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U.B.C. LIBRARY

THE LIBRARY

THE UNIVERSITY OF
BRITISH COLUMBIA

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G.N. Spencer

Digitized by tine Internet Archive

in 2010 witii funding from

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SOME
SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS

AND

OTHER ANIMALS OF IMPORTANCE

CONSIDERED ESPECIALLY FROM AN
ECONOMIC POINT OF VIEW

BY

T. BAINBRIGGE FLETCHER, r.n.,

K.L.S., K.E.S., F./.S.,

Imperial Entomologist to the Government of India
(late Government Entomologist, Madras).

MADRAS:
rivINTED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT. GOVERNMENT TRESS.

Price, 6 mpccs.'] 19 14. [9 shitlings

[CorvRi<;nT by the Government of Madras, by whom all
Riorhts of Translation and Reproduction are reserved.
There is, however, no objection to the reproduction of short
extracts or figures in bona fide agricultural, economic or
technical publications, provided that their sources are duly
acknowledged.]

PREFACE.

Wl^'- are assured on excellent authority that "of the making
' ' of books there is no end," whilst to authors may be
commended the equally excellent Arab proverb which says
that " hurry is of the devil." It is to be hoped that readers
of this book may sec the connection between these two saws
and duly ascrihr to the proper cpiartcr any noticeable short-
comings. This volume has, indeed, no pretensions to the
assumption of any status as a text-book and does not
pretend to do much more than provide a narrow and tortuous
entrance into the vast and almost untrodden field of Insect
Life in Southern India.

In the closing years of the eighteenth century, thanks to
the collections made mainly by the Tranquebar missionaries,
the insects of Southern India were perhaps better known
than those of any other part of Eastern or Southern Asia,
l)ut it is remarkable how little work was done in the succeed-
ing century in Madras in comparison with that done in
Ceylon, in Northern India, in China, Japan and Malaysia.
It is difficult to say why this should be so, but the fact
remains that the Insect Fauna of Southern India is now
probably less well known than that of the Himalayan
Region.

I'^ntomology has hitherto been an entirely exotic science
in India and collections and observations of Indian Insects
have, as a rule, been made only by those Government Officials
whose tastes lay in that direction and who have looked on
Entomology as a hobby. During the first half of the nine-
teenth century an extensive collection of Lepidoptera was
made in the Coimbatore district by Walhouse and towards
the end of the century collections (chiefly of Lepidoptera
and Coleoptera'^ were made in the Nilgiris by Sir George
Hampson and Messrs. Andrewes, whilst Bolivar described an
extensive collection of Orthoptera formed by St. Joseph's

iv PREFACE.

College ;it Trichiiiopoly. It remained for the Iweiitiilli
century to place the study of entomology on broader and
more scientific lines by the appointment of official luitomo-
logists firstly in Mysore and subsequently in Madras.

In Madras Entomology has been studied, especially from
the standpoint of Economic Agricultural luitomology, since
1906, when an Entomological Assistant was appointed to
work under Dr. Barber, then Government Botanist, and the
number of Assistants was subsequently increased to three,
at which it remained when I took over the newly-created
post of Government I'lntomologist in A])ril 1912. I'ndcr
ordinary circumstances the issue of a book on .South Indian
Insects would have been deferred for some years pending a
more thorough investigation into the lifehistories of those
insects of greater economic importance, but orders for my
transfer from Madras led me to overhaul the collections and
records formed before and during my tenure of office
primarily with the idea of leaving them in order for my
successor. The information gathered together proved (un-
e.xpectedly) so large as to appear to merit publication, not
as a definitive te.\t-book, but as a basis for further work.
J line illc liber !

In the "Indian Crow, Ilis Book," we . are told tiiat
Prefaces are either apologetic or defiant. Well, of course —

" There are some might be found entertaining a notion
That such an entire and exclusive devotion
To that part of Science folks style entomology

Really demanded some sort of apology,"
although even such folk might change their views it trans-
ported to India and exposed to the ordinary insect-plagues (jf
everyday life. And no apology is needt-d for the study of
insects in a country in which thousands are swept away every
year by insect-borne diseases and in which seven-tenths of
the population are entirely dependent upon their croj)s whose
produce is always lessened and somctiines wholly destroyed
by the ravages of insects. Any apology, therefore, shall not
be concerned with the subject-matter of this book except as

PREFACE. V

retjHrds the incomplete state in which it is presented and the
reason for this has already been explained. Any merits it
may possess consist in its efficacy as a stop-ijap until a more
complete account can be prepared.

The preliminary chapters, .skiving some general account
of the structure, habits, etc., of insects and of insect-pcsts arc
necessarily brief and incomplete and indeed anyone of these
might readily be expanded into a whole volume by itself,
whilst the various aspects of Entomology that have been
omitted would form a companion series of tomes.

In the succeeding and main portion of the book some
of ihf more im[)ortant insects are briefly considered, each
being treated under the head of (i) References, (2) Distribu-
tion in Southern India, (3) Lifehistory, (4) Foodplants, (5)
Status from an economic view-point, and (6) Control. Under
the first heading, the synonyms and references, which will
generally only appeal to entomologists, are necessarily limited
to the original description and the more important or acces-
sible references. Under the last heading, only such control-
methods are usually given as are generally efficacious, special
methods being often applicable to local conditions ; in some
cases in which no effective method has yet been found, the
information under this head is left blank or represented
by a " ? ".

The list of Crop Pests is not complete and it must be
clearly understood that it cannot be complete for \ery
many years, if ever. Every month new pests come to light,
many of them altogether unknown even by name, and our
knowledge of old pests is augmented. I\Iany of the
commoner species may, it is hoped, be identified by the
figures here given and specimens of any others found as pests
should be sent to the Government Entomologist, Coimbatore,
for identification and advice.

The writing of a Preface to a book of this nature provides
a welcome opportunity for acknowledgment of assistance
freely rendered by various helpers. The whole of the Insect
Pests enumerated in the latter half of this volume were
discussed in collaboration with M.R.Ry. T. V. Ramakrishna

vi PREFACE.

Ayyar, ij.a., <uu1 M.R.Ry. \'. ]\ani;icli;iiulr;i Rao, m.a., the
two Senior Assistants on the staff of the Government I-lnto-
mologist, Madras, and in several cases I have availed myself
of notes on lifehistories made by them, such notes being
distinguished by their initials. Mr. R. D. Anstead, the
Planting I-^xpcrt, kindly sent me a list of the princi[)al pests
found in the Planting Districts and several of these have
been included on his authority, as 1 have not seen them
myself in Southern India. Captain W. .S. Patton, I. M.S.,
read over the manuscript of the Chapter on " Insects and
Disease " and gave the benefit of his criticism on several
points, as did Mr. H. C. Sampson with regard to the section
on '' Agricultural Methods " in the discussion of the control
of Insect Pests of Crops. I'he illustration on the cover was
executed by the facile pencil of Mr. R. C. Wood after a rough
idea furnished by me. Finally, the book owes its comple-
tion and production to the kind encouragement afforded by
the Director of Agriculture, the Hoard of Revenue, and the
Government of Madras.

A few words are required with regard to the illustrations.
The whole of the coloured plates have been reproduced
from original drawings made at the Agricultural Research
Institute, Pusa ; most of these had been published previously,
havinor been used in Indian Insect Life, Fasaler Poka, ike
A oricultural Journal of India o\- in other departmental ])ul)-
lications, and it is solely owing to their previous publication
that so many coloured plates have been able to be included
without unduly increasing the cost of the book. A {q.\n te.xt-
figures have been copied from standard publications, their
sources being duly acknowledged. All the other illustrations
are original and have been newly j)repared under my su|)er-
vision from actual specimens of the various insects concerned,
many of which have never been figured before. That these
original illustrations are not entirely uniform in quality is to
be ascribed to the fact that they have been prepared by artists
who had no previous experience in making drawings of
insects for purposes of reproduction and who have had to
be trained in this during the progress of the work.

PREFACE. VU

To any in search of a distraction or a hobby, either to fill
an idle hour or to provide a welcome chan<^c of thoui,rht and
occupation, the study of Entomology may well be commended.
Insects are always with us, by day and by night, in the bunga-
low, at the office or in camp, and the field for observation of
lifehistories and habits, even of the commonest s[)ecics, is
absolutely boundless. If this book lends aid to any whose
tastes lie in this direction, its aim will have been achieved.
Grains ccrtc labor, quo scicu/iiv iiilor »ias;nopcre augetur.

T. BAIXIJRIGGI- FLETCHER.

CONTENTS.

Chapter

Preface

List OK Plates ...
List OK Tex r-FiouRES ...
L Definition and Structurk of Insects
IL Classification and Nomf.nclaturk, ..
in. Metamorphosis ...
IV. Means of Dekence in Insects
V. Communication amongst Insects
VI. Tropisms ...
VII. Insects and Plants
VIII. .Symbiosis and Parasitism
IX. The Balance of Life ...

X. Insect Pests
XI. The Control of Insect Pests of Crops : —
Agricultural Methods
Mechanical Methods
Insecticidal Methods
Stomach Poisons
Contact Poisons
Repellknts
Spraying Machinery
The Selection of Sprayers
The Upkeep of Sprayers
Special Methods ...
Appendix of Weights and Measures
XII. The Classification of Pests ...

XIII. Caterpillar Pests of Crops ...

XIV. Grasshoppers, Crickets and Termites
XV. Bug Pests

XVI. Beetle Pests of Crops ...
XVII. Fly Pests of Crops
-Will. Pests of Stored Products

XIX. Household Pests

XX. Insects AND Disease
XXI. Beneficial Insects

XXII. Useful Insects

XXIII. Some other Animals ...

List ok Crops with the Insects which

EACH ...
it

17
27
35
47
53
59
65
71
74
81
82
88
95
97

lOI

i°5
106
116
118
119
126
128
'30
137
145
149

157
160
169
177
194
205
214

240

CONTENTS.

PAGE

List OF Allied FooDPLANTS OF Insect Pests ... 264

.*^oME SoLTH Indian Insects :-

Hy.menopter.v

274

COLEOPTEltA ...

281

DiPTERA

346

Siphonaptera

.^65

Lepidoptera

367

Xeukoptera

469

Rhynchota ...

469

Anoplura ...

521

Orthoptera

524

Dek.maptera

539

ISOPTERA

539

Thysaxoptera

542

Tkysanura

543

Arachnida ...

544

Index

547

LIST Ol' TL ATI'S.

OPPOSITE PAGE

I. Household and (Iranary Pests ... ... ... i6o

II. I'ests of Crucifenc ... ... ... ... ... 243

III. Oryctes rhinoceros ... ... ... ... ... 2CS5

IV. Anoiiiala variaris ... ... ... ... ... 287

V. Coccinella septernpiinclala ... ... ... ... 291

VI. lipilachna Beetles ... ... ... ... ... 292

\'II. Lasiixh'rma serrieorne ... ... ... ... ... 295

VIII. Sphi'uoph'ni gossypii ... ... ... ... ... 298

IX. Phidodonta modfsla ... ... ... ... . . 315

.K. Hispii armigcra (cenesceiisf ... ... ... ... 315

XI. Aponiecpia pertigera ... ... ... ... ... 327

XII. Cy/(is Jorniicariiis ... ... ... ... ... 335

XIII. Calandrii oryzie... ... ... ... ... ... 341

XIV. Rliynchophorits ferrugineus ... ... ... ... 343

XV. Syrphid Fly 35S

XVI. Daciis iKCUrbitic ... ... ... ... ... 354

XVII. Amsacla albislriga ... ... ... ... ... 369

XVIII. Cirphts unipuncta ... ... ... ... ... 376

XIX. Prodenia litiira ... ... ... ... ... ... ^Tj

XX. Spodoptera tnaitritia ... ... ... ... ... 378

XXI. Sestimia inferens ... ... ... ... ... 379

XXII. Earias itisiiliina... ... ... ... ... ... 384

XXIII. Earias fal'ia 385

XXI\'. Acherotilia s/yx ... ... ... ... ... ... 402

XXV. Papilio demokus. ... ... ... ... ... 412

XXVI. Ciiloi/irysops cncjiis ... ... ... ... ... 414

XXVII. Pariiara malhias ... ... ... ... ... 417

XXVIII. GaUeria meUonella 421

XXIX. Scha'tiobiiis bipiinctifer ... ... ... ... ... 426

XXX. Pests of Brinjai 428

XXXI. Phyci/a infiisella 428

XXXII. Nymphiila depunctalis ... ... ... ... ... 430

XXXIII. Marasmia irapezalis ... ... ... ... ... 432

XXXIV. Dichocrocis punclijeraUs ... ... ... ... 433

XXXV. Sy /dp/a deroga/u 434

XXXVI. Martica leslulalis ... ... ... ... ... 440

XXXVII. Antigasira catalaunalis ... ... ... ... 441

XXXN'III. Exelaslis alomosa ... ... ... ... ... 444

XXXIX. Eucelis critica ... ... ... ... ... ... 450

XL. Laspeyresia triccntra ... ... ... ... ... 451

XLl. Arbela letraonis ... ... ... ... ... 453

XLII. GeUcfiia gossypiella ... ... ... ... ... 454

LIST OF PLATES.

XLllL Gnorimoscheniii heliopa...

XLIN'. Phthorinnea opt' re ii If 1 1 a

XLV. Chrpopa

XLVI. D)'sdercus cingiilaliis

XLVn. Psyll.i isitis

XLVIII. Colemania sphetiarioides

XLIX. Chrotogonus

L. Pests of Rice (Hieroglyphiis)

OPPOSITE PACE

454
455
.(69

4«4
49.S

527
52«
531

LIST C)l' ri:X I'-l'ICilRES.

1. Jiafocera riihus, Simple Anatomy ... ... ... ... 2

2. Principal anatomical features of an adult Insect ... ... 3

3. Mouthparts of an Orthopterous Insect ... ... ... 4

4. Do. a Hymenopterous Insect ... ... ... 4

5. Do. a Lepidoptcrous Insect ... ... ... 4

6. Antenna; of Insects ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

7. Eyes of Insects ... ... ... ... ... ... (1

8. Legs of Insects ... ... ... ... ... ... 8

9. .S/tvW/t/i'rt /rt^«/(?, a Carboniferous Insect ... ... ... 9

10. Young 'rerniitc with prothoracic wings ... ... ... 9

11. Diagram of a generalized type of wing ... ... ... 10

12. W'xng?. o( Orneodes rnicroscopica ... ... ... ... 11

13. Wing ol Brodia priscotiiicta, a fossil Neuropteroid ... ... iS

14. Diagram illustrating supposed Phylogeny of Hexapods ... 19

15. A lepido[)terous pupa (Orneodes) ... ... ... ... 30

16. .\ hymenoi)terous pupa (Ei/nieiies) ... ... ... ... 32

17. C<j///rto wt'//rt//« brooding over her eggs ... ... ... 34

18. Sathruph^Uia rtigosa ... ... ... ... ... ... 35

19. Perhpharia ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 36

20. Mimetic resemblance of Cfria to Eumenes ... ... ... 37

21. F/rr/f//(>/rt Mwrrt/M in resting attitude ... ... ... 40

22. Larvae of Taragama siva on tree-trunk ... ... ... 43

23. Section of Head of Reduviid Bug ... ... ... ... .(4

24. Sting of Honey-Bee ... ... ... ... ... ... 44

25. Cai.?,?,\A\nxva. (.'ispidoniorpha sancttc-criicis} ... ... ... 45

26. Hindwing of male of yVyc/z/rttf ///Vwo/i'////crt ... ... .jS

27. Diagram showing Tropic Reactions ... ... ... ... 54

28. Herse coiivok'iili {&cd'\ng a.t ^ovicr ... ... ... ... 61

29. Section of fly-attracting ^m/(?/<;£-///V7 flower ... ... ... 62

30. Head of Hawkmoth with Poilinia attached ... ... ... 62

31. Ant-attracting gland of .4c(?f/a 5////rfra ... ... ... 63

32. Fungus growing from Termite Comb ... 64

33. Xy!ocopa with .Mites in abdominal cavity ... ... ... 67

34. Graphic Curves showing increase and decrease of Host and

Parasite ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 69

35. Bad Cultivation ... ... ... ... ... 83

36. Hand-Net 89

37. Hand-Net in use ... ... ... ... ... ... 90

38. Bag-Net ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 90

39. Bag-Net in use ... ... ... ... ... ... 91

40. Light-Trap ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 93

41. Apjilying powdered insecticides with cloth hags ... ... 106

LIST OF TEXT-FIGURES.

42.

43-
44.

45-
46.

47-
48.
49.
5°-
51-
52-
5.?-
54-
55-
56.
57.
58.
59-
60.
61.
62.

63-
64-

65-
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.

71-

72.

73-
74-
75-
76.

77-
78.

79-
80.
81.
82.

83-
84.

85-
86.
87.
88.
89.

Spraying Syringe

Do. in action

Bucket pump ...

Do. in use
Gould's Knapsack Sprayer

Do. in use

Barrel Pump ...

Do. in action

" Autospray " in parts

Do. in use ...

" Holder " Pressure Sprayers ...

Do. Sprayer in use ...

" Universal " Ant Exterminator

Do. do. in use

"Squire" do.

Banyan Trees stripped by caterpillars of Hypsa ficiis
Ailatithns excelsa do. Eligma

Caterpillar of ^^//fr(J«//a
Injection Syringe for wood-borers
" Kumbli-puchis " (Amsac/a albislrif^aj
C/irologonus

Castes of a Termite ...
Oilon/ofermes o/'esiis, ^Q\d\i^T ...
Mud casing deposited on tree by Termites
Rice-bug

Gogu Plants attacked by beetles
Nilgiri Cockchafers

Orych'S rfit'wccros boring into sugarcane
Palm beetles ...
Mylabris indica

Protective device against toddy-flies ...
E/>/iestia kuchnielln
Common Indian House-Cockroach (Ptrifilnnela anit
Damage by Fish-insects
A Carpet Beetle
Stegomyia fasciala
Resting-attitude of Anopheline .\Ios(|uit()

Do. Culicine do.

Life-cycle of Malaria-iiarasite
Dragonflies
Eiimenes conica

Noctuid larva stored by Eiimcnes
Asilid fly

Larval Cases of Eubkniwa sciliila
Parasi te of Dialnca ...

Do. A/>ri><er€rna iierlcria

Xanthopimpla pedalor
Chalcid Parasite ( Erelmocenis) of Castor .Alcurodid

LIST OF TEXT-FIGURES.

XV

90.

91.
92-
93-

94.

95-
96.

97-
98.
99.

[OO.

i°3-
104.

'05-
106.
107.
108.
109.

113-
114.

[15-
[16.
tiy.
[18.
[19.
[20.

[21.

[22.
[23.
[24.

t2S-
[26.
127.
[28.
[29.
[30.

'31-
'3^-
133-
[34.
t3S-
136.
'37-

Proctotrypid parasite of Telligoniella

Mull>erry Silkworm

Eri do.

Tasar do.

Where Af'is dorsata builds its comb

Beehive

Gerbille ^yW/t-rri indica)

Coconut palms protected against rats

Sugarcane gnawed by jackals

Drongo or King-Crow (Dknirus ater)

Mynah {Acr idol lures trislis) ...

Golden Woodpecker (Brachyplernus aiiraiititis)

Little Owlet (Athene brama) ...

Grey-necked Crow (Corviis spletidens)

Crows following harrow

FSiTToquet. f/'a/u-orfiis /on/i/a/imj

Key to Poisonous .Snakes

Russell's \iper (Vipera riissellii)

CacopKS sy stoma

A mosquito-eating fish (Haplochilits lineati/s)
Eelworms
Dorylus oriental is
Solenopsis gem inula
Monomorium gracillimiim
Oicophylla smaragdina
Silk Webbing spun by CEcophylla larvas
Camponotus compressiis ...
Apis dorsata
Apis indica
Apis florea
Oxybeliis squamosus
Heliocopris luicephalus ...
Anatona slillata
Oxycelonia versicolor ...
Chiloloba acuta...
Adoretus I angalorensis...
Do. caliginosus bicolor ...
Do. ovalis ...
Carpophilus dimidiaius
Tenebroides mauritaniciis
Silvaniis si/rinamensis ...
Fatiia longicornis, male

Do. female

Ccelophora sp. ...
Dertnestes vulpiniis

Do. sp.
Sinoxylon sndaniciim ...
Rhizoperiha dominica ...

CAGi:

203
206
207
208
209
211

215
217
220
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
231
234
235
236

238
274

274
275
276
276
277
278
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
286
286
287
288
289
290
290
290
291
292
293
293
294

xvi LIST OF TEXT-FIGURES.

PAGE

138. Silodrepa panicea ... ... ... ... ... ... 295

139. Necrobia rufipes ... ... ... ... ... ... 296

140. Psiloptera fasliiosit ... ... ... ... ... ... 297

141. Sp/tenopUra amc/iidis, \3iTV& a.nd pupoi ... ... ... 298

142. Do. do. adult ... ... ... ... ... 298

143. Gonoccphalum hofimannseggi ... ... ... ... ... 299

144. Tribolinm castaneum ... ... ... ... ... ... 300

145. Cossyphus depresstis ... ... ... ... ... ... 301

146. Rhytinoia impolila ... ... ... ... ... ... 301

147. Gnathospas/oides rouxi... ... ... ... ... ... 302

148. Lyila ienuicoUis ... ... ... ... ... ... 303

149. Zonabris pustulata ... ... ... ... ... ... 303

150. y.onabris sp.,\d,x\z. ... ... ... ... ... ... 304

151. Do. coarctate larva ... ... ... ... ... 304

152. Do. adult 304

153. Cantharh riificoUis ... ... ... ... ... ... 305

154. Epicauta sp. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 306

155. Pachyinerus chineiisis ... ... ... ... ... ... 306

156. Briichus Iheobromce ... ... ... ... ... ... 308

157. C'lryoboriis gonagra ... ... ... ... ... ... 308

158. Scelodonta slrigicoUii ... ... ... ... ... ... 309

159. Motiolepla sigiiala ... ... ... ... ... ... 310

160. Nisoira madurensis ... ... ... ... ... ... 310

i6i. Anlacophora abdominalis ... ... ... ... ... 311

162. Do. alripennis ... ... ... ... ... 312

163. Do. stevensi ... ... ... ... ... ... 312

164. Oides affinis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 313

165. Leptispa pygmaa ... ... ... ... ... ... 314

166. Hispella ramosa ... ... ... ... ... '■•• 315

167. Platypria hystrix ... ... ... ... ... ... 316

168. Aspidoinorphamiliaris ... ... ... ... ... ... 317

169. Coptocycla sp. ... ... ... ... ... ... 317

170. Metriona sp. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 318

171. Doryslhenes rostratiis ... ... ... ... ... ... 3^^

172. Priotyranniis mordax ... ... ... ... ... ... 3'9

173. Acanthophoriis serralicornis ... ... ... ... ... 3^**

174. Xystrocera globosa ... ... ... ... ... ... 3^1

175. Stromaliitm barbatum ... ... ... ... ... ... 3*^

176. Neocerambyx paris ... ... ... ... ... ... 3^^

177. ChloridoUim alcmem' ... ... ... ... ... ... 3*3

178. Xylotrechus quadripes .,, ... ... ... ... ... 3^3

179. Balocera rubus ... ... ... ... ... ... 3*4

180. Coelosterna spinalor ... ... ... ... ... ... 3*5

181. Cmlosterna scahralor ... ... ... ... ... ... 3*°

182. Sthenias grisator ... ... ... ... ... ... 3*^

183. Slibarasp. 3*7

184. Episomus lacerta ... ... ... ... ... ... 3*7

185. Ceuthorrhynchiii asperulus ... ... ... ... ... 3*^

LIST OF TEXT-KIGURES. xvu

PAGE

186. Eiignampliis /riari^iiialiis ... ... ... ... ... 3^9

187. Do. do. ovipositing in Mango-leaf ... 33°

1 88. Jute .//w// 331

1S9. Lixiis brachyrhiniis ... ... ... ... ... ... 33'

I go. Paramecops farinosa ... ... ... ... ... ... 33^

T91. .4tactogastfr finilimiis ... ... ... ... ... ... 333

192. Mango Leaf-boring Wee\il ... ... ... ... ... 334

193. Apoderus traiKjuebariciii ... ... ... ... ... 33S

194. Green Ciram Weevil ... ... ... ... ... ... 33^

11)5. Alcides collaris ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 337

196. Do. bubo 337

197. Do. koptirdus ... 33^

198. Pe/Hpherc's athnis ... ... ... ... ... ... 339

199. Cotton plant attacked by Stem-^\'eevil ... ... ... 340

200. Cryptorfiynchiis mangifertc ... ... ... ... ... 341

201. Cosniopoliles sordidus ... ... ... ... ... ... 34^

202. Orycliodes indiis ... ... ... ... ... ... ' 344

203. Cardamom Scolytid ... ... ... ... ... ... 344

204. Xyleboriis fornicatus ... ... ... ... ... ... 345

205. Hippobosca maculala ... ... ... ... ••. ••• 34^

206. Do. capensis ... ... ... ... ... ... 347

207. CEstnis ovis ... ... ... ••. ... ••■ ••• 34^

208. Pycnosoma flaviceps ... ... ... ... ... ... 349

2og. Musca nebulo ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 35°

210. Do. pattoni ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 35'

211. Philicmatoniyia iiisignis ... ... ... ... ... 35^

212. Slomoxys calcitrans ... ... ... ... ... ... 353

213. Ca/obata sp. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 355

214. Siphonella funicola ... ... ... ... ... ... 355

215. Cholam Fly 35^

216. ^tAQ\^m Agromyza ... ... ... ... ... ... 357

217. Cow-pea do. ... ... ... ... ... ... 35^

218. Taba/ius sir/a/us ... ... ... ... ... ... 359

219. Do. do. egg mass ... ... ... ... ... 359

220. Pangonia sp. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3^°

221. Ciilex faltgaiis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3^'

222. Phlcbotomus minutus ... ... ... ... ... ... 3^^

223. Contarinia sp. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3^3

224. Gingelly Gall-fly 3^4

225. Gingelly capsules damaged by Gall-fly ... ... ... 3^4

226. Echidnophaga gaUinaceiis ... ... ... ... ... 3^5

227. Xenopsylla cheoph ... ... ... ... ... ... 3^^

228. Ctenocephalus felts ... ... ... ... ... ... 3^7

229. Asnra conferla ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3^7

230. Esligmene lactinea ... ... ... ... ... ... 3^^

231. Crealonolus gangis ... ... ... ... ... ... 3^9

232. Pericallia ricini ... ... ... ... ... ... 37°

233. Utetheisa pulchella 37'

xviii LIST OF TEXT-FIGURES.

I'Ar.E

234. .'Egocera venulia ... ... ... ... ... ... 37 2

235. Chloriddi obsoleta ... ... ... ... ... ... 373

236. Do. assiilla ... ... ... ... ... ... 374

237. Eiixoa segetis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 375

238. Pohtela glorios(c ... ... ... ... ... ... 375

239. Perigea capcnsis ... ... ... ... ... ... 377

240. Laphygma exigiia ... ... ... ... ... ... 379

241. Eitblemma olivacea ... ... ... ... 380

242. Do. scitula ... ... ... ... ... ... 381

243. Tarache nitidula ... ... ... ... ... ... 382

244. Do. opalinoides ... ... ... ... ... ... 382

245. Bombolelia jocosalrix ... ... ... ... ... ... 382

246. Brinjal Sarrothripiiie ... ... ... ... ... ... 383

247. Eligma narcissus ... ... ... ... ... ... 384

248. Do. do. larva ... ... ... ... ... 384

249. Acontia gricllsi ... ... ... ... ... ... 385

250. Achaa melicerta ... ... ... ... ... ... 386

251. Grammodes s/olida ... ... ... ... ... ... 3^7

252. Remigia iitida/a (anhesiaj ... ... ... ... ... 388

253. Do. Jnigalis ... ... ... ... ... ... 388

254. Azazia nihricans ... ... ... ... ... ... 389

255. Homopfera glaiicinans ... ... ... ... ... 390

256. Cosmophila sabiilifera ... ... ... ... ... ... 390

257. Do. erosa ... ... ... ... ... 391

258. HybUa piiera 39^

259. Plusia signata ... ... ... ... ... ... 393

260. Do. orichakeii ... ... ... ... ... ... 393

261. Do. pepflttis (agrttmma) ... ... ... ... ... 394

262. Simplicia robiistalis ... ... ... ... ... "... 395

263. O rgy ill post ica ... ... ... ... ... ... 395

264. Okne mendosa ... ... ... ... ... ... 39^

265. Psalis seciiris ... ... ... ... ... ... 397

266. Eiiproctis fralerna, larva 398

267. Do. do. moth 398

268. Do. scintillans 399

269. Hypsa ficiis 400

270. Argina cribraria ... ... ... ... ... ... 401

271. Do. syringa ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 401

272. Herse convolvtih ... ... ... ... ... ... 402

273. DeiUphila nerii, larva and pupa ... ... ... ... 403

274. Do. do. moth ... ... ... ... ... 404

275. Euplerote mollifera ... ... ... ... ... 404

276. Actlas seUne ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 405

277. Cricula trifenestrala ... ... ... ... 406

278. Ocinara various ... ... ... ... ... ... 407

279. Slauropus allerttus, larva ... ... ... ... ... 4°^

280. Do. do. moth ... ... ... ... ... 408

281. Bislon siippressaria ... ... ... ... ... ... 409

LIST OF TEXT-FIGURES. XIX

PAGE

282. i\hla>i,islria hyrlaca 4^0

283. J'lirasa Upida, larva ■♦'"'

284. Do. do. moth 4"

285. Altha nivea 4i2

286. Cnlopsilia pyrantlie 4' 3

287. T<rim hecale 414

288. Pohommalits I'ceticns ... ... ... ... ... ■■• 4iS

2S9. Viracholii isocrales ... ... ... ... ... .•■ 4io

290. Gangara Ihy'rsis. larva ... ... ... ... ... 4i7

291. Do. butterfly 417

292. Parmira cohxca ... ... ... ... .■■ 4iS

293. Sutisliis gremiiis ... ... ... ... ... ■■■ 4^9

294. Teluota attgias ... ... ... ... ... •• 4i9

295. Udaspesfolus 42°

296. SUnac/iroia elongellti ... ... ... ... ... ■•• 42i

297. G(///tr/<j ///<7/(;«f//<j, larval webbing over bees' comb ... 421

298. Dlatnca sp. ... ... ... ... ... ■. .. 4^2

299. Chilo simplex, \z.\\i\. ... ... ... ... ... ... 423

300. Do. eggs, pupa and moth ... ... ... ... 423

301. .huylolomia cfirysographella ... ... ... ... ... 424

302. Scirpophaga atiriflna ... ... ... ... ... ... 425

303. Do. monoslignia ... ... ... ... ... 426

304. Saluria inficita ... ... ... ... ... •■ 427

305. Elulla zinckfti^lla ... ... ... ... ... ... 429

306. Maailla nioiicusalis ... ... ... ... ... ... 43°

307. Hynidiia fitscialis ... ... ... ... ... ... 43'

308. Cnaphalocrocis medinalis ... ... ... ... ... 432

309. Nacoleia ind'uala ... ... ... ... ... ... 434

310. Do. ... ... ... ... ... ... 434

311. Glyphodes uesalis ... ... ... ... ... ... 435

312. Do. indica ... ... ... ... ... ... 43^

313. Crocidolomia binolalis ... ... ... ... ... 437

314. Helhila iindalis ... ... ... ... ... ... 438

315. Teraslia meticiilosalis ... ... ... ... ... ... 439

316. Omphisa atuislomosalis ... ... ... ... ... 439

317. Pachyzanchi (t-grotalis ... ... ... ... ... ... 44°

318. A'oorda bhleahs 44i

319. Pyraiista machn-ralis ... ... ... ... ... ... 442

320. Sphcnanhes caffer ... ... ... ... ... ... 443

321. PlatyptUia piinUidactyUi ... ... ... ... ... 444

322. Pterophoriis Iknigianus ... ... ... ... ... 445

323. Zeuzera coffeee ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .146

324. Azygophkps scalaris ... ... ... ... ... ... 447

325. Clania crameri ,., ... ... ... ... ... ... 44S

326. Heteriisia virescens ... ... ... ... ... ... 449

327. Argyroploce illepida ... ... ... ... ... ... 449

328. Laspeyresia koenigana ... ... ... ... ... ... 45°

329. Do. torodella ... ... ... ... ... ... 451

LIST OK TEXT-FIGURES.

330. Homona coffearia ... ... ... ... ... ... 45 ^

331. Sitotroga cerealclla ... ... ... ... ... ... 456

332. Dichonieris ianl/ies ... ... ... ... ... ... 456

333. Aproicrenia nerteria ... ... ... ... ... ... 457

334. J\rodi'nes coriacella ... ... ... ... ... ... 458

335. Tonka zizyphi ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 459

336. Nephantis serinopa ... ... ... ... ... ... 460

337. Erelmoara impacldla ... ... ... ... ... ... 461

f^l%. Attcvil fahriciella 462

J39. Phycodcs radiata ... ... ... ... ... ... 4^3

340. Plulella maculipennis ... ... ... ... ... ... 464

341. Ph\'Uocnislh ci/rella ... ... ... ... ... ... 465

342. Tinea pac/i\'spilu ... ... ... ... ... ... 466

343. Tricfiophaga Uipetzella 467

344. Phassiis malabariciis ... ... ... ... ... ... 468

345. Coplosoma cribraria ... ... ... ... ... ... 469

346. Capptea laprobanensis ... ... ... ... ... ... 47°

347. Doluoris indiais ... ... ... ... ... ... 47°

348. Eusarcocoris guliiger ... ... ... ... ... ... 47'

349. -Do. ventralis ... ... ... ... ... ... 47 ^

350. Antestia cntciaia ... ... ... ... ... ... 47 2

351. Agonoscelis nubila ... ... ... ... ... ... 47^

352. Nezara viridula ... ... ... ... ... ... 473

353. Piezodoriis riibrofascialus ... ... ... ... ... 474

354. Menida Ithlrio ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 474

355. Canthecona juncUala ... ... ... ... ... ... 475

356. .Andralliis spinidt-ns 475

357. Cyclopelta siccijoia ... ... ... ... ... ... 476

358. Aspongopus janiis ... ... ... ... ... ... 47 6

359. Tetroda hisleroidcs ... ... ... ... ... ... 477

360. Anoplocmmis pfiasiana... ... ... ... ... ... 477

361. Clavigralla gibbosa 478

362. Do. horrens ... ... ... ... ... ... 479

363. Leptocorisa varicornh ... ... ... ... ... ... 479

364. Kiplorliis pedestris 480

365. Lygceus pandurus ... ... ... ... ... 481

366. Graptostelhus servin 482

367. Oxycarenits hrliis ... ... ... ... ... ... 482

368. Aphanus iordidus ... ... ... ... ... ... 483

369. Slephanilis lypicus 484

370. Urentius echinus ... ... ... ... ... ... 4*5

371. Monanlhia globiililei-a ... ... ... ... ... ... 486

372. Conorhinin riibrofascialus 486

373. Chnocoris hemipterus ... ... ... ... ... ... 487

374. Helopellis antonii 488

375. DisphimUus poliliis 489

376. Calocoris anguslalits ... ... ... ... ... ... 49°

377. Gallobeliciis crassicornis ... ... ... 49 '

LIST OF TEXT-FIGURES. xxi

PAGE

378. A'.*!,'""" importunilui ... ... ... ... ... ... 49^

379. Eurybrachys ttimentosii 49*

380. Pheiiice nicestn 493

381. Pyrilla perpiinlln 493

382. Pundahioya simplUia ... ... ... ... ... ... 494

383. Cosnioscarla relttlii ... ... ... ... ... ... 495

384. ItliDceriis niveosparsiis ... ... ... ... ... ... 49^

385. Teltigonklla spectra 49^

386. Nephoteldx bipunclatns 497

387. Empoasca flavescens ... ... ... ... ... ... 49^

388. Aphis gossy pa 499

389. Schhoneiira lunlgcru ... ... ... ... ... ... 5°"

390. Ragi Root .\phis ... ... ... ... ... ... 5°'

391. Lachnus pyri ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5°3

392. Oregrna bambiisd' ... ... ... ... ... ... 5°4

393. Coconut Aphis ... ... ... ... ... ... 5°^

394. Aleurodes bergi ... ... ... ... ... ... ... S°7

395. Cerococciis hibisci ... ... ... ... ... ... 5°^

396. Dactyhpius citrt 5°9

397. Do. nipif ... ... ... ... ... ... 5°9

398. Do. 7'irgaliis ... ... ... ... ... ... 5^°

399. Pulviiiaria psidii ... ... ... ... ... ... 5^^

400. Ceroplaslodes cajani ... ... ... ... ... ... S^^

401. Leuiniiim viridi' ... ... ... ... ... ... S'3

402. Do. hemispluericum ... ... ... ... ... 514

403. Do. nigrum ... ... ... ... ... ... 5^4

404. Do. oleic 515

405. Do. marsiipiale ... ... ... ... ... ... 516

406. Hemilecanium irnbricans ... ... ... ... ... 517

407. Aspidiotus cameUia ... ... ... ... ... ... 517

408. Do. destructor ... ... ... ... ... ... 518

409. Mytilaspis piperis ... ... ... ... ... ... 519

410. C/iionaspis biclavis ... ... ... ... ... ... 5^°

411. Hemichionaspis thea ... ... ... ... ... ... 521

412. Pediculus capitis ... ... ... ... ... ... 521

413. Do. humanus ... ... ... ... ... ... 522

414. Phthirius pubis... ... ... ... ... ... ... 523

415. Hiematopinus tuberculatits ... ... ... ... ... 524

416. Tryxalis turrit a ... ... ... ... ... ... 525

417. Epacromia tamuliis ... ... ... ... ... ... 525

418. .4ularcfies rniliaris ... ... ... ... ... ... 526

419. Pacilocerus pictus ... ... ... ... ... ... 527

420. Orthacris sp. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... 527

421. Atractomorpha crenulata ... ... ... ... ... 528

422. Catantops %}^. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 529

423. Cyrtacanthacris succincta ... ... ... ... ... 530

424. Do. ranacea ... ... ... ... ... 531

425. Hieroglyphus nigro-repletus ... ... ... ... ... 532

LIST OF TEXT-FIGURES.

426. Oxya velox

427. Schizodactyliis motis/rosus

428. Gryllotalpa africana ...

429. QLcanthiis indiciis

430. Brachylrypes porlentostis

431. LiogryUus birnaculalus ...

432. Periplaneta aiislralasite

433. Blatlella germanica

434. Nala hvidipes ...

435. Coptotermes heimi

436. Odontolermes aud Microlermes

437. 7:4/-<>i

438. Ctenokpisma sp.

439. Tetranychus biocitlaiiis , . .

440. Phytoptiis carinatus

PAGE

533
534
535
535
536
537
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS AND OTHER

ANIMALS OF IMPORTANCE CONSIDERED

ESPECIALLY FROM AN ECONOMIC

POINT OF VIEW.

Chaptlk 1.

i)i:i iMTiox AM) siRiTTrRr. c)i- ixsi-crs.

•■ Ami wliat ul iusccls. prtsciil cvcr> wlicrc.
I'hrougli sia and land, and Hilling in the air 'i
Why, half ihc matUT charged with life on land
These link- creatures, countless, iniisl command.
See how in orders, legions filled, they rise,
Living alone, and in communities ;
I'riim mites so small as scarce to meet the eye.
To ant. and hee. and gorgeous Imttertly."

KniI'F.— .Vi/>/(/<f /() Man.

I.N its original meaning the word "animal" signified a breathing
being, but a more modern and e.xact definition would state that an
animal is an organism which is able to move and which can assimi-
late food which must contain proteids. This definition is not exact
because there are some plants wliich can do both of these things ;
a familiar example is to be found commonly in marshy places in
the Hills (as at Ootacamund) in the shape of the Sundew (Droscra),
a true plant which captures insects, moves its tentacles into contact
with them antl assimilates the proteids contained in their bodies.
There is in fact no rigid demarcation between animals and plants,
and very lowly organisms occur which may be referred with equal
propriety to either class ; but the point need not be laboured here,
because in popular language the ideas of animals and plants are
sufficiently distinct.

Animals are diviiled into many races, or Phyla. The Protozoa,
or animals consisting of only a single cell, form the least special-
ized of these phyla and are usually microscopic in size; the
organism which causes malaria may be <iuoted as an example. All
other animals constitute the Metazoa, which consists of many phyla,
the more important of which are the Porifera (or Sponges), the
Coelenterata (Jelly-fish. Coral-polyps, etc.), the Platyhelminthes
(Flukes and Tape-worms) the Nemertinea. Nematoda and Annelida
(all popularly called " worms "), the Arthropoda (Crabs, Scorpions,
Spiders, Insects), the Mollusca (Snails and Shell-fish) the Brachio-
poda (Lamp-shells), the Polyzoa, the Echinodermata (Star-fish,
Sea-urchins, etc.) and the Vertebrata (Fishes, Frogs, Snakes, Birds,
Manuiials).

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC.

CH.-^P. I.

Of these phyla by far the most numerous at the present clay is
that of the Arthropoda, a name derived from two Greek words
meaning "jointed feet " and applied to these animals because the
appendages of the body are composed of segments jointed to one
another. More than half a million different kinds of animals, of
which accurate descriptions have been published, belong to this
single phylum.

The Arthropoda arc sub-divided into the CrusUaea (Crabs,
Lobsters, Shrimps, Water-fleas, etc.), the Arachnida (Scorpions,
Spiders and Mites), and the He.xapoda or Insecta (Insects), and it
is to the study of this last group that we apply the term Entomo-
logy, a word derived from two Greek words meaning "insect
discourse."

The word "insect" itself, both in its Greek and Latin forms,
signifies " something cut into " and is applied to these animals,
because the body as a whole is divided by two constrictions into
the three separate divisions of head, thorax and abdomen. The
name Hexapoda (" six-footed ") is applied to this group, because the
true insects are provided with not more than three pairs of legs.
Spiders, Scorpions, Ticks and Mites, which are often popularly
called "insects," differ from true insects by having the head and
thorax fused together to form a cephalothorax and by possessing
more than three pairs of legs in the adult state.

In a typical
insect the head
is provided with
paired mouth-
parts, com-
pound eyes
<>' each composed
f.««-""j of a large num-
ber of facets,
and antennae
each composed
of several or
many joints,
and simple
eyes (ocelli)
which are often
both paired and
unpaired. The

thorax, which is itself composed of three segments (pro-, meso-, and
metathorax, reckoning from the head tailwards) bears three pairs

Fig. 1. — Simple external anatomy of an insect
'Batocera ritbusi. (Original.)

IMAI'. l.| ni'|-INITl()\ ANO SlRrCTCRK OF INSECTS.

Fig. 2. — Principal anatomical features of an adnlt Insect,
(.^fter Bcrlese.l

.■X.^, Line of division between Head and Thorax and (BK)
between Thorax and Abdomen ; Xa. .-Xntennary Nerve ; Nl,
Labral Nerve ; Nv, Nerve-ganglia: I". Pharynx ; Gs. Supra-
CESophageal Nerve-ganglion : Gst. Sub-tesophageal Nerve-
ganglion : Mx, Maxilla : Lb. Labium : Ks. (Esophagus ; Ao,
.Aorta; Mes, Midgut or Stomach; tl. t2. t3. Norve-ganglia
of thoracic segments ; al, Nerve-ganglia of abdominal seg-
ments: Mp. Malpighian Tubules: In. Intestine : Rt, Rectum;
Gn, Genital System : Or, Genit.il Openint; : \'s. nors;^! Pulsat-
ing Vessel. niay be treat-
ed under the heads of Nervous System, Respiratory System,
Circiihitory System. Alimentary Sy^em, and Reproductive System.

of jointed
legs, one af-
fixed to each
segment,
and the two
posterior seg-
ments eacli
iiear in adili-
lion ;i pair
of wings.

There may al-
so be one or
more pairs of
spiracles or
breathing
pores. The
a b d o m e n ,
consisting of
about eleven
segments,
bears only
the spiracles
and genitalia
as a rule,
although in
some forms
there are

e X t e r n a 1
appendages
such as cerci,
setze, forceps
of earwigs
andjapygids,
etc.

The inter-
nal anatomy,
so far as it
need be consi-
dered here, is
sufficiently
simple and

SOME SOLTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC.

ICHAP. I.

The appendages of the Head.
Figures I and 2 show the main facts of the simpler anatomy of
insects. The mouth-parts are of such various forms in the different
groups that no general account can be attempted here and we can
only state that the mouth-parts are usually adapted either for biting
the food or for sucking or lapping juices, but sometimes, as in bees,
the mouth-parts may partake of both characters and occasionally
they may be quite atrophied. (See figures 3, 4 and 5.)

Vuj. 5. — Hf.id and Month-parts
of a LopiclopttTous Insect,
showing typical suckinR
month-parts. (.After Her-
Icse.l
Letters as in Fig. 3.

CHAP. I.

DKI-IM IION AM) SlKUCTURK (»F INSECTS.

5

The antenna;, a pair of organs .situated on the top or front of the
head, are niovaljle .it the will of the insert and are usually long
threadlike appendages eoniposed of a variable nuiid^er of joints.
The shape and relative proportions of these joints are very various
and in many families are of great importance as a means of distin-
guishing between different groups of inserts. The antennae con-
tain delicate olfactory bulbs and arc apparenlix' also connected with
the laculty of flight. The various shapes e.xiiibiled by the antennal
joints have caused the bestowal of different names to indicate the
various structural types, and of these the commonest are :—

Si-liKYOiis. when the size of the joints gradually decreases
to a point at the apex or tip, as is the case in Crickets,

/ili/onn. or threadlike, when the joints are cylindrical and of
the same thickness throughout, as in many CarabidjE and Termites,

iiioiiililonn. or beadlike, when the joints are globose, like beads
strung on a string,

I'lG. 0. — Common types of Antenna:. lOriginal.)
1, Setaceons ; Pciiplaneta americiuia (Blattidse) : 2, Filiform; Cyrtacan-
thacris ranacca lAcridida;! : 3. Moniliform ; TrachcUziis politiis (Brenthids) :
4, Serrate: Dorysfliuiics rotitratua (Cerambycida:! : 5. Pectinate; GoHgj'-
his gongylodcs. male (Mantida;! : 6. Plumose ; Orgyia postica, male (Lymantri-
ada;): 7, Clavate; E/>(so<ii«.s- luoittaiiiia (Curculionida;) : 8. Capitate ; Rapala
jarbas (Lycsnida;) : 9. Lamellate: Hcliocopris biiccpliahis (Scarabsida:).

Semite, or sawlike, when the joints are triangular with a sharp
projecting anterior angle, like the teeth of a saw,

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

(chap. 1.

/"(•(•////((/c, or comb-likt'. when the joints have long processes
jutting out sideways, like the teeth of a comb. These processes may
project on one siile only, when the antenna is called iinipcrtinatc, or
on both siiles, when it is called hipcctinatc. When these branches
are themselves fringed with hair the antenna; are said to be piiimosc.

clavatc, or clublike, when the joints become gradually broader
towards the tip. so that the whole antenna assumes the form of a
club,

cdpitiiU: or knobbed, when the terminal joint or joints form a
projecting club, as in most Butterflies.

lamellate, when the terminal knob is composed of expansile
broad, flat leaves or plates, as in Cockchafers.

The antennae are often different in form in the two sexes, those
of the male (many moX.\\s,Gong\;lus) being often extensively branched
whilst the same organs in the female are simple. The object of
the branching in these cases is to secure a maximum area of
sensitive surface for the reception of sexual odours diffused by the
female, and this end is attained in more generalized insects (e,g.,
Adelidas) by simple repetition of joints so that the antenna is
many times the length of the whole body of the male insect.

7 "x^r- 8

l"lG. 7. — Various forms of Eyes in Insects. fOriginal.i
\.Xylocopit iriilipciinis iHynu-iioplcnil. i.i. ("iiipouiid Kyi-, jc.
2. I>iiiit<ihi flavcscctis lOtk.nalal : i. Toh.iiius siriatiis iDlplcra*. in:
4, ftnialc of the saint- : 5. Tflcopsis syktsii lOii.psida:! : 6. nnxtvcliilii:
vcstitus ((jyrinida:! ; 7. 8. Trisopsis oleic (Cecidoniyiaditl. frontal and
\iews. (.-Xfter Kieflfer.)

Oct-lii :

ilr. and

s semi-

lattral

c:hA1'. 1. 1 DKFIMTIOX ANU STRlCTrRE OK INSECTS. 7

The eyes of insects are of two kinds, simple eyes (called ocelli)
and compound eyes, but either compound eyes or ocelli may be
totally alxsent, as in most Termites. The ocelli vary in number
from one to twenty or more; when few in number they arc
generally situated on the top of the head, but when numerous they
are usually grouped on either side of the head. They are fre-
quently obsolete and often, even when present, are covered witli
scales anil apparently functionless in the adult insect. The
compound eyes, which arc peculiarly characteristic of insects and
are praoticaily only found in adult insects, are composed of
numerous separate and selt-ronl. lined eyes whose exposed surfaces
form numerous facets of whic h the whole eye is composed. The
compound eyes, each of which nia\ contain thousands of facets, '■
are usually paired and placeil on either side of the head, but their
shape and position is often much modified in accordance with the
habits of the insect concerned. In the predaceous Dragonflies the
eyes may occupy practically the whole surface of the head and this
is also the case in the males of Tabanid flies, whose females have
large but normal eyes. In the Diopsidje the eyes are placed at the
extremities of long hornlike stalks which project on either side of
the head and it has been suggested that this arrangement provides
increased accuracy of vision on the principle of a range-finder;
these flies arc supposed to be predaceous, but very little is known
of their habits. In the Gyrinid;c, which are the well-known
" Whirligig Beetles " so commonly seen on the surfaces of ponds
and streams, the compound eyes are each divided into two portions,
so that the beetle is able to see both above and beneath the water
whilst it is swimming on the surface. In a curious little fly lately
described from South Africa the compound eyes are three in num-
ber, one on each side and one on top of the head ; the object of this
triple distribution is not apparent. It may be added that the lenses
of the compound eyes are often unet|ual in size and shape in
dififerent portions of the eye and that this fact is sometimes useful
for the discrimination of species.

T/ir irpfcii(/(i,!i('s of I he llionix.

The legs are affi.xcd in pairs to the lower surfaces of the three
thoracic segments and are hence six in number. They are almost
always present both in the larval and perfect stages, although
there are many totally legless larvje. especially amongst the
Diptera and Hymenoptera, whilst in the adult insect some of the
legs may be specially modified, obsolescent or obsolete. In the

• The numljer of facets in each cuiui)onnil eye is very variabk- : in sumc ants Uitru
are only about 50, in drat;onl1ies there may lie as many as I2,cxx> and in some beetles
(^.\fordtlla) more than 25,000.

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC

ICHAP. 1.

Fig. 8. — Various forms of Legs in Orthopterous Insects. (Original.i

1. Typical Leg of walking Insect, showing division into joints: 2. Junipin;;
Leg (Cyrtacaiithacris ranaceal: 3. Running Leg (Hindi of- Piriplaiutit
itniericana: Predaceous P'orelegs of (4) a. Mantid and HI Goii^yliis fioiifiy-
lodes: Digging Forelegs of i6\ Gryllofalpa africaiia :u\d Oi Scliizodiictyliix
moiistrosiis — note thickened tibia of latter ; 8. Hindlcg of v"?. mount loxiis with
accessory tarsal lobes : 9, Swimming Hindleg of Sccliineiiti — note lateral expanded
margin at a; Forelegs of ilOi Mccopoda cloiigata and Ml) SatUrophyllia
riigosa carrying aural cavities (marked a in eachl. It should be noted that all
these various types of Legs occur within the limits of the single Order of
Orthoptera.

adult insect they are ordinarily composed of five distinct portions
which (reckoning from the body outwards) arc called the coxa,
trochanter, femur, tibia and tarsus, these parts being jointed to one
another and the coxa to the body, and the tarsus being divided
as a rule into a variable (up to five) number of joints and terminating
in a pair of claws. The coxa ami trochanter are generally small
and inconspicuous, but the former is large in the case of cock-
roaches. All the paits. but especially the tibia and tarsus, may be
provided with hairs, spines, spurs or other appendages which are
used for particular purposes, or the whole leg may be modified to
fulfil a special purpose ; as instances of this may be specified the

CIlAl". 1.

DKI-IMTION AND STRlXnUKE OF INSECTS.

jumping legs of grasshoppers, the modification of tlic striu tiirr of
legs to acford with swimming, burrowing or raptori.il h.ihits, and
the peculiar legs of lu-es which are used for the' colit'ction iwul
transi")ort of pollen.

riie le!,;s, tiiougli primarily used for the iiurpose of walking,
occasionally assume other functions, such as tactile organs. The
manner in which Mosc|uitos hold up their hindlcgs to detect the
approach of any danger is well known to everybody, whilst other
insects (Chironomida;, Micropezidje) use their forelegs in somewhat
the same manner. The legs may also be used for stridulatory
purposes, as in many grasshoppers, or may contain auditory
organs, as in Uu' Phasgonurirhc.

Fit;.'). — Stciitxlictya /o/xf/ff. ;i Carbonit'erous Insect, sliowing prothoracic lobes.

The Icfl-haiid figure shows the original fossil, that on the right is a

restoration of the insect by Handlirsch. I.\fter Berlese.)

The wings are placed as a rule on the upper surface of the two
posterior segments of the ihora.x. but either or both pairs are not
infrequently obsolescent or (|uite absent- In the earliest insects it
is probable that three pairs of wings were originally present, traces
of a pair of i^rothoracic wings being seen in some of the earliest
known fossil insects such as Stciiodiclyd lobnta. which lived millions
of years ago in the Carboniferous Epoch. But even at the present

Fig. 10. — .\" ii'. mature Sinhalese Termite ( Arrhiiiutcniica fitiviisi, 2'5 mm.
long, bearing rudimentary prothoracic wings. (After Bugnion.)

10

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

ICHAP. I.

day occasional traces are found of tliis |)rinutive tendency, as
may be seen in figure 10, whicli shows an immature nymph of a
Sinhalese Termite. The fact that all i%novvn acUilt modern insects
have concurretl in the nondevelopnvjnt of tlie iirothoracic wings
seems to lenil some support to the idea of a monojihyletic descent
of the Hexapods.

The wings are composed of two layers, each a thin membrane
of chitinous material, between which there may be trachea;. Each
layer is traversed by horny ribs or nervures, often loosely but
incorrectly called veins, which serve as a framework for the support
of the wing. The size, shape, number and interconnections of
these nervures are extremely various although usually fairly con-
stant in general pattern in each group of insects and they are thus
of great importance for purposes of classification for which they
have been used especially in the case of the Lepidoptera and

Fig. 11. — Diagram of a fjeneralized Insect-wing. (After Snodgrass, I'.S.A.
Techn. Bull. No. 18.)

C. Costa. Sc. Snb-costa. typically dividing into two branches Sol and Sc2.
K, Radius dividing dichotomously into ii\e branches Kl — K5, the anterior fork
of the first branch remaining single. M, Media, dividing into four branches,
Ml — M4. Cu, Cubitus, which is again two-branched, Cul, Cu2. The remain-
ing single free veins at base of wing are Anals. lA. 2A, etc. The cross-vein
between C and Sc, neai' base, is the Humeral Cross- vein ; that between R and
M near centre of wing is the Radio-medial Cross-vein ; that between M and Cu
near centre of wing is the Medio-cubital Cross-vein ; that between M2 and M3
is the Median Cross-vein. The areas enclosed by cross-veins are called cells.

Diptera. As the wings in all insects are presumably modifications
of one original pattern, many attempts have been made to prepare
and name one general type of neuration applicable to all modern
insects, but no system of this kind has hitherto met with general
acceptance. An example of a generalized type of insect neuration
is shown in figure 1 1 but in practice it is often extremely difficult to

I" HA I'. 1.

DKI-IM IION AND STRl'CTl'Rt: OK INSECTS.

compare the patterns of neuration exhil)ite(l by wings of inserts
belonging to widely-separated Orders.

The wings themselves are usually more or less triangular but
the shape is extremely various and often greatly modified. The
wings may, for example, be deeply cleft (as in the Pterophoridje

Fig. 12. — Wings of Onuodcs-iiiicroscopica, showing deep clefts. lAuthor's
original sketch from Spolia Zeylanica.)

and Orneodidcc), extremely elongated (as in the hindwings of some
Nemoptera). or modified to form stridulating organs (see figure 26).
They may be naked or covered with hairs or scales or both. The
portion which is articulated to the thorax is called the base of the
wing, the anterior margin which is nearest to the head is called
the costa, the margin opposite the base is called the termen or
outer-margin, whilst the posterior edge is called the dorsum or
inner-margin. The tip of the wing at the junction of cosla and
termen is called the apex and that at the junction of the termen
and dorsum is called the tornus or inner angle.

Tlic Abiloiiicii iiiul its appeiuiages.
The abtiomen, or body proper, consists of about eleven more or
less similar segments, although many of these are often greatly
modified and are difficult to trace, so that not more than seven or
eight may actually be visible. The abdomen is often remarkably
extensile, this mobility being permitteil by the arrangement of the
segments which are arranged below one another during contraction
(.see figure 2) but which can be widely separated by the extension
of the membrane which connects them. Along the sides of the
abilomen are found the spiracles (see Respiratory System) and
the extremity of the body may be provided with cerci or other

12 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. (CHAP. I.

appenilages. In some insects the cerci may be long, many-jointed
organs, not unlike antennas, as in some Mantidae ; in others (most
Termites) they may be quite short and comprise only a very small
number of joints ; whilst in the majority of insects they are quite
absent. In the Earwigs and Japygidas a pair of horny, hooked
forceps is present at the end of the body. In many female insects
special organs for the deposition of eggs may be present and these
may normally be concealed within the boily, being extensile at
will, or may be placed permanently outside the body, in which
latter case more especially the instrument is called an ovipositor
(Z-rt/. egg-placer). In some insects (<'.^.. Ichneumonida;) the oviposi-
tor may be a narrow threadlike appendage longer than the whole
insect, or it may be broad and sword-shaped (e.g., Mccopoda chiigata)
or provided with special digging appendages {e.g.. Cicindelidas)
or other apparatus for the successful deposition of the eggs. The
tip of the body may also carry tufts of hair which are detached by
the female as a covering for the eggs.

The Nervous System.

The Nervous System in insects is fairly simple in general
structure and consists of three divisions, (l) the cephalic system
or brain, (2) the ventral ganglionic cord with its branches, and (3)
the nervous system of the alimentary tract. The cephalic system
consists of two main masses, a larger and very complex one placed
above the oesophagus and hence called the supra-oesophageal
ganglion (Figure 2, Gs) and a smaller one, placed below the oeso-
phagus and therefore known as the sub-oesophageal ganglion
(Figure 2, Gst), these two ganglia being connected to one another
by a strip of nerve-material passing on either side of the gullet.
The supra-oesophageal ganglion is connected with the nerves
running from the eyes, antennae, and other sense-organs of the
head, whilst the sub-oesophageal ganglion connects directly with
the nerves of the mouth-parts. These two great ganglia- or
bunches of nerves, are intimately connected with the ventral
ganglionic cord which runs along the ventral side of the thorax
and abdomen (Figure 2, /., /s, ts, a:), throwing out from the main
masses smaller nerves which run into the limbs and body. In the
more highly developed insects these ventral ganglia are reduced in
number and increased in size, being sometimes massed in the
thorax to form what may be called a thoracic brain ; but in the more
generalized types, the ganglia are smaller and more numerous. It
is usually the case that larvae show a more generalized type of
nervous system in this respect in comparison with the perfect
insects into which thev subsequently develop. The third division

CHAP. 1.1 nKKlMTlON AND STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. 13

of the Nervous System, that of" the alimentary tract, consists of
small and obscure nerves in eonnection with the posterior part of
the digestive system.

Rt sf in I lory Sysl( •/// .

Insects are as a rule air-breathers and take in air through
special holes (spiracles or stigmata) placed along the sides of the
abdomen and thorax, thus differing widely from the higher animals
which breathe through the head. The thoracic spiracles are
usually reduced to a single pair situated in the prothorax but
sometimes (as in Pulicidae) all three pairs may be present. The
spiracles, which can generally be opened and closed at the will
of the insect, are defended against the entrance of foreign bodies
by various devices, of which we may mention here the hairs found
on the body of many Lepidoptera and Diptera and the waxy
excretion produced by many Scale-insects. The spiracles com-
municate with a chamber opening into a system of tubes (tracheas)
which lead the air into contact with the chyle. In some insects,
especially those living in a wet or moist environment, there arc
often peculiar structural modifications to enable air to be obtained ;
the larva of the dipterous fly Eristalix, which is commonly found
in small accumulations of water in tree-tnmks, etc., has a long
extensile tube which can be thrust up to the surface of the water.
Many aquatic insects, however, obtain their air supply directly
from the water by means of pseudo-branchije, which are usually
flat plate-like out-growths, often fringed with hairs, occurring
along the sides of the body ; the Ephemerids (Mayflies) are familiar
examples and almost any paddy-field will yield specimens of
Xyiiif/iiild ch'piiiictalis (see Plate XXXII) in which the pseudo-
branchiae are seen as a series of delicate filaments all down the
body. It is because this caterpillar breathes in this way that it is
controlled by draining the water off the rice fields.

Circuliitory Systrin .

Insects do not possess a closed Circulatory System as found in
the higher animals in which the blood is circulated in special ves-
sels (veins and arteries), but insects have a single vessel, pulsating
in parts, through which the circulating liquid flows and runs
through the spaces (lacunae) of all the organs, being regulated in
its course by special diaphragms which, in the shape of movable
connective membranes, divide these lacunae into chambers vari-
ously disposed. So that the circulation is partly vascular and
partly lacunar. The dorsal pulsating vessel (Figure 2. Vs), also

M

SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. I.

calleil the propiilsory apparatus or coniuK)nl.\ (l)iit irKorrtctly) \h^■
heart, may often be seen, especially in internal-feeding larva;,
beneath the skin in the central part of the back. By the pulsatory
action of this tube, the circulatory fluid is drawn into the small
openings (osteoli) occurring along that portion (ventriculus) which
lies within the abdomen and driven forward through the thoracic
and cephalic portions (aorta -Figure 2, Ao) into the head, whence
it flows back outside the tube and into the various organs of tiie
boily. The fluid itself is often improperly called blood but more
correctly chyle ; it is usually colourless, or slightly tinted green oi
yellow and consists of two parts, a fluid part (serum or hasmolymph)
in which swim active amoeboid bodies (am<Ll)ocites ; also called
leucocytes, phagocytes, etc.).

Aliiiiciitdry System.*
The Alimentary System lies along the middle portion of an
insect throughout the whole length of the latter. The food is
received through the mouth into the oesophagus or pharynx (Figure
2, F) whence it passes into the crop and thence (through the pro-
ventriculus when this is present) into the stomach or midgut (Figure
2, Mcs), and from thence into the small intestine (lu) and on into
the large intestine or rectum (Rt). At the junction of the stomach
and small intestine are found the Malpighian tubules (Mp), which
are almost always present, though variable in number and hence
sometimes used for classificatory purposes; they are believed to
function, much like kidneys in the higher vertebrates, for the
excretion of urates from the system.

Fat Glands and Stink Glands.

Of the internal organs connected with the Alimentary System
it is only necessary to mention here the Fat Bodies, which are
often immensely developed, and the Stink Glands which sometimes
open into the rectal aperture, as in many Coleoptera.

Reproductive System.
In its main features, the type of the reproductive system is
comparatively simple. In the male the internal organs consist of
testes and accessory glands (both usually paired but sometimes
multiple, though always symmetrical) and paired seminal vesicles
leading into a common ejaculatory duct which in turn leads into

• In this and simitar accounts the reader must remember that only very general
•lc!>cri|nion.s are possible in a liouk of this nature and that more advanced treatises nitisi
lie Consulted for the elucidation uf details. The Alimenlary System in parliculiir is
eMremely variable in structure ami the relative pruportions of parts in different insects.

CHAP. I.I DEFINITION .AND STRICTIRE OF INSECTS. 1 5

the protrusibk- penis. In the feiiiali- there are generally paired
ovaries from which the eggs are discharged through the oviducts
into a common tube (the vagina) into which also runs the open end
of the spermathcca or receptacle in which the male spermatozoa
are received and stored. The ovipositor, which as its name implies,
is the instrument by which the eggs are placetl in position, assumes
very different forms in ilifferent groups, and is often placetl
externally, as in many grasshoppers. Ichneumon-flies, etc. ; when
internal it is capable of protrusion often to a considerable extent.
Besides the actual sexual organs there are also in both sexes
various accessory structures ; in the male, for example, there is
freiiuently a complex armature of chitinous hooks and claspers
which often differ in character in species otherwise hardly distin-
guishable and which are thus of great assistance in systematic
work ; and in the female there may be sebific glands, such as occur
in various grasshoppers, which pour out a gummy fluid which
cements the eggs into a mass and at the same time gives them a
protective covering. A great deal of work has been done on the
spermatogenesis and oogenesis of insects but this subject cannot
be enteretl into here.

Fertile reproduction is generally attained in insects, as in the
higher animals, by the union of the two sexes but occasionally-
aberrant forms of reproduction are met with. Of these the com-
monest is Agamcgenesis (a name derived from Greek words mean-
ing "birth without marriage "), commonly called Parthenogenesis
(Greek, " virgin-birth ") ; in this case the female lays fertile eggs
without the intervention of the male and this phenomenon is the
normal mode of reproduction in the case of many Aphids and is
also commonly met with in some other groups (scale-insects, bees,
and moths).

The case of the honey-bee is well known but is of considerable
interest. The queen-bee has the power of withholding the passage
of spermatozoa from the spermatheca in which these are stored.
When eggs descend from the ovary, if the queen-bee allows sper-
matozoa to issue, the eggs are fertilized and become females,
workers or queens according to the food on which the young larvae
are fed. If, however, exit of spermatozoa is prevented by the
queen-bee (or if she is old and the spermatozoa exhausted) the
unfertilized eggs only develop into males (ilrones). The name
Pedogenesis is given to cases in which agamogenetic reproduction
occurs in the larval stage and this is known to occur in a few
Diptera and Coleoptera (Miastor, Chiroiwimis, Micromaltliidic). A
minute wingless fly (Tcnnitoxciiia), commonly found in Termites'
mounds in India, is reputed to be hermaphroditic, combining both

I6 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. I.

male and female reproductive organs in the same individual, but
this point has been disputed and must be considered for the
present as sub jtidicc. In the case of a few Braconid parasites, there
occurs the phenomenon of Polyembryony, in which a single egg
divides to give rise to several embryos. Finally, we may make a
brief reference to the phenomenon of Hypergamesis, found in some
Heteroptera U'-R-, the Bed-Bug. Cliiwcoris Icctiiluriiis) in which the
great mass of spermatozoa take no part in the actual work of
reproduction, which is accomplished by relatively few of the male
cells, but are stored up in the body of the female and serve as a
source of nutriment for the development of the eggs. But it may
be added that the actual facts regarding most of these ahnoriiial
methods of reproduction are still open to doubt.

CHAP. 1 1.1 CL.-\SSIF1C.AT10N AND NOMENCLATURE. 17

Chapter II.
CL.AS.SIl'ICATION AND NOMENCl.ATl'Ri:.

•' Our little systems havi; their day ;
They have their day, and cease to be."

TknnysO.x— /« Mc'iioriam.

" Nomina Inscctorum distincte traders convenit. Nomina si pereunt, pcrit et
cogiiitio reriim ; noniina si conftindanttir, confundantur omnia necesse est."

I" A BR I c R' s —Philosophia EHtomoUi;i(a.

The correct classification of insects is a problem which has
e.xercised the minds of entomologists for at least three centuries
and that various systems and schools of thought are in existence
at the present day affords perhaps the best proof that the problem
is not so simple of solution as may at first appear.

The casual observer who walks through a field and sees
grasshoppers jumping away before his advance may think that
grasshoppers are easily defined as insects that jump. But such a
definition would also include many other insects, such as fleas and
some bugs and beetles, which no one would call grasshoppers. A
fly, it may be said, is easily distinguished by having only one pair
of wings; but other insects, such as the males of some scale-
insects, share this similarity yet differ from flies in many other
respects. Bees and wasps may be defined as stinging insects,
but many caterpillars can sting just as badly, whilst the males of
the bees and wasps have no sting at all. Crterpillars of butterflies
and moths may be said to feed on leaves, but so do those of
sawflies, beetles, etc. Such definitions — or, it would be better to
say, such popular generalisations — have very little value, but
they may serve at the same time to give some idea of the difficulty
of classifying such an enormous assemblage as the world of
insects by characters either natural or easily observed.

The systems of classification generally used have been based
as a rule on the structural characters of the adult insect, especially
on those of the wings and mouth-parts, or on the type of metamor-
phosis or series of changes which insects undergo before attaining
the adult condition. Each system has its good points and its bad
and neither by itself can be accepted as satisfactory.

A system based solely on the type of wings, for example, might
unite grasshoppers and bugs and also flies and scale-insects,
whilst the wingless crickets, wasps, moths, fleas, lice, etc., could
not be separated at all. The possession of sucking or biting
mouth-parts seems at first sight to offer a reliable distinctive
character and the nectar-sucking butterflies and moths may be
([uoted as examples until we find that some of the moths have
biting mouth-parts, and that some insects, such as bees and Thrips,

l8 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. II.

have mouth-parts which combine the biting and sucking types.
Nor is it always easy to draw any strict line between insects
having "complete" and "incomplete" metamorphosis, that is to
say, between those insects having a larva differing greatly from
the adult and separated in time from the adult by a resting (pupal)
stage and those in which the larval stage is mainly separated in
appearance and time from the adult by the absence of wings and
lack of any pupal period. Termites, for example, cannot be said
to undergo any complete metamorphosis, in the ordinary accepta-
tion of the term, yet, in some species at least, there is a period or
periods of " nymphosis " scarcely distinguishable from a true
pupal period as regards quiescence and stnictural change.
Aleurodidze also are closely allied in all respects to the Rhynchota,
yet they possess a quiescent pupal stage, whilst in their near
relatives, the Coccidas, a definite pupal stage occurs in the case of
males, but not in females, of the same species. In other cases, as
in the females of some glow-worms, even when the metamorphosis
is nominally " complete," there is scarcely any notable difference
between the larval and the final form of the insect.

As a matter of fact, it is generally easier to divide insects more
or less arbitrarily into groups than it is to divide them into Orders
by any one system of classification. Such a remark is an obvious
truism, but yet even at the present day one still sees attempts to
apply some particular rule-of-thumb method to the classification of
insects. The truth is, of course, that insects have gradually
evolved during a period of millions of years, from one common
ancestor or perhaps from several different types, and that in some
cases groups of modern insects originally of the same stem have
become extremely different in structure, metamorphosis or other
conditions, whilst in other cases groups originally distinct may by
convergence have assumed details of structure, metamorphosis,
etc., which at first sight are deceptively similar.

No fossil insects appear to have been found in India, but Geology

tells us that insects existed in
almost the earliest times (Low-
er Silurian) of which any fossil
records have come down to us.
The very earliest insects known
are perhaps hardly referable to
any of the orders now extant
Fig. 13.— WinK of Tirodia priscot. l^ut the three modern Orders
ittcta, Sciidder, a Neuropteroid Insect of Orthoptcra, Ncuroptera and
from the Staffordshire Coal-Measures. Hcmiptera were already repre-
(Geol. Mag. (21 VIII 293— July 1881.) . i • .u r, • • i

•* ' sented m the Devonian period

by forms which, though not strictly comparable with the modern

CHAP. 11.) CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE.

19

representatives of those Orders, already possessed facies which may
fairly be called ortitopteroiii, neiiropteroid, and heniipteroid. In the
Carboniferous period these Orders, and especially the two former,
were dominant whilst the Coleoptcra began to make their appear-
ance towards its close. The Lepidoptera, Diptera and Hy menoptera
only appeared later, although all of these arc known from rocks of
the Secondary period. In the succeeding e])och, however (the

Fig. 14. — Diagram illustrating supposed Phylogeny of Hexapods. (Original.
''' Marks point of origin. The dotted lines indicate doubtful lines of descent.

2.A

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

[CHAP. II.

Tertiary), Insects seem to have flourished exceedingly and many
of the fossils found in these rocks are referable to genera still in
existence.

The scheme of descent of the modern groups of Insects is in-
dicated roughly in figure 14, but the limitations of an area containing
only the two dimensions of length and breadth render it impossible
to give a true idea, which will be grasped better by imagining the
different stems to be branches emitting twigs and growing at
different angles and at various heights from the paper, in some
cases conveiging together and in others separating widely. It
must, of course, be remembered also, in speaking of more recent or
more ancient forms, that all existing groups of Insects are equally
far removed in point of time from the archaic members of the Class,
and that all that is meant is that some groups have adapted them-
selves better than others to special conditions.

A glance at ligure I4 will show the impossibility of exhibiting
the natural relationships of the various groups in any linear method
of arrangement.

There are, roughly speaking, two commonly accepted methods
of the classification of insects, one system making use of about nine
principal Orders, the other of about thirty. Both systems have
their good points and their bad, but a system admitting many
Orders seems to exhibit in truer perspective the real relationships
of its components. The following list exhibits the various groups
adopted in this book, arranged in order, commencing with the more
specialized and concluding with the more generalized Orders : —

Groups adopted in this
book.

1. Hymenoptera '...

2. Coleoptera - ... \

3. Strepsiptera ... J

4. Diptera * ... 1

5. Siphonaptera *... /

6. Lepidoptera * ...

7. Trichoptera

8. Neuroptera •

9. Panorpata:

10. Psocida

11. Mallophaga

12. Ephemerida

13. Plecoptera

14. Odonata ♦

Orders in which the groups in
column I would be p'aced
in the Nine-Order sysum

Hymenoptera
Coleoptera

Remarks.

Uiptcra
Lepidoptera

't Neuroptera (part)

Insects with distinct

metamorphosis and

f with quiescent pupa

structurally distinct

from the larva.

Insects with little meta-
J, morphosis and no
I definite pupal stage. t

t Kxcept in Aleurodi.Kxand Coccid.^, two families of Rhynchota, in which a quiescent
pupal stage occurs.

CHAP. II. I CL.'^SSIFICATION AND .N'OMENCLATURE.

21

Orders in which the group* in
column I would be placed
in the Nine-Ordcr system.

Rhvnchota

Orthoptera

Neuroi)tera .part)
Thysanoptera

Aptera ...

Remarks.

Insects with little
metamorphosis and
no definite pupal
stajie.t

Groups adopted in this
liook.

15. Ilhynchota *

16. Anoplura *

17. Orthoptera * ...

18. Dermaptera

19. Blattidce

20. Isoptera •■ ...

21. Enibiada; ... 1

22. Thysanoptera-"...

23. CoUembola

24. Thysanura

25. Japygids

26. Protura ... i J

Of these groups, however, only those marked '■ are of sufficient
economic importance to be considered here and the adult insects ot
these groups may be separated by the following artificial key : —

f Mouth-parts sucking ... ... 2

biting

Diptera (Flies).

l.epidoptera (Butterflies).
Rhynchota (Bugs).

' Only one pair of wings i
i ...
2 ^ I wo pairs „

! Xo wings

{Wings covered with scales
„ without scales
f Metamorphosis complete ; hind- 1

legs usually formed for jumping; ^Siphonaptera (Fleas).
not clinging to hairs of host. j
Metamorphosis incomplete; hind-"]

legs not formed for jumping ; l. Anoplura (Lice),
legs modified to cling to hairs {
of host.
[ Two pairs of wings of approxi- 6
mately equal sue.
Two pairs of wings of unequal 8

size.
Antennae longer than length of 7
) head.

I Antennae shorter than length of Odonata (Dragon — flies).
head.

L

t Except in .Aleurodidae and Coccidx, two families of Rh\Tichota, in whichaqniescent
pupal stage occurs.

t Male Coccidi (Scale-insects) form an exception but are not likely to come under
non-entomological notice.

22 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. II.

\\ings permanent, with strong Neuroplera (Lace- wing I'lies).
crossveins in central area.

Wings soon shed, without cross Isoptera (Termites).

[ veins in central area.

I The two pairs of wings difieriny 9

I in thickness of material.

I The two pairs of wings similar in '°

I thickness of material.

[ First pair of wings narrow, mem- |

branous, often lontier than body, I ,, , ,,. ,

. [ Orthoptera (Grasshopixjrs).
sometimes used as true wings in f

flight ; metamorphosis incom- ]

plete. J

9 -* First pair of wings usually broad, ;

horny, projecting little if at all I

beyond body, kept erect during ; „ , /„ .> ^

^ ° ,-Coleoplcra (Beetles),

flight which is accomplished 1

solely by the second pair of |

wings ; metamorphosis complete. '

I Minute insects, forewings narrow!

I . L J .. L ■ ' Thysanoptera (Thrips).

and oar-shaped ; metamorphosis ,

1' incomplete ; no sting. J

J Minute to large insects, forewings ,
10 ] ° . ° •

usually m.ore or less triangular ■ ' ,,

' (■ Hymenoptera (Wasps, ctc.V
a sting often present ; metamor- 1

[ phosis complete.

There are numerous e.xceptions even to an artificial key of this
sort, as, for example, all the wingless forms (such as ants, beetles,
termites, etc.) of the Orders which normally possess wings. It is,
therefore, hardly necessary to repeat here that it is easier to place
insects into groups arranged around typical forms than it is to
separate them exactly by any hard-and-fast rules.

Over four hundred thousand different kinds of insects have been
described from all parts of the world and of these probably about
fifteen thousand are known from Southern India, where at least an
e(|ually large number remain to be discovered and described.

By examination and comparison we can place an insect in its
appropriate Order, Family and often its Genus and Species, that
is, we can say that it resembles other examples so closely that it
may be considered identical. But, having done this, we are no
nearer knowing whether any information has already been pub-
lished regarding this particular insect. Perhaps we fintl it damag-
ing a crop and wish to ascertain whether it has been noted before
as a pest and what remedies have been found efficacious. This

CHAP. II. 1 CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. 23

want is iiu-t by an artificial system of nunicnclaturc which gives a
name to every Order, Family, Genus and Species of animal, every
different kind of animal being known by two names, those respect-
ively of the genus and species to which it belongs. A knowledge
of these names gives us a key to all that has been recorded about
the animals concernetl.

In olden times insects, which were then little studied, were
known by long descriptive phrases, such as " the brown butterfly
which flies in fields in the Summer," and it will readily be under-
stood that such phrases were not only cumbrous but often very
vague. In the middle of the eighteenth century, however, Carl von
Linne, better known by his latinized name of Linnseus, introduced
the binomial system of nomenclature under which every animal and
plant known at that time was given two names, a generic name
common to each group and a specific name peculiar to each
organism. This system was first fully elaborated in the Tenth
Edition of Linne's " System of Nature" (" Systema Naturse"),
published in 1758, and this book and date are taken as the starting-
points of our modern nomenclature.

All names are in Latin or, if derived from other than a Latin
word, they are required to be latinized, although of late years it
must be confessed that this rule is very loosely interpreted. When
binomial nomenclature was introduced, a knowledge of Latin was
an essential equipment of every educated man in Europe and books
and descriptions written in Latin were therefore intelligible to the
educated of all civilized Nations. Even nowadays short descrip-
tions of new insects are often written in Latin and this language
remains (nominally at least) the universal vehicle of zoological
nomenclature. It is true that the commoner and more conspicuous
insects of almost every country have acquired popular names but
such names have usually only a very local and limited application,
the same insect being known under different names in each country
speaking a different language or different insects being known
under the same name in different countries, whereby confusion is
worse confounded. The " Cotton BoUworm " of America, for
instance, is quite a different insect from that to which the same
name has been applied in India. And as I write there is before me
a popular book on injurious insects, issued in America in 191 2, in
which one and the same insect is called in different places the
" Potato-Tuber Worm," the " Tobacco Leafminer," and the
" Splitworm ; " this insect has been called in India the " Potato
Moth," and it would be merely a waste of tiire to hunt up and quote
here the various and yet different names under which this same
insect is known popularly in England, Germany, France, Italy,

24 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. (CHAP. U.

Russia, ftc. Hut it will ri-'adily l)c seen how little useful would be
a knowledge of only one or a few of such names to an inciuirer
desirous of ascertaining the distribution, lifehistory, or control of
such an insect. So-called " popular " names are generally merely
sops to ignorance and their use often serves to conceal a want of
e.xact knowledge. Whilst of very limited and inexact application,
they are no easier to learn or remember than the proper scientific
names, which should always be employed, when known, in refer-
ring to any one particular insect.'

Not infrequently it happens that a previous description is
overlooked, with the result that an insect, which has already
been described and named, is regarded as a novelty and again
described and renamed as such- Such cases are dealt with by the
Law of Priority which provides that the name which was pub-
lished first in point of time, if valid, shall be used and that the
later-published names shall be sunk as synonyms- As an example
of this rule we may quote the case of the common Indian Bedbug
which was first described in 1803 under the name of hcmiptcnis
and redescribed in 1852 and again in 1861 respectively under the
names rotiiudatiis iind )iuitrocrplhi!iis; the name lieiiiiptcnis, having
priority, must be used, the other names becoming synonyms.

A generic name may not be used more than once in Zoology
and a specific name may not be used more than once within the
same genus. If names are given contrary to this rule, the later-
given names are invalid. Thus, the name Arbelci was given to a
genus of Rhynchota in 1865 and was again used for a. genus of
moths in 1879; the latter use was invalid, the name being
preoccupied.

• The following nolc on Ihc use ol scientific names in California is so a fiiopoi that I
have no hesitation in transcribing it here : —

" At first glance they may appear rather formidable to a majority of our readers, but
by embracing them at once, will obviate the necessity of associating a popular term, and
again later learning the scientific tenn for many of the intricate actions of insect species ;
it will also avoid confusion later on. As an e.\ainplc, when the South African hymen-
optcrous parasite, Sciitdlista ryanea, was first presented to the growers of this Stale a
cry arose immediately, suggesting that this species simply be called "scutes." This,
however, met with considerable objections from entomological sources, and the use of
iht entire name, Scutelliiia cyaiua, became general, and now the State Insectary is in
receipt of thousands of letters from various growers over the Stale, asking for colonics of
SiuuUUta cyaiiea. The same rule also applies to the names of our other beneficial
insects. It, therefore, shows that it is as easy for the average layman to embrace the
scientific term immediately, as it is some common phrase, which actually means nothing
and is only a source of confusion and trouble throughout later years."

If scientific names can be adopted so easily in the " Land of Hurry, ' where Lngliih
i> thi: common language, it should be still easier to introduce their use into India whtit
the Englub " popular " name is at much an alien as the Latin one.

i;hA1'. 11.) CLASSIl-RA riON AND_ NOMENCLATURE. 2$

A generic name is always written with a capital initial letter.
A specific name is always commenced with a small letter even
when it is derived from a proper name.

A name, to be accepted as valid, must be (l) published and (2)
defined. By publication it is meant that the public can purchase
copies of the description in a form other than manuscript and the
earliest date on which such matter is accessible is the tlate of publi-
cation. Definition must convey, by description or illustration or
both, information sufficient to enable the author's conception to be
recognised. A name published without description is therefore
invalid ; example, Plotfwin iicplwlotis was published as a name by
Lefroy in " Indian Insect Life " but no description has ever been
given and this name must therefore be disregarded as a nomcii
niiiliiiii (" bare name ").

A valid name, once published, is inviolable and may not be
changed even by the author except in the case of a printer's error,
for which there is evidence. An exception is made in the case of
adjectival specific names, whose terminations may be changed to
agree with the gender of the name of the genus in which the
species is placed.

The same name may be used for a species as is applied to the
genus in which such species is contained. Example: Cossus cossiis .
All confusion is avoided by the use of different initial letters in
each grade.

In writing names of animals we usually add the name (often
contracted) of the author of the specific name. Example : P/iyrita
inf II sella, Meyr.

Names of families are indicated by the suffix -«/«> and of sub-
families by -ncv. Such names are usually formed from the name of
the oldest {i.e. first published) genus included in them.

It is impossible to enter here into the ciuestion of "types," sub-
specific nomenclature and various other details, which are better
suitetl for discussion in technical publications. The desirability of
having a universally accepted and permanently stable system of
nomenclature is unanimously agreed upon by systematic and eco-
nomic workers alike and this result is only likely to be achieved
by the acceptance by economic entomologists of the results attained
by a rigid application of the rules of nomenclature. In this connec-
tion the words written by Spcncc in 1834 are no less applicable
today : " Knowledge as to the structure, habits and economy of
insects ought to be the grand and ultimate aim of entomologists;
but this knowledge can be neither acquired nor diffused without
systematic classification, which is the dictionary that must enable
U5 duly to read the great book of Nature, and to which therefore,

26 SOMK south INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. |CHAP. II.

so long as tliat dictionary still remains so intomiJletc-. I'vi-n the
largest portion of the entomologist's labours may be justly given,
while at the same time no fact, however trifling, relating to the
habits and economy of the objects of his study is suffered to be
lost, the two great branches of the science, system and the natural
history of insects (taken in its largest sense) being niadi' logo hand
in hand, and mutually to support each other."

CHA1-. 111. I METAMORPHOSIS. 2;

Chapter III.
MinA.MoRl'IIOSI.S.

" Tlicru is a ilillcteiicy Ijetiveea a jjruli and a Imtlerlly : yet your IjiiUerll) was a grub."

SlI.\KliSPliAKi;.

Insects, like most other animals, commence their existence in
the egg stage and before attaining the adult state undergo a series
of changes which are more exactly expressed by the term metamor-
phosis. In the more primitive and generalized forms, of which the
Fish Insect may be taken as a type, the amount of metamorphosis
undergone is comparatively slight, the newly-hatched insect
differing in little e.xcept size from the adult. In the case of a
grasshopper, the metamorphosis undergone is also slight, but the
ailult differs from the young in possessing wings, although some
grasshoppers are wingless even in the adult stage. In the more
specialized groups of insects, however, the changes between the
newly-hatchei.1 young and the adult insect are not only consider-
able but they are abruptly separated by a third stage, different from
that which precedes and follows it, in which the insect undergoes a
period of quiescent inactivity during which it is known as a
'■ pupa." Of this last group we may cite a butterfly as an example.
It may be noted as a general rule that insects with slight metamor-
phosis usually grow very slowly, whilst those with a pupal stage
often complete a generation in a very short period of time, and that
(speaking very generally and bearing in mind that all existing
insects are equally far removed in point of time from any common
ancestor, although, as pointed out above, the more specialized
insects may be so removed by a greater number of generations than
theunspecialized) insects with little metamorphosis are less special-
ized and approach closer on the whole to the more primitive types
of insects than do those with considerable metamorphosis.

The various orders of insects with much or little metanxorphosis-
are shown in the table on pages 20-21, but it may be useful to
compare here the lifehistory of a Butterfly and a Grasshopper, as
a type of each class.

28 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. III.

Butterfly Grasshopjjer

(Holometabolic.) I (Heterometabolic).

I. Egg stage common to both.

II. Lana, wingless, active, feeding ' II. Voung insect, wingless, act-
on different food from adult, ive, feeding on same food as
growing and moulting, when adult, growing and moulting,
fullgrown transforming to — when full-fed transforming,

III. Pupa, quiescent, not feeding or (without quiescent stage)

growing or moulting, from

... to

which emerges —

IV. Imago or adult butterfly, winged, HI. Adult insect, winged, active,

active, (usually) feeding on feeding on same food as

different food from lar^a, not stage II. not growing or

growing or moulting but repro- moulting but reproducing

ducing and (in the case of a and (in case of female)

female) laying eggs from which laying eggs,

the next generation commences.
Summary. — Four stages, each distinct Summary. — Three stages of which
from others. the second is compara-

tively little distinct from
the third.

Speaking generally — and only general statements can be made
when speaking of all the Orders of Insects as a whole — the
presence or absence of a quiescent pupal stage is a factor by which
all insects can be divided into two categories, sharply separated
from one another, and this division appears to be one of funda-
mental importance. It is, indeed, largely on this account that we
reject the " Nine-Order " system which unites such diversely meta-
morphosic insects under the heading of " Neuroptera " and inter-
polates the more specialized Orders between the less specialized.

The ovum or egg varies very greatly in size, shape, ornamenta-
tion, and method of deposition in the different groups of insects. In
its simplest and probably most primitive form it may be considered
as a spherical, colourless, transparent object consisting of a smooth
chitinous outer shell enclosing protoplasm which is at first homo-
geneous. At one point on the shell there is. as a rule, a microscopic
depression, called the micropyle or micropylar area, in which occur
minute canals leading into the interior of the egg by which the
spermatozoa obtain access to the interior in order to unite with the
female element for the purpose of fertilization. The micropylar

CHAl'. III.I METAMORl'HOSIS. 29

aica is usually considcrecl as the apex ot the egg, the opposite side
being the base, and the intervening portions being called the walls
or sides. It t'ollovvs from this that, in the case of an egg attached
to a surface, the attached portion is not necessarily the base. As
regards shape, eggs are rarely perfectly spherical but are usually
more or less flattened or produced in one or more directions. The
outer surface of the shell is sometimes most elaborately sculptured
or ornamented, sometimes merely covered with rough pittings or
elevations which may be arranged in roughly polygonal reticula-
tions, or may be quite smooth. The method of deposition is equally
variable; in some groups the eggs are laid singly, either scattered
at random or carefully deposited in, on or near suitable food for
the future hatchlings, in other groups the eggs may be laid in a
mass sometimes covered with down from the body of the parent or
with waterproof varnish or enclosed in a common shell or covering
which may exhibit most elaborate structure. Amongst the most
familiar of types of egg-masses found in India are those of various
Mantids which are so commonly seen attached to twigs, walls, etc.
The number of eggs deposited varies very greatly in different
insects from a dozen or less (some wasps, probably Hippoboscids)
to several hundred or, in some social insects (Honey Bees, Term-
ites), many thousands — perhaps over a million. The cmbryological
development of Insects cannot be discussed here and it must sufiHce
to say that the hatchling insect, when it has attained its full
embryonic "' growth, escapes from the egg, often by gnawing a
passage through the shell with its mandibles in the case of eggs
deposited singly, but some larvae have special organs for opening
the shell and others merely rupture it by their contortions.

The term "larva," though often applied to all insects in an
active ante-imaginal condition, is better restricteil to denote the
second stage of those insects which possess a true pupa, the word
" nymph " being used for the immature, active stages of those
insects in which metamorphosis is slight (grasshoppers, bugs, etc).
In popular language, in the case of butterflies and moths the larva
is often called a " caterpillar," in flies a " maggot," and in beetles
and wasps, etc., a " grub," but the term "larva " is more properly
used to denote a stage which is strictly homologous in all these
four Orders.

* The term "embryonic is iicrc used .is ajiplicd i.j tlic iiidividu.il in the inactive
egg-state only but the embryonic condition is not strictly completed until the insect has
assumed adult characters. Ante-natal conditions /« ofn are best studied in the case of
some of the lower moths (l'yralid.x', Tortricina and Tineina) in which the es;j;-shell is
often so trans|)aTent as to facilitate observation of living material,

30

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. III.

A typical hirva may be considered as long antl cylindrical,
somewhat flattened along the ventral surface, and composed of
about fifteen segments or rings between each of which the body is
more or less constricted transversely. The first segment is the head,
itself composed of four or more sub-segments fused together and not
ilistinguishable after hatching, and this is a more or less chitinous
(horny) oval case carrying the mouth with its appendages and (in
free-living forms) a small number of ocelli arranged in lunularform
on each cheek. The second, third and fourth segments (corre-
sponding to the pro-, nieso-, and meta-thoracic segments of the
adult insect) each carry a pair of more or less horny legs which
terminate each in a single claw. The fifth to fifteenth segments
(of which, however, two or more are usually fused together) corre-
spond to the abdomen or body of the adult insect and in free-living
forms may carry a variable number of pro-legs which are generally
present in the Lepidoptera (not more than five pairs), rarely present
in the Hymenoptera (Saw-flies, more than five pairs) and absent
in the other Orders. Breathing is provided for by a tracheal system
communicating with the open air by means of spiracles which are
small round openings found on each side of the second and fifth to
twelfth segments in lepidopterous larvae but in some larvae
(especially some of the dipterous larvje) the breathing system is
very greatly modified. Larvae living a concealed existence are
usually whitish in colour, occasionally reddish, those living an
active exposed existence are often highly procryptically coloured
or show vivid warning coloration. The larva, when full-fed, casts
its skin for the last time and changes into a pupa in which stage it
is inactive and motionless except for wriggling or occasional

jumping movements). In
the more generalized
groups of the Lepidoptera
and generally in the
Coleoptera and Hymenop-
tera the limbs of the
future perfect insect are
more or less separate,
each encased in its own
pupal sheath, but in the
more specialized groups
of the Lepidoptera and
in the Diptera the ap-
pendage sheaths are (so
to speak) soldered into the rigid, smooth, uniform pupal shell.
In all the holometabolic insects the cocoon-making instinct is

Fig. 15. — Pupa of Onicodes hcxadactyla,
a Lepidopterous Insect, showing ventral,
lateral, and dorsal aspects. (After Chapman.*

CHAP, lll.l METAMORPHOSIS. 3^

highly ck'vclopi'cl. tlu' I'ull-fi'd larva usually spinning a cocoon of
silk or of fragments of vegetable matter spun together with silk,
in the shelter of which it pupates and passes its pupal existence;
when the larva lives within a case or within a burrow, however,
a true cocoon is not formed as a rule and those larvae which
pupate in the soil generally dispense with a silken covering.
In the more highly-specialized groups of Lepidoptera the cocoon
is sometimes dispensed with, the pupa being left exposed and
tmsting to its procryptic coloration to elude discovery by ene-
mies; most of the butterflies, for example, have naked pupa;
which are suspended by the tail by peculiar cremastral hooks
(Nymphalid(c) or attached at the tail and girt by a loop around
the middle (Papilioiiuia, Picritite); in such cases there is often a
marked degree of individual colour adjustment to agree with
environment, and this power is also seen even in the case of
some cocoons.

Turning now to the heterometabolic groups, in which meta-
morphosis is slight, we find that the immature insect, on emergence
from the egg, leads an active existence and is (broadly speaking)
similar to the adult except as regards the absence of wings, and
these may be permanently absent or imperfect in some forms. In
these groups the immature insect generally consumes the same food
as the ailult. whereas in holometabolic insects the food of the larva
generally differs from that of the adult insect.

In all cases, whether larva or nymph, the function of the
immature active stage is to assimilate nourishment and to grow,
and this is often done at an astonishing rate. The immature insect
being encased in a more or less horny outer covering which is only
capable of expansion within limits, growth is usually accomplished
by throwing off this outer skin, such process being termed a moult
or ecdysis and the periods between moults being called stadia
(singular, stadium) or iiistars. The frequency of moulting differs in
different groups of insects and sometimes varies (as in some
grasshoppers) in the two sexes. Usually there are about five moults
but the number may be decreased in insects undergoing rapid
metamorphosis (e.g.. House-fly, with about three moults) or increased
in the case of insects whose immature condition is greatly prolonged
{eg., some Cicadido", with 25 — 30 moults - spread over a period of
fifteen years or longer). The process of moulting, which is not

• Observations on ihc number of niuulls in binglived Cicadas have been made in
America ami it has recently been stated that this number is not so large as had been
supposed. Riley's observations, however, were usually .accurate and may prove 10 be so
in this case of individuals or races and I therefore leave the above paragraph as originally
written. -T.B.K.

32 SOME SOITH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. III.

always accompanietl bj' a subsequent increase in size, is also
necessitated in order to get rid of the waste products of metabolism
induced by feeding and growth.

The appearance of the immature insect ofterr " alters very
considerably at each or any particular moult, especially in the case
of caterpillars, in which the changes of colour and more particularly
in the arrangement of the tubercles and primary hair's havo often,

Fig. 16. — Pupa of Etnnenes conica (1) newly turned, less than one day old,
and (2) the same a week later, showing development of petiole.

The earlier stage shows primitive relationship to ancestral thick-waisted wasps,
the development of the individual thus epitomizing that of the race. (Original.)

in the earlier stadia at least, a phylogenctic significance which is
of great importance in any natural system of classification. In a
few cases, especially amongst parasitic insects (Cantharid beetles,
Strepsiptera, etc.), we find more than three immature stages, due to
the development of more than one larval form ; this phenomenon is
called Hypermetamorphosis.

The time occupied by the metamorphosis of any particular
insect, that is to say, practically speaking, the life of a single genera-
tion, is very variable and may extend from a couple of weeks to
twenty years. An average period in Southern India is probably
about two months though many pests pass through a generation in
a month or less. Some insects may delay metamorphosic changes
until the advent of suitable climatic conditions and this may occur
in either of the passive (oval or pupal) stages. Thus the eggs may
retain their vitality until stimulated by an influence such as
moisture, as in the case of eggs of mosquitos of the genus Stcgoniyio
in which the eggs retain vitality for months in a desiccated con-
dition (such as normally occurs duringthe dry weather preceding the
monsoon in the localities— hollows in tree-trunks, etc. — in which
they are deposited), hatching out when exposed to humidity. This
is perhaps the case also with some grasshoppers. Or the eggs may
not hatch out all at once, but a few individuals of each batch may
emerge at intervals during a period of several months (as in the
case of Orgyia antiqiui) thus ensuring that some at least may meet

CHAP. 111.) METAMORPHOSIS. 33

with congenial conditions. Observations on abnormally extended
pupal periods have chiefly been made in the case of Lepidoptera
in which Order pupae from one batch of eggs, in the case of some
species at any rate, are known to eclose moths, some in the first
year after pupation and some in the second and subsequent years
up to the seventh or later. Such an irregular eclosion will give the
species concerned a better chance of survival by spreading the
descendants of one generation over several seasons, some of which
are likely to be favourable as regards climatic conditions or scarcity
of parasites, and will also tend to secure cross-fertilization between
different stocks.

Although, as already noted, insects are usually developed from
eggs deposited by the parent female, yet in most groups {e.g.,
Coleoptera. Lepidoptera, Diptera, Rhynchota) we meet with cases
of viviparity, that is to say, the female extrudes, not passive eggs,
but active living larva;. In the Pupiparous Diptera, of which the
common Dog-fly is a familiar example, the larva is retained and
nourished within the body of the female until it is full-grown, when
it is deposited and pupates immediately afterwards. Instead,
therefore, of the nutriment requisite to the growth and reproduction
of the individual fly being absorbed by the larva directly, it is the
adult fly only which feeds actively.

In the great majority of cases the eggs are simply laid by the
female which takes no further care of them, and as a rule she dies
shortly after having deposited them. Sometimes the dead body of
the mother remains by the eggs and forms the first meal eaten by
the newly-hatched larvas. Even in cases where special provision
is made for the young, as in the examples offered by the solitary
wasps which collect and lay up a store of spiders or caterpillars on
which or near which the eggs are laid, instinct rathei than intelli-
gent solicitude seems to be involved, for the cell is sealed and left
to its fate. In some cases, however, true instances of maternal
solicitude are known to occur and it is not uncommon, for example,
to find a mother-earwig watching (one might almost say brooding)
over her eggs; on one occasion at Yercaud, on turning over a log,
I found a pair of earwigs with a pile of eggs which, when they
were disturbed, the female carried away in her mouth into a safer
place, whilst the male sought safety in flight. In the Hills also old
rotten logs are commonly found to contain Passalid beetles which
occur in little colonies, larvje, pupae and adults often being found
together, and it has been shown that the adult beetles masticate
the wood with their jaws to render it fit for the food of the larvae
which are unable to feed by themselves on the unchewed wood.
Care for the young by the mother-insect is also well known to occur
3

34 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. 111.

amongst the Rhynchota, in which group the females of several
species of Pcntatomidas, Reduviidae and even of the Membracidas
have been noted to watch over their eggs and young. Amongst
the Orthoptera the Mole-crickets (Gryllotalpa) are known to exercise
maternal solicitude, taking particular care of their eggs and acting
as unceasing sentinels around the nest. No sjjecial care of the
eggs or young seems to be displayed by the Butterflies and Moths
(Lepidoptera) or the Flics (Diptera), although in the latter group we
meet with cases in which the eggs are hatched within the body of
the parent and the larvas nourished there until fully grown ; but
amongst a few Hymenoptera and Social Insects generally great
care of the young is often taken.

Fig. 17. — Maternal solicitude in Cantao ocellatus, a Pentatomid Bug whose
female broods over her eggs, which are generally laid on a leaf. It is inter-
esting to note that, in batches of eggs found under natural conditions, the
exterior eggs are almost always parasitized whilst those protected by the body
of the mother escape parasitic attack. (Original.!

A Tasmanian Sawfly * has been recorded as watching over the
spot where she has laid her eggs, which are deposited in an incision
between the two surfaces of a leaf of Eucalyptus, until the exclusion
of the young, " upon which, when hatched, she sits with outstretch-
ed legs, preserving them from the heat of the sun and protecting
them from the attacks of enemies, with admirable perseverance
. . . . until death terminates her own existence." Amongst
social insects (Bees, Wasps, Ants, Termites, etc.), the young are
usually fed by the adults, at first by the female parent and later
on, when the colony attains large dimensions, by members of a
"worker" caste. But these cases, except at the very commence-
ment of the foundation of a new colony, scarcely answer to the
term of maternal solicitude.

* Perga /nj'ijii Westwil.; See Tram. Kill. .9i)c.,I, p. 234 and Jrcaiia Etilomologica,
Vol, T, p.^2 .

CHAP. IV.]

MEANS OF DEFENCE IN INSECTS.

35

Chapter IV.
MRANS Ol- DI.l-I'iXCE IN INSECTS.

" Cct animal est tr6s mt.'chant,
Quand on 1' attaquc il se defend."

The means of defence adopted by insects against the attacks
of their enemies are very numerous and can only be touched on
here very lightly but, broadly speaking, they may be divided into
(l) passive and (2) active defence. In the first group we find pro-
tective resemblance and mimicry, etc., whilst warning coloration is
perhaps intermediate between the two groups, active means of
defence including the use of more or less poisonous bites or stings,
urticating hairs, the discharge of acrid, volatile or nauseous
licjuids, etc.

I'lG. IS. — Sathropliylliit ntfiosa, a long-horned grasshopper common on tree
trunks in Southern India. (Original.)

Protective resemblance is probably the most primitive and also
in modern times the most usual (and hence, we may add, the most
successful) method of defence practised by insects, and under this
term are included all cases in which insects resemble their surround-
ings or any object commonly found in those situations in which
they occur normally. Millions of years ago, when the Coal
Measures were being deposited in the Palaeozoic Epoch, the cock-
roaches of those ancient times had actjuired a type of neuration
strikingly similar to that found on the fronds of a fern (Ncuroptcris
fldontoptcroiih's) which was one of the plants from which the coal
was derived. In modern days the prevalence of protective resem-
blance is best (and perhaps only) appreciated by the eye trained
by field observation. On pointing out some protectively-coloured
animal in its natural surroundings, nothing is commoner than the
observation, "However can you see such things 1 I never see them ;"
3-A

36 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. IV.

when it is not the individual that is at fault but merely the want of
training in observation.

Protective resemblance may be (usually) general, in which case
the insect or other animal may e.xhibit in its shape or coloration or
in both the general pattern-effect produced by its normal surround-
ings, or it may be (more rarely) special, in which case the insect or
animal bears a close resemblance to some different object (living
or inanimate) found in its normal habitat. It would be tedious to
attempt to give any general list (even of insects) of examples in
each group. Those who are interested in the subject will find it
an easy matter to make observations of their own in their particular
field. There is no strict line of demarcation between the two
groups and some animals may belong to both ; thus, the common
Gre&n Whipsnake (Dryophis myctcrizaiis) may blend generally into
the general appearance of the green bush in which it is stretched
out or, if noticed in more detail, it may readily pass for a branch of
the square-stemmed jungle vine fVitis (/itaJrangiilarisJ. In passing
it may be noted that, to be successful, protective resemblance does
not necessarily connote inconspicuousness.

Fig. 19. — Perispluerut, a Cockroach which rolls itself up into a ball when threat,
ened with danger. (After British Museum Guide to the Insect Gallery.)

Some insects, when threatened by danger, simply roll them-
selves up into a ball, at the same time generally dropping to the
ground if not already on it. Such are many caterpillars, especially
some of the hairy ones in which the hairs radiate out " like quills
upon the fretful porcupine," serving the purpose of directly offens-
ive weapons and also readily slipping through the grasp of any
enemy attempting to pick up the caterpillar. Some cockroaches
of the genus Pcrisplicvria have also the power of rolling themselves
into a ball, when they greatly resemble a small Pill-millipede, the
two extremities of the body fitting closely together so that the head
and legs are completely hidden inside and protected.

From such examples it is but a step to cases in which insects,
on finding themselves discovered by enemies, simply drop to the

CHAP. IV. I MEANS OF DEFENCE IN INSECTS. 37

ground and lie motionless, thus escaping detection. Instances
might be quoted in almost all Orders but are most commonly seen
amongst Moths and Beetles. The Weevils especially are noted for
exhibiting the " death-feint," a name given to a special manner in
which the limbs are held rigidly contracted ; this is accomplished
by a voluntary stiffening of the muscles, as is shown by inducing
the " death-feint " repeatedly in one individual, when the periods
become shorter as the muscles become tired.

An observer will soon discover that many insects, in an appa-
rently deep state of quiescent rest on tree-trunks, etc., are yet
acutely conscious of discovery and will often escape, even when
they have not been disturbed, if observation is removed from them
for an instant. Other insects, on the contrary, are so sluggish that
they will permit themselves to be transfi.xed with a pin without
even moving.

Fig. 20. — The figure on the left is of Euincncs flavopicta, a longwaisted wasp
armed with a powerful sting, that on the right is of a stingless Syrphid Fly
(Ceria sp.) which mimics the wasp. Both insects occur contemporaneously
in the same localities in Southern India. (Original.)

The term " mimicry " is properly restricted to cases in which an
animal externally resembles another and biologically distinct kind
of animal. The resemblance may be extremely close and detailed
or it may be very rough and general ; it may occur in any stage ot
the lifehistory and may be produced by similar coloration, shape,
or action, or a combination of any or all of these, but the internal
and non-visible portions of the animal are never affected. The
animal whose external appearance is thus copied is called the
"model " and is generally distasteful to enemies in some waj% as
by the possession of a sting or poisonous bite or nauseous taste or
smell. The animal which copies the external appearance of the
possessor of such noxious qualities is called the " mimic." When
the mimic is palatable or defenceless the mimicry is called " Bate-
sian " mimicry ; but, in some cases, the mimic is equally distasteful
as its model, and such cases form what is called "MuHerian"
mimicry, both these cases (or theories) being called after the names
of the men who first clearly enunciated them.

38 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. IV.

Both these forms of mimicry arc foundcii on the fact that the
normal enemies (especially birds, lizards, and amphibians) learn
by actual experience which of their insect-prey are palatable or the
reverse. A young bird, which first commences to forage for itself
and catches (let us say) a white moth or a yellow-and-black wasp
and finds that it has a nauseous mouthful or that it has been badly
stung, will quickly learn to avoid insects which are pure-white or
black-and-yellow in colour. Armchair critics may deny this, but
no one who has lived for any time in the tropics and experimented
on the gastronomic educability of insectivorous animals is likely
to agree with them, and we may safely affirm that insectivorous
animals do leain by experience to avoid insects of certain (generally
conspicuous) types of coloration. Such common types are bold
mixtures of red and black, black and yellow, red and white, white and
(less commonly) other mixtures, of blue and yellow, etc. Generally
speaking, we may say that an insect which is conspicuous in its
normal environment is nauseous in taste and that such insects fall
into a very small number of types of " warning " coloration.

The result of this state of things is of equal benefit to the insec-
tivorous animal and the nauseous insect, the former having only to
learn a few common colour-combinations in order to know which to
avoid as food, the latter having only to sacrifice a small proportion
of its individual numbers in order to secure immunity after a short
period of sampling on the part of each individual enemy. For
example, if all wasps were coloured differently (some red and black,
some white and black, some green, some yellow, some green
and yellow, some blue and yellow, etc.), every insectivorous bird
would have to sample at least one individual of each difTerently
coloured kind of wasp and would have to remember which forms
were palatable and which were not ; whilst actually, most wasps
being coloured black and yellow, a very few tests on individuals so
coloured teaches the bird to avoid insects exhibiting those colours,
with equal benefit to the bird and the insects, as the former incurs
fewer unpleasant experiences and the latter avoid considerable loss
in individuals, collectively at least. For it must be remembered, as
a general rule, that an insect attacked usually connotes an insect
destroyed ; an unpalatable insect may be rejected after capture, but
often it is then in such an injured condition as to be practically
moribund.

From this it will be seen that the individuals of species forming
a Mullerian mimetic group are practically members of a mutual-
benefit association. If one individual each of species A and B
suffice to teach a young bird that their common type of coloration
is of a " warning " character, then other individuals of species,

CHAP. IV. 1 MEANS OF DEFENCE IN INSECTS. 39

C, D, E, etc., belonging to the same group, share in the benefit con-
ferred by future immunity from attack by that individual bird. In
the case of such a " Mulierian " association, therefore, there is no
'' model," strictly speaking; all the associates are "models," but,
on an average, the commonest (i.e., most numerous in individuals)
member of the group will pay the heaviest toll. In the case of
" Batesian " associations it is obvious that, for the mimicry to be
effective, (l) the model must outnumber the mimic in individuals,
and (2) both model and mimic must occur contemporaneously in the
same area ; if the mimic were not less numerous any enemies would
discover by experience (by the law of average) that insects of that
particular facies were palatable and such colours — which, we have
already stated, are ex hypotlicsi conspicuous — would invite attack
(and, incidentally, speedy extermination of the insect attacked)
instead of avoidance.

Insects which are distasteful are, we have just seen, often
brightly coloured, but not all the gaily-hued gems of a collection
of insects are necessarily distasteful. Many are indeed surprisingly
inconspicuous when seen in their natural surroundings, with which
their colours blend in complete harmony, and others secure safety
from enemies by their wariness, activity, or speed on the wing.
Many butterflies, which exhibit most beautiful markings on the
upper surface of the wings, are sombrely coloured beneath and
extremely inconspicuous when at rest with their wings closed
together over the back. Numerous insects, in almost all the larger
Orders at least, combine a conspicuous type of marking when on
the wing with a very inconspicuous appearance when at rest, such
insects usually making short sudden flights on disturbance, and
the sudden apparent vanishing of its prey in this way must often
secure such insects from successful attack by an enemy. Really
nauseously distasteful insects, on the other hand, are often conspi-
cuous and slow-moving as if to advertise their security from attack ;
the term " warning colours " is therefore well applied to such
combinations of colour-markings.

Some insects exhibit markings which tend to draw the attack
of an enemy to some non-vital portion, usually of the wings, the
insect itself thus escaping with slight damage. Amongst such
" directive " markings we may specify particularly the tails, eye-
spots, etc., on the hind-margin of the hindwings of many butter-
flies. In some of the Lycasnidae (e.g., Aphncvus and Virachola) the
inner corner of the hindwing is not only provided with tails and eye-
spots but is turned downwards at right angles to the rest of the wing
so that, in the resting position when the wings are appressed together
over the back, these little flaps of the wing simulate the anterior

40

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

I CHAP. IV.

extremity of the butterfly, the flaps themselves looking like a
head and the spots and long slender tails simulating eyes and
antennae; the anterior extremity (head, antennrs, etc.) is incon-
spicuously coloured and the apex of the abdomen does not extend as
far as the false head, so that an enemy such as a lizard, seeing the
butterfly at rest, in attacking the supposedly vital anterior
extremity, would obtain only a mouthful of hindwing, the butterfly
escaping without vital injury. A collection of butterflies made at
random, without regard to the "cabinet condition " of the speci-
mens caught, will soon convince any impartial observer that such
directive markings do actually exhibit signs of attack by enemies
(chiefly birds and lizards).

Fig. 21. — VirachoJa isocratcs, a Lycaenid Butterfly, in its restinR attitude
showing simulation of the head by the tails and eye-spots, which project
well clear of the body. The right-hand figure shows a view of the butterfly
at rest as seen from behind, showing the anal lobes and the manner in which
the tails are projected on opposite sides. (Original.)

Insects which exhibit "warning" coloration may acquire a
nauseous taste from feeding on plants which are poisonous to
vertebrate animals or from other causes. The rich colours of the
scales of some butterflies are known to be due to the deposition of
waste materials (of the nature of urates) of the excretory system and
it seems possible that in other cases, in which the insects feed on
non-poisonous plants, their nauseous qualities may be derived from
the retention and use in this way of waste products of the processes
of metabolism.

From warning colours and innate nauseous qualities it is but a
step to cases in which insects actually excrete substances which

CHAP. IV.| MEANS OF DEFENCE IN INSECTS. 4!

are disagreeable to their enemies. Many insects, in almost all
Orders, possess special glands from which they are able to
discharge a liquid which may be offensive tothe taste, smell, sight,
or touch of an aggressor. Tiie stink-glands of many bugs are well
known to most residents in India, whether by the characteristic
odour of the common Bed-bug or by the disgusting taste in one's
soup caused by a " gundy " which has been attracted by the lights
on the dinner-table. In such cases the glands are usually situated
on the lower surface of the thorax and some of the larger bugs are
able to project a thin stream of liquid with great accuracy for a
considerable distance. In Beetles the stink-glands are generally
situated in the anal e.xtremity of the abdomen and are particularly
developed in some groups such as the Carabid^, Gyrinidas, and
Staphylinidas. Some members of the former group, common in
India under stones, etc., have earned the name of "Bombardier
Beetles" because they discharge a stream of liquid which volati-
lizes instantly in the air as a brownish mist and with quite an
audible report; this liquid causes a momentary severe burning
sensation on the human skin and would doubtless disconcert an
enemy sufficiently for the beetle to make its escape. Many of the
minute insects which cause such discomfort when they fly into the
human eye are Staphylinid beetles, the smarting sensation being
due to the acrid liquid discharged by the beetle when it finds itself
in danger. Some Paussid and Carabid beetles discharge a litiuid
which has a strong smell of Iodine.

Many Ants discharge a strong solution of Formic Acid, which
of course derives its name from the Latin word formica, an ant.
The common Red Tree Ant (Q^cophylla smaragdina), contrary to
popular belief, does not sting but grips with its jaws and throws
out a fine jet of liquid from the tip of its abdomen. The caterpillar
of Centra vinnla has glands from which it can direct a fine stream
of Formic Acid solution, and this seems to be used chiefly to drive
off parasites which endeavour to oviposit in the larva. The curi-
ously swollen thoracic segments of the larva of Carea suhtilis also
contain a gland which is perhaps used in a similar way. The
caterpillars of the Swallow-tail Butterflies possess a curious
Y-shaped organ, called an osmatcriuin, situated on the anterior
margin of the prothoracic segment, in which it is ordinarily
concealed; when annoyed or attacked the caterpillar can evert
this organ which diffuses a strong, disagreeable odour, differing in
various species.

In the case of Termites the soldiers are usually provided with
glands in the head (sometimes extending into the abdomen), from
which they can pour out a thin liquid which hardens rapidly in the

4^ SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. |CHAP. IV.

air into a stici<y substance which appears to be highly obno.xious
to the tnie Ants which are the Termites' most relentless enemies.
In Eutcrmes, the head of the soldier Termite is provided with a long
frontal tube from which can be projected for a distance of two or
three inches a very fine jet of liquid which hardens into a thin
viscous thread immediately it touches the air.

In some cases the nauseous liquid oozes out from the glands in
such a way as to produce small bubbles, which probably secure a
larger surface for the evaporation and rapid diffusion of the smell.
Aularches amongst grasshoppers and Hctenisia amongst moths are
conspicuous examples of this mode of defence.

Occasionally the liquid discharged is so acrid as to blister the
external skin of a vertebrate enemy and the consequences of eating
an insect of this kind would doubtless be very serious. The best-
known insects of this class are the Blister-beetles, many of which
are extremely common in India and are conspicuously coloured red-
and-black, blue, green, yellow, etc. In these beetles the glands are
situated in the legs, the beetle when touched exuding a yellowish
oily liquid which is capable of raising a large blister on contact
with the tender human skin. Some of these beetles contain quite
a considerable percentage of Cantharidin.

The shape or structure of an insect may be such as to render it
distasteful and secure it from hostile attack. The thickly-chitinized,
almost armour-plated, integuments of some beetles and the
possession of sharp spines in many beetles, bugs, grass-hoppers,
etc., may be quoted as familiar examples. The two cases differ
somewhat as exhibiting defence against different classes of enemy,
since mere hardness (as of some weevils) would not avail against
an enemy, such as a bird, large enough to swallow the weevil
whole and grind it down in the gizzard or slowly dissolve its
interior by digestive fluids gaining access by the joints and other
apertures, whilst, on the other hand, such defences as sharp spines
would help to protect an insect against large enemies but not
necessarily against smaller ones.

Hairy caterpillars, in which the hairs possess more or less
irritant qualities, are sufficiently familiar in Southern India, where
the general terms "Kumbli-hula " or " Kumbli-puchi " are freely
and loosely applied to many very different kinds. In many of
such caterpillars the whole body is covered with long hairs which
are often rather loosely attached and barbed at the tip, so that they
readily pierce the skin and become detached or break off, leaving
the barbed tips which act as a mechanical irritant in the skin.
Such hairs may also enable the caterpillar to escape by slipping
out of the grasp of a captor or by keeping smaller insects (e-g., ants)

CHAP. IV. I

MEANS OF DEFENCE IN INSECTS.

43

at a safe distance from the viilncrablt." i)arts of the Ijody. In other
cases special groups of hairs may be modified into defensive
weapons — tussocks, spines, stinging hairs, etc. A brown caterpillar
(Taragaina shut) found commonly on bal)ul (Arm in arabica) is clothed
with short hairs and bears just behind tlie head two large patches
of short black iiairs which, wlicn aniiosrd. it brings into contacl

Fig. 22. — Lasiocampid larva < Taragaina siva) on trctniiik.
(From an oridnal pliotOKraph by C. Xar.^y.w a .\vvak.i

with the disturber by lashing about with the fore part of its boiiy,
the short hairs readily penetrating and becoming detached in the
human skin. This is a common method of defence in this family
(Lasiocampidcc) and the larval hairs are often woven into the cocoon
from which they project on end to form a veritable "cheveux-de-
frise." Sometimes, particularly in the shig-like caterpillars of the
Limacodidas, the hairs may be modified to form stinging organs
which can inflict very severe punishment on an aggressor.

The production of sound is another mode of defence in insects,
many of which stridulate when picked up. Some Cicadas, when
caught, will utter a piercing shriek very different in tone from

44

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. IV.

their ordinary song. The caterpillar of the Death's-head Moth
makes a clicking sound, as do some other caterpillars, while the
moth itself squeaks shrilly, at the same time depressing its wings
and exposing theyellow-barred abdomen. The female of Xylotnipes,
a large Dynastine beetle, when caught, emits a sudden, unexpected,
loud hiss very disconcerting to its captor. The angry chidings of
bees when their nest is approached too closely warn the intruder in

tones very differ-
ent from their
ordinary busy
hum, and at least
one species of
Termite (Termes
convulsioiiarius)
makes a con-
certed rhythmic
pattering when its

Fig. 23.— Section of Head of a Reduviid Bug (Harp- nest is opened.
actor sp.) showing Poison-gland. (After Berlesc.l

Some of the larger insects are able to defend themselves by the
use of their mouth-parts against the aggressor or by means of the
sharp spines with which their fore or hind legs are armed, and some
of the predaceous bugs, especially the larger water-bugs and
Reduviids, are able to inflict a painful poisoned bite by means of
the rostrum. It is, however, only in the Hymenoptera (Ants, Bees,
Wasps, etc.) that a true sting is found in the posterior extremity of
the abdomen of the perfect insect. In some of these insects the
sting is used as an offensive weapon in the capture of pre}', either as

food for the insect

^-/ flu.

Fig. 24. — Sting of Honry-bce. iOriginal.»

itself or for its pro-
geny, but as a rule
the sting is only
used as a means of
defence. It may
be noted that the
sting, when pre-
sent, is confined
to individuals of
the female sex,
the males even of
wasps and bees
being destitute of
a sting.

CHAP. IV.] MEANS OF DEFENCE IN INSECTS. 45

Some insects secure themselves from attack by constructing
shelters or little houses which they drag about with them, this being
probably a highly developed form of a primitive concealed mode
of living for defensive purposes. The Rice Case-worm (Nymphula
dcpiinctalis) and the common Bagworm (Claiiia cramcri) are familiar
instances. The larvaa of many of the Cassid beetles are provided

Fig. 23. — A Cassid lafva I Aspidomorpha sanctce-crucis), commonly

found on Sweet-potato, caiTving its excrement over its back.

Three times the natural size. (Original.*

with a long forked "tail " which they hold over the back and carry
on it their cast skins and excrement, so that the true nature of the
larva is often concealed. Several predaceous larvae {Clirysopa,
Enbkmma, etc.) place the empty skins of their victims on their backs
and thus achieve concealment at once from enemies and prey. For
it must be remembered that a structure, marking, etc., may play
more than one part in the economy of an animal, whether insect or
not, and that a predaceous animal which is protected from its
enemies by its procryptic coloration is equally equipped for
approaching its prey. Colours which are bright and "warning"
to foes may be alluring to prey and also attractive to the opposite
sex.

Luminosity in insects may be briefly considered here as it is at
times a means of defence although probably more often of use for
sexual attraction. The best known examples of luminous insects
in India are the numerous species of glow-worms, usually errone-
ously called " Fireflies " although the true Fireflies, belonging to the
family Elatcridic, do not occur in India. In glow-worms the lumi-
nous organs are usually placed beneath the posterior segments of
the body. In many species only the male is winged, the female
being wingless and grub-like, both this sex and the larva having
luminous organs. The luminosity is entirely voluntary and is often
rhythmic, large numbers of individuals emitting a momentary flash
with one accord. The efficiency of the light emitted by these little

4

6 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. IV.

beetles is remarkably high, being estimated at practically lOO per
cent, of the energy used, there being almost no heat-rays or actinic
rays, whilst the light-value of the electric arc is only about ten per
cent, of the energy used and that of the sun only about thirty-five
per cent. Several other beetles besides the Lampyrid(e are known
to be luminous, at least occasionally, and undoubtedly many more
Indian insects will be found to be capable of emitting light.
Amongst those insects in which this phenomenon has hitherto
been noted, mostly outside of India, are various beetles (Carabidcr,
PaussiiUc- Slcipliylinid(c, Tcncbrioiiida, Elatcridir, Ccrainbycidee, Bup-
rcstidcr, etc.i, Ephemeridae, larvae of Lcpidoptera and Diptera, and
CoUembola. but some of these are perhaps luminous as the result of
disease, the luminosity being due to the activity of bacteria and
not to the presence of true photogenic organs. The intermittent
flash of a flying glow-worm is perhaps a means of defence by
puzzling an enemy as to its whereabouts. There is also some evi-
dence that Lampyrid beetles are distasteful to nocturnal insectivo-
rous birds and bats, so that the light is perhaps a " warning "
signal.

CHAP, v.] COMMUNICATION AMONGST INSECTS. 47

Chapter V.
COMMUNICATIOX .\MONGST INSECTS.

" Hast thou heard ihe bullcrlUos, •' Happy the Cicadas' lives,

What they say betwixt their wings ? " lor ihey all have voiceless wives."

Tennvson — Add inc. Xcnarcliiis.

The simplest form of communication amongst insects is by the
production of sounds which may or may not be audible to human
cars but, except in the ease of social insects, communication is
usually restricted to methods by which the sexes are brought
together or rendered attractive to one another. The himi caused
by the vibration of the wings or otherwise during flight, as in the
case of a Hawkmoth hovering before a flower, can scarcely be
considered as communication, similar sounds being produced by
other rapidly-vibrating bodies such as a spinning top or wheel.

The shrill piping of Mosquitos and Midges and the chirping
song of male Crickets and Cicadas are familiar instances of sounds
produced by one sex in order to attract or charm the other. The
song of Cicadas, though often distressingly discordant to our
senses, is doubtless sufficiently pleasing to their voiceless females
and is astonishingly different from the shrill shriek of alarm emitted
by the insect when captured.

Several of the long-horned green grasshoppers, commonly found
on plants and often attracted to light in the evenings, utter a very
shrill chirping and are further remarkable as possessing well-
developed auditory organs which may readily be seen on examina-
tion of their fore-legs. A similarly situated auditory organ is
found in many crickets and mole-crickets. In other insects the
auditory organs may occur on the antennas, abdomen or elsewhere.
The note of the hum of the female mosquito, for instance, causes
certain of the hairs of the antenna of the male to vibrate sympatheti-
cally so that, by turning his head until both antennce are affected
equally, it is probable that the flight of the male is directed to the
female with considerable accuracy.

It is impossible to enter here into the mechanism of the stridula-
tory organs of insects, i.e., of the organs which produce "song,"
as these vary so greatly in different species. Usually the sounds
are made by the vibration of a membrane or the scraping of one
part over another, the latter generally being ridged. Stridulation
is not confined to grasshoppers or even to large insects ; some

^8 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. ICHAK V.

small water-bugs (Microvelia), scarcely visible to the naked eye as
they run along the surface of the water-film, are able to stridulate
so loudly as to be audible from a distance of several yards. The
caterpillar of the Death's-head Moth makes a clicking sound
when annoyed and the moth itself produces a shrill squeak not
unlike that of a bat ; but these are defensive sounds rather than
communicative.

f

Fig. 26. — Hindwing of male Nyctipao hieroglyphica, showing gland
opened ; /. is the frenulum. (Original.)

Several moths and a few butterflies are known to stridulate on
the wing and such stridulation is doubtless sexual as a rule. As
an instance we may quote the case of Nyctipao hieroglyphica, Drury,
a large black Noctuid moth which is well known, especially in some
of the Hill-districts of Southern India, from its habit of flying along
paths at dusk and producing a loud clicking sound which is often
especially disconcerting to horses because the moths seem to be
attracted by moving objects and therefore often fly around the
heads of horses which may be frightened by the clicking of the
moths. The fact that this moth stridulates has been noted before
but I am not aware that the mechanism of its stritlulatory organs
has been examined. In the first place we may note that it is only
the male moth which makes a noise and that this is a distinct, loud,
sharp click, such as might be produced by running a stout pin or
quill slowly but firmly across the teeth of a comb. On examining
the moth, a glandular patch covered with long flocculent hair is to
be seen on the upperside of the fore-margin of the hindwing, near
the base of the wing, and this appears to be part of the stridulating
organ ; it is hollowed and convex on the lower surface of the wing
and opens like a purse (being hinged along the fore edge of the
wing) and perhaps serves as a sort of sounding-board to increase
the noise, which is apparently produced by the tip of the frenulum
(the long horny bristle at the base of the foremargin of the hind-
wing which locks the wings together in flight): this tip passes
through the retinaculum (the loop on underside which holds it in
position) and either rubs over the outer surface of the pocket or,
more probably, catches its hinder edge and pulls it open with each

CHAP, v.] COMMUNICATION AMONGST INSECTS. 49

flap of the wing, thus at once making the noise and exiKjsing the
flocciilent yellow androconial hairs which line the interior of the
pocket and which doubtless emit a smell attractive to the female.
It will be seen from figure 26 thai tlic ncurational structure of the
wing is extraordinarily distorteil, but in the female, in which se.x
the glandular pocket is absent, the neuration (system of wing-veins)
is norma!.

In the foregoing case the female may be atlractcil tu the male
by sound or by smell and this instance therefore leads us to cases
in which one sex is attracted by scents emitted by the other.
Numerous instances of this attraction might be c|uoted especially
in the case of moths in which the males may be attracted from dis-
tances of several miles in search of a female ; in such cases the
female is usually sluggish (often wingless)and the males have highly
pectinated (comb-like) antennje by which they perceive the scent
emitted by the female; this principle is taken advantage of by
entomologists who expose a virgin female in a small cage and
capture the males as they " assemble." In many butterflies,
especially the Pierids ("Whites ") and their allies, the males have
on their wings specially modified scales, called '" androconia," from
which they emit a pleasant perfume which is (|uite perceptible in
living or fresh specimens and which is undoubtedly attractive to
the female.

Attraction of the sexes by sight is very commonly met with and
has produced the evolution of many of the strikingly handsome
colours exhibited by the males of sexually-dimorphic insects,
spiders, lizards, birds, etc., already rendered familiar in innumer-
able publications. A very striking case amongst insects is,
however, afforded by certain glow-worms in which the wingless
female alone is luminous and gives out a beam of light by which
the non-luminous winged male is attracted to her. whereupon the
light is obscured.

As may be expected, it is amongst social insects that we lind
that means of communication have attained their maximum effici-
ency and in such cases the methods employed are perhai)s more
truly communicative than merely sexually attractive as in the
foregoing instances. There are few truly social beetles but the
Passalids may fairly be included in this category. These are large
black beetles found commonly in the hills in rotting wood in which
they occur in small family parties usually consisting of immature
and adult forms ; the larvje have the first pair of legs modified into
stridulating organs and the beetles themselves also are able to
stridulate. When such a family party is dislodged from a rotten
4

50 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. V.

log and its members scattered, they stridulate and collect together
again by means of the communication thus established.

No one who has ever watched Termites or opened a termitarium
can have failed to observe the curious vibratory movements of their
bodies which evidently serve as a means of communication. By
placing living specimens on a sheet of paper or tabic the sounds
produced by these vibrations become readily audible. One large
Termite found fairly commonly in the red-earth Plains of Southern
India is especially noteworthy in this respect and has earned its
name of Termes coiivulsioiuirius from this habit ; when a nest is
opened up, the noise produced by hundreds of these Termites
vibrating in unison is clearly audible from some little distance as a
rhythmic pattering or rustling and probably serves at once to
intimidate the disturber and to sound a warning throughout the
nest. There is no doubt whatever but that these vibratory move-
ments have different and well-understood meanings and serve the
purpose of speech.

It is, however, amongst the Ants, well named as the most highly
developed of all insects, that communication is best established.
'I'he way in which foraging ant-scouts communicate knowledge of
the presence of food may be seen daily in every bungalow in India.
Belt, in his "Naturalist in Nicaragua," gives several instances of
what may even be called intelligent communication amongst ants,
from which the following may be quoted : — " One day when watch-
ing a small column of these ants [Ecitoii liainuta\ I placetl a little
stone on one of the ants to secure it. The next that approached,
as soon as it discovered the situation of the prisoner, ran back-
wards in an agitated manner, and communicated the intelligence
to the others. They rushed to the rescue, some bit at the stone
and tried to move it, others seized the captive by the legs, and tugged
with such force that I thought the legs would be pulled off, but they
jjersevered until they freed it. I next covered one up with a piece of
clay, leaving only the ends of its antennae projecting. It was soon
discovered by its fellows, which set to work immediat'.ly, and by
biting off pieces of the clay, soon liberated it. Another time I found
a very few of them passing along at intervals. I confined one of
these under a piece of clay, at a little distance from the line, with his
head projecting. Several ants passed it, but at last one discovered
it and tried to pull it out, but could not. It immediately set off at
a great rate, and I thought it had deserted its comrade, but it had
only gone for assistance, for in a short time about a dozen ants
came hurrying up. evidently fully informed of the circumstances
of the case, for they made ilirectly for their imprisoned comrade
and soon set him free. I do not see how this action could be

("H.\r. V.| COMMUNICATKJ.N AMONGST INSECTS. 5r

instinctive. It was sympathetic help, such as man only among the
higher mammalia shows. The excitement and ardour with which
they carried on their unflagging exertions for the rescue of their
comrade coukl not have been greater if they had been huuKin
beings, and this to meet a ilanger that can only be of the rarest
occurrence." . . . " 1 shall relate two more instances of the use of a
reasoning faculty in these ants. I once saw a wide column trying
to pass along a crumbling, nearly perpendicular, slope. They would
have got very slowly over it, antl many of them would have fallen,
but a number having secured their hold, and reaching to each
other, remained stationary, ami over them the main column passed.
Another time they were passing a water-course along a small
branch, not thicker than a goose-ciuill. They widened this
natural bridge to three times its width by a number of ants cling-
ing to it and to each other on each side, over which the column
passed three or four deep. Except for this expedient they would
have had to pass over in single file, and treble the time would
have been consumed. Can it not be contended that such insects
are able to determine by reasoning powers which is the best way
of doing a thing, and that their actions are guided by thought and
reflection ? This view is much strengthened by the fact that the
cerebral ganglia in ants are more developed than in any other
insect, and that in all the Hymenoptera, at the head of which they
stand, they are many times larger than in the less intelligent
orders, such as beetles." And on another occasion Belt states that
he found a colony of these ants shifting from an old to a new nest
to which they were carrying their stores of food. " Between the
old burrows and the new one was a steep slope. Instead of descend-
ing this with their burdens, they cast them down on the top of the
slope, whence they rolled down to the bottom, where another relay
of labourers picked them up and carried them to the new burrow.
It was amusing to watch tin- ants hurrying out with l)undles of
food, dropping them over the slope, and rushing back immediately
for more." And again, " I shall conclude this long account of the
leaf-cutting ants with an instance of their reasoning powers. A
nest was made near one of our tramways, and to get to the trees
the ants had to cross the rails, over which the waggons were
continually passing and repassing. Every time they came along
a number of ants were crushed to death. They persevered in cross-
ing for several days, but at last set to work and tunnelled under-
neath each rail. One day, when the waggons were not running,
I stopped up the tunnels with stones ; but although great numbers
carrying leaves were thus cut off from the nest, they would not
cross the rails, but set to work making fresh tunnels underneath
4-»

52 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. ICH.\P. V.

them. Apparently an order had gone forth, or a general under-
standing been come to, that the rails were not to be crossed."

It is difficult to resist conceding a certain degree of reasoning
faculties to animals displaying such intelligent methods of dealing
with quite extraordinary circumstances, and such cases may
perhaps be taken as bridging to some extent any ga|) existing
between reason and instinct. The subject cannot be discussed
more fully here but is certain that the majority of even the most
complex of the actions of insects are regulated by instinct and that
cases of reasoning are very rare and confined solely to the most
highly-organized of the Social Insects.

CHAP. VI. I IROPISMS. 53

Chapter VI.
1' l< () P 1 .S .M .S.

" The w..i(l ifipism m^■.1n^ the tcnik'ncy tn react in a delinite manner towards

exleinal stimuli." ,,, „ r- i , ■

\V ILLKY — Cotivcrgciice iii kvoliitioii.

In the last chapter it was seen that the actions of insects are
only controlleci by intelligent reasoning in very rare cases, if at all.
In practically all cases their actions under any given conditions are
rigidly guided by what are known as tropisiiis. Here it may be
useful to give a few definitions. A habit may be defined as the
behaviour of an organism under natural conditions, a reaction as
its behaviour in the laboratory or under more or less natural condi-
tions of observation in the open. A tropism is its reaction or res-
ponse to a definite external stimulus. For example, an organism
may be attracted by light, in which case it is said to be positively
phototropic {i.e., turning towards light) ; or it may be repelled by
light, in which case it is said to be negatively phototropic ; or light
may not affect it at all, in which case it is said to be passively
phototropic. All these tropisms are to be observed in eveiy
organism, either positively or negatively or passively, and often, at
tliffcrent times, both positively and negatively in the same
individual.

Tropic responses have been divided into the following classes: —

(1) Phototropism or response to stimulus of Light.

(2) Heliotropism „ „ Sunlight.

(3) Chemotropism „ „ Chemicals.

(4) Thermotropism „ „ Temperature.

(5) Thigmotropism ,, „ Contact with

solids.

(6) Geotropism „ „ Gravity.

(7) Rheotropism „ „ Water currents.

(8) Hydrotropism „ „ Water and

moisture.

(9) Anemotropism „ ., Air currents.
These are shown grapically in figure 27, but it may be remarked

that the territories of the stimuli may sometimes overlap, and that
a different grouping of these tropisms may be expected as our
knowleilge increases.

Phototropism, sometimes known also as phototaxis, covers all
responses due to the stimulus of Light, but it is perhaps better to
restrict the term to cases in which direct sunlight is not employed

54

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSKCTS. ETC.

ICHAP. \'l.

CMtMOTHO

MFulOTRorUM

/♦v

\

\j

A«EnoTRi>7iS'-1

r—

tmehmotrofism.

•,' Contict wit S,l,/t J

4 c»...r, ;

RMeoTRoPiSM

.f w.r„ . Cv»r..r. 1

Fig. 27. — Diagram showing Tropic Reactions. tOriginal.)

as helioiropic reactions are not necessarily the same as phototropic
and the two may indeed be opposed to one another. A motli which
hides away from daylight (negatively heliotropic) is strongly at-
tracted by artificial light at night, and that this positive phototro-
pism is not entirely due to the fact that it only occurs during
the insect's normal hours of activity is shown by the fact that this
reaction is exhibited most strongly on dark nights. It is a fact of
common observation that very few insects fly in to light on bright
moonlight nights. The use of light-traps to capture insects antl
control crop-pests is a practical application of this reaction, as is
also the capture of fish at night by the aid of torches. The Bedbug
may be cited as an e.xample of an insect exhibiting strong negative
phototropic tendencies.

Heliotropism has been studied especially in the case of many
butterflies which may be observed to settle and then carefully to
orient themselves to the sun's rays so that they may obtain in some
cases a maximum of heat-rays on their wings or in other cases so
that a minimum amount of shadow may be thrown by the wings.
Animals which are positively heliotropic have been called phane-
rozoic, and those which avoid the light of day cryptozoic.

Chemotropism, it must be admitted, is a vague and elastic term
covering responses to such stimuli as those of smell equally with

C:HAI'. VI. I TROPISMS. 55

those imlucLHl. tor (.•xaniplo, by IIk- solution of cliL-micals in tlu-
environment of aciuatic organisms. The nuich-laucled " wonderful
instinct " which impels a female insect to lay her eggs on the
particular plant or substance suitable for the food of the larvje is
as a rule merely a mechanical response to definite chemical stimuli
e-xcrted by the appropriate larval food. It has been shown, for
example, that a blowfly will readily lay its eggs or maggots on
meat, on which the larvje normally feed, but that it will not lay its
eggs on fat, upon which the larvae could not feed. This is not a
case of instinct or intelligence but is simply due to the fact that
certain chemical stimuli from meat cause the blowfly to lay its eggs.
In fat these stimuli are lacking but can be produced artificially, when
the fly will lay its eggs although the larvje cannot feed on the fat.

Chemotropism will undoubtedly in the future be put to practical
use in economic entomology to a very large extent. Its practical
applications at present include the attraction of moths by assem-
bling anil by the use of baits such as sugar either painted on trees,
etc., or used in combination with a special trap, and the attraction
of some fruit-flies by the use of oils. In these latter cases, tins
containing water with a little oil (kerosine, citronella, etc.,) are
exposed in localities in which fruit-flies occur and the male flies
are attracted by the smell of the oil (which doubtless exercises the
same tropic reaction as the odour emitted from the scent-glands of
the female of that particular fly) and are drowned in the tins.

Thermotropism, or response to the stimulus of temperature, is
perhaps in some cases scarcely distinct from Chemotropism.
Hibernation and /Estivation (the passing of the cold and hot
seasons in an inactive condition) are probably controlled directly
by thermotropic responses.

Thigmotropism, or response to the stimulus of contact with solids,
is generally not a very evident phenomenon. Its positive aspects
are strongly exhibited by many spermatozoa, such as those of the
cockroach ; if these be examinetl in a cavity-slip under the micro-
scope, they will be found to be adherent only to the sides of the
cavity or the coverglass and not free in the cavity ; when brought
into contact with an egg, they adhere strongly to its surface over
which they wander until one reaches and enters the micropyle, thus
securing fertilisation. Some insects which are found beneath bark
are positively thigmotropic.

Geotropism, or response to the stimulus of gravity, is exhibited
by many caterpillars both positively and negatively at different
times. Whilst feeding they are usually negatively geotropic,
crawling upwards on any vertical object should they fall off the
food-plant, but when full-fed and about to pupate in many

$6 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. |CH.\P. VI.

caterpillars thf geotropic reaction becomes positive and they crawl
down from the tree or plant to enter the soil. Ladybirds offer a
familiar example of a negatively geotropic tendency as they always
tend to crawl upwards and in a natural state this is of practical use
to them because they crawl up to the tips of the twigs of plants
and, if Aphids are present, they stop to feed but, if there are no
Aphids, they fly off to search another twig.

Rheotropism, or response to the stimulus of water-currents, is
exhibited by many aquatic insects and other animals such as fish.
On streams in the hills various Gerrids may usually be seen
maintaining their position against the current and on the look-out
for any small insects which may have fallen into the water.

Hydrotropism is exhibited strongly by many aquatic insects ; if
these are caught and liberateil, even many yards away from the
edge of a pond, they make straight for the water without any
hesitation. The preference for a dry or a damp habitat is very
distinctly shown by many insects and other animals and may
sometimes be turned to practical account, as by the flooding of
fields to tlislodge crickets, etc.

Anemotropism, or the response to the stimulus of air currents,
is closely akin to rheotropism and in both cases it is usually found
that insects tend to orient themselves against the prevalent current.
The large migration-flights of butterflies just before the break of
the monsoon are familiar sights in many localities, the air being
sometimes thick with thousands of butterflies all hurrying impetu-
ously in one direction. The fact that these migration-flights
generally take place in India about May and November seems to
point to the possibility of their being due toanemotropic tendencies
on the part of the butterflies concerned. According to my own
observations these flights are almost always against the wind.

Having considered these various tropic reactions it may
be well to add a few words regarding their practical importance-
In the first place it must be clearly understood that these
tropisms are purely mechanical reactions to physical or chemical
stimuli and that these reactions are set up and must necessarily
and involuntarily be carried out by the organism concerned
regardless of its own benefit or injury thereby. A moth immolates
itself in a lighted lamp, not because it likes the light nor on account
of curiosity; the light probably has a definite chemical reaction on
its muscles so that its head is perforce drawn (by the contraction of
the muscles) until it is oriented towards the light after which its
movements in flying can only lead it to the source of light. Thus
the rapidly-moving insect gets into the flame before the heat has
time to check it in its flight. If one eye is covered with an opaque

CHAP. VI. I TROPISMS. 57

paint, the insect flios or rreeps in circlos. with the iinaftVcti-d eye
always turned towards the centre.

It cannot be too strongly emphasized that, given the reciuisite
conditions, these tropic reactions are bound to tai<e place ; they are
absolutely independent of volition anil many of them can be
reproduced with purely mineral or unorganized material, being
brought about by ordinary chemical anil physical forces. It follows,
therefore, that the fuller investigation of these tropisnis forms a very
promising field for research work in connection with the control of
insect-pests ; for, if we can find methods by which any particular
insect may be attracted in obedience to a tropic reaction, we shall
be in possession of a very powerful weapon for its control. Such
attraction is usually strongly specific and often confineil only to
one se.\ of a particular species, both these coniiitions being instanced
in the attraction of fruit flies to essential oils ; here it is only the
males which are attracted and, generally speaking, each species is
attracted by a different oil. In this case the attraction is of little
practical use as only the males are caught and these have generally
fertilised the females before capture so that little actual control is
achieved. But in other cases, notably in that of Agrotis ypsiloii,
greater success has been attained and that on a practical field-
scale whereby thousands of acres of crops have been saved which
in previous years had been damaged by the caterpillars of this
moth. It has been found, in this case, that the female moths
require to feed in order to develop their eggs successfully before
these are laid and that during this period, which lasts a week or
ten days, the females may be attracted by exposing a mixture of:

U'ater ... ... ... 200 parts by weight.

Sugar or jagger)' ... ... 400

Alcohol ... ... ... 3 .,

Ethyl acetate ... 3 ,,

Trials of this mixture with the closely-allied Eiixoti sr^etis in
Southern India, however, have been unsuccessful, so that this
mixture also appears to be strongly specific.

The use of light-traps for the capture of crop-pests has already
been mentioned as an obvious instance of the practical application
of a tropic reaction. But here again we require more exact experi-
ments to ascertain what species of insects are attracted and in
what proportions, both of the total number of individuals in a given
area and of the relative proportions of the sexes, and (for each
insect) the optimum meteorological conditions under which light-
traps may be used, and the relative efficiency of different values of
light both as regards strength and colour.

58 SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. |CHAP. VI.

It will, therefore, be seen that, liDWcver. theoretical such a subjeit
as Tropisms may seem at first, it is one that is likely to prove of
great practical importance in Economic Entomology in the future
when e.xtended and patient experiments shall have yielded methods
applicable to the control of insect-pests on a large scale.

CHAl'. \ll.] INSECTS AND PLANTS. 59

Chapter VII.
INSI-CTS AM) IM.AXrS.

" No other animals suslain such iiuimale ami cuiuplcx rclaMons to plants as insects do.
The more luMirianl and varied the Mora, (he more aliiindant and diversified its accompany-
ing insect fauna. "

Foi.sOM — EittoiiioUiiiy

INSECTS, in common with all other animals, derive their living
ultimately from plants, cither by feeding directly on green leaves,
living or dead wood, etc., or by devouring other animals which sO
feed or which in their turn have derived their nourishment directly
or indirectly from plant-eating organisms. But lusifics this more
obvious relationship between insects and iilants, iliere are other
associations between the two groups which may be considered
here briefly ; such are insectivorous plants, the fertilisation of
flowers by insects, and symbiotic relations hi'twi-eii plants and
insects.

Although most insects live at the ultimate expense of plants, yet
on the contrary some plants capture insects, usually by means of a
sticky excretion, and actually digest them. An e.xample commonly
found in the hills of Southern India is the little red sundew (Droscrd)
which grows commonly in marshy places and whose gum-tipped
tentacles situated on the upper surface of the leavesglisten in the sun
and give the plant its appropriate popular name; examination of
these plants will usually reveal small flies, ants and Jassids adhering
to the gummy tentacles which bend over and absorb their juices. In
the Plains also small insects are often found attached to the sticky
fruits of a Bocrlunna common in sandy places and it is probable
th.it this sticky exudation also exercises digestive iiropcrties. Tiu-
well-known Pitcher-plant (Ncpciilhcs) also attracts insects which
are drowned in the water contained in it and their soft parts dissol-
ved and digested. It is noteworthy, however, that the tables are
often turned and that even insect-eating plants are not exempt from
attack or use by insects ; one little caterpillar lives solely on sundew

6o SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. ICHAI". VII.

si'cming to prefer the droiis of gum cxuclrcl l)>- thr IfiUaclcs, anolhcr
allied caterpillar attacks the Bocrlhivin, feeding especially on the
droplet of gum, and the receptacle of the Pitcher-plant supports
tiuite a small fauna of ac|uatic insects.

The successful fertilisation of flowers is secured in very various
ways, but as a rule plants have developed contrivances by which
fertilisation of the ovaries is accomplished by means of pollen deri-
ved from another plant of the same species or, in other words, cross-
fertilisation is secured as far as possible. In some cases this end
is attained by means of the wind which carries innumerable grains
of pollen of which some few are blown indiscriminately onto the
female organs of the same or another plant. But, in the case of
practically all our more familar flowers, cross-fertilisation is secured
by utilizing the services of insects and it is supposed, generally
speaking, that the shapes, colours and perfumes of fiowers have been
elaborated to their present perfection largely as a result of the com-
petition between them to attract the visits of insects. As is usually
the case, competition and specialisation have proceeded hand in
hand and, whilst some flowers have elaborated gaudy colours to
attract insects by sight, others have specialized in the development
of perfume to tempt the sense of smell of their welcome visitors ;
and it is for this reason that we find so many handsome flowers
without perfume and so many flowers which smell sweetly but are
otherwise inconspicuous. And specialisation has proceeded further
than in the mere development of general attractiveness by parti-
cular methods, for many flowers have specialized in the attraction
of certain particular classes of insects; of such cases that ot the
Humble-bee and Clover is a familiar instance. And most observers
will have noticed that those flowers which exude their perfume
towards nightfall usually have white petals which are conspicuous
at dusk, at which time such flowers are visited by Hawk-moths and
similar insects which only fly after sunset.

On the other hand many insects are highly specialized by
possessing habits or structural modifications which enable them to
obtain the nectar offered by the flowers which at the same time
they pollinate unconsciously but in the most effective manner.
The development of an especially long tongue, such as is found
in the Honey-bees and Hawk-moths, may be cited as an example
of this, many crepuscular Hawk-moths having a tongue which is
much longer than their whole botlies.

In normal cases the insect, whilst taking the nectar from a
flower, touches the anthers and carries away pollen-grains which
it brings into contact with the stigma of the next flower visited.

CHAP. VII. 1

INSECTS AND PLANTS.

61

^=^:'

Fig. 28. — Hawk-moth iHcrsc coiivolviili) feeding at flower, showing length

of tongue when extended (natural size'. The side view of the head

shows the tongne as rolled up when not in nse. (Original.)

thus securing cross-pollination, the structural arrangement of the
flower being such that pollen from the last-visited flower is brought
to the stigma in each case, thereby ensuring cross-fertilisation.

62 SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CII.M'. VII.

It is impossible to attempt to narrate here the various adapta-
tions in both insects and plants by which cross-fertilisation is
secured l)ut we may note in passing the curious fly-trap formed by

Fio. 20. — Section of .Vristolochia. a flower whicli attracts flies. These are able
lo enter but not to escape owing to the inwardly directed hairs of the
perianth tube. After the anthers have dehisced, these hairs shrivel and
permit the flies to escape. I After Knuth.t

Aristolocliiii. into which small flies are attracted and imprisoned
until the pollen is ripe when they are again released, and the
methods by which the pollinia of Asclcpiads and Orchids are

l.-,C_ JO. Head of Sphingid Moth with two I'ollinia attached to the left eye.

(Original.)

attached to the legs or heads of insect visitors thereby ensuring a
dispersal of pollen to the plants visited afterwards. There is a
vast and almost untrodden field in India for anyone who will take
up the study of the pollination of flowers by different animals
(insects, birds, bats, etc.). In various tropical regions, notably in
South America, there are found plants which are inhabited by
ants to whose use they are perhaps specially modified. These
plants have usually hollow thorns or internodes, admirably atlapted
as nesting-places for ants which bore into them, sometimes through
a specially thin portion of the outer surface, and live in the spaces
thus provided. In some cases the plants provide not only shelter
for the ants but also secrete from special glands a sugary fluid

CHAP. VII.

INSECTS .\ND PL.^NTS.

^3

which sorvi-s tho iints as tooil. Thf ants, wliiih arc usually small
l)ul provided with a virulent sting, swarm out and attack any
animal which hamllcs the tree roughly and also the leaf-cutting
ants which attempt to strip the leaves. The relation hctween tiie
ants and these plants seems truly symbiotic although this has
been denied. The Oriental plants Myninrodia. Hydiiofhytiun and
lUschitliii are well-known examples of plants which provide special
acconmiodation for ants which rush out and attack any disturber.
The thorns of the iarge-thorncd Babul (Aduin hilniiiiiiiil. common
in many parts of Madras, often contain nests ;)f small ants
('r,if>iiioiiiti iiidiciiin anil CrciiKislo.iinstcr sp.A Init no observations
seem to have been made regarding tiieir exact relations with the
jilant. Very possibly it w ill be found to be a case of symbiosis.

Fig. 31.— Perlion of Ir.il 'if .IcrcKf sKiidra. showiiiK Hiit-attractint,' gl;ind
on base of leaf stalk. (Orifjinal.*

Aciuici siiiulid. another tree common in Madras, lias large gl;inds,
which attract ants and which are situated on the basal parts of the
leaf-stalks.

A few insects even cultivate plants for their own use and
amongst such insects in India we may specify the Ipiilaj (Scoly-
tida;), or Shot-hole Borers, and some of the Termites. The sponge-
like comb made by these latter insects is well-known, being
freijuently revealed during excavations or when a Termites' mound
is openeil up. It is composed of vegetable matter which has been
passed through the bodies of the Termites several times until every
particle of nutritive value has been extracted, when it is built up
into combs whose size and structure are often characteristic of the
particular species of builder and which provide a large surface in a
small bulk. If examination be made of one of these combs freshly
extracted from a nest, its surface will be seen to be sprinkled over
with minute snowy-white globules, which are really small fungi
cultivateil by the termites and eaten when they attain a proper size,
not being allowed to develop beyond this; but if the comb be
abandoned, this and several other fungi, normally kept within
bounds by the termites, will grow luxuriantly. Other fungi, of

64 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. fCHAP. VII.

which one is shown in figure 32. sometimes grow from the comb
whilst this is still inhabited by its inmates and such fungi
sometimes mark the position of a nest which is not revealed by
the erection of a mound of any sort.

Fig. il. — Funfjus (Collybia albiiniiiiosa = Aiinillaiia curhi/al s,'io\vii)y

fioiii comb of Odontoteimes sp., Ct)imbatore, November 1912.

(From an original photo by VV. McK.m;.)

CHAP. \'HI.| SYMBIOSIS AND PARASITISM. 65

Chapter VIII.
.S\MIU()SIS .WD r.XK.A.SITI.SM.

Symbiosis (Greek: syn, together; hies, life) is a term applied to
the state of afl'airs which arises when two different organisms
live in company, neither harming the other, but each on the con-
trary obtaining benefit from its partner's activities. One of the
most familiar e.xamples of this interrelationship is afforded by the
numerous tribe of lichens which occur so commonly on rocks and
trees in all damp places. Until comparatively recently the lichens
were considered to be a distinct class of plants but it is now known
that a lichen is not one distinct organism but a compound of two
plants, a fungus and an alga, utterly distinct in structure and in
mode of life. Owing to the absence of chlorophyll a fungus can
only obtain the carbon necessary to its growth by appropriating the
tissues already elaborated by a chlorophyll-containing (green) plant
for its own use and it can therefore live only on dead or living
organic tissues. In the case of a lichen, the fungus absorbs water
and other material from the bark or rock on which the lichen is
growing and can use as nutriment those substances which have
formerly been part of living organisms but the non-organic mate-
rials are passed on to the algal partner which is able to utilize
them by means of its green cells. The alga and the fungus each
make use of what the other cannot utilize and the waste, left over
by each as the result of its vital activity, is again assimilated by
the other partner. Thus the association is complete and mutually
advantageous.

There are many degrees of symbiosis and it is not always
necessary that the partners should live permanently in company as
in the case of lichens. The association may be intermittent although
the benefit is mutual. A common example of this state of things is
seen in the case of cattle egrets and other birds which attend
cattle and catch the flies and ticks which attack these animals. In
this case the birds derive benefit by feeding on the flies whilst the
cattle benefit at the same time by being rid of their parasites.

The term comniensalism (Latin ; ciiin, together with, in com-
pany with ; iticiisa, a table) is often used as a synonym of symbio-
sis, but it is better to restrict this term to cases of symbiotic rela-
tionships in which the common partners share the same food, as it
seems obviously incorrect to apply the term commensalism to cases
5

66 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. VIII.

such as those of lichens and cattle-birds, in which the partners to
the arrangement do not feed on even the same class of food. Some
of the mites found so commonly on the larger dung-beetles are
probably commensals rather than true parasites, helping to keep
their host clean by feeding on the particles of dung which get
attached to the short hairs, etc., on the body of the beetle.

The small winged Borborid flies (Liiiiosina cqiiitans) found
commonly clinging to the under-surface of the large dung-beetle
(Scarabtciis gaiigctkiis) probably feed on the same substances as the
beetle but are not symbiotic partners, as the beetle seems to derive
no benefit from the arrangement and merely provides transport for
the flies, saving them the trouble of hunting for food for themselves.
This is an example of what is called Phoresie.

Social insects, also, although they feed on the same food, can
scarcely be called commensals, because they do not belong to
different species and are therefore excluded by the definition of
symbiosis given above.

Turning to a few examples of symbiotic relationships between
insects we find that social insects, as partners of the one part,
afford some of the best instances. Some caterpillars of the
Lycaenid (blue) butterflies possess on the posterior part of the back
a special gland from which they exude a sweet li(iuid greedily
sought after by various ants, which on their part tend and protect
the caterpillars; and these latter have become so dependent on the
attentions of the ants that it is found impossible to rear them un-
less the ants are allowed access. Aphids (green-fly). Scale-insects,
and other plant-sucking bugs are also tended and protected in a
similar manner by ants who are repaid by the sweet honey-dew
which is exuded on their solicitation ; but in these cases, if ants are
not present or are in numbers insufficient to collect all the honey-
dew, this is voided excrementitiously by the Aphids, etc., whereas
the Lycaenid caterpillars do not seem able to get rid of their
secretion unless this is removed by the ants.

In the nests, also, of both ants and Termites arc found many
insects, belonging to almost all Orders, which are called myrnieco-
phiious (ant-loving) or tcrmitophilous (termite-loving), as the case
may be, and which arc only found in these nests. Many of these
insects are truly parasitic on their hosts but many of them are
symbiotic partners. Numerous small beetles, for example, found in
these nests are fed by their hosts and in return exude from special
glands a liquid which is cag^erly sought after. In the case of some
root-feeding Aphids and Scale-insects, also, ants are known to
excavate little chambers around roots on which they place these
insects which are guarded and tended by the ants in exchange for

CHAP. vm.|

SYMBIOSIS AND PARASITISM.

67

their sweet excretion. In countries with a cold Winter the ants
have even been noted as taking care of the eggs of Aphids through-
out the winter, placing the young newly-hatched Aphids out on
plants in Spring during fine weather but taking them back to their
nests in bad weather or on cold nights.

Fir., ii.

-Section of Xylocopa showing Mites in abdominal cavity.
(After Berlese.)

We must not omit mention of the extraordinary case displayed
by the common large blue Carpenter Bees {Xylocopa), although this
is perhaps rather to be described as an example of symbiosis than
as one of pure parasitism. These bees have at the base of the
abdomen a chamber in which live small mites of the genus Grcenia.'^
The mites are apparently of no use or inconvenience to the bee,
although perhaps they may feed on other mites which are true
parasites.

Examples of true symbiotic relationships exist between many
ants and Aphids, Scale-insects, Caterpillars, Fulgorids, etc., the
ants tending and protecting the other insects which in return yield
a sweet excretion which is eagerly licked up by the ants. These
relationships may prove of great practical importance in the control
of insect-pests, as the ants often deliberately carry scale-insects on
to plants previously uninfested, and may also prevent predators or
parasites from attacking their proteges. T have actually seen an ant
standing guard over a scale-insect and warding off the attack of a
parasitic fly which was trying to lay its eggs in the scale. The
caterpillars of some of the Lyczenid butterflies, as noted above, are
apparently absolutely dependent on the removal of their sweet
excretions by ants and cannot survive unless the ants are allowed
access to them, and this fact could doubtless be turned to practical

• The name Gnenia, being preoccupied in Insecta, will have 10 be changed.

68 SOME SOUTH .INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. Vlll.

account should such caterpillars reriuire to be controlled as
pests.

A parasite is an organism which lives at the expense and to the
detriment of another organism, and this latter we call its host.
Fleas, Itch-mites, Lice anil Bed-bugs are familiar examples and
some species of each class all have man as their common host.
These are Ectoparasites or external parasites, living outside the
body of the host, but many forms are Endoparasites living inside
the body of the host, and as examples of the latter class we may
cite the malarial parasite, the plague bacillus, and intestinal worms.
Probably no insects are exempt from the attacks of parasites,
whether these be other insects or other animals (worms, protozoa,
etc.) or plants (fungi and bacteria). The parasites themselves are
often attacked by other parasites, which we call Hyperparasites,
and these again may be parasitized by yet others. Truly the poet
wrought better than he knew in writing : —

Big fleas have little fleas
Upon their backs to bite 'em,
And little fleas have lesser fleas
— And so ad infinitum.

An original parasitic attack upon a host is called Primary Para-
sitism, the term Secondary Parasitism being applied to all subse-
quent attacks by parasites. Hyperparasitism is the normal attack
of one species of parasite upon another species of parasite and
superparasitism occurs when a normally primary parasite attacks
a host already parasitized, the result generally being (in the case
of insects and their usual endoparasites) that the tissues of the
host prove insufficient to meet the needs of the latest comer so that
it is forced to attack its predecessors.

The foregoing paragraph may seem technical, but it is none the
less of the very first importance to obtain a very clear idea of the
final result of parasitic attack. Insects which become pests of
crops frequently increase to destructive numbers because parasitic
control is absent or insufficient and the artificial introduction of the
necessary parasites seems, to the minds of many, the final solution
of the problem of control. And doubtless this is so if it is clearly
realised that parasites will only control a species, that is to say, they
will normally keep down its numbers, but they will not exterminate it
altogether. For in practice parasitism does not seem able to
deal with more than about 75 per cent, of the total number
of any destructive insect. If parasites are present in such large
numbers that a very high percentage of the host must be attacked
to enable all the parasites to lay their eggs, they are compelled to

CHAP. VIII. J

SYMBIOSIS AND PARASITISM.

69

oviposit in insects already parasitized, so that superparasitism
occurs, with the result that very few of the parasites survive in the
next generation to attack the possible hosts which have escaped
being parasitizetl. The numbers both of host and parasite there-
fore undergo a sudden drop (see fig. 34), the host because of the
large proportion destroyed by the vast numbers of parasites present,
and these latter on account of internecine struggles caused by
superparasitism. It is probable that in such cases the mortality
amongst the parasites is proportionally much higher than in the
case of the insect parasitized and this latter is therefore able to
increase its numbers very rapidly, the parasites again increasing as
their hosts provide more abuntlant food until the increase of the
parasites once more overtakes that of their host, with the result
that superparasitism again occurs and the wave of increase is again
checked.

Tig. 34. — Graphic Curve showing increase and decrease of Host and Parasite.
(Original.)

In economic work the study of the parasites of the various
insect-pests is of the very first imj^ortancc and at the same time it
is often a matter of great difficulty and complexity, not only to find
out which parasites attack any particular crop-pest, what are their
lifehistorics and what are their names, but to work out also the
various relations between them antl to decide therefrom which are
beneficial and which are injurious. For it is not to be supposed
(though too often taken for granted) that a parasite must be bene-
ficial merely because it is a parasite. Many parasites are injurious,
since they attack insects which are beneficial. If we take the case
of a caterpillar, which is a crop-pest, and of a parasite which
checks it, the latter may be looked on as beneficial ; but this
parasite may itself be attacked by a hyperparasite, which in its
turn may be looked on as injurious in this particular case. But it

70 SOME SOUTH INDIAN' INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. Vlll.

is possible (and cases are known) that the hyperparasite is
normally itself a parasite directly on another injurious insect, in
which case it is beneficial. And so we have to know the lifehistory
and occurrence of a parasite in great detail before we can say off-
hand whether it is beneficial or injurious. This is work of the first
importance whic h has remained hitherto practically untouched in
India but which, it is hoped, will be taken up in the near future.

CHAl". IX. 1 THE BALANCE OK LIFE. Jl

Chapter IX.
THI", BALANCE Ol' LIFE.

" For nol a creature lives bencaih the sun
Uul has some dansjers every day to run,"

Knipi; — Scbulii /() .)/<;;/.

In preceding chapters we have already discussed Reproduction
and Metamorphosis in insects. Let us now take the case of an
insect laying only two hundred eggs and passing through its life-
cycle in one month and consider the possible number of its
descendants if all attained maturity. Commencing for convenience
sake on 1st January we have one fertilized female which lays 200
eggs, all of which hatch and mature by the end of the month ; on
the average half of these will be females, each of which will lay
200 eggs on 1st February and by the end of February we have lOO X
200 = 20,000 mature insects, of which half again will be females
laying between them 10,000 X 200 = 2,000,000 eggs. It would be
tedious to follow the increase month by month, but simple calcula-
tion shows that by the end of the year the descendants would reach
the prodigious total of two trillions (2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000)
of individuals. The human mind is quite incapable of grasping
the significance of such a figure but a few comparisons may assist
imagination. If one thousand of the insects weighed only one
ounce, their united weight would be 558,035. 7l8,57I,428'5 tons, and
if one thousand measured one cubic inch they would cover an area
of almost fifty thousand millions of square miles with a uniform
layer one inch deep or would fill a space of 7,862,931 cubic miles or
a cube measuring 198 miles along each side. Taking the dry sur-
face of the whole earth to be fifty-one millions of square miles,
tht-y would cover the whole of this to a depth of over eighty-one
feet.

The case of the insect which we have considered above is by no
means extraordinary as regards either the number of eggs deposited
or the shortness of the life-cycle and it must also be remembered
that we have only considered the case of a single individual of one
species amongst the thousands of different insects found in every
square mile in India.

But, after reckoning the theoretically possible rate of increase as
shown above, let us descend to facts and ask. what will be the
actual number of descendants of our imaginary insect which we shall

72 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. (CHAP. IX

expect on the average to find at the end of the year? The answer
is very simple. As a nile, we shall find two individuals, only one
of which will be a female, still capable of laying two hundred eggs
which will hatch and complete their life-cycle in a month, but whose
descendants will not on the average either increase or decrease in
numbers.

What is the explanation of the enormous difference between the
potential and the actual rate of increase .' Briefly sj^eaking, it may
be summcil up under the three heads of (i) adverse climatic condi-
tions, (?) a limited food-supply and (3) the attacks of enemies, and
these causes may be further summarized under the general title of
the Struggle for Existence. On the one hand, then, Reproduction
and Growth constantly tend to the increase both of each individual
and of the number of individuals, and on the other hand the Struggle
for Existence tends to neutralize these forces, which together con-
stitute the Balance of Life of the species as a single entity. On the
whole, the balance remains fairly even and the numbers of any
species in a given area remain on the average approximately con-
stant in the absence of unusual environmental conditions, but the
beam of the balance is never at rest but is always vibrating slightly
on either side of its average position, and occasionally the beam
swings violently in one direction or the other as dearth or disease
or accident plays havoc with the numbers of the individuals or as
these increase with increase of food-sui)i)ly or more favourable
environmental conilitions.

Every kind of insect or other living thing, therefore, is constantly
faced throughout its whole life with the struggle for existence, and
has literally to succeed in the fight against competition and enemies
to be able to live at all. All animals and plants are constantly
engaged in this struggle anil, whether their young or eggs or seeds
may be counted on the fingers of one hand or be reckoned in millions,
on an average the number of any organism remains fairly constant
under unchanged environmental conditions. Man himself is not
exempt from the stress of competition, although his superior intellect,
in the more civilized races at least, helps him to defy many of the
natural checks on increase. In older and more uncivilized times it
was no uncommon thing that —

" A plague upon the people (ell
.\ famine after laid them low,
Then thorpe and byre arose in fire.
For on them brake the sudden foe."
Even to-day in India it is not uncommon to hear of a village deci-
mated by a man-eating tiger or leopard whilst eveamore destructive
are the minute organisms, such as the malarial parasite and the

CHAP. IX.] THE B.VLAXCF, OF LIKE. 73

barilli of i)l;igiR' and chokTa. whith also take thfir toll of luinian
life.

As noted above, the three deslriietivc factors which are iirobably
most important in maintaining the balance of life are climate,
food, and enemies. In a country such as India we scarcely need
to be reminded of the great importance of climatic influences.
Defect in the monsoon rainfall means loss of crops whilst undue
excess may cause disastrous floods. So far as man himself is con-
cerned loss of crops may mean famine, although here the human
intellect comes to his assistance by providing irrigation schemes to
render him less dependent on the monsoon rainfall and rai')id
means of communication (railways, roads) by which supplies may
be brought in from other more favoured districts. But for other
animals the effects of climate in lessening the food-supply may be
very serious.

The subject of enemies is so vast that it can only be stated here
that it is the exception for any animal or plant to die of pure old
age. At every stage of its existence it is subject to attack, within
and without, by parasites which live at its expense and by preda-
ceous animals or plants which kill it outright. In the fictitious
insect whose rateof increase was considered at the commencement of
this chapter, for every egg successfully deposited it was seen that
ninety-nine failed to reach a state of reproductive maturity, and
such a stringent rate of selection is the rule in the case of insects
under natural conditions of existence.

74 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. (ClIAP. X.

Chapter X.

I N s I-: c r p I-: s t s.

" There is no exception to the rule that every organic heini; naturallv increases at so
high a rate that, if not destroyed, the earth would soon be covered by the progeny of a
single pair."

Darwin — Origin of Species.

The word "pest" is so commonly used in connection with
insects to denote injurious species that its meaning is usually well
understood, although it is difficult to give any definition of general
application. Perhaps it may be said that an insect becomes a pest
when by its large number of individuals it does noticeable damage
directly or indirectly to man himself or to his livestock, growing
crops, stored produce, or other possessions. Such damage may be
of regular or of occasional occurrence and may vary from total loss
to a very small fraction. Probably damage amounting to one
anna in the nipee {i.e., one-sixteenth of the total produce) is the
smallest amount that is usually noticeable in ordinary crops, and it
is convenient to note the amount of damage in this notation, as
one, two, three or more annas in the nipee.

If we e.xamine any crop under normal conditions it is very rarely
indeed found altogether free from attack by insect-pests. Fre-
quently half-a-dozen or more different kinds of insects will be
found to be attacking it, some eating the roots, others the leaves,
some boring in the stem, others sucking the juices, whilst still
others cat the buds or flowers or damage the fruit. The damage
done by each insect may be very small but the aggregate becomes
very large and it is probably a fair estimate to state that on an
average ten per cent, of all crops are destroyed by insect-pests.
In other words an ordinary normal crop is only nine-tenths of
what would be obtained under conditions of total absence of
damage by insects. It becomes therefore a matter of some interest
to attempt to place a money value on this loss, but to do this it is
necessary first of all to make a valuation of the annual output of
crops. Figures are not available for the whole of Southern India
but the following table shows roughly the figures of area, outturn
and value of crops in Madras only, and it must be clearly under-
stood ihat the figurts here given do not claim absolute exactitude,
because that is impossible, but they an believed to be approximately
correct as a whole.

CHAP. X.

INSECT PESTS.

;5

2ST.

p« "'T-

., -^ fo r^ fo f

o o o o o o

Oi/^OOOOOOOOO ooooooo OOVO
0«Q0C00O0Q0 OOQOOON"^ CON.

0(^000000000 OOOOVO CO .f*^OCC

o c^ N o o

OOOV3— ^^^00

O "-. r^ t^ t

ooooocoo

OOOOOOO"-

— c< • ;:; ^ ' '

o^ o_^ q o_ o_ o_
'O o' o' o' o' o'

■s °

2 3.^2 ' X

55(

: § «■« g-S.S.E-S § ^-S S-S-2-S oUdo.S-S^ Ji
)UKS(aC-]'JOU!«OUO^OtJCf-HUOi.C

S5

76 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. X.

From ihis labk- it will be seen that the average annual crop-outturn
of Madras is upwards of eighteen hundred millions of rupees, and
this figure does not include the produce of nearly thirteen million
acres under forests. Applying the ten per cent, rule of insect
damage to these figures, we find that the destruction occasioned by
insect-pests every year may be placed at not less than two hundred
millions of rupees, of which roughly one-half is accountable to one
insect-pest of paddy.

Yet even the above figures do not represent the total damage to
the State wrought by insects, for they take no account of the
economic loss caused by insect-carriers of diseases to man and his
domestic animals. These latter alone represent a money-value of
at least si.x hundred millions of rupees and even a small percentage
on this figure runs into a very considerable amount, whilst diseases
carried by the various ticks, lice, biting-flies and fleas that infest
such animals are only too common. The ravages of Malaria and
Plague may be cited as those of only two human diseases, both of
which are solely spread by the agency of insects, and the annual
death-roll in Madras from insect-borne diseases may be placed at
upwards of two hundred thousand. Nor do these details exhaust
the catalogue of crime suffered by man at the hands (or, rather^
mouths) of his insect foes, for his various possessions — his stored
food, his clothes, even his houses and all woodwork used for con-
struction purposes — are not exempt from attack. Totalling the
damage to crops, domestic animals, stored products and other
possessions and to man himself, we may therefore estimate the
damage done by insects every year in Southern India at not less
than three hundred millions of rupees (Rs. 30,00,00,000). It is sin-
cerely to be hoped that, by the development and application of
entomological knowledge, this enormous wastage of national wealth
may be reduced in the future.

Turning now to the causes which conduce to such vast losses,
at least in the case of growing crops, we find that they are due as
a rule to one of the following conditions. (l) the placing of large
areas under one class of crop, (2) deafforestisation and other alter-
ations of natural features due to human agency, (3) the introduction
of non-indigenous pests and crops, (4) the destruction of birds and
other predaceous or parasitic enemies, although all these conditions
arc often mutually interdependent and sometimes inseparable.

In the preceding chapter it was seen that, under the natural
conditions of existence, the enormous natural rate of increase of
any species of insect is neutralized by the destruction wrought
amongst its individuals and their descendants, so that its numbers
in any given area remain approximately constant, enemies and lack

CHAP. X.] INSECT PESTS. 77

of food being the main checks on its increase; climate /xr .tc may
be neglected, for it may be assumed that an insect living under
natural conditions is adapted to the climate of the locality in which
it lives. Taking as an example a moth which depends for its
existence upon a wild jungle plant, its eggs may be parasitized before
they hatch or may hi' discovered and eaten by some predaceous
enemy, such as an ant; tlic caterpillars are also liable to be para-
sitized or carried off by birds, wasps, ants or other predators before
they have finished feeding and, if too many eggs have been laid on
the one plant, they may starve or be exposed to special dangers
whilst wandering in search of more food ; when full-fed, many
caterpillars leave the fooil-plant and descend to the ground to
pupate and at such times they are especially liable to attack by
ants and predaceous birds and insects, whilst even after pupation
they may be dug out and tievoured by birds such as Hoopoes or
burrowing mammals or insects ; finally, when the insect has survived
all these dangers and emerged as a moth, it has not only to feed
but to search out scattered plants on which to lay its eggs and at
this time especially a slow-flying egg-laden female is a special mark
for attack by birds and other enemies. On the other hand an insect
which feeds on a cultivated crop is spared many of these dangers.
The crop is generally grown closely and therefore of itself provides
a certain measure of shady security, so that predators and parasites
are at an initial disadvantage, whilst the influence of dry, hot winds
or other climatic factors is reduced to a minimum both as regards
the direct effect on the insect and indirectly as reducing the avail-
able moisture in the foodplants. There is no lack of food and this
fact consequently eliminates all necessity for searching for another
plant when one has been eaten up, whilst the adult female insect
also is practically exempted from danger in searching for the
requisite foodplants on which to lay her eggs.

The destruction of forests and other alterations of natural features
at the hand of man have far-reaching and often quite unforeseen
influences on the flora and fauna of the areas affected. An imme-
diate effect is often the washing away by rain of the soil which is
the accumulation of the natural decay of vegetation during probably
thousands of years and which has hitherto acted like a vast sponge
to retain a stable condition of moisture throughout the year, so that
the climate of the disafforested area tends to become less equable.
After some time a secondary jungle may spring up, or very often the
land is placed under a crop, but the old condition of things has been
irretrievably altered and many plants and animals which lived in
the forest are unable to adapt themselves to the altered conditions
and die out. The interrelations between various species of animals

78 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. X.

and plants are often so complex and the balance of life is so deli-
cately adjusted that the extinction of one tree or plant, for example,
may lead to the extinction of certain insects dependent on that
particular tree or plant, and the extinction of such insects may have
an important effect on other insects or plants which at first sight
would not seem to be affected ; but the chain of interrelationships
is often very long and complex so that the breakage of a single link
gives rise to quite unexpected results. One effect of disafforesting
an area which would seem obvious is that various insects, deprivetl
of their food in the forest, would invade adjacent cultivated areas ;
and this may happen to some extent, but probably far less often
than is supposed. The fauna and flora of a truly forest area and
those of a disafforested area recently placed under cultivation are
usually very sharply differentiated and this difference may often
be seen in the Hill Districts of Southern India and still more dis-
tinctly in other parts of the world, such as the larger islands of the
Seychelles where there is a very strongly demarcated line between
the insect-fauna of the primeval jungle and that of the cultivated
area immediately adjacent. The real influence of destruction of
forests on the incidence of insect pests in their vicinity is almost
always indirect but it is no less important for that, and the preserv-
ation of forests, certainly in all Hill Districts, should be looked on
as a national affair of the first importance.

The introduction of non-indigenous pests from other countries is
a very fertile source of trouble and especially so because such pests
are usually brought in by themselves without the enemies which
have normally kept them in check and thus they are able to
increase very rapidly, so that an insect, which in its native country
does little or no harm, when introduced into a new country or
locality, may increase to such proportions as to become a pest.
This tendency is not confined to insects but is exemplified by
numerous animals and plants in all parts of the world and it is
becoming almost an axiom that the worst pests of any country are
introduced ones. The rabbit and thistle in Australia, the mongoose
in the West Indies, Lantana and the green scale (Lcauiium viriik)
in Southern India, are all well-known instances of introduced
organisms which have become serious pests in the new countries to
which they were taken. The green scale is believed to have been
introduced from Brazil by way of Ceylon. It is interesting to note
that it was quite unknown in l86i to J. Nietner, an entomological
Coffee-planter in Ceylon, who wrote a comprehensive series of
" Observations on the Enemies of the Coffee Tree in Ceylon " ; yet
within twenty years it had gained such a footing as to lead to the
ruin of the coffee plantations which had already been weakened

CHAP. X.] INSECT PESTS. 79

by the attack of a fuiigoicl leaf-disease. From Ceylon the scale
was brought to Inilia where it has ac(iuirecl the name of the " Palni
bug " on account of the damage it has done in the Palnis, but it
has occurred for many years on the Shevaroys and Nilgiris and was
introiluced more recently in the Anamalais and was first noticed
in Coorg and Mysore in 1913 ; in the Nilgiris it has proveil a
highly destructive pest of coffee ami it seems likely to do consider-
able damage to the coffee industry in Mysore and Coorg. The
potato moth IPIillwriiiucu opcrciiU'lUi) is another insect-pest which
lias been introiluced into Intlia during recent years ; it was originally
brought into Bombay with seed potatoes imported from Italy and
has rapidly spread to practically every potato-growing district in
India, doing little damage to the plants growing in the field but
destroying the storeil tubers unless special precautions are taken,
so that in some districts it has proved difficult or even impossible
to keep seed-potatoes from one season to another and very heavy
losses have resulted. The above are only two cases of imported
insects which have become serious pests when introduced into a
new country, but these examples are typical of many both in India
and abroad, and it is therefore not surprising to find that almost
every civilized country in the world has now found it necessary to
impose restrictions on the importation of plants and fruits which
are liable to bring in such serious pests. It is sincerely to be hoped
that India also will very shortly be in a position to debar the entry
of such undesirable aliens.

The introduction of new crops and of more paying strains of
crops already grown has not been without a very pronounced effect
on the incidence of insect-pests and of the damage done by them,
quite apart from the introduction of new pests from abroad. It is a
matter of common observation that newly-introduced crops arc
more subject than indigenous ones to the attack of indigenous
insects and suffer as a rule considerably more damage. An area
under the Cambodia cotton plant, for instance, which is attacked
by Stem-weevil (Pcmplicrcs affiuisi, is usually much more badly
attacked than an adjacent field of desi (native) cotton and a much
larger percentage of the Cambodia plants are snapped off by a
strong wind. Speaking generally, on the evidence available at
present, there seems to be a certain amount of acquired immunity,
or at least toleration, between plants and their pests after both
have inhabited the same area for a considerable period of time.
The process may perhaps be compared to the acquired tolerance of
mosquito-bites exhibited by an old resident in the tropics as
against that shown by a new-comer and in this case also there is
an undoubted preference shown by the mosquitos for the blood of

8o SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. X.

the less tolerant person, possibly because this contains a smaller
proportion of antitoxins, perhaps merely because it is actually
richer in rerl corpuscles. Be this as it may, we have some evidence
to suggest that one method for the control of insect-pests of crops
may lie in the direction of the breeding and utilizing of pest-
resistant stocks ; this is a line of research on the border-line of
Entomology and Botany, although the primary investigation of
resistant strains undoubtedly lies within the domain of the
Entomologist, and work on these lines will undoubtedly yield
valuable results in the future.

The destruction of birds and of other predaceous or parasitic
animals which act as natural checks on the increase of insects is a
subject of peculiar importance in a country such as India, where so
great a proportion of the population is entirely dependent on agri-
culture, where many birds are so largely insectivorous as to form
constant and very effectual checks on the increase of insect-pests
of crops, and yet where the feeding-habits of these birds and their
importance are so little recognised by the agricultural classes who
are most concerned. It must be clearly understood that no claim is
made here that all birds, or even all insectivorous birds, are bene-
ficial to the agriculturist. The value of birds, and their relative
values, will be discussed more fully in a subsequent chapter and it
will suffice to note here that districts in which the slaughter of
insectivorous birds is permitted must e.xpect to repay their debt to
nature in the shape of an enhanced and perhaps ruinous toll levied
on their crops by insect-pests which would normally have been
kept in check by the birds.

IIIAP. Xl.l THE CONTROL OK INSIiCT TESTS OK CROPS. 81

Chapter XI.
THi: CONTROL OK IXSHCT I'KSTS OF CROPS.

" I. ciKUilaiu. a UKMiri.- i|iie Its cunnaissaiiccs St.- prrcisciu, la i|ucsiiun pir.iil se
spi'Ciiiliser dc plus en plus ; Its ubscrvalcurs recunnaisscnt qu'il csl impossible de iruuvcr
un renu'dcyi'nor.vl.mdislinctcrnL-nl applicable I'l loiis les Inseclcs. Chaque espece pusspd-
ant un mode de vie ol des habitudes particiilieres, il f.uulra aiissi, pour chacuno, un
proci'do special de preservation et dc destruction."

Hill I lii Kr — l.cs liiscctcs Kiiiuiiiis dcs Litres.

One of tlic comiiioiicst items in ;in official Entomologist's daily
budget of correspondence is a letter from some inquirer stating that
insects are damaging his crop (kind of crop usually omitted) and
retiuesting some appropriate " medicine " by return of Post. It
need hardly be mentioned here that it is quite impossible to apply
any general remedy to meet the case of all insect pests of crops
and that patent "Kill-alls," usually sold at inflated prices under
fancy names, belong to the same category as the patent medicine
" Cure-alls '' so widely advertised under similar conditions. Insects
have such widely different habits, some biting and devouring the
tissues of the plant, some sucking its juices, some living on the
leaves and others in the stem or below-ground, that it is obviously
impossible to apply any general remedy which will be applicable
to such diverse conditions. It is necessary to emphasize this fact
because in actual experience it is so often found that it is not
realized by the general public.

The control of insect-pests of all kinds is merely the application
of common-sense methods based on a special knowledge of the
insects concerned and of any particular details of the circumstances
under which they occur; for e.xample, in the case of insect-pests of
crops some knowledge of the agricultural practice of the locality
affected, together with a knowledge of the life-history of the insect
in question, will often admit the devising of a practical control-
measure based on such information, whereas means of control
founded merely on a knowledge of one of these branches of infor-
mation will usually prove impracticable.

The various means of control may be considered under four
headings, (i) agricultural, (2) mechanical, (3) insecticidal and (4)
special, but it may be added that these divisions are only given here
for convenience of reference and in actual practice they are often
scarcely differentiated.
6

82 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. XI.

AGRICULTURAL METHODS.

On the sound principle that " prevention is better than cure "
agricultural methods aim rather at checking any undue increase of
crop-pests than at actual control after they have attained destructive
numbers. Such methods are therefore e.xtremely important and
should invariably form part of the regular routine of the agricultu-
rist. They include such means as clean cultivation, the proper
rotation of crops, the growing of mixed crops, ploughing, changing
the time of planting, the use of poultry and encouragement of
insectivorous birds, the stimulation of plant growth by means
of manures, irrigation and draining, the selection of resistant
varieties of crops, and the use of attacked crops as fodder.

Clean cultivation, by which is meant the careful removal of
weeds and wild plants from the fields and their adjacent areas
such as bunds and the removal of all crop-remnants after harvest,
is by itself one of the most potent weapons in the cultivator's
armoury in his ceaseless war against the ravagers of his crops.
Not only the field itself should be carefully weeded before the crop
is sown and while it is growing but the bunds and all similar
adjacent areas should also be kept clear as far as possible. Many
insect-pests feed on wild plants and, having eaten up these or find-
ing a succulent crop alongside and more to their taste, pass into
the cultivator's fields and take their toll of the produce ; Kiimblihidas
are familiar examples of this and the Ricebug (Lcptocorisa) also
commonly lives on wild grasses on the edges of paddy-fields until
the paddy begins to come into ear when that is invaded and
attacked. Proper attention should therefore be paid to weeding
not only in the field itself but on the bunds around it and in any
contiguous uncultivated area. A belt of open ground forms in itself
an e.xcellent defence against invasion from outside by pests such
as caterpillars which are exposed to attack by various predaccous
enemies (birds, ants) before they can obtain access to the cultivated
area.

A very common practice in cultivation is to leave crop remnants
on the ground and this is a measure which is particularly dangerous
in the case of cereals on account of the stem-boring insects which
live on in the stubble and infect the next crop in the same or neigh-
bouring fields. Cholam, ragi, paddy, wheat, and similar cereals
are all affected by various stem-borers and it is a common sight to
see a field in stubble from an old crop whilst alongside is a field
growing a new crop of the same kind ; needless to say. all the pests
carried over in the stubble of the old crop simply move across and
attack the new one. Leaving a field in stubble often also encourages
the increase of Termites which are thereafter hard put to it for

CH.W. XI.] TlIK CONTRCH. ()]• INSK( I I'lCSl S OF CROI'S.

83

loocl and consequently attack the next crop grown in the field
especially if this is weakened by stem-borers which have also been
carried over in the stubble. As a general agricultural practice,
therefore, I would advocate the collection and burning of stubble
of all cereal crops immediately after harvest, the manurial value of
the stubble being more than counterbalanced by the danger of
carrying over pests. But in this, as in all similar practices
co-oi)cration is essential ; foi-. as pointed out above, it is of very
little use to practice clean cultivation in one fuld if it is infected
by adjacent or surrounding areas.

Fig. J5.— Bad cultivation from the point of view of control of Pests. Old

cholain stalks have been left in the field after harvest, carrying o\er

stem-borers and attracting termites. (Author's original photo.)

Leaving the crop itself too long in the ground is another form
of the error noted above and is also a fertile source of outbreaks of
insect pests. Cambodia cotton is an excellent example of this in
Madras where, for the sake of a few extra handfuUs of inferior lint,
mostly spoiled and stained by insect-pests, a cultivator will often
leave his crop standing in the ground until it is time to sow the
next years crop, which is naturally badly infected at the very start
by the pests carried on by the old crop ; the proper practice, of
course, is to pull out and burn all the old crop at least three or four
months before the new crop is due for sowing in order that all the
pests of the old crop may as far as possible be stained out during
the interval between the two crops.

6-A

84 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CH.\P. XI.

The proper rotation of crops is a matter of the utmost import-
ance from the purely agricultural point of view, quite apart from
the question of the control of crop-pests, yet at the same time it is
an obvious and practicable means to the latter end also. Not only
is it bad agriculture as a general rule to grow the same crop
continuously in the same soil but, as pointed out above, such a
practice is of direct assistance to the spread and increase of crop-
pests. This again is a matter for co-operation between cultivators
of adjacent lands as it is obviously of little use for one cultivator
to rotate his crops if his new crop follows a similar one of his
neighbour s and attracts all the pests which have lived in the latter.
So far as pests are concerned also it is the rule, not only that the
same crop should not be grown continuously, but that naturally
allied crops should not be so grown. The potato and tobacco plants,
for example, are closely allied to one another, both belonging to
the same Natural Order ' so that pests which attack the one are
especially likely to find suitable food in the other; ginger and
turmeric, cotton and gogu may also be cited, all the known pests
of the one readily attacking the other of each pair. For this
reason trap-crops have been recommended, the principle being
that a small crop is grown before the main crop of the same or an
allied plant in order to attract all the insect-pests into the advance
or trap-crop which is then destroyed before the main crop is
sufficiently grown to be attacked by insects. This is all very well
in theory and in practice also on e.xperimental farms and similar
places where the trap-crop can be grown under strict and in-
telligent supervision and where it may be destroyed in due time
absolutely without fail. But unfortunately this is not the case with
the great generality of cultivators and great caution should
therefore be shown in recommending the growing of trap-crops
on any general scale, for as a rule the simple-minded son of the
soil cannot see the necessity for destroying the trap-crop at the
proper time and does not do so ; with the result that, instead of
checking his pests, he simply provides them with food and helps
them to tide over the period of normal scarcity before the main
crop is ready for attack by them.

The growing of mixed crops is a common practice in many
districts ; in the western taluqs of Bellary, for example, five or six
different crops (cereals, pulses, etc.) may often be seen growing
intersown in the same field. In such cases the cultivator seems to
distrust placing all his eggs in one basket, his idea being that, if one
or two crops fail, he will at least secure a har\'est from the others.

• .\ lisl of naturall) allied |>lant'> is '^nven i>n pages 264-273,

CHAP. Xl.l rilK CONTROL OK 1NSEC:T I'ESTS OK CROPS. 85

But the plan is sound trom the agricultural view-point of the vary-
ing requirements of different plants as regards the constituents of
plant-food available in the .soil and the inter-relationships of the
bacterial anil protozoal fauna of the soil. There is no doubt also
that, if suitable nii.xed crops are grown, the increase of pests in
each one is reduced, such reduction, in the case of drill sown crops
at least, being probably largely mechanical and due directly to the
fact that each area under one crop is separated from the next
similar area by a barrier of other crops which are not suitable
food-plants for the pests of the former; a mixed crop of groundnut
and cumbu, for example, generally shows a much lessened attack
on the former by the siinil-f>iiclii {Aprocrn'iiia iwrtcriti) as compared
with tiiat suft"cred by an unmixed crop of groundnut. The extra
exposure of the moths when egg-laying and of the immature
stages when hunting for more food undoubtedly forms a direct
check on their increase. Experiments on the growing of mixed
croi^s should be carried out from a combined view-point of agri-
cultural, chemical, entomological, niycological and bacteriological
knowledge, aiui such experiments would doubtless prove of great
value in ol)taining increased yields.

Ploughing is of course an ordinary practice of agriculture but it
is often no less effective in the control of insect-pests ; but for this
end the ordinary country plough, which generally barely scratches
the surface of the soil, is of little use and we require an iron plough
capable of turning up the soil to a depth of at least six inches.
The egg-masses of grasshoppers are usually deposited a few inches
under the soil and many caterpillars (e.g., KHiiibli[>Ticliis) also enter
the soil to pupate and these egg-masses and pupa; often lie under-
ground for months throughout the dry weather until the rains
awake them to new life ; if, therefore, the soil is thoroughly ploughed
up at this time and large clods are broken as far as possible, most
of these egg-masses and pupa; will either be brought up to the
surface and killed by the sun or devoured by insectivorous animals
or they may be buried so deeply that they are unable to emerge
at the proper time, and perish. Here again agriculture and pest-
control go hand in hand, for ploughing during the dry season not
only helps to check pests but, by providing a fine surface mulch,
moisture is conserved to the subsequent benefit of the croji.

Changing the time of planting or of harvest when iliis cmh be
done, either by sowing earlier or later, or by using early or late-
maturing varieties of crop, may sometimes be used with success as
a control-measure in certain kinds of attack by insect-pests. A
pest which appears at a particular time of the year, for example,
may sometimes be defeated by delaying sowing until after its

86 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. (CHAP. .\1.

appearance or by sowing earlier so that the plants are sufficiently
well-grown to withstand its attack. The various beetles (Cock-
chafers, Rose-chafers (Cctoiiiadcv), and Blister-beetles) which often
do serious damage to the flowers of cereals, may be quoted as
instances ; their early stages are passed underground and are quite
unconnected with the growth of the cereals and their appearance
in the winged state is probably connected definitely with weather-
conditions and always occurs at particular seasons of the year; if
therefore the flowering of the cereals can be so adjusted as to take
place before or after their emergence, damage may be prevented.

The common domestic fowl and other domestic poultry,
especially ducks, guinea-fowl and pea-fowl, are e.xcellent and
indefatigable insect-hunters and their assistance in cultivated areas
is not to be despised by the cultivator who wishes to obtain a
good outturn of crop. In areas such as cotton-fields especially
fowls do excellent work in checking insects with mutual benefit to
themselves and the cultivator. Very many kinds of wild birds
also are largely or wholly insectivorous. Their actual food and
importance are discussed in another chapter and it suffices here
to note that birds such as mynahs and drongos or king-crows
spend their whole lives in capturing insects and should therefore
be looked on as amongst the farmer's best friends and be protected
and encouraged in every way. A few perches made simply of a
cross piece of wood fastened to an upright thrust into the ground
amongst young crops will provide resting-places on which birds
such as drongos will be encouraged to sit. ready to swoop down
on to any insect seen stirring amongst the surrounding crops.

The stimulation of plant-growth by means of manures or other
methods is another agricultural practice which helps to minimize
the incidence and effects of the attack of crop-pests. A plant
which is thoroughly healthy will often escape attack or will at
least suffer comparatively little, whereas a sickly plant will be
attacked far more readily and its produce will be reduced to a
far greater extent. It is possible plants may produce toxins as a
defence against the insect-pests to which they are normally exposed
and that such toxins are waste products of the metabolic changes
induced by healthy growth but that, if the health of the plant is
impaired by bad cultivation or uncongenial conditions of any sort,
the whole of its energies are required for growth and such toxins
are not elaborated and consequently the plants are more subject to
attack by pests of all kinds ; but this idea is only put forward as a
supposition.

Irrigation, where this is possible, is sometimes a good method of
control of crop-pests even when the soil is not deficient in moisture

CHAP XI. I THE CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS OF CROPS. 87

Crickets, for example, often do a great deal of damage to crops in
some districts, living in burrows in the ground and only coming out
at night to cut oft" tender shoots which they carry ofT to their liurrows
and devour iluring the day-time; in such cases irrigating the
affected area will drive them out when they fall an easy prey to
erows, kites, and various other enemies. The manner in which
irows anil kites will congregate when fields are being flooded is well
known to every agriculturist and very little observation will show
that they are busy catching grasshoppers, crickets and other insects
which are driven out of cracks in the soil by the advancing water.
Some caterpillars, beetles, bugs and other crop-pests may also be
controlled by irrigating the affected area, but no general rules can
be laid down. The addition of a bag of Crude Oil Emulsion in the
irrigation channel sometimes helps to drive away certain pests,
temporarily at any rate. The converse of irrigation. Draining, is
used to control the Paddy Caseworm (NyiiiphiiLi ilcpiiiirtn/is) whose
larva is ac|uatic in habit.

The selection of resistant varieties of crops is a subject which has
hardly been touched in India but there is little doubt but that this
line of work offers one of the most promising lines of research for
the future. It is a matter of common observation to any agricul-
turist that particular plants or particular varieties of plants are less
subject to attack by pests than are others grown under similar-
conditions and by selecting and breeding from such resistant strains
we may hope to secure relative immunity from the ravages of pests.
This is not a matter in which immediate results can be expected
and it demands co-operation as regards the agricultural, botanical,
entomological and mycological aspects of the ciuestion in the case
of each particular strain of each crop and perhaps the required
(|ualities may vary in different districts. In the meantime agricul-
turists should retain seed for sowing from the most healthy and
pest-resistant plants which they can select from their fields and
should look on the selection of the best seed obtainable as the very
foundation of any attempt to grow a good yield of crop.

In some cases, especially in cereals where a large area is placed
under one crop and irrigation or other control methods are im-
practicable, small patches of a crop are sometimes found to be
badly attacked by a pest. In such cases it is often possible to cut
such patches and to feed the affected plants to cattle as green fodder,
thus ridding the remaining area of these centres of infection and
at the same time making some use of the attacked plants. The use as
fodder of cholam, etc., attacked by stem-borer will not hurt the cattle
hut care must betaken not to feed hairy caterpillars (kiiwNiptuhis)
or blister-beetles to cattle, as the effects of such a diet may be

88 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. |CHAH. XI.

serious; occasion may also be taken to point out tlu- danfjer
of Hydrocyanic-acid poisoning consec|uent on a too lilieral use
of young actively-growing cereals as fodder, l)in it is probable
that this danger will be largely reduced if only plants suffering
from attack by insects are used.

The ailvantages of sowing crops by means of a drill and of
planting out seedlings in regular lines become especially apparent
in the control of crop-pests by means such as hand-picking. If a
cotton-fielil, for instance, is planteil in regular rows, it is compara-
tively easy to go over the field row by row and collect cotton-l)Ug,
or whatever the particulai pest is, and to be certain that no bushes _
have been left unexamined ; but it is far more difficult to make sure
that no bushes have been missed out if they are planted irregularly.
It is also far easier to notice the first stages of an attack in drill-
sown crops and their intercultivation is more efficient and makes it
more difficult for pests to spread. Such crops, too, are more reatlily
thinned out and the more vigorous plants which arc left are better
able to withstand the attack of pests.

Mechanical Methods.

I'nder the heading of Mechanical Methods may be grouped
those means of control which are inteniled to reduce the numbers
of pests, either before or after they have attained destructive pro-
portions, without making use of insecticidal li(iuids, powders or
gases ; but it may again be remarked that it is difficult to tlraw
any definite line between mechanical and insecticidal methoils.
Amongst mechanical means may be included hand-picking,
collection by hand-nets or bag-nets, hopperilozers, light-traps,
attraction to baits and traps, trenching, burning, banding of
trees, screening, destruction of borers in trees, removal of dead
trees and branches of trees, and cutting out of deadhearts.

The collection of insect pests by hand is an extremely simple
method which has also the merit of remarkable efficacy if carried
out regularly and on the first appearance of a pest whilst its numbers
are still small. If pests are allowed to increase, their numbers soon
become so great that hand-picking is out of the ciuestion, but in
the early stages of an attack a vigorous onslaught will often nip
the outbreak in the bud. For example, in 1912 we had a small
outbreak of kumblifniflii on the Central Farm at Coimbatore ; one
ilwkni was set to collect the caterpillars and in four days had
collected several hundreds with the result that little damage was
done by that brood and no subsequent broods were even noticed;
if the first brood had not been checked, at least two subseciuent

CHAl'. \I.| IHK fONTROl. OK INSKC'l I'KSTS OK CROPS.

«9

broods would have tollowtnl and ronsiderabli- damage would have
l)een done, as actually happened in the surrounding district under
similar conditions except that no action was taken. A measure of
this sort is so simple ami inexpensive as to be within the reach of all,
and every cultivator should make a practice of killing every crop-
pest on sight wherever met with and more especially when found
on his crop in small numbers, for it is the prevention of increase
that shoulil l)e aimed at. It is of little use to start killing the pTiiliis
after they have attained such numbers that the crop is alreatly
spoilt.

The methoil of hand-jiicking must be adapted to the i^articuhir
insect concerned, the insects being simply caught anil sciuashed in
the hanil (smooth caterpillars, large bugs, many beetles) or crushed
unilerfoot (large caterpillars) or dropped into a pan or vessel
containing water with a film of oil on the top (kiimhlihiilus, blister
beetles). Or the insects may be shaken on to a sheet or cloth or
into a vessel of oil ami water. For the collection of cotton-bugs
use is sometimes niatle of a tin funnel fitted into a bag in which
the bugs fall and are unable to escape. For collecting insects
from moderately tall plants an ordinary umbrella, held upside
ilown, makes an excellent tray if nothing else be available.

l^io. 36.— Hiind-iut. lOiif^iiiMl.i

A small hand-net is particularly useful for catching the more
active insects which are difficult to capture with the unassisted
hand. It is simply and cheaply matle of a bag of light cloth
secured arountl its mouth to a hoop of cane or bent wood which in
its turn is fastened to the two arms of a Y-shaped branch of which
the main stem forms the handle of the net. With the help of a net

90

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

rCHAP. XI.

ot this kitul a iiiltivator may casil) rid his Hclds of Hying' i)csts
siR'h as Rice-ljug, Blister Beetles and Rose-chat'crs, whilst it may

ii.n.diiil III U-.

AiHiiMr > Miit,'ni;il plioi.

also be used for grasshoppers. The insects caught in tiie net, \yj
sweeping it over the crop, may be killed simply by crushing them
by hand or under foot or with a flat stone or the contents of the net
may be emptied into a vessel containing water with a iiltle oil
on top.

Fig. 38. — BaK-net. iKrom Madras .AKriciiltiiral Calciidar lyU-14.1

For grasshoppers a bag-net is used as this enables the whole
surface of an affected area to be worked over and practically all
the grasshoppers to be swept up in the bag. The bag-net is simply
a large bag of cloth about four feet wide and two feet across at the
mouth and five or six feet deep and tapering to a point behind.

I 111': ("OXIROI. Ol' l\SK( 1 I'KSI'S ()!•' CROPS.

1)1

The mouth of the bag is fitted at tho sides (see figure 38) with two
short bamboo poles each four or five leet long, to keep the mouth
open and to form handles to hold tiie lul with, and a pii( i- ot
bamboo is also fasteneil into the lower edge of the mouth to keep
it straight and so prevent it from sagging uji ofl" the ground. The
end of the net is weighted with a lump of stone, brick or wood to
prevent it ballooning up and spilling the eateh out of the mouth
when in use. The bag-net is workeii by two men who each grasp
one of the bamboo handles and sweep it over the crop as f|uickly

%

m^

<-^^ %'.^§^

Fig. ,iq. — BaK-net in nsr. I Aiitlmr's orit;inal |)li.>ii..i

as possible. The hoppers, being disturbed by the passage of the
net, jump off the plants and are swept into the net by the lower
edge of the bag before they have time to reach the ground. The
grasshoppers, at the end of each run, are shaken down into the
bottom of the bag and killed by crushing or by emptying them
into a vessel of oil and water. For obtaining as large a catch as
l)ossible the following precautions should be observed : -(l) the net
must be swept as closely along the ground as possible, (2) the men
working it must run at a quick pace, and (3) as far as possible the
bag should be swept against the wind.

A single bag-net will work over nearly three acres of grounti
daily and will require the services of three men, two working it
and the third relieving the others by turns. Where a field is badly
infestefi by grasshoppers it will recjuire to be gone over several

()2 SOMK SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XI.

limes, the nimiber of baggings rftjiiiriil (lepciuling on the tlegree
ot infest.ition, and the natures of tlie soil and crop. It is of course
impossible to bag cereal cTops when they are grown up as it is
impossible to get the net sufficiently near the ground to catch the
hoppers and because the damage done by the workers running
through the field would be too great, but such crops may easily be
bagged without damage before they have attained a growth of
three feet.

The efficiency of both the hand and bag-nets may be increased
by soaking them with oil before use but this practice is not econo-
mically sound unless waste oil is available at a nominal cost.

Hopper-dozers are machines used for the control of grass-
hoppers and are made of a series of trays, usually of metal, joined
in a parallel series and so interspaced that each tray fits into the
interval between each row of a field-crop. The inside of each tray
is painted with tar or other sticky substance or is simply filled
with oil and water and the machine is then dragged through the
infested field which, it is needless to add, must have been previ-
ously sown in parallel lines by means of a drill. The hoppers,
disturbed by the passage of the machine, jump or are brushed off
the plants and fall into the trays where they stick to the tar or are
smothered by the oil, which kills them even if they succeed in
escaping from the trays. A machine of this sort was tried in Bellary
in connection with the Deccan Grasshopper work in IQII and was
found to be quite efficient but less economical than bag-nets, whilst
hopper-dozers possess the disadvantage that their use is restricted
to drill-sown land. As an adjunct to the use of the bag-net, when
the crops have become too high to admit of bagging, hopper-dozers
may sometimes be very useful.

Light-traps are used to attract and kill the adults of various
crop-pests, especially those which are stem-borers in their early
life and therefore difficult to check in their directly destructive
stages. They are simple in construction and inexpensive to work
and it is probable that light-traps may be found to be the best
means of checking such pests as the Stem-borers of paddy (Sclueuo-
hiiis bipiiiiclifcr) and of ragi (Saliiria iiificita). Any ordinary lamp,
holding sufficient oil to burn all night, may be used and is placed
amongst the crop, either standing in or suspended just above a pan
of oil and water which should project at least six inches on each
side of the lamp. The lamp should be so placed that the flame is
situated just above the tops of the growing crop and that the light
is visible all around. A mixture of kerosine and coconut oil gives
a good light at small cost. The lamp should be lighted at dusk
and left burning all night. The insects, which are attracted by

CHAP. XI. I THE CONTROI, nv INSECT PESTS OF CROPS.

93

the light, ilasli against the glass of the lamp-frame and fall into
the tray of oil and water below this and arc suffocated by the oil.
Very large nimibers of insects are sometimes caught in this way,
especially on still, warm, dark, moonless nights. It is usually not
worth while to put out a lamp-trap on bright moonlight or windv
nights.

I'IG. 40.— LiKlU-lnip. .Orii.'iiial. I

Baits ami traps for the attraction anil capture of crop-pests are
so numerous and various that no complete account can be attempt-
eil here. Many nocturnal caterpillars, crickets and other insects
which hide away in the daytime are often difficult to track down
and deal with but they may sometimes be trapped by laying down
fresh sods of turf, planks, etc. in likely places and these may if
recpiired be baited towards evening with tentler shoots (<'.A^ lucerne)
and examined ne.xt morning for the presence of insects. Special
traps for the attraction and destruction of certain noctuid moths
by the dissemination of the smell of a liipiid have been introduced
of late years and have been fountl highly successful in Northern
India in one special case; but such means are not within the reach
of the ordinary agriculturist.

The trenching of fields anil smaller areas such as seedbeds is
a simple and efficient method for assisting in the exclusion of
creeping insects, such as caterpillars, which may otherwise invaile
crops. A small furrow of even a few inches breadth and depth
will often check the inroads of such insects if the inside edge of
the trench is vertical and composed of fairly loose soil. A few

94 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. |CHAP. XI.

small stcepsided pits dug at short intervals along the bottom of
such a trench will serve as further traps, as the insects will gene-
rally wander some distance along the bottom of the trench and arc
therefore likely to tumble into the pits. In the case of Kumbliliiilds,
if sufficiently wide and deep trenches are available, a few fresh
branches may be strewn in them to provide a certain amount of
food and shelter and these may be examined and renewed daily
and all the caterpillars found in hiding killed; but care must
be taken that such branches do not provide a bridge up the
sides of the trench. In cases where a ditch of standing water
forms the boundary of a field, a little oil spread over the surface
of the water will form a barrier against invasion by caterpillar
pests.

Burning is sometimes a practicable method of dealing with
crop-pests, especially in the case of many of the hairy caterpillars
which gather gregariously and often form large patches on tree-
trunks. A bundle of straw soaked in oil and fastened to the end
of a bamboo makes an efficient torch for such purposes. The
burning of stubble has already been dealt with.

Fires may also be used sometimes in the control of crop-pests
which are attracted and killed by the flames at night and insects
may also in some cases be driven out of crops at critical times by
the judicious use of smoke. Mango Hoppers, for example, may
sometimes be diiven temporarily out of the trees by kindling smoky
fires beneath the branches at the blossoming period when the
flowers would otherwise be spoilt by the " honeydew " e.xuded by
the Hoppers.

In the case of trees the access of pests may often be prevented
by banding the trunk with a sticky or oily mixture either painted
tlirectly on to the tree or applied on a band of cloth or paper
fastened around the tree. A mixture of Tar and Crude Oil Emul-
sion, in ec|ual parts, may be recommended as efficacious and
harmless to trees ; but no mixture of this sort can be expected to
last more than a short time in India. Wide bands of tin may be
nailed on to the stems of Coconut Palms to prevent the access
of rats.

The screening of choice fruits and vegetables to guard them
against the attack of fruit-flies and other pests is a simple and
obvious method of protection.

Many trees are subject to the attack of large boring caterpillars,
the larvae of beetles and moths, which pierce galleries through the
living wood and in bad cases may even kill the tree or bush so
attacked. A simple remedy is to cut out the larvae with a knife
and to paint the wound over with tar to prevent access of other

CHAP. XI. I TIIK CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS OF CROPS. t)5

insects or of the spores of fungi or l)acteri;i. The use of the knife
in such eases, thougli ainiarentiy drastic, is usually i|uite successful.
Mango-trees especially are subject to attack by a common tree-
boring beetle larva {H<tlonrii nihiis) and Orange trees also are often
affected by the grub of another species. Sometimes the grub can
bi' killed or pulled out with a piece of wire but usually it is better
to ( ul down to it and i lean out the gallery which is otherwise
likely to give access to other diseases later on. A piece of wire
with a barbed point is used for destroying palm beetles {Oryctcs
rltiiwccros) in their burrows in the tender shoots of palms, the beetles
being transfixed on the barb and withdrawn and the burrow
tarred over.

A tree or portion of a trei' which is dying or dead at once
iiecomes a suitable breeding-place for innumerable insects, mostly
beetles, which feed upon dead or decaying wood, and some of these
may be a source of danger to living trees if no more dead wood
is available for tluni. All dead trees and branches should
therefore be lemoved and used for fuel or other purposes and not
be left standing or lying about the fields. This is especially the
case with rotting stumps of palms and aloes which are usually
found to be swarming with the fat white grubs of Oryctcs which
will presently emerge as beetles to attack the palms in the
vicinity.

Cereals, such as sugarcane, cholam and paddy, generally
exhibit signs of attack by stemborers by a withering of the central
shoot which is frequently completely detached so that it comes
away from the plant at the least pull. Such a withered central
shoot is called a " deadheart " and its presence almost invariably
shows that a caterpillar is boring inside the stem of the plant.
A watch should i)e kept for the rirsi appearance of such dead-
hearts, especially in a valuable crop such as sugarcane, and they
should be rigorously cut out and the caterpillar killed to prevent
the attack from spreading. Shoots so attacked are in any case
quite useless ; whereas, if they are cut back as soon as noticed, new-
shoots will generally be thrown up and little loss result. But the
importance of prompt cutting out of deadhearts lies in the preven-
tion of further damage by later broods of the insects concerned.

INSECTICIUAL METHODS.

Insecticides, as their name implies, are substances which are
used to kill insects. As a rule, they are only used when an insect
has attained such numbers as to be a pest. Some insecticides, it is
tnie, may be and are used as deterrents or repellents, to drive
insects away temporarily from particular areas, but as a rule it

96 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XI.

only pays to use insecticides when daiiiage is imminent or actually
being done. The conditions of agricultural holdings in the Plains
of India are so special that insecticidal methods for the control of
crop-pests are hardly within the means or reach of the ordinary
cultivator, but even at present there is large scope for their employ-
ment by Zamindars, Agricultural Stations and Associations, and
by all owners of garden and orchard property, whilst in the Hill
Districts the more permanent plantations of tea. coffee, etc.. have
mostly found by experience the economic utility of insecticides.

Insecticides are usually applied in the form of powders. li(|uids
or gases, but only the first two of these will be considered here, as
gaseous insecticides are not applicable to crops under ordinary
conditions in India and will therefore be dealt with in the next
section under the heading of " Special Methods." Broadly speak-
ing, insecticidal substances may be divided into Stomach Poisons
and Contact Poisons, and it is with respect to their correct usage
that some knowledge of the insects concerned is requisite. Stomach
Poisons are applied to the plant which is attacked in order that
they may be eaten by the insect and kill it when taken into the
system through the alimentary tract ; they can therefore only be
used for insects which eat solid food, such as leaves or stalks of
lilants, or in other words insects which have biting mouthparts.
Insects with sucking mouthparts obtain their food by thrusting their
mouthparts into the plant and sucking its juices ; therefore they
cannot be poisoned by substances applied only to the outside
surfaces of the plant and it is impracticable to inject poisons into
the plant which will kill the insects without harming the plant.
For sucking insects we therefore use Contact Poisons which kill
them either l)y blocking their spiracles and so asphyxiating them
or by direct poisonous action or by evolving poisonous gases ; so
far. however, as the cultivator is concerned, the insect is killed by
suflocation. Contact insecticides can of course be used to kill
insects with biting mouthparts, but it is more economical to use
Stomach Poisons for these. To sum up. Stomach Poisons are
applied t<j the plant in order that they may be eaten by those
insects which have biting mouthparts ; Contact Poisons are applied
to the insects themselves, and only incidentally to the plant, in
order to suffocate insects with sucking mouthparts.

Before considering the insecticides themselves, a few general
remarks on their application will not be out of place here. In
the first place it must be noted that no exact scale of dosage
can be laid ilown as universally applicable, although for ortlinary
practical work an approximately correct dosage may be used.
Too large a <iuantity of an insecticide may kill the jilant as well

CHAP. XL] THE COXTROL OF INSECT PESTS OF CROPS. 97

as the insect, whilst too weak a dose may have no effect on
either. What is required is a quantity strong enough to kill the
insect but not strong enough to harm the plant, and this must vary
according to the kind and age of both plant and insect. If a
particular strength of insecticide is found to fulfil these conditions,
there is no object in using a stronger dose ; such will not kill the
insect any " deader," whilst the e.xtra quantity used will represent
a waste of money antl may harm the plant. But a super-lethal dose
is usually preferable on the whole to a sub-lethal one, as the extra
cost of labour in repeating the latter is generally greater than the
difference between the two ; in other words, it does not pay to
apply an ineffective dosage, as both insecticide and labour arc
wasted without result. In the following pages are given general
average quantities in which the various insecticides referrcil to
should be used and the minimum quantity stated should be tried at
first on a small scale and only increased if found inefficacious. It
must be remembered also that different makes of insecticides may
vary considerably in purity.

Secondly, an appropriate insecticide must be chosen with
regard not only to the insect but to the plant also. It would, for
example, be criminal folly to apply an arsenical poison to culinary
vegetables or fodder cholam just before these were intended to be
cut for food of man or beast.

Thinlly, due regard must be paid to weather conditions. It is
useless, as a rule, to apply insecticides during periods of heavy
rain, as they are rapidly washed oft" by showers before any good is
accomplished. Nor is it usually a good thing to apply liquid
insecticides to leaves under the hot noonday sun ; such aie best
applied in the early morning, which is also the best time to apply
powders, whilst the dew is still on the leaves. Poisons for night-
feeding insects should be applieil in the evening. Many insecti-
cides are decomposed by the action of sunlight and weather antl
the use of some, such as sulphur, is based on this fact ; the applica-
tion of an insecticide cannot, therefore, be expected to protect a
plant for more than a limited period — probably two or three weeks
at the most during dry weather and considerably less if rain
occurs.

Stonuich Poisons.
Of this class of insecticides the arsenical preparations known
as " Paris Green " and "London Purple ' were first tried in India
some twenty-five years ago, but their use has now been practically
abandoned. Lead Arsenate was introduced ten years ago and
Lead Chromate of quite recent years and both are used extensively,
7

98 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC [CHAP. XI.

whilst Naphthaline Emulsion is also used for special crops such as
vegetables, where only a temporary poison is required. Other
insecticides of this class include Zinc Arsenite, Dry Paints, and
several others which are more rarely used.

Lead Chroinatc is an insoluble yellow substance which is usually
sold in the form of a paste containing about 33 per cent, or as a
powder containing about 50 per cent, of Lead Chromate. The paste
mixes better with water and is easier to use, three ounces of this
being taken to represent two ounces of the powder, one-quarter to
one-half of an ounce of powder, and half as much again of paste,
being the standard dosage for one gallon of water. If Lead
Chromate itself is not obtainable it may be prepared by dissolving
separately in water one part by weight of Potassium Bichromate
and two parts by weight of Lead Acetate or Lead Nitrate and
mixing the two solutions, when two parts by weight of Lead
Chromate will be precipitated, and this may be diluted with water
to the required strength and used in the sprayer.

Lead Chromate possesses these advantages, that its yellow
colour makes it readily perceptible on the plants to which it has
been applied and that it is a comparatively weak poison to larger
animals such as cattle. It is not, however, absolutely non-poisonous
to cattle, as has been claimed, and on the other hand, it has not
always proved effective against insect-pests ; on the whole it does
not seem to be sufficiently poisonous to be really effective, but may
for the present be recommended as a readily accessible and
moderately efficient insecticide for use by those in whose hands it
might be dangerous to place arsenicals.

Lead Arsenate is usually sold in the form of a greyish paste but
is also obtainable as a white powder ; in either case it should first
be mixed with a little water to make a thin paste before dilution to
the strength required for spraying. The advantages of Lead
Arsenate are the facts that it does not burn foliage as a rule owing
to its insolubility in water, that it remains in suspension in the
sprayer with a motlerate degree of agitation, and that it sticks well
to the surfaces of plants. The powdered form can be dusted onto
plants when the white colour shows up well, but this insecticide is
usually applied more economically as a liquid spray. It is con-
siderably cheaper than Lead Chromate and a much more violent
poison, but does not kill insects so quickly as Paris Green or the
more soluble arsenicals. Lead Arsenate in the form of paste
should not contain more than 50 per cent, of water, it should
contain more arsenic than is equivalent to llVz per cent, of Arsenic
Pentoxide and should not contain arsenic in water-soluble form

CHAP. XI.l THE CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS OF CROPS. 99

equivalent to more than 075 V^'^ cent, of Arsenic Pentoxidc.
The paste is generally useil at a strength of 4 to 8 pounds to
100 gallons (roughly one-half to one ounce per gallon), the powder
at 2 to 6 pounds to too gallons of water. If not obtainable directly
it may be prepared from Lead Acetate (Sugar of Lead) and
Sodium Arsenate, 44 ounces of the former being dissolved in four
gallons of water in a wooden or earthenware container, and si.xteen
ounces of Sodium Arsenate being dissolved separately in two
gallons of water; these two solutions on mixing will provide Lead
Arsenate sufficient for dilution to lOO gallons.

The Arsenites of Lead and other metals are about twice as
poisonous as the correspontling Arsenates, owing to their greater
solubility in water and the gastric juices of insects and other
animals. For spraying, therefore, as soluble a form of Arsenic is
required as can be safely applied to plants without burning them.
Sodium Arsenite cannot be so used as it injures foliage ami hence
is often applied as a weed-killer. Lead Arsenite may be prepared
by dissolving separately in water six ounces of Sodium Arsenite
(which is itself prepared by boiling together White Arsenic and
Caustic Soda) and thirty-two ounces of Lead Acetate ; these solu-
tions are mixed and made up to 62^ gallons for spraying. But, on
account of the extra solubility of the Arsenite, it is better to use
Lead Arsenate.

Zinc Arsenite has been used to some extent in America to replace
Lead Arsenate, and is claimed to be more toxic, or at least more
rapidly poisonous to insects, one pound of Zinc Arsenite being
taken as of equivalent toxicity to three pounds of Lead Arsenate.
Zinc Arsenate has also been used as an insecticidal spray at the
rate of about four pounds to lOO gallons of water. As the action of
Zinc salts on animals usually induces vomiting it is probable
that Zinc compounds may find a special use in preference to
.Lead salts in the particular circumstances found in India where it
is especially desirable to avoid the poisoning of cattle which may
accidentally feed on sprayed plants.

Paris 6^r<r«, usually sold as an emerald-green powder, is a double
acetate and arsenite of copper and may be called Copper Aceto-
Arsenite, although its actual composition is not fixed. It is a violent
poison and may be applied dry but is better used as a liquid spray ;
in either case it should be mixed with Lime in order to neutralize
any soluble arsenic which may be present and which would burn
the foliage. When applied dry, three to four times the same
weight of air-slaked Lime is added and the mixture dusted lightly
over the plants in the early morning by means of a muslin bag.

100 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC [CHAP- XI.

When useii as a spray, eight to ten ounces of Paris Green are used
in 100 gallons of water to which have been added two pounds of
lump Lime to neutralize any soluble arsenic. The advantages of
Paris Green are its cheapness and powerful poisonous action ;
amongst disadvantages may be noted the fact that it is not properly
held in suspension in the sprayer without constant agitation and
there is therefore risk of uneven application, that it sometimes
burns the plants, and that it is liable to be washed off them very
easily. If not obtainable, it is readily made by dissolving sepa-
rately 4 lb. of white arsenic in 5 gallons of water and 5 lb. of
Verdigris in 5 gallons of water and mixing the two liquids, which
are then boiled for some time and a little Acetic Acid added.
Commercial Paris Green should contain not less than 55 per cent,
of arsenic (As; O0> of which only about 5 per cent, should be
soluble in water, and about 27 to 31 per cent, of Cupric Oxide.

London Purple is simply Calcium Arsenite, and derives its name
from the fact that the arsenite of lime formerly used was the residue
from the manufacture of magenta and was therefore tinted with
colouring matter, which, it is needless to add, is not necessary for
its efficacy. Calcium Arsenite is readily prepared by dissolving
one pound of white arsenic in two gallons of water and mixing
with a solution containing two pounds of lime. The mixture is
then heated for half-an-hour and diluted to make 100 gallons.
Calcium Arsenite is insoluble in water and therefore will not burn
foliage, but care should be taken to see that the lime is in excess.
The original London Purple, however, was variable in composi-
tion and this insecticide is not much used at the present day.

When the foregoing insecticides are not available, ordinary
metallic paints are usually obtainable locally in a finely powdered
state and may be dusted on dry mixed with lime, flour, or road-
dust ; such paints as red lead, white lead, iron oxide, yellow ochre,
red ochre, lemon chrome, burnt sienna, etc., may be used in this
way, being simply dusted on to the crops whilst these are wet with
dew by means of a cloth bag.

In some cases it is necessary to spray vegetables or fruits which
are required for consumption within a short period and under such
conditions it would obviously be extremely dangerous to usearseni-
cals or other poisons which might remain on the crop and poison the
consumer. In such cases, a temporary insecticide, such as Naph-
thaline Emulsion, may be used, as this acts as a stomach-poison to
any caterpillars which may be doing damage and all evaporates
away within about twenty-four hours so that the sprayed material
may safely be eaten afterwards. It is prepared by dissolving six

(HA I'. \I.| THE CONTROL OK INSECT PESTS OK CROPS. lOI

ounces of concentrated size in half a gallon of hot water and
adding one pound of soft soap. Two gallons of kerosine are
then warmed carefully in tin- open air over a small fire— it is
scarcely necessary to remark that no attempt must be made to bod
kerosine over a fire— or by placing the container in a vessel of
boiling water and as much naphthaline is added as will dissolve in
the kerosine (about eight pounds as a rule). The two solutions are
then mixeil together whilst hot, half a K^dlon of water is added and
the whole thoroughly stirred nr churiKd up together.

Linir-Siilp/iiir, at a strength of 3 gallons of concentrated solution
to 100 gallons of spray material, has also been found effective as a
stomach-poison for caterpillars although its action is very slow.
Lead Arsenate may be mi.xed with it if recjuired. Lime-Sulphur,
however, is generally used as a Contact Insecticide, especially for
Mites. {Sec page 103.)

Contact I'oi.sons.

Contact Poisons, although actually effective against almost all
insects, are practically only used in the case of sucking insects as
it is usually more economical to apply a stomach poison in the case
of insects with biting mouth-parts. The Contact Poisons include
various Emulsions and Washes based on the use of Oils, Soaps,
Rosin, Sulphur, Lime, Tobacco, Phenyle and various other sub-
stances.

Crude Oil Emulsion is a very satisfactory insecticide which is
largely used in India. It contains 20 per cent, of soft (fish-oil)
soap and 80 per cent, of crude kerosine-oil. When properly
made, it forms a homogeneous mixture and emulsifies well with
water, but care should be taken to see that the oil has not separated
out from the soap. If a thick black liquid is found floating freely
on the surface of the contents of drums or packages, the emulsion
should not be accepted or used for spraying plants. It is obtain-
able ready-made and is usually put up in five-gallon drums which
cost about seven rupees in Calcutta. It is used at a strength of
about one part by volume to sixty-four of water (half a pint to a
kerosine tin). Care must be taken to see that it is properly strained
before placing the mixture in a sprayer. If no strainer is available
the emulsion may be placed in a bag or cloth and kneaded by
hand until it has passed through and mixed with the water, which
should then be churned up by means of the sprayer. Crude oil
emulsion may be used against all sucking insects except those
which are protected from wetting by hairs or scales; for such a
rosin compound must be used. A bag of crude oil emulsion placc<l
in the water-channel when fulds are being irrigated will drive

102 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XI.

away subterranean insects, such as termites, ants and root-feed-
ing Aphids, temporarily at any rate, and this will sometimes
give crops a chance of recovery in cases wlure they woukl other-
wise have been seriously affected.

Linseed Oil Emulsion is sometimes useful, especially as it is
easily prepared from materials readily obtainable. One pound of
hard soap is shaved up into fine slices antl dissolved in one gallon
of boiling soft water, which is then taken off the fire and two
gallons of raw linseed oil added to the hot solution. The mixture
is then churned up violently by the aid of a bucket sprayer to form
a smooth, yellowish, creamy emulsion, from which no free oil should
separate out on cooling. Diluted with water to a strength of one
part in ten, this emulsion is especially useful for scales and similar
insects on the trunks of trees ; it is not adapted for use on foliage.

Kerosine Eiiiiilsioii is maile in a similar manner to Linseed Oil
Emulsion, kerosine being used instead of linseed oil. In both these
emulsions, whale-oil soap or fish-oil soap may be used instead of
hard soap and more soap must be used if the water is hard.

Rosin Compound is especially suitable for Scales and Mealy-bugs
which are protected by their coverings against the action of non-
wetting oily sprays. It is made by powdering two pounds of
common fir-tree rosin and boiling one pound of ordinary washing
soda with one gallon of water ; the powdered rosin is added to the
boiling solution which is continued to be boiled, adding small
quantities of cold water at intervals, until the liquid (now about
three gallons) becomes clear anti thin, like clear coffee. This is
diluted to about one part of rosin compound in seven of water for
ordinary spraying, but may be used at a strength of one in five if
required.

Rosin Wash is only useful against young Scales, Aphids and
similar soft-bodied small insects. Ten pounds of rosin, and one-
and-a-half pounds of fish oil are heated with one gallon of water
in an iron kettle until the rosin is softened ; three pounds of Caustic
Soda, dissolved in a little water, is then added and stirred tho-
roughly, and the mixture diluted with water to make fifty gallons
of spraying material.

Qirholie Aeid Emulsion is sometimes useful for Aphids, Soft
Scales and for use against ants. One pound of whale-oil soap or
fish-oil soap is entirely dissolved in about half a' gallon of hot
water and one pint of crude carbolic acid is added and the
nu,\ture boiled for twenty minutes adding another half-gallon
of water in small (juantities to prevent boiling over. The stock
solution so prepared is diluted with twenty parts of water for use
as a spray.

CHAP. XI.] THE CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS OF CROPS. 103

X'arious forms of crude carbolic and creosote commonly sold
lor use as disinfectants are also useful as contact insecticides when
used as a strength of about one in eighty of water.

Tobacco Decoctions give excellent killing results against soft-
bodied insects without harming foliage. One pound of Tobacco
leaves or stems is steeped in four gallons of hot water and the
mixture applieil directly when cool. If soap is added, at the rate of
one pound to twenty gallons, the mixture is made much more
efficient. Tobacco stems and dust applied at the roots of bushes
and to the surface of the soil around vegetables will often drive
away and destroy grubs, worms and small pests.

Siilfliiir. in the finely-ilivided form known as Flowers of Sulphur
is valuable against Mites of all sorts. It may be used dry, being
dusteil onto the plants by itself or mixed with lime, flour or road-
dust, or may be sprayed on at the rate of one pound in two to four
gallons of water. As the insecticidal action of sulphur is due to its
oxidation under the influence of warm sunlight, it must be ajiplied
in the early morning.

Liine-Siilp/iiir, a chemical combination of lime and sulphur and
which kills insects by its caustic properties, has lately come into
extensive use in America as a spray for use on ilormant trees in the
winter-time. It has not been used in India but may perhaps be
found useful at considerable dilution. It may be prepared by heat-
ing three gallons of water in a barrel or vessel, which must not be
made of copper, and adding four pounds of unslaked lime and
immediately adding three pounds of flowers of sulphur previously
made into a thick paste with water. After the lime has all slaked
another three gallons of hot water is added and the heating
continued for an hour after which another four gallons of water is
added and the whole thoroughly stirred and strained. At this
strength the mixture will burn foliage and requires five or six times
dilution before use; it may be used undiluted for painting boles of
trees to prevent the attacks of porcupines, rats, etc.

Self-boiled Lime-Sulphur may also be prepared and used as a
spray for foliage and is especially useful, if lead arsenate be
added, as a combined insecticide and fungicide. To make it,
twenty pounds of quicklime are placed in a barrel or other suitable
receptacle — copper vessels must not be used — and three gallons of
cold water are poured over it; as soon as the slaking is well started,
sift in twenty pounds of flowers of sulphur, and stir the mixture
well. The violent heat generated by the slaking of the lime will
bring about a chemical combination between the lime and the
sulphur. More cold water is added until the mass has a paste-like

104 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XI.

consistency. Immediately the boiling begins to subside, more cold
water must be added at once to prevent further action taking place,
as, if the boiling is continued too long, the resultant liquid will
burn foliage. This solution is diluted to form lOO gallons.

Flour-Paste is a very simple and cheap spray-liquid which is
effective against small insects without any injury to vegetation. It
peels off after a day or two and leaves the growing surfaces of the
plants free and healthy. It is made simply by making an ordinary
flour-paste of one pound of flour in one gallon of water; for use as
a spray this is diluted to a strength of about eight to ten parts in
one hundred of spray-material. Mixed with Flowers of Sulphur at
the rate of about a pound and a half to ten gallons, flour-paste is
an excellent remedy against Mites but does not always kill the
eggs so that a second application is necessary after an interval of
about a week.

Flour-Paste is also very effective for use with Lead Arsenate,
Lead Chromate, etc., as a spreader, ensuring that the poison is
applied evenly over the foliage.

Potassium Cyanide is too poisonous a substance for direct appli-
cation to plants as a spray, but is useful for checking ants, which
may be nesting in fields and bunds and cherishing Aphids and
Scales. Poured into their nests at a strength of one ounce to the
gallon of water, it either kills off the nest or at least disables it for
some time.

Soap, simply dissolved in water, is sometimes valuable. as a con-
tact insecticide, especially against small and soft-bodied insects.
Ordinary bar soap, obtainable in any bazaar, can be used if no
more nauseous brand be available. At a strength of one pound to
one gallon of water it acts as a contact poison, and at one pound
to ten gallons it may be used for watering lawns or flower-beds
to drive down grubs which are eating the roots of grass or plants ;
but the amount of dilution must depend largely on the composition
of the soap.

Fish Oil Soap, or Whale Oil Soap is far preferable to ordinary
hard soap for use against insects. It may be made by adding six
pounds of caustic soda to one and one-fifth gallons of boiling
water and, when the soda is dissolved, pouring in twenty-two pounds
of fish-oil, stirring and boiling slowly, after which the mixture is
allowed to cool, when the soap separates out.

Fish Oil Soap and Tohacen Extract is excellent against Aphids
and small soft-bodied insects. It is prepared by dissolving one
pound of fish-oil soap in ten gallons of water and adding one pint of
good tobacco extract.

CHAP. XI.] THE CONTROL OK INSKCT PESTS OF CROPS. I05

Rrfrlhiit.s.

Eifsidos inscrtirides, whicli nctiially kill the insects against
which they are used, it is often useful to employ substances which
act as repellents ; that is to say, they drive insects away and
keep them from attacking the plants or areas so treated. Although
the action of repellents is necessarily only temporary it is often
important to give plants, and particularly young plants, an opportu-
nity of tiding over a critical period, such as transplantation, ,ind it
is under such circumstances that repellents may be used.

Boidcciux Mixtuit-, though more olleii used as a fungicide,
makes the parts of plants sprayed with it temporarily distasteful
to insects. It is made by dissolving one pound of Copper Sulphate
(blue stone) and one pound of (luicklime separately in water, mi,\ing
the two cold solutions gradually in a third vessel and diluting to
ten gallons for use. The mixture must be well strained. It should
be tested for any excess of copper by dipping in a knife-blade ;
if this acquires a brown deposit of copper, more lime must be
added until the excess is all neutralized ; the final mixture should
be as nearly neutral as possible, without excess of either lime or
copper. The Copper Sulphate should not be dissolved in a tin or
iron vessel, but vessels of wood, copper, glass or stoneware are all
suitable.

Dry Slaked Lime, dusted onto anil around plants, especially
vegetables, sometimes drives away insect pests. It may be
prepared by placing a little quicklime in a metal vessel and pour-
ing on hot water ; the lime will slake and cmmble to a very fine
powder. Flowers of Sulphur may be added to the lime when this
is dusted onto plants.

Calciiiw CiirbiiU- Rcsiiliic. as removed from Acetylene Gas
generators, may also be used for protecting vegetables, mixed with
earth or sand in the proportion of one in five, or one in ten in the
case of seedlings or young plants.

Tobacco Dust, or refuse of stems or leaves chopped up fine, may
also be dusted onto leaves as a repellent, but is more valuable
when placed in a small ring around the stems of plants attacked by
root-borers or subterranean Aphids or Scales, the top layer of
soil being removed and afterwards replaceil.

Such insecticides as cmde oil emulsion, soap, and phcnylc,
when added to the irrigation water at a strength insufficient to kill
insect-pests, sometimes act as repellents to drive them away
temporarily.

Cofpcr Sulphate So/iitioii is used especially for the dipping of
cane setts before planting to keep away termites until the young

io6

SOME SOUTH IXniAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XI.

caiios have become established. A saluraied solution in roh/ water
does not harm the setts if these are healthy ; but if the>' lia\e been
brought from a distance or are not i|uite freshly cut a solution at
half the above strength should be used.

Whitewash by itself, when applied to the trunks and limbs of
trees, has some value as a repellent and fungicide and also
prevents sun-scorch. Quicklime is slaked with water, thoroughly
mixed, and strained before use. In the case of permanent crops
such as coffee and rubber, the scraping (if necessary) and white-
washing of the bases of the stems helps to repel boring beetles,
and an admi.xture of Lead Arsenate or similar stomach poison with
the whitewash would probably check the attacks of porcupines on
young rubber trees.

Spraying Machinery.
For the ai)i)lication of insecticides, use is generally made of
some form of machine which delivers the insecticidal substance
under pressure as a fine mist or spray. Such machines are there-
fore called "sprayers" in the case of those which are used with

I'lG. 41. — .Vpplyi'iK powdered insecticides by hand with the aid of cloth bags.

Note the light colour of the powdered leases in foreground as compared

with the unpowdered leaves on the right. (Author's original photo.)

li(|uid insecticides, and "blowers," " bellows " or " powder guns"
in the cases of machines which are used for the distribution of dry
insecticides in powder form. The latter type of machine is not
much used in India, except in the case of a few special permanent
crops, such as tea, and for ordinary agricultural work powders can
usually be distributed onto plants quite satisfactorily with the

CHAr. XI. I rHK CX)\TROL OK INSECT PESTS OF CROPS.

lo;

liclp of a cloth bag. Liquid insecticides may, at a pinch and in
the aijsence of a sprayer, be sprini<ied on to plants by the aid of
a branch, palm-leaf or bmsh, but this method is wasteful and
unsatisfactory and a proper sprayer should always be used if it is
desired to do satisfactory work.

There are many different types of sprayers on the market, to
iiiret clitTerent ro(|iiireiiionts and priced at various rates from al)()Ut
ten rupees to over one thousand rupees.

FiC. 42. — Sprayiiif,' Syringe. lOritiinal.l

The Spraying Syringe is the simplest and cheapest form of
sprayer, but it is of course only suitable for very small areas such
as gardens. It is simply an ordinary garden syringe fitted with a
spraying nozzle. As a rule, an ordinary nozzle is also supplied so
that the syringe is available for general work in a garden as well

Fig. 4J. — Spraying Syringe in action, showing comparative si^e and
shape of jet. (Author's original photo.)

as for special work as a sprayer. As it is often desirable to be
able to spray the under surface of leaves, the syringe should be so
adapted that the jet of spray-liquid may be thrown out, when

io8

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XI.

desired, at right angles to the axis of the barrel of the syringe as
well as in a straight line. This end is secured either by the
provision of a bent collar which can be screwed on between
the barrel and the nozzle or by a jointed nozzle which can
itself be fixed at any desired angle. In the case of the " Four
Oaks " syringe the barrel is protected by a longitudinally-
ribbed outer metal cover so that it is tolerably secure from inden-
tation by rough usage. A Spraying Syringe of good quality costs
from ten to twenty rupees and is suitable for work in small
gardens for spraying a few plants which may be attacked by
pests.

Fig. 44. — Bucket Pump of old pattern without pressure-chamber. (Author's
original photo.)

The Bucket Sprayer, as its name imjilies. is suitable for use in
connection with a bucket or other receptacle for the spray li<iuid.
A kerosine tin makes a very convenient vessel and holds
a known quantity of liquid (four gallons) The Bucket Sprayer
is simply a pump, usually of brass, fitted with an adjustable
footrest and a length of rubber tubing for delivery of the spray-
material. In the best types there is an air-chamber, seen as a pear-
shaped expansion at the upper end of the barrel of the pump, which
keeps up the pressure during the up-stroke, thus ensuring continuity
in the spray. Bucket Sprayers arc available in India at a cost of

CHAP. XI/ THK CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS OK CROPS.

109

about fifteen to twenty rupees each and are suitable for small
areas, sueh as gardens, small fruit-gardens or small areas of
crops. If a longer hose is fitted ami the nozzle fastened to a bamboo
it is possible to spray small trees with one of these pumps, but the
waste of time anil labour incurred in moving the bucket from one
tree to another and the difficulty of working the pump and directing
the spray at the same time renders this type unsuitable for work on
any large scale. For use around a house, however, the Bucket
Sprayer is very suitable and it may of course be used for such
l)urposes as the application of whitewash or tlisinfectants. As
these sprayers have no agitator care must be taken that the spray-
material is kept properly mi.xed and this end may be achieved by
pumping it back on itself occasionally ; this applies to spraying
syringes also.

Fig. 45. — Bii<.k<t I'limp in use. (.Author's original photo.)

KiKifSiiik Sprnyvrs are so called because they are usually fitted
with straps and are intended to be hung over the shoulders like
a knapsack. In this type the spray-material is contained in the
sprayer itself which is provided with a pump, delivery-tube and
nozzle, and also with an agitator in all efficient patterns. The tank
contains a variable amount of liquid, usually from one to four
gallons. The patterns usually imported from Europe or America '""

• IVb/f. — It should be noted, in connection with American machines and fonnulx,
thai the Anicricin gallon is only fivc-sixihs of the Imperial galKin.

no SOME SOUTH IXDIAX INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XI.

generally hold four gallons of liquid but, as these when full weigh
upwards of fifty pounds, they are too large and heavy for the
physique of the ordinary cooly, in Southern India at all events,
where the weight of a fully-chargeil sprayer should not exceed
forty pounds.

Fig. 46. — Gould's Knapsack Sprayer. niiicted t<i handle-lever

and strainer fitting below cap of filler hole. i.'Xnthor's original photo.)

In Knapsack Sprayers the pump may be outside the reservoir or
may be enclosed within it ; the latter type is preferable, as the
pump is less liable to injury and is better protected from dust and
grit. The straps should be wide so as not to cut into the carrier,
and this is particularly necessary in India where these straps come
into direct contact with the bare skin of a cooly. In the best types
two handles are provided, one for use when the sprayer is carried
on the back and the other, working up and down like a bucket
sprayer, for use when the sprayer is used on the ground. For the
latter purpose a footrest is necessary and is usually provided. A
good mechanical agitator is essential and is usually provided in
the form of a metal frame or sheet which moves with each motion
of the pump, to which it is attached. A strainer is an essential
fitting and is usually provided in the form of a detachable metal
sieve.

CHAP. XL] THE CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS OF CROPS.

Ill

l-ir, 4 7. Knap^ack Sprayer in iipc. l.Aiitlioi-'s orii^inal ])lioto,)

Knapsack Sprayers are suitable for general work in gardens,
fruit-gardens, and on crops in moderately small areas up to about
five acres. They are also used extensively in the case of permanent
and valuable crops, such as tea and coffee, which are grown
on hillsiiles where it would be impracticable to use larger machines.

Fig. 48.— Barn I I'ninp. 'Autlioi V ,.i i.^iiial ph..t,

112 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. fCHAP. \I.

For the ordinary cultivator, a Knapsack Sprayer or Pressure Sjiraycr
(.•>(•(' page 113) will fulfil ail ordinary rec|uirements. It may be used
for spraying all ordinary crops and, with a suitable nozzle or
extension rod, for small trees up to twelve or fifteen feet high.
Various patterns arc obtainable in India at a cost of about thirty-
five to fifty rupees each.

Barrel Sprayers, so called because they are usually mounted in a
barrel which acts as the tank for the spray-material, are larger
pumps which are specially adapted for spraying on a moderately
large scale. The barrel usually holds about fifty gallons and is
mounted on a detachable frame supported on wheels so that it may
be transported easily, the whole apjiaratus wlien full weighing some
six hundred pounds; a larger tank is not iiracliially useful under
ordinary conditions in India. The pump shoukl supply at least
two nozzles at 80 to 100 pounds pressure with ordinary pumping,

iWHWfSCTBdW^jWswi^.

Fig. 49.— Barrel Pump 111 .11 i;,. 11. '.Xmlh^r ;,.i il:iii,i1 plr .1. ,1.

and it should have a large air-chamber wiliiin the i:)umi)-barrel in
order to maintain a constant pressure. The air-chamber should
not project above the barrel, as such an arrangement makes the
pump top-heavy and exposed parts are especially liable to i)reak-
age. For the same reason the handle and similar parts should be
made of malleable or galvanized iron and not of cast iron. A good
mechanical agitator is an essential fitting and this should be of the
paddle type (i.e., a metal frame or sheet attached to and working
with the pump). Some machines are fitted with agitators of the " jet "
type in which a current of air is driven into the spray-liciuid from the
bottom of the pump-barrel ; this method is unsatisfactory in practice
as it allows a loss of pressure without sufficiently agitating the
liquid. The pump should be readily removable from the barrel

CHAI". XI. 1 THK CONTROL OK INSECT PESTS OF CROPS.

113

lor purposes of cleaning or repair, and the valves should also be
removable and so made that they wear down evenly.

Barrel Spiayers are suitable for field-work on the level and for
special work such as is required for orchards or experimental crops.
They cost about one hundred rupees each. On large holdings and
experimental stations a Barrel Sprayer is very useful for coping
with outbreaks of crop-pests but for the ordinary small holdings a
smaller type of machine is generally sufficient.

Forms of Barrel Sprayers (as also of Knapsack and Bucket
Sprayers) have been placed on the market in India in which oil and
water are contained in separate tanks. It is claimed that these
may be mixed and sprayeil in definite proportions as a mechanical
mixture, but such machines have in practice been found unreliable
in i>ractical work and their u^r is now generally abandoned.

1 :i.. ,S;i. ■■ .\utu.^(;ia\ " in pait=.
On the left is the pump barrel and in the foreground the piston with locking
arrangement fitting into the clips seen on top of tlie tank. L\uthors original
photo.^

Pressure Sprnycrs of various types have been introduced of late
years and it seems probable that these will oust the old patterns,
especially of Knapsack Sprayers, from the markets of the future. In
these sprayers the spray-liquid is placed in the tank and air is then
pumped in until a considerable pressure is obtained and this
compressed air is used for the expulsion of the spray-material.
No pumping is required therefore whilst the spray is being applied
8

\I4

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XI.

to the plants, so that the whole attention can be given to the
application of the spray and both hands are free to direct it pro-
perly. This is a very important point, as thoroughness in spraying
is absolutely essential to success, and if most of the energy and
attention of the operator is occupied with the physical labour of
pumping, it is obvious that a really satisfactory application of the
spray can hardly be expected. For this reason alone, Pressure
Sprayers have a very considerable advantage over the old patterns
of hand sprayers. The pump, by which the necessary pressure is
attained, may be contained in the sprayer or may be separate. In
the latter case a saving in weight is claimed but against this must
be placed the greater risk of breakage or mislayal of the pump and
the weight of this is very trifling in comparison with the weight of
the tank and other necessary parts. For this reason, preference

Fig. 51. — '■ Autospray " in use.

Note that only one hand is required to direct and control the spray.

(.Author's original photo.)

may be given to those patterns in which the pump is self-contained.
Some models are provided with pressure-gauges to indicate the
correct amount of pressure to which the air should be pumped ;
although such gauges are of course useful it is doubtful whether
they are worth paying much extra for in India where the ordi-
nary cooly is not likely to work up too great a pressure. In
those types which are not fitted with a gauge it is usually
fairly easy to tell when the pressure is sufficient as the increased
difficulty in pumping in more air acts as a commonsense indicator.

CHAP. XI.] THE CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS OF CROPS.

115

In filling Pressure Sprayers it must be remembered that space
must be left for the air to be compresscti and at least one-quarter
of the capacity of the tank must therefore be left unfilled.

Amongst the advantages of the useof Pressure Sprayers are the
facts that they are easily portable, do not leak (as is often the case
with a Knapsack Sprayer) and only one hand is required to ilirect
the hose, leaving the other free, so that a tree may be climbed, or

Fig. 52.

H<A(k

I'n-nsuii' Spr.iycr>. 4gallon
(Author's original photo.)

md I -gailoii t>-pc5.

spraying may be done from a step-ladder, under conditions in
which the use of a knapsack hand-sprayer would be impracticable.
For this last reason "Holder" Sprayers of the one-gallon type are
in fairly e.xtensive use in Southern India for the spraying of palm-
trees for control of fungus diseases, as the operator can climb the
tree with the fully charged sprayer slung over his shoulder, either
by a strap or in a small canvas bag, and can then carry on
spraying with the aid of one hand only. Larger patterns of the
"Holder" type are also available for use with ordinary field crops
and trees whilst a wheeled ten-gallon pattern is suitable for fruit-
gardens and similar aieas. Pressure Sprayers of the " Autospray "
pattern, obtainable in Calcutta at from Rs. 30 to 35, contain three
gallons of liquid, weigh 40 pounds when fully charged and have
been used very successfully in India. Such sprayers are suitable
for spraying small areas of crops and for use around houses. We
have also found them peculiarly suitable for the spraying of cattle
for insect parasites, as a fine spray is delivered on simply turning a

Il6

SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

|CH.\r. XI.

tap without any motion or noise to scare the animals. A dis-
advantage of the smaller patterns of Pressure Sprayers lies in the
absence of an agitator, but, as there is no risk of spilling the spray
liquid, it is comparatively simple to give them a good shaking by
hanil before commencing to spray.

Fig. 5J. — " Holder" Pressure Sprayer ot 1 -gallon type in use.

Note that only one liand is required to control and direct the spray.

(.\uthor's original photo. i

Power Sprayers, in which there is a large tank mounted on a
cart and eight or ten nozzles are worked at once at high pressure
by means of a petrol or oil motor, are in extensive use in America,
but are not likely to find much scope in India except in si^ecial
cases, such as large fruit orchards or experimental stations where it
may be necessary to spray large areas. Machines of this type are
not available in India and would re(|uirc to be ordered sjieciaily.
They cost from Rs. 1,000 to Rs. 2.000.

Tlic S'lcclioii of Spniycr.s.
Before obtaining spraying machines it is as well to have a clear
idea of the work which will be required of them in order that suit-
able patterns may be obtained. It is useless to attempt to cover
large areas with a small machine and it is equally wasteful to buy
a large machine to do work which could be performed as efficiently
by a small one. It is poor economy to save a few rupees in pur-
chasing a spraying outfit anil to spend a far larger amount in extra
time and labour in applying the sprays. Syringes and Bucket
Sprayers are c|uite suitable for use in and around the house or in a
small garden. Knapsack Sprayers are used in small areas of field

CHAP. XI. I THE CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS OK CROPS. II7

crops of I to 5 ;uTi-s and for small orchards anil gardens and
for larger areas under permanent crops, such as tea and coffee, in
districts which are impracticable for larger machines on account
of the unevenness of the ground. For the spraying of field crops
over large areas it is more economical to use Barrel Sprayers or
Power Sprayers in all cases where the groimd is sufficiently even to
enable such machines to cover it properly.

After deciding on the size of machine required it is necessary to
select one of the various patterns obtainable on the market and in
doing this attention should be paid to their relative merits in order
to secure the best value for money. It is impossible here to adver-
tise or recommend particular makers or patterns, but information on
any points will always be given to incjuirers as far as possible.

The material of the tank and of all working parts which come
into contact with the spray-li<iuid should be of heavy brass or bronze
or similar alloy. Many spray solutions (f.g. Bordeaux mi.xture) have
a corrosive action on iron, and copper is attacked by Lime-sulphur.
Not only the tank, but the working parts of the pump itself (the
valves antl their seatings, the piston, and interior of the pump-
cylinder) must therefore be made of suitable material, as it does not
pay to buy cheap machines of inferior metals which corrode
rapidly.

A sufficiently large air-chamber should be insisted on, as its
presence has a consitlerable effect on the efficiency of the spray.
If the chamber is too small there will necessarily be considerable
variation in pressure between successive strokes of the pump, parti-
cularly in small machines, and the spraying will therefore tend to
be uneven. This item is of course eliminated in the case of
pressure sprayers.

Accessibility of the working parts of the pump is a matter to
which tlue attention should be given. In some of the older patterns
of machines the pump is enclosed in a tight case and is practically
inaccessible without great waste of time. As grit and dirt are sure
to find their way into the pump and valves, these must occasionally
be removed and cleaned and therefore their accessibility is a
necessity. In this respect some of the pressure sprayers are very
satisfactory as the whole pump is easily removed for inspection.

The packing of the piston must on no account be made of rubber
but should be of some material which is readily replaceable, sucii
as leather.

Strainers are important parts of all self-contained machines as it
is essential to see that the spray-liquid is freed from all particles of
grit which will otherwise soon wear ilown the valves and clog the
nozzle. All spray-li(iuids therefore must be strained before they

Il8 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. XI.

are placed in the tank. If no strainer is provided with the machine,
or if this becomes lost or worn out, a metal funnel should be made,
provided with brass wire-gauze of twenty-five meshes to the inch ;
or the liquid may be strained through a cloth.

Nozzles of many scores of different types have been introduced
and used for special or general spraying and it is impossible to
attempt to describe all the various patterns. Those principally
used in India are of the Bordeaux and the Vermorel patterns or
modifications of these. Both of these are quite satisfactory for
general work and as a rule spraying machines as supplied are
fitted with efficient nozzles. In the Bordeaux nozzle the spray is
produced by the stream striking the edges of a metal lip which
breaks it up into a fan-shaped spray, the size of the outlet being
regulated at will and governing the fineness of the spray ; by regu-
lation of a tap in the nozzle the spray may be varied from a very
fine mist to a solid stream. In the Vermorel nozzle the spray issues
from a small chamber through a hole as a fine cone-shaped mist ;
the hole is provided with a pin, ordinarily held back by a spring,
which can be thrust forward through it to clear it if it becomes
stopped with sediment.

Hose of three-eighths of an inch diameter is generally supplied
with Bucket and Knapsack Sprayers and of half-inch size for larger
machines. The best quality is the cheapest in the long run but in
any case hoses will not last long in India and require renewal every
two or three years. For fastening the hose to the machine and
nozzle clamps are more satisfactory than wire bands.

Extension Rods of light metal tubing are very useful for the
spraying of trees and tall crops. A disc of metal attached around
the extension rod helps to protect the operator from drip. If, how-
ever, extensive spraying of trees is contemplated, as in mango
groves, it is better to build up a light tower on a cart for the
operator to work from.

The Upkeep of Sprayers-

To obtain the best results from a spraying outfit, it must be kept
in good condition and working order. It is often the case that
sprayers are not required for months on end, generally in the dry
hot season when no crops are on the ground, and if they are
neglected at this time they will be found to be out of order and
useless just when they are wanted, the hoses cracked and the valves
and nozzles clogged with dust and grit. To keep sprayers in good
cendition they must be overhauled and worked regularly, at least
once a month, and water pumped through them. Barrels or other
wooden tanks should be kept full of dean water when not in use,

CHAP. XI. I THE CONTROL OF INSECT HESTS OE CROPS. I ly

lare being taken to see that mosnuitos cannot breed in them. After
use, the whole machine should always be thoroughly cleaned out
and washed through with clean water; this is especially necessary
with regard to hose after using kerosine washes, as kerosine attacks
rubber and will quickly rot the hoses if these are not washed clean.
When in use rubber hose should not be bent at a sharp angle nor
shouhl it be left lying about in the sun when the machine is not
actually working. As noted above, all insecticides must be well
strained before they are placed in the machine, to avoid unneces-
sary wear of valves anil the clogging of nozzles. It is useless to
keep a spraying equipment if it is not in efficient order when
required for use, but by attention to the above points it should
be found ready whenever wantetl at short notice.

Special Methods.

Under the heading of special methods may be included various
means for the control of crop-pests which are, as a rule, only appli-
cable by entomological experts or at least under their direct control
ami which are therefore scarcely within the reach of the ordinary
cultivator because they require special knowledge or precautions
or apparatus. Of such methods reference is made here to the
fumigation of living plants, the control of termites and burrowing-
animals by poisonous gases pumped into their galleries by special
machines, and the control of insect-pests by fungal and bacterial
diseases and by means of parasites. Legislative measures may also
be included here.

Fumigation of living plants and trees for the control of pests,
such as Scales, which are very resistent to insecticidal sprays, is
used extensively in other countries especially in the case of fruit-
trees and has been applied in India with successful results. The
only reason why this method has not been used more extensively
in India appears to lie in the fact that Scale-insects do compara-
tively little damage to fruit-trees in India. In some cases, however,
it is a useful method for the treatment of a small number of affected
plants or trees to prevent extension of attack. The fumigant
commonly used is Hydrocyanic Acid gas, produced by the action
of Sulphuric Acid on Potassium Cyanide, and this is found very
satisfactory if reasonable precautions are taken. Plants should
never be fumigated when the foliage is wet ; the best time to fumi-
gate is in the early evening, so that the gas may act whilst the
leaves are dry and during the night. In the case of small plants
they may be covered with any gas-tight shade, such as a light
framework covered with paper tightly pasted over. For treesa tent
of some sort is generally used and, if the work is being done on

120 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. |CHAP. XI.

any large scale, it is more eonvenienl to have proper tents which
are clearly marked on the outside so that the cubic capacity may
be seen exactly when they are erected, in order that the proper
dosage of gas may be given. If the capacity of the tent is not
known the following rough rule may be followed : -Multiply the
distance around by the distance over the top of the tented tree and
divide by 133, the result being the number of ounces of Potassium
Cyanide required for ordinary work.- Thus, the distance annind
the tented tree being 35 feet and the distance over (from ground to
ground) being 20 feet, the cyanide required will be 35 X 20 h- 133 =
5'26, or five and one-quarter ounces. For every ounce of Potassium
Cyanide there are required one fluid ounce of Sulphuric Acid and
three fluid ounces of water to liberate the gas. The acid is added
to the water in a deep wide-mouthed earthenware vessel; the water
must never be poured into the acid, as the acid and water combine
violently and in the latter case the acid will probably be spattered
about and do damage. The tent or box being ready over the plants
to be fumigated, the water and acid, ready mixed in the earthen-
ware vessel, are slipped inside andthe weighed quantity of cyanide,
loosely wrapped in clean paper, is dropped into the acid and the
box or tent iwincilialcly closed down and earthed up around the
bottom and left overnight. Next morning the tent is opened up, or
the box lifted, and, after an interval to allow the escape of any gas
remaining, may be removed. It must be clearly remembered that
Hydrocyanic Acid gas is one of the most poisonous substances
known and for this reason alone it should only be used under strict
supervision. Potassium Cyanide is also a violent poison if taken
into the system, although it is fairly safe to handle if there are no
cuts or sores on the hands ; but it is always better to use gloves
if any quantity is being dealt with. Sulphuric Acid will burn
violently into the skin and flesh and the vessels containing it
must be handled with great care. For these reasons fumigation
of trees and plants in the field should never be carried out except
under competent personal supervision.

Besides its use for the control of insect-pests already attacking
plants, fumigation with Hydrocyanic Acid gas has also an impor-
tant use in checking the spread into hitherto unaff"ected localities
of pests, especially Scale-insects, which would otherwise be
brought in with growing plants. That there is actually great dan-
ger of this may be realizeil from even a casual inspection of most of
the plants, such as young mangoes, so commonly seen being carried

* t\'ole - In calculations uf ihis sort, il Is always assumed that the cynnideisof
98 percent, purity. Ordinary commercial cyanide is often of only about 45 percent,
purity and the amount must consequently he increased /lo >,ilii.

CHAP. XF.| THE CONTROL OK INSECT PESTS OF CROPS. 121

by Rail from one district to another. The invasion of the Coffee
Districts by the destructive Green Scale-bug should prove an object-
lesson regartiing the dangers of importation of insect-pests from
one district to another. In all cases, therefore, when living plants
are obtained from a distance, the consignee shoukl insist that they
are properly fumigated before despatch ; otherwise he may after-
wards find to his regret, when it is too late, that he has received
more than he ordereil.

Fig. 54.--" L'nixers.il " Ant K.xteniiinator. lAmhois i)iih'iu:il plioti.

" Ant Exterminators." — Several machines have been placed on
the market which are intended to pump hot poisonous gases into
the subterranean burrows or galleries of insects such as termites
and ants. Whilst these are quite efficient in destroying the inmates
of Termites' mounds and of similar nests, they possess this initial
disadvantage that, as a general rule, it is not the mound-building
termites which do damage and such machines therefore are com-
paratively of little use in controlling the real culprits whose nests
are extremely difficult to discover. It is true that an instrument is
available combining a microphone and a pointed iron rod, the idea
being that the rotl is thrust into the ground so that, when it ap-
proaches a nest, the sound produced by its inmates becomes autiible
by means of the microphone. But in actual practice, in India at all
events, such an instrument is found to be quite useless.

As noted above, the species of termites which throw up mounds
seem to be harmless as a general nile, those which attack houses,
woodwork and crops belonging to distinct species ; but the
mound builders often make their nests in the middle of roads, lawns,
gardens and similar places where their presence is objectionable,
and in such cases the nests are readily destroyed by the use of
a special machine. The " Universal " Ant Exterminator consists
essentially of an air pump connected to a small furnace from which

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

CHAP. XI.

leads a flexible metal pipe. For destroying a nest, a charioal fire
is kindleil in the furnace and air pumped through until the fire is
thoroughly hot and the metal tube is warmed through by the hot
blast tlriven through the furnace by the pump. The tube is then
thrust into one of the main galleries, previously opcncil up, of the

-Destroying a 1 i riiiitcs' .Mnuiitl with tlir " I li

r.xterminator. (Author's original photo.)

nest and a small (piantity of a mixture of sulphur and white
arsenic is dropped into the furnace, which is immediately closed
and the pump worked vigorously. The sulphur anil arsenic enter
into chemical combination and are expelled from the metal tube as
ilense yellowish fumes which are pumped into the nest, any aper-
tures by which these are seen to escape being promptly plugged
with wet clay. The pump is worked for ten or fifteen minutes,
more sulphur and arsenic being atldetl to the furnace from time to
time, and the pipe is then withdrawn and the nest left plugged up. If
openetl up after an interval of not less than three clays the nest will
be found to have been killeil off if the fumes have penetrated pro-
perly. If opened up too soon, the effect of the fumes seems to pass
off and the nest may recover, the main effect of the fumes being
visible in the fungus-combs on whose culture the well-being of the
colony apparently depends. Care must be taken not to breathe the
fumes, as these are poisonous ; but their dense yellowish-white colour
and noxious odour renders them easily avoided. The exit pipe
must be hot before the poison is added or the fumes will condense
on its interior surface without penetrating into the nest.

Another machine, in principle similar to the "Universal'
Exterminator, is one made in America by the George L. Squire
Company. In this, however, the current of air is produced by a fan

CHAP. XI. 1 THE CO.NTROL OK INSECT PESTS OE CROPS.

(23

anil the I'lirnai't" is imirh larf^iT and is iilarcd directly Dvcr the lop
of the nest to be treated. Provision is also made for the application
of the sulphur mixture through a door, closed with a screw-bolt, in
the metal pipe joining the fan and the furnace. The possibility
of introduction of the poison without opening the furnace antl the
use of a fan instead of a pump are decided advantages but these
are rather outweighed by the excessive weight of the apparatus antl
particularly of the furnace. If the rotary fan could be fitted to a
light steel pipe, provideil with a sliding lioor for insertion of the
sulphur, and this latter connected to a smaller furnace whose fumes
were leil out by a flexible metal piping, a more useful and portable
machine would be producetl.

Fig. 56. — " S<iiiire " Ant E.Ntermin

iii,"iii;il photo.

Fiiii,i!,(d and Hdctrriiil Discdsrs. — The control of insect-pests arti-
ficially by means of fungal or bacterial diseases which attack them
and reduce their numbers under natural conditions is at first sight
a very promising and easy methotl. The idea of simply scattering
amongst his crops a small (luantity of some culture of such diseases
and leaving this to do all the work of protecting his fields from
damage is one that appeals intensely to the common run of cultivator
who expects to obtain great results without any trouble or exertion on
his own part. The success which has attended the use of fungal
enemies of some scale-insects in the West Indies is held up as an
example of what may be done in India where the conditions are
entirely different. Green Scale-bug (Lccaiihtin viride), for example,
in Southern India is heavily attacked by several fungi which kill
off perhaps ninety />f/' (•<'«/. of the insects during the intensely wet
weather experienced in the Coffee Districts. These fungi are well
distributed, almost every bush attacked by the scales showing
them in large numbers. And yet the rate of increase of this insect
is so vast that it is not killed out but merely checked temporarily

124 SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSI-XTS, ETC. fcHAP. XI.

;it the most. As soon as the dry weather sets in, when tlie condi-
tions are unfavourable for the growing of the fungi, the scales
increase and spread and actually do most damage at this time of
year probably largely because they drain the juices of the bushes
just when moisture is most ileficient. Endeavours to spread the
fungus artificially during the wet season would seem a waste of
time, because it is able at that time to spread by itself prac-
tically wherever the scale is, and during the dry season the
conditions are unfavourable to tlie growth of the fungi unless
perhaps these were actually placed artificially in contact witii
the scales, and in this latter case it would be less trouble to use
an insecticide and kill the scales directly. One case only has
been quoted, and this under as favourable conditions as are likely
to be found in Southern India for the control of an insect pest by a
fungus, and it may be seen that these contlitions are not suitable or
comparable with those in other countries in which no really dry
season is e.xperienced. Antl this is quite apart from the practical
difficulties of manufacturing cultures of such diseases on a large
scale, although this is a point of importance especially in the case
of bacterial diseases. E.xperiments with a Bacterial Disease of
Locusts, caused by CoccohacUhis acridionim, have apparently been
successful in South America, but in South Africa Lounsbury's
e.xperiments appear to show that this method is of comparatively
little use on a field scale (Agricultural Journal of South Africa,
April 1913)-

Insect Parasites. — The use of insect parasites is, however, a
method which is not only useful and practical but is to some extent
within the reach of all cultivators. When eggmasses of pests, for
example, are found affixed to leaves of crops, instead of destroying
them forthwith, they may be removed and placed in receptacles
surrounded by water or oil in such a way that any caterpillars
which hatch out may be unable to escape, whilst any parasitic flies
which emerge from the eggs may be free to fly away to continue
their beneficial task of egg-destruction. Similarly, shoots or stems
attacked by caterpillars, or pupas, may be placed in chatties or
similar tight receptacles and covered over with a piece of mosquito
netting or moderately fine wire-gauze, so that any moths which
emerge may not escape whilst any small parasites may do so; but
it must be remembered that not every parasite that emerges is
beneficial, as some are hyperparasites or superparasites which
do harm and not good. Some account of beneficial insects and
parasites is given in a later chapter.

Legislative Enactments for the control of Insect Pests aim as a
rule at prevention of the importation of new pests rather than at

CIIAI'. XI.I THE CONTROI. ()!•" INSECT PESTS OK CROPS. 125

tontrol ot tliosf iilrcacly prcsi-nt. Tlu' cxiHTicnco of all countries is
th;H it is the imported pests which do most damage once they
ol)tain a footing in a new country, as they increase at enormously
rapid rates without the checks providetl in their native land by
their various parasites and enemies which usually fail to accompany
them to their new settlement ; and modern rapid transit and the
extension of imports to include all kinds of living plants have
greatly increased the danger of the introduction of living insects
which may become very serious pests when thus introduced into a
new locality. Legislation for the control of all such plant imports
into India is at present under consideration and it is to be hoped
that \vc shall shortly be in a position to close our doors to such
undesirable aliens from overseas.

In many countries also laws have been enacted for the control
of indigenous pests, usually by regulation of the crops which they
attack or by requiring the owner to destroy or treat infected plants
or areas. Dead or dying coconuts attacked by boring beetles, for
example, may be ordered to be cut and destroyed to prevent the
pest from spreading and the owner of the trees may be punished
if he neglects to do this, or the growing of certain crops may be
prohibited at a particular time of the year to prevent its pests being
carried over from one season to another. These are practical
propositions, actually in use in many countries, and the time is near
at hand for consitleration whether legislation on these lines would
not be beneficial to the general body of cultivators in India also.

126 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XI.

APPENDIX rC) CII.APTI-R XI.

The following list of VVeightsand Measures may i)e found useful
for the application of Insecticides : —

I tola = 6"58 drachms = weight of one silver rupee.
16 drachms = i ounce (oz.) = 25 tolas nearly.
16 ounces = i pound (lb.) ^ 8 chittaks.
2? lb. = I quarter (qr.) = 14 seers.

4 qrs. (112 lb.) = I hundredweight (cwt.) = i inaund. 14 seers.
20 cwt. =:: I ton = 27*222 maunds.

10 tolas = I chittak.

8 chittaks = i seer.

40 seers = 1 maund = 82 l lb.

1 Madras maund ^ 40 seers of 24 tolas each.

5 fluid ounces of water ^ i gill.
4 gills = I pint =10 chittaks.

2 pints := I quart = i seer, 4 chittaks.
4 quarts = I gallon = 5 seers.

I fluid ounce weighs one ounce, nearly.

I pint of water weighs i"25 lb.

I gallon of water weighs 10 lb.

One American gallon is only five-sixths of an English gallon.

An ordinary kerosine tin contains four gallons of fluid, an ordinary

whiskey bottle one-sixth of a gallon.
I gramme -= I5'432 grains ^ -032 ounces.
1,000 grammes =: i kilogramme r= 2*20 lb.
I ounce = 28-35 grammes.

I pound = 453'58 grammes =; -454 kilogrammes.
I litre = 35^ fl. oz. = if pints = "22 gallons.
I gallon = 4-54 litres.
I cubic metre of water = 220 gallons.
25 millimetres (mm.) = one inch, approximately.
10 millimetres = i centimetre (cm).
1,000 millimetres ^ 100 cm. ^ i metre = 39'37 inches =^ 1*093

yards.
I yard = 914 metres.

1,000 metres = I kilometre =r 1*609 English milts.
I mile =: -621 kilometres.
I square metre = i centiare = 10*764 sq. feet.
100 sq. metres = i acre = *024 acres.

CHAP. \i.|the control oimnsect pests of crops. 127

10,000 sq. nittrcs =^ I hectare ;:^ 2"47i acres.

I acre = •405 hectares.

144 sq. inches = i sq. ft.

<; sq. ft. = I SCI. yard.

30 f sq. yds. = I sq. pole.

40 sq. poles = 1 rood.

4 roods = I acre = 4,840 sq. yds.

640 acres = i sq. mile.

12.S SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XII.

CHAPTIK XII.

Tiir. CL.\ssii-"iCATiox OF iM:.sr.s.

•• 1 nil nature swarms wilh life : uni; woml'roiis inas
(Jf animals."

Thomson.

In dealing with the various facts concerning Insect Pests it is
convenient to be able to arrange them in some definite method with
the object of facilitating reference to the information available
about any particular insect, its occurrence, life-history, relationships,
or control. Such information may be classified in various ways,
the particular method adopted being adapted to the special
rctjuirements in view. We may, for example, divide insect-pests
firstly into those that are no.xious to man himself and his domestic
animals either by direct attack or indirectly by conveyance of
disease or causing loss, and secondly into those which cause loss
by attacking his growing or harvested crops or other inanimate
possessions.

Those insects iiukuled in the first category may again be
subdivided according to —

{(i) the animals attacked,
(h) the diseases carried, or

U) whether the insect is an adaptive or a casual carrier.
It is, however, chiefly with insects of the second category that
we are more immediately concerned and these may be divided
according to —

{a) the object of damage, t'..4'., (i) Pests of growing crops, (ii)
Pests of stored crops, (iii) Household pests, etc- ;

(/») the extent of damage, i.e., whether a major pest regularly
causing considerable loss of the crop or other object attacked, or
a minor pest of regular occurrence but causing relatively inconsi-
derable damage, whilst either of these may be sporadic or local or,
in other words, may occur occasionally but not regularly or may
only do damage in a limited area.

The above headings may be still further subdivided, so that pests
of growing crops may be considered under the head of cereals
pulses, tobacco, coffee, etc., and pests of cereals, for example,
may be considered separately as pests of paddy, cholam, cumbu
wheat, etc.

Finally, all injurious insects, whether causing disease or
damaging crops or stored products, may be classified according to

CHAP. XII. 1 THE CL.\SSIFICATIOM OF PESTS. 129

their own natural affinities ant! the various Orders, Families, Genera
and Species to which they belong. This method has the great
merit of conciseness, because many of the commonest and most
important crop-pests attack several different crops and it would
entail a large amount of repetition if an account of each of these
pests were to be given under the heading of each different crop.
The list of crops (pages 240— 263), however, shows the various
insects which attack each and will serve as an index to the insects
known to attack such crops and reference to these insects in the
systematic list of crop-pests will, it is hoped, facilitate their recog-
nition and assist in their control. In order to help still further in
this, the succeeiling chapters contain brief notes on the more
common and important crop-pests classified simply as Caterpillars,
Beetles, Grasshoppers, etc.

i30

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XIII.

Chapter XIII.
CATKRPILLAR PKSTS OF CROPS

" Iieteaves,

As caterpillars do the tender leaves,"

Shakespeahi — Sonne fs.
" Thus are my Ijlossoms blasted in the bud,
And caler|iillars eat my leaves away."

SH.\KliSPEAHi:.

The great Order of Lepidoptera, comprising the butterflies and
moths of which upwards of ten thousand different species occur in
Southern India, is the most important of all groups of insects from an
economic point of view and includes about forty per cent, of all our
insect pests of crops and stored produce. With rare exceptions
it is only in the larval stage that these insects do damage, the adults
feeding on the juicy excretions of plants, although a few groups
especially amongst the butterflies have depraved tastes for animal

Fig. 58. — Ailantlius excelsa defoliated by caterpillars of Elignui ntircissiis.
Coimbatorc, December 1912. (Author's original photo. i

food and in some moths the mouth-parts are rudimentary, the adult
insect not feeding at all. A few moths (Opliiilcirs) have the tip of
the tongue provided with teeth by means of which they are able to
penetrate the outer skin of fruits whose juices they suck, and both
the Indian Deaths-head mo\\\& (Aclwroiitia slyx And A. lachcsis) arc

CHAI'. XIII. 1 CATERPILLAR PESTS OF CROPS.

131

persistent robbers of honey and are often found insiile bee-hives.
But, with these few exeeptions, it is only in the hirval or caterpillar
stages that the Lepidoptera require consideration as crop-pests.

A caterpillar is easily recognizable as such by the presence of
prolegs or false legs, stout fleshy legs situated in pairs on the
seventh and succeeding segments of the body, the head being
reckoned as the first segment. Except in the case of a few of the
more generalized Microlepidoptera, of no economic importance,
more than five pairs of prolegs are never present and the number is
fretiuently smaller. This point immediately distinguishes cater-
pillars from the larv« of beetles, wasps and flies, in which no
prolegs are present, and from those of the leaf-eating sawflies.

Fig. d*). — Caterpillar of Death's-head Moth (AcJicrontin), life-size.

This caterpillar may do considerable damage to Erythriiia and other plant.';
merely by its lar}<e size. (From an original photo.)

which arc superficially very like caterpillars but which possess more
than five pairs of prolegs. In some cases the number of prolegs
may be reduced to two pairs when the caterpillar progresses by
reaching forward and grasping an object with its thoracic (true)
legs and then, arching up its intermediate segments, brings forward
its hinder end and grasps the resting surface; the two extremities
are therefore alternately approximated antl separated by the whole
length of the body. Sucli a structure anil method of progression is
9-A

132

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XIII.

especially characteristic of the 6"(V)w^7//V/(r (literally "earth-measu-
rers"), commonly called "Loopers"or "Spanworms; " but in many
Noctuiil larvcE (e.g., Pliisiancv, Catocaliiuc} some of the anterior
prolegs may be absent or little developed so that the caterpillar
progresses partly by walking in the ordinary way and partly by
arching the segments on which the legs are ineffective, such cater-
pillars being called "Semi-loopers." In some cases the prolegs,
though present, may be greatly modified; in the case of the lobster
caterpillar (Statiroptts alteniiis, see figure 279) the posterior legs, or
anal claspers, are modified into long slender filaments, and in many
case-bearing caterpillars, e.g., Psychid(e and Eublcmnia scitula (see
figure 242) the prolegs, not being used for purposes of progression,
may be obsolescent or much modified. In the case of leaf-miners,
(e.g., Pbyllocnistis citrella) the legs and prolegs may be entirely
absent, when the larva is said to be apodous (footless) ; but such
larvas are necessarily so minute that they are not likely to come
under common observation.

The structure and habits of caterpillars, sometimes even within
the same families, are often so modified or specialized in accordance
with food or habitat that it is difficult to classify them as a whole
in any satisfactory manner. But, if attention is confined solely to
those which do damage to growing crops, they may be placed in
groups of which the most important are borers in the stem, shoots
and roots, fruit-borers, leaf-eaters and leaf-miners.

Fig. 60. — Injection Syringe for wood -boring larva;. iAiithor"s orif,'inal photo.)

Boring caterpillars are found in almost every kind of crop and
attack various parts of the plant, although as a rule each different

CHAP. XIII. I CATERPILL.AR PESTS OK CROPS. I3J

insect has its own |xciili;ir iiRthod of atlaci< and bores into similar
parts of plants even when these belong to different crops. A tunnel
may be bored in the interior of the main stem, whether the plant
attacked is a temporary crop such as paddy or a large tree such as
a mango, or the caterpillar may attack the roots or the growing
shoots, but the seat and method of injury are usually characteristic
of each species of caterpillar.

Stem-borers, from the very nature of their attack, are often diffi-
cult to control because it is usually impossible to reach them either
with a contact or a stomach poison. In the case of those forms
(e.g., Arbchi, Azygophkps and Zctizcral, which bore into the main
stem of permanent crops (mango, agathi, cofJ'ee, tea), the presence
of a caterpillar is usually marked by an accumulation of fragments
of gnawed wootl below the burrow, whose entrance may then be
locatecl ancl ajiiixture of__two part^ of chloroform and one part of
creosote injected into the gallery by means of a syringe. Where
temporary crops, such as cereals, are attacked by stem-borers, the
only remedy is to pull out and burn the attacked plants, if these
are only a few, to prevent extension of the attack; but, as a rule
and in the case of all our important pests of cereals, the damage is
so wide-spread that a remedy of this nature is out of the question
and means of control must aim at prevention rather than cure. It
is possible that the destruction of the adult female moths by means
of light-traps or similar methods may be found practicable in the
case of the stem-borers of paddy, cholam and ragi. In the case of
a semi-permanent crop such as sugarcane it certainly does pay to
cut out promptly all dead-hearts which indicate the attack of stem-
borers, as this practice, if thoroughly carried out, will help to check
the attack and will at the same time increase the yield because new
shoots will be thrown up to replace those attacked which are very
deficient in sugar-content.

Of root-borers we may quote Pluissiis malabariais as an example,
but there are few true caterpillars which attack plants below ground-
level in India. Pests of this class are particularly difficult to check
and the uprooting and destruction of affected plants seems to be
the only practical remedy. Many caterpillars bore into the growing
shoots of plants. One of the commonest in Southern India is
Tcrastia iiu'ticiilostilis which bores into the tender shoots of Erytlirina
and seriously stunts the growth. The only remedy in such cases is
to cut back the shoots beyond the larval burrow and to paint the
cut end with Crude Oil Emulsion or other repellent to prevent the
moths from ovipositing. Bored shoots generally have a withered
appearance which is characteristic and are therefore easily re-
cognizable. The Cotton Boll-worms (Earias spp.) often bore into

134 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. |CHAP. XIll.

llu' shoots ol young cotton-i)lants before any l)')lls are pul lortli and
the collection and destruction of all such attacked shoots at this
period of the year is a very important measure of control for these
moths in ortler to prevent their increase later on and consecjuent
destruction of the bolls ; the removal of these affected shoots not
only controls the Boll-worms but often induces extra production of
new shoots anil flowers on the part of the plant, so that the subse-
quent crop is not only saved from attack but is actually larger than
it would otherwise have been. Under the general heading of
" Fruit-borers " may be included all caterpillars which feed on the
fruit or seeds of plants. Of this class the Lycasnid butterflies pro-
vide several examples, the caterpillar of Virachola isocrates feeding
in Pomegranates and those of Catoclirysops cnejus and Polyoinmatiis
ba'ticiis boring into the pods of leguminous crops and devouring
the seeds. The last-named butterfly may in this manner be a very
serious pest in localities where Crotalaria is being grown for seed,
as much as thirty per cent, of the crop being destroyed sometimes.
Catching the female butterflies by means of hand-nets is practicable
in the early stages of an outbreak, but little can be done if the attack
is really serious. The caterpillar of Chloridea obsoleta (Heliothi.s
annigera) is a well-known and destructive pest of Gram, the larva
eating a hole through the pod into which it thrusts its head to
devour the seeds ; in this case spraying with a Stomach Poison is
practicable because the caterpillar does not remain on one poii but
eats its way into several.

Cotton seed in Southern Intiia is extensively attacked by the pink
caterpillar of Gelechia gossypiella ; this pest seems to be encouraged
by the leaving of old bolls on the cotton-bushes and prompt and
regular removal of all ripe bolls will probably keep it in check.
Pyroderces coriacclla, a minute red-brown moth which has also been
reared from cotton-bolls, may feed on the seetls also but is appa-
rently an unimportant pest and perhaps only a scavenger.

Several fruits are attacked by various caterpillars. Litchis
commonly contain larvas of Argyroplocc illcpida, which bore in the
stone, and peaches are sometimes bored by the caterpillar of
Diclwcrocis punctiferalis, which is a very general feeder in fruits,
stems and shoots of many plants. The tlestructive Cotlling .Moth,
Cydia (Carpocapsa) pomoiteUa, which has been recorded from Kashmir,
is not known to occur in Southern India, although it may very
possibly be found in the Nilgiris.

The number of leaf-eating caterpillars is so vast that only a very
general account can be attempted here. Many feed exposed on the
leaves whilst others feed within the rolled or folded leaves. Owing
to their feeding habits they can be controlled fairly readily by

/

;/

//

y

//

KiG. 61. — Kiiinblipuchi iAmsacta alhislrif>,i\. lM;i(lr,is A^i itulliinil Dep;iiliii( iit
illiislratiou.l

CHAP. Xll/.l CATERPILLAR PESTS ( >F CROPS. I35

means of a Stomach Poison wlien found feeding on crops, but, as
in all pests, foresighteil prevention is the best remedy.

The Loopers and Semi-loopers already mentionetl belong to this
group and the latter include Ach(ea(Opliiitsa) ineUcerta whose greyish
caterpillar is a common pest of Castor; it is best controlled by
hanil-picking in the early stages of an attack.

The Hairy Caterpillars or "Woolly Bears" arc well known in
Southern India under the names of " Kumblihula " or " Kumbli-
puchi," terms which are applied loosely and indifferently to many
very different species. Those of the greatest economic importance
are the larvjE of several of the Antiatlcc (Anisacta spp, Estigmciie
lactincii and Utcthcisa fiihliclln), most of which feed rather indiffer-
ently on almost any low-growing crop, although Utctlwisa is a
specific pest of Sann-Hemp.

In the case of the species of Anisacta, which are often very
destructive to crops especially in North and South Arcot, the moths
generally emerge from the pupal state after the first heavy showers
of rain received in July-August and there may be two or three
generations before the end of the year, the pupas remaining in the
soil from about December until the next July ; but the emergence
of the moths is often irregular and may be spread over a prolonged
period. The brownish, hairy caterpillars feed normally on low-
growing weeds but readily invade and attack crops of almost all
kinds, causing great damage. When they are already in large
numbers, little can be done e.xcept to keep them out of the cropped
areas as far as possible by trenching ; as usual, the best means of
control is by prevention and this may be done by a vigorous attack
on the moths themselves when they first emerge and before they
have time to lay eggs. The first emergence of the moths is fairly
uniform and they are sluggish and conspicuous, so that they may
be collected and destroyetl in large numbers, thus directly checking
subsequent increase. The eggs are laid in batches and hand-picking
of the caterpillars, immediately these are seen, should also be done.

Cutworms is the term applied to the caterpillars of certain moths
of which Eiixoa Agrotis (scgctum) is a common and destructive pest
in the Hills. These caterpillars hide during the day under stones
or clods or in the soil itself and only issue forth at night to feed,
when they cut through the stems of young plants at ground-level
and feed on the leaves, the destruction done by them being greatly
increased by their habit of cutting through many more plants than
they actually consume. These Cutworms are extremely difficult
pests to control. As they hide by day, they are difficult to find and
it is by no means easy to kill them with a Stomach Poison, as they

136 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XIU.

avoid the sprayed portions of plants and, rather than eat such,
burrow down and feeil on the roots.

Swarming Caterpillars or Army Worms are so called because
they sometimes appear in immense numbers and, having eaten all
the food available in one locality, migrate en masse into crops which
they ravage from their mere numbers. Paddy Seed-beds and Grass-
lands are especially liable to attack by these caterpillars. The
best remedy, as a rule, is to keep them out by trenching. In the
case of Paddy Seed-beds these may be flooded if possible and
ilucks placed in them to eat up the caterpillars.

Leaf-miners are of little economic importance in themselves.
They live between the upper and lower surfaces of leaves, eating
out the green matter and often leaving a tortuous track which shows
as a white "mine" on the leaf. The commonest lepidoptcrous
leaf-miner is perhaps Phyllocnistis citrella, whose legless caterpillar
mines in young leaves of Citrus. In the case of many Stem-borers,
e.g., Cliilo simplex- in Cholam, the young larvze may at first burrow
into leaves, but these are hardly leaf-miners in the strict sense.

Many caterpillars confine themselves to one plant or at least to
species of plants which are naturally allied to one another and in
dealing with such we can therefore assist control by judicious
rotation of crops. But some caterpillars feed on many different
plants and are therefore called " polyphagous " (lit. many-eating).

In the control of caterpillar pests it is necessary to consider the
conditions in which the pupal state will be passed. Many cater-
pillars (Kumblipuchis, Cutworms, Army Worms) pupate in the soil
and ploughing or suitable disturbance of the ground after they have
pupated may sometimes be used in order to destroy the pupaj,
either by exposing them to the sun or to birds or by burying them
so deeply that the moths will not be able to escape. Other cater-
pillars pupate in rolled leaves, either on the plant or in old dead
leaves which have dropped to the ground, and the collection and
destruction of these will help in reducing the numbers of the
succeeding broods. Stem-borers usually pupate in the stem of the
attacked plant, often low down at about ground-level, so that the
pupas are left behind in the stubble when the crop is cut ; destruction
of the stubble is indicated as a remedial measure in such cases.

CHAP. XIV. 1 GRASSHOPPERS, CRICKETS AND TERMITES. I 37

Chapter XIV.

gk.\ssh()1'pi:rs. crickets and termites.

" Insects are swanuing in the shrubs and trees,
Grasshopper, ear%vig, beetle families.
Ants, while and brown, are busy in the soil,
Their dwellings raising with ingenious toil.
Locusts are feasting to their hearts" content,
.\nd with Cicadas' shrieks the air is rent.
Crickets are chirruping amongst the plants.
Bugs thickly crowd in land and water haunts.
May, dragon, caiKlis, snake and scorpion Hies
O'er pools and marshes in their myriads rise.
And, spite of foes without and civil strife,
The insect world keeps ]iace with higher life :
Spreading in countless hosts through wood and lirakt?
(.\nd who of insects shall a census take ?)
O'er hill and dale, by sea and lake and i)ond.
Up in the air, upon, and under ground."

Ksu'E—Xcbiihi to Mnii.

The idea of Grasshoppers as crop-pests ustialiy calls up recol-
lections of descriptions of hordes of locusts flying in vast swarms
from one district to another, darkening the sky during their flight
and instantly making a barren wilderness of the places where they
alight. Such flights of locusts are well known in many parts of
India and occasionally the Bombay locust ( Cyrtacanthacris siicciiicta)
migrates from its breeding-grounds in the Deccan into the districts
of Bellary, Kurnul and Anantapur in large flights which would be
very destructive were it not for the fact that they usually take place
in June when there are practically no crops on the ground in those
parts. So far as Southern India is concerned, therefore, locusts
are only occasional and rather minor pests, but the damage done
by Grasshoppers of various kinds is very large in the aggregate,
because some species at least are active at all times of the year,
and their accumulated damage throughout the year all over the
Presidency probably totals to considerably more than more striking
loss caused by locusts in a more limited area.

The Bombay Locust itself occurs regularly throughout Madras,
not, however, as a swarming locust but as solitary individuals.
Another commoner and closely-allied form is Cyrtacanthacris ranacea
which is the common large spotted grasshopper of cotton-fields.
In Bellary and Kurnul a wingless grasshopper (Colemania sphena-
rioidcs) has achieved notoriety of late years as a pest of cereals and

138 SOMfi SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. ICHAP. XIV.

pulses in the period from July to October, in some places ilestroying
practically the whole of the crops. A large greenish grasshopper
/ Hieroglyph IIS banian) is a special pest of paddy, particularly in
Malabar and South Kanara, and often does considerable damage
to this crop and more rarely to sugarcane and maize. A brown
grasshopper (Epacromia tamiihis) occurs commonly throughout the
plains, feeding on a variety of crops amongst which we may
specify ragi, cholam, cumbu and daincha, and is especially a
pest of these crops in Madura and Tinnevelly. A small narrowly-
built green species (Atractomorpha crcniilata) occurs commonly all
over the low-country on various plants and is especially a pest of
tobacco, brinjal and Amarantliiis. A small, slender, greenish
grasshopper (Oxya vclox), often with reddish forewings, is found
throughout the plains as a minor pest of paddy, cholam and

Fig. bl.—Chrotogoinis. lOriginal.l
sugarcane. Finally, a stoutly-built, flattened, short-winged, earth-
coloured grasshopper (Chrologomis spp.) is found commonly on the
ground everywhere and is a minor pest of almost all low-growing
crops.

Detailed descriptions and figures of these various grasshoppers
will be found further on. For the ordinary cultivator it is not
necessary to know more than that the insect doing damage is a
grasshopper— a fact easily verified by noting that the hindlegs are
much larger than the others and formed for leaping— as the habits
are much the same in all, as are also the methods to be adopted.

Except for their quiescent period whilst in the egg-state, grass-
hoppers do damage throughout their lives, for they eat vegetable
matter throughout all their periods of growth and also during their
adult condition. The eggs are always laid in masses in the ground
and often remain there during definite seasons for months at a time
before hatching, so that agricultural methods such as ploughing
(see Chapter XI) at such seasons may offer a chance of destroying
them before they emerge at all. If, however, the grasshoppers

CHAP. \1V.| (IKASSHOl'l'liRS, CRICKKTS AM) PERMITES. l39

have liatrlicd out mil are toiind actually doing damage, the only
practical method of control is to catch them in bag-nets or hopper-
dozers (see Chapter XI). Spraying with a stomach-poison is only
possible in very small areas.

Under natural conditions, grasshoppers are kept in check by
various natural enemies of which the most obvious are birds.
Mynahs, as their generic name ( Acridotlwrcs) implies, are great
hunters of grasshoppers and each bird must destroy dozens of
these insects every day. Kites ami crows also arc often very use-
ful by feeding on grasshoppers, especially if these latter are present
in large numbers, when the birds often make a concerted attack
and devour very large quantities of the insects. Birds of this use-
ful character are obviously invaluable to the farmer. The Blister-
beetles, which in their adult state are themselves crop-pests, during
their larval stages seek out and attack the egg-masses of grass-
hoppers in the soil and destroy them, and these beetles form a very
important check on the increase of grasshoppers in some districts.
The endoparasitic enemies of grasshoppers have been little studied
in India, but several flies of various species are known to attack
them and destroy them.

Crickets are of little importance in Southern India except as
quite local pests. Those species {Brachytrypcs, GryUotalpa) which
do damage to crops differ from grasshoppers by their habit of
living in burrows in the soil during the day and only coming out
to feed at night. As their attack is often very localized, it is some-
times practicable to spray the plants around their burrows with a
stomach-poison, but as a rule the simplest plan is to flood them out,
where this can be done, when they are perforce driven from their
burrows to fall a prey to crows and other birtis which ciuickly
congregate during all irrigation operations.

Termites, commonly but incorrectly called " White Ants," are
in nowise related to the true ants, nor are they always white. To
the popular imagination there is only one kind of "White Ant,"
which throws up the well-known mounds and attacks indiscrimi-
nately growing crops and living and dead wood, but as a matter of
fact there are numerous different species whose habits are entirely
distinct. Forty or fifty different species occur in Southern India —
I have found a dozen distinct kinds within the limits of the Agri-
cultural Farm at Coimbatore- some of which attack growing crops
and trees, others bore into the solid wood of living trees, others
confine their attentions to dead wood and other vegetable matter,
whilst yet others feed only on grasses or lichens and are hence of
little economic importance. It will therefore be seen that, when
Termites are found to be tloing damage, it is first of all necessary

140

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XlV.

to distinguish the guilty species in order to apply appropriate
remedies; it is, for instance, of no use to set to work and destroy
all the mounds in the vicinity, if the guilty variety is not the
mound-builder at all.

Fig. 63. — Castes of a Tcriiiito Odoiitotcniics lioriii .
1, Worker; 2, Soldier; 3, Winged .\diilt. The smaller outline figures show
the natural sizes. (After Bugnion.l

To understand anything about Termites it is necessary to con-
sider briefly the main facts in their social economy. Apart from
immature forms, we can distinguish in each colony three distinct
social states or castes— workers, soldiers, and sexually adult indivi-
duals. In the case of the workers and soldiers, of each of which
castes there may be two or more sizes according to the species
concerned, the individuals are distinguishable as males and
females, but their sexual development is arrested at an immature
stage. The workers are so called because they are the labourers
of the community, foraging for food, tending and feeding the
young, and excavating and budding up the nest ; they are readily
recognizable by their vertically-carried heads with small broad
jaws. The soldiers derive their name from the fact that they act
as defenders of the colony, accompanying the foraging parties of

CHAP. XIV.) GRASSHOPPERS, CRICKETS AND TERMITES. 141

workers as guards and running out to repel any attack on the nest
by grasping, or at least threatening, the intruder with their jaws,
which are large, curved, pointed, and carried horizontally in front
of the head ; in many species the soldiers also discharge a sticky
liquiil from a special gland in the head. The sexually mature
Termites are most familiar as the winged individuals which swarm
out of the nests, usually during the onset of the monsoon ; these
are males and females and may often be observed to pair off in
couples, the male following the female in single file, both running
rapidly over the ground in search of some convenient chink or hole
in which to bitle. As soon as a couple has paired off in this way,
and sometimes sooner, the wings are thrown off by an apparently
voluntary muscular action, breaking off transversely near the base
across the line of a natural suture and leaving the stump of each
as a small triangular scale attached to the thora.x. Birds, frogs,
lizards, ants and insects of all sorts, even cockroaches and muscid
flies, devour the winged Termites as they issue from the nest and
very few escape ; but a few pairs do burrow into the ground or
into trees according to the species, and excavate a small chamber
in which they probably pair and certainly do lay a small batch of
eggs which presently develop into workers and soldiers. The
colony gradually grows until there are enough workers to go out
foraging and sufficient soldiers to defend the nest and in the
meantime the original foundress grows larger and larger until, in
the case of some of the mound-building species, her body becomes
as long and stout as a human finger, and at this stage she is
nothing but a vast reservoir of eggs, which she extrudes at the
rate of at least 30,000 a day, and this probably during a period of
several years. The original male also remains in the nest but
scarcely increases in size beyond that attained when the royal pair
originally took to wing; he is generally found in the royal cell, in
which the female or "queen" is enclosed, although he often
escapes and is overlooked in opening up a nest. It is not correct
to say, arguing from analogy with bees, that the queen Termite is
only fertilized once, after which the male dies, for a male is always
found if the nest is opened up carefully ; occasionally there may
be two, rarely three or more, females, but I have never found more
than one male. In the case of some of the more primitive species
which live in wood, it is known that the ultimate caste assumed by
an individual can be modified by special feeding whilst it is still
young, so that an individual which would have become a soldier
can be made to become a se-xual female, and in this manner
colonies of such Termites are able at will to replace their queen, if
she should perish by any accident, by a substitute which is called

142

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XIV.

a " neoteinic " ciuecn. In the case of the Indian species of Termites,
however, there is no evidence that this can be done ; in fact, there
is a considerable balance of evidence against this and, in the case
of some Termites at least (Eutcnncs), it has been shown that the
caste of the young individual, i.e., whether it is to be a soldier
or a worker, is already fixed before its emergence from the egg,
although this does not necessarily prove that, by special feeding
or other means, the ultimate form cannot be modified. Still, in the
case of all ground-living species of Indian Termites, it is fairly safe
to assume in practical work that the queen of a nest, once removed,
cannot be replaced and that a colony deprived of its queen will
dwindle and die out. In this connection it must be noted that
nests, and especially mounds, often contain two or more species of
Termites living in close contiguity and care must be taken to see
that a queen which may be found and destroyed, belongs to the
species which it is required to check.

pir,. 64.— Soldier of Odontotcrwes obcsiis. (.Micro-photo by W. H. Harrison
from a specimen determined by Professor N. HolniKrcn.i
In the case of damage by Termites, therefore, the first requisite
is a definite knowledge of the species concerned. This known,
endeavour must be made to locate its nest and to destroy this. In
the case of nests in beams or trees it may be possible to inject
poisonous gases with the help of a pumping machine and this may
also be used in the case of mounds or nests in the ground where

CHAP. XIV. 1 GRASSHOPPERS, CRICKETS AND TERMITES.

143

these can be located. In the case of mouncis it is usually practi-
cable to dig down and find and remove the ciueen, or one or two
dynamite cartridges may be exploded in the mound, all the
openings into which have previously been well closed with wet
clay.

If the nest cannot be located, the only thing is to endeavour to
prevent attack by the use of some deterrent. For example, if the
Termites are attacking the bark of trees, these may be painteil or
ringeil to prevent the access of the Termites ; a mixture of Crude
Oil Emulsion and Tar, half and half, has been found satisfactory,
and various mi.xtures can be made from materials locally available.
In the case of sugarcane setts, which are often attacked when
newly planted out, it is useful to dip them before planting in a
strong solution of Copper Sulphate, which usually wards off attack

mmBftsr^ai-i -

Fig. 65. — Mud Casint; dLpujilcd by iLiinilci 'Odoiitiitcnius s|).i on Kain-tice
{Pitliecolobiiiiii Sitiiiaii I.
Note that the bamboo support, thouKh dead, is not attacked. (.Author's
original photo.)

until they have established themselves. When growing crops are
attacked and these are irrigated or irrigable, the placing of a bag of
Crude Oil Emulsion in the water channel will sometimes drive the
Termites away temporarily. In the case of garden plants, watering
the roots with a weak solution of Phenvle will usually have a

144 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. |CHAP. XIV.

similar effect. Kainit is also said to act as a tleterreiit, altlioiigli
there seems to be little actual evidence on this point. If irrigation
is not practicable, shallow trenches may be dug and filled with any
dead vegetable matter (e.g., branches, dead leaves, old cholam
stalks) to attract the Termites from the adjacent crops as far as
possible and, when this object is effected, the contents of the
trenches may be set on fire to destroy the Termites wholesale. But,
as a rule, very little can be done unless the nests can be located
and destroyed, and this is very rarely possible, as they may be ten
or twelve feet below ground and give no indication whatever of
their presence. In the case of buildings, constructional timber
which will be exposed to attack should be treated before it is
placed in position, either with one of the various specifics advertised
in the market or by soaking in a solution of Sodium Arsenite for a
couple of days followed by a good coat of tar when quite dry. If
Termites make their way into a house, as they often do when the
bricks are of poor quality or badly laid, the only thing is to open
up their galleries and to endeavour to inject poisonous fumes with
a special machine so as to reach and poison the queen if possible.
It is of very little use, in all cases, to kill a small number of the
foraging parties, workers and soldiers, and to e.xpect a remission of
attack thereafter ; unless the nest can be reached and the queen
killed, no permanent results will be achieved ; but by the use of
deterrents, it is sometimes possible to get crops over a critical
period after which they are less or not at all liable to attack.

CHAP. XV. 1 BUG PESTS. 145

Chapter XV.
BUG PESTS.

"Whv, shameless shepherd, pluck me
I'roin the branches wet with dew ?
I am but a poor Cicala,
And ne'er did harm to you.
The forest lawns, I love them,
And I love a lonely nook :
But the one thing that I love not
Is a shepherd's tingcr-crook,
\ our fruit-tree (ilcbers, catch them,
' Tis right, and kill them too
Hut why my green leaf grudge me.
And my tiny drops of dew ? "

Bayi.i;v — Sabriiice Corolla.

Bug Pests are characterized by the possession of a long sucking
tube which they thrust into plants or other food and suck up the
juices on which alone they live. This sucking tube is plainly
visible as a long slender jointed rod whose base is attached to the
lower surface of the head and whose tip is generally carried along
the lower surface of the body between the pairs of legs ; it may be
noted that the tube, as seen, is only a sheath for the very slender
setae enclosed therein and which are the true suctorial organs. No
bugs have biting jaws and therefore they are not able to eat leaves
and for this reason Bug Pests cannot be controlled by stomach
poisons.

For purposes of economic entomology, plant bugs may con-
veniently be divided into three classes, (l) active bugs, which fly
or nm actively over foliage and from one plant to another, (2)
semi-active bugs, such as the Aphids, which are always small in
size, soft-bodied and gregarious, occurring in masses, the individuals
being active but not in practice moving about to any e.xtent, and (3)
fi.xed bugs, such as the Scale-insects, which attach themselves
more or less permanently to particular parts of the plants they
attack and which are usually protected by a hard or filamentous
waxy shield. Speaking very generally, this last class contains
insects which are especially pests of permanent crops, such as
coffee, tea, mango, rubber and coconut, whilst the first class con-
tains insects which are particularly pests of temporary crops
(cereals, pulses, oilseeds, cotton, etc.).

146 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XV.

From the point of view of control-measures the above divisions,
though artificial, possess a real importance, because different
methods of control have to be practised in regard to each of these
classes. The active bugs, which are sometimes quite large insects
and which are rarely minute in size, are as a rule too large and
active to render feasible the operation of spraying even with a
contact insecticide, but on the other hand their size and habits
admit of the satisfactory use of mechanical measures such as catch-
ing them by hand or in hand-nets or bag-nets.

The second class, of semi-active bugs, contains insects such as
Aphids, Psyllids and Aleurodids, which are minute in size, soft-
bodied, and gregarious in habit. They are therefore best dealt
with by means of contact sprays such as crude oil emulsion or
tobacco wash.

The third class, comprising the fi.xed bugs, includes practically
only the Scale-insects, which are often found in large numbers
within a small area— and this is so, not because they are gregarious
by habit, but simply because their radius of spread is circum-
scribed— , and which are often protected by a filamentous or shield-
like waxy covering which secures them from the wetting effects of
rain and hence of ordinary aqueous solutions of spray-material.
On account of this waxy covering, therefore, it is usually advisable
to apply a spray which contains rosin, this substance having a
peculiar wetting effect on the waxy covering of the Scale-insects.

The insects themselves are described and figured further on in

this book and we can only mention here a few of the more important

of the Bug Pests of crops. Of the

active bugs, the most injurious is

probably Lcptocorisa variconiis, a long

slender greenish bug which attacks

paddy, sucking out the milky juice of

the grains just as these are formed ;

it is easily caught by means of hand-

FiG. 06. — KicL-biif; < Leplucorifia nets and is also attracted to light at

varicornis). (From Madras ^ig^j ^^ilst its numbers should be

Agricultural Calendar. l'JlJ-14. ■ , . r -i 1 • i. c

checked as far as possible in the first

place by due attention to the clean condition of the bunds sur-
rounding paddy-fields, as this bug will breed on wild grasses and
invade the paddy when this is ripening. Dysdcrciis ciiigitlatiis, a
brick-red bug with a black spot on each forewing and peculiar
whitish edges to the segments on the underside of the body, is a
common and destructive pest of cotton, piercing the bolls with
its beak and sucking the contents of the young seed, staining
the lint and spoiling the seed either for oil-extraction or for sowing ;

CHAP. XV.l BUG PESTS. 147

il is often accompanied by Oxycarcmis livliis, a very small brownish
bug which is found chiefly in old bolls which have been left
unplucked after they are ripe : both of these bugs are easily collected
by hand and shaken into a pan of oil-and-water.

Garden Crops are particularly attacked by Coptosoma cribraria,
a small rounded brownish-green insect which looks at first sight
like a beetle and which feeds particularly on beans and other
Leguniinosas ; it is very active on the wing and cannot be collected
by hand, but it is generally rather gregarious and can be caught in
large numbers by means of hand-nets. Aspongopiis jatiits, a large
red-and-black insect, is sometimes a pest of vegetable plots ; it is
easily caught by hand.

In the Hills the most imi)ortant of the active bugs arc (l) Aiitestia
cniciitta, an occasional serious pest of coffee which it damages by
sucking the berries, (2) Hclopellis aiitoiiii, the well-known "Mosquito
Blight " of tea, cacao and cinchona, (3) Cyclopclta siccifolia, a
stoutly-built dull black bug which is sometimes a serious pest of
Erythrina but is usually gregarious and easily collected by hand,
and (4) Aiioploaicmis phasimia, a very large dark bug with
curiously-shaped hindlegs, which is sometimes a serious pest of
young Erytliriini when these are planted out as shade-trees.

One bug, which deserves mention here because of its curious
habits, is Aphaiius sordidiis, an elongate dull dark-brownish insect
which sometimes congregates in large numbers on threshing floors
and similar places where oil-seeds or cereals, such as gingelly,
groundnut or cumbu, are collected, the bugs, which may be present
in very large numbers, running off with the seeds, which they suck,
in such quantities as to constitute a serious loss unless they are
constantly swept back with the aid of a broom or branch.

In the second class, of semi-active bugs, reference must be made
to the various species of Psyllidas, Aphidse and Aleurodidas des-
cribed further on ; but it may here be noted that some of the Aphids
or plant-lice live on the roots of the plants they attack and special
methods must be adopted against these.

Of the fixed bugs, the Green Scale {Lecaiiiiim viriJc) of coffee
is the most notorious, and incidentally it provides an excellent
example of the danger of the introduction of insect pests from
abroad. It is believed to have been originally a native of Brazil
whence (whether direct or via Africa) it was carried to Ceylon and
then into Southern India where it has now spread practically into
all the coffee-growing districts in some of which it has absolutely
destroyed the whole of the coffee. In appearance it is a small,
inconspicuous, light-green, oval, flattened scale, which is found as a
rule clustered along the veins and mid-rib on the underside of leaves

lO-A

148 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XV.

and on young twigs. The only control method which can be
advised at present is a vigorous attack on this scale immediately
it is noticed, to endeavour to keep it at least within bounds; rosin
compound is probably the best insecticide to apply. The shade-
trees of coffee estates suffer from various scales, which may affect
the coffee as well as the shade-trees ; the only satisfactory control-
method is to eliminate all varieties of trees which are subject to
such attacks. Cotton is attacked by three or four Scale-insects,
sometimes very heavily indeed, but the attack is usually quite
localized, often confined to a single plant, and such plants are best
pulled out and burnt, their neighbours being examined at the
same time to see whether they have been infected also. Except in
the case of permanent crops, such as coffee, tea, rubber, fruit-
trees and palms, Scale-insects are of comparatively little importance
in Southern India, but in the case of such permanent crops they
may do great damage and every endeavour should be made to
check outbreaks of Scale-insects at the very beginning, as soon as
they are noticed, and before serious damage has occurred ; for the
rate of increase of these little insects is so rapid that, by sheer
numbers, great damage may be done in spite of their minute size
individually. In particular, great care should be taken that, when
fruit-trees or garden plants are brought from a distance, they
have not brought any of these insects with them, and this end
can only be achieved by insistence on proper fumigation of the
plants by the sender before despatch.

CHAP. XVI. I

HKETI.K PESTS OF CROPS.

140

Ch.apter XVI.
lU'I'.lLI' Pl'ST.S OF CROPS.

" Theanniml losssiilTcred by agricultural communities through ignorance of entomologi.
cal facts is very great. Every iilanl has its insect enemies, or, more correctly, its insect
lover, which feeds upon it, delights in its luxuriance, but makes short work, it may be of
leaves, it may be of HoMurs, it may be of fruit. It has been estimated that every known
species of plant has five or si.v species of insects which habitually feed upon it. Where
the plant is one that is valuable to man and is grown for his use, the horticulturist or the
farmer finds himself confronted, preseutly, by the ravages of these creatures, and unless
he has correct information as to the best manner in which to combat them, he is likely
to sutTer losses of a serious character."

HoLL.^ND— r//c Butterfly Book, pp. 256-257.

The Coleoptera or Beetles include a greater number of insects
than any other Order but, so far as the insect-pests of crops are
concerned, they are less important than Lepidoptera and on the
whole probably do no more damage than the Orthoptera or Rhyn-
chota. This is due largely to the fact that Beetles have a complete
metamorphosis, the larva being very different from the adult in
appearance, habits, and usually in food also, so that beetles as a
rule only damage crops for a portion of their life-cycle, whilst bugs
and grasshoppers feed in a similar manner and on similar food for
their whole life after emergence from the egg.

The plants on the left hand were attacked and their fjrowth stunted in com-
parison with the healthy, unattacked plants on the right. (Author's original
photo.

150 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. XVI.

Beetles, it may be as well to reiieat here, are proviiled witii
biting mouth-parts both in their immature and adult stages, and this
fact immediately distinguishes them from bugs some of which some-
what resemble beetles in external appearance.

Cockchafers of various kinds are common in all districts, usually
appearing at definite times of the year, often in enormous numbers,
and flying in to light at night, though rarely seen in the daytime.
They are heavily-built beetles, with short legs and stout, rounded
bodies usually coloured in a uniform shade of brown or grey, with
short antennas terminated by an expansile fan of elongate-oval,
flattened plates. The beetles themselves fly by night and may do
considerable damage by feeding on leaves of plants, especially of
ornamental plants in gardens, such as roses. In such cases they
may either be collectetl by hand at night by shaking the plants
over trays or sheets, or the plants attacked may be sprayed with
Lead Arsenate sweetened with a little treacle or jaggery. A light-
trap, made by suspending a lantern over a tray of oil-and-water,
will often attract the beetles in large numbers and may be used as
a control-measure supplementary to either of the above, but light-
traps by themselves will not usually afford protection. It is not,
however, only the beetles that are destructive, for the larvas live in
the soil and do considerable damage by feeding on the roots of
plants. They are white, fleshy grubs, with three pairs of thoracic
legs and with the tip of the curved body usually swollen into a
bluntly rounded extremity. These grubs usually live just at the
roots of grass, coming closer to the surface in wet w^eather and re-
treating further down during dry spells. They are very difficult to
control, as ordinary flooding will not drown them and the appli-
cation of insecticides is impracticable on any large scale, though in
gardens, where flower-beds or grass-lawns are attacked, watering
with soap-solution or phenyle or any similar deterrent will drive
them away temporarily. Ploughing will often bring them up
to the surface when they are eagerly preyed on by crows and other
birds, and as their life-history is usually very definitely limited by
seasons, lasting at least a year as a rule, it is possible to arrange an
operation such as ploughing to take place during a period when
these insects are in the grub stage, with the express purpose of
destroying as many as possible at that time. In the Nilgiris
especially these larvse are well known under the name of "White-
grub," and at certain times of the year the whole countryside,
gardens, fields, plantations and grassy downs, is infested by these
grubs, which live just below the ground and feed upon the roots of
plants. The gardens at Ootacamund are much troubled by these
pests, whose ravages commence in August anti cease in the dry

J]

12

KiG 08. — NilKiri Chafers.

\. Annmala olivicri. Slip.: 2. A. pallida : 5. A. rcfiiiia. Xcwni. ; 4. iLii-
idciitilicd) : 5. Mclasina barhcri, Slip. ; 6. Serica iiiliiireiisis. Slip. :
7. Holotricliia rcpctita. Shp. : 8, Adoretus ovalis. HI.: 9. HoUttiicliia
confcrta, Shp.; 10. Auomala i)>iiicollis : 11. Popillia cliloiivn : 12.
Serica piliila, Shp. ( Original Jphoto by Dr. C A. Harbcr.l

CHAP. XVI. J

BEETLE PESTS OF CROPS.

151

weather after Jamiarj', the beetles flying in the early evenings
immediately after the first rains in April and May. As the flights of
the various species concerned are apparently e.xtremely local, the
destruction of the beetles in April-June, by light-traps, by hand-
catching, and by the use of poisoned sprays, virill usually lessen
considerably the damage done i)y the grubs in the later months of
the vear.

Fig. 69. — Orycfcs rhinoceros boring into sugarcane. (Original photo, by
Murugesan from a specimen found at Coimbatore, October 1913.)

Closely allied to the cockchafers are the Rosechafers
(CetoniadaK differing by their more flattened shape, their brighter
colours and their diurnal habits. They attack flowers rather than
leaves and are often a serious pest of cereals, such as cholam and
cumbu, devouring the flowrers so that no grain is formed. Their

15^

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XVI.

life-histories are practically unknown but they are believed not to
do so much damage as cockchafers in their early stages ; they are,
however, of similar habits in appearing at definite seasons of the
year. Collection by hand in hand-nets or by picking the beetles or
shaking them into trays of oil-and-water is the best method of
control.

Fig. 70. —Beetle Pests of Palms.
1, Oryctcs rhinoceros, larva; 2. 3. O. rhinoceros, beetle: 4. Rhynchophorus
fcrru^incus. larva ; 5, Cocoon of same ; 5, 7, Rh. ferni^ineus, beetle. (From
Madras Agricultural Department Leaflet.)

CHAP. XVI.] BEETLE PESTS OF CROPS. 1 53

AnoituT ally of the cockchafers is the Pahii Beetle lOryctes
rhinoceros) which bores into the tender shoots of palms, aloes, anfl
occasionally into sugarcane. In this case it is only theatlult beetle
which does damage, the lar%'a living a harmless e.xistence as a fat,
white grub which is found commonly in decaying vegetable matter
— dead leaves, manure pits, rotten wood, dead aloe or palm stems,
etc. The beetle itself not only does considerable damage by boring
through the tender unexpanded leaves of palms, but its tunnel
provitles a suitable entrance for the still more destructive Red Palm
Weevil f Rliyiuiioflionis fcrrugiiictts) which is thus enabled to lay
its eggs in the tender growing parts of the palm from which its
larva; burrow downwards into the stem and, when in large numbers,
may kill the tree, whose rotten stump presently becomes a suitable
nidus for the larvce of the palm beetle. So that it will be seen that
these two beetles are to some extent mutually interdependent and
that the damage done by one is completed and amplified by the
other.

Many beetles bore into the solid wood of growing trees or bushes
in their larval stage and do very serious damage to the plants so
attacked. The longicorn beetles in particular have white wood-
boring larvae which are usually long, stout, cylindrical, with distinct
segments and well-developed jaws. In the case of the larger grubs
which bore into trees, of which Batoccra ntbus in mango and
nibber and the coffee borer (Xylotrecliits qitadripcs) in coffee are
well-known examples, the larva may be cut out and the wound
painted over with tar, a drastic remedy which is usually quite
successful. But the best method of control is prevention by hand-
collection of the beetles when these emerge before they have
opportunity of laying their eggs ; one coffee-borer killed at this
time may save twenty bushes bored by grubs later on.

Some at least of the Buprestid^e are also wood-borers in the
grub stage, their white larvas being usually elongate and with a
curiously dilated thoracic region. Sphaioptcra gossypii is a local
pest of cotton in Bellary whilst S. aracliidis attacks groundnut
and Leguminoss practically throughout the plains, being an
especially serious pest of groundnut in South Arcot. The only
thing to be done in the case of these small borers is promptly to
pull out and destroy all the plants attacked by them.

Though a true longicorn and wood-borer in its early stages,
StJienias grisator deserves special mention, as the beetle has the
curious habit of girdling twigs of Erylhrina, rose, etc., by seizing
them in its jaws and ringing them completely by biting through
the bark so as to arrest all flow of sap. In the end of the branch
thus killed the eggs are laid and the larvae tunnel and live, the

t54

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. (CHAP. XVI.

object of girdling the twigs in this way being to provide a suitable
amount of food free from sap, for the larvae to feed on. The larvas
of most longicorn beetles, it may be noted, feed on dead wood.

Blister Beetles of various species often do great damage to crops
by devouring the flowers and tender shoots. Cereals and legumi-
nous crops, such as gram, are especially subject to attack and there
seems to be some special attraction for these beetles in flowers of a
yellow colour; the common red-barred black Zonabris piistulata, for
example, feeds indifferently on yellow flowers such as those of red
gram, cotton and prickly-pear. Whether these beetles are to be
ranked as pests or beneficial insects is at present, however, an open
question. In the adult state they certainly do harm to crops. The

Fig. 71. — A Blister-beetle ( Mylahris indica).
The small outline figure shows the natural size. (OriRinal.l

life-histories of very few species are known at all but the larvje of
most of those that are known are parasitic on the cggmasses of
grasshoppers; and we have bred two distinct species of blister-
beetles (one of which is apparently Giiatlwspastoides i-oiixi, Cast)
from eggmasses of the destructive Deccan grasshopper (Colenuiuia
sphciiarioidcs). If therefore the larva of a blister-beetle destroys
even one eggmass containing (say) forty eggs of a grasshopper, the

CHAP. XVI. I BEETLE PESTS OF CROPS. 155

good it accomplishes by so iloing at this stage must be offset
against any damage it may do later on as anatlult.aml the question
we have to answer is whether the damage that would have been
done by the grasshoppers is greater than that done by the beetle
which has destroyed them. And for the present this must remain
an open ([uestion antl we can give the blister beetles the benefit of
the doubt.

The vast army of leaf-feeding beetles cannot be considered
here in any detail and the ordinary methods for control of biting
crop-pests are applicable to them as a whole. Catching them in
hand-nets or by shaking the plants over trays or cloths is generally
more practicable on a large scale than spraying with stomach-
poisons. As a rule it is only the perfect insects which do damage
to crops, but to this there are a few exceptions. The Epihuhna
beetles, which look much like lady-birds but have a curious bloom
on the wing-cases, lay their eggs in batches on solanaceous and
cucurbitaceous plants on whose leaves the larvae feed and may do
considerable damage; as the plants attacked are usually those
grown in gardens, spraying with a stomach-poison is practicable.
The Hispiiur (Leptispa pygiiicen, Phidodoiita modcsta, and Hispa
armigcra), small elongated shining blue or black beetles, the two
latter thickly covered with long branching spines, have larvae
which are leaf-miners in grasses, the first and third of those named
above attacking paddy and the second being a minor pest of
sugarcane. As the larvae mine inside the leaves they cannot be
reached by a spray, which in any case would be out of the question
in the case of crops such as sugarcane or paddy. The only remedy
which can be suggested at present is the catching of the adult
beetles in hand-nets and the burning of all stubble immediately
after harvest.

The Tortoise Beetles (e.g., ^,s7'/V/ow/<;/-/)//</ iiiiliaris) are leaf-feeders
in their early stages and their larvas are easily recognizable by
their extraordinary habit of curving their long forked tails over
their bodies and depositing on them a covering composed of cast
larval skins and e.xcrement. One species is commonly found on
ber (Zizyphiis jiijiiba) but those of economic importance are all
minor pests of sweet potato. Remedial measures are not required
as a mle but, as this crop is usually grown in small areas only, the
plants may be sprayed with a stomach-poison and gone over with
a hand-net or bag-net to collect the adult beetles.

■ The habits of the various Weevils which are pests of crops are
very varied but all may be recognized by the long curved snout of
the adult beetle. The larvae are short, fat, white, legless grubs
with very small heads, and they are as a rule borers in stems,

156 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XVI.

leaves, fruits or roots of plants, although the life-histories of very
few are known in India.

The Cotton Stem Weevil (Pcmplicirs affiiiis) lays its eggs on
stems of young cotton-plants at about ground-level and the larva
makes a spiral burrow inside the stem which produces a character-
istic gall-like swelling, inside which it lives and pupates. In the
case of badly-attacked plants the whole plant may be snapped off
by the wind. No successful remedy, applicable on a field-scale,
has been found hitherto, but in the case of experimental plots
painting the stems with crude oil emulsion may be recommended.

The Sweet Potato Weevil (Cylas formicarius) bores into the
tubers of sweet potato which it utterly ruins, every tuber being
bored and rotten in the case of a bad attack. No direct remedy is
applicable. The beetles are easily collected by hand-nets or bag-
nets as they sit on the leaves of the food-plant but the damage has
usually been done by the time that they are noticed. Abandoning
the cultivation of sweet potato for at least a year after an attack,
and the use of deeply-rooted varieties of plants, will help to prevent
attack. The infected tubers may be fumigated or may be boiled
and fed to cattle.

The Mango Weevil (Cryptorhynchus mangiferal) which passes its
life-cycle inside the stone of a mango fruit, is very common,
probably ninety per cent, of mangoes being infected in some years,
although as a rule the presence of the beetle passes unsuspected
and no damage is done to the fruit itself. If the stone of a ripe
fruit is cut open, the beetle itself, or its larva or pupa, will generally
be found.

Many weevils are leaf-eaters as adults and may do damage,
usually of a minor nature, to crops. They are generally easily
collected by shaking the plants over cloths or pans of oil-and-
water ; it should be noted that weevils, when disturbed, frequently
drop to the ground and " sham dead " and this death feint should
not be mistaken for the real article. Many weevils also have such
an extremely tough and thickly chitinized integument that they are
not killed by treading on them with the foot on ordinary soft soil
and care must be taken to see that they are really squashed.

CHAP. XVII.] FLY PESTS OK CROPS. 157

Cn.APTER XVII.

1-LV P1-:STS Ol" CROPS.

'■ The fresh young tlic

. joy'd to range abroad in fresh attire,

Through the wide comii.iss of the ayrie coast :

And, with unwearied wings, each part l'in(|uirc

Of the wide ndc of his renowned sire."

Spenser.
Very few Fly Pests of crops are known in Southern India as
yet, although it is probable that further research will bring to light
many more cases of damage by these insects. In all cases it is
only the larva or maggot of the fly which does damage, the adult
insect itself being harmless.

The Fruit Flies comprise the most numerous and important of
the Fly Pests and, as their name implies, they attack various
species of fruits, both wild and cultivated. The eggs are usually
thrust into the fruits whilst these are still unripe and the maggots
tunnel into the pulp and utterly spoil the fruits which may be
turned into nothing but a crawling mass of maggots. The fruits
most subject to attack in this way are oranges, mangoes, peaches,
guavas, and almost all cucurbitaceous vegetables such as pumpkins,
melons, etc.

The prompt collection of all fruit seen to be attacked, as soon
as the attack is noticed, and of all wind-fallen or rotting fruit lying
on the ground, is an obvious course to take in case of attack by
these flies, in order to prevent them from breeding as far as
possible ; such fruit should be boiled or thoroughly burnt or buried
deeply underground with at least two feet of well-beaten earth
over it. In the case of valuable fruits, such as those intended for
Exhibitions, they may be protecteil by enclosure in muslin bags,
but these must be applied whilst the fruit is still small. If it is
known that fruit-trees are likely to be attacked they may be
protected to some extent by spraying them with a mixture of 3 lb.
sugar, 3 oz. Lead Arsenate in 4 gallons of water. This spraying
should be started when the earliest fruits are about two-thirds
grown and should be continued until all are ripe, being renewed at
least once a week and promptly after every shower of rain. The
object of this spraying is to attract and poison any female flies
which may be present and which would otherwise lay their eggs

158 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XVII.

in the fruit. Certain strong-smelling oils, such as Citronella and
Kerosinc, are known to e.xercise a powerful attraction for the
males of certain species of fruit-flies and exposure of pans of
water or fly-papers baited with these oils will destroy the males in
large numbers ; but in practice it is not found that the quantities so
destroyed have much influence on the oviposition by the females.

Young cholam plants are sometimes attacked by a fly-maggot
which bores in the stem just about ground-level and which may do
considerable damage. It is believed that this pest, whose exact
identity is not known, attacks healthy plants, but it may possibly
prove to be only a follower of an attack by stemborer (Cliilo simplex).
No remedy can be recommentled except increase of seed-rate and
subsequent thinning out and burning of all young plants seen to
be attacked, the attack being marked by a characteristic yellowness
and drooping of the young plant. Sometimes more than one
maggot may be found in the same stem; the brownish pupa is
found in the larval burrow.

The Red-gram Agromyza, whose exact name is not known,
attacks red-gram, the female fly piercing the pods with its sharp
ovipositor and laying eggs singly inside their skin. The maggot
on hatching feeds on the seeds inside the pod. Sometimes more
than one maggot is found in a single pod, the only outward sign of
attack being the minute and almost invisible hole through which
the egg was thrust. When full-fed the maggot pupates inside the
pod and after a few days emerges as a minute shining black fly.
This pest is kept in check by parasites, and no remedial measures
can be suggested at present. Another species of Agromyza attacks
cowpea, lablab and green gram, the larvae boring into the stem
and the plants so attacked withering. This fly is sometimes a
serious pest of young plants.

The Cecidomyiadae form a family of flies comprising a large
number of minute species, many of which have earned notorious
reputations in other countries as crop-pests, but few have been
noted hitherto to do damage in India. Two species, however, have
lately been discovered at Coimbatore, one of which (a species of
Contarinia apparently very near the West Indian C. gossypii,
but distinct) attacks the buds of cotton-plants into which the
larva bores so that the buds drop off and fail to mature ; the
other, which may be called the Gingelly Gall-fly in the absence of
an exact determination, attacks young gingelly capsules and
prevents their proper formation in a similar way, a wrinkled twisted
gall being produced instead of a fruit. It is probable that further
work will bring to light many more destructive species of

CHAP. XVII. 1

FLY PESTS OF CROPS.

159

Cecidomyiiula' whose minute size has hiUuTlo allowed ihcin to
escape notice.

A Blue-bottle fly (Pyciwsoma JhiviicpsI has proved a local pest
of toildy in South Kanara, the flies being naturally carrion feeders
in their early stages and being bred in immense numbers from the
fish oft"al and other refuse of the Fishing Inilustry on the West-
Coast. The flies have been found to fly inland as far as forty miles
and to congregate around the spathes of toddy-palms in such
numbers as to suck up all the juice as fast as it exudes, besides
fouling the toddy-pots with their excrement. Fuller details will be
found in Leaflet No. IV. of 1913 issued by the Madras Agricultural
Department.

Fig. 72. — Protective device against toddy flies. (From Madras Agricultural
Department Leaflet No. IV of 1913.)

Flies are extremely important, both to man and animals, as
carriers of diseases (see Chapter XX). So far as crops are con-
cerned, however, they are of comparatively little importance
in India.

l60 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XVIII.

Chapter XVlll.
PESTS OF STORI'l) PRODUCTS.

'• Tm the terrible utilitarian a Inishel of peas preserved from the weevil is of more
importance than a volume of observations bringing no immediate profit. Vet who has
tolil you, 0 man of little faith, that what is useless to. day will not be useful tomorrow.
If we learn the customs of insects or animals we shall understand better how to protect
our goods. It is by the accumulation of ideas, whether immediately practical or other-
wise, that humanity has done, and will continue to do. better today than yesterday, and
better to morrow than to-day. If we live ujion peas and beans, which we dispute with
the weevil, we live also by l;nowledi;e, that mighty kneading trough in which the bread
progress is mixed and leavened." FviiKi-

Even after the agriculturist has grown and harvested his crops
and paid his toll to the innumerable insect-pests which attack his
produce in the field, he is by no means freed from the undesirable
attentions of yet another class of insects which now proceed to
levy their dues upon his outturn, whether this be stored for food of
manor beast or retained for the sowing of next season's crop-
Not only are cereals attacked but seeds of all sorts, and indeed
scarcely any manufactured products of vegetable or animal origin
are free from destruction, for some of these pests of stored products
are not only voracious but also almost omnivorous, so that it has
aptly been said of one of them that its food is " everything except
cast-iron."

These insects have been very little investigated in India; most
of them are beetles, but there are also a few small moths which do
damage of this nature. The following is an incomplete list of the
destructive species so far as these are known : —

Coleoptera : Sihaiius suriuamcnsis (see p. 290), Lwniof/iltciix
ininiitiis, Mthriostoma uiiiltihita, Tciicbroidcs nuuiritniiiciis (see p. 289),
Lophoctitercs pusilliis, Carpophiliis dimiiliatiis (see p. 288). Rliizopcrtlui
domiiiica (see p. 294). Gibbium psylloidcs (scotias), Sitodrcpa panicai
(see p. 295), Lasiodcrnia scrriconic (see p. 295), Triboliiiiii castaiicum
(see p. 300), Liithcticus oryz(r.C(daiidru graiiariii, C. oryzce (see p. 341),
Caryobonis goiuigra {?.ec p. 308), PiichyiHrnis c/iiiiciisis ist^c i>- 306), and
various other Bruchida:.

Lcpidoptera : Silotroga cercalella (see p. 456), Ephestia cautella
(cahiritella). E. ficulclla (desuctclla). Phtlwrini(ea opcrcidcUa (see

P- 455)-

Of the above-named insects the Rice Weevil (Calaiidra oryzce)
is at once the commonest and the most destructive. It attacks
cereals of all sorts in the field to a slight extent, feeding on the

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 1.

HOt'SEHOI.I) AM) (IRANARV PESTS.

Fii',. 1. Pulse seed eaten by Briichid Beerle, with eg^s deposited on it.

2. Bruchid Beetle.

3. Lasiodermn scrricflrnc. larva.

4. ,, .. beetle.

5. Anthrenus vorax. larva.

6. ,. ,, beetle.

7. Silolroga cerealella, larva.

8. ,, „ moth.

9. Calandra oryza, beetle.

10. SHvanus sur'namcnsis, beetle.

11. .. .. pupa.

12. „ >, larva.

13. Tribolium castaneiim, beetle.

14. Caloclytiis annularis, larva tunnelling in bamboo.

IS-

„ .. beetle.

(The lines alongside the figures show the natural sizes.)

PLATE I.

HOUSEHOLD & GRANARY PESTS.

CHAP. XVIII. 1 PESTS OF STORED PRODUCTS. l6l

ripening grain, but it is an important pest of stored grain, especially
of rice, but also of maize, wheat, cholam. etc., and at a moderate
estimate may be said to destroy 5 per cent, of all stored grain
which is kept for more than a couple of months after harvest. The
whole life-history is passed in a single grain in which the egg
is laid, but the adult beetles live for a long time and wander
about freely, biting into many grains, so that they probably do
more damage as adults than when immature. It has been found
by experiment that a certain minimum (about 8 per cent.) of
moisture in their surroundings is necessary to the successful exist-
ence and breeding of these weevils, so that, if grain can be well
dried in the sun to reduce its moisture-content as much as possible
and then stored in insect-proof receptacles in a dry place, it will be
as secure from attack as is possible under practical conditions. In
districts where paddy is stored in jars there should be little
difficulty in having the grain sun-dried before storage and then
fastening up the jars so as to exclude weevils ; for jars not in use
an earthenware cap, luted on with clay, might be used, and those
in daily use could be covered simply with a fine cloth tied around
the neck of the jar. Care should of course be taken that the jars
are thoroughly cleaned out and free from weevil or old infected grain
before filling them afresh and also that all fastenings are really
sufficiently tight to be weevil-proof. If the grain is kept in baskets
these should at least be plastered over with mud or cowdung to
make them tight if possible.

Tribolitim castaiiciim (fcrni,^iiieuiii) is a small elongate red-brown
beetle which attacks stored grains and oilseeds and more especially
dried provisions, such as biscuit and flour. It also feeds on dried
animal matter and seems to have a special predilection for dried
specimens of insects if these are left exposed in ill-fitting boxes.
Not only does this beetle do damage by actual consumption of
provisions such as flour, but its presence communicates a peculiarly
repulsive taste to the substances on which it feeds, so that whole
cases of flour and biscuits often have to be condemned as unfit for
human consumption on this ground alone.

Silvanus siirhKimcnsis. so called because it was first described
from Surinam, is a small elongate brown beetle with the sides of
the thorax produced into sharp saw-like teeth. It is a common
insect in stored products generally but a minor pest in comparison
with the two preceding species.

The Bruchidae, or Pulse Beetles, are short thick-bodied species
of the characteristic shape seen in figure 155. They attack especially
pulses such as the various grams, lablab, beans and peas, the larva
burrowing inside the seed and destroying it and leaving a

l62 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XVIII.

characteristic large round hole of exit. Owing to their com-
paratively large size these beetles may do very considerable damage
to stored pulses. A few species attack growing plants in the field
and may be found in ripening pods of grams and of some wild
leguminous plants such as Crotalaria, but the species which attack
living plants are apparently distinct from those which damage
stored products. There are numerous species of these beetles, all
very similar in general appearance and difficult to distinguish from
one another, although differences of habit may prove that their
discrimination is of practical importance.

Sitodrcpa panicea is an insect of truly catholic tastes, feeding
indifferently on almost any substance of animal or vegetable origin
and even having been recorded as biting holes through sheet lead.
Even the most pungent substances, such as reil pepper, do not come
amiss to it and it is therefore scarcely a matter for surprise that
this little beetle is often found as a serious enemy of dried products,
especially of dried roots and similar dried vegetable substances
commonly found in bazaars. It is also a very serious enemy of
books, boring a long tunnel which may often run straight through
several volumes in a row ; an annual painting with book solution
(see Chapter XIX) will avert such damage.

The Cheroot Beetle (Lasiodcnna serriconic) needs no introduction
as its ravages are sufficiently well-known in Southern India. To
the ordinary smoker it is sufficiently annoying to find a cheroot
reduced to a combination of holes and dust, but to the manufacturer
this beetle may be a cause of heavy loss by riddling bales of
tobacco leaves of good quality which are used for the making of
outer wrappers of cigars. The only reliable method of control in
these cases is by careful fumigation and subsequent storage of the
bales in rooms or receptacles which are proof against the entrance
of the beetles, though this is by no means easy on a large scale, and
probably frequent and regular fumigation of all unmanufactured
stock will prove the best safeguard as a rule. If the made cigars are
fumigated with Hydrocyanic Acid gas or Carbon Bisulphide and
boxed immetliately afterwards, so that the beetles have no oppor-
tunity of ovipositing in them, they should be and remain free from
attack, as the beetles are unable to penetrate into the boxes if these
are properly sealed up with strips of paper. The present wholesale
losses are quite preventable if the manufacturers will take reason-
able precautions, and it may be added that the slight cost of
treatment will be more than recouped by saving in damage.

If stocks of stored grain, such as paddy or maize, are examined
ami turned over, numbers of small greyish moths will generally be
seen flying and running over the grains. These are the adult

CHAP. XVllI.] PESTS OF STORED PRODUCTS.

163

insects of Sitotroga ccrcalclla, a small moth whose larva feeds inside
grains of cereals. The precautions recommended under the heading
of rice weevil are applicable to this pest also — thorough drying
and exposure of the grain in the sun and subsequent storage in dry,
tight receptacles being generally effective in controlling the
damage.

cn^

Fig. 73. Ephcstia kiichnicUa. (After Chittenden.)

Several Pyralid moths of the genus Ephcstia feed commonly in
flour, grain and dried vegetable matter, the caterpillars living in a
silken gallery which is run throughout the food so that loose sub-
stances, such as flour, are often found to be webbed together in a
continuous matted mass. Fumigation is the only remedy as a
rule.

Potatoes kept for seed are generally found to be attacked by the
Potato Moth (Plitlioriiuiwa opcrciilclhi), the larva of which burrows in
the tubers and not only spoils them by its tunnels but causes them
to rot. This moth is found in practically all potato-growing
districts up to about 6,000 feet ; it does not appear to be known as
yet in Ootacamund (though found at Downham Farm a thousand
feet lower down) but will doubtless obtain a footing there in the
near future. In other countries it is known to attack growing
plants of both potato and tobacco, the larva mining in the leaves,
but in India it is only known as yet as a pest of stored potatoes.
If these are picked over before storage, all unsound ones being
rejected, and the rest stored under layers of dry sand, so as to be

tl-A

I64 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XVIII.

out of reach of the moths which would otherwise lay eggs in them,
a sufficiency of seed can generally be kept ; the potatoes should be
picked over frequently, once or twice a month, and all rotten ones
rejected. Those which are fountl to contain larvae of this moth
should not of course be simply thrown away, thus enabling the
moths to emerge, but should be boiled or buricii deep untlerground
under at least two feet of well-beaten earth.

Bamboos and dry timber of all sorts are frequently bored by
beetles of various kinds. Painting or varnishing is usually a
sufficient preventive of attack but if the wood is already infected
the beetles will bore their way out and continue to do damage. In
such cases painting with Kerosine, which should be forced into the
holes if possible, and subsequent painting with unboiled linseed
oil, will generally check the damage. Small articles of furniture,
such as chairs, may be fumigated in a large box. Bamboos arc
often soaked in water before use for building, and the water perhaps
removes some of the sugary contents of the wood and thus makes
them less attractive to insect pests of this description.

Grains and stored products, such as are attacked by the insects
mentioned above, are usually intended either for food or for sowing.
In the former case it is obviously impossible to treat them with any
poisons which would be deleterious to the consumer and in the
latter any treatment must not impair the vitality of the seed. These
limitations prevent us from making use of any method of treatment
which would render these articles permanently secure from insect
attack by the use of stomach-poisons and the only methods which
we can adopt are (l) temporary fumigations at such frequent
intervals that any insects which may obtain access will be unable
to increase sufficiently to cause serious loss, or (2) one temporary
fumigation and subsequent storage in receptacles to which the
insects cannot obtain access. On a small scale also it is possible
to mi.x a deterrent substance, such as Naphthaline, with the grain
in order to keep out insects, the naphthaline being subseciuently
sieved out and the residue evaporated in the open air; this does
not affect either taste or vitality of seeds if all the naphthaline
is carefully evaporated. The naphthaline may be wrapped in pieces
of thin cloth for subsequent convenience of removal.

If. therefore, grain cannot be protected from access and renewed
infection by insects, the only method of protection is frequent
fumigation to prevent the insects breeding and increasing to des-
tructive numbers. On a small scale, as in the ordinary village and
bazaar, grain may be exposed to the sun instead of being fumigated.
When it can be stored in receptacles (rooms, special bins, or jars)
where it will be safe from subsequent infection, one fumigation or

CHAP. XVIIl.l PESTS OK STORIiD PRODUCTS. I65

thorough drying slioiild be sufficient to i<ill off ;ill insert life and the
subse(|uent storage to maintain it free of pests. It must be remem-
bered that, in drying grain in the sun, it must be spread out evenly
and thinly so that every grain may be e.xposed to the sun "s rays and
heat ; it is of iiule use H) pile ^rain up in heaps, as the individual
grains at the bottom of the pile will not be e.xposed to the sun, so
that the insects in them will not be killed and will subsequently
infect the rest. For the storage of grain in villages, the use of
large glazed earthenwrare jars, which can be tightly closed with a
stopper and this thickly and tightly luted with clay, will be found
most satisfactory ; if the grain is thoroughly dried in the sun before
placing it in the jars and sealing it up, which will normally be done
in dry weather, not only should it remain free from insect attack,
but danger of damage by mould should be eliminated to a large
e.xtent.

Fumigation, which is only recommended in the case of godowns
or stores on a fairly large scale, may be accomplished by the aid
cither of Carbon Bisulphide or Hydrocyanic Acid gas. Both are
dangerous and poisonous substances and should only be used under
strict and competent supervision. The former is inflammable and
violently explosive ; the latter is inert in these respects.

Carbon Bisulphide is a heavy, colourless, oily liciuid, which
rapidly evaporates into a colourless gas heavier than air, both
liquid and gas exhaling an extremely unpleasant and characteristic
smell, and being poisonous if inhaled. The liquid is inflammable
and the gas is violently explosive when mixed with air in the
presence of fire. The liquid must be kept in stoppered (not corked)
bottles and should not be exposed to direct sunlight or stored in
any place where it is liable to be heated or to leak or to be upset or
spilt. Carbon Bisulphide must never be opened or taken near
a light or fire of any sort, not even a lighted pipe, cheroot or
cigarette, nor should it ever be stored or used in a place to which
unauthorized persons may have access. For fumigation it is
simply poured op to the grain to be treated at the rate of about one
ounce for every fifteen cubic feet or, in the case of large bins
full of grain, about one-and-a-half pounds of fluid to each
ton of grain. As the gas is heavier than air, if the liquid is poured
onto the grain, it will soak down and through it. After twenty-four
hours, during which no light or fire must be allowed anywhere near
the place where the treatment is being carried out, the receptacle
may be opened, again in the complete absence of fire in any shape,
any gas which may be present allowed to escape, and the grain
removed and at once transferred to permanent storage. It must be
clearly understood that treatment by fumigation in this way will

I66 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XVIII.

only kill the insects already present in the grain and will not
prevent insects from entering and attacking it subsequently if
access is open to them.

For fumigating small articles or quantities of grain, etc., use may
be made of a tight wooden bo.x provided around the top of the sides
with a metal gutter into which fits a flange attached to the lid of
the box. The gutter being filled with water (allowing for displace-
ment of water by the flange) the substances for fumigation are
placed in the box, the requisite quantity of Carbon Bisulphide
poured in and the lid applied, when the flange of the lid, dipping
into the gutter of water, makes a gas-tight fitting. A box of this
pattern may also be used for fumigation with Formalin, etc., but is
hardly suitable for Hydrocyanic Acid Gas, which is soluble in
water, and for which a tightly fitting top, pasted down with strips
of paper, is better.

Hydrocyanic Acid Gas, usually liberated by the action of
Sulphuric Acid on Potassium Cyanide, is a colourless, highly
volatile, and nearly odourless gas, which is one of the most
powerful poisons known. For this reason it must be used with
great care, although it is a most useful insecticide and absolutely
safe in competent hands. It is generally used at a strength of one
ounce of Potassium Cyanide (98 per cent, grade) to everyone hundred
cubic feet of space, the gas being evolved by the help of one ounce
of Sulphuric Acid in three fluid ounces of water. It is especially
useful for the fumigation of entire buildings, such as godowns or
mills, which are infested with insect-pests, and may of course be
used for the fumigation of living-houses also if these can be
evacuated during treatment. For ordinary purposes on a large
scale, one pint of Sulphuric Acid and three pints of water are used
for every pound of cyanide ; it may be useful to note that commer-
cial Potassium Cyanide is usually only of about 45 per cent, strength
and the quantities to be taken must be based on the quantities given
of 98 per cent, grade.

For fumigations with Hydrocyanic Acid Gas, as with all fumiga-
tions, the first requisite is to measure off accurately the cubic
capacity of the building or vessel which is to be fumigated ; if this
is of irregular shape it is often of great assistance to plot its shape
to scale on squared paper and to count the number of squares, which
will give an approximately correct idea of the capacity of any
section, which can then be multiplied by the length to give cubic
capacity. All outside doors, windows, or other openings, are then
tightly closed and if necessary pasted over with paper. The
requisite amount of cyanide, at the rate of one ounce to each 100
cubic feet, is then taken and put up in paper packets of suitable size

CHAT. Will] TESTS OK SIOREl) PRODUCTS. I67

of not more than two pountis weight each, and placed ready in each
room, the packets being allotted to different parts of the room
if more than one is required for each room. The water is then
measured out and poured, for each packet, into suitable generators
which should be sufficiently deep and be made of earthenware and
not of metal. The acid, also measured in each case, is then slowly
and carefully poured into the water. The acid must always be
added to the water and never the water poured into the acid, as in
the latter case violent action takes place and the acid is almost
certain to spatter about with possibly dangerous results to the
operator. For it must be remembered that sulphuric acid is a
strong corrosive. The water and acid may be mi.xed in the rooms
where they will be required finally if these have cement or stone
floors ; otherwise it is better to mix elsewhere to avoid damage to
flooring should the acid spill or boil over on being added to the
water. The acid and water and the packets of cyanide being all
ready, and all doors except those actually required for access to
the rooms being closed, and all persons except the operator being
outside the building, the operator commences at the top of the
building, drops the packets of cyanide gently into the generators
and immediately leaves that room, repeating the operation on the
next floor below and so working downwards, carefully and rapidly,
to the groundfloor and out by the door which is then carefully
closed and locked from the outside. If there are two or more rooms
on each floor it is useful to have one or more intelligent assistants
so that all the rooms on each floor may be treated simultaneously.
If the cyanide is made up in paper packets the acid will take a
short time to get through the paper, thus giving a few seconds in-
terval between the dropping of the packets into the generators and
the ebullition of the gas, which will be enough to secure a safe
retreat. Fumigation by Hydrocyanic Acid Gas, if properly carried
out, is a radical cure for all living animals (beetles, larvae, bugs,
flies, fish-insects, rats and mice) in the building treated, but it
should only be carried out under strict supervision of a competent
operator. The building should be left closed for twenty-four
hours, after which doors and windows may be opened /row the out-
side as far as possible and left open for at least an hour to permit
the gas to escape. No attempt must be made to enter the building
if any smell of gas is still perceptible; this smell is faint and some-
thing like that of peach-kernels or of some metals when these are
struck together.

In colder countries successful results in the control of grain pests
in flour mills, etc., have lately been attained by the use of heat,
steam-pipes being laid down in the rooms affected and steam

l68 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHA}'. XVIU.

turned on under pressure. A temperature of Il8 to 125 degrees
Fahrenheit is claimed to be sufficient to destroy all insect life and
this may be so in countries where, even though the kinds of insects
concerned may be identical with Indian ones, the average tempe-
ratures to which the individual insects have been exposed for gene-
rations are considerably lower than the limits given above. In
India, where temperatures run much higher, it is probable that the
insects would only be killed off by the temperatures considerably
in excess of 120^ even if methods of heating were available. The
treatment of stored products by cold so as to prevent insect pests
from breeding and doing damage is not practicable in India in the
case of grains which are attacked on a large scale, though perhaps
possible in the case of cigar factories and similar industries where
the products arc of considerable value and small bulk.

CHAP. XlX-l HOUSEHOLD PESTS. I69

ClI.APTER XIX.

iioi si:ii()i.i) pi-:sTs.

"(Jn every disli Ihu Ijoouiiiii; Ijcclle falls,
The cockroach plays, or caterpillar crawls :
A thousand shapes of variegated hue>
Parade the lahle and inspect the stews.
To living walls the swarming hundreds slick,
(Jr court, a dainty meal, the oily wick ;
Heaps over heaps their slimy bodies drench,
Out go the lamps with sutVocating stench.
When hideous insects every jilate defile.
The laugh how empty, and how forced the smile !

Calcutta — A Poem.

"The moth shall eal ihem up like a garment ami the worm shall eat them like
woid."

Isaiah — li-S.

Of all the numerous insect pests which afflict the dwellers in
Indian bungalows the housefly is an easy first both in numbers
and really noxious (jualities. Its misdeeds have been noted else-
where, but it cannot be emphasized too strongly that the so-called
" poor harmless little fly," which buzzes so cheerfully over our food
and drowns itself in our drink, was born and bred amongst filth,
preferably night-soil, that it has probably just flown into the
bungalow after enjoying itself on some indescribable nastiness
outside and that it is generally swarming, inside and out, with
pathogenic organisms which it distributes impartially as it walks
along. Enteric fever, dysentery, cholera and intestinal worms are
all carried commonly by flies, which are also capable of carrying
tuberculosis, anthra.x, yaws and various other diseases. Strict
attention to sanitary conditions around the bungalow, especially as
regards disposal of stable manure, will usually bring about a great
reduction in the fly population. A small quantity of fresh horse-
dung, e.xposed in open boxes, will attract most of the female flies
to lay their eggs and the larvse can then be destroyed by burning,
boiling, or treating them with insecticides; but it is of course
important that the traps should be cleared regularly, daily or at
least every other day. Milk with a few drops of formalin added

170

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XIX.

attracts flies in the dry weather, and is a simple means of poisoning
them without danger to domestic animals. A small piece of wire
gauze or leather fastened to a handle makes a very effective imple-
ment to " swat that fly," as the Americans say, and a chokrti armed
with a weapon of this kind should have little difficulty in dealing
with any flics that find their way on to the premises.

Cockroaches are insects which are not only disgusting in
appearance and by reason of their powerful odour but they are also
animals which are liable to contaminate food where this is accessi-
ble to them. The large brown cockroaches (Pcriplaiieta australasiae
and P. americana) are common throughout Southern India and often
fly about in bungalows just before rain, though at other times they
keep out of sight. Several smaller species are also of common

Fig. 74. — Pcriplunctn iiiiicric<iii(i. the coniiiion H(ms(-co(.l<roacl) of India.
(Original.)

occurrence and all have much the same habits. Besides attacking
food, which they contaminate with their peculiarly nauseous smell
they do considerable damage by gnawing the binding of books,
corks, etc., and sometimes damage clothes by depositing their egg-
capsules amongst such, the fluitl e.xtruded with the eggs having an
acrid effect which rots the cloth with which it comes into contact.
The larger cockroaches may also be very unpleasant housemates
by gnawing the hair and toes and sipping liquid refreshment from
the lips of sleepers unprotected by a net. Borax mixed with thin
syrup, or made into a paste with chocolate, is a good remedy
against cockroaches.

CHAP. XIX.] HOUSEHOLD PESTS. l^l

Betlbiigs ami similar human parasites arc included in the
chapteron " Insects and Disease " and need not be further referred
to here as they are not usually inmates of any well conducted
bungalow. Should they gain a footing in a building, however, it is
often difficult to get rid of them without fumigating the building or
at least the affected portion.

Ants are often a nuisance in houses. If the nest can be found
it may sometimes be destroyed by pouring in kerosine or any
similar liquid and the holes then stoppeil up with solid crude oil
emulsion or tar. Small ants may often be trapped in large
numbers by laying clown old sponges soaked in syrup (sugar and
water or jaggery) and dropping these at frequent intervals into hot
water, then rebaiting and putting them down again. Small ants
may also be killed off by attracting them to tins with pierced
covers containing a sponge or similar absorbent soaked with a
sweetened arsenical mixture prepared by dissolving one-quarter
ounce of Soilium Arsenite in hot water and adding it to a syrup
composed of 5 lb. sugar and ij^ lb. water previously heated for
about three hours in a water-bath. The ants enter the tin through
the holes and carry off the poisoned syrup to their nest, thereby
poisoning the young brood, whilst the tin keeps domestic animals
from eating the poisoned bait. Crude oil emulsion rubbed on to
the legs of tables, etc., will keep ants from running up. The water-
receptacles often applied around legs of meat safes, etc., to keep
ants away should have a little oil added to the water periodically
to prevent mosquitos from breeding there.

Wasps and bees are often a source of annoyance in bungalows
by filling up keyholes, etc., and by daubing mud-nests on to books,
pictures, clothing or any suitable surface. A wasp or bee of this
sort, which has once determined to make its nest in one particular
place, is most persistent in returning even when its nest is destroyed
anil it is often difficult to dissuade it from its purpose without
killing it. Social bees and wasps sometimes build inside houses
and the smaller wasps (Polistcs) which make hanging nests are
generally quite inoffensive and very useful as destroyers of cater-
pillars, but the larger wasps and the Rock Bee may make a house
uninhabitable and require drastic repression by burning at night
or by fumigation. The big blue Carpenter Bee (Xylocopa) some-
times damages buildings by boring holes in beams but can
generally be discouraged by the application of tar, crude oil
emulsion, or similar substance to the entrance of its burrow.

Termites, commonly but inaccurately called "White Ants"
often do considerable damage in bungalows especially when these

172 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. XIX.

;irc unoccupied for a short period. Contrary to popular belief,
there are several different species with entirely different habits,
and those found in houses are not as a rule the same as those which
throw up mounds outside. Some termites make their nest in the
walls or under the foundation and these often do damage by
running out mud galleries and eating matting, carpets, books and
furniture. Other species make their nest wholly inside dead wood
such as roof-beams which they excavate leaving only a thin
exterior, so that an apparently substantial beam proves to be
nothing but a shell of mud and dust. Termites in a building are
usually difficult to deal with and no exact rales can be laid down
because the habits differ in the different species ; as a rule,
however, it is necessary to destroy the nest and this is best done
by pumping poisonous fumes into the galleries. Crude oil emul-
sion, Copper Sulphate solution, or similar repellents may some-
times prove of temporary assistance for protective purposes, but
good construction in the first instance, and the creosoting or other
protective soaking of all woodwork is the best guarantee against
injury to buildings by these insects. A thorough soaking in
Sodium Arsenite and subsequent painting over with coal tar will
be found effectual for most constructional timber.

Crickets are often a nuisance by their shrill chirping and by
their habit of biting holes in clothing. They may sometimes be
trapped in tins or basins into which they jump during the night,
but their omnivorous tastes make them difficult to destroy by
poisons and it is not always easy to locate them exactly by their
chirruping. However, they may often be dislodged in the daytime
by moving furniture and hunted down and killed by hand.

Fish-insects do considerable damage to books, papers and
pictures by gnawing holes in the paper. It is supposed that they
extract nutriment from the size and in confinement they thrive on
paper covered with a thin layer of flour-paste. Books kept in
open shelves should be painted over at least once a year with Book
Solution made by dissolving half-an-ounce each of Corrosive
Sublimate and Carbolic Acid in one pint of methylated spirit ; the
liquid is a deadly poison and care should be taken not to get it on
the hands ; it should be painted with a long-handled brush over
the outside and inside of the covers of the books and is an effectual
preservative against all attacks of insects which would otherwise
gnaw the binding. Books and papers kept in closed almirahs or
boxes may be effectually preserved by keeping flake Naphthaline
with them ; Naphthaline evaporates fairly rapidly and rec|uires
renewal regularly, as it is of course merely a deterrent whose efficacy
depends on the fact that it is volatilizing. To preserve pictures

CHAP. XIX.l HOUSEHOLD PESTS. 173

the best method is to paint over the back with Naphthaline Emul-
sion or simply to strew on powdered Naphthaline and then close
the back of the frame tightly with tin to keep out the fish insects
as far as possible. It must be remembered that tlic Naphthaline is
volatile anil will nut last for ever. Book Solution i)ainted carefully

Fig. 75. — Paper eaten by Fish Insects. (From an oriKinal photo.)

around the blank edge of the picture before framing may give
more permanent results, but care must be taken that the spirit
does not run onto the painting itself or the colours may be altered.
Clothes-moths of several different species occur in Southern
India, but the habits of all are very similar, the larvse making little
cases of fragments of wool and cloth in which they live. If flake
Naphthaline is sprinkled liberally amongst the clothes before they
are put away, all danger of clothes-moths will be avoided ;
naphthaline balls should be broken up to give a larger surface for
evaporation. After airing the clothes in the sun for a few hours
all trace of the Naphthaline will disappear. To those to whom the
smell of Naphthaline is objectionable camphor may be recom-
mended, but this is more expensive and no more efficient. Trophies,
such as heads of game, which are attacketl by clothes-moths, may
be painted over with a weak solution of Corrosive Sublimate in
Alcohol, but it must be remembered that this is a deadly poison
and care taken that it is only used for trophies which are hung up
out of reach of domestic animals and children.

174

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XIX.

A

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(U

Tr

CG

a

o

&

o

i3

^

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13

Carpet Beetles frequently attack not only carpets but also
woollen clothes, blankets, baize linings of gun-cases and similar
articles. When possible all such articles should be protected by a
liberal supply of flake Naphthaline when they are put away.
Articles in daily use are not attacked as a rule, but carpets may

CHAP. \IX.| HOUSEHOLD PESTS. I75

sometimes suffer. A liberal supply of flake Naphthaline (5 to 10
lb.) spread over them and left on for twenty-four hours with the
room totally closed up (jalousies and all holes pasted over with
paper) will often effect a cure and the Naphthaline may afterwards
be swept up again and kept for future use ; or the carpet may be
taken up and fumigated in a tight box or room.

Beetles of various kinds often bore holes in furniture especially
when this is made of cane. Painting on kerosine or almost any
oil, or even soaking the affected parts in oil, is a simple cure. If a
fumigation chamber is availaljlc the furniture may be fumigated by
liydrocyanic acid gas or carbon bisulphide.

r ,
/ /

\^:^,

Fig. 77. — Stesoiiiyia fasciata, a common Household Mosciuito. (.\ftcr
Gooltli in Bninipl.)

Eye-flies, Sand-flies and Mosquitos are not essentially house-
hold pests although they often cause great annoyance in houses.
As the breeding-habits of Eye-flies are as yet unknown, we can
only deal with the adult insects ; these are in the habit of settling
gregariously on some hanging support— a cobweb, lamp-hook, piece
of string, rope, or straw, etc.— and may be marked down and slain
wholesale after nightfall by burning them off with a torch. Sand-
flies pass their early stages in dark, damp (not wet) places contain-
ing decaying organic matter, and it is very difficult as a rule to
discover where they are coming from. To reduce the number of
Sand-flies in a house all rooms should be kept as free as possible
from any dark places for them to rest in during the daytime {e.g.,
behind pictures, almirahs, writing-tables, hanging clothes, etc.),
and all dark corners should be sprayed daily with a weak (about
one per cent.) solution of formalin. It is a good plan to paint
the backs of almirahs, writing-tables and the under sides of tables,
etc., with white paint, or simply to whitewash them, to reduce any
dark corners in which Sand-flics and Mosquitos rest during the
daytime.

The use of a small hand-net is a simple and efficacious method
for reducing mosquitos in a house where this is not fitted— as all
Indian bungalows should be— with mosquito-proof screens. It is,
however, as a rule much better to attack them in their breeding-
places, which will always be found to be collections of water in or

176 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. (CHAP. XIX.

near the Ijiingalow. All wells in the lonipouml should l)e sereeiietl
over and fitted with a pump, and the mail's water-tanks should be
oiled at least weekly. All old tins, jars, bottles, coconut husks or
similar articles which may hold water and breed moscjuitos should
be rigorously cleared away and all holes in trees, cut bamboo-
stumps, etc., should be filled in with plaster or mud. Leaves of
aloes and similar plants often hold water in wet weather and
breed mosquitos ; a small drainage-hole cut in the leaf will usually
suffice to prevent this. The saucers beneath flower-pots and water-
coolers, the water-dishes beneath legs of tables and meat-safes,
and the earthen water-jars on which ferns are often grown, will
all be found to be frequent breeding places for mostjuitos, which
will breed freely in the smallest collection of water. Flower-vases
which are not properly emptied and cleaned before refilling are
often full of " wrigglers " which are the early stages of mos(|uitos.

CHAP. XX.I INSECTS AND DISEASE. 1/7

Chapter XX.
INSI'XTS AND DISEASE.

" King out old shapes of foiil disease."

Tens' vso\ — in Mciiioriaiii.

" .As when a swarme of gnals at eventide
Out of the fennes of Allan doe arise.
Their murmuring small tnmipets sownden «ide,
Whiles in the air their clusl'ring army (lies,
That as a cloud doth seem to dim the skies ;
Xe man nor beast may rest or lake repast
For Iheir sharp wounds and noyous injuries.
Till the tierce northern wind with blust'ring blast
Doth blow them (juite away, and in the ocean cast."

Spenser — Faery Queen.
Twenty or more years ago a man who seriously devoted his time
to the study of insects such as mosquitos would have been regarded
almost universally as a trifler who was wasting his time with little
benefit to himself and none at all to anyone else. At the present
time no one with any pretensions to possession of medical or
sanitary knowledge can afford to disregard the study of this group
of apparently insignificant insects. The extension of their study
in India alone may be gauged roughly by comparison of these two
facts, that twenty years ago only four different species of mosquitos
were known to occur in the Indian Region whereas to-day we know
of upwards of two hundred different kinds and have at our disposal
elaborate monographs regarding their structure, lifehistories and
habits, whilst every year sees the issue of more comprehensive and
detailed publications on these insects and others of a similar im-
portance. It is not because of their intrinsic beauty or commercial
value that such a cult has suddenly arisen but solely on account of
the recognition of the fact that certain moscjuitos are responsible
for the occurrence in man of various diseases, of which malaria is
to-day probably the most important in India. As its name implies,
malaria was for long supposed to be due directly to the inhalation
of poisonous exudations from marshy places, but it is now certain,
as the result of prolonged and careful experiments, that the real
connection of marshy places and malaria is that pools and other
collections of water serve as breeding-grounds for certain kinds of
mosquitos which carry the malarial parasite.

It is not too much to say that the discovery of the fact — for it is
no longer a mere theory— of the transmission of diseases bv the

178 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XX.

agency of insects has thrown an entirely new light on the study of
Tropical Medicine which bids fair to become to a very large extent
merely one branch of Applied Entomology. The modern systems
of treatment of Tropical Diseases tend more and more to resolve
themselves into the control of the insects which act as transmitters
of these diseases. In most cases {c.^., Malaria, Yellow Fever,
Filariasis, Nagana, Surra, etc.) the problem becomes an entomo-
logical one. In the first stages of the investigation of such a dis-
ease, in considering the species of insect which is likely to prove the
transmitting agent, it is primarily the entomologist who, from his
knowledge of the insects found under the necessary contlitions, is
likely to be best able to indicate the species to be suspected and
investigated. Later on, when this investigation is being carried
out, it is again the entomologist who knows where to look for such
an insect and how to capture it and who has the best knowledge of
methods of breeding it and what are its natural enemies and thi-
conditions favourable or otherwise to its occurrence. Finally, when
the investigations have been crowned with success and a definite
relationship established between a particular insect and a disease,
the control of the disease is often attained most simply by the
control of the insect and this again falls primarily into the pro-
vince of Entomology.

To cite a specific instance, the case of Malaria may be con-
sidered briefly. The term malaria is used to cover three distinct
specific fevers, quartan, tertian and subtertian malaria, caused by
invasion of the blood of man by three different protozoan iiarasites
which are called respectively Plasiiuntiiini iiiiildrln; PI. viviix, and
Laveraiiia malariir, the attack of the first two causing a compara-
tively mild type of malaria, that of the last-named usually giving
rise to a severe form of infection. These parasites, which are not
known to occur in any other vertebrate animal, are introduced into
the blood of man loy the bite of an infected Anopheline mosquito
and may either (l) i)e killed off by the blood on entry into the body
or (2) remain dormant in the spleen and develop later on when
opportunity is offered by any diminution of vitality on the part of
the subject attacked, as by a chill, or (3) develop forthwith and
give rise to an attack of malaria. In the last case, it generally
takes about nine to twelve days for the parasites to increase sufifi-
ciently to be able to produce sufficient toxic (poisonous) substances
to give rise to fevei. Plasmodium maltiri(c (the parasite of (|uartan
malaria) and P. vivax (the cause of tertian malaria) go through their
developmental stages in the circulating blood, whilst Laveraiiia
III alaria- (the parasite causing subtertian malaria) sporulates to a

CHAP. XX.] INSECTS AKD DISEASE. 179

large extent in the internal organs. The number of days between
attacks of " fever " depends, of eourse, upon the fact of whether the
infection took place at one time or on successive days; in a case
of simple infection by quartan malaria, for example, the attacks
recur after every seventy-two hours (the period of time which the
parasite takes to complete its life-cycle in the human body), but if
infection occurred on two successive nights the patient develops
fever on two successive days, because the parasites are of different
ages anil each lot takes seventy-two hours to complete its life-cycle,
and remains free from fever on the third day of each period of
three days. Tertian malaria, characterized in simple cases by a
recurrence of the attack every forty-eight hours, is the commonest
and most widely-distributed form ; the interval without feverish
symptoms is about thirty-six hours. Subtertian malaria is usually
very prolonged and severe ; the incubation period, i.e., the interval
between first infection and first attack of fever, is 9-10 days; the
duration of each attack is twenty-four hours or more, the inter-
val between attacks twenty-four hours or less according to the
prolongation of the attack. Chronic malaria is usually caused
by infection with the subtertian parasite and is accompanied by
repeated slight attacks of fever, enlargement of the spleen and liver
and pigmentation of the skin and mucous membranes.

The treatment of malaria cannot be entered into here but, on
the principle of prevention being better than cure, we may note
briefly that the lessening of (l) the Anopheline mosquitos and (2)
their capacity to bite man in any locality must help to reduce the
total number of cases infected or reinfected. Draining and oiling
of pools and the introduction of larvivorous fish into them, the
screening of wells, the prevention of standing water near houses
and various other methods, will all help to prevent the mosquitos
from breeding, whilst the use of mosquito-proof houses or rooms
and nets and the application of repellents will considerably reduce
the chance of being bitten and infected even when malaria-carry-
ing mosquitos are prevalent. The use of quinine as a preventive,
to kill off any malarial parasites which may obtain access into the
body in spite of other precautions, is also an obvious measure to
take as a matter of routine when in a " feverish " locality.

The number of deaths due to malaria every year is officially
estimated atone million for the whole of India. I have no infor-
mation regarding the annual mortality from this cause in Southern
India but it may be placed at 100,000 on a conservative estimate.
The mere money loss to the State may be imagined rather than
calculated when it is remembered that, in addition to the actual
mortality, the productive capacity of millions of the population is

l8o

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XX.

very seriously impaired by this one disease which, it may be empha-
sized, is entirely carried by insects. It is not every kind of mosciuito
that is able to carry the malarial parasites from one man to another.
There is now a large mass of evidence on the subject and, so far as
is known at present, only certain species of the Anopheline group
of niosquitos are implicated in the transmission ; broadly speaking,
they all belong to the genus Anopheles although this has been split
up into numerous small groups (Mycomyi/i, Nyssorliyiicliiis, etc.) on
trivial characters which would rarely be recognised as of generic
importance in any other group of insects. The early stages of all
the species of Anopheles, as in the case of other mosquitos, are
passed in water in which the whole life-cycle is passed except in
the adult stage. The eggs are usually deposited singly, whereas
in ordinary mosquitos (Culicines) they are often cemented together
to form little rafts which float on the surface of the water; the
larvae are often found in slowly-running streams and are generally
recognisable by their habit of resting just below and parallel with
the surface-film of the water, whilst on the contrary Culicine larvze
usually hang down at a considerable angle with the water-surface.

Fir,. 7S. — KcsfiriK attitude of .Xnophr-line
Mos<|uitf>. (Original.)

I'IG. 7'J.— Resting attitude of
Cnlicinc Mosquito. (Original. I

Both types are air-breathers and usually obtain their air-supply by
thrusting their delicate breathing tubes through the water-film into
the atmosphere; hence the applicability of oiling the surfaces of
infected accumulations of water, as the oil spreads out over the
surface as a thin film antl clogs the breathing tubes of the larvae
and so suffocates them. The adult Anopheline inos<|uitos are

CHAP. .\.\.|

INSECTS AND DISEASE.

181

recognisable as a rule by their spottetl wings, long narrow abdomen,
long palpi, and especially by their characteristic attitude when at
rest, when the head and body are held in an appro.xiniately straight
line, the head held down towards the resting-surface and body held
well away at a considerable angle from the resting-surface.- The
Culicine mosquitos, on the contrary, may usually be distinguished
by their unspotted wings, short thick abdomen, short palpi and
resting attitude in which the head is bent down but the abdomen
held parallel witli the resting surface, so that the head and body
arc not held in one plane.

The following list includes most of the Anophelinc mostiuitos
known to occur in Southern India, those which have been incrimi-
nateil as malaria-carriers under natural conditions being marked
with a,-' those capable of infecting man with Filiirid Ixnicro/ti being
marked I : —

.4 fwp/ie/es gigas, Giles
„ ai/keni, Th.

,, imrnaculaliis, James

„ rossi, Giles X

„ lis tout. Listen *...

{christophersi, Th.)
,, culicifacies, Giles *

., ekgatis, Th.

„ ciiliciformis, J. <.S: L.

>i jeyporensis, James -■

„ barbirostris, v. d. Wulp

„ situnsis, Wied * X

{vam/s, Wlk.)

minulus, Th.

nigcrrimiis, Giles).
„ stephensi, Listen *'

„ willmori, James "*

,. ni grans

{karwari, James) *
„ Iheobaldi, Giles -

,, maculipalpis. Ciiles ■* ..

{indiensis, Th.)
., jainesii, Th.

II fiiliginosus, Giles *

,. l^ulcherrima, Th.

„ litdlou'i, Th.

Coonoor, Kodaikanai, Ceylon.

Karwar.

Ennur.

Throughout.

Throughout.

Plains.

Karwar.

Karwar.

Jeypore

Throughout.

Throughout

Madras.
Tliroughout.
Karwar, Goa.

J eypore.

Karwar, Travancore.

Throughout.
Throughout.
Goa.
.Madras City.

* Anopheles cutkifacics, however, is an exception and- rests like a Culicine ;with
donicn held parallel iih the rcsiing surface. .

abdomen

IH2

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XX

Here it may be as well to point out that there is a definite rela-
tionship between the malarial parasites and (a) the transmitting
mosquito and (b) the human host and that in each of these the
parasite passes through a distinct portion of its development.
Briefly speaking, a malarial parasite in the human body occurs as a
pale amoeboid organism in the red blood corpuscles, at whose
expense it grows and which it destroys and then sporulates, or
breaks up into many spores or little organisms (merozoites) which
arc liberated in the blood, where they may be destroyed by the
white corpuscles (leucocytes) or may invade other red corpuscles
and develop as before, destroying the red corpuscles and producing
the pallid (aneemic) condition seen in sufferers from malaria. Besi-
des the ase.xual merozoites, sexual forms of the parasite are produced

Cw;r, oplo«.

K

J

Deve l opment

I N "T H E

M 0 S q t' I T o .

. tdken Intc the
\ /stomitK of the
, -^\ ■Afn.MU.ISwUit

Fig. 80.— Life-cycle of Malarial ParasiU-. lAfter Doane.l

after some time and may be sucked up with the blood into the
stomach of a mosquito which now bites the malarial patient. After
fertilisation, the female cell penetrates the wall of the stomach of
the mo'^quito and becomes a resting cell or cyst (oocyst) which
grows and divides ultimately into spindle-shaped motile organisms

CHAP. XX.J INSECTS AND DISEASE. l8J

(sporozoites) which make their way into the i)ocly-eavity of the
mosquito and thence to the salivary ghmcls whence they may be
carried with the salivary lUiid into the body of a human Ijeing bittert
by the mos(iuito. The period occupied by the tievelopment of the
parasite in the mosquito is from eight to twelve days or more,
whence it follows that a mos(iuito which has become infected by
biting a malarial patient is not itself infective and cannot transmit
the parasite until after this interval of time, which is practically not
before the tenth night after having ingested the parasite. But, after
this, one infected mos(|uit() may bite and infect more tiian one subject
during the rest of its life.

In comparison with the above method of infection may be noted
the case of a House-fly which first settles and feeds on excrementi-
tious matter contaminated with the " germs " of Typhoid Fever and
then flies into a house and crawls over food which it infects with
the germs carried on its feet and in its alimentary canal, with the
result that those eating the food afterwards ingest the germs and
may develop Typhoid Fever. In this case the fly carries the infec-
tion only more or less casually and the parasite does not undergo
any special cycle of development on or in the carrier nor is the
parasite entirely dependent on the fly as a means of access into
the human body, as it may also be carried by eating or drinking
food which has been contaminated directly.

It is convenient to differentiate between these two classes, that
is, cases in which the parasite causing the disease in man or animals
is intimately adapted to the insect-carrier in which it undergoes
part of its life-cycle, and cases in which the parasite is merely
carried more or less mechanically by the insect-carrier from one
host to another. In the former case the insect-carrier is a true or
adapted carrier, in the latter case it is a more or less casual porter.
It will readily be understood how easily a blood-living parasite may
be carried directly from one host to another by transfer on the
mouthparts of a blood-sucking insect which is disturbed from one
host and at once proceeds to bite another of the same kind of
animal. The term " Miastor " (Greek miastor, a carrier of pollu-
tion) has been proposed by Alcock as a term applicable to insects
which by mainly mechanical means spread abroad any kind of hardy
pathogenic "germs," under which term we may include not only
bacteria but organisms such as eggs of intestinal worms.

Besides the carriage of pathogenic parasites to man and beast
many insects and similar animals may cause direct annoyance or
damage by their bites, stings, poisonous hairs or spines or similar
means, or by direct invasion of the tissues of the body. The
irritation caused by the bites of blood-sucking insects, such as

I84 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XX.

niostiuitos, fleas and bed-bugs, is perhaps hardly to be classed as a
disease, but it is often a serious source of annoyance, and abrasion of
the skin due to scratching or rubbing such bites may give entrance
to germs and thus set up blood-poisoning. The irritation caused
by such bites varies considerably in inilividuals and as regards the
bites of different classes of insects. In the case of mosquito-bites
the resultant irritation is usually most pronounced in the case of
new-comers into the tropics, a partial tolerance being acquired as a
rule after a more or less brief period of residence, but the immunity
acquired against the bites in one locality is not always effectual in
another. Some people appear to be naturally or partially immune
from the irritant effects of bites, while others never become so.
The irritation is caused by a liquid injectetl, before the mosquito
actually commences to suck blood, not from the salivary glands as
would be expected, but from the cesophageal diverticula which
Schaudinn has shown to contain bubbles of Carbon Dioxide and
bacteria or moulds. Besides the irritation caused by single bites of
insects and their individual attacks on man and animals it is often
necessary to consider the serious effects wrought by the combined
effects of these attacks. Such a combined effect is called " mass
infection " and its results, by mere loss of blood and irritation, may
cause very serious effects on the health of the host even in the
absence of infection by pathogenic organisms.

It is impossible within the limits of a single chapter to attempt
any adequate description of the organisms which are the true
causes of many diseases or of the insects which carry them to man
and animals, but a short account of a few of the more important of
such insects will be found further on (see pages 346 — 367, 486 487,
521 — 524). But before discussing the diseases, it may be as well to
give here a short account of some of the non-hexapod carriers.

Ticks are distinguished from Hexapoils by possessing four pairs
of legs in the adult state, although the newly-hatched immature
tick has only three pairs of legs but subsequently develops the
fourth (posterior) pair. Ticks belong to the group Acarina, which
also includes Mites and these latter are probably important as
disease-carriers also, although at present they have been little
studied and very little is known about them — indeed, practically
nothing in India.

The true Ticks form the superfamily I.xodoidea, subdivided into
the families Argasidje and Ixodids. The feeding-habits, which
are very important from a control view-point, are very varied in the
different groups ; in some the tick remains attached to the host,
whilst in others it merely gorges itself .with blood and then drops
off antl hides until it again requires to feed. In different groups of

CHAP. XX.] INSECTS AND DISEASE. I85

Ticks the following distinct cycles ot liabits may occur: (</) all
stages drop off the host to moult and the female also drops off to
lay her eggs. il>) the larvas do not drop off but remain attached and
moult on the host, the nymph dropping off and also the females for
oviposition, (c) both larva; and nymphs remain attached to the
host throughout all their stages, only dropping off as replete
females. A knowledge of the actual life-cycle of the particular
species concerned is of the first importance in devising measures
for the control of that species. Some ticks can live for years
without a meal.

The Blister Beetles (Meloidar or Caiitharida;) neither suck blood
nor actually invade the tissues, but in man\ places various species
arc strongly attracted by lights at night and fiy into houses. The
li(|uid exuded from the joints of the legs can raise large and
painful blisters if it touches the tender human skin — a fact which
is well known to most residents in Southern India.

Lice of various kinds infest most domestic and wikl animals.
Human lice are treateil more fully further on but it may be useful
to give here a list of the lice found most commonly in Southern
India ; they are : -

On pig, Heciiitilof'iiiiis siiis, L., var. advciiticiiis, Neumann.

„ goat, „ stciwpsis, Burm.

„ calf, „ vituli, L.

„ buffalo, ,, tiiberctilatiix, Gicbel.

„ monkey, Pcdiciiiiis ciirygastcr, Gerv.

Besides these, Hanuitopiiius spimilosiis, Burm., is found on rats fMiis
dcctinianiis, M. nlcxa)uiri)ius and M. sylvaticiis) and acts as the trans-
mitter of Trypanosoma kzvisi from rat to rat, whilst H. stephensi,
Christ, and Newst., is found on the Indian Jumping Rat or Gerbille
(Tatera iudica) and probably transmits a haemogregarine (//^p/wo^rr-
garina gerbilli) commonly found in the blood of this animal. All
lice must be looked on with suspicion as possible or probable
vectors of disease from one animal host to another.

The animals which actually invade the tissues belong as a rule
to two groups, the mites and flies, the diseases which they cause
being known respectively underthe general terms of Acariascs (/.<•.,
Diseases due to /l(V?/7, or mites) and Myiases (Diseases due. to flies,
Greek inyia, a fly). Of the true mites occurring in India very little
is known, but a few attack man and domestic animals; sulphur
ointment provides the best treatment as a nile. Scabies or itch is.
caused by a tiny mite, Sarcoptcs scabici, which burrows in the skin ;
very similar forms occur on the horse in which they sometimes
cause a form of mange due to the rubbing off of the hair by the

I86 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XX.

aniiiKil owing to the irritation caused. "Coolie itch," a disease
commonly found in the feet of Indian coolies, is caused by
Rhizosrlyphus piirusiticus, whilst Dcniodcx folliiiildriini, a peculiar
elongate eight-legged mite, is found commonly in the sebaceous
glands of the human face ; this latter species, however, is of doubtful
importance as a pathogenic agent. Pediciiloidcs vciitricosiis occurs
as a rule in cereals in India but sometimes (e.g.. when infested straw
is used to stuff mattresses, etc.) it attacks man and causes severe
urticaria; much the same may be said of Tyni/L^lyp/iii.s longior var.
cd.stclhinii. which normally occurs in large numbers in copra and
produces " copra itch " ])y invasion of the skin of those handling
this substance.

Acariases usually cause more or less temporary annoyance but
an attack of myiasis may produce very severe and even fatal results.
The attack of the fly may be more or less casual, eggs being depo-
sited on the raw surfaces of wounds or sores, or even taken into the
intestine with footl, or the fly may normally exist by feeding on
living animal tissues during its immature stages. To the former
category belong cases such as those of the "cheese hopper," the
larva of a fly (Piophila casci) whose immature stages may be in-
gested with food and cause intestinal myiasis, and various " blue-
bottle " and other flies which sometimes cause external myiasis in
man by infesting ulcers and especially syphilitic erosions of the
nose. Rhinal myiasis, or the invasion of the nasal cavities, etc., by
the larvas of muscid flies, is indeed probably the most common
form of myiasis affecting man in India. Many of the brilliantly-
coloured green " blue-bottle " flies (Pycnosonia, Lucilia. etc.) seen
commonly on excrement are attracted by any purulent discharge
from the mucous membrane of the nasal cavity and readily depo-
sit eggs (or even living larvas)on such membrane whilst the subject
is asleep in the daytime when the flies are active. Sarcophaga nifi-
coUis has also been recorded as causing human myiasis in India.
The larvae bore into the soft parts and even into the bone and may
cause very grave injury or death. Such flies may, and (omnioniy
do, deposit eggs or larvas in neglected sores or wounds in c attic-
Such wounds should therefore always be kept dressed with tar or
grease to repel the flies. There are, however, some flies which
belongtothe second category noted above and of these the common-
est in Southern India is probably CEslni.s- oi'is, whose larva lives in
the frontal sinus of the sheep, and these animals may often be seen
huddled together or holding their noses in the dust in an endeavour
to avoid the attack of a fly which is trying to oviposit in their
nostrils. The Jigger or Chigoe (Dcnn,itophilus pi->it'lr,j>i.<,l. a flea
which usually affects the feet in man, burrowing into the bkiq

CHAP. XX.] INSECTS AM) DlSKASE. 187

especially uruli-r the toe-nails) and in bad eases causing extensive
sores or even permanent crippling, was probably originally a native
of" South America, whence it was carried to West Africa and thence
to East Africa, and was brought to India in 1899 i)ut has appa-
rently not spread beyond Bombay ; however, it is ciuite likely to be
brought in at any time by returned Indian emigrants and to get a
footing in sandy places.

Returning now to the diseases caused directly in man by
l)athogenic' organisms carried by insects we have already seen how
malaria is carried by Anupheline mosquitos and may now |)roceed
to notice briefly some of the other diseases known to be insect-
borne : —

Relapsing Fever is caused by Spirose/uuitliiiiiiu earteri, Manson,
but it is possible that several distinct forms of disease may be con-
fused under the one term. The Head-louse (Pedicidits capitis) is
probably one carrier, but bed-bugs antl mosquitos are not wholly
free from suspicion.

Indian Kala Azar, caused by Lcislunaiiia donovaiii. is endemic
in Madras and is perhaps carried in- bed-bugs, possibly by
Conor/linns rubrofasciatiis.

Pappalaci Fever, Three days' Fever, or Sandfly Fever is an acute
fever, lasting three days, whose actual cause is unknown but the
infection is carried by sandflies (Plilebotomus spp), the blood of
the patient being infective up to the end of the second day of the
fever.

Dengue, an acute fever whose cause is also unknown, is occa-
sionally epidemic and is supposed to be carried by Cidex fatigans.

Yellffiv Fever is not as yet known in India but it is important to
note that its carrier (Stegowyia fasciata) occurs commonly in India
and that the infection can be carrietl by the eggs of an infected
mosquito.

Plague, caused by Bacillus pestis, is a disease of rats from which
it spreads to man by the agency of fleas which desert the dead
rats and bite man incidentally carrying the infection. In 1896 it
spread from China to Bombay, whence it has extended almost all over
India. It is commonly spread by Xenopsylla cheopis, because this is
the commonest flea found on rats, but may also be carried by other
fleas, such as Cernlophylliis fiisciatus and Pidex irrifans (the Human
flcn); it has also been transmitted experimentally from man to ratby
the Indian bed-bug (Clinocvris liemipterus). Plague has unfortu-
nately made itself too well known in Madras, the Fort St. George
G(ia7/(- of 20th May 1913 giving the number of Plague seizures in
Madras only from August 1898 to 17th May 1913 as 126,654 whilst
the deaths in this period totalled 98,398.

l88 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XX.

Enteric Fever is a term generally used to include Typhoid Fever
and two Paratyphoid Fevers. It is commonly carried by House-flies
and sometimes also by Drosophila, a small fly which is equally
at home on excrement and on ripe fruit. Enteric fever may of
course be carried by milk, water, ice, fish, etc., which easily become
contaminated directly, but the agency of flies in carrying germs
on their feet or in their intestines, from infected excrement on to
food (especially milk) is usually much under-rated. In this connec-
tion it is noteworthy that Europeans are most liable to enteric in
the dry season when the infection is carried on to food by dust and
flies, and Natives in the monsoon owing to the pollution of water-
supplies by surface drainage.

Filariasis, in its commonest form of Elephantiasis, is caused
by a minute Nemathelminth worm, Filaria hunerofti, which is carried
by various mosquitos (e.g., Culcx fatigatis, Mansotiia iini/orinis, and
the Anophclines marked* in the list on page l8l), and which
when in numbers blocks the lymphatic vessels of the body.

Leprosy is perhaps insect-borne although the exact means of
transmission is as yet unknown.

Yaii's or Frawbrssia tropica, caused by Treponema pcrtennc, is
very common in Ceylon but apparently rarer in India. It is probably
carried by flies sucking the open sores of patients and carrying the
infective organisms to ordinary ulcers or sores which are thereby
infected.

Epidemic Dropsy has occurred in Southern India- as an epi-
demic, especially in 1876-77 when there was a great famine. The
exact cause is unknown but it is suspected to be an organism
spread by bed-bugs.

C/w/rra is usually carried by water, milk, fruit, etc., which may
be contaminated directly by flies which have previously visited the
discharges of cholera patients.

Dysenteries, caused by various organisms, are also due to
infection of the intestinal tract with drinking-water, milk, green
vegetables, etc., which have been contaminated either directly
or by means of flies or similar insects.

Guinea- Worm is the infection of man with Dracitnciiliis mcdi-
nensis, a Nemathelminth worm which passes the first portion of
its life-cycle in the body of Cyclops, a minute crustacean which
is commonly called a "water-flea." If an infected Cyclops is
swallowed with drinking-water it is killed in the stomach but
the contained worm is liberated and makes its way into the
tissues of its new host. The imlividuals of Cyclops mostly live
near the bottoms of wells and pools and arc therefore most

CHAP. XX.] INSECTS AND DISEASE. 189

liki'ly to lie (lipinil lip ilurinfi the dry stMSOii wlu-n tlir watcr-lcvc-l
is low.

(>//iv//(// >"(»/•(•, otherwise lallfd " Dellii Ijoil " and known under
various other local names, is a disease found in North-western
India, not South of Canibay nor East of Delhi. According to
Patton's investigations, it is not communicable by species of Musca
or by blood-sucking flies, but is apparently carried only by immature
bed-bugs and by them only when the temperature is below 25° C.
It is thus only carried in the cold weather, developing two or three
months later on. Cases of this disease seen in Madras are usually
the result of infection further north but the disease has occasionally
been introduced and spread in the colder climates of Hill Stations in
Southern India (c.js;., Bangalore). Tropical Ulcer is also carried
siniilarl\' h\ insects and perhaps by leeches.

Coiijiiiictivitis of the eye, usually causetl by a Bacillus, is un-
doubtetlly spread to a large extent by means of Eye-flies fSif/ionclla
fiinicohj).

The diseases of tlomestic animals carried Ijy means of insects
are on the whole very similar to those found in man and caused by
pathogenic organisms which are carried by similar kinds of insects,
but usually both organism ami carrier are specifically distinct and
peculiar to each particular host.

Trypanosomiases, or diseases caused by infection by minute
Protozoa called Trypanosomes, have acciuired notoriety by includ-
ing the two African diseases. Sleeping Sickness and Nagana
or Tsetse-fly disease, the former of which attacks man in West
Africa, Uganda and Rhodesia, whilst the latter is fatal to the horse,
ass anil dog. In some parts of India and Burma " Surra," a disease
caused by Trypanosoma evansi, attacks horses, mules, camels and
cattle, and is carried by Tabauus and probably other biting flies;
later researches, however, seem to show that this Trypanosome may
be spread by hsematophagous muscid flies which are unable to
puncture the skin of an animal by themselves but which suck up the
blood exuding from the bite inflicted by flies such as PhiUFmatomyio.
1 rypaiwsoma thcilcri is only known to occur in cattle but is apparently
non-pathogenic ; it occurs in South Africa, Transcaucasia and India
and is spreatl by the bite of the cattle fly (Hippobosca). Rats in India
and Ceylon are commonly attacked by 'frypaitosoma Icivisi, another
non-pathogenic organism, which is probably carried from one host
to another by the rat-louse and rat-flea. In Madras the striped palm
stiuirrel (Fiiiiawbuliis paliitaniin, L.) harbours 'I rypaiwsoiiui indica.
which is apparently very closely related to T. /tw/.v/ of the rat. The
bandicoot rat f Ncsokia baiidicotti J \s ibc host of Trypiuwsnnuibandicotti,

iqo SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CH.AP. XX.

which is pathogenic to guinea-pigs, but apparently little known,
whilst T. vcspcrtilioiiis is found in various bats. Even reptiles are
not e-xempt from attack by these parasites, for Tryp. vittata is found
in the pond tortoise (Ewyda vittata), being carried from host to host
by a leech, and the common pond snake (Tropidoiiotus piscator) is
attacked by Tryp. primcli. At least two trypanosomes also are
known to occur in common wall-lizards or Geckos. The import-
ance of the parasites of this group warrants all necessary precau-
tions for keeping diseases such as Sleeping Sickness and Nagana
out of India, although the particular biting flies (Glossina st>P.),
which carry these diseases in Africa, are not known to occur in
India. By no means an uncommon disease of dogs in the tropics is
malignant jaundice, caused by a minute protozoal organism /'/Mv.v/V/
or PiropUisma cants) which is carried by the common Dog-Tick
(Rhipiccphaliis sangiiinciis). Another similar parasite which has
earned a certain notoriety in Madras by its effects on jackal-houmls
is Piroplasina gibsoiii, which causes intense anaemia and enlarge-
ment of the spleen and liver. Slackness of the hound in cover and
inability to keep her usual place in the field when the pack is run-
ning are the first symptoms noticeable to the huntsman and these
are soon followed by rapid loss of condition. This parasite is
common in the blood of the jackal and is transmitted by ticks. It
is also possible that rabies may occasionally be spread amongst
dogs by the agency of biting flies but this is probably an
unimportant method of dispersal.

The various forms of Anthrax are sometimes spread amongst
cattle, and occasionally carried to man, by the agency of biting
flies and it seems obvious, especially in a country such as India,
where the agriculture and hence the very livelihood of the whole
people depentls on cattle, that every effort should be matle to inves-
tigate the subject of the transmission of disease amongst cattle
by biting flies and other blood-sucking insects. Yet very little
appears to be on record either as regards the diseases or the insects
by which they are or may be transmitted. There are few if any
countries in the workl in which the subject of Veterinary Entomo-
logy and Protozoology would better repay research than in India,
but hitherto investigators have confined their attention almost
wholly to the subject of human diseases and there is a vast field
for exploration as regards the diseases of domesticated animals in
the tropics.

It may be useful to give a summary of the jjriniipal diseases
of man and animals which are known to be carried by insects
in India. This list is exclusive of diseases (Scabies, Myiases,
etc.), caused directly by insects.

CHAP. XX.]

IN'SECTS AND DISEASE.

191

Disease,

Host.

CaiTied by

Group to

which carrier

belongs.

Malaria ...
Kclapsing fever ...

Kala a/ar
l'aii|iataci fever ...
I)eiii;uc ...
ria>;iie

Isntoric fevir

I'ilariasis (Elt
phantiasis).

Leprosy ...

Ikri-beri

Yaws

Kpideniic Dropsv

Cholera

Dysentery

Tuberculosis
Guinea-norm

Oriental Sore
Tropical ulcer
Conjunctivitis
Surra

-Man ... Anophelinii-

Do. ... PedhiiUis capitis.. .

Do
Do.
Do.

? Clitioioris

... rhlt'hotonttis sp/^.

... Ciilfx fatigaiis

Man, rat, Xenopsylla clwopis
squirrel. , et al.spp.

Man ... I A fust a spp.

Drosophtla.

Do. ... Various mosquitos.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Do.
Do.

Do.
Do.

Horse, mule
camel, cat-
tle.

PidiiiiUts iapilis.

... I A/iisCa spp.
... 'i Cli HOC oris

^

I A/ II sen spp.
\ ? Drosophila.

I
I
J

CycloDs spp.

Clinocoris liemip-
Icrtis.

Various insects and
!' leeches.

Siphoiidla finii-
iola.

Various blood-
sucking Hies esp.
Tahanus and

perhaps haniato-
phagous non-
biting muscids.

ICxclusively carrieii
by insects.

Perhaps by bed-
bugs and mos(|ui-
tos also.

I'ossibly by conor-
hiniis also.

Mos<|uitos...
Head-louse.

Hed-bug ...
Sand. (lies.
Mos<iuito.
Kleas.

House. Hies. ' I'.y pollution of
food, milk, etc.

Perhaps insect-

borne.

Perhaps partially
insect-borne.

House-Hies.
Ued-bugs.

fHy pollution of
food and drink.
I Conveyance by
{ insects is a sub-
I sidiary but con-
I stant source of
l^ infection.

Water- Hea.

Bed-bug.

Kye-tly.

Infection by Dra-
cunculus mediif
easts contained in
the Cyclops which
is swallowed with
water from infect-
ed wells.

192

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC

[CHAP. XX.

Disease.

Host.

Grou)! to
Carried by which carrier
belongs.

KemarUs.

Equine Piroplas-
mosis.

1

: Hotse

Tick.

Uovine ,,

Cattle

Margaropiis aiiiiii-
latiis.

Do.

Malignant Jaun-
dice.

' Dog

Khipicephalus san-
guineus.

Do.

Anthrax

: Cattle

Various blood-suck-
ing Hies.

Si>irocha.-losis ...

Fowls

.Irgas /lersifus

Tick

Troi>ico|iolitan
(Central India).

It will be readily seen by merely casual inspection of the fore-
going list that many of the most serious diseases are carried by
insects, of which house-flies, moscjuitos and bed-bugs are probably
the most noxious to man. It is not within the scope of this book to
enter into the treatment of the various insect-borne diseases but, on
the principle that " prevention is better than cure," the following
recommendations may be added : —

(i) Avoid the bites of all blood-sucking insects as far as
possible. Mosquito- and fly-proof rooms should be as necessary
adjuncts of an Intlian bungalow as verandahs, but are rarely seen.
The use of mosquito-boots in the evening and invariable use of
mosquito-nets at night will, however, largely help to reduce risk of
infection. It is unfortunately often the case that the new arrival in
the tropics is looked down on with scorn simply because he is
naturally at first intolerant of the many insect-plagues of every day
life and that many dispense with mosquito-nets and such safeguards
from an ignorance which passes for bravado. When travelling it
may sometimes be impossible to sleep under a net and in such
circumstances a supply of some repellent, such as mos(|uito-oil,
should always be carried anil used.

(ii) A little systematic attention to the sanitary conditions of
the bungalow, outbuildings and compound will usually bring about
a vast reduction in disease-carrying insects. A Sunday morning
round of inspection will often reveal a hitherto unsuspected accu-
mulation of old tins and other receptacles for water lying about the
compound, flower-pots, water-cans, hollow trees, cut bamboo-stumps,
etc., all merrily breeding mosquitos, whilst the hordes of flies invad-
ing the bungalow and kitchen may be traced to the manure thrown
down outside the stable and perhaps also to a pile of kitchen-refuse.
A very little regular attention to such details will work wonders.

CHAP. XX.I INSECTS AND DISEASE. I93

(iii) Avoid eating any uncooked vegetables and make sure that
all milk and drinking-water is invariably boiled as a matter of
routine and thereafter kept protected from flies.

(iv) Ordinarily cleanly persons do not suffer from attack by
bed-bugs, lice, etc., as a rule, but it is not always possible to avoid such
when travelling. When in camp and after returning from camp
therefore, it is not a bad plan to have all bedding spread out for a
few hours in the blazing sun on a bare patch of ground.

It is simply not worth while to risk infection by insect-borne
diseases when a very little care and common-sense will go a long-
way to avoid such risk

13

194 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XXI.

Chapter XXI.
BENEFICIAL INSECTS.

" The first slep towards vamiuishing an enemy is to ascertain correctly ts habits:
the next to be so certain of his appearance as not to mistake one party for another ; ami
a ihirfl and no less important object is to be well ;ic<|uainted with oiirallies and friemls.".

(■ LKTis — Farm lusccts.
After bitter experiemc of the ravages of insect-pests amongst
his crops the cultivator is apt to come to the conclusion that his
only safety lies in the prompt destruction of every form of insect-
life wherever met with. But indiscriminate slaughter of this sort
will tlo almost as much harm as good for it will result in the des-
truction not only of pests but of the innumerable insects of all kinds
which help to keep the pests in some control. For, as already
pointed out (chapters VIII X), the possible rate of increase of any
insect, in the absence of enemies, is so enormous that in the short
space of a few months its numbers would be so vast as to devour
every scrap of its foodplant in any given district.

The insect enemies of crop pests, which keep these latter
within bounds, may be called the farmer's friends, and indeed
they are more than this — they are indispensable allies. Insects
of this class are generally divided into predators and parasites,
predators being animals which are predaceous on others, i.e., which
devour other animals which they capture, whilst parasites have
already been defined as organisms which live at the expense and
to the detriment of other organisms. The distinction between
these two groups is not always very sharply defineil but in practice
it is convenient to keep the two classes distinct. Perhaps the
difference may be brought out more clearly by the introduction of
a time factor, in which case we may say that predators devour
their prey forthwith whilst parasites devour it slowly and gradually
and may not always kill it. A beetle or bug which catches a
caterpillar and feeds on it forthwith is a predator; a fly which
lays its eggs in the caterpillar, in and on which the fly's grubs
feed at leisure, is a parasite. Parasites may be considered under
various headings (hypcrparasitos, superparasites, etc.), as already
indicated in chapter VIII.

Predaceous insects occur in almost all groups, many insects
feeding entirely on others and some which feed normally on dead
animal or vegetable matter occasionally devouring living prey ;

CHAP. XXI.]

BENEFICIAL INSECTS.

195

cockroaches, for example, have often been oljservecl to catch anfl
cat winged termites when these swarm out of the nest. Earwigs
also arc generally rather mi.xeci feeders of the scavenger type but
are often found to be predators and are sometimes important
checks on the breeding of flies in rubbish-heaps. Ants again as a
wliolc are decidedly mixed feeders, usually eating dead vegetable
matter and subsisting largely on the sugary " honey-dew " excreted
by various sucking insects (Aphids, Membracids, Coccids, etc.), but
observation of a string of ants (c-g-, (Ecophylla smaragdina, the Red
Tree-ant) returning to the nest will reveal abundant spoil brought
in by foragers in the shape of small flies, beetles and caterpillars.

Fig. si. — Dragonflies ; (1) ^Eshnine and (2) Agrionine. (After Lefroy.)

The Odonata, or Dragonflies, are exclusively insectviorous,
hawking small insects on the wing, and also leading an entirely
predaceous aquatic existence in their early stages. It is often very
difficult to make out exactly what dragonflies are catching even
when their numbers and actions leave no doubt that they are
actually capturing small insects, and as a rule these latter probably
consist of minute midges, winged ants, etc. In cases where winged
ants and termites have been flying in numbers out of a nest, I have
often seen a swarm of dragonflies hawking backwards and
forwards overhead and capturing them, and it is interesting to note
that on such occasions the dragonflies usually only bite off the
bodies of their victims which continue to fly along apparently
c|uite happily.

The MantidjE are familiar to all students of insect life in India.
Some are comparatively small whilst others are giants of the
insect tribe, but all are coloured procryptically in order to secure
concealment at once from their enemies and their prey. One of
the most curious and striking of South Indian Mantids is Goiigyhis,
whose portrait appears on the cover of this book in its natural

I3-A

196 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XXI.

attitude when at rest amongst foliage, head downwards and with
its long sharp-spined front legs doubled together in readiness
to strike at its prey, which are usually butterflies. The head,
being separated from the body by an attenuated thorax which
resembles an elongated neck, seems to be something apart and
does not resemble an insect at all ; in some specimens the inner
surfaces of the raptorial legs are coloured bright pink in life and
the head then resembles a papilionaceous flower which may
allure butterflies to approach within striking distance. The
deceptive appearance is often accentuated by the adoption of a
gentle sideways swaying motion of the whole insect, which not
only gives an impression of a flower swaying in a gentle breeze
but at the same time brings into action yet another device in the
reflection of light from the lower surfaces of the prothoracic lobes
which flash out like spots of sunshine finding their way through
the foliage. Finally, the insect occurs in two different shades,
green and brown, resembling living or dead leaves respectively,
and exhibits strong sexual dimorphism, the male having pectinated
antennze and well-developed wings whilst in the female the
antennae are simple and the wings abbreviated. It may be added
that males are relatively scarce because the female sometimes eats
the male prior to pairing and invariably does so afterwards.

Raptorial legs, especially suited for the capture and retention
of prey by the development of an armature of spines, as seen
typically in the Mantids, are found in many widely difi"erent
groups of insects, such as the Mantidse, the Mantispida; and the
Reduviidae, and the parallel development of such similar structures
is an excellent example of convergence in evolution which may be
commended to the student. The possession of a long slender
rostrum, as seen in the plant-feeding bugs, may be compared with
the short, stout beak found in predaceous groups, but the posses-
sion of raptorial legs is often a surer mark of distinction ; in the
Pentatomidae, for example, the rostrum is always long and slender,
whether the bug is a plant-feeder or a predator, but in cases of
doubt as to feeding habits a good guess can usually be made after
examination of the fore-tibia, which is always provided with spines
in predaceous species {e.g., Andralliis, see figure 356).

Many Wasps are predaceous on other insects and the various
species which search out and destroy caterpillars are highly
beneficial. Some wasps, such as the social species of Polisles
which commonly build small open hanging nests in bushes and
buiUlings, either eat the caterpillars themselves or feed them to
their larvas, but many of the solitary cell-building wasps collect

CHAP. XXI. I

BENEFICI.AL INSECTS.

19;

and store up caterpillars as food for their young. Of this latter
class the large long-waisted species of Eiimciws are common visi-
tors to almost every bungalow, building neat mud-cells, provided
with a regular neck and lip like a water-jar, in which caterpillars
are stored, the egg deposited, and the cell sealed and left. It is
remarkable with what regularity and consistency the wasp hunts
for and succeeds in capturing caterpillars of the same species and
size, and it seems probable in some cases that all the caterpillars
brought and stored are members of one brood which have been
systematically hunted down and destroyed; so that the good
accomiilished by these wasps is far greater than is generally

Fig. 83. — Noctuid larva
extracted from a mud-cell of
Finiicnes coiiica. ((Original.)
Fig. 82. — Eiiniciies coiiica, a
common Cell-building Wasp-
(Original.)

realized. The caterpillars are stung before they are placed in the
cell and as a result they remain practically helpless, alive but
incapable of co-ordinated motion. A great deal has been written
regarding the " wonderful instinct which always impels the wasp
to deliver its sting in one and the same and most effective portion of
the nervous system of the caterpillar," but this is largely an effort
of the imagination, and every gradation can be found in stung
larvas between complete paralysis and ineffective and transient
results; sometimes, indeed, the caterpillar may even pupate and
emerge as a moth. The wasp's egg is suspended from the top of
the cell by a slender filament, so that it is less e.xposed to danger
by any convulsive movements of the stored caterpillars ; on hatching
it devours these, still living, until they are all eaten, when it
pupates in the cell and ultimately emerges. The number of cater-
pillars stored depends upon their size; in the case of moderate-
sized ones {e.g., Pliisia) about seven are stored in each cell as a rule
and one wasp may build anil store eight or ten cells in one cluster
and probably builds and stores several clusters. So it will be seen
that every single one of these wasps may be calculated as a poten-
tial destroyer of at least one hundred caterpillars, and such wasps
should, therefore, be protected and encouraged as much as possible.
Wasps are peaceable creatures if they arc left undisturbed and

198

SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

[CHAP. XXI.

even the social species, the smaller ones at any rate, are usually
quite unobjectionable inmates of a bungalow.

Amongst the flies, the Asilidas or Robber-flies are entirely
predaceous, being provided with a stout horny beak which tan

\

s?

I ^ t

Fig. 84. — .\sili<J Fly. On the left i.s a side-view of the head, showing the

stoutly built beak ; the outline figure on the right shows the

natural size. (Original.)

inflict a nasty poisoned wound in the case of the larger species.
These flies are all e.xtremely rapid flyers and capture their prey
on the wing. Of the various other groups of predaceous Diptera
the Syrphidae are of the greatest practical importance, although
these are only predaceous in the larval stage at which period of
life they live entirely upon Aphids ; the flies themselves, many of
which superficially resemble bees and wasps, frequent flowers and
leaves and may often be seen hovering motionless in the air,
whence they are sometimes called " Hover-flies." The eggs are
laid on plants infested by Aphids, which the lar\'3e seize and
devour, sometimes, as in the case of the Ragi Root Aphid, even
following their prey below-ground.

The Chrysopidae, or Lace-wing Flies, have habits somewhat
similar to the Syrphidas, their eggs also being laid on plants and
their larvae feeding on Aphids. The eggs are very characterisitic,
being laid in groups, each egg deposited at the tip of a long slender
stalk ; it is possible that this arrangement preserves the remaining
eggs from the cannibal propensities of the first-hatched larvae.

The Myrmeleonidaj, or Ant-lions, are not commonly noticed as
adults, in which state they look like weak-winged dragonflies, as
their flight is apparently nocturnal, but they are sometimes attracted
to light at night. The larval pits, however, are familiar objects in

<H\P. XXI.l BENEFICIAL INSECTS. 19^

all dry sandy or tlusly placos as little circular funnel-shaped depres-
sions in the j^roiind, at the bottom of which lurks the larva ready
to seize and devour any small insecl which may tumble into the
pit or be brought down into it by the volleys of sand flicked
upwards b\ the concealed lar\a.

Fio. 85. — Larva cases of Hiiblciinna scituld massed on stern of Mal)iil tAcciciK
cir(thicit\ at ruiniliatore. (.Author's original photo.)

Amongst the Lepidoptera. which seem to form so typically a
vegetarian group, a few species are predaceous in their larval stages.
Of these the commonest in Madras is probably Eiiblcmina scitula
(.«<'<' figure 242) whose curious larva, enclosed in a tough shell-like
case, feeds on scale insects and is commonly found on babul
I Acacia arabica) ; frequently masses of these cases are seen on the
trunks of trees, the larvaa apparently reacting to a thigmotropic
impulse at the time of pupation. Several other species of Eublcmma
are known to be predaceous on scale-insects, whilst others of this
same genus are plant-feeders. In districts where lac is grown these
larvas may do very serious damage by devouring the lac-insects.

The Coleoptera, or Beetles, contain numerous groups of pre-
dators. The Cicindelidae, or Tiger Beetles, are predaceous both as
larvas, which tunnel in the ground and as adults which swiftly run
and fly in search of prey. One species (Cicindela sexprnictata) is
known to attack the Rice-bug (Lcptocorisa) in Northern India and
hence is a most useful ally of the farmer, but in Madras this species
appears to be scarce or absent, being known only from the
Northern districts anri from Mysore. Many of the water-beetles

200 SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. fCHAP. XXI.

(Dytiscidac, Gyrinidae. etc.) are entirely prcclaceous, as indeed are
most of the Bugs which live in the water or run along its surface.

The Coccineilidae, or Lady-bird Beetles, are familiar and
extremely beneficial insects, feeding on scale-insects, Aphids and
various other pests both in their larval and adult stages. They are
generally of very characteristic shape and colour (see plate V)
and every cultivator should make himself familiar with their
appearance. The adults have, as a rule, red wing-cases spotted
with black but the markings are variable and may be wholly red
or black, occasionally yellow or dark blue. A very large black-
spotted red species is found in the Hills attacking the large Aphid
found on pear-trees, and at least one lady-bird (see figure 133)
is known to be an enemy of Green Scale-bugs. The mite so
common on cholam is attacked by a minute species (Scywiius sp.)
which does not apparently touch the mites themselves but devotes
all its attention to devouring their eggs.

Fig. 86. — Parasite of Diatrcea sp. The small figure shows the natural
size. (Original.)

Parasites undoubtedly play a much more important part than
predators in the reduction of the numbers of any species of insect,
and this is largely because parasites as a rule only lay their eggs
so that their larvae can feed on their victims, and they are there-
fore able to destroy a large number of these latter. It must here be
emphasized again that it is by no means every parasite that is
beneficial. Probably every species of insect, without e.xception, is
parasitized by one or more other insects and it is obvious therefore
that some parasites must be injurious by their destruction of
beneficial insects. Even when an injurious insect is attacked it
may be parasitized by two or more different parasites, only one of
which is likely to survive, and it frequently happens that this
sur\'ivor is destnictive to a really beneficial parasite and its sur\ival

I'.llAl'. XXI. 1

BENElMClAL INSKCTS.

Fig. 87.— Parasite of Aproa-rcniu iicrterin. Tlic small iiguio shows the
natural size. (OiiKinal.)

is therefore advantageous to the injurious pest. On the whole,
however, the activities of parasites arc decidedly beneficial.

Parasites are found amongst the members of most of the larger
Orders of Insects but the parasitic Hymenoptera and Diptera are
the most important. Amongst the Hymenoptera, several very exten-
sive families (Ichneumonidse, Chalcidida:, Proctotrypidae, etc.')
arc entirely parasitic as are also the Tachinida; and Bombylidje
ainongst the Diptera. Animal parasites (Hippoboscida;, Nycteri-
biadas, etc.) are not included here.

Fio. 88. — An Ichneumon Fly. Xaiitliopiiiipla pcdator. The smaller outline
figure shows the natural size. (Original.)

• It must again be pointed out that it is impossible to give more than a very small
selection of facts in a book of this character. In the present chapter the considemliun
of whole families and groups must necessarily be omitted.

2d2 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XXI.

The kliiu'iimoiiidit, or Ichiu'iimon I-'lics, arc larjic lo muilcratf-
sized slender, waspish Hymenoptera, tlieir females armed with an
exserted ovipositor which may be several times the length of the
whole body, especially in the case of species which are parasitic
on larvje living in flead wood, into which the ovipositor may be
thrust to a great depth in order to oviposit in the concealed larvae.
The members of this group are often parasitic on Icpidopterous
larv'ie, which arc hunted tlown and eggs deposited in, or occasion-
ally on, them by means of the ovipositor. The eggs presently
hatch into small white grubs which feed inside the stung larva
eating the fat and non-vital portions until they are full-grown, by
which time the larva has generally ceased feeding and pupated,
when the grubs consume the remainder and then themselves pupate
in the pupal shell of their host, afterwards biting their way out and
emerging as adult flies to continue their beneficial hibours of
destroying caterpillars.

Fig. 89. — A Chalcid Fly, Eretmocerus sp., parasitic on the Castor

.Aleurodid ; Coimbatore, May 1913. The natural size is shown

by the small fiKure within the Circle. 'Originali.

The Chalcididas or Chalcid Flies are small to minute Hymen-
optera, often brilliantly shining or metallic in colour, which
parasitize insects of almost all Orders, many being themselves
hyperparasites on Ichneumonids or other Chalcids. As an example
of this group we figure an undescribed species, apparently belong-
ing to the genus Eretmocerus, which parasitizes the Castor Alcurodid.
Many insects of this family, it may be noted, are highly important
as checks on Scale-insects and some have been imported from one
country to another expressly to check the attacks of Scale-insects,
in which success has been attained in several cases.

The Proctotrypidae, or Proctotrypid Flies, are the only other
family of parasitic Hymenoptera that can be noticed here. They
are all minute insects, sometimes wingless and are mostly important

(HAP. XXI.

BENEKICIAL INSKCTS.

ioi

as beiny cgg-parasitcs, that is to say, they hunt out and oviposit
in Ijatchcs of eggs laid by the insects which serve as their hosts-
A tow insects of this group, wliich has not been studied at all in
India as yet, are known to be a(|uatic and to use their wings for
propelling themselves along under water. The unnamed and
unilescribed species which we figure is parasitic on the eggs of
Ti'tti_i;o/iuil<i spectra, a small white Jassid bug which is sometimes
very abundant in paddy-fields and which lays its eggs on paddy-
leaves which often become submerged in the water, anil in this
case the parasite walks under-water in search of them. Egg-
parasites of this kinil may be encourged, when egg-masses of pests
are found, by placing these eggs in an open vessel surrounded with
oil-and-water, so that any flies which emerge may be able to fly
away whilst any c-aterpill;irs which iiatch out will be una1)Ie to
escape.

Fig. 90. — Proctotrypid Parasite of Tcttigoniella spectra. The sniallcr
figure shows the natural size. lOriginal.l

The Tachinidae, or Tachinitl Flics, in general appearance nuich
rcwemble rather hairy house-flies or flesh-flies and are parasitic
on caterpillars, grasshoppers, etc., on which the eggs are laid as a
rule, the white maggots feeding inside their victim in much the
same way as ichneumonid grubs, but generally killing it off just
as it is full-grown, then emerging and changing on its collapsed
remains into characteristic small brown puparia, from which the
adult flies presently issue forth.

The Bombylida;, which are usually hairy, bee-like two-winged
flies, extremely swift on the wing and often hovering stationary in
one place during flight, are parasitic on various insects, chiefly
Hymenoptera, and several species of these flies, which parasitize

204 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XXI.

the solitary wasps, arc loniiiionly seun in bunfialows. A tew
species, however, are known to parasitize grasshoppers, their larvae
feeding on the egg-masses, and are therefore beneficial. We have
bred an undetermined species from the egg-masses of the Deccan
Grasshopper (Colcmania sphcnarioides).

Amongst other parasites of grasshoppers must be reckoned the
Blister Beetles, whose larvae feed on and destroy the egg-masses
of grasshoppers, and these beetles are therefore highly beneficial
in their early stages, whatever damage they may do as adult
insects.

Besides doing good as preilators and parasites, insects may be
beneficial indirectly in other directions, as in checking the growth
of weeds, breaking up of dead wood and acting as scavengers of
dead animal matter. As regards the checking of weeds, there are
few if any plants which are not subject to attack by insects of
some or many kinds and weeds are no exception to this rule. But,
whilst insects may do a little good by checking the growth of
weeds, this is hardly a factor to be relied on by the agriculturist
to supersede the necessity of weeding, and on the other hand many
insect pests breed freely on weeds and thereafter invade the
adjacent crops and damage them. In forest regions especially,
where there is always a quantity of dead wood present, this has a
regular and characteristic fauna of its own which feeds upon it
and rapidly reduces the dead wood to a state in which it can again
form part of the soil, and in such cases the action of these insects
is undoubtedly beneficial under natural conditions. Dead animal
matter has also a special fauna of its own, various insects feeding
on it and laying their eggs on it so that it is rapidly consumed.
The Dung Beetles of numerous kinds are common and well-known
examples, the beetles separating small pieces of dung which they
form into a ball and roll along the ground to a suitable spot, where
it is buried and either eaten by the beetle itself or an egg laid on
it and the ball left for the food of the future larva. In the case of
some of the larger species, such as Heliocopris bncephalus (sec
figure 121), the ball may be very large and solid, as much as six
inches in diameter, and may be buried at a depth of several feet.
The dispersal and reduction of dead animal matter by insects in
this way is obviously beneficial by ensuring its more rapid
blending with the soil.

CHAP. XXII.l USEFUL INSECTS. 205

Ch.apter XXII.
USEFUL INSECTS.

" Ttio stud^ ot cnlomology is one of the mosi fascin.iting of pursuits. Ii takes its
votaries into the treasure-houses of Nature and explains some of the wonderful series of
links which form the great chain of creation. It lays open liefore us another world, of
which we have been hitherto unconscious, and shows us that the tiniest insect so
small perhaps that the unaided eye can scarcely see it, has its work to do in the world,
and does it." j, g. Wood.

Under the heading of Uselu' Insects we may consider the
comparatively small number of species which are applied directly
to supply the requirements of man, cither as food or drugs, or as
ornaments, or on account of the products which they yield.

Silk is the best-known and most valuable of such products and
forms the staple industry of many whole districts in India and other
countries, amongst which we may mention especially Japan, China,
Italy and France. Most caterpillars, and various other insects, and
of course spiders, spin silk, and we have already seen that the
cocoon-making instinct is widely found amongst insects, the basis
of all such cocoons being silk, but it is only in two families of moths
that these cocoons are suitable for practical use on account of the
strength, quality and ([uantity of silk fibre contained in them.
These two families, the Saturniad^e (or Attacidas) and Bombycidas,
comprise a number of species of wikl silk-moths which occur more
or less commonly in Indian jungles and which are constantly being
exploited unsuccessfully by promoters of wild-cat schemes for their
commercial utilisation, but the only three species which are of
actual value in Southern India are the Mulberry, Eri and Tasar
Silkworms. In all cases it is of course only the cocoon, or silken
case spun by the larva for the protection of the insect during its
resting pupal stage, that is of any value.

The Mulberry Silkworm (Bonihyx mori) is only cultivated on any
scale in Southern India in Mysore and in the Kollegal taluq of the
Coimbatore district, this latter area being geographically, if not
politically, part of Mysore. As its name implies, this silkworm is
fed on the leaves of mulberry, which is generally grown from cut-
tings as a field crop, the bushes being plucked of leaves and
regularly cut back when they grow too high. The caterpillars are
reared in open basket-work trays matle of split bamboo and when
full-fed are placed to spin their cocoons in chainlrakliis or split-
bamboo frames containing a spiral maze in which the caterpillars

206

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XXII.

wander about and select a suitabU- corner for spinning up. As the
silk is spun in one single reelable thread, which is broken by the
emergence of the moth, those cocoons which are intended for silk
must be stifled (/.c, the enclosed insect must be killed) to prevent
their being spoilt in this way. Stifling is done by exposure to the
hot rays of the sun or by artificial heat. The cocoons which are
intended for silk are placed in water which is nearly boiling, one
end of the silk thread teased out ami thrown on to a compound
thread from four or five other cocoons and the whole reeletl on to a

Fig. 91. — The Mulberry Silkworm (/JoH/63'Ar mori. I 1, Larva; 2, J, Cocoons ;
4, Male Moth ; 5, Female Moth. (After Indian Miiscuni Notes.)

spool. Other cocoons being attachetl as one comes to an end.
Those cocoons which are intended to be kept for rearing purposes
are retained and the moths allowed to emerge, pair and oviposit in
due course. As the silkworms are very subject to numerous diseases
which are transmitted hereditarily, each female moth is confined
over a sheet of paper under a tin funnel whilst laying her eggs ;
when oviposition is concluded, the body-juices of the parent are
examined microscopically to see whether disease is present and, if
so, that batch of eggs is destroyed. Scrupulous cleanliness in the
rearing-trays and proper disinfection of these trays and the cliuuil-
nikliis are essential for success in rearing these, as in all other,
insects.

The Eri Silkworm fAlliini.s ricini) feeds on the leaves of castor
and is normally an inhabitant of Assam antl Bengal but has been

CHAF*. XXIl.]

USEFl'L INSECTS.

207

. 92. — The Eli Silkworm 1 Attaciis ricinil. 1, Larva or Worm ; 2,
Cocoon ; 3, Cocoon cut open to show the structure and enclosed
Pupa: 4. IVnialc Moth. (OriK'inal.i

introcluc-c(l all over Intiia in a (iomcstic-att'c! condition. This insect
re(iuires a warm, damp climate and cannot therefore be expected to
do well in the plains of Southern India except on the West Coast.
In a wild state most of the cocoons are of a dark red-brown colour
but, by constant inbreeding of specimens producing only white
cocoons, the brown ones are eliminated in the domesticated races.
These cocoons are not reelable and must be spun and there is
consequently no necessity to kill the insect to obtain its silk. Not
only, therefore, can all the cocoons reared be converted into thread,
but all the moths can be allowed to emerge and be used for breed-
ing, so that large broods can be built up rapidly without wasting
cocoons for seed. The silk is spun by hand and woven like cotton,
the cloth being extremely durable and improving after a little use,
becoming more lustrous anil soft and also stretching a little. If
mill-spun, very fine anti even thread can be made anil excellent
fine cloth prepared from this. Either hand-spun or mill-spun
thread, or cloth made from these, can be dyed to any colour rei|uired.
Further particulars regarding this silk will be found in Pusa
Bulletin No. 29, " Directions for the Cultivation of Eri Silk."

208

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. .XXII.

The Tasar Silkworm (Anthcram paphia) is chiefly found in the
North of the Presidency, the caterpillars occurring wild or semi-
domesticated in jungle tracts on various trees of which the more
common and important are Shorca robusta (Sal), Zizyphus jujiiba
(Ber), TcniiiiiiiUa tomcntosa and T. arjuiia. The cocoons are collec-
ted in the jungle, being the produce of wild caterpillars, or from
particular trees on which eggs have been placed by rearers. The
caterpillars cannot be reared in confinement on a commercial scale,
nor will the moths pair readily, and the bred female moths are

Fig. 93. — Th(! Tasur Silkworm. 1. Lar\a ; 2, Cocoon ; J, FeiiKilc M'
(1 and 1 after Lefroy.)

CHAP. XXII-l USEFUL INSECTS. 209

therefore paired with wild males which are attracted to them, the
females being usually tied to a twig. Owing to the facts that there
is thus no real control over pairing, so that it is impossible to be
certain of retaining any particular quality of silk, and that the
caterpillars feed in the open exposed to the attacks of innumer-
able enemies, tasar silk is not an industry which is capable of
much development in face of the competition of well-organized
sericuitural industries in other countries. The cocoon is reelable
and the moth must therefore be killed and not allowed to emerge
as the thread i< spoilt and unreelable after the molh has eclosed.

t

Fig. 9-*. — Where Apis dorsata builds its comb. The Kadiar Rocks in the
Shevaroy Hills. The bees build below the overhanging rock shown here and
the honey-gatherers are lowered over the precipice by ropes. (Author's
original photo.)

Bees are found throughout Southern India in a wild state and
produce a considerable (luantity of honey and wax, the right of
collecting these in the jungle being usually leased out by the
Forest Department to jungle tribes, many of whom make a regular
business of raiding bees' nests at particular times of the year.
There are three kinds of true honey-bees, all of which occur
commonly both in the plains and in the hills. They are —

(1) the large Rock Bee (Apis dorsata, see figure 117),

(2) the Indian Bee (Apis indica, see figure 1 18), and

(3) the Little Bee (Apis florca, see figure II9).

Of these Apis dorsata usually occurs in colonies composed of
several or many nests each of which builds a large single comb
14

210 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XXII.

suspended from a cliff or from tlie horizontal brancii of a tali
jungle tree. Frequently the same tree or clump of trees or cliffs
are used by these bees year after year and in most districts there
seems to be a semi-annual migration of the colonies from the Hills
to the Plains during the rainy months and vice versa. When
disturbed these bees arc apt to be irritable and very vicious,
sometimes attacking all who approach their colonies and making
roads impassable for traffic. They are not therefore adapted for
domestication. The honey and wax are collected in a very crude
manner by men of jungle tribes who climb the " bee-trees " or are
lowered over cliffs to the nests, protected by a blanket and a torch
with which they burn the bees off the comb and cut this away
bodily. Enormous numbers of these bees are destroyed annually
in this way in certain districts.

The Indian Bee (Apis indicn) is similar to, but smaller than, the
European honey-bee (Apis mellifica) and, like the latter, builds
several parallel combs. This bee varies very considerably in
colour according to locality, specimens in the Plains being pale
and those from the Hills dark. It builds its nest as a rule in
hollow trees, more rarely on bushes in shady places, the nests being
found singly and not gregariously as in Apis dorsata. They are
commonly robbed when found, the entrance being chopped open
as a rule and the combs cut out without any special precautions,
although this bee can sting smartly. Apis indica can be, and often
is, kept in a more or less domesticated state in hives, in which,
however, it rarely remains more than a few months," thereafter
swarming off to found a new nest, and this vagrant disposition is
one difficulty in keeping these bees, as new colonies have to be
obtained frequently or at least the old ones recaught and rehived.
The honey of this bee is good but not plentiful, probably only
about six pounds being obtainable from each hive annually, so that
it is hardly a profitable kind to keep on a commercial scale for
honey-production, tliough very valuable in gardens and orchards
as a pollinator.

The Little Bee ( Apis JJorca) is especially a dwelkT in the Plains,
hanging its small single comb in bushes and shady places. The
honey is excellent but small in (|uantity. The nests are commonly
robbed when found, the comb being sciueezed in the hand and the
honey eaten forthwith, the skins of low caste natives being appa-
rently impervious to the sting of this bee. Owing to the small
size both of individual bees and of colonies this species is not
adapted to domestication.

Besides producing honey and wax, bees are extremely useful
to man indirectly by pollinating plants and this is an aspect of

CHAP. XXII. I

USEFUL INSECTS.

their activities which must not be overlooked, especially in districts
where large areas of crops are reciuired to be fertilized by these
insects for the attainment of successful crops later on. In places
such as coffee estates and all fruit gardens it will probably be
found profitable to keep bees, not so much for the production of
honey as for the successful pollination of crops ; or at least to
protect the bees where these occur in a wild state.

The only native Indian bee which offers any chance of domesti-
cation is Apis iiiiUcn which, as already noted, can be hived with

Fig. 95. — Diagminmatic sketch of a Bar-frame Beehive, showing construction.
(Original.)

some success. Proper wooden hives should be used, with moveable
wooden frames of standard size and provided with wax foundation
to save the bees as much as possible from the necessity of making
wax. For it must be remembered that the production of wax is a
great strain on the activities of bees and that it takes about fifteen
pounds weight of honey to repair the wear and tear caused by the
production of every pound weight of wax. If, therefore, bees are kept
for honey, this should always be extracted in a proper machine *

• Kor description of a simple honey-extractor see Agricultural fournal of India for
October 191 1.

1 4- A

212 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. ICHAP. XXII.

and the empty combs returned to the bees to clean and refill. It is
a most wasteful procedure to remove the wax with the honey.

Lac, which is the resinous excretion of a Scale-insect, is an
important industry in some parts of India, but is little grown in
Madras where the climatic and other conditions appear unsuitable
for its successful cultivation. It is used in India principally by
jewellers for filling gold ornaments, bangles and bracelets, and
for making toys and ornamental ware, and outside of India in the
manufacture of gramophone records, varnishes, furniture polishes
and sealing wax. A full account of the cultivation and preparation
of lac is given in Pusa Bulletin No. 28, "The Cultivation of Lac in
the Plains of India," to which the reader may be referred for fuller
information.

Analogous to lac is the white waxy substance produced by
another Scale-insect, Ccrococcus ccrifcrtis, found commonly in
Madras. It has been tried for making candles, but without much
success. It is also said to be eaten.

A few insects are of direct use to man as a source of food and
of these we may mention especially Termites of various kinds,
particularly the winged forms of some of the mound-builders. Not
content with the capture of these insects at their normal time of
emergence from the nest, in many parts of Madras members of
certain castes anticipate their flight and build a small domed hut
of twigs and branches over the nest, the top of which is sliced off,
and a chatty of water is sunk in this or a hole dug and filled with
water. A lighted lamp is now placed in the hut and the emergence
hastened by blowing into the nest a mixture of certain powdered
roots and seeds, whereupon the termites fly out and fall into the
water whence they are collected and sold in the bazaars for food
amongst the lower castes.

Locusts are well-known articles of food in most of the various
countries which they ravage. I am not aware that they are regular-
ly eaten in Madras but this is probably the case as we read in Kirby
and Spence's "Introduction to Entomology" that when a "cloud
of locusts . . . visited the Mahratta country, the common people
salted and ate them." There is probably little reason except
prejudice why many insects should not be eaten and, if this seems
repugnant to any readers, they may be reminded that the majority,
even the most fastidious, have probably devoured with relish many
small insects such as cheese-hoppers, which are merely the maggots
of a fly, and that Cochineal, a colouring matter derived from a
small Plant-bug, is extensively used for colouring fancy sweets.

Besides their use as food, many insects are utilized as drugs of
various kinds. Probably the best known in this connection are the

CHAP. XXII.] USEFUL INSECTS. 213

Blister-beetles, many of the Indian species of which are sufficiently
plentiful to repay collection ami which contain a considerable
percentage of Cantharidin. For veterinary purposes especially
these beetles will probably prove worth collecting and using. Tht,-
supposedly stimulating properties of ciuccn Termites are well known
and neetl not be more than alluded to; when found by coolies
(luring digging, etc., they arc usually swallowed alive forthwith.

Finally, insects must be added to the replete armoury of attrac-
tions by which the fair sex endeavours to render itself still fairer
and more attractive. The brilliantly-metallic wing-cases of many
Buprestitl beetles in particular arc often used for the ornamentation
of fans and brooches and the embroidery of cloths and dresses,
whilst glow-worms are sometimes enclosed in gauze and used as
hair-ornaments.

2 14 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. LCHAP. XXIIl.

Chapter XXllI.
SOME OTHER AXLMALS.

"The art of seeing, so useful, so universal, and yet so uncommon, is one of the most
valuable a man can possess." KlKFiV and SpeNCK.

INNI,TMERABLE animals other than insects, from elephants to minute
organisms invisible to the naked eye, must be included amongst
the farmer's friends and foes. Some destroy crops and hence are
injurious, some feed on crop-pests and so are themselves beneficial,
whilst others do neither hanii nor good to man or his possessions
and are therefore of neutral value.

Elephants occur in most uncultivated tracts both in the Plains
near and in the Hills, though commoner in the latter. In districts
where they occur they frequently invade cultivated areas and do an
immense amount of damage to crops merely by reason of their size
and numbers, a single full-grown elephant consuming between 600
and 700 lb. of green fodder daily. In the Hills cardamoms seem to
be especially attractive, whilst a young tea nursery often seems in
the elephantine mind to have been prepared e.xpressly as a most
desirable spot to wallow in, to the total destruction of the planters'
hopes of young plants. Elephants usually avoid enclosed areas,
apparently in fear of traps, and, as they are quite unable to jump,
a comparatively narrow (7 feet) ditch forms an impassable barrier.

The GauT (Bos gaums), commonly miscalled " Bison," occurs in
most of the Hill tracts and occasionally does some damage in
estates, whilst the Wild Buffalo fBos buhalus) occurs in the Plains to
the north of the Godavari and often does great damage to crops, a
herd or solitary bull sometimes taking possession of a paddy-field
and driving away the true owners. The Nilgai (BoseUiplms trago-
camclusJ is also common in scrubby localities in the Plains as tar
south as Mysore and often does much damage to crops. Various
species of deer also occur commonly and may at times invade
cropped areas. Shooting the trespassers, where damage is done, is
probably the only practical control-measure.

No animal does more damage to crops than the Wild Pig {5iis
cristatiis) which occurs commonly both in the Plains and Hills. Pigs
often breed twice in the year, producing four to si.x young in each
litter, so that their prolific rate of increase enables them to compete
with most forms of destruction. Under these circumstances the
best thing is to protect the crops by fencing, where these are suffi-
ciently valuable to repay such protection. A suitable permanent

CHAP. XXI 1 1.)

SOME OTHER ANIMALS.

215

fenting is described Ijy Ciouston in the Aiiriciilliinil JoiiriutI of Iiuliii
for April 1913.

On the other hand the curious Pangolin, or Scaly Ant-Eater
( Maiiis crdssiciuiihitii), found sparingly throughout the Plains though
rarely seen, is beneficial as feeding entirely on insects, principally
on termites whose mounds it tears open with its i^owerful claws and
then thrusts in its long tongue.

Squirrels of many species occur in Southern hulia, the conunonest
being the common Striped Squirrel (Fuiiambuhis pal in arum), whose
diurnal habits and partiality for the neighbourhood of human
dwellings renders it one of the most familiar of all Indian animals.
The food of most squirrels consists of buds, fruit, seeds and insects,
and they are usually of neutral or slightly beneficial value to the
agriculturist. Occasionally, however, squirrels may attack fruit,
such as mangoes, and do considerable damage. In such cases they
are difficult to check unless they can be shot, as their powers of
climbing make it difificult to isolate thetrees. In the case of valu-
able fruit, bagging or netting may be tried.

Fig. 96. — The Indian Gcrbille [Tatera indica). (After Blanford.)
Rats and mice of numerous kinds are sometimes amongst the
most serious pests with which the agriculturist has to contend. In
the Anamalai and Travancore Hills, and perhaps in the Nilgiris,
the Malabar Spiny Mouse (Platacantliomys lasiunis) is said by Blan-
ford to damage pepper, breadfruit, and jakfruit. The Indian
Gerbille (Tatcra indica) is common almost everywhere, burrowing in
bunds and in the ground, and only venturing out by night. It is a
gentle-mannered and pretty little animal, reddish-brown above and

216 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XXIII.

pure-white below. Normally it probably does some good, because
its favourite food is the roots of hariali grass (Cynodon dactylon)
which is a most pestilential weed as a rule, but it also does consider-
able damage by feeding on seeds and grain. Under certain
conditions, whether of favourable weather or absence of enemies or
both is not exactly known, this little rat increases enormously in
numbers and it is probable that this is often the species concerned
when complaints are made of damage to standing crops by rats.
In 1878-79 this Gerbille was so plentiful in the Deccan as to ravage
the grain-crops over an area of several thousand miles.

The Common Indian Rat (Epimys riifesccns, or Miis rattiis of the
" Fauna of India " volume) is common everywhere, burrowing in the
ground and climbing well. It is common in houses, living especially
in roofs where these are made of suitable materials and is practically
omnivorous but feeds chiefly on grain and fruits. It often does
considerable damage in coconut topes, destroying the young unripe
nuts, and nesting in the crowns of the palms. The Brown Rat
(Epimys norvegicus or Miis dccitinantis) is a typically human parasite
which has been carried by shipping all over the World and which is
now commonly found in all large towns. It lives in burrows in and
under houses, in field-bunds, etc., and sometimes does damage to
grain-crops although it is essentially a scavenger. The Indian
House-Mouse (Miis inaiiei) is a household pest as a rule, but is occa-
sionally found doing damage near human habitations; in the fields
it is replaced by the Southern Field-Mouse IMus booduga). The
Soft-furred Field-Rat (Millardia meltada) lives entirely in cultivated
fields, in burrows or simply in cracks in the soil, and sometimes
increases " so as to become a perfect plague and to destroy the
crops" (Elliot). The Bandicoot (Baiidicota matabarica, or Nesokia
bandkola (part) of the " Fauna " volume) is common in many parts
of Southern India, both in towns and in cultivated tracts, being
very destructive to grain and also eating fruits and said to kill
chickens. It is of very large size for a rat, the head and body
(without tail) measuring 12 — 15 inches long, blackish-brown above,
grey beneath ; it grunts like a pig, whence its name, which is
derived from the Telugu " Pandi-koku " (pig-rat) of tank-diggers.
The nearly allied Southern Mole-Rat (Gitnoniys kok) has similar
habits, throwing up large piles of earth at the entrances of its
burrows, which are often in the bunds of paddy-lands, and storing
up grain.

The abovementioned are the commoner and more important of
the rats and mice found in Southern India and they are enumerated
here in order to emphasize the fact that very various and different
species may do damage, a point which is usually overlooked by

CHAP. XXI 11.]

SOME OTHER ANIMALS.

217

correspondents and others who report damage by " rats " and
ask for remeilies. The habits of the various species are often
different and must be tai^en into account in devising or carrying
out any measures for control. It is, for example, little use to attack
a rat, which is burrowing in field-bunds, in order to try and check
damage which is actually being done by a different species which
is living and nesting in tiu' tops of palm-trees. In selecting a
suitable bait for laying down poison or for use in traps, duo regard
must be paid to the habits and economy of tlu' particular siDccies
concerned. In any case the control of damage to crops by rats is
by no means easy. Traps are usually out of the ciuestion on a

Fig. 97. — Coconut r,iliii.-> iiiiycd willi tin bands to prevent lato liuiii climbing
lip. (.Author's original photo.)

large scale and control methods are consequently limited to exclu-
sion, fumigation and poisons. In the case of trees such as coconut
palms it is sometimes possible to exclude the rats from access by
nailing downwardly-sloping bands of tin around the trunk, care
being taken that access is not possible by way of contiguous or
adjacent trees, bushes or buildings. In the case of burrowing
species it is sometimes practicable to fumigate the rats by gaseous
poisons and in such cases it is as well to go over the ground pre-
viously and mark and stop loosely with earth all burrows that can
be found, those which are subsequently reopened being presumably

2i8 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XXIII.

orcupicd. In lart'tul liands Carbon Bisulphide is an cxci'lient
fiimigant but care nnisl be taken to observe the precautions noti'd
in Chapter XVIII; a small quantity is poured into the entrance of
the burrow, allowed to evaporate for a second or two and then
exploded with a lighted rag on the end of a long pole and a spade-
ful of earth immediately placed over the hole ; the explosion,
which drives the gas into the burrow, is very violent and care must
be taken to stand well clear of the burrow and to place the
bottle of Carbon Bisulphide well out of range before applying a
light. If a machine, such as one of the "Ant Exterminators"
(see pages I2I — 123), is available the burrows may be fumigated
with Sulphur or Sulphur and Arsenic and this is especially useful
because the heavy fumes call attention to exit-holes which would
otherwise be overlooked ; if a regular machine is not at hand a
temporary makeshift can be manufactured at small cost from a
blacksmith's bellows, an earthenware chatty and a few lengths of
bamboo, the bellows being arranged to blow fumes of a fire
kiniUed in the chatty through a bamboo or metal pipe into the
burrow. Powdered Sulphur freshly made into a paste with Kerosine
and wrapped in a piece of paper may also be used, being lighted
and pushed with a stick into the burrow which is then closed with
earth and left. The indiscriminate use of poisons in cultivated
areas may lead to unexpected results and poisoned baits should
therefore be placed only in situations where other animals are not
likely to reach them ; a piece of earthenware drain-pipe or similar
covering may be suggested for use in fields. A baitof crushed
maize poisoned with Zinc Phosphate has been found successful
against Field-Rats in some places. Strychnine also gives good
results sometimes, but must of course be used with caution ; it is
generally given in plantains or sugarcane, the bait beinf; split
open, a little strychnine powdered on, and the fruit closed ami laid
down as required. Several pathogenic organisms, fatal to rals but
innocuous to other animals, form the basis of various special culti-
vations (Danysz Rat Virus, Ratin, Trope Ratin, etc.) which are
extensively used in Europe ; but these cultures arc not readily
obtainable in India and seem to deteriorate in the Tropics, so that
at present they are hardly within the sphere of practical politics.
Most rats, especially semi-domesticated species, it may be noted,
are extremely suspicious of baits and traps if these retain any trace
of the smell of the human fingers used to prepare them ; before
setting or placing baits or traps, therefore, care should be taken to
rub a little Aniseed Oil over the hands.

Porcupines are far commoner in most districts than is usually
imagined as they are rarely seen owing to their nocturnal habits,

CHAl". Will. I SOME OTHER ANIMALS. 2l9

roiiuiining concealed during the daytime in their burrows, which
are generally made amongst rocks where these are available.
They feed on vegetable matter, chiefly on roots, and often do great
damage to garden crops and to young trees. The latter might be
protected to some extent by giving a good thick coat of whitewash
mixed with an insoluble arsenical such as Lead Arsenate. Other-
wise the treatment for porcupines is much the same as that given for
rats. It may, however, be noted that these animals are often inclin-
ed to be gregarious and occupy more or less permanent burrows.

Hares are generally common in dry cultivated areas and some-
times do a little damage to crops ; but they arc unimportant to the
agriculturist as a rule.

Flying Foxes (Ptcropus ^irigaiilcus), large fruit-eating Bats, are
very common in some districts, feeding normally on wild figs but
attacking all fruit and often doing serious damage in orchards.
They also drink toddy on occasion and are sometimes found com-
pletely " drunk and incapable " under the trees the next morning.
They generally rest in the daytime in particular trees to which they
resort year after year, sallying out every evening at dusk and
ranging over a circle of fifteen or twenty miles' radius. It is
remarkable how a tree in fruit is discovered immediately the fruit
begins to ripen, attracting the bats from miles around. It is
difficult to protect fruit-trees or crops from the ravages of these
animals but the following note by Mr. John Still, extracted from
" Spolia Zeylanica" (Vol. VI, p. 54), seems to offer a hint as to a
method which might be adopted in districts where these bats do
damage : —

"In the North-Western Province, near Ganewatta Station, I
noticed in a paddy-field a most ingenious method of capturing
flying foxes. Great strings of cane are hung across the narrow
fields, and from them depend at intervals of 3 or 4 feet long
streamers made by tying together several of the whip-like thorny
shoots of the common jungle cane. These whips are so thin as to
be almost invisible in the dusk, and their thorns are sufficiently
tenacious to hold captive any unfortunate flying fox who gets into
heir grip."

The Southern Short-nosed Fruit-bat (Cynoptcnis sphinx; inargi-
natus of the "Fauna " volume) is also common, roosting by day
solitarily or in small parties on leaves of plantains and palms.
It flies swiftly in the evening, feeding entirely on fruit and
being often extremely destructive to plantains, mangoes and
guavas. One which I had in confinement for some time ate a
whole plantain nightly but under natural conditions probably
several fruits would have been partially eaten and spoilt.

220 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XXIII.

Most bats are of course well known to be insectivorous and may
therefore be considered as beneficial, destroying vast quantities
of insects, especially noctuid moths. A few species, however, are
carnivorous, at least sometimes, and amongst such we may note
especially the Indian Vampire (Lyrodenua lyraj which catches and
devours small binls, other bats, and frogs, as well as insects.

Various Shrews, often confused with field-rats but distinguishable
by their long pointed snout and small eyes, occur commonly and
frequently enter houses at night in search of insects which form
their main food. They arc useful little animals which deserve
encouragement.

Fig. 98. — Sugarcane gnawed by Jackals. (From an original photo. •

Bears live mostly on fruits and insects, especially on termites
whose mounds are clawed open and the inmates sucked up. The
only species found in Southern India is the Sloth-Bear ^Af£'/Hrj«5
iirsiiiiisj, which sometimes does damage to crops, such as cereals
and pulses and especially sugarcane. Toddy-pots also are some-
times robbed of their contents by this animal, which also plunders

CHAP. XXIII.] SOME OTHER ANIMALS. 221

bees-nests when found. On the wliole, however, bears are of small
importance to the agriculturist.

The Jackal (Canis imiiciis : aureus of authors) is commonly and
widely distributed in all districts, usually occurring in small parties.
They are essentially scavengers, feeding on carrion and offal of all
sorts, but they are not averse to killing and eating any small
animals which they can catch. Chickens are sometimes taken and
I have seen a jackal catch a pair of cirongos which were squabbling
on the ground, striking them down with alternate blows of its
fore-paws. Sweet cereals, such as maize and especially sugarcane,
are often attacked and considerable damage may be done by these
animals in cane-fields. In the Wynaad, it is said by Jerdon that
jackals devour considerable quantities of ripe coffee-berries, the
seeds passing through, well pulped, and being collected by coolies,
as it is asserted that seeds so found make the best coffee, a
circumstance due, as explained by Sterndale, to the fact that the
jackals select the best fruit. Besides damaging crops the jackal
acts as a permanent reservoir of the virus of rabies, so that he
cannot be considered either a respectable or desirable member of
society.

The use of carefully-stretched wire-mesh fencing, as advocated
by Clouston (see p. 215) is said to keep jackals out of areas so
protected to some extent. Direct control-methods are difficult,
unless burrows can be located ; but in the Plains of Southern India
the jackal often lies up in bushes in the daytime. Poisons are
often difficult to apply ; if Strychnine is used, an excessive quantity
should not be given, as such often induces vomiting anil defeats
its object.

Mungos mungo, the common Indian Mongoose, together with
several other species, is found throughout Southern India, frequently
in the vicinity of houses. All the species feed rather indifferently
on any small animals or birds that they are able to catch, whilst
their partiality for snakes is well known. Though useful in this
respect around houses they often do great damage to fowls or other
domesticated birds if they can obtain access to these. As they
prey on numerous insectivorous reptiles and birds it is doubtful
whether these animals are really so beneficial as is commonly
supposed and perhaps their value may be assessed as neutral.

The Indian Palm-civet (Paradoxiirus niger) is commonly called
the " toddy cat ' in many districts on account of its fondness for
the contents of toddy-pots, and is often caught by the toddy-drawers
asleep in the daytime in palm-trees. Its normal food consists of
small animals of all sorts and fruit, so that it is sometimes
destructive to poultry and gardens.

222 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XXIII.

Various small jungle cats, the leopard and tiger need not
be more than mentioned here. All are often very destructive to
domestic animals of various kinds and the ordinary methods of
shikar are the only ones applicable to their control.

Monkeys of various species are also sufficiently familiar and in
many districts do considerable damage to crops and gardens, being
looked on as sacred and not to be interfered with, although the
cultivators, averse to killing the monkeys themselves, sometimes
find their pilfering such a loss that they will beg foreigners to do
this for them.

Of all vertebrate animals, however, Birds are the most important
from an agricultural point of view and it is probable that, if birds
were wholly absent in Southern India, it would prove impossible
to grow crops on account of the damage by insect pests. It is not
generally realized what an enormous number of insects are
destroyed in the course of a year by every individual of an
insectivorous species of bird, such as a Mynah, which hunts
systematically for its food during almost every moment of daylight.
On the other hand some birds are distinctly injurious to crops,
feeding entirely on fruit or grain, and others, which are beneficial
by feeding on insects during part of the year, turn their attention
to crops when these are ripe. Not even all the purely insectivorous
birds are necessarily useful, as their food may consist of useful or
beneficial insects. So that every different kind of bird must be
judged on its merits from the point of view of whether it is useful
or noxious to the agriculturist, our opinions of the value of each
species being based solely on actual records of its food and
feeding-habits. A bird that eats injurious insects is itself beneficial
and vice versa, and a bird which does good most of the year is not
necessarily to be condemned as injurious because it occasionally
does some harm. An occasional lapse from virtue need not be
construed as a permanent divergence from the straight and narrow
way ; the good and the harm have to be balanced tcgether and a
general average struck. So far as agriculture is concerned there
are practically only two classes to be considered, birds that feed
on insects and those which eat grain, and the beneficial birds in
the first class far outweigh in numbers and importance the injurious
birds in the second class.

Practically nothing is on record of the actual food of birds in
Southern India ; what scanty field-notes exist have been collected
by Mr. Mason in his memoir on the "Food of Birds in India"
(Agri. Dept., Entom. Series, Vol. Ill), but the original work in this
relates solely to one small district in Bihar and the number of
observations is too small to be satisfactory. Feeding-habits may

CHAP. XXIII.]

SOME OTHER .ANIMALS.

223

also vary to some extent in different districts in accordance with
the relative abundance of particular kinds of food ; at Coimbatore,
for example, the Common Mynah is much more of a grasshopper-
hunter than in Bihar, because the country is more open and there
are few fig-trees to provide the fruit on which this bird feeds largely
in Bihar.

Amongst the commoner and most beneficial birds we may in-
clude the Drongo, Blue Jay, Hoopoe, Babblers, Orioles, Mynahs,

Tree Pie, Grey Tit, Wagtails.Wood-
peckers, Nightjars, Crow-pheasant,
Spotted Owlet and most owls. Com-
mon Pariah Kite, Cattle Egret,
and perhaps Crows. Amongst the
injurious birds we may mention
especially Parroquets, Barbets, Bee-
eaters, and the House-sparrow.

The Drongo or King-crow
(Dicninis ater) occurs commonly
througliout Madras and is exclu-
sively insectivorous, the larger
proportion of the insects eaten
lacing of specious injurious to crops.
It is fond of resting on any con-
venient perch from which it can
swoop tlown on its prey and perches
may therefore be placed in open
fields to encourage antl attract this
bird.
The Blue Jay or Indian Roller (Coracias iiidica) is commonly
distributed throughout the Plains, preferring localities which are
thickly wooded. It feeds mostly on insects, which are largely
grasshoppers and caterpillars, occasionally on larger animals such
as mice or frogs. This is a most useful bird which deserves every
possible protection, especially in the vicinity of towns and canton-
ments where it is too often shot on account of its gaudy plumage.

The Hoopoe (Ufiipa iiidica) occurs throughout Madras but is not
very common as a rule. It feeds almost exclusively on insects, ot
which the greater part are destructive species. The Hoopoe is
therefore extremely beneficial from an agricultural viewpoint and
deserves protection throughout the year, but especially during the
nesting-season, when the young are fed almost entirely on insect
larvae. This bird is particularly useful because its long beak en-
ables it to destroy numbers of insects at some distance underground
where they are out of reach of other enemies.

Fig. 99.— The Kiny-ciow
(Dicninis ater). (Original. I

224

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. TCHAP. XXIII.

Babblers of several species occur in Southern India, the White-
head Babbler (Cratcropus griscus) being indeed confined to an area
south of a line drawn from El lore through SecunderabadtoBelgaum.
The Jungle 'Rahhler (C. ca)wnis), commonly called "Seven Sisters,"
is common throughout Southern India. The food of these birds
consists for the most part of insects and these latter are all of
species which are more or less injurious. A few frogs may be
eaten occasionally, but on the whole these birds are distinctly
beneficial. They rarely venture far into the open country, such as
cultivated fields, but usually remain under the shelter of bushes or
trees, where they hunt about amongst dead leaves and undoubtedly
do a great deal of good in thinning off noxious insects wliich
would otherwise spread into cultivated areas.

Orioles, of which the Indian Oriole (Oriolus kiindoo) and the
Black-headed Oriole (0. mclaiioccphnliis) are the commonest, feed
partly on insects and partly on fruit, but the vegetable food seems
to consist almost wholly of the fruits of wild figs. These birds are
not known to damage orchard fruits, and must be considered as
distinctly beneficial to agriculture. They therefore deserve en-
couragement and protection, the more especially because their
brilliant plumage has already attracted the undesirable attentions
of the feather trade.

Fig. 100. — The Coninion Mynali tAcritlotlicrcs tristis). (Original.)

Mynahs of several kinds occur in Southern India and the
Common Mynah ( Acridotlicrcs tristis) may be selected as typical of
the group. It is common throughout Madras and feeds mostly on
insects, of which grasshoppers form a large proportion. These
birds may often be seen following cattle and catching insects

CHAP. XXIII. J

SOME OTHER ANIMALS.

225

disturbed from the grass as the cattle move. Occasionally the
Mynah may eat a little oats, maize, cholamor paddy grain, but any
damage done is insignificant in comparison with the good it does by
destroying insects. At Nilambur this bird is reported by the Forest
Department as constituting an important check on the caterpillars
oi Hybhca anil Pyraiista which defoliate the Teak plantations.

The Tree Pie (Dciulrocitta riifa) is common in some ilistricts anil
occasionally does some harm by eating eggs and young birds,
lizards, etc., but the " general average " of its diet shows that the
Tree Pie is distinctly beneficial by destroying noxious insects
throughout the year.

F"lG. 101. — The Golden Woodpecker ( Bracliyptcniiis miraiitinsl.
(After Bianford.l

The Indian Grey Tit (Panis atriccps) and various other Tits
common in the Plains feed chiefly on injurious insects, occasionally
on fruit ; when fruit-buds are plucked, these generally contain
injurious insects.

Wagtails, with the exception of the Large Pied Wagtail (Mota-
cilla inadcraspatcusis), are only winter visitors to Madras, summering
and breeding in Northern India and Central Asia. They are.

226

SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. I'CHAP. XXIII.

however, none the less useful, feeding principally on small insects,
especially on flies, which they often catch around cattle.

Woodpeckers of various species occur in all wooded and forest
regions. They feed entirely on insects, mostly on wood-boring
species which they dig out of the trees affected, thus being espe-
cially beneficial in checking these pests of forest areas. Brachyf-
tcruits (Virantiiis is said to be very partial to toddy palms, probably
attracted by the palm beetles and weevils which bore into the
trees when cut by the toddy-tappers.

Night-jars, being nocturnal or at least crepuscular in their
habits, are not commonly recognized although they occur not infre-
quently in most localities. Their food consists of insects which
they capture on the wing as a rule, occasionally on the ground.
They must be classed as beneficial birds.

/-S?

KiG. 102. — The Spotted Owlet lAtluiw brainai. (After Dewar.)

The Spotted Owlet I Athene hraiiui) is probably the most familiar
of the owls, because it is common and often ventures out early in
the evening. It seems to have a special predilection for the neigh-
bourhood of man and sometimes even ventures into houses in
search of prey, whilst a bungalow roof or an adjacent tree is a
favourite perch, whence its shrill chattering constantly advertises
its presence throughout the night. It feeds chiefly on insects,
particularly crickets, and also on any small mice, shrews, or
lizards it can catch. On the whole this little owl is distinctly
beneficial, and the same may be said of all owls as a class.

The Crow-pheasant or Cpucal (Ccntropus sinensis) does a great
deal of good by destroying insects and occasional harm as a poa-
cher of small birds-eggs and nestlings. From an agricultural
standpoint it is beneficial and deserves protection in districts where
it is'killed for food.

CHAP. XXIII. 1 SOME OTIIKR .AMM-ALS. 227

Tlie Common Pariali Kile I Mihus govinda) feeds largely on
insects, particularly on grasshoppers and especially when these
are present in large and destructive numbers. In the Bellary dis-
trict this bird has proved most useful in the control of the Deccan
Grasshopper, and in towns and villages it acts as a scavenger,
clearing up offal and garbage and thus helping to reduce flies and
ilisease. An occasional chicken taken now anil again must not be
regarded as a offset to its beneficial qualities. Much the same
remarks apply to the Brahminy Kite (Haliasttir iiidus).

The Cattle Egret ( Biibiihus coromuiidiis), as its name implies,
may often be seen attending cattle and picking off leeches and
other pests and also catching grasshoppers and other insects which
are disturbed as the cattle walk along. In the stomachs of three
birds examined by Mason, out of l66 insects no less than l6o be-
longed to injurious species ; these figures speak for themselves.
This bird also feeds to a small extent on fish, frogs and tadpoles,
but it is distinctly beneticial from an agricultural standpoint.

Fig. 103.— The Grey-necked Crow 'Conns spleiuleiis). lAfter Dewar.)

Crows have often been regarded as of neutral or negative value,
but these opinions are perhaps tinged by observations on these
birds in towns, where their morals have doubtless degenerated as
a result of association with human society. Under such conditions
the crow becomes a mere scavenger and parasite. But in the
(Lountry, where the crow has to work for his own living, his habits
15-A

228

SOMF. SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XXIII.

are necessarily rather different and, in common witii the cuhivator,
he has to look to the fields for his livelihood.

There are of course two common species of crows, the Grey-
necked Crow fCorviis sflcnch'ns) and the Jungle Crow fC. macror-
liyiichiis). The scientific name of the latter refers to the large size
of its beak ; that of the former was perhaps bestowed in irony and
always reminds one of the Latin Grammar tag " splenilide mendax."
The habits and manners of both birds arc similar, but the Grey-
necked Crow is generally found more commonly around houses, the
Jungle Crow in the fields. Crows probably do some good in towns
and villages which are sufficiently insanitary to provide them with
a livelihood on garbage, but in the mofussil crows have to eke out
an existence otherwise and it is under such circumstances that they
may do either good or harm to the farmer. When cereals, and
especially cholam, are ripe, crows are always amongst the first to
discover the fact and to congregate in dozens in such fields, so that

Fig. 104. — Crows following a Harrow and devouring the insects exposed.
(Redrawn from Author's original photo.)

in most districts it is customary to build a platform in the middle of
the field and to station there a small boy armed with a whip or an
old tin, which he cracks or beats to scare away the birds. At such
times crows may certainly do considerable damage. But there is
another side to the picture which is to be seen when ploughing or
harrowing is taking place, the crows following the plough in
numbers on these occasions and eagerly searching for any insects
which may be turned up. Similarly, when fields are being irrigated,
crows almost always make it their business to be present, hunting
assiduously along the edge of the advancing water and picking up
insects such as crickets which have been flooded out of cracks
in the soil. At times, also, when caterpillars have increased to

CHAP. XXllI.J SOME OTHER ANIMALS. 229

(lestriuti\o mmil)t.'rs, crows discover tliciii and devour them whole-
sale, and may under these circumstances do inestimable good in
checking pests. On the whole, therefore, the general average of
the crow's diet shows that this bird is beneficial from an agricultural
point of view, the Jungle Crow being probably the more useful bird
of the two. If crops can be protecteil by watchmen when ripe, the
crows may be looked on as the farmer "s allies during the rest of the
year. Occasional damage to seedlings or grass lawns is usually
more apparent than real and merely incidental to a search for grubs
which arc attacking the roots.

Fig. 105. — The Kose-rinKed Parroquet (Pahconiix torqnatiisi. (.-\ftor
Cunningham. I

Of birds which are injurious to crops, the Parro(iuet (Palavniis
torqiiatiis) is the most pernicious. It feeds wholly on fruit and
grain, usually associating in small flocks, which ravage all cereal
crops whenever these are ripe and destroy far more than they eat.
It does no good whatever but is, in fact, an unmitigated nuisance,
and a reduction of its numbers, whether at the hands of plumage-
hunters or otherwise, cannot fail to benefit the cultivator.

The common Indian Green Barbet (Tlwiriccryx zi'ylouiciis) is a
pest of all fniit and often does considerable damage to loquats,
peaches, etc., feeding in the early morning and evening as a rule.
In the Coffee Districts Barbets sometimes do considerable damage
by feeding on coffee-berries just as these are ripening. A few
insects may be eaten occasionally, but these birds are normally
ugivorous and must be regarded as injurious.

230 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. XXIIl.

On tlu- other hand the Bee-caters are exekisively insectivorous;
yet they are destructive, especially where bees are kept, by feeding
on these insects, and are especially no.xious when c|ucen-bees are
being reared as they are almost invariably snapped up by these
birds on their marriage-flight. The commonest species of bee-eater
is Merops viridis, a small green bird with a long tail and slender
beak, which is often seen perched on telegraph-wires, whence it
swoops down on insects and then returns to its perch. These birds
appear to be migrants to some extent, though little seems to be on
record regarding their movements. Besides honey-bees, these birds
catch and eat various other species of bees, wasps and dragon-flies,
and the bulk of their food is composed of beneficial insects, so that
bee-eaters must certainly be ranked as injurious birds so far as
agriculture is concerned.

The House-sparrow, which has been well named the "Avian
rat," is essentially a human parasite and seems unable to establish
itself except in towns or at least in the neighbourhood of large
l>itcca buildings, where its incessant shrill cheeping makes it an
intolerable nuisance all through the day. The young nestlings are
fed at first on insects, ciiicfly caterpillars, but by the time they are
three weeks ok! their food is composed exclusively of grain, and
the adults feed almost wholly on grain, grass, and weed seeds and
incidentally probably do some damage by distributing weeds. So
far as the farmer is concerned, the sparrow seems to be as injurious
in India as in most other countries, and would undoubtedly do more
damage if not checked outside of towns by hawks, kites, crows
and other enemies.

Allied to the birds are the Reptiles and AmphiJjians, the former
class including tortoises, lizards and snakes, the latter frogs and
toads.

Lizards are largely insectivorous and therefore ijeiietii iai on the
whole, though there is little exact information on record reganiing
their food, and it is probable that the insects taken are of more or
less neutral value on the whole. The common "bloodsucker"
(Calotcs versicolor) sometimes catches butterflies but probably feeds
mostly on ground-living beetles of little importance. The geckos,
or wall-lizards, which so commonly take up their station alongside
the bungalow-lamps in the evening, feed on almost any moving
insect not too large to tackle, whether it be beneficial or not ; I have
seen a gecko catch and eat a large Mantis and conversely I have
seen the same individual catch and reject unharmed an injurious
moth fEslij^tnruv lactinca). Lizards undoubtedly do figure promi-
nently amongst the enemies of insect pests of crops and to that
extent do some good, but they also do some harm by feeding on

CHAP. Win. J

SOME OTHER ANIMALS.

231
■xtcnt must be

beneficial and useful insects also, and to that
reduced any benefit derived from them.

Some of the smaller Snakes feeil on insects and it is said that
young cobras will catch and eat butterflies, but snakes are of no
direct importance as insect-eaters. They have, however, some
indirect importance, because all the larger snakes feed on other
animals, such as mice, rats, Ijirds, ii/.ards and frof^s, which may
themselves be insectivorous; and if their prey be useful the snakes
which devour them must be injurious, and vice versa. Judged by
this standard the fact appears that almost all the smaller colubrine
snakes are harmful and that the useful species are the larger
colubrines, vipers, and the python, all of which feed on small
mammals, and the kraits which feed on other snakes. We arrive
then at the seeming parado.x that, on the whole, the non-poisonous
species not directly harmful to man are injurious indirectly and
that the poisonous snakes are really useful. A Russell's Viper in
the fiekls, apart from its potential danger to the farmer himself
and to his animals, passes an extremely useful existence, living
wholly on rats and mice of which each individual snake must eat
several dozens every year, as it is rare to open one of these vipers
without finding tolerably recent remains of such a meal.

Fig. 106. — Key to common Poisonous Snakes of Southern India (Original. I

1. Portion of body of Krait, showing enlarged vertebrals ; 2. Side-view of head
of Cobra — the numbered scales below the mouth are the infra-labials ; 3. Head
of Cobra from above — the numbered scales are 1. Rostral, 2. Internasals, 3. Prse-
frontals, 4. Frontal, 5. Parietals ; 4. Head of King-Cobra or Hamadryad seen from
above — figures as in 3 but the scales marked 6 are Occipitals : 5. Head of Echis
carinata from above, showing small scales — compare with the large plates seen
in 3 and 4.

232 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XXIII.

The mere fact that some snakes are venomous renders them of
great direct importance to an agricultural population which walks
about barefooted in the fields and the discrimination of the
poisonous species is frequently necessary in cases of snake-bite.
A few species, such as the Cobra and Russell's Viper, may be
well-known, but to the ordinary man one snake is much the
same as another and all are poisonous. There are, however, few
venomous snakes which are at all common in Southern India and
their identification is comparatively easy. The only ones which
need be noticed here are the Krait, Cobra, King Cobra or
Hamadryad, Echis and Russell's Viper. The Pit-vipers, so called
from the curious pit-like depression in the head between each
nostril and eye, are common in the Hills, the green species being
frequently found on coffee-bushes; they are all poisonous, but
rarely or never fatal.

The Krait (Bunganis caitdidits) is quite a common snake but
seldom seen, as it lives a retired life in chinks and cracks of old
walls and similar situations, only venturing abroad at night. It
feeds solely on other snakes and is of a sluggish, peaceful disposi-
tion and loath to bite as a rule although the poison is twice or
thrice as virulent as cobra venom and death has been known to
occur in less than six hours after a bite from a specimen only
l8 inches long. In colour it is of a glistening black, with
paired white lines or narrow bands across the back, these white
markings being less evident towards the head. The vcrtebrals, or
row of scales along the middle of the back, arc hexagonal (si.x
sided) and greatly enlarged, at least twice as large as the other body-
scales, and the subcaudals, or scales beneath the tail, are single
{i.e., not divided along the middle line to form two rows). If
attention is paid to these points, there should be no difficulty in
identifying a specimen as a krait; but it may be observed that
there is no snake in India for which the ordinary man is more
liable to mistake a harmless species, such as Lycodon aiiliciis, merely
because the general shape and colour-pattern are similar. It may
be noted, however, that in Lycodon and other harmless snakes the
white cross-bands are more evident behind the head and fadeaway
posteriorly, whilst the opposite is seen in the krait; in Lycodon and
similar snakes also the vertebral scales are not enlarged.

The Cobra f.Vaja naja; Iripndians of the "Fauna" volume
and authors generally) is usually easily recognisable in life by
the characteristic "hood," on which the markings are usually
binocellate (two-eyed, spectacle-like), sometimes monocellate (single-
eyed, O-shaped), rarely absent. In dead specimens, however, in
which the hood is shrunk and the markings obliterated, this

CHAP. XXHI.] SOME OTHER ANIMALS.

character is not available and several harmless snakes inflate
their necks very considerably. Scale characters are therefore of
importance ind the cobra carries a uniquely characteristic identi-
fication-mark in the shape of a small wedge-shaped (cuneate) scale
between the fourth and fifth infralabials (the row of scales
bordering the lower lip, counted from the front backwards,
remembering that the anterior, unpaired scale is the mental and
not an infralabial). The scales bordering the front of the eye on
each side are also in direct contact with the pair of scales lying
between those in which the nostrils are placed. If neither of these
characters occur, the snake cannot be a cobra.

The King Cobra or Hamadryad (Naja biinganis) occurs in all the
Hill Districts and may reach a length of over 15 feet. It has a
small hood but is best recognised by the presence of a pair of large
occipital shields in contact with one another and forming a sixth
set of large head-scales counting from the nose along the middle
line. The anterior subcaudals are undivided, the posterior ones
divided into two rows, whilst the vertebrals are not enlarged.

The Echis (Echis carinatti) is common throughout the plains,
often abundant in sandy places. The Trichinopoly District and
the Guindy Race-Course are well-known localities and I have
found it in Bellary and seen it brought in at Bangalore. This small
viper rarely exceeds a length of 2 feet, but it is extremely poisonous
and fatalities from its bite are numerous in districts where it is
common. When disturbed or discovered it has a curious habit of
throwing itself rapidly from one side to another, whilst remaining
in a loose coil, so that the scales rub over one another and produce
a loud hissing sound. This snake is easily recognised by the facts
that (l) the top of the head is covered with small scales similar to
those found on the body, and (2) the subcaudals, or scales beneath
the tail, are entire and form only a single row.

The Russell's Viper (Vipcni nisselliij, so naiued in honour of
Dr. Patrick Russell whose work on South Indian Snakes, published
in 1796, still remains a stamlard book on the subject, is unfortu-
nately only too common throughout Madras. Its coloration, with a
triple row of light-edged spots down the back, is distinctive, but it
is better identified by the facts that, as in Ecliis, the top of the head
is covered with small scales, whilst unlike Ediis, the subcaudals, or
scales beneath the tail, are divided down the middle to fomi a
double row. The bite of this snake is fatal to man and domestic
animals; otherwise the Russells Viper is a most useful snake
feeding entirely on rats and mice. It is a sluggish animal, as a rule'
hissing loudly when disturbed but slow to wrath, but when it does
strike it darts like a flash and often retains its grip.

234 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XXIII.

Fig. 107. — The Riisseirs Viper ( Vipera russeUii). useful on account of its value

as a destroyer of rats but dangerously poisonous to man. (Author's original

photo.'

A great deal of rubbish has been written on the treatment of
snake-bite, a subject which seems to appeal strongly to the
credulity of the general public, and the most extraordinary methods
of cure are vaunted in blind faith ; unfortunately many of these are
tried in cases where either the snake is non-venomous or a lethal
dose of poison has not been injected and cures are consecjuently
claimed in cases in which the patient would have recovered in any
case. Snake-stones, Tanjore pills, the use of ammonia or alcohol,
may all be cited as examples of this. If poison has really been
injected, the only effective cure is by injection of an appropriate
anti-venene prepared by gradually inoculating an animal, usually
a horse, to withstand increasing dosages of the poison of that
particular kind of snake. A bivalent anti-venene prepared to
counteract the poisons of the Cobra and Russell's Viper is pre-
pared and available, but for other snakes no such cure is at present
possible as their venoms cannot be obtained in sufficient c|uantity
for the preparation of anti-venenes. Once in the tissues the poison
spreads with such extreme rapidity that ligaturing, incision with
or without the application of oxydising agents such as potassium
permanganate, or even amputation, are of little practical use unless
applied with a promptitude which is usually impracticable ; deep
incision, making several deep parallel cuts along the length of the

CHAP. Will. J

SO.ME OIHKK AM.M ALS.

235

limb, and the application of permanganate crystals may, however,
help to neutralize sufficient venom to reduce a lethal dose into a
sublethal one, the wound being carefully dressed aseptically. In
cases of cobra-bite, if the breathing ceases, artificial respiration
should be employed and continued for as long as possible some
hours at least ; this may givetimeto procure anti-venene if this is
not already a I ham

Fig. 108. — Cacopiis xysloiiiti. (' )iis;iiia].

The Amphibia include the Frogs and Toads whose eggs as a
rule are deposited in water, hatching out into tadpoles which
develop legs, reduce their tails, and change into young frogs. In
the case of the Chunam Frog I Rluuoplionis iiuuu/iiliisJ, a commcn
tree-frog with little toe-discs by means of which it enabled to
cling to walls and leaves and even to panes of glass, the eggs are
laid in a curious frothy mass which is suspended over water into
which the young tadpoles drop when they hatch out ; these egg-
masses may often be seen attached to the edges of cement-lined
tanks at the commencement of the rainy season. The commonest
pond-frog is probably RaiKi cytuiophlyctis which is usually found
along the edges of all small accumulations of water; it seems to
feed principally on such insects as fall into the water. The Bull-
frog (Rana tigrina), a very large frog with a yellowish stripe down
the back, is also found around ponds and often, in wet weather, in
grass well away from water ; it is capable of giving prodigious
leaps and is therefore by no means easy to catch. It is largely
carnivorous in habit, feeding on other frogs, even other individuals
of its own species, and it is not uncommon to find one of these
cannibals dead with another individual half his own size wedged
firmly in his throat. Several frogs are burrowers, living under-
ground as a rule and only coming up in wet weather; of this group
Rniia brrvicfps is a common example in some localities, but

236 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XXIII.

Cacopiis systomu is probably better known, by soiinti at least. In
many districts in the Plains, notably around Madras, this frog is
common and its loud drumming note, so difficult of exact location,
is fre(|uently heard at night during heavy rain at the commence-
ment of the North-east Monsoon, although the extraordinarily
bloated frog itself is seldom seen and quite unfamiliar to most
people. The commonest Toad, both in the Plains and Hills, is
Bufo iiH'lanostictiis, which often enters bungalows in search of
insects attracted to the lights.

The main food of frogs and toads is well known to be insects
and consequently these animals are always regarded as beneficial,
as no doubt they are as a class and on the whole. We have,
however, few exact records of their food and feeding habits and it
is probable that these are so casual as to reduce their value very
largely. A frog which snaps up every insect which falls into a
pond, or a toad which will engulph any insect which moves, may
tlo actual harm by destroying useful species, whilst many of the
real pests, being protected by nauseous odours or sharp spines, are
avoided ; a hungry toad, for example, will snap up a specimen of
Dysdcrciis cinguhitus but immediately rejects it unharmed. Exact
records of the actual food of frogs and toads under natural condi-
tions in India are at present (ksidcrata, whilst the field of inquiry
\s large and ready at hand to any observer.

Fir-. 109. — Hiiplochihis liiwdtKS. :i inosquito-eatinK fish. (.After Day.)
The main utility of Fish in India is as a source of food, but it
must not be overlooked that many fish, especially amongst the
smaller species, are of the utmost utility in reducing the number of
mos(iuitos present as larvje in the ponds and other waters in which
such fish live, and this fact is often of the greatest importance in
determining the malarial factor in any locality. Several small
fish, especially the species of the genus Huplocliiliis, feed greedily
on mosquito-larvae and may easily be introducetl into ponds and
wells in order to prevent mostiuitos from breeding in such places ;
at Coimbatore we have also found that young individuals of
Macrones vittatns are extremely useful in this respect, but larger
individuals would probably require larger prey and do harm by
eating smaller fish. For it must be remembered, in stocking water
with small fish to reduce mosc|uitos, that all large fish must be

CHAT. Will. SOME {^THKR ANIMALS. 237

rciuovod first of all, for otherwise tiu- larfje fish will probably cat
the smaller ones and be useless themselves as mos(|iiito-destroyers.
Crabs are found in most streams both in the Plains and Hills and
oceasionally do a little harm by burrowing into bunds of paddy-
fields, etc. It is possible that they may also do some damage at
times to young paddy, whilst crab-holes are often utilized as breed-
ing places by mosquitos, Ccratopogoii, and other blood-sucking flies.
In mo.st ilistricts, however, they are sought after and used as food,
a deail Calotcs being a favourite bait.

The Arachniila include the mites, which are treated elsewhere,
and the scorpions, sjiiders and ticks. Scorpions of various kinds
are common, and we may mention here the large blackish-green
Palammcus found commonly under stones in the Hills, the large
brown Butlw which occurs in the Plains, and the little grey house-
scorpion ; this last, which frec|uently shams death when tliscovered,
forms a useful check on household pests. The " Jalamandalam "
or "Jerry Munglum " (Galcoilcs indicits), common in Bellary and
other districts, also belongs to this group. Spiders are so ex-
tremely varied in structure, appearance and habits that it is impos-
sible to attempt any account of the group here and the student may
be referred to the " Fauna " volume which contains some account
of the larger forms. Allusion may, however, be made to the social
nests of Stcgodyphus which sometimes cover whole bushes and are
inhabited by numerous individuals which live in common —a very
unusual habit amongst spiders, where it is the general rule for the
female to eat her own husband. In South Africa, where a similar
Stcgodyphus occurs, the caterpillars of a little moth (Batrachcdni
stcgodyplwbius), live in the nest with the spiders and feed on the
rejected fragments of the food of the latter; I have found empty
pupa-cases of a small moth in these nests in Madras and further
search will probably reveal a similar symbiotic arrangement.

The Diplopoiia include the Millipedes, animals with long, round,
segmented bodies, with two pairs of short legs on each segment.
One species has been found under suspicious circumstances in a
case of damage to ground-nuts but it is probable that these
animals may occasionally do a little damage by feeding on grow-
ing plants. Normally their food seems to consist of dead vegetable
matter ami lichens. They are preyed on by some Reduviid bugs,
such as Pliysoi-hyinliiis. but seem rather exempt from attack by
vertebrate enemies.

The Chilopoda or Centipedes have a long, many-jointed, flatten-
ed body, each segment bearing only one pair of legs, of which the
first pair is usually modified to form a formidable pair of poison-
fangs. Centipedes generally live in cavities and cracks in the soil

2.S8

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, FTC. [CHAP. XXIII.

rHAP. will. I SOME OTHER ANIMALS. 239

and are nocturnal, pn-ying on insects anil small vertebrates and
being themselves eaten by many birds, notably crows, when
flooded out of their retreats. They are probably of little economic
importance, but the large Scolofcndnis frequently invatle bunga-
lows, and arc to be avoideii, because they can inflict a highly-
poisonous wound with their fangs.

Of the smaller animals the only others which can be mentioneil
are the Eelworms which frequently attack plants and may do
considerable damage in nurseries of young tea plants. Their
presence is generally recognizable by the characteristic nodules
produced on the roots, the worms themselves being microscopic
and barely visible to the naked eye. As a rule they occur in damp
or water-logged soil and drainage is indicated as a step towards
control, although a patch of ground, once infected, remains so for a
long period, and the only thing to do is to discontinue growing on
it for a time any crop susceptible to the attack of eelworms.
Watering with a weak solution of Formalin has been recom-
mended and Crude Oil Emulsion is also useful sometimes, but
as a rule any disinfectant of this nature is useless at a strength
insuflflcient to harm the plants.

Finally, we can only find room for a brief reference to Slugs
and Snails which frequently attack young vegetable crops,
especially in the Hills. In Ceylon a slug has been noted to do
considerable damage to tapped rubber trees by feeding on the
exuding latex. They are best checked by taking a bucketful of
sawdust and moistening it with a mixture of one or two large cups
of phenyle (crude carbolic acid) and ten to twenty cups of water;
the sawdust is then spread around the rows or plants to be pro-
tected or around single plants, or sprinkled over the surface of the
soil if the area is a large one. During wet weather a stronger solu-
tion may be employed with safety to the plants as the phenyle is
slowly washed out of the sawdust. Ringing the earth around the
stems with Lime is also successful sometimes, and doubtless the
waste Calcium Carbide from Acetylene gas generators could be
employed with good results as a deterrent against these animals.
Slugs and snails may also be trapped by laying out pieces of board,
bark, etc., over fresh baits of succulent leaves, such as cabbage or
lettuce; any captures may simply be squashed or dropped into a
bucket of salt and water.

240

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

i.isr OF CRoi's wriH rm-: ixshcts which

ATTACK I'ACH.

In the following List of the commonly-grown Crops, placed in
alphabetical order for convenience of reference, are given under the
name of each crop the various insects which are known to attack
it, so far as they are included in this book. As all the insects are
figured, it is hoped that this list will aid in the identification of at
least all the insects more commonly found on these crops.

Adrak : — See Ginger.

Agathi (Sesbania grandiflora)
Sphetioptera arachidis (borer)
Platyprla hyslrix (leaves)
Alcides bubo {hoTtix)
PericalUa ricini (leaves) ...
Prodenia litiira (leaves) ...
CatopsUiii pyranthe (leaves)
Terias hecabe {\sd.\es)
Azygopfileps scalaris (borer)
Coptosoma cribraria (sucking)

AiLAXTHUS (Allanthus excelsa) : —
Soletwpsls geminala (leaves)
Eligma narcissus (leaves)
Alleva fabriciella (leaves)

Akh : — See Calotropis,

.Albizzia spp. : —

Xyslrocera globosa (l)orer)
Xylebonis fornicalus ( borer)
TVr/rtJ ^«rt6? (leaves)
Homona cojffearia (leaves)

Am. Low (jROwiNo Crops : —
Zonabris pustulala (flowers)
Ataclogasler finilimus (leaves)
Estigmene lac tinea (leaves)
Amscula alhislriga (leaves)
Crealonntiis gangis (leaves)
Prodenia liliira (leaves) ...
Laphygma exigua (leaves)

298
316
337
370
377
413
414

447
469

274
384
462

321
345

414
452

303
333
368
369
369
377
378

LIST Ol CROPS. 241

I'AGK

CyrtactnUliacrii mcciitcta ^loave^; 530

Do, ninacea. (leavt-s) 530

Aloe (Agava amiricaua) : —
Orycles rhinoceros (liores shoots) 2S5

Alsi : Sei! Linseed.

:\\.\} : — See l-'otuto.

Am : — See Mango.

.\makanthus : —

Llxiis brachyrhl/iKi {ViOKx) 331

Laphygma exigua (loaves) 37S

Hymf/tia fascia/is (\c3i\^'b) 431

Erelmocera impacteUu (top-shoots) 461

. I /r<ufoMor/>//a crenu/a/a (IcAves) 528

.AsiBAtji : — See Kozell^-.

A.NAK: — See Pomegranate.

.Aniseed (PimpincUa axiston) : —

.Igo/iosce/is iiudiiti (sucking) 472

Annatto (Bixti orelianu) : —

.\ylel>ori/s fornkalns (hox<^x) ... .. 345

Helopelth anlonli (sucking) ... . 48S

Apple (Pyrus malus) : —
. Cix/os/er/M spi/ia/or (twigi) 325

Sc/dzoneura lanigeru (sucking roots ami twigs;. 500

Akandi : — See Castor.

AunAK : — See Red Gram.

Kabul (Acacia arabica) : —

Psiioptera fas/uosa (boTti) ., .. 297

Cteloslermi spinalor (hoi'i.x) ... 325

■ Chz/iia crameri (Icaxea) ... ... 44S

U/VDA.M : See Country Almond.

BAiiL (-'Egle marmelos) : —

Papilio demoleus (\ii3Si:s) . 412

1J.\JK.\ : — See Cumbu.

Ballar -.—See Lab-lab.

Bamboo (See also Grasses) : —

Stromalium barbatum (borer) 321

7'e/icoia augias (l6a.\cs) ... 419

UregMu biimbuiu: (sucking leaves) 504

Bana.na :— 5^«? I'lantain.

BtEi' (Bela vulgaris) : —

Alonolepla stgnalu (\e».\ti) ... 310

Bengal-Gram (Cicer arieiinum) : —

C/i/oridea obso/e/a {pods) 373

16

242

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC.

Betel {Piper betk) :—

Cydopelta siccifolia (sucking)
Disphincius polUus (sucking)

Bhavunchi : — See Psoralen corylifolia.
Bhindi {Hibiscus esculenlus) : —

Sphenoptera gossypii (borer)

Zonahris fiusliila la (flowers )

Earias insiilana (fruit)
„ fabiii (fruit)

Cosmophila erosa (leaves)

Oxycarenus hetiis (sucking)

Dysdercus cingulatus (sucking) . . .

BiLVA : — See Bael.

Bitter-Gourd {Momordica sp.) : —
Epil<ic/ina 12-s/igma (]ea.\cs)

,, 2%-punctata (leaves) ...

Aulacophora abdominalis {foveicoUis) (leaves)
,, rt/r/^d««/.J (leaves) ...

,, .f/^w«.J/ (leaves)

Black-Gram {Phaseolus mungo radiatus) : —
Azazia nibricans (leaves)
Nacoleia indicata (leaves)
/iip/or/us pedes/ris {sucking)

Bottle-Gourd {Lagenaria vulgaris) : —

Aulacophora abdominalis foveicoUis (leaves)
„ alripennis (leaxes) ...

„ sieve fisi (leaves)

Sphenarches caffer (\ea\&^)
BrinJAL (Si>hinu»i melongetia): —

Solenopsis geminata (buds)

Epilachna \2-stigma (leaves)

,, 2&-pu>tctala (leaves) ...

Prodenia litura (leaves) ...

Laphygma exigua (leaves)

Eublemma olivacea (leaves)

Brinjal Sarrothripine (leaves)

Acherontia Styx i^tiy^s) ...

Euzophera perticella (borer)

Leuci nodes orbonalis (borer)

Pachyzancla agrofalis {\eiives) ...

Pterophorus lienigianus (leaves) ...

Aspongopus /rti «;/^ ( s u c k i n g )

PAGE

476
489

298

303
384
38s
391
482
484

292
292

3"
312

312

389
434
480

3"
312

312

443

274
292
292
377
379
380

383
402
428

436
440

445
476

PLATE II.

PESTS OF CABBAGE, RADISH, etc.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

PESTS OF CABBAGE, RADISH. ETC.
Fig. I. Pluiilla maculipennis. eggs, magnified.
I. -■ i> !• larva ,.

„ 3. ,, ,. cocoon

„ 4. ., „ moth

„ 5. Pieris brassica, eggs, magnified. \

" ^- •• •' larva. [ «sjot found in Southern

7. ., ,. pupa. i India.

.. 8. ,. ,. butterfly. J

„ 9. Aulacophora abdo-niualisiJo'veicoUis).
„ 10. „ txcavata.

„ II. Bagrada picta^ magnified.

„ 12. Athalia proxtnta, larva, about twic? natural «ire.
13. „ „ adult „

LIST OF CROPS.

243

Anoplocnemis phusiana (sucking)
Urentius echinus {sMcking)
(9 W//<jf/-/V sp. (leaves)
Alractomorpha creniilala (leaves)

BuKUL : — See Mimusops.
Cabbage {Brassica okracea) : —

Atltalia proxima (leaves)

Monokpta signata (leaves)

Euxoa segeih (%\.&m)

Prodenia litlira (leaves) ...

Crocidolomia binotalis (leaves)

Hellulii iinJalis (leaves) ...

PlutelUi macuUpennis (leaves)

Biigrada pkta (sucking) ...

Orthiicris sp. (leaves)
Cacao ( Theobroma cacao) : —

Xykborus jorniatus (borer)

Dkhocrocis punctiferalis (boring pods)

Helopeltis antonii (sucking)
Calotropis {Calotropis giganlea) : —

Paramecops farinosa (leaves)

Pcrkallia rkini (leaves) .. .

Tarache iiitiditia (leaves)

Lygceiis pandurus (sucking)

Eurybrachys tomentosa (sucking)

Pacilocerits pUliis (leaves)

Cardamom {Ekltaria cardamomum) -. —
Cardamom Scolytid (seeds)
Dkhocrocis piinctiferalis (stem and cap>
Hilarographa caminodes (roots) ...
Skphanitis typicus (sucking)

Cashew [Anacardiiim occidenlak) : —
Cricula Irifenestrata (leaves)

CASSIA spp. :—

Sphenopkra arachidis (hoTer)
Biston sitppressaria (leaves)
Calopsilia pyranihe (leaves)
Terias hecabe (leaves)
Argyroploce illepida (seeds)

Castilloa Rubber : —
Zecanium olea (sca\e)

1 6- A

ules)

PAGE

477
485
527
5^8

281
31°

375
377
437
438
464
473
527

345
433
488

332
370
382
481
492
527

344
433
464
484

406

409

413
414

449
515

2.J4 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC.

CAsroK (Riiiniis communh) : i-age

Xyleborus fornicatus {boTe.x) ... ?45

Amsacla albislriga{\edk\es) ... i'jy

FerUa Ilia riclni (I caves) .. ... ... ... 370

Froditiia litura (leaves) .. ... ... ... ... 37 7

Acftica milicerta {\ea.\<:-&) ... ... ... 386

O rgy ill post icii {\<ii.^<:s) ... ... ... ... 395

Oiene mendosa {\t:d\e<i) 396

Eitproclis fraUrna {\ta.\<:^) ... 39^

fcintillans {\.iii\t^) . . 399

Panisa lepida {\tsi.\fi) 4ii

.ll//ia niveu (Itdyea) . 41^

£>ic/iocrocis pu/u/i/eralis (^tew'i unA i:ii\isu]tA) . ... ... 433

Clania crameri (leaves) ... ... . . . . ... ... 4 4*^

Nezara vlridtila {■'.yxcVxn^ 475

Empuasca fttivescens (%\xcV.\k\%) 49S

.-l/eurodes ricini (sucking) SoS

Cyrtacaiit/uicrls ranaceu {\ta.\&i) ... ... 531

CaSUARINA (Cusuarluii eqiiisellfolia) :—

Calosterna sp'uuitor ( borer) ... .. ... ... 3^5

„ scabrator l^ioxftx') ... ... ... ... . 32O

.irbelaUlraonis {hortx) ... ...... 45 i

BracAyirypes porUniosus (stedWngA) ... 536

Cauliflower {Brassicu oleracea (auli/lum) : —

Alhalia proxima {\edi\e9,) -'Si

Afo/wlep/ii sig/ia fa {leaves) 310

Farasa kpida (leaves) ... 4 1 1

PluleUa maculipennis {leaves) 464

B agrada picta {sMckin^) 473

CtAKA RuuiiEK {Manihol glaciovii) :-

' Lecanium nigrum {scale) ... ... 514

Cereals {See also Paddy. Cholam, Kagi, Wheat, elc.i :

Anatona slillala {(^oviers) 2S2

OxyceloHia versicolor {Soviets) ... 283

Chiloloba acuta {^ovtxs) ... -'84

Gnathoipastoides rouxi (flowers) .',oj

Lytta IcnuicoUis (flowers) ,503
Zonabris pusiulala I. flowers )
Canthaaii ntficuUii Cflowers)

Chillies — :

.\fonolepta iignala (leaver) 3>o

Laphygmn fxigua {leaves) 37"

>o5

LIST OF CROPS.

245

Emophera pfrtUelta (borer )
Lygtri/s fian/fi/rit.< {s»ck\ng)

C.HniiAGATm (Si-sfianin o'_i^yJ</iac<i){Sfi also Asaihi, Dnincha)
Homoplfra glanchiatis (leaves) ...

Catopsilia pyratithe (\eA\e^)

7'erias /lecabe {\evL\e^)

.-/ zygoplikps scnlarh ( horer)

CiiOLAM {Andropogim sorghum) : —
Analona atillnla (flowers)
Oxycetonia rrrv/Vrt/rtr (flowers) ...
Chiloloba acuta (flowers)

Gnat/iospasloidi's roiixi (flowers)

Lytta leniiUollis {^0'*:er%)

/imaMs pus/i//fi/a (Rowers)

Cantharis: rnficoUh (flowers )

Cholam Fly (stem-horer)

Amfactn iilhis/riga {\t2L\e9.)

Cirphis iitiipuiicta (boring shoots)

Sfsamifi in/ereiis (horer) ...

/Vrt/V.T .trtwm (leaves)

Piirnara mat/ilas (leaves). . .

S/ciiac/iroia elongella (ca.r\\t:&(\s) ...

C/iilo simplex (horer)

.\fara.imia trapezalis Heaves)

Dolycorh indkiis (sucking)

Agonosce/is nupi/ti (sucking)

AVsrtrrt 77>/(////(i (sucking)

Piezotionis rxprofitsciatiis (svnVm%)

.l/r/z/rfij //;V/r/V> (sucking) ...

Anoplflcnemis p/iasiatia (sucking)

Leptocorisa I'aricornis (swc\i\T\%) ...

Lygffus pnndiirus {s\\cV.\r\gj

Calocnris atigiista/iis (s\\cV\ne.)

PAf/iice rniTS/)! (sucking) ...

Pyrilht perpusiUa (sucking)

Pundalunya simphcia (sucking) ...

Epacromta iiimuliis l\eas^s) ... ... • ...

OrihacrU sp. (leaves)
Colemania spheiiarioidcs (leaves). . .
CAr(?/<7§'<jw//.f sp. (leaves) ...
Hieroglyphiif nigrfl-rephliis (leaves)
(P.TV'rt rr/ir^.r (leaves)

r.\GE
.48.

?90

■M4

447

283
^84

\°^
.i°5
.vV'

.^7"
.i70
.i07
M7

.)M
4.^2

470
472
47.>
474
474
477
479
481

400
19.>
493
494

5 28

5.32
533

246 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

PAGE

77/r;)>.s sp. (flowers) ... ... ... ... ... ... 542

Mites (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 544

Cinchona : —

XyUborits forincalus {hoxex) ... ... ... ... ... 345

Deilephila nerii {\&z\t?,) ... ... ... ... ... ... 403

Helopeltis anlonii (ixxddng) ... ... ... ... ... 488

Lecaniutn viride (SQ.a.\&) ... ... ... ... ... ... 513

Aspidiotits eamelltm {^caXt) ... ... ... ... ... 517

Chionaspis biclavis (scale) ... ... ... ... ... 520

CITRUS spp. {See also Lemon and Orange) : —

Fapilio demoieiis {\(idi\Q^) ... ... ... ... ... ... 412

Tonica zizyphi {\ea.\ts) ... ... ... ... ... ... 459

F/iyllooiislls ci/rella {Xe&i-m'mcx)... ... ... ... ... 465

Cluster-Bean ( Cyamopsis psoralioides) : —

Alcides h/bo (hover) ... ... ... ... ... ... 337

Coptosoma cribraria (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... 469

Coconut {Cocos nucijera) : —

Z>(7ry/w (77-/V«/rt//V (roots of seedlings) ... ... ... ... 274

Orycies rhinoceros (borer) ... ... ... ... ... ... 285

Rhynchophorus ferrugineiis {hoKi) ... ... ... ... 343

Parasa lepida (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 411

Gangara thyrsis (leaves) 417

Suas/us gremius {leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 419

Nephantis serinnpa (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 460

Coconut Aphis (sucking leaves) ... ... ... •... 506

Aspidiolus deslriiclor {s,Cd.\e) ... ... ... ... ... 518

Aiilarches miliaris {\e2L\es) ... ... ... ... ... 526

Coffee {Coffea spp.) : —

Xylolrechiis quadripes {\\')ri'\teBovi:x) ... ... ... ... 323

Esligmene lactima {\ed.\es) ... ... ... ... ... 368

Crea/ono/us gangis (lea.yes) ... ... ... ... ... 369

£u.xoa sege/is (seedlings) ... ... ... ... ... ... 375

0!em mendosa (lesLves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 396

Parasa kpida (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 411

Zeuzera coffetc (Red Borer) ... ... ... ... ... 446

JIo//iona coffearia (leaves) (Flush Worm) ... ... ... 452

/4«/«//rt <rr;/«a/a (sucking berries) 472

Dactylopius citri (scale) 5 09

Puhinaria psidii (scale) ... ... ... ... ... ... 511

Lecanium viride (scale) ... ... ... ... ... ... 513

,. fiemispfia-rtcum (scale) ... ... ... ... ... 514

II nigrum (scale) ... ... ... ... ... ... 514

„ olem (scale) ... ... ... ... ... ... 515

LIST OF CROPS. 247

PAGE

Chionaspis biclavts (scale) ... ... ... ... ... 5 * °

Aularches mtliarh {\ea.\t^) ... ... ... ... ... 526

COLOCASIA :—

Afo>io/(/>/ii sig/ta/ii (leai\es) 310

PcrUallia ncini{\cli\es) 370

Prodftila UUira (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 377

Coral Tree -.—See Erythrina.

Cotton {Gossypium spp.) : —

Soknopsis gemiriata {hudf.) ... ... ... ... ... 274

Sphenoplera gossypU {hox&r) ... ... ... ... ... 298

Z&nadris pitstu/a/a (fiov/eTs) 303

Cmlosterna spina for ( bark ) ... ... ... ... ... 325

AtactogasUr finiti»iiis{\^3i\ts) 333

AlcidfS leopardtis {hoK\) ... ... ... ... ... ... 338

Pemph^res ajffinis {horex) 339

Contarinia sp. (buds) ... ... ... ... ... ... 363

Ptricallia rici'ii {\ea.\>is) ... ... ... ... ... ... 37°

Tarachc nitidiila (leaves)... ... ... ... ... ... 382

., opalinoides {\ti2L\Q'A) ... ... ... ... ... 382

Earias insiilana (bolls)... ... ... ... ... ... 384

,, /(j;i/<7 (bolls) 385

.Iconfia grael/si (\ea.ves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 385

CosmopAila erosa (\ezives) ... ... ... ... ... 391

EuprocUs fraterna (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 398

Phycita infiisella {top-s\iOots) 428

Sylepta derogata (leaf-roller) ... ... ... ... ... 434

/euzera eo^etf {hoTer) ... ... ... ... ... ... 446

Ge/ec/ifij gossypie//a (seed^) ... ... ... ... ... 454

Pyroderces coriace//a (seeds) ... ... ... ... ... 458

C/iii'igrit//(i Aorrf/is (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... 479

Zv_^«-//^ /(j/;(///r//.f (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... 481

Oxycdrew/s /{e/us (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... 482

Dysdera/s cingulalus (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... 484

Eurybrac/iys tonwnlosii (sucking)... ... ... . ... 492

Aphis gossypii (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... ... 499

Cerococcus hitisci (scdXe) ... ... ... ... ... ... 508

Daclylopiiis 7iirgalus (sca.\e) ... ... ... ... ... 510

,, «//« (scale) ... ... ... ... ... ... 509

Zfcanium nigrttm (scale) ... ... ... ... ... ... 514

Chrotogonus sp. (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 5 28

Cn/rt«/c/*.f sp. (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 529

Cyrtacanl/iacris ranacea (\ea.\es) ... ... ... ... gjt

248 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSEC-TS. ETC.

Country Almond {Termivalia catappa) :— VKr.v.

Apodrrus Iranqiicbariais {K^ss^^"),.. 335

' Melanastria /lyrfacn (leaves) 4 1 o

CowPEA ( Vigfia cntiang) : —

Sphetwplera arachidis (borer) 298

Zonabris puslulata (flowers) .. ^o;^

Green-Gram Weevil (seed) ... 33()

Cow-pea Agromyza (boring seed) 35S

Laphygma exigua {\evL\e%) ... ;70

Azazia rtilrkatis (leaves) ... 380

Plusia orkhalcea (leaves)... .393

R!ptorlii<: pedcstris (mucking) ... ... 4S0

Cokmft/iin apbenorr'oidfs (\cave<i) ... ... ^27

Crotai AKiA spp. (Sec also Sann Hemp) :

Sp//enopfer^ nracZ/fdii (borer) ... 29S

Zofiabr/s pi/sfiiia/a (i\o\\ers) ... 303

Polyotnmalus bwlkiis (^oA?,) ... . . 415

Zospeyre.'ifi /riafifra (^tem-horcr) ... 451

CrUCIfer/i: (See also Cabbage, Miistarrl, Kadish, Cauliflower, etc.) :--

At?:alia proxima (\ea.\e9,) 2.S1

Pluain oric/inken (\c?i.\C9.) 393

Crncidolomin Htiolalis (\e2ive^) ... .j.37

Plulella maculipennh (leaves) ... 46 1

Bagrada pUfa (^wVm^ ... %•?,

Clcurbitace/K : —

EpUachtta i2-stigma (\e7\.\es) 202

2Z-pumtaia (leaves) 292

Znnabrh pi/stulaia {\tSi\e%) • -,0.',

Aulacophorn abdomlnalis (foveicoUis) 1 lea\ <-> 1 ',1 r

„ atripcniii.^ (\ea.\t?) ... -^12

„ 5/<7w/.'/ (leaves) ... -5 1 2

Apomecynn pcrtigera (borer) . . -,2 7

Dacui cunirbilff (ir\\\V\ ...... iS4

P/i/m'a pepnnis (agrnmma) (leaves) ,^94

Glyphodes uidicn (\ea\c%) r,6

CiiMBU (Pcnniselum typhoideum) : —

Anatona stillata (^ovitrf,) ... ^?.i

Oxycctonin versicolor (flowers) 2S3

Chiloloba acuta (flowers) . . 28)

(inalhnspasloides w?/.r/ (flowers) ^,02

Lyila lenuicnllis(^o\\Gr?,) ..... \o\

Zpnnhrh pus/iihfn (flowers) ^o^

LIST OF CROPS.

249

Cantharis ruficollis (flowers)
Cholam fly (Stem-borer) ...
Esti^niene lactitu-a (leaves)
Amsactn all'islriga (leaves)
C/i Hi) simplex ( horcr )
Doh'corls hidicus (stickinp;)
Eumrcocorh gufliger (siickinsi 1
Agonoscelts nnbila (sucking)
Nezara viridula (sucking)
Aphaniis sordidiis (sucking seed)
Epacromia lamuhis (leaves)
Orthacrh sp. (leaves)
Cnkmavia iphenarioides (leaves)

Curry-Leaf Plant {Murraya ka-ttign
Papain demoleiis (leaves)

Dain'Cha {Seshatiia acukala)
Alcldea I iibo {horex)
Catopsllia pyriinlfie (lea\es)
Terias hccabe (loaves)
Azygopfilcp? sca/aris (borer)
Epacromia tamuJiis: (leaves)

Date-Palm (Phcrnix ^ylvcslrU^ : —
Oryctes rhinoceros (borer)
Rhynchophorus ferrtigivnif (borer)

Dhan:— 5'«<' Paddy.

Draksha : — See Grape-^'ine.

Egg-Pi. AN'T : — 5V'e Brinial.

F.RRUKAM -.—See Calotropis.

F.RvrHRiXA (Eryihrina indica): —
Platypria hyslrix (leaves)
St/ietiias grisator (girdles twigs')
Xyleborus fornicaluf (borer)
Orgyia postica (leaves) ...
Terastia meticuhsalis (shoot- borer)
Cyclopella siccifolia (sucking)
Arwplocnemis phauann (sucking)
Dactylopius citri (scale)
Lecanium niece. {%co.\t)
Aularches milinris (If-avfsi

EcCALVPTt'S spp. :—

Homovn coffearia (leaves)

356

470
47'
472
47,1
48,-,
5-5

4' 4
4(7

,3>(,
."vl5

439
47'-'

4 77
509

5 '5

-2h

250

SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Ficus Spp. : —

Neocerambyx paris ^borer)

Baioct'ra ri/hiS {borer) ... ...

//y/>stt ficits (leaves)

Ocinara varians {\ta.\e%)

Fiirasa Itpida (leaves)

P/iycodes radUita (\ea.\es) .

Daclylopiits cilri (y,ca\e)

Piilvhiaria psidii (scaXe)

Hemilecaniiim imbriciins {?,ca.\e)

PiTcUoccrus pictiis (young plants) ...

Figs : — .9^^ Ficus.

(iANjA {Cannabis saliva) : —

Chloridea obsoleta (leaves and capsules)

GARUEN-Pr.A.N'TS GENERALLY : —

Dory Ills orientalis {root%)

Adoreliis iwalis {\ea\es) ...

Anomala varians {\ea.\e&)
(JiNGELLY {Sesaniiim indiciim) : —

Ciingelly Gall-fly (young capsules)

J'ericallia ricini {\ea.\c%)

Laphy^ma e.vigiia (leaves)

Acherontia sty.x {\ea.ye?.)

Anfigasira calalaiinalis {\ea.\es. f\\oot%, pods) ...

Eiisarcocoris ven/ralis (sucking)

^///rt«/« .for(//(//« (sucking seed)
(JINGER {Zingiber officinalis) : —

Calobala sp. (rhizomes)

Udaspes foliis { leaves )

Dichocrocis piincliferalis (stem and rhizone)
(loGU (Hibiscus cannabinus) : —

/.onabris piislulala (flowers)

Nisotra madurensis {\ea\e^)

A Icidfs leopardus (borer)

Pempheres affinis ( b orer )

Aconlia graellsi (leaves)

Cosmop/iila erosa (leaves)

Eiiproclis scintillans (leaves)

Pltycila in/usel/a (topshools) ...

Oxycarenus Itstus ( sucki ng)
fiouRus (See also CucurbitaccK, Pumpkin) : —

Epilachna 12-stigma (leaves)
„ iZ-punctata (leaves)

Aulacophora abdomiiialis (foveicoUis) (leaves)

PAGE
322

324
400
407
411
463
509
S"
517
527

373

274
287
287

364
370
379
402
441
47'
483

355
420

433

303
310

338
339
385
391
399
428
482

292
292
3"

LIST' OF CROPS. 251

I'AGE

AiilaC(>phora ntripfunis {WdiW'i) ... ... 312

j/rt't'//37 (leaves) ... ... ... ... s'^

JJiHus a/carfiift^ ((ruh) ... ... ... .•■ 354

Glyp/iodes indUa (leaves) 43''

Gkape-Vine (r///isp.) : —

A/iore/us ovalis (\eaves) ... ... ... ... ... 287

Gotiocephaliim /lofimannseggi (\t3i\e^} ... ... ... ... 299

Scelodctnia sirlgicollis (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 309

Grassf.s : —

Nispd/Za ramosa (\i;a.\cs) ... ... ... ... ... ... 3 '5

rrodenia litiira (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 377

Spodoptera maurUia (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 378

Remigia frugalis i^tzyQi)... ... ... ... ... ... 388

/'sa/is semris {leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 397

Alelanitb ismene {Xeaxfi) ... ... ... ... ••. 412

Pariiara math las {XedLwe'r,) ... ... ... ... ... 417

Ancylolomia chrysographeUa (leaves) ... ... ... ... 424

Leptocorisa varicornis {iUcVrng) ... ... ... ... ... 479

Ca/ocoris angusfa/us (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... 49°

Phenice mmsta (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... ... 493

Tettigottiella spectra {sucking) ... ... ... 496

iVepAo/ettix Npt/fictati/s {sucking) ... ... ... ... 497

Crt/rt///t>/^ sp. (leaves) ... ... .-. ... 5^9

Green-Gram {F/iaseoliis mtitign) : —

Green-Gram Weevil (seed) 336

Alcides collaris {ho\ex) ... ... ... ... 337

Cow-Pea Agromyza (boring seeds) ... ... ... ... 358

Azazia ruhrUans {\eaL\es)... ... ... ... ... ... 389

P/usia pepo/ils (sigfiata) (leaves) ... 394

Herse convolvuH {leaver) ... ... ... ... 402

Nacokia indicala {ledives) ... ... ... ...- ... 434

Mariica testulalis {seeAs) ... ... ... ... ... 44°

Coptosoma cribraria {suck'mg) ... ... ... ... ... 469

Atwplocnemis pfiasiana {sucking) ... ... ... ... 477

Riptortus pedestris (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... 480

Colemania sphenarioides (leaves) ... ... ... ... 527

Grevillea : —

Xyleborus forntcatus (borer) ... ... ... 345

Aspidiotus camellia: { scale) ... ... ... ... ... 517

Ckionaspis biclavis {sc&le) ... ... ... ... ... 520

Groundnut {Aracfiis hypogaa) : — >.

Dorylus orien/alis {roots) ... ... ... ... ... 274

Oxyce/onia versicolor (Rowets) ... ... ... ... ... 283

252 SOME SOUTH INDIAN' IN'SECTS. ETC.

SpheHfi[>ter,x arachidh (borer)
Zonabris pustulala (flowers)
Amsacin atl'htriga (leaves)
Crealonolus g'lngis (leaves)
Chloridea nbsoleta (leaves)
Pliisia signatn (leaves) ...

PAGE

398

Apro(Trcma ncr/eria (\cd.ye%) .... 457

.4///rt«//.f -wr/Z/Vw-f (sucking seed) ... 483

0;-///<7cm sp. (leaves) 527

ChrotogMins S[>. (\G3L\es) 52^

C\'rtacantliacri< ranacen (\ea\Qvi) . 5,^1

T/iri/'S S\). 5P

( lnAVA (Psidiiim giiyai-a) :-

X\'leboriis fortiUn/iis (hnxer) ... . . . .54.^

Fruit-fly (fruit) ,^54

llracliola is:ocrale.i (irrnt) 4'^'

Diclwcrflcis piituli/eralk (frwx) f.^,3

Pahnnnrlrt psid'ti CicaXc) 511

Lecaniitm virlde (■Aca.\&) ... ... ... ... 5' 3

GiM Tkkes : — See Eucalyptus.

Haldi -.—Scf Turmcrir.

Hkmh, Diccan : — .See (Jogu.

Hemp. Indian :--5« Ganja.

Hevea Ri'BBEK -.—See Para Rubber.

Hibiscus (See also Gogu, Bhinrli. RozcHp, etc.) :—

Sphempter.i gossypU (hoxer) ... 19R

Zo/iabri.< pi/s/iih/a (Rowers) ... .-^o.^

A Icides leopnrdiis (hnrer) ... 7,\^

Sy/ep/n derogala (leaf-roller) 4.^4

Daclyltipius nipu: {5ca\<i) ... 500

„ virga tits {%ca.\e) ... 510

Lecanium nigrum (sca\e) 514

Horse-Gram {Dnlichos biftorus) : —

.Spherwptem nrac/iidis (hoxcr) ... 2C)9,

EsUgmenc lactlnen (leaves) . . . ^6S

E/lel!a zincketiella {sceAs) ... I20

A'nco/cin ind/ca/n {\eai\es} ... n4

Horse-Radish Tree : — See Moringai.

li.MCHi : — See rardamom.

IsniAx He.mp : — .9f# Ganja

rNi>ir.i> (^Indigofern arrecfa) : —

Alcidea bubo (borer) ... l\',

Prodenin liliirn (\e2i\e%) y,;

LIST OK CROPS. 253

PAU L

Liip/i)'grna exigiia {\ici\.\iis,) ... 379

Hemigia nridala {anhi'iM) {\vi.\>i'i) ... i^^

/*//«/</ c/-;V//<//a</ (leaves)... .i93

Dichomeris ianl/ies (lea\fs) 45*'

At /A/ ;V<V/i (sucking) ■19'^

Ii'O.MO..\ {See also Sweet Potato) :—

/.omibris pitstitlala {^ovmis) ... ... .)03

Omphisa aiiiistomosalis (slem-hoxi^r) ... ... 43'.)

Italian Millet : — See Tenai.

Jak : —

G/yp/iodes odsa/ls (buds An<.\ \om\^ {mhi} ... 435

Cosmoscarttt nlala (sucking shoots and \ouiig Iriiits; .ii>5

Jam : — See Guava.

JoLA : — See Cliolain.

JUAK : — See Cholani.

Jlte {Corcfiorits capsiilaris) : —

J\^iso/ra Miidt/rensis (leayea) .. 3'°

Jute .<//«/t>« (borer) 331

fer/geu ciipe»sis {]e!x\e!i)... ... ... . 37 7

Frodenia liiiira (\c-d.\tts) ... ... ... ... 377

Ctjsmo/'/ii/u subii/i/era (lea.\cs) ... ... ... ... 39°

6-V(i//t;i/(?////« i<;/^v/i- (sucking capsules) ... ... .. 4*^'

Kaju : — See Cashew.

K.ANGUM : — See Tcnai.

Kjiokasam : — ^^rc; Nigersecd.

KuLTHi -.—See Horse Gram.

RusuMC -.—-See Sartlower.

Lab-lab {Dolichos lab-lab) : —
Zonabrh pttstulata (flowers)
FlalKpria hplnx{^^-i.\fi%)
Cow-Pea Agromyzu (boring seed)
C/iluridea obsolela (pods) ...
Acherontia its'x ( leaves) . . .
Catoc/irysops ciiejus (\}ods) .p 4

Maruca lesliilalis {^df.) ... \.\o

Sp^enare/ies cajer (pods) ... 4.1;,

- Exelus (is a/o'/iosa (pods) ... ... 44.}

Laspeyresia iorodella (shoot-borer) 451

Coptosoma cribraria (sucking) 461)

Aspongoptis janus (s\.\\:V\w^ _ 476

Chwigrallu gibbosa (sacking) ... ... 478

Jiiptortus pedeslris (sucking) 4S0

Ladies' Fingers : — Sec'. IJhindi.

j°3
31C'

35 S
373
402

254

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Lantana {Lantaiia aatleala) : —

Xykiorus /or/iicaO/s (hoKT) (doahtful) ...

Flatyptilia piisillidactyla i^oviex?,)

Piezodonis ritbrofascial us {snckmg)
Leguminos.h {See also Pulses, Crotalaria, Lucerne

Sphenoptera arachidis (borer)

Dichomeris ianthes (leaves)

Coptosoma crlbrarla (sucking)
Lemon : —

Papilio demoleus (leaves)

Tonica zizyp/ii (leSiVtis)
Lilies : —

Poly tela gloriosoe (leaves)

Udaspes folus {\&a.\e?i)
Linseed (Linum usitatissimum) : —

Ch/oridea obsoleta (capsules)

Gram/nodes stolida (leaves)

Euproctis scintillans (leaves)
LiTCHi {Nephelium Utchi) : —

Argyroploce illepida (seeds)
LOQUAT {Erbbotrya japonica) : —

Virachola isocrales (fruit)

Pulvinaria psidii (scale) ...

Lecanium viride (scsde) ...
„ hemispharicttm (scale)

Lucerne {Medicago sativa) : —

Creatonotiis gangis (leaves)

Prodenia litura (leaves) . . .

Laphygma exigita (leaves)

Nacoleia indicata (leaves)

Dichomeris ianthes (leaves)
LuKKA ACUTANGULA (Strainer Vine, Ribbc

Indigo

Gourd

Tarn.

PAGE

345
444

474

298
456
469

412

459

375
420

373
387
399

449

416
5"
513
514

369
377

379
434
456

Pirkan) :-

Riplortus pedeslris (sucking )

480

Madar : — See Calotropis.

Maize {Zea mays) : —

Chloridea obsoleta (cob) ...

373

C/r/Z/w «//;^«w/a (boring shoots)

376

Prodenia litura {\QaL\&s)

377

Sesamia infereiis {horer) ...

379

Chih simplex ( borer)

423

A/arasmia trapesalis (\esiVt:s)

432

Leptocorisa variornis (fiMcking) ...

479

LIST OF CROPS.

255

Calocoris angitsUilus (sucking) ...
Pyrillii perpusilla (sucking)
Pundaluoya simpUcia (sucking) ...
Hkroghphiis banian (leaves)

.Mango (Mangifera indica) : —
.■/(/(*/'c'///.v (/i'(i/<V (leaves) ...
Haloara nibus {hoxcx)
Eugnamptiis marginatus (leaves)
Mango Leaf-boring Weevil (leaves)
Apodenis tranquebarian (leaves)
Cryptorhynchiis mangiferic (seeds)

Fruit-fly (fruit)

Bomlotelia jocosatrix (leaves)
Eiiproctis scintillans (leaves)
Cricula trijenestrata (leaves)
Pa rasa lepida (leaves)
Macalla nwnaisalis (leaves)
Idioceriis nivcosparsiis (sucking)
Piilvinaria psidii (scale) ...
Aspidiotiis des/ritc/or (scale)
Odonlolt'rmes sp. (bark) ...

M.\NjAL : — See Turmeric.

Millets : —

Cholam Fly (stem-borer)

Millet, Italian : — See Tenai.

MIMUSOPS ELENGI ■.—
Afefanastria hyrtaca (leaves)

MiRCH :— See Pepper.

Monkey Face : — See Mimusops.

MoRiNGAi (Moringa pterygosperma) :-
Perica//ia ricini (\ea.\eii) ..
Eupterote moUi/era (leaves)
Actias selene {\e-i.\>i&)
Noorda blitealis (leaves) ...

Mullangi : — See Radish.

MuNG {See Green-Gram).

Mustard {Brassica spp.) : —
Alhalia proxima (leaves)...
Crocidolontia binofa/is (\ea.\eii)
Hellula itndalis (leaves) ...
Plulella macutipennis iytzx^s) ...
Bagrada pic/a {sucking) ...

Navane : — See Tenai.

PAGE

490

493

494

531

"87

324

329

334

335

341

.554

382

399

406

411

430

496

S"

S18

541

356

370
404

405
441

2<Sl

-137
43S
464
473

_'56 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC.

NiGEKbLED {Guizotiu iiliyssiiiUa) :— p.-vue

i*erlgea capensis {\i:di\ii%) ... 377

Chrotogonus s^. {\ti\yQs) ..... 528

Ole.\nder (A'crium odofum) : —

Ar/Vd/Z/rt r«/«/ (leaveb) ... -70

Deilepkila nerli {l^ayes) ... .. 403

O.MO.N {AtUitm cepa) : —

Laphygma exigua ... ., .. Vi9

■ : T/irips >ip. ... . . ... 542

.Gr.\NGE : —

C/ilorldolum uUf/icne {borer ) ... ... 32^

Kruit-fly (fruit) ... ... . 554

J^apilio Jemoku.<: (\ii'A\'<:i) 412

I'iruc/iola isucmlcs {itmi) . 416

Tonicii zhj'pki {\t^u.\tis) ... 459

PkyUocnistii citreUa (leaf-aiiiitr) 465

Cappiiu Uiprobamnsh K^VicWw^ 470

.Ihiirodes citri (fiMzVxn^j,) ... ... ... 50S

Paudv (Oryzu aitiva) :—

Epicaula sp. (leaves) 306
c'/V/^ affiiiis (leaves)
Lepliipa pygniicu (lea\ cs;
Ilispa annigcra (leaves) ...

Calandra oryzic i^x^n %X2A\\) 541

Cirphh unipuncta (borer) ' 376

SpodopUra manritia {%it^\\\%i,) ... 378

Sesamia Inferens {hover) ... 379

Remigia frugalis (leaves) 388

Psalis securis {\ta.\'iiS.) ... 397

MelanitU Ismetu (lea\ es) ... 412

Ptsrrtara mat/lias {\iiJi\^s) 41;

„ »(?/(jM (leaves) ... 4tS

TcHcota augitis (IcavcM 419

Ch ih simpk.x (hoxcx) 423

Ancylolomla chrysogrnphdla ^li.a\cs; 424

Sc/iicnoblus bipunclifer {hoxcx) ... 426

.Vymp/iiila depunclalis{\ta.\-ii^) 430

Cnap/udocrocis mcdinalli (IcavcM 432

Menida //<i/w (sucking) 474

Telrodu hisleroidcs {nmkwg) 4 77

Lep/ocorisa vuricornis (sucking) ... ... 479

/'elligonieila spectra (sucking) 496

.yephoUtlix bipunclatus (sucking) 497

31J
j'5

LIST OF CROPS. 257

PAUK

Hieroglyp/iii$ Ihviian {\ea.\i:v.) ... ... ... 531

C>.v;i'rt w/(W (leaves) 533

77/r/>5 sp. (flowers) ... 542

Palmyra {Borassas Jianellifer) : —

Oryctcs r/iinoceros {hortr) ... ... ... ... ... 285

R/iync/inpfioriis ferrHgineus (hox^r) . . ... ... ... 343

Farasa kpidii {XtaMei) 411

Suaslus grcmiiis {\edi\cs) ... .... ... ... ... ... 419

Nepfiantis scrinopa {\<iai\^i%) ... ... ... ... ... 460

Pan : — See Betel.

Para Rubber {Hevca brasilicusis) : —

Bafocera rudtis {horer) ... ... ... ... ... ... 324

Zeciinium tiigri/m (scale) ... ... ... ... ... ... 514

Pea {Fisum sativum) : —

Prodenia litura (lea\es, etc.) ... ... ... ... ... 377

Pliisia oriclialcea {\ea.ye'i, &\.c.) ... ... ... ... ... 393

Folyornmaliis balicus (^ods) ... ... ... ... ... 415

Pear {Fyrus communis) : —

Z(i(r^«(«/i'r; (sucking young twigs) 503

Pepper {Fiper spp.) : —

Farasa lepida (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 411

Zc'caniitm marsHpiale (scale) ... ... ... ... ... 516

Aspidiotus destructor (scale) ... ... ... ... ... 518

A/ytilaspis piperis (scale) ... ... ... ... ... 519

Phanas : — See Jak.

PiMARAM : — See Ailanthus.

PiNNAi (Tarn.) : — See Country .\lmond.

PiYAZ : — See Onion.

Plantain (Musa sapientium) : —

Cosmopolites sordidus (rooUhorer) ... ... ... ... 342

Ferical/ia rici/ii (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 370

Frodenia litura (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 377

StepAanitis typicus (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... 484

Pomegranate (Funica granalum) : —

Cxlosterna spinator {boxer) ... ... ... ... ... 325

Achcea melicerta (leawes) ... ... ... ... ... ... 386

Farasa lepida (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 411

Virachola isocrates (hnit) ... ... ... ... ... 416

Potato (Solatium tuberosum) : —

Gorwcephalum hofimannseggi (siexns) ... ... ... ... 290

Euxoa seget is (stems) ... ... ... ... ... ... 375

Flusia oricfialcea (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 393

Euzophera perticella (hoxer) ... ... ... .., .,. ^.28

258 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

PAGE

Phthorimiea operculella (stored tubers) ... ... ... 455

Dtictylopius nipcs (^tOTiid. Iwhexi) ... ... ... ... 509

PSORALEA CO RYU FOLIA :—

Aprocerema nerteria (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 457

Prickly Pear {Opuntia) : —

ZonaMs pus/u/a/a (Rov/eis) ... ... ... ... ... 303

Pulses {See also Black-Gram, Cow-pea, Green-Gram, Horse-Gram, Red-
Gram, etc.) : —

£pisomus /aceria (roois) , ... ... ... ... ... 327

Alcides collarts {hoT<ix) ... ... ... ... ... ... 337

Arnsacfa a/iis/riga {\eAves) ... ... ... ... ... 369

CAloridea o/>S(?k/a (pods) ... ... ... ... ... 373

Azazia rubrUans {\<ta.\iis) ... ... ... ... ... 389

Herse convolviili {\<idi\e9,) ... ... ... ... ... .. 402

Cafoc/irysops cnejus (pods) ... ... ... ... ... 414

Polyommatiis bir.liciis {pod'^) ... ... ... ... ... 415

Etiella zinckenella {pods) ... ... ... ... ... 429

Agonoscelis niibila {swckxng) ... 472

Piezodorus riibra/ascia/t/s {suckinu,) ... ... ... ... 474

Menida Ais/rio {suckinfc) 474

Pv^'iPK.iNS {Cucurbifa spp.) : — See also Gourds, Cucurhitaceae.

Epilaclina 12-stigma (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 292

,, iZ-punclata (leaves) ... ... ... ... .. 292

Atilacophora abdominalis {foveicollis) {\ta.\ts) ... ... ... 311

„ a/ripennis {Icaxes) ... ... ... 312

,, s/evensi {lea.ves) ... ... ... ... ... 312

Apomecyna perfigera {hoxiix) ... ... ... 327

Daciis cucurbilcB {hmt) 354

PerUallia ricini {\t3.\es) 37°

P/usia peponis {agramma) {leaves) 344

GlypAodes indica {\ea.ves) 436

Aspon^opus Janus {sucking) ... 476

Radish {Raphanus sativus) : —

Alhalia proxima{\ea.yei) 281

Monolepta signata {\e2L\ts) ... 310

Laphygma exigua {\ea.\es) 379

Crocidolomia biiiolalis {\ea\ts) ... ... ... ... ... 437

Hellula undalis {\edi\es) 43^

Plulella maculipennis {\ed.\e'i) 464

B agrada picla {swckiOfO 473

Ragi {Eleusine coracana) : —

Anatona s/i//afa {{\ov/ers) 282

Estigmene lactinea {XeSiVes) 3*^8

LIST OF CROPS.

259

Ams(U/(i albistriga (leaves)

Sisamiit infirtns {hoTQX)...

Psalis securis {\eai\es)

Chilo simplex {hoTi:r)

Saluria inficita (root-borer)

Marasmia Irapezalis {\e3.\c9,)

Nezara viridiila (sucking)

Zcpfocorisa varicor/ih (sucking) ...

Ragi Root Aphis (sucking)

Epacromia tamiiliisiyezyts)

Orlhacris sp. (leaves)

Cyrtacanthacris ranacea (leax^es)
Rain Tree [Plthecolobium saman): —

Arbela telraonis {boxer) ...
Red Cedar {ALrocarpus fraxinif alius) : —

Hemilecanittm inibricans (scale)
Red-Gram ( Cajanus indicus) : —

Sphenoptera arachidis (borer)

Zonal ris pustulata (flowers)

Pachy merits chinensis (boring seeds)

Centhorrhsnchus asperulus (flowers)

Red-Gram Agromyza (boring seeds)

Chloridea obsoleta (pods) ...

Olene mendosa (leaves)

Euproctis fraterna (leaves)
., scintillans (leaves)

Stauropus allernus (leaves)

Calochrysops cnejiis {^ods)

Etiella zinckenella (seeds)

Maruca /es/ulalis (seeds) ...

ExeJas/is alomosa (seeds)

Eucelis crifica (lea.\es)

Aproarema nerteria (leaves)

Cyclopelta siccifoUa (sucking)

Anoplocnemis phasiana (sucking)
Clavigralla gibbosa (sucking)
„ horrens (sucking)

Lygicus panduriis (sucki ng)
Graptostethus servtis (sucking) ...
Ceroplastodes cajani (scale)
Colemania sphenarioides (leaves)

Ribbed Gourd (See Luffa acutangula).
17-A

PAGE

369

379

397

423

427

432

473

479

502

525

527

531

453
517

298

303
306

328
35 7
373
396
398
399
408
414

429
440

444
450
457
476

477
478

479
48.

4S2

260 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Rice : — {See Paddy). page

Rose {Rosa spp.) : —

Adore(us /a/iga/oreusis {leayes) ... ... ... ... ... 286

„ caliginosus /'icolor {l<ia.\es) ... ... ... ... 286

,. i>z/rt//5 (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 287

Zonabris puslulata (flowurs) ... ... ... ... ... 303

Ccelosterna spinator (twigs) ... ... ... ... ... 325

Slhenias grisator (girdles twigs) ... ... ... ... ... 326

RozELLE {Hibiscus sahdariffa) {See also Hibiscus, lihindi, (iogu,
Cotton) : —

Phycita infi/sella (topshoots) ... ... ... ... ... 428

Safflower {Carthamiis tinctoria) : —

C/i foridea obsok/a {csLpsules) ... ... ... ... ... 373

Perigea capensis {c3.psu\es) ... ... ... ... ... 377

Dolycoris indicus (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... 470

Monanihia glol ulijera (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... 486

.Sand.\l {Santalum album) : —

Zeuzera cojfeic (borer) ... ... ... ... ... ... 446

Sann-hemp {Crolalaria juncea) : —

Utetheisa pulchclla {\tia.\t%) ... ... ... ... ... 371

Pius :a signaia {le&vts) ... ... ... ... ... ... 393

Euprociis scind/lafts {lea-ves) ... ... ... .. ... 399

Argina cribraria (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 40 1

„ syringa (leaves)... ... ... ... ... ... 401

Polyommalus bcelicus (pods) ... ... ... ... ... 415

£/iel/a zinc/icnella {seeds) ... ... ... ... ... 429

Laspeyresia irtcenlra {stem-hontt) ... ... ... ... 451

Ragmus importunitas (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... 491

Sesbania spp {See also Agathi, Daincha, etc.) : —

Alcides bubo {hore\) ... ... ... ... ... ... 337

Homoplera glaucinans {\e3.v<is) ... ... ... ... ... 390

Calopsilta pyranlfie {leaves) ... ... ... ... . . 413

Terias hecabe {\e3L\es) ... ... ... ... ... ... 414

SESBANIA .KGYPTIACA -.—{Sec Chitliagathi).

Silk-Cotton {Bombax) : —

Acanthophorus serraticornis (borer) ... ... ... ... 320

B atocera rubus {hoxer) ... ... ... ... ... .. 324

Silver Oak : — See Grevillea.

Snake-Gourd {Trichosanthes anguina) :—

Epilachna 12-s/igma {\ea.ves) ... ... ... . ... 292

,, 2 S'/wwAf/rt (leaves) ... ... ... ... 292

Aulacophora abdominalis (Joveicollis) (leaves) . ... 311

„ atripennis {\edses) ... ... ... . . ... 312

LIST OK c;roi's. 261

I'AGK

.liilttcop/torii sU'vemi {\ci\w^) ... ... . ... ^12

J'uliiii pt^f'oiiis {(igrummit) {\ii.x\e^) ... ... ... ^(n,

Sor.ANACK.K.- —

E/>t/ac/ina 1 2-s/igMa (leaves) ... ... ... . ... 292

„ zi-punctala (leaves) ... ... ... ... 292

Eiiblcmma oliviicea {\ea.\es) ... ... ... ... ^Xo

Brinjal Sarrothripine (leaves) ... ... -583

Ptjc/iysatic/aagroftjlis (leave?) ... ... ... ^^o

SoKGHUM : — See Cholam.

Strainer vine : — See Luffa acutangula.

Sugarcane {Sacchariim officinarinn) : —

Dorjliis orlenliills {xooii) ... .. 274

O rules rhinoceros ( borer) ... ... ... ... 285

F/iidoilonta niodesta {lediVt^s) ... ... ... ... ... ij;

Sesamiti i/i/erens (boTur) ... ... ... ... ,-„

J'salis sea/ris (leaver) ... ... ... ... ... ... ^gj

Telicola aiigias {leaves) .^ig

Z>/rt/r«srt sp. (borer) ... ... ... ... ... ... ^22

C/iilo simplex (horer) ... ... ... ... ... ^23

Scirpophaga aurijlua {hoT'jx) ... ... ... ... ... 425

,, moiiostigma [hover) ... ... ... . ^26

F/ienice mmsla {sncking) ... ... ... ... ... ... ^n-t

Fyrilla perpttsilla {sxiddng) ... ... ... ... ^03

A /eurodes dergi (sucking) ... ... ... ... -q-

Hieroglyphus banian (leaves) ... ... ... ... -^^

0 xy a velox (leaver) ... ... ... ... -,,

Gryllotalpa africana (setts) ... ... ... ... ... cjt

Odonlotermes sp. (setts) ... ... ... ... ... ... r .j

Thripss^. ... ... ... ... 5^2

Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) : —

Doiycoris indicus (sucking) ... ... ... ... ^-g

Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas) : —

AspiJomorpha mil iaris (leaves) ... ... ... .,jy

C(?/>/(V/ /(I sp. (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 217

yl/e' <>/(?«(? sp. (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... ^jg

Cy las formicarius (tuhets) ... ... ... ... ... ,,r

J/erse co/ivoh'u/i (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... ^02

Omphisa anastomosa/is (stem and luhers) ... ... ... .,„

GraptostetAus servus (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... ^gj

Tadi : — See Palmyra

Tamarind (Tamarindus indicus) : —

Stan ropiis alterniis (leaves) ... ... . ... .^_ .^g

262 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

PAGE

Virac/iola isocraies {ixwit) ... 41^'

Argyroploce illepida (seeds) 449

Tea {Camellia theifera) : —

Xykl'oriis fornkatus {hoxtr) ... ... 345

Stauropus allernus {\ta.\es) ... •■• ... 4°^

Bisloti suppressaria (leaves) ... . ■ ■ • • 409

Parasa lepida {].edL\e.%) 4"

Zeiizera coffeie {hortx) 44^>

Cla/iia crameri {\e2ives) ... 44!*

JleUrusia virescens (le&vas) 449

Ifomona coparia {leaves) (Flush Worm) 45^

PAassi/s maladarUus (voot-hoTer) 46S

jffelopelns anlonii (sucking) ... 488

Empoasca flavescens (sucking) 498

Lecanitim hemisphicricitm (sC3.\v:) 5 '4

„ nigrum (scale) ... ... ... ... ... ... 514

Aspidiotns camelliie (sczXti) 51?

Chionaspis biclavis (scaXe) 520

Hemichionaspis Iheif. (scaXe) 521

TelranycAus 6iocula/i/s (\ii3i\iis) ... ... ... ... ... 544

Phytopliis carina/iis (leases) ... ... ... ... ... 545

Te.\k (Teciona grandis) : —

Psiloplera fastiiosa (hox&r) 297

Stromatium barhalum (hoKx) .... 321

/(y/'tert /wra (leaf-roller) 392

Pyraitsla mac/iiiralis (le&ves) ... ... ... ... ... 442

Tenai (Selaria italica) : (Sec also Cereals) : —

Anatoita slillala (fiovKiXs) 282

Gnal/iospasloides rouxi (Rov/eTs) 302

Zy/la tenuicollis (flowers) 303

Zonabris ptislulala (flowers) 303

Caniharis ruficollis (Rowers) 305

Dolycoris irtdicus (sucking) 470

Colemania sphenanoides (\t2.\ts) 527

Hieroglyphus nigroreplelits (\cdi\(is) 532

Til -.See Gingelly,

Tobacco (Nicotiana labacum) : —

Chloridea obsolela (sc&A ca.^su\its) 373

„ rt5«///n (leaves, etc.) 374

Prode/iia li/ura (lenvcs, etc.) ... ... ... 377

Plusia signata (leaves, etc.) 393

Gnorimoschema heliopa (stem-borer) ... ... ... 454

LIST OF CROPS. 263

PAGE

Gtil/oie/icus crdSiuornis (sucking) 49'

.■l/rtu/omor/>Aa crenu/ala (leaves) ... ... ... ... 528

C/iro/i)go'ius sp. (\cViVti3) ... ... ... ... ... ... 528

Toddv-Palms : —

Pycriosoma Jlaviceps (sucking toddy) ... ... 349

I'o.MATO (Lycopersicum csculaUum) : —

Chloridea obsoleia (huii) 373

I'rodenia lilura ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 377

Ttlranychus biociilatiis (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 544

I'OON (Cedrela loona) : —

Hemilecanium imbricans (<,Cd.\c) ... ... ... ... 517

TuLSi (Ocimum sanctum) : —

Monanthia globiilif era (sucking) ... 486

Ceroplasiodes cajani (scdXn) ... ... ... ... ... 512

TuR : — See Red-Gram.
Turmeric (Curcuma longa): —

Calobata sp. (rhizomes) 355

Udaspes folus (\iid.\es) ... 420

Bichocrocis punctiferalis (stem) ... ... ... ... 433

Slephantlis typkus (sucking) 484

Turnip (Brassica sp.) : —

.■t//ialia pro.xima (\eiives) ... ... ... ... ... 281

Bagrada pic/a (sucking) 473

Urid : — See Black-Gram.
Wheat ( Trilicuni vulgare) :^

Sesamia in/erens (borer) ... ... ... ... ... ... 379

Dolycoris indicus (sucking) 470

Agottoscelis nubila (sucking) 472

Nezara viridula (sucking) 473

Menida histr to (sucking) 474

Riptortus pedestris (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... 480

\VoOD-APPLE (Feronia elephantum) : —

Parasa lepida (Xt&ves) 41 1

Argyroploce illepida (satds) ... ... ... ... ... 449

264

SOME SOLTII INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

LIST OF ALLIi:i) I'LAXTS.

The following list, in the preparation of wiiich I have rcceivetl
considerable kind assistance from Rao Bahadur K. Rangachariyar,
Lecturing Botanist, shows the commoner plants and trees grouped
under their Natural Orders. In view of the fact that many
species of Insects are confined to closely allied plants, or at least
exhibit a preference for the plants contained in the limits of a
Natural Order, it is equally important for the Entomologist antl the
Agriculturist to know which plants are likely to be attacketl by
any particular insect, especially in view of control by rotation of
crops. For example, an insect which damages mustard is likely
to attack cabbage if the two crops are grown near one another in
space or time. IVLiny insects are of course polyphagous (i.e., feed
on many different plants) but, as a rule, a careful consideration of
the relationships of the crops themselves will often avoitl consiiler-
able loss by Insect Pests.

Papaver somniferuiii
Argenione mexicana

Criici/ene.

Brassica nigra

campestris ...

,, juncea

,, alba

,, oleracea cajntata ...

„ oleracea botrytis ...

„ oleracea cauliflora ...

„ napus
Raphanus sativus

Capparidea.
Gyrandropsis pcntaphylla.
Crat;eva religiosa
Cadaba indica.

Opium poppy.
Mexican poppy.

Black mustard.
.Swedish turnip.
Indian mu.stard.
\\ bite mustard.
Cabbage.
Broccoli.
Cauliflower.
Rape.
Radish.

Car lie Pear.

Portulata oleracea

Camellia thcifera

Theobroina cacao

rorliiliiC('i.

Ttrnslnemiacetc.

SterculiaciiC.

Purslane.

Tea.

Cacao.

LIST OF ALLIED PLANTS.

265

Abulilon indicuni.
Hiliiscus cannabinus
,, sabdarifl'a ...

,, abelmoschus.
„ esculentus ...
„ rosa-sinensis
Gossyiiium herbaceum
barbadense
,. arboreuni

,, hirsutun

„ indicuni ...

,, obtusifolium

Thespesia populnca
Bombax raalabaricum
Eriodendron anfractuosum

Corchorus capsularis
Elaeocarpus oblongus.

Tiliacea.

Liih'ce.

Linum usitalissimuiii

Geraniaccce.

Averrhoa bilimbi
Averrhoa caraniboia
Oxalis spp.
Impatiens spp.
Pelargonium spp.

RutacecB.

Toddalia aculeata

Murraya krenigi

Atlantia monophylla.

Citrusa medica acida
,, medica limetta
,. medica aurantium
„ decumana

Feronia dephantum...

• Egle marmelos

Melia

Melia azedarach
Melia azadirachta
Cedrela toona

Oogu.
Rozellc.

Bliindi ; Ladies Fingers.
Hibiscus.

} Cotton.

I'ortia Tret.

Silk Cotton ; SimuK

White Silk Cotton.

Jutf.

Fla.x ; Linseed.

Bilimbi.

Carambola.

Oxalis.

Balsam.

Geranium.

Lopez root.
Curry Leaf Plant.

Sour lime.

Sweet lime.

Orange.

Pomelo.

Wood-apple.

Bael.

Persian Nini.
Xim ; Margosa.
Toon.

266

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.
Simarubdr.

Ailanthus e\celsa ...

„ nialabarica.
Balanites roxhurghii.

Zi/yphus jujuba
,. glabrata.
lenoplia.
,, riigosa ...

Scutiii indica.

Vitis vinifera
„ linnaei.
,, setosa.
„ carnosa.
,. quadranguiaris

Khamtuu-.

A/npeliditr.

Sapindacea:.

Allophyllus cobhe
Sapindus trifoliatus

Atiacardiaceo:.
Mangiftra indica ...
Anacardium occidentale ...
Buchanania latifolia

., angusti folia.

Odina wodier

Leguminosic.
Arachis hypogoea ...
Crotalaria mysorensis.

„ verrucosa.

„ juncea ...
Trigonella fcenumgrcecum
Medicago sativa ...
Cyamopsis psoralioides
Indigofera lini folia.

,, enneaphylla.

„ trita.

„ tinctoria
Psoralea coryli folia.
Tephrosia spinosa.

,, purpurea
villosa.

Ailanlhus.

Jujube ; Bar.

Wild ber bush.

(irapc vine.

Square-stemmed Jungle vine.

Thangot.
Soapnut.

.Mango.
Cashewiiut.
Chironji oil tree.

John Company tree.
Groundnut.

Sann-hemp.
Fenugreek.
Lucerne.
Cluster bean.

Indigo.
Kolinji

LIST OF ALLIED PLANTS.

267

Sesbania ajgypliiica

„ aciiloata ...

,, grandi flora
Cicxr arietinuni
Vicia sativa
Ervuiii lens
I'isum sativum
Glycine hispida.
l'>ythrina indica ...
Butca frondosa
Canavalia cnsiformis
Phaseolus trilobus

,, aconitifolius.

,, mungo

„ radiatus

X'igna catiang
Clitoria ternatea.
Dolichos lab-lab ...

„ biflorus ...
I'sophocarpus tetragonolobus
Cajanus indicus

Dalbergia sissoo ...

,, lati folia
I'terocarpus'marsupiuni ...
Pongamia glabra.
Derris scandens.
Pterolobium indicum.
Cassia fistula

„ occidentalis.
„ auriculata ...
„ siamea.
„ obovata
„ angustifolia
Cnesalpinia pulcherrima ...
Poinciana regia
Hardwickia binata
I'amarindus indica
Bauhinia variegata
Adenanthera pavonina
Acacia arabica
„ leucophloea.
„ latroiiuni.
,, concinna ...

('hitagathi.

Daincha.

Agathi.

Bengal-gram.

Spring vetch.

Lentil.

Coral tree ; I ladaj).
Dhak tree.
Sword bean.
Field-gram.

Creen-grair. ; .Mung.

Black-gram.

Cow-pea.

Field bean ; Lab-lab.

Horse-gram.

(loa bean.

I )holl ; Ked-gram ;

Arhar.
Sissu.
Rosewood.
Kind tree.

Indian Laburnum.

Tanner's Cassia.

Country Senna.
Tinnevelly Senna.
Flower F'ence.
Gold Mohur.
Hardwickia.
Tamarind.
Mountain Ebony.
Red-wood tree.
Gum arable ; Babul.

Soapnut Acacia.

268

SOME SOUTH INDIAN' INSECTS, ETC.

A]l)i/./ia lebbek
Pithcccilobiuni diilce
Mimosa pudica

Siris ; Vagai ('ram.).
Korka])illi.
Sensiti\e Plant.

Rosacea.

Rubus moluccensis.

., ellipticus.

., racemosus.

Eriobotrya japonica

Loquat.

Pyrus malus

Apple.

„ communis ...

Pear.

Prunus persica

Comhretaceic.

Peach.

Terminalia catap])a

Tropical Almond.

„ belerica

Myrobalan.

„ chebula

Black Myroiialaii.

„ arguna.

MyrtaceiC.

Psidium guyava ...

Guava.

Eugenia jamboo ...

Rose apple.

„ arnothiana.

,. alternifolia.

,, jambolana

Janibolan pJum ; Jamoon,

Punica granatum ...

Pomegranate.

Eucalyptus globulus

Ciicurbitacea.

Blue Gum.

Trichosanthes anguina
Lagenaria vulgaris
Luffa aegyptiaca ...
„ acutangula ...
Benincasa cerifera.
Momordica charantia
C\;cumis trigonus.

Snake gourd.
Bottle gourd.
Towel gourd.
Strainer vine ; Ribbed gourd.

Carilln fruit ■ Balsam Pear.

,, melo

Melon.

„ sativus ...

Cucumber.

Citrullus vulgaris ...

^^'ate^ melon.

Cephalandra indica

Scarlet gourd.

Cucurbita maxima

Common gourd,

„ pepo ...

Pumpkin.

,, moschata

Musk melon.

Ctenolepis garcini.

Ptiisitlonic.

Carica papaya

Pa pa) a ; Pa paw.

LIST OF ALLIED PLANTS.

269

Cactcr.

OlJiintia (Jilleiiii

if III be 1 1 if cne.

Hydrocotyle asiatica.
Carum caruii

„ copticum ...
rimpinella anisuni
Coriandrum sativum
Cuminum cyminuin
Daucus carota
I'eucedanum graneolens

Cornacca.

Alaiigiuni lamarckii

\\'endlandia notoniana.
Oldenlandia umbellata
Canthium parviflorum.
Coffea arabica

Morinda citri folia
,, tinctoria
„ umbellata.

Rubia cordifolia ...
„ tinctoria

Cinchona ofiicin:iiis
,, succirubra

Lxora cocci nea

RubiaceiC.

Coinposilu'.

Helianthus annuus
Carthamus tinctorius
Ageratum conyzoides
("ruizotia abyssinica
Cosmos sulphureus

Bassia latifolia

„ longifolia
Mimusops elengi
Achras sapota

Sdfio/acew.

Ola

I'rickly Pear.

Caraway.

Bishop's weed.

Aniseed.

Coriander.

Cummin seeds.

Carrot.

Dill.

Chay-root.

. Coffee.

' \ Indian Mulberry.

Indian Madder.
Madder.

•Ici

Jasnununi spp.

ApocyiiiUiur.
Tabernremontana coronaria.
Nerium odorum ...

nchona.
.Scarlet lxora.

Sunflower.
Saffiower.
White weed.
Niger seed.
Cosmos.

Mabua ; Moha.

Monkey face; Bukul
Sapodilla.

lasmine.

Oleander.

270

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC.
Asclepiadacece.

Calotropis gigantea ...

Madar ; Calotropis ; ^.

Cryptostegia grandiflora.

Pcrgularia minor.

Convolvulacea.

Ipomcea batatas

Sweet Potato.

Solanacecc.

Solanum torvum

Turkey berry.

„ melongena

Brinjal.

„ tuberosum

Potato.

Lysopersicum esculentum ...

Tomato.

Physalis peruviana ...

Cape Gooseberry.

Capsicum frutescens...

Chilli.

., grossum ...

Hell-pepper.

Nicotiana tabacum ...

Tobacco.

Datura stramonium ...

Thorn-apple ; 1 )atura.

Ptdaliacea.

Sesamum indicum ...

(lingelly.

AcaiithaceiP.

Adhatoda vasica

Adhatoda.

LabiaNr.

Leucas linifolia

Tumbe plant.

Ocimum sanctum

Tulsi.

,, basilicum ...

Sweet Basil.

Mentha sp. ...

Mint.

VerhenaceiC.

(Imelina arborea.

asiatica.

Tectona grandis

Teak.

I^ntana aculeata

Lantana.

Aniarantaceie.

Amarantus spinosus.

,, paniculatus.

„ gangi.ticus.

., viridis.

Alternanthera sessilis

Joy weed.

Chenopodiacem.

Chenopodium album

Common Goosefoot.

„ ambrosioides

Hedge mustard ; Kal

LIST OF ALLIED PLANTS.

Polygonaccic.
Rumea vesicarius Bladder Dock.

Fiperacece.

271

riper hetle
,, nigrum,. ,

Betel.
Pepper.

Myristicaccic.
Myristica fragrans Nutmeg.

Laurinete.

Cinnaiiiomum zeylanicum ... •• I Cinnamon

wightii ... ... I

Phiebe paniculata.

Eul'horbiace^e

Kuphorhia tirncalli ..

,, viatorum ..

,. ])ilulifera.

Jatropha curcas
rhyUanthus emhlica.
Ricinus communis .
Hevea brasiliensis
N[anihot glaziovii

utilissima .

Urticacea.

Cannabis sativa
Artocarpus integrifolia

., incisa

Morus indica...
Ficus bengalensis

., religiosa

„ glonierata

,. carica ...

Milk Hedge.
Cactus Euphorbia.

I'lir.^ing nut.

Castor.
Para rubber.
Ceara rubber.
'rai)ioca.

Indian Hemp.

Jak.

Bread-fruit.

Mulberry.

Banyan.

IMpal.

Country Fig.

Pis'.

Casiiarine/r.
Casuarina e(|uisetifolia

Scitamincie.
Curcuma neilgherrensis.
,, longa

angustifolia

Casuarina ; Chowkoo
('lam.).

Turmeric.
Arrow-root.

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Zingiber officinale
Elettaria cardamomiim
Musa sapientuni
„ paradisiaca ...

Ginger.
Cardamom.
Banana.
Plantain.

Bromelia ananas

Agave araericana .
Crinum asiaticum

Bromeliacece.

Amaryllidea

Pineapple

American Aloe.
Asiatic Crinum.

Dioscorea spp.

Dioscoreacea.

Vams.

Liliacea.

.Allium cepa

Onion.

„ sativum

Garlic.

Palmece.

Areca catechu

Betel nut.

Pha2ni.x sylvestris

Date Palm.

Arenga wigbtii.

Caryota urens

Malabar Sago.

Coryphba umbraculifera ...

Talipot Palm.

Borassus flabellifer

Palmyra; Toddy Palm.

Cocos nucifera

Coconut.

Aroidea.

Typhonium trilobatum

Elephant Vam.

Colocasia antiquorum

Taro ; Kesu.

Amorphophaliu.s carapanulatus ...

Yam.

Acarus calamus

Sweet flag.

Graminece.

Paspalum scrobiculatum

N'aragu (Tam.).

Panicum crus-galli.

„ frumentaceum ...

Kudinii vali (Tam.).

„ miliaceum

Pani varagu.

„ miliare ...

Samai ; .Sawan (Hind.).

,, maximum

Guinea grass.

.^^etaria italica

Tenai ; Korrn. Italian

.Millet.

„ glauca

Korali (Tam.).

LIST OF ALLIED PLANTS.

273

I'cnnisctum typhoicleum
Oryza sativa ...
Zca mays

Saccharum oflicinaruin
Andropogon sorghum
Elcusine coracana
Triticum vul^arc
Hordeum vuljj;are
Bambusa vulgaris

,, arundinacea
Dendrocalamus stricUiS

Cumhu ; I3ajra.
Rice ; Paddy.
Maize.
Sugarcane.
Cholani ; Juar.
Ragi.
Wheat.
Barley.

• Bamboos.

iS

274 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

HVMKXOPTERA.

FORMICIDvE.

DORYLUS ORIENTALIS, Westwd.

Doryliis oricntalis, Westwd., P.Z.S. (1835), 72; Bingluim. Faun.

Ind. Hym., II, 4—6, ff . 6, 7 ; Lefroy, Iml. Ins. Pests, p. 231, f. 276, Ent.

Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I, 128, f. 12, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 227, f. 130;

Green, Perad. Circ. Ill, No. 22, i). 2C)2.

Fig. 111. — Duryliis oriciiltilis, male and worker. (Ori^'inal.)

Distribution. -Throughout Southern India.

Lifehistory.—^oi known.

Foodplants.— Coconut seedlings, groumlnut (roots).

Status. — Rather doubtful. Occasionally a pest, attacking grow-
ing plants ; has been noticed to attack young coco-palms in
Southern India and in Ceylon to perforate the pods of groundnuts
and consume the contents. Specimens in the Coimbatore collection
also are labelled as " attacking roots of groundnut." Other speci-
mens were found at roots of coffee but no damage seemed to have
been done. Has also been found damaging sugarcane.

Control. — ?

Remarks. — The workers are very similar in iiabits and api)ear-
ance to some termites, but the males (which often come in to li^ht
at night) are (luite different.

SOLENOPSIS GEMINATA, Fb.

Atta gcmitiata, Fabr., Syst. Pie/.., p. 423 (1804),
Solawpsis gcminata, Bingham, Faun. Ind. Hym., II, 158-159, f. 64;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 229.

Fig. 112. — Snieiinpsis geiiiiiiata. worker. The smaller figure shows the
natural size. lOriginal,!

HYMENOPTERA. 275

Distribution.- Probably throughout Southern India. (Not noted
from Bellary or Malabar.)

LiJ'ihi story. — Nest in the ground.

Food. — Sometimes found attacking young cotton seedlings and
buds of hollyhock, brinjal, crotons, ailanthus, etc.

Status. — May do damage, even to killing the plant, by biting the
tender buds and shoots and growing the leaves.

Control. — (l) Killing the nest where found.
(2) Ringing of plants with ashes or painting crude oil ennilsion
on to the stem or branches attacked.

MONOMORIUM GRACILLIMUM, Sm.
Myrmica griKiUima, Smith, J. Linn. Soc, VI, 34 (1861).
Mononioriiiin gracillimum, Bingham, Faun. Tnd. Hym., II, 2I0~2II.

Fig. 113. — Mononioriiiiii gracilh'ntuiti. worker. The small figure shows
the natural size. (Original.)

£'/,9^/-/7)«//o//.^Coimbatore. Probably widely distributed in
Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Nest in the ground, in cracks of walls, etc.

Food. — A scavenger of dead insects, feeding also on provisions
such as sugar, breail, ghi, vegetable oils.

Status. — A common pest of store-rooms and houses.

Control. — (l) Destruction of the nest if it can be found.

(2) Laying down baits {e.g., a sponge soaked in sugar and
periotlically dropping it in hot water), or permanent poisoned baits
which the ants will carry off to their nests and feed to their young.

^(';;/(/r^5.— Bingham ^/.^.^ states that gracillinium is confined to
Ceylon, being represented in India by niayri. Forel, but Coimbatorc
specimens appear to be gracillinnini.
18-A

276 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

CECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA, Fb.

Formiai smaragdimi, Fabr., Syst. Ent., p. 828 (1775).

CEcofihyllu siHiiragdiiia, Bmghaxn, Yawn. \nd. Hym., II, 311 ; Lefroy,
Ind. Ins. Life, p. 230. flf. 133—135 ; Dntt. Ent. Mem. Dept.,Agri., Ind.,
IV, 254—260, flf. 21-22.

Fig. 114. — CEcopliylla smaraa-
dina, worker. The smaller
figure shows the natural size.
(Original.)

Fig. 115. — Silken chamber spun

around branch by CE. smaratidiiia.

(After Lefroy).

Distribution. — ^Throughout Southern India up to about 5,000 feet,
occurring most abundantly in regions of heavy rainfall.

Lifchistory. — Forms a nest in trees composed of leaves spun
together by silken threads excreted by the larvas which are held
in the jaws of the worker ants and applied to the situations in
which the silk is required. Besides the main nest there are usually
many subsidiary chambers of spun leaves containing plantsucking
insects which are tended and defended by the ants. The males
and females of this ant are green, the workers orange-red.

Food. — Caterpillars, beetles, flies, ants, etc.

Status. — Beneficial to some extent as predators on small insects
of various sorts but harmful as protectors of noxious Scale-insects,
etc.. which are not only tended but deliberately introduced on to
new plants by the ants. In mango gartlens also these ants may

HYMENOPTERA. 277

prove a great annoyance by covering the trees with their nests and
attacking the mango-gatherers.

Coutrol--Thc nests are conspicuous and easily opened and
killed by spraying or burning.

CAMPONOTUS COMPRESSUS, Fb.

Formica comfn'ssa, Fabr., Mant. Ins., I, 307 (1787).
Cainpoiwttis coinpri'.ssits, Bingham, Faun. Inil. Hyni., II, 351-352,
f. loq; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life. p. 233, ff. 125—128.

^

A^^~.

Fig. 116. — CiTiiipoiiotiis coniprcssus, worker. The small figure shows the
natural size. (Original.)

Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India (not
found in Malabar).

Lifcliistory.— Nest in the ground, often at the foot of a tree.

Food. — A general scavenger, feeding in the field on honey-dew^
dead insects, etc., and attacking sugar in the house.

5/(7/«5.— Indirectly a pest as it tends and protects Scale-insects,
Aphids, Membracids, etc., which may themselves do considerable
damage by sucking the juice of plants.

Control. — (l) The nests are fairly easily found and destroyed.
(2) In the cases of trees badly attacked by Scales which
were attended by these ants, it has been found that a band of tar
and crude oil emulsion applied around the trunk of the tree
keeps the ants from ascending, thus leaving the Scales open to
attack by their natural enemies.

Observation. — This ant has been noticed in active defence of a
Scale-insect against a small parasitic fly which was attempting to
parasitize the Scale.

APID/E.

APIS DORSATA. Fb.
Apis dorsata, Fabr., Ent. Syst., II, 328 (1793) ; Bingham, Faun. Ind.
Hym.. I, 557-558. t. 4- f- H-

278

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

-V

^fe'

Fig. 117. — Apis dorsata, worker. The small outline figure shows the
natural si^e. (Original.)

Distribution. — Throughout the Hills and siib-niontanc districts,
apparently migrating into the Plains.

Lifchistory. — A large single comb is formed, usually about 3 feet
wide and deep, but often much larger; it is suspended under the
horizontal branch of a tree or under an overhanging rock or similar
situation. The colonies are gregarious and many combs are usually
found together, the same locality being resorted to year after year.

Status. — Very beneficial in pollination of flowers and useful as
yielding honey and wax.

Remarks — (l) This bee does not ajDpear capable of domestication.

(2) This is the Large or Rock Bee ; Tamil, Malant/icncc {Moun-

tain Bee),

APIS INDICA. Fb.

Apis iiidica, Fabr., Ent. Syst. Suppl, ]). 274 (1798) ; Bingham, Faun.

Ind. Hym., I, 558. t. 4. f. 12.

Fig. 118.--^/>(s iiidica. worker. The small outline figure shows the natural
size. 'Original.'

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifehistory. — Several parallel combs, each about a foot wide and
deep, are suspended usually in a hollow tree or similar more or less
protected situation. The colonics arc not gregarious.

HYMENOPTERA.

279

Stiiliis. — Very beneficial in the pollination of flowers and useful
as yielding honey and wax.

Ri'imirks. — (l) The races of this bee found in the Hills are very
much darker than those found in the Plains.

(2) This bee may be domesticated to some extent l)ul will
not remain in a hive for more than a few months as a rule. It is
very subject to attacks of Wax-moth and does not store any f^reat
quantity of honey.

(3) This is the Indian Bee, intermediate in size between the
Rock and Little Bees and slightly smaller than the European Bee?
in Tamil 'I'kntY (hvc).

.\ns FLORli.A. Kb.

A[>is Jiorca, Fabr., Mant. Ins., I, 305 ; Bingham, Faun. Ind.' Hym.,
I, 559, f. 187.

Fig. 119. — Apis florca, worker. The small outline figure shows the natural
size. (Original. I

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — This bee builds a small single comb, usually about
six inches broad and deep, which is generally slung from a branch
of a bush. Colonies not gregarious.

Status. — Very beneficial as a pollinator of flowers. The honey
and wax, though of good quality, arc produced in too small quantity
to have much commercial value. The nests are commonly robbed
when found and the honey eaten.

Remarks. — (l) This bee is not likely to repay domestication.
(2) This is the Little Bee ; in Tamil. Scruthcnei: (small bee).

28o

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.
SPHEGID/E.

OXYBELUS SQUAMOSUS, Sm.
Oxybfliis S(/iiiiiiiosiis, Smith, T.E.S. (1875), 38; C';iimron. M:in( li
Mem. (4), 111, 276 (1890); Bingham, Faun. Iiul. liyni., I, 315:
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 209.

Fig. 120. — Oxyhcliis sijiiaiiiusHn. The small i\nnrc shows the natural size.
(Original. •

Distribution. — Guintly ; Coimbatorc. Probably tliroughoiit the
Phiins of Southern India.

Lifcliistory. — Not known in detail. These wasps, however, are
known to tunnel in sandy banks and to store their nests with
Diptera.

Food. — Adult flies of Pliilaitiatoinyia iiisignis.

Status, — Highly beneficial as predaccous on the above-nanud
pest of cattle.

Remarks. — This little wasp is found fairly commonly on and
around cattle. It stalks Philaiuatoinyia insigiiis when this fly is
intent on sucking blood and seizes it, when wasp and fly usually
drop to the ground ; the fly is stung and carried off by the wasp
and, so far as I have been able to observe, it is held by the sting
only (and not by the legs) during flight. Sometimes the wasp
collerts the female flies whilst these are ovipositing in cowdung, at
which time the flics arc in a rather helpless position, anchored (so
to speak) by their ovipositor in the dung. This wasp does not
ditiaiCk. Stomo.xys or Hcniseflics, as quoted by Lefroy (I.e.) ; if it does
by error clutch a Stoinoxys or haematophagous Muscid, both fly and
wasp drop to the ground but the former is released immediately the
mistake is discovered. As a check on PMIo'matomyia this little
wasp is most efficient and useful.

COLEOPTRRA.

281

TENTHREDINfD/E.
ATMALIA I'ROXIMA, King. (PLATE II. KKIS. 12, I3.)

TcnthrciU) froxiiiid. King. Berlin Mag., V'll, 130(1816).

Athaliti proxiiiiih Lcfroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 152, Ent. Mem. Dept.
Agri., Inci., I. 127, .357—370, t. 20, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 165, t. q.

Distribution. — Coiiiibatore, Shevaroys, Bellary, Godavari, Banga-
lore, Bababudins.

Lifi-liistory. — Eggs arc thrust into tiie tissue of the leaves of the
foodpiant, being deposited singly during the day-time. The larva
hatches out after about a week and feeds on the leaves, eating
holes from the edge and in the centre of the leaf- The young larva
is greenish grey but it becomes darker as it grows until it is
greenish-black when full-fed. It looks much like a Lepidopterous
larva, but is easily distinguished by having eight pairs of prolegs
besides the three pairs of thoracic (true) legs. When full-grown it
constructs a cocoon in the soil ; pupal period from lO days upwards.
In some districts (Coimbatore) this insect is only found during the
cold weather (November — February) ; in others (Bellary) it has been
found during the South-West Monsoon (August).

Footlplants- — Mustard, cabbage, radish, cauliflower, turnips.

Status. — A minor pest of cruciferous plants, sometimes doing
considerable damage to young seedlings.

Control. — (l) Handpicking of larvje.

(2) Protection of plants by spraying Naphthaline Emulsion
or dusting with lime (20 pints) ami kerosine (20 pints).

COLEOPTHRA.
SCARAB^ID^.

HELIOCOPRIS BUCEPHALUS, Kb.
Scaralwus lutccplidlus. Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 24 (1775).
Hcliocopris huccpluilus, Lefroy, Imi. Ins. Life, p. 249, f. 14L

Fig. \2\. — Hdiocopii^ buccphalu^. i.-\fter Hewlett.

282 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Distribution. — Bcllary, Coimbatorc. Probably tlirouKlunit Plains
of Southern India.

Lifehistory ami Food. — The beetles collect animal dung and
make it into balls which thev roll away and bury in the ground.
In some of these balls eggs are laid and the larva feeds on the
dung. The e.xact lifehistory of all species is little known but in
some cases it may extend over two years or more.

Status. — Beneficial to some extent.

Remarks. — A very large number of species of these beetles
exist in India and are commonly to be seen in dry places. They
undoubtedly do a great deal of good by disposing of dung ami
ordure in the vicinity of habitations.

CETONIAD/E.
ANATONA STILLATA, Newm.

Cetonia stiUata, Newm., Ent. Mag., V, 169 (1838).
Anatona stillata. Arrow. Cetoniinje (F.I.), p. 114 (1910).

Fig. I2i. — Aiiatotiii stilli7lii. The small outline figure shows the natural
ji,:e. lOriginal.i

Dtstributtoti. —HadagaWi (September 1911). Bangalore (Arrow).

L(/f7i/5/f>rv.- -Eggs are laid in moist places, the beetles burrow-
ing about 2 inches underground and ovipositing there. The larva;
probably feed at the roote- of grasses and miscellaneous plants.

COLEOPTERA.

283

Eggs areiu'rhaps laid about Septeiubcr, tlic l)i"i'tk's i-nuTRing about
June in the following year.

Foodplaiil. — Beetle on the cars of cholam and cunibu, tenai and
ragi, devouring pollen of ear-heails in flower and milk of develop-
ing grains. In the case of cholam, the beetles may enter the ear-
head to the number of a dozen or more in one head and destroy the
grains, filling the ear-head with excrement.

Status. — A local pest of some importance.

Control. — Collection of tlie iHcties In hand-nets.

OXYCETONIA VERSICOLOR. Fb.

Cctoitia versicolor. Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 51 (1775).
Oxycctoiiia versicolor, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 258 (Clvcypluiiiu)
Arrow, Faun. ind. Ceton, pp. 164 — 166, ff. 35-36.

1"IG. XZ.'i. — O.xycctoitia versicolor. I'Ih- .siiiall outline figure shows the natural
si^c. i()rigina1.i

Distribution. — Bangalore, Bellary, Coimbatore, Madras. Proba-
bly throughout Southern India. May to October.

Lifeliistory. — Not known.

Foodplants.— The beetle feeds on flower^ and tender grains of
cumbu, cholam, tenai and other cereals. Sometimes on flowers of
other crop and garden-plants, such as groundnut and Cnsmos.

Status. — Scarcely a serious pest as a rule.

Control. — Collection of the beetles by hand and in hand-nets.

284 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

CHILOLOBA ACUTA, Wieti.

Cctouiii (lailti, Wied., Zool. Mag., II, i, p. 87 (1823).

Cliilolol'ti acuta, Lcfroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 258; Arrow, Faun, liu
Cfton., p. 172. t. 2. f. 4.

Fig. 124. — Chiliilolui iicntn. The small outline figure shows the natural
size. (Original. I

DistriluilioH. -\ii;\h\ry. Bangalore, Coimbatore, Shevaroy.s, South
Arcot. In September and October.

/,ifr/iislory. -Not known.

I'oodplaiit^. -Ears of cholani, < iinilMi. it( ., thr In-itles devouring
the flowers and tender grains.

Status. — Not a serious pest as a rule.

Control. Collection of beetles by hand and with hand-nets.

Remarki.— Arrow's coloured figure scarcely gives a sufficient
idea of the beautiful brilliant metallic green coloration of thib
beetle.

PLATE III.

ORYCTES RHINOCEROS.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IIL

ORYCTES RHINOCEROS.

Fig. I. Eggs.

2. Young larva.

3. -Adult larva.

4. Pupa.
„ 5. Beetle.

„ 6. Side-view of head of male beetle.
If 7. ., ., of female „

(The lines alongside the 6gures show the natural sizes.'

COLEOPTERA. 285

DYNASTID/E.
ORYCTES RHINOCEROS, Linn.

Sidnibiciis rhinoaros. Linn. Syst. Nat. (.x), 346 (1758).

Oryctcs rliimurros, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, pp. 207-208, Ind. Ins.
Life, p. 256, figs. 145, 146; Arrow, Faun. Ind. Dynast, pp. 278--281,
f. 63 : Ghosh, Ent. Mem. .^gri. Dept., Ind.. Vol. II, 193 204, t. 27.

(SEE PL.\TE III.)

Distribiilioii. Throughout the Plains of Southern India all the
year round.

Lifcliistory. The eggs arc laid in deeaying vegetation or rotting
trees, often in palm trees attacked by Palm Weevil. The stout
whitish grubs live in rotting vegetable matter. The beetle itself
iloes ilamage by boring into the soft crowns of palm trees thereby
providing a means of entry for the Palm Weevil to lay eggs. The
grubs have been noted on decaying fiate stems, manure heaps, and
on the dead top shoots of palmyras dead of bud rot.

Fooi1f>la>its. -Palms of various species; American Aloes (both
beetle and grub). The beetle also occasionally bores into sugar-
cane stems. (See figure 68.)

Status. — A serious pest, principally of palms. Possibly of im-
portance also as a carrier of spores of fungal diseases of palms.

Control. — All dead and rotten palms should be cut and burnt.
Heaps of rotting vegetable matter near palm groves should be
regularly turned over and the grubs destroyed. The beetle comes
to light and may sometimes be attracted by light-traps. In
the Chittoor District (Nariambattu) the following method was
reported to be adopted to trap the beetles. " Wide vessels of good
size filled with kitchen refuse, such as rice-water, etc., are kept
among the plants at the rate of one for every ten or twelve palms.
The liquid soon begins to ferment and emit a strong smell attracted
by which the beetles are saiil to appear in good numbers and ilrop
in, when they are collected and killed." This method may bo
tried elsewhere.

Rl'TELID/E.
ADORETUS BANGALORENSIS, Br.

Adorctiis haiigalorciisis, Brenske, I.M.N. , V, 38, t. 4, tT. l, 2 (1900).

Oistrihiitioii. — Ba n ga lore.

Lifehistory. — Not known. Probablv very similar to that of
Anomala varians.

Foodfihint and Status. — ^The adult beetles were found attacking
rose-bushes in the Government Botanical Gardens at Bangalore.

286 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Control. — Collection of the beetles by hand.

Remarks. — This beetle is perhaps identical with .1. ovalis, Bl.

Fig. 125. — Adorctus bangalorensis. The sn;all outline figure shows the
natural size. (From Indian Museum Notes. I

ADORETUS CALIGINOSLS BICOLOR, Br.
AdoretHS caligiiiosiis. Burm., var. bicolor, Brenske, I.M.N. , V, 38,
t. 4. ff. 3. 4(1900).

Fir,. 126. — Adorctus caIii>ini>si(shic<>lor. The small oiitlii.e fiRiue 'ihows
the natural size. iFroiii Indian Museum Notes. I

Distribution. — Bangalore.

Lifchistory. —Ko\ known. Probably very similar to that of
Aiwinala varians.

PLATE IV.

%

^

ANOMALA VARIANS.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 1\.

ANOMALA VARIANS.

Fig. I. Egg, newly laid, x 4.

2. Egg just before hatching.

3. Larva, dorsal view.

4. „ lateral ,,

5. Pupa, dorsal view, partly enclosed in last larval skin.

6. Pupa, ventral view.

7. ,, lateral ,,

8. Beetle.
(The lines alongside the figures show the natural sizes.)

COLEOPTERA. 287

FooJpliint ami Status. The iulult beetles were found attacking
rose-bushes in the Government Botanical Gardens at Bangalore.
Control. — Collection of the beetles by hand.

.ADORETUS OVALIS, Bl.
Adorcliis ovdiis, Blanchard, Cat. Coll. Hut., p. 233 ; Sharp,
A.M.N.H. (7) XI, 472-473 (1903).

Fig. 127. — Adoretiis ovalis. The small outline figure shows the
natural size. (Ori^nal.t

Distriluilioii. Coimbatore, Anantapur, Bellary, Godavari,
Madras, South Arcot, all the year round. Ootacamund in April.

Lifchistory. — Not known.

Foodplaiit. — The beetle eats leaves of grape-vine and mango.
It feeds on the foliage at night and often does serious injury.
During the day numbers of them are often found hidden just under
the surface soil around the plant.

ANOMALA VARIANS, Oliv. (PLATE IV.)
Aiwniala variaii.-i, Olivier, Ent. I, 5, p. 78, t. 10, f. 123 a. b ; Lefroy,

Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., II, 143—147, t. XIV, Ind. Ins. Life,

p. 254, t. XIV.

/)/'5/r/7>///w;/. Coimbatore, Bangalore, Bellary, practically

throughout the|year.

23S SOME SOUTH INDIAN [NSECTS, ETC.

Lifchistury. — The comparatively-large white egg is probably laid
in the soil in which the grubs live, feeding on roots of various
plants. The full-grown grub is about 40 mm. long, dirty whitish
with yellow head and legs and the abdomen incurved beneath.
The pale-yellowish pupa is partly enveloped in the old larval skin
which forms a kind of false-cocoon for it. The life-cycle is about
6—9 months.

Foodplants. — The grubs are bad pests on all garden plants, such
as creepers, etc.

In Coimbatore flights of tliis chafer generally occur when the
North-East Monsoon breaks.

Control. — No satisfactory method of dealing with the grubs can
as yet be recommended for use on a field-scale. The beetles, when
abundant, may be collected by hand, by hand-nets, and at light.

NITIDULID^.

C.'\RPOPHILUS DIMIDIATUS, Fb.

Nitidiild iliiniditilti. Fab., Ent. Syst., I, I, 261 (l792).
C(irf>ofliilii.s (limiclialiis, Lefroy, Intl. Ins. Life, p. 297.

I-IG. 12s. — Carpiiphiliis dimidiatiis. The siiiall fi(»iirc shows the
natural size. (Original.)

/)/.s7r//w//Vw.— Throughout Southern India all the year round.

Lifcliistory and Food. —Not fully worked out. The larva probably
feeds in rotting vegetable matter, pupating in the ground. The
beetles are found in rotting vegetable matter (rotten fruit, etc.) and
some species of this group occur in flowers.

Status.— ^ox known to be a pest but may prove to be so by
carrying fungal and och.-r diseases from attacked trees, etc., and so
infecting healthy ones.

Rcinarks.'-The insects of this group, though numerous in India,
are small and inconspicuous. In their habits they are very varied

COLEOPTERA.

289

most biiriR louiid on or in rotting; animal ami vegetable tissues,
whilst some live in Howers, and the larva of one species (in Italy)
is reconleil as predaieous on a Stale-insect.

rR(K;()Siriu.H.

TENEBROIDES MArRITANICl^S, L.

Tciicbrio nitiiiriltiuiiiix. Linn.. Syst. Nat. (ed. X). I., 417 (US^)-
7\-iiti>r(iii/i-s iiKiiiritaiiicd, Lcfroy. Ind. 1ns. Fests. 25 1 2. t. 3t>2,

Ind. Ins. Lite. p. 299. tT. 176 177 ; Chittenden. I'.S.A. Entoni. Hull. 4.

pp. 122 124. f. 60. (1896).

FlC. 120. — Tciuhmidcs iiKiiiiilniiiciis. lnotli' and larva,
show the natural si/i's. U )rij,'iiial.i

The .small tifjiircs

D/.'.7///»H//r'«. -Probably throughout Southern India all the year
rounil.

Lifeliistory. — The elonj^ale. curveil, pale-white eggs, lueasure
about 2 mm. in length. The full-grown larva is nearly an inch
long, stoutly-built, of a dirty whitish colour, with conspicuous
smooth brown head and chitinous prothoracic and supra-anal
shields, this latter terminating in a pair of short, sharj), projections.
A single beetle may lay forty eggs. Exact life-cycle not known.

Food. — This beetle is at tiiues vegetarian in its diet, feeding on
stored grain, groundnuts, etc., and is sometimes at least predaccous,
feeding on other insects which infest stored produce. Specimens
were found in stored tobacco in Matlras where they were presum-
ably preilaceous in the Cheroot Beetle.

5/<////.N-. Rarely a pest and often beneficial. Included here as
iin insect commonly fouml in storedlgrain, etc.
19

jyb SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC

CUCUJID/E.
SILVANUS SURINAMENSIS, L.
Dcnmstcs suriiitiinciish. Linn., Syst. Nat. (eci X), I, 357 (1758).
Silvanus surimiiiicnsis. Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 252, f. 304, Ind.
Ins. Life, p. 300, (ifis. 17Q, 180 ; Chittenden. I'.S.A. Ent. Bull. 4,
p. 121, f. 59, Bull. 8, f. 4.

Fig. IJO.— .S'(7i(j;n(4- mii-iiuuiunsis. l>ci-tlc and larva. The small figures show
natural sizes. (Larva after Chittenden. I

£>/i7/7Y)///w;/.— Probably throughout Southern India all the year
round.

Lifehistory. — Not worked out in South India.
Food. — Dried fruit, flour, etc.
Status. — Not noted as a pest.

EROTYLID/E.
FATUA LONGICORNIS, Wicd.
LtniMiirid loiiMiioruis. Wied, Zool. Mag.. II. 48 (I823).

III.. 131. — J-'iitiiii lonnicor
tiis, Male. (Original.)

r I',. 132. — I'atuailongicor-
Ills, Female. (Original,)

PLATE V.

GOCCINNELLA SEPTEMPUNCTATA.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE V.

COCCINELLA SEPTEMPUNCTATA.

Fig. I. Cluster of eggs on leaf, natural size.
„ 2. Eggs, enlarged.

,, 3,4,5- Larva in vaiious stages, enlarged.
,, 6. Larva, natural size.

7. Pupa, enlarged.
„ 8. „ natural size.
„ 9. Beetle, enlarged.
,, 10. „ natural size.

(The lines .ilongside the figures show the natural sizes.)

COLEOPTERA.

291

Distrihiilioii. ThrouRhout tlie dry districts of Southern India.

Lifchistory and Foodplaiit. —hUehistory not known in detail.

The beetles are commonly found on Eupliorbia antiqitonini and
larvas have been found in rotting branches of this plant which had
previously been bored by a Phycitid larva.

Status. — Not a pest.

COCCINELLID^.
COCCINELL.V SEPTEMPUNCTATA, Linn.
Coainclhi xcptcmpumtata, Linn., Syst. Nat. (cd. X), 1, 365 tl75^) ;
Lcfroy, Inil. Ins. Pests, p. 273, f. 331, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 306.

(See Plate V.)

Di.slrilnitioii.' Throughout Southern India all the year round.

Lifiliistiiry ami Food. The yellow elongated eggs are deposited
in clusters on plants affected with colonies of Aphids (Green-Fly).

The brownish long-legged iarv;e arc active and predaceous on
the Aphids which they seek out and devour. The squat, brown,
mottled pupa is affixed to leaves.

5/(//h.s-. - Both larva and beetle arc highly beneficial by feeding
on Aphids.

Remarks. — This particular species of Cocciiiclla is found chiefly
on wheat and mustard, but sometimes on paddy and other crops.
Numerous other species are found in Southern India, the lifehistory
in general being very similar.

.> COELOPHORA Sp.

Fig. Mi. — Cncl(if>lii>r,i ^p. Vhv siiiallcr figure shtivvs the ii.iIiiimI si;ic.
(Original.)

(Head and thorax orange-yellow, wing-cases black, each with
four elongated orange spots.)

Distribution.— Ni\R\T\^ (Hillgrove; 4,200 feet).
19-A

2Q2 SOME SOI TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

l.ifchislory iind /w</. -Both larvte and beetles have been found to
l)e predaceous on the Green Bug fLiYdiiiiim viridcl of coffee, on the
leaves of which the pupa; were also found.

Stains. — Beneficial as predaceous on Liwiniiim viridi'.

EP1L.\CH.\A 12-S;'I(,.MA, Muls. (PLATE VI.)

l-lpiliuhiui liodccusliiiiiiii. Muls., Sju-c., p. 789; Lefroy, Ind. Ins.
Life. p. 308. f. 188.

Dislrilmticiii. -Tiiroujihout .Snutht-rn India all the year round.

Lifcliistory. — The yellowish eggs are laid in clusters on leaves of
the foodplant on which the stout, spinous, yellow grubs feed,
eating the e|iidermal la\er of the leaf in characteristic patches.
The s(|ual, > ellow pup;t' are allat lieil head-downwards to leaves.
or more usually stems, of tiie foodplant. The beetles also eat the
leaves.

Fooiipltints. -So\i\unicui\s and cucurbitaceous plants; especially
on Brinjal.

S/tilii.s. Often a serious pest on Brinjal and Bitter dourd
(Momordicd).

Control. -Collection l)y hand of the insect in all stages. Spray-
ing of plants in bad cases.

Niitiind Enemies. — A small C;halcid was reared from a pupa of
R. l2-stifinia found in Bellary.

Remarks. — The closely-allied and perhaps commoner si^ecies.
Epilachna 28-pitnctata. is also shown on the plate (fig. 5). which
depicts the colouring of the beetles as rather too deep rf red.

DERMESTID^.
DERMESTES VULPINUS. Fb.
Denneste'< vidphiiis. Fab., Spec. Ins., I. 64 (1781) ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins.
Life. p. 311, f. 190.

IG. 134. — Dcrmcstcs viilpiniix. The sin.illor tit;urr ^.hows the
natural size. lOrijjin.il.i

Distribution.— 'So\.\i\\ Kanara. Probably throughout Southcru
India.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI.

EPILACHNA BEETLES.
Fig. I. Epilachna dodecastigma^ tgg.
,, 2. ., ,, larva.

.. 3- .. .. pupa.

4. •> » beetle.

5. Epilachna 2i-punctata^ beetle.

„ 6. Beetles (both species) on plant, natural size, showing eggs, larvas,
pupse, adults, and damage done.

(The lines alongside ihe figures show the natural sizes.)

PLATE VI

4^ ^<*..:4

EPILACHNA BEETLES.

COl.KOHTKRA.

293

Lifrhistorv ,intl /-VW. - Not woikiil out in dilail in Iiulia. Tlu-
beetles and larv;c usually feod on doad animal matter, sueh as fish
manure.

Stiiliis. Scarcely a pest as a rule. Isually rather henefu ial as a
scavenger and the larva: have been found feeding on pupa; ot
flies breeding in fish manure. At times, however, the beetle is said
to be verv destructive to silk-worm cocoons.
DKRMESTES Sp.

Flc. U.S. — Derniestes sp. The smaller fifjiire ."ihows the
natur.-il size. (OriRinal.)

£)»s/ri7>w/»w/-— Coimbatore. Probably throughout Southern India.

Li/ehistory iintl food.— NoX known in detail. The beetle has been
bred from larvae found feeding on animal refuse in sparrows' nests.
Probably on any dead animal matter.

BOSTRYCHID/E.
SIN'OXYLON SUDANICUM, Lesne.

Fig. 136. — Siimxyloii suclaiiiciiiii. The smaller litjiire shows ihr
natural size it )rii,'in.il.l

Shioxvlon Sudan ictini, Lesne, Ann. See. Ent. France (1895), 176,
(1906), 503-504,1'. 534; King, 4th Rept. Wellcome Lab., Vol.R, p. 140,
t. 9. f I.

294

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Dhtrihiition. - Bellary, Coimbatore, Chingk-put. Probably
tbroughout Southern India all the year round.

Lifcliixtory. Not worked out in detail. Eggs are laid in dead
wood, probably in galleries tunnelled by the beetles. Larvje in
galleries in dead wood, in which the brrtlts also It-ed. Length of
life-cycle is not known.

Food. — Dry stems of Agathi, of Cambodia Cotton killed by Stem
Weevil, and in almost any dry wood that is not too hard.

Status. — Attacks only dead wood and is hardly a pest as a rule
except when it bores into furniture, etc.

RHl/.OPERTHA DOMINICA, Fb.

Syiiodcudroii doiiiiiiimm. Fab., Ent. Syst., I, pt. 2, p. 359 (1792).

Syiiodoidroii pitsilliim. Fab., Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 156 (1798).

Rliizopcrtlia doinhiica, Lesne, Ann. S.E. Fr. (1898), 332 ; Stebbing,
I.M.N., VI, 25 26 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 316 ; Chittenden, U.S.A.
Ent. Bull. 96, pt. Hi, pp. 29 47, ^L 7, H.

Fir.. 137. — Rhizopcrtliii ilniiiniuit. The smaller figure shows the
natural size. (Original.)

/_^/.s7/-j7'h/ww.^ Throughout Southern India.

U/cliislory. — The white, elongate, pear-shaped eggs are laid
loosely and singly amongst the food of the larvae, which hatch out
after about 10 days. The larva when full-grown is slightly less
th;m 3 mm. long, a white, fleshy grub swollen at either extremity
but more swollen anteriorly. The whole life-cycle is probably less
than two months.

Food. — Stored cholam and cumbu ears; also recorded from
stored wheat, paddy, flour, biscuits, etc.

Stdltis.- Apparently a minor pest of stored products.

Control. Fum\gnt\on and keeping stored grain, etc., in insect-
proof receptacles.

PLATE VII

\ /

6

^-^"^^

^

<^

i* .;-i ',M.'r: r" wi A' . r: r r- i '.,',■?»" !>i r:

FXn.AXAriON OF PLATF Vll.

1^510rERMA SERRICORNE.
Fig. I. Egg>.
„ 2. Larva, covered with (^^articles of tohaoco-leat.

3. Larva freed from purtules of leaf.
,, 4. Pupa.

5. 6. Beetle.
„ 7. Cheroot bored by beetles, showing holes of exit.

^The lines alongside the fig jres show the lutural sites.)

COLEOPTERA. 295

PTINID^.

SnODKEPA PA.NICEA, L.
Dcnncstcs fxiiihriis, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. X), p. 357 (1758).
Sitotlirf.i [>(iiiiir(i. Chittenden, U.S.A. Bull. No. 4, pp. 124--126,
fl". 61, 62; Lefroy. 1ml Ins. Lite, p. 318, I', ig;.

Fin. 13,S. — Sitotlicpii p<iinccii, beetle and l;ir\;i. The siiLiller tigure.s
show tlie natural sizes. I Larva after Chittenden. I

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Eggs are laitl in almost any dry substance of
organic origin, the larvas, on hatching, tunnelling galleries in which
they pupate in small cocoons. The entire life-cycle niay be passed
in less than two months.

Food. This species has been saitl to " eat anything but cast
iron, " even perforating tin foil and sheet lead. Books, papers,
stored grain and drugs of all kinds, boots, sheet cork, etc.

Stains. -An important pest of books and papers and hence of
great importance in Libraries, Record Rooms, etc.

Control. — Books and papers should be kept as far as possible in
closed almirahs or boxes and protected with a plentiful supply of
Naphthaline renewed regularly. Books in e.xposetl shelves should
be treated at least annually with Book Solution. (See page 172.)

LASIODERM.A. SERRICORNE, Kb. (FL.\TE Vll.)
Ptiiiiis .vrriioriiix. Fab., Ent. Syst., 1, I, 241 (1792).
Lasiodcrma /cx/ffcc;////, Duftschmid, Faun. Austr., Ill, 46(1825);
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 253, f. 305, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 319, t. 19.

2q6

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC

Distribution. — Throughout Southern Intlia all the year round.

Li/fhistory. ^The minute shining white eggs are laid on dried
tobacco, being generally thrust in under a fold of the leaf ; in the
case of cheroots they are gcnerail\ laid iu>t under the outer leaf
inside the open end. The eggs hatch after four or five ilays, when
the grub emerges and tunnels through the tobacco until it is full-
fed, when it spins a small cocoon coveretl with fragments of leaf in
which it pupates. The complete life-cycle occupies about 8- 10
weeks according to temperature and the beetles live a considerable
time after eiuergence. The beetles are i|uite active on the wing.

Food. — Dry tobacco as a rule. Occasionally found in other
vegetable matter, such as opium leaves {i.e., the poppy petals uscil
for wrapping opium cakes), turmeric, etc.

Sltitiis. — A pest of great importance in cigar and tobacco
factories.

Control. — The most effective method is fumigation of the finished
cheroots by exposing them to the fumes of Hydrocyanic Acid gas
for 24 hours, then airing for half an hour, and boxing them imme-
diately afterwards. This treatment does not injure tiie aroma of
the tobacco.

CLERID/E.

NECROBIA RUFIPES, Fb.

Dcrmcstes rufipcs. Fab., Spec. Ins., I. 65 (1781).
Mccrobia nifipe.s, Howard, U.S. A Ent. Bidl. 4,
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 326, f. 204.

105.

49 \

Fir,. 139. — .\ecrohiti riifipes. The natural si^c is indicated by (he line.*
alongside ths,- figures of the beetle. iFinni Indian Museum Notes.)

(OI.KOl'l KF<A.

207

Disliihiilioii. I'rohal)!) lhii)ii;;hout SoutluTii lnili:i all the vi-ar
round.

Lijfliistory. Eggs are laid in or on animal matter on which the
larva.' live. Those are greyish-white, with a brown head, and a
series of l)rown patches above, separated by a ])aler dorsal stripe
Pupation in a glistening, paper-like cocoon.

/'«w/. -Animal nuitter, especially dried nuals sue h as Hams or
Bacon. Found abundantly in Fish manure, both ,ii the jjlace oC
preparation on the Malabar roast and in iMsh Manure <hstribiUcd
inland.

Status. Scared) a pest.

BUPRESTIDyE.
PSILOPTERA FASTUOSA, Kb.
Biifirslis Jdsliiosd, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 2l6 (1774).
P.silopti-nifastiw.sa. I.M.N. , II, 45, III, No. 6, p. 3, (Im- ; Sieljbjnf;. nd
Forest. Bull. No. 12, pp. 7 9, i. 2.

^. \ /

l-"ir„ }M).~l}iif>irsHs /ii.stiiosii. I'iic ontliiic li-nr.' shous the
ii.itinal size. (< )i-if,'in;il.i

Distrihiitiot).- Throughout the Plains of Southern India.
Lifchistory- The larva is a borer in the wood of trees.
Fooiiplnnt.- Teak, and probably other trees.

.S7(;///.-f. --Stated to have damaged the Government Teak Planta-
tions at Nilambur in Januar\ 18(50.
Control. ':

29^

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

SPHENOPTERA GOSSYPII, Kerr.
Splh-nortcni .aossypii, Kerr., Ann. S.E. Belg. XXXVI, 195 (lH92) ;
Lefroy, Iml. Ins. Prsls, pp. 100-103, ft'. 114-119. Iml. Ins. Life, p.
330, t. 20.

: [Sflicnoph-ni ncMhrt, I. Khia; King, J. Ee. Hiol., IV, 42 44. t- 4 ;
King, 41I1 Report Wellconie Lab., Vol. B, p. 134, Plate; Aiilmann,
Faun. dent. Kolon., pt. iv, i)p. 18— 22.]

(SEE Plate VIII.)

/;;.s7//7'/(/w«. Bellary.

/Jfc/ii.slory. --Egg^ laid on the bark generally about midway
between base and crown of stem. The larva on hatching bores
into the stem, tunnelling a gallery up and down the centre
When full-fed it prepares an exit hole, leaving only the bark intatt,
antl pupates in the larval burrow, the beetle emerging through the
hole previously prepared by the larva.

Food f>l (in I s.-Cotion (especially Egyptian). HihisiKS cxculcntiis.

Stains. A bad pest where it occurs but apparently rarely found
in .Southern India.

Control. — Destruction of attacked plants wliich wither and are
easily noticed.

Notes. — (i) Except in Bellary, this insect has not been noted on
Cotton in the Madras Presidency.

(ii) Two parasites (Hymenoptcrous) have been reared
attacking the grub,

(iii) Local cottons were not found to be attacked so nuich
as exotic ones.

SPHENOPTERA ARACHIDIS, Lefroy MS.

ii.. 1 tL — Splictioptera arachidis.

1. I^iipa in cocoon (natural size) ;

2. Larva in root (natural size* ;

3. Larva (magnified). (OriKinal.)

Fig. 142. — Splwiioptcra ara-
chidis. The small outline
figure shows the u.itural
size. (Original.)

Distrihiilion. -In all Groundnut-growing districts of Southern
India, occurring from middle to end of cropping-period.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VTIL

SPHENOPTERA GOSSYPII.

Fig. I. Larva inside stem of cotton-plant.

„ 2. Larva, magnified.

„ 3. Pupa in cocoon, inside stem, x 3.

„ 4. Pupa, ventral view, magnified.

,, 5. Beetle, magnified.

„ 6. Beetle.

7. Hymenopterous parasite.

(The lines alongside the figures show the i.alural sites.)

PLATE VIII.

W%i

SPHENOPTERA GOSSYPH.

COLEOPTERA.

299

Lifchistory. — Small flattened scale-like elliptical egys are laid
on the stem or on one of the branches of the plant sometimes away
from the stem. The grub is l,'/2 inches when full fed. It bores down
along the stem tissue to the roots, devouring the main root. The
pupation period lasts 10 days, tiu- milk-wliitc \n\\yA In-ing tormcd
in the larval burrow.

/■'ixxlphnits. -Chiefly groutuhiut (railed tlie Verpuchi of giouiul-
luit) and other leguminous plants such as Cow-peas, Redgr.im,
Horsegram, Agathi, Cassia, etc, Also found in wild sannlu-mp
(Crottihiriti siridtiil.

Status. — A serious pest in certain years especially in South Arcot
where groundnut is grown e.xtensively.

Control. — Destruction of affected plants is the only remedy that
can be advocated at present pending further investigation.

TENEBRIONID/E.

GONOCEPHALUM HOFMANNSEGGI, Stev.

. . . . A^y>//((«/;.s<'^;ij'/, Steven, Nouv. Mem. Mosi'., I, (}6 (1820).
Ofiitnim, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 338.

Fig. 143. — Gonoccphaluni liofnitiiiiiscfifii. The sinall outline fi},'nrc sho\v.=;
llic natural .•^i/e. I()iit;inal.t

/)/.s-/n7)«//o«.—Trichinopoly— probably throughout Southern
India all the year round.

Lifchistory diiil Food. -TUl' larvas of these beetles are fountl on
the surface of the ground where they feed on dead and decaying
vegetable matter. Exact lifchistory not workeil out.

Status.- These beetles sometimes occur in enormous nuiubers
and enter houses in such (luantitics as literally to cover the walls of
rooms. Occasionally they do damage to potatoes, grape-vines, etc.,
but as a rule they are probably rather beneficial as scavengers of
dead vegetable matter.

300 SOME SOITH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC.

TRIBOLIIM CASTANEIM. Hbst.

Colyiliiim ctisldiiiiiin. Herbst, Kafer, VU, 282. t. 112, f. 13 (1797 .

Tnholiuiii nishinfinii, Macleay (1825); Blair. E.M.M. (1913), 222
224.

'/'nlxJiiiiii Jcrnifiiiiniiii. am t. (nee. Faljr.) ; Chitti-nilen, IT.SA.
Ent- Bull. Xo. 4; l.cfroy. Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 253. I. 307, In<l. Ins.
Life. p. 338, f. 215.

I'lC. 144. — TiiliDliiini cii.st, small tiyiin- -sIkiu^:; the

natural size. ((Jriffinal.)

Dislrihiilion. — Throughout Southern Inilia ; all the year round.

Lifi'hi story. — The minute white eggs are laid, usually thrust into
cracks, on the surface of storetl seeds or of the receptacles in which
these are contained. The full-fed larva is about 5 mm. long,
whitish-brown, with darker legs and a pair of anal spines. The
pupa is white and naked anil the pupal stage lasts for 4 or 5 days.
The beetles also feed on stored substances.

Food. 'Siored pulses, grain, flour, dried insects, etc.

Statu.':. A serious pest of stored products, not only by the actual
quantity eaten but on account of the extremely nauseous smell and
taste which it communicates to infected substances.

Control. — Fumigation and subsetiuent storage in Insect-proof
receptacles.

COSSyPHUS DEPRESSUS. Fb.

Liimpyris ikpressa. Fab., Spec. Ins., I., 254 (1781).

Cossyphti.'i dcfn-ssus, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 339, t. 21, f. 4.

Distribution. — Godavari, Bangalore. Bellary, Coimbatore. May
u> July and September to November. Probably throughout
Southern India.

COI.KOPTERA.

301

Flc. 145. — Cossyftliiia (Icfticssiis. Tin- Miiall lininf slmws llu- ii;<tiir;il si^c-

Lifcliistury. Not known.

Food. — Not known- probably ilcad \ i'K<-'tal)k- niattoi'.
Remarks.- Often conK's in commonly to lifihl at ni>)ht. .A very
riirioiis beetle on account of its strong resemblance to a seed.

RHYTINOT.V IMl'OI.lI A, Fairm.
Rliyltiiold iinfolilii. Fairm., Ann. S.E. Belg., .\I.., S (1890).

llG. 146. lihytiiii,t,i iiii/)i,lit,i 1 lie ..,iinll tiyiiT.- shcms tlic iwitiiral size.
II )ri.u;iiial.i

302

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Distribution. Probably throiiKbout Southern India all the year
round.

Lifi'liistory mid Food. -Early stages not known- Probably feeds
on dead vegetable matter on or just below the surface of the ground.

Rcnitirk.s. A conspicuously common beetle to be seen wandering
about over the ground in dry, open places.

MELOID^.
(CANTHARID^; MYLABRID^.)
GNATHOSPASTOIDES ROUXI, Cast.

Ciinthnns roii.vi. Cast., Hist. Nat., II, 274 (1840).
Ciiitlunis I Epiidiital roiixi. Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 346.

FlC. 147. — Ciiiiillio.-ipti.ftoicic's roiixi. The small fiyurc .'ihows the
natural size. (OrJKinal.l

Dislnl'iition. - South Kanara, Kistna, Kurnul. Hcllary, Coiniba-
tore probably throughout the Plains.

/^//■f/z/.T/orv. —Eggs were laid in cai)tivity (in October 191 1) in
groups of 50 to 125 each. The young larvze hatched out after about
fifteen days and were extremely active. In captivity the larva
was found to feed freely on egg-masses of the Deccan grasshopper.
Further details of lifehistory not worked out, but this beetle has
been bred from a pupa found with these egg-masses.

S/rt^H.?.— The beetle itself often does considerable damage to
ear-heads of cumbu, cholam and tenai, eating the pollen so that no
grain is formed. In its early stages, however, it is probably bene-
ficial by acting as a check on the increase of grasshoppers.

COLEOPTERA.

303

LYTTA TENUICOLLIS, Pall.
Cinlharis tcniiicollis, Pall., Ic. Insect., p. 102, t. E, f. 35 (1781 -
1806?); Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pi-sts, pp. 205 206, f. 243, Iml. Ins. Life,
p. 346, f. 220.

ric. H>S. — Lyttit tciiidcollis. Tlu- sin.ill limine .shows tlx: iiatuial size.
(OriK'in.il.l

Distribution. Kurniii, Bellary, Coinibatore, Tanjoro, Tinnc--
velly ; September to November.

Lifcliistory. — The whitish-yellow cigar-shapetl eggs are laid in
the soil in a mass which may contain over400 eggs ; the eggs seem
to be deposited at night and one female may lay more than one
egg-mass on subsequent nights. The young larva; hatch after
about 12 — 14 days. The larvse probably feed on egg-masses of
grasshoppers but the lifehistory is not known as yet.

Status. — The beetle does considerable damage to car-heads of
jola, cumbu, etc.

Control. — The beetles are attracted to light at night or may be
collected during the day-time.

ZONABRIS PUSTULATA, Thnb.

. . . . pustulata, Thnb., Diss. Nov. Spec. Ins., \'I, 113, f. 13

(1791)-

Mylabris pnstulatn, Lefroy, Ind. ins. Lite, p. . . , f. 219.

Mylahris sida\ Fab. Ent. Syst. Suppl.. p. 120 (1798).

^^

Fig. 149. -Zoiuibns piistulata. (Original.)

304

SOME SOUTH IMMAN INSECTS, ETC.

' .\Moi' ciclwrii. Linn., Syst. Xat. (eil. X), 1, 419 (1758).

Distribution. —Found very commonly all over South Imlia.

Lifcliistory. Eggs are laid in masses (one mass found to contain
106 eggs). The eggs are bright-yellow, elongate and cylindrical.
Further history not known.

Foodphints. — The beetle feeds on the flowers and tender shoots
of many plants such as cotton, gogu, redgram, groundnut, cowpea,
lab-lab, Cucurbitaceas, wild Ipomoeas. prickly-pear, garden spp.
of Hibiscus, rose plants, sometimes found on cereal ear-heads also
such as cumbu, tenai and cholam. Especially on yellow flowers.

Control. — Collecting by hand with small nets.

OiKscrvdtion. The correct name of this e.Ntremely common beetle
seems to be a matter of doubt. It has for a long time been known
as Myltibris pustuldtd but specimens very similar in appearance have
been returned by Dr. Creighton Wellman under the name of Zomi-
bris oricntalis, Mars. Probably there are several closely allied
forms confused under the name fustulata. Linne's ciclwrii is
perhaps a composite species and probably inculded the beetle here
referred to-

ZONABRIS Sp.

I'lC. 150.— L'lliiii.ilf .-.t.iKt- of
sfcoiicl (carabicliiidl larva.

^r^

riG. isj. Aiiiiii M.,ii..

/Ciiiiiil>ris s|>. 'I'hf smaller fiKmi'S slmw llu- natural ^.i/cs. K hiKiiial.l

COLEOPTERA.

30s

Distribution. — Bellary (Hadagalli).

Li/i-hislory. — Eggs are ileposited in the soil and the young
larvje, on emerging from the egg, seek out the egg-masses of the
Deccan grasshopper and devour these.

Foodf>l<iiits. — The perfect beetle has been found on flowers of
Phiiscoliis (ICON iti/oli IIS (Madiki).

Stiitiis. — This insect is an imiiortant clieck on the Deccan grass-
hopper in the Hadagalli district.

" C.'\NTH.ARIS " RUFICOLLIS, Oliv.
(dull-grey-blue species with orange-yellow thorax.)

Cantharis riificollis, Olivier, Ins., 46, t. i. f. 6.
Lytta riificollis. Fab., Ent. Syst., I, ii, 85 (1792).

Fig. 153. — r^'tta nijicollis. The outline tiiinre shows the
natiir.il size. (Original. 1

Distribution. — Bellary, Kurnul, Coinibatore, Tanjore. Tinnevelly ;
October to December.

Lifcliistory. — Not known.

Status. — Beetle does damage to ear-heads of Cund)u and Jola,
similarly to other Cantharids.

Control. — May be collected by hand. Is attractetl to light at
night.

Remarks. — This species seems to agree sufficiently well with
Fabricius' brief description.

306

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.
EPICAUTA Sp.

./O

Fig. 154. — Epicaiita sp. The smaller figure shows the
natural siiie. (Original.)

Distribution. — South Kanara ; in October.
Life hi story. — Not known.

Status. — Local pest of paddy, eating flowers and also attacking
ripe ear-heads.

Control. — Collection by hand is indicated.

BRUCHID.E.
PACHYMERUS (BRUCHUS) CHINENSIS, Linn.
Curculio chiiicnsis, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. X), p. 386 (1758).
Bruchus cbiuciisis, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, pp. 255-256, ff. 311, Ind.
Ins. Life, p. 350, f. 223.

Pacbymcrus r/iiiiaisis. Chittenden. U.S.A. Dcpt. Agri. Ent. Hull.
96, pt. 6 (1912).

C#}

Fig. 155. — Vacliymcrus chiuciDsia. Magnified; the small figure shows
the natural size of the beetle. (Larva after Chittenden.)

COLEOPTERA. 307

Distribution. — Probably throughout Southern India all the year
rounil.

Liffhislory.— The clear translucent egg is about -53 mm. long by
•3 mm. broad. The eggs are laid in the field on the outside of a pod
of gram and twenty or more eggs may be laid on one pod, green
pods being preferred to dry ones. The eggs hatch after seven or
eight days and the young newly-hatched grub is slender, darkish-
coloured, and hairy, with long slender thoracic legs and a well-
developed prothoracic plate which is armed with peculiarly sharp-
toothed edges, which help the gmb to bore through the shell of the
pod, which the grub at once proceeds to do, and then eats its way into
a seed. Soon after entering the seed, the first moult is undergone
and the larva now becomes a thickset grub with three pairs of short
legs ; in its resting-position inside the seed it assumes a doubled-up
attitude. It grows quickly and is full-fed after about ten days when
it is plump and pale-white in colour. It then tunnels almost to the
outside of the seed, leaving untouched only a thin partition of the
outer husk, and prepares an oval chamber whose interior is
smoothed ofi" with a soft paste ; in this chamber it remains motion-
less for two days and then assumes the pupal state in which it
remains for seven days. But the beetle does not emerge for another
couple of days until its integuments are hardened; it then bites
through the circular disc previously left in the seed by the gndj anil
then makes its way through the seed-pod. The beetles are inactive
iluring the day-time but fly actively at dusk and at night. One
complete life-cycle occupies about 32 days. [Y.R.R.]

Foodplatit. — Red-Gram.

Status. — A fairly serious pest to Red-Gram in the field.

Control. — Attempts may be made to catch the beetles with hand-
nets in the evening when they are abundant.

/?c/w<?r*5.— Various species of Brucliidw have hitherto been
confused in India under the na.xne chincnsis ; it is believed that the
species here referred to is the true cliineiisis of Linnaeus. So far as
observed hitherto in Southern India, this particular species lives
only on Red-Gram in tiic field ; Bruchids living on stored seeds belong
to other species.

BRUCHUS THEOBROM^, Fb.

Bruchus thcobroma-, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 65, Spec. Ins., I, 75 (1781 V
Brnclnis thcobrowatis. Gmelin, Syst. Nat. (Ed. XIII), p. 1735.
Distribution. — Coimbatorc ; Bezwada.

20-.\

308

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Fig. 156.-

-Briichiis thcobronicc. The sin.nll fiirnre shows the
natural size. (Original. I

Lifeliistory. — Not known. Probably in stored seeds.

Remarks. — Specimens from Coimbatore agree with an example
received from Pusa under the name of thcobromcr, Fb.

Note. — There are apparently various other species of Briu liids,
some of which infest stored seeds and others which live in seeds
in the field, but it is not yet possible to give e.xact names of the
various species.

CARYOBORUS GONAGRA, Fab.
Brnchus Konagra, Fab., Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 159 (1798).
Caryohorus /^oiiagni, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 255, t. 309, Intl.
Ins. Life, p. 351. f. 224 ; Ind. Mus. Notes, III, I4-15.

Fig. 157. — Caryobonix goiiagra. The small fiKure shows the
natural size. (OriKJnal.l

Distribution.— Go(l3i\diT\, Kurnul, Bcllary, Coimbatore, Chingkput ;
all the year round ; generally in February and March on Tamarind.

COLEOPTERA.

309

Lifeliistory.- -Egg^ are probably laid on the young seed-pods of
Ciissiii and Tamarinil. The newly-hatched grub tunnels through
the pod-capsule and into a seed. When full-fed the grub spins a
cocoon of matted white threads within which it pupates, the beetle
cutting its way out through cocoon and outer skin of the fruit-
capsule. Length of life-cycle not known.

Fooilplitiits. Tamarind ll'iiiihiriiidiis iiidico). Cassia spp., Aciicia
spp.

Status. — A luinor pest ot stored Tamarinds when tiiese are stored
with the seeds.

Control. — Removal of Tamarind-seeds before storing will avert
attack.

CHRYSO.MELID.^.

SCELODONTA STRIGICOLLIS, Mots.

Odoiitioiwpa strigkoUis, Mots., Bull. Mosc, XXXIX, 409 (1866).

Scclodonta strigkoUis, Lefroy, A.J.I,
f. 232.

II. 292, I.I.L.. pp. 358-359.

#

r J

Fig. 158. — Scclodonta strigicollis. The small figure shows the
natur.al size. (.After Lefro\0

Z)/5/n7)«//o«.— Anantapur, Bangalore, Coimbatore.
LifcUistory. — Not known in South India.
Foodplant. — Noted only on grape-vine hitherto.
Status. — A serious pest of grape-vines.
Control. — Collection by hand and spraying.

310

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

MONOLEPTA SIGNATA, Ol.

si.i^nntti. Olivier, Ent., VI, 665, t. 5, t. 89.
>^^ Distribution. — Gan-

jam, Coimbatorc, Goda-
vari, Beilarj' ; tlirough-
out the year.

Lifcliislory. — Not
known.

Foodplants. — Colo-
casia, chillies, radish,
beet, cauliflower, cab-
bage.

Status. — Often seri-
ous on vegetable crops
such as radish, etc.
Control. — Catching in small hand-nets and spraying with Naph-
thaline Emulsion when bad.

Fig. 159. — Monotcpttt siiinata. The siii;ill
fiRurc shows the natural size. (OiJKiiial.l

.NISOTRA .MADURENSIS, Jac.
Nisolru nuidurcnsis. Jacoby, Ann. S.E. Belg.. XL, 267 (1896).

I'IG. 160. — Sisuliii iiKKliircnsis. The >iiiall figure .show.s the
natural biiie. (Original. I

COLEOI'TERA.

311

/;/.W//Vi«//('//. -Malabar (Taliparaniba), ? Trichinopoly ; in July
and August.

Li/i'liistory.— Not known.

Footiplantx.—Gogu, jute.

Sliiliis.— The beetle eats the leaves but is not a serious pest.

Ow/ro/.— Collection by hand.

Al'LACOPHORA ABDO.MINALIS, Fb.

. . . ,//)r/fl;w/«(i//.s-, Fab., Sp. Ins., I., 151 (1781).
. . . fovchvllis, Kust, Kafer Europ., XXVIII, lOO.
Aiil(Uof>liorti fovi-iaillis. Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 362, f. 236.

Fig. 161. — Aiihtcopliora tihdoiiiiimlis. 1, .\ttacked root; 2, Young larva

(magnifiedl ; 3, Full-grown lar\a (magnifiedl ; 4, Pupa (magnified) ; 5, Beetle

(magnified) and 6. Natural size. (Figs. 1 — I- after Shiraki.l

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India up to at least 4,000
feet.

Lifehistory. — Larva in ground at roots of cucurbitaceous plants,
feeding on roots.

Foodplants. — All Cucurbitaceas.

S/rt/«5.— Sometimes a pest of some importance ; usually occurs
in fair numbers and does a good deal of damage on the whole.

Control. — Hand-collection and spraying where bad.

312 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC.

.•MILACOPHORA ATRIPE.NNIS. I-"b.
. . . (itripciiiiis, Fabr., Syst. El., I, 482.
Aiildtof/wni c.udvdiii, Baly, J. Linn. Soc, XX, 18 (1888:

1-lG. 16J. — Aiildcopliora atripeniiis. The small figure shows the
natural size. (Original.)

Distribution. — All over South India.

Lifcliistory. — Not known.

Foodplants. — On all cucurbitaceous plants.

Status. — Not usually a bad pest.

Control. — Hand-collection and spraying where bad.

AULACOPHORA STEVENS!, Baly.

Aiildcopliora steveiisi, Baly, E.M.M., XXIII, 102, t. ll, f. I ; Jacoby,
P.Z.S. (1887), 103, t. II, f. I.

IIG. 16J. — .Aiiliicuphoni stcvcimi. The small fitjure shows the
natural size. (Original. I

COLEOPTERA.

iH

Dtslrilmtioii. — Cliinglcput, Godavari, Kistna, Coimbatoro ; August
to December.

Foodpliiiits. -Snake-Rounl, Bitter-Rounl, Bottle-gourd.

S/<i^//.s-. — Not so widely illstributed and injurious as the two other
species of Aiiltjcoplwrti. It is specially destructive to flowers of
gourd (snake gouril chiefly).

Control. — Hand-collection and spraying.

OIDES AFFIXIS, Jac.
Oiihs (iffiiiis. Jacoby. P.Z.S. (1883), 400, t. 45, f. 4.

Fig. 164. — Oidca affiiiis. The small tigure shows the natural size.
(Original.)

Distribution. — Malabar (Shoranore) ; July and August. Nilgiris
(Jacoby).

Lifchistory. — Not known.

Food pi an /.—Paddy.

Status. — Sporadic and local ; doubtfully a pest.

LEPTISPA PYGM/EA, Baly.

Li'ptispa pygmcea, Baly, Cat. Hisp., p. 2 (1858) ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins.
Life, p. 364, fig. 240 ; Weise, Wytsm. Gen. Ins. Fasc. 125, p. 66
(1911).

314

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Fig. 165. — Lcptispa pyniiuca. The small figure shows the
natural size. (Original.)

Distribution. — South Kanara, Malaliar, Mysore, Cochin ; July to
October.

Lifchi story. — The eggs are laid on Paddy leaves and the grubs
also feed on the upper surface of the leaves, the attackeil leaves
usually folding over so as to hide the enclosed grub. The grub,
when full-fed, pupates on the leaf, the beetles emerging after about
4 days.

Status. — Three to five larvae may be present on a single leaf,
eating out longitudinal patches. The beetles also eat the leaves,
but to a less extent. The insect may be a serious pest. It is
said to be worst in wet weather.

Control. — Bagging by hand-nets may be tried.

HISPELLA RAMOSA, Gyll.

Hispa rumosa, Gyllenhal in Schonherr, Syn. Ins., Vol. I, pt. 3,
App. p. 6{l8l7).

Hispclla ramosa, Wcise, Wytsm. Gen. Ins. Fasc. 125, p. 93
(IQH).

Distribution. — Coimbatore (January to June).

Lifchistory. — Not known.

Foodplnnts. — Grasses.

Status. — Not found in suffiiienl numbers to constitute a pest.

PLATE IX.

PHIDODONTA MODESTA.

F^XPLANATION OF PLATE IX.

I'HIDODONTA MODESTA.

tiG. I. Effgs i ' '
^^ IC, jusi

'A, B, one day old.

just before hatching.

2. Newly hatched larva x 3.

3. Larva in mine in cane-leaf.

4. Full-grown larva x 3.

5. Pupje s 3.

r A. Immediately after emergence from pupa x 3.

I B. Fifteen minutes after emergence from pupa x 3.
) C. Thirty ,, „ x 3.

[ D. Sixty „ „ X 3.

7. Beetle showing disposition of spines.

PLATE X.

t ,

HISPA ARMIGERA (/ENESCENS).

RXPLAXATION OF PLATE X.

HISPA ARMIGERA (/ENESCENS).

1. Eggs inside leaf.

2. Young larva, magnified.

3. Larva burrowing inside leat ; ihe larval burrow has been cut open.

4. Full-grown larva, magnified.

5. 6. Pupa.

7. Adult beetle.

8. Beetle showing arrangement of spines.

(The lines alongside ilie figures show ihe natural sizes.)

COLEOPTERA.

315

Fig. 166. — Hispclln ininusn. The figure to the right shows a side-view
of the head ; tlie small figure indicates the natural size. (Original.)

PHIDODOKTA MODESTA, Weisc. (PLATE IX.)

Phidodonta ;;W<'5/rt, Weisc, D.E.Z. (1906), 404 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins.
Life, p. 365, Plate XXIII ; Weise, Wytsm. Gen. Ins. Fasc. 125,

p. 94 (IQII)-

Distribution. — Bellary, Godavari, Ganjam ; April to November.

Lifeliistory. — Eggs in leaves of Sugarcane, larva burrowing
mines longitudinally in cane-leaves, pupa in leaf, beetle also eat-
ing cane-leaves.

Foodplant. — Sugarcane.

S^rt/H5.^Usually a minor pest of Sugarcane.

Control. — Collection of larvte in their mines and of beetles by
hand.

HISPA ARMIGERA, Ol. (PLATE X.)

I/ispd (irnii,!n-r(i, Olivier, Entom. VI, 763, t. T. f. 8 (1808) ; Weise,
D.E.Z. (1904), 457, Wytsni, Gen. Ins. Fasc. 125, p. 103 (IQH).

316

SOME SOL'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Hispii cytuiifciitiis. Mots., Reise Amur, 11, 238 (1S61).

his[>a (cmscais, Baly, J. As. Soc. Beng., LV, 412 (1887); Cotes,
I.M.N., 37 (1889); Lefroy. Incl. Ins. Pests, pp. II4 I16, Iml. Ins.
Life. p. 364. f- 239-

Distribution. — In all rice-growing tracts of Southern India.

Li/i'lii story. — The eggs are laid on leaves of Paddy in which the
grubs tunnel, producing discoloured patches. Pupates in leaf.

Status. — Occurs sporadically as a serious pest of Paddy.

Control. — Bagging by means of nets may be suggested as a
remedy.

PLATYPRIA HYSTRIX, Fb.

Hispit liystrix. Fab., Ent. Syst. Suppl.. p. 1 16 (1798); Weise,
Wytsm. Gen. Ins. Fasc. 125, p. 107 (1911).

Fig. 167. — Platypria hystn.x. The small figure shows the natural size.
(Original. (

/)/.s7r;7»////w/.— Coimbatore ; Tanjore (March to June).
Lifchistory. — Not known.

Foodplants. — Agathi, Lab-lab. (Also on Erythrinu in Ceylon.)
Status. — A minor pest, the larva mining portions of the leaves.
Control.— On]y collection by hand can be suggested pending
fuller knowledge.

ASPIDOMORPHA MILIARIS, Ol.
Ciissida miliaris, Olivier, Ins., p. 97, t. 2, f 25 ; Fabn, Syst. Ent.,
p. 91, Ent. Syst.. I, 300.

Aspidomorplui miliaris, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 366, f. 243.

COLEOPTKRA.

317

Fig. 168. — Aspitfonior/ylin millaris. The outline figure shows the natural
size. lOriKinal.)

/Xs7r/7»«//V);/.— Coimbatore, Bellary, Raninacl. Probably through-
out Southern India all the year round.

Lifchistory. — Eggs laid in masses on ConvoivulacoaN on which
larvae feed and pupate.

Food plants. — Convolvulaceos.

Status. — Harmless as a rule but may occur on sweet potato as a
minor pest.

COPTOCYCLA Sp.

Distribution. — Goda-
vari, Coimbatore, She-
varoys, South Arcot,
Tinnevelly ; throughout
the year.

Lifchistory. — Not
known.

hood plant. - Sweet
potato.

Status. — Scarcely a
pest.

.\.^.;-
/A;^..

'5.a!:<#"

FlG.3169.— Co/)^ocvc/r7'sp.J tThcSoutline figurt
shows the natural size. (Original.)

3l8 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

METRIONA Sp.

Distribution. — South
Arcot, T i n n e V e 1 1 y ;
throughout the year.

Lifchistory. — Not
known.

Foodphint. — Sweet
Potato.

Status. — Scarcely a
pest.

Fig. 170. — Metriona sp. The outline figure
shows the natural size. (Original.!

CERAMBYCID^.
DORYSTHENES ROSTRATUS, Fb.

Priouus rostrtilus,
Fab, Ent. Syst., I. 2.
p. 243 (1792).

Doryst/ieiics rostratus,
Gahan, Faun. Incl.
Ceramb., pp. 67, f. I.

Distribution. — Coi m-
batore. In October and
November.

Lifchistory. — Not
known.

Foodpliint. — Larva
probably bores in trees.

Status. — Not known
to be a pest.

Ri'inurks. — Often
comes in to light in
very large numbers at
the beginning of the
North-East Monsoon.

Fig. 171. — Dorysthenes rostratus, from a living specimen with jaws opened.

The lower figure shows the incurved position assumed by the jaws after death ;

note also the curious projection below the thorax. (Original.)

COLEOPTERA.

319

PRIOTYRANNUS MORDAX, Wllitc.

PrioHHs mordax. White, Cat. Col. B.M. Longic, I, 18 (1853).
Priotyninniis nwnltix, Gahan, Faun. Ind. Ceranib., p. 22, f. 8;
Lcfroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 371, 1". 248.

Fig. 172. — Priotynniniis mordax. The upper figure shows the lie.id
;iiul jaws .IS seeu from in front. (Original. 1

D/.s7/7V'////V;;/. — Nilgiris, Ananialais, Kanara, Travancore. In
August and September.
Lifchistory. — Not known.
Status. — Not i<nown specifically as a pest.

ACANTHOPHORUS SERRATICORXIS, Ol.

Prioiius Si'rraticorni.s, Olivier, Ent. IV, p. 14, t. 9, t". ^ (1795)-
AcijHt/ioplioni.'i scrraticoniis, Gabun, Faun. Ind. Ceranib., p\i. 23 24,
1". 9; Lefroy. Ind. Ins. Life, p. 372, f. 250.

320 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

I'lfi. 173. — Acanthnphnnis scrraficoriiis. iFrom an original photo
by MiiruKesan.l

Distribution. — South Arcot. Bangalore, Cochin ; prol)ably through-
out Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Not known.

Foodplants. — Larva said to bore in mango. The beetle was found
at Bangalore on a silk-cotton (Boiiibax malabarictiiii) in which it had
probably passed its earlier stages.

Status. — Not definitely noted as a pest but from its large size the
larva is likely to do considerable damage to the trees it attacks.

Coutrol. — Where larval burrows are found, a mixture of two parts
chloroform to oncTpart creosote should be injected by means of a
syringe.

COLIiOI'TKKA.

321

XYSTROCERA GLOBOSA, Oliv.
Ccninihyx M'M'osd, Oliv., Entom. IV, p. 27, t. I2, f. 81 (1795).
Xystrthcrti ,iilol>osti. Gahan., Faun. Ind. Ceramb., pp. 106 107, f. 42 ,
Lclroy, Iml. Ins. Lite, i). 372.

l"ic;. 174. — Xystioccra filohosa. (Original.)

Distribution. -Coimbatore, Anamalais. September to October.

Lifcliislorv.— \

,," . , , ( Not known in India.

rooil/'ldiils. — '

Sliiliis. — Not definitely known as a pest in India.

RrintirL-s. Recordetl as a serious pest of Siris (Albizzid Ichhck) in

Egypt.

STROMATIUM B.'VRBATUM, Fb.
Cciiiiiliiiin Iwrluitiint, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 189 (l775)-
Stroniatitim hdrhaliiw, Gahan, Faun. Ind. Ceramb., p. II4, f. 45 ;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 373.

Fig. 17.T. — Stromatinin barhatuiu. The smaller figure shows
the natural size. (Original.)

322

SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Distrihiition. — Bellary. In Junt-.

Lifchistory. — Not known in detail.

Foodplants. — Found emerging from lianiboo at Hagari. Stated
by Lefroy to breed in Acacia catechu, Tealv, Dalhcrji^ia sissii, etc.

Status. — Not definitely recorded as a pest but likely to be so
sporadically.

NEOCEK.AMBYX P.^RIS, Wied.

Ccrambyx piiris, Wied, Germ. Mag.. IV, 167 (1821).
Ncoccranibyx pan's, Gahan, Fauna Ind. Ccramb., pp. 124 125 ;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, f. 257.

I'lC. 176. — Xcoceraitihyx p€iris. 1. After Lefroy.

Distribution. Bangalore, Kollegal, Coimbatore. June to October.
Lifchistory. — Not known.

Status. — Larva probably bores in trees and does damage by its
large size. See under Acanthophorus.

COLEOPTKRA.

323

CHLORIDOLl'M ALCMENE, Thorns.
Chloritlohiiu alcmi'itc. Thorns., Syst. Ceramb., p- 568 (1865) ;
Gahan, Faun. Ind. Ceramb., pp.199200; Lefroy. Ind. Ins Life,
p. 374, f. 253.

riG. 177. — Chliiii(lt>li(iii tilciiieiic. iFroin Agricultural Journal of India.!

Dislrihntio/i. -Coorg, Nilgiris.

Fooilplaiits, etc. — Larva boring into Orange-trees in Coorg.

XYLOTRECHUS QUADRIPES, Chevr.
Xylotrechiix quadripcs, Chevr., Mem. Soc. R. Sri. Liege, XVIII, 315
(1863); Gahan, Faun. Ind. Ceramb., pp. 245-246, f. 90; Lefrov, Ind.
Ins. Life, p. 374, f. 254.

/Ver^

Fir,. ]7H. — Xylotrechiis qiiadripes. The small fiK"ie shows the
natural size. (Original.)

324

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

DislrihiitioN. -Throughovn tlic Hill districts of Southern India.
Usually two broods about March ami October.

Ufchistory ami Foo(/f>l<iiil. Eggs laid in stems of Coffee-bushes
about groumi-level. Grul)s bore in stems and branches, being well
known in Coffee districts as "the Borer."

Status. — A serious pest to Coffee.

C0/1//-0/.— Cutting out of attacked ijushes, collection of adult bee-
tles by hand, regulation of shade over coffee, scraping and white-
washing of bushes just before eggs are due to be laid.

BATOCERA RUBUS, Linn.

Cerambyx nihii.s. Linn., Syst. Nat., II, 625 (ed. Xll) (1767).
Batoccra rubra, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 375, f. 245 ; Green,
Ceylon Agri. Dept. Bull. No. 3 (Jan. 1913).

Fig. 179. — fintoccra riihiis. 1 Original.!

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Seems to emerge at
the beginning of rains, in May and October.

Lifehistory. — Egga are laid in or under bark and the grubs
tunnel into the stem or roots of the tree attacked. The larval stage
probably lasts over a long time -^possibly several years. When
full-fed it pupates in its tunnel, the pupal stage lasting about one
month.

Poo Jplaiit.- Occurs commonly in Mango. Also attacks Duki
Fig, Silk Cotton [Bombax malaharicum], Hevea (Para) Rubber.

lOLEOPTERA.

325

Control.— lnjcc{\ou ot inixtiiri- ol' two parts Chloroform to one
part Creosote into larval tunnels where accessible. Collection of
adult beetles by hand. The beetles are often attracted to light at
night.

NOTE. — The specific naiiie nihiis is apparently a proper name.

CajLOSTERNA SPINATOR, Fl).
Laiiiii) spiinitor, Fb., Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 145(1798).
Cu'lostrntd sfiitator, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life. p. 375.

Kir,. 180. — Civlostcnia spiiiator. Tlie small fiijurt' shows the
natural size. (Oriijiiial.)

Distribution. Bangalore, South Arcot, Tinnevclly ; probably
throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory (uui Food[>lanl.<i. Grub bores in Babul (Acaiiii tirii/tirdj,
Casuarina, and Pomegranate. The adult beetles occasionally eat
bark of cotton-plants, twigs of apple, rose, etc.

Status. — A minorpest. Does a good deal of tlamage when
abundant, as it is sometimes.

CCELOSTERNA SCABRATOR, Fb.
Lnniia .scubrntor. Fab., Sp. Ins., I. 224 (1781).

Civlosti'niti .siithratd, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 375, f. 246, 255 ;
V. S. Iyer, Ind. Forest. Bull. No. II, pp. 7-8, t. 4, ff., 2 a, 2 b.

326

SOME SOITH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Distribution. — Nellorc. South Arcot ; probably throughout the
Plains of Southern Iniba.

Lifehistory.— Larva; bore into the wood of the roots of Casuarina
trees.

Fig. ISl. — Ca-lostermi sc<ibr(ilor. larva and beetle. (.Mter Lefroy.)
Foodplants. — Casuarina.

Status. — Has been noted as very destructive to Casuurinit in
Southern India.
Control. — ?

STHE.NIAS GRISATOR, Fb.

Lamia grisator, Fb., Mant. Ins.. I., 136 137 (^7^7)-
Sthcnias urisator, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 376.

Fig. 182. — Sthenias grisator. 'OriKinal.!

Z)/.>/r/7'«//oM.— Coimbatore, Coorg. August to January.

Lijchistory. — Not known.

Habits. — Girdles twigs of Dadap (Erythrina). Tabcrncemontana,
Croton, Rose-bushes, etc.

Status. — A minor pest.

Control. — Only collection of beetles and destruction by tire of
girdled twigs can be suggested at present.

PLATE XI

APOMECYNA PERTIGERA.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XL

APOMECYNA FERTIGERA.

Fig. I. Egg, magnified.
„ 2. Full-grown larva.
.. 3, 4. Pupa.
„ 5. Beetle.

,, 6. Beetle on plant, natural size.

„ 7. Stem cut open to show larvae and pupa, natural size.
(The lines alongside the figures show the natural sizes.")

COI.KOPTERA.

327

apo.mec;yna pertkikra, rlioniN. (Plate' XI.)
. . . . pcrtigcru, Thoius., Phys., I., 6, p. 160.
Apoinccyiiti pcrtiMt'ra, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 376, tab. XXX.
I Ustrihiiiioii. On\y noted from Coimbatore ; proljably occurs
tliroiij(hout Southern India.

IJfcliistory iiiiil Fooiipluiil.s. Larva bores in stems of pumpkin
and probably other eucurbitaceous plants.

Sldliis. A minor pest, which sometimes does considerable
damage in Northern India.

Cow/r«/.— Destruction of affec-ted stems and collection of beetles
when seen on the plants.

ST I BAR A Sp.

Dist rihii tioii. Be 11 a r >• .
A n a m a 1 a i s ; probably
throughout Southern
India at low elevations in
the Hills.

Lifcliistory ami Food-
plants. Not known.
Fig. 1S3. — Stihant ^^. (OriKinal.i

CURCULIONID.E.
EPISOMUS LACERTA, Fb.
Ciiniilio hurrta. Fab., Spec. Ins., I., 198 (1781).
Episomiis hurrta. Lefroy. Ind. Ins. Life, p. 384, t. 27, f. 6.

Fig. 184. — Episowtis lacerta. The small figure shows the natural si^e.
(OriKinal.)

Distribution. Bellary, Coimbatore, South Arcot. June to December-

328

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Lifehistory. — This weevil lias the curious habit of laying its eggs
between folded leaves. The tips or other portions of leaves are
folded over and kept in position by the legs. The long ovipositor
is inserted into the fold, the sides of which are gummed together
by a sticky secretion, anti from four to twelve eggs are deposited
in the chamber thus formed. The egg is oval, pale white and
about li mm. long. The eggs hatch after 12-14 days, the resultant
white grubs being about 2 mm. long, legless, with a comparatively
large head bearing a pair of moderate-sized dark mandibles, with
distinct segments covered with numerous delicate hairs, and having
the abdomen straightened out and not doubled up. The newly
hatched grubs seem to bite their way out of the leafy egg-capsule
and drop to the ground where they burrow down and probably
feed on rootlets of plants. The eggs are laid on any thick fleshy
leaf which will retain sufficient moisture to prevent the eggs from
drying up. The complete lifehistory has not been followed
through, but full-grown grubs, found at roots of pulses, were pale-
white, fairly stout, about 15 mm. (35 inch) long, with a compara-
tively large head and a straightened body. The number of eggs
deposited by a single weevil is very large ; a female beetle captured
ittcop. on I2th August igil had laid I,ll8 eggs by lOth Novemlier
when it was still living and was liberated. [Y.R.R].

Foodplauts. — Usually on pulses ; probably feeds on most low-
growing plants.

Status. — An intermittent pest in local areas where pulses are
grown.

Cw7/ro/. -Collection by hand. Attraction to baits. Spraying
of attacked areas, which arc usually circumscribed.

Niititrtil Eiu-niics.—A minute Chalcid ? parasitizes the eggs.

CEUTHORRYNCHUS ASPERULUS, Est.
Ccutlwrrhynchus asfeniliis. Faust, Deut. Ent. Zeit. (iSqS). 323.

Distribution. —
Godavari, Kistna,
Bellary, Coimba-
torc. October to
_ February.

Lijcntstory . —
The egg is laid
in a very young
fiower-bud, being
thrust through a
Tio. \%f>.—Ceuthorrhyttcl,us aspcrulus. The hole bored through

small figure shows the natural size. ^he side 01 the

COLEOPTERA.

320

calyx into tin' l)ii(l ; tri)iu tliislioK- ot)/i'soiit a droj) of stick y li(|ui(l
which dries into a conspicuous rod spot. The minute oval, creaniy-
whito egg hatches into a tiny grub which eats its way to the pollen-
sacs of the flower and feeds on them. The full-grown grub is about
3 mm. in length, pale-white, head brownish and ilistinct from body
which is stout and somewhat doubled up when in the resting
position. As the grub grows the flower also grows so that though
originally the egg hail been inserted low down through the caly.x,
the mature grub is to be found on the pollen-sacs at the very ape.x
of the opening flower. The grub devours portions of the petals as
well as the pollen. When full-fed it emerges through a round hole
cut clear through the base of the flower and drops to the ground,
where it probably pupates in the soil. Exact life-cycle not yet
worked out [Y.R.R.]. Possibly the grubs pass the period March to
October in the soil (as larvae, pupse, or beetles mature but not yet
emerged from the cocoon), the beetles attacking the next crop in
October. The weevil itself also cats the floral anthers.

Foodpldiil. -Red-Gram.

Status. — A minor pest.

Coutrol. — Collection of the beetles by hand niav be trieil.

EUGNAMPTUS MARGIN ATUS, Pasc.
Kii,irn(impliis mar.s^iiuitiis. Pasc, A.M.N.H. (5). XI, I2V

Fir.. 186. — Eitgnaniptiis tiiarginatiis. The siii.iU tiyurc shows the natural
size. (Original. I

330

SOME SOirXH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Distribution. Godavari, Malabar. August to October.

Li f'l' history. -With its snout the weevil digs deep pouthus into
the tissues of the underside of a mango-leaf, on either side of the
midrib, and lays its eggs singly in these cavities. The translucent
oval egg is about I mm. long, and from 10 to 20 eggs may be laid
in a single leaf. The eggs laid in this manner, the weevil now
proceeds to cul right through the leaf near the stem, so that tlic leaf

Fig. 187. — Eu^natnptus marginatiis ovipositing in a mango-leaf; about half

the natural size. To the right is seen a single egg more highly magnified.

lOriginal.i

lalls from the tree. The young grubs, on emergence from the egg,

mine into the leaf, eating all that portion between the epidermal

layers. The legless full-grown grub is about 4^ to 5 mm. long,

flattened; dirty green in colour, spiracles at the end of short lateral

spine-like projections. When full-grown the grubs emerge from

their mines in the leaf and burrow just below the surface of the

soil, where they form oval chambers in which they pupate, the

weevils emerging after 7 to 8 flays. The weevil also eats small holes

in the leaves. [Y.R.R.].

Foodplant. — Mango.

Status.— A pest which may attain considerable importance when
in large numbers; in badly-infested trees practically all the young

(.DLEOHTERA.

331

>lioot> may ha\c tlu-ir IraM-s c ul oft. m) that tlu- trees have lo piil
forth leaves alresli.

Control. — Collection and (leslriutioii ol treshly-( ul leaves it)ii-
lainiiiK eggs and young grubs.

AI'lON Sp.

/,//(/,■ A pi II II.)

VxC. 188.— A/)/(i»; sp. riif small figure shows the natural size. (( )rii,'iiial.l

Distribution. Godavari, Bellary. In May and June.

Lifchistory ami Foodplniil. ~The minute, thick-set, dirty white larva
bores in the stems and shoots of Jute; the pupa is fornied in an
oval chamber at the extremity of the larval gallery. Pupal ]X'rioii
about four days.

Status. An occasional and minor pest, causing withering of
side-shoots but not (or rarely) the death or fracturi' of the lu.iin-
stem of the plant.

Remarks. — Also found occurring on Wild Jute (Coriiwrus Irihhu-
larisl. Parasitized by a small Braconid.

LIXUS BRACHYRHINUS, Boh.

Fig. 189. — Lixiis hnicliyiliinus. bt-L.tle and side-view of head. The small
figure shows the natural size. (Original.)

^^2

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

. . . brachyrhiiiiis. Bolu'iiiann, Sthonherr Gen. Cat. VII,

i, 1). 464-

Lixus hrachyrhiniis, Lefrov. Ind. Ins. Life, p. 385.

Distribution. — Coimbatore, South Arcot, Chinglcpiit ; i>robabl>
throughout Southern India. Occurs ail the year round.

Lifi'history. Larva bores in stems of cultivated Amaranths.
The eggs are laid (probably inside the stem) under the axil of a
leaf on one of the lateral branches, the newly-hatched grub tunnel-
ling down the branch in an irregular zig-zag mine grailually
increasing in size until it reaches the main stem, where it bores
down a little and then upwards until reaching the junction of
another lateral branch where it forms an elongate chamber in the
upper part of the burrow and pupates in this, the beetle emerging
after about 14 days.

Status. — A minor pest, capable of doing consideraljle damage to
cultivateii Amaranths as a single plant may harbour as many as ten
or a dozen grubs.

Control. — Destruction of attacked jilants and collection of the
weevils by hand.

PAR.'^MECOPS FARINOSA, Wied.

Fig. 190. — Paraiiiccops farinosa. The small fi«iire shows the natural size.
I Original.)

COLEOPTERA.

333

.... /,;;■//;,).«;, Wii-.l.. Germ. Maj;.. IV., 157 (1821).

Ptiniiiurops/iiriiiiisti, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 386.

O/.s/r/V'M/w;. -Throughout Southern India all the year round.

U/t-hislory tiiid Fnoilfhiiil. Eggs are laiil in the rind oi GilotropL;
into which the voung larva; tunnel. The beetle feeds on the leaves
of Calolrot'is making unsightly patches.

5/<;/;/.s-. -Scarcely a pest, but may do damage to the dilolropis
plants where these are colkited and used for manure.

.•\TACTOGASTER FINITIMUS, Fst.

AtMtofiasta- Jinitimus, Faust., D.E.Z. (1904), 25 1 ; Lefroy, ln(
Ins. Life, p. 386, f. 263.

Fig. 191. — Atticto^dstcr fiiiitiiiiiis. beetle and side-view of head. The small
liKiire shows the natural size. (Original. 1

D/A/r/y'H//o«. Bellary, Coimbatore. Madura, Ramnad, Tinnevelly.
Mostly found about October. Appears to exhibit a preference for
areas of black-cotton soil.

L i/i'li istory. — Not known.

/•>(()(//>/(/;//.<. —The beetle eats most low-growing plants.

Statiix. — A serious local pest in Ramnad and Tinnevelly in some
years in October, the beetles appearing in large numbers and
devouring young plants of cotton, etc.

Cow/rfl/.— Collection of beetles by hand and by attraction to baits
of fresh leaves placed around edges of fields. Fowls turned out
into the cotton-fields help to keep these weevils in check.

334 SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

[MAXGO LEAF-BORING WEEVIL.]

Fig. 192. — MaiiKU Luaf-boriiiK Weevil. The small figure .shows the natural
size. (Original.'

Distribution. -Godavari, Kistna, Guntur ; March and July.

Lifchistory. —The weevil bites into the untler-surface of a mango-
leaf and hollows out between the epidermal layers a small oval
pouch into which is inserted a minute oval egg, about 3.3 mm. long,
somewhat flattened and translucent. When the leaf is held up to
the light the places of oviposition are distinctly recognisable as
shining white dots. The newly-hatched grub begins to feed on and
mine in the green matter of the leaf, of which between a (luartcr
and half of one square inch is destroyed by each grub. The full-
grown legless grub is about 3 mm. long, flattened, translucent,
whitish, the green matter contained in its intestinal canal showing
clearly through the transparent body. The grub cleans out a
portion of its tunnel and converts it into a chamber roughly oval
in shape, and changes into a pupa of normal weevil type.
The beetle emerges four days after pupation and escjq^es by cutting
a round hole in the wall of the pupal chamber. Life-cycle is
probably, egg three days, larva five days, pupa four days, total
12 days. [Y.R.R.]

Status. — A minor pest of local importance. As many as 20 — 30
larvae may be found in one leaf and such leaves are so badly
mined that they turn red-brown and dry up completely ; in such
cases a good deal of damage may be done. The beetles also may
cut small holes in the leaves but the damage thus done is
inconsiderable.

Remarks. — In its general appearance and especially in the
dilated hind-femora, this weevil bears considerable resemblance to
a flea-beetle. It is very wary and active and jumps off the leaves
on the least disturbance.

CVLAS KOR.MICARIUS, Fab.
Atlelabusformicarius. Fb., Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 163 (1798).

PLATE XII.

CYLAS FORMICARIUS.

EXPLANATIOX OF PLATK XII.

CYLAS FORMICARIUS.

Fig. I. Egg, magnified ten times.
,. -'. Eggs thrust into potato, twice natural size.

,}. Larva.
,, 4. Infected potato.
,. 5, 6. Pupa.
,, 7. Adult beetle.

„ 8. Antenna of female beetle (above) and of male (belowj.
(Thi lines alongside the figures show the natural sizes.)

COLEOPTERA.

335

Cyhis fonnicarius. Lefroy, Inil. Ins. Pests, p. i62, Ind. Ins. Life,
p. 386, t. 26, Ent. Mem. Dcpt. Agri., Incl., II., 155 159, t. XVIII.
(See Plate Xii.)

Distribution. Throughout Southern India, in the Hills up to at
least 4,000 feet, probably all the year round.

Li/i-liistory.— The small oval whitish egg is deposited in cavities
bitten out by the beetle in the stems or tubers of the foodplant.
The legless grub, which is whitish with a pale-yellow head, bores
into the stem or tuber, the presence of the grubs often being shown
by the development of dark patches around the attacked portions.
Pupation in a small chamber at the end of the larval burrow, pupa
whitish. The beetle emerges after about a week, the complete life-
cycle occupying about one month.

Foodfliiiit.^SweeX potato (Iponitru hiitatusl. Probablv also in
stems of other species of Ifoimvii (c.^.. I. fcs-cafra-) though not
definitely noted in India.

Status. — This may be a very destnutive pest to sweet p(itato
crops.

Control. " Collection of beetles by hand-nets and by attraction to
light-traps. Planting of deep-rooting varieties of sweet potato.
In bad cases of infection, only complete destruction of the whole
crop is of any avail anil sweet potatoes should not be grown in the
vicinity for at least two years.

APODERUS TRANQUEBARICUS, Fb.
Attcldlms trauqucbaricus. Fab., Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 162 (1798).
Apodcrus traiiqucbaricus, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 387, t. 27, f. 8.

Fig. lyj. — Apodcrus traiuincbaricus. The small figure show.s the natural size.
(Original. I

336

SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Distril'iilioii.— Mmhus. Chingk-put, South Arcot ; Jamiary-Fi'b-
riiary ; July-August.

Li/c/iixtory.—Thv oval yellowish egg. which is about 2 mm.
long, is laid at the tip of a leaf which is iloubled-up ; both sides of
the leaf are cut across to the midrib, near the base of the leaf, and
this terminal portion is rolled into a tight roll cigar-wise. It is not
certain whether the weevil does this before ovipositing or not,-
IJrobably before. The egg hatches after four days. The small
legless, yellowish grub has a brownish-yellow heail with darker
mandibles and a few short hairs are scattered over the body. The
pupa, which is bright yellow in colour and about 3 mm. long, is
enclosed in the folded leafin the midst of black powdery excre-
mentitious matter left by the grub. The beetle emerges through a
hole through the side of the leaf-roll. [Y.R.R. and T.V.R.]

FooJpliiiit. -Country almond ITenninalia catuppa) (Tarn. Piiiiitii),
mango.

Status. — Not a pest.

[green-gra.m weevil.!

y J:

Fig. 194. — Green-({rain Weevil, beetle and side-view of head. The small
figure shows the natural size. (Original. i

D/5//-//)H//V>«. -Bellary (Hadagalli) and Kurnul ; November and
December.

Li/eliistory tiiul luunlpUints. —The eggs are laid in a hole bored
in a seed of green-gram ( Phaseohts luiingo) or cow-pea, the female
having previously eaten her way inside the pod. Three eggs are
usually laid in one pod, one at each end and the third in the middle
of the pod. The grub on hatching feeds on the seed, devouring

COLliOI'TKRA. 337

thrco or four seeds before it is fiill-t'eil, when it eiuerj;es from the
poii and drops to the ground in which it pii|)ates.

Stiitiix.- A local pest which may at times do considerable
damage. Said to occur more commonly on areas of black cotton
soil.

Control. — .'

.\LCIDES COLLARIS, Tasc.
. . . colhiris. Pascoe, A.M.N.H. (5). XX, 358.
Alciilcs colliiris. Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 388.

DistriliKtioiir-Coimbntori: ; Bellary.
IJfehistory. — The female weevil
gnaws a hole in the stem of the food-
plant, deposits an egg and carefully
'^^^- lovers it over with fibres of the stem.

I-.G. \'ib.-McHh-s collaris. The grub on hatching bores into the
The small figure shows the Stem but does not seem to tunnel
natural si^e. (Original. 1 t;,^ . ;, swelling or gall is formed near

the point of entry and in tliis the grub lives until mature, when
it is seen to be a legless dirty-white larva usually found inside the
gall in a doubled-up posture. The grub when full-grown prepares
a thin tough brownish cocoon from which the weevil emerges
after about eight ilays, waiting another three days or so before
its integuments are sufficiently hardened for it to emerge into the
open air. The total life-cycle, from egg to beetle, is about 35 days.
Foodplti/its.—GTeen-griim (Phaseoliis niiingo) and other pulses.
Said by Lefroy to occur in sweet-potato fields but not found on
that plant in Southern India.

Status. — A minor pest. When eggs are laid in youne plants
they may be killed. In older plants the locality of the gall causes
a point of weakness which may cause the plant to break off if
strong winds occur. Usually one or two grubs occur in one plant
but sometimes six or eight may be found.

Control. — Collection of the beetles by hand.
Natural Enemies. — A small blackish Braconid.

Vh:. \9b,—Alcidcs hiihi).— The small liKiire shows the natural si/c. (Orisiinal.l

338 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

. . . bubo. Fab., Syst. El.. II, 474.

Alcitlcs bubo, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 388.

Distribution. — Coiinbatore, Bellary (Hadagalli), Madras (Saida-
pot), South Arcot (Palur), Trichinopoly, Madura, Tinnevelly.

Lifcbistory. — The pale yellowish egg is laid in small holes in
the stem of the foodplant excavated by the mother-weevil. After
about five days it hatches into a pale whitish legless grub whiih
burrows into the stem and grows until it reaches a length of 6-7
mm. (i inch). The larval tunnel is bored, not up and down the
stem, but immediately around the point of entry, so that a distinct
swelling or gall is often formed around the seat of injury. The
insect pupates within the larval l:iurrow, the lic-ctle emerging a
week after pupation.

Foodplauts. — Agathi and Daincha (Scsbiuiia), Indigo (liidi,i!;ofrrii
arrccta) and Cluster-bean (Cyamopsis psonilioidcs).

Status. — A major pest of considerahlf importance in betel-
growing districts.

Control. — .'

.'\LCIDES LEOPARDUS, Ol.
. . . Icopunlus, Olivier, Ent., V, 83. 11. 190, t. 22, f. 2Q6.
Alciih-s li'opdn/iis, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, 11. 388, f. 261, c

Fig. 197. — Alcidcs leopard ns. The small tiKinc shows the ii:itural .size.
(OriKinal.)

Distribution. — Coimbatore, Saidapet, South Arcot (Palur). Prob-
ably throughout the year.

Lifehistory. — The beetle gnaws separate chambers in the leaf-
stalk and deposits a single pale-yellow egg which seems always
to be placed in only the second of the chambers excavated. The
whitish grub, on emergence from the egg, bores down into the
stalk and stem until full-grown, when it is nearly an inch long,
stout, pale-white, with a dark head and prothoracic shield ; pupation
in a chamber at the lower end of larval gallery. Pupa stout,
pale-whitish, of general form of the beetle but with wings, legs
and snout adpressed ventrally. Length of lifehistory not known.

Foodplant. — Cotton and Hibi.'^cus.

COLEOPTERA.

339

Stiitiis.—A very- minor pest, the plants being little injured e%-en
when the larval tunnel extends a long way down the stem.

Control —?

Rfmarks.— At Palur the grubs of this beetle had apparently
been extraeted by a bird which had ripped open the affected
twigs.

PEMPHERES AFFINIS, Fst.

Feinpheres affinis, Faust, D.E.Z. (1898), 319-

Phylaitis sp., Lefroy, Indian Insect Pests, pp. 103-104, ff. 120, 121,
Ind. Ins. Life, p. 389. t. 27, ff. 1 1 -16.

-^^irJ\ ^^

^:sp>

2. Pupa.

^

3. Beetle, magnified. 4. Beetle, natural .size.

Fig. 198. — Petiiphcrcs afiiiiix. (Original.)

Distrihiitioii. — Only found hitherto in the Coimbatore District
all through season when cotton is in the ground.

Lifchisiory. — Eggs are presumably laid in the tissue of the stem
at ground-level, where later are found the characteristic gall-like
swellings caused by the tunnellings of the whitish grub which
forms a spiral burrow within the stem, pupating therein when full-
fed. Exact length of life-cycle not yet known ; it is probably
quite short -three or four weeks. The adult beetles are very
active.

Foodplaiits.— Cotton (especially exotic varieties, such as Cambo-
dia and Tree-Cottons) and Gogu (Hibiscus cannahiiiiis).

Control.— 'No satisfactory method has yet been found.

Natural Enemies. — None found hitherto.
22-A

340

SOME SOITH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Fig. 199. — Cotton plant attacked by SteinWcivil tPciiiplicics utfiiiisi. The
sections at various levels show the extent of the larval tiHii;els. (Original. I

PLATE XIII.

1

<}

^

\

i

>

,v

^m^

7 ^

CALANDRA ORYZ/E.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI II

CAI.ANDRA ORYZ.K.

1. Kggs laid (111 and in a wheat-grain \ 8.

2. Larva leeding inside a wheat-grain x 8.
V Larva removed fron) grain x i6.

4. Pupa in natural position inside grain x 8.

5. Pupa removed trom grain, ventral view x 16.

6. Beetle, dorsal view \ r6.
;. ,, lateral view x 16.

S. ,. gnawing into a wlieat-graiti x H.
9. ,. inside a wheat-grain x 8.

(The liin.'> alongside (he figures show (he natural sizus.)

COLEOl'TEKA.

341

IKVPIORHYNCHUS MAN'GIFER.E, Kb.

Ciinulio inaiiKifrric. Fab., Syst Ent.. 139, 66 (1775). Spoc. Ins.,
I. 177 (1781).

Cryplorliymlius manjiifi-nv. Lffroy. Intl. Ins. Life, i). 389;
Marlatt, U.S.A. Ent. Cirr. No. I41. Figs. (191 1).

I'll-.. 2I)<).—C lyptorli yiicli II s iiuui^ititie beetle and side-view of head.
The small figure shows the natural size. (Original. 1

/J)/,s7r;/)////();..— Bangalore, Coimbatore, Madras- Probably wher-
ever mangoes are grown in Southern India. Usually in June and
July.

Lifchistory. -Noi fully worked out. Eggs are probably laid in
the young fruit into which the newly-hatcheil grub bores, taking
up its position inside the embryo mango-stone whose interior it
devours. When full-fed. the grub pupates inside the stone and the
weevil bores its way out. Length of life-cycle not known ; probably
only one brood annually, the beetles surviving as adults until the
ne.xt mango-season. A specimen of the adult beetle was found on
a coco-palm in Chittur in February 1 908.

Fooill'Iniit. Mango (chiefly on sweet varieties). \'o alternative
foodplant is known.

5/rt///.v.— Not a serious pest as a rule. A small proportion of fruit
is spoiled by the weevils boring out of the fruit on exit from pupa.

Control. }

C.\L..VNDR.A ORYZ/E. Linn. (PL.\TE XIII.)
Ciiniilio oryzer, Linn.. Amoen. Acad., VI, 395.
Calnntha oryzfc, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 390 ; Fletcher, A.J.!.,
October 191 1, Plate.

342

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Distribution. — Throughout SouthiTn India, all the year round.

Lifiiiistory. — Eggs laid in grain in which the grub passes its
whole existence pupating inside and only emerging as a perfect
beetle. About six broods in the year.

Foodplaiit- — Stored grain of nearly all dcscriiitions. Parti-
cularly wheat, paddy, etc. Occasionally found in the ticld on ripe
ear-heads.

Status.— A major pest causing great liamage and loss.

Control. Fumigation of affected grain. Thorough drying of
grain before storage and thereafter storing in insect-proof recep-
tacles. Parasitized to some extent by a small metallic-green
Cluildd.

COSMOPOLITES SORDIDUS, Genua r.
sorclidus, Germ.

Kic.

201. — Cosmopolites sordidus, beetle ;md side-view of head. The small
figure shows the natural size. (Original. I

PLATE XIV.

D

V5

.<x

\ V

r-^

{IS

RHYNCHOPHORUS FERRUGINEUS.

EXPLANATION OF PL.ATK XIV
RHYNCHOPHORUS FERRLMNEUS.

Fig. I. Egg, magnified.

2. „ as laid in a cavity of |;lni-stem.

3. Young larva, magnified.

4. Adult

5. Cocoon inside palm-stem.

6. Pupa removed from cocoon.

7. Beetle, magnified.
S. Lateral view of head of male beetle.
9. „ „ female „

(The lines alongside the figures sliow t:e natural sires )

COLEOPTKRA. 343

Distribution. -Malabar, Coiiiibatori-, Godavari, Ganjam. Prob-
ably throughout the year.

Li/i'/iistory.— The eggs have not been noted but are i)robably
laid in the substance of the root-stock of plantain-plants into which
the beetles themselves burrow. The legless, dirty-whitish grub is
more than half an inch in length, with a reddish-brown head.
Usually a number of grubs occur in one root-stock which is tunnel-
led throughout. The attack is, as a rule, confined to the root-stock
but sometimes extends a little distance up the stem. The gnib,
when full-grown, converts a part of the tunnel into an oval chamber
lined with excreta and pupates therein, the beetle emerging from
the pupa after about a week but taking three or four days longer
for its integument to harden.

hoodplaiit. — Plantain (Mu.su sapieiitiuni).

Status. —Usually a pest of minor importance, occasionally and
locally doing considerable damage. In cases of slight attack
there is little indication of damage, but where the attack is severe,
the central shoot may wither or no fruit be produced.

Control.— C-Axe should be taken that all old stumps should be
removed and destroyed when the new suckers are planted and
these latter should be examined and not used if founti to be
infected.

RHYNCHOPHORUS FERRUGINEUS, Fb.
. . fcrrugincus, Fab., Enc. Mcth., V, 473.

Rliyiii/ioflioru.s fcrrugincus, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 390, ff. 268-
269; Ghosh, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., Vol. II, No. 10, Plate.
(SEE PLATE XIV.)

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India, probably throughout
the year.

Lifehistory. — Eggs are laid in the soft parts of palms, particularly
where cut by toddy-drawers or injured by Oryctcs. The stout
whitish grubs mine through the tissues in all directions and, when
full-fed, pupate in a cocoon made of twisted fibres. The complete
life-cycle takes about two months, the adult weevils living two or
three months more after emergence from the cocoon.

Foodplaiits. — Palmyra, date and coconut palms.

Status. — A major pest of great importance in all palm-growing
districts.

Control.— AW cuts and wounds of palm-tissue shoulil be pro-
tected as far as possible by smearing with Tar. The control of
the Rhinoceros beetle will directly lead to diminution in numbers
of the Palm Weevil also. Badly affected trees should be cut down,
split up, and burnt.

344 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

BRENTHID/E.

ORYCHODES INDUS, Karsch.

Orycliinh's iiidiis. Karsili, Mitth. Zool. Mils. Drescl.. 1, 51 (1H75).

Tig. 202. — Orycliodes iiidiis. The small fit;iirc shows tho natural si/o.
(( )i'it;iii.'il.'

Dislrihiilioii. — Nilgiris. Probably tbroughout Hills of Southern
India.

Ufcliislory. — Not known. The beetles are generally found in
or on dead trees and the larva; probably feed on rotten w/)0(l.

IPIU/E (SCOLYTID/E).
CARDAMOM SCOLYTID.

i^)

Fig. 203. — CHrdainom Scnjytid. The small fitjiirc shows the natural size.
(Original. I

Distribution. — Coorg.
Lijrliistory.—Kot known.
Foodpliuit. — Ca rd a mom .

COLEOPTERA.

345

Sttiltis. — A pfst of very considerable local importanc e, from 10 to
iO per ifiif. of the capsules liein^ bored and destroyed by the
beetle.

Control. — No definite measures, beyond collection anil destnic-
tion of attacked capsules, can be recommended pending local
investifjation of the work.

.XYLIvBORUS FORNlC.\TUS, Eich.

IShot-lwlc Borer.)

Xyleborus /oniicitiis, Eichhoft", Herl. Ent. Zeits. (1868), 151 ;
Barlow, I.M.N., IV, 57-58, t. 5, f. 2; Green, Perad. Circ. 11, No. 9,
tab.; Watt and Mann. Pests of Tea, pp. 174 177, t. 4, f. 2.

^.'

<^ - &

Fig. 204. — .\ylcbonis fomicatiis. i.-Xftor Indian Muscuin Notes.)

Distribution. — Travancore (Pirmad and High Range).

Lifehistory. — The beetle bores in stems of living plants and lays
its eggs in the galleries. The larva is about 4 mm. long, legless,
fleshy, white. Pupa soft, creamy-white, in the galleries, without
cocoon. Only the female beetle is proviiled with wings and able
to liy.

Foodplants. — Tea. A.nni\\\o ( Bi.xa orellaiia) ; also occasionally in
Grevillea, Albizzia stipulata and A. ntoliiecana. Cacao (Tlieohronui
eacao), Guava fPsidiinn giiyava). Cinchona, Erytlirina. Castor,
antl doubtfully in Luntuna. (Green.)

Stains.- The Shot-hole Borer, so called because its galleries
resemble the effects caused by firing a charge of small shot into
wood, is said not to be common in Travancore and presumably does
little damage.

346

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Control. — (l) Destruction hy fire on the spot of all infected
primings.

(2) In cases of recent outbreak in a district, rigid cutting and
burning of infested bushes.

(3) Good cultivation, by keeping the tea-bushes in a vigorous
condition, will help largely to withstand attack.

Kciuiirks. — l am indebted to Mr. Anstead for information regard-
ing the occurrence of this insect in Soutiiern India.

1)I1'Ti:ra.

HIPPOBOSCID/E.

HIPPOBOSCA MACULATA, Lch.

Hipfolmscii muculatd. Leach, Mem.' Wern. N.H. Soc, 11,553, t- 26,
ff. II— 13 (1818); Austen, A.M.N.H. (7), XII, 258 (1903); Howlctt,
Ind. Ins. Life, p. 656, t. 69, f. 7.

Hippobosca sivcc, Bigot, Ann. S.E. France (1885), 235.

Fig. 205."

-Hippobosa maciilata. The small figure shows the natural si^e.
(Original.)

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifehistory and Food. — The eggs hatch inside the mother-fly and
the larvas are retained until they are full-grown, when they are
extruded and at once pupate, the puparia being small rountl objects,
at first whitish but later on turning dark brown.

Status. — A pest of cattle, feeding solely on blood.

niPTKKA.

34;

Control. --Thc<.f insects can only l)c iheckecl in the adult stage
and deterrents are therefore indicated.

HIPPOBOSCA CAPENSIS, Olf.

mppohoscti (dfriisis, Olfers, De Veget. et Anini. Corp., pars I,
p. lOl (1816).

Hifpolwsia framiUoiii, Leach, Mem. Wern.N.H. Soc, II, 554, t. 26,
ff. 8—10 (1818) ; Austen, A.M.N. H. (7), XII, 256 (iq03).

1"IG. >0(-i.^H ippoboxcii citpcnsis. The small figure shows the natural size.
(Original.)

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Quite similar to that of Hippobo.'ica maculala.

Host.' Dog.

S^<j///5. -Common on dogs and doubtless transmits disease.

Control. — Deterrents such as Crude Oil Emulsion.

Remarks. — Th'i\i species was first described by Leach, whose
paper was read before the Wernerian Natural History on lOth April
1810 but, owing to delay in the publication of Leach's paper,
Olfers' name for this insect has priority of publication.

CESTRID^.

CESTRUS OVIS, Linn.

CEstrns ovis, Linn., Faun. Suec. (1734); Osborn, U.S.A. Ent.
Bull. No. 5, pp. 102--105, f. 48; Howlett, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 654, ff.
428-429, t. 69, f. 6.

Distribution. — Coimbatore, Madras. Probably throughout
Southern India.

Lifchistory and FooiL— Eggs or living maggots (the latter almost
always) are deposited by the female fiy in the nostrils of the sheep
and goat. The larvze at once begin to work their way upwards,
causing great irritation, until they effect a lodgment in the frontal
sinus where they attach themselves by the hooks present on either

34>!

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Fig. 207. — O^strKs oris. I'omale fly (maKcifit-cll. L;ii\a (natural size), and
\~\y (natnral size — outline fiHurol. (Original.*

side of the head and feed on the mucus. At this stage the larva
is creamy-white with two brown spots (spiracles) on the last
segment. When full-fed it makes its way down the nasal passages
of its host and drops to the ground where it quickly buries itself
anil changes inside a smooth, hard, blackish, oval puiiariimi.
Pupal period about a fortnight.

Status. "A serious pest of sheep. Goats seem little affected.

Control. — Preventive measures seem little practised in India where
infestation by this fly is apparently accepted as normal. Fre(|ucnt
dressing of the sheeps' noses with tar, or a mixture of Tar and
Crude Oil Emulsion, may be tried to keep the flies from ovipositing.
A feather dipped in turpentine, run up the nostril and (piickly
turned, is sometimes used to dislodge the grubs but in most cases
it is impossible to reach them all. Valuable animals may be
trephined but this re(|uires skilled veterinary assistance. All gnd)s
and piiparia found in sheeii-jicns siiould of course be destroyed.

Ml'SClDi«.
PYCNOSOM.A^ FLAVICEPS, Mac(|.
Liuilid ff/ivi(Cps, Macq., Dipt. Exot., 11. 3, 145, t. 18, f. 1 (1842).
Pyciwxomti flaviiTps, Hewlett, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 643, t. 69, f. 2 (19OQ).
Liiciliii itii.x; Esch. ; van der Wulp, Cat. Dipt. S. Asia, p. 148
(1896).

DIPlliKA.

349

I'lG. 20.S.— Pvt»((>

ti lliiviccps. 'Vhr small limine shows the natural si/
K )rit;iiial.>

Distrihidioii. -South K;inar:i, Malal);ir. Probably throuKboiit
Southern India.

Lifcliistory jiitl hood. Tho ^riil)s tt-cd in rotting organic matter,
such as putrefying fish, pupating in the soil when full-fed. The
adult flies have brilliant green bodies and red heads and arc
attracted to animal excrement, decaying organic matter, toddy, etc.

Status. -Has proved a serious pest of Toddv in South Kanara,
sucking all tiie juice exuding from the palni-sp.itiirs, fouling the
pots, spathes and juice with excrementitious matter, and swarming
around the vessels in the Totldy-shops.

Control. — The flies may be kept away by tying a cloth sleeve
between the palm-spathe and collecting-pot (see also Leaflet No.
IV of 1913 issued by the Department of Agriculture, Madras, and
iMg. 72 on page 1 59).

MUSCA NEBULO, Fb.

(Thr rndian House fly.I

Miiscii ncbiilo. Fabr., Ent. Syst., IV, 321 (1794).

Musca (lomestiai, Howlett, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 644 (iicc Linn.).

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

IJfi-liistory (iinl Food.- Eggs are laid on decaying animal or vege-
table matter, chiefly in night soil and in refuse arountl slaughter-
houses, etc., on vvliich the whitish maggots feed on hatching out,
pupating in the soil when fidi-grown. The length of the life-cycle
varies with temiierature l)ut is probably about 10 days in the
Plains.

Status. This pest and its allies deserve to be bracketed with the
Rat-flea and Anopheline Mosciuitos amongst the most common
causes of ill-health amongst the inhabitants of India. Bred

350 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Fig. 209. — Miisca tiebiilo. The small figure shows tlic natural size.
fOriginal.)

amongst filth the adult fly is equally at home on excrementitious
matter and on food intended for human consumption and carries
on to the latter various disease-germs derived from its frei|uenting
unclean situations. Enteric Fever, Cholera and Intestinal Worms
are amongst the more important of the evils carrieii onto food by
the House-fly.

Control. — (l) The most important means of control is proper
sanitation in the neighbourhood of all dwellings. This includes
proper disposal of all refuse-food, stable-manure, and excrementi-
tious matter of every kind.

(2) Killing the flies by traps, fly-papers, etc.

(3) Screening of all food, bungalows, kitchens, etc.
Remarks.— (l) The House-flies of India include several distinct

species which may or may not be identical with Miisca nebiilo. The
lifehistory and habits of all, however, are likely to be practically
identical and all may be looked on as noxious pests of the worst
description.

(2) I am indebted to Captain Patton, I.M.S., for information
regarding the identification of Mii.<;ca iicbiih, which is apparently
the common House-fly of Southern India.

MUSCA PATTONI, Aust.

Musca pattoni, Austen, A.M.N.H. (8), V, II4— 117 (Jan. 1910) ;
Patton and Cragg, Ind. Jl. Med. Res., I, 17-18, t. 2 (Aug. 1913).

Distrihiition. — Probably throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifehistory. — Eggs are laid in piles of cowdung, rarely in
isolated patches, the eggs being laid singly, but frequently by
large numbers of flies in the same place. The larva is of the shape
shown in the figure and about 10 mm. in length. The dirty
greyish-white puparium, about 7 mm. long, is found in the dung.

DIPTERA.

351

FtG. 210. — Miisca pattoiii. 1, Larva; 2, Pupa; i, Imago (Fly). The small
figures show the natural sizes. (.•Vfter Patton and Cragg.)

Food. — The blood and serous discharges of cattle and horses.

Status. — Not definitely known to be a pest but ciuite likely to
prove one on account of its feeding habits, whereby it may carry
pathogenic organisms from one animal to another.

Control. — Treatment of cowdung with oily sprays or keeping in
suitable receptacles.

Remarks. — This species is cited here as an example of the group
of non-biting but bloodsucking (lijematophagous) species of the
genus Miisca, which also includes M. gibsoiii (? recte gibsoner),
Patton and Cragg, M. coiivcxifrous, Th., and M. bezzii. P. and C.
These flies are not themselves provided with biting mouth-parts
and are therefore unable to pierce the skin of animals to obtain
blood, but they rely on other biting flies to draw blood and there-
upon endeavour to thrust their proboscides into the wound to obtain
the exuding blood, often positively worrying and driving away
the true biter. It is probable that this and other flies of this group
may prove to be important agents in the conveyance of diseases of
tiomestic animals.

35^

SOME sorrii Indian insects, etc.

I'HIL/EMATO.MVIA INSIGNIS, Ausl.
Pliita-iuuloniyid insigiiis, Aiistcn, A.M.iN.H. (8), III, 298 299 (March
1909); Howlftt, Inil. Ins. Life, p. 646; Cragg, Sci. Mem. Govt. Ind.,
No. 54(1912); Patton and Cragg, Ann. Trop. Med., V, 515 520, Figs.
(Feb. 1912).

Fig. 2l\.—Pliiltciinit<>iiiyi,i iiisisiiiis. 1. Egg; 2, Larva; 3, Pupa; 4, Fly;

5, Side-view of head of Fly with proboscis extended. The small figures

show the natural sizes. (1 — 3 after Patton and Cragg ; 4, 5 original.)

Distrihiitioii. ThToughoul Southern India.

Lifcliistory and Food.- -The eggs, which are of reialively enormous
size, long, cylindrical, round-pointed at the ends, curved, are laid
in a large mass in fresh cowdung, in which the larvas feed.

Status. — One of the commonest insects found sucking the blood
of cattle. Doubtless capable of carrying disease.

Control.— No suggestions can be made, other than application
of deterrents and collection and sterilization of cowdung.

Ri'inark.s.— ln size, colour and general appearance, this fly is
almost exactly similar to a House-fly but microscopical examination

DIPTERA.

353

sliows that the tip of tlio iiroboscis is surrounded Ijy a ring of stout
black thitinous teeth.

Natiinil Enemies. — Oxyhclus sitinuiiostis (see page 280).

STOMOXYS CALCITRA.NS, Linn.

Conofs Cijlcilnins, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. X), I, 604 (1758).

Stomoxys, Geoffroy, Ins., II, 539, t. 18, f. 2.

Stomoxys calcitnvis, Bezzi, Arch. cJe Parasit., XV, 1 38 (Oct. 191 1)
[Synonymy and Distribution] ; Hewlett, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 646, t. 69,
f. 3; Brain, Ann. Ent. Soc. Am., V, 421— 430, t. 33, 34, /.f. VI, 197— 201,
t. 22.

Fig. 2\2.— Stomoxys calcitrcxns. 1, Egg ; 2, Larva ; 3, Pupa ; 4, Fly ; 5,
Side-view of Head of Fly. The small figures show the natural sizes. (Original.)

Dislribtitioii. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifcliistory and Food. — Eggs are usually laid on horse-dung, damp
straw, etc., in damp places in which the larvje live. The larvse are
23

354 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

superficially similar to those of the Housefly. Life-cycle about
3 weeks, probably less in warm weather.

Stiitiis. — A blood-thirsty and annoying pest of domestic animals,
often attacking man also. Undoubtedly carries disease.

Control. — This must be based on sanitary disposal of horse-dung
and other stable-refuse.

Remarks. — (l) The flies, of which there are several very similar
species, are very similar in general appearance to House-flies, but
at once recognisable by the long, slender, chitinous proboscis.

(2) Little is known at present of the lifehistories of this ami
other Indian Muscid Flies and the tlescriptions here given must be
taken as merely indicative of a very few examples from the large
number of Muscid Flies noxious to man antl animals in India.

TRYPANEID.E.

DACUS CUCURBIT/E, CO(i.
Diicus cucurbittc. Coquillet, Ent. News (1899), 129 130 ; Lefroy,
Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., I, 228; Hewlett, Ind. Ins. Life. f. 418;
Froggatt, Fruit Flies, pp. 84-85, t. 2., ff. 6, 7.

Bactroccni ciiciirhiltc. Bezzi, Mem. Ind. Mus., Ill, 96 97. t. 8, f. 7
(1913).

(See Plate XVI.)

Distribution.- ThroMghouX Southern India.

Lifcliistory. — Eggs are laid on melons, etc., being thrust just
under the skin by the ovipositor of the female fly. The white
grubs on hatching burrow into the fruit, tunnelling in it and
completely spoiling it. When full-grown they emerge and pupate
in the soil. The total life-cycle occupies about 15 tlays.

Foodplants.- Fruits of Cucurbitacese (Melons, Pumpkins, Cucum-
bers, etc.).

Status. — A serious pest of cucurbits.

Control.— (l) Prompt destruction of all attacked fruits by boiling,
burning or burying them deeply underground. It is not of the
slightest use to throw the fruit down on the ground as the maggots
will emerge in due course as flies which will attack other fruits.
(2) Protection of fruit in small areas by netting, etc.

Remarks. — This Fruit-fly is given here as a typical example of
its class. At least a dozen different species occur and some of them
attack Mangoes, Oranges, Peaches, Guavas, Almonds, etc., the
general lifehistory, habits and appearance being the same in all.
This group of flies badly requires to be worked out and the species
properly difi"erentiated. In some the flies may be attracted by

KXPLANATION OF PLATR XVI

DACUS CUCURBIT/E.

KiG. I. Maggots in fruit, natural size.
„ 2. A single larva, enlarged.

» 3> 4. 5- Pupa, enlarged, with details of extremities.
,, 6. Adult fly, greatly enlarged.

PI ATR XVI

DACUS CUCURBlT/t.

DIPTERA.

355

traps lontainiiifj oils such as Citronclla and Kcrosine, Ijut this
methotl ot" control can only be apiilicd to particular species of
flies.*

MICROPEZID/E.
CALOBATA Sp.

Distribution. Throughout

the Plains of Southern India.

l.ifcliistory. — The maggots
have been found boring into
Turmeric rhizomes. Pupation
in the larval galleries.

/vw<//'/(;;//.s".-- Turmeric, Gin-

FlG. 21J. — Calol>at(i sp. The small

figure shows the natural size.

(Original.)

Status. — Doubtful as a pest.
The larvae have only been found
in rotting rhizomes and may
merely act as scavengers.

CHLOROPID^.

SIPHONELLA FUNICOLA, de Mcij.
(The Eye-fyJ
Siplifliu-llii fiiiiiro/d. dc Mcijere. Notes Leydcn Mus., XXV, l6o
1905).

Fig. 214. — Sipliortclla finiicolir. The suuill figure shows the natural size.
(Original.)

• Since this was wriuen, an account by Bezzi of some of the Indian species has been
published by the Indian Museum, hiit praciically notn'ng is known as yet regarding '.he
South Indian Krail-llies.
23-A

356

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Not known.

Food. — Not known. The larva is suspected of feeding on liecay-
ing vegetable matter.

Status. — An annoying pest which undoubtedly may convey
diseases of the eye.

Control. — The flies may sometimes be attracted in large numbers
to a piece of vertically-hanging rough string or tape and may then
be killed off in quantity by burning with a torch at night.

AGROMYZID.^.

CHOLAM FLY.

Fig. 213. — Cholam Fly. 1, Attacked Cholain plant cut open to show
larva and pupa of natural size; 2, Larva ; 3, Pupa; 4, Fly. The
small figures show the natural sizes. {Original.)

DIPTERA.

35;

Distrihuiiott. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifcliistory- — The larva bores in the young stem of the food-
plant, causing a cliaracteristie " deadheart." The pupa is also
found in the stem.

Fooclplaiits. — Cholam, eumbu and millets.

i7(//H5.- Sometimes a serious pest of young seedlings.

Control. — Increased seed-rate and prompt removal and destruc-
tion of all young plants seen to be attacked.

Rrmdrks. — The name of this fly is not known ami its systematic
position is doubtful. In general appearance and habits it much
resembles the palaaarctic Pcgoiiiyia fiisciccps (Anthomyiadas).

RED-GRAM AGRO.MYZA.

Fig. 216. — Red-Gram Agroniyza. Fly, enlarged and natural size ; to the right
is a Red-gram pod cut open to show the eggs thrust into it. (Original.)

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifehistory. — Eggs are thrust through the tender shell of a young
pod of Cajcmus iiidiciis, the gnib on hatching feeding on the seed,
pupating inside the pod.

Foodplant. — Red-Gram (Cajatiiis indiciis).

Status. — A minor pest as a rule.

Control. — ?

Remarks. — This is probably the same as the species called the
" Tun^od Agromyza " by Howlett (Ind. Ins. Life, p. 622).

358

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.
COW-PEA AGROMYZA.

Fig. 217. — Cow-pea Atiiomy^a. The small fit;urc shows Ihc natural si^u
(Original.)

Distribudoii. — Coimbatore ; Tinnevelly.

Lifchistory. — The larvze bore into the stem, a number l)eing lounil
in the same plant, plants thus attacked wilting. Pupa in larval
burrow.

Foodptiints.'-Cow-Pcci (Vigiia catjaiig), Lab-lab (Doliclios Idb-lah),
Green-gram fPhascohis iiningo).

Status. — A serious pest of young plants.

Control--?

SYRPHIDM.

SYRPHUS spp. (Plate XV.)

/^/.s7r/'ft/(^/o«.— Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — The eggs are laid singly on plants attacked by
Aphids, on which the larvas feed. The larva: arc variable in
colour, usually greenish, sometimes with red markings ; they feed
on Aphids which they seek out and devour greedily. Pupation
usually on a leaf, in a sort of cocoon formed by the cast larval skin.
The flies themselves have often a wasp-like pattern of markings
and fly very rapidly or hover in the air.

Status. — Extremely beneficial as a natural control of Aphids.

TABANID^.

TABANUS STRIATUS, Fb.

Taluiiius striatus. Fab., Ent. Syst., TV, 371 (1794): ^^i" 'l^r Wulp,

Cat. Dipt. S. Asia, p. 58 (1896); Kertesz, Cat. Dipt., Ill, 281 (1908);

Howlett, Ind. Ins. Life, t. 42, f. 2; Mitzmain, Philippine Jl. Sci.

VIII-B, 197 218, tabs. (June 1913), I.e. 223—229.

i:XPLA.\AT10.\ OF PLATl-. XV

SVkPHin FI.V.

, 1. Kgg, magnified.

2. Young larva \ 45.

3. Kull-grown larva x 8.

4. Pupa on leaf x 6.

5. Adult fly, X 4.

6. Wheat Plant.

7. Egg laid amongst colony of Aphids.

8. 9. Larvae feeding on Aphids.
to. Pupa on plant.

iKii^. 7 — 10 arc slightly larger than life-si/e.

PLATE XV.

1- '<•

"***!^^^^'r,%i*,?,nc^v

SYRPHID FLY.

DIPTERA.

359

Fig. 2\S.— Tabaiiiis slmittia, female. The small figure shows the natural
size. (Original.)

Fig. 219.— Eggmass of Tabaiius striatiis on paddy leaf, n.itural size and
enlarged. (Original.*

Z)/i7/-/7'////ow.— Throughout Southern India.

Li/cliislorv.— Eggs are laitl in a large mass, usually on a leaf or
twig overhanging water into which tlie young larva; drop on

36o

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

emergence, thenceforward leading an aquatic life burrowing in the
mud at the water's-edge and feeding on worms or living or dead in-
sects. The full-grown larva is 40 — 50 mm. long, dull whitish, elong-
ate, tapering at each end with protuberances at the edges of the
segments. When full-fed it leaves the damp mud at the water's-edge
and after a quiescent period pupates in the earth above water-level.

Status. — The flies themselves are a pest of cattle and doubtless
carry disease. According to Mitzmain's experiments in the Philip-
pines this fly can transmit Surra directly and mechanically.

Control. — (l) Deterrents applied to cattle.

(2) Screening of breeding-places where practicable.

(3) Removal of egg-masses when found to situations where
the larvae on hatching will not be able to find water whilst any
parasites will escape.

PANGONIA Sp.

Fig. 220. — PaiiHoiiia sp., feinalo. The siii.illcr figure shows the natural si;!e.

On the right is a side-view of the head showing the mouth-parts separated

out. The proboscis itself is naturally straight. ((Jriginal.i

Di.slribiilioii. — Mostly in the Hills between about 2,000 and 4,000
feet.

Li/ehistory.— Not known. Probably similar to that of Ttilxi/iii.s.

Status. — The male flics seem to feed largely on flowers but the
females are persistent blood-suckers of man and other animals and
may serve as carriers of disease.

DIPTERA.

361

Obscrviition.—h is usually stated that these flies suck blood when
hovering on the wing ; but this is not the case, at least as regards
the species figured here. The flics hover with their long probos-
cidcs thrust out and probably search for a suitable place with their
labclla ; this found, the fly settles and thrusts the tip of the pro-
boscis against the skin of the animal attacked, pressing firmly
forward so that the proboscis is bent arcuately, when the mandibles
are brought into contact with the skin and thrust in and the blood
sucked. The proboscis itself takes no part in the sucking of the
blood and it seems impossible that these flies should suck blood
whilst hovering.

CULICID^.
MOSQUITOS.

It is impossible to give
here any but a general
account of the various mos-
quitos found in Southern
India. The eggs are laid
singly or in masses forming
little rafts which float on
the surface of the water.
The larvae and pupas of all
species are aquatic and
control should therefore aim
at elimination of breeding-
places in the vicinity of
dwellings. Open wells and
cisterns should be screened
and fitted with a pump
where practicable and empty
tins, broken bottles, coconut
husks, etc., which may catch
rain, should not be allowed
to lie about the compound. Jars of water under legs of tables,
etc., should be treated with kerosine oil regularly and all bodies
of open water near dwellings should be treated regularly with
some larvicide or a supply of a small fish kept in them. An
invasion of mosquitos in the house may sometimes be traced to
flower-vases, fowls' or dogs' water pans, etc., ami all such should
be emptied and refilled daily.

Fig. 221. — Ciilcx fatigans, a very com-
mon Indian Mosquito. The small
figure shows the natural si^e. (After
Patton.)

362

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Besides the actual annoyance caused by the niosquitos to man
and other animals, they are extremely common carriers of disease.
Malaria is carried solely by various species of Anopheline
niosquitos and other diseases may be carried by Culicines. For
characteristic differences in resting-attitudes of these niosquitos,
see figures 78 and 79. Anophelines are usually long and slender,
blackish in colour, with spotted wings.

Control should aim at prevention rather than remedy and this
may be obtainetl by rendering water unsuitable for the breeding
of niosquitos, by methods such as screening, the use of larvicides,
fish, draining, etc. Screening of houses and beds by fine netting
and use of repellents are also indicated. The treatment of diseases
carried by niosquitos cannot be dealt with here.

PSYCHODID^.
PHLEBOTOMUS .MINUTUS, Rond.
Phlcbotuiiiits miniitiis, Rondani, Ann. S.E. France (2), I, 263 (1843) ;
Annandale, Spol. Zeyl., VII, 203; Newstead, Bull. Ent. Res., II, 62,
69-70, figs.

Phkbotowiis balm. Annanil., Rec. Ind. Mus., IV, 49^50, t. 4, f. i, t.

6, ff. 3- l^-

Fig. 222.— Phlehotonuis minutits. 1, Egg ; J, Larva; 3, Pupa ; 4, 1-ly. .VII

the figures arc considerably magnified, their natural sizes being indicated

by the smaller figures inside the dotted lines, (.\fter Howlett.)

Distribution.— Tr-dvancore; Coimbatore. Probably throughout
the Plains of Southern India.

Lifchislory.— The eggs are laid singly or in small clusters m
damp places. The very minute larvae live in damp places (e.g.,

DIPTERA.

m

Uiulcr heaps of bricks) and are covered with toothed spines and
have long anal bristles. Total life-cycle about a month. The flies
have been found at Coimbatore hiding during the day-time in the
open galleries of Termites' nests and Gerbilles' burrows ; possibly
the larvre also live in these galleries, feeding on decaying vege-
table matter which falls in.

Status. — This is one of the commonest species of " Sand-fly," a
persistent blood-sucker, and suspected to convey " Sand-fly Fever."
It feeds naturally on the blood of geckos, chamasleons, toads, etc.

Control. — (l) Cleanliness around houses and avoidance of the
creation of damp patches of earth in which the flies may breed.

(2) The flies are attracted to light at night and may be killed
in numbers settled on the wall around a lamp.

(3) During the day-time the flies hide in dark corners, behind
pictures, etc. Advantage may be taken of this habit to rout them
out and kill them.

(4) Protection from bites by use of a deterrent.

CECIDOMYIAD/E.
CONTARINIA SP.

Fig. 223. — Contarinut sp. Male and Female Flies, enlarged, with their

antennie shown more highly magnified. The small figures inside the

dotted circles indicate the natural sizes. (Original.)

Distribution. — Coimbatore.

364

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Lif'cliistory- — Not known in detjiil. Eggs are deposited in or on
cotton-buds into which the larvas bore, causing the buds to wither
and fail to expand. Pupation in the withered bud.

Foodplan ts. — Cot ton .

Status. — A minor pest, probably more widely ilistributeii than
has yet been noted.

Control. — Collection and destruction of all withered buds is
indicated but is hardly practicable on a field scale.

Remarks. — This insect, in general appearance and habits, seems
to resemble very closely C. gossypii, described from the West Indies.
It is, however, apparently distinct.

GINGELLY GALL-FLY.

Fig. 224.— Gingelly Gall-fly,

natural size and magnified.

(Original.)

Fig. 225. — Gingelly Capsules damaged

by Gall-fly. Those nearer the tip of

the stem are normal. (Original.)

Distrilnitiou. — Coimbatore.

IJfchistory. — Eggs are laid in flowers or young capsules of
gingelly fScsaniiini indicuiii) the small white grubs feeding in the
young capsules and stunting their growth so that they become
wrinkled withered galls, as shown in the lower part of the figure.
When full-grown the larva pupates in the gall.

Foodplants.—G'mgtWy.

Status. — A minor pest.

Control- — ?

Observation. '-Th\^ insect is almost certainly an undescribcd
novelty.

SIPHONAPTERA.

3^5

SIIMIOXAIMI' RA.

SARCOPSYLLIDi^i.
ECHIDNOPHAGA GALLINACEUS, Westw.
b<ira>psylliisg<illinmriis, Westw., E.M.M., XI, 246(1875).
Ecbidnophaga galliiuuriis. Jord. and Roths., in Thomp. Yates and
Johnst. Lab. Rept., VII, p. 52, ff. I, 14. 21, 27 (iqo6) ; Nov. Zool.,
XX, 528; Osborn, U.S.A. Ent. Bull. 5, pp. 144—146, ff- 76, 77
(Siiiropsyllii/.

Fig. 226. — Echidnophaga gallinaceus. The small figure inside the dotted
circle shows the natural size. (Original.)

Distribution. — Hill and sub-montane districts of Southern India ;
Coimbatore.

Lifehistory. — Not known in detail in Southern India. The eggs
are probably dropped in dusty, dry places in which poultry are
kept, the minute, wriggling, worm-like, hairless larvae living in the
dust on small particles of organic matter. Pupa in a slight cocoon
composed of grains of sand. The adults attach themselves firmly,
after the manner of ticks, to their hosts, usually on the bare portions
around (and especially under) the beak in the case of young
chickens. I have not found the adult females of this flea encysted
or buried in the skin, as described by some writers.

Food. — The blood of fowls as a rule ; occasionally on dogs,
cattle and man, especially on young animals.

Status. — May be a serious pest of young fowls, attacking also
any other animals in the vicinity of the poultry run.

Co«/ro/.— Brashing the affected parts with crude oil emulsion
or sweet oil : the latter is better for fowls. Thorough washing out

^66

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

of the fowl-house and run with disinfectants, recollecting that damp
localities are unsuitable for these fleas to brceii in.

PULICID.€.
XENOPSYLLA CHEOPIS. Roth.
Pukx chcopis, Rothschild, E.M.M. (1903), 85 86. t. i, ff. 3. 9;
Howlett, Inil. Ins. Life, p. 658, t. 71, f. a ; Reports on Plague in
India, I, pt. I. iip. 24O— 250, t. 10 12, pt. 2, pp. 486 509.

Fig. 227. — Xenopsylla clieopis, female. The small fif,Mire inside the tlottcil
circle shows the natural size. (From Reports on Pl;i>,'nf in India.i

DistrihiitioH. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — The white, round eggs are about as large as a small
pins-head and are laid on the ground as a rule. After about two
days the larvae hatch out and live amongst and on- animal or
vegetable refuse; the larva is an elongate, bristly, minute, white
grub, rarely seen as it shuns the light. Pupation takes place in a
small cocoon of silk covered with particles of dust, etc. Life-cycle,
egg about 2 days, larva about 7 days, pupa about 7 days.

Hosts. — Rats of all sorts as a rule, occasionally on cats and on
man.

Status. — A most serious pest as being the carrier of Plague
bacilli from rats toman.

Control. — (I) Destruction of rats.

(2) Cleanliness in houses.

(3) Exposure of infested clothing to bright sunshine on a
broad flat surface.

CTENOCEPHALUS FELIS, Bouche.
Pidex felis, Bouche, Nova A(ta Ac. Leop. Carol., XVII, 505
(1835); Rothschild, Nov. Zoo!., XII, 192 (1905) and Ent. Rec, XIII,
126, t. 3 [differences between /(?/;'5 and caiiis].

LEl'IDOPTERA.

367

Piilfx si-rnitiiYf.s (part), GtTv., Hist. Nat. Ins. Apt., Ill, 371 (1844) ;
Osborn, U.S.A. Ent. Bull. No. 5, pp. 150-152, f. 83.

Piilcxfclis (part), Reports on Plague in India, I, 495-498.

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.
Li/c/iistory. — Similar to that of X. clwopis.
Host. — Normally the cat, tiger, panther,
ctf. But, in spite of its name, this is the
common flea of dogs in Madras, Ct. auiis
being found only on jackals as a rule. It
sometimes attacks man and occasionally
the horse.

Control.— As for X. ciwofis. Dogs may be
cleared of fleas by rubbing in crude oil
emulsion and washing it off after 24 hours.
Remarks. — (l) This flea is often confused
shows the natural size, with Ct. canis (the Dog Flea of Europe), but
(Original.) jg distinct.

(2) It is impossible to give here any complete list even of the
commoner fleas. The differences between them are minute and
only to be seen by microscoj^ical e.xamination.

PiiU'x irritaus. the true human flea, seems to be rather scarce in
India as a rule.

LI-PinOPTE RA.
ARCTIAD^.
ASURA CONFERTA, Wlk.
Pitaiii' con/crt,!. Wlk., Cat. II, 533 (1854).

Asnni coiifcrta. Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 106, f. 72, Cat.
Phal., II, 428, f. 340; Lcfroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 437.

Fig. 22s. — Ctciioccp-
lialiis fclis. The figure
inside the dotted circle

Fig. 229. — Asiira conferta, moth and larva. The small outline figure shows
the natural size of the moth. (Original.)

Distribution.— Throughoui the sub-montane districts of Southern
India.

368

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Lifchistory. — Larva short, stout in middle, brownish-black,
thickly covered with tufts of black hair; orange marks on first,
seventh and last segments from heail and an orange line on back
from seventh to last segments. Cocoon slight, with larval hairs
interwoven.

Foodplatits. — Moss and lichens aiul perhaps also low-growing
plants.

Status. — The larva is not known to do damage to crops but is in
itself a peculiarly noxious pest owing to the large numbers in
which it often occurs in houses and the irritating nature of its
hairs. It is one of the various insects known as " Kumbli-i')uchi."

Control. — ?

ESTIGMENE LACTINEA, Cram.

Boiubyx lactiiica, Cramer, Pap. Exot., II, t. 133. D. (l777)-
Amsacta lactinea, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 27-28, f. 9, Cat.
Phal., ni, 328-329, f. 147 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 438, ff. 302, 303.

. v., vv;. ■■(;// .,;;/■ ,/ , ,

Fig. 230. — Estigiiicne lactinea, larva and moth. (Original.)

Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Li/c'liistory.— Larva, black with long blackish or red-brown hairs
arising from warts set in a ring around the middle of each segment,
head blackish or red-brown ; active in habit. Pupa squat, dark-red-
brown, in a cell underground.

Foodpltints.—Cumhu, ragi, coffee, horse-gram, and various low-
growing plants.

Status. — Locally a serious pest of cumbu.

C<>«/ro/.— Hand-picking of caterpillars in small areas and pro-
tection of crops by a narrow trench around cultivated areas.

PLATE XVII

AMSACTA ALBISTRIGA.

KXIM.AXATIOX OI- PLATl. X\ II.

AMSAC I'A ALBISTRU.A.
Fig. I, j. Larvse.
„ 3. Pupa.
„ 4, 5. Moth.

(All these ti inures are life-size.)

LEPIDOPTERA. 369

AMSACTA ALBISTRIGA, \V!k.
(KU.MBLIHULA.)

Alo.i albislri,^a, VVlk., Cat. XXVI, 303 (1864).

Ainscictii uUustriga, Hampson, Faun. Inil. Moths, II, 28, Cat. Phal.,
Ill, 330-331, t. 46. f. 19; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 438, ff. 299~300 ;
Coleman, Mysore Ent. Bull. No. 3 (191 2).

(SEE PLATE XVII.)

Distribution. Probably throughout the Plains of Southern India,
mostly in tlry tracts of red soil (not noted from Malabar Coast or
extreme North of Mailras Presidency).

Li/f/iistory. -Liivvu blackish-brown covered with long blackish
hairs, head reddish or orange, with a narrow orange stripe down
the back, central third of body often orange-brown ; very active in
its movements. Pupa s(iuat, red-brown, in the soil.

Foodphints. — Cholam, cumbu, groundnut, pulses, castor, etc. ; on
almost all low-growing plants and crops.

Status. — A very serious pest in some localities especially in
South Arcot and Salem.

Control. — The moths emerge early in the evening after the early
monsoon showers and are sluggish and conspicuous and easily
collected by hand, thus preventing eggs being laid to give rise to
caterpillars later on. It is difficult to check the caterpillars as
they feed on various weeds and are not confined to crops. Narrow
trenches may be dug around the cultivated fields and fresh leaves
placed in them daily to trap the caterpdlars which must be killed
and removed regularly. Prevention (by catching the moths by
hand or by light-traps) is the best remedy.

Note. — Awsacta nioorei is very similar in appearance and habits
and hybids between the two species probably occur, as cross-
pairings are not infrecjuent.

CREATONOTUS GANGIS, Linn.
Phiila-na gangis, Linn., Amoen., Acad., VI, 410 (1764); Hinpsn.,
Cat., Phal., Ill, 333-334; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 438.

Crcdtonotiis iiitcrrnptiis. Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 26-27.

Fig. 231. — Crcntoiiotns liaiifiis. (Orisin.il.
Distribution. — -Throughout Soutiiern India.
^4

370

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Lifehistory. — " Larva black, sparsely clothed with long hair ; head
marked with white; a yellow dorsal stripe with series of orange
spots on it ; prolegs pale " (Hampson) ; pupates in soil.

Fvodplants. — Coffee, groundnut, lucerne and other low-growing
plants.

Status. — Not noted as a pest.

PERICALLIA RICINI, Fb.

Fig. 232. — Pcricalliii riciiii. moth and Urvx on Castor. (Original.)

LEPIDOPTERA.

371

Boinbyx ricini. Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 583 (l775)-

Pcrkalliii riciiii, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths. 11. 17-18, Cat. Plial., Ill,
350-351, f. 155 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 438.

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Larva dark-brown or blackish, thickly coveretl with
fine long reddish-brown hairs which arise from bluish warts, head
reddish or blackish ; rather variable in colour ; active in habits.
Pupa squat, red-brown, enclosed in a rather flimsy white cocoon
affixed to objects above ground-level.

Foodplants. — Castor, plantain, pumpkin, gingelly, cotton, agathl,
Cdlotropis, Moriiigd. oleander, colocasia and various other plants
and shrubs.

Status. — A serious pest of garden crops.

Control. — Hand-picking and spraying.

UTETHEISA PULCHELLA, Linn.

Tinea l>ukhclla, Linn., Syst. Nat. (X), p. 534 {1758).

Utctlu'isa pulclwlla, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, 11, 55, Cat. Phal., Ill,
483—485 (partiin), f. 217; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. I48, ff. l66~l68,
Ind. Ins. Life, p. 438.

1/ I'////

Fig. 2ji. — L'tetlicisa piilcliella, hirva and moth. The smaller figures
indicate the natural sizes. (Original.)

Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Eggs laitl singly or in small batches on leaves of
the foodplant. Larva when full-grown about 20 mm. long, rather
stout, with an irregular pale creamy-yellow line down the back,
bordered on either side by a blackish stripe, below which is a
series of reddish-orange blotches margined beneath with pale-
yellow longitudinal spots. A few scattered blackish hairs, longer
at either extremity of the larva, arise singly from small warts on
the back and sides. Pupation in a rather flimsy cocoon, usually in

2 4- A

3r:

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

folded leaves, sometimes on the surface of the ground. Life-cycle
about four weeks.

foodpliints.- S'^\nn-hemp, llcliutropiiiin and various low-growing
weeds.

Status. — A serious pest of sann-hcmp.

Control. — Hand-picking of larva; and spraying in small areas.

Rcniarks. — The closely-allied U. piilclwlloidcs will probably be
found to occur all round the coasts of Southern India. The larva
feeds on Tountcfortiu tirgciilca and is not known to be a pest.

AGARISTID^.
/EGOCERA VENULIA, Cr.
Noctiia vciiuUa, Cramer, Pap. Exot., II, t. 165 D (1777).
Mgoccra vcnuUa, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths., II, 158, Cat. Phal.,
Ill, 597, f. 261 ; Lcfroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 440, t. 34 f. 5.

Fio. 234.

-Aigoccra vciiuUa, larva and moth. The smaller outline finures
indicate the natural sizes. (Original.)

Distribution.— Throug\\o\i\. the Plains of Southern India.

Lifchistory. — The full-grown caterpillar is about 45 mm. long_
rather stout, especially posteriorly ; the head is reddish-orange,
heavily spotted with black ; the body is smooth except for a few
short scattered hairs arising from the warts, pale earthy-brown
with numerous scattered short transverse black streaks, irregular
both in shape and position but which tend to form black bars
across the dorsal surface on the anterior half of each segment, on
which the dorsal tubercles are broadly ringed with black ; spira-
cles black, with a supraspiracular tubercle heavily ringed with
black and a smaller and less conspicuous postspiracular wart; on

LHriDolTKRA. 373

tin- si'giiu'nts l)i-l)iiul those bcaiiiif;- jirolcgs tlic \v;irls arc ringcil
with reildish-orange instead ot l)iac k : legs orangc-lirown, prolegs
palc-brownish. (Description Ironi a preserved specimen i<indly
supplied by Dr. L. C. Coleman-)

Fiwil[>htiits. — TriiJiithoiia, Bivrlurvin.

Stains- — Not a pest.

Rcmnrks. ¥d'\T\y common at li^hl. llie moth is sonutimes seen
flying extremely swiftly backwards and forwards over the ground
in the evening.

NOCTUlDyE.
CHLORIDEA OBSOLETA, Fb.
Noitiiii obsolcdi, Fab., Ent. Syst., Ill, i, p. 456 {1793).
Chloriilca nnnigcra, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind., Moths, II, 174 175, f. 1 14,
Cat. Phal., IV, 45 46, f. 18; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, pp. 144—147, iJ.
161— 164, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 414, f. 305, t. 28, ff. 2, 3 [as obsolcta].

Ilcliothis obsoh'ttu Quaintanrc and Brucs, U.S.A. Entom. Bull.
No. 50 (1905).

Fig. lib. — CJiluridca obsoleta, moth and pupa. U'lom Indian Museum
Notes.)

Z)/'.s7;-/V);(//o«. ^Throughout Southern India.

Lifcliislory.— The eggs arc laid singly on leaves or |)ods, accord-
ing to the foodplant. The full-grown larva is about 35 mm. long,
rather slender, with scattered short hairs; colour variable, usually
pale apple-green w^ith whitish longitudinal lines and with a darker
shade along the side narrowly edged below with whitish; the
whole body (except darker side-stripe) sometimes tinged with
pinkish, in which case the head may be yellowish instead of the
usual green. Pupa brown, usually in a slight cocoon in the soil.
When feeding on fruits or seed-pods, the caterpillar bites a hole
through the outside and only thrusts its head inside, leaving the
body exposed.

Foodplaiits. — Red-gram, Bengal-gram, groundnut, tomato, maize
(cob), tobacco (seed capsules), ganja (Caniiabis sativa) (leaves and
capsules), linseed (capsules), safflower (capsules), lab-lab (pods),
and many other low-growing plants.

3/4

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

StiUiis. — An important pest, especially of gram.

Control. — Hand-picking is the only remedy that can be adopted
as a rule. Usually spraying is useli-ss because the caterpillars feed
chiefly on the seeds and do not therefore ingest sufficient of a
poison-spray spread over the outside of the capsule.

Rvmtirks.~(l) The larvas are highly cannibalistic and will
readily eat not only one another, but other caterpillars.

(2) A Pentatomid bug, Aiidrallus spiiiidciis (see page 475) was
found sucking the larva on linseed at Coimbatorc in February 1907.

(3) As Meyrick points out [Trans. New Zealand Inst., XLIV, 90
(1911)] the generic name Hcliotliis may legitimately be retained by
those who prefer it, as the differences between Cliloridca and
Hcliotliis are so small as to be negligible in practice.

CHLORIDEA ASSULTA, Gucn.

Hrliollii.s iissiilta. Guenee, Noct., II, 178 (1852).

Chloridai ussiiltd, Hmpsn., III. Het., IX, 92, t. 1 76, f. 22, B.J., XV,
602, Cat. Phal., IV, 47, t. 55, f. 22 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 414-

^

FlO. 2J6. — Cliloridca tissiilta. The small outline figure shows tlic iiatnra!
si^e. lOriginal.l

Dislrihiilioii. — Coimbatorc. Probably throughout all tobacco-
growing tracts.

Lifcliistory. — Not worked out in detail. Stages probably very
similar to those of Ctd. obsulctn. Larva figured by Hampson (111.
Het.).

FoodpUiiit. — Tobacco. Hampson gives Pliysntis pcnnudiin.

Status. — Not yet noted as a pest in Southern India but it may do
considerable damage to tobacco.

LEPIUOPTERA.

375

El'XOA SEGETIS, Schiff.
Noitiui sc^cliim, Sihiff., Wien. Verz., pp. 8i, 252, IT. 3 a, b (1776).
Eiixod scgi-lix, Hmpsn., Faun. Inil. Moths, II, p. 181, f. 117, Cat.
Phal.. IV. 167, f. 59; Lc-froy, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., II, 167.

Distribution. — Sub-montane and
Hill Districts of Southern India.

Lifehistory. — The larva ib pale
greyish, sometimes with a pinkish
tinge, with interrupted darker lines
down the back and sides ; the body is
smooth antl greasy-looking. It feeds
at roots of various plants, apparently
not coming above the surface, or only
cutting off plants just above soil level.

Foodplaiits. — Potato, cabbage, cof-
fee, and various plants of the kitchen
anil flower garden.

Status. — A serious pest in gardens
in the Nilgiris and Shevaroys. It has
also been recorded as doing serious
damage by ringing young coffee-
plants in Mysore.

Control. — ?

Ik.. JJ7. —HiLxua se)>ctis
male moth and larva.
(Original, t

POLYTELA GLORIOS.-E, Kb.
Bombyx glorios(c. Fab., Spec. Ins., 11, p. 205 (1781).
Polytcla glorioscc, Hmp^n., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 168- 169, 1. 108,
Cat. Phal., V, 457, f. 130 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 445, t. 34, f. 12.

!• IC. 23S. — Polytcla glorloscc. The outline figure shows the natural size.
(Original.)

5/6 SOiM£ SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Distribution.— Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Length of full-grown larva about 40 mm. ; colour
pUrplish-brown with three longitudinal rows of white spots of
which the central ones are the largest, and orange black-spotted
sub-dorsal patches on the three anterior and posterior segments.
The caterpillar is often seen exposed on the leaves in the early
morning, retreating into the shelter of the leaf-sheaths later on.

Foodplants. — Gloriosa siipcrlui, Aiiidrvllis. and many liliaceous
plants.

Sttitiis.— Scarcely a pest but often does unsightly damage to
ornamental lilies.

Control. — Easily hand-picked in the early morning.

CIRPHIS UNIPUNCTA, Haw. (PLATE XVIII.)
Noctiia iinipiiiutd, Haworth, Lep. Brit., v. 174 (1809).
Cirplns iiiiipiiucta, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 275 276, Cat.
Phal., V. 547—549, B.J., XVII, 464; Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri.,
Ind., I, 175. Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 138, f. 156, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 446.

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. In October and
November.

Lifchistory. — The rounded, greenish-white eggs are laid in
batches, usually in two parallel rows, and thrust into the shelter of
a leaf-sheath, curled leaf, etc. The full-grown larva is about 35 — 40
mm. long, moderately stout, smooth, dull-greenish or purplish with
a broad longitudinal paler stripe along the side and a narrower
lighter stripe below the spiracles ; head pale yellow-brown, ventral
surface and legs pale-greenish, prolegs with a plate above each
sucker-foot. Pupa pale-brown, in an oval cocoon of earth in the
soil.

Foodplants. — Cholam, as a rule. Sometimes on rice, maize, etc

Status. — A minor pest of cholam, the larvas burrowing into the
central shoots.

Control.

Remarks. — This is the insect usually called the " Army worm "
because the caterpillars appear sometimes in immense swarms
which invade cultivated ground and devour the crops wholesale.
In such cases cultivated tracts may be protected by narrow but
steep-sided trenches.

PERIGEA CAPENSIS, Gn.

Apamca capcnsis, Gucnee, Noct., I, 213 (1852).
Euplcxia conductd, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 2II ; Lefroy, Ind.
Ins. Life, p. 447.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVIIL

CIRPHIS UNIPUNCTA.
Fig. I. Eggs laid in leaf-sheath.

2. ,, inside fold of curled leaf.

3. Young larvae feeding on maize-plant.

4. 5. Full-grown larvae, showing colour variation.

6. Pupa.

7. Moth in resting attitude.
(The lines alongside the figure show ihe natural sizes.)

PLATE XVIIl.

CIRPHIS UNIPUNCTA.

PLATE XIX.

I

TO

l^i^€#

f

PRODENIA LITURA.

KXPLAXATIOX OF PLATE XIX.

PRODEMA LITURA.

Vic. I. Egg-cluster on leaf.

,, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7. Larvfe in different stages of growth.

„ 5. Details of segments of full-grown larva.

„ 8. Pupa.

„ 9, 10, II. Moths.

(The lines alongside the figures show the natural siaes.l

LEPIDOPTERA. y;

I'lrixi-.i (V//'.//,s7,v. Umpsn., Cat. Plial., VII. 332 334, 1, II6, f. 20.

I'k.. 2M). — Pcrifica capciisis. (Oiiyiiial.)

/)/,s7/77';///<w.- -Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Larva smooth, with a conical elevation on last
segment, pale-green, with series of white-dotted purple-brown
blotches along the back and sides and a row of white dots along
the sides lower down.

Foodplants. — Safflower. Probably very various; Acniitluids
(Hampson), Niger-seed (Kliorasdiii). Jute, Coreopsis, Kakaroiuld
iBliimca balsaniifcra) (Lefroy).

Status.— A destructive pest of safflower.

Control. — Spraying with Lead Arsenate has been found effective
in small experimental plots.

PRODENL-V LITURA, Fb. (PLATE XIX.)

AWtiiii liliini. Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 601 (l775)-

Prodcniii littonilis, Boisd. ; Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 247-248,
f. 139; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 156, fif. 176-177, Ent. Mem. Agri.
Dept., Ind., I, 171, II, 79-93- t. 8, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 447.

Prodcitia litura, Hmpsn., Cat. Phal., VIII, 245—247.

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Eggs laid in clusters on leaves and covered with
buff-coloured hairs derived from the body of the female moth. The
eggs hatch after three or four days into small blackish-green larvae
which live gregariously for a short time before dispersing. After
about 20 days the larva is full fed and is then about 40 mm. long,
stout, smooth, except for a few scattered short hairs, dull dark-
greyish (almost blackish-green) with a bright yellow stripe down
the back and along each side and a rather duller yellow stripe
along the lower edge of the body, each yellow side-stripe being
bordered above by a black lunule ; head and legs dark, the former
with a pale A-mark. Pupation in an earthern cell about two inches
below the soil ; pupa red-brown. The moth emerges after about
six days. The whole life-cycle occupies about a month.

Foodplants. — Polyphagous. It has been found to attack the
following in Madras :— Castor, tobacco, maize, tomato, Colocasia,
agathi, jute, indigo, lucerne, brinjal, cabbages, elephant yam,
peas, plantain (leaves ; Godavari) and grass. It will probably eat
almost any low-growing plant.

3;8 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Sttitiis. — A serious pest of tobacco, castor and agatlii. Well
known in Tamil districts as Arnkkau.

Coutrol.~(l) Hand-picking of egg-masses and batciics of young
larva; before these have dispersed.

(2) Surrounding of valuable crops l)y narrow steep-sided
ditches to keep out and trap the caterpillars.

SPODOPTERA MAIFRITIA, Boisd. (PLATE XX.)

Hiidciiii itiaiiritid. Boisd., Faun. Mad. Maur., p. 92, t. 13, f. 9 (1833).

Spodoptcra luauritia, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 249, \. 140,
Cat. Phal., VIII, 256—258, f. 66; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, pp. 122, 189,
Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I, 172, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 448.

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — The eggs are deposited, usually on the under
surface of blades of grass or paddy, in batches covered by the
buff-coloured hairs derived from the body of the female moth. The
full-grown caterpillar is 35 — 40 mm. long, cylintlrical, paler or
darker green above, greenish-yellow beneath with a reddish stripe
along the sides at the junction of the two hues ; along the side
there is also sometimes a broad pale stripe edged above by black
lunules on each segment : when touched, the cateriMJlar curls up
until the head and tail are nearly touching in a characteristic
manner. The caterpillar feeds at night, hiding by day under clods,
etc. When full fed it pupates in the soil, turning into a brownish
pupa, from which the moth emerges after about 10 days.

Foodplaiits. — Grasses of various sorts.

Status. — A pest of paddy and grasslands, sometimes doing
considerable damage to seedling rice-plants.

Control. — (l) Protection of seed-beds by surrounding them with
narrow steep-sided trenches.

(2) In small areas spraying and collection of egg-masses as
far as possible.

(3) Trapping of larvze by laying ilown sods, planks, etc., might
be tried.

(4) Flooding of seed-beds and turning in ducks to eat the
caterpillars. This method is practised successfully in some
districts.

LAPHYGMA EXIGUA, Hb.

Noctiia exigtia, Hubner, Ent. Schmett. Noct., f. 362 (1808).

Caradrina exigua, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 259-260 ; Lefroy,
Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 187, ff. 214, 215, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., 1, 173,
fig., Ind., Ins. Life, p. 448.

Laphygma exigua, Hmpsn., Cat. Phal., Vlll. 265, f. 68.

i:XPLA\ATI().\" OI- PLATH XX.
Sl'ODOPIERA MAURITIA.

Fig. I. Egg-mass as laid on paddy-leaf.

2. A single egg, magnified.

3. Young larva in characteristic attitude.
4i 5. 6, 7, ?• Larvse in various stages of growth.

9. Pupa.

10, II, 12. Moths.

(Thf lines alongside the tignrcs show ihc natural si/cs.)

PLATE XX

SPODPTERA MAURITIA,

PLATE XXI

ivja^^

SESAMIA INFERENS.

l:XFI..\X.\ri()X OF im.atk xxi.

•>KS.\MIA IN;H:RI':NS.

1. liggs laid inside leaf-sheath.

2. A single egg, magnified.

3. Larva, magnified.

4. Pupa, magnified.

5. Moth, magnified.

6. An affected plant showing dead-heart caused hy the larva inside

the stem, which has been cut open, and a moth in resting
attitude.
(The lines aloiigsidt ihc hgures show the natural sizes.)

LEPIUOFTERA.

379

D i si r ih III to n. —
Til rough out South-
ern India.

Lifcliis I or y . —
Eggs are laid in
batches. Larva very
variable in colour,
greenish or pinkish-
brown, with a narrow
darker line down the
back and a broader
spiracular line which
may be yellowish
edged with darker
above or wholly
darker. Pupation in
soil. Lifehi story
very rapid, the whole
1 if e- c y cl e being
passed in as short a
space as three weeks,
so that in suitable
circumstances the in-
crease is very rapid
and the caterpillars
are found in swarms.
FoodpUiHls. — Lu-
cerne, indigo, onions,
chillies, gingeliy,

cowpea. brinjal, ratlish, Anniranthus. Polyphagous ; probably on

almost any low-growing plant. Said to be destructive to cotton

in Egypt but not as yet found on cotton in India.

Status. — Occasionally a bad pest particularly of lucerne and

indigo, where these are grown, but usually not a serious pest in

Southern India.

Fig. 240. — Luphygoiit cxigiid. moth and lar\;

The smaller outline figures show the natmal

sizes. (Larva after Spuler.)

SESAMIA INFERENS, Wlk. (PLATE XXI.)

Lcmanui infcrcns, Wlk.. Cat. IX, 105 (1856) ; Hnipsn.. Faun. Ind.
Moths, II, 284, fig. 153.

Sesainia iii/crciis, Hmpsn., Cat. Phal., IX, 327-328, f. 144.

Noiiagria iinifonnis (Ncc Ddgn.), I.M.N., V, 178 ; Lefroy, Ent.
Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., 1. 176. f. 51 (part).

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

38o

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Lifcliistory. — Eggs are laid in clusters usually consisting of
several rows of eggs laid within the cover of a leaf-sheath ; the
egg is rounded, pale yellow-green. The larva on hatching bores
into the stem and is a borer all its life ; its length when full grown
is 20- 25 mm., its shape cylindrical, rather slender, its general
colour usually greyish white, tinged more or less with reil or pink,
head red-brown. It pupates in the stem itself, the pupa being
about 15 mm. long, moderately stout, brownish-yellow. The moth
emerges after about 10 days.

Foodplants. — Maize, cholam, ragi, paddy, wheat, sugarcane.

Status. — A bad pest of ragi in Madras.

Control. — The plants attacked usually reveal the presence of
the borer by development of "deadhearts " and destruction of these
is indicated to prevent extension of the attack.

EUBLEMMA OLIVACEA, Wlk.

Acoiitia olivaccci. Wlk., Cat. XII, 795 (1857).

Eublcmiini oUvacca, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 342, Cat. Phal.,
X, 116; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 166, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept.,
Ind., I, l8o,'Ind._Ins. Life, p. 457.

■'.">..*l,''V»>>

1-

Fig. 241. — Eiiblciiiiiia oliiacea, larva and moth. The smaller outline

figures show the natural sizes. (Original.)
Z)i5/r/V;H//o;/.— Throughout Southern India.

Lifcliistory.— The full-grown larva is about 20 mm. long, moder-
ately stout, with scattered fine hairs arising from yellow tubercles

LEPIDOPTERA.

381

\vlii(. h show up lonspicuously against the brown or piirplish-ljrown
grountl-colour ; head reildish-brown. The brown pupa is usually
found in a fokleil leaf, occasionally in the ground. The caterpillar
lives within a folded leaf which is usually rolled from the tip
upwards, and the caterpillar feeds on the leaf-substance of the roll
in which it is contained.

Foodphiuts. — Brinjal and wild SoLiiiacca:

Status.— A minor pest as a rule but occasionally a very destruc-
tive pest of brinjal.

Control. — Hanil-picking antl spraying.

Remarks. — In Northern India the caterpillar is reported to bore
into brinjals but this has not been noticed in the South.

EUBLEMMA SCITULA, Rnibr.
Erastria scitiila, Rambur, Ann. S.E. Fr. (1833), 26, 5, t. ii, f. 16.
Eiiblemma scitidd. Hmpsn., Cat. Phal, X, 153.
Eiiblcmma crctacca, Hmpsn., III. Het., IX, 96, t. 162, f. 17, Faun.
Ind. Moths, II, 341 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 457, t. 36, f. Q.

Fig. 242. — Eubleinma scitida, larval case, larva extracted from case, and
moth. The smaller outline fiK'ines show the natural sizes. (Original.)

Distribution.— 'YhrowghonX Southern India.

Lifi'/ii.ftory.— Eggs are laid on trees infested by Scale-insects on
which the caterpillars feed. The larva is short and dumpy and
concealed in a case which looks not unlike a large Scale-insect
itself; at times thousands of these cases may be seen grouped
together on the stems of Babul trees.

Food. — Scale-insects of various sorts.

Status.— An extremely beneficial insect except when it attacks
the Lac-insect which, however, is not cultivated to any extent in
Madras.

TARACHE .MTIDULA, Fb.

Noctua iiititlula, Fab., Mant. Ins., II, 126(1787).

382

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC.

Tarachc catena, Sowerby ; Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths. II, 312;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 455.

Tarachc nitidula, Hmpsn., Cat. Phal.. X. 768, t. 172, f. 32.

Fig. 243. — Tarachc nitidula. (Origin.ii.l
Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.
Lifchistory. — Not known.
Foodplant. — Cotton and Calotropis.
Status. — A very minor pest of cotton.

TARACHE OPALINOIDES, Gn.
Acontia opalinoidcs, Gn., Noct., II, 219 (1852).

Tarachc opalinoidcs, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II. 311, Cat. Phal.,
X, 775, t. 173, f. 13; Lefroy, Inil. Ins.
Life, pp. 455-456.

Distribution. — Bellary, Coimbatorc.
Li/chistory. -Not known.
Foodplants. — Cotton. Probably many
other Malvaceae.

Status. — Not known to be a pest.

Fig. 244. — Tarachc opali
unides. (Orisinal.l

BOMBOTELIA JOCOSATRIX, Gn.

Pcnicillaria jocosatrix, Guen, Noct., II, 304.

Eutclia jocosatrix, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 393.

Boinbotclia joco.-;atrix, Hmpsn., Cat. Phal.. XI, II-I2, f. 6.

Fig. 245.^Botnl>otclia jocosatrix. The outline fiKiirc shows the n.itinal size.
(OriKinal.l

Distribution.— ThTOUghoMX Southern India.

LEPIDOPTERA.

383

Lifcliistory. — Caterpillar green, with sub-lateral dark stria;; the
segments with small purple spots and a sub-dorsal series of larger
spots ; a few hairs from the tubercles.

Foodplaiil. — Mango ; Tcniiinnlid bclcrica.

Status. ^Once noted as a minor pest of mango at Koilpatti, where
the caterpillars were eating the young leaves of mango.

BRINJAL S.-VRROTHRIPINE.

Fig. 246. — Brinjal Sarrothripine. The outline figure show-.s the natural size.
To the left is a profile view of the head. (Original. I

Distribution. — Bellary, Coimbatore, Malabar.

Lifehistory. —The yellowish hairy caterpillar lives exposed on the
leaves which it may reduce to mere skeletons.

Foodplants. — Brinjal (Sohwiiiii mdoiigcita), Solaiiiim xiiiitlwcarpuiu
(a wild Solanaceous plant).

Status. — A minor pest of brinjal.

Remarks.— It is doubtful what the correct name of this moth may
be. Possibly it is Cryptot/iripa occulta, Swinh. (P.Z.S., 1885,461,1.
27, f. II ; Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 381, Cat. Phal., XI, 309, f. 108)
with which the moth seems to agree structurally. Its coloration
seems variable, unless several species are confused together.

ELIG.MA NARCISSUS, Cram.

Bonibyx narcissus, Cramer, Pap. E.xot.. I, 73 E.F. (1775).

Eligma narcissus, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 43, Cat. Phal.. XI.
330-331- f- 120.

Z)/5/n7w//w/.— Throughout Southern India. September to Feb-
ruary.

Lifehistory. — Young larva pale-greenish or yellowish with large
irregular black warts from which arise long slender pale hairs.

3B4

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Full-grown larva 40 — 50 mm. long, with transverse reddish bands
across the back only reaching half way down the sides, these bands
being almost completely overlaid by broad transverse black bars

Fig. 247. — EUfiiiin narcissus. (Original. 1

which include large raised smooth black warts from which are emit-
ted single long slender hairs about 15 mm. long; head yellowish
with a small black triangular mark above the mouth and large
black eye-like spots. Pupa moderately slender, red-brown,
spiracles more or less surrounded with blackish, in a long narrow
boat shaped cocoon formed on the trunk of the tree on which the
larva has fed ; the cocoon harmonizes wonderfully well with the
colour of its environment. Frec|uently numbers of larva? pupate
alongside one another.

■> x\. A„

Fig. 248. — Elii>iiia narcissus, larva. (Original.)

Foodplaiits. — A ilan tints excel sa.

Status.— 'S\i\y at times defoliate Ailniitlnis when grown as an
ornamental shrub.

Control. — S|>raying with Lead Arsenate, liaiid-picking of larva;.

EARIAS INSULANA, Boisd.
Tortrix hisithinn, Boisd, Faun. Mad. Maur., p. I2I, t. 16, f. 9(1833).
Earias iiisiiUiiui, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 133, f. 88, Cat.
Phal., XI, 502-503; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests pp. 89-93, Ent. Mem.
Agri. Dept., Ind., I, 184, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 456, t. 38, ff. 1—6.
[SEE PLATE XXII.^
Distrihiitioii. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India all the
year round.

I.XIM.AXATIOX OF PLATE \XII.

EARIAS INSULANA, ETC.
Fig. I. Earias insulana, larva.
„ 2. Cotton-boll attacked by larva.

,, 3. Top-shoot of cotton-plant tunnelled by larva, showing character-
istic drooping and wilted appearance.
., 4. Earias insulana, moth in resting attitude.

5. ., „ larva, dorsal view.

„ 6. ,, ,. moth, yellow variety.

,, 7. Earias ciipreoviridis (chroma/aria), moth.
„ 8. Earias fabia, moth.

'The liues alongside the 6gures show the natural sues.)

PLATE XXII.

EARIAS INSULANA. etc.

PLATE XXIII.

w

%

;s

^

"T'TT-f '^ T"^' 3

: •\.\li ,\> ili

0i

^v^-f?t'||'»^i*fe

■'UJj.Jiiiti';''

m..

\x^

EARIAS FABIA.

HXPl^A NATION OF PLATE XXI II,

KARIAS FABIA.

1. Egg, apical view, greatly magnified.

2. Egg, lateral view

3-7. Larvaein different stadia, magnified.

8. Full-grown larva, dorsal view, magnified.

9. Cocoon, magnified.

10. Pupa, magnified.

11. Moth in resting attitude, dorsal view.

12. ,, ,, „ ,, lateral view.

(The lines alongside the figures show the natural sizes.)

LEPIDOPTERA. 385

Lifcliistory. — The eggs are laiil singly on shoots, flowers or
young bolls. Larva bores in the shoots before bolls are formed but
after that is found only in the bolls in which it bores. Larva pale-
greenish with short spinelike hairs, and clotted with black and with
a row of short yellowish spines along either side of the back. Pupa
in a tough cocoon of silk spun either on the foodplant or in the soil.

boodphiiits. -Conon. hluiiili ff/ihisciis csciilciilusJ and other
Malvacete.

Status. — A destructive pest of cotton.

Control. — (l) Hand-picking of first-attacked shoots which are easi-
ly seen and, later on, picking and destruction of all attacked bolls.

(2) Removal of all cotton-bushes from the field after the crop is
picked so that no harbourage may be left for this insect to live
over until the ne.xt season.

(3) Bhindi and other similar plants should not be grown in the
neighbourhood of cotton-fields, at least when cotton is not in the
ground.

EARIAS FABIA, Stoll.
Noctita fahia, Stoll, Pap. Exot., IV, t. 355 H (1782).
Earias fabia, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, 11, 133, Cat. Phal., XI,
507; Lefroy.Ind. Ins. Pests, pp. 89—93, figs. 98— 103, Ent. Mem. Dept.
Agri., Ind., I, p. 183, figs. 52, 53, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 456, t. 38, f. 8.
(SEE Plate XXIII.)

Distribittioii. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India all the
year round.

Lifcliistory. — Quite similar to that of /f. iiisiildiui. The larv^ are
practically identical, those of the present species often a little
darker in colour.

Fooilplii/il.s. -Conon, bhindi (Hibiscus csculciitiis), hollyhock and
various other malvaceous plants.

Status.- A destructive pest of cotton. It seems rather more
common in Southern India than E. iiisii/iiiin.

Control. - S'lmWixr to that of E. iusularui.

ACONTIA GRAELLSI, Feist.

Fig. 249. — .Acoiitia grcwllsi. (Original.)
Acoiitia gracllsi, Feisthamel, Ann. S.E.Fr., VI, 300, t. 12. f. 3 (1837) ;
Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II. 324, Cat. Phal., XI, 660, f. 272.
Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.
25

386

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC

Lifcliistory. — The larva is about 45 mm. long when full-grown,
rather sleniler, with only two pairs of prolegs, green in colour;
along the back on each segment is a pair of black horse-shoe
shaped marks, their convex sides directed outwards, and there are
also a few scattered black warts from which arise single short
hairs. The caterpillar is generally seen on the plants in the early
morning or evening, hiding itself during the rest of the day under
leaves or on the ground close to the plants. When touched, it
wriggles and jumps with great activity. Pupation is effected in a
cocoon formed on the surface of the ground of earth and dry leaves.

FtfoJ/'/rtw/i-.— Cotton, hollyhock, probably also gogu, bhindi and
other malvaceous plants. Lcnmtcra (Hampson).

Status.— A very minor pest of cotton, occasionally doing slight
injury by eating tlic lender leaves and young shoots.

ACH/K.\ .MELICERTA, Dr.

Fig. 250. — Achica mclicerta, larva and moth. The outline figure shows the
natural size of the moth. (OriKinal.l

Nnctiia melicerta, Drury, 111. Exot. Ins.. I, 42, t. 23, f. i (1770).

Ophiusa mcUccrtc. Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 494-495 ; Lefroy,
Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 158, ff. 178, 179, Ent. .Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I, 185,
f. 54, 11, pp. 59—77, t. 6, 7. Ind. Ins. Life. pp. 451-452.

LEPIDOPTERA.

387

AcJucii mdurrlti, Hmpsn., Cat. Phal.. XII, 536-537. f. 124.

Z)/.s7/-/7>H//(/«. -Throughout Southern India all the year round.

Litihistory. — Eggs are usually laid singly, scattered over the
lower surface of the leaves of the foodplants, the larva emerging
after two or three days, and making its first meal off part of the
empty eggshell. The full-grown caterpillar is about 50—60 nmi.
long, sleniler, a semi-looper with the first pair of prolegs abortetl, in
colour very variable but usually grey or blackish with reddish or
whitish side-stripes. The pupa is brown but the colour is concealed
under a delicate greyish bloom ; pupation usually takes place in
the soil, occasionally in a slight cocoon spun between leaves. The
whole life-cycle occupies between 3 and 4 weeks.

Foodplanls.—CiistoT, pomegranate, Eiiplwrbin piliili/crii.

Stains. — A sporadic but serious pest of castor, the leaves of
which may be entirely stripped.

Control. — Hand-picking of larvse and construction of open spaces
around and across castor-fields ; birds attack the larvas freely when
they attempt to cross such open ground. Spraying is impracticable
when the castor leaves are grown to feed silkworms. Parasites
keep this caterpillar in check as a rule.

GRAMMODES STOLIDA, Fab:
Noctiia stolida. Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 599.

Grain/nodes stolida, Hmpsn.. Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 532, Cat. Phal.'
XIII, 21—23.

Fir,. 251. — Graiiiinoilc

vtdlicla. The outline fitjiire shows the n.itnnil size.
U )ri,i,'inal.i

Distrihiition. — Coimbatore.

Lifchhtory. — Full-grown larva about 25 mm. long, slender,
smooth, first pair of prolegs absent ; in colour velvety-black with a
row of red spots (one on each segment) along the side, and below
these spots an orange-yellow stripe bordered below by dark-grey.
Pupation in an oval silken cocoon on the foodplant.

388 SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Foodplant. —Linseed.

Sliiliis.— An occasional minor pest ot linseed.

REMIGIA UNDATA, Fb.
Nocttia HiiiLita, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 600 (1775).
Noctiia archcsia, Cramer, Pap. Exot., Ill, t. 273 F.G. (1780).
Rcmigia archesia, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 526, f. 2q3 ; Lefroy,
Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I, 186, f. 55, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 450, f. 309.

Fig. 252. — Rcuii^ia iiudttta. 1, L.ir\;i; 2, Pupa: .!. Moth. iLarv.i .uid
Pupa after Moore.)

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.
Lifehistory. — Not known in detail.
Foodplaiits. — Indigo.
Status. — A very minor pest.

REMIGIA FRUGALIS, Kb.
iVoctiia fni,milis. Fab., Syst. Ent., VI, 601 (l775>
Rcinigiafnigalis, Hnipsn, Faun. Ind. Moths, II. 527 ; Lefroy, Ent.
Mem. Dept. Agri.. Ind., I, 187, f. 56, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 451, f. 310.

Fig. 25J. — Reniifiirt /nivalis. The outline hgure shows the natural size.
• Orifiinal.)

D iatr Unit i All. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

LEPIDOPTERA. 389

Li/cliislorv. — The greyish-yellow semi-looping caterpillar feeds
exposed on leaf-blades and pupates in a cocoon amongst leaves
Ffloilpliints.— Grasses, including padilv.
Slittiis. — An occasional very minor pest of rice.

AZAZIA RUBRICANS, Bdv.
Op/iiiisii riil'i iitins. Boisd., Faun. Mail. Maur., \i. 106, t. 16. I'. 1

(1833).

Tlicniicsia nibricdiis, Hnipsn., Faun. Iiui. Moths. II, 534. I. 2f)S ;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 455.

Fig. 254. — Azazia nibricaiis. (Origin.al.^

A,s7/-/7'H//Vw. -Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifchistory. — The caterpillar is slender and loops in walking
although all prolegs are present ; in colour it is green with markings
consisting of (l) an ashywhitc band between each segment; (2) a
few faint narrow lines along the back and (3) a bright yellowish-
brown stripe along the side, but any or all of these may be absent.
The pupa is formed in a slight cocoon amongst leaves of the
foodplant (usually in wet lands), or just beneath the surface of the
soil (in dry areas). The moth has a great resemblance to a dry leaf.

FoodpUints.—GTetn-gTcWW, red-gram, cow-pea, black-gram ; prob-
ably on all pulses.

Status. — A minor and sporadic pest of pulses.

Control. — Hand-picking of caterpillars and, where practicable,
scraping the surface of the soil with a bullock-hoe to expose the

pupas.

HOMOPTERA GLAUCINANS, Gn.

Ahimis glaiici)i(ws, Guen, Noct., Ill, 6.

Homoptcra glaiiciuans, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 475, f. 263.

Distribution. — Coimbatore. Probably throughout Southern
India.

Lifchistory. — Larva elongate, slender, 35 — 40 mm. long, first two

pairs of ventral prolegs absent, pale-green in colour with square

white patches along the back of many of the abdominal segments.

(Note. — Forsayeth figures it as pale-green with a broad yellow

stripe along the side.) Pupa in a slight cocoon.

Foodplant. — Sesbania a^gyptiaca.

Status. — A minor pest, only once noticed.

390

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSKCTS, ETC.

.^>^^CV

'^^^^nS?

m£

Tig. 255. -Hoiiiuptcm tilmicinaiis. The outline figure shows the natural size.
(Original.)

COS.MOPHILA SABULIFERA, Gn.

Fig. 256- — Cosniopliilci snhnli/crn. The outline figure shows the natural size.
(Original.)

Gonitis salmlifcru, Gucn., Noct., II, 404.

Cosmophila sabiili/cra, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 409 ; Lefroy,

LliPlDOPTERA.

391

Iiul. Ins. I\-sts, |). 151, Em. Mom. A^ri. Dcpt., hid., I, 182, Ind. Ins.
Life, p. 453.

Distribution. — Goclavari, South Arcot.

Li/fliistory.— The full-grown raterpiilar is about 25 mm. long,
rather slender, witii tiu' lirst i)air of forelegs slightly reduced; in
colour it is greenish, vvitli narrow darker-green lines down tlu' back
and a wavy dark stripe along the side. Pupa in a cocoon.

Foocipltints.— Jute.

Stiitiis. — A very minor pest of jute in Southern India.

COSMOPHILA EROSA, Hb.

NoftiKi crosii, Hb., Zutr., II., 19, ff. 287 288.

Cosmophila crosa, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 411 ; Lefroy
Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 112, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dcpt., Ind., I, 181. Ind. Ins.
Life, p. 453, t. 36, ff. 7, 8.

Fig. 257. — Cusiiiophilii

The outline figure shows the natural size.
(Orif,'inal.i

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — The full-grown caterpillar is 25—30 mm. long,
slender, with normal prolegs ; in colour it is green with five white
lines along the back and sides. Pupates within folded leaves.

Foodpiunts. — Cotton, bhindi (Hibiscus csculcntus), gogu and
various other malvaceous plants.

Status. — Occasionally a serious pest of cotton, especially in the
case of young plants of exotic varieties.

Control. -In small experimental areas spraying may be done.

Remarks. — Natural enemies inclutle wasps and crows.

392 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

HYBL/EA PUERA, Cr.

Noctutt piicra, Cramer, Pap. Exot., t. 103 D, E (l???).

Hyblua piicni. Moore, Lep. Ceylon, III, t. 154, fT. 2, 2"; Hnipsn.,
Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 371-372, f. 204 ; Hole, B.J., XV, 679-697, t.
A E.

I'lC. 2S».~Myl>la,i piicra : 1. Larva: 2, I'lipa ; J. Moth. (Larva and
Pupa after Moore.)

Distrihiilioii. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — The oblong, yellowish or greenish eggs are laiil
singly on the backs of young leaves, usually in an angle between
two veins. The full-grown larva is about 30 mm. long, stout,
cylindrical, very variable in colour, usually greenish below and
dark-brown or blackish above, with a sub-dorsal white line and
lateral spots which may form interrupted lines. It lives in the
shelter of a roUed-up leaf in which it usually hitles during the day-
time, only coming out to feed at night. Pupation in a rolled leaf,
amongst dead leaves on the ground, or in the soil. The total life-
cycle is about a month.

Foodplatits.— Tenk fTcctouti gnimlis), Bignoniacea; and probably
many other plants.

Status. — May be a serious pest of teak.

Control. — Cutting out alternative foodplants in forests ; en-
couragement of insectivorous birds, such as Mynahs which are
reported to feed on these caterpillars at Nilambur. In nurseries the
yoimg plants may be sprayed but this is not practicable in the
open forest.

PLUSIA SIGNATA, Fb. (.>)

Noclua sixnata. Fab., Ent. Syst., Ill, 2, p. 81 (l794)-

Plii.sia .signata, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 568-569; Lefroy,
Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 155, fT. 172 174, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I, 190,
Ind. Ins. Life, p. 452.

LEPIDOPTERA.

393

Distribution. — Throughout
Southern India.

Li/c hi story. — Larva slen-
der, attenuated anteriorly,
only three pairs of prolegs
present, including anal
claspers; in colour pea-green
with several wavy whitish
longitudinal lines and a
broader white longitudinal

lateral stripe. Pupation in
Fig. 259. — PI USUI stgitata. The outline

fife-urc shows the natural size. (Original.) '^ ^^hlte silken cocoon ; moth

emerges after about a week.
Foodplants. — Tobacco, groundnut, green-gram, sann-hemp.
Status. — Scarcely a pest as a rule. Occasionally does some
damage to young tobacco seedlings and, in the case of groundnut,
etc., the attack seems confined to the tender leaves only.

Remarks. — The e.xact identification of this moth is a matter of
doubt. So far as can be judged from the specimens obtained, the
species here referred to is P. signata but it is possible that the
specimens may represent P. chalcytes.

PLUSl.A ORICHALCEA, Fb.
Notiuti oriclhihrii. Fab., Sp. Ins., II, 22/.

Plusid oriclialcca, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 573 ; Lefroy,
Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I, 193, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 452, t. 37, f. 10.

Distribution. — Through-
out Southern India.

Lifchistory. — L a r v a
about 25 mm. long,
slender, attenuated
anteriorly, in colour
pale-green, the head
darker-green, the body
covered with small
whitish tubercles each
with a central black dot
from which issues a
short white hair; along
each side runs a row of
black tubercles bordered
below by a white spira-
The outline cular stripe. Pupation
(Original.) period about 8 days.

Fig. 260. — Plusia oriclialcca.
figure shows the natural size.

394

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

F(W({f>ltiuts. — Cow-pea, potato, pea, indij^o, Ciiiiiiii ml^liiuiti
(Bishop's Weed) ; CruciferEe (Lefroy), Coreopsis (Haiiipson).

Status. — Occurs fairly commonly on cow-pea, mdigo and i^otato
(Nilgiris), but scarcely a pest in Southern India.

PLUSIA PEPONIS, Fb.

Noiliiti fifonis. Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 608 (1775).

Plusia agramma, Guen, Noct., II, 327 ; Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths,
II, 574; Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I, 194, Ind. Ins. Life,
p. 452, t. 37, f. II.

Fig. 261. — Plusici pcpDiiis. Thi- niitlinc figure shows the natural size.

(OriKiiiHl.l

Distribution. — Throughout Southern Intlia.

Lifehistory. — The greenish-white, globular, beautifuUy.-sculptured
eggs are laid singly on the under-surface of the leaves of the food-
plant. The newly hatched larva is about I'S mm. long, head and
legs black, body whitish, with scattered dark hairs arising from
black warts. After the first moult the larva has on each segment
a dorsal and a sub-dorsal black conical wart from which arises a
short hair. The full-grown larva is about 30 — 35 mm. long, slender,
segments distinct, covered with whitish conical warts each giving
rise to a short hair; head olive-green; body whitish-green with
milk-white longitudinal stripes ; legs green, only three pairs of
prolegs including anal claspers ; anal segment humpetl. The
caterpillar remains on the lower surface of the leaf which it cuts
so as to make the distal portions bend down and provide a shelter
for it. The colour of the caterpillar is extremely like that of its
foodplant. Pupation in a tough cocoon of pure white silk spun
between folds of the leaf; pupation period about a week [T.V.R.].

/•bo(//>/rtH/5.— Snake-gourd, pumpkin and other Cucurhitncac.

Status. — Occasionally a rather serious pest of cultivated
cucurbits.

Control.- Hand-picking of larva* and pupa;.

LEPIDOPTEkA.

m

SIMPLICIA ROBUSTALIS, Gn.
Siinfliciti rohiisttili.'!, Giicn, Delt., p. 58 ; Hnipsn., Faun. Ind. Moths.
Ill, 36, f. 16; Lcfroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 457.

Fig. 262. — Siiiiplicia robiisttilis. The outline figure .shows the natural size.
To the light is seen a profile view of the head. (Original.)

Distribution. — Coimbatore, Kurnul. Probably throughout South-
ern India.

L//i'/i/5/oo'.— Caterpillar about 20 mm. long, slender, smooth,
dirty brown in colour, with faint irregular interrupted whitish
longitudinal lines. Pupation in a slight cocoon ; pupal period
about 10 days.

Food. — Dead leaves, cumbu stalks, etc.

Status. — Only noted as doing damage on one occasion when the
caterpillars were present in thousands in the thatched roof of a
house, devouring the dry coconut leaves and cumbu stalks which
composed the thatch.

Control. — The caterpillars were destroyed by spraying the thatch
with lead arsenate in the case noted above and the moths on
emergence were driven away by smoking with sulphur and spraying
with cyllin.

LYMANTRIAD/E.
ORGYIA POSTICA, Wlk.

Orgyia postica, Wlk., Cat. IV, 803 ; Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. .Moths, I,
436, f. 303; T V. Ramakrishna Ayyar, B.J., XX, 341.

Fig. 263. — Orf>yi,t postica. male moth. (Original.)

396

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Distribution.- -Bcllary, Coimbatorc.

Li/fliistory. Eggs, in clusters; spherical, tlepressed in centre.
The eggs hatch after about 8 days, all hatching at one time, the
young caterpillars feeding gregariously at first, but separating
later. Full-grown caterpillar 15-25 mm. long, cylindrical, yellow-
ish brown, paler beneath ; on the first four abdominal segments are
dorsal, thick, rounded, brush-like tufts of short yellow hairs, on the
prothorax is a pair of long anteriorly divergent black hair-pencils
and on tiie penultimate segment is a stouter posteriorly-directed
pencil of orange-brown hairs; all the segments with warts from
which arise long fine hairs. Pupation in a tough silken cocoon.
The life-cycle is:— egg, 8 days; larva, 25 days ; pupa, 8 days. The
male moth is winged and very active ; the female is wingless and
sluggish and often never quits the cocoon after emergence from the
pupal condition.

Foodplants. — Castor, Eryt/iriiia. Probably polyphagous.

Status. — Occasionally a serious pest on castor.

Control. — The young caterpillars, whilst still gregarious, are
easily seen and hand-picked.

OLENE (D.\SYCHIRA) MENDOSA, Hb.
Bomhvx inoulosa, Hubner, Zutr., II, 19, ff. 293 294.
Dasychira mcndosa, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, I, 452 453 ; I.M.N.,
HI, No. 4, p. 22, fig. ; Lefroy, Ind. Tns. Life, p. 460.

I'lC. 264. — Olciic iiiciidoxd. hirv.i .iiicl moth. (( )iij;iTi.il.)

Di.'itril'uliou. Bellary, Coimbatore, Shevaroys.

Lifi'history. Not known in any detail. The appearance of the
caterpillar is shown in the figure. It pupates in a slight silken
cocoon.

Foodplants.- Castor, red-gram, coffee.

Status. 'A minor pest.

Co///ro/.-- Hand-picking ,

LEPIUOPTERA.

397

PSALIS (DASYCHIRA) SECURIS, Hb.
Bomhyx sccuris, Hubn., Zutr., II, IQ, ff. 291, 292.
Dasychiru sccuris, Hnipsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, I, 453-454; Lcfroy,
Ind. Ins. Life, p. 460. t. 39. f. 7-

Fig. 265. — Psalis seciiris, male and female moths. The outline figures show
the natural .sizes. (Original.)

Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifehistory - Eggs are laid in batches covered with hairs derived
from the anal tuft of the female moth. The full-grown caterpillar
is 30 — 40 mm. long, rather stout, in colour bright-yellow with a broad
red-brown stripe down the back and a narrow paler stripe along
the side; head dull-orange; on either side of the head two long
tufts of hair project forward and a single tuft backwards from the
anal segment ; on the first four abdominal segments are short, thick,
roundetl brush-like tufts of pale-yellowish hair and on the sixth and
seventh abdominal segments two bright-red papules stand on the
centre of the back ; all the segments with numerous warts from
which arise spreading tufts of fine pale hairs. Pupation as a rule
on a leaf-blade in a cocoon formed of silk interwoven with larval
hairs ; the pupal period is about 10 days.

Foodplaiits. — Paddy, cholam, ragi, sugarcane, grasses.

Status. — A minor pest of patldy.

Control. — The caterpillar is conspicuous and feeds exposed and
so is easily hand-picked.

398

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

EUPROCTIS FRATERNA, Moore.
Eitprorlis/nilcrmi, Moore, Lep. Ceylon, II, 85 ; Hmpsn. Faun. Ind.
Moths, I, 477 ; Lefroy, Inci. Ins. Life, p. 461, ff. 334, 315.

Fig. 266. — Fiiproctis fnitcnui. The outline fifjurc shows the natural size.
lOrih'inal.i

Distribution. — Probably throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Eggs laid on the lower surfaces of leaves in a mass
covered with hairs from the anal tuft of the female; the egg is
creamy yellow, circular, flattened. The newly hatched larva is
about 2i mm. long, slender, hairy, yellowish. The full-grown
larva is rather stout, dark reddish-brown, paler along the lower sur-
face, head and prothoracic shield bright orange-red, thickly covered

Fig. 267. — Eiiproclis fnttcnia. larva. (After Lefroy.)

LEPIDOPTERA.

399

with tufts of vvhitisli liair and with a pair of large tufts of darker
hair directed forward on either side of the head and a single
similar tuft directed backwards from the anal segment. Pupa
red-brown, in a slight cocoon interwoven with the larval hairs.
Life-cycle : egg, about 7 days ; larva, 30 days; pupa, about 4 days.

Foodpliints. -Ciisior, pomegranate, cotton (occasionally), reti-
grani.

Sldtiis. — Occasionally a rather serious pest of castor.

Control. — ^Hand-picking of the caterpillars and moths. The
caterpillars are gregarious and easily collected; their hairs are
somewhat poisonous antl they should not be touched with the barj
lianti more than is necessary.

EUPROCTIS SCINTILLAXS, Wlk.
S'.)»n-ii,i s.iiitilltiiis, Wlk., Cat. VII, 1734.

Eiiproclis sci/ililliii/s. Hmiisn., Faun. Ind. Moths. 1,483; Lefroy,
Ind. Ins. Life, p 461.

Img. 268. — Biiprnctis sciitfillans The outline figure shows the natural size.
(Original. I

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Similar to that of E. fratcnui. Caterpillar rather
stout, dark coloured, with tufts of fine hairs, a pale-yellow stripe
down the back and on the first two abdominal segments (the two
segments between the legs and prolegs) a thick tuft of blackish or
reddish stout detachable hairs.

Food plants.- Mango, gogu (Ifibisriis ((innahiniis), sann-hemp,
linseed, castor, red-gram.

Status. — A minor pest, rarely of much importance.

Control. — As in E. fratcriia.

400

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC.
HYPSID/E.

HYPSA FICUS, Fb.
Bombyx fiais. Fab., Ent. Syst.. Ill, 2. p. 27 (1794).
Hypsa Jicus, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, I. 504 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins.
Life, p. 463,1. 39. ff- I. 2.

A^/ri/i/v,///A'!\l

Fig. 269. — Hypsa /iciis, larva and moth. (Original.)

Distribution. — Coromandel Coast, Trichinopoly, Coiriibatore.

Lifehistory. — The caterpillar is about 25 mm. long, cylindrical,
rather flattened posteriorly, its whole body covered with scattered
yellow-brown warts from which arise fairly long white hairs; head
jet black ; the body is black with a white stripe along the back
and white dots along the side, sometimes with pale yellow mark-
ings on the back and beneath the sides, sometimes with red warts.
Pupation in a cocoon usually underground.

Foodplant. — Figs {Finis gloincrata, F. carica, F. rcligiosa, etc.).

Status. — An occasional defoliator of fig-trees.

Control. — In the case of young trees in small areas, hand-picking
and spraying may be done.

.ARGI.NA CRIBRARIA, Cl.

Plialtena cribraria, Clerck, Icon. Ins., II, t. 54, f- 4(1764).

Argiiia cribraria, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 51 52, f. 24;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, pp. 463-464, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind.,
p. 159, Ind. Ins. Pests, pp. I48, 193, figs.

LEPIDOPTKRA.

401

1"|G. 270. — Arfiina crihrarin. The outline figure shuws the natural size.
(Orisiiiuil.i

Dislril'iiliiiii. Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistury. Eggs are laid in small clusters on lower surfaces of
leaves. Caterpillar 25 mm. long, in colour white with a black line
along the side, and irregular black patches, a yellow line along the
side ileveloped into an orange spot on each segment ; hairs
black above, lighter beneath.

Footipltints. Sann Hemp.

Sttitiis. A minor pest of Sann Hemp, occasionally abundant.

Control.- In small plots spraying and hand-picking of young
larvcC.

.A.RGINA SYRINGA, Cr.

PlhiUciiii syringa. Cram., Pap. Exot., I, t. 5 c.

Argiiia syringa, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 51 ; Lefroy, Ind.
Ins. Pests, pp. 148. 104. Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I, 158.

Fig. 271. — Argiiia syriiifia. (Original.)
Dislrihiilioii. Throughout Southern India.
Lifc/iistory.— SimihiT to A. cribraria.
Fooiipltiiits. — Sann Hemp iCrotalaria jiiiuca).
Statiis.—A minor pest occasionally abundant.
Cow/m. - Hand-picking of young larva; and siiraying in the case
of small areas.

SPHINGID/E.
HERSE CONVOLVULI, Linn.
Sfliiiix coiivolviili, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. X), p. ,-98 (1758).
Hcrsc coiivolvuli. Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, I, 103, f. 60; Lefroy,
Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 159, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., I, 1 55, Ind. Ins.
Life, p. 467.
26

402

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

■>S. v^

Fig. 272. — Hcrsc coin-ulviili. (Original.'

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. -Eggs are laid singly on leaves. The full-grown
caterpillar is about lOO mm. long, with a sharp down-curved horn
on the tail end; colour dark brown with indistinct oblique red-
brown blotches on the sides or green with oblique yellow or pink
black-edged bars on the sides. Pupa in the soil, in a chamber
just below the surface ; colour red-brown, tongue-sheath long, pro-
jecting, incurved.

Foodflant. — Sweet potato, green-gram and other pulses.

Status. — A minor pest as a rule, occasionally occurring in large
numbers when the damage is serious.

Cow/ro/. — Hand-picking of the caterpillars. Sjjraying of small
areas.

ACHERONTIA STYX, Westw. | PLATE XXIV.]

Aclicrontia styx, Westwd., Cab. Or. Ent., p. 88, t. 42, f. 3 ; Hmpsn.,
Faun. Ind. Moths, I, 67, f. 40; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 160, Ent.
Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I, 1 54, f. 40, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 467, t. 40.

Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifchistory.- 'The large, globular, green egg is laid singly on
leaves. The full-grown caterpillar is about 90 mm. long, rather
stout, with a rough skin, and a recurved horn on the tail end; in
colour it is variable, usually light greenish with oblicjuc darker
green stripes along the sides and meeting over the back. Pupa
red-brown, in a chamber below the ground. The moth s()ucaks
when disturbed.

Foodplaiits. — Brinjal, lab-lab, gingelly.

.Status.— A minor pest of brinjal and gingelly.

Control. — Hand-picking of caterpillars.

HXPL.WATIOX OF PLATK XX I\'.

ACHEKOXTIA STYX.
Km, I, 2. Eggs, enlarged.
11 3. 4i Si 6. Larvx in various stages of growth.
„ 7. Pupa.
„ 8. Moth.

i.Thc lines ^lonfjsidc ihi- tij^nrus sh<jw the natural si/ii.)

PLATE XXIV.

9

t 2

Tf

fl^

-I 4

ACHERONTIA STYX.

LEPIDOPTERA.

403

DEILEPHILA NERII, Linn.
Sphinx ncrii, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed X), p. 798 (1758).
Di-ilff>hilii ncrii, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, I, 94-95, f. 54 ; Lefroy,
Intl. Ins. Life, p. 468, f. 316.

Fig. 273. — Dcih'phila ncrii. larva and pupa. ^Original.)
26-A

404

SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC

Fio. 274. — DciU-pliila ncrii. (After Lefioy.)

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Egg hiid singly. The full-grown caterpillar is about
100 mm. long, attenuated anteriorly, with a short roughened horn
on the tail end; colour variable, usually pale-green, with white dots
especially evident along the sides and a bright blue eye-spot on
cither side of the third thoracic segment. Pupa pale-brownish
yellow, with black spots ; pupation in a cell below ground.

Foodplmits. — Oleander (Neriiiin oleander) and other plants.

Status. — A minor pest of ornamental oleanders which it some-
times strips of their leaves.

Control. — Hand-picking of the larvse, which rest on the leaves
and twigs, although they are by no means easy to see in spite of
their large size.

EUPTEROTID^.
ELPTEROTE MOLLIFERA, Wlk.

I-IG. 275. — liiiptcrolc iiinlli/cra. male. The outline figure shows the
natural size. (Original.)

LEPIDOPTERA. 4O5

Euptiiolc iiiollifirti. \\\k.. Cat. XXXII, 376 ; Hmpsn., Faun. Iml.
Moths, I, 57 59; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Lite, p. 471.

Distribution. Throughout Southern India.

/.//(■///i/tf/v. Cateri)iilar about 40 mm. long, dull brown or red-
brown, with a ilull whitish line along the siile above the spiracles;
head and true legs redilish ; all the segments with numerous warts
from which arise spreading tufts of fine brown hair; on the back
of the first and third to sixth abiloniinal segments are also l;irge
thick tufts of short dark-brown hairs.

Food f>l(i lit. — Moriiiga ptcrygos[>cniia (Tamil, Moringai).

Status. — Occasionally a serious pest, occurring in enormous num-
ber and defoliating the trees.

Control. — The caterpillars usually rest on the tree-trunk during
the day time antl may be destroyed by burning with a torch.

Note. — The hairs of this caterpillar are poisonous and care
should be taken not to louch them or even to approach the trees on
which they occur nearer th.in necessary.

SATURNIAD/E.

ACTIAS SELENE, Hb.

Attacus Siirnc, Hubn., Saniml. Exot. Schm., I, t. 1/2, f. 3.
Actias sclciic, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, I, 13, f. 8 ; Lcfroy, Ind.
Ins. Life, p. 478, f. 326.

ISKE FlGfRE 276.1

Distribution.- Throughout Southern India.

Lifcliistory. — The full-grown caterpillar is about 75 mm. long,
stout, with distinct segments, in colour bright apple-green, with two
rows of yellow spinous warts along the back and another row along
the side; the fine hairs on the back are yellowish, those on the
sides and beneath blackish ; pad to anal claspers reddish. Cocoon
tough, oval, brown, usually enclosed in a leaf or leaves.

Foodplants. — Moringa pterygospcrnia and various other shrubs.

Status. — Not very common as a rule.

Remarks. — On account of the large size of the cocoon, inquiries
are often made with regard to the value of the silk produced by
this insect. It is, however, of no commercial importance.

CRICULA TRIFENESTRATA, Heifer.

Criciila tri/ciicstrala, Heifer, J.A.S.B., VI, 45 ; Hmpsn., Faun. Ind.
Moths, I, 28, f. 14; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 481.

Distribution. — Throughout the damper districts of Southern India.

4o5

SOME SOITTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

} . I I

Fig. 277. — Criciila irifciiestrata : 1, Larva ; 2, Cocoon enclosing pupa :
3. Female Moth. fOrigiiial.l

Li/clii<torv. — Full-grown caterpillar about 50 mm. long, segments
sharply defined, each with six large warts from which arise tufts of
fine hairs ; colour ilark brown, with a pale-reddish stripe along the
side, prothoracic segment (firi-t segment behind head) and anal
claspers crimson. Cjcoon spun amongst leaves and twigs, often in
masses ; corr.posed of a net-work of bright golden silk.

Foodp/anls. — Mango; cashew lAiuicardium occidciilalc).

Status. — An occasional pest of mango and cashew, stripping all
the leaves.

Remarks. — (l) The hairs of the caterpillars arc poisonous and
they should therefore not be handled.

(2) The cocoons are often found in large numbers and inquiries
are made regarding a possible sale for them. They are, however,
of no corrimcrcial value.

LEPlPf^PTERA. 407

BOMBYCID^.

OCINARA VARIAXS, Wlk.
Naprcf>t7 variivis, Wlk., Cat. V, 1 1 53.

Ocinara vuritins, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, 1, 35 ; Lefroy, Ind.
Ins. Life, p. 484, f. 327.

[^t_^^'i '^-.

"^■^^' % -^"^v.^^'

I'IG. 278.— Ociiiaia varimis, moth and larva. The outHue figure .shows
the natural size of the moth. (Original.)

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — The full-grown caterpillar is about 30 mm. long,
humped anteriorly and with a slight horn on the tail end ; in colour
pale grey, matching very closely the twigs on which it rests. The
bright yellow cocoon is spun in a rolled leaf as a rule.

FoO(l[>lants. — Figs of various sorts.

Status. — A pest of fig-trees, occasionally stripping every leaf,
especially in the case of young trees.

408

SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Control. — Spraying with Lead Arsenate or similar poison and
hand-picking of small trees. It must be noted, however, that the
caterpillars are often very difficult to see especially when resting
on the bare twigs after having stripped all the leaves.

NOTODONTID^.

STAUROPUS ALTERNUS, Wlk.
Stauropiis altcniiis, Wlk., Cat. V, 1020; Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths,
I, T49-150. f. 91 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 472. f. 321.

Fig. 279. — Staitropus alteriiiis.
larva. (Original. 1

FiO. 280. — Stauropus altcntiis. male
moth. lOriKinal.i

Distribution. — Coimbatore. Ganjam. Probably throughout South-
ern India.

Li/cliislory. — Full-grown caterpillar about 40 mm. long, with
extraordinarily dilated and flattenetl posterior extremity which is
held over the back when alarmed, the anal claspers being reduced
to two slender filaments ; a row of paired sharp triangular humps
down the back ; second and third pairs of thoracic legs very long ;
colour grey-brown mottled with darker. This caterpillar cannot
be mistaken for anything else when once seen. The young
caterpillar mimicks an ant ; the full-grown one looks not unlike a
spider when alarmed. The dark red-brown pupa is formed in a
slight cocoon spun amongst leaves, etc.

Foodflants. — Tamarind, Tur (Cnjanus inilicii.'il. Trr.cia niiJifolid,
Tea.

Stntii.'s. — Rather a scarce insect as a rule, but has once been
recorded as a serious sporadic pest of tea in Ceylon.

LKl'lDOPTKRA. 4C9

GEOMETKID/E.
BISTON SlIPPRESSARIA, Gn.
Biston siipfrisstirici, Guenee, Phal., I, 210 ; Hnipsn., Faun. hid.
Moths, III, 247; I.M.N., V, 185 -187. t. 13, IT. 10, loa r ; Watt &
.Mann, Posts of Tea, pp. 225-226, t. 9. L 2.

1"r'..' 2)S1. — liisloii siippn

sarin, moth and larva. (Knuii Indian Miiscnni
Xotes.)

Distribution. — Reported to occur in the Tea districts.

Lifciiistory. — Not known in detail. The caterpilhir may be either
dark-brown and twig-like or green willi liarkcr liands. Pupation
in the soil.

Food pi (1)1 ts. — Tea, Cassiu ciuricnlata.

Status. — Apparently only an occasional and very minor pest of
tea in Southern India.

Control. — Hand-picking of caterpillars.

Remark.';. — Included here on the authority of Mr. Anstead who
informs me that it has once been reported as damaging tea in South
India.

LASIOCAMPID^.

METANASTRIA HYRTACA, Cram.

Phahcna liyrtaca. Cram., Pap. Exot., Ill, t. 249 F.

Mctanastria liyrtaca, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, I, 410-41 1, f. 283 ;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 497, ff. 332, 333.

Distribution. — Coimbatore, Chinglepul, Ganjam. Probably
throughout Southern India.

A//<7»'.s7w,v. — Full-grown larva about 75 mm. long, stout, greyish,
covered with stout hairs and with flaps at the sides and tufts of
longer hair projecting forward on either side of the head ; between
the metathorax and first abdominal segments (third and fourth

410

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Fig. 282. — Metanastria hyrtaca : 1, Larva (after Moore) ; 2, Male Moth

in resting attitude (after Forsayetht ; 3. Male, and 4. Female Moths.

(Original.)

segment behind head) is a patch of short blackish or reddish hairs,
concealed in repose but exposed when alarmed. Pupa bfownish-red
in a long cocoon usually spun on a branch of the foodplant.

Foodplatits. — Miinusops elengi, country almond (Tcrmi)ialiii(iil-
api>a), Nyctanthes arhortp-islis (Tamil, Pavazha nuilli).

Status. — Not a pest as a rule but occasionally ajjpears in large
numbers anfl strips trees.

LIMACODID^.
PARASA LEPIDA. Cr.
Phahciia Icpida, Cram., Pap. Exot., II, t. 130 E.
Parasa Icpida, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, I, 388, f. 264 ; Lefroy,
Ind. Ins. Life, p. 500, f. 336; I.M.N., III, No. 4, p. 13. figs.

Distribution- -TViTonghouX. Southern India.

Z,//(?/»'5/o/->'.- Full-grown caterpillar 15—25 mm. long, squat and
stout ; in colour bright green with a broad interrupted blue stripe
down the back and a narrower blue stripe along each side; both
dorsal and lateral stripes are bordered by a row of warts from
which arise thick spreading brushes of short spinous hairs ; at each

I.EPinOPTERA.

411

extremity the two internal hair tufts are much larger than the
rest. In walking, the legs are not visible and the caterpillar moves
with a sluglike motion. Pupation in a tough shell-like rounded
cocoon, often found in numbers together on tree-trunks. Pupation
period three to five weeks or longer.

Fig. 283. — Parasii Icpitla. larva. The small figure shows the natural size.
I Original. I

Fig. IS-t.—Parat-a hpulti. mr Ih. (Original. 1

Foodpliutts.— Castor, mango, ccccnut, palmyra, wcod-apple.
pepper, pomegranate, cauliflower, tea, coffee. Polyphagous.

Status.— An occasional serious pest, even of large trees, which
it strips entirely of leaves.

Control.— (1) In the case of low-growing trees and shrubs the
larv«, being more or less gregarious, may be hand-picked, care
being taken not to touch them with the bare hand as the larval
spines are very poisonous.

(2) Spraying with Lead Arsenate or similar poison. Crushing
of pupae in the cocoons on tree-trunks.

ALTHA NIYEA, Wlk.
^///»rt wr.Vrt, Wlk., J.L.S., VI, 173; Hmpsn.. Faun. Ind. Moths, I,
397, f. 273 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 499.

4I2 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

I-IG. >>^^.—Alt/ia iiivci. (OiiKiiial.l

/)/.<//'//>////(>;;. — Bellary, Coinibatorc. Probably throughout South-
ern India.

Li/c/iislory.- The round shell-like cocoons have been found on
the stem of castor-plants, below the surface of the ground.

Foodphvits. — Castor ( Riciuiis coiiiniunis).

Status. ^NoX known to do any damage.

NYMPHALID^.
MELANITIS ISMENE, Cram. [PLATE L, FIGS. 7"9.]

Pi.pilio isinoie, Cram., Pap. Exot., I, t. 26, fT. A, B {1775).

Melanitis ismenc, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 122, f. 139, Ind. Ins.
Life, p. 410, t. 29; Bingham, Faun. Ind. Butt., I, 158 159, f. 36.

Distriluition. -Throughout Southern India, occurring from sea-
level to elevations above 7,000 feet.

Lifehistory. — The round, white eggs are laid on leaves of grasses
on which the larva feeds. This latter is pale green with a roughened
skin, with a darker head bearing a pair of horn-like processes and
with the anal extremity produced into two slender processes ; it
feeds chiefly at night, remaining immobile during the day-time.
The stout, smooth, pale green j^upa is slung by the tail from a
grass-stem or leaf.

Foodplants. — Grasses.

Status. — A pest of paddy but as a rule does very little damage,
its numbers being probably checked by parasites and natural
enemies.

PAPILIO.XID^.
PAPILIO DEMOLEUS, Linn. (PLATE XXV.]

Papilio dcmokus. Linn., Syst. Nat., X, 464 (1758) ; Bingham, Faun.
Ind. Butt., II, 39-40, f. 7; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, pp. 174— 177. fl".
195—197, Ind. Ins. Life, pp. 422-423, fT. 291 292.

/)/5/r;7)H /;'<?«.— Throughout Southern India.

Li/chistory.—The rounded greenish-white eggs are laid on leaves
of Citrus of various kinds. The young larva is brownish or black-
ish with an irregular, broad, conspicuous white bar across its back,
and is protected by its resemblance to a bird's dropping. The

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXV

HAPILIO DEMOLEUS.
Fig. I. Eggs laid on leaf, magnified.
,. 2-6. Larvae in various stadia.

7. Larva suspended for pupation.
.. S. Pupa.
„ q, 10. Bulterfl\.

PLATE XXV.

PAPILIO DEMOLEUS.

LEPIUOPTERA.

413

full-grown larva is green with oblique brownish cross-bands.
Pupa pale brownish or greenish slung by a girdle and anal pad.
The larval and pupal periods are each of about a fortnight's
duration.

Foodplaiits. — Various species of Citrus (Orange, Citron), Bael
(jEgk iiianiiclos) and other Rutacese. Also occasionally on Psorcilcn
corylifolia (Tel. Baviinchi) sometimes on curry-leaf plant (Miirr<tyn
k(viiigi) (Tam. Kiinivcfpihii).

Status. — Sometimes a serious pest, strippinj;- all the leaves when
in large numbers.

Control. — Hand-picking when the attacked bushes can be reach-
ed ; the eggs and larva; are fairly easily seen.

PIERID/E.
C.\TOPSILIA PYR.JlNTHE, Linn.
Papilio pyrantlic. Linn., Syst. Nat., X, 469 (1758).
Catopsilia pyrauthc. Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 418, f. 289; Kershaw,
Butt. Hongkong, pp. lOO-lOl, t. 7, f. 9, t. II, f. 5, t. 13, f. 9, t.3',
ff. 21 22: Bingham, Faun. Ind. Butt.. II. 221 223.

Fig. 286. — Catopsilia pyrciiitlte. lOiiginal.)

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — The egg is spindle-shaped, white and almost smooth,
and is laid singly on the leaves and stems of the foodplant. The
larva has a roughened skin and is pale leaf-green in colour with a
lateral row of nearly-continuous black dots above a longitudinal
pale-yellow stripe. Pupa smooth, pale green, attached to a twig or
leaf by a girdle and anal patch of silk.

Foodplauts. — Cdssitj Occident nl is and (.'. tiuriculatii. Scslhiiiid and
probably other Legiiiniiiosa:

Status. — Rarely a pest though it often occurs in very large
numbers. On one occasion, however, the caterpillars of this butter-
fly were sent as destructive to Scshania in the Cumbum range.
Madura district ; but various noctuid caterpillars were also con-
cerned in this case.

414 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

TERIAS HECABE, Linn.
Papilio hecabe, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. X), p. 470 (1758).
Terias hecabe, Bingham, Faun. Butt., II, 250—254, ff. 60—62;
Swinhoe, Lcp. Indica, VII, 50—56, t. 567.

Fig. ?.?,1.— Terias hecabe. (Original.)

Distribit tioii . —T hroughout.

Lifehistory. — The smooth, white, spindle-shaped egg is attached
singly to the upperside of the leaves of the foodplant. Larva
rather slender, pale-green with a white stripe along the side, the
skin rather roughened and sparsely covered with short hairs which
are probably hollow as minute drops of lic|uid may be seen
apparently exuded from their tips, so as to give the larva sometimes
the appearance of being irrorated with white. Pupa attached by
the tail and slung by a girdle from a stem or leaf of the foodplant ;
usually pale-green, slender, rather sharply pointed anteriorly. The
caterpillar and pupa are usually difficult to see on their foodplants.

Foodplants. — Agathi, Daincha and other species of &'-?/v»//rt and
Cassia.

S/rt/H5. -^Scarcely a pest as a rule but sometimes strips the leaves
of the foodplants especially in the case of young plants. Occa-
sionally a pest of Albizzia planted as shade for tea, etc

Control. — Spraying with Lead Arsenate, Lead Chromate, etc.. in
the case of localized attacks, young nursery beds, etc.

LYC^NID/E.
CATOCHRYSOP5 CNEJUS, Fb. [PLATE XXVI.]

Hcspcria ciiejus, Fab., Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 430 (1798).

Catochrysops ciicjiis, Bingham, Faun. Ind. Butt., II, 415 416;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 427, t. 32.

Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifehistory. — The rouniled highly sculptured egg is laid on flower-
buds. The newly-hatched larva bores into the bud, feeiling on the
unopened flower and after eating that it attacks another flower or
enters a pod where it feeds on the unripe seeds. When full-grown
it is about 1 3 mm. long, flattencfl, pale-greenish or yellowish,

FXPLANATIOX OF PLATE XX\I.

CATOCHRVSOPS CXEJUS.

Fig. I. Eggs laid on a shoot of black gram (Phascolus radiatusL
„ 2. Egg, magnified.
„ 3. Larva boring into a pod.
„ 4, 5. Larvae.
„ 6. Pupa on a pod, at the base of which is seen the hole bored by

the larva with pellets of brown e.xcreta around it.
„ 7, 8. The butterfly.

PLATE XXVI.

CATOCHRYSOPS CNEJUS.

LEPIDOPTERA.

415

covered with short spine-like hairs. "When full-grown the larva
descends to the ground, enters the earth at the base of the stem of
the foodplant antl there constructs a weak cocoon of silk in which
it transforms into a dark-coloured rounded pupa provided with a
slight silken girdle " [Y.R.R.] but, sometimes at least, pupation is
cffecteti on or amongst the leaves of the foodplant.

Foodphvits. — Retl-gram, Lab-lab and other pulses.

Status. — Serious injury may be done when this insect is in large
numbers, a very large proportion of the pods being completely
emptied of their contents.

Control. — .'

POLYOMMATUS BCETICUS, Linn.

Papilio baticus, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. XII;, I, 789 (1767).

Polyonniuittis ba'tictis, Bingham, Faun. Ind. Butt., IT, 432^434 ;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 428 ; Kershaw, Butt. Hongkong, p. 75, t. 9,
ff. 2, 10.

Fig. 28S. — Polyommattis baticus : 1, 2, Larva; 3, Pupa; 4, Butterfly in

resting attitude showing underside of wings ; 5, Butterfly, left male,

right female. (Figs. 1—3 after Lang, 4—5 original.)

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifc/iistory.— Eggs are laid on flower-buds and pods into which
the young newly-hatched lar\'ae burrow. The full-grown larva is

4l6

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

about 12 mm. long, pale-green, with a roughened skin. The short
squat pupa is pale yellowish-green or greyish, smooth, with a double
sub-dorsal series of small blackish spots; pupation usually on a
leaf, twig, or pod of the foodplant.

Foodplants. — Crotahiria and Pisiiin oi \dr\o\.\^ species, and prob-
ably on most pulses.

Status.— ^iay be a serious pest in localities where Crotalaria is
grown for seed.

Control. — ?

VIRACHOL.A ISOCRATES, Kabr.

flcspcriti isocratcs. Fab.. Ent. Syst., Ill, i, 266 267 (1793).
Tliirl,! isocrati's. Westw., T.E.S., II, 1-8, t. I (1835).
Virachola isocnites,Le{roy, Ind. Ins. Pests, pp. 179 180, ft". 199 — 206,
Intl. Ins. Life. p. 428. f. 293.

^

Fig. 289. — \'iriicliula isocraics. larva and male and female butterfly.
(Larva after Lefroy. other figures oriKin.il.i

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Eggs arc laid on the flowers and buds, the larva
boring into the fruit until full feil, when it emerges and secures the
stalk of the fruit to the stem with a silken binding; this done, it
re-enters the fruit and pupates.

Foodplants. — Pomegranate, guava. lo<|uat. tamarind, orange.

.S7rt///.v. -Sometimes a serious pest of pomegranate, but only
occasionally attacks other fruits.

PLATE XXVI

PARNARA MATHIAS.

EXFLAXATIOX OF PLATE XXVII.

FARNARA MATHIAS.

Fig. I. Eggs, lateral view x lo.
„ 2. Voung larva rolling a leaf.
„ 3. Full-grown larva.
„ 4. Pupa in rolled leaf.
„ 5-7. Butterfly.

„ 8, 9. Puppria of Tachinid parasites.
„ 10. Hyiiienopterous parasite.
„ 11, 12. Tachinid parasites.

'The 1 nes a!on-:side ihc fi-urts shov. the n,-

LKPIDOPTKRA.

417

Coiilml. —Dcs\.rM-Uon of attaikcd fruits, catching of liutterflics
by hantl-iu'ts, and perhaps r )vorin<i of vahuibit:' fruit in muslin
bags.

HESPERIADi€.
GANGARA THYRSIS, Moore.

Papilio thyrsis. Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 532 (l775)-
Gaiigar,! thyrsis, Lcfroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 431, f. 295; Distant,
Rhop. Malay, p. 394- t. 34. f- I3-

Fig. 290. — Gangara tliyrsis.

larva about half grown.

(Original. I

l']C,. 2'-)\.—(;,vi}^,ir,i /hyrsis. K )rii,'ina1.l

Distribution. -Coimbatore.

Lifchistory (iinl Foodplant. — The eggs are laid on leaves of various
species of palms on which the larva feeds. The larva, when full
grown, is pale greenish, reddish in parts, but the colour is concealed
under long delicate white wa.xy filaments which form a fluffy secre-
tion all over the larva ; it lives inside rolled up palm-leaves in which
it also pupates. The greenish white pupa is about 27 mm. long
and attached by the tail to a stout silken cord spun across the leaf
chamber in which it vibrates with great energy when disturbed so
that it produces a loud rattling noise. The butterfly is on the wing
only at dusk.

Status. — A minor pest which occasionally does some damage
to ornamental palms and in nurseries of young coco-palms, etc.

Control. -The larva is easily found and collected by hand.
The bitten leaves and fragments of white waxy secretion on the
leaves give a good clue to its whereabouts.

PARNARA .MATHIAS, Fb. [PLATE XXVII.]
Hcsfcriti inalhias. Fab., Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 433 (1798).
Biwris mathiiis. Distant, Rhop. Malay, pp. 380-381, t. 35, f. 10.
Parnara inathins, Kershaw, Butt. Hongkong, p. 130, t. Vila, f. I ;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 431, t 33.

27

4l8 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Li/eliistory.— The larva is pale-greenish with indistinct pale
yellowish-white bars across the back and a whitish line along the
side ; it lives in rolled up leaves of various grasses. The translucent
pale-greenish pupa is formed on a blade of the foodplant, attached
by the tail and a girdle.

Foodphvits. — Grasses of various kinds, especially paddy, and
more occasionally cholam, etc.

Status. — A minor pest as a rule.

Control. — ?

Remarks. — The numbers of this butterfly are usually kept in
check by numerous parasites and predators.

PARNARA COLACA, Moore.

Hespcriti colaca. Moore, P.Z.S. (1877), 594, t. 58, f. 7.
Paninni colaca, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 43 1, f. 296.

Fig. 292. — Panittra colaca. The outline figure shows the natural size.
iOriginal.)

Distribution. — Chingleput (Saidapet and Madras).
Lifchistory. — Not known in iletail.
Foodplant. — Paddy.
Status.- -Scarcely a pest.

Sl'ASTUS GREMIUS, Fb.

Hcspcria ffrcmius. Fab., Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 433 (1798).

Suaslus grcmius. Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 431 ; Kershaw, Butt.
Hongkong, p. 125, t. 14. f. 25, t. 7a, f. 11 ; Willey, Spol. Zeyl., VI,
125—130, figs. (1 909)-

Distribution. -BangnloTQ, Godavari, Coimbatore. In July and
August. (Probably throughout palm-growing districts all the year
round.)

LEPIDOPTERA.

419

Fig. 293. — SuastKS grciiiiiis. The outline fii(iire shows the n.ituial size.
lOrii^in.il.)

Lifcliistory. — The larva is pale-green with a narrow blue line
clown the back ; it lives in tubes formed by rolling up portions of
palm-leaves. When full fed, it closes the ends of this tubular-cell
with silk anil changes to a yellowish pupa. Prior to pupation the
larval cell is sometimes cut adrift from the palm-leaf, the larva
pupating on the ground.

Food plan Is. — Palms, mostly pahnyra. Also recorded from coco-
nut palm.

Status. — A minor pest.

Control. — .'

TELICOT.A .\UGI.AS. Linn.
Papilio aii^ias, Linn., Syst. X.it. (ed. XII), I, p. 794 (1767I
Triirold aiij^iiis. Distant, Rhop. Malay, p. 382, t. 34, f. 23 ; Lefrov
Ind. Ins. Life, pp. 431 432.

Fig. 294.— Tc7ic<)/(f mifiins. (Orii,'in.il.i
Distribution. — Vizagapatam, Coimbatore, South Arcot.
throughout Southern India all the year round.
27.A

Probably

420

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC

Li/iiiislory. — The greenish larva folds the leaves of the foorlplant
into tubular cells in which it lives and pupates.

Foodpl(i)its. — Sugarcane. Also said to feed on Ijamboo and
paddy.

Status. — A minor pest, rarely doing much damage even when
abundant.

Ciiiitrdl. — In small cane-plots the larvae may be hand-picked.

UDASPES POLL'S, Cram.

Papiliu foliis. Cram., Pap. Exot., I, t. 74, f. 7 (l779).

Udaspcs foliis. Davidson and Aitken, B.J., V. 371-372 ; Lefroy,
Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 168; Ind. Ins. Life, p. 432; Kershaw, Butt.
Hongkong, pp. 136 137, t. 14, f. 20.

Fig. 295. — L'ciaspcx foliis. The oiitliiic fiKnro shnws the natural size.
(Original. I

Distribution. — Northern Circars and Coimbatorc.

Lifehistory. — Larva greenish (either pale or dark) with a darker
stripe along the back caused by the digestive tract being visible
through the skin ; head brownish or blackish. Pupa with the
head-end produced into a beak, yellowish-white or greenish-white,
attached by an anal pad and a girdle; pupation inside a rolled
leaf but the pupa is not entirely concealed. Larva in a rolled leaf
of the foodplant.

Foodplants. — Ginger, turmeric, and probably wild lilies (Ker-
shaw notes the foodplant at Hongkong as Alpiiiia nutans).

SM/M.S.— Rather a scarce insect as a rule h\\\ occasionally a
serious pest of ginger and turmeric.

Control. — The folded leaves containing the larva: and pupa; arc
casilv seen and the insects collected bv hand.

PLATE XXVlll.

^

if*''*'

"x^- 1

i^'^--

2

/

GALLERIA MELLONELLA.

EXPLANATION Ol- PLATE XX\ IfL

GAiJ,ERIA MEl.LOXELLA.

I*IG. 1. Eggs, lar\a. and moth on comb, natural si/.e.
. 2. Larva.

3. Cocoon.
, 4. Pupa, removed horn cocoon.
, 5. Male moth.

6. Female motli.
, 7. Eggs, enlarged.

(Thi- lines alongside the iigures sh.jw ihe natural size;

LEPlDOPTEkA.

421

Fig. 296. — Stciiac/iroia clou-

gcll». The outline figure shows

the u;itur;il size. (Original.)

PYRALID/E.

STENACHK01.-\ ELONGELLA, llnip.sn.

Stotaclii'via cloiijfclli i. i 1 1 1 1 1 ) s n . . B. J . .
XII, 94, fig. ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life,
p. 510.

Distrilmliun. — Bellary.
Li ffhistory. — Not known. Cater-
pillar webs over eurheads on which
it feeds.

Foodphiiits. — Earhcads of i hohmi.
Status. — An occasional but \ery
local pest of cholam, doing con-
siderable damage when in large
numbers.

Control. — Destruction of first-
attacked heads.

GALLERIA MELLONELLA, Linn. [PLATE XXVIIL]

PluiUani mcUoiicUa, Linn. Syst. Nat. (ed. X), p. 537 (1758).
Galkria nidhmclla, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, IV, 9, f . 8 ; Lefroy.
Ind. Ins. Life, pir 500-501. f. 338; Fletcher. A.T.. I, Oct. 1911. tab.

Pig. 297. Frame of Be<_-I.i- < v . boed with silk by larvx of GaVteria

mellonella. (After Lefroy.^

£)/sfr;7'K^(0H.— Throughout Southern India.

Li/chistory.— Eggs are laid singly or in small clusters on wax
combs of Bees' nests. The larvae tunnel through the wax, on which

422

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC

they t'l-fil, lining their tunnel with silken webbing. The tull-grown
caterpilliir is about 20 25 mm. long, moderately stout, smooth
except for a few short bristly hairs, dirty-white with a yellowish
head. The pale-yellowish pujia is enclosed in a tough oval cocoon
of white silk, usually spun in a crack or crevice and often covered
with larval excreta on the outside.

Food. — Wax of Bees' combs.

Sttiliis. — A pest of Apiaries.

Control. — Colonies of bee should be kept strong. The use of
bar-frame hives, coupled with regular examination of the combs,
will keep this pest in check. Wax foimdation should be kept in
tight boxes to which the moths cannot ()l)t:iin access.

1)I.-\TR.'E.\ S11.

1 11,. J'l.s. — l)ititrati sp. 'I hi outline figun; shows the iiatui.il si/e. lOiif;iii;il.i

Distribution. — Probably throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifehistory. — Not known in detail. Caterpillar, a borer in stalks
of cane, whitish with dark warts from which arise bristly hairs.
Pupa slender, brown, in larval tunnel.

Foodplant. — Sugarcane. Occasionally (exceptionally) in rholam.

Status. — A serious pest of sugarcane.

Control. The shoots attacked by the caterpillars wither
and show as dead-hearts. These should be cut out ami burnt to
prevent the moths emerging and spread of the attack. If this is
clone at once, while the crop is young, new shoots will he thrown
up and no loss of crop occur.

Remarks. — This insect has hitherto been confused with Cliilo
simplex, but is distinct in structure, habits and main foodplants.
It is perhaps Diatrara venosata, Wlk., of which strialalis, Snellen, well
known as a serious pest of cane in Java, is a synonym.

CHILO SIMPLEX, Butl.

Cliilo simplex. Butl., P.Z.S. (1880). (390; Hmi)sn.. Faun. hid.
Moths, IV, 26, f. 17; Lefroy (parlim), Ind. Ins. Pests, pj). 125 130, ff.

LKPIIJOI'TKKA.

423

143 150: Km. Mem. Auri. IVpt.. In, I.. I. i()s, f(. 57, 5S ; Ind. Ins.
l.itc. pp. 510 5i I. 1. 47. rr. 1. 4, 15, 16; Hinpsn., H.J.. .\XI. 1250.

Fig. igg.-cinio simplex, larva. The outline figure above shows the natural
size ; the lower fignres show details on a larger scale. (Original.)

^^3Dl!i*

"Fig. • 300.— C/n7fi Sniipicx : 1. Chiiter of Eggs as laid : 2. Pupa : i Moth in

- resting attitude : A. Moth. The smaller figufes show the natural sizes.

'.Authors original illustration.!

424

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

/^/.v//'/7'////««. -Throiiglioiit llu' Plains of Southern India.

Li/eliislory. — Eggs are laid in masses overlapping one another.
Caterpillar dirty-white or pinkish-grey with numerous small dark
warts bearing short bristly hairs, head brownish, thoracic plate
horny. Pupa rather slender, yellow-brown, in gallery bored by the
larva in the stems of the larger cereals.

Foodplaiits. — Cholam, ragi, maize, occasionally in cumbu and
sugarcane.

Stains. — A serious pest of cholam, ragi and niai/.c, tlir larva
boring down the stem which it hollows out so tliat tlir wiiolr
upper part of the stem is filled with rotting excremcntal matter.

Control. (l) In large areas it is not practicable to pull out the
early affected plants but this can be done in small exi^erimental
plots and the like.

(2) The female moths are attracted by light at night and
numbers can be caught at times by light-traps placed in and near
the affected fields. This is probably the only practical measure
on a large scale.

ANCYLOLO.MI.'X CHRYSOGRAPHELLA, Koll.
C/iilo chryxographcUiis, Kollar, Hugcls Kaschmir. IV. 494.
AncyloloiHiii cfirysojcrnipliflld, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. .Moths, IV. 33 ;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 511 ; Ent. Mem. Dept. Agr., Ind.. 1, 198.

Fig. 301. — Ancylolomia chrybographclla. The outline figure shows the
natural size. ^Original.)

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Caterpillar about 20 — 23 mm. long, cylindrical,
slender, smooth, with short prolegs, in colour pale-green with black-
ish head and plate on prothorax. The caterpillar feeds at night,
remaining during the day in hiding underground in long tubular

.KI'inoiTKRA.

425

galleries lined with silk or may be round at the roots of its food-
plant. Pupation in larval (gallery ; pupal period about ten days.
(T.V.R.)

FoodpliiHls. — Paddy, l\isf<ilHiii tlildltilinii. Probably on all
Graminea;.

Status.— Or\\y found on one occasion as a serious pest of paddy
seedlings. It is, however, liable to occur at any time in dry, sandy
localities.

Conlrol.-n) The moths are strongly attracted to lijj,ht anrl lipht-
traps may be employed.

(2) In paddy seed-beds or small experimental an-as, spraying
of phints.

(3) Where practicable Hooding of affected areas will bring-
up the larv;v; which are greedily devoured by crows, etc.

SClRPOPH.JiG.-\ .-XURIFLUA, Zeller.

Sdrfoplitigii iiiirijfiia, Zeller, Mon. Chil., p. 2; Hmpsn,, F"aun.
Ind. Moths, IV. 46; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, pp. 130 -T33, f. 152;
Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., I. 199, f. 59; Ind. Ins. Life, \i. 511, t. 47,
ff. 2, 5, 14. I-7-

Scirpopliiigd iiitaclii, Snell, Tijd. v. Ent. (1891 ). 343, t. XVIII, ff.
I — 4 ; Lefroy. Ind. Ins. Life, t. 47, f. 10.

Fig. 302. — Scirpopha^a auriflua. The outline figure shows the natural size.
(Original.')

Distribution.— Thxo\xg\\ou.X. the Plains of Southern India.

Li/ehi story.— Eggs are laid on a leaf in a cluster covered with
the orange hairs from the anal tuft of the female moth. Caterpillar
dirty yellowish-white, rather stout, smooth except for a few short

426

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

l)ristly hiiirs; biirrovvinfc in the stem ol youn^ phmts. in top-slioots
of oldtT ones. The yellowish, elongiik' i)U|):i in the l;irv,il burrow.

Fooilplaiit. —Sugarcane.

Stiitiis. -A rather minor pest of cane in Southern India.

Control.' {\) Cutting out and destruction of affected toi)-shoot.s.
(2) Attraction of moths by light-traps.

SCIRPOPH.AGA MON'OSTIGMA, /.eller.
Sci>-/^(ipli<i,<;,i nioiiosligiiiti, Zell., Mon. C.liil., |). 3 : llmpsn., l-":iun.
Ind. Moths, IV, 46; Lefroy, Ent. .Mem. Agri. Deiit., Ind.. I. 200, f. 60 ;
Ind. Ins. Life, p. 511, t. 47, f. 3.

I'IG. 303.^ — Scirpoplin^a nioiiostigiiui. ihe outline liKiiie shows llu n.iliir;il
size. (Original.)

Distribution. — Coimbatore ; probably throughout the submontane
districts of Southern India.

Z,//c'/»i/o/-v.— Probably the same as in .s". ,iiirijlu<i.

Foodplant. — Sugarcane.

Status. — A rather minor pest of cane.

Control. — As in S. auriftiia.

SCHCENOBIUS BIPU.\CTIFHR, Wlk. | PLATE XXIX. |
Sclia'nohins bipinutifcr, \N\k..Cn\.. XXVIII, 523 ; Hmpsn.. l-"aun.
Ind. Moths, IV. 48, f. 32; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 512.
£)/.s7/-/7;h/w;/.— Throughout the Plains of Southern India.
fjfchistory. — Eggs are laid on leaves in clusters covert'd with
yellowish hair derived from the anal tuft of the female moth. The
caterpillar bores in the stems of paddy and perhaps of wild grasses.
The full-grown caterpillar is about 20 mm. long, slender, smooth,
segments distinct, in colour dull-whitish or yellowish sometimes
with a green tint, head orange-yellow. Pupation in the larval
burrow which is lined with silk. The moth emerges through a hole
previously cut by the caterpillar through the side of the stem.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIX.

SCHCEKOBIUS BIPUNCTIFER.

Fig. I. Egg-mass on leaf, natural size.

,, 2. Egg-mass on leaf, magnified.

„ 3. Larva.

,. 4- Pupa.

., 5. Stem cut open, showing cocoon.

„ 6. Female moth, in resting attitude.

„ 7. .Moth, male.

.. S. „ female.

(The lines a|.jni,'si<lc ihe ligurcs show the nalutal sizes. The plant >hows .i dead-hcarl
characleristic of attack liv the larva.)

PLATE XXIX.

SCHCENOBIUS BIFUNCTIFER.

LEPIDOPTERA.

427

luioilpliiiils. — Pa clily .

St, lilts. — A very serious pest of iiaclcly in SoiuIktm liulia.
Control. — (l) The moths are strongly attracted at night to light
and may he cauglit in hirge numbers by means of liglU-traps.

(2) The egg-masses are lonspieuous and, when plentiful, are
easily hand-picked.

(3) Paddy-stubbles should be ploughed uji, and if possible
burnt after the harvest is gathered.

S.'^LURIA INFICITA, Wlk.

.l./v/'f/.NV.N- inthila. Wlk., Cat. XXVIl, 30 (1863).

Poiijdiliii iiilitil,!. Rag., Mon. Phyr., t. 44, f. 18; Hnipsn., Faun.
Ind. Moths, IV, 58.

Fig. 304. — Saliiria iiificita.' To the left is a Kagi plant, cut open to show the
.larva boring inside just below ground-level, which is represented by the
dotted line. The other figures show the Larva, Pupa, Femald Moth, and a
■profile view of head of Male Moth. The outline figures indicate the natural
siies. (Original.)

428 SOME SOUTH INDIAN' INSECTS. ETC.

Distribiilioii. — Probably throughout the Plains but only actually
notued at Coimbatore.

Lifcliistory. — Not known in detail. Tin- larva is moilerately
stoutly built, the prothoraric segment large, the next two segments
short but projecting ; in colour it is pure creamy-white, the head
yellowish tinged with blackish around the mouth-parts ; there are
a few short, white, inconspicuous hairs on all segments. It bores
into the stem of the foodplant low down at about or just above
ground-level and pupates in the stem or emerges and pupates in a
small chamber excavated in the soil.

F.iO(lpl<i)its. Ragi.

Sliiliis. A minor pest noteii on the Central F"arm at Coindiatore
in August and September in 1908. 1909 and 1913.

Control. The female moths are attracted to lif^lit at night.

EUZOPHERA PERTICELLA. Rag.

Eiizoplicra pcrticcllu. Rag., Nouv. Gen., p. 32 ; Hmpsn., Faun. Inil.
Moths, IV, 73, f. 48 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 166 ; Ent. Mem. Agri.
Uept., Intl., I, 203; Ind. Ins. Life, p. 514, t. 48.

(SEE Plate XXX, Figs. 1—4.)

/^/,s7/77>«//o«. Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifcliistory. — The caterpillar is about 20 mm. long, moderately
stout, smooth except for a few bristly hairs, in colour yellowish-
white with an orange brown head. It bores in the stems of its
foodplant. Pupa rather stout, red-brown, in a cocoon formed in the
lar\'al burrow.

Foodplant. — Brinjal, chillies, potato.

Status. — Sometimes a serious pest of brinjal. especially in
gardens.

Control. — Destruction of affected plants which wither and die
owing to the boring of the caterpillar in their stems.

PHYCITA INFUSELLA. Meyr.

Phycita infnsclla. Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.. IV, 218 (1879) ;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 99, ff. no -IT3; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept..
Ind., I, 205, f. 61 ; Ind. Ins. Life, p. 514

Phycita hipartclla. Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, IV. 90 (1X06'.

^See Plate XXXI.)

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifcliistory.— Tha full-grown caterpillar is 10—12 mm. long, rather
stout, smooth except for a few scattered bristly hairs, in colour pale-

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXX.

PESTS OF BRINJAL.

KiG. I. Eiizophtru perlicella, larva in its burrow in the stem.
,,2. .. ., larva removed from burrow.

., 3. „ ,, pupa in stem, magnified.

„ 4. „ „ moth in resting attitude.

„ 5. Lcucinodef orbonalis, larva.

,, 6. ., larva, eft'ect of boring in stem, causing

withered top-shoot.
7. ., cocoon.

II 8- II II pupa.

„ 9. „ moth.

,, 10. Epi'achna iZ'S/igma, egg-mass on leaf.
„ II. .. ., beetle and larva.

11 12- .• II pupa.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXL

PHVCITA INFUSELLA.
Fig. I. Larva, magnified.
,, 2. Pupa „

.. 3, 4. Moth, magnified.

„ 5. Top-shoot of cotton-plant webbed by larva showing character-
istic brown knot of withered leaves.
(The lines alongside ihe figures show the natural sizes.)

PLATE XXXI.

PHYCITA INFUSELLA.

LEPIOOPTRRA.

429

fin-i-n with .1 blackish hi-ad ami il;irk prDthoracic shirld. Pupation
in a slight silken tocoon in folded leaves. Caterpillar in toi>-sh(jots,
which wither and drop.

Food pi (I II I. 'Coiion, Roselle and Gogu {Hihisiiis caiuKilniiiis).

Stains. — A minor pest of cotton, occasionally appearing in some
nuiitbers on young plants.

Control. (l) Picking and destruction of affected top-shoots.
(2) Attraction of moths liv light-traps.

ETIELL.\ ZINCKENELLA, Tr.
. . . ziiickcihllii. Treitschke, Schm. Eur., IX, p. 201.
Eticlla ziiukciiclhi, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, IV, 108 lot); Lefroy,
Inil. Ins. Life, p. 515.

Fig. 305. —Eticlla ziiickciiclla. Tlie outline li!,'iire shows the n.itural size.
(Original.

Distribution. Throughout Southern India.

/.//(7»'.>i/on'.--Caterpillar green with five black spots on prothoracii-
shield; when about to pupate it turns pink. Pupation in silken
locoon outsiile the pod.

Fooilf>l lints. — Horse-gram, Cowpea, Red Gram, Sann HemiJ.

Status.— A minor pest of pulses as a rule, occasionally doing
consitlerable damage, the whole of the seeds being destroyed in
pods entered by the caterpillars.

Control. — ■ ?

MACALLA MONCUSALIS, Wlk.

.MaCiilUt moncu.snlis. Wlk., Cat. XVI, 252: Hmpsn., Faun. Ind.
Moths, IV, 113.

430

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC

Fig. J06. — Macatla iiiuncitsalis, larva (dorsal and lateral views) and moth.
The outline figures show the natural sizes. (OriRin^l.t

Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifehistory and Foodphuit. — The caterpillar webs mango-shoots
and devours the young leaves. It is sometimes gregarious, several
being fountl in one web. When full-grown it is about 25 mm.
long, rather stout, in colour brown with a paler stripe down the
back and with a yellowish lateral stripe edged with dark-brown
above; head pale brown, sprinkled with darker. Pupation in a
slight silken cocoon ; pupa scjuat red-brown.

Status. — A minor pest of Mango.

Control- — The webs are conspicuous and easily colkc ted .ind the
enclosed caterpillars destroyed.

NYMPHULA DEPINCTALIS. On.

.Wymphula dcpiinctalis, Guen., Dclt 6«: Pyr.. p. 274 ; Hmpsn., Faun.
Ind. Moths. IV. 195; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, 121 ; Ent. Mem. .A.gri.
Dept., Ind.. 1. 207 : Ind. Ins. Life, p. 515, t. 49.
(See Plate XXXll.)

Dislribntion. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

EXPLANATION OF PLATPl XXXJI.

NYMPHULA DEFUNCTALIS.
Fk',. I. Full-grown larva, magnified.
., 2. Pupa.

.. 3. Pupa in cocoon, which is cut open to show the pupa.
„ 4. Moth.

., 5, 6. LarvcC in their cases feeding on paddy-plant.
,. 7. Cocoon inside larval case.
„ 8, 9, 10. Larval cases floating on the water.

(The lines alongside the figures show the natural sizes. )

PLATR XXXII

i. ': f '

/

x^

/■ ' 10

NYMPHULA DEPUNCTALIS.

LEPIDOPTERA.

431

Li/c/iislory.—The caterpillar is semi-aquatic, living in cases
made of rolled pieces of leaf, and is furnished with bunches of
slender filamentous gills along the sides. The caterpillar is slender,
about 15 mm. long, in colour pale green with an orange head. It
feeds on the green tissue of the leaf. Pupation in the larval case.

Foodplmit. -Paddy.

Stdtiis. A serious jiest of Paddy, sometimes causing great
damage.

Control. — Draining tlic water off the affected fields, when jiracti-
cable, is indicateil, but this is rarely possible. In some districts a
thorny bush is dragged over the field to dislodge the larval cases
and the water then drained off ; it is difficult to see what is the
value of the thorny branch and the draining of the water is eviflently
the important factor where success is claimed in treatment of this
pest.

HYMENIA FASCIALIS, Cr.

I'liitlaihifiiscialis, Cramer, Pap. Exot., IV, t. 398, f.O. (1782).

P/kjUchii nriirvalis, Fabr., Ent. Sysl., Ill, ii, 237 (1794).

Ziiickciiiti fdscitilis.Vimpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, IV, 262, f. 158;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 182; PZnt. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., I, 208,
fig. 62 ; Ind. Ins. Life, p. 516.

llviiirniii ftiscialis. Marsh, U.S.A. Entom. Bull. No. 109, Pt. 1(1911).

1"1G. i07.—Hyiiieiii,i fascitilis. 1. Ntotli ; 2, Ekk (magnified) ; J. Larva (ii!a«ni-
ficd and natural size) : 4—6. Details of Larva : 7. Pupa (magnified and
natur.al size) : 8, Anal e.xtreinify nf Pupa shouine; crcmaftral bonks : 0.
Cocoon. (Figs. 2 — 9 after Ntarsh.t

/'is/rihiition. Throughout Southern India.

432 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSKCTS, KTC

Lifcliiftury. Caterpillar ratiu-r tlallciu'd, about 15 mm. long
with a pair of narrow wav> whitish lines along the back, antl with
lateral black spots on two of the thoracic segments. The reddish-
brown pupa is enclosed in a thin coarse silken webbing between
the folds of a leaf. Pupal period 6 — 7 days ; total lifehistory about
four weeks.

Stains. Usually a minor jiest of Amardiilhiis, occasionally tioing
serious damage in gardens.

Control. -Spraying in small areas. A mi.xture of Nicotine
Sulphate, I fluid ounce ; Whale Oil Soap, 4 ounces ; Water, 4 gallons
is recommended by Marsh for use on vegetables intended for con-
sumption and with which it would be unsafe to use arsenical sprays.
Care must be taken to apply the spray to both sides oi' the leaf.

CXAPHALOCROCIS MEDINALIS, Gn.

■ . . iiicdinalis, Guenee, Delt & Pyr.. p. 201.

Cnaphalocroci.s incdiiialis, Hmpsn., Faun. Ird. Moths, IV, 275, f.
166; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, 11. I22; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dcpt., Ind., I,
209 ; Ind. Ins. Life, p. 516.

Fig. 308. — Cnoptialncrocis iiicitiiuilis, iiihIc. The Diilliiic li.i,'iif<' shows the

natural size. (OriKinal.l
. /J/.s7/7Vw//(v/. Throughout the Plains of Southern India.
Li/rlnstory. — The slender green caterpillar is about 20 mm. long.
It lives in folded leaves, which are not actually rolled but the tip is
merely fastened over the broader basal part. Pupation in a brown-
ish cocoon on the leaf; pupal period about 6 days. The cater-
pillars eat the leaf tissue so that the leaves become whitened and
sickly.

Foodplnnts.- -Paddy. Probably on grasses also.
SlatH.^. — A minor pest of Paildy as a rule, occasionally doing
considerable damage in the Northern Circars. Not known as a
pest in the Southern parts of Madras.
Control. — ?

.MARASMIA TRAPEZALIS, Gn.
Botys tnipczalh, Guenee, Delt. & Pyr., p. 200.
Marasmia trapesali.s, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, IV, 277 ; Letroy,
Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 138 ; Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I, 210. f. 63 ; Ind.

Ins. Life. p. 516.

(SEE PLATE XXXlll.)

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXIH.

MARASMIA TRAl^EZALIS.
Fig. I, 2. Larva, magnified.
„ 3. Pupa in rolled and damaged leaf.
„ 4, Moth in resting attitude, natural size.
,. 5. Moth, enlarged.

(The lines alongside the figures show the natural sizes.)

TLA I t, AAAHI.

I5J isS >=» •» '?

. 2

%r^

MARASMIA TRAPEZALIS.

PLATE XXXIV.

DICHOCROCIS PUNCTIFERALIS.

EXPLANATION OF PLATK XXXIV.
DICHOCROCIS PUNCTIFERALIS.
I'iG. I. Stalk and capsule of castor-plant showing silk webbing and

excrement of larva.
„ 2. Shoot of castor, with larval webbing and excrement and two

moths in resting attitude.
,. j. Larva, magnified.
.. 4- Pupa in castor-seed'.
.. 5- Pupa in cocoon.
■ • 6. Moth, female, magnified.

^The lines alongside the figures show the ailuial si/.es.)

LEPIDOPTERA- 433

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifcfiistory.— The full-grown caterpillar is about 20 mm. long,
lylindrical, segments distinct ; its colour is variable, greenish,
sometimes pale-yellowish green ; scattered over the body are small
oval horny patches from which arise stout bristly hairs. It lives in
a foil! of the leaf, which it rolls over and fastens with silk, only
emerging to eat the green matter of surrounding leaves. It is very
active when disturbeil. The small reddish-brown pupa is contained
in a slight cocoon within a folded leaf. The pupal period is about
a week.

FoodpUints. — Cholam. Maize, Ragi.

Stalux. — A very minor pest of the larger cereals.

DICHOCROCIS PUNCTIFER.ALIS, Gn.

Botys piiiictifcralis, Guenee, Delt & Pyr., p. 320.

Diclwcrocis piiiictifcralis, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, IV, 307, f.
181 ; Lefrov, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 159 ; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind.,
I, 211 ; Ind. Ins. Life, p. 517, t. 50.

(SEE PLATE XXXIV.)

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Z,//i7//,9/or3'.— Full-grown caterpillar 15—25 mm. long, rather
stout, pale or reddish brown with numerous flattened horny warts
from which arise short bristly hairs ; head red-brown, prothoracic
shield large. Bores in stems, seeds and fruits. Pupa in a strong
silken cocoon ; pupal period 7-10 days.

Food plants.^ C:\sioT (stems and seed-capsules), Turmeric (stem),
Ginger (stem and rhizome), Guava (fruit). Outside of Southern
India it has been reported as attacking Mango flowers,' Cholam
heads, Peaches, Cacao pods. Cardamom capsules, etc.

Status. — Sometimes a serious pest of Castor and Fruit. Chiefly
a castor pest.

Control. — Attacked shoots and seed-capsules of Castor are con-
spicuous (see plate) and should be collected and destroyed.

Remarks.— In the coloured plate the caterpillar is shown as rather
too dark a brown and the moth should be more of a bright orange-
yellow colour.

NACOLEIA INDICATA, Fb.
Plialana indicata. Fab., Ent. Syst., Ill, ii., 2l8 (1794).
Bjtys vulgalis.— Guenee, Delt & Pyr., p. 202, t. 6, f. 8.
Nacolcia vidgalis, Hmpsn.. Faun. Ind. Moths. IV, 315-316 ; Lefroy,
Ind. Ins. Life. p. 517.
28

434

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC

Fig. io'i. Fif,'. J 10.

Xitcolciii iiidicato. two (uniis of tlie moth. The outline figure sliows the
natural size. (Original. t

Distribution. — Throughout tlic Phiius ot Southern India.
Lifchistory. — Not known in dctai!. The cateriiiliar rolls and
fastens together leaves of its footlplant.

Foodplaiits. — Lucerne, Green Gram, Black Gram ( PIkisivIus
miiiigo rndiutits). Horse Gram (Doliclws bifloriis).

Stiitus. — A minor pest of pulses, especially harmful, to young
jilants.

Contrul. — Not sufficiently serious as a rule to recjuirc remedial
measures.

SYLEPTA DEROGATA, Fl).
Phahena ikrogatn. Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 641 ; Ent. Syst., Ill, ii, 218

(1794)-

SyJcpta niiiltiliiiealis, Guen., Hmpsn., Faun. Incl. Moths, IV, 334.

Sylcpta dcrogata, Lefroy, Incl. Ins. Pests, p. 96, ff. 108, 109; Ent.
Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., I, 212; II, 95 no, t. 9; In<l. Ins. Life,
p. 517-

(SEE Plate XXX V.)

DislrihiilioH. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifchistory. — The pale-yellowish eggs are laid singly on leaves
and shoots of the foodplant, usually on the lower surface of a leaf.
The full-grown caterpillar is about 25 mm. long, rather flattened,
smooth, with a few short bristly hairs, in colour pale greyish,
greenish or yellowish, semi-transparent, with a dull-yellow head.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXX\'

bVLLI ...
Fig. I. Eggs on cotton-leaf.

2. Young larva.

3. Adult larva on rolled cotton-leaf.

4. Details of larva.

5. 6. Pupa.
7, 8. Moth.

(The lines alongside ihe figures show the naiiiral sizes.)

PLATE XXXV.

H

o

. V ,n

SYLEPTA DEROGATA.

LEPIDOPTERA.

435

It lives in folileil leaves and wriggles very actively when disturbed.
Pupa brown or red-brown, in the leaves folded by the larva. Total
lifc-ryele, egg 2—3 days, larva 1 3— 18 days, pupa 6-9 days.

Footipldiits. — Cotton, Hihisitis spp.

Status. — A minor pest of native Cottons, sometime serious on
exotic varieties (Cambodia, Caravonica).

Control.— The folded leaves are easily seen antl the caterpillars
collected or crushed by hand.

GLYPHODES C.ES.ALIS, Wlk.

Glyflwclcs iU-Siilis, Wlk., Cat. XVll, 499 ; Hmpsn., Faun. Trul.
Moths, IV, 356.

Fig. 311. — Glyphodcs ccesalis. The outline figure shows the natural
size. (Original.)

Distribution. — South Kanara, Godavari.

Lifchistory. — The caterpillar is pinkish, each segment banded
with numerous black flattened horny warts from which arise single
short bristly hairs ; head and prothoracic shield yellow. Pupation
in a silken cocoon ; pupa red-brown ; pupal period about 7 days.

Foodplant.—']Ak.

Status. — A minor pest, the caterpillar boring into flower buds
and young fruits.

GLYPHODES INDICA, Saund.

Eiulioptis indica, Saunders, T.E.S. (1851), 163, t. 12, fl". 5—7.

Glyphodcs indica, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, IV, 360 ; Lefroy, Ind.
Ins. Pests, p. 165, f. 187; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., I, 213, f. 64;
Ind. Ins. Life, p. 518.

436

SOME SOUTH IWDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Fig. S12. — Glyphndcx iudicu. The outline- tiKUie shows the uatuial
size. (Original. I

Distribution.— ThronghoxxX. Southern India.

Lifchistory. — The caterpillar is about 25 mm. long, rather
slender, with the anterior portion flattened, in colour bright green
with a pair of white lines along the back ; it is found as a rule on
the lower surface of the leaf. Pupa dark brown, in a transparent,
coarse, white silken cocoon ; pupal period 8 — 10 days.

Foodplants. — Cucurbitaceous plants of all sorts.

Status. — Minor pest of pumpkins, etc.

C0////-0/.— Rarely in sufficient numbers to require remedial
measures. If vegetable crops are badly attacked the caterpillars
and pupae may be hand-picked and the plants sprayed.

LEUCINODES ORBONALIS, Gn. [PLATE XXX, FlGS. 5— 9. J
Lcuciuodes orbonalis, Guenee, Delt. ct Pyr., p. 223 ; Hmpsn., Faun.
Ind. Moths, XV, 370, f. 198 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 16, ff. 188, 189 ;
Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., I, 214, f. 65 ; Ind. Ins. Life, pp. 518 519.

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — The caterpillar is about 15 mm. long, rather stout,
pink or pinkish-brown, with numerous darker smooth warts emit-
ting short bristly hairs. Pupa in a tough dark-coloured cocoon on
the stem or fruit.

Foodplant. — Brinjal (Solanuin mclongcna), Solanuni xunt/wciirpuin.

Status. — Sometimes a serious pest of brinjal, the caterpillar
boring in shoots and fruits.

Co«/ro/.— Collection and destruction of affected fruits and shoots.

LEPIDOPTERA.

437

CROCIDOLOMIA BINOTALIS, Zeller.
Crociiiohmia Niwliilis, Zcller, K. Vet.— Ak. Handl., p. 06 (1852) ;
Hmpsn., Faun. Iml. Moths, IV. 372 ; Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept.

Ind. 1, 2IS ; Ind. Ins. LitV, p. 519.

KiG. i\i. — Crocidoloiiiia binotalis. The outline figure shows the natural
size. (Original.^

Distribution. —Throughout Soutliorn Intlia.

Lifc/iiston: — Caterpillar 12 -15 mm. long, pale green, with a
pair of broad dark-green bands on the back bordered on either side
by prominent whitish streaks, and with a faint whitish line down
the centre of the back ; on the side of each segment is a group of
three black tubercles, arranged in a triangle and each emitting a
long slender hair. The caterpillar lives and feeds under cover
of a web spun on the lower surface of the foodplant. Pupa in a
silken cocoon, sometimes formed on the leaf, sometimes in the soil.
Pupal period about 10 days.

FoodphjHts. — All cruciferous plants, especially mustard and
radish.

Status. — Sometimes a serious pest of mustard and raflish, the
caterpillar webbing the whole plant.

Control. — Hand-picking and spraying.

HELLULA UNDALIS, Fb.
Phalcrna undalis. Fab.. Syst. Ent., p. 392 ; Ent. Syst., Ill, ii. 2J6
(1794).

438

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC

HctliilduiuhiUs, Hmpsn., Faun. 1ml. Moths IV, 373, f. 200; Lcfroy,
Intl. Ins. Life, p. 519; U.S.A. Ent. Bull. No. U), i)p. 51—57. !'• 12, I.e.
No. 23, pp. 53—61, f. 13.

Fig. 314.- — HcUuhi iitidalis. Larva, pupa and moth. The outline figures
show the natural sizes. (After U.S.A. Dcpi. Agri. BiillctiiiJ

Distnbtitiuti.— Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — The creamy-yellow eggs are laid as a rule on the
under surface of leaves or on the top-shoot of the foodplant, occa-
sionally on the stem, dry leaves, etc. The newly-hatched cater-
pillar at first mines the leaves but later on builds covered passages
of silk and excrement, at first on the leaves and then on the petioles,
until they reach the stem into which they bore and pass the remain-
der of their larval existence. The full-grown caterpillar is about
12 — 15 mm. long, moderately stout, with a few short hairs scattered
over the body ; in colour it is variable, pinkish-white, greyish-yellow
or yellowish-grey, with purplish-brown stripes, one down the back
and three on each side, of which the lowest is faintest ; head black.
The pale yellowish-brown pupa in a rather compact cocoon of white
silk, .spun either amongst leaves, on the ground, or in the larval
burrow. Life-cycle, egg about 4 days, larva about 9 days, pupa 6
days, total about 3 weeks.

Foodphiiits. ~ Cahhage, radish, mustard.

Status. — Sometimes very destructive to small garden-plots of
cabbages, radish and other cruciferous plants.

Control. — The only practical method seems to be the destruction

of all plants first attacked to prevent the increase of the insect

later on.

TERASTIA METICULOSALIS, Gn.

Tcrastia mcticiilosalis, Gucnee, Delt. et Pyr., p. 21 2 (1 854) ; Hmpsn.,

Faun. Ind. Moths, IV, 381, f. 2C6.

LEPinOPTRRA.

439

\ Distrilnilioii.— BvWiiry, Madras, CoimlKitore.

\^ I'rol^ably throughout Southern India.
•^^ '"* Lifcliislory.'-Not known in tlctail. Caterpillar

trt'aniy-white with large flattened shining brownish
warts from whitli arise short hairs. Bores into
terminal shoots and unripe seed-pods of Erythriiia.
Fooilpliuit. — Erylliriiui (if various species.
Status. -A minor pest.
Co///rfl/.— Cutting out caterpillars from terminal

l-ic. Ji5.—

Tcrtistia nicti

ctilosatis.

(Original. I

shoots, the attacked portions of which wither and die back.

OMPHISA AN.'VSTOMOSALIS. Gn.

Botys (iiiiistoino.siilis. Guenee, Delt. et Pyr., p. 373.

Oniphisii aiutstomosiilis, Hnipsn., Faun. Ind, Moths, IV, 382, f. 207 ;

Swezey, Pr. Hawaii Ent. Soc, I, 76-77 ; FuUaway, Hawaii Expt.

Stn. Bull. 22, pp. 16— iq, figs.; Calif. Monthly Bull., I, 242-253,

ff. 103—107.

Distribution. — Coimba-
tore, Saidapet. Prob-
ably throughout South-
ern India.

L ifc li is t(iry.~Ci\Xer-
pillar about 25 mm.
long, moderately stout,
smooth ; in colour
whitish, each segment
rather faintly indicated,
with darker smooth
flattened warts each
emitting a short bristly
hair ; head yellowish,
true legs blackish. The
caterpillar bores in
stems, the pupae also
being found in the
larval tunnels.

F 0 0 (i f> 1 ,1 II /.--Wikl
Ipomoea.

Fig. 316.— Om/./n.sa ,(;/,7,s/<>»;...s<i/;.s. l.L.iiv.i; Re iii,irks.~Tb\s spe-
2, Pupa ; 3, Moth. The .smalUr fifjiucs show cies has not yet been
the natural sizes. (After Fnllaw.iy.l noted as a pest of culti-
vated crops in India but it is a pest of sweet potato in the

440

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Hawaiian Islands and in Formosa and will probably be found to
attack this crop in India also.

.MARUCA TESTULALIS, Geyer. [PLATE XXXVI.]

Pyralis testnlalis, Geyer in Hubn. Samnil exot. Schniett, IV, 4.
p. 12, if. 629, 630; Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, IV, 393-394, f. 21 1 ;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 149, f. 169; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind.,
I, 216, f. 66; Ind. Ins. Life, p. 519, f. 342.

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Caterpillar about 15 mm. long, rather slender,
segments with dark rounded warts emitting single short bristly
hairs ; in colour pale brownish-green, head olive-brown. It bores
into the end of pods and devours the ripening seeds one after
another. The larval burrow is marked by a mass of brownish
excrement at the entrance of the gallery. The yellowish-green
pupa in a large oval cocoon. Pupal period about a week.

Foodplanls.— Doliclws lab-lah, green gram (Phaseoliis iniDigo), red
gram.

Status. — A minor pest of pulses.

Control. — Collection and destruction of affected pods.

PACHYZANCLA .-EGROTALIS, Zeil.
Botys (egrotalis, Zeller, K. Vet.-AK. Hand!., p. 38 (1852).
Pachyzancla (vgrotalis, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, IV, 405 ;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, pp. 519-520.

FlC. ill. —Pachyzancla (egrotalis. The outline fiRnrc shows the natural
size. ^OriKinal.l

Distribution. — Coimbatore ; Malabar; S. Kanara.

EXPLANATION OF PLATH XXXVI.

MARUCA TESTUJ.ALIS.
Fig. I. Hod of green gram attacked by larva, showing masses of

extruded excrement which mark aflecled pods.
., 2. Larva, magnified.
,, 3. Pupa in cocoon within pod.
j, 4. Pupa, magnified.

„ 5. Moth, natural size, in resting attitude.
,, 6. Moth, magnified.

(The lines aloiii;side ihe ligiircs show ihe natural sizes )

PLATE XXXVI.

MAKUCA TESTULALIS.

PLATE XXXVll.

ANTIGASTRA CATALAUNALIS.

KXPLANATION OF PLATF XXX\ II.

ANTTC.ASTKA CATAI.Al'NAf.IS.
Krc. T, 2. [iggs, magnified.
.V Eggs as laiil on leaf.

4. Newly^hatched larvic t'eeding on green tissue of leal.

5. (lingelly shoot rolled by the larva.

6. „ „ „ siiuwing larva hanging by a
thread.

7. Larva, magnified.

8. Cocoon with enclosed jnipa, magnified.
, 9. Pupa, magnified.

, 10. Motii. natural si/e, in resting attitude.
, II. Moth, magnified.

;The lines alongside ihc figures show the natural si/.es.)

LEPIDOPTERA. 441

Z,//t7;/i7<»0'- ""Caterpillar about 25 mm. long, cylindrical, smooth,
peagrecn in colour with numerous irregularly-oval black smooth
flattened warts tending to form bands around each segment. Webs
together leaves of the foodplant, feeding gregariously and eating
the leaves covered by the web. Pupation in a cocoon covered with
particles of leaf-and excrement, in the web ; pupa slender, reddish-
brown ; pupal period about 10 days.

Fooilplaiits. — Brinjal and wild solanaceous plants.

Slciliis.—A minor pest of brinjal.

Control. — The webs are conspicuous and the caterpillars may
easily be destroyed by hand-picking.

ANTIGASTRA CATALAUNALIS, Dup. [PLATE XXXVIl.J

Botys catalatiiialis, Dup., Lep. France, VIII, 330, t. 232, f. 8.

Antigastra catalaiiiuilis, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, IV, 412, f. 224 ;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. l6l ; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept.. Ind., I. 218;
Ind. Ins. Life, p. 520, t. 51.

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Li/eliistory.— Eggs are laid singly on leaves. Full-grown cater-
pillar about 15 mm. long, smooth with a few scattered short hairs,
in colour green with a few small blackish warts, head dark-brown.
The newly-hatched caterpillar eats blotches in the leaves of the
foodplant, later on in life it webs together the top-shoots and bores
into the shoots and pods. Pupa whitish, with black eye-spot and
greenish abdomen, in net-like cocoon of white silk. Pupal period
about a week.

FoodpUuits. — Gingelly (Sesamitm iiidicum).

5/ (7/H5.— Occasionally a serious pest of gingelly.

Control.- (l) Hand-picking of affected top-shoots which are
conspicuous, as they wither and turn blackish (see figs, i and 2 on
Plate XXXVn.

(2) The moths come fairly freely to light and light-traps may
be tried in badly-affected fields.

NOORDA BLITEALIS, Wlk.
Noorda blitcalis, Wlk., Cat. XIX, 979 (1859); Hmpsn., Faun. Ind.
Moths, rV, 414-415. f. 227 : Lefroy. Ind. Ins. Life, p. 520.

Fig. 31S. — Xoorda blitcalis. (Original.)
Df5/n7)M//ow. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

442 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Lifehistory. — The white eggs are laiti singly on leaves of the
fooilplant. The caterpillar is about 15 mm. long, rather slender,
in colour pale green, marked with darker at either extremity, and
with a few small flattened warts on each segment. The retl-brown
pupa in an oval cocoon, usually spun in the soil at the base of
stem of foodplant. The caterpillar folds or joins the leaves and
feeds on the green matter.

Foodplant. — Horse-radish tree (Mori)igii pliTv^ospcniiti).

Stiitiis. — A minor pest as a rule, occasionally serious.

Control. — ?

PYRAUSTA MACH.ERALIS, Wlk.

Pyraiisld maclucrtilis. Walker, Cat. XIX, 1013; Hmpsn., Faun.
Ind. Moths, IV, 432-433 ; Hole. B.T.. XV. 679 697, tabs.

«Hj}5JKP?i

Fig. 319. — Pyraiista iiiachceralis, larva and inutli. The outline figures
show the natural sizes. (From Indian Museum Notes.)

Di.<;trihutioii. — Nilambur. Probably throughout Plains.

Lifehistory.— The small, round, greenish eggs are laid singly on
the backs of young Teak leaves, close to a rib or veinlet. The
mature larva is about 24 mm. long, elongate, moderately stout, pale-
green in colour with yellow sub-dorsal lines sometimes tinted with
reddish-purple and a double series of yellow purple-dotted spots on
each abdominal segment along either side of the mid-dorsal line.
The larva feeds on the green matter of the leaf, leaving the bare
skeleton, and the presence of such skeletonizeil leaves is highly
characteristic of this insect. When full-feil, the larva pupates in a
slight cocoon, usually formed inside a shrivelled and rolled leaf.
The total life-cycle is about 30 days. (Hole.)

Foodpliitits.— Teak (Tcctoiia grniidi.s).

LEPIDOPTERA.

443

Sltitiis.— May be a serious pest of Teak Forests. At Nilambur
the larva; have been noted to be kept in check by Mynahs.

Rt-miirl;s.—Ho\c l/.iJ <|uotes (lamastesdlis, Wlk., as a synonym
of this insect, but Hampson (B.J., XV, 221 ) had already pointed
out that (itinKistesalis, Wlk., is a Pionca antl the same species as
Icucanalis, Swinh. 1 presume that the Teak defoliator is ninrha-ralis,
Wlk., and have therefore retained tlie name in the absence of
specimens from Nihimhur.

PTEROPHORID^.
SPHENARCHES CAFFER, Z.

Oxyrtiliis caffcr, Zeller, Linn. Ent., VI, 348.

Sphcinvrhes cajjcr, Wlsm., I.M.N., II, 20 figs. ; Lefroy, Ent. Mem.
Agri. Dept., Ind., I, 220 ; Incl. Ins. Life, p. 528, f. 343 ; Fletcher, Spol.
Zevl., VI, 21, t. E., f. 8, TO, t. F.. f. I (1909).

Fig. 320. — Splu'iuirclies caffcr, lar\a, pupa and iiiotli. The outline figures
show the natural si^es. (Oiiginal.l

M.s7/-//'»//(«/.— Throughout Southern India, in the Plains and
Hills.

Lifcliistory.—Eggs are laid singly on buds and leaves. The full-
grown caterpillar is about 7 mm. long, rather stout, segments wrell
marked, all legs long and slender, all segments with a few large
warts emitting long hairs of which two on each side have palmate
tips and the whole body also closely studded with short white club-
bed hairs ; in colour variable, paler or darker green or greenish-
yellow, with a narrow darker line along the back and a series of
reddish spots forming a stripe along the sides. Pupa pale pink
and greenish, covered with complex spines; attached by the tail to
the undersurface of the mid-rib of a leaf or to a stem ; pupal period
about 5 — 7 days.

444 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC-

Foodplants. — Bottle-Gourtl (Lagcnaria viilgnris), Dolichos lab-lab,
and various other plants.

Status. —A minor pest of Bottle-Gourd and L.ib-lab.

Control. — Spraying in snrill areas. Rcnietlial measures are
rarely necessary.

PL.'^TYPTILIA PUSILLIDACTYLA, Wlk.

Oxyptiltis piisillidactylus, Wlk., Cat. XXX, 933 (1864).

Platyptilia piisillidactyla. P'letcher, Spol. Zeyl., VI, 13, t. A, f. 2, t.
E. ff. 5. 6.

Fig. 321. — Platyptilia piisillidactyla. The small figure shows the
natural size. (Original.)

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India to about 5,000 feet.

Lifclii.<;tory. — The very pale greenish-yellow eggs are laid singly
on terminal shoots of the flower-bud, into which the caterpillar
bores and lives. The caterpillar is about 5 mm. long, stout, pale
yellow and without hairs. The pale-yellow pupa is found in a
regular cocoon formed of bits of vegetable matter spun together
with silk and placed in a cavity gnawed into the side of the fruit-
receptacle.

Foodplaiit. — Lantana.

Status. — Beneficial in Districts invaded by Lantana. Where
attacked by this caterpillar bunches of fruit contain only a few
shrivelled fruits instead of a dozen or more plump ones. This
little moth is therefore a factor of some importance in checking
the spread of Lantana through the dispersal of the seeds by
Birds.

EXELASTIS ATOMOSA, Wlsnl.

Aaptilia atonwsa, Wlsm., P.Z.S. (1885), 885.

Exclastis atoinosa,'Meyr., B.J., XVII, 730 ; Lefroy, Ent. Mem.
Dept. Agri.. Ind.. I. 210, ff. 67, 68 ; Ind. Ins. Life. pp. 527 -528, t. 53.

(See Plate XXXVIII.)
Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

F.XFLANATION OF PLATE XX.Wlll.

EXELASTIS ATOMOSA.
Fig. I. Eggs as laid on pod of red graru.

2. Eggs, magnified.

3. Larva, magnified.

4. Details of larva.

5. Pupa on portion of pod of red gram, magnified.

6. 7. Moths, magnified.
(The lines alongside ihe tigures show ihe iialuial siies.)

PLATE XXXVIII

EXELASTIS ATOMOSA.

LEPIDOPTERA.

445

Lift-history. — The pale-green eggs are laid singly on young
pods and leaves of the foodplant, the caterpillar boring into
the pod and devouring the seed. The caterpillar is about 10 mm.
long, moderately stout, densely clothed with short hairs and with
long spines emitted from raised warts; in colour it is green, usually
with a pink or brown stripe down the back. Pupa thickly clothed
with spinous hairs, attached by the tail, greenish or pinkish.

Food fill II Is. — Red Gram (Cajiiiiiis iiidiciis), Dolichos lab-lab.

Status. — An important pest of Red Gram and Lab-lab.

Control. — .'

PTEROPHORUS LIENIGIANUS, Z.

Ptcroplionis Uenigiamis, Zeller, Linn. Ent., VI, 380 ; Meyr.. T.E.S.
(1907), 407 ; Fletcher, Spol. Zeylan., VI, 34-35 (1909).

Ptcrophonis scriiidibaiius. — Moore, Lep. Ceylon, III. 527, t. 209, f. 14.

Fig. 322. — Ptcrvplioriis licnigianii.^. The small figure shews the natural
Mac. (Original.)

Distribution. Godavari, Coimbatore. Probably thrcughcut
Southern India.

Z,//(V;/5/oo'- — Caterpillar about 8 10 mm. long, moderately stout,
hairy, very pale yellowish, head brown.

Foodplaiits.—Bnnydl (Solaiiuiii iiictoiigciia). [In Europe on Artemisia
vulgaris. Doubtless polyphagous.)

Status. — Scarcely a pest. Caterpillars found eating leaves of
Brinjal on two occasions.

Remarks. — The moths seem to run much smaller than European
specimens but otherwise do not seem to differ.

446 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

ZEUZERID/E.

ZEUZERA COFFE.i:, Nictn.

(The Red Borer of Coffee.)

Zenzera cojffea; Nietner, Eclin. New. Phil. Journ., XV, 36 (1862) ;

Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, I, 312; Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept.,

Ind.. I, 156. f. 41 ; Ind. Ins. Life. p. 496.

Fig. iZi. — Zciizera coffea ; larva inside stem, pupa projecting from

larval galler>' after emergence of moth, pupa removed from

cocoon, and moth. (After Indian Museum Xotcs.)

Distribution. — Throughout the Hills of Southern India.

Lifehistory. — Caterpillar about 50 mm. long, stout, smooth, in
colour red-brown ; it bores into stems and branches of Coffee, Tea,
etc. Pupa red-brown, provided with bands of hooked spines; in
larval burrow.

Fondplants. -Coffee, Tea, SandA fSaiit/dion iilhiunj, etc.

Status. — Often does a considerable amount of damage in plant-
ing Districts but not looked on as a very serious pest as a rule.

Control. — The entrance of the larval burrow is usually marked
by the extrusion of excrement and wood-dust. The caten^illar
may be cut out, or the burrow syringed with a mixture of Chloroform
2 parts. Creosote I part.

AZYGOPHLEPS SCALARIS, Fab.

Hepialus sealaris. Fab., Mant. Ins., II, 135.
Cossus sealaris. Fab., Ent. Syst., Ill, pt. 2, p. 5 (1794).
Azygophleps sealaris, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, 1,310, f. 211;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 496.

LEPIDOPTERA.

447

I'm. 3J-1. — Azytioplilcps scttlaris. (()iif;iii:il.l

/>/.s7/7/'////>w.— Throughout the Plains of Southern Inilia.

Lifcliistory. — The pale-yellowish eggs are laid in a mass which
may contain upwards of 2,000 eggs and which is placed between
two leaflets of Agathi which have folded together for the night ;
the egg-mass is cemented together and to the leaves by a sticky
secretion which rapidly hardens. The young caterpillars hatch
out, usually in the morning, after about six days and lower them-
selves by slender silken threads by which they swing freely in the
air and are dispersed by the wind on to neighbouring plants, which
they attack at the growing-point, tunnelling down into the main
stem where the rest of their larval life is passed. The newly hatched
caterpillar is about l\ mm. long, with a black head and greyish
body studded with pinkish warts. The full-grown caterpillar
is about 60—75 mm- long, slender, with slight transverse humps
on the back of the body-segments, in colour opaque white,
the head and the large prothoracic plate red-brown. The cater-
pillar bores down the centre of the stem, its tunnel being filled
with frass which is occasionally ejected through holes bitten in the
side-walls of the stem. On attaining full growth, the caterpillar
bites an exit hole almost through the outer portion of the stem and,
after spinning some silken partitions across its gallery, transforms
into an elongate blunt red-brown pupa provided with bands of
hooked spines almost encircling the segments. The total life-cycle
is :— Egg six tlays, larva 50 — 80 days, pupa 14 — 15 clays.

Foodpldiits.—Agiithi (Scslxiiiia graiidiflora), chithagathi (S.
icgyptiaca), Daincha (S. anikata).

Status. — A serious pest of agathi ; an especially bad pest of
young plants.

Control.— (\) In the case of agathi plants of 6 feet or more in
height, the larval burrow may be slit up and the caterpillar killed.
(2) Syringing a mixture of chloroform 2 parts, creosote I part,
into the larval burrow, which is marked by the mass of extruded
excrement.

448

SOME SOL'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

PSYCHID.-E.
CLANIA CRA.MERI, Westwd.

Oiketinis crameri, Westwd., P.Z.S. (1854), 236, t. 37, f. 4-

Eiimela cranicri, I. M.N., IV, 1718, t. 3, f. 2.

Clania crameri, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, I, 291 ; Dungeon, B.J.
XII, 643; Anstead, Planters Chron., VIII, 170; Watt and Mann.
Pests of Tea, pp. 188-189, t. 7, f. 4.

■-D

Fig. iZb.— Clania crameri, larva case and male moth. (Original.)

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifehistory. — Not known in detail. The caterpillar lives in a
case composed of silk overlaid with small twigs, grass-stems, etc.,
laid longitudinally to form a faggot-shaped bundle. Pupation
inside the larval case. The male moth is winged, the female a
wingless grub, little more than a bag of eggs, which never leaves
the case. The caterpillar feeds on both leaves and bark of
tea-bushes.

Foodplants. — Polyphagous. Babul (Acacia arabica), Tea, etc.

Status.— '^oX a pest in the Plains but sometimes does a good deal
of damage to Tea.

Control. — The larval cases are fairly easily seen and may be
handpicked and burnt.

Remarks. — I have not seen specimens of C. cranicri from the tea
Districts and the name is given on the authority of Mr. Anstead
who informs me that it does a good deal of damage to tea some-
times. It is possible that Clania varicgata is really referred to
(See Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, I, 291, f. 200; Bell, B.J., XVII,
837 — 840, fig.). The habits and general appearance of both insects
are almost identical.

ZYG/ENID^.
HETERUSIA VIRESCENS, Butl.
Hetcrusia viresccns, Butler, 111. Hct. v. 21. t. 83, f. 3 ; Hmpsn., Faun.
Ind. Moths. I, 262.

LEPinOPTRRA.

449

/>/.s7/77'////V);;.- Nilgiris,
Wynaad.

Lifchistory. — Not k now n .
Probably very similar to
that of /-/. cingaUi.
Foodplanls.— Tea.
Status. — An occasional
local pest of tea, the cater-
pillars sometimes strippinjj
the bushes.

G'/z/ro/.— Collection of the caterpillars by hand and ot the
moths by hand-nets. The moths fly by day.

KfHiiirks.—U) Apparently only once reported as doing damage
in Southern India. The outbreaks in the case of the allied H. cingala
in Ceylon are usually sporadic and severe in circumscribed areas
but parasites soon increase in numbers and hold the moth in check.
(2) I am indebted to Dr. Coleman for the loan of the specimen
from which the figure has been drawn.

Kir.. J26. — lictcnisiu vircscciis
iOri!,'in.il.i

EUCOSMID^.
ARGYROPLOCE ILLEPIDA, But).
Tcras illcpiilti, Butler, T.E.S. 1 882., 42.
Cryftoplikbiacarpopliiign. Wlsm, I.M.N., IV, 106. t. 7, f. I. ;
Ind. Ins. Life, p. 531, t. 28, ff. 11- 12.

Cryptophlcbia illcpida, Walsm., Faun. Hawaii, I, 681, t. 10, ft'
An^yroflocc illcpida, Mcyr., Rcc. Ind. Mus., V, 2l8.

Lefroy,
■ 23-25.

fffmmx^

Z>^

•ir^J^^^k^^y

■^^

KiG. 327. — Arfiyi-Dploci: lUcpidii. I. Larva ; 2. Empty pupa-cases project-
ing from pod of Cassia fistula : J. 4. Moth, natural size and niaKnificd.
(Fips. 1 and 2 from Iiidi.in Musoiun Notes.)

29

450

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Distribution. — Probably throughout Southern Iii(li;i.

Lifchistory. — Caterpillar darker or lighter grey with a yellowish
tinge on the back, down which runs an interrupteil dark line, .mil
there are also broken dark lines along the sides. Pupation in :i
cocoon.

Food. — Seeds of Cassia fist til u anti C. occiilciilniis, l.itchi INcplhliuin
litchij, Tamarind ITainariiidus iiidicn). and lirobabjv of other trees.

Status. — Scarcely a pest.

EUCELIS CRITICS, .Meyr.
Einrlis iritiai,y\eyT., B.J. , XVI., 587; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p.
143 ; Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I, 221. ; Ind. Ins. Life, p. 530, t. 55.
(SEE PL.^TE XXXIX.)

Distribution. — Probably throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifchistory. — The eggs are laid singly, usually on the leaves at
the upper part of plants. The caterpillar is about 9 mm. long,
moderately stout, smooth e.xcept for a few short scattered hairs, in
colour yellowish, with a brown head. It rolls and webs together
the upper leaves of the food-plant, pupating in a scanty covering
of white silk between the folds of a leaf. Pupa reddish-brown, in
spun-up shoots of Cajauus iiiciicus; pupal periotl about a week.

FooJplants. — Red Gram (Cajanus indicus).

Status. — A minor pest.

LASPEYRESIA KOENIGANA, Fb.

Pyralis koenigana, Fab., Ent. Syst. Ill, ii, 279 (1794)-

Nov. Synon.
Hcnicrosia aurantiana, Pryer, Cist. Ent., II, 235, t. 4, f. 12.
Laspcyrcsia aurantiana, Meyr., P. Linn. Soc. X.S.W., XXXV!.
292-293 (1911).

Fig. ilH. — Laspeyrcsia kociii^ana. The sm.ill fit;iire shows the
natiir.'.l size. (OriKin-il.)

Dislrihuliiin. — Coimbatore. Probably throughout Southern India.

EXPLANATION OF FLATE XXXIX.

EUCELI3 CRITICA.
Fig. I. Egg, magnified.
., 2. Larva, magnified.
,, 3. Details of larva.
,, 4. .Shoot of red grim shos-ing rolled leaves and empty pupa-case

projecting after the emergence of the moth.
., 5, 6. Moths, magnified.

(The lines alongside the figures show ihe natural si^es.)

PLATE XXXIX.

■f^^. -f

EUCELIS CRITICA.

PLATE XL.

tff

^3ifc'

1

:iiai^,.jSir

^

LASPEYRESIA TRICENTRA.

EXPLANATION OF IM ATI'. XI..
LASPEYRESIA TRICENTRA.

b'li;. I, z. Larva:, magnitied.
,, 5. Affected plant, sho\viiig pu|)a-case projecting from stem after

emergence of moth.
., 4, 5. Pupx, ventral and dorsal vitiws, magnifieii.
„ 6, 7. -Moths, magnitiad.

(The lines alongside the fit;nres show ihe natural sizes,)

LEPIDOPTERA.

451

Lifchistoiv and Foodplniils.— Noi known. I have seen the moths
flying arounii poniejiranate and giiava, one of which is perhaps
the food-phint.

Stiitiis. — Not known as a pest.

KiiiKirks. — (l) A common little moth which may be found to
feeii on cultivated crops.

(2) Fabricius' description, which seems to have been over-
looked hitherto, clearly refers to this species and his name should

be restored.

LASPEYRESIA TRICENTRA, Meyr.

L<isp,y>rsi„ Irhrnlni. Meyr.. B.J.. XVII, 734 (1907) ; I'-^-S. (iQOS),

721-722; Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., I, 222; Ind. Ins. Life,

P- 531-

(SEE Plate XL.)

Distribution. Throughout Southern India.

Li/cliistory.—Noi known in detail. The caterpillar is about 6
mm. long, smooth, in colour dull whitish wnth dark-brown head
and prothoracic shield, turning pinkish-red when full-ted. It
tunnels in the stems of Crotnlaria, causing a characteristic gall-like
swelling, in vvliich it puiKites.

Fooclfldiits.-Siinn Hvm\-) (Crotiihirid Jiiikyii/ and probably other
varieties of Crotahirin.

Status.— A minor pest, only noted as doing any damage in the
Northern Circars.

LASPEYRESIA TORODELTA, Meyr.
LaspcyiTsia lorodrlta.-Meyr.. B.J., XXII, 772 (1914)-

Z)/5/r/7»z/?/V)//— Coimbatore,
Malabar.

Lifchistory. — The cater-
pillar is upwards of 10 mm.
long, slender, with short hairs
scattered over the body, in
colour pale green with a
reddish head. It bores into
the growing tips of the stem
of the foodplant, devouring
the tissues of the stem so that
this droop sand dies. Pupa-
tion in the larval burrow ;
Pupal period about ten days.
Foodplaiit.--l^i\h-\i\h (Do-
liclws lab-l(ib).
V.ic.}29.—L.,.if>,yns<it.,ro<lclt<,. Tlu- Status.- A minor pest,

outline figure shows the iKitiual >\/.v. , ■ . ,

.,, . . , , doing most damage to young

29-A p'''"ts.

452

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC.

TORTRICID.-E.

HOMONA COFFEARIA, Nietn.

Tiirtrix (dffiUiriii. Nictii.. Obs. Eiioiiiies Coffee-lrcf, pp. 4, 24
(1861).

Ilonwmifasciadami, Wlk., Cat. XXVIII, 424 (1863).

Capua coffearia, I.M.N., V, 187-188; Green, Perad. Circ. II, No. 3,
tab. II. No. T7, pp. 237 238.

^^M -^XSSg^

^■^

n

Fig. 330. — Homniia cnffcaria. 1, K^'gmass, natural si^c, on tea loaf; 2,3,
Larva, natural size and maKnified ; 4, 5, Pupa, natur.al size and mafinified ;
6. Mak- innth in resting attitude ; 7, 8, Male inotb, magnified and natural
size; 9, Fein.ale moth in resting attitude; 10, 11. Female moth, magnified
and natural .size. (Figs. 1 — 6 and 9 after Green).

I I A n-' V

ARBELA TERAONIS.

I'.XIM.AKATION Ol I'l.AI
AKi'.ioiA ri; Ik AON IS.

Xl.l.

Ki(j. I, 2. Larva.
„ 3. Octails of larva.
„ 4. Pupa.

,, 5, ft. Details dI pupa.
„ 7. Moth.

„ 8. L;irvaj gallery, cornposod of silk and on Iras,, Ihuih h <;! tree.
!'llu- lim-s alongsidi' the ligiins show ihc niiiurii! sizes.)

LEPIUOPTEKA. 453

Distribution. — Tea ilistrirts.

Lifchistory. — The pak-yellow eggs are laid in compact masses
on the upper-side of mature leaves. The young caterpillars are at
first more or less gregarious but separate after the first moult.
When full-grown the caterpillar is about 20 mm. long, pale green
in colour with a shining black head and prothoracic plate. It spins
together two or more leaves to form a shelter, often enclosing a
young shoot, nibbling the leaves and buds here and there and
destroying far more than it eats. The reddish-brown pupa is found
in the larval shelter.

Foodplauts. — Tea, Coffee, Acacias, Albizzias, Eucalyptus, etc.
(Green).

Status.— The " Flush Worm " does considerable damage in all
Tea districts of Southern India.

Control. — (l) Collection and destruction of egg-masses.

(2) Collection and destruction of all twisted leaves containing
caterpillars and pupje.

(3) The female moths have been found to be attracted b\
suspending withered Grevillea branches between the rows of tea-
bushes. The branches are slung from sticks about 40 feet apart so
that the bottom of the branch is level with the tops of the tea-
bushes. The dry branches are visited daily and shaken into a sack
which is then banged on the ground to kill the moths.

Remarks. — H. coffcaria has not been definitely recorded from
Southern India and is included here on the authority of Mr. Anstead.
Particulars of lifehistory, foodplants and control are based on
work in Ceylon.

ARBELID^.
" ARBELA " TETRAONIS, Moore.

Arbda tctraunis. Moore, P.Z.S. (1879), 4II, t. 34, f. 3; Hmpsn.,
Faun. Ind. Moths, I, 315 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 493, t. 45 ; V. S.
Iyer, Ind. Forest Bull. No. II, pp. 3 — 7, t. 12.
(SEE PLATE XLI).

Distribution. — Nellore, North and South Arcot. Probably
throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifchistory. — The eggs are probably laid singly in crevices of
bark. The larva on hatching bores a gallery into the stem or a
branch and from this it emerges to feed on the bark under cover of
a long gallery of silk overlaid with small fragments of wood. Pupa
red-brown provided with rings of hooks on the segments, in the
larval gallery in the stem. The life-cycle is probably : — eggs laid
June-July, larvae feed July-April, pupx May-June, moths June-July.

454 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC.

Fodi/pldiits. — Casuarina, Rain-Tree (Pillwcolohiuiii sdiiuin). and
various soft-wooded trees.

Status. — Has been noted as doing serious damage to Cosiiiiriiiti,
especially in dry seasons.

Control.— The lar\'al galleries and I'reslily-ealrn l)ark around
them are evidence of the presence of tin- latcrpillar wliich is
readily ilestroyed by syringing into its burrow a mixture ot 2 parts
chloroform and one part creosote.

Note.— The generic name Arbela, Ijeing pre-occuped in Rhyn-
chota, is not available for this genus of Lepidoptera. It seems,
however, unnecessary to introduce a new term here.

GELECHIAD.4;.
GELECHIA GOSSYPIELLA, Saunders.
fPink Bolkconit.)
DcprcssariiJ gossypiclla, Saund., T.E.S., 111, 285 (1842).
Gclcchia gossypiella, Meyr., B.J., XVI, 592 ; Wlsm.. Faun. Hawaii.
I, 731—733 ; Durrant, Bull. Ent. Res., Ill, 203—206. fig. ; Lefroy, Ind.
Ins. Pests, p. 93, ff. 104—106; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept. Ind., I, 223,
f. 69; Ind. Ins. Life, p. 534, f. 344.

(SEE Plate XLII.)

Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifchistory.— The eggs are laid singly on Cotton-bolls, into which
the caterpillar bores, feeding on the oily seeds. The young cater-
pillar is whitish, but when older it assumes a pink tinge' until, when
full-grown, it is almost of a salmon-red colour. It is then about 15
mm. long, moderately stout, smooth except for a few short scattered
bristly hairs, with a brown head and prothoracic shield. Pupa
brownish, in a slight cocoon formed on the stem of the foodplant,
in or on the soil, or in the expanded boll itself.

Food pi an Is. — Cotton .

Status. -A serious pest of cotton, sometimes doing great damage,
especially to exotic varieties.

Control.— (1) Picking and destruction of first-attai kiil l)oi]s.
(2) Careful removal from the field of all open i)ut damaged
bolls. Leaving these on the bushes, as not worth iilucking, invites
attack of this and other cotton pests.

GNORIMOSCHEMA HELIOPA, Lower.

Gckrhia hdiopa. Low.. P. Linn. Soc, N.S.W. (1900), 417-

Gnorimosclu'ina Iwliopa, Meyr., B.J., XVI, 592 (1905) ; P- Linn. Soc.
N.S.W. (1904). 320-321 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 156 ; Ent. Mem.
Agri. Dept. Ind.. I, 224 ; Ind. Ins. Life. pp. 534-535 ; A.J., I., Ill, pt. I.

tab.

(SEE PLATE XLIII.)

p:xplaxation of plate xlii.

GELECHIA GOSSYPIELLA.
Fig. I. Eggs, enlarged.
,, 2. Young larva.
., 3. Adult larva.
„ 4. Pupa.
,, 5. Infested cotton-boll.

6. Larva inside cotton-seed.
., 7, 8. Moth.

(The lints alongside the figures show the natural sizes.)

PLATE XLII.

GELECHIA GOSSYPIELLA.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XLIU.

GNORIMOSC HEMA HEl.lOPA.
Fig. I, 2. Eggs.

3, 4. Affected tobacco-stems, showing characteristic swelling and
mode of entry of larva.
„ 5. Larva.
„ 6. Pupa.
„ 7, 9. Moth.
„ 8. Side-view of head of moth.

(The lines alongside the figures show ihe nalural sizc».)

PLATE XLril.

t-

'M

GNORIMOSCHEMA HELIOPA.

PLATE XLIV.

t4%

-Hi.

"I

PHTHORIM/€A OPERCULELLA

KXPLAXATIOX OF PLATE WAV.

PHTHORIM/EA OPERCULELLA.
Fig. I. Potato plant, showing injury to growing plant caused by larva.
,, 2. Moth resting on leaf.
„ 3. Potato tuber showing evidence of larval attack in the masses of

excrement at the eyes. There is also a cocoon on the tuber.
„ 4. Tuber cut open showing damage done by larva.
„ 5. Tuber cut open showing larval track and pupa.
,, 6. Young larva, magnified.
., 7. Male moth, magnified.
„ 8, 9. Female moths, magnified.
, 10. Pupa, magnified.

II. Full grown larva, magnified.
„ I 2. Eggs deposited at the eyes of a potato tuber, magnified.
(The lines alongside the figures show the natural sizes.)

LEPIUOPTERA. 455

nislribidioii. Goilavari, Bellary, Anantapur, Coinibat<jrc. Prob-
ably throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Li/t-hi.slory. — Eggs are laid singly on the stalk or rib of a leaf,
the newly hatched caterpillar boring down through the stalk into
the stem in which it passes the rest of its immature life, causing a
characteristic swelling of the stem. The full-grown caterpillar is
about 10 mm. long, whitish or pale pink, with a darker head.
When full-fed it changes to a yellowish brown pupa inside the
gall-like swelling.

Foodplaiit. — Toba ceo.

Status. — Usually rather a minor pest of tobacco in Southern
Intlia, occasionally doing serious damage.

Control. — (l) Killing the caterpillar by slitting the gall with a
sharp knife.

(2) Removal and destruction of all old stumps of tobacco-
plants as soon as the crop is harvested.

Remarks. — The hindwing of the moth should be more pointed
than is indicated on the Plate.

PHTHORI.M.-EA OPERCL LELLA, Z.

Gelechia operciilella, Zeller. Vcrh., Z-B. Gcs. Wien, XXIII. 262-263,
t. 3, f. 17 (1873).

Bryotrop/ia solaiiclla. Boisd., J.B., Soc. Centr. Hort.. XI (1874).

Phthorimaca opcrailclla.^'Sleyr., E.M.M. (1902), IO3-IO4 ; Busck,
Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. XXV, 821 822, t. 30, f. 19; Wlsm., Faun., Hawaii,
I, 483—485, 1. 13, f. 27 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 535, t. 57 ; A.J., I., V,
19—28, t. I (Jan. 1910) ; Chittenden, U.S.A. Entom. Circ. No. 162

(1912).

(SEE Plate XLIV.)

D/5^/-/&////(W.— Bangalore, Nil^iris up to 7,000 feet.

Lifchistory. — Eggs are laid on stored potatoes into which the
caterpillars tunnel. Caterpillar about 10 mm. long, smooth, with
a few scattered short h.iirs, in colour white with dark-brown head
and prothoracic shield. Pupa pale brown, in a cocoon on the out-
side of a potato-tuber or in any convenient situation giving a little
shelter.

Food. — Stored potatoes.

Status. — A serious pest of stored potatoes.

Control. — Storage of potatoes under dry sand, examining about
twice a month and rejecting anti destroying all affected tubers.

Remarks. — Outside of India the caterpillar is known to mine in
the leaves of potato and tobacco in the field, as shown in the Plate
and is sometimes a serious pest of tobacco. But so far, it has only
been noted as damaging stored potatoes in Southern India.

456

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

SITOTROGA CEREALELLA, Oliv.
Uiitiliiii-riUiMlii.—OVixitT. Enc. Meth.. IV (Ins. I.), 121 (1789).

Sitotroga (rrciili'lld.—MeyT., B.J.,
XVI. 591 (1905); Busck, Proc. U.S.
Nal. Mus., XXV, 782, t. 28, t. 3-

/)/.<//■//)(///«//. -Throughoul Soutlr
vru India.

Lifchistory. Eggs are laid on
grain into which the- catcriiillar
bores. This is a short, stout, whitish
gnib with poorly-developed legs ;
when full-fed, it is about 4 mm.
long. Pupation inside the grain.

/<«w/.— Stored grain (Faddy.
Maize, etc.)

Status. — Not noticed niucii as a
rule but a serious pest of stored
grain and in the aggregate must
do a great deal of damage.

Cfl;;/;7)/. -Fumigation and pre-
servation of grain in insect-proof

Fig. ii\. — Sitotrogii ccn.'<ilcll{i.
moth and larva. The outline
figures show the natural sixes.

^Original.)

receptacles.

DICHOMERIS lANTHES, Meyr.
Hypsolophiis itiiitlics.— Meyr., TE.S. (1887), 273-274.
Yf>solof>liiis itiutlics.—yiLyr.. Rec. Ind. .Mus.. V, 223; I- 1-inn. Soc.
(2) XIV. 275-

YpsolophiLs 0(/iroplicini\s.— Meyr.. B.J.. XVll, 9K1 (1907); Lefroy,

Ind. Ins. Life, pp. 533-534-

DUhomcris iuiit/ws.— Meyr.. B..I. XXII., 172 (1913)-

I'IG. ii2.—l)iclioiiuris iaiithes, molli and profile view of lii-.td. Tlic siii:i
outline finun- shows the natural si/e. lOriK'inal.)

Llil'lUOl'TEKA.

457

Distrihiitioii. I'robahly tliroufilunit ihc Plains of Southirn India

Li/cliistory.' " Larva green, smooth and nearly hairless, with
small lateral black spots, and black head and prothoracic shield.
It webs together two top leaves and lives within, eating holes in the
neighbouring le.ives." (Lel'roy.)

Foodphiiits. — Leguminosae of various kinds, especially lucerne,
indigo.

SliitKS. — Has been noted as an occasional pest of indigo, but
not hitherto in Southern India.

APRO.-EREMA NERTERIA, Meyr.
(SURUL PUCHI.)

ElG. Sii. — Aprutcrcnia nertcrin. (Urigiiial.l

458

SOME SOLTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

AHiUiimpsis nrrWriti.—'SleyT.. B.J.. XVU. 139 (1906) ; Lclroy, Ent.
Mem. Agri. Dept-, Iml., I. 226 : Ind. Ins. Life, p. 534.

Distrihitlion.— Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifehistory. — The egg is laid on leaves 01 shoots of groundnut,
the caterpillar on emerging mining into the leaves, the mine show-
ing as a yellowish or brownish blotch on the leaf. After about a
week, the caterpillar emerges from the mine and webs together
small leaflets, still continuing to feed on the green leaf-tissues.
When full-fed it is about 6 mm. long, moderately stout, smooth,
with a few scattered short bristly hairs arising from minute blackish
chitinous warts, in colour pale greenish, head and prothoracic
shielil blackish. Pupa yellowish or reddish-brown, in the chamber
formed of spun leaflets. Life-cycle, egg three days, caterpillar
12-14 days, pupa four days.

Foodplants. — Ground-nut, Red Gram (Cnjduus iiulicus), I'soraleu
corylifolid.

Status. — A serious pest of ground-nut.

Control. — Light-traps have some considerable attraction for the
moths, but no really effective method has yet been worked out.

COSMO PTERYGID/E.
PYRODERCES CORIACELL.A, Snell.

#

^

l"lG. J34. — PyroJcrcc.i coriacellti.
moth and profile view of head.
The small outline figure shows th<
natural f,i2C tOriginal.t

Batraclwdra coriacdla.- —
Snellen, Tijd. v. Ent., XLIV.
95. t. 6, f. 17 (1901).

Stdgniatophora gossy-

/>/<•//«.- Wlsm., A.M.N.H. (7)
XVIII, 178 179 (1906); Mor.
statt, Pflanzer. VIII, 253 (1912).
Pyrodcrci'.s s i m p I c x .-^
Wlsm. ; Durrant, Bull. Ent.
Res., Ill, 206 207. f. 2 1 191 2)
[part.).

St 1 1 Mill iitofilwrii coriiKi'lId ,
Meyr, T.E.S. (1910), 372.

D i s I r i h II t i o 11. — South
Arcot. Probably throughout
the Plains of Southern
India.

LKl'IDOPTKRA. 459

A;/i7(/.s7()/-_\. — Not known. Bnd tioni ript.' < otlon-holls, cater-
pillar probably feeiling on tin- secils.

Foo(l[>liints. - Cotton.

.s7<//h.v.— Doubttnl. Will probably prove to be injurious to stored
ct)tton-seecl.

Rcnnirks. South Indian specimens have kintlly been identifieii
Dy Mr. Meyriik. It is possible that P. simplex. Wlsni. (T.E.S. (1891),
119 120, t. 6, f. 58) is a prior name as stateil by Durrani (I.e. I hut, as
this synonymy is doubtful, Snellen's name is retained tor the
present.

CECOPHORID/E.

TONIC.A ZIZYPHI, Stn.

Dcp/rssarlii zizyf/ii. Stainton, T.E.S. (N.S.), V, I15- 116 {1859).
Dcpri'ssmiii iiiisriistd, Wlsm., Moore's Lep. Ceylon, III, 508.
t. 209, f. 5-

Toiiicii zizyp/ii. Meyr., B.J., XX, 167 (1910).

-•,^'>v^#S^^

I'lG. iS5. — Toiiicit zizyphi. The small outline figure shows the natural size.
(Original.*

/J/,s7/-/Y)///w//.— Coimbatore ; Palni Hills. Probably throughout
Southern Intlia.

Lifchistor v.— The caterpillar is about 8 mm. long, slender, yellow-
ish-green with a black head. It folds orange leaves longitudinally,
feeding on young leaves and the green matter of older ones. Pupa
6 mm. long, reddish-brown, in a cocoon of transparent white silk
spun in the folded leaf; pupal period about four to five days.

FothlpUuits. Citrus of various species (Orange, Lemon, etc.).

St<iliis.- A very minor pest, occasionally injurious by eating oft'
the tender shoots of young plants.

Control. — Hand-picking of caterpillars in the folded leaves.

46o

SO.ME SOITH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC.

XYLORYCTID/E.
NEPHA.NTIS SERINOPA, .Meyr.
.yi-pfuinlis scriiwpa, Meyr., B.J., XVI. 603 (1905); Letroy, liui. Ins.
Life. p. 535 536.

— SS-

^y^fy-H.

Fig. 336. — Xcpluiiitis scriiiopu. Portion of Palm-leaf eaten by hirva. and
moth (natnr.il size and matjnified). (OriKinal.)

Dislrihiitioii. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifcliistory. — The eggs, which turn pinkish after deposition, are
laid in small batches of a dozen or twenty together amongst the
frass and debris of larval galleries on palm leaves. The caterpillar
constructs a gallery of silk and excrementitious matter over the
lower surface of palm leaves, eating away the green matter and
reducing the leaf to a thin membrane so that it dries up and dies.
In cases of bad infestation, practically the whole leaf may be eaten
away, only the ribs remaining. The caterpillar is about 25 mm.
long, in colour greenish with faint paler lines along the body and a
black head. Pupa slenfler. dark red-brown, in a roroon spun in the
larval gallery.

Foodplants. — Coconut and Palmyra palms. Possibly on other
palms also. Not yet noted on Date or Arecanut palms.

LEPIDOPTHRA. 461

Sttitns. -A scriDUS post ol tlic Coconut ii.ilm. not (laniaKinR |»;il-
myras iiuKh as a riilc.

Control. — (l) Ciitlinn and l)iirning ol (irsi attaiktil branches.

(2) Catching of moths in light-traps.

(3) Spraying with lead arsenate or other stt)niach-poison in

the case of small areas and ornamental palms.

TIN/«GERI.-\U/K.
ERHTMOCERA l.MP.\CTELL.\. Wlk.
Gclcchiaf hnf,ulrll,i. Wlk., Cat. XXIX, 637.

Erctinoirr.i iinpucltlld. Wisn)., T.E.S. (1889), 34-35, 39, t. 6, f. 18 ;
Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths. 1, 208, f. 135 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 537.

Fig. iil.—Erctiiioccra inipactclht. The siii;ill tif,'iiie shows the natural size.
(Ori-inal.)

Z);-r//-;7'»?/(W.— Throughout the Plains of Southern India.
Lifcliistory. — Not known.
Food pi an ts. — A m anin I /ins.
ShitK.s. — Not known as a pest.

Remarks.— A common and conspicuous little moth which flics by
day and also commonly comes in to light at night.

HYPONOMEUTID/E.
ATTEVA FABRICIELLA, Swed.

Phahvna Tinea fabriciella. Swederus, Kngl. Svensk. Vet. Ak
Handl, VIII, 277 (1787).

Corinea nivigiittella. Wlk., Cat. XXVIII, 542-543 (1863).

Attcea fahrieiella, WIsm. in Swinh. Cat. Hct. O.xf. Mus.. II, t;i;q
1I900).

Distribution. — Nilgiris, Coimbatore.

4t>2

SOME SOLTH INDIAN" INSECTS. ETC.

Fig. 338. — Attcva fabricicUa. 1, Leaf of .4 (7(fH//;(i.s- t-A'Cc/sd webbed and eaten
by larvjE (the mine of a small leaf-miner is also shown) ; 2, V'ounR Larva ; 3.
Full-grown Larva ; 4. Pupa enclosed in cocoon: 5. 6. Moth. enl.arRed .ind
natural size. (Original. •

Lifehislory. — The eggs are creamy-white, rounded, flattened, and
beautifully sculptured; they are laid, usually on the lower surface
of leaves, either singly or in small groups. The caterpillars live
gregariously in a lomnion web of fine silk spim over the leaves and
shoots of the foodplant, which, in conjunction with larvae of Elif;niii
Httrci.ssiis. they may sometimes completely defoliate. The full-
grown caterpillar is about 20 nun. long, moderately stout, smooth,
with scattered short hairs arising from small whitish warts, head
blackish, body greenish-grey with paler longitudinal stripes, one
faint one rlown the back edged on either side by a more distinct
stripe, and a well-defineil stripe along each side. Pupa orange-
brown, in a transparent boat-shaped cocoon si)un in the common
web ; pupal period about ten days.

Fdoilfil tints. — Ailantliii.t vxcelsn.

Sldliis. -An occasional serious pest of Ailiint/iiis.

l.KI'inoPTKRA.

4(\^

Coiitml. riu' toinmon webs are lonsijiiiioiis and easily torn
down and the iatiT|)illars destroyed. Ornanienlal specimens of
Ailiiiillms m.\\ lie spraved with Lead Arsenate or other stomach
poison.

Rciihirks. The closely-allied .1. iiiv('i,i;iill<i. Wlk. known from
Bengal, Silhet and China, feeds on Ailaiithtis excclsa, larva; in a
common very fine web. At times a perfect pest, denuding the tree
of its leaves. See Wlsm. ll.cJ.

GLYPHIPTERYGID^.
PHYCODES R.-\DI.A,TA, Ochs.
Cliiniura riuliata, Ochs , Schmett. Eiirop., II, 5-6 (1808).
Phycodcs liinidiniconiis, Guen., Noct., II, 389, 1249, t. 13, f. 5 (1852).
TcgiKi hyblurlld. Wlk.. Cat. XXXV, 1810 (1866); Forsayeth,
T.E.S. (1884), 379. t. 14, f. 10.

Phycodcs nidi at a, Wlsm. in Swinh. Cat. Lep. O.xon. Mus., II, 568
U900); Lefroy. Ind. Ins. Life, p. 538, t. 52, IT. 7 10.

KlC. J39.— />/mC(»(/c.s rudiiitii. larva atul ninth. The ontlino fiijmes six.w the
natural size.-i. (( )rii,'inal.i

Distribution. Bellary, Madras. Probably throughout the Plains.

Lifcliistory. Caterpillar about 20 mm. long, moderately stout,
rather flatteneil, smooth, with scattered short hairs, in colour dull
yellowish-white with a broad interrupted dark stripe along the
side, head and prothoracic shield red-brown, a broad dark band
transversely .icross the back of meso-and meta-thoracic segments.

464 SOME SOITH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC.

The ratt-rpillar rolls leaves of Fitiis. Pii|)a red-browii, in a itjiif^h
paper-like cocoon, ociasionally spun on a leaf but more usually
in a irack of the bark or similar situation ; pupal period about
15 days.

Food plan Is. -Ficii,'; of various species.

Stntiis. — Occasionally in such numbers as to do damage to
Fig-trees.

Control. — ?

PLUTELLID/E.
PLUTELLA MACULIPENNIS. Curt.

Cciostoma iiuuiilipcnnis. Curt.. Brit. Ent.. IX. t. 420 (1832).

Pliitclhi cnicifcniniiii. Zeller. Stett. Ent. Zeit. IV. 281 —283 (1843) ;
Quanjer, Tiiljs. Ent. (1906). II, 17, t. 1-2.

PliitcUa maciilipcnnis, Meyr., Rec. Ind. Mus., V. 229 ; Lef roy, Ind.
Ins. Pests, p. 152, ff. 170-171 ; Ent. Mem- Dep. Agri., Ind.. I, 225.
f. 69; Ind. Ins. Life, p. 538. f. 345.

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — The eggs are laid singly on leaves. The full-grown
caterpillar is about 8 mm. long, moderately stout, attenuated at
each e.xtremity, smooth, with short scattered bristly hairs, in colour
pale-green with a pale-brown head and prothoracic shield. Pupa
in a slight silken cocoon of open texture; pupal perioti about
ten days.

Foodplaiits. — Cabbage, cauliflower, radish, mustard, and other
cruciferous plants.

Status. — The caterpillar eats holes in the leaves of cabbage, etc.,
and may sometimes almost skeletonize the leaf. A minor pest as a
rule.

Control. — Spraying with Naphthaline Emulsion in the case of
edible plants.

HILAROGRAPHA CAMINODES, Meyr.

Hilarographa ctinii nodes, Meyr., B.J., XVI. 610 (1905) ; Green,
Perad. Circ, II, 17, p. 250 (not named).

Lifchistory and Foodplants. — The larva bores in the root of
cultivated Cardamoms and in wild Zingiberaceous plants. The
eggs are laid on the exposed upper part of the bulb ; the stem proper
is able to resist attack f Green).

Control. — Green fl.c.) suggests earthing over the exposed bulbs.

Remarks.— Recorded as a pest of Cardamoms in Ceylon. Not
yet noted from India, so far as I am aware, but included here as it
is likely to occur. I have been unable to obtain a specimen for
illustration.

Fig. 340. — PlutcUa ntuciilipoinis. 1, Portion of Cabbage Leaf showing larvae,
cocoon and moths in natural si^es and attitudes; 2, Larva; 3, Pupa
enclosed in cocoon ; 4, Pupa; 5, Moth, enlarged and natural size; 6, side-
view of moth in resting attitude. (Original.'

l.liPIDOl'TKRA.

465

IMIVLLOCNISTIU.'E.

PHYLLOCNISTIS CITRELLA, Stn.

Piiyllaciiislis cilrclln. Stainton, T.E.S. (n.s.), Ill, 302 303 (185b)
.\k-yr., Ann. S. AtV. (Mus. 100<)). p. 360.

I'll-.. 341. — Pliyllocnistis citrclla. Lar\al mine in Orange Itaf anil iiintli.

The small fifjure within the dotted circle shows the natural

size of the moth. (Original.)

Distribution. — Probably throughout Southern India.

Life hi story. — The minute, almost legless, transparent pale-green
caterpillar mines tunnels between the epidermal layers of Citrus
leaves. Pupa minute, yellowish, in the larval mine.

Food plants- — Ora n ge.

Status.- -A minor pest as a rule, occasionally occurring in such
large numbers that every leaf is badly mined.

Control. — The insect is so minute that it is little noticed, although
the larval galleries are fairly eviilent. As the caterpillar mines
inside the leaf it cannot be attacked by a contact or stomach-poison
spray. The only practical mcthoil seems to be (i) fumigation of

466

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

attacked trees, or (ii) cnishing the caterpillars in their mines l)v
hand.

Remarks.— Phyllociiistis niiiiiilcllu, Snell. (Tijds \: Ent. (1903).
87 ; van Deventer fl.cj, pp. 87 — 89, t. 10, ff. 4 a—c), described from
Java as mining C/7r//.? leaves, is perhaps the same as r/VrrZ/rt. The
early stages are e.xcellently figured by van Deventer.

TINEID^.
TINEA PACHYSPILA, Meyr.

Tiiii;i piuhyspilii, Meyr., B.J., XVI, blQ (IQ05); Rec. Ind. Mus..
V, 231 ; Tr. Linn. Soc. (2), XIV, 305 (IQII); Letroy, Ind. Ins. Life,
p. 540.

,.M ,5<,0'^-r'i'''wV-i/,/;

W^jn^'^^^-

Fig. 342.— Tinea pacliyspila. Piipa-ca.se projecting from larval tube, and
moth. The smaller fiRures show the natural sizes. (Original.)

Distribution. — Trivandrum. Doubtless throughout Southern
India.

LKl'inoi'TliRA.

467

Ufchistory <iiiil hood. L;irv;i in a case, I'eccliiiK' <>ii Haniicl
fur, utc.

Sl(itiis.-'-A loniiiion hoiiseliolcl "Clothes Motli."

0'/;//7'/.-- Proti'Ctiuii of clothiii)^' l)\' means of Naplit halino.

TRICHOPHAGA TAI'ETZELLA, Linn.

Tinea tapctzclla, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. X), i). 536 (1758); Lcfroy,
Ind. Ins. Life, p. 540.

Tiihd tiifrl:rl/ii. Mcyr., Hamlbis., i)p. 785 780.

VlG. J4J. — Trich<>ph<j>>ii tapctzctlii. Tlie small oiitlino fii,'iire sliows the
natural si/c. lOi-if;inal.t

Distribution. — Doubtless throughout Southern India.

Lifc/iistory niul Fow/.~Caterpillar in a case on woollen fabrics,
clothing, fur, cast pellets of owls, and excrenientitious refuse
generally.

Stafit.s. — The typical "Clothes-Moth," now carried all over the
world ; attacking furs especially.

Crt//^r«/.- -Protect ion of clothing by Naphthaline and of mounted
trophies of Game, etc., by painting the skins with an alcoholic
solution of Corrosive Sublimate.

HEPIALID^.

PHASSUS M.^LABARICUS. Mo.

/Viiissiis nidliil'iiriciis, Moore, P.Z.S. (1879X412; Hmpsn., Faun.
Ind. Moths, 1. 321 : Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 541, f. 346.

468

SOME SOUTH IXOI.W INSECTS. ETC.

Fig. J44. — Phassiis iiitihihiinciis in lustiiiy .ittitiid'' h.iiik'Mig from a twig.
(After Lefroy.;

Distribution. — Nilgiris ; Bangalore.

Lifchistory. — The caterpillar bores in roots and pupates in the
larval burrow.

Foodplant. — Has been reared from a tea-bush ; probably on
various roots.

Status. — Not noted as a pest but may do damage.

Control. — ?

PLATE XXXXV.

CHRYSOPA SP.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XLV.

CHRYSOPA SP.

lu. I. Group of eggs laid on leaf.

2. A single egg on its stalk, magnified.

3. Young larva, magnified.

4. Full grown larva, magnified.

5. Full grown larva, literal view, showing empty skins of Aphids
which it has devoured.

6. Cocoon, magnified.

7. Adult fly, magnified.
(The lines alongside the figures show the natural siies.)

NEUROPTERA ; KHYNCHOTA. 469

NFl RoPri'.RA
CHRYSOPID^.

CHRYSOPA Spp.

(See plate xlv.)

Chrysopiu Lef'roy, Intl. Ins. Pests, p. 275, ft". 332, 334, 336, 337 ;
Ind. Ins. Life, pp. 1 54— 156, ff. 76—80.

Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifehistory. — The eggs, which are erected on the apex of long
slender stalks, are laid in small clusters on leaves, twigs, etc. The
larva is predaceous on Aphids which it sucks dry and (in some
species) then places the empty skins on its back where they are
retained by long curved spines (see Plate). The larvse are active
and voracious and destroy large numbers of Aphids. After feeding
for about a week they form a rounded cocoon inside which the
pupal period is passetl.

Food. — Aphids, especially on cotton and cholam.

Status. — Extremely beneficial.

RHVNCHOTA.

PENTATOMID/E.
COPTOSOMA CRIBR.ARIA, Fb.
Ciine.v iribnirius. Fab., Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 531 (1798).
Coptosoma cribrarium. Distant. Faun. Ind. Rhyn., I, 22-2^, f. II;
Lefrov, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 672.

Fig. 345. — Coptoaoiiiii cribrana. The small outline figure shows the
natural size. (Original.)

Distribution. -ThrongtiowX Southern India.

Lifehistory. — The creamy-white elongated eggs are laiil in bat-
ches of about 35 eggs arranged in two rows, their bases being
opposed. The young bug emerges by pushing open the lid with
which the egg is provided ; it is about 75 mm. long, shining orange
in colour with red eyes. In their younger stages they are grega-
rious but later on separate, living on the foodplant all their lives.

470

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

The life-cyi-le is:— Egg, six days, nymph 8 + 6+ 9 + 9 -r- 10 days.
the nymphai pcrioiis representing those spent in each instar
between the moults; total, about seven weeks. | IW'.R.l

Fooilfliints. — hnb-\nb (DolUlws lah-lah), Green Ciram (Phuseolus
mtiiigo). Cluster Bean (Cytimopsis), Agathi (Scsluiiiio grandiflora).
Also on various wild Leguminosaj and Composita\

Status. —A minor pest of Lab-lab and Agathi.

Control. — Catching in small hand-nets.

CAPP/EA TAPROBANENSIS, Da 1 1.
Pciitalonia taprob(iiic<isis, Dall., List. Hem, 1, 244 (1851).
Capfxcti li/frohniifiisis. Dist., Faun. Ind. Rhyn., I, I49, f. 88.

Distribution. —"S h e v -
aroys, Coonoor, Babahu-
dins ; Malabar.

/, /./"(• // / story.—Hoi
known. All stages prob-
ably passed on the tree.
Foodplnnts. — Ora n ge.
Status. — Apparently a
minor pest in the Hill

.,., Districts, the bugs sucking

Flc. 346. — Cappteu ttipruhuiiensis. 1 In ... , , ,

s.nall outline figure shows the n.dnn.l t'^^' J""-^' oi the tw.gs and

sixe. (OrlKin.il.) shoots.

C«///r«/.- Collection by shaking over cloths, etc., spread under
the tree.

DOLYCORIS IKDICUS, Stal.

Dolycori.-i intiiius, Stal., Enum. Hem, V, 76 (1876); Distant. F.iun.
Ind. Rhyn.. 1, 160, f. 96; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 675, t. 73, f. 10.

FtG. 347.- Dolycons iiuIiliu,. 1 lie outline Hgiirc shows the ii.itiual
size. (Original.'

RHYNCHOTA.

471

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.
Life hist or y.--NoK known.

Fi'W/>/w«/.s-. — Cholani, Cunilni I Pciiiiisctiim lyf/ioi(/,iiin/. Tcnai
fSi'tdrid itiiliiii), Wheat, Safflower, Sunflower.
Stains. ~A minor ptsl.
Control. — Catching the bugs in hand-nets.

EUS.ARCOCORIS GUTTIGER, Thnb.

Cimcx gittligcr, Thunberg, Nov. Ins.
Sp., II, 32, t. 2, f. 47 (1783)-

Ensarcocoris giiltigcr, Dist., Faun.
Ind. Rhyn., I, 165 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins.
Life, t. 73. f. 5-
A Distribulion. — T h roughout the

^ Plains of Southern India.

Lifchistory- — Not known.
Foodplants- — C u m b u IPcnnisctum
lyplioidi'iim).

Status- — A minor pest of Cumbu.
Control. — Collertion by hand-nets.
Fig. J4<S. Ensarcocoris giittigcr.
The outline figure shows the
u.'itural size. (OrJKiual.)

EUSARCOCORIS VENTRALIS, Westwd.
Pcntatoina ventralis. Westwd., Hope Cat., 1, 36 (1837).
Ensarcocoris vcntralis. Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., I, 167.

I'lG. 349. — Ensarcocoris vcntralis. The outline figure shows the natural
size. (Original.)

472

SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Distribution. — Ganjam, Bangalore (Distant)-
Lifchistory- — Not known.
Foodphiiits- — Gingelly-

Status. — Found as a serious pest on one occasion.
Control. — Collection by hand-nets and by shaking plants over
pans of water and oil.

ANTESTI.A, CRUCIATA. I-M).
Ciinr.v cnicidtii. Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 714 (1773).
Antcsliii cruriatii. Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., 1, 185 ; I.efrov,
Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 235 ; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., I, 233.

Dislrilmtioii. — Throughout Soutlicrn
India.

Lifchistory. — Not known.
Fnodpltints. —Coffee, Jasmine.
Status. — An occasionally serious
pest of CofTee.

Control. — Collection in hand-nets
and shaking bushes over pans of water
Fig. iM.—.Antcxfio cm ^jp^ qJ] or over cloths saturated with
ciata. The oiitjino figure .,

I, .u . 1 • »•'■

snows the natural size.

lOrJKinal.

AGONOSCELIS NUBIL.A, Fb.
Ciincx nubilii, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 712 (1775).
Agonosielis nubilu. Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., 1, 189.

I'lG. J51.-- .U;(i//<<M-i /'s iiiihilii. The oulliiie liu'iin- -hi.u^ Thf naitiiai size.
I Original. I

RHYNCHOTA.

473

/^/.\7/-//>;///('M. Throughout SoutliiTii IndiM.

I.ifi-liistory. —Not known.

Foodphiitts. -Cho\i\m, Cumbw ( Pcniiisctiiiii lyflioidcinnl. Whrjit and
various Pulses, Aniseed ( Piiiipiiiclln (Uiisiini).

Status. -A minor pest, not yet noted as doing any serious
damage.

Control. — Collection in hand-nets.

Remarks. -Very similar to /.'o/jr^^/'/.s- /«r//c/(.s- in general appearance
and ha!)its, but distinctly smaller and the abdomen is not visible
wlien the wings are closed and is unspotted.

BAGRADA PICTA. Fb.

Ciiiicx pi(l<i. Fab., Syst. Ent.. p. 715 (1775).

Bagrada piitd. Dist.. Faun. Ind. Rhyn., I, 193 194, f. 116; Lefroy,
Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 233. f. 278; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., I, 232,
r. 75 : Ind. Ins. Lite, p. 676, f. 43Q.

(See Plate II. Fig. 10.)

Distribution. -Throughout Southern India.
Lifchistory-- Not known in detail.

Foodplaiits. --CrmUcTOus plants (Cabbage, Cauliflower, Mustard,
Turnip, etc.).

.St<itus. — A minor pest of CablKige and Cauliflower.
Control. — Hand-picking.

NEZARA VIRIDULA, Linn.

Ciwc.v I'iridulii, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. X), p. 444 (1758).

Nczara viridida,_D\sU\nt, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., I, 220, f. 139 ; Lefroy,
Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 168, f. 190 ; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., I, 230,
f. 73 ; Ind. Ins. Life, p. 676, f. 440.

Fig. 352. — .Vi-3<m-(* viridulu. The outline figure shows the natural size.
(Original.)

474

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Distribution. — Throughout Southern liiilia.

Lifiiiistory. — Not known in detail.

FoOiiplaiits. — Cunibu IPciiiiisctuiii lyplunilriiiiil. Wheal iTrilicKni
stitivinii). Also founil on Cholam, Ragi anil various other plants.

Stiitiis. Usually a minor pest of Cunibu ant! Wheat, sucking the
juices of the developing grain, occasionally doing serious damage
to Cumbu.

Control. Collecting the bugs I)v hand or in hand-nets.

I'lEZODORUS RUBROKASCIATUS, Kb.

Cimcx rnhrofnsiidtiis. Fab.. Mant.. II. 203

(1787).

Piezoilorus nibrofascicitiLs. Distant, Faun.
Ind. Rhyn., I, 224 225, f. 142 ; Lefroy, Ind.
Ins. Life, p. 676, t. 74. f. 10.

/)/.';//77w/(Vw.- -Throughout the Plains of
Southern India.

Lifchistory. - Not known.

Foodplants. ^ChoXam and Pulses (Plia-
scolus) and on most low-growing plants.

Status. — A minor pest of Chol.im .ind
Pulses.

Control. — Collection by hand .ind in
hand-nets.

Fig. 353.—/-* I f 2 o d 0 r 11 -v
nibrofiisciatiis. Tlu'
outline figure shows the
natur.ll si/e. (OriKiiial.)

MENIDA HISTRIO, Fb.

Cinux liistrio. Fab., Mant., II, 296 (1787)-
Mcnida liistrio, Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn.. I. 228.

1 TO. .'..M.-.\K//«/<f ln^lr,<,. The outline Hgure shows the naU.r
Aze. 'Original

RHYNCHOTA.

475

Di.^lrihiitioii. Throutjhout Soulhirii India to about 4,000 IVc-t.

Lifiliislory.- Not known.

Food f /lints. Paddy, Wheat, Cliolain, and Pulses.

Sltiliis. A minor pest of Paddy.

Cow//"fl/. -Collection by hand-nets.

CANTHECONA FURCELLATA, Wolff.
Ciiin-x furciiliilHs, Wolff, Icones Cimic, V, 182, t. 18, f. 176 (1801).
Cdiithccoiia fiircrllata. Distant,
Kaun. Ind. Rhyn., I, 248. f.158; Lefroy.
Ind. Ins. Life, p. 677, t. 74, f. 2.

Distribution- -Throwghoui
Plains of Southern India.

Lifcliistory. — The nymphs
brightly coloured with pink
blue ; they were found feeding on
larvae of Athalia proxiiiui.

Food. — Prcdaceous on AiIkiIui
froxiiiKi : doubtless also on various
small caterpillars and other insects.
Status. — Beneficial.

thi

are
and

\
I"lG. i^i. — Ctiiitlucoiiii fill-
ccllata. The outlino tiguiv
shows the iiatmal size.
(Original.)

ANDRALLUS SPINIDENS, Fb.
Cinicx spiniiUns, Fab., Mant., II, 285 (1787).

Audinclia spiniilciis. Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn.. I, 253, f. 160 :
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, t. 74, f. 5.

Aiulnillus. Dist. Il.c.l. IV, 453 \Aiitlini'ti(i nom. pra20cc.].

Fig. J56. — Audrnlliis spiiiidciis. The outline figure shows the natural

si/e. (Original. I
ZJ/.s7r//»////<;;/.— Throughout Southern India up to about 4,000 feet.
Li/cliistory.— Not known.

F(W.— Has been found feeding on caterpillars of Chloridcu
nhsoh'tii.

Status. — Ben eHc i a 1 .

476

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

CYCLOPELTA SICCIFOLIA. Westw.
Ai.pongopiis siccifolia. Westw., Hope Cat., 1, 26 (1837).
Cyctopdla siccifolia. Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., I, 280 281. t. 178;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 678, t. 74, f. Ii.

1"IG. S57.—Cycl<)pijlfii sicci/oliii. The outline figure show.s the iiiUtiral size.
(( )rif,'inal.l

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifcliistory. — Not known in tletail. NyTiiphs similar to adult but
smaller and also feed on plants.

Foodplniits. — Red Gram fCnjiiiiKs iiniiciisl. Erylhriim iiutica. Betel
Vine (Piper bctic).

S^;//(A-.— Sometimes does considerable damage to Hrytliriiui
where this is used as a support for pepper-vines.

Control. — These bugs are sluggish and inclined to be gregarious
and are therefore easily collected by hand.

ASPONGOPUS JANUS, Fb.
Cimcx jaiiiis. Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 714 (1775)-

AspoiigopHS jaints, Distant. Faun. Ind. Rhyn.. I, 281 282, f. 179;
Lefroyi Inrl. Ins. Life. t. 74. f. 3; .Minn. B.J.. -XX. 1166-1167. figs.

Fig. J58. — AspoiiRopits jaiiiis. (Original.)
Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.
Lifehistory. — Early stages are passed on low-growing plants sucii
af. pulses. The nymph is orange-red with black legs and antenna:

RHYNCHOTA.

477

ami hhiik spots down tlic l)ack and a large black blotch on each
side.

Fooi/f>liiiils. —Most low-growing plants.

Sttitiis.—A minor pest in vegetable plots of Brinjal, Lab-lab,
Pumpkins, etc.

Control. — Hand-picking.

TETROD.^ HISTEROIDES, Fb.
Acaiilhiii histcroiiU's, Fab., Ent. Syst. Siippl., p. 526 (1798).
Tctrodn liistcroidcs. Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., I. 299, f. 191.

l-IG. 359. — Tctroda liistcioidcs. The outline figure shows the natural size.
(l)riginal.l

Distril>iitio)i.-Sii\c'm, Coinibatore.

Lifchistory. — Not known.

Foodphiiits. — Paddy.

5/(7/M.\-. — An occasional minor pest of paddy.

C<w/r«/.— Collection by hand and in hand-nets.

COREID^.
.A.NOPLOCNEMIS PH.A.SIANA, Fb.
LvMiriis phtisidiiua. Fab., Spec. Ins., II, p. 361 fl/Sl).
Aiioplociicmis plhisiaiia. Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., I, 346 347,
f. 210; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 682. f. 444 [very poor figure].

lie. J(SO. — Aiiiiplociuiiiix f>li<isi(iiiii. ni.ilc. (Original.

47«

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Di.'^trihiitioii. Goiliivixn, Bellary, Coinibatorc'. C^>mm(>n in the
Hills.

Lifcliistory. — Not known in ik'taii.

Fooilplants. -Brinjal, Red Gram fCujniiiis indiciisj. Green Gram
(Phasculus miiiigo), Cholam lErythrina).

Status. — Not a pest in the i^lains but sometimes a serious pest of
young Erythriiia trees in the Hills.

Control. — Collection by hanil.

Remarks. — The adult bugs seem to iiair oft" for lift', a male and
female being found lomnionly in close pro.ximity.

CLAVIGRALL.A GIBBOSA, Spin.
Clavi,i;r,illci ,s:iN)osa. Spinola. Ess., p. 202 (1837J ; iJistanl, Faui
Ind. Rhyn., I, 401 402, f, 235.

Fig. J6'. — Clavi^ralla liibbo.sii. The outline figure shows the iialuial size.
(Original.)

Z)/5/r/i>H//<?H.— Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifehistory.— Not known in detail. Probably similar to that of
C. horrens.

Foodplants.—Rei\ Gram (Cajaniis iiiilitiisl. Lal)-lab IDolidios
lab-lab).

Status.— A minor pest of red gram and Lai)-lab, su( king the
juice of unripe seeds in the green pods.

rhync;h(jta.

479

loposiifd

Control.- (l) Tlu' i-fif^s .\w lairly lonspiciioiis. iisiiall
on poils, anil may Ik- lollcclctl h\ hand.

(2) The nymphs and adult bugs may be collected by shiking
the plants over a vessel of oil and water or over a cloth saturated
with oil.

CLAVIGRALLA HORRENS. Dohrn.
Chjvi.sirnll,! Iionrns, Dohrn, Stctt. Ent. Zeit. (i860), 403 ; Distant,
Faun. Inil. Rhyn., I, 402 ; LetVoy, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., 1, 234;
Ind. Ins. Lite, t. 75 [i\s fiibbosn].

Distribution. — Throughout
the Plains of Southern India.

Lifcliistory. — See coloured
Plate in "Indian Insect Life."

Foodplants.—Red Gram

iCiijanus indiciis).

Status.'— A minor pest of
red gram.

Cc)////-o/.— Collection of the
eggs (on pods), nymphs and
bugs, arid shaking the active
stages off the plants into
vessels of oil and water or onto cloths soaked in oil.

l"lG. SCt2.—Cla%'if>raHa barrens.

The outline figure shows the

natural size. (Original.)

Fig. 363. — Lcptocorisa varicorni.\

The outline figure shows the

natural size. (Original.)

LEPTOCORISA VARICORMS, Fb.

Gcrris varicornis. Fab., Syst.
Rhyng., p. 260 (I803).

Lcptocorisa varicornis, Dis-
tant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., I,
409 410, f. 241 ; Lefroy, Ind.
Ins. Pests, p. TI6; Ent. Mem.
Agri. Dept., Ind., I, 235, f.
76 ; II, I— 13, t. T ; Ind. Ins. Life,
p. 684, f. 446.

D is t ri b iitio //. — Th roughout
Sou' hern India up to 4,000 feet.

L ife h isto ry. — The round-
flittened, dark-brown eggs are
laid in rows on leaves of paddy
and grasses. The young
nymphs are pale green with
very long antennse; they
suck the juices of their food-
plant but are little noticeable

48o

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

as tht'V do not affctt the exposed jiarts ot the plant and readily
drop to the ground when disturbed. The bugs especially attack
the ripening grain, sucking the milky juice, so that the ears turn
wholly or partly white, no grain being matured.

Foodpltuits. — Paddy and wild grasses as a rule. Occasionally on
cholam, maize, ragi (Elciisinc coracuiia).

Status. — A serious pest of paddy, especially on the West Coast.

C<>;//ro/.— Collection in hand-nets has been tnund the most
efficient method.

RIPTORTUS PEDESTRIS. Fb.

Gcrris pah-stris. Fab. Syst. Ent., p. 727 '17751.

Ripttirtus pcdcstris. Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhvn.. I, 414. t. 244.

Fig. iM. — liiptortiis pcdcstns. with « in^;^ expanded and cloiicd. Tlic
outline figure shows the natural size. (Original.)

Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifchistory. — The oval, dark-brown, seed-like eggs are laid singly,
and apparently only a small number (3 to 8j are deposited by one
bug. The newly-hatched nymph is about 275 mm. long and looks
like a small red ant. In the second instar it is about 4 mm. long,
red-brown in colour and in general appearance like a red tree-ant
( Oi'cophylla smaragdiiia). In the third instar it is about 65 mm. long
and of a uniform dark colour, as it is in the fourth and fifth instars
when it measures respectively 75 and II mm. in length. The
nymph in the later stages is very active and hides itself away, so
that it is little noticed. Life-cycle : egg, 6 days ; nymph, 3, 4, 3. 5-
IT.V.R.I

RHYNCHOTA.

481

Fuoiiplaiils. — Lab-lab (Doliclios lab-lab), Cowpea (Vigna catjaiigj,
Ltiffa acutangtila (Tarn., Pirkan), Black Gram (Phascoliis miiiigo
railialus) Green Gram (Ph. muiigo). Wheat.

Status. — A minor pest, sucking the pods.

Control. — Collection by hand-nets.

Remarks. — Several other closely allied species occur on low-
growing crops. The commonest are Riptortits linearis, Fb. (Sec
Lefroy, Ind., Ins. Life. p. 684, t. 76, ff. 1—5) and R.fusats, Vh. All
these are extremely similar in habits and appearance and will
only be tlistinguished by an entomologist. On the wing they
look not unlike wasps.

LYG^ID/E.

LYG.EUS PANDURUS, Scop.

Ciincx paiiiliirus. Scop., Ent. Carn., p. 126 {1763).
Cimc.x militaris. Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 717 (1775).
Lygceiis militaris. Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., II, 6;
Ins. Life, p. 686, f. 449.

Lygcnis paiidiinis, Distant (l.t:), V, 4.

Lefroy, Ind.

Fig. 365. — Lygariis panditnis. The smaller figuie shows the natural
size. (Original.^

Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Not known.

F(?o<//>/rt«/i-.— Calotropis, cholam, cotton, red-gram, chillies.

Status.— 'i^oX definitely known to be a pest, though often found
abundantly.

Remarks. — This is one of the insects commonly confused with
the cotton bug (Dysdereus ciugulatus).
31

482

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

GRAPTOSTETHUS SERVUS, Fb.
Cinicx serviis, Fab., Mant., II, 300 (1787).
Graptostcthus scrviis. Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., II, 8-9, f. 4.

Fig. 366. — Graptostcfliiis serviis. The outline figure shows the natural

size. (Original.)
Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.
Lifcliistory. — Not known.

Foodplants. — Red-gram, sweet potato, jute capsules.
Status. — Scarcely a pest, but may do damage at times.
Control. — Collection in pansof oil and water or by shaking over
oiled cloth. It is attracted to lights at night.

O.XYCARENUS L.ETUS, Kby.
Oxycarcnus /^/h.?, Kirby, J. Linn. Sec, XXIV, I02 (1891); Distant,
Faun. Ind. Rhyn., 11, 43, f. 31 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, pp. 107 108,
f. 126, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 688, f. 454.

Fig. 867.--0.r3-trt/r/i((.s- Icctus. The outline figure shows the natural
size. (Original.)
/)/5/r/6H//<7;/.— Throughout the Plains of Southern Intlia.
Lifcliistory. — Eggs are laid in small groups in the lint of ripe
cotton-bolls or between the calyx and the boll and are cigar-shaped,
grooved longitudinally, at first white, later pale yellow and after-
wards orange. The young bugs feed in the bolls until full-grown.
Foodplaut.—Coiton, Hibiscus csciiloitus and Gogu fH- caiiiia-
binus).

RHYN'CHOTA.

483

Status. — Usually a minor pesl of cotton.

Control. — The bugs are generally found in old open bolls left
unpiucked, or in bolls attacked by boUworm whose hole of exit
they use as a means of entry. All such attacked and ripe bolls
should be removed regularly, and this will prevent the bugs from
breeiling. When they are present in numbers they are readily col-
lected by shaking the bolls over pans of oil and water or over oiled
cloths.

Ri'uiarL-s. — Distant's description (taken from Kirby's discoloured
type) incorrectly states that the antennae are unicolorous; his figures
are also incorrect as regards length of the rostrum, which extends
well beyond the third pair of legs, and in omission of spinal arma-
ture on anterior femora. I am indebted to Mr. Distant for the
identification of this species.

APHANUS SORDIDUS, Fb.
Ciincx sonlidiis, Fab., Mant, II, 302 (1787).

Apfui/iiis sordidus, Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., II, 7980, f. 62;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 689.

Fig. 368. — Aphaitiis sordid its. The outline fitjure shows the natural
si^e. (Original.)

Dislrihiitioii. -Throughout Southern India.

Li/cliistory.— Not known.

Food. — Harvested seeds of gingelly, groundnut, cumbu, and
on the plants in the fields also.

Sliitiis.—A minor pest of stored gingelly, groundnut, etc.

Control. —The bugs are readily destroyed by hand on the thresh-
ing-floor and ordinary methods used for pests of stored products
will check any damage in the store-room.
3 1 -A

484 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC

PYRRHOC()RID/E.
DYSDERCUS CINGULATUS, Fb.

Ciincx ciiiguUittis, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 719 (1775).

Dysdcrcus cingiiltitiis. Distant, Faun. Inil. Rhyn., II, II8 II9,
f. 87; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 104, f. 123, 125, Ent. Mem. Agri.
Dept., Ind., I, 237, f. 78, II, 47—58, t. 5, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 692, t. 77.
(See Plate XLVI.)

Z)/5//'/ftH//oM.— Throughout Southern India.

Lifehistory. — The creamy-yellow eggs are laid in small masses,
usually in cracks of the soil. The young bugs hatch out after
about a week and are bright red in all their stages. They feed,
often gregariously, fully exposed and are consequently conspicuous.
At certain times of the year adult bugs and young in all stages of
growth may sometimes be founil massed together in the open on
tree-trunks, walls, etc., forming a scarlet splash of colour visible
from a long distance. The length of the life-cycle is about 6 8
weeks.

Foodpluiits. — Cotton, bhindi (Hibiscus csculcntiis), Portia tree
(Tliespesid popiihuiiJ, nsi\ rule. Also occasionally on various other
plants.

Status.'- A serious pest of cotton.

Control. — The bugs are conspicuous, usually found on or near

the boll and are easily collected by hand or in a bag fitted with a

tin funnel.

TINGIDID.^.

STEPHANITIS TYPICUS, Dist.

//

Fig. if}9. — Stcphaiiitis typicux. The lower figure shows a profile view

of the head and thorax. The small outline figure shows the natural

size. (After Distant.)

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XLVI

DYSDERCUS CINGULATUS.
Fig. I. Group of eggs, natural size, and a single egg, magnified. On the
right, without black background, is a single egg just before
hatching.
„ 2. Nymphs, first instar, immediately after hatching and later.

3- ^>ymph, second instar.
,, 4. ,, third ,,
» 5- ., fourth
„ 6. „ fifth
„ 7, 8. Adult bug, dorsal and ventral views.

(The lines alongside the figures show the natural aires.)

PLATF. XLVI.

a ♦.

M\

./^^

Ep5

"\

^

DYSDERCUS CINGULATUS.

RHYNCHOTA. 485

Ciuianiustiis typhus, Distant, Ann. S.E. Belg., XLVII, 47 (1903),
Faun. Ind. Rhyn., II, 132, f. 95-

Slcp/iiiiiilis typhus, Dist., Rhyn., V, 108.

Distrihiitioii. — Coinibatore, Bcliary, Godavari. Probably through-
out the Plains of Southern India.

Lifehistory. — Not known. Nymphs are foun<l on tiic under-
surface of leaves together with the adults.

FoodpUvits. — Turmeric, plantain. Found on cardamom in
Ceylon (Green).

Status. — A very minor pest of plantain and turmeric. The
leaves, where punctured, are at first spotted with yellow and later
the whole leaf assumes a pale unhealthy tinge.

URENTIUS ECHINUS, Dist.
Vrrutiiis echinus. Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., II. 134, f. 97 (1903).

Fig. 370. — Urentius echinus. The lower figure shows a profile view of the
head. The small outline figure shows the natural size. (After Distant.)

Distribution.— Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifehistory. — Not known. Eggs and nymphs occur on the leaves
of foodplant with adults.

Foodphints. — Brinjal.

Status. — Sometimes a serious pest of brinjal, the leaves being
sucked to such an extent that they turn yellow, dry up, and fall off
the plant.

Control. — Spraying with a contact insecticide, such as Crude Oil
Emulsion, in small areas where brinjal is grown as a garden crop.

• MONANTHIA GLOBULIFERA, Wlk.
Tingis glohulifcra, Wlk., Cat. Het., VI, 182 (1873).
Monanthia glohulifcra. Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., II, 144, f. [07,
V, 123-124; Lefroy, Intl. Ins. Life, p. 693, f. 460.

486

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Fig. 371. — Moiianthia globulifera. The small figure shows the natural
size. (After Distant.)

Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.
Lifchistory. — Not k now n .

Foodplants. — Tulsi (Ociniiiiu sanctum), Safflower (Carthamus
tinctoria). English Sage (AiniamiLilc).

Status. — Sometimes a serious pest of Tulsi. the attacked leaves
turning yellow.

REDUVIID^.
CONORHINUS RUBROFASCIATUS, de Geer.

Cimcx nibrofasciatus, de Geer, Mem., Ill, 349, t. 35, f. 12 (1773).
Conorhiiius rubrofasciatus, Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., II, 286, f. 189 ;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life,'p."700"; Green,'^Spol.'Zeylan., VII, 50.

Fig. 372. — Conorhiiius rubrofasciatus. The outline figure shows the
natural size. (Original.)

RHYNCHOTA.

487

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Nymphs are sometimes found in houses, generally
in dusty corners, and cover themselves with dust and debris ; they
are probably predaceous on small household insects. This insect
has also been found in squirrels' nests and is perhaps a natural
parasite of these animals.

Food. — Probably predaceous on other insects as a rule, occa-
sionally attacks man, both in nymphal and adult stages, sucking
blood.

Staliis.^Nol very common as a rule, but this bug may prove
important as a carrier of disease owing to its bloodsucking habits.
It has been suspected of acting as a carrier of Kala-azar and an
allied bug in Brazil is known to transmit a human Trypanosome.

Control. — The adult bug is sometimes attracted to light at night.

CLINOCORID^.
CLINOCORIS HEMIPTERUS, Fb.
Cimex hcniiptcnis, Fab., Syst. Rhyng., p. 113 (1803); Horvath,
Ann. Mus. Hung., X, 259.

Cimc.x- rotiindatiis, Signoret, Ann. S.E. Fr. (1852), 540, t. 16, f. 2;
Howlett, Ind. Ins. Life, pp. 703-704, f. 474a ; Patton, Sc. Mem. Med.
Dept. No. 53, Rec. Ind. Mus., II, 153, t. 13, ff. i, 2, 5.

Acanthiii wacroccphalus, Fieber, Eur. Hem., p. 135 (1861); Distant,
Faun. Ind. Rhyn., II, 411, f. 262 (Ciinex).

Fig. 373. — Clinocoris hcmiptcrus. The small figure shows the
natural size. (Original.)

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory.— Eggs are laid usually in cracks in wood work. The
young nymphs (which are very similar to the adult but usually

4^8 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

of a pale yellow colour) suck blood. The length of life-cycle
depends largely on the amount of food available and may occupy
two months or upwards.

Food. — The blood of man, birds antl bats.

Status. — A human parasite which is not only annoying by its
bite anci disgusting by its smell but also of great importance as a
disseminator of disease. It is considered that the transmission of
Indian Kala-azar from man to man is effected solely by bed-bugs
(Cliiiocoris hew iptertis).

Control. — Cleanliness in the house. In cases of badly infected
houses fumigation may be necessary. Ordinary articles of furniture
may be rubbed over with Kerosine Oil or Turpentine and Carbolic
Acid. The bugs and their eggs are usually found in cracks in the
woodwork.

CAPSID^.
HELOPELTIS ANTONII, Sign.
Helopcltis antonii. Sign., Ann. S.E. Fr. (3), VI, 502 (1858); Dis-
tant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., II, 440, f. 285 ; Mann, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept.,
Ind., I, 321—325 ; Green, Perad. Circ. I, No. 21, 11. No. 2, II. No. 17,
p. 241 ; Planters' Chronicle, VIII, 206.

Fig. 374. — Helopcltis antonii. To the right is seen a more enlarged view
of the head and a profile view of part of the thorax showing the curious erect
drumstick <ippendage. The small outline fii;ure shows the natural size.
(After Distant. I

Distribution. — Coimbatorc, and probably throughout the Hills of
Southern India.

Li/eliistory.— Eggs laid singly or in small groups thrust into pods
(Cacao) or in young shoots of the foodplant. After about 10 days
the egg hatches out into a small reddish insect, with long legs and

RHYNCHOTA.

489

antennae, and looking not unlike a slender ant. This sucks the
juice of the foodplant and grows, without altering greatly in form,
until the final stage when its wings are full-sized and it attains the
adult colour of red, black and white. [Green.]

Foodfhuits. Mahogany, Persian Nim (Mdia uzcihiracIO, Tea,
Cacao, Cinchona, Annatto (Bixa orellaiia).

Status. — Sometimes a serious pest in the Hills.

Control. — Catching adults in hand-nets and spraying the young
individuals.

DISPHINCTUS POLITUS, Wlk.

Moiialoiiioii politiis, Wlk., Cat. Het., VI, 163 (1873).

Disphhictiis foniiosiis. Kirk., B.J., XIV, 295, t. A., f. 10, t. C, f. 2
(1902) ; Green, Entom. (iQOl), I14-I15, figs.

Displiinctiis politiis. Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., II, 444 445.

Egg, showing part exposed and Adult insect. The outline figure

section of a shoot into which it has shows the natural size,

been thrust. (After Green, Entom. (Original.)

(1901). 115.) X 20.

Fig. 375. — Displiinctiis politiis.

Distribution. — Kurnul. Probably throughout the Plains of South-
ern India.

Lifi'liistory. — Egg pale creamy-white, elongate, cur%ed, thnist into
a shoot of the foodplant, its position being then marked only by a
pair of divergent, glassy, horn-like processes projecting from the
plant. The nymphs are small, reddish, ant-like creatures, found
mostly on tender leaves which they puncture together with the
adults. These latter are active and look like small Hymenoptera ;
they are reatlily disturbed and take to wing.

Foodplant s. — Betel (Piper betle).

Status. — A minor pest as a rule, occasionally locally and spo-
radically doing serious damage to Betel Vines.

4^

SOME SOUTH INDIAN" INSECTS, ETC

Control.- Catching adults in hand-nets and spraying for nynii^hs

Remarks. — Very similar in appearance and habits to Helopeltis

but lacks the peculiar drumstick appendage on the thorax. The

allied Displiincliis /iinnrralis is perhaps sometimes the " Mos(|uito-

blight " of Cinchona in Southern India.

CALOCORIS ANGUSTATUS, Leth.

Calocoris aiigustatiis, Leth., I.M.N., 111, No. 2, p. 90, fig. (1893);
Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., II, 452 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 236,
f. 282. Ent. Mem. Agri. Dcpt., Ind.. 1, 238. f. 79.

KiG. 376. — Calocoris aiigustatiis. The outline figure show."! the
natural size. (Original.)

Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifcliistory. — Young nymphs are found with adults on the car-
heads. They are pale-green in colour and resemble the adults but
are of course wingless.

Foodfflants.—ChoXdim, maize, and probably various grasses.

Status. — A minor pest as a rule.

Control. — ?.

GALLOBELICUS CRASSICORNIS, Dist.
Gallobcliais crassicornis, Dist., Faun. Ind. Rhyn., II, 478, f. 3:0 ;
Lefroy. Infl. Ins. Life. p. 708. f. 480.

RHYN'CHOTA.

491

Fig. ^77. —Gallnhelicus crassiconiis. The small fiKiire shows Iho
natural size. (Original. I

Distrilmlion. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Li/c/iistory.— Nymphs are found with adults on the tender shoots
and flower-heads of tobacco.

Foodplants. — Toba ceo.

Status. — A minor pest.

Co«//-fl/.— Catching in hand-nets and shaking plants over pans
of water anil oil or over oily cloths.

RAGMUS IMPORTUKITAS, Dist.

Ragmus importunitas, Dist., A.M.N.H. (8), V, 18 (1910), Faun
Ind. Rhyn.. IV, 289, f. 159.

't

Fig. i7S.— Ragmus iwpoituiiitas. The small figure shows the
natural size. (Original.)

/?/..//-/7;,///V,/;.-Coimbatore. Probably throughout the Plains of
Southern India.

492 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Li f'lliistory.— The civamy-wliitc egg is cylindrical, curved, r()iin(le<l
at one end, the other fitted with a black flattened cap ; it is thrust
into the stem just beneath the bark (but not into the stem tissues
proper) the black cap lying level with the outer surface of the bark.
The egg has no projecting horns. The young nymph emerges after
about 6 days and is green in colour with long legs and antenna;.
(Y.R.R.)

Foodphints.- -Sunn Hemp (Crottilnrin jiincen)-

Status. — A minor pest as a rule, occasionally serious so that all
the leaves curl up and assume an unhealthy pale-yellowish colour.

Control. — Use of bagnets and hand-nets while the crop is low.

Rciiiorks. — The closely-allied A', pclliuidiis. Distant, is recorded
from Cochin, but R. iiiiportiinilds seems the only species of economic
importance.

FULGORID^.
EURYBRACHYS TOMENTOSA, Fb.

Ciaidcj loincntosa, Fab., Syst. Ent., 11, 324 (l775)-
Eurybracliys tomcntosa, Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., Ill, 223;
I.efroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 725.

Fig. 370. — Enrybrachys toiiiciifosa. Tlu- siiiall figure shows the
n.itural size. (Original. 1

/)/'.?/W6»/.'/o«.— Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifcltistory. — Eggs are laid in masses on leaves and are covered
with the white flocculent waxy efflorescence from the body of the
female. Nymphs are found on the leaves; they are brownish, with
long anal filaments. [Y.R.R.]

Foodplants. — Calotropis, Cotton and various Malvaceous plants.
Polyphagous; found on most shrubs and plants.

Status.— ^o\. a pest.

PHEMCE MGESTA, Westwd.

Phaiicc nicvsta, Westwd., A.M.N. H. (2), VII, 209(1851); Distant,
Faun. Ind. Rhyn., ill, 296-297, f. 142 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 726,

f. 499.

Assamin ilciilata. Buckton, I.M.N., IV. 1. t. i (1896).

RHYNCHOTA.

493

Fig.

Distrihn/ioii. -Thmughoul tlu- Plains of
Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Not known. Muir (Hawaii
S.P. Bull. No. 12) says that the immature
stages are passed in rotting wood ; certainly
only adults are found on plants.

Fooiiplaiits. — Sugar-cane and various
Grasses, occasionally on Cholam, Palms
and various other plants.

Status. — A very minor pest.

Control. — Catching in hand-nets.

Remarks. — Numbers of these bugs may
often be seen sitting in rows on the lower
J80.— P//L-«itc side of leaves of Sugar-cane, etc., and

>>i<xsta The outline readily jumping off and taking to wing
hgure shows the natur;i' o &

size. (OriKinal.)

when disturbed.

Fig. iSl. — Pyrillii pcrpiisillii. The small outline figure shows the natural
size. (Original.)

PYRILLA PERPUSILLA, Wlk.
Pyrops pcrpiisilla. Walker, List Hom., II, 269 (1851).
Zamila perptisilla. Distant. Faun. Ind. Rhyn., Ill, 327.

494 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Pyrilla abcrrans, Lcfroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 727, f. 500 (part).

Dictyophara pallida (nee Don.), Dist., F.I. Rhyn., Ill, 244 (part) ;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 134, f. 153. Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I,
240, f. 80.

Z)/s/r/7)H//o«.— Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifehistory. — The pale-green or yellow eggs are laid on the
lower surface of a leaf of Sugar-cane, in a mass covered with fila-
mentous white material derived from the body of the female. The
young bugs are palebrown with a pair of long straight anal
processes covered with white mealy wax; they leap actively and
suck the juice of the cane. Length of life-cycle not worked out.

Foodplaiits. —Sugar-cane as a rule ; sometimes on Maize and
Cholam.

Status. — Rarely a serious pest of Cane in Southern India, but
always present as a minor pest in Cane-fields.

Control. — Egg-masses and groups of young nymphs are con-
spicuous and leaves on which such arc found should be collected
and burnt.

Remarks. — I am indebted to Mr. Distant for the correct
iflentification of this insect.

PUNDALUOYA SI.MPLICIA, Uist.
Piiiiddliioyti simplicia. Distant. Faun. Ind. Rhyn., Ill, 468-469, f.
255-

'^l^

1"IG. OKI. — Piiiidahioya simplicia. adult iiisecl and front view of head. The
outline figure show.s the natural size. I After Distant.)

Distribution. -Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifehistory. — The transparent-whitish, slender, curved eggs are
thrust into the tissues from the upper side of the leaf, the position
being indicated externally by minute slits. The young nymphs are
pale yellowish and usually occur in numbers within the shelter of
the leaf-sheath, being attended by black ants (Canipoiiotiis coiiipres-
susj. Attacked plants assume a yellow unhealthy appearance.

Foodphints. -Cholam, Maize.

.S/*;///.';.- Sometimes a serious pest of cholam, usually localised
in patches. In case of bad infestation practically no grain is
formed.

RHYXCHOTA. 495

Control. — This is vcrj' tlifticull as the insects live protected
within the leaf-sheaths. No satisfactory method can be suggested
at present except cutting affected plants for use as green fodder.

Remarks. — The identification of this insect has kindly been
confirmed by Mr. Distant. It has hitherto been confused with
Libiirnia psylloidcs, Leth (I.M.N., UI, 105, fig.) but, by the figure
given of the latter, differs in several points. The large spurs on
the hind-legs are characteristic.

CERCOPID/E.
COSMOSCARTA RELATA, Dist.
Cosmoscarta rclnta, Dist., T.E.S. (1900), 669, Faun. Ind. Rhyn.,
IV, 143; Lallemand. Gen. Ins. fasc, 143 (Cercopidje), p. 136.

"^^

M

Fig. 383. — Cosmoscarta rclata. The outline figure shows tlie natural si^c.
(Oiiginal.t

Distribution. — Sidapur, Pollibetta (Coorg) ; Saklaspur (Mysore).

Lifchistory. — The immature wingless young are blackish-purple
with greyish-yellow head, pronotum and legs, and with paler bands
around the abdomen. They live in small colonies inside a common
mass of froth from which drops of clear liquid fall down so as to
wet the ground beneath the tree. The masses of froth are generally
found on the stalks of young shoots and of ripening fruits and
these latter often drop off the tree as a result of the infestation.
The winged adult, which is blue-black with reddish pronotum and
markings on the tegmina, is very active and difficult to catch.

Foodplaiits. — Jak (Artocarpus integrifoUa).

Status. — A serious local pest of Jak in Mysore and Coorg.

Control. — Removal and destruction of the young insects en-
closed in the masses of froth.

JASSID.^.
IDIOCERUS NIVEOSPARSUS, Leth.

Idioccnis iiiveosparsus, Lethierry, J.A.S.B., LVIII, 252 (1889) ;
Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., IV. 185, f. 121 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life,
p. 736, f. 511.

496

SOME SOUTH l\niA\ INSECTS, ETC.

Fig. 384. — Idioccnis iiiveosparsus. The small outline figure shows the
natural size. (Original.)

Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern Inrlia.

Lifehistory. — The small eggs are laid in shoots of the foodplant.
The young are similar to the adult but wingless and the legs com-
paratively longer. The bugs, both nymphs and adults, feed on the
sap of shoots and flower-stalks, excreting a sticky substance (honey-
dew) which, when the bugs are numerous, is produced in very large
quantity, and a characteristic black fungus soon grows on the
honey-dew.

Foodplants. — Man go.

Status. — Sometimes a serious pest of mango, the honey-dew ex-
creted by the bugs falling on the flowers so that they fail to set fruit.

Control. — Spraying of mango-trees before the flowers open if the
bugs are present in any numbers. After the flowers' have opened
the bugs may sometimes be driven from the trees by kindling
smoky fires below them.

TETTIGONIELLA SPECTRA, Dist.
Tettigoniella spectra, Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., IV, 21 1, f. 137;
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, pp. 736-737, f. 511".

Fig. 385. — Tettigoniella spectra. The small outline figure shows the
natural size. (Original.)

RHYNCHOTA.

497

/)/.s7/-//»////rtw. -Throughout Southern India.

f.ifi'/iislfirv. The yellow eggs are laid in a row in rice leaves
which often become subniergecl. They are attacked by a Procto-
trypid which walks under water in search of them (Lcfroy). This
parasite is figured on page 203.

Foodpluiits. — Paddy.

Stiitiis. -Not actually noted as a pest but liable to become so as
it is usually abundant in paddy-fields.

Control. — The adults are strongly attracted to light and this fact
may be utilized as one means of control.

NEPHOTETTIX BIPUNCTATUS, Fb.

Ciniiiii hifiiincltUd, Fab., Syst. Rhyng., p. 78 (1803).
Av'/>/w/(7//'.r /)//'//;/(7r//»,s-.- -Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn, IV, 359 360.
f. 228.

Fig. 386. — Ncphotcttix bipiiiictatiis, male and female and front views of

heads of both sexes. The small outline fifjmes show the natural

sizes, (.^fter Distant.)

Z)/.'>7r/7)H//o;/. - Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Not known.

Fflocipldiits. — Paddy. Probably on various grasses.

Sttitiix. — Not actually noted to do damage but sometimes appears
in such enormous numbers that it may be assumed to be at least
a minor pest.

Control. — The adults fly freely to light and this fact may be
utilized.

Rt'imirk.s. — The female of this bug wholly lacks the black spots
and black tips of the tegmina.

EMPOASCA FLAVESCENS, Fb.
Ciaidn flavc.wiis, Fab., Enl. Syst.. IV, p. 46 (1794)-
32

498 SOME SOUTH INDIAN' INSECTS, ETC.

Chlorila fldvcxcois, I.M.N., III, pt. 4, pp. 34—36, figs.
Empfliisid fhivrsirns. Distant, Faun. Imi. Rhyn.. IV, 405-406.

Fig. 387. — Empoasca flavcscens. The small outline figure shows the
natural size. (Original.)

Dislribiitioii. — Probably throughout Southern India.

Lifcliistory. — Not known.

Foodpliinls. ^Tcii,Ciislor. Probably on various other plants also.

Sttiliis. — Wellknown as "Green Fly Blight " in the tea Districts
of North-East India but so far as known does not attack tea in
India or Ceylon.

Control. — Spraying with contact insecticides and catching the
adult bugs in hand-nets when numerous.

Remarks. — This, or a closely allied species, is sometimes very
abundant on potato when grown as a field crop and may be seen in
thousands hopping off the leaves as one goes through the field.

PSYLLID/E.
PSYLLA ISITIS, Buckt. (PLATE XLVII.)
Psyllti isitis. Buckton, I.M.N., II, p. 18, fig. ; Lefroy, A.J. I.. YllI,
1—26, t. I- 2 (Jan. 1913).

Distribution. — South Arcot ; Tinnevelly. Pnjbably throughout
the Plains of Southern India.

Lifcliistory. — The pale-yellowish-white, cylindrical eggs are laid
singly on Indigo, usually near the tip of a shoot. The eggs hatch
after about 5 days, the nymphs feeiling on the plant for about a
fortnight, during which they undergo five moults, after which they
assume the adult (winged) stage.

Foodfliints.—lmhgo (all culliv.ited varieties ; also found on a
" wild Indigo " at Koilpatti).

S////H.f.^Usually rather a minor pest of Indigo in Southern India.
The tops of attacked plants assume a characteristic curly appear-
ance.

Control. — (l) Spraying with soap solution.

(2) Cultivation methods. (See A.J.I, cited above.)

I-:XPI.ANATI{3N OF PLA ll". XI All.

PSYLLA ISITIS.

Fif.. I. Eggs laid in groove of a leaf stalk. \ i6.

2. Egg a few hours old. \ 64.

3. Egg about a day old. x 64.

4. N'ymph, first stage. x 64.

5. „ second stage, x 50.

6. „ third „ x 45.

7. „ fourth ,, X 30.

8. „ fifth „ X 20.

9. Imago, female, x 20.

10. The hind end of the abdomen of male. \ 20.

11. 'I'he adult female sitting on a shoot, x 2.

12. The head of a Java-Xatal indigo plant showing crumpling of
the leaves produced by the feeding of the nymphs, with a
nymph sitting just below the head.

PLATE XLVII.

H

3 2

^f/

^a^-

't-jgm

7 m

m IM

£fea>'

PSYLLA ISITIS.

RHYNCHOTA.

499

APHIDID-^.
APHIS GOSSYPII, Glov.
Afhis js:ossy/>ii, Glover, Pat. Off. Rept., p. 62 (1854); Essig, Calif
Monthly Bull., I, 120—122, f. 41 (Mar. 1912).

Fic. 388. — Aphis gossypli, winged and wingless females. The small figures
inside the dotted oval show the natural sizes. (.After Essig.)

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifcliistory. — Eggs very tlark-red or brown. Nymphs green or
brownish. The females as a rule produce living young, and not
eggs, and these young are usually females which are themselves
able to reproduce living young afterabout three days, no males being
produced at all for a considerable number of generations. In small
colonies the members are usually wingless, but, as the colony
grows, winged forms are produced which fly off to found new
colonies on other plants. The increase may thus be very rapid.
The insects excrete a sweet liquid (honey dew) from the anus and
this is very attractive to ants which tend and tiefend the Aphids ;
the honey dew also falls on the leaves and gives them a character-
istic sticky appearance, usually rendered more conspicuous in damp
weather by the growth of fungus on the honey dew.

Foodpldiits.— Cotton. Polyphagous; has been found on over
fifty different plants in America.

Control. — Spraying with contact insecticides.

Remarks. — (l) Usually kept in check by various predaccous
insects (Chrysopa, CocciniicUids, Syrphids, etc.).

(2) Numerous other species of Aphids are founil on various
plants but the different species have not been identifieil as yet.

500

SOME SOUTH INDIAN' INSECTS. ETC.

SCHIZONEUR.^ L.-VNIGERA, Hausm.

Aphis lanigcrn, Hausmann, Illig. Mag. Insekt. I, 440 U802) ;
buckton, Aphides, 111, 89. t. 105, 106 ; Atkinson, I.M.N., II, 52—58, fig.

Fig. 389 — Scltizoiiciira laniflcra.
To the left is a portion of a root showing the characteristic nodules caused
by the insect. To the right is seen a portion of a root with a Colony of tho
insects (11,-itural size) and a single insect magnified. (.After MarlatI in Grandi.)

Distribution. — Coonoor, Bangalore.

Lifchistory. — The "American Blight," "Woolly Blight," or
" Blood Louse " appears in two forms, one of which attacks the
trunk and branches of apple-trees, the other the roots. The trunk-
living form is usually found in crevices of the bark or at the base
of twigs, etc., springing from the trunk and is covered with a white
downy covering. The root-living form has also white cottony fila-
ments. In both cases, the seat of attack is indicated by numerous
gall-like excrescences. The females may be winged or wingless
and can reproduce agamogenetically. Males do not seem to have
been obser\ed in Inflia.

Foodplaiits. — Apple.

.S/(/^//5.— May be a serious pest of apple-orchards.

Control. — For trunk-living form, spraying and scrubbing of stems
and affected branches with Cmde Oil Emulsion or other contact

RHYNCHOTA

Fig. 390. — Ragi Root Aphis.
A Rayi root showing the insects (natural size) attended by ants, and young,
half-grown and adult wingless and winged females. To the left is an antenna of
an adult winged female, more highly magnified. The small figures within the
dotted circles show the natural sizes. (Original.)

502 SOME SOUTH INDIAN" INSECTS, ETC.

insecticide. For root-livinj^ form, applicalion of Crude Oil Eiiuii-
sion or Kerosine Emulsion or digging in Tobacco Refuse around
the roots.

The following has lately been recommended in Europe but has
not yet been tested in India. A paint is prepared of Linseed Oil
7 lb.. White Lead l^ lb., Zinc O.xidc I lb., and this is boiled for
10 minutes and, when cold, I lb. of Turpentine is added. The
paint is applied by means of a brush to all the .iflVt ted parts.
[Rome Bull. (191 3), 491.1

R.\GI ROOT APHIS. (See figure on page 501.)

Distrihiilioii. — Only noted at Coimbatore in August and Seiitem-
ber, but will probably be found to be widely distributed in the
Plains.

Lifehistory. — The whole lifehistory is passed underground on the
roots of ragi plants. The young, which are probably always pro-
duced alive, are very minute, slender, pale-yellowish-white, of the
shape shown in the figure. They suck the juices from the roots of
the foodplant and, as they grow, the abilomen increases in size
until it assumes a globular form of about the size of a pin's head.
A few winged viviparous females are also found on the roots but
no males have been observed, so that reproduction is apparently
normally agamogenetic. These Aphids are attended by several
ants, of which the commonest and most conspicuous is Qiitipoiwtiis
compressiis, and the plants attacked may generally be picked out by
the heap of small grains of earth around the stem, marking the
situations where the ants have excavated chambers into the soil to
visit the Aphids for the purpose of obtaining " honey-dew." The
ants also probably carry the Aphids into new localities l)ut the
latter are also distributetl by the winged adults.

Fiwdpliiiits. — Ra g i .

Status. — This insect may be a serious pest, sucking the juices of
the plants so persistently that the whole crop may wither unless
constantly irrigated and even then the yield is considerably
reduced.

Control. — This is a very difficult insect to attack, as its uniler-
ground habits make control measures difficult. The addition of
Crude Oil Emulsion to the irrigation water has been tried with some
success but this is not economically possible on a large scale.
The searching out and destruction of the ants' nests around the
ragi fields may perhaps yield belter results.

Rciniirks. — In general appearance and habits this species recalls

RHYNCHOTA.

503

Tctranciira Iticifiigu, Zehntner (Metledcelingen van het Proefstation
vor Suikcrriet in West-Java " Kagok " te Pckalongan, No. 53, pp.
16—21, t. II, IT. 29 -3.^) hill (lin\r- striKlurally.

LACHNUS PYRI, lUukt,
Lachuiis pyri, Buckton, I.M.X., IV, 274, t. 16.

Fig. 391. — Lachiius pyri, wingless and winged adult.
The hair-lines show the natural sizes. (From Indian Museum Notes.)

Distribution. — Ootacamund ; Shevaroj's.

Lifi'liistory. — Not known in detail. Probably very similar to
that of Aphis gossypii.

Foodplants. — Pea r (Pynts).

Status. — A rather serious pest, occurring in large masses on the
twigs.

Control. — Spraying or brushing with any contact insecticide.

Fig. 392. — Onuiiiii haiiibiisK. I, Newly-born voiinj;; 2, Hall .;^i own iri>ecl ;
3. Mature wingless form; 4. Mature winded' form : 5. Antenna of mature
winKcd form ; 6, Colony on Giant Bamboo, natural size ; 7, Wingless
.idult, more enlarged, showing waxy filaments. The small figures within the
dotted circles show the natural sizes. (Origmal.)

RHYNCHOTA. 505

OREC.MA BAMBUS.E, Blickt.

Oirjaiiiii Ixiiiihiisa; Bucklon, I.M.N. , II, 87 88, 108 109 (figs.)
(1892) ; Schoiitfden, Spol. Zcyl., II, 185—187, t;ib., f. 5 [redescr).

/J/.s7r//)////(W.— Coimbatorc. Probably throughout Southern India.

Life/iistory. — The insects, in various stages from young to winged
adults, occur on the undersurface of leaves of the Giant Bamboo
IDciidroctiliiiutis), sometimes in very large numbers so that the plant
is smothered with a black fungus which grows on the honey-dew
secreted by the insects, this sweet excretion being also visited by
hordes of flies, ants and other insects. The young insect is pale
greenish-yellow with a pair of very long projecting cephalic
processes which become reduced in size in the adult insect ; as
it grows, the body becomes spherical, flattened, but the head and
thora.x remain distinct ; in colour it is pale yellowish-green, the tip
of the antenna darker, the eye blackish, the anterior portion of the
abdomen dark-green as far as a line drawn between the siphons
which scarcely project above the surface of the body ; the whole of
the abdomen is surrounded along its edge by a marginal border of
short pure-white waxy filaments, traces of which sometimes occur
also on the sides of the thorax. In the winged adult the general
colour is dull-green with a dark area on the abdomen correspond-
ing to that in the immature form ; prothorax yellowish with a pair
of ill-defined brownish spots ; eyes reddish; antennje black ; legs
pale-greenish infuscated at apices of segments. When disturbed,
the immature insects elevate their bodies at right angles to the
resting surface in a very characteristic manner.

Food plants. — Ba m boo ( Dciidrocalam us gif^anteits).

S?rt///i-.— Apparently a minor pest, doing little harm even when
in large numbers, although the drain of plant-juice must then be
very large.

Control. — Spraying with contact insecticides and checking
access of ants are practicable measures when this insect disfigures
the appearance of garden-grown bamboos.

Remarks. — The insect under consideration is apparently
Buckton's Orcoiiia hanihuscr although, as Schouteden remarks,
Buckton's "description is unusually incomplete and the drawings
reproduced in his paper are not at all exact." Van der Goot
(Tijds. voor Ent., LV, 330 and LVI, 131) states that Orcgma is prob-
ably identical with Ceratap/iis, Licht. ; I leave this point for
Aphidologists to settle, but it seems possible that insularis, v. d.
Goot, may be identical with hamhiisa-. Buckton.

506

some south indian insects, etc.
Coconut Aphis.

■••..„,' Fig. 393. — Coconut Aphis.

A part of a coconut ieaf showing a colony of the insects (natural si^ei, young
insect, wingless and winged adult and antenna of latter. (Original.)

Distribution. — Coimbatorr.

Lifchistory. — Not known in detail. Winged and wingltss
specimens arc found together in colonies on the leaves.

RHYNCHOTA.

507

Fooil[>hiiils. Coconut Palm.

Stains. A serious pist of yuunj;;' i)alnis.

Cw//rt'/. -Spraying with Crude Oil Emulsion has proveil
effective.

Rci>i(irks.~TW\^ Apliiil was found on young coionuts which
haiJ been brouglit to Coiinbatoro from Colombo by a private owner,
and it is probable that the Aphid was introduced with them. It is
hoped that this colony has been exterminated but the insect is
figured here in order to enable it to be recognized if found else-
where.

ALEURODID.E.
.\LEUROUES BERGl, Sign.

Ah'iirodcs l>ir.!ii\ Signoret, Ann. S.E. Fr. (4), VIII. 800(1868);
Zehntner, Arch. Java Suiker-Ind., XIV, 969, tab. (1896).

Fig. J94. — Alcurodes bcrgi.

.Adult female laying eggs on canc-lcaf and the same more highly magnified.
The small figure within the dotted circle shows the natural size. (After
Zehntner.)

Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifc/iistory.— Eggs are laid on canc-leaves in more or less
complete concentric circles. The young nymphs live rather
gregariously on the leaves and are dark-green or blackish,
surrounded by a whitish waxy efflorescence.

Foodplants. — Sugarcane.

Status. — A minor pest as a rule.

Control. — Cutting and burning of the first-attacked leaves as
soon as colonies are noticed.

Rcnitirks. — This species is merely given here as a representative
of its family, of which numerous species mostly unidentilictl) occur

5o8

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC.

on various trees and |)laiits. The comnionor species notieed
hitherto are : -

Alciirodcs citri on Orange. Jasmine, etc.. A. ririiii on eastor.
and several unnamed species on sugarcane, castor, etc.

COCCID^.
CEROCOCCUS HIBISCI, Gr.
Ccrocnaiis liiNsci, Green. Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Imi., II, 19 21.
t. 2, ff. 24 (1908) ; Lefroy fl.c.l, p. 122.

Fig. 393. — Ccrococciis liibisci 011 Cotton-stem. ('Oiif<iii;il.)

Distribution. — Godavari ; Coimbatore. Prohalily throughout the
Plains of Southern India.

Lifehistory and Foodplants. — The conspicuous golden-yellow
scales are found on twigs and stems of cotton and f/ihisciis.

Status. — A minor pest of cotton.

Control. — The scales are conspicuous and easily removed by
hand.

Remarks.- -This species appears to be kept in check by parasites
and so rarely increases to numiicrs sufficient to cause damage.

DACTYLOPIUS CITRI, Risso.

Dortlicsia citri, Risso, Hist. Nat. des Oranges (1813).

Pscudococcus citri, Fernakl, Cat. Cocc, pp. 99 100; Grandi.
Disp. Entom. Agraria, pp. 140— 143, ff. 126 — 128.

Dactylopius adouidum, Atkinson, I.M.N., I, 67 (lui. l.iiiiil.

Daclyhpius citri, Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri.. Iiid.. 1. 248 (I.e.).
(1. 122—124, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 244. f. 297.

RHYNCHOTA.

509

I"lG. 396. — Dactylopiiis citri. dorsal and ventral views nf insect with waxy

eoverinH removed, and insect with waxy covering. 'Ihc small tifiure

within the dotted circle shows the natnral size. (.After Grandi.)

Distrilnition- — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Females below ground on roots, on plants, in ant-
shelters. (Lefroy.)

Foodpliints. — Coffee, Tea, Croton, various species of Ficiis,
Agi'niliim, Eryl/iriiKi, anri numerous other plants.

Sltitiis. — An occasional serious pest of coffee, especially of
young plants in the nursery.

Control. — Contact Insecticides. (See also Ent. Mem., Vol. II,
No. 7, p. 123.)

D.ACTYLOPIUS NIP.-E, Mask.

Dactylopiiis iiipce. Maskell, N.Z. Tr.. XXV, 232 (1892) ; Green,
Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., U, 23 ; Lefroy (I.e. I, p. 136, t. 12, ff. 8, 9,
A.J.I., V, 162 164.

/'siiittococciis iiifyu, Fernaid, Cat. Cocc, p, 107.

:^

Fig. J*>7. — Dactylopiiis iiipic on Potato tuber. 1. After Lefroy.;

510 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Distribution. — Probably throughout Southern India.

Lifcliistory mid Food. — Found living on seed-potatoes, collect-
ing in masses around the eyes, and destroying the tubers. Also
found living freely on shoots of Mulberry, Cotton, Hibiscus, causing
the leaves to curl up and the growing shoot also to curl up into a
hard knot.

Control. — In the case of seed-potatoes, washing the potatoes
with an insecticide before storing, or fumigating when in store.
In the case of attack on Mulberry, etc., the twisted shoots should
be plucked and burnt.

DACTYLOPIUS VIRGATUS, Ckll.

Dactylopiits virgatus, Cockerell, Entom., XXVI, 178 (1893);
Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., II. pp. 127 128.
Psciidococcus virgatus. Fern., Cat. Cocc, II, j). III.
Dactylopius ccrifcrus, Newst., I.M.N., III, No. 5. \)\). 24 25. t. 3, f. 3.

Fig. 398. — Dactylopius viriiatus. dorsal and ventral views of insect
(enlarged) and antenna (more hit;liiy magnifiedl. (After Newstcad.)

Distribution.— VrohixhU throughout the Plains of Southern
India.

Li/cfiistory.— Occurs on the leaves and young shoots of the
foodplants.

Foodplants.— Cotton, Violet, Acalyplm, Hibiscus, etc.

5/rt^«5.— Sometimes in very large numbers on Garden plants. A
minor pest as a rule.

Cw/Zro/.— Spraying with contact insecticide and (in bad cases^
cutting and burning of badly infested branches on plants.

PULVINARIA PSIDII, Mask.
Pithinoriii psidii, Maskell, N.Z. Trans., XXV, 223 (1892);
Green, Cocc. Ceylon. IV, 264 265, t. lOO ; Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Dept.
Agri , Ind., II. 131 -134, Ind. Ins. Life, t. 82. f. I.

RHYNCHOTA.

511

Fig. 399. — Piilviiitiriii psitiii. 1. Insects on leaf, natural size; 2. Youpk

Nymph, magnified ; 3, Adult scale, maRnified ; 4. Side-view of adult

female showing waxy excretion. (Figs. 2 — 1- after Green. i

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Li/('liislory. — E%g& laid in the white floiculent mass which lies
under and behintl the female scale and which is characteristic of
this "Green Mealy Scale."

Food f>l ants. — Ficiis gloiiiciuitd, Lciiicrstra-niid Idinro/dlti. Mango,
Guava, Loquat, etc. Occasionally on Coftee.

Status. — Chieflv important in the Hill districts (Mysore, Coorg,
Nilgiris and Shevaroys) as a pest of Shade Trees on Coffee
Estates. When it occurs in large numbers such trees may be greatly
weakened or even killed.

512

SOME SOUTH INDIAN' INSECTS. ETC.

Coiilro/. —When the attack is localized ihe attacked trees
should be sprayed with a contact insecticide and neighbouring
unattacked trees isolated by painting a ring of some sticky
substance d'.x- tar and grease) around the trunk to prevent the
young bugs crawling up.

In ilistricts where this bug is prevalent, trees of varieties more
or less immune to this scale should be utilized for shaile.

The immature bugs, when found on Coffee, may easily l)e
mistaken for Lrniniiiin viridc, but are larger and lack the dark
intestinal loop characteristic of Green scale.

CEROPLASTODES CAJANI, .Mask.

Eriochitnii (v/yV/w/, Maskell, I.M.X., 11, 6i 62. t. I, ff. 3a- n (1891).
Ccrophislod ('.<<■(//>/»//, Green, Ent. .Mem. Dcpt. Agri., Ind., 11, .\u. 2,
PP- 32. 43-

1-iG. 400. — Ccraplastocies cajaiii. (Froiii Indian Musemn Nutcs.l

Distribution. — Madras (N.B. — It is not c lear whether the original
record refers to the Presidency or the city ; possibly Saidapet is
intentled.), Coimbatore.

Li/i'/iistory.— The scales are scattered on the twigs of the food-
plant as shown in the figure.

FooJpliints. — Rc<\ Gram (Ciijduus iiidiciis). Ber IZizyfiliiis Jii/iihdJ.
Also on Tuisi (Ocimtini sniicttnii) and on Colciis (Gre^n).

Sttitiis. — Originally described from specimens sent in as dam-
aging Red Gram in January 1890. >'ot since noted as a pest of

RHYNCHOTA.

513

cultivated crops but foiiiul in masses on twigs of Zicyp/ius at
Coimbntore.

LECAMU.M VIRIDE, Gr.
LA'canhiin viri(U\ Green, Obsns. on Green Scale (1886), Cocc.
Ceylon, III. 199- 203, t. 69 ; Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I.,
246, II, 130-131.

Fig. 401. — Lecanium viridc. 1, Young Nymph from above, greatly magnified ;

2, Female of second stage, magnified ; 3, Adult female, from above, x 15 ;

4. Scales in situ on branch of Coffee, natural size. (After Green.)

/to//7yw//(?«.— Practically throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — The flattened " Green Bugs " are found on the
tender twigs and leaves, usually along the veins on the underside of
the latter. The presence of these scales in large numbers gives rise
to a black Fungus which develops on the Honeydew falling on the
upper surfaces of the leaves, and this usually attracts attention to
the scales, which are not very conspicuous.

Food f>lants.— Coffee, principally. Also on Guava, Loquat. Cin-
chona, etc.

Sliiliis. — A very serious pest of Coffee but the amount of damage
done seems to ilepend on local conditions or on causes not yet
understood. In some districts the Coff'ee has been absolutely wiped
out by the attack of this scale, whilst in other districts, where it
occurs commonly, comparatively little damage seems to result.

Control.—Spniy'xng and Brushing of leaves where practicable.
But this scale requires detailed study before any method can be
recommended definitely and methods applicable will probably
require modification to suit local conditions.
33

514

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

LECANIUM HEMISPH.-ERICUM, Targ.
Lccaniuiti licmisp/ucriaan, Targioni-Tozzetti, Stuili sulk- Cocc,
p. 27 (1867) ; Green, Cocc. Ceylon, HI, 232. t. 85 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins.
Pests, p. 244, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I, 247, II, pp. 129-130.

Fig. 402. — Lecanium hemispharicuin. 1, Scales on twig and leaves, natural
size ; 2, Young Nymph, magnified ; 3, Adult female ; 4, Male,
magnified and natural size. (After Green.)

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory. — The rounded, shiny brown scales occur on leaves
and shoots.

Foodplants. — Cofifee, Tea, Loquat, Cephalandra.

Status. — The " Brown Bug " of Coffee, sometimes a serious pest
of both Coffee and Tea.

LECANIUM NIGRUM, Nietn.
Lecanium nigrum, Nietner, Enem. Coffee Tree, p. 9 (1861); Green,
Cocc. Ceylon, III, 229-231, t. 84; Lefroy. Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri.,
Ind., II. 130.

Fig. Wi.—Lccainuiii ini>ruiii, on Cotton stem. (Original.'*

RHYNCHOTA.

515

Distribution. — Throughout Southern Indiii.

Lifcliistory. — Usually on stems of the foodpiant. Adults vary
considerably in size, shape and colour, the latter l)eing usually deep
purple-black, sometimes dark chestnut.

Fooiipldiits. —CoUon. Also on numerous other plants, iiuluding
Hibiscus, Tea, Coffee, Hevea and Ccara Rubber, civ.

Status. Does not seem to be a pest as a rule but sometimes
occurs in injurious numbers on Cotton. A minor pest of Rubber.

Control.— In the case of an outbreak on Cotton the attack is
usually localized and the attacked plants sliould be uprooted and
burnt.

LECANIUM OLE^, Bernard.

Chcrmcs olcu; Bernard, Mem. d'Hist. Nat. Acad. (1782).
Lccanium olca\ Green, Cocc. Ceylon, p. 227-228, t. 83.
Saissctia okcc, Grandi, Entom. Agri., pp. 165-166, f. 157.

Fig. 404. — Lccanium nlca-. Scale? iju uns, lile-size ; a single scale, magnified,
is sliown below, (.\fter Green.)

Distrilnition. — Probably throughout Southern India.

/-//(7;;\s7oM'. — This scale is dull purplish-brown in colour, in
shape ovoid not flattened, with a longitudinal ridge down the back
and two other transverse ridges. It lives usually on twigs or
shoots.

Foodplants. -Coffee, Erythrina, Castilloa Rubber. Outsitie of
Southern India it has been found on Olive, Citrus, Antidesma,
Duranta, Thespesia, etc.

Status. — A minor pest of Coffee.

5l6 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

LECANIUM MARSUPIALE, Green.
Lecaiiitiin iiiaisupialc, Green, Cote. Ceyk)n, pp. 212-213, t. 75-

/; \\

Fig. 405. — Lecaniiiiii imnsiipicilc. On the left is a portion of leaf of Black

Pepper with male and female scales, natural size ; in the centre is winged

male, and on the right an adult female, magnified. (After Green.)

Distribution. — Wynaad.

Lifcbi story. — The large ovoid, flattened, chestnut-brown scales
are surrounded by a conspicuous yellow border and are found on
the upper surface of leaves of pepper. The adult scales are very
large, 7 mm. long. The young scales whitish.

Foodplants. — Pepper (Piper iiigniml.

Status. — A minor pest.

Co////'o/. — Destruction of affected leaves and spraying.

HEMILECAMUM IMBRICANS, Green.

Lccauium iniliricaiis. Green, I.M.N., V, 94, t. 18, ff. 2, 2a — d;
Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., U, No. 7, p. 130 ; Green, Jl. Ec.
Biol., V, 67 (March IQIO).

Hcmilccaiiium imbricans. Planters' Chronicle, V, 185.

Hcmikcaniuiii t/icobromn; Newst., Jl. Ec. Biol., Ill, 39 (1908).

Z)i5/r/7»H//o/;.— Nilgiris, South Mysore (Balur District), Coorg.

Lifeliistory. — The large, flattened scales form a dense silvery-
white scaly covering on twigs and branches of the trees attacked.
The scale is accompanied by a sooty fungus which grows in great
quantities on the plants below and rapidly kills out coff'ee.

Foodplants. — Toon (Ccdrcla toona), Red Cedar (Acrocarpus
fraxinif alius). Fiats mysorcnsis, F, glomerata and F. in/ectoria.

RHYNCHOTA.

517

V[C. 40(3. -HciniliCdiiiiiiii inihiic<i)is. ( r-Voiii Indian Museum Notes.)
Status. — An indirect minor pest of Coffee, attacking shade-
trees.

Control. — (l) Infected branches should be cut off and inirnt and
the apparently clean tree whitewashed.

(2) Replacing affected shade-trees by other trees not attacked
by this insect.

ASPIDIOTUS CAMELLI.-E, Sign.
Aspidioliis cdiiulliw, Signoret, Essai. p. I17 (1869) ; Green, Cocc.
Ceylon, pp. 60 61, t. 13, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I, No. 5, p. 353.
Dicispis ciiriildta, Green, I.M.N., IV, p. 4.

")

111

Fig. 407. — Aspidiotus camellia:. Scales, natural si^e. on branch and two
scales, magnified, seen from above and from the side. f.-Vfter Green.)

518

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Distribution. — Probably throughout the Hills of Southern India.

Lifchistory. — These scales are usually found massed on the
upper portions of young tea plants. The scale itself is chestnut-
brown surrounded by a broad outer ovoid margin pale-yellow or
greyish in colour.

Foodplants. — Tea, Cinchona, Acacia, Grevillea. Sapu (MiclwUti
cbampaca}.

Status. — Sometimes does considerable damage to young tea
plants in Southern India.

Coiilrol.~ln the case of very young plants complete destruction
by fire, in the case of older plants drastic pruning, the prunings
being burnt on the spot. There is risk of infecting other plants if
attempts are made to carry affected plants elsewhere to be burnt.

ASPIDIOTUS DESTRUCTOR, Sign.

Aspidiotus destructor. Sign., Ann. S.E.Fr. (4), IX, 120 (1869);
Fernald, Cat. Cocc, p. 257 ; Cotes, I.M.N., II, 168, III, 66-67 ; Lefroy,
Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., U, 137 ; Green, B.J., XIII, 70, t. B, f. 5.

Aspidiotus latanier, Green, Cocc. Ceylon, I, 49-50, t. 8 {ucc
Sign.).

KiG. 40.S. — Aspidiiitiis destructor. 1. Scales on leaf, natural si^e : 2. Fcniaii ;
and J, Male, both magnified. (.After Gn-en.^

Distriliution.—Soiith Wynaad, Coimbatore ; probably through-
out the Plains of Southern India. Laccadive Islands.

Foodplants. — Coconut, Mango, Pepper.

Status. — Occasionally injurious by weakening the tree when the
scale occurs in large numbers.

Control. — .'

rhVnchota.

510

MYTILASPIS PIPERIS, Green.
Mytildspis fifcris. Green, Ent. Mem. Dcpt. Agri., Ind., 11, No. 2,
pp. 34 35. t. 4. »'• l8-

KiG. 409.~Mytilaspis piperis. Scales, natural size, on twig and leaf of Popper :
and a single scale, magnified. (Original.)

Dislribiition. — Wynaacl.

Lifchistory. — The long, narrow, brown scales live thickly clus-
tered together on the young stems. The vines are attacked by this
scale usually about 10 feet from the ground, a rusty patch bare of
leaves and about a yard long being formed on the stem.

Foodplant. — Pepper (Piper nigniiii).

Slatiis. — A local, minor pest.

Cow/ro/.— Spraying and destruction of attacked portions of
plants.

CHIONASPIS BICLAVIS, Comst.

Cliio>itisf>is lucliivis, Comstock, 2nd Rept., Dept. Ent. Corn. Univ.,
p. 98(1883); Green, I.M.N., IV, 2, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri.. Ind., I,
No. 5. P- 354. n. No. 2, p. 36, Cocc. Ceylon, pp. 152 154, t. 54.

^20

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Fig. 410. — Chionaspis hiclavis. On the right is seen a piece of Cinchonastcm

with Scales in situ, natural size ; on the left is a piece of bark from a

Tea-stem showing two scales greatly enlarged. (After Green.i

Distribution. — Nilgiris.

Lifchistory. — The female scales are always found on stems or
bark of the foodplant, never on leaves; they are extremely incon-
spicuous, being covered with the superficial fibres and loose material
of the bark on which they rest. Their presence may, however, be
detected by the pimply appearance of the bark.

Foodpl(ints.—Tei\, Cinchona. Occasionally on Gicvilica and
Coffee.

Status. — Not noted as a pest in Southern India, but Green states
that it is " perhaps the most serious and widespread of all Coccidas
affecting the tea plant in Ceylon," its attacks resulting " in an
unhealthy hidebound condition of the main stems and branches."

Control. -Cuiixng out of worst affected stems during pruning
and scrubbing the remainder with a pad of coir matting moistened
with Kerosinc Emulsion (Grccu).

HEMICHIONASPIS THE,4;, Mask.

Chionaspis thccc, Maskell, I.M.N., II, 6o, t. I, ff. 2 a— c ; Green,
Cocc. Ceylon, II, p. 113, t. 33; Watt and Mann, Pests of Tea, pp.

307—309, f. 39-

Hcmichiontispis tlicw. Green, Enl. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I, No. 5,

P- 342.

/>/.?/;/7»(/^/V)/;.- -Throughout the Ten Districts of Southern In<iia.

ANOPLURA.

521

Fir.. 411. — HetiiicJiioiiaspis thccc. Male and Female Pnpari.T on Tea-leaf,
natural size and magnified. (.-Vftcr Green.)

Lifchistory. — The female scales are usually found on the
branches of older bushes and are so like the bark that they are
difficult to distinguish. The white fluted male scales are often
seen in little colonies on leaves, where they are conspicuous.

Foodplants. — Tea. Also on P-yr/w/r/V/ and other plants. [Grcoi.]
Status. — This scale scarcely seems to be a pest in Southern
India.

AXOPLURA.

PEDICULID^.
PEDICULUS CAPITIS, de Geer.

Fig. 412. — PcdicuUis capitis. The .small figure within the dotted circle shows
the natural si/e. lOriginal.l

S22

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Pcdiciiliis fiiimiiniis, Linn., Svst. Nat. (ed. X), I, p. 6lO (1758) [fxirt].
Pfilictiliis ciipitis, (Ic Gcer, Mem., VII, 67, t. I, f. 6 ( 1778) ; Osljorn,
U.S.A. Ent. Bull. No. 5, pp. 166 167, f. 96; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests,
p. 264, f. 317; Howlett, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 762; Brumpt, Precis de
Parasit., pp. 549— 550, flf. 395 397 ; Alcock, Ent. for Med. Offrs., pp.
213-215; Castellani and Chalmers, Man. Trop. Med., p. 633,
fT. 267'268(I9I3).

Dislribiilioii. — Throughout Southern India.

Lifchistory.— The eggs (or nits) are fixed by the female on to a
hair of the human head, the portions just behintl the ears being
most commonly selected. The young lice hatch out after about
5 days and are full-grown after another 10 or 12 days. The lice
suck blood at least once in every 24 hours.
Fooc/.-The blood of man.

S/rt/H5." A serious pest, as the insect may act as a carrier of
disease from one host to another. It is known to carry Typhus and
to produce a form of Impetigo.

Control. Personal cleanliness. Soap and water combined with
almost any of the ordinary antiseptics will be found efficient.
Washing the head with ordinary kerosine-oil (care being taken
not to approach any light or fire) and afterwards with soap is a
simple method.

PEDICULUS HUM.^NUS, Linn.

Pediadus //«;;/«//».?, Linn., Syst. Nat. ( ed. X), I, p. 610 (1758) [part].

Pediciiliis corporis, de
Geer, Mem., VII, 67, t. i, f. 7
(1778).

Pcdicidus vestimenti

Nitzsch, Germar Mag. Ent.,
Vol. Ill (1818); Osborn,
U.S.A. Ent. Bull. No. 5, pp.
167-168, ff. 94, 97; Howlett,
Ind. Ins. Life, p. 762 ; Brumpt,
Precis de Parasit., pp.
552—554; Alcock, Entom.
for Med. Offrs., pp. 213 -215;
Girault, Entom. News, XXIII,
339-344; Castellani and
Chalmers, Man. Trop. Med.,
p. 634. ff. 269 270 (1913).

Distrihiition. — Th roughout
Southern India.

%^

Fig. 413. Pediciiliis huinanus. The
small figure within the dotted circle
shows the n.itiiral size, l0^i^:inal.l

ANOPU'RA.

523

Ijfchistory. — Eggs are laid on rlothing in which the lice live
except when actually sucking blood from the body. Eggs and
development much as in P. cupilis.

Food. The blood of man. This louse has been iniiuced to l)ite
fowls (Neveu-Lemaire) and is said to have been taken from ci'ttle
(Osborn), but is not known to attack any host except man in a
natural state.

Status. The bile of liie body louse is said to be more initating
than that of the head-louse. The former is known to carry
Typhus Fever and both are e(|ually to be avoided as possible
carriers of disease.

Cw;/r«/. -Personal cleanliness. Baking, boiling, or fumigation
of infested clothing or bedding. The newly-hatched young are
only able to exist about two days without food so that disuse of
infected clothing, etc., for a period of at least 10 days should result
in starving of any young emerging from eggs in the clothing. It
may, however, be noted that the eggs may not hatch for five
weeks in cold climates ; no exact observations on this point seem
to be on record for Southern Intlia but the period may be expected
to be much shorter- probably always less than a week.

PHTHIRIUS PUBIS, Linn.

Pcdiailtis pubis, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. X), I, p. 61 1 (1758).

Phthirins iiiguiualts. Leach, Zool. Miscell., Ill, 63, t. 51, f. 5 (1817) ;
Osborn, U.S.A. Entom. Bull. No. 5, pp. 165-166, f. 95 ; Howlett,
Ind. Ins. Life, p. 762 ; Brumpt, Precis de Parasit., pp. 554-555- f- 398 ;
Alcock, Entom. for Med. Offrs., p. 2l6, f. 96 ; Castellani and Chal-
mers, Man. Trop. Med., p. 634, f. 271 (1913).

KiG. 414. — Phtliirius pubis. The small figure within the dotted circle shows
the natural size. (Original.)

£);',s7/-/7>////</«. Throughout Southern India.

Lifi'history. — This minute louse, which is only about one-fifteenth
of an inch long, lives on the coarse hairs of the pubic and axillary

524

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC:

regions of the human body ; occasionally found in the hairs of the
face but in those of the head only in extremely rare cases. The
eggs are fixed at the base of a hair, and the young hatch out after
about a week and are full-grown after about another fortnight.

Food. — The blood of man.

Status.— An annoying and disgusting parasite whose bites
produce small itching papular eruptions. Not definitely known to
carry disease, but extremely likely to do so.

CoH/rr^/. — Personal cleanliness. These lice are highly resistant
to ordinary antiseptics. Crude Oil Emulsion will probably be
found effective. Mercurial ointments are usually recommended.

Note. — The specific name piihts, Linn., is applicable to this
insect and has priority.

H/EMATOPINUS TUBERCULATUS, N. & G.
Pcdiciilus tiihcniiliitii.^, Nitzsch and Giebel, Zeits. f. ges. Naturw.,
XXIII, 32 (1864).

Iltcintitopiiiiis tiibcrciiliiliis, drdla Torre. Wytsm. Gen. Ins.,
Anoplura, p. II * 1908).

Distrihiitifl)!. Throughout Soutlu'rn
India.

Lifehistory. — Not known in dclail.
Live on the ears of buffaloes.
Food. — Blood of buffaloes.
Status. — Not known to be a serious
pest as a rule but sometimes occurs in
very large numbers-
Fig. 415. — Hcrmatopiiuix Control. — Application of Crude Oil

tiiberciilatiis, enlarged and Emulsion,
natural size. (OrlRinal.)

Remarks. — (l) Outside of India similar lice have been found
capable of transmitting Surra (Trypauo.toma evansi) from one host
to another, and young lice have been found to be transported by
clinging to the legs of a fly (Lypcrosia) which also infests
buffaloes.

(2) For other animal lire see page 185.

ORTHOPTRRA.

ACRIDID^.

TRYXALIS TURRITA, Linn.

Arrida turriliis, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. X), p. 427 (1758^
Tryxalis Inrrita, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 82, fig. 23.
Arrida Inrrita, Kirby, Cat. Orth. Ill, Q2-03-

ORTHOPTERA.

525

l'l(-,. 41(i.— 7"rv.v<f//,s- tiirritii. (OrifjiiKil .
/)(.s7/77i/(//((«.— Common tliroughout thu Plains.
Lifchistory.—Not known.

5/(//H5.— Scarcely a pesl althougli it often occurs in large
numbers.

Control.— Edsily caught by the help of small bag-nets.

EPACROMIA TAMULUS, Fb.
Grylliix tumulus, Fabr., Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 195 (1798).
Grylliis (lors,ilis, Thunberg, Mem. Acad. Patersb, V, 229 (1815).
Epacromia tlorsulis, I.M.N., III, No. 5, p. 73, figs ; Lefroy, Ind.
Ins. Life. p. 83, f. 24.

.Eolopiis tamiiliis, Kirby, Cat. Orth. Ill, 192.

KiG. 417. — Epacroiitiit toiiiuliis. 'Vvom Indian Mnscum Notes.)
Distribution. Throughout the Plains of Southern India; es-
pecially common in the Tinnevelly, Raninad and Madura Districts.
Lifchistory.-'Not worked out in detail. There are apparently
two broods during the rains.

Foodplants. — Ragi, Cholam, Cumbu, D,iincha (Scslxmia aculcutti).

526

SOME SOUTH IXniAX INSECTS, ETC.

Status. — A local pest of some importaiue in the Maeliira anil
Tinneveliy Districts.

Control. — May be swept up in small bag-nets during day-lime.
At night, unlike most grasshoppers, this species is attracted to
light, and torches or lights placed over pans of water with a fUm of
oil on top form effective traps.

AUL.'XRCHES .MILI.ARIS, Linn.

Gryllii.s miliaris, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. X), I, 432 (1758).

Phymntcus punctntiis, Fab. ; Green, Perad. Circ. 1, No. 9
{1898).

Aiiliirchcs Diiliiiris. Green, Peratl. Circ. Ill, No. 16 ; Lefroy, Ind.
Ins. Life, pp. 83 84.

./^•^'•i^

Fig. 418.— ^/(/<f)-c/(

((Jrifjiiuil.)

Distribution. — Shevaroys, Nilgiris, Vizagapatam and Coimbatore.

Lifcliistory. — Eggs are laid in a mass in the ground in a hole,
tlug by the female, about 3 inches deep and half an inch in dia-
meter. The grasshoppers usually collect in one place for coupling
and egg-laying, the latter usually taking place under shade. The
eggs hatch after about five months and the young hoppers take
about five months to attain full growth.

Foodphmt.s. — Coconut, Coffee, Erythrina.

Status. — This insect does little damage as a rule although often
common in Coffee Districts.

Control.— The habit of the adults to congregate for the purpose
of pairing and ovipositing may be utilized to tlestroy them in large
numbers. The young hoppers on first hatching may also be
collected and destroyed before they have time to do harm.

PCECILOCEKUS PICTLS, Vh.

Gryllus pictiis. Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 289(1775).
Pockiloccrns pictus, Serv., Orthopt. pp. 597 598.
ParcHoreriis pictus, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 2I2, f. 149, Ind.
Ins. Life, p. 84 ; I.M.N., III, No. 5, p. 72, fig.

PLATE XXXXVlll.

COLEMANIA SPHENARIOIDES.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XLVIIL

COLEMANIA SPHENARIOIDES.

KiG. I. Earhead and leaf of millet eaten by the grasshoppers, natural

size.
„ 2. An adult grasshopper on the ground and a female laying eggs
with her body thrust into the soil.

ORTHOPTEKA.

527

Fig. ■iig.—Paxiloccno; pictKS. l( )riKin;il.)

Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lif'c/iistory.^Not l<nown in detail. Probably two broods in the
y ea r.

Food l^l lints. Cdlotrofis. h'ound damaging young fig plants in
Bellary District.

Stnttis. — Not a pest as a rule.

ORTHACRIS Sp.

Fig. 420.— Orthacris sp. The outline figmc shows tlu- iialiual sue.
(Original. I

/)/'.s7r/y)////Vw. -Coinibatore, Tinnevelly, Bellary. Probably
throughout the Plains of Southern India.

IJfcliistory. - Not know n .

Footlpliiuts.--Rag'\, Cumbu, C'holani, Groundnut, Cabbage, Brin-
jal, etc. On most low-growing plants.

SttUiis. — A minor pest as a rule.

COLEMANIA SPHENARIOIDES, Bol.
Coleinniiia sphciinrioidcs, B<ilivar, Bolet. R. Soc. Esp. Hist. Nat.
{1910), p. 319; Coleman. B.J., XX, 879(1911); Mysore Ent. Bull. No.
2, pp. 1—43, t. I — 10.

(SEE PLATE XLVIII.)

528 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC.

Distribiilioii.—^ilysoTe, Bcllary, Kurniil. Gradually spreading
eastwards and southwards.

Lifchistory. — Eggs are laid in masses in the ground in October —
December, the young nymphs emerging about June — July, after
the South-West Monsoon Rains have set in. They feed on any
low-growing vegetation and are full-grown about September —
October, when they pair antl lay eggs. The young are similar to
the adult but smaller and both stages are wingless.

Fooilphiiits. — Cholam, Tenai, Cumbu, Green Gram, Red Gram,
Cow-pea. Most low-growing crops are attacked but cotton seems
fairly immune.

Control. — (i) Catching young hoppers (before they have had
time to damage crops) by means of small bag-nets.

(ii) Killing adult hoppers when coupling anil laying eggs,
(iii) Deep-ploughing of infested fields in December — January
to destroy egg-masses.

ATRACTOMORPHA CRENULATA, Kb.

TnixuUs cri'iiiildtiis. Fab., Ent. Syst., II, p. 28 (1793); Serv.,
Orthopt, p. 584.

Pyrgoi)iorl>lhi crcntiliitu, I.M.N'., Ill, No. 6, p. 21, fig. ; Lefroy,
Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., 1, 1 19. f. 2, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 84, f. 25.

Fig. 421. — Atractdiiioiplia crciiiilata. (Original.)

D/5/r«7)H//o«.— Throughout the Plains of Southern India ; especi-
ally common in Coimbatore, Gotlavari, Kurnul and Bellary.

Foodpluiits.—Tobdcco, Brinjal, and other vegetable crops es-
pecially Aintirunl/iiis.

Sldliis. — Found often in company with Clirolof^omis doing some
appreciable injury to tobacco in nurseries.

Crw/ro/.— Hand-picking.

CHROTOGONUS.
? ^Ommcxccha lr<ichyf>tcnini. Blanchard, Ann. S.E. Fr.. V, 618
619, t. 22, f. 6(1836).

Chrotogoiius trachyplrnis, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 220, f. 265,
Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I, 1 18, f. I, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 85.]
^See Plate XLIX.)

Distribution. -Throughout the Plains of Southern India ; especi-
ally common in South Arcot, Madura. Coimbatore and Bellary.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XLIX.

CHROTOGONUS SK
Kic. I. Egg mass in soil.
„ 2. A single egg, magnified.
,. 3. Portion of egg-mass, magnified.
,, 4-8. Young grasshoppers in various stages, magnified.
,, 9, 10, Adult grasshoppers.

(The lines alongside ihc fijjures show the natural sizes.)

PLATE XLIX.

CHROTOGONUS SP.

ORTHOPTERA.

529

Lifchislory. —Eggs are laid in the ground in a mass, the young
hoppers scattering on emergence and feeding on ahnost all green
vegetation. Exact life-cycle not worked out in Madras. For
stages see coloured plate.

Foodphmts. — Tobacco, groundnut, cholam, cotton, nigerseed.

5/(;///.v. Sometimes a .serious pest of young tobacco, cholam,
etc.

Cnnlrol. C"(jllccti<)ii in small hag-nets.

Remarks. — The exact identity of the species concerned in
Southern India is not known. Probably there are several species
which may be different from the Northern Indian species shown on
the plate, but the general appearance and habits are very similar
in all.

CATANTOPS sp.

Fig. 422. — Cuttintopx sp. The outline figure shows the natural sLze.
fOriginal.l

Distrihiilion. — Tinnevelly and Ramnad.

Lifiiiislory.— Nol known. Perhaps two broods annually, one in
July-August, the other in February-March.

Foodphuits. — Cotton (bolls, flowers and leaves), grasses.

Status. — A very local and sporadic pest, occasionally doing
some damage to cotton-plants by eating the young bolls.

Control. — Catching in small bag-nets or hand-nets.

Remarks. — This species is perhaps undescribed. It is some-
what similar to Catanlops similis, but is larger, with longer wings
and with a distinct pattern of markings on thorax, elytra and
posterior femora.
34

530

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

CYRTACANTHACRIS SUCCINCTA, Linn.

Gryllus snccinctus, Linn., Amoen. Acad. VI, 398 (1763).

Acridiuin siiccincttim, Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., hid.,
I, pp. 1—52, t. 1—4, t. 8, f. I, t. c), f. 1, t. 10, ff. I, 2, Ind. Ins.
p. 86, t. 2-3.

Cyrtiicaiithacris stiaiiicta, Kirby, Cat. Orlli. Ill, 448.

I, pt.
Life,

bps^

Fig. 423. — Cyrtacanthucris siicciiirta. (After Lefroy.)

Distrihittion. — Bellary, Kurnul anil Anantapur. A stray speci-
men was obtained in South Arcot in November 1907 and another
from Dhavani (Nilgiris, 6,000 ft.) in December 1907. Not noted in
South India since 1907. '^I't scatteretl individuals may occur
throughout.

Lifehistory. — See Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agr., Vol. I, No. L

Foodplants. — All green vegetation.

Status. — The Bellary and Kurnul districts are occasionally visit-
ed by migrant swarms from Bombay, usually in May and June,
when there are practically no crops on the ground, so that the
damage done in Madras is slight.

Control. — Little can be done to check the locusts when a locality
is visited by one of these enormous swarms. The best method of
destruction is probably to burn them with torches when resting on
trees at night. They are also readily destroyed when coupling by
beating them with brooms, branches, etc.

CYRTACANTHACRIS RANACEA, Stoll.
Gryllus Locusta rtiimcriis, Stoll, Spectres Saut., p. 30, t. 14. b,

f. 53(I8I3).

Acridium atriiginosuiii (iwc Bur.), Lefroy, Ent. .Mem. Agri. Dept.,
Ind., I, 53, t. 8, f. 3, t. 9. f- 38. t. 10, f. 5.

Cyrtacanthairis ranacea, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 86, t. 6; Kirby,
Cat. Orth. Ill, 451.

PLATE L.

PESTS OF RICE.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE L.

lu. I.

Hierughphus banian.

Adult grasshopper.

.. »•

» »

Half-grown grasshopper.

-. 3-

,1 »

Young grasshopper.

. 4-

JVymphiila depunctalis

Larva in case feeding on paddy-leaf

.. 5-

H I>

Larva removed from case.

„ 6.

„ „

.Moth.

„ 7.

Melamtis ismene.

Larva (Caterpillar).

, 8.

I.

Pupa.

. 9-

» •>

Butterfly.

, lO.

Spodoptera man r ilia.

Eggmass on paddy-leaf.

1 1 1

). I.

Moth.

> 12,

13- ..

Larva (Caterinllar).

, 14.

Hi spa armigera.

Beetle.

. 15-

»

Early stages in tissue of leaf.

, 16.

»

Larva (magnified).

. 17-

Parnarii mathias.

Larva (Caterpillar) in folded leaf.

, 18.

;

Pupa.

, 19-

..

Butterfly.

ORTHOPTERA. 531

Fig. 42-i.— CyrtacaiilliiJcris raiuicca. (Original.)

Distribution. — All over South India.

Lifchistory. — Not" worked out in detail. The nymphs are charac-
terized by the broad yellowish stripes on the prothora.x.

Foihlplants. — Cotton, castor, groundnut, ragi and various other
crops.

Status. — Common, especially in cotton fields, but scarcely a pest.

Control. — Collection by hand or in nets.

HIEROGLYPHUS BANIAN, Fb.
Gryllus Ihiiiiaii, Fab, Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 194 (1798).
Acriciiuiu funifcr, Serv., Orthopt., p. 677, t. 14, f. 12 (1839).
Hicroglyphus baiiiaii, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 87, t. 7; Coleman,
Mysore Ent. Bull., No. I, pp. 1—52, t. 1—5.

[See Plate L.]

Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India up to
about 4.000 feet.

Lifchistory. — The eggs are laid in masses in the ground, usually
between October and December, the young emerging about
June, soon after the South-West Monsoon Rains have started.
The young nymphs are brownish-yellow, with a yellowish stripe
down the middle of the thorax, and do not usually assume a
greenish colour until they are about to acquire wings. The deve-
lopmental period for males is about 70 days, for females about
80 days.

Foodplants. — Paddy, sugarcane, maize ; chiefly on paddy.

Status. — A major pest of paddy, sometimes doing serious
damage both in hopper and adult stages.

Control. — Bagging in small bag-nets.

HIEROGLYPHUS NIGRO-REPLETUS, Bol.
Hicroglyphus uigro-rcplctus, Bolivar, Trabajos del Museo de Cient.
Nat. Madrid, No- 6, pp. 56 — 59 (1912).

Hicroglyphus banian, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, f. 27, ncc Fab.
35

532

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Distribution.— 'QcWiwy. Kurnul, Guntur.

Li/chistory.— Eggs are laid in November in masses at a depth of
two or three inches from the soil surface. Young hoppers emerge
in June July and are adult in September-October.

Food/ylaHts.^Cholam, tcnai.

ORTHOPTERA. 533

Sliiliis. — A minor post of cholam and tenai, not occurring in large
numbers as a rule.

Control. — Catching in small bag-nets, or by hand (adults).

Remarks. — Most forms are short-winged ones, but a few forms
with the wings fully developed have also been noted- These latter
are, however, distinct from H. haiiiaii in colour markings. In 1909
specimens were received from the Bcllary Farm as doing damage
to cholam. This species has been named H. nigro-rcpletushy Senor
Ignacio Bolivar and a translation of his description will appear
shortly in the Journal of the Bombay Nat. Hist. Society.

OXYA VELOX. Fb.

GryUus velox. Fab., Mant. Ins., I, 239 (1787).

Oxya vclox, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 88; Bolivar, Ann. S.E.Fr.
(1901), 613 ; Kirby, Cat. Orth., III. 393-394-

Fig. 426.— O.v^'fl: vclox. (Original.)

Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifehistory. — Not known.

Fflfldplnnts. — Paddy chiefly. Among other crops cholam,
sugarcane.

Status. — A minor pest of pa<l(ly. Sometimes this insect does
some appreciable damage to patkly. Sometimes this and Hicro-
glypliiis banian are found together in paddy fields.

Control. — Sweeping with bag-nets.

Remarks. — Adult specimens are sometimes attracted to light at
night and light-traps might perhaps be of some use.

PHASGONURIDyE.

SCHIZODACTYLUS MONSTROSUS, Dr.

Gryllus monstrosiis, Dnny, lUustr. II, 81, t. 43, f I (1773); Serv.,
Orth., pp. 322-323; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 224, f. 271, Ent. Mem.
Dept. Agri., Ind., I, 125, f. 9, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 95, f. 33.
35-A

534

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Fig. 427. — Scliizodactyliis iiionstrosiis. (Original.)

Distribution. — Bella ry only.

Lifehistory. — The nymphs and adults hide during the day singly
in tunnels driven into the ground in sandy places, probably
emerging at night to forage for their prey which consists of
practically any other animal small enough to be overpowered and
devoured. They will starve in captivity rather than touch vegetable
food.

Food. — Predaceous on caterpillars, small frogs, etc. Not a pest.
Found in sand along a river bank at Hagari.

Status. — Beneficial as destroying caterpillars, grasshoppers, etc.,
injurious when attacking batrachians. On the whole, probably of
-.leutral value to agriculture.

Remarks.— In localities where it is common this insect is often
accused of damage really done by Brachtrypcs.

GRYLLID^.
GRYLLOTALPA AFRICANA, Pal.

Gryllotnlfa africaiui, Palisot — Beauv., Ins. d'Afric) et d'Anicr., p.
229, Orthopt, t. 2'-, f. 6 (1805); Serv., Orth., p. 307; Lefroy, Ind.
Ins. Pests, p. 224, f. 270, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I, 124, f. 8, Ind.
Ins. Life. p. lOI, ff. 37-38.

ORTHOPTERA. 535

Ciirlilhi africiiiui, Kirbv, Cat. Orth. II, 6.

Fig. \m.—C,ryUoia\f>a ohiaina. l.\ftor Lefroy.)

Distrihiil ion.- South Kanara, Malabar, Madura, Coimbatore,
South Ariot, Ramnad ; probably throughout the Plains of Southern
India.

Lifchistory. — Not known in detail.

Food and Status. — Not a pest, often found in damp corners of
houses. Once reported as damaging sugarcane to some extent in
Tellicherry (Malabar district) by gnawing the setts. Probably also
predaceous on smaller animals and does damage sometimes by
driving tunnels through the ground in search of food.

Control. — The insects usually prefer to live in damp localities
and it is therefore possible to bring them out of their burrows by
flooding the grountl, when many birds rcailily attack them.

CECANTHUS INDICUS, Sauss.
Qlcantlnts indiciis, Saussure, Melanges Orth., p. 594 (1877);
Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 105, f. 42 ; Kirby, Cat. Orth. II, 74.

Fig. ^Z9.~CHcaiitlui!i iiidiciis. The outline figure shows the natural size.
(Original.)

536

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Distribution. — Coimbatore, Godavari, Bcllary, Kistna.

Food. — Found on tobacco plants but never doing any damage to
the same ; they have not, however, been observed to feed on any
insects though they were found in numbers on phints infested with
Plant-lice, Capsids, etc. It is, however, probably predaceous on
small plant-feeding insects.

Status. — Probably beneficial.

BRACHYTRYPES PORTEXTOSUS, Licht.

Achcta portcntosa, Licht., Cat. Mus. Zool. Hamb., Ill, 85 (1796).

Brachytrypes portentosus, Kirby, Cat. Orth. II, 22.

Gryllus Achcta achatiiia, Stoll, Spectres Saut., p. 4, t. 2'', f. 8
(1813).

Brachytrypes achatiiius, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 225, f. 266, Ent.
Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I, 122, f. 7, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 103, f. 40, Ent.
Mem., Vol. IV, pp. 161— 182, t. 10; V. S. Iyer, Ind. Forest Bull.,
No. 11, p. 2, ff. I", i''.

Fig. 430. — Brachytrypes portentosus. (After Lefroy.)

Distribution. — Nellore. Apparently not widely distributed in
Southern India.

Lifchistory. — Eggs are laid singly at the end of burrows made
into the ground. The young nymphs hatch out after about a month
and attain the winged state after about si.\ months. They live
hidden in their burrows during the daytime, emerging at night to
forage for food which they carry down into their tunnels.

Foodplants. — Casuarina (seedlings).

Status. — Noted to do damage in Casuarina nurseries.

ORTHOPTERA.

537

LIOGRYLLUS BIMACULATUS, cle Geer.
Grylliis biiuactiliitits, cle Geer, Mem. Ins., Ill, 521, t. 43, f. 4 (l773)-
Liogrylliis hiniiicitldlHS, IM.N., \l\. pt. 2, p. 97, fig; Lefroy, Ind.
Ins. Pests, p. 226, f. 269, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 104, f. 35.
Achcta biwaculatiu Kirby, Cat. Orth. II, 26.

Distribution. — Throughout tlic
Plains of Southern India.

Lifcltistory. — Not known.
Usually found under stones, logs,
etc.

Food. — Probably feeds on
decaying vegetation ; possibly
predaceous on other insects.
Has been noted as attacking
and devouring the Deccan grass-
hopper (Colemania) in the field.
Status. — Not a pest.

Fig. 431. — Liogryllns himacnlatus.
(Original.)

BLATTID^.
PERIPLANETA AUSTRALASI/E, Fb.
Blatta australasicE, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 271 (1775)-
Periplaneta australasicr, Marlatt, U.S.A. Ent. Bull., No. 4. P- 9i,
f. 40; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 61, f. 11.

Fig. 432. — Periplaneta aiistralasice. (Original.')

538

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Distribution. — Common in towns but not so common as P.
americaua (see figure 74) which seems to be dispossessing this
species in many districts. Probably introduced by shipping.

Lifehistory. — The eggs are deposited all together, contained in a
hard horny case. The young lead an independent existence as
soon as they hatch out. The life-cycle is a long one, probably over
two years from egg to adult, the adult being also long-lived.

Status. — In the field cockroaches do little, if any, damage, but
in houses, especially in towns, this and other species are well-known
household pests. They gnaw unsightly patches in any leather
articles (harness, boots, book-binding, etc.), and not only eat any
food to which they find access but contaminate it with their
disgusting smell whilst there is a further possibility of their
communicating pathogenic germs onto food which they touch.
Cockroaches have also been shown recently to be of some import-
ance in the occurrence of cancer in mice. Corks are frequently
destroyed and form favourite places for the deposition of the
egg-sacs, which are placed in holes gnawed in the cork.

Control- — Traps and paste containing borax are the best
remedies. Small cockroaches may often be trapped in any empty
tin with a little grease smeared around the inside and a lump of
bread, etc., as bait.

BLATTELLA GERMANICA, Linn.

Fig. 433. — DlattcUa gcnnanica.

The outline figure shows the

uatural size. (Origiii.nl.)

Blatta gcrmauica, Linn., Syst.
Nat. (ed. XII), p. 688 (1767).

Ectobia gcnnanica, Marlatt,
U.S.A. Ent. Bull., No. 4, p. 92,
f. 42.

Blattclla gcnnanica, Sh el ford,
E.M.M. (1911). 154-

Phyllodroin ia genu an /« v/, K i rb y ,
Cat. Orth. I, 87.

Distribution. — Common i n

towns. An introduced species.

Lifchistory. \

Status and .
Control. '

See Pcriplancla
australasiw.

DERMAPTERA ; ISOPTERA.

DERMAITI'.KA.

FORFICULID/E.
NALA LIVIDIPES, Dllf.
Forficiila UvidipiS, Dufour, Ann. Sc. Nat., XIII, p. 340 (1828).
Liibiilura lividipcs, Burr, Faun. Incl. Derm., p. 97, t. 4, f. 31.
Nala lividipes. Burr., Gen. Ins. Derm., p. 36, t. 3, f. 10.

539

Fig. 434. — Xuln lividipes. The small figure shows the natural size.
(Original.)

Distribution. — Common throughout the Plains of Southern India.

Lifehistory. — Not known.

Remarks. — This insect is included here as one of the commonest
representatives of its family. Earwigs are rarely pests, but, on the
contrary, are often beneficial as they are largely carnivorous and
have been recorded as important predators on larvae of Fruit-flies
and of House-flies.

ISOPTERA.

MESOTERMITID^.

COPTOTERMES HEIMI, Wasm.

Coptotcnncs hcimi, Wasm., Zool. Jahrb., XVII, 104, t. 4, ff. l a — f
(iqo2); Holnigr.. B.J., XXI, 777 (1912).

540

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

Fig. 435. — Coptotcniu's luinii, lic:id of soldier (much m.ignificd).
(Original.)

Distrilmtion. — Coinibatore, Bellary ; probably throughout the
Plains.

Lifehistory. — Colonics of soldiers, workers and young occur in
decayed portions of living trees and in wooden beams, etc. The
winged adults fly just after sunset on still evenings in January and
February at Coimbatore.

Status. — In the case of living trees colonies only appear to occur
in old trees and probably only occupy anil perhaps enlarge already
existing dead portions or hollows in the stem and branches caused
by disease or injury. In the case of buildings, however, these
Termites may do considerable damage by hollowing out beams,
especially in the roof. Their presence is often detected by the long
narrow galleries, partly excavated in the wood and covered with
mud or chewed wood, which they run over tree-trunks, beams, etc.
The soldiers exude a large drop of milky, sticky, late.\-like li<|uici
from the head.

Control. — Little can be tlone unless the headquarters of the
colony can be located. It may then be destroyed by injecting
poisonous fumes. Treatment with preservatives of beams intended
for constructional use Is indicated as ;i means of prevention.

ISOPTERA. 541

TERMITID^.
ODONTOTERMES Sp.

Uniler this name reference is made to the Termites — whetlicr of
more than one species is uncertain, as is also the exact identity —
which commonly cover trees in the dry weather with sheets of mud
under cover of which they nibble off the outer bark. The direct
damage done is usually small although occasionally the Termites
may eat into the inner bark but it seems probable, in some cases at
least, that their attack may provide a means of entry for bacterial
diseases which may aflfect the trees more seriously. Various
mixtures arc in common use for application to tree-tmnks. I have
found a mixture of Crude-oil Emulsion and Tar (half and half)
effectual for some months at least, and it is usually only during the
dry weather that trees are attacked. Pure Tar by itself willsome-
times injure the tree, as will kerosine-oil. Crude-oil Emulsion
(without Tar) may be applied in the case of young trees with
tender bark.

The nest is below ground, the sponge-like fungus-combs being
found sometimes as far as twelve feet below the surface, but
usually in the first two or three below soil-level. The nests are not
marked by above-grouml mountls and can rarely be located exactly.
(See also figure 32.)

Fig. 436.— Outlines of heads of soldiers of (1) Odontotcnnes and (2) Micro-
tcrtitcs, showing relative proportions and shape of jaws. (Original.)

MICROTERMES Sp.
Under this name reference is made to those small Termites
which attack growing crops, particularly cereals and young plants.
These Termites are much smaller than the species of Odontotcnnes
and the soldiers have a relatively much smaller and weaker mandi-
ble. Their nests, which are in scattered colonies under the soil

542

SOME SOL'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC.

sometimes in or alongside the nests of other Termites, show no
outward indication of their position and are ahnost impossible to
locate.

The only method of mitigating damage, that can be suggested
at present, is by the use of ileterrents, whose use often gives young
plants time to reach a point of growth at which they are little
attacked. Where irrigation is i)racticable a bag of Crude-oil
Emulsion suspeniled in the irrigation-channel will usually drive
Termites away temporarily. Cane setts may be dipped in a solution
of Copper Sulphate before planting. Methods adopted for special
crops must depend very largely on local conditions.

THVSANOPTHRA.
THRIPIDit.

THRIPS.

Fig. ■iil.— Tlirips. The hair-lines show the natural sizes. (After Lefroy.)
Various -species of Thrips fSensii latiori) occur in Southern
India on various crops, such as cholam, paddy, onion, sugarcane,
and groundnut, but the species concerned are very little known
and cannot be discriminated without careful study. The damage
done is usually small so far as particular plants are concerned, but
is undoubtedly large in the aggregate, and further study of these
minute insects will probably reveal that many different species

THYSAN'URA.

543

will have to be included in the list of insects injurious to Agricul-
ture. Their habits are various ; some live in flowers and doubtless
devour the pollen, a few produce galls in which they live, and many
live on leaves (especially in the shelter of the leaf-shcath in crops
such as cholam), piercing and eating the green matter. No practi-
cal treatment can be recommended pending further study of the
species concerned.

THYSANURA.

LEPISMID^.
CTENOLEPISMA Sp.

Fig. 43S. — Ctcnolcpisma sp. The outline figure shows the natural size.
(Original. I

Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. A domestic species
occurring in houses amongst papers, books, pictures, etc.

Lifdiistory.— Eggs dre laid amongst papers, etc. The life-cycle
is apparently a long one, taking about two years from egg to
adult.

Status.— A regular household pest, frequently doing consider-
able damage to papers, office files, pictures, etc.

Control. — Books should be treated with Book Solution regularly,
at least once a year, if kept in open shelves. Pictures should be
painted over their backs with Naphthaline Emulsion and their
frames thoroughly well made and closely lined with tin. Books
in closed shelves, papers in boxes, etc., may be protected by
naphthaline. (See also page 172.)

Remarks. — These Fish-insects in Southern India do not seem to
be controlled by Croce as in Northern India.

544

SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC

ARACMNIDA.

ACARINA (Mites).

TETRANYCHUS BIOCULATUS, W.-M.

(RED SPIDER).

Tclraiiydiiis bioiiihiliis, Wood-Mason, Report on Tea-Mite (1884) ;
I.M.N.. Ill, pt. 4, pp. 48—56, figs. ; Green, Perail. Circ. I, No. 17. pp.
198- 199 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, f. 2 ; Watt and Mann, Pests of Tea,
pp. 348-359. f- 40.

Fig. 439.— Tctraiiychtis binciilatiis, male and female. The small figures
within the dotted circles show the real sizes. (Original.)

Distribution. — Probably throughout the Tea Districts of Southern
India.

Lifchistory. — The mites live in colonies on the upper surface of
mature leaves under a very delicate protective web. The red eggs
arc laid in hollows, usually close to a rib of the leaf, and the
newly-hatched young have only three pairs of legs but soon attain
the adult condition in which they have four pairs of legs. The
female mite is only about I mm. (one twenty-fifth of an inch)
between the tips of the out-stretched fore and hinil legs, and the
male is still smaller.

Foodplants.— Ted. Probably on other plants also; Green men-
tions tomato.

5/rt/M5.— Sometimes a serious pest of tea. Although the mites
feed only on the older leaves, the loss of sap due to their sucking
the juices of the plant causes the leaves to become dry and curled
and in bail cases to fall off.

Control.— (\) The mites are most injurious during spells of dry
weather. Heavy rains are inimical to them.

ARACHNIDA. ' 545

(2) Dusting with Flowers of Sulphur is the best remedy. By
suspending two bags on the entl of a pole a cooly can dust two
rows of bushes at once. About I cwt. per acre is required.

(3) Spraying with Flour Paste and Sulphur is indicated as iiii
cxpcriiiiciit in control.

Observation.— CoXes (I.M.N., 111,48) states that Tctraiiycliiis hiocii-
latiis, W.-M., is the same species as the " Red Spider " of the CofTfee-
tree, described as Acariis coffccv by Nietner in his " Observations on
the Enemies of the Coffee-tree in Ceylon," published in 1861. If
this statement is correct, the Red Spider should apparently be
known as Tctraiiychits coffece, Nietn.

PHYTOPTUS CARINATUS, Green.
(PURPLE MITE.)
Typhlodronius cariiiatiis. Green, Ins- Pests of Tea.
Phytoptus carinatus. Green, Perad. Circ I, No. 17, pp. 199-200 ;
Anstead, Planters' Chron., VI, 189; Watt and Mann, Pests of Tea,
pp. 365-368, f. 42.

Fig. -i-iO.— Phytoptus carinatus. seen from side and from abo\e. The dot
within the circle shows the natural size. (.After Green.)

Distribution. — Nilgiris.

Lifchistory. — The Purple Mite feeds on both surfaces of the leaf,
giving it a more or less uniform purplish-bronzy tint, the leaves
withering and dropping in bad cases. The outer margins of the
leaves are often more attacked than the central portions- The mite
itself is microscopic and invisible to the naked eye, although close
inspection will often show very minute white specks which are the
cast-off skins of the mites. The young mites are greenish, semi-
transparent, pear-shaped. The adult mites are coloured dull
purple and have five ridges of white waxy material along the back ;
there are apparently only two pairs of legs and these are small and
placed close together near the head ; at the tail-end there is a
sucker which acts as a prehensile organ and^is used in locomotion.
[Green-]

546 SOME SOUTH INDIAN* INSECTS, ETC.

Food plants. — Tea .

Status- — A constant ami sonictinics serious pest.

Control- — Dusting with Flowers of Sulphur in the early morn-
ing, or spraying with Cruclc-oil Emulsion and Sulphur or with Flour
Paste with or without Sulphur.

Remarks. — I have not seen this mite in Southern india and am
indebted to Mr. Anstead for information regarding its occurrence.

547

INDEX

The Lists of Crops with their pests and of Allied Plants (pages 240 — 273), being
already shown in order, are not indexed here also.

All names in ititlics are synonyms.

An asterisk (•) placed after a name means that the organism under reference is
figured either on tlie page quoted or on a Plate inserted opposite thereto.

ahiTnins, Pyn'lla, 494.*

.\bdomen and appendages, 1 1 .

abdominalis, .\ulacophora, 311*

Acacia latronum harbouring ants, 63.

Acacia sundra, 63.*

Acanthophorus serraticornis, 319*

.\cariases, 185.

Acarina, 544,

Achxa melicerta, 386.*

achtttimis. Brachytrypcs, 536.*

.\cherontia robbing bee-hives, 130 : larva,

131.*
.\cherontia styx, 402.*
AcUeta bimaculata, 537.*
.\contia graellsi, 385.*
Acrida turrita, 524.*
.\cridida?, 524.*

acridiorum. Coccobacillus. 124.
Acridiiim aniginosum, \5iO* . A. sue-

cinctiim, 530*
.\cridotheres tristis, 224.*
.Vciias selene, 405.*
acuta, Chiloloba, 284*
adonidiim, Dactylopiiis, 508.*
.\doretus bangalorensis, 285* ; .\. caligin-

osus bicolor, 286* : .\. ovalis, 287.*
.Egocera venulia, 372.*
ri'grotalis, Pachyzancla, 440.*
(cncsccHS, Hispa, 316.*
^olopiis tamuliis, 525.*
lertiginostim , Acridiinii, 530*
.TiStivation, 55.
affinis. Oides, 313.*
affinis, Pempheres, 156, 339*
africana, Gryllotalpa. 534 * ; — leg of, 8.'
.Vgamogenesis, 15.
.\garistida?, 372.*
.\gonoscelis nubila, 472.*
aaraiiDua. Plusia. 394.*
.\gricultural methods for control of pests,

82.

36

.\gromyza. Cow-pea, 358 • : Red-gram,

357.*
.■\gromyzidsc, 356 ; — as crop-pests, 158.
Agrotis segetiitii, 135.
.Vgrotis ypsilon, 57.
albistriga, .\msacta, 135 *, 369*
albuminosa, Collybia, 64.*
.\lcides bubo, 337* ; A. coUaris, 337*; A.

leopardus, 338.*
alcmene, Chloridolum, 323.*
.\Ieurodes bergi, 507* ; A. citri, 508 ; .-V.

ricini, 508.
-Meurodidar', 507 ; — pupal stage, 19.
.Alimentary System, 14.
alternus, Stauropus, 408.*
Althanivea, 411.*
americana, Periplaneta, 170* : — antenna,

5 • ; — . leg, 8.*
American Blight, 500.*
.\mphibia, 235.
Amsacta albistriga, 135*, 369*; A.

lactinca, 368*: A. moorei, 369.
Anacampsis nerteria, 458.*
anastomosalis, Omphisa, 439.*
Anatomy of Insects, 2 *, 3.*
Anatona stillata, 282.*
Ancylolomia chrysographella, 424.*
Andrallus (Aiidiiietia) spinidens, 475*
Androconia, 49.
Anemotropism, 56.
angustatus, Calocoris, 490.*
Anomala varians, 287.*
.\nopheline mosquitos. 180.*
.\noplocnemis phasiana, 477.*
Ant-attracting glands of .\cacia sundra,

63.*
Ant-eater. Scaly, 215.
Antenna;, 5.*
Antestia cruciata, 472.*
Ant Exterminators, 121.*
.\nthera;a paphia, 208.*
Anthrax, 190.

548

INDEX,

Anthrenus, 174,»

Antigastra catalaunalis, 4m.*

antiqua, Orgyia. eggs of, 32.

.\nt-lions, 198.

antonii, Helof)eltis, 488. •

Ants, 274 • : communication amongst — ,

50 : control of — by Potassium Cyanide,

104 ; — defending plants, 63 : food of — ,

195 ; — in houses, 171 ; intelligence of — ,

51.
Apliatiiplcra, 365.
.Vphanus sordidiis, 483.*
.\phidida:-, 499 ; care of — by .\nts, 66, 67.
.\pliis gossypii, 499.*
.\plinacus, directive markings, 39.
Apidsc. 277.
.\pion sp., 331.*
Apis dorsata, 209, 277*; .\. Horea. 210.

279 * ; A. indica, 210, 278.*
Apoderus tranquebaricus, 335.*
.\pomecyna pertigera, 327.*
Aproaerema (Anacampsis) nerteria, 85,

457* ; parasite of—. 201.*
arachidis, Sphenoptera. 298.*
Arbela, use of name, 24.
Arbela tetraonis, 453.*
Arbelid.-c, 453.
archesia, Remigia, 388.*
Arctiada;, 367.
Argasidx, 184.

Argina cribraria, 400 *; A. syringa, 401.*
Argyroploce (Cryptophlcbia) illepida

(carpophaga). 449.*
Aristolochia imprisoning flies, 62.*
armigera, Chloridea (Hctiothis), 373.*
armigera, Hispa, 315.*
Army Worms, 136.
Arntillariii citrhiza, 64.*
Arrliinotermes flavus. 9.*
Arsenites, 99.
Arthropoda, 1, 2.
.\silida', 198.*

asperulus. Ceuthorrliynchus, 328.*
.\spidiotus camellia- (circiilatii), 517*;

.•\. destructor. 518.*
.\spidomorplia miliaris, 316* : A. sancta-

crucis, larva, 45.*
Aspongopus jauus, 476.*
Assaiiiia dcntata, 492.*
Assembling of males, 49.
assulta. Chloridea {Hcliolliis), 374.*
Asura confcrta, 367.*
Atactogaster finitimus, 333.*
atcr, Dicrurus, 223.*
Athalia proxima, 281.*
.\thene brama, 226.*

atomosa, lixelastis, 444.*

Atractomorpha crenulata, 528.*

atriceps, Parus, 225.

atripennis, .Aulacophora, 312.*

Attacidie. 405.

Attacus ricini, 207.*

Atteva fabriciella (»iivi'^iif/c//rt), 461.*

Attraction of sexes, 49.

Aiidinctia xpinidcns, 475.*

Auditory organs, 47.

augias, Telicota, 419.*

aiigiista. Deprcssaria, 459.*

Aulacophora abdominalis, 311*: .\. atri-
pennis, 312*; A. cxcavata, 312*;.!.
fovcicollis, 311*: .\. stevensi, 312.*

Aularches miliaris, 526* ; — . means of
defence, 42

iiiirautimia, Laxpcyrcsia, 450.*

aurantius, Bracliypternus, 226.*

aureus, Canis, 221.

auriflua, Scirpophaga, 425.*

australasire, Periplaneta, 537.*

Autospray Machines, 115.*

Azazia rubricans, 389.*

Azygophleps scalaris, 446.

Babblers, 224.

babu, PItlcbotomus, 362.*

Bacterial Diseases of insect pests, 123.

Bactrocera cucurbitce, 354.*

Bag-net, 90*. 91.*

Bagrada Picta, 473.*

Bag-worms, 448.

Baits for crop-pests, 93.

Bamboo Beetles, 164, 175.

bambusa;, Oregma, 504.*

bangalorensis, .Adoretus, 285.*

banian, Hieroglyphus, 531.*

Bandicoot, 216.

Banding trees. 94.

Baoris mathias, 417.*

barbalum, Stromatium. 321.*

Barbels, 229.

B.-irrel Sprayers, 112.*

Batesian Mimicry, 37.

Batocera rubus, 324*; - simple anatomy,

2*; B. rubra. 324.*
Batruchcdra coriaccUa, 458 * ; B. stego-

dyphobius, 237.
Bats. 219.
Bears, 220.
Bed-bug, 171, 487*;—, names of. 23 ;

negatively phototrophic, 54.
Bee-eaters, 230.

549

Beehive, 211.*

Bees, 209, 278 • . — in houses, 171 ;
reproduction in — , 15: stinj; of — ,
44 • ; warning note of - , 44.

Beetles attacking stored products, 160.

bcrgi, .\leurodes, 507.*

biclavis, Chionaspis, 519.*

bimaculatus, LioKryllus, 537.*

Binomial Nomenclature, 23.

binotalis, Crocidolomia, 437.*

bioculatus, Tetranychus, 544.*

biparttllii. Phycita, 428. •

bipunctatus, Nephotettix, 497.*

bipunctifer, Schoenobius, 426.*

Birds, 222 : - checkint; grasshoppers, 139;
importance of — . 80, 86.

Bison, 214.

Biston suppressaria. 409.*

Blattella (PhylloJromia) germanica. 538.*

Blattid.-c. 537.

Blister-beetles, 185 ; — as checks on grass-
hoppers, 139; as crop-pests, 154*; —
as parasites, 204 • ; means of defence of
— ■ 42.

blitealis, Noorda, 441.*

Blood of Insects, 14.

Bloodsucker lizard, 230.

Blowfly, egg-laying habits. 55.

Blue-bottle Fly spoiling toddy, 159.

Body-louse, 523.*

Boerhav ia catching insects, 59 ; eaten by
insects, 60.

boeticus, Polyommatus, 415.*

Bollworms. 23, 133.

Bombardier Beetles, 41.

Bombotelia jocosatri.\. 382.*

Bombycidje, 407.

Bombylidae, 203.

Bomby.x mori, 205.*

Book -beetle, 295.*

Book Solution, 172.

booduga, Mus, 216.

Bordeau.\ Mixture, 105.

Borborid Flies on Dung-beetles, 66.

Boring caterpillars, 132; control of — ,
94.

Bos bubalus, 214 ; B. gaurus, 214

Boselaphus tragocamelus, 214.

Bostrychida-. 293.

Brachypternus aurantius, 226.*

brachyrhinus, Lius, 331.

Brachytrypes portentosus (achntiiiiix),
536.*

Braconida?, Polyembryony in, 16.

Brain of Insects, 12.

brama, Athene, 226.*

brassic.-c, Pieris, t. 2, fT. 5 — 8.
Brenthida^, 344.
breviceps, Rana, 235.
Brinjal Sarrothripine, 383.*
Brodia priscotincta, 18.*
Brown Bug of Coflee. 514.*
Bruchidx. 161, 306.
Bruchus theobroma-. 307.'
bubalus. Bos, 214.
bubo, .\lcides, 337.*
Bubulcus coromandus, 227.
bucephalus, Heliocopris, 281 * ; - , an-
tenna, 5 * ; — , ball of, 204.
Bucket Sprayers, 108.
Buffalo, 214.
Buffalo-louse, 185.
Bufo melanostictus, 236.
Bungarus candidus, 232*
bungarus, Naja, 233.*
Buprestida;, 297 ; — as wood-borers, 153.
Burning Crop-pests, 94.
Butho. 237.
Butterflies, 412.

Cacopus systoma, 235*
Cadamtistus typicus, 485.*
ca?salis, Glyphodes, 435.*
caffer, Sphenarches, 443.*
cajani, Ceroplastodes, 512.*
Calandra oryzac, 160, 341.*
calcitrans, Stomoxys, 353.*
Calcium Carbide residue, use for, 105.
Calcium .\rsenite, 100.
Calf-louse. 185.
caliginosus, .\doretus, 286.*
Calobata sp. , 355.*
Calocoris angustatus, 490.*
Calotes versicolor, 230.
camellia;, .Vspidiotus, 517.*
caminodes, Hilarographa, 464.
Camponotus compressus, 277.*
candidus, Bungarus, 232.*
Cane-borers, 422*. 425*. 426.*
Canine Piroplasmosis, 190.
Canis indicus, 221 ; C. aureux, 221.
Canorus, Crateropus, 224.
Cantao ocellatus, maternal solicitude in,
34.*

Cantharid beetles. Hypermetamorphosis

in, 32.
Caiithariiiar, 185, 302.
Cantharis rotixi. 302*; C. ruficollis,

305* ; C. ten lit col I is, 303.*

550

INDEX.

Canthecona (orcellata, 475.*

capensis, Hippobosca, 347.*

capensis. PeriRea (Apamca). 376.*

capitis, Pediculus. 521.*

Cappia taprobanensis. 470.*

Capsidse, 488.

Capua coffcaria, 452.*

Caratlrina cxigua, 378.*

Carbolic Acid Emulsion, 102.

Carbon Bisulphide, 165.

Carboniferous Insects, 19.

Cardamom Scolytid, 344.*

Carea subtilis, larva, 41.

carinata, Echis, 233.*

carinatus, I'hytoptus, 545.'*

cariiiatiis, Typhlodromtis, 545.*

Carpenter Bees carrying Mites. 67.*

Carpet Beetles, 174.*

carpophaiia, Cryptophlcbia. 449.*

CarpophiUis dimidiatus, 288.*

Caryoborus gonagra, 308.*

casei, Piophila, 186.

Cassid Beetles, 316 * ; — , larval defence,

45.*
Castaneum, Tribolium, 161, 300.*
Castor .Ueurodid, Parasite of, 202.*
catalaunalis. .\ntigastra. 441.*
Catantops sp., 529.*
catena, Tarache, 382.*
Caterpillars, 131.*
Catochrysops cnejus, 414.*
Catopsilia pyranthe, 413.*
Cats, 221.
Cattle Egret. 227.
Cattle Fly. 346.*
Causes of damage to crops, 76.
Cecidomyiada;. 363 * : — as crop-pests.

158.
Centipedes, 237.
Centropus sinensis, 226.
CerambycidsE, 318.
Cerataphis. 505.
Cercopida-, 495.
cerealella. Sitotroga, 163, 456.*
Ceria sp., 37.*
ceriferus, Cerococcus, 212.
ccrifcrus, Dactylopiitx. 510.*
Cerococcus ceriferus, 212 ; C". hihisci,

508.*
Ceroplastodes cajani. 512.*
Cerura vinula, 41.
Cetoniada-, 151, 282.
Ceuthorrhynchus asperulus, 328.*
Chalcidid.T, 202.*
chalcytes, Plusia, 393.
Changing time of planting, 85.

Checks on increase, 72.

Chemotropism, 54.

cheopis. Xenopsylla, 366. *

Cheroot Beetle, 162, 295.*

Cheese Hopper, 186.

Chigoe, 186.

Chilo simplex, 423.*

Chiloloba acuta, 284.*

chincnsis, Bnichiis, 306.'

chinensis, Pachymerus, 306.*

Chionaspis biclavis. 519 ' : C. tlu-te. 520 *

Chironomida?, use of forelegs, 9.

Chironomus, Pedogenesis in, 15.

Chloridea aniiigcra, 373 * ; C. assulta,

374 * ; C. obsoleta, 373.*
Chloridolum alcmene, 323.*
Chlorita flavcscens, 498.*
Chloropidae, 355.
Cholam Borer, 423.*
Cholam Fly, 356.*
Cholam. Fly pest of, 158.*
Cholam mite, 200.
Cholera. 188.
Chrotogonus. 138 *, 528.*
chrysographella, -Vncylolomia. 424.*
Chrysomelidx, 309.
Chrysopa spp., 469 * : larval habits of — ,

45.
Chrysopidac, 198, 469.
chroiiiataria, Earias (t. 22. f. 7).
Chunam Frog, 235.
Chyle, 14.
Cicadidac, number of moults, 31: means

of defence, 43.
cichorii, Meloe, 304.
Cicindelida?, 199 : digging appendages of

— . 12.
Citiicx Icctiilarhis. Hypergamesis in, 16.
Cinicx rotiiiitlatiis. 487.*
cingulatus, Dysdercus. 484.*
circulata, Diaspis, 517.*
Circulatory System, 13
Cirphis unipuncta, 376.*
citrella, Phyllocnistis. 465.*
citri, .Meurodes, 508.

citri, Dactylopius (Psendococciix), 508.*
Clania (Eiimeta) cramerl, 45, 448*;

C. variegata, 448.
Clavigralla gibbosa, 478*; C. horrens.

479.*
Clean cultivation, 82.
Cleridi, 296.
Climate, effects of. 73.
Clinocoris (CiH;«^jr) hemipterus (rotiiti-

datus). 487.*

INDEX.

551

Clinocoris Icctulariiis. HypcrKamesis in.
16.

Clothes-moths. 173, 467.*

Cnaphalocrocis medinalis, 432.*

cnejiis. Catochrysops. 414.*

Cobra. 232-*

Coccidac. 508 ; pupal stajje of — . 18.

Coccinella septempiinctata. 291.*

Coccinellida?. 200. 291.

Coccobacillus acridionini. 124.

Cockchafers. 150*. 285.

Cockroaches, 170. 538*: means of
defence, 36 ; palaeozoic — , 35 : Sperma-
tozoa of — . 55.

Coconut .\phis, 506.*

Codling Moth, 134.

Coclophora sp., 291.*

ca'nilciis, Biingitnis, 232.*

Coclosterna xcabnita, 325*: C. scabra-
tor, 325 • : C. spinator, 325.*

coflfeac, Tetranychus, 545.

coffea?, Zeuzera, 446.*

coffearia, Homona (Capua), 452.*

Coffee Borers, 153. 323*: bugpestsof — ,
147 ; — Scale. 513.*

colaca, Parnara. 418.*

Cold Stora(;e for control of pests, 168.

Colemania sphenarioides, 527 * : Bomby-
lid parasite of — , 203.

Coleopteraas pests of stored products, 160.

collaris. .\lcides. 337.*

Collybia albuminosa. 64.*

Commensalism. de&nition of, 65.

compressus, Camponotus, 277.*

conducta. Euplexia. 376 •

conferta. .\sura, 367.*

conica, Eumenes, 197 * : pupa of — , 32.*

Conjunctivitis. 189.

Conorhinus rubrofasciatus. 486.*

Contact Poisons, 96. 101.

Contarinia attacking cotton-buds. 158.
363.*

convolvuli. Herse, 6) *, 401.*

convulsionarius. Termes, means of de-
fence, 44 : communication amongst, 50.

Cooly itch. 186.

Copper .\ceto-.\rsenite, 99.

Copper Sulphate for cane setts, 105.

Copra itch, 186.

Coptocycla, 3\7.*

Coptosoma cribraria, 469.*

Coptotermes heirai, 539.*

Coracias indica, 223.

Coreidac, 477.*

coriacella (gossypiell<i). Pvroderces,
458.*

37

coromandus, Bubulcus. 227.

Corvus macrorhynchus, 228 : C. splen

dens. 228.*
Cosmophila erosa. 391 • : C. sabulifera

390.*
Cosmopolites sordidus. 342"
Cosmopterygida. 458.
Cosmoscarta relata, 495.*
Cossyphus depressus, 300.*
Cotton, bug pests of, 146. 484. 148.*
Cotton-hugs, collection of, 89.
Cotton, destruction of old crop, 83.
Cotton Seed. Pests of, 134.
Cotton Stem Weevil, 156, 339.*
Coucal, 226.

Cow-pea .\gromyza. 35.8.*
Coxa. 8.*
Crab-louse. 523.*
Crabs, 237.

craraeri, Clania, 45, 448.*
crassicaudata, Manis, 215.
crassicornis, Gallobelicus, 490.*
Crateropus canorus, 224 ; C. griseus, 224.
Creatonotus gangis, 369* ; C. interrupt 11. t.

369.*
Cremastogaster in Acacia thorns, 63.
crenulata, .\tractomorpha, 528.*
crctacca, Knbletiima. 381.*
cribraria. Argina, 400.*
cribraria. Coptosoma, 469.*
Crickets, 534 , — in houses. 172;— as

crop-pests. 139.
Cricula trifenestrata. 405.*
cristatus. Sus. 214.
critica. Eucelis, 450.*
Crocidolomia binotalis. 437."
Crops, area and value, 75 ; rotation of — ,

84 ; trap, 84 ; mixed, 84.
Crow-pheasant. 226.
Crows. 227.*
cruciata. .\ntestia, 472.*
Crude Oil Emulsion, 101.
criici/criiniin, Plittcllii, 464.*
Cryptophlchui carpophaga. 449.*
Crvptorhynchus mangifera;. 341.*
Cryptothripa occulta. 383.
Cryptozoic animals. 54.
Ctenocephalus felis. 367.*
Ctenolepisma. 543.*
Cucujida;. 290.
cucurbits;. Dacus. 354.*
Culex fatigans. 361.*
Culicidsc. 361.*
Culicine mosquitos. 180.*
cupreoviridis, Earias (t. 22, f. 7).
Curculionidae. 327.

552

INDEX.

Curtilta africana. 535.*

Cutworms, 135.

cyanea, Scutellista, Z^.*

cyanipennis, Hispa. 316.*

cyanophlyctis, Rana, 235.

Cyclopelta siccifolia. 476.*

Cyclops, 188.

Cylas formicarius, 156, 334.*

Cynopterus sphinx, 219: C. iiiargiiiatiis.

219.
Cyrtacanthacris ranacea, 530*; — ,

antenna, 5* ; — leg, 8 ; C. succincta,

530.*

Dactylopius citri, 508*; D. nipae, 509*;
D. virgatus (ccrifcrux), 510.*

Dacus cucurbitae, 354.*

Damage by insects, notation, 74 • ;
annual amount, 76.

Dasychira mendosa, 396 • : D. securis,
397.*

Deadhearts, 95.

Dead organic matter. Insects and, 204.

Dead trees, necessity for destruction. 95.

Death-feint in weevils, 37.

Deaths from insect-borne diseases, 76.

Death's-Head Moth, larval stridulation,
48.

Deccan Grasshopper, 527.'

Deer, 214.

Definition, meaning of, 25.

Deilephila nerii, 403.*

Delhi Boil, 189.

Demodex folliculorum, 186.
demoleus, Papilio, 412.*

Dendrocitta rufa, 225.

Dengue. 187.
dcntata, Assamia, 492.*
Deprcssaria zizybhi (angiista), 459.*
depressus, Cossyphus, 300.*
depunctalis, Nymphula, 45, 430.*

Dermatophilus penetrans, 186.

Dermestes sp. , 293 • : D. vulpinus. 292.*

Dcrincstcs surinameiisis. 290.*

DermestidaD, 292.

derogata, Sylepta, 434.*

Descent of Insects, 19.*

destructor, Aspidiotus, 51 8.*

Devonian Insects, 18.

Diaspi.i circiilata, 517.*

Diatraeasp.. 422 •: D. venosata (stria-

talis) , 422.
Diatrxa, Parasite of, 200.*
Dichocrocis punciiferalis. 433.*

Dichomeris (Ypsolophiisl ianthes

(ochrophancs), 456.*
Dicrurus ater, 223.*
Dictyophara pallida. 494. •
dimidiatus. Carpophilus, 288.*
Diopsida\ eyes of, 7.
Directive markings, 39.
Dischidia, 63.

Diseases carried by insects, 187.
Disphinctus politus (formosiis), 489*
dodecastigma. Kpilachna. 292.*
I Dog Fly, 347.*
Dolycoris indicus, 470.*
dominica, Rhizopenha, 294.*
dorsalis, lipacromia, 525.*
dorsata, .\pis. 277.*
Dorylus orientalis, 274.*
Dorvsthenes rostratus, 318* ; — , antenna,

5.'*
Dragonfiies, 195 *; eyes of — , 7.
Draining to control pests, 87.
Drill-sown crops, advantages of, 88.
Drongo, 223.*
Drosera, 1 , 59.
Drugs, Insects used as, 212.
Dryophis mycterizans, 36.
Dung Beetles, 204, 282.
Dusky cotton-bug, 482.*
di(x, Lucilia, 348.*
Dynastidae, 285.
Dysdercus cingulatus, 484.*
Dysenteries, 188.

E

Earias cupreoviridis (chroinataria), t. 12
f. 7 : E. fabia. 133. 385 * ; E. insulana.
133, 384.*

Earwigs, 539* ; forceps of — , 12 : maternal
solicitude in — , 33.

Ecdysis, 31.

Echidnophaga gallinaceus, 365.*

echinus, Urentius, 485.*

Echis carinata, Zii.*

Eciton hamala, 50.

Ectobia geniiaitica. 538.*

Ectoparasites, 68.

Eelworms. 238.*

Egg Stage. 28.

Egrets, 227.

Elephantiasis, 188.

Elephants, 214.

Eligma narcissus, 383.*
elongata. Mecopoda, leg. 8.*
elongella, Slenachroia, 421.*

Empoasca flavescens, 497«*

INDEX

553

Endoparasitos, 6X.

Knteric Fever. 188.

Epacromia tamulus (ilorsiilis), 5J5.*

Ephemerkis, respiratory system, IJ.

Epiiestia, 163.*

Epicauta, 306.*

Epidemic Dropsy, 188.

Epilachnadodecastigma. 135, 292*: E. 28-

punctata, 155. 292.*
Hpimvsnorveglcus, 216 ; E. rufescens, 210.
Episomiis lacerta. 327 * ; E. montanus.

antenna. 5.*
eqtiitans, Limosina, 60.
Eretmocera impactella, 401.*
Eretmocerus sp. , 202.*
Eriochitoii cajiini, 512.*
Eri Silkworm, 207.*
Eristalis, larva of. 13.
erosa, Cosmophila, 391.*
Erotylida;, 290.*
Estigmene lactinea. 308.*
Etiella zinckenella, 429.*
Eublemma, larval habits. 45.
Eublemma olivacea, 380*; E. scitula

(crctacea). 199 •, 381 *
Eucelis critica, 450.*
Eucosmidx, 449.
Eugnamptus marginatus, 329.*
Eumenes conica, 197 * ; pupa of — , 32.*
Eumenes flavopicta, 37.*
Euproctis fraterna. 398 * ; E. sciniillans.

399.*
Eupterote moUifera. 404*
EupterotidaD. 404.
Euplcxia condiicta, 376.*
Eurybrachys tomentosa, 492.*
ctirhizii, Armillariii. 04.*
Eusarcocoris guttiger. 471 * ; E. ventralis,

471.»
Eiilclia jocosatrix, 382.*
Eutermes, means of defence, 42.
Euxoa segetis. 57. 375.*
Euzophera perticella. 428.'
excavatti, Aiiliicophoni. 312.*
Exelastis atomosa. 444.*
exigua. Laphygma Cciritdrina). 378.*
Extension Rods, 118.
Eye-fly, 355*: — in houses, 175.
Eyes of insects, 0.*

fabia. Earias. 385.*
fabriciella. Atteva. 401.*
Facets of Eye. number of, 7.
farinosa, Faramecops, 332.*
fascialis, Hymenia (-?iiicibcnirt), 431.*

fasciata, Stegomyia, 175.*

/tisciciiliitui, Hoinoiia, 452 *

fastuosa, Psiloptera, 297.*

Fat Bodies, 14.

fatigans, Culex, 301*

Fatua longicornis, 290.*

felis, Ctenocephalus, 307.*

Femur, 8.*

fcrrugiiteiim, Tri hoi hint, 101, 30C.*

ferrugineus, Rhynchophorus, 153* 343*

Fertilisation of flowers, 00

(icus, Hypsa, 400*

Field-mouse, Southern, 210.*

Field-rat. Soft-furred, 210.

Filaria-carrying mosquitos. 181.

Filariasis. 188.

Filiform .Antennae. 5*

finitimus, .Vtactogaster, 333.*

Fireflies, 45.

Fires to control crop-pests, 94.

Fish, 230.

Fish-Insect, 172, 543.*

Fishoil Soap, 104.

flavescens, Empoasca, 497.

flaviceps, Pycnosoma, 348.*

flavopicta. Eumenes, 37.*

flavus, .\rrhinotermes. nymph, 9*
I Fleas, 365.
. florea. Apis. 279. •
I Flour Paste, 104.

Flowers and insects, 60.

Flush-worm, 453.*

Flying Foxes. 219.

Fodder, use of attacked crop as, 87.

folus, Udaspes, 420.*

Forests, effects of destruction of, 77.

Forficulida;, 539.

Formic .\cid discharged by ants, 41.

formicarius. Cylas, 156, 334.*

Formicids, 274.

formosus, Disphinctus, 489.*

fornicatus, Xyleborus, 345.*

Fossil Insects, 18.

foveicollis, Aiilacophora, 311*

Fowls as insect-hunters, 86.

Framboesia tropica, 188.

fraiicilloni, Hippobosca. 347.*

fraterna. Euproctis. 398.*

Frogs, 235.

frugalis. Remigia, 388.*

Fruit-bat. Southern Short-nosed. 219.

Fruit-l)oring Caterpillars. 134.

Fruit Flies. 157. 354 : — attracted by oils,
55, 57.

Fulgoridae, 492,

37-A

554

INDEX

Fumigation by Carbon Bisulphide. 165 ;

— by Hydrocyanic Acid Gas, 166: —

of plants. 119.
Funambulus palmarum. 215.
Fungal Diseases, control of pests by.

123.
Fungi grown by Termites, 63.
(unicola. Siphonella. 355.*
furcellata, Canthecona. 475.*
furcifer. Hieroglyphus, 531.*
Furniture Beetles. 164. 175.

Galeodes indicus. 237.

Galleria mellonella. 421.»

Gall-flies. 363.

gallinaceus. Echidnophaga. 365.*

Gallobelicus crassicomis. 490.*

Gangara th\Tsis, 417.*

gangeticus. Scarabaeus. 66.

gangis. Creatonotus. 369.*

Garden Crops, bug pests of. 147.

Gaur. 214.

gaurus. Bos, 214.

Gelechibdae. 454.

Gelechia gossypiella. 454.*

geminata, Solenopsis. 274.*

Geometrida;. 131. 409.

Geotropism, 55.

Gerbille. 215. •

Gerbille-louse 185.

germanica. Blattella {Phyllodromia),

538.«
Gerridse. rheotropic habits. 56.
gibbosa, Clavigralla. 478.*
giganteus. Pteropus. 219.
Gingelly Gall-fly. 158. 364.*
glaucinans. Homoptera. 389.*
globosa. Xystrocera. 321.*
globulifera. Monanthia, 485.*
gloriosa. Polytela. 375.*
Glow-worms. 45.
Glyphipterygidac. 463.
Gh-phodes cxsalis, 435 * : G. indica.

435.*
Gnathospastoides rouxi. 302.*
Gnorimoschema heliopa. 454.*
Goat-louse. 185.
gonagra. Caryoborus. 308.*
Gongylus gongylodes, habits, 195 ; — ,

antenna. 5 * , — . leg, 8.*
Gonocephalum hofmannseggi, 299.*
goss>-pii. Aphis. 499.*
gossypiella. Gelechia. 454.*
gosiyiiella. Stagmatophora . 458.*

govinda. Milvus, 227.

gracillimum, Monomorium. 275.*

graellsi. .^contia. 385.*

Grain, storage of, 161. 164.

Grammodes stolida. 387.*

Graptoslethus servus, 482.*

Grasshoppers, 525 ; — , ploughing up egg-
masses of, 83.

Green-fly. 499.*

gossypii. Sphenoptera. 298*

Green-gram Weevil, 336.*

Greenia. mites of genus. 67.*

Green Scale of Cofifee, 513* , introduc-
tion of — , 78 : attacked by fungi,
123.

gremius, Suastus, 418.*

grisator, Sthenias, 153, 326.*

griseus, Crateropus, 224.

Gryllidae. 534.

Gryllotalpa africana, 534 • : — , leg. 8* ;
maternal solicitude in — . 34.

Guinea-worm, 188.

Gunomys kok, 216.

guttiger. Eusarcocoris, 471.*

Gvrinida?, eves of. 7.

Hxmatopinus spinulosus, stenopsis, step-
I hensi, suis. tuberculatus. vituli. IS5.

Haematopinus tuberculatus. 524.*

Hairy Caterpillars. 42.

Haliastur indus. 227.

Hamadryad. 233.*

hamaia. Eciton. 50.
I Hand-net. 89 *. 90.*

Hand-picking of pests, 88. ■

Haplochilus lineatus, 236.*

Hares. 219.

Harpactor sp., poison-gland of, 44.*

Hawk-moths. 401.

Head, .\ppendages of. 4.*

Head-louse. 521.*

hecabe. Terias. 414.*

heimi. Coptotermes. 539.*

Heliocopris bucephalus, 281 • ; — .
antenna. 5 * : ball of — , 204.

heliopa. Gnorimoschema. 454.*

Hcliothis aniiigera, 373* , //. assult.i,
374 *; H obsoleta. 373.*

Heliotropism. 54.

Hellula undalis. 437.*

Helopeltis antonii. 488.*

Hemichionaspis these, 520,*

INDEX .

555

Hemilecaniiim imbricans (thcubroiiuc).

5I6.»
hemipterus, Clinocoris (C'i»"t'.v). 24,

487.»
hemisplijrriciim, l^'caimim, 5H.*
Hepialid.T, 467.
Hermaphroilitism, 15.
Herse convolvuli, 61*. 401.*
Hesperiad.T, 417.
Helerusia. means of defence, 42.
Hetenisia virescens, 448.*
Iiexadactyla, Orneodes, pupa, JO.*
Hexapoda, 2.
Hiliernation, 55.
hibisci. Cerococcus, 508.*
liieroglvphica, Nvctipao, clicking sound of,

48.*'
Hieroglyplius banian (furcifcr) , 531 * ;

H. nigro-repletus, 531.*
Hippobosca capensis, 347 * : H. iran-
cilloni. 347*; H. maculata. 346* : H.
sivte, 346.*
Hippoboscidap, 346.
hiniilinicoriiis, Phycoiles, 463.*
Hispti lencsccns. 316 * : H. armigera,

315 * : H. cyanipcitiiis, 316.*
Hispella ramosa, 314.*
Hispina', 155.
histeroides, Tetroda. 477.*
bistrio, Menida, 474.*
bofmannseggi, Gonocepbahim, 2'J9.*
Holder Pressure Sprayers, 115.*
Homona iCapiia) coflearia, 452.*
Homoptera glaucinans, 389.*
Honey dew, 66.
Hoopoe, 223.
Hopper-dozers. 92.
borrens, Clavigralla, 470.*
Hose for Sprayers, 118i
Housefly. 169, 183 ; — , larval moults,

31.
House-mouse, Indian, 216.
House-sparrow, 230.
Hover-flies. 358.*
bumanus, Pediculus, 522.*
Hilarograpba caminodes, 464.
Hyblaea puera, 392.*
hybltccllii. Tcgna. 463.*
Hydnopbytum, 63.
Hydrocyanic .\cid gas, 120, 166
Hydrotropism, 56.
Hymenia {Ziiickcnia) fasciaHs {rccitrva-

/«s). 431.* ■ ■

Hypergamesis, 16-
Hypermetamorphosis, 32.
Hyperparaoiteo, 6i>.

Hypsa ficus, 400.*
Hypsid.T, 400.
Hypsolopliii.-i iiintltcs, 456.
HyponomeutidcT, 461.
Iiyrtaca, Metanastria, 409.*
hystrix, Platypria, 316.*

I

iantbes, Dicbomeris (Ypsolophiis). 456.*
Icbneumonida.-, 202 ; — ovipositor of,

12.
Idiocerus niveosparsus, 495.*
illepida (curpopluign) Argyroploce

(CryptuphU-bia). 449.*
imbricans, Hemilecanium, 516.*
impactella, Eretmocera, 461.*
impolita, Kbytinota, 301.*
Imported Pests, 78-
importunitas, Ragmus, 491.'
Increase, rate of, in insects, 71.
indica, .\pis, 278.*
indica, Coracias, 223.
indica, (llypbodes, 435*
indica, Mylabris, 154.*
indicus. Oicantbus, 535.
indica, Tatera, 215.*
indica, Upupa, 223.
indicata, Nacoleia, 433*
indicum. Tapinoma, in .Vcacia tborns, 63.
indicus, Canis, 221.
indicus, Dolycoris, 470.*
indicus, Galeodes, 237.
indus, Haliastur, 227.
indus, Orycbodes, 344 •
inferens, Sesamia (Nonagria), 379*
inficita, Saluria ( Poiijitdia ) , 427.*
infusella, Pbycita, 428.*
iiigiiinalis, Plithiriiis, 523.*
Insecticides, Application of, 97.
Insecticidal metbods for control of pests,

95.
Insectivorous animals, education of, 38.
Insectivorous plants, 59.
insignis, Pbilaematomyia, 352.*
insulana, Earias, 384.*
Instar, 31.

intacta. Scirpobhuga. 425.*
interrupttis, Creatonotu^, 369*
Jodine, Smell of, discharged by .beetles,

41.
IpidsB, 344 ; — Cultivating, pj^ntti, 63.. ..,.
iridipennis, Xylocopa^. eye,..6.* ,.._ ...
Irrigation to control pest^, 87. ... .- ..
Isitis, Psvlla. 498.* • .

556

INDEX

ismenc, Melanitis, 412.*

isocrates. Virachola, 416*; — directive

markings JO*
Itch. 185.
Ixodido), 18-1.
I.xodoidea. 184.

Jackal, J20

Jalamandalam, 237.

janiis, Asponjjopus, 476.*

JapytjidcT, forceps of, 12.

jarbas, Rapala, antenna, 5.*

Jassidae, 495.

Jay, Blue, 223.

"Jerry Munglum," 237.

Jigger. 186-

jocosatri.x. Bombotelia {Eiitcliii). 382

Jute .\pion. 331.*

Kala .-Vzar. 187.

Kerosine Emulsion, 102.

Key to important Orders, 21.

King Cobra. 2ii*

King-crow, 223.*

Kites, 227.

Knapsack Sprayers, 110.*

kccnigana (aurantiami). Laspeyresia,

450.*
kok, Gunomys. 216.
Krait, 232.*

kuehniella, Ephestia, 163.*
Kumblihula, 42, 135,* 369 ♦; — control

82, 85, 88.
Kumblipuchi, 42, 135*; — control of,

82, 85, 88
kundoo, Oriolus, 224.

Labidiira liviilipcn, 530.*

Lac, 212.

lacerla, Episomus, 327.*

Lace-wing Flies, 198.

lachesis, Acherontia, robbing bee-hives.

130.
Lachnus pyri, 503*
lactinea. Estigmene, 368.*
Lady-biriBeetles. 200, 291 : — . geotropic

habits, 56-
laetus, Oxycaremis. 482.*
lanigera, S^bizoneura, 500."
Lapbygma exigua, 378-.» ■
Lar'.al stage, 29.

Larva, Structure of, 30.

I^asiocampidae, 409 ; — , larval defence,

43.
Lasioderma serricorne, 162, 295 • : L.

testaccum, 295.*
lasiurus, Platacanlhomys, 215.
Laspeyresia koenigana (tinrniitidiiu),

450*; L. torodelta, 451 • ; L. iricentra,

45L*
lataniti . Aspiilioliis, 518.*
Latin names, 23.
Lead Arsenate, 98.
Lead Arsenite, 99.
Lead Cliromate, 98.
Leaf-mining caterpillars, 136.
Lecanium hemispharicum, 514 • ; /,.

imbricaits, 516"; L. marsupiale,

516"; L. nigrum, 514"; L. oleac,

515 *; L. viride, 513."
Lecanium viride, 147, 513 " ; introduction

of — , 178; — attacked by fungi,

123.*
Legislation for control of pests, 125.
Legs, 8*

leopardus, .\lcides, 338."
lepida. Parasa. 410.*
Lepidoptera attacking stored products,

160.
Lepidopterous mouth-parts, 4*
Lepismida:, 543.
Leprosy, 188.
Leptispa pygmiea, 313*
Leptocorisa varicornis, 82. 146 *, 479."
Leucaniii iiifcrcns, 379.*
Leucinodes orbonalis, 436."
lewisii, I'erga, maternal solicitude in, 34.
Lice. 522 ; - of domestic animals,

185.
Lichens, composition of, 65.
lienigianus, Pterophorus, 445.*
Life, length of. 32.
Light, attraction of, for insects, 57.
Light-traps. 57, 92.
Limacodidx, 410: stinging larva; of — ,

43.
Lime as a repellent, 105.
Lime-Sulphur, 101. 103.
Limosina eqiiitans. 66.
hneatuo, Haplochilus, 236.*
Linseed Oil Emulsion. 102.
Liogryllus bimaculatus, 537."
littoralif. Prodcnia. 377.*
litura, Prodenia 377."
hvidipes. Nala (Labtdura) , 539.*
Lixus bracb>Thinus, 331.*
Lizards, 230.

INDEX

557

lobala, Stenodictya, 9.*

Local pests defined, 128.

locusts, 137 ; — as food. 212.

London riirple. 100.

Lontjicorn Beetles, JIS.

longicornis, I'atua, 290*

Loopers, li2

Lucilia. 186.

Liiciliit iliix, J48 ♦ ; L. fla\ iceps, J48.*

Luminosity in insects, ^5.

Lyc.Tnida", 414.

Lyc.Tnid Caterpillars, jjlands of, 66, 67.

Lygii'idir. I^vK^^i's pandunis (milita-

ris), 481.*
Lymantriada\ 395
Lyroderma lyra. 220.
Lvtta tenuicollis, 303.»

M

Macalla monciisalis, 429.*

macliKTalis, Pyrausta. 442.*

miicroccphiiliis, Ciincx (Acdiitliiu), 24,
487.*

Macrones vittatus, 230

maculata. Hippobosca. 346.*

maculatus, Rhacopliorus, 235

maculipennis, Plutella, 464.*

maderaspatensis. Motacilla, 225.

madurensis, Nisotra, 310.*

Major pests defined, 128.

malabarica, Bandicota, 216.

malabaricus, Phassus, 467.*

Malabar Spiny Mouse, 215.

Malaria, 177, 183 ; — carrying niosquitos,
181 ; — parasite, life-cycles of, 182.'

Malpighian Tubules, 14.

manei, Mus, 216.

mangiferae, Cryptorhynchus, 341.*

Mango: — Hoppers, 94, 495*; — leaf-
boring weevil, 334 • ; — weevil, 156,
341.»

Manis crassicaudata, 215-

Mantida;, 195 : predaceous leg of — , 8.*

Miirtisiiiarcliti atoiuosa, 444.*

Marasmia trapezalis, 432."

marginatum, Eugnamptus, 329.*

iititrginutiii, Cyiioptcnii, 219.

mariupiale, Lecanium, 516.*

Maruca te^tulalis, 440.*

Mass infection, 184.

Maternal solicitude, 33.

mathias, Parnara, 417.»

mituritanicus. Tenebroides. 2S9 •

maufitia, Spodoptera, 37a.*

Mayflies, respiratory system. 13.

Measures and Weights, 126.

Mechanical methods for control of crop-
pests, 88.

Mecopoda elongata, leg, 8*; avipositor,
12.

medinalis, Cnaphalocrocis, 432.*

Melanitis ismene, 412.*

melanocephalus, Oriolus, 224.

nielanostictus, Hufo, 236.

melicerta, Ach.-ra (Ophiima) , 386.*

mellonella, (lalleria, 421.*

Meloid.X'. 185, 302.

meltada, Millardia, 216.

Melursus ursinus, 220.

Membracidae. maternal solicitude in, 34.

mendosa, Olene (Dasychira) , 396.*

Menida histrio, 474.*

Merops viridis. 230.

Mesotermitidie, 539.

Metanastria hyrtaca, 409.*

Metazoa, 1.

meticulosalis, Terastia, 133, 438.*

Metriona sp., 318.*

Miastor, definition of, 183.

Miastor, Pedogenesis in, 15.

Mice, 215, 218.

Micromalthidas, Pedogenesis in, 15.

Micropezidae, 355 : — , use of forelegs, 9.

microscopica, Orneodes, wing, 11.*

Microtermes sp., 541.*

Microvelia, stridulation of, 48.

Migration-flights, 56.

miliaris, Aularches, 526.*

miliaris, Aspidomorpha, 316.*

Militaris, Lygeeiis, 481.*

Millardia meltada, 216.

Millipedes, 237.

Milvus govinda, 227.

Mimicry, 37.

Minor pests defined, 128.

minutus, Phlebotomus, 362.*

Mites, 544.

Mi.\ed crops, 84.

modesta, Phidodonta, 315."

moesta, Fhenice, 492.*

Mole-cricket, 534 • ; maternal solicitude
in — , 34.

Mole-rat, Southern. 216-

mollifera, Eupterote, 404.*

Monanthiaglobulifera, 4S5.*

moncusalis. Macalla. 429.*

Mongoose, 221.

Moniliform .Vntennae. 5*

Monkey-louse, 185.

Monkeys. 222-

Monolepta signata, 310.*

558

INDEX.

Monomoriiim Kracillimum, 275.*
monosliKnia. Scirpophaga. 426.*
monslrosus, Schizoclactylus, 53J * : — , leg

of. 8.»
montanus. Episomus, antenna, 5.*
moorei, Amsacta, 369.
mordax, Priotyrannus, 319.*
mori. Bombyx. 205.*
Mosquitos, 361 *: - and Malaria, 177-183;

in houses, 175 * ; irritation of — bites,

184 ; — , use of hind-legs, 9.
Motacilla maderaspatensis, 225.
Moult, 31.
Mouth-parts, 4.*
Mulberry Silkworm, 205.*
-Mullerian mimicry, 37.
iitiiltiliiicalis. Sylcpta, 434.»
Mungos mungo. 221.
Mus booduga. 216: M. manei, 216.
Mils ileciimiiiiiis, 216: M- rattiis, 216.
.Musca bezzii, 351 : M. convexifrons,

351 : M. iloiiicstica, 349* ; M. gibsoni,

351 : M. nebulo, 349 •: M. pattoni, 350.*
Muscida;, 348.
mycterizans, Dryophis, 36.
Myiases, 185. 186.
MyltibritUc. 302.
Mylabris indica, 154.*
Myhibris piistiilata, 303 * : M. siilu-.

303.*
Mynahs. 224.*
Myrmecodia, 63.
Myrmecophilous insects, 66.
Myrmeleonida;, 198.
Mylilaspis piperis, 519.*

nerteria, Aproa-rema (4»i«cn«(/>sis), 85.

457* : parasite of—, 201.*
Nervous system, 12.
iVt'soA/a baiiilicota, 216-
Neuration, system of. 10.*
Newly-introduced crops, 79.
Nezara viridula, 473*
niger, Faradoxurus. 221.
Night-jars, 226.

nigro-repletus, Hieroglyphus, 531.
nigrum, Lecanium, 514.*
Nilgai. 214.

Nilgiri cockchafers, 150*
nipa, Dactylopius {Psctuiococcii a) . 509.*
Nisotra madurensis. 310.*
nitidula. Tarache, 381.*
Nitidulid.x, 288.
nivea, .\ltha, 411.*
niveosparsus, Idiocerus, 495.*
nivigiitlclla, Coriiica, 461.*
Noctuida;. 373.
Nomenclature, Rules of, Zi.
Noiiagriii hi/crciis, 379* : A', umfuniiis

3T3.»
Noorda blitealis, 441.*
norvegicus, Epimys, 216.
Notodontida:-, 408.
Nozzles of Sprayers. 118.
nubila. .Kgonoscelis, 472.*
Number of Insects, 11.
Nyctipao hieroglyphica. clicking sound

of, 48.*
Nymph, 29.

Nymphalida; 412 : Pupa? of — , 31.
Nymphosis in Termites. IS.
Nymphula depunctalis, 45, 430 • . larval

respiratory system of — , 13.

Nacoleia indicata {viilgalis), 433.*

Naja bungarus, 233 * : N. naja, 232 • :

N. tripiidians. 232.*
Nala (Labidiira) lividipes, 539.*
Names, validity of, 25.
Naphthaline Emulsion, 100.
narcissus, Eligma, 383.*
Nauseous taste of insects, 40.
Necrobia rufipes, 296.*
neglecta, Sphenoptera, 29x. ■
Nemoptera. wings of. U.
Neocerambyx paris, ill.*
Nepenthes, 59. 60.
Nephantis serinopa. 460.*
nepbelotis. Plotheia, 25.
Nephotettix bipunctatUj, 497.*
nerii, Dcilephila, 403.*

obesus, Odoniotermes, 142.*

obsoleta, Chloridea (Hcliothia). 373.*

occulta, Cryptothripa, 383.

ocellatus, Cantao, maternal solicitude in

34.«
Ocelli, 7.*

Ocinara vacian*, 407.*
ochropluiiKi, Ypaolophiii, 456.*
Odonala, 195.* •

Odontotermes obesus, 142.*
Odontotermes sp-, 541 • : fungus on comb

of— ,64*
CLcanlhub mdicus, 535* • ■ .

'icophorida.. 459. ■

CEcophylla smaragdina. 41, 276.* • ■
CLstridit, 347. -•

INDEX.

559

(Kslnis ovis. ISO. i-i? *

Oitles alliiiis. Hi.*

olei>", Lc-ciniiim, 515*

olea>, Trisopsis, eye, 6-*

Olene [Dusychiru' mendosa, i'JO-*

olivacea, Eublemma, J80.*

Omphisa anastomosalis. 439.*

upalinoides. Tarache, J82.*

Optitrum. 299"

iiperculella. riitliorima^a. 16J, 155 • ;

introduction and damage, 7y.
Ophideres, UO.
Ophiiisit iiu'liccrti:. iS6.*

Orange Leaf-miner. 465. •

orbonalis, Leucinodes, 4J6.*

Orders of Insects, 20.

Orectochilus semivestitus, eye, 6*

Oregma bambusx-. 504.*

Orgyia antiqua. eggs of. JJ.

Orgyia postica, J95* ; antenna of - . 5.

orichalcea, Flusia, i9i.*

Oriental Sore, 189.

orientalis, Dorylus, 274.*

orientalis, Zonabris, 304.

Orioles, 224.

Ornaments, Insects used as, 213-

Orneodes hexadactyla, pupa. 30*

Orneodid.x, wings of, 11.*

Orthacris sp.. 527*

Orthopterous mouth-parts, 4.*

Orychodes Indus, 344.*

Oryctes rhinoceros. 151*, 152*, 285'
control of — , 95.

oryza!. Calandra, 160. 341.*

Osmaterium, 41.

ovalis, .\doretus, 287.*

Ovipositor, 12, 15.

ovis, (Kstrus, 186. 347*

Ovum, 28.

Owls, 226 "

Oxya velox. 5ii-*

Oxybeluss<[uamosus. 280.*

Oxycarenus lajtus, 482*

Oxvcetonia versicolor, 283*

I'achymerub cliinensis, 306.*

pachyspila, Tinea, 466»*

I'achyzancla .xgrotalis, 440.*

['addy Stem-borer, 426.

Taints, metallic, as msecticidtb. 100.

I'aliornib torquatus, 229. •

Palamnojus, 237.

p.illiJ,i. Diclyophui;t. 404.*

palmarum. I'unambulus, 215.

I'alm Beetle. 153 * . control of — , 95.

I'alm-civet, Indian, 221.

I'alm Weevil, 343 • : control o( — , 95.

pandurus, Lygn;us. 481.*

I'angolin. 215.

I'angonia sp. . 360.*

panicea, Sitodrepa. 162, 295.*

Pantala flavescens, eye, 6."

Tapers, preservation of, 172.

paphia, ,\nthera!a, 208.*

Tapilionida;. 412 : pupae of — .31.

Tapilio demoleus, 412.*

Tappataci Fever, 187.

Taradoxurus niger, 221.

Taramecops farinosa, 332.*

I'arasa lepida, 410.*

Parasites, 200 ; definition of — , 68 : — of

crop-pests, 124.
Parasitism, mode of occurrence. 69.*
Taratyplioid Fever, 188.

Taris f.reen, 99.

paris, Neocerambyx, 322.*

Parnara colaca, 418 * ; P. mathias, 417.*

Parroquets, 229.*

Parthenogenesis. 15.

Parus atriceps, 225.

Passalid beetles, parental solicitude in, ii.
stridulation in — , 49.

Pectinate Antenna;, 6.*

pedator, Xanthopimpla, 201.*

pedestris, Kiptortus, 480.*

Pedogenesis, 15.

Pedicinus eurygaster, 185.

Pediculida;, 521.

Pediculoides ventricosus, 186.

Pediculus capitis, 521 • : P. humanus
(vestiinciiti). 522 • ; P. pubis. 523 • ;
P. ttiberculatiis, 524.*

Pempheres affinis, 156. 339. •

penetrans, DermatophiUis, 186.

Pentatomidae, 469 ; maternal solicitude
in --, 34.

peponis, Plusia. 394.*

Perga lewisii. maternal solicitude in. 34.

Pericallia ricini, 370.*

Perigea capensis, 376.*

Periplaneta americana, 170* ; — , anten-
na, 5 • : — , leg, 8*; P. australasia;
537.»

Perispha.ria, means of defence, 36.

perpusilla, PyriHa (Zainilu). 493.*

perticella, Euzophera, 428.*

pertigera, .\pomecyna, 327.*

Pest, de6nition of. 74.

Phanerozoic animals, 54.

Phasgonurida, oii ; auditory organs of
— ', 9.

56o

INDEX

phasiana, Anoplocnemis. 477*
I'hassus malabaricus, 467. •
I'lienice mopsta {ilciitiita), 492 •
Phidodonta modesta. 315.*
Philaematomyia insignis, 352.*
I'lilebotomus minutus, 362* ; Plit. hubii,

362*
^Phoresie, 66.
Phototaxis, 53.
Phototropism, 53.
Phthirius pubis, 523.*
Phthorimica operculella [soUinclla), 163

455 • ; introduction and damage 79.
Phycita infusella (bipiirtclla). 428.*
Phycodes radiata, 463.*
Phylaitis sp. , 339.*
Phyllocnistidae, 465.
Phyllocnistis citrella, 465 * ; P. minulelia,

466.
Phyllodroinia gcrmanica, 538.*
Phylogeny of Hexapods, 19.*
Phyiiuitciis piiiictiitiis, 526.*
Physorhynchus. 237.
Phytoptus carinatus, 545 *.
picta, Bagrada, 473.*
Pictures, preservation of, 172.
pictus, Poecilocerus, 526. •
Pierida:, 413 : pupa; of — , 31.
Pieris brassies, t. 2. R. 5 — 8.
Piezodorus rubrofas ciatus, 474.*
Pig, 214.
Pig-louse. 185.
Piophila casei, 186.
piperis, Mytilaspis, 519.*
Pitcher-plant, 59.
Plague, 187.
Plague-flea. 366.*
Platacanthomys lasiurus, 215
Plalypria hystrix, 316.*
Platyptilia pusillidactyla, 444.*
Plotheia nephelotis. 25.
Ploughing for control of pests, 85.
Plume-moths, 443.
Plusia orichalcea, 393 • ; P. peponis

iagramina). 394 •; P. signata (? chal-

cytes), 392.*
Plulella maculipennis {cnii.ifcriinim'*.

464*
Plutellidi. 464.
Ptecilocerus pictvis. 526 •
Poison-gland of Harpactor. 44 "
Polistes m houses. 171.
politus. Diiphinctuo, 469.*
politue. Trachehzus. antenna. 5*
F'olliftia attached to insects. 62.*
Polyembryony. 16

Polyommatus ba'ticus. 415.*

Polyphagous caterpillars, 136

Polytela gloriossi-, 375.*

pomonella, Cydia, 134.

Porcupines, 218.

portentosus, Hrachytrypes, 536.*

postica, Orgyia, 395* : antenna of — , 5.*

Potassium Cyanide for checking ants, 104.

Potato Moth, 23, 79, 163, 455.*

Potijadia in fie it a. 427*

Power Sprayers, 116.

Powdered insecticides, applic-iiiim of,
106*

Predaceous insects, 194.

Pressure Sprayers. 113.*

Primary Parasitism, 68.

Priority, Law of, 24.

Priotyrannus mordax, 319.*

priscotincta, Brodia, 18*

ProctotrypidsE, 202.*

Prodenia litura {littoralis), ST7 .*

Protective resemblance, 35.

Prothoracic wings. 9.*

Protozoa, 1.

proxima, Athalia, 281.*

Psalis (Dasychira) securis, 397.*

Psciitlococcus citri. 508 • : Ps. iiiptc,
509 * ; Ps. virgatiis. 510.

psidii, Pulvinaria, 510.*

Psiloptera fastuosa, 297.*

Psychida;, 448.

Psychodidic, 362.

Psylla isitis, 498.*

PsyllidiE, 498.

Pterophoridiu, 443 ; wings of — . II.

Pterophorus lienigianus (ncritidibaniis),
445.*

Pteropus giganteus, 219.

Ptinidae, 295.

pubis, Phthirius. 523."

Publication, definition of, 25.

puera, Hybla-a. 392.*

pulchella, Utetheisa, 371.*

pulchelloides, Utetheisa, 372.

Pulicida^, 366 ; thoracic spiracles of —

13.
Pulse beetles, 161-
Pulvmaria psidii. 510.*
punctatus. Phymatcun, 526 "
punctiferalib. Dichocrocis. 433 *
Pundaluoya sinigl.icia. 494.*
Pupal stage, 27 . extended periods of — •.

a

Purple Mite. 545*
pusillidactyla, I^l^typtilia, 444 •
pusillum, Synodendron, 294.*

INDEX

561

pustiilata. /onabris. JOJ.*

I'yciiosoma. 1S6.

rycnosoma flaviceps, J4S •

pygmii-a. Leptispa. Hi."

pyranthe. Catopsilia, 413.*

I'yralidic, 421. •

Pyrausta machiuralis, 44J.*

pyri, Lachnus. 503 *

Pyrilla perpusilla (iibcrraiis). 494. •

I'vroderces (Hiitriicheilrn) coriacella,

458.»
I'yroderces simplex, 458. 459.
Pyrgoniorplui crcniitatit, 528.*
rvrrhocoridii", 484.

c|iiadripes, Xylotrechus, Hi*

radiata, Phycodes, 463.*

RaRi Borer, 427.

Ragi Root .Vphis. 502.*

Ragmus importunitas, 491.*

ramosa, Hispella, 314.*

Rana breviceps, 235 ; R. cyanoplilyctis,
R. tigrina, 235.

ranacea, Cyrtacanthacris, 530 • ; — anten-
na. 5»; —leg, 8.*

Rapala jarbas, antenna, 5.*

Raptorial legs, 196.

Rat-louse, 185.

Rats, 215-218.

Reactions, Tropic, 54.*

rcciirvalis, PhaUenu, 431.*

Red Borer of Coflee, 446.*

Red-gram .\gromyza, 357 *

Red Palm Weevil. 153.*

Red Spider, 544 *

Red Tree .\nt, 41.

Reduviidie, 486 ; defence by mouth-parts,
44 • ; maternal solicitude in — , 34.

Relapsing Fever, 187.

relata, Cosmoscaria, 495.*

Kemigia undata Uirclusiit). 388 ♦ ; K.
frugalib. 388.*

Repellents. 105.

Reproduction m Insects. 15.

Reproductive System, 14.

Resistant varieties of crops. 87.

Respiratory System. 13.

Rhacophorus maculatus. 235.

Rbeorropism, 56.

Rhmal Mviasis, 186.

rhinoceros. Oryctes, 151 •. 152 *, 285 *

control of • — , 95.
Rhizopertha dominica, 294,*
Rhizoglyphus parasiticus, 186.
Rhynchophorus ferrugineus, 153*, 343.*;
Rhytinota impolita, 301.*
Rice-bug, 146*. 479.*
Rice Case-worm, 430.*
Rice Weevil, 160, 341.*
ricini, Aleurodes, 508.
ricini, Attacus, 207.*
ricini, Pericallia, 370.*
Riptortus pedestris, 480*; R. linearis,

481 ; R. fuscus, 481.
Robber-flies, 198.*
robustalis, Simplicia, 395.*
Roller, Indian. 223.
Root-boring caterpillars. 133.
Rose chafers. 151, 282.
Rosin Compound, 102.
Rosin Wash, 102.
rostratus, Dorysthenes, 318* ; antenna o(

— .5.*
Rotation of Crops, 84.
rotinulatiis, Ciinex, 24, 487.*
roii.si, (Inathospastoides, 302.*
rubra , Batoccra, 324.*
rubricans. .Vzazia (Tlicrmesia), 389*
rubrofasciatus. Conorhinus, 486.*
rubrofasciatus, Piezodorus, 474.*
rubus, Batocera, 324*; Simple anatomy

of — , 2.»
rufa. Dendrocitta, 225.
rufescens, Epimys, 216.
ruficoUis, Sarcophaga, 186.
rufipes. Necrobia, 296.*
rugosa, Sathrophyllia, 35 * ; leg of — , 8.*
Rules of Nomenclatnre, 23.
Russell's Viper, Zii*
Rutelidae, 285.

sabulifera, Cosmophila, 390.*

Saissetia (see Lecanium).

Saluria inficita, 427."

sancti-crucis. .Aspidomorpha, Larva, 45.'

Sand-f5ies, 362 ; — in houses, 175.

Sandfly Fever, 1S7.

Sarcophaga ruficqllis. 186.

SarcopsyJlidae, 365.

Sarrothripine. Brinjal, Hi*

Sathrophyllia rugosa, i5* . — . leg, S.*

Saturniadi. 405. '

Sawflies. 281.

Sawflv, maternal solicitude in. 34.

562

INDEX

Scabies. 185.

scabrata, Cwloslcnui, JJ5.*

Scabrator. Ccelosterna, 325*

scalaris. Azygophleps. 446.*

Scale-Insects, 508 ; — tended by ants,

66, 67,
Scarabseidae, 281.
Scarabius gangelicus, 60.
Scelimena, leg. 8.*
Scelodonta strigicollis. 309*
scintillans. Euproctis. 399.*
Scirpophaga auriflua {infacta''-, 425*; S.

monostigma. 426.*
scitula, Eiiblemma, 199 *. 381.*
Schizodactylus monstrosus. 533* ; — , leg.

8.»
Schizoneura lanigera. 500.*
Schoenobius bipunctifer, 426.*
Scolopendra. 239.

ScolytiiliF, 344 ; — cultivating plants. C3.
Scorpions, 237.

Screening fruit and vegetables, 94.
Scutellista cyanea. 24.
Scymnus. 200.
Secondar\- Parasitism. 68.
securis. Psalis {Diisychira^. 397.*
segetis, Euxoa, 57, 135, 375.*
selene, Actias, 405.*
Semi-loopers, 132.
semivestitus, Orectochilus, eye, 6.*
septempunctata, Coccinella, 291*
scriiulibiinus. Pteroplioms, 445.*
serinopa, Nephantis. 460.*
Serrate Antennso. 5.*
serniticcps, Ptilcx. 367.*
serraticornis. .\canthophorus, 319.*
serricorne. Lasioderma, 162, 295.*
servus, Graptostethus, 482.*
Sesamia inferens. 379.*
Setaceous ..\ntenna;. 5*
Sheep-fly. 186.

Shoot-boring caterpillars, 133.
Shot-hole Borer, 345 • — cultivating

plants. 63.
Shrews, 220.

siccifolia, Cyclopelta, 476.*
sidce. MyUibris. 303.*
signata. Monolcpta, 31C.*
signata, Plusia, 392.*
Silli, 205.

Silvanus surinamensis. 161. 290*
simplex. Chilo. 423.'
^implicia. Pundaluoya. 494.*
Simplicia robuslalis. 395.*
smensis. Centropus, 226.
Sinoxylon sudafiicum, 293.*

Siphonaptera, 365.

Siphonella funicola, 355.*

Sitodrepa panicea. 162, 295.*

Sitotroga cerealella, 163, 456.*

siva, Taragama, 43.*

sh'<c, Hippoboscii, 346.*

Sloth-Bcar. 220.

Slugs, 239.

smaragdina, (ICcophylla. 41. 276.*

Snails. 239.

Snakes. 231 ; snake-bile, treatment of.

234.
Soap as an insecticide, 104.
solaiiclla. Bryotropliii, 455.*
Solenopsis geminata. 274.*
Solicitude for young, ii.
sordidus, .\phanus. 483.
sordidus. Cosmopolites. 342.*
Spanworms. 132.
Sparrow. 230.
spectra. Tetligoniella. 496 • ; parasite of

— . 203.*
Spence, on classification. 25.
Sphegidae. 280.
Sphenarrhes caflfer. 443.*
sphenarioides, Colemania. 527 • ; Uoni-
bylid parasite of — , 204.

Sphenoptera arachidis, 298*; S. gossypii,
298 • : S. neglecta, 298.

Sphingidar. 401.

sphinx, Cynopterus, 219.

Spiders, 237.

spinator, Coclosterna. 325.*

Spines, use of. 43.

spinidens, .\ndrallus {Aiuliiicliii), 475.*

Spiracles, 13.

Spodoptera mauritia. 378.*

Sporadic pests defined, 128.

Spraying Machinery, 106; selection of — ,
116; upkeep of — , 118.

squamosus, Oxybelus, 280.*

S<iuire Ant Exterminator, 123.*

Squirrels, 215.

Stadia, 31.

Slagiiitilophorti corincclla (fio-myi'icHa).
458.*

Stauropus alternus. 408."

Steam for control of granary -[lests, lo7.

^tegodyphobius, Uatrachedra, 237. ..; .'.

Stegodyphus. 237. . '. . "^ ■'■'. ■'■

Stegomyia. eggs of . 32. "-•■■•. •.

Stegomyia fasciata. 1/5.* .-.

Stcm-bonng catefpillars. 133. ■-•. ". .'.

Slcnachroia elongella. 421.* '. '.

Stenodictya lobata. 9.* l '

Stephanitis 'Catlaiiiimt'ii^) typicus. 434; '

INDEX

563

stevensi. Aiil.icophor.-v. SM."

Sthenias t;risator, 153. MO.'

Stibara sp., il7.*

Stigmata. 13.

stillata. Anatona, 282.*

Stimulation of plant-growth. »f>.

Sting of Honev-bee. 44. •

Stink elands. 14. 41.

stolida. Crammodes. 387. •

Stomach Poisons. 96. 97.

Stomoxys calcitrans, 353.*

Strainers for Sprayers. 1 1 7.

Strepsiptera. Hypermetamorphosis in. 32.

strititiilis. Diatricii. 422.

striatus. Tabanus. 358 • : — , eve of, 6.*

Stridiilation in insects. 47.

strigicollis. Scelodonta, 309.*

Stromatium barbatum, 321.*

Stubble, danger of leaving, on ground.

82.«
Styx, .\cherontia. 402 • ; — robbing l>ee-

hives. 131.
Suastus gremius. 418.*
subtilis. Carea, larva, 41.
succincta. Cyrtacanthacris. 530.*
sudanicum. Sinoxylon. 293.*
Sugarcane Setts, treatment witli Copper

Sulphate. 105.
, Sulphur for use against Mites. 103.
Sundew. 1. 59.
suppressaria. Biston, 409.*
surinamensis. Silvanus, 161. 290.
Surra. 189.

Surul puchi, 85. 457.*
Sus cristatus, 214.
Swarming Caterpillars, 136.
Sweet-potato, beetle pests of. 155. 156-
Sweet-potato Weevil. 335.*
sykesii. Teleopsis. eye, 6.*
Sylepta derogata. {iiinltilineiilis). 434.*
Symbiosis, definition of, 65.
Synoticittlron ilotiiiiiiciiiit, 294*; .S.

pusilhim. 294.*
syringa, .\rgina. 401.*
S\Tinge. Spraying. 107*; -. Injection.

132.»
Syrphids. 198. 358.*
systoma. Cacopus, 235.*

Tabanidae. 358 : eyes of — . 7.

Tabanus striatus. 358 • ; eye of — , 6.*

Tachinida;, 203.

tamulus (dorsalis). Epacromia {JEolopiis),

525.*
tapetzella, Trichophaga {Tinea), 467.*

Tapinoma indicum in .\cacia thorns. 03

taprobanensis, Cappxa, 470.*

Tarache nitidula {catena). 381* : T. opali

noides, 382.*
Taragama siva. 43.*
Tarsus. 8.*

Tasar Silkworm, 208*
Tatera indica, 215*
Tea Tortrix. 452.
Teleopsis sykesii. eye. 6*
Telicota augias. 4)9*
Tenehn'o inaiiritaniciis, 289.*
Tenebrionidse. 299.
Tenebroides mauritanicus, 289.*
tenuicoUis, Lytta, 303.*
Tenthredinid.TE. 281.
Terastia meticulosalis, 438.*
Terias hecabe. 414.*
Termes convulsionarius. means of defence.

44 ; communication amongst. 50.
Termes ohesiis, 142.»
Termites, 139, 541 • ; absence of eyes in — ,
7; — as crop-pests, . 143, 543: — as
food, 212 : castes of — . 140*; communi-
cation amongst — , 50 ; control of — by
machines, 121*; - cultivating Fungi.
63 ; — encouraged by stubble. 83 ; — in
buildings. 144. 171 : means of defence of
— . 41 ; nymphosis in — . 18; prothora-
cic wings in — 9 *; preservation of wood
against — . 144. 172.
Termitidje. 541*
Termitophilous insects, 66-
Termitoxenia, reputed hermaphroditic. 15.
testaceiini, Lasioderma. 295.*
testulalis. Maruca, 440.*
Tetranychus bioculatus, 544 * : T. coffe<-e,

545.
tetraonis. .A.rbela, 453.*
Tetroda histeroides, 477.*
Tettigoniella spectra 496 * ; parasite of -,

203.*
these, Hemichionaspis, 520.*
theobromse. Bruchus, 307*
theobromie, Hcmilccaniuw, 516*
theobroinatis, Bruchus, 307.*
Thereiceryx zeylonicus, 229.
Thermesia rubricans. 389*
Thermotropism. 55.
Thigmotropism. 55.
Thorax, .\ppendages of, 7.
Three Day's Fever, 187-
Thripidae, 542.
Thrips, 542.*
thyrsis, Gangara. 417*
Tibia, 8.*

S64

INDEX

Ticks. 184: feeding habits, 184.

Tiyer-beetles, 19).

tigrina. Rana. 235.

Tina'geriada". 461.

Tinea pachyspila, 466*: 7". ta/tcticlla,

467.*
Tineidae, 466.
Tingididx, 484.
Tits, 225.
Toads, 236.
Tobacco Decoctions, 103.

Dust, 105.
Toddy Cat, 221.
tomentosa, Eurybracliys. 492.*
Tonica zizyphi (aiigiistu), 459.*
torodelta. Laspeyresia, 451.*
torquatus. Palaeornis, 229.*
Tortoise Beetles, 155.
Tortricidae, 452.

Trachelizus politus, antenna, 5.*
trachypterus, Chrotogonus, 528.
tragocamelus, Boselaplius, 214.
tranquebaricus, Apoderus, 335.*
Trap-crops, 84.
trapezalis, Marasmia, 432.*
Tree Pie, 225.

Trenching of cropped areas. 93.
Tribolium castaneum 161, 300*; T.fcrru-

ginciini, 300.*
tricentra, Laspeyresia. 451.*
Trichophaga tapetzella, 467.*
trifenestrata, Cricula. 405.*
tripudians, Naja, 232.*
Trisopsis oIcep, eye, 6.*
tristis, Acridotheres, 224.*
Trochanter, 8.*
Trogositida;, 289.
Trophies, presenation of, 173.
Trypaneidae, 354.
Trypanosomas causing diseases in animals,

189-190.
Tryxalis turrita. 524. •
tuberculatus. Hsematopinus. 524. •
turrita. tryxalis {Acrida), 524. •
Typhlodroinus carinatus. 545.*
Typhoid Fever. 188.

typicus. StephanitistCarfamii.v/K.s). 484.»
Tyroglyphus longior castellanii, 186.

U

Udaspes folus. 420.»
undalis. Hellula. 437.*
undata. Remigia, 388.*
uiiiformis, Nonagria. 379.*
unipuncta. Cirphis, 376.*
Universal Ant Exterminator, 122.'

Upupa indica, 223.
Urates in scales, 40.
Urentius echinus, 485.*
ursinus, Melursus, 220.
Utetheisa pulchella, 371,*: I', pulchel-
loides, 372.

Valid Names, 25.

Vampire, Indian, 220.

varians, .\nomala. 287.*

varians. Ocinara. 407,*

varicornis, Leptocorisa, 146 •, 479.*

variegata. Clania, 448.

Vegetables, spraying of, 97, 100.

Veins of wing, names, 10.*

velox. Oxya. 533.*

venosata. Diatrsea, 422.

ventralis, Eusarcocoris. 471.*

venulia, .Hgocera. 372.*

versicolor. Calotes. 230.

versicolor, Oxycetonia. 283.*

vcstimcnti, Pediculiis. 512.*

vigintiocto-punctata. Epilachna. 292.*

vinula. Cerura. 41.

Vipera russellii. 233.*

Virachola isocrates. 416*; — . directive
markings. 39.*

virescens. Heterusia. 448.*

virgatus, Dactylopius (Psciidococciis),
510.*

viride, Lecanium, 147, 513*; — introduc-
tion of, 78 ; — attacked by fungi, 123.

viridis, Merops, 230.

viridula, Nezar^, 473.*

vittatus, Macrones, 236.

Viviparity, 33.

vulgalis, Nacolciii. 433.*

vulpinus. Dermestes, 292.*

Wagtails. 225.

Warning coloration. 38.

Wasps. 196; — in houses, 171 ; colours of

- , 38.
Water-beetles. 199.
Wax-moth. 42l.»
Weeds. Insects checking. 204.
Weevils. 327*: — and death-feint, 37; —

as crop-pests, 155 ; hardness of — , 42.
Weights and Measures, 126.
Wings, 9. prothoracic, 9* , structure of,

10*. shapes of 1 1 • ; parts of 1 1 .
Whale Oil Soap. 104.
Wliipsnake. fireen. 36.

INDEX

565

Whirligig lieetles, eyes of, /
Wliite-.iiits (see Termites).
While Borer of Coffee. Hi.
White-Knib, 150.»
Whitewash, 106.
Woodpeckers, 226.*
Woolly Bears, 135. •
Woolly Blight. 500.»

Xanthopimpla pedator, 201.*

Xenopsylla cheopis, 366.*

Xyleboriis fornicatus, 345.*

Xylocopa, mouth-parts, 4 • : — carrying

Mites, 67 * ; — in houses, 171.
Xylocopa iridipennis, eye, 6.*
Xyloryctida-, 460.
Xylotrechus quadripes, iZ3.*
Xylotrupes. means of defence, 44.
Xystrocera globosa, 321.*

Yaws, 18H.
Yellow Fever, 187.
ypsilon, .\grotis, 57.
Ypsolo/>liiix i,iiitlH:-i. 456.*

Zaiiiihi pfi/>ii>iill<i. 493.*

Zeiizera coffea:, 446.*

Zeuzeridac, 446.

zeylonicus, Tliereicery.'c, 229.

Zinc .-^rsenite, 99.

zinckenella, ICtiella, 429.*

Zinckcnia fascialis, 431.*

zizyphi, Tonica, 459.*

Zonabris pustulata, 303 • : Z. orientali:

304.
ZygEEnidse, 448.

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