

calves 355

1 8 knobbers.

take Jrd of these calves

count of
hornless Deer.

1430

i, 430 of them.

We therefore conclude there were on Forest, Feb. 1890 — 1,430
hornless deer, classed very nearly as above. For knobbers, we
tested Largy by count ; by our method of reckoning there
would be 27 knobbers — count was 28 knobbers.

If the Forest escapes heavy mortality it would seem that the Forest Stock
, ,. ..... of Deer is

day is not distant when it will contain as many deer as it approaching

is properly able to carry ; as we have shown already, there are a sufficiency-
now barely 14 acres of ground to each deer in the Forest.
They have enough to eat, but the quality of winter eating is
inferior, a fault that becomes more serious as stock increases.

At the end of July, 1889, the distribution of deer was as
below, by count. Stags counted July, 1889 — hinds, etc., Feb.,
1890 : —

STAGS.

HINDS.

CALVES.

KNOBBERS

H

Inner
Scrinadle

69
192
123

426
133

118
61

39

20

Many Inner stags were Distribution
on Scrinadle, 1889, ff Deer
owing to burnt ground lajj m Jul^'
at March. l889-

W

Inner 1 17 stags, Scrin-

f* "

o

adle 75 stags, would be

£

Gate-house

159

22O

96

32

about usual proportion.

Largy knobbers were

counted as well as stags

Largy ...

183

I78

80

28

and hinds.

Total Forest ...

534

957

355

119

Tarbert hinds, calves, &

knobbers, estimated

Tarbert (sheep
g-)

H5

296

109

36

from count of 1880.
Further details later

on.

Knobbers were counted

Ardfin (shepg.)

80

118

45

21

as well as stags, hinds,
and calves.

The distribution of stags in Winter is quite different, they
winter in different localities and in small bands.

12

The following table shows to what extent each beat of the
whole ground was occupied by stags, knobbers, hinds, and
calves in August, 1889. Stags counted July, 1889; hinds, etc.,
counted Feb., 1890.

We select the year 1889 because we believe our Forest stag
count of that year was near the truth.

August, 1889.

Stags. Knobbers

Hinds.

Calves.

TOTAL.

INNER
Percentages

117 ! 37
16.9 i 5.3

426

61.

118

17.

698 Deer (i Deer to 10 acres)
upon total of 698.

This gives i Stag to 60 acres, i Hind to 16.4 acres.

Also 3.6 Hinds to each Stag. It is evident that many Stags bred upon
Inner desert it.

SCRINADLE ...

Percentages

75
25-9

37
6-9

133
46.

61

21.

289 Deer (i Deer to 15^ acres)
upon total of 289.

This gives I Stag to 60 acres, I Hind to 33.8 acres.
Each Stag has 1.8 Hinds on this beat.

GATE-HOUSE ...
Percentages

i '59
31.2

35
6.86

220
43-1

96

18.8

510 Deer (i Deer to 14 acres)
upon total of 510.

This gives I Stag to 44. acres, I Hind to 31.8 acres.
Each Stag has 1.4 Hinds on this beat.

LARGY
Percentages

183
40.5

28

6.2

1 60
35-4

80
17.6

451 Deer (i Deer to 18 acres
upon total of 451.

This gives i Stag to 38.25 acres, I Hind to 43.8 acres.

There were 18 more Hinds than above in Aug., 1889 — shot later in year.

Stags here over-number Hinds. Clearly Stags are attracted to Largy from
other beats. We believe there are 31 pap Stags besides those enumerated
above, making 214 Stags on Largy. There are also pap Hinds.

ARDFIN sheep g
Percentages

80
30.3

21

7-95

118

44-79

45
17-

264 Deer (I Deer to 36 acres)
upon total of 264.

This gives i Stag to 118.75 acres, I Hind to 80.5 acres.
Only 73 Stags were counted in Ardfin ; the v/oods are given credit
for 7 more.

About 1.47 Hinds to each Stag on this beat.

A portion of Ardfin Stags and Knobbers no doubt come from Inner.

TARBERT sh'p g
Percentages

145

23-8

38
6.26

310
51-

114
18.78

607 Deer ( i Deer to 39. 5 acres)
upon total of 607.

This gives i Stag to 165.5 acres, I Hind to 77.42 acres.
2. 14 Hinds to i Stag on Tarbert.

13

Counts of stags for 9 years, and lists of dead deer found for
1 1 years are appended for Forest ; also 7 years deaths for
Tarbert. I have referred in vain to the yearly rain-fall to explain
the great variations of the death rate. Average Jura rain-fall is Direct cause

6< inches. Rain alone cannot kill many deer, or what would of variable

Death rate.
become of the large and rapidly increasing stock of Glenquoich

with about no inches rainfall. I believe very many deer die of
the hair-like lung-worm, causing the disease called husk ; we
have found two stags freshly dead in 1890, both had their lungs

full of these parasites, one had no front teeth and therefore was name of this
not a great treasure. We seldom find dead deer quite fresh strongylus
enough to open and examine them. Micrurus.

It may be well to state here what is detailed further on —
In Forest 6| per cent, of dead stags were found during 5 years first recorded.

,, 7f ,, ,, hinds (i added to each 10) ,, ,, For Forest

,, 25 , , , , calves were actually found ,, ,,

During the last six years i\ per cent, dead stags were found.

,, ,, 2| per cent, dead hinds (i in 10 added).

,, ,, n^ per cent, dead calves actually found.

We add very largely to the numbers of dead calves, for bodies
not found, in a future table. The contrast between these two
sets of years is very great.

For the last 6 years we have largely increased the area of
ground burnt annually, and we do not know to what other cause
to ascribe the great improvement that has taken place. We have
a greatly increased stock, and at the same time a greatly reduced
death rate.

We lost a very fine ii-point monarch, about 6 years since,
from husk. He faded away in Spring, grew only knobs for Jnstance °'

Ll USK.

horns, and then died. His lungs were full of worms. He was
just on the eve of his prime. I have three consecutive pairs of
his horns, showing yearly improvement, the last pair, very fine,
now mounted on a stuffed head.

Besides the husk parasite we have observed five other parasites.
Fluke is not rare in deer ; none were detected in 1889, nor have
I seen any very serious case except once, but it is by no means
unlikely that a few deer die of fluke.

An instance of sturdy came under our notice in Ross-shire, and
a stag with sturdy has been seen here.

Stags are also infested by a very large throat worm, which
adheres to the throat and to the lower part of the tongue. This
worm is nearly as thick as a person's little finger, and has a most
foul and repulsive appearance. It is found in Ross-shire, and
also exists here. It somewhat resembles a leech in appearance ;
possibly it is a leech. I never saw an example of this worm. It
is found in Spring. It appears to be uncommon in Jura, only
recorded twice.

We have already spoken of the husk parasite.

We have observed two kinds of intestinal worms.

It is thus seen that casual observation on the part of those
without any special knowledge has established the existence of
six forms of parasite affecting deer, or, including warbles, sev<"n.

Ross-shire stags are much infested with warbles ; these must
be produced by some insect, no doubt of the gad-fly type.

These warbles are ugly looking dark-coloured lumps under the
skin, sometimes very numerous and as large as hazel nuts. Each
warble contains a grub, and there is a perforation in the skin
above the warble.

Ross-shire stags often have the tops of their horns decayed
away. Stags antlers are formed of pure bone, not horn.

We have only once detected warbles, and decayed antlers never
in Jura. The warbles observed were in a dead hind. Much
venison is disfigured by warbles in Ross-shire.

The death rate of sheep in the western portion of Argyllshire
is lamentably heavy, and is largely due to parasites.

It is probable that careful study, accompanied with special
knowledge, might lead to very interesting and valuable discoveries,
and perhaps to changes of management which would greatly
reduce the death rate, both of sheep and deer. It seems that
burning considerable tracts of heather greatly checks parasitic
mischief, but there is a limit to this remedy, because there is
hardly any winter feeding for the first winter on burnt ground.
We have a good deal of ground — grassy flats, with heather inter-
mixed— that ought to be burnt in rotation once in three years.
Good judgment in burning, and in abstaining from it, is essential
to success in this Forest. Far more ground requires burning
here than in Ross-shire. We did not find this out at first, and we
were told at first that the ground had been too much burnt

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Mortality.

No record for
1880.

Inner, average
death 9 Stags
Ga. Ho., and
Scrinadle,
average
6\ Stags.
Largy average
8 Stags.
Tarbert aver-
age 4 Stags.

The worst
years are in
this estimate
10 years av.
for Largy.

7 years av. for
Inner.

8 years av. for
Sc. and G.
Ho.

Average has
been more
favourable for
last 5 years.

i6

If, as is very likely, the Forest crop of calves, 1876, was half
that of 1889, there would be, we calculate, rather above 500 hinds
in the Forest in 1876, as against 957 in 1889. This is very
probable, and our hind count, Spring of 1879, was 579 ; but some
two-year-old stags were possibly included in this count owing to bad
spying weather. Again, if the Forest crop of calves in 1876, alive
Feb., was about half the present crop, the addition of two-year-old
stags going into Forest count of 1878 should be about 67 (20%
calves dying, 5% knobbers.) This would prevent any startling
change in the number for 1879, and our percentage of deaths in
stags was not heavy for the first 3 years (1878, 1879, 1880),
perhaps 4 per cent., 1880 list is lost. We think we had 525 stags
in the Forest late July, 1878, but we did not count them so far
as I can remember. We think, from memory, the count for 1880
was about 500, but it is lost. We also think Forest count for
1879 was near 5°°j it is a^so l°st>

The rate of increase in stags reared from 1876 to 1889, inclu-
sive, may have probably been something of this kind, but of course
less regular. I have put it in to illustrate the principle that
governs our calculations — the rock on which they are built.

YEAR.

1876

1877

1878

1879

1880

1881

1882

1883

1884

1885

1886

1887

1888

1889

StafrS reared Theoretical Estimate

in Forest. poreS88 '^^ '"

8q

90

92

95 97

101

107 114

122

13! 141

1.52

164

177

I

Estimated Hinds in

Stock of Hinds Forest ••
in Forest.

54°
guess

guess

579
count

573

592

614

603

635

652

7IO 764

856

946

1008
(957)

ed.

First Count of
Hinds,
1878 Stock.

The estimate of Forest hinds is based upon the count of 1878
stock (taken early 1879), and it has been worked out by our death
lists of hinds and calves. Hence its irregularity as compared with
the stag-calf series above. That series was of course also really
irregular, and we have not treated it as regular in our calculations;
we have been governed by our lists of dead animals. We think
it possible some two-year-old stags were included in the count of
" hornless " deer in Spring, 1879, because the weather was very

bad for spying, so 579 may be very near the real number of hinds
(i year old and above), as of course we missed seeing part of
them. Those who made the count are of this opinion.

Again, as we had splendid weather for 1890 Spring counts, we Second Count
are pretty sure no two-year-old stags are in it, and we know there jggg stock,
are more than 957 hinds in the Forest. I believe the above series
of hinds is near the actual truth.

If we make out a birth table of calves reared, as regulated by
our death lists, which were very heavy for several early years, we
obtain by the best of our calculation and judgment, the following
table of stags in Forest, two years' old and upwards, and we also
quote the counts. We believe in July, 1878, there were about
525 stags in the Forest.

-

YEAR.

1878
525

1879

1880

1881
461

1882
444

1883
458

1884
429

1885

1886
471

1887

1888
548

1889

Estimate of \
Stags ../

490

478

445

499

*

Average 12, esti-
mates 487.

Count of Stags

601
Error?

454

486

«,

502

393

Error?

446

467

534

Average 9,
counts 492.

Stags.

The stock of two-year-old stags to go into count of 1891, as
shown by our count and death rate, will be 155, unless something
abnormal happens. It is impossible to count* all the stags, if ji •
they stood still to be counted — which is often far from being ' «

the case — we might leave out, say, 50 in such wide ground,
viz. : 27,500 acres, with big hills in it.

No doubt we counted some stags twice over in 1881, perhaps
also in 1884 and in 1885, and in 1886 we probably missed seeing
a good many. But taking the balance of errors, the average stock
of Forest, by count, is 492 ; and by our calculation of births and
deaths the average stock of Forest comes out 487. Estimates

Taking the whole ground, including Ardfin, average by count
is 687 stags, and by estimate 677 stags.

We have unusual confidence in our count of 1889—534 stags,
it " came off" remarkably well, no doubt we missed some, but we

c

«X >»

i8

hope we counted none twice over. I believe the estimate of
forest stags, year by year, to be a much truer list than the counts,
• year by year — indeed this is quite obvious ; but by sticking to the
counts we gain knowledge. It is probably more difficult to make
a good count of stags in July than it is to make a good count of
hinds in February, the stags being in high ground, and the hinds
chiefly in low ground.

I have no doubt whatever, that since 1884, when we received

increasing*58 a neavv blow — the bodies of 48 dead stags having been found —

since 1884. the stock of Forest stags has been steadily increasing, and that at

the present time the increase has become larger yearly. Our careful,

and we think very successful count of 1889, confirms this. Up to

and including 1884 the Forest stags were, I believe, decreasing.

47 stags died in 1882.

Was Husk the cause of the heavy mortality of 1884 and 1882 ?

At the worst period, 1884, the Forest stags appear to have

fallen nearly 100 below our starting point, 1878, at the present

Great increase time the stock appears to be about 100 larger than ever. The

increase of hornless animals, hinds, knobbers and calves, is so

large as to be easily noticed at a glance.
Our two counts
of Hinds and Spring 1879, we counted 869 hornless animals in Forest.

Spring 1890, we counted 1429 hornless animals in Forest.
This is an increase of 560, or 64 per cent, on Forest in n years.
We believe the animals counted 1879, consisted of about what
is stated below, the 1879 count being only an unclassed census of
hornless animals.

1879 Count — 579 hinds (i year old and more).
218 calves.
72 knobbers.

869

1890 Count — 957 hinds (counted separately).
355 calves (counted separately).
117 knobbers (estimated, tested on i beat).

1429

Increase. From these figures we have constructed a series, shewing the
number of hinds and calves, each year — this is done by taking

19

579 hinds for year 1878, and working in the calves reared, and

using our death lists. Hence we are able to establish the yearly Of Deaths.

percentages of deaths approximately.

Adding the counted stag stock (after deducting stags shot, 1889)
there were 1913 deer in Forest, February, 1890, no doubt this is
an under estimate. There will be about i deer to each 14 acres
in Forest. This of course includes calves. Excluding calves
there would be i deer to 17 acres.

If the dozen or so of Ross-shire deer imported in 1870, had been
preserved, instead of being destroyed, their descendants would
now number at least 150, and thriving as only a freshly introduced
cross will thrive. A great benefit to the property, and especially
to Ardfin, where unfortunately they were nearly all located.
Estimating that 5 hinds die yearly in Ardfin, besides 4 shot there, ^sdess f°rf I2
we may calculate by aid of our death list that from 1878 to 1889, years,
inclusive, about 160 hinds have been shot, or hit — on the whole
ground, Ardfin, Forest, and Tarbert — and about 575 hinds have
died. This is 735 hinds wiped out in 12 years, or 61 yearly on the
whole ground. There are now at least 1343 hinds on the whole
ground. Nearly all hinds found dead appear to have died from old
age, but it is possible to mistake the ragged and lean appearance
produced by disease — Husk for example — for that which attends
on old age.

254 Hind calves were calculated (all counted but Tarbert) to
be on the whole ground, including Ardfin, February, 1890,
hence the always accelerating rate of progress in hind's increase
must be becoming great, and be it remembered an equal number
of stag calves are born. We probably under-estimate the stock
of hinds on Tarbert, and, as it proves, that of stags also : our
original count was in 1880. 1890 count of stags was 158.
We propose to count Tarbert hinds in 1891.

We think a vigorous and healthy hind of 12 years old, jrertiiity Of
favourably situated for shelter and feeding, should have at least Hinds.
14 descendants alive, and might have far more. But we must
add the exclamation, " O si sic omnes."

Knowing the hinds were the power of the place, we shot hardly

Few Hinds
any hinds for our first 6 years — viz. : 27 in 6 years, or less than 5 per shot.

20

Strange
fecundity of
heather.

year. We are now 181 hinds below the nominal limit allowed to
be shot by the lease.

Many people believe that stags spring up out of the heather,
without the intervention of mothers — a delightful conception,
entertained and acted upon by most deer-fanciers, owners and
tenants.

The most important feature in a satisfactory Forest is the
possession of a full complement of hinds. We believe that at
last Jura Forest has attained this essential part of complete
success, hence hind shooting will now begin. Sixteen years of
such moderation as may be called abstension has been needed to
effect this result. The Forest now contains about 1000 hinds
(i year old and above). If 1000 is the right standard number,
about 90 hinds will require to be shot in 1891 to keep that
standard. The flower of the flock ought not to be selected for
slaughter. This is a very serious question, and one that must be
faced, else an insidious decay of the deer will set in, from over-
stocking the ground.

Largy was dealt with to some extent in 1889. We propose
doing so again in 1890, consequently the probable number of
hinds to be shot in 1891 may prove about 75.

We intend to test our estimates by a count of the Forest,
Feb., 1891.

1890.

1890.

Assume that
5 per cent.
Hinds die.

1891.

1891.

Percentage
of
Fertility.

Hinds
i year and
above.

Calves
of
8 months.

New
Year-old
Hinds.

Profit
in
Hinds.

Inner
Gate-house

426

220

118
96

21
II

46
38

25

27

28

42

Scrinadle ...

133

61

7

24

I?

45

Largy

160

80

9

32

23

45

Totals ...

939

355

48

140

92

The numbers doubtless are rather larger than those given in
this table. We cannot possibly count all the hinds. The rate of
hinds' deaths is likely to be somewhat less than 5 per cent.

21

We will now consider the production and death of stags.
We estimate that 20 per cent, of stag calves reared up to
February usually die during their first year, chiefly in March deaths of
and April. It is true that for the last 6 years we have StaSs-

only found the bodies of 1 1 per cent, of calves, but calves Per centase of

* dead.

die in all sorts of places, also their flat lean bodies soon

decay, are eaten by other deer and disappear. For our
first recorded 5 years we found 25 per cent, of dead calves.
We have fully recognized this in constructing our series of stags ^ eacl calves
and hinds. We take the percentage of death for knobbers (year-
lings) at 5 per cent., but we find very few dead knobbers. Three
in one year is our highest find. I may remark that Murchison,
the forester, does not remember seeing a dead two-year-old stag.
We take the death-rate of stags at 3 per cent, a year after
passing the year of " knobberhood " till they are 12 years old, Of Stags that
so 100 calves reared up to February produce 56 stags of 12 r<jacl1 I2years
years old. Excluding sheep ground, Ardfin (no data), and
also Tarbert, we find the yearly death rate of stags on
Forest for 1 1 years recorded 4! per cent. For the last 6 years
it has been much less, viz., 2.\ per cent. For the first 5 years
recorded it was 6| per cent, (out of our first 7 years we have
records of 5 only). More than half the dead stags are old

wasters. For example, 1888 and 1889 combined in Forest and

- . . , Wasted Stags

Tarbert together result is 42 dead stags, of which 32 were con- principally

sidered wasters. Thirty-two of these stags died on Forest, 10 on found dead-
Tarbert (an extraordinary number this was of wasters). There-
fore I think we are quite safe (/.<?., over the mark) in taking the
yearly stag mortality at 3 per cent, till their prime, viz., 12 years'
old. We think we find very nearly all the dead stags, though
we do not think we can count all the live ones ; however we
may sometimes count the same stags twice over — as in 1881
apparently, and perhaps also in 1884 and 1885.

The destruction of stags from all causes, including knobbers, Loss of Stags
for the whole ground (Ardfin, Forest, and Tarbert) was, for the in early years,
first 7 years, viz. : — 1878 to 1884 inclusive, as nearly as we can
calculate, 105 stags a year. This, had it continued, would have
shown 1,260 stags wiped out in 12 years. The destruction is L . ,
less now, say 15 stags a year less, for 6 years past, and also years.

22

the production is increased considerably. This destruction no
doubt has aroused a prophetic spirit in some individuals, who
Pessimistic foretell the downfall of the Forest by over shooting about
Jura prophets, g vears hence, and also say that cromies are extermi-
nated. Cromie stags are very curious ; it is said they exist
only in Jura, where certainly they are historical. I have heard
it stated that they have been known in Mull, but Maclaine
of Lochbuie thinks not. Cromie in Gaelic means crooked.
These Cromie horns slope backwards, and are altogether very
remarkable. Some cromie heads are beautiful. We have not
shot cromies for several years, and perhaps it is argued that
absence from the larder proves absence from the hill. Cromies
only affect certain parts of the ground ; on those districts there
may be perhaps 3 cromies to 100 stags, or rather more, for we
know of about 8 cromies, and it is not likely we know of half
those existing ; they are not very easy to recognize at any consider-
Cromies. able distance. We have found 3 dead cromies, none of which
we knew in life. We have shot 1 1 cromies in 1 2 years. Five
were seen in one day last year. We have shot 2 cromies in
1890.

It is unsafe to prophecy unless one knows.

There is a small number also of bald, or hornless stags, in
Jura. These animals usually carry very high condition ; they
fight as eagerly as horned stags, sometimes beating off their
armed adversary. Their ears are often split in the clash of
battle, so of course are the ears of horned stags.

Bell (British Mammals, 2nd Ed. p. 357) is in much confusion
with the Scotch Islands and the Cromie stags. His reference to
an abundance of stags of any kind, in Mull, puts him out of
court. Very likely he confused Mull and Jura.

There is no considerable stock of red-deer in any Scotch
Island except The Long Island, Skye, and Jura.

The

Pessimists
refuted.

We will set the following facts against the above gloomy
inspirations. The very careful and fortunately managed Forest
count 1889, showed 534 stags, or 759 for the whole ground,

23

taking Ardfin at 80 and Tarbert at 145. In 1878 we reckon
there were 525 Forest stags, or 695 for the whole ground. Very
little faded material in 1889 count be it remembered. The stock
of decrepit stags is much reduced, also that of ugly narrow
heads. The death rate of Forest stags has fallen from
6f per cent, to 2\ per cent, for the last 6 years. A propor-
tionate reduction has taken place in the deaths of hinds and
calves.

The average weight of stags shot does not decrease. The
small stags of the Paps, Scrinadle, and other stony hill tops
keep down our weights. The number we shoot of these small
high-ground stags varies of course in different years ; they
give us charming days amid hill tops, our pleasantest days.
But we do not shoot for weight, it would be madness. Wej h(. of
Excluding wasters, our usual average weight, so far, has been Stags, clean,
from 14'! to 14*2, clean. In 1878 it was i4'2|, in 1888 it without liver,
was 147, in 1889 it was 14 stone and |-a-pound. The number jjg
of stags, 15 stone and upwards, that come into the larder
does not decrease, we had twelve of this class in 1878, fifteen
in 1889, nineteen in 1890. The number of monarchs is not large, Monarch*,
that is to say great full grown stags with fine heads — only a
small proportion of stags is born to the purple ; the pro-
ducing power also of 12 years since was very far below the
present power. We usually preserve any vigorous monarch with
which we become well acquainted, and, if possible, collect the Their cast
cast horns. We have in this way discovered that monarchs Horns,
have their bad years, that their heads will diminish in glory
for a year, and afterwards recover, this is made very clear by
weighing the horns. We very often resist the temptation to shoot
thriving stags that seem to be approaching the monarch stage —
but no doubt thriving stags are often shot. We have of course shot
many monarchs during 12 years, we must shoot something besides
inferior animals. Up to October 4th, 1890, Forest and Tarbert
stags averaged 14-9. Ardfin stags about 14*5.

We think Ardfin now breeds about the number taken off
it, but, if a heavy sheep stock replaces the cattle, this state of
affairs may not continue.

24

Ardfin Stags Stags shot on Ardfin seldom are weighed. Their weight has
are seldom

weighed. declined of late years.

Tarbert Tarbert sheep ground improves in number and quality of its

improving. stag§i Corrienaheira is considered a part of Tarbert. We are

very kindly supported in Tarbert by Mr. Fletcher, who is a

staunch friend to the deer ; so is Lindsay, at Lagg, which forms

Weight of a Part °f Corrienaheira. In 1878, our Tarbert stags averaged,

Tarbert Stags, clean, i3'9| ; whereas, in 1889 the average, excluding two wasters,

was 147. The weight of our Tarbert stags, 1890, averaged

14*1 ij, and one stag was 19-12. Tarbert stag count of 1880 was

91, that of 1890 was 158. About 50 Gatehouse stags winter in

Stag calves Corrienaheira. We estimate there were 2^4 stag calves on the

and their

result. whole place, Forest,, Tarbert, and Ardfin, alive in February, 1889.

These would produce 142 twelve year old stags, but as a matter
of fact, many stags younger than twelve are saved the risk of
natural death, consequently, more than 56 per 100 calves must
reach the larder.

Judging age of I do not think it always easy to judge the age of a mean-
hil^andfrom neaded staS after he has reached 5 years old, that is to say an
an arm-chair, ordinary hill stag, of no merit. There are many stags that never

grow larger than a fairly good 5 year old animal. Arm-chair

judgment is much easier than hill-judgment.

We have a three year old stag with six points, a grandson of a
Ross-shire hind ; he is very tame, and one ear has been cut short
to render him bullet proof. His mother is also very tame. There.
is no possible doubt of his identity. He passed two years as a
knobber instead of one year, and then threw out six points. A
somewhat awkward fact for the cock-sure division of observers.
The Ross-shire hind died calving in the month of October.

Even old wasted stags play us tricks.

In 1889 we let off an old lean stag because he had a good
head, an odd reason, some will think. In 1890 this old fellow
had decidedly improved, both in body and head. He is easily
known by his head, four points on one top, three on the other —
good tines.

25

A considerable increase of Forest stags must now be going on,
beyond what are destroyed. Three causes work together to
this end —

(1) The births of stags are expanding every year. Increase of

(2) Stags' deaths have been much less for last 5 years than

formerly. On the Forest we found 160 dead stags
during the first five years, of which we have death
records, while only 77 were found during the last
six years.

(3) There is much less " faded material " on the ground than

formerly.

If we take the various districts it will be seen the Forest ought Increase
to show an increase of 51 stags for count of 1890.

Inner should have 38 new 2 year old stags for 1890 count.
21 Destruction from all causes in Inner.

17 Profit in Stags, 1890, for Inner.

Scrinadle and Gatehouse should have —

57 new 2 year old stags for 1890 count.

23 Destruction from all causes.
Profit that

34 Profit in Stags, 1890, for Scrinadle and Gatehouse. rFesuIts. to the

Forest.

Largy, which draws in stags from other districts, we think, now
will raise as many stags as it will lose. Ardfin, we also think will
now raise as many stags as it will lose, and, therefore, should cease
to be a drain upon Forest, if it continues to prosper. Upon

Tarbert there is doubtless a yearly gain of several stags. Tarbert Probable

- stock added
should have 34 new 2 year old stags for 1890 : destruction from for 1890.

all causes, say 22 : profit in stags, 1890, 12.

It appears likely the profit of stags for Forest in 1890, will be
51, viz. : the clear profit of Inner, Scrinadle, and Gatehouse,

26

together. Whether we shall succeed in counting these animals is
not so very certain, end of July, 1890. The result shows we did
not. The high ground became obscured by haze during our
stag count of 1890.

We have now about 1000 hinds (i year old and above) in the
Forest, 37 calves to each 100 were alive in Feb., 1890.

If 1000 hinds, and no other deer, had existed in the Forest 13
years ago, and stags had been turned out every autumn and taken
up again, till a sufficient supply of native stags was reared, and if
the stock of hinds had been miraculously kept to 1000 of such as
exist now in age, and if the stags had been unmolested, the stock
of twelve-year-old stags provided for this season's shooting would
be TOI stags. The ground would contain 1623 stags and 1000
hinds.

August, 1890 — 10 1 stags 12 years old.

Also — 104*13

—107*34

— 110*64

— 114*06
-117*57

— 121*20
- 124*92

-I28*76

— 136*80
- 144*

II

10

9
8

7
6

5
4
3

2

i year old.

— 180* stag calves (more really.)

Total

1623 stags and stag calves,
hinds.

1000

Total stock 2623 deer on Forest.

This would be too large a stock for the ground.

If only 12 year old stags were selected, an average of 101 might
be killed every year, from 1000 hinds. I have taken 36 calves
(alive in Feb.) to 100 hinds for this calculation.

Instead of 1623 stags and stag calves we appear to have had
about 900 of them in the Forest, Aug. 1890.

27

Taking account of what stags have been killed in the Forest
(natural death and disease being dealt with in our tables) and
of the stags the Forest now contains, it becomes clear that a very
great increase of hinds has taken place during recent years, and
the fact that stags are rapidly increasing is apparent also.

135 two-year-old stags should come into July count of 1892, as
we had by actual count 177 stag calves alive in Feb., 1890.
In Feb., 1879, there were probably about 101 stag calves in the
Forest.

By the table above 136-8 two-year-old stags come into 1892
count.

In 1890 the number of stags, including wasters, shot in Forest,
was 52; should that number be shot in 1892, it is obvious that
the Forest will have a large gain in 1892. The gain in stags
would be 70 (those shot and dead about 67) — net gain 70.
We are on the threshold of a most interesting and important
development of the Forest.

As for ancient history, I possess a fossil stag's antler, dug up F .. . .
in Jura gravel, shewing Jura red-deer to be pre-historic. About
40 years ago some Athole deer were introduced — perhaps fifteen
hinds, and shortly afterwards about a dozen Breadalbane deer,
half of which went to Ardlussa. The result of the introduction of
new blood was very marked and favourable. About a dozen deer
calves were brought fromKildermorie, in 1879. They were nearly all
destroyed, unfortunately, but a few of their progeny exist in Jura.

One big Ross-shire stag was on Gatehouse from a calf: he was
killed by another stag when 9! years old. He was a man of war
from his youth, having broken his horns as a 3-year-old. He
broke them in his last fight.

Fifty years ago stags were only found in holes and burns, very
few of them, and said to carry very strong horns. Knock Break
was cleared 50 years ago, and " McLeod's ground" about 20 years
later — dates about 1840 and 1860, and part of Largy in 1878.

In 1844, Angus McKay, the late Laird's forester, searched Introduction
from Ardfin to Screeb, a distance of eight miles, before he of new blood,
could find a stag suitable for the Duke of Argyll's wedding ; he
found 4 stags at Screeb, and shot one of them. There were

28

50 to 55 stags m whole Forest then he thinks, and he added that
Tarbert was the best ground, said to hold 70 stags at that date.

Considerable From I85o to 1852, inclusive, the late laird rested Jura,
slaughter, J

15 years ago. and shot in Harris. Towards 1870, it seems the laird was

killing 40 stags a year, 10 of them off Tarbert, and a few
hinds. Very severe mortality for two years, 1869 and 1870 —
chiefly calves, I am told. He. seems to have increased his kill
up to 60 stags a year, and about 12 hinds, up to year 1875 ; in
Worn stags not 187^-6-7, the number killed was reduced by about half. He often

shot formerly. . ' J

said he shot only fresh stags, leaving worn old stags, — he has told
me so many times. This method of selection would somewhat
impede the rate of progress, and would unfavourably influence
Reduced the death rate for a long time, after beginning a change of policy.
For the year 1875-6-7, the laird shot about 30 stags a year, and
very few hinds.

In 1878, the demands on the ground were again expanded, as

to stags, but reduced as to hinds ; about 70 fairly fresh stags have

been shot and hit, yearly, since 1878 (including that year) on the

Many wasters wno^e ground, including Ardfin and Tarbert. A number of wasted

shot. old stags besides the above 70 have been killed, some of them

left on the hill because not worth taking home.

From 1878 to 1884 inclusive, as we have already seen, the
Large destruction of stags with shooting, deaths of stags and of

for knobbers (manv wasters being shot), was about 105 per year.
For the last six years the destruction has been far less and the.
number bred much greater.

Il: is PrODable that during 1875-6-7 the late laird built up an
accumulation of stags which enabled the ground to sustain the
demands made upon it, until, of late years, the supply of new
stags coming in, exceeds the demand. It seems to me that the
ground was shot rather severely for a few years preceding 1875.
It should be noticed that the number of valuable fresh stags shot
since the close of 1877 has not exceeded by so much as a dozen
yearly those which the laird was killing for a few years up to

Fresh Stags 1875. We have shot almost precisely our nominal limit of 60

shott fresh stags a year.

In 1878 we think Forest held 525 stags, among them a Two counts of
large supply of faded stags. In 1889 we think Forest held 581 ^|agesarsa art
stags (count 534) and little faded material. We shot Forest
rather severely for the first few years, but we took off a great deal
of faded material ; so it is certain that Forest gives a promise of
better things to come, and that very soon.

The extreme variations of our nine recorded counts of stags in Variations in
Forest is 208. We know that one count was too high and that SJjJ*11 °f
another was too low. The extreme variation of our 12 estimates
is 152 (1889 is 581 — 1884 is 429). The extreme variation in
Forest stags' deaths is 41 (47 dead 1881— 6 dead 1887). The
extreme variation in Forest hinds' deaths is 44 (55 dead 1881—
ii dead 1887). We have added one more to every 10 dead
hinds found ; their bodies are less certain to be found than stags.
The extreme variation in Forest calves found dead in spring is 63 variations in

(79 found 1 88 1 — 1 6 found 1886). We add largely to the calves cleat«s of

Deer not
found dead in Forest for our estimates of deer. The extreme serious inStags

variation thus becomes 96 (120 supposed dead 1881—24 in 1886). or Hmds-
The death of stags is not alarming, especially during the last 5
years. The death of hinds is curiously light — it compares very
favourably with the death of stags. I think it amazingly small

considering that no old hinds are shot. But the death of calves Serious varia-

. . tionsm death

on some occasions has been very disquieting; it appears to have of Calves.

reached 55 per cent. (1881) and to have fallen as low as 9 per
cent. (1886). We are sadly ignorant of the causes of these great
variations, but we are very suspicious about husk disease being
the chief cause. The late Duke of Portland lost above half his

herd of red-deer at Welbeck from husk. The park keeper gave Husk perhaps

the cause.
me strongylus micrurus as the name of the parasite. This was

about nine years ago, probably the year 1881.

We did not count Forest stags in 1878 ; we guess them at 525.
At that time stags had not taken to the glen and low ground of
Largy, so they were less spread than at present, and looked more
than their number. In 1879 we know the lost count of Forest was
about 500, because Murchison remembers Angus McKay (senior)
so firmly holding and expressing the opinion (formed without data)
that it was impossible there could be 500 stags in Forest. The
count of 1880 is lost (except for Tarbert), and count of 1881 was
inaccurate — clearly. I think our estimates are pretty true to fact.

Proportion of
sexes here
and in Ross,
etc.

List of Forest
Stags, Hinds,
and Calves.
Knobbers.
Deaths of all
these.

Method of
estimating.

Results
compared
with counts.

Stags deaths.
Hinds deaths.
Calves deaths.

It appears that in Jura the proportion of hinds to stags is less
than 2 hinds to i stag — hinds i .year old and upwards, stags 2 years
old and upwards. On the mainland forests I think it is usually
more. I should be inclined to say 3 hinds to i stag, or possibly 4,
but it is a point not very easy to determine. The best stags fight
terribly ; we lose from one to three yearly in fights.

Below is an estimate of stags in Forest two years old and up-
wards ; also of hinds in Forest one year old and upwards ; and of
calves in Forest. The yearling stags may be estimated by dividing
calves by three. The death list of stags, hinds, and calves is here
also. For the estimates of stags we take 525 in 1878 ; 490 in 1879
(see page 31) ; and afterwards we bring in the fresh two-year-old
stags each year — working by our birth and death tables— and take
off the yearly destruction of grown stags by death and shooting.

We base the stock of hinds for 1878 upon our count, taken
very early in year 1879. Afterwards we bring in the fresh year-
old hinds each year — working by our birth and death tables — and
take off the yearly loss of grown-up hinds by death and shooting.
Hind stock of 1889 comes out 1,008 by this calculation and 955
by count; stag stock of 1889, 581 by this calculation, 534 by
count. Calves seem to come out about equal to count of 1889.

Inner took a more leading part in the breeding in earlier
years, and, as it is an infertile place, we have in consequence
estimated in our table that 100 hinds, one year old and upwards
have produced 35 calves alive in February.

During our first recorded 5 years, death of stags (Forest) averaged 6£ per cenj:.
6 years, ,, stags ,, ,, 2\ ,,

5 years, ,, hinds ,, ,,, 8 ,,

6 years, ,, hinds ,, ,, 3 „

5 years, we found calves dead bodies, 25 °/o (Forest).

6 years, ,, ,, ,, ii| ,,

In stags we have added 'none to the discovered deaths, we find
very nearly all stags. For hinds we add one more death to every
10 discovered. For calves we shall make a very heavy addition,
as shewn by table for Forest (see page 31).

In considering what proportion of stags may properly be shot,
one must first ascertain whether the stock of stags is increasing,
stationary, or decreasing, and this we have seen depends upon
the hinds, not upon the heather. If stags are decreasing, of
course one should be content to shoot a reduced number.

last
first
last
first
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estimated for
our Tables.

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Hinds
(i year old and above.)

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32

Regarding the vexed subject of twin calves, I should say from
pretty extensive observation, that they may occur about once out
of several hundred births.

In Jura the weight of a six year old stag of good quality,
on open ground of favourable nature, may sometimes reach
15 stone (clean) — he would of course be about six years
and three months old.

I have no experience in artificially fed deer.

Jura deer carry very much heavier coats of hair than Ross-
shire deer. Wood stags have especially heavy coats. The Pap
stags are very hairy and also light in colour, from living so much
in mist. They resemble Harris stags in head and body. Like
them, they are most excellent venison. A pretty Royal shot
this year weighed 1 1 stone ; he was fat and excellent. We shoot
hinds here up to u stone clean weight.

At Kildermorie (central Ross-shire), we shot hinds up to 12
stone clean weight. If stags around Kildermorie had the same
chance as Jura stags, instead of being shot at 5 or 6 years old
probably they would at least equal Jura stags. Forty years ago
there were stags at Kildermorie over 20 stone in weight.

The sea blasts wither up Jura herbage in early winter ; on the
other hand Jura spring feeding is ready earlier than Ross-shire
spring feeding. I am unable to state the average weight of Ross-
shire hinds, and without that information we can make no com-
parison of any value. There may be 12 stone hinds in Jura. We
shot far more hinds at Kildermorie than here. The average
weight of hinds shot in Jura is about 9 stone, say 8 stone 12 Ib.

TARBERT.

" Commercially " stocked with sheep, not too heavily \ say
5,000, or i sheep to 5 acres. A healthy farm. Healthier ground
than Forest. Deer cannot increase as they would if no sheep
were on the farm ; fertility must be less, and drawbacks arising
from disturbance must tell against deer, no matter how
considerate the shepherds are — and we know they treat the
deer very well. The heather in Tarbert is very freely burnt,

33

We will therefore take the fertility of 100 hinds, one year old and
upwards, to be 30 calves per year, alive in Feb. We will take the
death of calves at 20 per cent., except in such years as they exceed
20 per cent, in Forest. For those years we will adopt Forest
mortality. We will take the yearly deaths of hinds at 6 per
cent., and be ruled by Forest mortality when it is above 6 per
cent. We will take the stags' deaths at 6 per cent, and be
ruled by Forest rate when that exceeds 6 per cent. We add
half a stag yearly for shooting accidents. Ninety-one stags were
counted 1880, also 324 deer without horns.

We will call the Spring stock of 1880 — 91 stags ... 91
226 hinds, 26 knobbers, 72 calves ... ... ... 324

Total

In the following Table each year's stock of Hinds is made up
of those surviving and the Calves of the previous year.

ESTIMATED STOCK OF HINDS.

NEW HINDS GAINED.

Year.

Number.

Deaths.

Year.

Number.

Rate
per cent.

Number
Lost.

Count 1880

226

7

16

1879

16

1881

226

9

21

1880

23

1882

228

6

14

1881

14

1883

228

7

16

1882

22

1884

234

6

14

1883

22

1885

242

6

15

1884

28

1886

255

6

15

1885

27

1887

267

6

16

1886

29

1888

280

6

16

1887

32

1889

296

6

18

1888

32

Stock of Hinds, 1890

... 310 (Estimate)

34

Only two hinds have been shot on Tarbert — they are not
regarded here.

Profits 245 (Estimate)

Losses 1 6 1

Balance .

84 Profit in 10 yrs.

Hinds being counted in Winter (say Feb.) the year-old hinds for
1 88 1 count are born 1879. Stags being counted in July, two-
year-old stags for 1 88 1 count would be born June, 1879.

ESTIMATED STOCK OF STAGS.

DEATHS OF STAGS.

NEW STAGS GAINED

Year.

Number

Rate

per cent.

Num-
ber.

Shot.

Total
Deaths

Year. Number

Count 1880

91

6

5

»*

15*

l879

15

„ 1881

9°i

10

9

14*

*3i

1880

21

„ 1882

88

6

5

»*

16*

1881

14

„ 1883

85i

ii

9

"*

2°J

1882

21

„ 1884

86

6

5

8*

*3*

1883

21

,, 1885

93!

6

5

13*

i8|

1884

26

„ 1886

101

6

6

i3l

»9*

1885

25

„ 1887

io6|

6

6|

14*

21

1886

21

„ 1888

«3t

6

6*

"1

19

1887

30'

„ 1889

i24i

6

8

14*

™\

1888

31

Stock of Stags, 1890 ...

... 136 (Estimate)

120 stags bagged, 5 allowed for wounded — 2 is nearer the
mark. Stock increased 35.

Profits 225 (Estimate)

Losses 190

Balance

35 Profit in 10 yrs,

35

Since writing this paper Tarbert has been very carefully counted
with the valued assistance of Mr. D. Fletcher, who knows every
bit of the ground. The result is 158 stags, July, 1890. Adding
12 stags for 1890, it is about 22 more than we had estimated by
calculations carried on for ten years, without any count during
the interval to guide us. We appear to have under-estimated
the fertility of Tarbert hinds.

It is reasonable to believe Tarbert contains more hinds than
our estimate. Assuming the two stag counts of Tarbert are
correct, 91 stags in 1880, and 158 stags in 1890, the increase has
been 75 per cent, in ten years. At first sight this appears in-
credible, as compared with the Forest increase of about 30 per
cent, for the same 10 years.

But we have shown that we did badly in the Forest down to
the year 1884 inclusive ; we had 49 more stags in 1880 than we
had in 1884, whilst in Tarbert there were about 7 more stags in
1884 than in 1880. This is calculated from the count of 1890.
Taking the last years, 1885 to 1890 inclusive, the rate of increase
in Tarbert and that in the Forest is the same, namely, about
37 per cent, in 6 years. This looks as if our series of stags
estimated to have been in each place is about correct, instead of
being incredible.

Mr. F'letcher, by his superior knowledge and management, has
steered both his own sheep stock and the deer of Tarbert pretty
clear of the losses we suffered in the Forest from 1878 to 1884
inclusive. But since we have adopted his methods, both places
have fared equally well. We think Tarbert is easier to manage
than the Forest.

We suppose Ardlussa rears as many stags as are taken
off it.

The following extract from a letter dated nth May, 1890,
written by Hugh Ross, very many years forester at Dibidale
in Ross-shire, is interesting. It is not probable that any
specially careful search has been made there for dead animals,
but it is extremely probable that the death rate in East Ross-
shire presents a favourable contrast to our own. Dibidale may
be 12,000 acres ; much of it is splendid feeding. Its stags mostly

36

leave for the breeding season, and those remaining alive return
for the winter, till next breeding season.

[Extract of Letter.'}

Dibidale, nth May, 1890.

Death amongst deer in Dibidale and surroundings is not worth mentioning ;
it shows in calves and old hinds. Also a few, very few, stags die after getting
a few feeds of the young grass. This is generally called green braxey.
But poverty and old age are the chief causes of death amongst deer that come
under my notice in this quarter.

There is off and on about 600 head of deer on this place — of all kinds — to-
day, of which 300 are stags, and unless a beast that was wounded and not got
last season, there was not one dead deer seen on our place this Spring. I
am quite aware the death rate amongst deer on the west coast of Ross-shire
was always higher than in this part of the country, but when we look at the
pasture on the west coast and in the Islands, it is very different from ours.
The grass, etc., may have a good deal to do with it. But I never was in an
island forest, so I must be quiet.

(Signed) HUGH Ross.

The observations made in the second paragraph of this paper
must be borne in mind, and we must also remember that our
search for dead deer is strenuous and diligent, whereas in other
places, so far as I know, they are neither sought after nor recorded,
and often not willingly acknowledged. The last remark does
not apply to Dibidale. Only a small proportion of the Dibidale
stags are likely to exceed 6 years of age. The district is shot
very severely.

The Jura death rate for 1890 also proves to be quite moderate.
It is 2 per cent, for stags and for hinds 2\ per cent. Dead
calves discovered are 10 per cent. The dead stags were mostly
rubbish. It would be quite easy to overlook nearly the whole of
these dead animals, if careful search was not made. The bodies
disappear very quickly, leaving, for a time, only a gruesome
carpet of hair, consequently the search must be made at the right
time or it will be nugatory.

Jura stags carry a considerably higher average condition
than Ross-shire stags in the Dibidale district ; they are much
fatter and better venison. No doubt the average age is 4 or 5
years above that of the Ross-shire stags when killed, perhaps
more. No warbles or decayed horns in Jura.

37

Mr. A. G. Cameron, to whom I am indebted for many
valued suggestions, has pointed out that this paper contains no
history of the calves from their birth till they are eight months
old.

We cannot disturb the nursery without doing mischief, and we
have never counted calves till February, when there is good day-
light, and the hinds are chiefly in low ground. Neither could
we count hinds and calves in July or August if we tried ; they
are strong and wild at that time of year, and move about in large
masses when disturbed. It would be like trying to count a
plateful of fleas. Consequently we can only arrive at the deaths
in the nursery, and during the first eight months, by the inductive
process of reasoning.

Taking the yield of calves as counted in 1890 at 37 calves
(alive Feb.) for 100 hinds of i year old and upwards, we may
draw up a table of losses from the date of calving in June till Feb.
We will take 100 hinds (i year old and upwards.)
Deduct 30 for hinds too young to breed.

Leaves 70 adult hinds.

Deduct i 14 for yeld hinds.

Leaves 56 in-calf hinds, or 56 born to 100 hinds.
(About 33°/0) deduct 19 dead by end of February.

Leaves 37 calves alive in February, produced by
100 hinds.

This calculation shows that about one-third part of the calves
born to i oo hinds died before we made our count, that is to say
these died during the first eight months, leaving 37 calves alive
by count of 1890 to 100 hinds. Out of the residue (37 calves)
our death lists show one-fifth part more usually fails to enter the
second year of existence. Consequently, taking 37 calves alive
in Feb. as a basis, 100 hinds produce 29-4 year-old deer.

Our tables are mostly on the basis of 35 calves to 100 hinds,
which brings out a result of 28 year-old deer as the produce
of 100 hinds, and as the births are 56, it follows that half the

38

calves die before they enter the second year, if we take basis of
35 calves alive in Feb. to 100 hinds.

We do not pretend to know accurately the proportion of young
to adult hinds, neither do we know exactly the proportion of yeld
hinds among the adults, but this table cannot be very far wide of
of the truth.

The conditions of deer in an enclosure, or park, would be
altogether different.

This concludes the chief things I have to say about the Jura
deer. Our calculations and estimates, and most of the paper may
be called "Guesses at Truth." We have travelled without much
track to lead us, except our own observations ; an Island however
gives unrivalled opportunities for investigation. I have recorded
the results of several persons' observations for the last twelve
years ; the observations of one, viz. : Angus McKay, senior,
go back for above fifty years.

We must confess being occasionally reduced to the mental state
of the cautious witness, who answered " I don't know," till counsel
said " Tell us something you do know."

" I know as Miller's pigs is always fat," was the reply, but doubt
returned like a flash as he added " I dun'no know whose corn
they'n eaten."

Let us hope this paper may arouse observation, and stimulate
inquiry in other districts.

H. E.
Jura, N.B., November, 1890.

PARASITIC DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS.

[From the "Field" 1890, by permission.']

ROUND WORMS (Nemathelminths) have a history which, as was staled
in the last article, is less clearly defined than that of the cystic or
trematode worms.

In all the round worms the sexes are separate individuals, and the females
possess a long coiled uterus, in which are contained an immense number of
eggs, which, when they are extracted from the oviduct, have the living embryo
within the yet unbroken shell.

When the embryo emerges from the egg, its organism is extremely simple.
A miniature representation of the parent worm in outline, its interior is filled
with granular matter, from which the digestive and sexual organs will be
formed ; and there is a narrow mouth, by means of which the young parasite
imbibes the nutritive fluid from the tissues in which it exists.

There is nothing in the organization of the embryo to suggest the idea of
alternate generation, and all that is wanted to render the worm mature is the
development of the internal organs, which might be expected to appear in
due course. But after close observation, it is certain that the embryos do not
become mature in the organs of the animal in which the parent worms are
accommodated. And it is also a fact that myriads of eggs and embryos are
expelled by the infested animals, and fall, on the feeding grounds, where,
under favourable circumstances, their internal organs undergo development,
and it is at least probable that they become sufficiently mature by the follow-
ing season to play the same part in the organism of the higher animal that was
played by their parents before them. Experiments -which have for some time
been carried on at the Royal Veterinary College for the Royal Agricultural
Society have already led to discovery of important facts in the life-history of
thread worms, and have corroborated others which had previously been stated
or assumed by helminthologists.

Dr. Spencer Cobbold, a short time before his death, observed that some of
the embryos of the Strongylus micrurus which he had under observation found
a resting place in a small earth worm which was by accident in the moist earth
in which the embryos were kept ; and in the report which Dr. Cobbold made
to the Royal Agricultural Society the fact was referred to, and its significance
was commented on. Further investigations, which are still being conducted,
have placed beyond doubt the fact that earthworms on lands where the lung
worm disease occurs are always infested with embryos ; and many of the young
worms attain a degree of development which approaches maturity during their
residence in the digestive canal of the earthworms. It is not improbable that
other creatures become temporary hosts to the embryos of thread worms, and
it is certain that they undergo development in moist earth.

It was held at one time that infested pastures might be rendered healthy by
a winter's frost, or by a scorching sun ; and, possibly, some parasites may be
destroyed by cold or heat, but it cannot any longer be said that the lung worm
can be got rid of by such means. In the experiments which have been
recently recorded, embryos have been repeatedly frozen and thawed without
injury, and they have also survived the action of the sun, becoming lively when
moistened with water. It is, therefore, useless to expect much from climatic

changes, however extreme they may be, in checking the multiplication of the
lung worm.

A certain period of the year, which varies in different districts from July to
September, is found to be most favourable for the development of the lung
worm, and sheep and calves which are put on the pastures during the dangerous
period are almost certain to become infested. Generally, the beginning of
autumn is the time when the first signs of the invasion of the parasites appears,
and, judging from post mortem appearances, the characteristic symptoms are
not evident until the parasites are fully grown.

An important class of parasites remain to be noticed — the arthropoda, which
are distinguished, as the name implies, by joint extremities. Only two of the
four sub-classes into which arthropoda are divided are parasites to warm-
blooded animals, i.e., arachnida and insecta. The first include the very
extensive parasites of acari or mange mites, and the somewhat rare pentas-
stoma, which in the larval form inhabit the digestive canal, and when mature
are found in the respiratory passages, chiefly in the nasal chambers. Insecta
may become parasitic for a time in the mature form ; for example, the biting
and stinging winged insects may be quoted, but the larval forms of insects have
the widest range as parasites, inhabiting the skin and also the internal organs.
Under the name of bots or maggots, the larvae of certain flies which molest
horses, cattle, and sheep are well known. Some of the larvae, as for instance,
the warble grub, bury themselves deeply in the tissues of the skin, excite
inflammation and suppuration, and do great damage to the hide, which the
healing process does not suffice to repair. The larvae of the bot fly are
introduced into the digestive organs of the horse without any effort on the part
of the fly, which deposits the eggs on the legs, and from this position they are
transferred by the animal's own tongue and swallowed. When in the stomach
the larvae fix themselves into the mucous membrane, in which they remain
secure until they are in a condition to migrate to the outer world and assume
the chrysalis stage, and lastly, that of the perfect insect.

The reader who has followed the description of the various classes of
animals and plants which play the part of parasites to higher organisms, will
have realised the importance of the subject of parasitism, not only in relation
to the lower animals which play the part of host to the parasite^ but, what is
perhaps of even greater consequence, its possible influence on public health.

Some forms of parasites are undoubtedly capable of transmission from the
lower animals to man. Capsuled Tritchina spiralis, the cysts of the two forms
of tape worm, which are found in the intestines of the human subject. One,
the Taenia solium, which has its larval form in the flesh of swine, and the other,
the Tpenia mediocunnellata, the cystic form of which infests the muscles of
cattle in India.

Among parasitic plants, the ringworm fungus is readily transmitted to the
skin of the human subject, and finds a congenial habitat, producing derange-
ments which are often difficult to correct.

In the following articles the different parasites which attack the several
domesticated animals will be referred to more in detail, and with particular
reference to the circumstances which favour their invasion, the disturbance
which they occasion, and the means of cure.

BESIDES THE PARASITES belonging to nematodese, which have already
been described as infesting the digestive canal of the horse, there are some

others which are referred to by authors as of occasional occurrence. These
have not been observed by veterinarians in this country, aud do not appear to
be of sufficient importance to require any special notice.

The different round worms have been described separately, but it is necessary
to observe that the host may harbour more than one species at the same time.
An extraordinary case is reported by Krause of a horse which was infested
with 500 Ascaris megalocephala, 190 Oxyuris curvicula, 214 Sclerostoma
armatum, and an immense number of Sclerostoma tetracanthum, in addition
to some cestode worms, both mature and in the scolex stage.

Such a state of parasitism must be taken as altogether out of the common
course, and it is unfortnnate that there is no record of the animal's condition
during life.

Occasionally the respiratory tubes of the horse are invaded by a nematode
worm, Strongylus micrurus. This form of parasitism is, however, rare ;
indeed, only occurs when colts are grazing on pastures on which there are
calves and lambs infested with strongles, and the parasites will be referred to
in their proper place as they exist in the respiratory organs of ruminants.

NEMATODE WORMS IN CATTLE AND SHEEP. — Ruminating animals
habitually harbour several varieties of round worms, some of which cause
serious derangement. Of chief importance among them is the worm which
invades the breathing tubes and lung tissues, inducing changes of structure
which remain long after the worms have migrated from their habitat. The
lung strongle, or lung worm, is well known to the stockowner, presenting the
appearance of a piece of thick white cotton, from 1^ in. to 3 in. in length,
filling up the smaller tubes like masses of tangled thread, and sometimes
existing in the windpipe and even in the nasal chamber, to which they wander
or are driven by the forcible respiratory efforts consequence on the act of
coughing.

Strongles in the lungs excite irritation, which is reflectd to the larynx, and
coughing is the result, hence the common name, husk or hoose, which is given
to the disease. Constitutional derangement follows quickly on the invasion of
the parasites, and loss of condition, increasing to a state of emaciation, is the
natural consequence.

Losses among calves and lambs from the ravages of the lung worm are some-
times very extensive, and the stockowner may be puzzled to account for them.
The mere presence of a number of thread worms in the respiratory tubes does
not seem to be a sufficient explanation.

In the first place, it must be understood that the mechanical blocking up of
the smaller air tubes by the accumulated worms interferes with the proper aera-
tion of the blood. Next, the irritation of the mucous membrane, which is
indicated by incessant coughing, is very exhausting ; and, further, there is a direct
loss of food due to the inability of the young animal to feed while coughing, and
the diminished desire for food which is incidental to the state of general
debility. Many years ago the subject of the lung worm attracted the attention
of stock breeders, who are the greatest sufferers, and prizes were offered for
essays in the life history of the worm, and the means of cure and prevention.
Under this stimulus some valuable papers were produced, but the main point
was never reached, i.e., a knowledge of the different phases in the development
of the lung worm, sufficiently accurate to enable the observer to prevent its
ravages ; and up to the present time there are some steps in the progress of the
embryo towards maturity which have not been traced.

Iii one very important particular the development of the lung strongle differs
from that of the tapeworm and fluke worm. The eggs of strongle undergo
development even while in the uterus, and they are deposited in the lung tubes
with the embryos in them in a state of active vitality.

While watching the moving embryos in eggs, it will be seen that many of
them succeed in breaking the shell in which they are enclosed, and escaping
into the bronchial tubes or the air cells. What becomes of them after their
escape is not clearly known. Hundreds of them are expelled by the animal
during the act of coughing, but many remain, and it is not determined whether
or not they become mature without passing through the organism of an inter-
mediate host. Although this form of development must be accepted as possible,
it cannot be denied that there are some facts which do not support the view ;
for example, while the living embryos are found abundantly in the living tissues
along with eggs in various stages of development, not intermediate stages
are met with. On the other hand, there is no doubt that an immense number
of eggs and embryos are constantly being expelled from the breathing organs,
and these, falling in the pastures, are swallowed by earthworms, in the digestive
organs of which they undergo changes of skin, acquire a well-defined digestive
system, and there also takes place a sufficient development of the sexual organs
to enable the observer to distinguish the sex of the young worm.

It may be presumed that young strangles, after being retained in the digestive
canal of the earthworm until the sexual system is well advanced, will be ejected
with the ordinary excreta, or worm casts, as they are called, and be taken up
by the animals which are grazing on the infected pastures. This view ts
considerably strengthened by the fact which has recently been observed, that
worms taken from certain pastures at regular intervals contained embryos in
abundance during the summer and autumn, but not during the winter. This
fact, however, lost some of its significance in consequence of the further dis-
covery of the presence of embryos in the worms from other pastures at all
times of the year.

So far as the enquiry has extended, it may for the present'be assumed that
strongles deposit eggs in the bronchial tubes and lung tissue ; that the embryos
are fully formed and often hatched in the lungs, and are expelled in the act of
coughing ; falling on the pasture, they are swallowed by earthworms, in which
they undergo certain changes, Avhich fit them for residence'in the system of the
mammalia. At this stage the embryo is cast out by the earthworms, and eaten
by grazing animals. Some of the young worms will find their way into the
larynx and down the trachea into the bronchial tubes. Others will most
probably ascend the nasal chambers, and enter the wind pipe that way.
Those which get into the digestive system cannot be, or at least have not been,
traced any further ; but if they do not remain and adapt themselves to their
new surroundings by such changes of form as may be necessary, they must be
either expelled or digested. It is quite certain that typical lung strongles are
not found in the digestive organs.

SEVERAL VARIETIES of strongles are found in the lungs of cattle and sheep.
In the calf the most common is the Strongylus micrurus, a short-tailed strongle.
In the sheep the Strongylus filaria, a thread-like strongle, is more often found.

Two nematodes are also seen in the lungs of sheep — the Strongylus

rufescens, and the worm which has recently been described as the Pseudalius
ovis, a long thread-like worm which is found coiled up beneath the pleura in
small cavities, or inclosed in little masses of calcareous matter. Strongylus
rufescens is distinguished from the Strongylus filaria by its small size, and red or
yellow tint. It is sometimes found in association with the filarise in the bronchial
tubes. Pseudalius ovis has often been described, but its life history is not
satisfactorily made out. Dr. Crisp many years ago referred to it as a gordian
worm. Other writers have taken it for a species of strongle, and lately
A. Koch suggested that it is the embryo form of Strongylus rufescens, a view
which seems to be negatived by the fact that it is much larger than the rufes-
cens, and certainly does not agree with it in the arrangement of the internal
organs. No special importance is to be attached to the presence of one variety
of strongle more than another from the point of view of cure and prevention,
nor, indeed, in regard to the symptoms which the infested animals exhibit.

Sheep and calves suffering from parasitic bronchitis fall off in condition, and
are subject to an irritating dry cough, a symptom which gives the common
name husk to the disease.

Emaciation, which is the most prominent indication in the affection, is the
result of the blocking up of the air tubes and cells by the worm, their eggs and
embryos, and by the exudation into the minute lung structure consequent on
the irritation which is set up.

In some cases of parasitic bronchitis in older cattle, it has been found, on
post-mortem examination, that all the adult worms had migrated or been
expelled from the air tubes. The least pressure applied to a portion of lung
caused the exudation of a thick purulent fluid in small drops, and under the
microscope it was seen that the puss-like exudate was composed of masses of
eggs in various stages of development, many of them containing living embryos,
and free embryos which were moving about with great activity.

It is important to note that the absence of the thread worms from the bron-
chial tubes does not justify a conclusion that the disease did not exist. On the
contrary, the condition of things above described shows that in the most
advanced cases of parasitic bronchitis there may not be any parasites visible to
the unaided eye, although the microscope will exhibit them in masses.

Owing to the serious losses which occur among calves and lambs, and
occasionally among adult cattle and sheep, from the ravages of strongles,
stockowners have for many years past been anxiously asking for information as
to the causes of the disease and the best means of cure and prevention, hitherto
without much success.

Causes may be summed up in a few sentences. The embryos which are, or
for years have been, distributed over pastures in which cattle and sheep have
been grazed retain their vitality for a long period, even under extreme con-
ditions of climate. In wet seasons they flourish, and it is always observed that
the occurrence of rain at almost any period of the summer and autumn is
followed by outbreaks of husk. Some pastures which are low and wet are
dangerous at all times during the grazing season.

Prevention of the disease implies removal from the pastures when the
embryos of strongles are likely to be present ; but this is in many cases an
impossible remedy, there being no feeding grounds on the farm free from them.
Perhaps top dressings of salt might be beneficial in one way, but it is to be
feared that the use of that agent in sufficient quantity to kill the embyro worms
would be very prejudicial to the herbage.

The regular use of trough food, mixed with salt, for young animals on such
pastures, would be quite free from any danger, and is certainly worth a trial.

One more important preventive measure is commonly neglected, because it
does not seem to have any direct relation to the disease ; but experience has
shown that in all maladies which end in exhaustion liberal rations are most
essential. A full allowance of nutritious food does not, it is true, prevent the
entrance of young strongles into the bronchial tubes of the young cattle or
sheep ; but it has the effect of keeping the infested animals in good condition,
and enabling them to bear up against a debilitating disease.

Remedies for the curative treatment of husk are held to be effectual in pro-
portion to their activity as vermecides ; but it must be understood that killing
the worms is not of much use when the malady has gone on to the debilitative
stage, and important changes have taken place in the lung structures. Never-
theless, it is good practice to proceed to use medicines which have a poisonous
action on the strongles in order to render it certain that they shall not remain
to increase the mischief.

Oil of turpentine has always been estimated highly as a remedy for husk,
because, in addition to its properties as a vermifuge, it has a decided stimulant
and tonic effect upon the system. A dose of a teaspoonful to a tablespoonful,
according to the age and size of the animal to be treated, may be administered,
in combination with a mixture of eggs and milk, once or twice a day for a week,
and by the end of that time it may be expected that the strongles will be des-
troyed. Inhalation of the vapour of carbolic acid, or oil of tar, poured over a
hot tile is by some considered to be effectual, and occasionally success has
attended the use of the vapour of sulphur. This remedy, however, must be
used carefully, or it is probable that a number of young animals may be
suffocated.

The most direct method of applying medicaments to the seat of the disease
is by injecting them into the trachea. Turpentine, chloroform, carbolic acid,
and creosote are used in this way singly or in combination with good effect, but
it is necessary for the success of the treatment that it be carried into effect
by an expert. The operation, although quite simple in the hands of a good
operator, is not safe for the amateur.

NEMATODE WORMS are not so common in the digestive organs of cattle and
sheep as they are in the lungs. In calves there is found, especially in France,
a large nematode, which infests the fourth stomach, and sometimes causes
death. The worm is known as the Ascaris vituli. It is not recognised in this
country.

Sheep surfer from a variety of strongle which attaches itself to the lining
membrane of the fourth stomach, and causes debility and emaciation. This
worm, Strongylus contortus, is a true bloodsucker, and sometimes causes an
epizootic among sheep closely resembling rot ; indeed, the two parasitic
diseases are easily confounded until a post-mortem examination reveals the
flukes in the liver in one case, and the strongles in the stomach in the other.

It has been observed that during the prevalence of rot among sheep in wet
seasons many of the animals have died from the disease without any signs of
flukes in the liver. In these cases there is good reason to suspect that, if the
fourth stomach had been cut open, the true cause of death would have been
found in the presence of a large number of strongles in the fourth stomach.

Strongylus contortus is readily killed by contact with common salt ; and this
agent is an effective remedy for the cure and prevention of the disease.

Sheep which are infested with strongles in the bronchial tubes not uncom-
monly harbour strongles in the fourth stomach, and the two forms of parasites
acting in concert naturally lead to increased mortality in the flock. This
double invasion of parasites is, however, frequently overlooked, because the
prominent symptom of disease— a dry, husky cough— directs attention to the
breathing organs, and a post mortem proving that the lung tubes are filled with
thread worms, the inquiry is considered to be at an end, the nature of the
disease is determined, and the dissection is not extended to other organs.
Post mortem examination of animals which are found dead on a farm are
generally very roughly made, and often valuable evidence is missed, simply
because it is not sought for. It must be allowed that they do these things
better in France, and it is impossible to read the records of cases in the
veterinary journals from the Continent without keenly realising the fact.

Strongylus filicollis, a smaller nematode than the Strongylus contortus, is
sometimes found in the small intestines of the sheep, and is said to have been
found also in the fourth stomach in company with the Strongylus contortus.

A small nematode worm, the Sclerostoma hypostomum, is seen but rarely in
the small intestines of sheep. The worm is said to be common among sheep
in some parts of France. It is quite likely that the nematode is more often
present in our sheep than it is supposed to be ; but as it does not cause any
injury to its host, it is not looked for, and the occasional detection of the worm
is purely an accident during a post mortem examination.

A curious form of nematode — the Tricocephalus affinis, or hair-headed worm
— is frequently found in the caecum hanging from the mucous membrane. The
worm is distinguished by a body which is much thicker than the neck or upper
portion ; this part is of a considerable length, and throughout of hair-like
fineness. The parasite is the most common of all the nematodes, and its
presence seems to be unattended with any inconvenience.

UNCINARIA OR DOCHIMUS CERVINA. — This worm is a small nematode,
with a circular mouth, opening into a species of bursa or sack, which is armed
with four teeth, two on each side ; the head is curved slightly. No particular
disturbance can be traced to the presence of the worm in the intestinal canal of
the sheep.

NEMATODES OF SWINE. — Owing, perhaps, to the entire absence of delicacy
and discrimination in the selection of their food, swine are infested with
numerous intestinal parasites, most of which are nematodes.

ACANTHOCKPHALA. — The thorn-headed worm (Echinoryncus gigas) is found
in the stomach. The parasite, which is sometimes twelve or fourteen inches
long, and as thick as a swan quill, inhabits the duodenum especially, although
it is found in other parts of the canal, sometimes in the large intestines. It
attaches itself to the mucous membrane by the aid of its armed head, making
numerous punctures, which are indicated by small swellings. When several
worms exist in the intestines, the effects on the pig's constitution are very
marked. The animal becomes emaciated, and in the morning, before feeding
time, it exhibits signs of pain, groaning and restlessness being the chief
symptoms. Probably the affected pig will feed with the others, but shows
irritability by biting them if they molest it ; and, if attacked in return, it
quickly falls exhausted. As to the degree of prevalence of the echinoryncus in
swine in this country it is difficult in the absence of direct evidence to form any

8

opinion. The parasite is well known in France and Germany, and has been
detected in pigs from the United States ; but even if it exists largely among
pigs in this country it is not likely that it would be looked for.

A nematode of considerable size, Ascaris suilla, is sometimes found in the
small intestines of the pig. The worm very closely resembles the Ascaris
lumbicoides of man, but is more slender.

Two rare nematodes of small size, ^sophagostoma dentatum and Globo-
cephalus mucronatus are referred to by some writers, but they are not recognised
in this country.

TKICOCEPHALUS CRENATUS is not uncommon in the cseclum and large
intestines of the pig, and is only distinguished from the variety which is com-
mon to the sheep by the presence of small spines on the spicule. The eggs
contain embryos in a well developed form ; and, according to Leuckart, if they
be introduced into the digestive canal of the pig, they are rapidly developed,
and aquire the adult character in about four weeks.

TRICHINA SPIRALIS is a form of nematode which infests the muscles of the
pig, and possesses special interest on account of the effects of the consumption
of the infected pork by the human subject. In the muscles of some the larval
trichinae may remain coiled up in their capsules for any length of time without
causing any disturbance which indicates their presence when portions of flesh
containing encapsuled trichinae are given in an uncooked or underdone state to
human beings or any susceptible animals. The larval worms escape from
their capsules in the digestive canal, and soon become mature and deposit eggs
which are quickly hatched, setting free young worms, which proceed at once
to bore their way to the muscles, in which they coil themselves and become
invested with a distinct membrane forming the capsule in which the worm
rests, unless it is swallowed by a warm-blooded animal. In man the process
of migration of all young worms into the muscles is attended with very severe
pain and fever. The general symptoms are not unlike those of acute rheu-
matism, with which trichiniasis is said to be often confounded. A certain
percentage of persons who suffer from eating underdone trichinised pork die from
.the acute pain and fever ; and others recover after much suffering, and do not
experience any inconvenience from the presence of encapsuled worms in the
muscles. It is obvious that no treatment can be applied directly to parasites ;
but the prevention of the disease is assured by the thorough cooking of pork
and the rejection of the meat as an article of diet when it is seen to be infested
with trichina.

Trichiniasis is known among swine in Germany and in America ; but there
are exceptionally few instances of the discovery of the parasite in English pigs.

\\,

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